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LffiRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN

Velumc XII No. t

FORESTRY QUARTERLY

A PROFESSIONAL JOURNAL

Subscription Two Dollars per Annum

BELLE FONTE, PENNSYLVANIA

1410 H St.. N. W., WASHINGTON, D. C.
1914

Application pcniilng for entry ms sccoii<i>ctaBB matter.

FORESTRY QUARTERLY

BOARD OF EDITORS.
B. E. Fernovv, LL.D., Editor-in-Chief

Henry S. Graves, M.A.,

Forester, U. S. Forest Service
Raphael Zon, F.E.,

U. S. Forest Service

Frederick Dunlap, F.E.,

University of Missouri

T. S. WooLSEY, Jr., M.F.,

U. S. Forest Service

Ernest A. Sterung, F.E.,

Consulting Forest Engineer,
Philadelphia, Pa.

CivYDE Leavitt, M.S.F.,

Commission of Conservation,
Ottawa, Canada
FiLiBERT Roth, B.S.,

University of Michigan

Hugh P. Baker, D.Oec,

Syracuse University
R. C. Bryant, F.E.,

Yale University
Samukl J. Record, M.F.,

Yale University
Richard T. Fisher, A.B.,

Harvard University

Walter Mulford, F.E.,

Cornell University

A. B, Recknagel, M.F.,

Cornell University
C. D. Howe, Ph.D.,

University of Toronto
J. H. White, M.A., B.ScF.,

University of Toronto

P.

Asa S. W1U.1AMS, F.E.

S. RiDSDALE, Business Manager
Washington, D. C.

TH« OBJSCTS FOR WHICH THIS JOURNAI. IS PUBUSHED ARJC:

To aid in the establishment of rational forest management.

To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of
interest to professional foresters of America.

To keep the profession iti . touch with the current technical
literature, and with the forestry movement in the United States
and Canada.

Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at the
vcrsity of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of^
editors.

Subscriptions and other business matters may be addressed toj
Forestry Quarterly, Bellefonte, Pa., or 1410 H St., N. W., Wash- 3
ington, D. C.

Pms ot

WaTCHMAK PRWTItfO HOU««

BeOstoats. P*.

1914.

FORESTRY aOARTERLY

VOLUME XII

PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION

OF A

BOARD OF EDITORS

With Three Plates, Four Cuts and Three Diagrams

BELLEFONTE, PENNSYLVANIA

1410 H St., N. W., WASHINGTON, D. C

1914

)^\i^

BOARD OF EDITORS

B. E. Fernow, LL.D., Editor-in-Chief

Henry S. Graves, M.A., Hugh P. Baker, D. Oec,

Forester, U. S. Forest Service Syracuse University

Raphael Zon, F.E., R. C. Bryant, F.E.,

U.S. Forest Service Yale University

Frederick Dunlap, F.E., Samuel J. Record, M.F.,

University of Missouri Yale University

T. S. WooLSEY, Jr., M.F., Richard T. Fisher, A.B.,

U. S. Forest Service Harvard University

Ernest A. Sterling, F.E., Walter Mulford, F.E.,

Consulting Forest Engineer, Cornell University

Philadelphia, Pa. A. B. Recknagel, M.F.,

Clyde Leavitt, M.S.F., Cornell University

Commission of Conservation, CD. Howe, Ph.D.,

Ottawa, Canada University of Toronto

FiLiBERT Roth, B. S., J. H. White, M.A., B.Sc.F.,

University of Michigan University of Toronto

Asa S. Williams, F.E.

P. S. Ridsdale, Business Manager,

Washington, D. C.

the objects for which this journal is published are:

To aid in the establishment of rational forest management.

To offer an organ for the pubHcation of technical papers of
interest to professional foresters of America.

To keep the profession in touch with the current technical
literature, and with the forestry movement in the United States
and Canada.

Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at the Uni-
versity of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of
editors.

Subscriptions and other business matters may be addressed to
Forestry Quarterly, 1410 H St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

CONTENTS

Page

A Suggestion for Securing Better Professional Terminology, 1

By P. S. Lovejoy.
Graded Volume Tables for Vermont Hardwoods, 5

By I. W. Bailey and P. C. Heald.
Red and White Fir — Xylometer Cordwood Test, 24

By R. W. Taylor.
A Comparison of the Doyle and Scribner Rules with Actual Mill Cut for

Second Growth White Pine in Pennsylvania, 27

By N. R. McNaughton.
Loss Due to Exposure in the Transplanting of White Pine Seedlings 31

By E. A. Ziegler.

Effective Fertilizers in Nurseries, 34

By G. A. Retan.

The Relation of the Surface Cover and Ground Litter in a Forest to

Erosion, 37

By M. J. Gleissner.
Forest Taxation Activity in Massachusetts, 41

By H. J. Miles.
Cost Accounts for Reconnaissance Surveys, 44

By A. B. Connell.
Forestry in America as Reflected in Proceedings of The Society of Amer-
ican Foresters, 47

By B. Moore.
Design of a Range Finder, 137

By L. Crowell.
A Mechanical Tree Planter, 139

By F. T. McLean.
A New Measuring Instrument, 140

By H. W. Siggins.
A Proposed Method of Preparing Working Plans for National Forests, . . 145

By J. C. Kircher.
Stem Analj^ses, 158

By J. Bentley, Jr.
Errors in Estimating Timber, 167

B}^ L. Margolin.
The Cispus Burn, 193

By E. J. Fenby.
Bark Disease of the Chestnut in British Columbia, 201

By J. H. Faull and G. H. Graham.
Reforesting Cut-over Chestnut Lands , 204

By E. C. M. Richards.
The Administration of a Forest Experiment Station, 211

By G. A. Pearson.
The Probable Origin of the Forests of the Black Hills of South"Dakota,. . 223

By P. L. Buttrick.
Scope of Dendrologv in Forest Botany, 228

By H. de Forest.

Cone Borer vs. Squirrel (an Important Correction) 238

Results of an Experiment on the Effect of Drying of the Roots of Seedlings

of Red and White Pine 311

By F. W. Haasis.

iii

Volume Table for Lodgepole Pine, 319

By A. T. Upson.
The Relation of Crown Space to the Volume of Present and Future Stands

of Western Yellow Pine, 332

By G. A. Bright.
Notes on Strip Mapping for Intensive Reconnaissance, 341

By A. F. Kerr.
Obtaining Vertical Control of Practical Value with the Abney Hand Level, 347

By W. J. Paeth.
The Use of the Abney Hand Level, 370

By M. L. Erickson.
Stumpage Appraisal Formulae, 376

By D. Bruce.
Standardization of Fire Plans, Organization, Equipment and Methods in

District 3, 381

By J. D. Guthrie.
A Comparative Study of Two Log Rules, as Applied to Timber in Central

New York, 390

By J. Bentley, Jr.
The Younglove Log Rule, 395

By W. W. W. Colton.
Progress of the U. S. Forest Service, as Reflected in the Forester's

Reports for 1911, 1912, 1913, 397

By A. J. Jaenicke.
Exploitation of Crossties in Northern New Mexico, 408

By C. F. Korstian.
Forest Type: A Defense of Loose Usage, 425

By E. H. Frothingham.
The Scope of Dendrology — Some Corrections, 429

By H. de Forest.
Cost of Growing Timber on the Pacific Coast, 432

By H. R. MacMillan.

CURRENT LITERATURE 70, 240, 435, 593

Other Current Literature, 92, 262, 455, 610

PERIODICAL LITERATURE, 100, 267, 465, 617

Botany and Zoology, 101, 467, 622

Forest Geography and Description, 100, 267, 465, 617

Mensuration, Finance and Management, 112, 277, 474, 629

Politics, Education and Legislation, 288, 491

Silviculture, Protection and Extension, 108, 273, 469, 625

Soil, Water and Climate, 103, 268, 468, 623

Statistics and History, 118, 286, 488, 634

Utilization, Market and Technology, 117, 283, 482, 633

Miscellaneous 122, 290, 492, 638

Other Periodical Literature, 123, 291, 495, 639

NEWS AND NOTES, 126, 294, 499, 642

COMMENT, 130, 657

INDEX.

Abney hand level, cbntrol, art . . 347

use, art 370

Acacias, economic study, ref . . . . 92

Acorns, as food, br 638

Administration, China, art 578

size state forests, art 520

Agricultural Science, society,

proceedings, ref 262

Ahern, G. p., retirement, n 507

Alaska, timber sales, n 302

Alder, use, n 506

Allotment, method and silvicul-
ture, ref 464

Alsace-Lorraine, statistics, br. . . 119

Amazon, forests, br 466

America, forestry, proceedings,

art 47

American Foresters, society pro-
ceedings, ref 94, 457

American Forestry Association,

meeting, ref 640

Amounts, lumber manufactur-
ing, ref 612

Appalachians, fire protection, n . 296

reserve, purchases, n 302

Appleton, J., obituary notice.. . 309
Appropriation bill, Forest Serv-
ice, 1914-15, ref 455

Arbor days, ref 97, n. 650

Argentina, forestry society, re-
port, 1913, ref 463

Arizona, forest influences, rev . . . 258

timber sales, n 301

Artificial limbs, wood for, n . . . . 650

Ash, eccentric growth, br 622

Associations, German, br. . . . 122, 492
Australia, forestry education,

ref 463

report, woods and forests
department, 1912-13, ref. 463

Bacteria, soil, ref 292

Baden, statistics, br 288, 636

Bailey, I. W., art 5

Balkans, forestry, br 466

Bark disease, chestnut, art 201

Barrels, tests, rev 255

Basket willows, business, br . . . . 483
Bavaria, forest park, br 494

statistics, br 118, 636

Beech, log scale 23

mast, as food, br 638

Beef cattle, shrinkage, rev 248

Belgium, statistics, br 120

Bentley, J., Jr., art 158, 390

Berlin Mills Company, confer-
ence, rev 598

Berry, J. B., art 514

Biltmore school abandoned, c. . . 133
Biological Survey, U. S. report,

1913, ref 94

Birch, river, cambium miner, br. 277

Yellow, log scale 17

Birds, Alabama, ref 263

and Arbor days, ref 461

Connecticut, ref 95

days, ref 97

life, rev 72

North and Middle America,

ref 262

protection, ref 615

society, ref 611

Black Hills, forests, origin, art. . 223
Blister rust. White pine, ref ... . 457

wintering, rev 608

Bond issues, art 548

BoRGGREVE, Dr. B., obituary

notice 654

Botany, British, makers, rev 260

list of plants, Pennsylvania,

ref 263

Box, cigar, wood, br 485

manufacture, woods used, rev. 609

Bright, G. A., art 330

British Columbia, coast condi-
tions, ref 495

fire protection, n 128

report, 1913, rev 88

timber licenses, c 135

British forestry, ref 640

Brown-tail moth, ref 262, 458

control, rev 249

Bruce, D., art 376

Brush piling and burning, cost,

ref . .' 94

Bullock, C. J., art 544

Buttrick, p. L., art 223, 532

California, diseases, rev 244

fire protection, ref 639

report, 1913, ref 462, rev. 453

forest protection, ref 456, 462

tree distribution, ref 640

Cambridge University, forestry

report, 1913, ref 98

Campbell, R. H., Scottish de-
gree 654

Canada, area of forest reserves, n. 653
conservation commission, re-
port, ref 615

fire protection, n 294, 295

forest parks, ref 125

Canada, Maritime provinces,

industry, rev 607

plant disease act, n 650

Quebec forest service, n 127

range control, n 305

report of Commissioner of

parks, ref 462

silvics of trees, rev 439

timber revenue, n 652

Trent Watershed Survey re-
port, rev 435

Cary, a., art 562

CeUoidin for infiltrating wood,

ref 457

Chemistry of wood, ref 498

Chestnut, bark disease, art. 201, ref. 458

blight, ref 95

and saprophyte, rev 86

disease in California, n 306

diseased, uses for, ref 457

lands, reforesting, art 204

stains stone, n 649

China, conservation in, n 307

forest administration, art 578

matches, import, n 307

Western, botany, rev 454

Chir pine, silviculture, br Ill

Cigar box wood, br 485

Cispus Burn, art 193

Clearing land, cost and methods,

ref 457

Climate, influenced by forests,

ref 97

and root character, rev 260

Coal fumes, damage, br 627

CoAZ, Swiss, retirement, n 309

COLTON, W. W. W., art 395

Communal forest, history, br . . . 120

organization, br 115

Compensation laws, workmen's,

ref 455

Compression tests, failure, br. . . 283

Cone-borers, damage, art 238

Conifer blight, rev 86

Coniferous forest, Eastern N.

America, ref 640

Conifers, yield in France, br. . . . 482
Connecticut, fire manual, ref . 262, 612
report of State Entomologist,

ref 263

State Forester, 1913, ref 459

CoNNELL, A. B., art 44

Conservation Congress, National

report, 1913, ref 94

western association, meeting,

1913, n 126

Conversion, German measures, c. 130

to high forest, br 625

Cordwood, volume table 26

xylometer test 24

Cornell University, inaugura-
tion, n 299

Corsica, forests, br 465

Costs, accounts in surveys, art . . 44

brush pihng and burning, ref. . 94

creosote, n 649

cultivation, br 269

exploiting railroad ties, art. . . 408

forest planting, Ireland, ref. . 616

growing timber, art 432

and methods of clearing land,

ref 457

in milling, elements, ref 461

Cottonwood, Mississippi valley,

rev 78

Cover, effect on soil moisture,

br 272

Creation of an ideal, art 514

Creosote, cost, n 649

resistance to injection, rev 605

Cronartium ribicola, wintering,

rev 608

Cross ties, see railroad ties.

Crowfxl, L., art 137

Cruising, errors, art 167

in winter, n 305

Cuba, palm, ref 292

Damage, brown- tail moth, ref. . 262

coal fumes, br 627

drought, br 280

elm-tree pests, ref 97

entomological report, Con-
necticut, ref 263

by fumes, chimneys, ref 497

fungus fighting, br 628

f ffect of gas on vegetation, ref. 95

smoke, br 102

by tar, br 275

Damping-off, control, ref 461

Darwinism in forestry, ref 94

Dendrology, scope, art 228, 429

Dendrometer, new, art 141

universal, br 629

Deodar, natural regeneration, br. 473

Diseases, act, Canada, n 650

in Appalachians, ref. . . . 96, br. 276

bark, White pine, ref 615

California and Nevada, rev. . . 244

chestnut bark, ref 458

blight, ref 95

in California, n 306

in Connecticut, ref 612

damping-off, control, ref 461

heating and exclusion of air,

ref 496

hemlock, ref 457

rust, new, ref 95

White pine, bark, br 276

Distillation, Douglas fir, br 487

various woods, br 486

yields, ref 610

Distribution and transpiration,

ref 292

'^

Douglas fir, distillation, br 487

growth tables, rev 440

percentage of cut, British

Columbia, n 652

plantations, ref 292, 640

Drainage, results in Russia, rev. 609
Drought, damage valued, br. . . . 280

Dry rot in timbers, rev 452

Durability, example, n 305

Ecology, animal, rev 70

recent investigations, ref 457

Economics, forest, public knowl-
edge of, ref 124

Education, Bavaria and Wiirt-

temberg, br 491

commercial, br 289

for foresters, ref 292

forestry, ref 94

Australia, ref 463

North Dakota, n 308

ideal, art 514

logging course in Harvard, n. 307

model regulated forest, art ... 511

at Oxford, br 289, ref. 292

Elliott, S. B., art 559

Elm-tree pests, ref 97

Entomology, cambium miner, br. 277
Ontario society, report, 1912,

ref 98

Erickson, M. L., art 370

Erosion and surface cover, art . . 37

Estimating errors, art 167

Eucalyptus for lumber, ref 94

monograph, ref 99, 463

European war and forestry, c. . . 656

Evaporation in pine, br 271

Even-aged stands, determination

of site qualities, ref 457

Excelsior, manufacture, br 488

poplar (aspen), n 652

Excursions, Germany, ref 641

Exotics, in Saxony, br 471

Experiment stations, adminis-
tration, art 211

Faull, J. H., art 201

Federal forestry, policy, ref 123

ownership, n 647

Fenby, E. J., art 193

Fence posts, preservation, ref . . . 95

Fertilizers in nurseries 34

in pine woods, ref 641

Filipino forestry, ref 639

Finance, aims, ref 641

cost growing timber, art 432

damage valuation, br 481

forestry revenue, Quebec, n . . 652
interest rates and taxation,

ref 464

new ideas, br 475

Finance, planting as an invest-
ment, art 538

practice, ref 497

forest problems, ref 95

stumpage appraisal, art 376

thinnings, br 476

timber revenue, Canada, n . . . 652

New Bnmswick, n 652

value increment, br 478

Finland, statistics, br 119

Fir, Balsam, rev 256

Douglas, in Denmark, br 116

distillation, br 487

growth tables, rev 440

Red and White, cordwood ... 24

Fires, ref 94

as cultivator, br 473

damage to mature timber, ref. 457
western Yellow pine, ref . . . 457

insurance, br 282

France, br Hi

manual, Connecticut, ref 612

plans, organization, art 381

protection, br 112, rev. 251

Appalachians, n 296

British Columbia, n 128

California, ref 456, 639

Canada, n 294, 295, 500-502

co-operation in U. S., ref.462, 499

Maine, ref 262

novel, br 472

and post office, n 503

railways, n 127, 500

range finder, art 137

report, California, 1913, rev.. 462

statistical methods, ref 464

Tamalpais directory, ref 615

use in silviculture, art 193

warden's manual, ref 458

Florida National Forest, enlarg-
ing, n 647

Flumes, rev 453

Food movement, art. 559

De Forest, H., art 228, 429

Forest, finance, damage by

drought, br 280

reserve funds, br 278

geography, Russia, br 100

and temperature, br 106

influences, on climate, ref ... . 97

on evaporation, br 271

interception in pine forest,

br 270

in Russia, br 468

Yellow pine forests, rev. . . . 258

laws, Maryland, ref 460

organization, br 279

communal forests, br 115

working plans, art 145

products exposition, n . . . . 129, 300

Forest products laboratory, Can-
ada, n 309

protection, California, ref . . . . 462
reservation in White Moun-
tains, n 504

school, Georgia, n 653

Montana, new, n 653

North Dakota, n 308

University of Toronto, n . . . 653

Service, France, br 290

U. S., progress, art 397

type, art 425

Forester, training, ref 463

U. S., report, 1913, ref 93

Forestry, American literature,

ref 458

arithmetic, ref 459, 612

on country estate, ref 495

elements, rev 595

international, card index, n. . . 654

and pulp industry, ref 292

Society of American Foresters,

proceedings, art 47

U. S., appropriation bill, 1914-

15, ref 455

Forests and warfare, br 289

France, administration, br 290

fire insurance, br Ill

forestry notes, ref 124

reforestation, br 110

taxation, br 288

Frothingham, E. H., art 425

Fungi, parasites on, br 467

Gas producers, use of wood in,

ref 458

effect on vegetation, ref 95

Georgia, forest school, n 653

Germany, education, br 491

forestry associations, br . . .122, 492

congress, br 290

moor cultivation, ref 292

private forests, br 489

visit to forests, ref 124

Germination, influence of

humidity, ref 124

Girdling and food movement,

art 559

Gleissner, M. J., art 37

Graham, G. H., art 201

Graphic methods, ref 613

Grasses, Rockies, ref 461

Grazing, ref 93

control, n 296

lands, reseeding, rev 247

regiilation, ref 455

watering places, ref 457

in western forests, rev 84

Great Britain, forestry develop-
ment, br 634

production of pine timber, ref. 264

statistics, br 635

Growth, eccentric, br 622

period, Maryland, ref 639

in plants, ref 97

predicted by yield tables, ref.. 457

and rainfall, ref 495

studies, National Forests, ref. . 94

tables, Douglas fir, rev 440

and transpiration, ref 292

and weather, br 277

Guijo for decking boats, n 648

Gun stocks, from walnut, ref . . . 461

Guthrie, J. D., art 381

Gypsy moths, ref 458

control, rev 249

Haasis, F. W., art 311

Hardwoods, heart rot, br 102

Vermont, volume tables, art. . 5

Heald, p. C, art 5

Heating, death, ref 496

Hemlock, ref 639

diseases, ref 457

Himalayan forests, ref 94

History, Leipzig forest, br 120

Hongkong report, ref 616

Horse chestnuts, as food, br . . . . 638

Idaho, Potlach, protection asso-
ciation, rev 240

timber sales, n 303

Illick, J. S., art 520

Increment on all-aged stands,

ref 457

estimates, br 475

value, how determined, br 478

and weather, br 277

and yield regulation, br 279

India, administration, br 286

Bengal report, ref 616

Central Provinces, report,

1911-12, ref 99

irrigation revenue report,

1912-13, ref 463

Indiana, arbor days, n 650

flood of 1913, ref 614

report of State board of

forestry, 1913, ref 263

Insects in seeds, ref 639

Insurance, fire, in France, br. . . . Ill

Investigations, forests, ref 94

Investigative Committee, report,

rev 597

Ireland, forest management, ref. 615

forestry society, ref 265

transactions, 1912, ref 265

Italy, buying forests, br 490

forest conditions, ref 125

Jaenicke, a. J., art 397

Japan, forests, br 620

June-bug, combating, ref 94

Juniper for pencil wood, n 649

Kaibab Forest, sale of timber, n. 647
Kentucky, report of State Fores-
ter, 1913, ref 462

woody plants, rev 242

Kerr, A. F., art 341

King, P. C, art 578

KiRCHER, J. C, art 145

Korea, afforestation, br 467

KORSTIAN, C. F., art 408

Labor statistics, ref 94

Laurentide Company, survey

and nurseries, n 652

Legislation, federal forest policy,

ref 94

forest laws, Maryland, ref . . . . 460

taxation, ref 94

gipsy and brown-tail moths, n. 650

plant disease act, Canada, n. . 650

state forest laws, ref 94

workmen's compensation laws,

ref 455

Light soils and windbreaks, ref. . 264

Light, solar energy, br 104

Loading logs, device, br 482

Loblolly pine, management, rev. 246

Lodgepole pine as pole timber, n. 649

resin as preservative, n 649

seed trees, n 649

seeding, n 304

volume table, art 319

Log rules compared, n 505

with mill cut 27

comparative study, art 390

Younglove, art 395

scale, beech 23

maple 21

Yellow birch 17

Logging, flumes, rev 453

cable transport, br 117

camp sanitation, ref 614

overhead systems, ref 461

Longleaf pine for paper pulp, ref. 456

reproduction, art 532

Lookout on National Forest, ref. 461
Louisiana, report of conservation

commission, 1914, ref . . . . 462

LovEjOY, p. S., art 1

Lower Ottawa Forest Protective

association, n 650

LuEBBEN, E. C, art 511

Lumber dock, municipal, ref . . . . 461

eucalyptus for, ref 94

industn,', rev 601

and railroads, ref 455

manufacturing, accounts, ref . . 612

publicity, ref 461

weight, br 486

Lumbering, ref 94

Lumbermen and national de-
velopment, ref 123

McLean, F. T., art 139

MacMillan, H. R., art 432

McNaughton, N. R., art 27

Mahogany, borers, br 628

Maine, fire protection, ref 262

Kennebec Valley protective

association, ref 614

Mangrove for tan bark, br 118

Manitoba, a forest province, ref. 462

Maple, log scale 21

sugar industry, Canada, ref . . . 462
Maritime provinces, wood in-
dustry, rev 607

Margolin, L., art 167

obituary notice 510

Maryland, forest laws, ref 460

growth period, ref 639

report of State board of fores-
try, 1912 and 1913, ref. . . 460
Massachusetts, forestry associa-
tion, ref 459

prizes, n 129

State Forester, 1913, rev. . . 241

on taxation, ref 459

Measures, conversion of, c 130

Mensuration, dendrometer, art. . 141

increment estimates, br 475

new method of cubing, br . . . . 474

stem analyses, art 158

Michigan, forestry report, 1913,

ref 461

protective organization, n . . . . 126
report of public domain com-
mission, 1911 to 1913, ref 461

Miles, H. J., art 41

Mill cut and log scales 27

waste, use, n 506

Millar, W. N., Toronto forest

school, n 653

Milling, elements of cost, ref. ... 461

Mine timbers, ref 456

Mineral substances and foliage,

br 623

Minnesota, report of State Fores-
ter, 1913, ref 461

Mixed stands, production, br . . . 470
vs. pure stands, production,

br 275

Montana, forest school, new, n. 653

Moor cultivation, ref 125

Germany, ref 292

Moore, B., art 47

Mountain ash, berries as food,

ref 641

Municipal forestry, New York,

ref 460

Murphy, L. S., art 546

National Forests, areas, ref 93

reservation commission, rev. . 77

Natural regeneration, generali-
ties, br 469

soil preparation, br 269

Nevada, diseases, rev 244

New Brunswick, crown timber-
lands, rev., n 652

New Hampshire, forestry report,

1913, ref 458

report, tax commission, 1913,

ref 459

society for protection of forests,

1913, ref 262

New Haven Water Company,

working plan, rev 74

New Jersey, planting, ref 96

report of forest park reserva-
tion commission, 1913,

ref 460

forest influences, rev 258

trees and shrubs, ref 98

New South Wales, botanical re-
port, 1912, ref 264

commercial trees, ref 616

New York, Conservation Com-
mission, report, 1912, ref.

97, 1913, ref 462

conservation law, ref 612

lands in forest preserve, ref . . . 263
State Forester, report, rev.. . . 241
wood-using industries, ref ... . 96
Nigeria, forest department, n . . . 506
North Carolina, association re-
port, ref 613

forest policy, ref 613

timber resources, ref 460, 461

North Dakota, forest school, n. . 308

tree planting, ref 264

North-Eastern Foresters, meet-
ing, n 646

Norway, fire insurance, br 282

history, ref 266

Nova Scotia, geographical study,

ref 495

Nurseries, blight on conifer, rev. 86
combating larvae of June-bug,

ref 94

drying roots of seedlings, art.. 311

fertilizers 34

loss in transplanting 31

stock, blights, ref 93

Oak parasite, br 101

Ohio, plant catalogue, ref 613

survey of Sugar Grove Basin,

ref 614

Oil as fuel, ref 495, n. 646

Oklahoma, trees and shrubs, ref. 97
Oregon, National Forests, re-
adjustment, n 303

State Forester, report, rev.. . . 240

1913, ref 462

Organization, rev 593

state forest, ref 94

Ownership policy of forests, ref. 125

Oxford, forestry, br 289

course, ref 292

Pacific coast forest, ref 639

shippers' association, ref 456

Paeth, W. J., art 347

Panama canal and lumber trade,

ref 291

and lumber industry, ref 461

Panama- Pacific Exposition, Phil-
ippine exhibit, n 648

Paper ptdp from aspen, ref 610

from longleaf pine, ref 456

Parasites, ref 458

of fungi, br 467

Parks, Bavaria, br 494

Pasture, plants, ref 98

Patternmaking, woods for, ref . . 96

Paving blocks, br 485

Peace river, B. C, sources, ref. . 124

Pearson, G. A., art 211

Peat, plantations on, ref 124

Pennsylvania, planting, ref 639

wood-using industries, ref..613, 640

Pender niium pint, ref 497

Philippine Islands, forest school,

rev 82

forestry, ref 461

exhibit, n 648

report, 1913, rev 81

Pike's Peak, planting, ref 124

Pine, Lodgepole, volume table,

art 319

seed supply, for Germany, br. 626

thinning results, br 273

value increment, ref 497

Western White, management,

ref 94

White, bark disease, br 276

Plnus insignis in New Zealand, n. 306
radiata, morphological insta-
bility, ref 495

virginiana, disease, br 276

Planting, forest, ref 94

as an investment, art 538

methods in Ireland, ref 615

New Jersey, ref 96

in Pennsylvania, ref 639

Pike's Peak, ref 124

for shelter, ref 97

tools, art 139

Poisoning by conifers, ref 292

Policy, federal forest, ref 94

Poly poms dryadeus, br 101

Poplar (aspen), excelsior, n 652

Powell National Forest, fire

record, n 649

Practice vs. theory, br 493

Preservation, fence posts, ref . . . 95

of timber, ref 463

Preservatives, treatment, pro-
gress, n 505

and chemistry of wood, ref . . . 498

of tars, ref 266

kyanizing, ref 266

resistance to creosote injec-
tion, rev 605

Price, O. W., obituary notice.. . 508

Prices, wood, in Prussia, br 117

Private (individual) forestry,

ref 495

economic factors, ref 123

Proceedings, society of American

Foresters, ref 94

Protection, associations, n 650

brown-tail and gypsy moths,

ref 458

Canadian Northern railway, n. 127

fire, br... 112

cooperative, ref 462

hill slopes, br 107

pests, n 650

Washington, ref 98

Prussia budget, br 488

forestry report, ref 463

Public forests, control, ref 98

lands, classification, ref 495

Pulp industry and forestry, ref . . 292
Pure vs. mixed stands, produc-
tion, br 275

Quebec, forest service, n 127

protective association, n 650

forestry report, 1913, ref 98

revenue from forests, n 652

Queensland, public lands report,

1912, ref 99

Railroad ties, cost of exploita-
tion, art 408

in Germany, br 633

Railway ties, metal vs. wooden,

br 117

Rainfall and growth, ref 495

Range, control, n 296, 298

Canada, n 305

finder, art 137

improvement, ref . . . .93, rev.. 248

reseeding, rev 247

Reclamation, national, ref 495

sand dunes, ref 125

Reconnaissance, National For-
ests, ref 94

strip mapping, art 341

and working plans, ref 124

Red cedar, western, ref 456

Red pine, Minnesota, ref 461

Redwood, volume table, ref ... . 98

Reforestation, ref 458

France, br 110

National Forests, ref 94

Regulated forest model, art 511

Regulation, rev 593

Reproduction, damage by snow,

ref 457

Reserve funds, br 278

Ret.w, G. a., art 34

REVIEWS:

Adams, C. C, animal ecology. 70

Anderson, P. J. and H. W.,
chestnut blight fungus 86

Barnes, W. C, grazing 84

Berlin Mills Company, woods
department 598

Betts, N. de W., and Heim,
A. L., woods for telephone
poles 256

Boyce, W. G. H., and Lewis,
R. G., wood-using indus-
tries. Maritime Provinces. . 607

British Columbia, lands re-
port, 1913 88

Brown, N. C, and Moon, F.
F., elements of forestry .... 595

Bruce, E. S., flumes and flum-
ing 453

Burgess, A. F., gipsy and
brown-tail moths 249

Burrows, W. B., bird life 72

California, report. State Board
of Forestry, 1913 453

Garmen, H., woody plants of
Kentucky 242

Gerry, Eloise, Tyloses 257

Hanzlick, E. J., Douglas fir,
growth and yield 440

Hartley C, blights of conif-
erous nursery stock 86

Hawley, R. C, working plan.. 74

Heim, A. L., and Betts, N. de
W., woods for telephone
poles 256

Hosseus, C. C, Siam, explora-
tion 91

Howe, C. D., and White, J.
H., with discussion by B.
E. Femow, Trent Water-
shed survey 435

Kenipfer, W. H., timber 252

Lewis, R. G., and Boyce, W. G.
H., wood-using industries. . 607

Lumber Industry, part IV. . . . 601

MacDougal, D. T., report.
Director Botanical Research 260

Massachusetts, report, tenth.
State Forester, 1913 241

Meinecke, E. P., manual,
forest tree diseases 244

Moon, F. F., and Brown, N.

C, elements of forestry .... 595
Nallis, J. C, woods for manu-
facture of boxes 609

National Forest Reservation

Commission, report, 1913. . 77
Newlin, J. A., wooden barrels,

tests 255

New York, Conservation Com-
mission, report, 1913 241

Oliver, F. W. (editor), British

Botany, makers 260

Oregon, report, State Forester,

1913 .. 240

Pearson, G. A., forest in-
fluences 258

Peters, J. G. (editor), fire pro-
tection by States 251

Philippine Islands, report.

Director of Forestry, 1913 . 81
Philippine Islands, report.
Director of Forestry, on

Forest School, 1913 82

Potlatch timber protection

association, report, 1913. . . 240
Rankin, W. H., and Stewart,
F. C, wintering of Cronar-

tium ribicola 608

Record, S. J., mechanical

properties of wood 600

Rosenbluth, R., woodlot

forestry 437

Roth, F., forest regulation. . . . 593
Russia, report of department

of public domains 609

Sampson, A. W., range im-
provement 248

reseeding grazing lands .... 247
Sterrett, W. D., Loblolly pine,

management 246

Stewart, F. C, and Rankin,
W. H., wintering of Cro-

nartium ribicola 608

Teesdale, C. H., resistance to

creosote injection 605

Toronto University, Fores-
ter's Club, silvics, Cana-
dian trees 439

U. S. Forest Service, report,

investigative committee. . 596
Ward, W. F., beef cattle,

shrinkage 248

White, J. H., and Howe, C.
D., with discussion by B.
E. Fernow, Trent Water-
shed survey 435

Williamson, A. W., cotton-
wood 78

Wilson, E. H., Western China,

botany 454

Yale Forest School, biograph-
ical records 87

Zon, R., Balsam fir 256

Richards, E. C. M., art 204

Road drag, how to use, ref 457

Rollins, M., art 548

Root character and climate, rev. 260

competition, br 108

Rot, dry in timbers, rev 452

on the heart of hardwoods, br. 102

ROTHROCK, J. T., c 134

Russia, Asiatic, forests, br 100

forest influences, br 468

forestry, art 567

Transcaucasia, conditions, br. 100

Turkestan forests, br 267

Rust, fungus, Cronartium, rev. . 608

new, ref 95

White pine, protection, br. . . . 472

St. Maurice Protective associa-
tion, Quebec, n 651

Sal, economic value, ref 98

Sand dunes, reclamation, ref . . . . 125
hills, Nebraska, vegetation,

ref 461

Saprophyte, on chestnut fungus,

rev 86

Saunders, Dr. W., obituary

notice 654

Sawmill, first in U. S., br 494

Saxony, state forests, ref 124

vScHENCK, C. A., appreciation. . . 562

Scotland, forestry report, ref. . . . 124

forestry, ref 641

Seasoning of timber, rev 252

Seed, distribution, Philippine

Islands, n 648

insects, ref 639

and seedlings, key, ref 125

sources, influence, br 274

Seedlings, drying of roots, effect,

art 311

experiment, art 311

Selection, Nature's law, ref 94

system, ref 125

Sequoia gigantea, increment, br. 621

Shade trees, ref 459

rural and cit}' improvement,

ref 460

troubles, ref 95

Shelter belt, planting, Ireland,

ref. . .. 615

Siam, exploration, rev 91

SiGGiNs, H. W., art 141

Silvics, Canadian trees, rev 439

Silviculture, chestnut lands, art. 204

Chir pine, br Ill

Cispus Burn, art 193

extensive and intensive, br . . . 108

Silviculture, mixed stands, br . . . 470

natural regeneration, br 469

root competition, br 108

Single tax in taxation, art 546

Site quality and soil depth, br . . 268

Smoke, damage, br 102

Soap weed, commercial value, n. 648
Societies American Foresters,

meeting, Ithaca, n 299

proceedings, ref 611

protection New Hampshire

forests, meeting, n 647

Soil, acidity, ref 61.1

bacteria, ref 292

depth and site quality, br . . . . 268

fungi, br 103

maps and instruction, br 623

moisture, effect of cover, br. . 272
and plant associations, ref. . 640

physiology, br 268, ref. 496

preparation for natural regen-
eration, br 269

rent, br 632

surface cover and erosion, art. 37

Solar energy, influence, br 104

South Australia reports, 1912-13,

ref 99

administration, 1912-13, ref . . 264
South Carolina, wood-using in-
dustries, ref 96

Southern States, resources, ref . . 495

Spain, forests, br 268

Sponsler, O. L., art 511

Sprag industry, Pennsylvania,

ref '. 291

Spruce, bud worm, ref 95

commercial planting, ref 639

leaf miners, ref 95

natural regeneration, br 470

value increment, ref 497

yield table, br 114

Spur shoot of pines, ref 495

Squirrels, damage, art 238

Starch reserve and products of

birch and maple, ref 495

State, forests, administration, ref. 457

for Massachusetts, ref 459

size, art 520

vs. national control of forests,

ref 98

Statistics, Alsace-Lorraine, br. . . 119

Baden, br 288, 636

Bavaria, br 118, 636

Belgium, br 120

Finland, br 119

Great Britain, br 635

labor, ref 94

Prussia, br 488

Sweden, ref 125

Switzerland, br. 286, ref. 497, br. 637
Stem analyses, art 158

vStock ranges, application of re-
connaissance, ref 457

Strip mapping for reconnaissance,

art 341

selection, thinnings, ref 497

Structure, Tyloses, rev 257

Stump removal by blasting, ref. 610
Stumpage, appraisal, formulae,

art 376

use of railroad, ref 461

value in Minnesota, n 507

Survey, Abney hand level con-
trol, art 347

table 371

cost account, art 44

reconnaissance and working

plans, ref 124

strip mapping, art 341

in winter, n 305

Sweden, conditions and practice,

br 617

report, ref 497

statistics, ref 125

Switzerland, Berne report, ref . . 463

development, br 267

excursion, ref 124

forest distribution, ref 125

forest officers, ref 463

statistics, br. .286, ref. 497, br. 637

Tan bark, mangrove, br 118

Tar damage, br 275

Taxation, forest, ref 94

France, br 288

Massachusetts, art 41, 544

reports, New Hampshire and

Massachusetts, ref 459

and single tax, art 546

on stumpage, n 304

Ta\-lor, R. W., art 24

Telegraph poles, qualities, ref . . . 266

Telephones, tests, rev 256

Temperature and plant geog-
raphy, br 106

Terminology, art 1

committee, progress report, n

641-646

forest botany, art 228

Termites, resisting timbers, br.

285, ref. 292

Theory vs. practice, br 493

Thinnings, beech and pine, re-
sults, br 273

degrees of influence, br 471

finance, br 476

in moth infected woodlands,

ref 612

pine, grades, results, br 273

Timber, bonds, pitfalls, art 548

identification, ref 463

Timber, mature, damage by fire,

ref 457

physics, mechanical properties,

rev.. 600

preservation, ref 463

resources. North Carolina,

ref 460,461

sales, Alaska, n 302

Arizona, n 301

Idaho, n 303

supply, U. S., ref 456

tests, failure and compression,

br 283

Tkatchenko, Russian forestry,

art .' . 567

Tools, tree planter, art 139

Torrey pine, ref 291

TouMEY, J. W., art. ... 538

Tracheid calibre, significance,

ref 495

Trametes pint, fighting, br 628

Transcaucasia, conditions, br . . . 100
Transpiration and growth and

distribution, ref 292

Transplanting loss 31

Trees, distribution. Western

States, n 650

photographs, prizes, n 653

planter, mechanical, art 139

surgery, ref 639

Trent Watershed Survey report,

rev 435

Tyloses, significance, rev 257

Uneven-agfcd stands, determina-
tion of stocking, ref 457

Union, amalgamated wood work-
ers, ref 614

United States, forests, ref 456

timber supplv, ref 456

Upson, A. T., art 319

Use Book, ref 93

Utilization, forest, ref 94

impressions of German, ref . . . 461
waste, ref 124, 462

Valuation, damage, br 481

new formula, br 631

new ideas, br 475

soil, approximating 631

stumpage appraisal, art 376

Value increment determining, br. 478
Veneer industry, history, br . . . . 484
Vermont, report of State Fores-
ter, 1913, ref 262

Volume and crown space, rela-
tion, art 330

Yellow pine, art 330

tables, construction, ref 94

defects 14

graded 5

hardwood 5

Volume tables. Redwood, ref . . . 98

Walnut for gun stocks, ref 461

Warfare and forests, br 289

Washington, forest law, ref 98

Waste, mill, use, n 506

utilization, ref 124

Wasteland planting, Ireland, ref. 615

reforestation, ref 458

Weather influence in growth, br. 277
Western forestry and conserva-
tion association, proceed-
ings, 1913, ref 264

Western States, tree distribution,

n 650

Western White pine, manage-
ment, ref 94

Yellow pine, damage by fire,

ref 457

West Virginia, workmen's com-
pensation law, ref 96

White Mountain reservation, n . 504

White pine, bark disease, ref. . . . 615

blister rust, ref 457

rust, protection, br 472

second growth, log scale 27

seed, device for planting, ref. . 95

seedlings, transplanting 31

silviculture, ref 95

Willow, basket business, br .... 483

cricket bats, ref 640

Windbreaks and light soils, ref. . 264

Winter cruising, n 305

Wireless telegraphy, n 651

Wood, identification, br 467

mechanical properties, rev. . . . 600

preservatives, association, n . . 505

Woodlot, care of, ref 462

determination of value of tim-
ber, ref 460

forestry, rev 437

Wood-using industries. New

York, ref 96

South Carolina, ref 96

Wood wastes, utilization, ref . . . . 462

Working plans, rev 593

methods, br 115

for National Forests, art 145

New Haven Water Company,

rev 74

Portland, Me., wState forest,

ref 459

and reconnaissance, ref 124

Yale forest school, biographical

record, rev 87

Yellow pine, crown space and

volume, art 330

seed, n 304

standard wood construction,

ref 96

Yellow poplar, Tennessee, ref . . . 263 Yield, tables, method, Arizona

Yield, conifers, France, br 482 and New Mexico, ref . . . . 457

regulation and increment, br. . 279 use in predicting growth,

on National Forests, ref. ... 94 ref 457

tables, one only, br 629 in uneven-aged stands, ref 457

compared, br 113

Norway spruces, br 114 Ziegler, E. A., art 31

JOURNALS BRIEFED

Agricultural Gazette of New South

Wales
Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd Zeitung
L'Alpe

American Forestry-
American Lumberman

Barrel and Box

Botanical Gazette

Bulletin of American Geographical

Society-
Bulletin of American Institute of

Mining Engineers
Bulletin of the New York Botanical

Garden
Bulletin de la Societe Dendrologi-

que de France
Bulletin Societe f orestiere de Franche-

Comte et Belfort
Bulletin of the Southern California

Academy of Science

Canada Lumberman and Wood-
worker
Canadian Forestry Journal
Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen
Comptes Rendues Academic des Sci-
ences (Paris)
Cultura

English News

Experiment Station Record

Forest Leaves
Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt

Gardeners' Chronicle

Hardwood Record

Indian Forester

Jahresbericht Vereinigung angew.

Botanik
Journal of Agricultural Research
Journal of the Board of Agriculture

Lesnoy Journal
Lumber Review
Lumber Trade Journal

Minnesota Forester
Mississippi Valley Lumberman
Mitteilungen der Deutschen Land-

wirtschaftlichen Gesellschaft
Mitteilungen aus der Kgl. Sachs-

ischen forstlichen Versuchsanstalt

zu Tharandt

Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen
Centralanstalt fur forstliche Ver-
suchswesen

Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural In-
telligence and Plant Diseases

Municipal Journal and Engineer

Mycologia

Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift

fur Forst- und Landwirtschaft
New York Lumber Trade Journal

Ohio Naturalist

Philippine Journal of Science: Botany

Pomona College Journal of Eco-
nomic Botany

Praktische Blatter fur Pfianzenbau
und Pfianzenschutz

Proceedings of the Academy of
Natural Sciences

Proceedings of the Society of Amer-
ican Foresters

Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada

Phytopathology

Quarterly Bulletin of the Canadian

Mining Institute
Quarterly Journal of Forestry

Revue des Eaux et Forets

Rhodora

Rod and Gun

Science

Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forst-
wesen

Sierra Club Bulletin

Silva

Skogsvardsforeningens Tidskrift

Southern Industrial and Lumber
Review

Southwest

St. Louis Lumberman

Tharandter forstliches Jahrbuch

Timber Trades Journal

Timberman

Transactions of the Forest Experi-
ment Stations, St. Petersburg

Transactions of the Royal Scottish
Arboricultural Society

West Coast Lumberman

Woodcraft

Wood Worker

Yale Review

Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Jagd-
wesen

FORESTRY QUARTERLY

Vol. XII.J March, 1914. [No. i.

A SUGGESTION FOR SECURING BETTER
PROFESSIONAL TERMINOLOGY.

By p. S. Lovejov.

Most of our new words and phrases arise either by direct
translation from another language in which they are already in
use to express the identical idea, or, through the more or less
gradual adaptation of words and phrases already in our own lan-
guage.

The first source is illustrated by our use of "working-plan" ;
the second by "reconnaissance." Further terms originate by di-
rect manufacture from established roots, as "silviculture" or
"dendrology," or by new combinations of old words, as "lookout-
station." It is usual for such professional words and terms' to
differentiate as the profession develops so that their definition
is different from time to time.

Any new term is likely to become permanently grafted into
our professional language and has rather great possibilities for
use or abuse. An unfortunately adopted term may become very
mischievous.

If a term is short, easily spelled, self-defining, legitimate in
derivation and accurate in significance, it is likely to be a good
term.

Our need for new terms and phrases is constant. The in-
troduction and adoption of new terms is too easy: the results
are often unhappy.

An illustration of the perv^ersion of tenns is found in the
current use of "woi king-section" and "working-circle." The use
of the terms in Schlich is constant and consistent. Forest Ser-
vice Bulletin 61, properly intended to be the official dictionary for
professional terms, retains the terms but exactly reverses the
definitions. This seems to have been a clerical error, but tlie

2 forestry Quarterly.

recent literature of the Forest Service is apparently in the way
of perpetuating the inadvertence. The term "working-section,"
as used by Schlich, seems to have been dropped entirely. The
results are confusing and the situation would seem to be quite un-
necessary.

Another illustration of an unhappy term is "reconnaissance."
When the word first came into use in the Forest Service it was
legitimate and accurate even though clumsy, foreign, long and
miserably easy to mis-spell. It signifies "preliminary survey" and
had been used in this sense for many years. But the character
of our forest surveys changed rapidly ; the use of the word was
continued. It now signifies "the linear and topographic survey
and mapping, estimating and reporting upon of forest lands." It
often involves all sorts of further details of logging, grazing,
alienations, soils, tree diseases and ecology. Much of this work
is to-day of the most intensive and accurate kind and involves a
very large degree of permanence. The inadequacy of the word
early became evident and we have "jack-rabbit surveys" for the
original "reconnaissance" and "intensive reconnaissance" for the
rest. But why "reconnaissance" at all? By the word we mean
"finding out what we have and where it is." That is "taking
stock." Taking stock is "inventory." Why not say inventory
when we mean just that?

An objection against the use of "inventory" in this sense has
been urged, to the efifect that "it smacks too much of common
business." To some foresters this might not be an insuperable
objection. This might also be said of the objection that "it
would require the re-filing of pounds of correspondence and
another circular letter."

The phrase "germinative force" has recently been introduced
to express a new measure of the rate of seed germination. The
need of some such phrase would seem to be evident; but is the
phrase wholly satisfactory? Certainly it is far from self-ex-
planatory and the use of the word "force" is actually misleading.
In order to use the new conception conveniently we need some
form of abbreviation or numerical expression. We have to ex-
press a per cent, of a per cent. What shall we call that?

If the whole matter is not to be left to work itself out by in-
dividual preference, accident and whim, there should be some
representative professional body to pass upon all new terms and

Securing Better Professional Terminology. 3

phrases. In the absence of such a body is it not likely that
foresters in America will soon find themselves in a hopeless tan-
gle of terminolog)' ? Ample precedence for such an experience
can be found in many sciences and professions.

Let us have a standing committee in the Society of American
Foresters, the duties of which shall be somewhat as follow :

(i) to consider and revise current terminology

(2) to note or receive all new professional terms and phrases
and to pass upon their suitability, recommending their
adoption or rejection.

(3 ) to recommend new or other terms for all terms rejected, if
deemed desirable,

(4) upon application, to consider and recommend terms for
any conception deemed worthy of fixation in our profes-
sional language.

EDITOR S NOTK TO THE ABOVE ARTICLE.

The Editor, having to handle the manuscripts of his contribu-
tors, desires to express his full sympathy with the above proposi-
tion. He is often filled with sadness at the lack of uniformity
net only, but of linguistic sense in the choice of terms. There
are any number of clumsy, misinterpreted, misunderstood terms
which recur in the contributions to the Quarterly. He desires
to recall his longer article in Vol. HI, p. 255, written more than
eight years ago, when reviewing the U. S. Forest Service Bul-
letin 61, which tried to establish a terminology. He there
laid down some principles which may bear repetition in this
connection.

We hold that technical terms are merely conveniences for
quick and precise speech and should be first of all tested by
that object. To attain it, they should conform as much as prac-
ticable to at least the following four requirements, important in
order of their sequence:

(a) A term should be necessary. As long as common lan-
guage is sufficient to precisely state the idea, special terminology
is superfluous, except, perhaps, for special cases or special writ-
ings. A corollary is that, as long as an accepted term employed
in other sciences or arts expresses precisely the conditions or
ideas to be expressed, there is no gain in coining a new word.

4 Forestry Quarterly.

(b) Words which are current with well established mean-
ings should not be employed as terms in another sense, especially
where it is likely that ambiguity would be introduced by the
simultaneous use of the ordinary sense and the term meaning.

(c) Age is a virtue: a long-established, sufficiently well de-
fined and understood term should not be lightly discarded or
supplanted unless very considerable improvement were gained.
Convenience, we repeat, is the object of language, and it is more
convenient to use established language than to fish for new words.

(d) Terms should be as short and as nearly as possible self-
explanatory. It is, of course, well nisfh impossible, nor is it
necessary, that a term explain all that is implied in it: it is the
very impossibility of doing so that leads to the use of special
terms which to the initiated at once convey the full explanation.
But, if the term suggests its own explanation, it will be the
more acceptable.

(e) Finally, the word or word combination should have a
term-quality. This is, perhaps, the most difficult requirement
to define or to discover: it is like taste in art, it requires a
language sense which by instinct or intuitively rejects the un-
suitable. A word infrequently used in common language has
thereby more term-quality, than one in common use; a Roman
word more than a Saxon ; a brief combination more than a long
one ; a compound more than a phrase ; an unusual compound
more than a common one.

If the term fulfills all these conditions, it is perfect; by so
much as it fails, it is deficient and open to criticism, calling for
improvement.

We may add, that there is a movement on foot to have a
Committee of the Society of American Foresters revise the
terminology — a most excellent proposition ! Such committee
may then be made permanent or self -perpetuating.

GRADED VOLUME TABLES FOR VERMONT
HARDWOODS.

By Irving W. Bailby, Harvard University,

and

Philip C. He.\ld, Harvard University.

Approximately one half of the data upon which the following
volume tables are based was secured by senior students of the
Harvard Forest School in April and May, 1913. During this
period the members of the class were engaged in mapping and
estimatins^ the timber upon tht township of Somerset in south-
ern \^ermont. The primary object in collecting material for
graded tables was to focus the attention of the students upon
local methods of logging, milling, and grading hardwoods, and
to afford essential experience in studying the effects of such
fluctuating factors as forest type, tree form, defect, method of
utilization, etc., upon the graded yield of logs and trees. Al-
though each student spent but three out of eight weeks in this
type of preliminary training before undertaking the final task
of estimating standing timber, much instructive and reliable in-
formation was obtained. The facility with which material for
graded volume tables could be collected made it seem advisable
to secure sufficient additional data to justify the construction of
tables for beech, hard maple, and yellow birch. With this plan
in view one of the writers and Mr. George W. Kimball, M. F.,
spent the month of June, 1913, in the locality previously visited.

Before passing to a detailed description of the results of this
investigation it will be well perhaps to discuss briefly certain
points that are significant in the construction and use of hard-
wood log scales and volume tables.

An elementary principle but one which is not always sufficiently
emphasized is the theorem that no greater degree of refinement
should be used in any detail of a problem than is justified by the
homogeneity of the material and the accuracy of methods used
in other phases of the problem. Of course the accuracy of these
details should be properly correlated with the accuracy desired in

6 Forestry Quarterly.

the results. For example, in the determination of the 'Modulus
of Rupture' and 'Crushing Strength' of timber, values are read not
infrequently to units or decimals. These figures are the averages
of a large number of individual tests. Unfortunately, wood, like
most organic matter, is an extremely variable material and dif-
fers to a marked degree in different representatives of the
same species and in different portions of the same tree. Fur-
thermore the same piece of timber will vary greatly with changes'
in its environment. Thus the 'Modulus of Rupture' or 'Crush-
ing Strength' of a given kind of wood represents an average of
many widely fluctuating values. As yet no satisfactory method
has been discovered for determining, a priori, the variation of a
given piece of timber from the normal or average strength values
of its class or grade. Since a structure is in most cases de-
pendent upon the strength of its weakest member the engineer
and architect must allow for these fluctuations by the use of
the so-called 'factor of safet}',' an approximate and arbitrary fig-
ure. Therefore, elaborate methods of testing timbers, and values
which record units or decimals are refinements that are not justi-
fied except perhaps in theoretical researches when the investigator
endeavors' by means of carefully selected small specimens to ana-
lyze certain factors that produce variation in the strength of
wood.

In a similar manner the contents of logs and trees fluctuate
greatly with variations in certain natural and economic factors'
of which the most significant are form, defect, and methods ot
logging, milling and utilization. Thus, log scales and volume
tables, compilations of averages, are inherently inaccurate except
when applied to more than a limited number of logs or trees.
Furthermore, they are untrustworthy unless the natural and
economic factors to which they are standardized are homologous
with those which prevail in regions where they are applied, or
unless accurate converting factors are available. The problem
of successfully standardizing tables to given conditions and of
using in each step of the process a justifiable degree of accuracy
is a difficult undertaking. For, even in the case of homogeneous
bodies of coniferous timber, volume is subject to considerable
variation due to differences in method of logging, milling, and
utilization; a point that has not always been sufficiently em-
phasized in the construction and use of volume tables.

Graded Volume Tables. y

Hardwood timber is heterogeneous and extremely sensitive to
fluctuations in the economic factors mentioned above. There-
fore, it appears to be true that, until our methods of utilization
are matured and become less plastic, 'general' volume tables
based upon a large amount of data, collected from a wide area,
cannot be applied in any given region with sufficient accuracy
to justify the cost of their construction. If 'local' volume tables
are to be employed it must be demonstrated that they can be
compiled rapidly and inexpensively and that their use yields more
reliable and accurate estimates than existing rule of thumb
methods. For many reasons it is to be hoped that this can be ac-
complished. At present, however, reliable information in regard
to the yield of logs and trees is possessed by a comparatively
limited number of individuals. These persons, by long and in-
timate contact with lumbering operations, both in the woods and
the mill, have acquired a more or less accurate knowledge of
the yield of certain types of timber when utilized by methods
with which they are familiar. Unfortunately this type of in-
formation is intangible, and non-accumulative since it is buried
with those who possess it. Thus the owner or purchaser of
timber is dependent upon the judgment and, what has proved
in practice to be even more important, the honesty of one or
more individuals. Local volume tables carefully standardized
to natural and economic factors would serve not only as guides
in given regions, but would furnish data for comparative study,
the determination of the effect of variation in form, defect, and
method of utilization, and the construction of reliable converting
factors.

As has been stated above, if local tables are to be used in
estimating hardwoods, rapid, inexpensive and reasonably ac-
curate methods of compiling, tabulating, and standardizing data
must be developed. A common practice in collecting material
for volume tables is to number the logs in each tree as they are
measured in the woods, and subsequently record their contents
as they pass through the mill. In the experience of the writers
this procedure has been slow and expensive, due to the fact
that in most medium sized and large mills a considerable period
of time elapses usually between the felling of the trees and
their arrival at the mill. Moreover, if the officials of lumber
companies or the woods foremen are secretly hostile to the con-

8 Forestry Quarterly.

struction of the tables, as several consulting foresters have found
to be the case, an effective means of frustrating the work is to
delay sending numbered logs to the mill. This difficulty can be
avoided if the contents of trees measured in the woods are com-
puted from a log scale or 'tally' made at the mill. Errors in-
herent in this procedure are in most cases not excessive, par-
ticularly if butt logs are separated into a class by themselves.
Variations in 'defect' and method of logging, milling, and utiliza-
tion have so much weight in the case of hardwoods that the usual
fluctuation in the taper of the upper logs of a tree are for prac-
tical purposes negligible. In other words the process of follow-
ing numbered logs from the woods to the mill is a refinement
that is not justified by the accuracy of other phases of the work
and of the final application of the tables.

A second procedure which deserves attention is the elimination
from volume table data of all defective and poorly shaped
trees. Graves in his 'Forest Mensuration' states,

'Care is required in the selection of the trees for measurement. It
is the rule to measure only sound trees, because volume tables show
the full contents of sound trees. It might appear that the tables would
be more practical if based on average trees, including those partially
defective. But a table made up in this waj' would be extremely unre-
liable, for it is well known that the defects of trees differ greatly in
different situations ; so that a table based partly on defective trees would
be useless in eliminating trees whose defects are different from those
of the trees observed in the construction. Again, any such defect as in-
jury by fire, insects, disease, wind, or ice would entirely vitiate a table
constructed for trees showing another defect than the particular one in
question. Whereas a table based on sound trees may be reduced for un-
soundness in logs.'

In most portions of the Northeastern United States a large
percentage of the hardwood trees are defective or deformed.
To sort out and measure only sound, straight logs and trees is
laborious and expensive. Furthermore, if tables are based upon
selected trees they must be discounted whenever they are used
even if tlie limber and methods of utilization resemble closely those
where the tables' were compiled. In addition the construction
and use of tables based upon sound trees presupposes an ac-
curate knowledge of the exact effect which different types of
abnormalities have upon volume and grade. Unfortunately these
converting factors are not available at present, and are difficult
to analyze because the influence of a given abnormality is not a
constant quantity, but fluctuates widely with variations in meth-

Graded Volume Tables. 9

ods of utilization. Since an intensive study must be made of
natural and economic factors before applying volume tables in
a given region, and much depends inevitably upon the judgment
of the estimator, it would appear to be nearly as reliable to apply
a "blanket" discount to a table of average trees as to one based
entirely upon sound specimens.

'A third source of unnecessary expense, in the construction of
volume tables, may result from the super-polishing of tables dur-
ing the process of tabulation. Recurving and replotting pro-
duce uniform results which are superficially attractive, but tend
to show a greater degree of accuracy than is justifiable. Fur-
thermore, in wiping out irregularities there is always the danger
of concealing the effects of natural and economic factors which
should be evident in a table standardized to given conditions.
Volume tables are not intended for the determination of the ex-
act contents of individual trees. When applied to many trees
irregularities due to a limited amount of basic data produce er-
rors that are largely compensating.

The writers realize that the tables given below are open to
numerous criticisms. In the first place more attention should
have been given to the study of local methods of utilization and
their effect upon grades and volume. In all probability the com-
putation of grades for trees of each diameter was not justifiable.
However, in as much as these tables are purely experimental it
seemed wiser to record the grades than to express them in per
centages for groups of trees of different diameters. In using
the tables, the cruiser may combine the trees into such groups as
he thinks most useful, and quickly determine the percentages of
the grades for each group. It should be kept in mind that the
data for these tables were secured incidentally, in the course of
other investigations.

Descriptiox of Local Conditions.

I. Topography and Types.

Topographically the region is composed of hills and ridges
lying between the spurs or branches of the southern extension
of the Green Mountains. These hills and ridges are interspersed
with numerous level and swampy tracts of considerable size.
As a result there is a great diversity of types. The steep upper

lo Forestry Quarterly.

slopes of the higher mountains which are rocky and have Httle
soil, are covered with spruce. It is on the middle and lower slopes
of these mountains, and on the lower hills and ridges between
them, that the hardwood is found. Here the soil is good and
fairly deep, and the hardwood occurs sometimes in a pure stand
and sometimes with a varying mixture of fir and spruce. The
bottom lands' are covered largely by a spruce type with scatter-
ing hardwoods, and the swamps by a typical one of spruce and
fir. In many places the hardwood slopes have been cleared and
used for agricultural purposes. The farms, however are, now
largely abandoned, and the pastures and fields are "coming up"
either with a hardwood growth, or a growth of pasture, spruce
and fir. The country has been largely cut over for spruce, and
there is now little old growth spnice in the region. Conse-
quently varying degrees of density occur in the hardwood stands,
ranging from those which are always pure hardwood to those
in which there are a few scattering hardwood trees left after the
removal of spruce.

2. Tree Ponn.

The hardwood trees in this region are for the most part two
log trees. The merchantable length seldom exceeds' 32 feet
at which height the trees begin to branch. In the smaller dia-
meters there are of course a number of trees from which only one
log is cut, and in the larger diameters a number of three log
trees occur. The following is the percentage of one, two and
three log trees as obtained in collecting data for the volume
tables. Birch: 23% one-log, 62% two-log, 15% three-log;
Maple: 22% one-log, 60% two-log, and 18% three-log; Beech:
37% one-log, 58% two-log, 5% three-log trees. In connection
with these facts it should be borne in mind that a tree having
a merchantable length of 32 feet might be cut either into two 16
foot logs or into two 10- foot logs and a 12-foot log.

5. Defects.

Nearly one-half of the logs cut were defective or abnormal
in some particular. These logs have been classified according
to their defects and their classification is given in an accompany-
ing table. In addition to showing the number of logs possessing
the various defects', this table also shows the way in which these

Graded Volume Tables. II

defects offset the volume of lumber sawn from the logs. This is
done by dividing the logs into four groups. In group I. are put
those in which the defect has decreased the volume of the log
io% or less from the volume of a straight and sound log of
the same dimensions. Group II contains' those logs in which the
defect has caused a decrease of 10-20%, group III a decrease
of 20-30%. and group IV a decrease of 30% or more. Under
the head of "butt defects" are included butt logs in which butt
rot, "dote," or some form of decay is present at the butt of the
log. In addition to lowering the total board foot contents of
the log these defects may, in cases, also lower the grade of what
is' actually sawn. In large logs where there are only four or
five inches of butt rot, which does not extend more than a few
feet from the butt, the effect is slight upon the volume of the
log. "Top defects" include all defects due to rot in the top logs,
and also defects in the top of butt logs. Top defects are com-
monly more serious than butt defects. This is due largely to the
fact that butt defects occur, in the majority of cases, near the
center of the cross section, and, in addition, to the fact that there
is a greater percentage of shorter lengths among top logs, which
makes the trimming of bad ends difficult. Under the head
of 'crook' are included longs in which there is a sharp bend
or twist. Most of the crooked logs are of smaller diameters,
and when a crook is present in a large log it does not
have a serious effect unless the abnormality is a severe one.
Crook influences volume, but has little effect upon grade. Un-
der 'sweep' are included curved logs or logs with a gradual
bend. As in the case of crook, sweep is confined largely to
logs of small diameter. When it occurs in large logs it is not
serious unless the defect is pronounced. Under such circum-
stances it will affect grade as well as total volume. This is due
to the necessity for cutting across the heartwood. 'Knotty' logs
which have abnormally large or numerous knots and are al-
most exclusively composed of top logs of the smaller diameters.
As a rule grade is affected more than volume. 'Seams' affect
both volume and grade, due largely to the penetration of rot
along these cavities. 'Shake' is rarely found in beech and maple,
being confined almost entirely to birch logs of the largest dia-
meters. In addition to affecting volume it has a most decided
effect upon grade, in some cases almost the entire volume of

12 I-\)rcstry Ouarterly.

a shaky log being No. 3 Common. Miscellaneous defects in-
clude such defects as fire-scars, "burls," forks, logs split in felling,
etc. When a log had more than one defect it was placed in that
class of defect which was considered to be the most serious. The
accompanying table gives an idea of the prevalence of each de-
fect and its influence on volume. This table includes only such
defects as were apparent in the log and does not include defects
which were disclosed by sawing. In birch and maple there were
few hidden defects, but the beech "opened up" poorer than ex-
ternal appearances would lead one to expect.

4. Woods Practice.

It was' the practice in the woods to utilize the trees up to their
first branches or in the case of the smaller trees to a diameter
of eight inches. In other words, the smallest logs sent to the
mill were supposed to be 8 inches, top diameter. Practically no
logs were taken above the first branches. This practice causes
a large amount of material suitable for cooperage stock to be
left in the woods, in the form of short lengths. Logs were cut
into 10, 12, 14 and 16 foot lengths, and as a rule were saweid
to good advantage. The usual stump height at which trees were
cut was about 20 inches for trees' under 15 inches D. B. H., and
28 inches for trees over 15 inches D. B. H.

5. Mill Practice.

In the manufacture of the logs at the mill a single action
band-saw cutting a i" saw-kerf was used. The lumber was
graded before seasoning. This was done according to the grad-
ing rules of the National Hardwood Lumber Association. Clear
boards' not wide enough to go into firsts and seconds were as
far as possible graded as clear strips. There was also a con-
siderable amount of No. i Common strips. In order to avoid
a further complexity of grades, both these grades of strips were
included in the No. i Common grade. A small amount of
No. 2 Common strips was placed in the No. 2 Common grade.

By far the greater part of the output of the mill was sawed into
one inch stock, sawed i^" to allow for shrinkage — 85% of the
birch, 90% of the maple, and 70% of the beech went into this
size. While tlie data were being collected a considerable amount

Graded I'ohimc Tables. 13

of dimension stock was sawed for construction purposes about
the mill and yard. It amounted to about 20% of the total
cut of beech, and less than 5% of the birch and maple. All this
dimension stock was graded as No. 3 Common "Stickers," which
were taken as much as possible from beech, and to some extent
from the poorest maple and birch, were also graded as Xo. 3
Common. At one time, during the collecting of the data, there
was a special order for 3 inch stock, 12 feet long, which was
graded as Xo. 3 Common, but in reality w^as an intermediate
grade between No. 2 and Xo. 3 Common. This tended to in-
crease the amount of Xo. 3 at the expense of Xo. 2 in the
12 foot class, and its effect is plainly seen in the birch log rule.
In the case of the two highest grades in birch, namely firsts and
seconds, and firsts and seconds red, considerable two inch stock
was sawed, more especially in the red grade. However, the
amount in comparison to the total was small, less than 5%. In
the ma])le and beech there were sawed from time to time small
lots of i\", if" and 2|" stock but the combined amount of all
these thicknesses was less than 5% of the total. In all cases the
board.-- were sawed i" thicker than the standard dimension to
allow for shrinkage. The beech as a whole was of poor quality,
but the amount of Xo. 3 Common was undoubtedly increased
considerably by the large amount of dimension stock and stickers
sawed from this species. It will be noted that in the ten foot
class in the birch log rule, there is a greater proportion of the
poorer grades than in the longer lengths. This is particularly no-
ticeable in the Xo. i Common Red and in the No. 2 Common
grades. It is probably due in part to the fact that the longer
logs can be trimmed more advantageously and a limited percent-
age of short lengths is allowed in the upper grades ; but largely
to the fact that the greater proportion of the 10 foot logs were
top logs and hence knotty and of poorer quality. The mill crew,
e. g. sawyer, edgeman and trimmer man, were men of average
skill, all having had previous experience in hardwood mills of
other regions.

Methods Used.

The following statistics were obtained in the woods : D. B. H.
stump height, diameter inside and outside bark at stump and at
small end of each log, length of each log, total height of tree,

14

Forestry Quarterly.

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Graded Volume Tables. 15

description of defects and form of tree. Measurements of butt
logs were recorded in a separate column.

In making the mill tallies the logs were measured for length and
diameter at small end, and visible defects were inspected and de-
scribed. The volume and grades- of boards cut from each log
were tallied on cards printed for this purpose. Here again butt
logs were separated from upper logs.

During the process of tabulating the results, the effort was
made to secure separate log scales for non-defective butt and
non-defective top logs. Owing to the number of grades in birch
and the somewhat limited amount of data in the case of the maple
and beech, this plan was abandoned. All logs, defective, non-
defective, butts and tops were then averaged together and form
the basis of the log scales given below. As may be seen in table
No. 2 the effect of the form of butt logs is well marked only
among the larger diameters. It should be kept in mind that a
high proportion of the bigger butt logs are defective, and the
loss in volume due to this cause seems to offset more or less the
gain produced by the 'swell' of the butt. Furthermore it should
be noted that the average tree contained two logs, one butt and
one top log, and therefore errors in the log scales due to non-
separation of butts and tops would tend to compensate more or
less' when tlie mill tallies were used in the preparation of volume
tables. In tabulating results data were averaged in the usual
manner and curved once.

Cost of Preparation.

As has been stated previously one half of the data for the
tables \vere secured by inexperienced student labor. The rest
of the data were collected and tabulated by more experienced
men and affords a better basis for estimating conservatively the
total cost of constructing the tables.

The time consumed in measuring 1200 trees in the woods,
3500 logs in the mill, and tabulating the results was two months
for two men. This gives a total cost of from $200-$3O0 for the
preparation of the log scales and volume tables.* It should be
kept in mind that the data used were secured in a one band mill

*Cost of labor figured at $50 per month per man — current wages paid
to graduates of leading forestry schools by consulting foresters.

i6 Forestry Quarterly.

cutting approximately 20,000 feet of lumber in one 'tower/ and
the grading was done by an employee of the mill. In a two band
mill three or even more men would be essential to secure the
data, but the increase in the size of the crew would, of course,
be more or less offset by the greater number of logs tallied each
day. Furthermore, in many cases, it might be necessary or
desirable to replace one of the crew by an expert grader. How-
ever, even with such increases in tlie expense of securing the mill
tallies the cost of the tables would not be greatly increased, since
a considerable saving in the cost of tabulating the results would
be made by not computing grades for logs and trees of each
diameter and length.

Conclusion.

These facts have convinced the writers that local volume
tables can be prepared rapidly and economically if based upon
mill tallies made from all merchantable logs. In estimating large
bodies of timber local volume tables of this type appear to sim-
plify the methods of cruising and to place less emphasis upon
the judgment of the cruiser. For, instead of estimating the con-
tents of each tree and discounting for defect, the cruiser records
diameters, which can be measured, and used-lengths, which can
be accurately estimated. If the given conditions which local
tables represent are carefully described these volume tables may
perhaps be used in other regions by carefully studying and com-
paring defects, methods of utilization, etc., and applying suitable
converting factors. Furthermore, if the data upon which local
volutne tables are based are systematically recorded and kept
available, as should be done in all cases, it would be possible in
time to construct valuable 'general' tables by combining the data
from many localities. At the same time by comparative studies
the effects of variations in defect, form, and method of utilization
could be determined, and reliable converting factors obtained.

However, careful tests must be made to determine whether
local tables aft'ord in the hands of men of moderate experience
more reliable and accurate estimates than existing methods of
'cruising' hardwoods.

In conclusion the writers wish to thank Mr. II. S. Janes for
innumerable kindnesses.

Graded Volume Tables.

17

Taulk No. 2.
YELLOW I^.IRCH LOG SCALE.

Comparipi'ii of Xmi- Defective })utt Logs, Non-Defective Top Logs and
Average of all Logs.

Total Contents in .Feet Board Measure, Mill Tally.

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i8 Forestry Quarterly.

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•^ ^ ■" f^ in tvoo f'S U-. t^ 0( r^\o 00 o -+0 C^" TtrvOi— »orvO>r5

'133'iT ' 1/ 'OAr OmppO«':Om>'50»'3vr;Oin>'5mOOiO>OOQi'5»')

'OSyi 'S /D I »OOinirjOPPOiOpiOQ"~. OPOOvoirjOOOpiTi

_2) «„►,«►,

"c t^3J 'mBUB'J O <^< -^O O N Tj-vO O "N 'tO O M -tvO O M ■'tvO P M tJtO

■^ -^ ts •'^

S «,fem is « ?i N M c» cJ

s "^ ^

"-J -(g 'ii- 'OAT C>p»Ai/^»/)0»'5u^inpir)mtoPOP»/:000«'iOOQ

t/J ^ '^2' •QM P>r)0»op*r30m0m0>/'. OmOu^Oi/iOmPPO*':

'^ ^ r

J5 '-' >»,

"^ 1-1 tT c^,0 / Pic0P0P>O»/^iOuiir:»J^P0P»'500PPiovi^u^0

W Ph fc.4 'p3'ij ' Q/ '0 SJ vr, irj lO m lO m to m »J~. irj P O P O P "^ P irj uo u^ in to in

>^j 'D3yi C X^ I ifixr.xr. iriOOmOmmOvnmtootoOP»oOvoO

s3 ^ >. ^

^a'l3~=;-?'^ "* "■' O 1^ 00

^ .2 ^^^J

^ 7D10 T POOOPOPOOOPOOOOPOQOOPOPQ

^ of 'O liJ POOOOmtoiommmiotommOmOOOPOPO

-5 'v? TikT OOvrjmPOiotrvnvovnOmtomoomOOPmOO

*^ 0/ 'OAT »r»n irjoo OOmotnir!moPPO«oP»n>r>

C X^ I ir; ir; IT) u~, m O O ui O O »n

7>^^ 'J/ O^ uitou-,

i^^d 'V^^W^'J O f<» ■^VO P N -^O O fj -to O '"I -rfvo O N -tO O C^ '*VO

Graded Volume Tables.

19

Table No. 4.

YELLOW BIRCH VOLUME TABLE

Volume by Grades — Basis 505 Trees.

Feet Board Measure by Mill Tallies.

Used Li

?«i^<A .

12

feet

14 feet.

•«

"«3

5J

•0

^.

•Q

"^

x.*"-.
i;j>^

a<

>*>
ft;

oi

^

0

6

IS

r V

Q

2
0

0"

fM
*

ci 0

N

^

►m

^

^

'^

l^

•s

^

>-i

^

^

^ J^

10

5

15

10

30

5

15

10 30

II

10

15

15

40

10

IS

15 40

12

5

15

15

15

^O

5

10

15

15 SO

13

5

15

20

20

60

5

15

20

20 60

14

10

20

20

20

70

10

20

20

20 70

15

5

10

25

20

20

80

5

10

25

20

20 80

16

5

5

15

25

20

20

90

5

5

20

30

20

20 100

17

5

5

20

30

2

20

100

10

5

20

30

20

25 no

18

10

5

20

30

20

25

no

10

5

30

35

25

25 130

19

15

10

35

35

20

25 140

20

20

10

45

35

25

25 160

21

25

IS

50

35

20

25 170

22

35

15

55

35

25

25 190

23

40

20

65

35

25

25 210

24

50

20

70

35

25

30 230

Used Length:

16

feet

2C

» feet.

10

10

15

15

40

5

20

25 SO

II

15

20

15

50

10

25

25 60

12

5

15

20

20

60

5

15

25

2? 70

13

10

20

20

20

70

5

25

30

30 90

14

5

10

25

20

20

80

10

30

30

30 100

15

5

IS

25

20

25

90

s

10

30

30

35 1 10

16

5

5

20

30

20

20

100

5

5

20

40

30

40 140

17

10

5

25

30

25

25

120

10

5

30

40

30

45 160

18

15

10

30

35

25

25

140

15

10

35

45

30

45 180

19

20

ID

40

35

20

25

150

20

10

45

50

30

45 200

30

25

15

45

35

25

25

170

30

15

50

50

30

45 220

21

30

15

55

35

25

30

190

35

IS

60

55

35

50 250

22

35

15

60

35

25

30

200

40

20

70

55

35

50 270

23

40

20

65

40

25

30

220

50

25

75

60

35

55 300

24

55

20

80

40

25

30 250

65

30

8s

60

35

55 330

20

Forestry Quarterly.

YELLOW BIRCH VOLUME TABLE.
Used Length: 22 feet. 24 feet.

■^ ,_

-e

•~ "!^ ^

^

cc;

mele
rcast
ncJic

'0

fV)

'0

'0

.^

■ '^ ^<1.

^

0

^

<5

.-.-

C

•:j

^

s

•^

•-

:?;

:^

fel

•■^

10

5

20

25

50

II

ri

15

25

25

70

12

5

20

25

30

80

13

5

25

30

30

90

14

TO

30

30

30

100

15

5

15

35

30

35

120

•^

~<s

^

^

^

-1 ^4

^

16 5 10 25 40 30 40 150

17 10 10 30 45 30 45 770

18 15 10 40 50 30 45 190

19 22 10 45 50 35 50 210

20 30 15 55 55 35 50 240

21 35 15 65 60 35 50 260

22 45 20 70 60 zh 50 280
^2 50 25 80 60 40 .'5 310
24 65 30 90 60 40 55 340

Used Letifith: 26 feet

12 10 20 30 30 90

13 10 30 30 30 100

14 10 35 30 35 no

15 IS 40 35 40 130

16 s 5 215 45 35 4.=; t6o

17 10 10 3.S .SO 35 SO 190

18 IS 10 45 55 35 50 210

19 25 10 S5 60 40 50 240

20 30 IS 60 60 40 ss 260

21 35 15 70 65 40 s's 280

22 4K 20 75 70 40 60 310

23 50 25 85 70 40 60 330

24 65 30 100 70 45 60 370

Used Length: 30 feet."

15 5 20 40 40 45 150
i6 10 5 30 45 40 50 180

17 10 10 40 55 40 55 210

18 IS 10 50 60 40 S5 230

19 25 IS 55 65 40 60 260

20 30 15 65 65 45 60 2'-k)

21 40 20 75 70 45 60 310

22 45 25 80 70 45 65 330

23 55 30 <)o 75 45 65 360

24 70 35 no 75 45 65 400

Used Length: 34 feet.

16 10 10 35 50 45 50 200

17 15 10 40 60 45 60 230

18 15 10 55 60 45 65 250
10 25 15 60 70 45 65 280

20 30 15 70 70 50 65 300

21 40 20 80 75 50 65 330

22 45 25 90 80 50 70 360

23 SS .^o 95 80 50 70 380

24 75 35 115 80 50 75 430

10 25 25 60

IS 25 30 70

20 30 30 80

10 30 30 30 100

10 35 30 35 no

5 5 15 35 30 40 130

10 10 25 40 35 40 160

10 10 30 50 35 45 180

IS 10 40 SO 35 50 200

20 10 50 55 35 50 220

30 rs 60 60 35 50 250

35 20 65 60 40 50 270

40 20 75 65 40 50 2QO

50 25 85 65 40 55 320

70 30 95 65 40 60 360

28 feet.

5 20 35 30 90

10 30 35 35 no

5 10 35 35 35 120

5 20 40 35 40 140

10 5 30 45 35 45 I/O

10 10 40 so 40 50 200

IS 10 50 55 40 50 220

25 15 55 60 40 55 250

30 IS 65 65 40 55 270

35 20 70 65 40 60 2Q0

45 20 80 70 45 60 320

55 30 90 70 45 60 350

70 35 105 70 45 65 390

32 feet.

5 5 20 45 40 45 160

10 10 30 50 40 50 190

15 10 40 60 40 55 220

15 10 50 60 45 60 240

25 15 60 65 45 60 270

30 15 70 70 45 60 290

40 20 75 75 45 65 320

45 20 85 75 SO 65 340

55 2S 95 75 SO 70 370

75 35 IIS 75 SO 70 420

36 feet.

10 10 35 50 45 50 200

15 10 45 60 45 65 240

20 10 55 65 45 65 260

25 IS 60 70 50 70 290

.30 15 70 7S .50 70 310

40 20 80 80 50 70 340

45 25 90 80 55 75 370

50 30 100 80 55 75 390

75 35 120 85 55 80 450

Graded Volume Tables.

21

Table No. 5

MAPLE LOG SCALE.

Volume by Grades — Basis 943 Logs

Feet Board Measure, Mill Tally.

Diameter

Diameter

at

at

Small

End

(Inches)

"1

0

'0

0

"e
c

Small
End

(Inches)

^

^

'0
0

0

0 0

■— ^

^

^

fe;

<;

K

-H

N

:^

^

'^, h^

7

ro

5

15

20

14

10

15

25

15

25 ^3o

12

5

15

20

12

20

30

15

25 90

14

10

20

30

14

25

35

20

30 no

16

10

20

30

16

30

40

20

40 130

8

10

10

20

30

15

10

25

30

15

30 100

12

5

5

20

30

12

30

35

15

30 no

14

5

10

25

40

14

35

40

20

35 130

16

5

10

25

40

16

45

45

20

40 150

9

10

10

20

30

16

10

35

30

15

30 no

12

10

10

20

40

12

45

35

15

35 130

14

10

10

20

40

14

50

40

20

40 150

16

10

15

25

50

16

60

45

20

45 170

ID

10

10

10

20

40

17

10

50

30

15

35 130

12

10

10

20

40

12

60

35

15

40 150

14

15

10

25

50

14

60

40

20

40 160

16

15

15

30

60

16

75

50

20

45 190

II

10

5

15

10

20

50

18

10

60

30

IS

35 140

12

5

15

10

20

50

12

70

35

15

40 160

14

5

20

10

25

60

14

80

40

20

40 180

16

5

20

15

30

70

16

90

50

25

45 210

12

10

.S

20

15

20

60

19

10

75

35

15

35 160

12

10

20

15

25

70

12

85

40

15

40 180

14

10

25

15

30

80

14

100

45

20

45 210

16

10

30

20

30

90

16

100

50

25

45 23a

13

10

10

25

10

25

70

20

10

90

40

15

35 180

12

15

25

i^

25

80

12

100

40

20

40 200

14

15

30

15

30

90

14

120

45

20

45 230

16

20

35

20

35

no

16

140

55

25

50 270

22

Forestry Quarterly.

Table No. 6

MAPLE VOLUME TABLE

Volume by Grades — Basis 301 Trees.

Feet Board Measure, by Mill Tallies.

16 feet.

Used Length:

12

feet.

<^ —^

e i'

S «;»

K.<

cqg

>-««

fe"-

II

«M

0

S^

«

c

0

0

0

Q

•>•

^

^

:?;

f-

10

10

20

30

II

10

20

30

12

10

10

20

40

13

5

10

10

25

50

14

10

15

10

25

60

15

ID

20

15

25

70

16

15

y>

15

30

go

17

20

35

15

30

100

18

30

35

15

30

no

Used Lengih:

20

feet.

10

5

15

30

SO

II

10

15

35

60

12

5

15

15

35

70

13

5

15

20

40

80

14

10

25

20

45

100

15

15

35

20

50

120

16

20

45

25

50

140

17

30

50

25

55

160

18

40

55

25

60

180

Used Length:

28 feet.

10

II

15

20

45

80

12

5

20

20

45

90

13

5

25

20

50

100

14

ID

35

25

50

120

15

15

40

30

55

140

16

25

50

30

55

160

17

35

55

30

60

180

18

45

65

30

60

200

Used Length:

36

feet.

10

II

12

5

20

25

60

no

13

S

30

30

65

130

14

10

40

30

70

150

15

IS

50

35

70

170

16

25

55

35

75

190

17

35

6S

35

75

210

18

50

70

40

80

240

nl

vj

.^^

^

«

0

0

<5

Cl

•l

"^

^

>.

f-.

5

10

25

40

10

10

20

40

5

10

10

25

50

5

15

15

25

60

10

20

IS

25

70

ID

30

20

30

90

15

35

20

30

100

20

40

20

30

no

30

40

20
24 feet.

40

130

5

IS

40

60

10

20

40

70

5

15

20

40

80

5

20

20

45

90

ID

30

20

50

no

15

40

25

50

130

20

45

30

55

150

30

50

30

60

170

40

60

30

60

190

32 feet.

15

25

50

90

5

20

25

50

100

5

25

25

55

no

10

35

30

55

130

15

45

30

60

ISO

25

50

30

65

170

35

60

30

65

190

45

70

35

70

220

40 feet.

5

30

35

70

140

10

40

35

75

160

15

50

35

80

180

25

55

40

80

200

35

65

45

85

230

45

75

45

95

260

Graded Volume Tables.

23

Table No. 7
BEECH LOG SCALE.

Volume by Grades — Basis 631 Logs.
Feet Board Meaure, Mill Tally.

Diameter

Diameter

u:

at

at

Small

^"

fv.

U

s^

Sd

Small

^*

^l

^

U

u

End
(Inches)

-^

c

0

0

End

(Inches)

^
^

*

0"

0

0 ~

•-;

•n

^

>.

^

I^

►-4

•s

fe;

fe;

< F-

8

10

5

25

30

13

10

5

20

15

30 70

12

5

25

30

12

10

20

15

35 80

14

5

25

30

14

15

25

20

40 100

16

10

30

40

16

15

30

20

45 no

9

10

10

20

30

14

ID

10

25

15

30 80

12

5

10

25

40

12

15

25

15

35 90

14

5

10

25

40

14

20

30

20

40 no

16

10

10

30

50

16

20

35

25

50 130

10

10

ID

ID

20

40

1=;

ID

15

25

15

35 90

12

10

10

30

50

12

20

30

20

40 no

14

10

10

30

50

14

25

35

20

50 130

16

10

15

35

60

16

30

40

25

55 150

II

10

10

15

25

50

16

10

20

30

20

40 no

12

IS

15

30

60

12

30

35

20

45 130

14

20

15

35

70

14

35

40

25

50 150

16

20

20

40

80

16

40

45

25

60 170

12

10

15

15

30

60

17

10

30

35

20

45 130

12

.s

15

15

35

70

12

40

40

20

50 150

14

5

20

15

40

80

14

45

45

25

55 170

16

5

25

20

40

90

16

55

55

25

65 200

Table No. 8.

BEECH VOLUME TABLE

Volume by Grades — Basis 220 Trees.

Feet Board Measure, by Mill Tallies

■« s'

p.,

0

•-1

s^

fVl

u

'0

<^j

U

^

■=>■-$

*

0

r~-

d

5
0

<b

0

0

0

0

^

0

0

cj

0

ci-^

•s

>,

^

"^

t.

S

^

^

^2:

K

N

^5:

^

^

t-

Used Length:

12 feet.

16 feet.

20

feet

10

5

10

25

40

10

10

30

50

II

5

10

25

40

10

15

35

60

10

15

45

70

12

10

ID

30

SO

5

IS

15

35

70

15

20

45

80

13

IS

IS

30

60

5

20

15

40

80

20

20

50

90

14

5

20

15

30

70

10

20

20

40

90

10

25

25

50

no

IS

ID

20

15

35

80

10

25

20

45

100

10

30

25

55

120

16

15

25

15

35

90

15

30

20

45

no

IS

40

25

60

140

17

20

25

15

40

100

20

35

25

50

130

20

45

25

60

150

18

20

30

20

40

no

25

40

25

50

140

25

50

30

65

170

Used

ID
11

Length:

24

feet

28 feet

32 feet.

10

20

50

80

15

25

60

100

12

20

20

SO

90

20

25

^J>

no

5

25

25

65

120

13

S

25

25

55

no

5

25

25

65

120

5

25

30

70

130

14

10

ZO

30

60

130

10

30

30

70

140

to

35

30

75

150

15

ID

35

30

65

140

IS

35

35

75

160

20

40

35

85

180

16

20

40

30

70

160

20

45

35

80

180

25

45

40

90

200

17

25

45

35

75

180

30

SO

40

80

200

30

50

45

95

220

18

30

55

35

8c

200

40

60

40

90

230

45

60

45

100

250

RED AND WHITE FIR.

XYLOMETER CORDWOOD TEST.
By R. W. Taylor, Forest Assistant.

The test was carried on in the wooclyard of the Crown Colum-
bia Paper Company at Floriston, California, the immediate ob-
ject of which was to ascertain as accurately as possible the ex-
act cubic contents of an average cord of Red Fir cordwood such
as is used in making paper pulp. The ultimate object was to ap-
ply the factor thus obtained to a Red Fir content volume table
so that estimates made in reconnaissance work in the Red Fir
region could be readily and accurately converted into cord meas-
ure.

The Xylometer used was a galvanized iron tank 2.465 ft. in
diameter and approximately 4I ft. high, graduated on the inside
in i/ioo of a foot. Each stick of cordwood was immersed
separately and its volume recorded. The cords were piled after
the sticks had been immersed, making each one as far as it is
possible to do so, of the standard dimension 4'x4'x8'.

The wood measured was a mixture of red and white fir cut
from the Crown Columbia Paper Company's holdings near Flori-
ston, California, averaging 35% Red Fir (Abies nwgnifica) and
67% White Fir (Abies concolor). As far as can be ascertained,
both by inspection and measurements, there is no difference
in the form of the red and white fir cordwood. This is borne
out by the figures in the table, which show that the cubic con-
tents of the various cords bear no relation to the percentage of
the two species. jNIoreover, the average number of sticks per
cord of the 25 cords is 60. A stack of cordwood containing
10.87 cords and 91% red fir and 9% White Fir measured in
another part of the yard averaged 58 sticks to the cord. Thus
it will be seen that the size and form of the sticks of the two
species are practically the same.

The accompanying tables show the result of the test and the
resultant factor applied to the volume table.

Graded Vulitmc Tables. 25

DETAILS OF XYLOMETER TEST OF 25 CORDS.

Percenfasc

to.

O > lii

'■5

0

0

C5

3
35

0

C

15

-o"^

^tc

ti,
-«

u

u

^

<

^—^

i

5

Q

G

c^

;^

I

69

6

I

3

18.82

89.74

13

87

2

54

I

I

4

16.03

76.44

6

04

3

53

5

2

16.59

79-11

II

89

4

64

7

I

18.58

88.60

12

88

5

61

4

y

I

16.81

80.16

26

74

6

59

4

2

2

17.80

84.88

17

83

7

61

7

1

I

17.08

81.44

II

89

8

55

3

I

15.91

75-87

4

96

0

61

4

I

16.98

80.97

8

92

10

57

3

I

16.37

78.06

25

75

11

62

8

16.59

79.11

37

63

12

60

9

I

2

15.80

75-34

34

66

13

60

7

I

16.01

76.34

25

75

14

70

8

I

1

18.43

87.88

33

67

15

67

6

I

I

I

18.26

87.07

16

84

16

58

3

I

I

16.48

78.58

40

60

17

61

6

I

17.06

81.35

42

5S

18

57

3

I

2

16.31

77-7?

.S6

44

19

59

6

2

16.21

77.30

60

40

20

60

6

I

16.38

78.11

38

62

21

61

7

2

16.76

79.92

47

53

22

64

4

I

1

18.40

87.74

61

39

23

61

6

I

2

17-57

83.78

75

25

24

60

6

2

16.87

80.44

63

37

25

57

3

I

2

17.04

81.25

58

42

Totals 1511 132 13 15 26 425- 14 2027.24 818 1682

Average

per cord 60 5 5 6 i 17.00 81.06 33 67

Average length of 85 sticks — 3.87 ft.

26

Forestry Quarterly.

CORDWOOD VOLUME TABLE.

RED FIR.

H
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32

33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

41
42

43
44
45
46
47
48
79
50

(Abies magnifica)

Tahoe National Forest, California.

Height of Trees, feet

D.b.k. 40 50 60 70 80 go

10 .11

13
17

IS .19

.17 .22

.21
■ 25
.28
.33

.26
• 31
.26
.42

.38 .48
•54
.60
.67
• 72

.22
•27
•32
.38
■44
.51
•57
.63
.70

• 78
•85

• 92
1. 00
1.08
1. 17
1.27

.40
.46
•5^
.58
■65
•73
.80
.89
.98
.06
•15

• 25
.34

• 44
.53

• 62
.70

• 78
.88

.58
.68

• 75

• 84
•92

1.02
1. 12
1.22
1.32
1-43
1^54
i.6s
1^75
1.86

1.97
2.08
2.19
2.30
2.41
2.52
2.64
2.77
2.88

1.00

3.12

.88
.96
1.06
1. 17
1.28
1.40

I-5I
1.63

1.74
1.88
2.01
2.14
2.26
2.38
2.52
2.65
2.80
2.94
3.09
3.23
3.38
3-54
370
3^86
4.01
4.20
4.41
4.63
4.88

1.23
1.32
1.43
157
1. 71
1.84
1.96
2.11
2.26
2.41

2.57
2.72
2.88

3.04
320
3^36
3-52
3^69
3-86
4.04
4.19
4.40
4.59
4.81
5^04
5-26
5^50
5^73
7.19

7^43
7.47

120

1.58
1.74
1.99
2.05
2.20
2.36
2.52
2.71

2.88
3.05

3^22

3^41
3^6o

3^79
3^97
4.16
4-36
4-54
4-74
4^94
5^13
5.36

t^.eo
5.84
596
6.33
6.58
6.84
7. II
7.42
7.75

jjo 140 150

2.07
2.26

2.44
2.63
2.81
3.01
3.21

3^41
3^6o
3^8i
4.02
4.23
4-44
4-65
4-87
5-07
5.28
5. 51
5^72
5-95
6.21
6.46
6.71
6.97

7.21

7.51
7-79
8.12

9.17

2.70
2.92
326
3.35

3^55
3-77

43
66
90
13

3.98 4^37
4.19 4-74
4-43 485

4.66 5.10
4-91 5^36
5. 14 5-6i
5.385.88
5.73 6.13
5.84 6.40
6.07 6.65
6.31 6.91
6.56 7^15
6.83 7.44
7.10 7.74
7.38 8.02
7.65 8.34
7.94 8.67
8.21 8.98
8.52 9.31
8.83 9.67

9.67 10.05

Basis of cord equivalent Xylometer test of 25 cords : One cord:
cu. ft.

181.06

A COMPARISON OF THE DOYLE AND SCRIBNER

RULES WITH ACTUAL MILL CUT FOR SECOND

GROWTH WHITE PINE IN PENNSYLVANIA.

By N. R. ]\TcNAur,HTON.

The fact has long been recognized that the old log rules, de-
signed for use with virgin timber of large size, give results which
are far from accurate when applied to our present stands of
second growth timber. The reasons for this inaccuracy may
be roughly outlined as follows :

(i) As' stated above, the rules were designed for use with
old trees, hence a greater proportionate reduction was neces-
sarily made for defects, such as shakes, rot, etc.

(2) Logging and milling operations were conducted on a
less intensive scale than at present. Measurements* were less
accurate, and the waste in the woods and at the mill was greater
than it is to-day.

(3) Most of the rules are based on incorrect and inflexible
formulas or diagrams. By the statement that the formulas and
diagrams are inflexible it is meant that they cannot be modified
easily so as to be made applicable to local metliods of manufac-
ture and local species and grades of logs.

It has been the custom of the Pennsylvania Department of
Forestry to base its sales on actual mill cut, or on scale by the
Doyle Rule plus twenty-five per cent. This latter is a tacit
recognition of the painful inaccuracy of this rule in present day
use, and the same words apply in greater or less degree to al-
most every other log rule commonly employed.

To determine just how far the old rules fall short of actual
mill cut under average conditions, the Pennsylvania Department
of Forestry authorized the collection of data, a part of which
the following tabulations summarize. This data was collected
in Cameron county, Pennsylvania, during 1912. The logs came
from a stand of second growth white pine about seventy-five
per cent, pure, which was killed by fire in the spring of 191 1,
and was cut the following winter. Only normal, sound, white
pine logs were taken; that is, an attempt was made to secure

28 Forestry Quarterly.

a fair average lot of logs, but no log was taken for which a
scaler would not allow full scale. About eighty per cent, of the
logs were sawed into inch boards, and the remainder into two
inch plank. All lumber was square edged.

The mill was portable, with a capacity of about 10,000 Feet
B. M. daily. The saw was circular, and cut one-fourth inch
kerf. Edging and cutting to lengths were done as economically
as possibly, and there was little unnecessary waste in slabbing.
The minimum sizes were eight feet in length and four inches
in width. Even lengths and widths only were cut. Table i
gives the averages of the mill cut for logs of each inch diameter
class in the different log lengths. Table 2 gives corrected values
for Table i, obtained from curves.

Table No. i.

ACTUAL MILL TALLY OF LOGS BY LENGTH AND DIAMETER
AT SMALL END INSIDE BARK.

10 Ft. Logs 12 Ft. Logs 14 Ft. Logs 16 Ft. Logs 18 Ft. Logs

G^ -^ "^ G^ "<3 ^^ "^ -rs

5 13 171 13 25 358 14 58 904 16

6 138 2146 16 no ig/S 18 309 6349 21 1 29 29

7 200 4021 20 160 3847 24 623 16905 27 2 75 37
84 73 18 253 6347 25 189 5696 30 686 26141 38 3 138 46
9 3 62 21 254 7825 31 172 6429 37 773 33868 44 2 100 50

10 4 140 35 211 8001 38 128 6003 47 631 34478 55 2 132 66

11 2 65 33 155 7243 47 loi 5981 59 504 34849 69 I 80 80

12 5 212 42 85 4910 58 87 6203 71 394 33575 85 2 243 122

13 3 169 S6 67 4861 72 37 3168 86 224 22523 100 7 834 119

14 32 2619 82 26 2568 99 ^37 16095 117 3 448 149

15 TO 898 90 18 2122 118 80 11025 138

16 7 722 103 7 934 133 35 5885 168

17 5 757 151 163 I 163 5 972 194

18 5 1094 219

es

Logs

Cut
Ft.
d. Ft.

Logs

Cut
Ft.

5;

0

iam.
Inch
asis,

No.
otal
Bd.

V. B

asis.
No.

otal
Bd.

cq

Q cq l^ ^

oq r~.

^

OQ

21 721 1430 50521 1061 45447 4464 244663 23 2079

Total amount measured=343,470 Ft. B. M. (three 4-in. logs excluded
from table).
Total number of logs measured=:7,002.

Comparison of tJic Doyle and Scribner Rules.

29

Table No. 2

ACTUAL MILL TALLY OF LOGS BY LENGTH AND DIAMETER
AVERAGES REGULARIZED BY A SERIES OF CURVES.

Los

Length

Small End

10 Ft.

12 Ft.

14 Ft.

16 Ft.

18 Ft.

Diameter

Inches

Board Feet

4

13

5

12

14

17

6

15

18

22

26

7

20

24

29

34

8

20

26

31

37

43

9

26

32

39

46

53

10

32

40

48

56

^s

II

39

49

58

69

81

12

49

60

71

85

100

13

59

72

86

102

120

14

85

lOI

120

141

15

99

118

140

16

113

136

161

17

128

155

183

18

207

In Table 3 tlie values obtaiiied from tlie above tabulations are
compared with the scale given for logs of the various diameters
by the Scribner and Doyle Rules. The "Per cent. Increase" col-
umn is derived by taking the diflference between the values given
in the Rules and the actual mill scale, and dividing this difference
by tlie value given in the Rules. For instance, for six inch logs
the Doyle Rule gives four feet B. M., while the actual scale
at the mill was twenty-two feet B. V.. — a difference of eighteen

Table No. 3.

PERCENTAGE INCREASE OVER DOYLE AND SCRIBNER LOG
RULES SHOWN BY ACTUAL CUT

Sixteen Foot Logs.

Diameter

Increase

Inside

Actual

Increase

Over

Bark

Mill

Do vie

Over

Scribner

Scribner

(Small End)

Tally

Rule

Rule

Rule*

Rule

Inches

Bd. Ft.

Bd. Ft.

%

Bd. Ft.

%

6

22

4

4SO.O

18

15.6

8

37

16

131-3

32

15.6

10

56

36

55-6

54

3-7

12

85

64

32.8

79

7.6

14

120

TOO

20.0

114

5-3

16

161

144

16.7

159

1-3

18

207

196

5.6

213

3.8

*Scribner rule values up to and including 10 inches as used by Santa
Clara Lumber Co., N. Y. No comparison under 4 inches.

30 Forestry Quarterly.

feet. Dividing eighteen by four we have four hundred and fifty
per cent, increase over Doyle Rule.

The above tables show conclusively that the degree of inac-
curacy of the old rules varies with the size of the logs; hence
the addition of any certain percentage to the scale of a lot of
logs by either of the old rules will be unjust one way or the other
unless the average diameter of the logs happens to be just what
it should be to make the percentage hold good.

Thus, the Pennsylvania Department's method of adding twenty-
five per cent, to the scale of logs by the Doyle Rule is fairly
accurate when the logs average in the neighborhood of thirteen
inches in diameter inside the bark at the small end ; but the ap-
plication of this method to logs averaging over thirteen inches
in diameter is unfair to the buyer, while its application to logs
under thirteen inches is decidedly unfair to the seller under these
milling conditions. (See Table 3).

From this it can be seen that it is almost impossible to so
modify the old rules as to make them fit present conditions.
The Scribner Rule, it is true, does not make such a poor show-
ing as some of the other age-moulded rules, but it leaves much
to be desired. The Doyle Rule is altogether indefensible from
any point of view, yet it is used more frequently (in Pennsyl-
vania, at least) than any other rule.

The remedy seems to lie not in the construction of a new rule —
of these there is already a superabundance — but in a change of
sales methods so that all sales may be based on cubic volume.
Each purchaser could then determine his own converting factor *
subject to local grades and methods.

The present slipshod arrangement of trying to modify the
old rules is only putting off until to-morrow what should be
done to-day, and what must be done eventually.

*The converting factor from used volume in Cubic feet inside bark to
board feet mill cut is 5.3 and the outside bark factor is 4.7 for this mill in
this lot of logs.

LOSS DUE TO EXPOSURE IN THE TRANSPLANTING
OF WHITE PINE SEEDLINGS.

By E. A. ZlEGLER.

The very careful handling of coniferous planting stock be-
tween nursery and final planting site is one of the "A. B. C's"
in the training of every forestry student beginning work in sil-
viculture and its importance may be easily proven. The very
obviousness of the need seems' to have kept it out of the field
of American forest experiment. However, now and then one
may find an over-zealous forester actually giving his plants un-
necessary protection and thereby increasing their cost. When
one remembers that an extra twenty cents a thousand added to
the cost of the plants will in 80 years at 5% add $11.90 to the
acre cost of the crop (planting 1200 per acre) — or more than
sufficient to establish a new stand by planting a little experi-
mental data may have some value in this direction.

With a motive arising from several sources this subject for ex-
periment was suggested for thesis work to students of the Penn-
sylvania State Forest Academy. First, there was held in mind
the training for the student in simple original experiment and
the proper recording and analysis of experimental results; sec-
ond, the emphasizing of the greater susceptibility of coniferous
stock to serious injury by exposure to drying out : and third, the
extent to which protective measures should be carried without
adding unnecessarily to the cost of the stock.

The experiment was carried on by Mr. Robert R. Neefe and
Mr. Horace F. Critchley of the Class of 1913, and the results
are taken from their notes.

The material selected was average quality two-year white pine
seedlings, since the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry is
planting two-year stock principally. The experiment was carried
out in the seven-acre Academy nursery in the spring of 1913.
The plan required each man to run an independent series of
exposures of one thousand plants. First, 100 plants were set
out with the exposure reduced to zero as near as possible as a
check ; then nine lots of 100 each were fully exposed to sun and

32

forestry Quarterly.

wind (lying on the ground) for periods ranging from ten min-
utes to six hours and planted. The period of exposure was
stopped on the minute and the trees puddled for immediate plant-
ing with the planting board. The spacing was 4x4 inches and
the transplanted material received no subsequent cultivation or
watering although the weeds were kept out. The experiment
was carried out on April 4 and 5. The days were bright and
sunny: wind moderate S. W. (the nursery is surrounded on
west, south, and east by a fairly close stand of 60 ft. pitch pine) :
the temperature was about 72°F. : barometric reading 29.2 in.:
wet bulb thermometer 63° F. and dry bulb 71° F. (or relative
humidty 60%) at time of observation. After planting the wea-
ther remained clear for 5 days with the first rain on the 6th day ;
except for 15 days of very dry weather April 29th to May 14th.
The summer was rather wet and favorable to transplants.
The following are the results:

Series i

Series 2

(Mr.

Critchlev) (Mr. Neefe)

^•^

•*»»

s S

^ S

1

11^

Q

S";; a

^ "^ °o

j; 2 <^i

=: 2 "^

.«^

K

«-) .~

Bxp

>osure

2

(Iji PA ?s

■^ -^ S

'■ No.

Length

Time of Day

^

^s^

?^ 5-^

f~.

^H

i~.

nmnber

nutnber

nuviber

I

none

(check

100

89

83

,2

10 min.

2.45-55 P.

M.

100

83

89

:3

20 min.

2.55-3.15 P.

M.

100

92

75

4

40 min.

3.00-3.40 P.

M.

100

82

61

5

I lir.

3.15,-4.15 P.

M.

100

66

68

6

i/^ hr.

2.00-3.30 P.

M.

100

30

38

7

2 hr.

1.25-3.25 P.

M.

100

36

24

8

3 hr.

11.40 A. M.

to 2.40 P.

M.

100

3

3

9

4 hr.

11.40 A. M.

to 3.40 P.

M.

100

4

I

[O

6 hr.

7.05 A. M.

100

4

0

to 1.05 P.

M.

100

4

0

While there is to be noted the expected variation between lots
in the different series, the data show the injury to become very
serious after a 40 minute exposure and all exposures from i^
hours up resulted in less than half the stand which was secured
in the check plots. It must be borne in mind that this was full
exposure to sun and wind on the one hand, and on the other.

Loss in Transplanting of White Pine Seedlings. t^t^

that some seedlings survived which still might show serious in-
jury in later growth.

Other experiments to examine into the weakening effect of
heeling in seedlings over winter; the effect of exposure on dif-
ferent species and different aged stock ; the relative results on
clear and cloudy days, etc., are pending. It is difficult to isolate
the factors which it is desired to study but results of some value
may be obtained. Certainly the experiments have value in stu-
dent training which may be realized in every forest-school nur-
sery, even though the results of the experiments do not lead us
far beyond our present understanding of silviculture.

EFFECTIVE FERTILIZERS IN NURSERIHS.
By George A. Retan, *

In the spring of 191 1, on the occasion of the sudden illness
and subsequent death of the Forester in charge, the writer was
unexpectedly placed in charge of the Greenwood Nursery. This
nursery is located near McAlevy's fort, Huntingdon County, Pa.,
at an elevation of about 1200 feet above sea level. The aspect
is N. W. and the slope is 5-10°. The soil is formed by the dis-
integration of a soft rock of the Clinton group. It is very thin,
the rock outcropping in the center of the nursery. The subtype
of the surrounding forest is characterized by white pine as the
permanent species. The nursery is trapezoidal in form embrac-
ing about two acres.

At the time of arrival the raising and shipping of seedlings were
going on concurrently with 191 1 bed preparation. The two year
old seedlings were being removed from nearly two-thirds of the
nursery area. It was noticeable that the seedlings from the
lower third of the nursery were inferior in vigor, size and color.
A scheme was recommended and approved for the improvement of
the soil conditions. The nursery was divided into three parts,
one-third remaining in beds made the year before and containing
a rather poor stand of seedlings. The second third was pre-
pared and sown, this being that part of the nursery which
appeared to show least evidence of soil deterioration. The lower
third, mentioned above, was put under cultivation as detailed be-
low. This rotation was continued, and at the end of this, the
third season, some results of the treatment can be obsei'ved.

The cultivated third was treated as follows. After plowing"
early in June, there were applied : 200 lbs. Acid Phosphate, 100
lbs. Sodiiun Nitrate; 100 lbs. Potash (KHO3) ; icx> lbs. Bone
Meal.

Cow peas and (3ats were then sown and were plowed under
early in September when ripening, thus giving a second crop,
which was plowed under in November. In the spring of 1912

♦Instructor in Silviailture, Pennsj'lvania State Forest Acaidemy, Mont
Alto, Pa.

Effective Fertilisers in Nurseries. 35

the fertilizer application was repeated and the beds prepared.
These were made twenty-live by four feet, and each received one
pound of white pine seed sown broadcast. On some of the
beds, however, red pine and Norway spruce were sown.

It should be stated that the white pine seed was not of the best
quality, but an amount somewhat under the prescription of Pettis
was used because too dense a stand is not desired where the seed-
lings are to remain two years in the seedling bed and then be
planted out. .About 40% of the white pine seed germinated.
The red pine germination was exceptional, too good for the pro-
duction of the best seedlings.

These are the practical results. In 191 1, 816,000 seedlings
were taken from two-thirds of the nursery area. This was by
far the largest shipment ever made from the nursery, the aver-
age being between three and four hundred thousand. The yield
from the third treated as above will be about 500.000 white pine
and 200,000 other species, mostly red pine, or a yield nearly as
largs as that previously secured on an area twice the size. The one
year old beds of the present season will have about the same
yield if they come through the winter in good shape.

But most significant is the condition of the seedlings'. They
are of an intense green color, stocky, well needled, and with good
root and bud development. The contrast with the seedlings of
three seasons back is striking. The one year old seedlings are
also well above the average.

This season, 1913, extensive fertilizer experiments were carried
on in both the Mont Alto and Greenwood Nurseries under the
direction of the Department of Forestry. Forty-nine different
combinations were used on as many beds, twenty-five by four
feet, in each nursery. The results at the end of the first season
are not conclusive as regards some of the combinations, but sorre
of the beds have been very instructive. Acid Phosphate is the
only fertilizer unquestionably beneficial at this time. Sodium
Nitrate as a top dressing has been an absolute failure in every
bed tried, causing considerable loss. The minimum amount
used was five pounds to 100 square feet, giving .75 pound ^^
actual N.

Another experiment of value was carried out by Forester T. O.
Bietsch in the Mont Alto Nursery. On heavy clay soil, where
uniform failure had met the attempt to rai.se conifers, charcoal

36 forestry Quarterly.

residue from old pits scattered through the forest was applied
\try heavily so as to form from one-third to one-half the bed.
These beds were sown with white pine broadcast and have stood
two years. This summer they were pronounced by both Dr.
Roth of Michigan and Mr. Dana of the Forest Service, excep-
tional in every respect. They supported seedlings fully as large
as average three year olds. There is some question as to whether
the charcoal acts purely in a physical manner or whether there
may be present a considerable wood ash content. This season
experiments in testing pure charcoal from the old furnace pile
will be carried on.

These three years of experimental work have emphasized the
superior value of the physical fertilizer for these nurseries. It
is believed that the chemical fertilizer can best be applied in con-
nection with the green crop, that it will do more good in this
way than it will applied directly to the bed. It has been seen
that barnyard manure, if well rotted, has been of equal value
to any of the above. It is hoped that these results ma}'- be of
value to others working under similar site conditions.

THE RELATION OF THE SURFACE COVER AND
GROUND LITTER IN A FOREST TO EROSION.

(As illustrated in a Bavarian Forest).
By Maximii^ian J. Gusissnkr, D. Ing

Toward the latter part of Alay, 1912, I visited in company
with others, some of the forests of the Bavarian administrative
district "Pfalz" i.e. the Palatinate. This is one of the eight
Bavarian administrative (Hstricts, with headquarters at Speyer.
About 599,370 acres, approximately 40% of the area, are forested.
Of this 300,700 acres, roughly 50%, belong to the State, nearly
13% is in private hands and the rest consists of communal in-
stitutional and association forests.

It was our pleasure to have both "Regierungs — und Forstrat"
Neblich of Speyer, one of the assistant district foresters and
"Forstmeister" Aull, the forest supervisor of Neustadt — Siid to
accompany us through the communal forests of the town of St.
Martin.

St. Martin lies in a valley surrounded by steep mountain slopes
with grades ranging from 18 to 22%. The forest cover here con-
sists largely of dwarfed pine stands (P. silvestris) , upon shallow
brown sandstone * soils.

In the valley agriculture is practised by the peasantry and as
is often the case in regions with poor soils the forest litter is
locally of great economic importance, but its utilization,combined
with the comparatively poor soils and the low precipitation. f
has been the cause of much damage.

In Germany a part of the forest litter is annually utilized. It
is either sold at auction to the highest bider or given to persons
entitled to this sort of free-use. In some sections of the Pala-
tinate each acre of the middle-aged and older stands is raked
clear of litter every sixth year. In Baden the litter-gatherers
are allowed but 3 days in which to collect the forest litter from
the stand to which they are assigned and the use of iron rakes

* Lower Triassic formation.
t 16 to 20 inches per annum.

38 Forestry Quarterly,

is forbidden. On the other hand we find no such provisions
protecting the forests and forest soils in the Palatinate. The
privilege of gathering forest-litter extends throughout the whole
year and when the )-ear is passed only the mineral soil is left*.
Even though the sandstone soils at St. Martin are not of the poor-
est quality, they are too shallow to endure such treatment with-
out showing some decline in quality. Nor are the climatic con-
ditions such, that would enable the treated stands to recuperate
in the six years of non-use.

The utilization of the forest-litter has been in progress for a
great many years. At one time the forest litter was of more im-
portance than the wood and even to-day there is in St. Martin
many a peasant who values his forest more for the litter it pro-
duces than for its timber. Many of the stands' are somewhat
open and the forest floor was denuded of all living and decaying
vegetable matter. These nude soils have no power to absorb
much water, as almost any ground cover does, nor do they in any
way hinder the water from rushing down the steep inclines, but
being almost entirely unprotected soon start to erode much the
same as if the area had no forest cover upon it.

During and after each extra heavy rainfall great damage was
done not only by the large amount of water which rushed down
the steep inclines surrounding St. Martin but also by the many
tons of debris which were carried down with it and deposited
upon the fertile fields in the valley, destroying the crops of the
peasants and sometimes even blocking up some of the village
streets'.

It was the duty of the Bavarian forest service to do all in their
pov/er to prevent such damage. If the utilization of the forest-
litter could be prevented the vegetable surface cover would reap-
pear in a few years, and a large amount of the water would be
absorbed by the more porous and fertile soil. Yet the public needs
and the public sentiment would not allow an abrupt change in
the rules and regulations governing the utilization of the forest-

* In cases, such as this, it would be advisable to attempt to regulate
the gathering of the litter from late Spring until Sept. i. e. until just
before the leaves of the broadleaved species mixed in the stands begin to
fall, thus insuring some humus for the soil. Mature stands should be pro-
tected for 5-10 years before clearing so as to provide a suitable seed-bed.

Relation of Surface Cover to Brosion. 39

litter ; moreover, the greater part of the land situated upon the
slopes' is either in private hands or belongs to the communal
forests of St. Martin. The forest service then proposed digging
horizontal transverse trenches to prevent the downward rush of
the surface waters. The peasants had little faith in the plans,
in fact even opposed them because they believed that it would
hinder the raking up of the forest litter.

Finally, in 1899-1901, the forest service, in spite of the opposi-
tion of the people, dug a series of horizontal transverse ditches,
beginning near the top of the steepest slopes of the state and com-
munal forests and only extending them part of the way down,
as there was but a very limited amount of money available. In
1905, a vehement rain storm raged in the Palatinate and while
an enormous amount of debris was deposited upon the fields
underlying the other slopes, those at the bases of the steeper
inclines with the transverse ditches were almost entirely un-
disturbed.

The inhabitants of St. Martin now saw that these trenches had
saved some of their farming lands and crops from damage and
destruction and it was a simple proposition for the forest service
to obtain money to continue the work upon the state and com-
munal forests. The following year St. Martin raised $1,500.00,
the legislature appropriated another $1,500.00 and a neighboring
town contributed $250.00 to be used to pay for the construction
of more trenches, to be placed at intervals upon the slopes.

The combined area of the slopes which surround the St. Martin
valley is 1800 acres, but only one-quarter of the area is traversed
with ditches. At present 460 acres contain on the average 3400
running feet of trenches per acre. They cross the slopes horizon-
tally and are from 6-10 ft. long, 10-12 inches deep and have an
upper width of 20, a lower of 10 inches. The excavated soil is
piled along the lower edge and at the ends of each trench so as
to increase its capacity. They are laid in checker-board fashion
and unevenly distributed, so that the greater number of running
feet of excavations are concentrated upon the steepest slopes.

At the time these ditches were dug the average daily wage
per man was $0.75 and the cost per 100 running feet of trenches

40 Forestry Quarterly.

was $0.25 ''\ The total expense was $3,250; the cost per acre
only $1.80. t

Just two clays before my visit to St. Martin, the Palatinate was
swept with one of the heaviest rain storms since the year 1905
and although the trenches were filled with water and sand, there
was no damage done to the fields or the village itself. During
my stay there, men were emptying these ditches and piling the
sand on their edges and the lower sides, so that within a few days
after the storm the trenches were again in condition to protect
the property of the peasants below.

Some few of the private owners neglected to construct trenches
upon their forest-lands because of the expense and they claimed
that the trenches would encumber the gathering of the forest
litter. The peasants had offered the same objection but now
find that the forest litter has the tendency to collect in the ditches
and this in no way encumbers the raking up of the litter, in
fact, it facilitates the work.

Since the trenches have been constructed, the soil cover has
again reappeared and a fair turf and huckleberry growth now
covers the soil under the open pine stands of the steep slopes.
This living vegetable cover will soon supply vegetable-mold and
together they will prevent the rapid downward rush of the sur-
face water and in doing so give the humus and the soil time t(?
absorb a larger amount of the same. If the litter would not be
collected, there would be but little need of trenches after the for-
est floor is again fully established.

Although I examined the diameter increment of a number of
trees by the aid of a Swedish increment borer, with the expecta-
tion of finding an increase in the width of the annual rings, no
marked difference could be detected, in fact, occasionally there
was none at all. Yet I believe that an increase in increment must
result from the greater amount of moisture which the ditches
make available for the roots, even though the grass and huckle-
berry growth may use a large part of it.

*An average of 300 running feet per man. per day — undoubtedly a
working day of 10-12 hours.

t This is the average cost per acre considering the whole area of the
slopes. Although only 460 acres are traversed with ditches (average=
3,300 — 3,400 ft. per acre) this is the more correct way to find the average
cost per acre as the surface water of the 1800 acres is controlled by these
trenches.

FOREST TAXATION ACTIVITY IN MASSACHUSETTS.
By Herbert J. MiIvES.

Chapter 131 of the Resolves of the Massachusetts Legislature
passed during the session of 1913 provides for the appointment
by the Governor of a commission of five persons, citizens of the
commonwealth, two of whom shall be the tax commissioner and
the state forester, to be designated the Commission on the Taxa-
tion of Wild or Forest Lands. The duties of the commission
are to investigate the effect of present laws relating to the tax-
ation of wild or forest lands in this Commonwealth, and the laws
and systems of taxation of like lands in other states and coun-
tries, and to draft an act providing methods of taxation of wild
or forest lands which will develop and conserve the forest re-
sources of the commonwealth. The commission is to study the
present policy of the commonwealth in the matter of the acquisi-
tion and management of wild or forest lands and report what
further legislation may be necessary. The report which is to
be made on or before the first Wednesday in January, 1914, will
contain a compilation of statistics and other information obtained
by the Commission.

The Commission has held public hearings in cities throughout
the state, two of which the writer attended in Boston. The hear-
ings were fairly well but not largely attended, and some interest-
ing opinions were presented. The opinion was general that the
land should be taxed under whatever system is practiced. The
writer feels that this is right, land value should be truly as-
sessed and taxed, and under no circumstances should this value
be exempt from taxation. The chairman of the commission made
it plain at the outset that no scheme of exemption is entertained,
but the purpose is to ease the burden of taxation on wild or
forest land until the timber is cut. The opinion that the small
woodland owner should be favored over the large lumberman
who owns considerable tracts and is operating at a profit was put
forth. Discrimination of this kind puts the state in the position
of a dispenser of favors and is wrong. Let a sharp line be
drawn between truly wild or forest land and land more suitable

42 Forestry Quarterly.

for other purposes, and then apply to the wild or forest land a
system of taxation which will encourage reforestation and man-
agement.

An assessor offered the opinion that there should be periodical
re-valuation as values change, starting with stump land and in-
creasing the valuation as timber grows. He felt that some in-
ducement is needed for leaving seed trees, and that if manage-
ment be encouraged taxable possibilities will come.

A lumberman presented the view that timberland pays for it-
self over and over when wisely cut, and that harm is done when
the land or stumpage is sold for a lump sum to a portable mill
operator; therefore a system of taxation should be applied which
will induce owners to use this kind of land or let some one else
use it. He feels that the state should be lenient with the owner
when he begins to grow something, and thinks that the land
should be taxed each year, and in addition there should be a
stumpage assessment when the timber is cut. He proposes' that
the state take and own abandoned cutover land, putting it un-
der the management of the Massachusetts Forestry Association.
Another gentleman interested in timberland expressed the opinion
that the tax on forest land might be a state tax, or that the state
should adopt a general principle in the matter, leaving details of
application in local cases to local authorities, providing appeal
in case of dissatisfaction to state authority. This gentleman be-
lieves that abatement of taxes on wild or forest lands does not
induce management.

The President of the Associated Boards of Trade of Essex
County presented the views of his association which are widely
supported by business men and others interested in the matter
in his part of the state: Provide a system which will make re-
forestation as little burdensome as possible to the landowner.
The landowner who wishes to have the system applied to his
land shall enter or list his land v\'ith a state commission for plant-
ing or management. The commission shall examine the land
to determine the advisability of the work, and to endorse it if
the commission thinks it wise, in which case the commission
shall make regulations to be followed by the owner. The owner,
except by permission, shall cut only for personal use.

The commission shall designate trees fit to cut, seed trees to
be left, and shall make regulations for reseeding, etc. To pre-

Taxation Acthnty in Massachusetts. 43

^ ent the holders of private pleasure grounds from escaping taxa-
tion, the distinction between land suitable for growing timber and
land suitable for other uses shall be sharply made. In answer
to the question, "Would not the present state forestry depart-
ment be suitable to do the work," the gentleman said it would
be. The State Forester asked, "Isn't it necessary to have some
mandatory laws to accomplish the work?" The answer was,
"Probably."

The writer believes that land value alone should be taxed, and
that timber or other forest products which has grown as a re-
sult of forest management should be absolutely free from taxation.
Timber which has not grown under forest management may well
be taxed as a part of the land. This system would give relief
and encouragement to management of wild and forest land. Un-
der this system no deferring of taxes until the timber is har-
vested would be necessary, for the tax on land value is no bur-
den since it is simply tlie taking by the community that which
it creates.

It is believed that the commission will recommend a system
of taxation of wild or forest lands by which the land value will
be taxed annually, and the crop at maturity.

It is to be hoped that any regulation of cutting on lands bene-
fited by the new system will be by volume per acre and not by
number of trees per acre as has been done in some cases.

COST ACCOUNTS FOR RECONNAISSANCE SURVEYS.
By a. B. Con NELL.

A simple efficient method of cost accounting is necessary in
reconnaissance work if a clear and accurate idea of current, as
well as final, costs of operation is to be obtained.

The system employed should be sufficiently flexible to permit
of the read}^ ascertainment of the effects which increase or de-
crease in the size of the party have upon the cost per unit of land
examined. Only by this means can the most efficient reconnaiss-
sance unit be determined.

The comparison of cost figures from different operations can
only be made after a strict depreciation has been written off the
Property Account in each case. That is to say the depreciation
upon the outfit should figure and not the purchase price. This
is a point which is often overlooked and operations have often
been made to bear the total cost of the purchase of heavy equip-
ment which other parties have later used without being charged
a proper rental.

The cash expenditure therefore, in the case of most govern-
mental work, which is continued from year to year, has only a
minor influence on the cost of the examination per unit acre.
As the size of the operation increases the field efficiency of the
party becomes more and more the dominating influence upon the
cost of the work.

The system of accounting which is described below was de-
veloped under practical working conditions and proved quite sat-
isfactory in meeting all demands made upon it.

A single small ledger, 8 in. x 12 in., of 200 pages is sufficient
for six months' work. Nine active ledger accounts will provide
all the necessary detail wihout proving cumbersome. These
should be opened, in accordance with the usual book-keeping
practice, in the following order:

Head Office Account.
Cash Account.

Travelling Expense Account.
Supply Account.

Cost Accounts for Reconnaissance Surveys. 45

Salary Account.

Property Account (Purchases).

Freight Charges.

Express, Bank and Postal Charges.

Cost x'Vccount.

The entries are made and the accounts posted in the following
manner :

Head Office Account: — Debit the total amount of money
allotted by H. O. for the carrying out of the work. Credit the
monthly total of the Cash Account. Thus at any time the cash
expenditure to date is ascertainable.

Cash Account :— Debit the cash on hand. On the credit side
enter each day's expenditure in detail. At the end of the month
balance it off and post the various items to the Dr. side of their
respective accounts. From this account a statement for H, O.
of the month's expenditures may be quickly drawn up.

The remaining accounts are posted monthly from the Cash
Account. They show, assembled and in detail, the expenditure
on each branch, i. e. Salaries, Supplies, etc.

Cost Account: — This account is made up at the end of the
operation. On the debit side enter the H. O. appropriation. On
the credit post the totals of the various accounts. The balance
will show the amount due to or by Head Office together with
the total expenditure on the work separated into its various
branches. The credit side of this Account will, of course, agree
with the total of the Credit column of the H. O. Account.

The property which is acquired by transfer should be handled
by means of a Property Record Account in the 'back of the ledger.
Each item should be entered separately together with the value
placed upon it.

In figuring the depreciation upon those items which are still
in commission at the close of the work the rate should be based
on the estimated life of the article in question. By this method
the value of any part of the equipment will have been completely
written off by the time it is discharged. This will apply to pack
ponies as well as to canoes, etc. Articles lost and broken should,
of course, be written off in total.

Finally a Cost Statement is drawn up for the completed oper-
ation. The totals of the various accounts are entered, depreci-

46 Forestry Quarterly.

ation upon the outfit is charged and the total cost thus obtained
is set over against the area examined for the determination of
the unit area costs.

Sample Cost Statement.

Salaries $1,000.00

Supplies 900.00

Travelling Expenses 200,00

Depreciation of Outfit —

On Property Transferred $300

On Property Purchased 100

400.00

Freight Charges 20.00

Express Bank and Postal Charges 3.00

Total Cost of Operation $2,523.00

Cost per unit area of land examined.

Cost per actual field work day.

Cost of maintenance per man per day.

FORESTRY IN AMERICA

AS REFLECTED IN PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY

OF AMERICAN FORESTERS.

By Barrington Moore.

The object of the present review is threefold :

First, to show the trend of thought and progress of American
forestry as reflected in the Proceedings of the Society of Ameri-
can Foresters. For this purpose the articles have been arranged
under headings, in chronological order under each heading.

Second, to make more available for reference the material con-
tained in the Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters,
from the first number of Volume VII, number 2, inclusive.

Third, to give a general view of the field already covered, in
order to show the degree of attention devoted to each subject.

I — Historical.

The Application, and Possibilities of the Federal Forest Re-
serve Policy. By Edward T. Allen. Vol. I, No. 2.

Mr. Allen's article is most interesting, throwing light on the adminis-
tration of the Forest Reserves in the Land Office days. As he says, it was
unfortunate that incompetent men, placed on the Reserves by political
pull, antagonized the people by bad management.

The Disposal of Public Lands. By George W. Woodruff.

Vol. I, No. 2.

This article has nothing to do with forestry, but is of interest to Ameri-
can foresters in that it gives an account of the development, of the policy
with regard to public lands, which gave rise to the present National
Forests. Much stress is laid on the frauds practiced to secure public land.

Objections to the Forest Reserves in Northern California.

By Albert F. Potter. Vol. I, No. 2.

Ten objections on the part of the people of Northern California are
given to the creation of forest reserves. These objections have since dis-
appeared; but they serve to show the opposition with which the reserves
first met.

Sir Dietrich Brandis. By GiflFord Pinchot. Vol. Ill, No. i.
This is an enthusiastic appreciation of the forester who introduced the

48 Forestry Quarterly.

science into India, by the man who has done so much for forestry in
America. It will serve as an inspiration to all American foresters.

Relation Between State and Private Forestry in Pennsylvania.

By Joseph Trimble Rothrock. Vol. IV, No. i.

This deals with the relation of State forestry to the public, rather than
with the relation between State and private forestry. It is full of details
of the difficulties encountered by the forestry movement in Pennsylvania.

II — General.

Forestry and Foresters. By Theodore Roosevelt. Vol. I,
No. I.

This is a general article showing the vital importance of forestry to the
United States as a whole. As Mr. Roosevelt says, the keynote of forestry
is and always should be the upbuilding and maintenance of prosperous
homes.

Bibliography of Southern Appalachians. By Helen Stock-
bridge. Vol. VI, No. 2.

This is a compilation which will be of great value as a reference for
those interested in the purchase of land for forest reserves in the White
Mountains and Southern Appalachians.

Ill — Descriptive.

Deforestation in China. By Bailey Willis. Vol. I, No. 3.

The treeless condition of Northern China is strikingly shown. The
forests of once densely covered mountain ranges have been destroyed to
such an extent that the rich are "reduced to sticks one inch in diameter by
eight inches long for firewood." The "saving clause," which does not save
the forests but modifies the effect of their destruction, is the wonderful skill
with which the Chinese terrace and cultivate the bare steep slopes.

Why Prairies are Treeless. By Alfred Gaskill. Vol. I, No. 3.

Many facts are brought together tending to prove that prairies were
caused by fire. These facts, though interesting, are not conclusive ; and
the argumentative tone pervading the article reacts upon the reader.

Some Philippine Forest Problems. By R. C. Bryant. Vol.
II, No. I.

This article gives some of the difficulties encountered in introducing
forestry into the Philippines, difficulties naturally attendant upon studying
tropical forests containing vast numbers of unidentified species whose
growth and silvical characteristics cannot be investigated by methods used
in temperate regions. Great as are the difficulties which Mr. Bryant brings
out, he does not touch upon the greatest obstacle of all, namely, the sys-
tem of Caingins, or shifting, cultivation by which large areas of virgin
forests are annually destroyed for the sake of two or three years' miser-

forestry in America.

49

able cultivation. Native hostility is also a serious drawback. For further
information on the Philippine forests, see article by H. N. Whitford in
Vol. VI, No. I.

Some Forest Problems in Hawaii. By Ralph S. Hosmer. Vol.
II, No. I.

An account of industrial conditions in the islands. The minor impor-
tance of forestry shows rather strikingly ; but eventually tliere will be an
opportunity for valuable silvical investigations. The rnain efforts must,
just now, be directed toward protecting the forest land, most of which
belongs to the government.

Some Forest Problems of the Middle West. By Hugh P.
Baker. Vol. Ill, No. i.

This paper presents some of the problems of small farm forestry and
advocates their solution. It is a general article of the propagandist type.
Although containing little specific information, yet it undoubtedly served
a very useful purpose.

Forest Resources and Problems of Canada. By B. E. Fernow.
Vol. VII, No. 2.

This is an account of forest conditions in Canada. The first part of
the paper is devoted to a description of the timber resources of Canada
as known at present, and is illustrated by a map of forest regions. There
is less timber, it occurs in more inaccessible regions, and is of poorer
quality than in the United States. The second part gives an instructive
and astonishng account of the Government's policv and methods with
regard to the disposal of its timber.

State Forestry Problems. By A. F. Hawes, State Forester,
Vermont. Vol. VII, No. 2.

The bulk of this article is devoted to questions which arise in fire pro-
tection, some of which apply to other eastern States. Protection from
insects and animals (chiefly hedgehogs) is also discussed.

IV — SiLVICS.

Results of a Rocky Mountain Forest Fire, Studied Fifty Years
After Its Occurrence. By W. J. Gardner. Vol. I, No. 2.

This is the first forestry article appearing in the Proceedings discussing
actual forestry work on a specific problem ; and it is perhaps significant
that it should have been placed at the end of the number. The autJior
gives his observations first in a general manner on the region, then on the
influence of aspen, and on the restocking of. the burn, followed by a few
figures on the reproduction, growth, and tolerance of Engelmann Spruce.
Though no particularly important results were obtained, still this is a
distinct beginning.

50 forestry Quarterly.

Principles Involved in Determining Forest Types By Raphael

Zon, Vol. I, No. 3.

This is one of the first purely scientific articles appearing in the Pro-
ceedings, and one of the best. The author shows the scientific spirit in
reaching after fundamental principles. He states very truly that physical
factors are the causes of forest types. He makes one omission in that he
fails to point out the importance of certain temporary types in forest
management. An example of such a temporary type would be Douglas fir
on the Pacific Coast ; in this case the forester should not "endeavor to ob-
tain in the shortest possible time the original forest type." Aside from this
slight and natural omission, the principles laid down are those generally
recognized by foresters to-day.

Objects and Methods of Establishing Permanent Sample Plots.

By W. D. Sterrett. Vol. II, No. i.

Brief and instructive details of the objects and methods of establishing
permanent sample plots are given. The article is strictly preliminary ; and
the objects given are therefore general. Some work has been done, but no
results as yet obtained. This work has since been more highly developed
at the Coconino (now Fort Valley) Experiment Station near Flagstaff,
Arizona. However, the article shows the beginnings of careful experi-
mentation.

A New Bxplanation of the Tolerance and Intolerance of Trees.
By Raphael Zon. Vol. II, No. i.

The author begins with a thorough analysis of the factors affecting
transpiration. He proves that on dry soils the influence of moisture is
greater than that of light. Then follows account of experiments demon-
strating that tree roots dry the soil. This is true enough, but does not
bring out the comparative influence of light and moisture on tree growth,
and tJiis, after all, is the point, and one which it will be extremely difficult
to solve considering the complex inter-relation and inter-action of the
two factors.

His statement that the lack of reproduction under old trees is not due
to lack of light but to lack of moisture is too strong; it might be that
with the same small amount of moisture but with light, seedlings would
grow. Something might be learned by experiments which would give
seedlings the same amount of moisture as that found in the places under
the trees v.here reproduction fails, but which would also give them full
light. It would seem that Zon's first enthusiasm for this discovery carries
him as far in the moisture theory as Pfeil was carried in the light theory.
For Zon's niaturer judgment see his and Graves' bulletin "Light in Rela-
tion to Tree Growth," Forest Service bulletin No. 92.

Some Further Considerations Regarding tlie Tolerance mid

Intolerance of Shade. By Herbert A. Smith. Vol. Ill, No. i.

Mr. Smith speaks a word of caution against being carried too far by
Mr. Zon's enthusiasm for the new discoveries of the effect of moisture
on tolerance.

Si'zncal Notes on Lodgepole Pine. By E. R. Hodson. Vol.
Ill, No. I.

This paper gives some very interesting and important facts which were
hitherto unknown, and draws logical conclusions about the reproduction

forestry in America. 51

of lodgepole pine. The discovery that too dense a stocking was injurious
and that about 8,000 seedlings per acre constitute an optinnim full stock-
ing is well worth knowing. Some of his other facts arc equally useful.

Experiment Stations in Connection With the National Forests.

By S. T. Dana. Vol. IV, No. i.

The author shows the far reaching significance of the new (this was
in 1909) plans of establishing experiment stations on the National Forests,
and touches upon some of the problems requiring solution. The estab-
lishment of these stations is probably the most important step taken by
the Forest Service in placing the profession on a firm foundation. The
value of the information which these stations will some day secure cannot
be over-estimated.

A Study of the Reproductive Characteristics of Lodgepolc
Pine. By Gordon E. Tower. Vol. IV, No. i.

The author gives basic facts concerning the reproduction of lodgepole
pine. Reproduction of this species is "not always so readily secured as
was at first supposed." He discovered two forms: (i) that occurring
on lime soils with cones difficult to open; and (2) that occurring on silica
soils with cones opening readily. He also gives data on the effect of heat
and of age of the seed on the power of germination.

Economic Possibilities of Pinns Sabiana. By Charles H.

Shinn. Vol. VI, No. i.

This article belongs under Utilization as well as under Silvics. but was
placed here because a large part of it is devoted to a description of the
silvical characteristics of this tree. Mr. Shinn calls attention to this little
known but abundant tree and gives valuable information concerning its
characteristics and uses.

Efficacy of Goats in Clearing Brush Lands in the Northwest.

By Charles S. Jndd. Vol. VI, No. i.

This article gives a novel if not always practicable means of clearing
brush lands. The use of goats is probably cheaper than clearing by hand
and as effective if the object is reforestation.

Basket Willow Culture in Germany. By C. D. Mell. Vol V,

No. I.

This is a specific article giving some interesting facts, but not all the
facts. He does not say how long it takes to grow basket willow or how
much it costs.

Chaparral Areas on the Siskivon National Forest. By H. E.

Haefner. Vol. VII, No. i.

This article contains interesting information about the brush fields of
Southwestern Oregon, and silvical notes on the occurrence of the different
typos on the different geological formations. The point tJia' the brush

52 Forestry Quarterly.

areas were deforested by fire is well taken. It would be worth while to
impress that fact upon the settlers. His information about the natural
restocking of the brush areas is too vague. We should like lo know just
what effect the brush has upon reproduction, whether it really aids repro-
duction bj' preserving soil moisture or is an unmitigated evil ; what effect
it has upon the reproduction of the different species, that is, whether
or not a stand formerly composed of pine will be changed to one of a
more tolerant species which can come up through the brush ; what species
first comes in; and the period required for natural restocking under dif-
ferent conditions. His recommendation about reforesting the most favor-
able sites first is good.

Inter-relation Bettveen Brush and Tree Grozcth of the Crater

National Forest, Oregon. By Harold D. Foster. Vol, VII, No. 2.

The author has brought together a number of interesting observations
on the distribution, classification, and causes of brush ; also its relation
to reproduction. These observations tend to show that brush is caused by
thinning of the stand due to fire. Brush keeps the soil in condition for
reproduction but, he says, injures as much as it aids the reproduction.
On this point there is room for argument ; in the northern Sierras brush
is the forerunner of a second forest. His attempts to find means of
eradicating the brush show the impossibility of doing so except by
shading.

Sitka Spruce of Alaska. By Bruce E. HofTman. Vol. VIT,

No. 2.

This article contains silvical observations, chiefly on the occurrence,
form and reproduction of Sitka spruce; illuminating details of the lum-
ber industry in the vicinity of the Tongass National Forest ; and definite
recommendations for reconnaissance, timber sales and methods of cuttine.
At the end is a volume table based on diameter and average merchantable
length. It is the first detailed information of the tree and region pub-
lished. The article is an example of the manner in which American
foresters grapple with a new problem.

V — Ecology.

Plant Formations and Forest Types. By F. E. Clements. Vol.

IV, No. I.

Professor Clements does a marked service to the profession of forestry
by applying the principles of ecology to forest types. In so doing he lays
the foundation for a thoroughly scientific study of the relation of the
forest to its habitat. The result is that he gives a more stable starting
point from whence to attack the complex problem of determining forest
types. The article is indispensable for a proper understanding of forest
types.

The Relation of Soil Acidity to Plant Societies. By Arthur W.

Sampson. Vol. VII, No. i.

This article is of interest not only to ecologists but to foresters. The
author has investigated in a scientific manner the effect of soil aciditj' and
of alkalinity upon the occurrence of plant societies. His discoveries re-

forestry in .Uncrica. 53

fute the theory maintained by certain scientists that the physical texture
and moisture of the soil are of more importance than the chemical con-
tent. It is interesting to note that his study on the Manti National Forest
showed that most of the tree genera found there prefer acid soils. He
should, however, have stated the depth at which these tests were made,
since forest soils are liable to be acid on the surface, but may be alkaline
where the tree roots penetrate. These investigations are an important
step in determining the fundamental physical factors which form the basis
of forest types and on which Mr. Zon lays so much stress in his article
"Principles Involved in Determining Forest Types," in Volume i. No. 3.

VI — Silviculture

Silviculture Applied to Virgin Forest Conditions. By Alfred
Gaskill. Vol. I, No. 2.

This article is a plea for getting down to principles in silviculture rather
than blindly following European text books. Hence it is advice rather than
an exposition or study of a specific silvicultural problem. But the advice
is excellent and has since been followed.

A Rough System of Management for Reserve Lands in the

Western Sierras. By W. B. Greeley. Vol. II, No. i.

This is the best article on silviculture which has appeared in the Pro-
ceedings to date. It gives in a nutshell the essential features of the region
in question and the leading silvical characteristics of the forest. From
these the author evolves a thoroughly sound and practical system of silvi-
culture. It is the work of a clear trained mind applying its training in
a practical way. It marks the beginning of the true American Silvi-
culture.

The Siknciiltural Results of Marking Timber in National

Forests. By Edward E. Carter. Vol. Ill, No. i.

The author gives in a very interesting manner the growth of systems
of marking in the important forest regions of the west. Earlv mistakes
are shown as well as some of the difficulties encountered and imperfec-
tions in the methods used at the time the paper was delivered. The
author's one oversight is that he emphasizes the value of the information
which technical men can give the rangers without bringing out the fact
that the technical man must have a thorough acquaintance with the forest
before his advice can carry weight or even be worth following.

Condition of American Silviculture. By Henry S. Graves.

Vol. Ill, No. I.

Mr. Graves shows how little actual practice American foresters have
had and how little is known about the fundamental American silvical
conditions necessary for developing proper silvicultural methods. He
emphasizes ihe necessity of having a definite silvicultural aim : not to for-
get what is desired and expected of the forest in the future, but at the
same time, we must not become disappointed at failures. Finally he em-
phasizes one of the most important truths in forestry, the necessity of
knowing principles rather than systems.

54 Forestry Quarterly.

Some Notes on the Yellozv Pine Forests of Alabama. By R.
C. Bryant. Vol. IV, No. i.

The figures on the growth of longleaf pine and the facts concerning
lumbering clearly show the impossibility of forestry for private owners
of longleaf pine land. Thorough silvical studies would apparently be use-
less since there is no government land in Alabama on which the findings
could be applied, and conditions in Florida are somewhat different. The
silvicultural systems suggested are interesting, but would carry more
weight if based on more silvical facts.

The Selection System. By Hetity S. Graves. Vol. V, No. i.

In this article Mr. Graves brings together much useful information
about the system of silviculture with which he has had much experience.
It is the system he recommended in his Adirondack Working Plan. The
last part of the article is particularly interesting, for he refers to the
modification of the selection system known as the "group selection sys-
tem" and now widely applied on National Forests bearing uneven aged
stands.

Management of Loblolly and Sh^rtleaf Pines. By W. W.
Ashe. Vol. V, No. i.

The author combines scientific information and practical application to
a marked degree. He gives specific and fairly detailed information of
■considerable importance. The management, though a little crude, is
probably as good as conditions will allow. The article loses by poor
presentation some of the force which it otherwise would have.

Strip Thinnings. By Theodore S. Woolsey, Jr. Vol. VI.
No. I.

The author gives a method of thinning dense second growth spruce and
balsam stands in the northeast. The method is adapted only to certain
infrequent conditions and will probably not be widely used.

Results of Cuttings on the Minnesota National Forest Under
the Morris Act of 1902. By Raphael Zon. Vol. VII, No. i.

Mr. Zon's observations indicate very poor silvicultural results from the
cuttings under the Morris act. The seed trees left are wholly inadequate,
cutting was done in poor seed years, and the areas have grown up with
such rank vegetation as to prevent further reproduction, particularly of
white pine. His recommendation about clearing off the brush with fire
at the time of cutting is of great interest, but should be most thoroughly
tried out before being put into practice.

Sihicultural Systems of Management for Central Rocky

Mountain Forests. By Carlos G. Bates. Vol. VII, No. i.

The author gives an interesting sketch of the determining silvical
conditions on each of the important Rocky Mountain types as far as these
conditions were known at the time of writing. On this basis he builds

Forestry in America. 55

up sound logical methods of silviculture, harmonized on the one side
with the interests of the forest and on the other with those of lumber-
men. Since the article was written lodgepole pine has been found to be
far less intolerant than had been commonly supposed. This would make
possible the application of the selection system which the author rejects,
but would not prevent the use of the group selection system which he
advocates.

Border Cuitings: A Suggested Department in American Sil-
viculture. By A. B. Recknagel. Vol. VII, Xo. 2.

A detailed description of an European method of silviculture applicable
only in accessible regions where intensive forestry is possible. Although
not practicable for America's present day conditions, the method is worth
knowing about for future reference.

Siizicultural Systems for Western Yellozv Pine. By Earle H.
Clapp. Vol. VII, No. 2.

This valuable paper brings together all the silvicultural information
gathered by tlie Forest Service concerning western yellow pine. It recon-
ciles the two opposing methods of handling the tree, the shelterwood
method, and the group selection. Mr. Clapp shows that the latter is
applicable to all but unfavorable situations on which reproduction requires
shelter. Here the shelterwood system is better for securing new repro-
duction. The difficulty is that under present logging conditions much of
the stand — up to two-thirds of the volume — must be removed at the first
cut, thus largely destroying the shelter. Furthermore the area cannot be
cut again for from 30 to 50 years, by which time the reproduction will
have been shaded out, or will be badly damaged by the removal of the
remaining well distributed portion of the stand.

Natural versus Artificial Regeneration in the Douglas fir Re-
gion of the Pacific Coast. By Thornton T. Munger. Vol. VII,
No. 2.

The author describes conditions in the Douglas fir region of the Pacific
Coast, and gives the pros and cons of both metJiods of regeneration. He
seems to be on the defensive throughout, and ends by saying that, except
in four exceptional classes which he mentions above, "natural regenera-
tion is practicable, reasonably sure of success, and as inexpensive as any
method of artificial regeneration." Such opinions will, it is hc^ed, lead
to thorough experiments to determine the applicability of both methods
before the Service commits itself to either.

VII — Forest ATioN.

Problems in Nursery Practice. Bv Clifford Robert Pettis.
Vol. IV, No. I.

This paper forms a very valuable contribution to all work connected
with forest nurseries. It gives in a clear manner the essential details of
the author's experience in directing the work of the largest scientifically
managed forest nursery in the United States.

56 Forestry Quarterly.

The Gro-iving of Eucalypts. By Fred G. Plummer. Vol. V,

No. I.

Here is what a man wants to know before planting Eucalyptus. It is
a general article followed by eleven pages of bibliography of Eucalyptus,
so will serve as an excellent reference for anyone wishing further infor-
mation on these important trees.

Experiments in Sandhill Planting. By Carlos G. Bates. Vol.

V, No. I.

This article shows very distinct progress in forestry thought and prac-
tice. It is detailed, specific, and extremely instructive. The author gives
a series of very interesting experiments which were made in such a way
as to show how each factor acts and why. The effect of plant competition
on the moisture supply is particularly interesting. The article is, there-
fore, pure forestry of great future value, not only for the sandhills of
Nebraska, but for every other region, as suggesting lines of investigation
to be followed anywhere.

Hardy Catalpa; a Study of Conditions in Kansas Plantations.

By A. E. Oman. Vol. VI, No. i.

The author gives interesting and instructive details concerning the
starting and care of hardy catalpa stands. He treats the subject in a
careful and detailed manner, giving the causes of all the facts and recom-
mendations he brings out. The article is tJierefore a valuable addition
both to the forester's and farmer's knowledge of handling this valuable
tree.

Eucalyptus Possibilities on the Coronado National Forest. By

R. L. Rogers. Vol. VI, No. i.

A thorough knowledge of conditions on the Coronado help to make
Mr. Rogers' article of interest and value. He shows clearly that, although
certain species of Eucalyptus can probably withstand the temperatures,
it is doubtful if they could endure the drought unless previously estab-
lished by irrigation. His conclusion is the need for thorough experimen-
tation. The article is written in a careful scientific spirit, and should be
read by all foresters who have under consideration the planting of
Eucalyptus in arid regions.

Seed Production and How to Study It. By Raphael Zon and

C. R. Tillotson. Vol. VI, No. 2.

This article is the result of painstaking and scientific effort. In the
first place the authors state the four problems involved. The mere state-
ment of these problems is a stimulus to forestry research. The history
of the study of seed production is given in detail from its beginning to
the present time; presented last is Zon's and Tillotson's method of study-
ing seed production, which, briefly, consists in determining the per acre
production of seed for any given stand. The method is somewhat com-
plex and the idea is not concurred in by all foresters (see discussion
of this article in Vol. VII, No. i). Nevertheless the article has vigor
and originality and marks a distinct step forward in the professional
thought of the country.

Forestry in America. 57

Seed Production and Hozc to Study It: Discussion.'-' By S. T.
Dana, Bristow Adams, and Raphael Zon. Vol. VII, No. i.

This paper is wholly differcnl from any of the others, except Mr.
Herbert A. Smith's "Some Further Considerations Regarding Tolerance
and Intolerance of Shade," in Vol. Ill, No. i, in that it is a discussion
of an anicle which lias already appeared in the Proceedings. Mr. Dana
takes the position that Mr. Zon's sample-plot method of studying seed
production is too complex and expensive; furthermore it is analogous to
the use of yield tables in finding the volume of stands, and yield tables,
he says, are of but little use in our irregular forests. His alternative
would be to estimate the seed crop by single trees instead of by area,
using a previously constructed "seed-volume-table," just as a timber esti-
mator uses a volume table of board contents.

Mr. Bristow Adams has no faith in either method of studying seed
production and believes that there are other problems which are more
in need of solution. He gives methods of increasing the seed crop of
individual trees. Then follows Mr. Zon's reply to Mr. Dana and Mr.
Dana's reply to Mr. Zon, at the end apparently neither being converted.
The discussion serves to bring out the advantages and disadvantages of
each method.

Forest Planting in Northern Michigan. By William B. Piper.

Vol. VII, No. 2.

This paper relates to the planting done by the Forest Service on the
Michigan National Forest. The work has been almost wholly experi-
mental ; something of value has been learned, but much further experi-
mentation will be necessary.

VIII — Mensuration.

Timber Estimating. By Herman Haupt Chapman. Vol, IV,
No. I.

Professor Chapman, and one or two other foresters in the country
doubtless understand forest maps and timber estimating better than any-
one else. The interest and value of this article is therefore obvious. It
is a brief outline of some of the more important methods of timber esti-
mating and of the principles underlying them. Timber estimating is of
course the phase of the profession closest to the old timber cruisers, a
work in which foresters, lacking the experience of the timber cruisers,
have surpassed these formerly infallible men by the use of scientific
methods.

A Method of Studying Growth and Yield of Longleaf Pine
Applied in Tyler Countv, Texas. By Herman Haupt Chapman.
Vol. IV, No. 2.

Of all the methods of stud3'ing yield devised by foresters, this is the
most original and interesting. There can be no question that tJie method

* The original paper of the same name by Raphael Zon and C. R. Til-
lotson appeared in Vol. VI, No. 2.

58 Forestry Quarterly.

is thoroughly vvoika'ole and productive of excellent results in longleaf
and shortleaf pine ; and also that it is equally applicable to western yellow
pine. Furthermore there seems to be no reason why the method should
not be used with any species which forms even aged groups. It is at
present being tried by the Forest Service in the mixed conifer type (west-
ern yellow pine, sugar pine, incense cedar, Douglas fir and the white fir)
of the western Sierras, and if successful will probably revolutionize the
study of yield throughout the entire country.

The Standardt::ing of Log Measures. By Edwin Allen Ziegler.

Vol. IV, No. 2.

This is a sound article showing clearly the variations caused by different
log scales and methods of sawing, and advocating the use of the cubic
foot. It is a specific article contributirig something to professional knowl-
edge and is also partly propagandist. There is no doubt that the author's
recommendations will eventually be adopted, but not for a long time or
without a struggle. This should not, however, prevent foresters from
keeping the end in view and making every effort to attain it.

Forest Mapping and Timber Estimating as Developed in Mary-
land. By Fred W. Besley. Vol. IV, No. 2.

The work herein described is instructive in that it shows how to get a
rough but sufficiently accurate idea of forest areas and stands in a woodlot
state. It will be of considerable value to those starting forestry for the
first time in a state, and to foresters in states which have for some time
applied the science.

The Log Scale in Theory and Practice. By Harry D. Tieman.

Vol. V, No. I.

This article is the result of much original research in the important
and complex subject of log measurement, in consequence the author is
able to give in considerable detail the underlying principles of his subject.
He has also evolved, as a result of the actual measurement and sawing
out of 224 perfect logs, an ideal rule which he expresses by a formula.
The article is a valuable contribution, not only to the scientific knowledge
of the profession, but also to the practical application of this knov/ledge
to the lumber industry.

IX — ^Engineering.

A System for Getting Topography in Reconnaissance Work in

the Western Cascades. By Walter H. Leve. Vol. VTT, No. 2.

The article gives the details of the topographic part of the reconnais-
sance in the western Cascades of Washington. The nature of the subject,
together with the none too clear style of the author, would make this
paper difficult to understand for one without much topographic experience.
Since the article will be read chiefly by men engaged in this work it will
have value for starting discussion and suggesting improvements. One im-
provement would be to have the field man complete his sketch in the
field rather than turn in a series of short contours.

Forestry in America. 59

X — Management.

Some Government Timber Sales in the Southwest from the

Practical and Technical Standpoint. By Theodore S. Woolsey,

Jr. Vol. II, No. I.

This paper gives an account of mistakes made in the earlier adminis-
tration of timber sales. These mistakes, however, laid the foimdation
for the better administration of to-day.

Managing a National forest from the Business Standpoint.

By Theodore S. Woolsey, Jr. Vol. Ill, No. i.

This paper throws an interesting light on the administration of the
National Forests in 190S, and contains valuable suggestions. For example :
His point about salaries and corresponding efficiency is well taken ; his
suggestions about keeping track of a Forest Officer's work, and about cost
keeping have since been put into effect; while his recommendation of a
more conservative use of the ''raw product" (timber) has, owing to the
necessity for making sales in order to put the Service on a paying basis,
not yet been followed. However, with proper silvicultural methods of
timber marking, there is no danger of depleting the capital.

The New Reconnaissance — Working Pla<ns that Work. By

Arthur Bernard Recknagel. Vol. IV, No. i.

This article is full of details concerning the early attempts of the
Forest Service to regulate the cut on the National Forests. These at-
tempts produced valuable information, if small results in a timber sale
policy. The author also gives the details of tJie method of reconnaissance
used for securing working plan data in District 3. This method has
since been applied on nearly all the Forests of the District, furnishing esti-
mates sufficiently reliable for all practical purposes, and excellent topo-
graphic maps. The emphasis placed on mapping and estimating was,
however, carried to such an extent that the silvicultural method of cutting
was, until very recently, in danger of being overlooked. Although the
author in his enthusiasm forgets that "working plans that work" cannot
be built in a day, he, nevertheless, stirred up interest in this important line
of forest activity.

Preliminary Forest Management in the Southwest. By Theo-
dore S. Woolsey, Jr. Vol. IV, No. i.

Under the above title the author discusses the method of fixing stump-
age rates, the timber sale policy, and the method of fixing the annual
limitation to the cut. His statement that all the timber in the Southwest
will be needed locally is, I believe, over conservative. The population of
Arizona and New Mexico is small, and will probably not increase greatly
since most of the available agricultural land is already occupied. Although
half of the article is devoted to the discussion of stumpage rates, the
only basis which the reader can discover for the all-important minimum
rate is competition; and yet it is only in exceptional cases that more than
one bid is received. The timber sale policy of reserving certain areas for
free use or for small sales is wise, and constitutes the soundest part of
this article. The method of limiting the annual cut is correct enough, but
tends to give too sanguine an impression of conditions in the region.
The author fails to point out that this limitation of the cut, however neces-

6o forestry Quarierly.

sary, is at present purely ideal and an object to be striven for, not by
any means an accomplished fact. Perhaps the trouble is that he is so
intent upon giving the reader an idea of what has been done that he fails
to portray the conditions to which his measures must be applied, and
consequently the effectiveness of these measures. The foreigner reading
this article would be left with an undeservedly high impression of our rate
of progress.

Regulating the Annual Cut of National Forests. By S. Li

Moore. Vol. V, No. i.

This article gives a remarkably clear and truthful picture of the con-
ditions on which regulations of the cut on National Forests must depend.
By its frank statements of facts it gives a basis for future progress.

Working Plans for National Forests of the Pacific Northwest.
By Burt P. Kirkland. Vol. VI, No. i.

In this article are two valuable contributions to the profession. First,
the author explains the principles involved in making working plans,
illustrating these principles with his own working plan ; second, he de-
velops strong arguments for the making of working plans. In his ex
planation of principles in the first part of the article he effectually destroys
certain fallacies, notably the one about elastic working circles composed
of any number of National Forests.

His workmg plan is built on the area method with a volume check. It
is a sound, intensely interesting and instructive piece of work with which
every forester who deals with even aged stands should be familiar. His
reasons for bringing the Forests up to their full productive capacity are
logical, but he ignores the danger of overproduction in the lumber
market which such a course would involve. (See article by W. B.
Greeley, "National Forest Sales on the Pacific Coast," in Vol. VII,
No. l). His arguments for the making of working plans are, on the
whole, thoroughly sound, and should stir up those foresters who wait
until the need for working plans arrives before .making them. The mak-
ing of a working plan is a matter of years, not of months ; it is never
too soon to begin collecting the data. Mr. Kirkland's article is, on the
whole, one of the most thorough, detailed and specilic articles, dealing
with the science of pure forestry, which has ever appeared in the Pro-
ceedings. It is indispensable for reference.

The Essentials in Working Plans for National Forests. By
Barrington Moore. Vol. VI, No. 2.

Methods for Regulating the Cut on National Forests. By Bar-
rington Moore. Vol. VII, No. i.

XT — Utilization.

Influence of Lumbering on Forestry. By Austin Gary. Vol.
Ill, No. I.

This is a sound, practical paper. The author shows how foresters fail
to affect the management of lumbering concerns. This he attributes to
the foresters' inability to see a proposition from the business standpoint.

forestry in America. 6l

He also points out the increasing opportunities for the practice of for-
estry, chief among whicli are the large wood-using industries, such as
pulp mills, which need permanent supplies of raw material, and perma-
nent resident ownership. The keynote of the paper is the need for a
proper balance between the technical and business management. The
author must have the satisfaction of seeing that his principles are now
recognized by the best foresters throughout the country.

Shakes and Shake-making in a California Forest. By Charles
Howard Sliinii. Vol. IV, No. 2.

This article is a complete and detailed account of shakes and shake-
making from the earliest times to the present. It is in the nature of a
memorial and defense of that picturesque but rapidly disappearing in-
dustry. Interesting figures arc given comparing the value of the same
class of material worked into shakes and sawn by a small portable mill.

Wood Preserz'ation — A Determining Factor in Forest Manage-
ment. By Howard Frederick Weiss. Vol. IV, No. 2.

The author points out the importance of wood preservation in deter-
mining the composition of future forests, in increasing the value of
thinnings, in giving value to top logs hitherto a loss in lumbering, and in
accelerating the removal of dead material. He builds up a strong, but,
it must be admitted, rather one-sided, argument in favor of wood preserva-
tion.

Notes on Management of Redwood Lands. By Swift Berry.
Vol. VI, No. I.

Mr. Berry has given us a brief, yet complete and clear account of the
utilization of redwood. This is followed by notes on the disposal of
cleared redwood lands and suggestions for keeping certain of these lands
permanently in forest.

Conscri'ation and Chemical Pulp. Bv Dr. B. Herstein. Vol.
VI, No. 2.

The author gives a method of solving the hitherto v^exing problem of
disposing of the injurious waste from the sulphite process of pulp making.
The method, now successfully used in Sweden, not only effectually does
away with the damage from the waste, but yields a commercially valu-
able by-product, alcohol.

X 1 1 — Protection .

Better Methods of Fire Control. By W. B. Greeley. Vol. VI,
No. 2.

This article gives the most clearly thought out methods of preparing
against and of handling difficult fire situations. It will, of course, be
remembered that Mr. Greeley was in charge of the District on which
the great fires of 1910 occurred. The value of this article is such that
the Forest Service had it reprinted and sent to every Forest Officer in
the Service.

62 Forestry Quarterly.

Fire Problem on the Florida National Forest. By I. F. Eld-

redge. Vol. VI, No. 2.

The author gives a striking picture of the conditions on the Florida
National Forest, and shows the imoossibility of protecting the entire
Forest. He gives an alternate scheme for concentrating fire protection
on turpentined areas. The article is extremely instructive, particularly
for those unfamiliar with Southern conditions, and who would advocate
indiscriminate fire protection.

XIII — Forest Infi^uejnces.

Chaparral as a Watershed Cover in Southern California. By

L. C. Miller. Vol. I, No. 3.

This article is a study of chaparral itself rather than of the value of
chaparral as a watershed cover. The latter fact is assumed as established,
and the writer proceeds with his facts about the density of chaparral on
different slopes, and methods to retain and increase the cover. If his
premise be granted his article is an excellent plea for fire protection in
the chaparral covered watersheds of important streams.

Striking Features of the Water Situation in California. By

E. A. Sterling. Vol. II, No. i.

The author gives a clear and interesting account of the water situation
in California, showing tlie vital importance of water, and the public un-
derstanding of the needs of the case. The article is, however, not scien-
tific in that it does not show what influence the forests have. It is pri-
marily of importance for its relation to forestry.

Relation of Surface Conditions to Streamflozv. By William L.

Hall and Hu. Maxwell. Vol. IV, No. 2.

This is a strong article. It is logical, sound, impartial and scientific.
The point that increased runoff causes decreased evaporation and con-
sequently decreased precipitation is excellent.

Forests and Streamflow — An Bxperimental Study. By Carlos

G. Bates. Vol. VI, No. i.

This article gives full details of the starting by the Weather Bureau in
co-operation with the Forest Service of the most complete experiment
which has ever been undertaken to determine the influence oi forests on
streamflow. Two forested watersheds of as similar character as pos-
sible have been selected. For a period of years all factors will be meas-
ured on each watershed, just as they now are, in order to obtain an ac-
curate comparison of the two. Then one watershed will be denuded and
the other left forested. The effect will be accurately noted and cannot
fail to yield the most accurate and convincing results.

XIV — Economics.

Hoiv Shall Forests be Taxed? By Alfred Gaskill. Vol. I,
No. 3.
This article is an expose of the important principles of forest taxa-

Forestry in America. 63

tion, showing the injustice of the methods of taxation commonly used
at present. It is also an attempt to adapt a complex problem to a erode
and difficult situation. It shows that we must build up our own Forest
Economics.'

Forest Fire Insurance in Germany. By Samuel J. Record.

Vol. II, No. I.

Mr Record gives a brief and interesting outline of the methods of fire
insurance used in Germany, showing that the calculation is based on
one of three methods of valuation, either on the cost value of the stand,
on the forest expectation value, or on sale value ; and that the rate in-
creases with fire danger of the stand. The article gives a ghmpsc ahead
at very intensive forestry which probably will not be applied in the United
States for a number of years, but is none the less worth knowing about.

Forestry for Railroads. By E. A. Sterling. Vol. IV, No. i.

Mr. Sterling touches very closely the relation of the profession of for-
estry to the industrial world. The reason why the railroad has not taken
up forestry is that foresters have failed to show railroad men forestry
from a business standpoint. The importance of forestry to railroads lies
not in planting, but in the management of timber lands.

The article is extremely interesting and instructive, but of necessity
too vague. Mr. Sterling does not know enough about railroading, nor
does any other forester. This ignorance is the vital trouble with the
profession generally, for, unless forestry becomes an integral part of
the business life of the country and answers its needs it can never be
of any real value to the nation. The Service must graduate to where it
feels ashamed of being unable to answer the questions which the railroad
puts to it, and which Mr. Sterling so clearly enumerates. Most certainly,
as he says, the Forest Service should uphold the railroad in the owner-
ship of timberlands and in the disposal of minor products.

National Forest Sales on the Pacific Coast. By W. B. Greeley.

Vol. VII, No. I.

This article shows clearly the underlying economic and business princi-
ples which should and actually do guide the Forest Service in handling
the problem of timber sales. The principles are broad, sound and thor-
oughly practical and justly a deviation from the strict silvicuhural re-
quirements. The article is the result of clear thinking.

Timber Bonds. By Edward A. Brainiff. Vol. VII, No. i.

This article contains a long and very detailed account of bonds issued
by lumber companies on the security of their timber lands. The aothor
goes into all the features of these issues, giving many warnings to the
prospective investor, but leaving impressed upon his mind a very favorable
opinion of timber bonds and a keen desire to secure some. The article
is well written and the information imparted interesting, but its connec-
tion with forestry is too remote.

XV — Legislation .

What are the Essentiais of a State Fire Law? By E. A. Ster-
ling. Vol. I, No. 3.
This paper deals chiefly with the provisions of the California fire law,

64 Forestry Quarterly.

at that time before the State Legislature. It nevertheless shows clearly
the essentials of any ideal State fire law, which are : first, the preven-
tion of fires ; and second, adequate machinery for the execution of the
law. Although the paper was written eight years ago, it is still well
worth while reading and understanding, particularly for those engaged
in State forestry.

XVI — Education.

Some Problems in Forest Education. By Henry S. Graves.

Vol. II, No. I.

In this paper the author strikes the keynote of the policy which should
and does prevail in the best forest schools of the country. It is the im-
portance of a broad and thorough technical training. He shows that
American foresters need a broader training than do foresters in Europe.
He mentions the leading subjects and shows their bearing, pointing out
especially the need of learning to do research work, and of an understand-
ing of fundamental principles in order to build up the new profession.
His proposal for giving a diflferent kind of training for technical foresters
and for lumberman and rangers is the answer to the cry. at that time very
insistent, for a more practical training. In fact, the paper might be con-
sidered somewhat in the nature of a defense of the system of thorough
technical training.

XVII— Botany.

The Catalpa Septum- A Factor in Distinguishing Hardy Cor-

ialpa. By William H. Lamb. Vol. VII, No. i. '

Mr. Lamb gives one dependable characteristic by which the two catalpas
may readily be distinguished; in distinguishing two similar species one
dependable character is worth any number of variable ones.

A Syjiopsis of the Red Firs. By William H. Lamb. Vol. VII,

No. 2.

The author describes and illustrates with plates a few characteristics of
the leaf and bract of the three firs, Abies nobilis, Abies shastensis and
Abies magnifica, which render possible the sure and easy distinguishing of
these hitherto confusing species.

XVIII — Auxiliary Subjects.

SOILS.

Forests as Gatherers of Nitrogen. By Treadwell Cleveland,
Jr. Vol. V, No. I.

The author of this paper relates in a manner which can be understood
by the layman some interesting experiments proving that forests increase
the nitrogen content of the soil. He also states the opposing theories of
Boussingault and R. Hartig as to how this complex and little understood
process is carried on.

Forestry in America. 65

FOREST PATHOLOGY.

Parasitism of Phoradcndron Juniperinum Liboccdri Bngclrn.
By E. P. Meincke. Vol. VII, No. i.

In this article the author gives with scicntilic precision the details of
his study of this interesting and peculiar mistletoe. He discovered that
this plant, when it reaches a hiffh age, lives without green exterior or-
gans, and concludes that from the beginning it normallv abstracts not
only water and inorganic salts from the incense cedar, but organic food
as well. This conclusion, as he states, still needs anatomical proof.

Use of Soil Fungicides to Prevent Damping-Off of Coniferous

Seedlings. By Carl Hartley. Vol. VII. No. i.

This article presents briefly the results of experiments at the Halsey
nursery in the sandhills of Nebraska, aiming to check the loss caused
by damping-off. Different acids were used in different strengths. The
results with sulphuric acid were satisfactory, but of course can not be
applied directly to other conditions. They, however, serve as a valu-
able suggestion for carrying on similar experiments elsewhere.

WOOD TECHNOLOGY.

The Philippines as a Source of General Construction Timber.

By Dr. H. N. Whitford. Vol. VI, No. i.

The author gives a concise account of the commercially important tim-
bers of the Philippines; showing where they are found, the stand ner
acre, and important technical qualities of each. He emphasizes the pre-
dominance of the Dipterocarp family of which the most important are
the lavans, the apitongs, and the yacals. It is interesting to note that
these forests, contrary to the popular idea, do not contain merely "hard,
durable timbers, scattered and hard to extract," but large quantities of
cheap construction timbers. (For further information on the Philippines
see article by R. C. Bryant, Vol. II, No. i.)

History of the Investigation of Vessels in Wood. By C. D.

Mell. Vol. VI, No. I.

This article is a history of the investigation of vessels in wood, begin-
ning with Malpighi (1628-1694) to Von Mohl (1842), most space being
devoted to Von Mohl. The article contains no original researches, but
is a resume of the investigations of European scientists, and, as such,
forms a useful contribution to this phase of wood technology.

GRAZING.

Grazing in the National Forests. By L. F. Kneipp. Vol. VII,

No. 2,

This paper deals with relationship between the live stock industry and
the National Forests, and the dependence of this industry upon the forage
which the Forests contain. The effect of grazing on the Forests, and of
forestry on grazing is mentioned, and the importance of not disturbing
the grazing industry is emphasized. The great benefits which the live
stock industry has received from regulation of the range by the Forest
Service are barely touched upon.

66 Forestry Quarterly.

Range Improvements and Improved Methods of Handling

Stock in National Forests. By J. T. Jardine. Vol. VII, No. 2.

Range management is one of the big problems of the Forest Service.
Mr. Jardine gives clearly the main lines of work; first, the improvement
of the forage crop, both through artificial reseeding (only practicable on
limited areas) and tJirough natural reseeding by allowing the grass to pro-
-Juce seed before it is eaten, thus strengthening the plants, seeding the
area, and utilizing the forage at the same time; second, the study and
application of new methods of handling sheep, which both increase the
carrying capacity of the range, and the value of the sheep ; third, experi-
ments to determine the effect of grazing on tree reproduction ; fourth, a
grazing reconnaissance, to map and collect notes on the grazing resources
of the National Forests. The paper gives a glimpse of scientific grazing
work.

Translations.

Translations, in that they are not original articles, and do not
belong to American forestry are placed at the end. Since, how-
ever, they will be useful for reference, they are included.

A New Method of Planting. By Morris Kenzenik. Trans-
lated from the German by S. T. Dana and E. H. Frothingham.
Vol. IV, No. 2.

This article is well worth while knowing about, and adds greatly to the
American foresters' knowledge of planting.

Experiments in the Preservation of Forest Seeds. 'Ry E.

Zederbauer. Translation by Alax H. Foerster. Vol. VI, No. i.

This article gives the results of some important German experiments in
preserving the germinating power of tree seed by different methods of
storage. The important point is to check as far as possible respiration "
and transpiration. This is done by means of temperatures below centi-
grade, sufficient moisture, and, sometimes, by the exclusion of air with-
out using such low temperature.

Conclusion.

The foregoing papers show the subjects to which the Society
of American Foresters have given most attention. The strength
of Silvics and Silviculture stand out particularly since these are
subjects about which Americans must secure their own data and
build up their own practice. Utilization has two strong articles
which, it is hoped, are a sign of the connection which will even-
tually be established between the profession and the lumber in-
dustry,— a connection necessary for the welfare of both.

The papers taken in chronological order do not show a perfect
upward curve, some of the best papers appearing in the early
numbers, yet the general progress is noticeable. American for-
esters are more and more devoting themselves to specific prob-
lems, rather than generalities.

Forestry in Am erica.

67

INDEX.

> y. c.

Alabama, yellow pine

forests IV i 72

Appalachians, Southern

bibliography, VI 2 173

Bonds, timber, VII i 58

Border cuttinprs, Wag-
ner's method VII 2 145

Brandis, Sir Dietricli,. Ill i 4
Brush and trees on
Crater Na-
tional For-
est VII 2 212

" lands, use of
goats in

clearing. . . VI i 108
Business management

of National Forests, III i 41
California, water situ-
ation II I 20

Canada, forest re-
sources and prob-
lems, VIT 2 133

Catalpa, distinction by

septum, .... VII I 80
" Kansas planta-
tions, VI I 42

Central Rocky Moun-
tain forests, silvicul-
tural management,.. VII i 106
Chaparral on the Sis-
kiyou Na-
t i o n a 1

Forest, . VII i 82
" watershed

cover in
S outhern
Califor-
nia, .... I 3 147
Chemical pulp, source

of alcohol, VI 2 120

China, deforestation,.. i 3 141
Damping off preven-
tion, VII I 96

Douglas fir, natural vs.
artificial regenera-
tion, VII 2 187

Ecology, forest types
and plant forma-
tions IV I so

Education, problems,. . II i 48
Estimating timber, ... IV i 114
Eucalyptus, growing of, V i 109
" piossibilities

in south-
ern Ari-
zona, ... VI I 98

^ s ^

> 1^; CL,

Experiment stations on

National Forests, . . IV i 22
Fire control, better

methods VI 2 153

" insurance in Ger-
many II I 95

" problem on Flor-
i d a National

Forest, VI 2 166

" results in Rocky

Mountains, ... I 2 ro2
Florida National For-
est problem VI 2 1G6

Forestry, generaliza-
tion by Roosevelt, . . I i 3
Forest influences, .... IV 2 133
.... VI I 53
" reserves, objec-
tions to in
northern Cal-
ifornia, I 2 70

" reserve policy,
a p p 1 i cation
and possibili-
ties, I 2 41

" tvpes and plant
i o r m ations,
ecological, . . IV i 50
types, principles
in determin-
ing, I 3 173

Fungicides in soil,
damping off preven-
tion, VII I q6

Grazing, improved

methods, . . VII 2 160
" in N a t i o n a 1

Forests, . . . VII 2 153
Hawaii, forest prob-

lem.s, II I 29

Insurance, forest fire

in Germany, II i 91;

Law, State fire, I 3 i''2

Loblolly and shortleaf

pine, management,. . V i 84
Lodgepole pine, repro-
duction, IV I 84
" pine, silvical

notes, ... Ill I 82
Log scale in theory

and practice V i 18

Log scales, standard-
ization IV 2 172

Longleaf Pine yield,
Texas, IV 2 207

68

I'orcstry Quarterly.

— : bo

O O K

> :?; Cm

Lumbering. influence
on forestry, Ill i 67

Management, prelimin-
ary in Southwest, . . IV i 107

Mapping and estimat-
ing, methods in
Maryland, IV 2 196

Marking timber, silvi-

cultural results of... Ill i 18

Michigan, planting ex-
periments, VII 2 205

Middle West, forest
problems Ill i 90

Minnesota National

Forest, cuttings, .... VII i 100

National Forests —
business management. III i 41
(Minnesota) —

cuttings VII I ICO

experiment sta-
tions IV I 22

(Florida) —

fire problem, VI 2 166

grazing, VIT 2 153

regulation of cut,. V I lOi
(Pacific Coast) —
sales of timber, . . VI i 42
working plans, ... VI 2 iii
(Pacific Coast, N.—
W.)—
working plans, ... VI 1 16

Nitrogen gathered by
forests, V i 131

Nursery practice, prob-
lems, IV I 42

Pennsylvania, State
forestry and the
public, IV I 64

Philippines, forest

problem.s II i 3

Philippines, source of
construction timber,. VI i 64

Phoradendron juniper-
inum liboceclri, para-
sitism, VII I 35

P i c e a sitchcnsis of
Alaska, VII 2 226

Pinus contorta repro-
duction, IV I 84

Pinus contorta silvical
notes, Ill I 82

Pinus palustris of Ala-
bama, IV I 72

Pinus pondcrosa, silvi-

cultural systems, . . . VII 2 16S

Pinus sabiniana, eco-
nomic possibilities. . . VI i 68

Pinus taeda and Pinus
cchinata, m a n a g e -
ment

Planting, experiments
in northern Michi-
gan,

Planting, experiments
in sandhills,

Planting, new method.

Policy of forest re-
serves, application
and possibilities, . . .

Prairies, why treeless,.

Public lands,

Pulp, chemical, source
of alcohol

Railroads, relation to
forestry,

Reconnaissance, new
methods,

Red firs, synopsis of,. .

Redwood, management,

Regulation of cut —

methods of,

on National For-
ests,

Sales of timber —

in Southwest,

National Forests of
Pacific Coast

Sample plots, establish-
ment,

Sandhill planting ex-
periments,

Seed?, preservation of.

Seed production —

discussion,

study,

Selection system

Sequoia scmpervirens,
management

Shakes, making in Cal-
ifornia,

Shortleaf and loblolly
pine, management, .

Sierras, system of
management,

Silviculture, American,
" Lodgepole

Pine, . .
" results of

marking
timber,
" virgin for-

ests, . . .

O cti
i^ Oh

V I 84

VII 2 205

V I 59
IV 2 221

I
I
I

VI
IV

IV
VII

VI

VII
V

II

VII

II

V
VI

VII

VI

V

VI

IV

V

II
III

III

2 91

3 158
2 53

2 129

30
I

2 184

104
II

lOI

115
42

63

59
92

117

133
I

104

2 151

84

103
29

82

III I 18
1 2 62

forestry in AmericLi.

69

> ?^ c
" West em

Y e 1 low

Pine. . . VII 2 168
Sitka spruce of Alaska. VII 2 26
Soil aciditv-. relation

to plants, VII I 51

Southern Appalach-
ians, bibliographj', . VI 2 173

Southern yellow pine
of Alabama, IV i 72

State, forestry prob-
lems, VII 2 177

Streamflow, effect of
surface conditions, . IV 2 133

Streamflow, forest in-
fluence experiment,. VI i 53

Taxation of forests,.. I 3 115

Thinnings, strip VI i 38

Timber for construc-
t i o n , from

Philippines. VI i 64

sales, II 1 115

" sales, VII I 42

" estimating. ... IV i 114

> ^ JX
Tolerance and intoler-
ance, new

planation, II i 79

further con-
siderations III I 3
Topography, getting in

western Cascades, . . VII 2 197
Virgin forests, silvi-
culture, I 2 62

Western yellow pine,

silvicultural systems, VII 2 168
Willow for baskets in

Germany, V i 137

Wood, investigations

in vessels of,. VI i 78
" preservation, . . IV 2 185
Working plans —
essentials for Na-
tional Forests, ... VI 2 in
National Forests on

Pacific Northwest, VI i 16
Yellow pine forests,

Alabama IV i 72

Yield, longleaf pine in
Texas, IV 2 207

CURRENT LITERATURE.

Guide to the Study of Aninml Ecology. By Charles C. Adams,
Ph. D. The Macmillan Company, New York. 1913. Pp. 1-183.
Price $1.25.

While the book of the above title is concerned entirely with
animal ecology, yet its general discussion of the aim, content and
point of view of ecological study is so apt and so applicable to
forest ecology that it seems worth while to present an abstract.
Ecology has no aim, but ecologists have. The problems of an
ecologist are not fundamentally different from those of any
other kind of naturalist. The superficial differences in aim are
due to different points of view or methods of approach, rather
than to any essential difference in the character of the problems.
The relations which different branches of ecolog}' bear to one
another may be discussed under three headings, namely, indi-
vidual, aggregate and associational ecolog>^

The study of individual ecology is the investigation of the de-
velopment (process of formation) of the structure, function
and behavior of a given individual from the standpoint of its re-
lations and responses to the complete environment. Such a study
may be limited to a single habitat or locality, or extended through-
out the entire geographic range of the form. From this stand-
point, the individual studied becomes the hub of the microcosm
from which all relations and responses radiate. The organism is
thus considered as an agent which, transforming and utilizing
substance and energy, produces a varied number of physiological
conditions and forms of activity, which, in turn, furnish the basis
for the constant process of response between the organism and
its environment.

The study of aggregate ecology is the investigation of the
ecological development, relations and responses of animals and
plants based upon hereditary or taxonomic units, as in a family
community or in genera, families and orders. These groups or
aggregates are made the basis for ecological study, as a hive of
bees or the genus Pinus. From this approach the activities and
responses of the group are traced within the nrea studied or

Current Literature. 71

throughout the world. The hereditary or taxonomic unit is here
the hub of the microcosm. Here also the aggregate is considered
as an agent or entity which produces many kinds of activities
and adjustments to the environment.

Associational ecology is devoted to the investigation of the
development, inter-relations and responses of animals and plants
which are grouped or associated in the same habitats and envi-
ronments. In this case the associates in a given association and
habitat are considered as a unit whose activities and inter-rela-
tions and responses are investigated in the same manner as if
it were a single animal or plant. The interactions among mem-
bers of an association are to be compared to the similar relations
existing between the different cells, organs or activities of a
single individual. Such groupings have a composition which has
developed into an arrangement or "spacing" of individuals within
it, and which produces a particular plan or pattern, as a result
of the innumerable responsive activities' on the part of individ-
uals which live together. For example, when the tiers of vege-
tation in a forest are treated as a unit, the entire history of the
plants in the habitat is considered as a response to the conditions
of life therein. In this form of study the association becomes-
the center of all radiating relations and responses. Such an as-
sociation is an agent which transforms substance and energy,
producing varied physiological conditions and responses in that
continuous process of adjustment which constitutes life.

In discussing the value of ecological surveys, the author con-
cludes that their main advantages are : ( i ) the record of natural
environments and their associations for future generations; (2)
the study of natural biotic conditions, giving a perspective not
derived in any other way; (3) the clearer conception of the
dynamic relations of the balance of nature, biotic base and climax
associations; (4) emphasis of the process and interpretative
phase of scientific investigation over that of purely descriptive
study; (5) facilitating the invention of multiple working hy-
potheses which bear upon animal and plant responses in nature;
(6) furnishing important conceptions to the study of the pro-
cesses of adaptation and the struggle for existence; (7) furnish-
ing important general principles of great value in applied ecology ;
(8) furnishing one of the best methods of learning how to get

72 Forestry Quarterly.

acquainted with the living aspect of the animals and plants of any
region.

Some of the other chapter headings are : The laws of envi-
ronmental change ; the laws of internal change ; the continuous
process of adjustment.

The volume should be in the hands of every investigator or
teacher whose subject includes' or impinges upon the field prob-
lems of biology. C. D. H.

Michigan Bird Life. By Walter Bradford Burrows. Michi-
gan Agricultural College. 1912. Pp. 1-802.

In the introduction to the technical descriptions of the birds
and their habits, the author discusses briefly the bird life in rela-
tion to vegetative regions. In the Prairie Region, an extension
of the prairie regions of the adjoining States of Indiana and
Illinois, one finds in the more open country the prairie chicken,
meadow lark, killdeer, mourning dove, marsh hawk, turkey buz-
zard, prairie horned lark, lark sparrow and bobolink. Along
the tree fringed streams are found the bronze grackle, red-
shouldered blackbird, red-headed woodpecker, flicker, and less
often the red-bellied woodpecker, orchard oriole, prothonotary
warbler and the sycamore warbler. The knolls and ridges here
and there harbor the bob-white, the tufted tit. blue gray gnat
catcher, and an occasional yellow breasted chat, mocking bfrd
and Carolina wren.

The White and Red Pine Forest Region is now little more
than a name, and it comes more properly under the head of cut-
over lands and much of it under burned-over lands. In the
southern peninsula it formerly extended northward of a line ex-
tending from Van Buren County in the southwestern corner of
the State, northeastward to Gratiot County and thence eastward
to Port Huron. The pines were always distributed irregularly
with areas of hardwoods and swamps, the pure stands being on
the sandy uplands drained by the rivers. The characteristic
birds of the real pine forest are comparatively few. Among
them may be included the pileated, three-toed and hairy wood-
peckers, the two species of nut-hatch, the black-capped chickadee,
brown creeper, Canada jay, black and white, pine blackurnian
and black-throated green warblers.

Current Literature. 73

The Jack Pine Plains lie in general within the pine region out-
lined above, and they are the more sterile soils farther from the
streams. They are characterized by an abundance of Jack Pine,
several scrub oaks, aspens, pin cherry and service-berry. The
undergrowth is chiefly composed of sweet fern, wintergreen,
bracken fern and various blue berries. Areas of this descrip-
tion cover about two million acres in the State, and their sum-
mer bird life is characterized by the vesper sparrow, chipping
sparrow, field sparrow, robin, bluebird, night hawk, kingbird,
blown thrasher, catbird, bluejay. red-eyed vireo, indigo bird,
sparrow hawk, goldfinch and cowbird.

The Hardwood Forest Region in the upper half of the lower
peninsula still includes many hundreds of thousands of acres
where there is a heavy growth of beech and maple, with which
is intermixed birch, basswood, hemlock and scattering White
Pine. Among the more characteristic birds of this region in
order of abundance are : Hairy and downy woodpeckers, wood
pewee, hermit and wood thrushes, solitary vireo, sapsucker,
crow, rose-breasted grosbeak, scarlet tanager, oven-bird, broad-
winged and cooper's hawk.

Burnt-over lands, of which there are millions of acres in the
State, VBiVy much in their bird life according to the nature of
the original forest, whether largely pine or hardwood, and espe-
cially the length of time which has elapsed since burning. One
may travel for hours through the more desolate regions and see
but few birds, the most common being the vesper sparrow, field
sparrow, chewink, nighthawk, kingbird and cowbird.

The deep woods, whether swamp or upland, never shelter the
wealth of bird life found in partly cleared or well cultivated dis-
tricts. Stream borders, lake margins or other openings of the
forest always teem with bird and insect life, for here a greater
variety of conditions is found and larger numbers of birds seek
the sunlight and shade, the food supply and shelter which in-
sure, so far as wild nature can, the welfare of their young.

The greater part of the volume is concerned with technical
descriptions, habits and distribution of the Michigan birds.

C. D. H.

74 I'oresiry Quarterly.

"A Working Plan for the Woodlands of the New Haven Water
Company." By Ralph C. Hawley, Assistant Professor of For-
estry, Yale University. Yale Forest School — Bulletin 3. New
Haven, Yale University Press, 191 3, 8 Vo., 30 pp., i map.

It is refreshing to read a forest working plan which has been
working in the forest for some years. The title page explains
that the plan is "prepared after five years of forest practice,"
and the text is full of meat as regards things that have been
done, and of helpful suggestions in and between the lines to
those of us who are trying to do something with hardwoods
and white pine in the northeast. A managed forest area of
about 8,000 acres, in the midst of one of the most densely popu-
lated regions of the United States, yet in a section about one-
half of which is forested; with unusual markets because of a
wide variety of manufactures; handicapped by the fact that the
holdings are widely scattered in many separated and irregular
blocks, and by the further fact that a large part of the area
either is in the younger age classes, not yet merchantable, or is
open land to be planted — here is a combination which makes
the working plan one of real interest to those who are located
where intensive forestry is possible. And to others, working
where "we might as well forget for the time being most of what
we learned in the forest school," it should be an earnest of good
things that, with patience, will come to us as American foresters.

The bulletin should be placed in the hands of every Water
Company and every City Water Board in the country. Lands
permanently controlled for the purpose of protecting potable
waters offer so exceptional an opportunity for the practice of
forestry, even under adverse economic conditions, that in this
field should come one of the next substantial developments in
forestry. The present low financial returns from the New Ha-
ven property, as described in the working plan, may at first
thought be discouraging to officials who may become interested.
In reality, however, these figures are not discouraging when one
considers the fact that the lands were in such unproductive con-
dition at the start, and that the property must be held anyway,
whether or not forestry is practised. In reading the bulletin with
the idea of using it to incite the interest of water companies in
forestry, one cannot help but wish that some attempt had been

Current Literature. 75

made to predict future financial returns. But on the other hand,
one realizes that his satisfaction with the bulletin rests upon
the fact that it tells things which have been, and which are
sure, rather than things which may — or may not — be.

A number of copies of this working plan, sufficient to loan one
to each student in the class in forest management for purposes
of seminar discussion, would be valuable laboratory material
for every forest school. It would serve as the starting point
for the useful review and discussion of many topics, such as
the purpose and structure of a working plan ; forest descrip-
tion ; the relation of various site factors to practical operations
in the woods ; forest types ; planting ; thinning ; protection ;
yield ; utilization ; stnmpage prices ; financial returns.

A few questions might be asked about some things in the
bulletin. In classifying the lands, the distinction between graz-
ing land and forest land is "based more'on the present condition
and probable use for the next few years than on the actual value
of each site for producing farm or forest crops" ; has the author
been able to arrive at a satisfactory basis for the final separa-
tion into grazing land on the one hand, and forest land on the
other hand, in cases where be wishes to make the final choice?
Would it not be desirable to include a list of the scientific names
of the species? ("Whitewood'' may be applied to only one
species in Connecticut, but it is applied to other species else-
where.) Are the overhead charges included in the expenditures,
in Table 7? What is the labor wage, on which the planting
costs are based? In view of the deficiency in growing stock,
why would it not be well to leave for the present the stands
seventy years of age and older (p. 26, bottom), if these stands
are still sound, thus restricting the cutting to the two classes
of timber mentioned in the previous paragraph as being the
only ones to be removed ? *

Among the points of interest in the bulletin, the following
may be mentioned.

"In a few cases cordwood and timber have been sold to reliable pur-
chasers on a basis of 60 per cent of the difference between the total ex-
penses of manufacture and the total receipts from sales. By this ar-
rangement the Companj"- receives 60 per cent of the difference and the
purchaser, who finances and attends to the entire operation, 40 per cent.

*There is a slight typographical error on the last page, where "plant"
should be "plan."

76 forestry Quarterly.

The results so far have been fully as good as could have been secured
through selling by any other method."

Stumpage values are: cordwood, $.30 to $1.50 per cord; No. i ties,
$.30 to $.45 ; 30 and 35 foot poles, $1.00 to $2.25 per pole ; hardwood lum-
ber, $4.00 to $10.00 per M. bd. ft. ; hemlock $3.00 to $5.00 per M. bd. ft.

The annual growth per acre per year is: hardwoods (chestnut and
oak), 0.3 to i.o cords; hemlock, .25 to 0.8 cords; white pine, 0.4 to i.o
cords.

"One (chemical) extinguisher or pump to every fifty acres of planta-
tion would be good economy" in protecting from fire.

"Except in rare cases the brush and tops will be left as they lie after
cutting. It is considered unnecessary to dispose of them as an aid in pro-
tection, because the chief hre danger comes from the hardwood leaves
spread in a comparatively uniform layer over the ground. A fire will
start and spread readily in leaves, and tops only add to the intensity of the
fire. Hardwood tops inside of two years partially decay and absorb so
much moisture that they burn with difficulty. The brush should be piled
and burned on clear cut areas which are to be immediately planted."

Most of the planting is with white and red pines. (It is good to see
that this tract was not reached by the Scotch pine fad, which for a time,
in some sections, seemed likely to rival the catalpa mania in extending these
species beyond their legitimate sites.) Poor planting sites are avoided
until the best sites are planted — let more of us remember this. Three-
year-old, once transplanted stock is ordinarily used. Spacing is 6 x 6 feet.
The total cost of the transplants, grown in the company's nursery, "was
$3.80 per thousand or $4.60 per acre of plantation." Planting "cost $7.20
per acre, thus making the total cost of the plantation $11.80 per acre."
"Fail places in the plantations made the preceding year should be filled
each year if the loss exceeds 25 per cent., or in case of a smaller loss
if in the form of a few relatively large patches instead of being scattered
uniformly.

"Certain stands in the old field and hardwood types are suffering from
the grazing of cattle. In nearly all of these cases the land is owned by
the Company but subject to the life use or use for a period of years by
the former owner." (Avoid rights and servitudes whenever possible!).

"Stands (of hardwoods) younger than fifty years rarely yield enough
merchantable timber to be considered mature. The site must be quality I
and the stand contain a large percentage of chestnut to be merchantable
before the fiftieth year."

The classification of forest types is based exclusively on present con-
dition, without regard to what the area is capable of producing. The
types are hardwood, hemlock (80 per cent, or more of hemlock, as judged
by the crown space occupied), pine (80 per cent, or more of pine), old
field, agricultural, administrative, and barren. Old field type automati-
cally becomes pine type as soon as it is planted. There is a wide varia-
tion in the composition of the hardwood type. All hardwood stands,
except gray birch, are grouped together as the hardwood type, regard-
less of whether the dominant genus is chestnut, oak or maple.

"Boundaries of compartments are usually ridges, streams or public roads
and are easily recognizable. Compartment divisions are permanent. A
compartment may contain a number of different forest types and age
classes. There are in all fifty-one compartments, ranging in size from
less than 50 to over 400 acres. Each compartment is divided into as many
sub-compartments as it has individual stands, that is, portions of the
forest differing in age or type. A single sub-compartment contains only
one type and only one age class, and serves as the smallest unit considered.
There are few sub-compartments of less than an acre, while the largest
contain about a hundred acres. Sub-compartment boundaries are often
not marked on the ground, being distinguishable as lines of difference be-
tween types and age classes. These boundaries are subject to change

Current Literature. yy

with each revision of the maps. There are more than 700 sub-compart-
ments."

The working plan records are kept "on s x 8 inch cards printed with the
proper headings. Each carries the description of a single stand or sub-
compartment."

W. M.

Report of the National Forest Reservation Commission. Sen-
ate Document No. 307, 63rd Congress, 2d Session. Washington,
D. C. Dec. 8, 1913. Pp. 8.

This report shows that during the fiscal year ending June 30,
1913, the Commission approved for purchase 425,717 acres, mak-
ing a total of 713,415 acres approved up to that date. This area
is classified as follows :

Acres

Virgin timberland, 222,120

Cut-over or culled timberland, 397»390

Lands on which timber is reserved, .... 33,224

Abandoned farm land, 7'^/^

Unmerchantable or barren, 52,803

713415

The lowest price paid per acre during the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1913 was $1.09 and the highest $13.25. The average
price for the purchases during the year was S4.71 per acre, while
the average of all purchases has been $5.07 per acre.

The Forest Service examined during the fiscal year 542,202
acres at a cost of 10.6 cents per acre. The Geological Survey
has examined 88 per cent, of all the area within the proposed pur-
chase areas, so far having made no unfavorable reports.

The Commission has adopted the poUcy of purchasing only
on an acreage basis', the acreage being determined by a survey
by horizontal measurements. The rough character of the coun-
try surveyed and the indefiniteness or entire absence of marked
liens and corners has made the cost of surveying relatively large,
the average during the past year being 20.5 cents, per acre.
This will be reduced during later years because it has been neces-
sary to sun^ey lines of other tracts which are not now under con-
sideration but which may later be offered for sale.

78 Forestry Quarterly.

Titles are examined as the surveys are in progress by officials
of the Department of Agriculture, who report to the Attorney-
General through the U. S. Attorney for the District in which
the lands are located. During the past year the Attorney-Gen-
eral has approved the title to 15 tracts, comprising 72,183 acres
and has declined to approve the title to 12 tracts comprising
106,824 acres. The Secretary of Agriculture has requested that
condemnation proceedings be brought to perfect the title of the
tracts which were not approved.

Where there are no special difficulties in the way of perfect-
ing a clear title, the Government has been able to make final
purchase from six months to one year after the purchase is
approved. Where condemnation proceedings must be brought
a further period of from six months to a year is required.

The lands already acquired or whose purchase has been ap-
proved are now in charge of forest officers who have charge both
of administration and of the examination and survey of other
lands within their area which are under consideration for pur-
chase.

Two hundred and fifty miles of trail have been constructed
for protection purposes and the construction of a few tele-
phone lines has been undertaken where their need is imperative.

The Commission recommends that legislation be enacted to
increase the allotment of all moneys received from each national
forest created under the Act of March i, 191 1 from 5 per cent,
to 25 per cent., because the proceeds are insufficient to compen-
sate the counties for the loss of taxs on the lands acquired by
the Government.

R. C. B.

Cottomvood in the Mississippi Valley. By A. W. William-
son. Bulletin 24, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Dec. 31,
191 3. Pp. 24.

This bulletin deals in a comprehensive manner with the econo-
mic importance of the cottonwood, botanical characteristics,
growth and yields of stands, and management.

Under the head of "stumpage values and logging costs," the
author offers the following formula, based on operating costs,
for the determination of stumpage values, namely

Current Literature. 79

M

S=- (L4-Mf)

I. op

in which S equals the stumpage vahie; M equals the sale value

of the manufactured product; i.op represents the rate per cent.

profit on each thousand board feet ; L equals the logging costs ;

and Mf equals the sawmill costs.

The principle of profit on operating co.sts, on which the for-
mula is based, is not sound economicall}', since profits should be
based on the amount of capital invested in the business. The
reasons for this are many and cannot be discussed here in detail.

The author has' been led astray in handling his stumpage
values after they have been determined by the erroneous con-
ception of the proper method of determining profit. He says
"if several years are required to complete the logging operation,
however, this formula should also include the interest on the
money invested in stumpage, and the stumpage value in such an
event would be found by deducting the interest at a fair bor-
rowing rate, say 6 per cent., for the average length of time in-
vested." In other words, after finding what an operator can
afford to pay for stumpage to-day, he discounts that value if
the buyer does not wish to cut the timber until some future time.
It is evident that if a purchaser did not choose to utilize his
stumpage, say for 20 years, that the seller, according to the
above reckoning, might not only have to give his stumpage away
but also present the recipient with a good sum of money besides.
In actual sales we know that this is untrue and that the man who
buys timber to cut 10 or 20 years hence has to pay just as much
to the seller as does the man who expects to cut it within a year —
since the present value is the same in either case. This erroneous
method of handling interest is due to the attempt to calculate
profits on the basis of operating costs instead of investment.
The buyer should get interest on his investment in stumpage
and if he makes a good buy he does so through the increase in
the value of his stumpage, if in no other way.

During the early years of an operation which carries a heavy
investment in plant and stumpage, the amount of money on
which interest and profit may be secured often is so great that
for the first few years little or no profit can be actually made.
As the investment is reduced — the stumpage also gradually ris-
ing in value — the returns are sufficiently great to permit a gracki-

8o forestry Quarterly.

ally increasing profit, and during the later years of the opera-
tion, the profits will be far above normal and will more than
compensate for the passing of the dividend during the first years
the business was conducted.

It is inconceivable, however, that the operator would expect
the seller to reduce his stumpage price as the length of time it
was to be held increased.

In discussing the growth and yield of stands the author states
that fully stocked pure stands, 40 years of age, yield an average
of 31,000 board feet per acre and that some stands will cut as
high as 36,000 board feet on the overflow bottom lands of the
Mississippi Valley. Fifty year old stands in Minnesota and
Iowa uplands will seldom cut more than 20,000 board feet.

The author points out the practicability of growing cotton-
wood on a commercial basis in the bottom lands of the Mis-
sissippi river. On account of the expense of establishing new
stands by planting, it is recommended only where there is an
uncertainty of. securing a new crop from seed trees. Natural
reproduction is recommended on bottom lands subject to over-
flow in the spring but which are only moist when the seed falls.
It is not successful on low ridges, or where spring overflow is
uncertain, and planting is recommended for such sites.

Coppice reproduction is not recommended because many stands
will not be cut until they reach 35 or more years, at which age
the stumps have lost much of their sprouting vigor. The latter
declines rapidly after the tree is 20 to 30 years old. Sprout
management is recommended only for stands managed for pulp-
wood on a rotation of from 10 to 13 years. At the latter age
the largest average annual yield per acre is secured, namely 47
cords.

A rotation of 35 years is recommended for saw-log produc-
tion in natural stands of pure cottonwood, at which time the
maximum mean annual yield is about 840 board feet per acre.
This is based on present market requirements.

The average returns from growing cottonwood for saw-logs
is estimated at from 6 to 7 per cent., and on pulpwood only from
4 to 6 per cent, due to the low value of cottonwood cordwood.

In summarizing, the author states that cottonwood is destined
to play a large part in the future production of lumber, veneer
and pulpwood in the Mississippi Valley.

Current Literature. 8l

Cottonwood will not renew itself on cut-over land unless spe-
cial care is taken in logging. Natural reproduction may be em-
ployed to advantage in some places but in others it will be neces-
sary to employ artificial reproduction exclusively, and it will be
desirable in most cases to supplement natural with artificial re-
production to secure a fully stocked stand. R. C. B.

Annual Report of the Director of Forestry of the Philippine Is-
Imids for the fiscai year ending June 50, jp/5. Manila Bureau
of Printing. 1913. Pp. 65.

In discussing legislation passed during the fiscal year, men-
tion is made of the attempt to revise a portion of the Forest
Act, passed in 1905. providing for the method of payment for
stumpage cut from Public Lands. The legal forest charges are
based on the volume of the round log but if the licensee elects
to manifest his timber after it is sawn, he may do so by paying
an additional 15 per cent, on the lumber manifested. The latter
practice has been adopted by all millmen since the 15 per cent,
addition is absurdly inadequate to cover the waste in manufacture.

Great encouragement has been given to wasteful practices in
slabbing, edging and trimming lumber. The millmen also saves
only the best grade boards which he can sell at a good profit and
throws away inferior grades with no loss to any one except the
Government. The law is so favorable to millmen that eflforts
to change it have so far not met with success.

A new policy has been adopted in the management of the
forests which are now being cut under exclusive licenses. The
areas are being classified into agricultural land and forest land
and a definite policy of cutting prescribed for each.

Fire protection is also being forced on the licensees with good
results. The requirements include the use of spark arresters on
locomotives and logging engines, and the maintenance of an ade-
quate patrol. These are the chief features at present but if
licensees do not keep fire from their areas by these means, they
will be forced to burn their slash.

Authority is to be requested from the next i\ssembly for the
appointment of Field Assistants, who will be drawn preferably
from the ranger stafif of the U. S. Forest Service. These men,
if appointed, will be placed in charge of large timber sales. The
appointment of a lumberman will also be requested.

82 Forestry Quarterly.

The records show an increase of 17 per cent, in the number
of licenses granted for all classes of forest products and the
amount of timber cut was 23 per cent, greater than in the pre-
vious fiscal year. The greater increase in production was in
the lower group woods which are used chiefly for construction
purposes in the domestic markets, but which are being used in
increasing quantities in the United States for furniture, finishing
lumber and cabinet purposes.

The total revenue from forest products was $195,331.94 (gold)
and the Bureau expenses were $113,524; an increase in revenue
of $17,989, and in expenses of $13,104 over the previous year.

An interesting feature of the work is the rapid establishment
of communal forests, forty-five having been set aside during
the year, the total now reaching 148.

Among the activities of the Division of Investigation are men-
tioned a study of the planted mangrove groves, which are used
for the production of firewood ; the nipa swamps ; durability
tests of timber; and of reforestation of lands covered with
cogon grass. Well established stands of ipilipil (Leucaena
glauca) are reported to produce annually 10 cords of firewood
per acre.

Considerable space is devoted to a report on a forest reconnais-
sance of the Island of Bailan containing 120,601 hectares. The
estimated stand of timber is 3,585 million board feet. The
average stand per acre on the commercial forest areas ranges
from 16,000 to 24,000 board feet per acre. The cost of the
reconnaissance, which covered a period of five months, was $2,-
258.50 (gold), which is regarded as a very low figure for this
kind of work.

The report shows substantial progress in all lines of forest
work and with the increased efficiency measures constantly b«ing
inaugurated in the administrative work, we may reasonably hope
for still greater results in the future. R. C. B.

Report of the Director of the Bureau of Forestry (Philippines)
to the Secretary of the Interior (Phil.) on the Forest School.
1913-

This is a manuscript covering the work of the Philippine Bur-

Current Literature. 83

eau of Forestry, Forest School, which was submitted to the Phil-
ippine Legislation through the Secretary of the Interior.

As early as 1903 an agitation was started in the Bureau to
establish a school in which Filipinos could be trained for Ranger
and other positions but it was not until 1910 that the project be-
came possible.

In April of that year the Philippine Legislature authorized the
Director of Forestry to appoint twenty forest pensionados and
to construct temporary buildings for their use. This marked the
beginning of the Forest School, which was established in co-
operation with the College of Agriculture of the University of
the Philippines, at Los Banos, Laguna.

The number of forest pensionados authorized has now been
increased and the number of scholarships at present is fifty-
three.

There are at present 58 students in attendance, representing
twenty-seven provinces, in addition to two rangers detailed from
the Bureau, three Chinese students, two students from the Island
of Guam and one private Filipino student.

Two courses of study are offered; a two-year course for the
pensionados and a four-year course leading to the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Forestry which is open to students who
are graduates from the Philippine high schools or who have
equivalent training.

The law provides that "such scholarships shall be awarded to
students who have completed at least the second year of the
high school course and who shall be appointed by the Director
of Forestry upon recommendation of the Director of Education.

The scholarships entitle the holder to reimbursement of his
traveling expenses from his home to Los Banos: to free living
quarters, free tuition, and to a monthly cash allowance of $12.50
gold. From this it can be seen that the Government is very lib-
eral in its attitude towards the student who is fortunate enough
to secure a scholarship.

The curriculum of the two-year course covers the following

subjects :

Junior Year

Botany Physiography

Mathematics Silviculture

Forest Engineering- T Forest Engineering II :

Dendrolosfv summer vacation

84 forestry Quarterly.

Senior Year
Wood technology Silviculture

History, law, and procedure Forest AJanagement

Forest Engineering III

The four-)ear course is more comprehensive and includes
among other things chemistr}% physics, advanced silviculture and
the preparation of a thesis on some forest subject.

The faculty consists of employees of the Bureau who are
assigned to the Forest School staff temporarily.

The chief field for graduates of this school is in the govern-
ment forest service, which has already absorbed the two classes,
comprising forty-two men, which have left the institution.

These men, on appointment, receive a salary of $25 to $30
(gold.)

The marked improvement noted in the efficiency of the native
force since the school has been established, is sufficient proof
of its great value and it is to be hoped that the institution may
be continued and placed on a sound financial basis in the near
future.

It is neither practicable nor desirable that the majority of tlie
Bureau staff should be composed of Americans and it is' believed
that the way has now been paved for the upbuilding of an ef-
fective native force which will handle the valuable forest re-
sources of the Islands in a wise and conservative manner.

R. C. B.

Western Grazing Grounds and Forest Ranges. By ^Vill C.
Barnes, Inspector of Grazing, U. S. Forest Service. Pp. 390.
The Breeders' Gazette, Publisher. Chicago, Illinois. 1913-
Price, $2.00.

This excellent volume, written by a practical stockman of many
years experience, is a pioneer in the field of grazing literature,
written from the standpoint of the wise use of our National
forests.

The author has brought together in a very clear and readable
form a vast amount of material which is of especial value to
the forester who is concerned in any way with grazing. While
it is written primarily for foresters, it will also prove of great
value to practical stockmen, especially the chapters on Range

Current Literature. 85

Management, Poisonous Plants, Symptoms and Remedies, and
Diseases of Animals.

Although the volume contains a large number of illustrations,
the author has selected only those which apply to the text and
render it more clear.

The book is welcomed as a new and valuable contribution to
the forester's library.

The views of stockmen in regard to this book are well re-
flected in a review which appeared recently in the Southwestern
Stock Review :

"Probably one of the best informed men in the United States
on the subject of stock grazing in the west is Will C. Barnes,
the author of "Western Grazing Grounds," who *way back in
the '8o's was associated with Albert F. Potter in range ventures
in both sheep and cattle up on the Mogollon mesa and Little Col-
orado sections of North Arizona. Mr. Potter is now associate
forester and in charge of the grazing branch of the forest ser-
vice, while Mr. Barnes is inspector of grazing in the same
service.

"Mr. Barnes was raised on a cow ranch in California; ranged
through that state, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas in the early
days ; has been secretary of the Live Stock Boards of both
Arizona and New Mexico ; has made special studies of range
live stock problems throughout all of the western states in the
interests of the Forest Service and the recent tariff board of
the Taft administration, and is essentially the man to father
such a book as Western Grazing Grounds.

"This book deals with the vast ranges of the west in detail
from the time that stock began to appear on them down to the
present day. It shows the various methods of handling stock as
practiced in the different sections of the west; discusses the
problems of range control ; by text and illustrations treats of
the poisonous plants, predatory animals and stock diseases of
the range, giving preventatives, remedies and other valuable in-
formation concerning them ; gives figures on costs of running
stock in the Avestern states, and in fact is filled with just the
kind of information that every sheep and cattle man wants.
Western Grazing Grounds is also an excellent text book for
the man new to the west and makes excellent reading for any-
one at all interested in the subject." R. C. B.

86 Forestry Quarterly.

The Chestnut Blight Fungus and a Related Saprophyte. By
P. J. and H. W. Anderson. Bulletin 4, Pennsylvania Chestnut
Tree Blight Commission. 1913. Pp. 26.

During the scouting operating in Pennsylvania to discover the
extent of the Chestnut Blight, a fungus at first diagnosed as
the true blight fungus (Endothiu parasitica) was found in the
south western counties quite beyond the affected areas. Strangely
enough it was doing no serious damage, and the question arose
as to the cause of this phenomenon. Careful cultural studies
conducted by the authors have shown that this fungus named by
them B. virginiana behaves differently from the true blight fungus
on certain artificial media. These differences and certain minute
morphological differences are so constant that no doubt remained
that two distinct species were in question. This has been one
of the rather infrequent instances in which the settlement of a
fine taxonomic point has had a direct and immediate bearing
on economic operations. Since this article went to press the
home of B. parasitica has been located in China. It is worthy
of note that our authors were not drawn into erroneous theoret-
ical deductions as to the origin of B. parasitica based on its
very striking resemblance to B. virqiniana.

J. H. F.

The Blights of Coniferous Nursery Stock. By Carl Hartley.
Bulletin 44, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. D.
C. 1913. Pp. 21.

This paper gives a satisfactory account of several blights oc-
curring in coniferous nursery stock. Damping-off diseases are
■not included. They are restricted mainly to seedlings under two
months old, and have already been more or less thoroughly in-
vestigated. The most important of the blights studied is sun
scorch. The loss from this cause is often very great, especially
on sandy soils, in soils lacking in humus, in crowded beds, and
in raised parts of beds. Watering, shading, and avoidance of
crowding are successful preventive measures. Other causes' of
blight are winter-killing, mulch injury, and various fungus di-
seases, for all of which more or less effective preventives have
.been tested and are recommended. J. H. F.

Current Literatu^re. 87

Biographical Records of the Graduates and Former Students of
the Yale Forest School. Compiled by the Yale Forest School,
assisted by the Class Secretaries Bureau. New Haven, Conn.
1913. Pp. 350.

This volume is of interest through the very large share which
graduates of the Yale Forest School have had in the develop-
ment of the Federal Forest Service.

A short historical sketch of the School is given in the begin-
ning. It was opened in 1900, following a private endowment
of $150,000, with seven regular students and a staff of two in-
structors. Froqi its establishment it was a graduate school with
a summer school for rangers, teachers and others, held at Mil-
ford, Pa. The attendance rose rapidly, with an enrollment of 31,
44, 66, 63, in the years 1901-1904. In the latter year the Junior
course was lengthened by the addition of a three months' field
term in the summer, but with the work distinct from the ordinary
summer school course. In the following year, the work of the
Senior class, previously held at Milford, was transferred to
virgin timber tracts in the south, and has since been so con-
ducted. The same year, the National Lumber Manufacturers'
Association established a chair of lumbering, with an endow-
ment of $60,000, and an additional $40,000 in 1910. The sum-
mer school was discontinued (1910), having had, since its in-
ception, an average attendance of 18. In 191 1, the School gradu-
ated its largest class (43), and since that the registracion has
dropped, reaching 50 in 1912. The admission requirements are
now quite high, eliminating the need of covering, after entrance,
niany of the general science subjects basic to forestry study, with
consequent increased time for technical subjects. The School
has been endowed to the extent of over $400,000 in cash, and in
addition has received various gifts in the shape of buildings, libra-
ries, herbaria and equipment. The staff numbers 5 regular in-
structors in forestry, in addition to men from allied depart-
ments and special lecturers.

The bulk of the volume is devoted to individual biographies
arranged by classes. The enrollment from 1900 to 1912 included
402 names, of which 286 received the degree of M. F., and
14 certificates. Of the graduates, 57 per cent, are now engaged
in government forestry (81% Federal) 7 per cent, in private
forestry practice, 11 per cent, in educational work and 8 per

88 Forestry Quarterly.

cent, in lumbering. In addition to the 139 Yale foresters now
in the U. S. Forest Service, some 80 others were formerly so
employed.

/. H. W.

Report of the Forest Bmnch of the Department of Lands of
the Province of British Columbia for the year ending Decembei-
SI, ipij. Victoria, B. C. 1914. Pp. 61.

The cutting and manufacturing of timber is the greatest of
British Columbia's industries. One-half the industrial capital
of the province is invested in the lumbering and wood working
business, and from forests is derived one-half the pay-roll of
the province. It is estimated that one-half the standing timber
of Canada is situated in British Columbia. Recognition of the
importance of the forest wealth to the people of a province largely
non-agricultural in character led to the passing two years ago of
a Forest Act which provided for the establishment of a Forest
Branch with complete charge of the administration of the timber
lands. The organization of the Branch not taking place till late
in 1912, this, though the second report, is really the first state-
ment of the administration.

Of the provincial area of some 250 million acres, 150 million
are under forest administration. This is divided into 11 units,
with all the various lines of forest work in a specified district,
such as supervision of logging operations, scaling, collection of
royalty, timber examinations, land classification, construction of
permanent improvements, and protection of forests from fire,
under the direction of one man. The permanent force in 1913
numbered 154, of whom 43 were clerks. For fire protection, the
additional temporary force comprised 286, which was augumented
by 50 more from the permanent force. The 11 administrative
units varied in size from 5 million to over 36 million acres ; the
ranger districts from 2 to 11 million, and the individual "patrol"
territory from 350,000 acres to over 3 million acres.

About II million acres have been taken up by lumbermen un-
der grant, lease or license. From this', in 1913, the total forest
revenue (rentals, bonus, royalty, taxation) was $2,999,328, of
which $2,832,788 was collected by the Forest Branch. The re-
maining $166,540 represented taxes at 2 per cent on 922,948 acres
of private timber lands with an average assessment of $9.02 per

Current Literature. 89

acre. This large forest revenue represents $6.63 per head of
population of the province, as compared with 79 cents in On-
tario and yy cents in Quebec, the two next leading lumbering
provinces.

The expenditure of the Forest Branch was $250,000 for ad-
ministration, and $285,000 for forest protection fund, of the lat-
ter only one-half being contributed by the Government.

The returns in connection with the collection of the above
revenue show a cut of about 1,457 niillion feet, board measure;
with the inclusion of material (free of dues) used in railway con-
struction the total would approximate 2 billion feet. In all, 794
logging operations in progress were inspected. About one-half
of these are in the Coast district, using steam, and running most
of the year; the remainder, in the Interior, are mostly fall and
winter operations, using horses. The Coast operations produce
about three-quarters of the total. The number of mills is about

425-

The home consumption is less than one-fifth of the total pro-
duction. The markets for manufactured logs are the Canadian
prairies, United States, eastern Canada and overseas. Of these
the Canadian prairies are the most important, taking about 60
per cent of the cut, and using all grades. Export to United
States consists in a small quantity of cedar shingles for the mid-
dle West and cedar finish for the New England States. The
same products are shipped in small quantities to eastern Canada,
as also a little high grade dimension material of Douglas fir.
The cargo trade is small, some 3 or 4 mills shipping about 50
million feet, mostly to Australia, Great Britain, South America,
China and Japan.

The export of unmanufactured logs is forbidden, except from
some early Crown-granted areas. These exported last year some
58 million feet, mostly for shingle manufacture in Washington.
The total value of unmanufactured logs, poles, piles, posts, ties
and props exported from the province in 1913 was $1,321,640.
The smaller unmanufactured products are shipped largely from
the Cranbrook and Nelson districts, and mainly to the interior
provinces to the east.

The pulp and paper industry has made a beginning in the
province, the export totalling about 3 million dollars last year.
The Powell river mill with a capacity of 225 tons of paper daily

90 forestry Quarterly.

ships largely to the northwestern States; while the second mill
on Howe sound, produces 40 tons of sulphite fibre daily, most
of it for Japan.

In addition to the regular field work incident to administration,
the Forest Branch during the past year has conducted reconnais-
sance work covering over 12 million acres. This has included
land tributary to new railroads ; unknown timbered regions
of the north, particularly the Nation lakes, Omineca, Nass and
Bella Coola valleys; and the valleys of the Okanogan, Colum-
bia, Kootenay and Kettle rivers of the more settled districts of
the south. The report includes 18 summarized descriptions of
areas covered by the different parties.

As distinct from this reconnaissance work, special detailed ex-
aminations covering 662,280 acres were made. By statute, land
carrying timber in excess of 5,000 feet east of the Cascades, and
in excess of 8,000 feet west of the Cascades, is not open for
sale or pre-emption. All expiring timber licenses or leases remain
under reserve until examined by the Forest Branch, and all pre-
emptions and applications for purchase are referred to it by the
Lands Department for field examination. In this way injudi-
cious settlement on non-agricultural land and fraud are prevented.

The report on forest protection for the year, unusually favor-
able climatically, is ver}-^ gratifying. A total of 578 fires was re-
ported attributable, 25 per cent to campers, 19 per cent to rail-
way locomotives, and 10 per cent to railway construction. The
total area burned over was 10,270 acres, classified as 5,835 acres
of merchantable timber, 1,900 acres of valuable second growth,
and 2,535 acres of slash. The damage was estimated at $18,354,
viz., standing timber $4,387; logs on skidways, $12,084; and
other property. $1,883. The total expense of fire-fighting was
$8,930. Of the 578 fires, 420 were extinguished by the regular
force without extra expense; 300 were extinguished in an in-
cipient stage (less than ^ acre) ; only 80 fires reached serious
proportions (over 10 acres).

The permit >ystem during the closed season. May i to Oc-
tober I, again justified itself. Nearly 12,000 permits to bum over
31,000 acres were issued; 95 per cent of these, totalling one-
half the area, were for clearing land. Of the total, 17 escaped
control. But 2 of the forest fires of the year were due to clear-
ing land without a permit.

Cnrrent Literature. 91

The fire hazard along railway construction has been controlled
for the first time in the history of the province. The right of
way cleaning is covered by the Railway Act. The slash situa-
tion as regards the neighboring areas of Crown lands, which are
logged free of dues by construction contractors, has been met by
requiring the Railway Companies to take out permits for speci-
fied areas, these permits requiring disposal of the debris by the
companies as stipulated. The Forest Branch in this matter does
not deal with the contractors. In all, 90 of these permits were
issued, covering cutting on 138,276 acres. Some 1800 miles of
railroad were under construction the past season.

Voluntary slash burning by lumbermen aggregated some 10,000
to 15,000 acres in 191 3.

As a result of the weather conditions the protective force were
enabled to complete an unusual amount of permanent improve-
ment work. This included 1200 miles of trail, 360 miles of
telephone line, and 10 ranger cabins.

The Forest Branch in co-operation with the Commission of
Conservation for Canada has in progress a general survey of the
forest resources of the province, the work to be completed in
two years. A system of control of the range for grazing is also
foreshadowed.

The province is to be congratulated on the very considerable
progress it has made in such a short time toward a businesslike
administration of its timberland resources. Not only does this
augur well for the prosperity of British Columbia, but in time
must have its effect on the less progressive administrations in
the east.

J. H. W.

Durch Konig Tschulalongkorns Reich. By Dr. Carl Curt Hos-
seus. Strecker und Schroeder, Stuttgart, 1913. Pp. 219 4°,
125 illustrations and map.

This is an elegantly printed record of a botanist's first ex-
ploration in Northern Siam. It is not a systematic discussion
of country or flora, but a rather diffuse account in detail of a
journey or journeys with all its minor incidents, and the main
interest is in these incidents. Floral descriptions are interspersed.
Of most interest in this latter respect is the ascent of two moun-

92 forestry Qimrterly.

tains, the Doi Sutaep, altitude 5500 feet, and Richthofenpeak,
8,350 feet, in which the various forest types from the tropical
to the temperate zone are passed. In the first case. Teak and
Albizzia, the former the main commercial timber, form the im-
portant forest of the lower levels, mainly on south and west
exposures, to be followed on the other exposures by what the
author terms the Dipterocarp-hill forest, formed mainly of
Dipierocarpiis laevis and turhinaUis, which is bled for its oil.
At about 2,000 feet a new type is entered, characterized by
lianas' and other climbers, absent in the former type. Here a
Salix, a Juglandacea ( Bnglehardtia spicataj, Thunbergia, etc.,
are found. At 2,500 feet a mixed oak forest is entered [Quercus
LindleyafW; lineata, Jimghuhnii, oidocarpa (deciduous), with
chestnut (Castanopsis indica), a variety of leguminose trees, and
the Magnoliacean Michelia Champaca, with many others. At
about 3500 feet, pine forest appears (Piniis Khasya) of excel-
lent development, which becomes pure. At 4500 feet the pine
is replaced by a dense evergreen forest of oak (Quercus incana
and JungJnihnii) with some other species; and at about 5.000 feet
the only known ( ?) Asiatic species of Prunus, Hosscusii appears.
Above this, Theaceae, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Myrtaceae and
Quercus species form an inferior growth, which on south ex-
posures reaches hardly over 25 feet, interspersed with grasslands,
which the author refers to as result of fires. For the explorer
in tropical lands many valuable suggestions are given.

The illustrations are not always of the best : a map showing
the location of the most valuable teak forests shows that North-
ern Siam has perhaps the most extensive forests of this species.

B. E. F.

OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE.

An Economic Study of Acacias. By C. H. Shinn. Bulletin
of U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 9. Washington. D. C.
191 3. Pp. 38.

Discusses characteristics of various species, history of Acacia
culture in California, and economic uses.

Other Current Literature. 93

Range Improvement by Deferred and Rotation Gracing. By
A. W. Sampson. Bulletin of U. S. Department of Agriculture,
No. 34. Washington, D. C. 191 3. Pp. 16.

A discussion of the factors which cause ranges to deteriorate;
requirements of plant growth ; effect of grazing on the forage
crop; application of deferred grazing to range management.

The Blights of Coniferous Nursery Stock. By C. Hartley.
Bulletin 44, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.
C, 1913. Pp. 21.

The writer summarizes as follows the blights most common
in nurseries:

1. Sun scorch. — The most common summer trouble which is
caused by excessive water loss. Successful preventive measures
are watering, shading, and avoidance of crowding.

2. Winter killing. — Due to tops of plants drying out when soil
is frozen. Preventive measures most used consist of a light
straw mulch and windbreaks.

3. Mulch injury. — Killing of tops through mulching may be
prevented by avoiding heavy, close mulches.

4. Needle diseases. — There are a number of needle-destroymg
fungi, which so far have done little damage in nurseries in the
United States. Bordeaux mixture spray will prevent damage
from any of them.

5. Red cedar blight. — Common on red cedar seedlings and
transplants. Causes and methods of prevention are unknown.

Report of the Forester, U. S. Forest Service, 1913. Wash-
ington, D. C. Pp. 56.

National Forest Areas, June 30, ipiS- U. S. Forest Service.

A tabular statement showing the location by State, National
Forest District in which located, Supervisor's headquarters, acre-
age, etc., of each National Forest.

The net area of National Forest lands is given as 165,516,518
acres.

The Use Book: A Manual for Users of tJte National Foi-esfs.
U. S. Forest Sotncc. Washington, D. C. 1913. Pp.
This contains the greater part of the information found in

94 Forestry Quarterly.

the National Forest Manual which is of direct interest to forest
users.

Fifth Annual Report of the State Forester, Forestry Practice
in Vermont. 191 3. Pp. 43. illus. Burlington, 1913.

Report of the Chief of the Biological Survey, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agricidtiire. (Reprint from Annual Reports of the De-
partment of Agriculture for 1913.) Pp. 14.

Wages and Hours of Labor in the Lumber, Milhvork, and Fur-
niture Industries, i8po to 1Q12. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statis-
tics. Whole Number 129. Wages and Hours Series No. 2.
Washington, D. C. 1913. Pp. 178.

Fifth National Conservation Congress. Report of the For-
estry Committee. Washington, D. C. 1913.

Printed as separates for distribution at the meeting of the
forestry section of the Congress were reports of the following
sub-committees: Publicity, pp. 16; Forest Planting, pp. 46;
State Forest Laws, pp. 15; Forest Taxation, pp. 32: Forest In-
vestigations, pp. 21; Forest Education, pp. 36; Lumbering, pp.
39; Forest Utilization, pp. 15; Forest Fires, pp. 56; Federal
Forest Policy, pp. 36; State Forest Organization, pp. 62.

Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. Volume
VIII, Number 3. Washington, D. C. October, 1913. Pp. 261-

370-

Contains: In Memoriam— Fred Gordon Plummer; Reforesta-
tion on the National Forests, by W. B. Greeley; The Use of
Frustum Form Factors' in Constructing Volume Tables, by Don-
ald Bruce; Darwinism in Forestry, by Raphael Zon; Nature's
Law of Selection, by Patrick Matthew; Is Eucalyptus Suitable
for Lumber? by Harry D. Tiemann; Co-ordination of Growth
Studies, Reconnaissance, and Regulation of Yield on National
Forests, by H. H. Chapman; Management of Western White
Pine in Northern Idaho, by N. C. Brown ; The Himalayan For-
ests, by W. PI. Gallaher; Methods and Cost of Brush Piling
and Brush Burning in California, by J. A. Mitchell ; Combating
the Larvae of the June-bug in Forest Nurseries, by Professor

Other Current Literature. 95

Decoppet (Translated by G. A. Pearson and A. J. Jaenicke) ;
Some Financial Forest Problems, by W. B. Barrows.

Spruce Bud Worm and Spruce Leaf Miners. Bulletin 210,
Agricultural Experiment Station. Orono, Maine. 191 3. Pp.
36.

The spruce bud worm (Tortrix fumiferona Clem.) for the
last two or three years has been one of the most serious pests
of the spruces in Maine. This bulletin treats of its history and
distribution in the State, habits and description, natural con-
trol, remedial measures, and bibliography.

The notes on the two spruce leaf miners (Recurvia piceaella,
Kearfott and Epinotia piceafoliana Kearfott) are confined chiefly
to their life history.

How to Make Pence Posts Last Longer. By W. D. Clark.
Vol. Ill, No. 5, Facts for Farmers. Extension Service of the
Massachusetts Agricultural College. Amherst, Mass. Pp. 4.

Silviculture of White Pine (Pinns strobus.) By F. B. Knapp.
Bulletin 106, Massachusetts Forestry Association. Pp. 4.

Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the Massachusetts Agricuituraf
Experiment Station, ipiS- Report of Botanist. Pp. 104.

Contains : Diseases more or less Common during the Year,
pp. 6-8; A New Rust, pp. 9-12; Effects of Illuminating Gas on
Vegetation, pp. 13-28; Shade Tree Troubles, pp. 41-51; Device
for Planting White Pine SeeCi, pp. 84-85; Chestnut Blight, pp.
86-87.

Warden and Woodsman. By Jesse B. Mowry, Commissioner
of Forestry. Rhode Island Department of Forestry. Provi-
dence, R. I. 191 3. Pp. 24.

The Birds of Connecticut. By J. H. Sage and L. B. Bishop,
assisted by W. P. Bliss. Bulletin 20, State Geological and Nat-
ural History Sui-vey. Hartford, Conn., 1913. Pp. 370.

Part I Contains a catalogue of Connecticut birds and

Part II is devoted to economic entomology.

96 Forestry Quarterly.

Woods used in Patternmaking. By E. F. Lake. Reprint from
"The Foundry," October, 1913. Published by Thomas E. Coale
Lumber Company, Philadelphia, Pa. Pp. 14.

Discusses the various woods used in pattern-making and value
of each for this purpose.

Wood-Using Iitdustries of South Carolina. By S. L. Wolfe.
Department of Agriculture, Commerce and Industries, in co-
operation with U. S. Forest Service. Columbia, S. C. 1913.
Pp- 53-

An Act of the Legislature of West Virginia^ providing a Work-
man's Compensation Law. Passed February 21, 191 3, in effect
May 22, 1913. State of West Virginia Public Service Com-
mission. Charleston, W. Va., Pp. 21.

This law provides' for a Public Service Commission to ad-
minister the Act. The funds for the payment of injured em-
ployees are subscribed, by employers 90 per cent, and by em-
ployees, ID per cent.

Yellow Pine, A Manual of Standard Wood Construction (4
ed.) By A. T. North. Published by the Yellow Pine Manu-
facturers' Association, St. Louis, Mo. 1913. Pp. 130.

The purpose of this handbook is to give information concern-
ing yellow pine which cannot be obtained in other publications.
It deals chiefly with the physical and mechanical properties of
actual size timbers of yellow pine manufactured in accordance
with the grading rules of the above association. A very useful
and valuable handbook for engineers, architects and others who
have occasion to use yellow pine timbers.

Notes on Diseases of Trees in the Southern Appalachians. I.
By A. H. Graves. Reprinted from Phytopatholog}^ Vol. Ill,
No. 2, April, 1913. Pp. 129-139.

Forest Planting in Nezv .Jersey. By A. Gaskill. Reports of the
Forest Park Reservation Commission. Trenton, N. J. 1913.
Pp. 31.

Wood-Using Industries of Neiiv York. By J. T. Harris. Ser-

Other Current Literature. 97

ies XIV, No. 2, New York State College of Forestry, in co-
operation with U. S. Forest Service. Albany, N. Y. 1913. Pp.
213.

Second Annual Report of the Cotiservation Commission, igi2.
Division of Lands and Forests and Fish and Game. Albany, N.
Y. 191 3. Pp. 297.

Contains annual report of the Forestry Bureau, pp. 67-114,
which is well illustrated with half tones and one map showing
the forest conditions.

Control of two Elm-Tree Pests. By G. W. Herrick. Bulle-
tin T^T)'^, Agricultural Experiment Station, Cornell University.
Ithaca, N. Y. Pp. 491-512.

Woodlot Forestry: A Manual of Forestry for Use on Farms
and Country Estates. By R. Rosenbluth. Bulletin 9, State of
New York Conservation Commission. Albany, N. Y. 19 13.
Pp. 104.

An excellent bulletin on this subject.

The Influence of Forests upon Climate. By Prof. DeC. Ward.
Reprint from the Popular Science Monthly, April, 1913. Pp.
313-332.

The Power of Growth in Plants. By G. E. Stone. Reprinted
from Popular Science Monthly, September, 1913. Pp. 231-239.

Tree Planting for Shelter in Minnesota. By P. C. Records.
Bulletin i. Forestry Board. 1913. Pp. 30.

Contains data on species to plant, and methods of planting
and care.

Illinois Arbor and Bird Days. Circular No. 68, issued by
F. G. Blair, Superintendent of Public Instruction. Pp. 71.

Contains popular articles on various topics related to birds and
trees.

The Trees and Shrubs of Oklahoma. By C. W. Shannon.
Circular 4, Oklahoma Geological Survey. Norman, Okla., 1913.
Pp. 41.

Contains a list of the trees and shrubs of the state and a
few notes in regard to the distribution of each ; preliminary.

98 Forestry Quarterly.

Trees and Shrubs of Nezv Mexico. By E. O. Wooton. Bul-
letin 87, New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts.
State College, New Mexico. 1913. Pp. 159.

Contains a brief botanical description of the woody plants
found in the State.

forest Protection Law. State Board of Forest Commission-
ers, Washington. Olympia. Pp. 24.

Contains the text of the forest law, also a few suggestions re-
garding burning logged-ofT land, slashings, etc.

State vs. National Control of Public Forests from the Viezv-
point of a Western State. By the Oregon Consen^ation Com-
mission. Portland, Ore. 191 3. Pp. 8.

A defense of national ownership of public forests.

Volume Table for Redwood. Compiled by A. W. Elam. Pub-
lished by H. K. Starkweather. Alameda, Cal. 1913.

Forty-Third Annual Report of the Bntomological Society of
Ontario, 1^12. Legislative Assembly, Toronto, Canada. 1913-

Pp.

Contains among other papers, Faunal Zones of Canada, pp.
26-33; Notes on Some Forest Insects of 1912, pp. 87-91.

Fodder and Pasture Plants. By G. H. Clark and M. O. Malte.
Department of Agriculture. Ottawa, Canada. 1913. Pp. I43-

Report of the Minister of Lands and Forests of the Province
of Quebec, 1Q13. Quebec, Canada. 1913. Pp. I55-

Sixth Annual Report of the Forestry Committee, University of
Cambridge (England) Forestry School. 1913. Pp. 4.

On the Economic Value of Shorea robusta (Sal.) By R-
S. Pearson. Volume 11, Part IT. Economy Series, Indian For-
est Memoirs. Calcutta, India. 1913- Pp. 70.

Discusses the physical and mechanical properties, durability,
uses, minor products obtained from the tree, fuel value, prices
and annual cut.

Other Current Literature.

99

Report on the Forest Administration of the Central Provinces
for the year ipii-ipi2. Nagpur, India. 1913. Pp. 64.

AnnuaJ. Progress Report upon State Forest Administration in
South Australia for the Year ipi2-ipi^. Adelaide. 1913. Pp.
12.

Annual Report of the Department of Public Lands far the
Year ipu. Brisbane, Queensland. 1913. Pp. 96.

A Cntical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus. Volume 11,
Part 9. By J. H. Maiden. Sydney, N. S. W. 1913. Pp. 267-
289, plates 81-84.

PERIODICAL LITERATURE.
FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION.

Generally speaking the forests of Asia-

Forests tic Russia are confined to the mountains of

of Caucasus and the northern part of Siberia.

Asiatic Russia. The interior country is too arid for forest

growth.
Conifers are more important in the north while the hardwoods
reach their best development in the mountain valleys of south-
western Asiatic Russia. Among the latter, beech and oak are
most important commercially although walnut, birch, elm, maple,
ash, linn and poplar also occur. Pine, spruce and fir are the
important conifers.

Exploitation has been confined almost entirely to the shores
of the Black Sea and northeastern Siberia. From both of these
sections ship transport is comparatively easy and supplies are
sent at a low cost to the nearby markets. The vast softwood
wealth of western and central Siberia has as yet been scarcely
touched. Since the rivers drain north, transport must be through
the Arctic Ocean and the summer is so short that a vessel can
rarely make a round trip from England or Holland in a year.
Unless cheap railroad transportation to the south can be secured
the forest wealth of northern Siberia must remain uncut for
some time to come. K. W. W.

Aus Rnssland. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, Aug., 1913. Pp.

451-454-

Transcaucasia is the Russian province
Forest Conditions lying south of the Caucasian Mountains
in and north of Persia. In spite of the long

Transcaucasia. time it has been settled, its dense popula-
tion, and its stormy history nearly 30%
of the total area is still forested. The private forests have, how-
ever,Hfen badly abused and even the Government holdings are
not in very good condition. If these latter are properly handled
they will be able to furnish the greater part of the timber needed

Periodical Literature. loi

by the province even though only the poorer and more inacces-
sible sites have been set aside for this purpose.

The three main types of forest are those in which pine is the
predominant species, the spruce types, and a mixed hardwood
type. The author subdivides the pine types into three main sub
types with site classes in each. There are only two important
spruce types.

The principal timber trees comprise no different species,
among which pine, spruce, oak, elm, basswood and boxwood are
the most important commercially.

Satisfactory reproduction can be secured whenever proper at-
tention is paid to the light requirements of the species to be re-
generated and the seedlings do not have too much competition
from grass and weeds.

The report from which this article was prepared was made
for the Imperial Russian Forest Institute in 19 13 by a forester
especially delegated for this jjurpose. It is to form the basis
for the future forest policy for Transcaucasia.

K. W. W.

Aus Russland. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, Dec, 1913. Pp.
651-657-

BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.

The range of Polyponis dryadeus is
Root Parasite probably co-extensive with that of the oak
of in Europe and America. Many species of

Oak. both red and white oaks are known to be

susceptible. The virulence of the parasite
does not seem to be very great, as vigorous trees usually with-
stand attack. A white mottled sap rot of the roots is produced
which later involves the heartwood, but which does not extend up
into the trunk beyond the soil line. It is here, at the surface of
the soil, that the fruiting bodies are formed. The study is of
interest because it adds to our meager knowledge of root di-
seases, and because it establishes the fact that the stem heart rot
ascribed by Hartig to P. dryadeus is due to an entirely different
fungus, namely P. dryophilus. J. Mj; F.

Journal of Ayricultural Research, Department of Agriculture, Vol. J,
No. 3, 1913, pp. 239-248.

I02 Forestry Quarterly.

Investigations conducted by the author
Heart-rots in 191 2 on the condition of the oaks in

of the Ozark National Forest and elsewhere

Hardwood Trees, resulted in finding twenty different kinds
of heart-rot. Six of these have been for
the first time associated with the producing fungi, and an ac-
count of three of them is given in this paper. The number of
affected trees in some districts is very great — in one instance up
to 64.8 per cent of some thousands of oaks that had been felled
for commercial purposes. The infected trees were as a rule
old trees, and the fungi had gained entrance in general through
fire-scars. "So marked is this association of fire-scars with
heart-rots in the Ozarks that one could tell the areas in the
forest which had been most frequently burned over from the per-
centage of trees affected with heart-rots."

The three types described are: (i) a pocketed or piped rot of
oak and chestnut caused by Polyporus pilofae Schw. ; (2) a
string and ray rot of the oak caused by P. berkeleyi Fries ; and
(3) a straw-colored rot of oak caused by P. frondosus Fries.

J. H. F.

Three Undescribed Heart-rots of Hardwood Trees, Especially Oak.
Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. i, No. 2, 1913, pp. 109-128.

Prof. Crocker and his assistants are car-
Toxicity ning on extensive experiments in gas in-

of juries to vegetation at the University of

Smoke. Chicago, and the present paper is the first

of a series of articles to be published on the
subject. They find that chimney smoke is only slightly toxic to
the seedlings of sweet pea. 500 times less so than the smoke
from a loosely rolled paper cigarette. Injuries from coal smoke
are generally attributed to tars and oxides of sulphur, while
reduced carbon-bearing gases have never been considered as a
factor. The authors think, however, that carbon-bearing gases,
especially ethylene might be in sufficient concentration to do in-
jury and still be in too small quantities for detection by chemical
analysis. One part of this gas in 10 million of the atmosphere
inhib|^the growth of an etiolated epicotyl of the sweet pea. The
processes of civilization are continually adding to the ethylene in

Periodical Literature. lo^

the atmosphere, as the burning of all carbohydrates, burning of
coal, escaping of artificial illuminating gas, producing of gas in
the bee hive method of coking, escaping of certain sorts of nat-
ural gas, and probably other processes. So far as known, there
is in nature no special absorbent for ethylene, also no cycle for
the gas as there is' for carbon dioxide and oxygen. Having no
estimate of the total additions to the atmosphere from the sources
indicated above, one cannot calculate whether accumulation up
to the danger point is likely to occur. One factor that favors
the effectiveness of the oxides of sulphur as plant poisons in the
open as against heavy hydrocarbons is their great solubility- in
the plant cell which would lead to their accumulation even under
great variation in atmospheric concentration, whereas the heavy
hydrocarbons would accumulate to a far less degree and varia-
tions in concentration greatly reduce their injurious effects.

C. D. H.

The Botanical Gazette, May, 1913, pp. 337-371.

SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE.

Goddard is one of the latest investiga-
Soil tors to attack the much debated question of

Fungi. the power of non-mycorhizal fungi grow-

ing freely in the soil to fix free nitrogen.
Eighteen species were isolated from samples of garden soil and
grown on culture plates. Seven of them were the same as
those found in forest soil by investigators in Holland. It ap-
pears that, unlike bacteria, these fungi are rather uniformly dis-
tributed in the soil, at least to a depth of about six inches. Most
of the fungi studied were taken from three plots; one of which
was untilled and unfertilized, one well tilled but unfertilized, the
other both well tilled and well fertilized with stable manure.
The fungous flora, however, did not diflfer materially in species
or abundance in the three cases. The most abundant in all of
the plots were members of the genera Miicor and Fusarium.
The author made tests of some 14 species and none of them
showed any power of assimilating free nitrogen when grown
in nitrogen-free media. In looking over the literature of tlie
problem, however, one finds more evidence that soil fungi do

I04 Forestry Quarterly.

have the power of fixing free nitrogen than the contrary. Yet
it is only fair to say that the tendency of the later investiga-
tions with their improved methods of experimentation is towards
conclusions like that of the present investigator.

C. D. H.
The Botanical Gazette, October, 1913, pp. 249-305.

A scholarly study by Forstmeister Wag-
Solar Energy ner of Pommerania of the power of the
in the sun in the forest, deserves more than the

Forest. brief mention which can here be given.

Wagner starts out by showing the import-
ant role which solar-energy plays in the growth of forests. This
energy he seeks to determine quantitatively and qualitatively ;
which, from the standpoint of silviculture has never heretofore
been done.

Of course, the solar energy on unshaded areas has been deter-
mined. Wagner sums up the data along these lines and then,
from the standpoint of solar energy directs his inquiry along
four main lines:

I. The influence of latitude upon crown formation, volume
production, number of trees, basal areas and branch formation.

II. The extent of sim rays in the forest, with special reference
to Border Cuttings (Blenderaumschlage.)

III. The absorption of solar energy in the green leaf and its
relation to site and to volume production.

IV. The measurement of light in the forest; results and prac-
tical importance.

Much of what Wagner writes about is of a physico-chemical
character and yet it all has its direct application in practical for-
est management. For example, his studies show that a pure
stand of 130 year old oaks, "closed," and with the crowns al-
most touching each other, passes half of the red light waves,
on which, he has previously shown, growth energy chiefly de-
pends. Poor soil conditions are evidenced by the presence of
short light waves under the crowns. From this Wagner con-
cludes that under the north German solar conditions, (pure
stands of oak involve an unjustifiable waste of solar energy and

Periodical Literature. 105

mean soil deterioration. A complementary species such as beech
must, therefore, be introduced into the stand if half the solar en-
ergy is not to be wasted.

Wisely Wagner (unlike his namesake in Tubingen!) refrains
from making world-wide deductions on inadequate premises or
recommending his findings as being of universal applicability.
Very rationally he confines the use of his spectralphotometer and,
indeed, of all photometric methods in the forest, to the realms of
research. In practice, e.g. in the marking of thinnings', the find-
ings of investigators can be applied. The essential thing is to
utilize the solar energy just as completely as possible by secur-
ing the maximum of absorption in the crown cover. Besides this,
the crown spread and hence the growing space of the individual
tree must be larger in northern than in southern latitudes if
all the solar energy is to be absorbed, since in northern latitudes
the sun's rays fall less vertically. Of course, the exact grow-
ing space depends also on age, species' and site quality. This
adequacy of future crown spread is not always properly re-
garded in marking, so that stands approaching maturity have
often been too severely thinned in their youth. This means
enforced isolation of crowns in mature trees ; often breaks in the
crown cover with attendant loss of solar energy.

Wagner has introduced a new aspect of Conservation: i. e.
Conservation of Elemental Energy. That this energy is limited
is a thought strange to even our era of conservation.

In this line of research Wagner admits science has only made
the barest beginnings. The solar energy and the composition
of solar rays are inadequately known. The analysis of chloro-
phyll composition is far from completed. Physics and chemistry
have not yet, determined the exact chemical eflFect of light in the
forest.

Wagner concludes these exhaustive studies with the modest
assertion that the future will see the study of solar energy play
as important a role in forest management as it already does in
medicine and in general technology.

"Die Sanncncnergie iui Walde." Allgenieine Forst- und Jagdzeitung,
June, July, September, October, 1913. Pp. 185-200, 225-242, 297-319, 333-
3SI.

Io6 Forestry Quarterly.

In the last number of the Quarterly (p.
Temperature 576) a paper by Livingston on Plant
Coefficients Growth and Climate was reviewed. Now,

in in collaboration with Mrs. Livingston, he

Plant has advanced a step — several steps — far-

Geography ther in consideration of the subject. The

and authors point out that plant association

Climatology. boundaries must be considered as peripher-

ies of certain complexes of environmental
conditions. Thus far, investigators of ecological conditions have
been unable, successfully, to unravel the tangle of conditions
which effect the success of organisms in a given habitat. These
environmental factors are water, non-aqueous materials, heat,
light and mechanical conditions. What makes the problem of
distribution still more complicated is the fact that each separate
component of the environmental complex is variable in intensity,
in duration and often in quality, as well as variable according to
the stage of development of the organism acted upon. The
authors in the present paper deal with only one of the environ-
mental factors, namely temperature. As is well known, the
usual method of dealing with temperatures in their effect upon
plant distribution is to add up all the degrees of temperature,
above a certain limit, experienced by the plants during the frost-
less period. It, however, seemed to the authors that the ap-
parent value of temperature summations must rest upon some
basic principle of physiology not indicated in the summations
themselves. To this end the chemical principle of Van't Hoff
and Arrhenius is employed, that is, within certain limits the
velocity of most chemical reactions doubles or somewhat more
than doubles for each rise in temperature of 10 degrees Centi-
grade. This principle has been applied with general corrobora-
tion to the functions of plants, since such functions are mostly
chemical or at least dependent upon chemical reactions. For
example, it has been found, beginning with resting buds, that in
the case of the flow^er buds of plum, peach, apple and other fruits,
the time required for blooming is reduced by one half for each
rise in temperature of 10 degrees Centigrade. If the processes
of growth and development do really exhibit temperature coef-
ficients, it is plain that the study of environmental temperature
factors should deal with these rather than with temperatures di-

Periodical Literature. 107

reclly. or at least they can be used as a check upon the tempera-
ture summation method. The latter plan the authors carry out.
That is, they sum the normal daily mean temperatures of 106
stations in the United States for the period of the average frost-
less season (the direct index) ; they sum the temperature ef-
ficiences corresponding, respectively, to the normal daily means
and to the adopted coefficient (2) for each 10 degrees variation
(the efficiency index.) Then they plot both sets of tempera-
ture indices on a map of the United States, and the map is
then divided into areas by climatic lines in the usual way. To
compare the two series of indices thus charted, the ratio of
each direct index to the corresponding efficiency index was ob-
tained, thus giving a ratio for each station. These ratios were
also charted on a map. In a roughly approximate way the two
methods are in agreement, since for most of the area of the
United States they give results which agree within the limits of
a plus or minus variation no greater than 5 per cent. For local
areas, however, there are considerable variations — sufficient to
negate the correspondence of the two methods on an area which
one man would be likely to study in actual field work. The direct
index (summation) is a measure of the duration of the tem-
perature factor of climate, while the efficiency index (10 degree
variation) is a measure of the intensity of the temperature fac-
tor. Which of these more nearly approximates the measure of
the temperature effectiveness of a climate, so far as plant growth
is concerned, will no doubt remain for a long time undetermined.

C. D. H.

The Botanical Gazette, November, 1913, pp. 349-375.

An extract from "Indian Engineering"
Forest brings up a controversy as to the value of

Protection forests on steep slopes. One school has

to assumed that the roots of forest growth

Hill Slopes. extend into the crevices of rock and there-

by assist disintegration and erosion. The
other school believes that the roots envelop the rock and soil
masses and "tie them together as a cord would do." Moreover,
it was argued that the action of water and frost was more se-
vere when there was no forest cover. The conclusion was
reached "There is no doubt that in the first place they never

io8 Forestry Quarterly.

promote slips while deforestation frequently does." The re-
viewer, however, has noticed an interesting exception to this
rule in the French Alps where in a certain instance the forest
acts as a sponge and tends to promote land slips by concen-
trating a large weight of water upon a thin subsoil which slides
upon the rock foundation. Here, one of the means of attack
to prevent a land slide is to cut the forest. This is, of course,
an extreme measure.

T. S. W., Jr.

Indian Forester, November, 1913, p. 551.

SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION.

Frombling contends that the uneven de-
Root velopment of individuals in a dense crop

Competition is not, as modern silviculturists claim, a

vs. matter of root competition rather than of

Predisposition. individual predisposition. For, he says,
since the raw humus, which in time nor-
mally is transformed into assimilable substance, accumulates in
the dense stand under the protective shade, it furnishes ample
food, and root competition can only be for food. Competition
for room can also not be the cause of uneven development or
thinning out of stands, for just the species with characteristic
tap roots, oak and pine, which get their water supplies from
the depths, thin out most surely, while on the other hand the
species' with shallow roots, spruce, fir, beech, thrive and keep
dense in close crown cover, although here root competition
would be expected. He calls root competition a most dangerous
term.

Welche Rollc spielt die Wurzelkonkurrens im Haushalte des Waldes.
Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, April, 1913, pp. 170-175.

Now that there is a definite revolt broken
Extensive out in German forest circles against the

and old clear cutting method with artificial re-

Intensive generation, practised so extensively, espe-

Management. cially with pine. Dr. Endres' summary of
the advantages and disadvantages of in-
tensive and extensive management is very timely.

Periodical Literature. 109

Naturally it goes without saying that all forest management is
intensive as compared with agriculture because the yield per unit
area is small and large tracts must be secured to have appreciable
results. There is, however, a great difference in intensity even
with schemes of forest management. Clear cutting foUov.-ed by
artificial regeneration of pure stands is an example of extensive
forest management and the bad results which have often fol-
lowed this method have led to the demand for more intensive
systems in which groups of trees and not whole stands are the
unit of management.

However, Dr. Endres points out that all the evils ascribed to
the clear cutting system as applied to pure stands are not in-
herent. The defects urged against it are that it leads to soil
deterioration and increases the danger of wind and insect dam-
age. Dr. Endres asks questions whether the latter evils are any
more prevalent over long periods in pure even aged stands than
in irregular stands. Alost of the present day troubles are with
pure even aged stands but there is not the same detailed data
as to insect and wind damage in irregular mixed stands because
such forests are very rare at this time in Germany. Soil de-
terioration in pure stands can be avoided in great part according
to the author by refraining from opening up the mature stand
preliminary to the final felling operations and by immediate re-
planting.

An argument often used in favor of an intensive system
which produces mixed stands is that pure stands are unnatural.
Pure, even aged stands occur in nature, however, over wide areas.
Two illustrations familiar to all American foresters are white
pine and lodge pole pine stands. The fact seems to be that tliere
is wide range of adaptability. Some species reach their best de-
velopment in mixture while others occupy large areas to the ex-
clusion of other species.

The most telling argument against more intensive silviculture
>uch as the methods of Gayer and Wagner demand is the econo-
mic one. While an increase in the cost of administration may
bring larger revenues up to a certain point the forester must con-
sider very carefully whether the greater expense necessary to
carry out a "group" or "border" cutting will yield commen-
surate returns in soil enrichment, more rapid growth, freedom

no Forestry Quarterly.

from damage, and greater adaptability to future market condi-
tions.

Summarizing, the author would point out the danger of over
emphasizing the defects of extensive, cheaply administered meth-
ods of handling pure stands by cutting clean and planting during
the present admiration for more intensive silviculture.

K. W. W.

GrossfBchenwirtschaft und Kleinfldchenimrtschaft. Forstwissenschaft-
liches Centralblatt, Aug., 1913, pp. 401-412.

Paul Buffault gives an interesting ac-
Reforestation count of the forestation on the federal for-
m est of Vierzon, based on a study of the

France. work executed since the year 1670 when

the forest comprised 294 acres of brush
and openings, and 7,670 acres "entirely ruined and devastated
either by fires or by the grazing of ordinary stock and sheep." At
this time 89 per cent of the forest area was unproductive. In
1779, the openings only amounted to 3,358 acres, or 25.6 per cent
of the entire area. In 1859, the blanks had increased to 4,077
acres, owing to faulty working plans. In 1879, with the excep-
tion of 741 acres burned over, the blanks had practically disap-
peared. This was the situation at time of the disastrous win-
ter of 1879-80 when 2,362 acres of Maritime Pine reforestation
was destroyed by frost. These openings were increased by the
burning of 1,591 acres. In 1890, there remained about 2,718
acres to restock. From 1891 to 1904, 2,157 acres were re-
stocked. During this period the total expense was on an aver-
age of $23.56 per ha. or $9 per acre forested. The writer gives'
in detail an account of the reasons for the failures which may
be summarized as follows: Crowding b}- undergrowth, poor
quality seed and drouth, rabbits, fire and lack of drainage. Of
these causes for poor success in sowing, heather and imder-
brush were the most disastrous. The plantations during the per-
iod 1891-1904 covered 2,179 acres of which 1,326 was new work.
The average success was 50 per cent for new plantations and
37.7 per cent for the maintenance of old plantations. The aver-
age expense here was $5.64 per acre forested, or about one half
of the cost of sowing. But the average cost of plantations for
the entire forest has* been about $7 per acre ; this figure would

Periodical Literature. ill

be increased to $io if the value of the plants were included.
The main causes of failure in planting have been excessive
moisture, invasion by heather and brush, damage by game, (espe-
cially stags), and drouth. Buffault concludes that direct seed-
ing must be abandoned as too costly and because the results are
too uncertain. On the other hand, the plantations give suf-
ficiently satisfactory results to justify being continued provided
the soil is first drained and cleared. Preference is given to
Scotch Pine and Pedunculate Oak. Interesting experiments are
to be carried on with important American and foreign species.

T. S. W., Jr.

Revue des Eaux et Forets, November 15, 1913, pp. 673-681.

Smythies of the Indian Forest Service
Silvicultural reviews at length the silvical characteristics

Systems and methods of handling Chir pine. He

for sl'iows that during the past 50 years a num-

Chir Pine. ber of silvicultural methods have been used

in the Himalaya Mountains in British In-
dia, notably the shelterwood selection and group methods. The
shelter wood system seems to be unsatisfactory where it is neces-
sary to sacrifice young stands in order to obtain regularity. There
are also objections to the application of the group and selection
methods'. Mr. Smythies makes a plea for the treatment of the
species without respect to a system of management, the method
to be varied in each compartment according to the needs of the
species.

T. S. W., Jr.

Indian Forester, November, 1913, pp. 513-525.

Before 1870 various fire insurance cora-
Forest Fire panics wrote insurance against forest fires,

Insurance but the experiences of the large fires in

in 1870, especially in the Gascony pineries,

France. led to the abandonment of this kind of

insurance. Since that time mutual insur-
ance has been successfully attempted. It was figured that if the
whole pineries of the departments of Gironde and Landes had
been insured at 20 cents per acre and on average valuation of
$24 per acre a company would have made $200,000 from 1858

8

112 forestry Quarterly.

to 1900 and $311,000 from 1900 to 1908. Upon this calculation
the mutual insurance company was founded.

Schweizerischc Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen, June and July, 1913, pp.
222-23.

The controversy in regard to fire pro-
Fire taction in the teak forests of Burma is

Protection. continued by H. C. Walker. The main

point at issue seems to be whether the
damage caused by fire is sufficient to justify the cost of protec-
tion. For example, Mr. Walker estimates that the average cost
of protection amounts to $13.00 per square mile per year whereas
the damage is but little over $3.00. He summarizcb his reasons
for discontinuing fire protection in the moist teak forests of
Burma as follows: (i) "The first reason is to avoid the deterior-
ation of the growing stock which it has been proved that fire

protection causes." (2) "The second is to divert the

funds and the energies' which are now utilized on fire protec-
tion to attending our forests." Mr. Walker makes a rather in-
teresting review of the fire protection policy in Burma. In
1896, a large majority of the local officers were in favor of con-
tinuing protection. In 1902, the four conservators "assuming
the desirability of fire protection was beyond dispute, proposed
to extend protection to all teak forests in Burma within the fol-
lowing five years." This started a lively controversy and the
scheme to extend protection was quietly dropped. In 191 3, it
appears that the majority are now against fire protection. The
results of the experiences in Burma are of significance to Ameri-
can foresters.

T. S. W.. Jr.

Indian Forester, November, 1913, pp. 532-540.

MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT.

In an exhaustive article, Dr. Borgmann
Nezz of the Royal Saxon Forest Academy at

Yield Tharandt, critically appraises and compares

Tables. the results of recent yield investigations

from the scientific and practical stand-
points.

Periodical Literature. 1 13

In no phase of forest mensuration has American practice lag-
ged further behind European precedent than in the construction
of yield tables, (and this is not to be wondered at!) hence this
study by Borgmann is so far in advance of our times that a
detailed review thereof is scarcely justified.

One or two points of especial interest shall, however, find men-
tion here :

The newer yield tables, leased upon a heavier degree of thin-
nings have brought about a later culmination of the mean an-
nual increment and with it of the maximum soil rent (financial
rotation.) The culmination is later on good site qualities than
on poor ones, as the following average table shows (calculated
with a uniform interest rate of 2^-%.)

Site Quality I III V

Financial Rotation (in years)

1. Spruce (P. exceha), 85

2. Fir (A. pectinata). 100

3. Pine (P. silvestris), no

4. Beech (F. silratica), . . . 120

5. Oak (O. pcdiinciilata), . . . 140

Dr. Borgmann's article includes the latest Saxon yield table
for spruce which is herewith reproduced in full. The reviewer
is especially glad of this opportunity since the table given in
his article "Management of Spruce in Saxony" (Forestry Quar-
terly, V^olume XI, No. 2, p. 147) is unfortunately misleading
through the use of a conversion factor (.17) which gave too
high results. Indeed, a general factor for translating cubic meter
per hectar into feet board measure being impossible, only the fig-
ures for the financial rotation (80) years) are so translated by us-
ing the factors. .01-.08.

80

75

90

80

100

90

no

130

114

Forestry Quarterly.

YIELD TABLE, NORWAY SPRUCE (Picea excelsa)
SITE l-V
CUBIC FEET PKR ACRE

I

n

III

IV

Age

Min.

Aver

Min.

Aver.

Max.

Min.

Aver.

Max.

Min.

Aver.

10

443

458

372

400

429

300

329

358

229

257

15

887

958

715

801

872

568

629

701

386

472

20

1316

1430

1058

1173

1301

801

915

1044

529

658

25

1931

2131

1530

1730

1916

1130

1330

1616

715

915

30

2530

2789

19SS

2259

2517

1444

1702

1973

887

1158

35

3261

3618

2531

2889

3246

1802

2159

2517

1073

1430

40

3975

4419

3060

3504

3961

2159

2603

3046

1244

1687

45

4762

5320

3647

4204

3748

2545

3089

3632

1416

1973

50

5548

6192

4233

4876

5534

2917

3561

4219

1587

2245

55

6364

7136

4833

5591

6349

3303

4061

4819

1759

2531

60

7179

8051

5420

6292

7164

3675

4533

5405

1916

2789

05

7994

8980

6020

7007

7979

4061

5034

6006

2074

3060

70

8809

9896

6621

7708

8795

4433

5520

6607

2231

3318

75

9610

lOSll

7207

8408

9595

4805

6006

7193

2388

3589

80

1039

11697

7779

9081

10382

5162

0464

7765

2531

3832

Ftbd.

43,600 65,400

32,600 44,500 58,000

14,90022,600 32,600

3,500 8,000

86

11140

12541

8323

9724

11125

5506

6907

8308

2674

4090

90

11869

13371

8852

10353

11855

5834

7336

8837

2803

4304

95

12556

14157

9352

10954

12541

6149

7751

9338

2932

4533

100

1322S5

14915

9838

11526

13213

6449

8137

9824

3046

4733

Max.

286
543
787
1115
1430
1788
2145
2531
2903
3289
3661
4047
4419
4791
5148
14,000
5491
5820
6135
6435

T
Aver.

148

243

329

443

543

672

772

887

987

1101

1287

1287

1387

1487

1573

Max.

216

372

515

701

872

1058

1230

1401

1673

1746

1902

2059

2217

2374

2517

Dr. Borgmann concludes:

(i) That the yield investigations conducted by the German
Experiment Stations are scientifically accurate.

(2) The data in recent yield tables furnish an invaluable
basis for deciding questions of practical management aside from
their obvious value in determining the volume and increment of
individual stands.

(3) Yield tables are especially useful in

(a) Forest Organization: as basis for choice of species and
method of management; for deciding upon the most favorable
rotation age as well as for judgment site and stand quality;
especially for the estimate of the volume and increment of in-
dividual stands.

(b) Forest Valuation: e.g. in damage calculations.

(c) Forest Statics: e.g. in determining the most advantageous
degree of intensity in thinnings ; in the ascertaining of value
increment.

(4) Continued investigations of the yield according to classes
of product and a closer relation with wood technology is to
be desired.

"Wie sind die Brgebnisse der neuren forstlichen Brtragsuntersuchungen
tuich ihrem ivissenschaftlichen und praktischen W'crt su heurteilen?^' All-
gemeine Forst- und Jagd-zeitung, December, 1913, pp. 397-412.

Periodical Literature.

"5

Dr. U. Miiller of Karlsruhe reviews the
Forest second edition of Hufnagl's book on For-

Organization. est Organization. After commenting on
the increased Uterary activity among fores-
ters, the reviewer cites this notewortliy case of a book on a
highly specialized subject receiving a second edition in two years'
time. The changes from the first edition are slight ones.

Hufnagl's working plan methods are those adapted to exten-
sive conditions. His yield regulation is by the Stand method.
The yield determination may be by any standard method ex-
cepting, of course, the period methods (Fachwerks methoden.)
Hufnagl's own methods he cites as means of yield determination.
To the American reader Hufnagl's methods are available in
"The Theory and Practice of Working Plans" (John Wiley
and Sons, N. Y., 1913.) Pp. 49, 75, 81, 82 and 83.

Hufnagl's book is remarkably free from obscuring technicali-
ties. Its title of "practical" has been justified by the rapid sale
this book has had.

"Praktische Forsteinridhtung." Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung,
November, 1913, pp. 380-381.

Organization He who is interested in the development

of of working plan procedure in Europe.

Communal should read Dr. Hemann's proposals for

Forests. yield regulation in communal forests of

Prussia.

These differ quite markedly from the
prescribed practice for the State forests of Prussia promulgated
on March 17, 191 2* since the communal conditions to be served
require different treatment.

Dr. Hemann believes that the regulation of yield should be by
the stand method in conjunction with an area-period framework.
Supervisors and rangers of communal forests should receive
extra pay for the additional duties of preparing the working
plan — this in default of a provincial bureau of Forest Organi-
zation.
The subject is too specialized to warrant protracted discus-

*For description see Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung for January,
191 3, pp. 10-25.

Il6 Forestry Quarterly.

sion here; however, it is of considerable interest in view of the
possible development of communal forests in Xew York* and
Pennsylvania.

Opinions divergent from those of Dr. Hemann are expressed
by Oberforster Dr. Gehrhardt in an open letter on the same
subject. The matter is of too restricted interest to warrant re-
producing it here, however, the discussion is quite illuminating as
showing present tendencies in Forest Organization abroad. Among
these is the insistence that so specialized a subject as working
plans be placed in the hands of a Central Bureau of Forest Or-
ganization rather than left to each Forest Supervisor. As Dr.
]\Iartin has said : "The assumption that the Forest Supervisor
can make the working plan for his forest in a manner satisfying
the demands of the present day, can only come from those
persons who do not know sufficiently the far-reaching significance
of working plans."

Ertragsregeltmg in Prcussischen Geineindcwaldimgcv. Allgemeine
Forst- und Jagdzeitung, November, 1913, pp. 384-389.

Ueber die Anu'cndbarkeit dcr iicurii Preiissisclicn Betricbsregelungsan-
weisung aiif die Rheinischen Geineinde Waldungen. Allgemeine Forst-
und Jagdzeitung, December, 1913, pp. 422-429.

In a review of investigations by Apper-

Douglas Fir mann, there is cited an interesting yield of

in Douglas Fir which was introduced into

Denmark. Denmark* towards the middle of the last

century. A sample plot planted in 1880

yielded in the first thinning (1905) 200 cubic meters of timber

wood to the hectare, and had, when 29 years old in 1909, a

total volume of 377 cubic meters to the hectare, which amounts

to an annual production of 20 cubic meters per hectare for the

first 29 years, (286 cubic feet per acre.)

T. S. W., Jr.

Revue des Eaux et Forets, December i, 1913, p. 720.

*"Counti', Town and Village Forests," Cornell Reading Course, Vol.
II, No. 40, May 15, 1913.

Periodical Literature. II7

UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY.

H. W. Glover of the Indian Service de-
Trattsport scribes in detail a local method of trans-

by Aerial ^x)rting fuel at Murree in the Himalaya

Cable. Mountains. The ropeway is three miles

in length and the loading station is situated
at an elevation of 6,387 feet, the unloading station at an eleva-
tion of 6,567 feet, with the lowest intermediate point 5,454 feet.
An endless wire cable, which passes around horizontal wheels,
is suspended at intervals along its course on sheaves supported
by trestkh and steel beams which rest on concrete foundations.
Detailed drawings and figures accompany the description. A
very detailed estimate of cost of construction and operating ex-
pense is appended.

T. S. W., Jr.
The Patriota Ropeway. Indian Forester, October, 1913, pp. 463-471.

Prices for mine timbers increased in
Prices 191 3 over 1914 by from 5 to 10 per cent,

of Wood and in some cases up to 31 per cent, due

in to increased demand and decreased im-

Prussia. portation. Railroad ties (2-15%) and

pulpwood also brought substantial in-
creases (2-6%.) On the other hand, the market for sawmill
products was poor or at least uncertain, although in South Ger-
many conditions were more favorable, the imports there play-
ing an important role, and these have become more expensive,
due to increased cost of production in the export countries. In
general, i to 4 per cent may be considered the average increase
in wood prices for the year.

Silva, October, 1914, pp. 341 and 353.

By 1909 the German railroads had over

Metal 20,000 miles (31%) of metal track; the

vs. largest percentage (46%) in the heavily

Wooden Ties. forested States of Wiirttemberg and

Baden, while Saxony was almost without

metal ties. At first 88 lb. ties were used, which did not last

more than 15 years; then 118 lb. ties, and finally 154 lb. ties'

Il8 forestry Quarterly.

were introduced, increasing the cost considerably, the tieing on
wood in Saxony costing $3,200 per mile, the metaling in Baden
about $5,800. Such cost would necessitate a duration from 50
to 60 years, considering also the increased cost of the better sub-
structure of track necessary. This, in the face of treated beech
ties lasting 30 years (in France), would speak against the metal
tie. But there are other advantages from metal track which
the author does not bring into his calculation.

Hk)lzschwelle oder Eisenschwelle. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forst-
wesen, August, 191 3, pp. 254-56.

Owing to the decreasing shortage of
Mangrove taiibark in Europe and in America, the

for note prepared by Mr. Pearson of the In-

Tanbark. dian Forest Research Institute at Dehra

Dun, is of special interest. According to
his investigations, in the Tan Extract Factory at Rangoon it
was clearly demonstrated that Mangrove bark yielded extracts
of good quality which were saleable in Europe. The largest
forests of this species are found down the coast of Arakan, ex-
tending along the Bassein coast towards Rangoon, and again
along the coast of Mergui and Tavoy in south Tenasserim.

T. S. W., Jr.
Indian Forester, November, 1913, pp. 545-548.

STATISTICS AND HISTORY.

The recently published Bavarian official

Bavarian forest statistics for the management years

Statistics. 1910 and 191 1 are reviewed by Stam-

minger. They show out of a total area

of 6,472,000 acres a total timber growing area in state forests

of 2,016,831.5 acres in 1910 with a net yield of $3.87 per acre;

and 2,018,402.5 acres in 191 1 with a net yield of $4.12 per acre.

This is in sharp contrast with the net yield of $1.76 per acre in

1868 and $3.61 in 1898! The volume of business is shown by

the following statement:

Gross Income

Expenses

Net Income

I9I0

$14,447,175

$6,536,481

$7,811,694

I9II

$15,251,898

$6,932,643

$8,319,255

Periodical Literature. 119

Of the expenditures the leading ones for planting and road
building were as follows:

Planting Road-building

1910 32c per acre 30c per acre

191 ' 33c per acre 33c per acre

Fires in 1910, 42 in number destroyed i acre in 18,000 in 1910,
but in 191 1, 237 fires destroyed i acre in 4326 of State forests.

Mitteilungen aus der Staats forstverwaltung Bayerns. Allgemeine Forst-
und Jagdzeitung, November, 191 3, pp. 382-383.

According to the Proceedings of the
Finnish Finnish Forestry Association, the wood in-

Statistics. dustry of Finland (on 50 million acres or

63 per cent, of total land area) has in-
creased during 1910, by over 25 per cent, to around $34,000,000.
There were manufactured into buttons and spools over 12 mil-
lion cubic feet of birch, the products being worth over $1,200,000.
Ground pulp with $4 million; chemical pulp with nearly $5
million and altogether paperstock with $15 million was manu-
factured. The wood industry represents 29.5 per cent of all
industries, the paper industry 15.4 per cent, or altogether 45
per cent.

Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, April, 1913, p. 220.

According to an article in the Revue Scien-

Forests tifique the wooded area in Alsace-Lorraine

of comprises 1,111,950 acres or 31 per cent.

Alsace-Lorraine. of the total area as compared with 27 per

cent, for the entire German Empire and

18 per cent, for France. This wooded area has not varied since

1871. Two-thirds of the species are broad leaved trees, beech,

oak and others and the remainder conifers of which one-third

are pine and two-thirds spruce and fir. 308,875 acres are treated

by coppice and coppice under standards, and 370,650 acres as

high forest. The total annual cut averages 21 million cubic feet

and the annual production per acre has increased from 44 cubic

I20 Forestry Quarterly.

feet in 1871 to 62.7 cubic feet in 191 1. The proportion of saw
logs has increased during this period from 33 to 44 per cent.

T. S. W., Jr.

Revue dcs Eaux et Forets, November 15, 1913, pp. 697-698.

The latest ownership statistics of federal,
Forests communal, public institution and private

of forests of Belgium are as follows :

Belffium. Federal forests, 79,800 acres

GDmmunal, 410,000 "

Public institution, 16,440 "

Private (census of 1894), 678,200 "

Total, 1,184,440

The figures show that the per cent, forested is 18.32.

T. S. W., Jr.

Revue des Eaux et Forets, November 15, 1913, p. 694.

Oberforster Miiller having delved in the

History archives of his home city, Leipzig, tells

of a most interestingly of the history of that

City Forest. city's forests. These are now comprised

chiefly in the two royal Saxon "reviers"

Burgaue and Connewitz, a total of 2,412 acres. Originally the

major portion of these woodlands belonged to local monasteries;

but the Reformation ended this and gradually possession passed

to the city of Leipzig.

The first survey of the city forests was made in 1563 by di-
vision of the area into triangles and the measuring, on the ground,
of the base and altitude of each (triangulation!). The survey
also included a rough description of the component stands.

The need for better bases of yield determination led to a resur-
vey in 1714. Again, triangles were used to calculate areas. Care-
ful descriptions of the forests formed a part of this survey.

The boundaries were fixed accurately for the first time in
1597- Stones and scribed trees were used as monuments, the
latter only till the eighteenth century when, for greater perma-
nency, stones were substituted. The completion of the bound-
ary work in 1597 was followed by an inspection on the part of a
Commission appointed by the City Council. A protocol tells of

Periodical Literature. 121

this inspection and of how more ma jorum, the celebration-dinner
ended in one local nobleman and the parish pastor becoming com-
pletely inebriated.

These forests were then and are still, comprised almost wholl}-
of hardwoods. The need of wood for fuel and of larger sizes
for construction timber (oak), naturally led to a system of Cop-
pice with Standards. Though a sustained yield was not always
possible owing to the exigencies of frequent war-times, the stands
seldom suffered for want of intelligent care. Always' there was
the realization of what was needed to improve existing conditions
in the forest, and the striving for this ideal.

From the administrative standpoint the Leipziger forests are
most instructive. The monasteries called the forests' silva or
mirica or, if coppice, rubetum and virgultum. The forestarius
(hence our forester and the German forster) had charge not only
of the sik'a but of all that was foris with respect to the monas-
tery, including ponds, meadows, etc. The title of forestarius or
Forster was continued under the city administration. One of
the Forster became in the i6th Century an Oberforster (present
title of all German supervisors) and, because of this headship,
was made mounted with all that this signified in improved social
standing.

Regulation of the yield was by area, the aim being to cut an
equal area annually. As early as 1538 this principle was an-
nounced. At first this area was merely determined in amount,
later, 1617, it was also distributed on the ground according to
the ages of the component stands. The resurvey of 1714-1716
resulted in a complete working plan based on area with a 20 year
rotation for the coppice.

Regeneration of the stand was by natural means. Gradually
the coppice began to deteriorate and, in 1726,, first mention is
made of artificial restocking of fail places and of unthrifty
stands. But not till fifty years later was anything really accom-
plished in the way of planting.

In 1804 a new working plan was' prepared which marks the
beginning of a new epoch in forest management. The author,
however, ends his essay with the close of the old order or about
the time of the battle of Leipzig, too years ago.

"Ztir Geschichtc der IValduiiaen der Stadt Leipzig." Allgemeine Forst-
und Jagdzeitung, November, 1913, pp. 36^-372.

122 forestry Quarterly.

MISCELLANEOUS.

The various semi-popular texts on forestry
Forestry Books which have recently appeared, among
for which may be cited Graves' "Handling of

Laymen. Woodlands," Hawley and Hawes' "For-

estry in New England," and the forthcom-
ing book on "Elements of Forestry" by Moon and Brown
(all published by John Wiley and Sons, N. Y,), lends especial
interest to the review by Dr. Mueller of Schiipfer's "Outlines
of Forestry."

It seems that, in Germany, interest in forestry is spreading
among laymen owners of forest property. For them, primarily,
this compendium is designed. Aside from a brief introduction
on the economic importance of forests and forestry, the book is,
therefore, confined to the subjects of forest production and forest
management, omitting forest policy, history and administration
as irrelevant to this purpose. The reviewer rather criticizes this
omission since even the layman should be acquainted with the
elements of these important phases of forestry. On the whole,
though, he adjudges the book as a distinct success.

"Grundriss der Forstwirtschaft." Dr. V. Schiipfer, Professor of For-
estry at the University of Munich, pp. 268, plates 53. Stuttgart, 1912. All-
gemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung, November, 1913, pp. 379-380.

Associations At this stage in our development Dr. von

of Fiirst's article is very timely because our

German Foresters, own Society of American Foresters can
undoubtedly learn much from the history
of similar organizations abroad.
The German "Forstverein" as newly constituted has now been
in existence since 1900 and its present thriving condition is evi-
dence that it is filling a real need in a satisfactory manner. Prior
to its formation there was an annual gathering or Congress- of
German foresters but through lack of a permanent organization
these meetings were not as effective as they have since been
made. There was no continuity of policy, little was accom-
plished in the way of standardization, and the lack of funds
created deficits which were hard to meet.

As early as 1881 Dr. Danckelmann proposed a permanent or-

Other Periodical Literature. 133

ganization but preliminary education was necessary before the
idea secured general acceptance. Since it was not until 1897
that the "Forstverein" was really launched in Frankfort a. M.,
"Aus dem Walde" was made the official organ and a membership
of 244 enrolled. At the forest congress of the following year
the movement was given a truly national scope by the enrollment
of 1,100 members and by the appointment of a directorate of 28,
composed of 16 delegates at large, 8 from local forest organiza-
tions, and 4 from forest schools. This number was later in-
creased to 55 by adding more members from the forest schools
and from the ranks of the private practitioners.

The functions of the board of directors are to choose the offi-
cers', decide the themes, and in general legislate for the associa-
tion. For each meeting two subjects are chosen for discussion.
One of these is silvicultural and the other economic, as for in-
stance: 1905: — Forest aesthetics and private forestry; 1904: —
The humus question and the taxation of forest land.

In addition to the wide discussions which the annual meetings
afford important standardizations have been effected in German
forest practice through the agency of this organization. Further-
more projects of national scope have been carried through, like
the collection of forest statistics so that the Proceedings have
become records which even,- German forester needs.

K. W. W.

Der Deutsche Forstvcrem und seine bisherige Tdtigkeit. Forstwissen-
schaftliches Centralblatt, Aug., 1913, pp. 413-424.

OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE.

American Forestry, XIX, 1913, —

Federal Forestry. Pp. 909-918.

Economic Factars in PrizKtte Forestry Work. Pp. 932-
945-

Lumbermen attd Ottr National Development. Pp. 946-
951-

124 j'orcsiry Quarterly.

[XX, 1014]

Forest Planting in Pike's Peak. Pp. 14-21.

Reconnaissance : Its Relation to Forest Working Plans.
Pp. 22-30.

Public Knowledge of Forest Economics. Pp. 58-63.

Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, XliVI, 1914, —

Notes on the Sources of the Peace River, British Colum-
bia. Pp. 1-24.

Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, XU, 1914, —

Chemical Utilization of Southern Waste. Pp. 33-40.

Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arhoi-icultural Society, XXVIII,
1914, —

The Development Commission and Forestry. Pp. 14-27.
Extracts from the report of the commissioners for year
ended 31st March, 191 3.

Th^ State Forests of Saxony. Pp. 28-46.

Continental Notes — France. Pp. 60-72.

The Formation of Plantations on Deep Peat. Pp. 72-78.

77zc Excursion to Sivitzadand. Pp. 83-97.

Visit to German Forests. Pp. 100-104.

The Gardeners' Chronicle, IjV, 1914, —

Conditions Affecting Germination. Pp. 24-25,
A classification of some seeds according to their behavior
when exposed to various conditions' of humidity.

Other I'cyiodical Literature. 125

The Timber Trades Journal, LXXIV, 1913, —

Swedish Statistics. Pp 857.

Reclaiming Sand Dunes in Belgium. P. 857.

Bulletin de 1» Societe Dendrologiquc de France, Xo. 30, 1913, —

Graines et Plantules des Angiospermes. Pp. 185-244.
Continuation of the series.

Monthly Kiilletin of Agricultural Intelligence and Plant Diseases,
IV, 1913, —

Moor Cultivation in Austria. Pp. 1672- 1677.

Present Conditions of Forestry in Italy. Pp. 1682-1688.

The Selection System in Forest Economy. Pp. 1688-1695.

Distribution of Forests in the Natural Regions of Switzer-
land. Pp. 1 822- 1825.

Yale Review, October, 1913, —

Who Should Own the Forests F Pp. 145-156.

The writer concludes that public ownership is essential.

Rod and Gun, XVI, 1914, —

The Dominion Parks. Pp. 905-910.

NEWS AND NOTES.

For the first time the Western Forestry and Conservation As-
sociation held its annual meeting in Canada at Vancouver, B. C,
December 15 and 16. This association has been a most import-
ant factor, not only in timber protection, but in moulding public
opinion. At the meeting, reports of progress made in the five
States of the West v^ere given, and, in addition, a large share of
the time -was devoted to the discussion of problems pertaining
particularly to British Columbia. Practical questions were dis-
cussed during the two days' session, participated in by timber-
land owners, forestry officials and railroad officials, on both sides
of the line. Fire protection in all its phases was the principal
topic, involving modern methods for fire-prevention, fire-fighting,
and communication in the forest. The session was brought to a
close by a banquet given by the British Columbia lumbermen.

It was stated at the meeting that "The best single result of the
1913 fire season has shown that systematized co-operative effort
at an insignificant cost per acre, or per thousand, can reduce our
forest losses of an average year from four or five million dollars
to about as many thousands, on the twenty million acres of tim-
ber lands controlled by the lumbermen forming this association."

There are now thirty timber-owners' associations in the United
States, the members of which have got together to adequately
protect from fire their combined holdings, which now total about
25,000,000 acres.

In Canada, there is but one association of this kind, the St.
Maurice Fire Protective Association. The Quebec limit-holders
comprising this association have, by a self-imposed tax of one-
quarter cent per acre, installed a fire protective system on their
7,000,000 acres of holdings. In 1913 over 275 forest fires were
extinguished with practically no danger, proving, in the words of
the members, that "The success of co-operative forest fire pro-
tection has been estabUshed without a doubt."

After the disastrous forest fires in 191 1 the Michigan State
Forestry Department conceived the idea of organizing the Boy
Scouts into a protective association. Last year 3,000 scouts were

Nezi's and Notes. 127

enrolled in this work and extinguished 731 fires. The fire loss
of $3,500,000 in [911 was reduced to $67,000 in 1912, and to
$23,000 last year.

The Forest Service of the Province of Quebec now employs a
total of sixteen professionally trained foresters. Nearly all these
men have received their professional training at the Forest School
at Laval University, Quebec.

During the summer of 1913, the Quebec Forest Branch had
fourteen parties in the field, each in charge of a technically
trained forester. The work undertaken by ten of these parties
was a valuation survey of unlicensed Crown timber lands. Of
such lands, there are approximately 125,000 square miles in the
Province of Quebec. The Crown lands under license aggregate
approximately 70,000 square miles. The revenue from these
lands during the past year has aggregated nearly one and three-
quarter million dollars.

In addition to the ten parties engaged as above, four parties
were engaged in an examination of licensed lands, to determine
the boundaries of permanent forest reserves. It is the policy of
the Quebec Government to segregate non-agricultural forest lands
into permanent forest reserves as rapidly as the necessary infor-
mation can be secured.

The Canadian Northern Railway has taken a very progressive
step in connection with the prevention of fire along its lines by
the appointment of Mr. William Kilby as Fire Inspector. Mr.
Kilby is to have general charge of all phases of the Company's
fire protection work. This practically involves the creation of a
new department in the Company's organization. This includes
right-of-way clearing, fire patrols through timbered country, and
the construction of fire guards through prairie sections in Alberta,
Saskatchewan and Manitoba. The prosecution of these lines of
work is required by the Railway Act and the orders of the Board
of Railway Commissioners.

The Canadian Northern is the first large railway company in
Canada to organize a special department to handle fire-protection
work. Experience has demonstrated that the best results in this
class of work are secured by specialization. The example of the
Canadian Northern might be followed to excellent advantage by
other lines.

128 forestry Quarterly.

A National Forestry Congress, similar to the one in 1906, will
be held in Ottawa next January. This was decided, on the sug-
gestion of the Premier, by the delegates to the sixteenth annual
meeting of the Canadian Forestry x\ssociation.

The Lieutenant-Governors of all the Provinces, members of
Parliament and of the Senate, prominent lumbermen, and in fact
everybody who is prominently identified and in sympathy with
forestry, will be invited by the Premier to attend the congress,
at which matters pertaining to the preservation of the forests
will be discussed.

Prior to deciding on holding the convention, the delegates
waited on the government and submitted resolutions covering
such matters as the extension of forest areas, more care in de-
ciding what lands shall be opened for settlement, free distribu-
tion of young trees, and that appointments in the forestry service
be based on capability and experience.

During the past year, much progress has been made in the
province of British Columbia in connection with minimizing fire
risks through the disposal of slash resulting from lumbering
operations. In 19 13, according to the Provincial Forest Branch,
about 20,000 acres of lumbering slash were burned in that prov-
ince, and a much larger area would have been burned had it
not been for an extremely wet autumn. On the Coast and in the
Interior, several experimental areas were burned by the Forest
Branch, which, also, in co-operation with the Department of Pub-
lic Works', burned a great many miles of slash along public roads.
Such inflammable debris constitutes a serious fire menace as long
as it is allowed to remain undisposed of.

The Forest Branch, in co-operation with private land owners,
secured the burning of quantities of slash created by road and
railroad construction through private lands. It was a condition
of the charter of the railways' now building through the province,
aggregating 1,800 miles in length through timbered territory,
that where timber is taken from Crown Lands for construction
purposes, the slash shall be piled and burned, scattered and
burned, or lopped, according to the direction of the forest officers.
This was done over an area of nearly a quarter of million acres.

About one hundred and twenty timber sales are completed or
under negotiation with private companies, both lumber and pulp

News and A'ofcs. 129

companies, and brush disposal is an important provision of each
timber sale contract. Specific information is being collected by
the Forest Branch as to the cost of brush disposal, but it is too
early as yet to make definite annoimcement of the results.

The Massachusetts Forestry Association oflfers prizes for the
revival of tree planting in the State, the prize to go to the town
or city which properly plants this spring the greatest number of
shade trees on its streets in proportion to its population. The
prize is a novel one, consisting of the planting of one mile of
street or road or an equivalent, by the Association, in the pre-
cincts of the winner.

Under the auspices of the National Lumber Manufacturers'
Association a Forest Products Exposition will be held in Chicago
April 30 to May 9, 1914, when the exhibits will be moved to
New York and be displayed May 21 to May 30.

Merritt Berry Pratt, deputy supervisor of the Tahoe National
Forest, has been appointed assistant professor of Forestry in
the University of California, in the new department of forestry
to open next autumn.

Frederick E. Olmsted announces the removal of his office
from 21 Lyime Street, Boston, to 255 California Street, San Fran-
cisco, where he will continue work as a consulting forester.

COMMENT.

An insert published with this issue is to correct a number of
errors which have occurred in the previous volume arising from
the use of an erroneous factor of conversion from metric into
foot board measure.

This leads us to make some observations' on points to be con-
sidered when handling and especially when converting German
figures into our measure. In the first place the forester should
realize early that all his measurements (except in some special
scientific work) are merely approximations to the truth and
mostly averages. Hence it is ridiculous to attempt to be accurate
to tenths, hundredths, and even thousandths. Fractions are al-
most invariably unnecessary, a rounding oE to full figures is
almost invariably preferable, and often a rounding off to tens,
hundreds and even thousands is nearer the truth than a statement
to units. For instance, a statement of the forest area of a coun-
try to units is really ridiculous, for there is no survey accurate
enough to permit such a statement. Here accuracy to thousands
of acres will convey to the reader better than a more detailed
figure the status of things. To be sure, when a single forest
property is concerned in a commercial transaction, it is quite a
different matter.

Still more ridiculous may become attempts to state with pains-
taking accuracy relationships, as for instance yield table state-
ments, especially if expressed in board measure, say to the foot.
Not only do we know that the original measurements are capable
of widest variation, but the variety of standards and log rules
is such that a statement to hundreds and even thousands is all
that we may accept as within the limits of attainable accuracy.
Hence why burden the reader with the untruth contained in the
closer figures?

The painstaking accuracy is particularly ill advised when trans-
lating statistics and other data from foreign measures into our
own, for the simple reason that not only do the data themselves
partake of the same uncertainty (although sometimes not to the
same extent) as our own, but the conversion factors for prac-
tical handling are. for practical reasons, shortened, introducing

Comiueni. 131

an additional source of variation ; hence rounding off is still more
justified.

The rounding off", to be sure, must be done with judgment and
such judgment is in part based on the use to which the figures
are to be put, and the character of the measurement involved.
If you convert kilometers into miles, it would be foolish to work
out a translation to feet ; if tree heights are involved an approxi-
mation to say five feet may still be acceptable when timber is in-
volved, but if seedling growth is to be investigated the statement
may be needed to even fractions of an inch.

Still more judgment is required when attempting translations
of assortments into other assortments, especially into feet board
measure, for the foot board measure in itself is an entirely un-
certain quantity when applied to the round log, depending on the
size of the log and the log scale used. An article in this issue
throws interesting light on this phase. Even the German figures,
although they appear as definite cubic measure are variable in
their meaning, since the standard of classification is variable
from State to State, from time to time, and, to some extent,
from species to species (taper!). German yield tables state
quantities in cubic meter (at 35.336636 cubic feet) per hectare
(2.471 14 acres); hence 14.3 will be the factor by which to
multiply to make cubic feet per acre. The statement will be
either for all wood including brush, or else only for "stout wood"
or "timber wood" (derbhols), leaving out the brush with a dia-
meter of 7 cm or less, i. e., including all the wood, branches as
well,, of more than 2.7559. • -inches.

Here we may stop to point out that it is of little if any value
to set the limit for conversion at anything closer than the round
3 inch, for the quarter inch or so less does not approximate the
truth any closer than the round figure, as will be readily admit-
ted by those who measure diameters by two-inch classes.

The brushwood per cent., which, of course, in the young age
classes is 100 varies with age, species, and site, hence a direct
translation from all wood to timber wood is not possible without
a brushwood per cent, or else sawlog percent table.

The "stout" or "timber" wood is by no means log material for
mill purposes, but includes cordwood, etc. : it is merely the useful
wood, as it would be with us where fuelwood is saleable. Lo-
cality also influences the translation!

132 forestry Quarterly.

What we would call loc/s in German usage must be over 14 cm
(5.5 inch) measured at i ni from the smaller end; this we can
readily round off to 5 inch at the small end, and if it were stated
at 6 inch it would also not be egregiously wrong, and for East-
ern conditions at least we could accept either as standard. Un-
fortunately, few German yield tables contain this differentiation
into saw logs, the statement of generally useful wood production
satisfying the German forester. Even those yield tables which
make this differentiation, like Schwappach's, do not state them
in the simple board measure statement but, by percentage of the
stout wood product, in a classification which must be understood,
but is too complicated to elucidate here.

The first thing that must be recognized is that it is absolutely
impossible to construct one conversion factor that is applicable
for tramlating a whole yield table into board measure, for th*e
simple reason that from decade to decade, from site to site,
from species to species the log per cent, varies. By using one
and the same conversion factor we come to the evidently absurd
result, that a lo-year-old, or 20- or ^o-year-old stand contains.
feet board measure, i. e. saw logs. It is not even possible
to secure a single conversion factor which can be used for the
same species at the same age, because different sites will vary
in their log production in a given time. We must then have
different conversion factors for given conditions, the variation
being due to a variable log content.

Taking the Scotch Pine at 100 years, a usual rotation, the
percentages of log material run from site I to site V: 71, 60, 36,
18, none. These percentages may be increased by material taken
from thinnings and otherwise by a small amount.

Taking Schwappach's yield table for Scotch Pine, we find that

considering only the logs of the main stand on a first site no logs

are found b. fore the 50th year. In the 50th year 9 per cent, of

the stout wood produced are recorded and then from decade to

decade the percentages are 20, 40, 53, 64, 71, 79, 84, 90, 90.

That is to say after 130 years there is no change in log wood per

14.3
cent. The corresponding conversion factors run ( x per

cent.) : .02, .04, .06, .074, .081. .09, .097, .104. Who will average
these variables for translation of a whole yield table! We see
then that a direct translation from cubic meter per hectare to

Comment. 13^

board feet per acre is impossible except by referring to stated
conditions.

Yet it is desirable to have some data for rapid comparison,
and such we may secure by averaging conditions, somewhat as
follows. On better sites in old timber 60 per cent, of saw timber,
and 40 per cent, for poor sites; for medium old timber (80 to
100 years) 50 and 30 per cent, respectively; for young timber
(below 80 years) 40 per cent, on good sites and 20 per cent, on
poor sites, keeping in mind that poor sites have often hardly
any saw logs before 60 to 80 years. The corresponding con-
version factors would then be reduced to say .05-.07; .03-.05;
.02-.04 for the three different positions, using the lower figure
for poorer conditions. Since most of the rotations of German
forests circle around 100 years for statements of final yield, the
likely saw log output found by using the factor .06 will probably
hit the average of yields including thinnings, the average product
at that age being 40,000 feet board measure, with a maximum of
over 100,000 feet and a minimum of say 2,500 feet.

The Biltmore bubble is burst ! We do not intend to convey any
invidious insinuations on the enterprise by this alliteration, but
only to express in the picturesque language which the director
of the Biltmore school would be apt to use the cessation of a
picturesque institution. Dr. Schenck has written himself its pic-
turesque obituary, and in doing so has departed from the usual
mode of obituaries, which are built on the maxim de niortuis nil
nisi bene, by giving a slap to its graduates. He insinuates and
complains that none of them "had made notable successes," that
they "did not make any striking successes," that "none had be-
come a live advertisement for the Biltmore forest school," and
that they had to "start at the bottom everywhere." This last
statement is indeed amusing. What did the director expect ? Did
he suppose they would start at the top? We can name at least a
half dozen of his men who have made good, and a few who are
first-class and do not deserve the slap. It is our suspicion that
they made good in spite of the school, which was carried on upon
mistaken pedagogic principles, when introducing immediately to
the practical field without previous fundamental or systematic
theoretical training a motley crowd with various degrees of even
general education. The lack of quiet study time alone would be

134 Forestry Quarterly.

inimical to results. For such kind of introduction to a complex
practical profession the time, one year, was much too short, and
hence a heterogeneous mass of undigested information could in
most cases be the only result, except for a few better prepared
or exceptional men. What would have been an excellent post-
graduate course after the theoretical work had been done was
bound to become an impossible pedagogic abortion for under-
graduates.

The hunting after practicality before the theoretical foundation
is laid is a fad, which will usually revenge itself by short dura-
tion. In this respect as in the advertising line, Dr. Schenck tried
to outstrip the American notoriety hunter by calling his school
the "really American Forest School." He is right, there is "no
more need of such a unique school as Biltmore ;" it was, as he
now admits, "visionary."

There were other reasons why the Biltmore school was not one
to recommend itself, which it would lead us too far to enumerate;
and there are perhaps other reasons for its cessation than those
given by the director.

Dr. Schenck in his obituary gives to the American public part-
ing advice. He calls for an organization for the distinct purpose
"of acquainting the American public with forestry as an Ameri-
can business possibility," and in the same breath he declares, that
private forests are "not maintained because they cannot be main-
tained at a profit." He is right in thinking that the task in the
woods of introducing forestry methods had better be entrusted
to a logger who knows some forestry, but it will be well to have
it done under the direction of a forester who knows some logging
— without necessarily being a logger. It cannot be accentuated
enough that the present-day logger in America is in an entirely
different business from the forester.

Dr. Joseph T. Rothrock, whom every forester on this conti-
nent knows as one of the pioneers in the forestry movement,
having reached his 75th year has resigned as a member of the
Pennsylvania State Forestry Board, after serving on it for 20
years, although he is still hale and hearty, and active.

Dr. Rothrock was originally a medical man, in which capacity
he served during the civil war, then turning to botany and acting
as botanist on various explorations, he l>ecame Professor of Bot-

Co}iiinent.

135

any at the University of Pennsylvania. He also gave the lectures,
endowed by the Micheaux fund, intended to popularize silvicul-
ture, and, when in 1886 the Pennsylvania Forestry Association
was formed he was naturally the man to become the leader of
the movement. It was the first forestry association that could
afford a paid Secretary, and send him through the State lectur-
ing. It is not too much to say that the whole sane, consistent
and persistent development of forest policies in Pennsylvania is
due mainly to the efforts of Dr. Rothrock. He formulated the
original legislation, which established the first governmental
agency, and became the first head of the Forestry Division, and
afterwards Forestry' Department.

Long may he be spared to give his valuable advice to his State !

A very important and very sane re-adjustment of royalties for
timber licenses has been embodied in a bill before the legisla-
ture of British Columbia by the Minister of Lands, Hon. Wm.
R. Ross.

Those familiar with Canadian conditions will recall that six
or eight years ago the provincial government of British Colum-
bia disposed of most of their timberlimits under the license
system, charging a uniform royalty per M feet of 50 cents ir-
respective of location ; reserving, however, like all Canadian li-
cense systems the right, on the part of the Crown, to change
conditions. It is evident that a uniform royalty charge for all
locations is unfair, and that an arbtrary right of one of the
parties to the contract to change conditions is unfair to the
other party and immoral, and, on the other hand, that a royalty
which does not change with change in timber value is unfair to
the people and unbusinesslike.

The Minister of Lands, who was responsible for the estab-
lishment, two years ago, of an efficient forest service, has boldly
taken hold of the situation and solved the problem of equitable
dealing in a most practical manner. In this bill the province is
divided into three localities as regards timber dues: the coast
territory, where 85 cents per M feet is charged, but only on the
better grades, the lower being relieved of dues — a very wise dis-
tinction: the southern Rocky Mountain district where 50 cents
royalty is charged throughout, but by applying the B. C. log rule
as against the Doyle rule, the discrepancy of values is somewhat

136 Forestry Quarterly.

relieved; the northern interior, where conditions are still quite
undeveloped and little activity exists carries a royalty of 65
cents. The government pledges itself for 15 years not to raise
royalties for small dimension material, but there is to be every
five years until 1955 a revision of the royalties on logs, namely by
establishing the average lumber price and adding a certain per-
centage of the increase, if any, above $18, the present price, to
the royalty, namely 25 per cent, at the first revision and increas-
ing percentages at each revision until finally 40 per cent, of the
increase is added to the royalty in 1945.

Grading applied in the Coast region is specially taken care of
in the bill and a revision for such grading in ten-year periods
provided for.

While in this re-adjustment the government does not perhaps
secure as much as would have appeared fair had it not in the first
place made a disadvantageous bargain, we must consider that as
fair a compromise as possible, doing justice to all parties con-
cerned.

It gives stability to the lumber business for forty years without
fear of disturbances, and, while we miss provisions for improved
forestry practice, at least the financial side of the government
interest is better taken care of and changes to introduce for-
estry methods are at least forshadowed.

With this legislation, if enacted, British Columbia takes the
lead in Canada in modern and efficient timberland administration,
which by passing into the hands of a forest service promises a
final forest management for their future.

In the exuberance of his enthusiasm at having solved the tick-
lish problem the Minister in a public address is misled into as-
serting that the principle of such re-adjustment has never been
enacted before by any other nation. In this the Minister is mis-
informed. In Prussia the government rate, under which no
timber is to be sold, is adjusted every three years.

GURLEY ENGINEERING INSTRUMENTS

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WRITE FOR CATALOGUE

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Makers of Engineering Instruments Since 1845

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Forestry Reports For Sale

Owing to the large demand for reports of the Forestry Com-
mittees at the National Conservation Congress, the Forestry
Committee has decided to place these reports on sale in pamphlet
form.

Full Set (12 reports), ... $1.90
Single Reports, each, .10 cents

The Most Valuable Addition to
and Lumbering in

The Reports are:

Forestry Committee OrganizatioR
Forest Publicity
Federal Forest Policy
State Forest Policy
Forest Taxation
Forest Fires

Order from

AMERICAN FORESTRY

WASHINGTON,

Any Library on Forestry
Many Years

Lumbering
Forest Planting
Forest Utilization
Forest School Education
Forest investigations
State Forest Organization

ASSOCIATION

D. C.

Yale University Forest School

NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT

A two-year course is oflFered, leading to the
degree of Master of Forestry. Graduates of
collegiate institutions of high standing are
admitted upon presentation of their college
diploma, provided they have taken certain pre-
scribed undergraduate courses.

The first term is conducted at Milford, Pike
County, Penna. The session in 1914 will open
July 5 and continue ten weeks.

For further information, address
JAMES W. TOUMEY, Director, New Haven, Connecticut

The University of Toronto
and University College

With Which Are Federated

ST. MICHAEL'S. TRINITY AND

VICTORIA COLLEGES

Faculties of Art, Medicine, Applied Science, House-
hold Science, Education, Forestry.

The Faculty of Forestry offers a four-year course,
leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Forestry.

For iaformatiOQ, apply to the REGISTRAR OF THE UNIVERSITT, or
t« th« Secretaries of the respectire Facultiea.

THE NEW YORK STATE COUEGE OF FORESTRY

AT

SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY

Syracuse, New York

Undergraduate course leading to degree of Bachelor of Science; Postgradu-
ate course to Master of Forestr>', and one- and two-year Ranger courses.
Sophomore Summer Camp of eight weeks and Ranger School held on the
College Forest of 1,800 acres at Wanakena in the Adirondacks. Summer
Forest Camp in August on Upper Saranac Lake. Forest Experiment Station
of 90 acres and excellent Library offer unusual opportunities for research work.

For particulars address: HUGH P. BAKER, D. Oec, Dean

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE
offers a two-years' course in FORESTRY leading to the degree of
Master in Forestry. The descriptive pamphlet will be sent on
application to W. C. SABINE, 15 University Hall, Cambridge,
Mass.

UNIVERSITY OF MAINE

ORONO, MAINE

Offers a four-year undergraduate course, leading to the degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN FORESTRY.

The Location and Equipment of the School and the Opportunities offered to

Students of Forestry are excellent.

For detailed information, address

JOHN M. BRISCOE, Department of Forestry, ORONO, MAINE

WOULD YOU LIKE

to receive regularly the Bulletins and Circulars pertaining to the actual
practice of preventing the decay of wood? While these frankly advocate
the use of Avenarius Carbolineum for the brush or open tank treatment of
timber they are none the less interesting on that account but rather
MORE so, for Avenarius Carbolineum is, without doubt, the one preserv-
ative that has demonstrated its decay-preventing qualities during thirty-
live years. The Bulletins and Circulars are sent free.

Circ. 56 contains a Bibliography of Technical References.

Circ. 58 covers Treating Tanks for Fence Posts, Shingles, etc. Address

CARBOLINEUM WOOD PRESERVING CO.
185 Franklin St., New York, N. Y.

The Care of Trees in Lawn, Street and Park

By

B. E. Femow

American Nature Series. Working with Nature.

Published by

Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1910
392 pp. S.'' Illustrated. Price, $2.00 Net

For Sale by

Henry Holt & Co., New York

Economics of Forestry

A Reference Book for Students of Political Economy
and Professional and Lay Students

By B, E. RERINOW

13mo., $1.50 net. By mail $1.6S

"It is by far the best and most important work on forestry which deals with
American conditions." EDWARD M. SHEPARD,

New York.

"I find it as I expected meaty and complete. It fills the place it is written for."

PROF. F. ROTH,

University of Michigan.

"I haTcread few books on forestry with as much enjoyment."

PROF. DR. SCHWAFPACH,

Eberswalde, Germany.
A NEW MUCH REVISED laJITION NOW IN PRESS

F^or Sale by

T. Y. CROWELL & CO.

NEW YORK

REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION

History of Forestry

IN

Germany and Other Countries

By B. E. Fernow
506 Pages, 8° Price, $2.50 Postpaid

Dr. Schwappach says: "The study of these conditions under
the guidance of the interesting expositions of Fernow is very
instructive."

Prof. Fisher of Oxford says: "Dr. Fernow's History of For-
estry is a welcome and important addition to our literature * * *
Fernow writes admirably about German forestry, with which
he is thoroughly acquainted."

Dr. Fankhauser of Switzerland says: "With great skill has
the author brought the voluminous material into a relatively
small volume and yet has everywhere brought out the essentials
in clear and easily intelligible exposition. The chapter de-
voted to Switzerland shows us clearly how exhaustively the
author has utilized the most important literature and how ex-
cellently he has understood how to orient himself in compli-
cated conditions."

A new and revised edition of this work has
just come from the press. Orders may be
placed with

FORESTRY QUARTERLY

1 4 1 0 H Street N. W. Washington, D. C.

OR

UNIVERSITY PRESS, Toronto, Canada

JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc.

432 FOURTH AVENUE NEW YORK CITY

LtBden; CHAPMAN & HALL, Ltd. MoRtreal, Can. : REKOUF PUBLISHINe CO.

BRYANT— Logging. The Principles and General Methods of Opera-
tion in the United States. By Ralph Clement Bryant, F.E., M.A.,
Manufacturers' Association Professor of Lumbering, Yale University.
8vo, xviii-|-S90 pages, 133 figures. Cloth, 3.50 net.
The more important features of operation are covered in this book.
Discusses at length the chief facilities and metjiods for the movement of
timber from the stimip to the manufacturing plant, especially logging rail-
roads.

The greatest emphasis is laid on features about which there is not
much written material available.

RECORD— Identification of the Economic Woods of the United
States. By Samuel J. Record, M.A., M.F., Assistant Professor of
Forest Products, Forest Service, Yale University. 8vo, vi-f-117 pages,
15 figures. Cloth, 1.25 net.

This volume includes a discussion of the structural and physical prop-
erties of wood. Designed primarily as a manual for forestry students, but
Yvill also aid others in the study and identification of wood.

RECKNAGEL— The Theory and Practice of Working Plans (Forest
Organization). By A. B. Recknagel, B.A., M.F., Assistant District
Forester, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 8v(H-235
pages, 6 half-tone plates. Cloth, 2.00 net.

A book which will assist you in becoming thoroughly conversant with
the value and need, scope and sphere of working plans.

Designed both for the student and the practical forester. In prepar-
ing this book the author constantly kept in mind the experience which he
gained while doing active work for the forest service in various parts of
the United States.

HAWLEY-HAWES— Foresty in New England. A Handbook of East
ern Forest Management. By Ralph Chipman Hawley, M.F., Assistant
Professor of Forestry, Yale University, and Austin Foster HawEs,
M.F., State Forester of Vermont and Professor of Forestry. Univer-
sity of Vermont. Bvo. xv-f479 pages, 140 figures, prmcipally half-
tones and 2 colored maps. Cloth, $3.50 net.

While this book is written with special reference to New England, it
has a much wider field of direct application, as forest conditions similar to
those in portions of New England prevail over a large part of New York,
New Tcrsev, in Pennsylvania, and also in southeastern Canada.

AMERICAN FORESTRY

$2.00 a Year Issued Monthly |

A profusely illustrated magazine with articles by ex- j

perts on all phases of Forestry and Scientific Lumbering, t

Every Forester Should Have It.

American Forestry Association

WASHINGTON, D. C.

JAMES W. SEWALL

Mapping and Surveying of Wild Lands

ESTIMATION OF TIMBER AND WORKING PLANS

(Formerly Foreslry Manager ef the Applefon & Sewall Co.)

U Centre Street Old Town, Maine, U. S. A.

MANUAL FOR NORTHERN WOODSMEN

By AUSTIN CARY, Harvard University Publisher, Cambridge,

1910; Pages, 2f)0. Price, $2.00.

A newly revised and improved edition of the above pub-
lication, highly recommended by the editor of this journal, can
be had at the above price by addressing Forestry Quarterly,

1410 H Street N. W., Washington. D. C.

Baok: Numbers

OF

FORESTRY OUARTERLY

Each Volume Complete. Write for Prices
Address Forestry Quarterly, 1410 B St. N. W., Washington, D. C.

The North Eastern Forestry Co.

**We Raise Our Own Trees"

Our specialty is nursery stock for forestry plant-
ing and our Seedlings and Transplants are unexcelled
in quality.

Write for quotations on the species in which you
are interested. Prices lowest in the country for best
grade stock.

The ITorth Eastern Forestry Co.,

New Haven, Conn.

FOREST TREES !

FOREST SEEDS

F.O.B. ROTTERDAM
Seedlings aad Transplanted. By the Million

PETER SCHOTT, KNITTELSHEIM

Rheinpfalz (Palatinate), GERMANY

Wholesale Seeds and Nurseryman

ESTABLISHMENT FOR DRYING CONIFEROUS SEEDS

ESTABLISHED 1784

The oldest established Seed and Narsery Buaiaess in Germany

ItESCRIPTlVE CATALOGUES POST FREE ON APPLICATIOPT

AN INDEX

to the first ten volumes of ttie

Forestry Quarterly

has been compiled and will be printed if a sufficient num-
ber of subscribers can be secured. Ijf These ten volumes,
containing 4.000 pages, covering the development in tech-
nical knowledge for the last decade, an invaluable refer-
ence work which becomes most readily accessible by such
an index. <jf It is calculated that the Index volume
will require about joo pages, and that if the majority of
subscribers to the journal subscribe to the Index, it may
be sold at $1 .00. Send orders to

American Forestry Association

WASHINGTON, D. C.

APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP

Date.

THE AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION

1410 H Street N. W., Washington, D. C.

Dear Sir: I hereby signify my desire to become in Annual Member and sab-
of the AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION. ^ CoSlSe.b.r ($10)

and enclose $ for dues, a Sustaining Member ($25)

a Life Memiitr ^$100)
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Name

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CONSULTING FORESTERS

and

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Timb*r Valuation, Fir* Prcvantlon, Boun-
dary and Topographic Surveys, Working Plans,
Managomont, Oparatien, Forost Planting
and Nursary Staok.

39 ASTICOU ROAD
FOREST HILLS, BOSTON, MASS.

FOREST TREES!

BY THE MILLION

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Shipments of 200

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Nurseries in Europe

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American Representative, OTTO HEIlfECKElf, Whitehall Buildint
17, Battery Place, New York City

Write for C&talotne and Forest Planter's Guide.

D. E. LAUDERBURN
Forest Engineer

Timber estimates, forest surveys and maps, inspec-
tion of logging operations, management of private
holdings, fire prevention, appraisal of damage by fire,
gases or trespass, tree planting.

56 Worth Street, New York City.

KtTABLISHSD 1845. INCOKPOKATRD I90O.

W. & L. E. GURLEY

TROY, N. v., U. S. A.
Larfatt Maattfacttirera in. America tf

Instruments for Civil, Mining and Hydraulic
Eng^ineers and Land Surveyors

Foresters' Instruments, Compasses, Plane-
Tables, Cliains, Tape-Lines, Etc.

N*. lOORECONNOISSANCe TRANSIT fiif.**
CATALOOUBS AND DETAILED INFORMATION ON REQUEST

PUa»» mention this V[»g^r.ine wh«a writing

CONTENTS.

A Suggestion for Securing Better Professional Termi-

nolog>-, ----- I

By P. S. Lovejoy.

Graded Volume Table for Vermont Hardwoods, - 5

By I. W. Bailey and P. C. Heald.

Red and White Fir — Xylometer Cordwood Test, - 24

By R. W. Taylor.

A Comparison of the Doyle and Scribner Rules with
Actual Mill Cut for Second Growth White
Pine in Pennsylvania, _ _ _ 27

By N. R. McNaughton.

Loss Due to Exposure in the Transplanting of White

Pine Seedlings, - - - - 31

By E. A. Ziegler.

Effective Fertilizers in Nurseries, - _ . 34

By G. A. Retan.

The Relation of the Surface cover and Ground Litter

in a Forest to Erosion, - - - 37

By M. J. Gleissiier.

Forest Taxation Activity in Massachusetts, - - 41

By H. J. Miles.

Cost Accounts for Reconnaissance Surveys, - - 44

By A. B. Connell.

Forestry in America as Reflected in Proceedings of

the Society of American Foresters. - 47

By Barrington Moore.

Current Literature, ----- 70

Other Current Literature, . - - - ^2

Periodical Literature, . - . _ jqc

Other Periodical Literature, . - - _ 123

News and Notes', - - - - - 126

Comment, - - - - - - 130

Volume XII No. 2

FORESTRY QUARTERLY

A PROFESSIONAL JOURNAL

Subscription Two Dollars per Annum

BELLE FONTE. PENNSYLVANIA

1410 H St.. N. W., WASHINGTON. D. C.
1914

Application peadinK for entry as second'Clasa matter.

FORESTRY QUARTERLY

BOARD OF EDITORS.

B. E. Fernow, LL.D., Bditor-in-Chief

Henry S. Graves, M.A., Hugh P. Baker, D.Oec,

Forester, U. S. Forest Service Syracuse University

Raphabi, Zon, F.E., R- C. Bryant, F.E.,

f/. 5". Forest Service Yale University

Frederick Dunlap, F.E., Samuel J. Record, M.F.,

University of Missouri ^ ^ ^ ^°'^ Unmersity

T. S. WooLSEY, Jr.; M.F., Richard T. Fisher, A.B.,

U S Forest Service Harvard University

Ernest A. Strung, F.E., Wai^ter Mulford, F.E.,

Consulting Forest Engineer, . ^ ^ Cornell University

Philadelphia, Pa. A. B. RecknagEL, M.F.,

Clyde LEAVITT, M.S.F., Cornell University

Commission of Conservation, *-" ^- HowE, Ph.D.,

Ottawa, Canada University of Toronto

FiUBERT Roth, B.S., J. H. White, M.A., B.ScF.,

University of Michigan University of Toronto
Asa S. Wiixiams, F.E.

P. S. Ridsdale, Business Manager
Washington, D. C.

THI OBJECTS FOR WHICH THIS JOURNAI, IS PUBUSHED ABtl

To aid in the establishment of rational forest management

To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of

interest to professional foresters of America.
To keep the profession in touch with the current technical

literature, and with the forestry movement in the United States

and Canada.

Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at the Uni-
versity of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of
editors.

Subscriptions and other business matters may be addressed to
Forestry Quarterly, Bellefonte, Pa., or 1410 H St., N. W., Wash-
ington, D. C.

Preaa of

Watchman Printtho Hou«k
BeUefont«, Pa.
1914.

Dcsit^n of a Ranoc Finder.

FORESTRY QUARTERLY

Vol. XII.] June, 1914. [No 2.

LIBRARY

DESIGN OF A RANGE FINDER. ^^^ ^^^^

ttOTANICAJ

By Lincoln Crowell. uakdbn.

Some time ago, I designed a range finder for lookout stations
to be constructed entirely of metal. At present the accuracy
and expense of such an instrument do not seem warranted.
Therefore I have devised another range finder, which, while
nnitp accurate, is nevertheless cheaolv and easilv constructed.

ERRATA

On page 137, volume XII read in 8th line:
**strap iron" for "scrap iron;" in 19th and 20th
lines: "minutes" for "feet."

Upon the circumference of such a circle graduations of 30 feet

or 15 feet can be accurately drawn. Five degree graduations are

obtained by measuring their natural tangents along the edge of a

circumscribed square, and by laying off the single degrees with

dividers along the circumference of the inscribed circle. By this

method the azimuth circle can be quickly and accurately drawn.

^ The paper disk and alidade are covered with a heavy coat of

rr shellac. When exposed to the weather the instrument is covered

*~" by a box with a pitch roof.

CO

Design of a Range Finder.

FORESTRY QUARTERLY

Vol. XII.] June, 1914. [No 2.

LIBRARY

DESIGN OF A RANGE FINDER. '^^^ ^^^^

ttOTANICAI.

By Lincoln Crowell. oakdbn.

Some time ago, I designed a range finder for lookout stations
to be constructed entirely of metal. At present the accuracy
and expense of such an instrument do not seem warranted.
Therefore I have devised another range finder, which, while
quite accurate, is nevertheless cheaply and easily constructed.
(See frontispiece.)

It consists, first, of a wooden base frame ; second, of a disk of
three-ply veneer or thin boards upon which a paper azimuth
jircle is glued ; third, of an alidade made of scrap iron.

The azimuth disk and alidade turn about a pivot fastened to

the base frame. The disk is turned by means of a U-shaped

iron rod, the ends of which fit into holes placed diagonally on the

isk. When oriented, the azimuth disk can be secured in place

jy clamps at the corners of the frame.

The sights of the alidade are cut out with a hack saw. The
azimuth readings are made at the right hand edge of the base of
+he alidade adjacent to the slit sight, where a knife edge is filed
jn a radius with the pivot.

The most practical diameter for the azimuth circle is 20 inches.

Upon the circumference of such a circle graduations of 30 feet

or 15 feet can be accurately drawn. Five degree graduations are

obtained by measuring their natural tangents along the edge of a

circumscribed square, and by laying off the single degrees with

dividers along the circumference of the inscribed circle. By this

method the azimuth circle can be quickly and accurately drawn.

. The paper disk and alidade are covered with a heavy coat of

^ shellac. When exposed to the weather the instrument is covered

'"" by a box with a pitch roof.

CO

138 Forestry Quarterly.

To adjust the azimuth circle:

1. Determine the azimuth of a line between some point that
can be seen from the look-out station and the range finder.

2. Sight on this' point with the alidade.

3. Turn the azimuth circle until the reverse bearing of the point
coincides with the knife-edge on the alidade.

4. Secure the position of the azimuth disk by screwing down
the corner clamps.

Last summer, I constructed three range-finders on the plan of
the one described, and so far they have proved very satisfactory.

A MECHANICAL TREE PLANTER.

By Forman T. McLean.

A machine which will plant forest trees more rapidly and as
well as a man with a mattock can do it, would be a useful instru-
ment to foresters. The device shown in the accompanying dia-
gram gives promise of doing this. It is an invention of Mr. N. P.
Jensen, of Ephraim, Utah. It was tested experimentally at the
Utah Experiment Station in the spring of 1913, and gave very
satisfactory results.

The machine is specially adapted to plant tap-rooted conifers
on rough, brushy lands and burns, where hand planting, in holes
dug with a mattock or spade, is the method usually employed.
The tests made with the machine at the Utah Station were with 30
Western Yellow Pine, 2-year-old seedlings. They were planted
in oakbrush chapparal, on a north hillside at 7,500 feet elevation.
They are alongside an experimental plot planted by hand to the
same species at the same time. The planting was done about
May 15. The trees were examined in August, three months after
planting, and at that time 28 of the 30 trees planted were alive
and growing. They looked as thrifty as the hand-planted trees.
The main advantage of the machine is its speed. The 30 trees
were set by one workman in a half hour. This is about as rapid
as two men ordinarily plant on similar ground, and was much
faster than the planting on the experimental plot, to which it
was compared.

While the above showing appears favorable, the work was on
entirely too small a scale to be conclusive. Several hundred plants
were set on different experimental plots with this device in the
fall of 1913. These plantings should begin to show results by
the end of the field season of 1914.

The operation of this machine is quite simple, as is shown in
the accompanying diagrams. Fig. i shows the machinery ready
to receive the plant. The roots are stnmg in the groove at A,
made by the two blades at the base of the picture. The top of
the plant projects into the flare at B at the top of the blades.

I40

Forestry Quarterly.

With the plant in place, the third blade of the machine, at C, is
closed over the plant by raising the lever D. The machine is then
in the position shown in Fig. 2. It is thrust into the ground with
the foot on the tread H until the base of the flare, E, is level with
the surface. Then the machine is rotated in a clockwise direc-
tion, meanwhile pulling the lever F at the top of the machine to
the handle at G. This opens the blades as shown in Fig. 3, and
releases the plant. At the same time the rotating blades thrust
soil in around the plant, and thus pack it firmly in a core of earth.

Fic ^

F.g.3

A NEW MEASURING INSTRUMENT.
By H. W. Siggins.

The forester, in his daily work in the woods, frequently has
the opportunity to collect odd bits of data or make measurements
which might later be of considerable value to him if accurate.
Often, too, he desires to have an occasional check on his ocular
estimate. It is' out of the question for him to be carrying around
at all times the several instruments required to make these va-
ried observations. There is seldom a time, however, that a straight
walking-stick would seriously discommode him. The idea oc-
curred to the writer that a combination of the Biltmore stick, the
Christen Hypsometer, and the Doyle rule in a single stick would
solve the problem, since it would be very compact and at the same
time would cover quite thoroughly the common requirements of a
forester, not engaged in special detailed researches. Such a com-
bination would enable him to measure total height, crown height,
merchantable height, or the height of any point on the bole; to
measure the diameter of the standing trees at breast height and
the diameter of logs at any point; to determine the volume of
logs, either by the Doyle rule or by the application of any form-
ula; to estimate the volume of standing trees by measuring the
diameter b. h. and merchantable height, allowing for taper, and
then referring to the Doyle rule ; to make any measurements that
can be made with an ordinary yard-stick.

In pursuance of the idea, the Christen and Biltmore stick scales
were carefully calculated to hundredths of an inch and tran-
scribed to a suitable stick. The completed instrument consists
of a round, hard maple stick, three and one-half feet long and
shod at each end with a brass ferrule. The folding arms for the
Christen are set in at points approximately 5 and 20 inches from
the top. They consist of brass strips 2 x ^ x 1-12 inches, rounded
at one end, and provided with a hole through which a nail is
driven, hinging the blade like that of a jack knife. Brass seats
are set into the wood behind the blades, so as- to allow them to
open only to a position perpendicular to the stick. A notch on

142

Forestry Quarterly.

one side of the slot in which the blade is seated and a nick in
the blade facilitate opening.

rr

a)

Co)

A longitudinal section showing Christen arm (a) folded and (b) ex-
tended; (c) is the brass seat.
The distance between the two arms when erected is exactly 15 inches.

At one side of the stick and along the lines' connecting the arms
is marked the Christen scale, based upon the use of a lo-foot pole
and a distance between the arms of exactly 15 inches. It is de-
rived according to the formula:

height of tree distance between arms
height of pole scale distance

height of pole X distance between arms

or scale == , ■ , ^ — j— ■

height of tree

The Christen, so constructed, is very accurate up to a height of
about 50 feet, and is thus suited to the second growth found
in this vicinity. If larger trees are to be measured the same de-
gree of accuracy can easily be obtained to a much greater height
by making slight adaptations. For instance, using a 15-foot or
a 20- foot pole the reading can be made accurately to 75 or 100
feet respectively by multiplying the original scale reading i^ or 2.
The capacity for accurate measurement could be raised to 100
feet by the use of a 30-inch distance between arms and a lo-foot
pole, to 150 feet with a 15-foot pole, or to 200 feet with a 20-foot
pole. Since the 15-inch distance between arms is much more
convenient to handle in small growth, it might be advisable to put
in both 15 and 30 inch Christen (using the same upper arm and
putting the scales one on each side of the arms) where the height
of trees to be measured varies greatly. If measurements are to

A New Measuring Instrument. 143

be made in a country where lofoot saplings of weed species are
not abundant, a hole might be bored in one end of the stick to
receive a piece of chalk, thus providing a method of marking off
a lofoot distance on the tree to be measured. If many measure-
ments are to be made it would be profitable to use a bamboo rod,
jointed in 10, 15, and 20 foot lengths.

The scale for the Biltmore stick is printed on the side opposite
the Christen arms, using the top of the stick as a zero point. In
order to get the scale marks at the proper angle to be in line with
the eye, the rule was fastened to a drafting board and the cross-
head of a T-square placed against one side. A pin was placed
in the shaft of the T-square, 25 inches from the far side of the
stick, in other words in the position of the eye. The T-square
was then shifted to points half way between the zero point and
the point being marked. A thread running from a pin in the
zero point, around the pin on the T-square, and thence to the
scale point being marked, indicated the course which the scale
mark should follow across the stick.

The Doyle rule scale for 16- foot logs and the inches of di-
ameter occupy the remaining Space on the stick. The 16-foot
length was chosen because it is the easiest to reduce to all other
lengths. It is to be noted that the Doyle rule is used on this
stick because it is the accepted rule of the region. Any other rule
which would fulfill local requirements could be used in its place.

The scales were marked with India ink and the whole was then
given two coats of shellac to render it water-proof and to protect
the scales from defacement.

The appended tables show the scales that were used.

144

Forestry Quarterly.

DATA FOR CONSTRUCTING THE BILTMORE STICK
Based Upon an Arm Length of 25 Inches

0 ii

i1

l"S

-^
"«

.l"S

to

•^ 52

^j

i^

to

v^

^

Q-

^

Q-"

^

Q-^

^

I

.94

16

12.50

31

20

■ 73

46

27.30

2

1.92

17

13-12

32

21

.20

48

28.09

3

2.83

18

13-73

2Z

21

.66

50

28.87

4

3-71

19

14-32

34

22

-13

52

29.63

5

4-56

20

14.90

35

22

-59

54

30.38

6

5-39

21

15-48

36

23

-05

56

31. II

7

6.19

22

16.05

27

23

-50

58

31-83

8

6.96

23

16.60

38

23-94

60

32-54

9

7.72

24

17.14

39

24

-38

10

8.45

25

17.70

40

24

.81

II

9.17

26

18.21

42

25

.65

12

9.86

27

18.72

44

26

-49

13

10.54

28

19.23

14

II .21

29

19.73

15

11.86

30

20.23

DATA FOR CONSTRUCTING THE CHRISTEN HYPSOMETER
Distance Between Arms := 15" Distance Betzveen Arms = 30'

Oj O; 0> Oi

Si a s s

Oj

0.

s

s'

'S?

to

s^

s tj

^1

5

ll

•^-.^

VJ

'+-'..-

.Ǥ

^st

-S§

s^

s

"^

•<^

•« §

-=: S

'S 0

-2^

&:

S:

10

15-00

20

II

13-63

22

12

12.50

24

13

11-54

26

14

10.71

28

16

9.38

32

18

8-33

36

20

7-50

40

25

6.00

50

30

5-00

60

35

4.29

70

40

3-75

80

50

3.00

100

60

2.50

120

70

2.14

140

80

1.88

160

90

1.66

180

100

1.50

200

no

1.36

220

I

to

^ cs
13:
10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

60

70

80

90

100

no

120

130

140

150

•«*

•S

"3
Co

30.00

20.00

1500

12.00

10.00

8.57

7-50

6.67

6.00

5.00

4.29

3-75

3-33

3-00

2-73
2.50
2.31
2.14
2.00

|1

20
30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

280

300

A PROPOSED METHOD OF PREPARING WORKING
PLANS FOR NATIONAL FORESTS.

By Joseph C. Kircher.

The writer has seen no recent working plans for private hold-
ings, so that these cannot be criticised. In the Forest Service,
however, there has been in the past a great deal of agitation for
at least preliminary plans for all of the Forests. To accomplish
this, an outline for a plan was prepared and submitted to Forest
Supervisors'. The preliminary plan was to be based on this out-
line. A number of these have now been written. A review shows
them to be failures so far as the administration of the forest is
concerned. On the other hand, the time spent upon them has not
been wasted, since they bring together data which will be useful,
in writing practical plans.

The outline submitted to Supervisors called for complete infor-
mation in regard to timber, silviculture, etc. A brief tabulation
of the subjects, which is as follows, shows this.

1. Timber.

Estimates, Descriptions, Forest Types, Timber Operations,
Object of management, Silvicultural systems, Regulation
of yield. Sales, Free Use, Record of Timber Business,
Timber Reconnaissance.

2. Forestation.

Policy, Areas requiring forestation. Methods and Species,
Detailed Plan, Record of Operations, Nursery.

3. Investigations.

A number of subdivisions were placed under each of these sub-
jects. The outline for District 3, which included a number of
tabulations, contained 23 pages. With such a formidable array
of subjects before them, supervisors were naturally confused,
for they could not see that much would be accomplished by the
plans. The result was that most of the preliminary plans were
simply routine reports, in which the really important points were
lost in a mass of details. They were really long reports on past
accomplishment. As preliminary working plans they have failed.

146 Forestry Quarterly.

They were written, not with the idea of aiding in the manage-
ment of a forest, but simply as a report called for by the District
Forester. After being written they were promptly filed. For
example, most of the plans devote much time to silvical and type
descriptions and past timber operations. Of the future and of
silviculture they say very little. In fact some of them say nothing
of this.

On several of the Forests working plans have also been made
by specialists. These have for the most part also failed for the
same reasons. An added reason for the failure of these plans
•is that most of them were written with the idea of publication,
instead of making them plans, which would actually aid in ad-
ministration. Plans written so as to be interesting to the lay-
man, will rarely be of actual practical value in the administration
of a forest.

The main reasons for the failure of past plans of the Forest
Service are as follows :

1. They are long reports and largely silvical.

2. They give in detail unimportant considerations and often
slight the important ones (Good silviculture).

3. They fail to take local and American conditions into con-
sideration (Accessibility).

4. They are too academic.

5. They attempt to regulate the yield by scientific and mathe-
matical principles, based on insufficient data without reference to
local conditions.

6. They are not practical.

I. They are long reports which are largely silvical. Most of
the plans are very long. For the proper administration of a
forest, plans must be short and concise since the man on the
ground does not care to, nor has he the time to go through a
long report to look up some point, say on policy, especially when
the greater part of the report consists of silvical data. The im-
portant facts and deductions may be hidden somewhere among
unimportant details. The result is that the plan is not referred
to when it should be. Instead, the Supervisor makes a guess at
the point in question.

Large parts of the plans consist of silvical data. Much of this

Preparing Working Plmts. 147

information is known to every man who has been on the Forest
for some time. The more technical part of it is not necessary
for every day administration. For this reason local men get the
idea that the plan contains mainly data which they cannot use.
The result is that it is filed and seldom referred to.

Plans to be of use must discard all useless data. The remainder
must be a clear cut and concise statement of policy and facts
which are essential in administration. It is not the object of the
writer to belittle silvical data, because these are of importance.
They, however, have no place in the plan proper, but should be
separately filed or placed in the appendix for reference.

2. They go into detail and emphasize unimportant details and
slight the important consideration.

Plans to be practical should go into details on timber sale and
free use policy and silviculture. Yet in the plans submitted,
these points are often dismissed after being merely mentioned,
while much space is given to silvical data, etc. Such data should
be relegated to an appendix. In many of the plans policy and
silviculture are disposed of in a page or two, while many pages
are written on silvics, etc. This is undoubtedly a mistake, for
it makes the plans useless. The difficulty seems to be in the out-
lines which must be followed.

Fortunately good silviculture has not actually been slighted in
the field.

3. They fail to take local and American conditions into con-
sideration.

It must be remembered that the National Forests usually con-
tain the most inaccessible stands in their respective regions. They
consist of the timberlands which no one considered desirable
before the forests were created, or else they would have passed
into private ownership many years ago. This point seems to
have been overlooked in many instances. For example, there are
plans outhning cuttings, which because of the inaccessibility of
timber cannot be made for many years. The consideration of
markets has been largely overlooked also. It is a foregone con-
clusion that without a study of markets an intelligent timber sale
policy cannot be established.

There is a further consideration. It is needless to talk of prac-
tising forestry until cutting can be done. Until sales can be made,
therefore, it is useless to dream of future receipts.

148 forestry Quarterly.

4. They are too academic, i.e., they fail to apply common
sense and good judgment in regard to future management.

Aside from the purely silvical discussions, plans have in most
cases followed closely European ideas as expressed in books.
The trouble has largely been that there was no system of Ameri-
can forestry, and that plans were in many cases made by men of
too little experience. The foundation of their forestry education
has naturally been European practice. This has been so thor-
oughly drilled into men that it takes a long time for them to get
away from it. For this reason such books as Schlich's have been
freely consulted in the preparation of plans. The following of
European methods has been done at a sacrifice of sound business
judgment.

5. They attempt regulation of yield by scientific and mathe-
matical principles, based on insufficient data without reference to
local conditions.

Most of the plans attempt the regulation of the yield, although
they are silent on its distribution. The favorite method is by
volume based on mathematical formulae. The methods used so
far have been nothing less than mathematical slight of hand.
The basis of such calculations has not always been sound. Thus,
in one case elaborate calculations have been based on timber
estimates', which are perhaps 50 per cent, below the truth and
upon increment measured on 200 trees in a virgin stand. It is
the writer's opinion that the regulation of the yield on most of the
National Forests is at the present time of little importance. The
forests are pra-ctically all virg-in and forestry cannot be practised
until many of the stands are cut. The annual cut should, there-
fore, he based upon local conditions such as markets and accessi-
bility regardless of -whether this cut -will be larger or smaller than
one based on mathetnatical formulae. One of the standard Euro-
pean methods may, however, be used as a check.

6. They are not practical, i.e., they do not work.

All of the foregoing discussion tends to show that the plans
are impractical for the administration of the forest. This is a
fact which has several times been brought to the attention of the
writer by Supervisors. If this is true, then a radical change in
working plans is necessary.

The time and effort spent upon past plans is, however, not

Preparing Working Flatus. 149

wasted, since they bring together most of the data available in the
files' of the Forest, so that they may later be used for working
plan purposes, and further data may be supplied where the present
plans show that there is a lack.

Before taking up a proposed solution of the working plans,
the conditions which are met on the National Forests and the
Forest Service policy in regard to its timber holdings must be
scrutinized. Based upon these two considerations a new work-
ing plan system is proposed.

The conditions to be met on National Forests may be consid-
ered under three heads: i. Inaccessibility of stands, and large
investments required to open up such areas. 2. Markets (local
and export demand). 3. Large stands of over-mature timber.

1. Inaccessibility. For the most part the timber controlled by
the Government comprises the most inaccessible forests in the
country. For this reason it is difficult to place Government tim-
ber on the market. In many localities, therefore, no timber can
be put on the market until the more accessible private holdings
have been cut. In other places, to bring the timber to market
requires large investments and, therefore, large logging opera-
tions. All of these conditions must be considered in connection
with working plans. For example, if because of inaccessibility
no timber can be sold from a certain forest for 10 years, it is
useless for the working plan to designate certain stands for cut
during this period. Or, if the Forest Service desires to sell tim-
ber from a certain forest and must sell say 1,000,000 M. feet to
justify an investment, it is useless for the plan to prescribe
an annual cut of 10,000 M. feet, even if this is the increment plus
the per cent, of growing stock which should be cut per annum
to give a sustained annual yield. The question is not so much
"What should be sold" as "What can be sold."

It must be granted that to practice silviculture, cutting must
take place in the virgin stands of the National Forests. If, then,
because of inaccessibility, very large sales must be made to place
timber upon the market, the plan of cutting must be such as to
allow this. In other words, the annual yield will have to be es-
tablished largely upon what can be and must be done, and riot
upon the basis of a sustained annual yield.

2. Markets. A detailed study of markets is essential before a

150 Forestry Qtmrterly.

working plan is attempted. This is necessary, since, if there is no
market for timber, t"here is no chance for sales. Then again, if
there are no sales on a forest and the Forest Service desires to
make some, it must study markets to find out whether sales are
•feasible. The character of the market, competition, etc., will have
a direct bearing on sales, and, therefore, upon working plans.

Markets are of two kinds — local and export. Local markets
must first be considered. These ordinarily consume a very small
amount of the timber. Whether they are small or large, the
supply for local consumption must not be endangered by supply-
ing export markets. It is, therefore, important to make a study
of local markets, and to predict the local market for some time
in the future. If, as is generally the case, there is a large surplus
after the local market is satisfied, export markets must be con-
sidered. A study of these is of importance, since, if the products
of a certain forest cannot enter into direct competition in the
general markets with like products from other producing centers,
it is useless to try to make sales at the present time. On the other
hand, a study of markets may show a very desirable logging
chance and a good opportunity for a sale. The working plan
should, therefore, recognize the market conditions which exist.

3. Large stands of over mature timber. It is desirable to re-
place the large amount of virgin and over mature stands within
the National Forests by young thrifty stands. For this reason it
is more important to sell timber even if the annual growth is
greatly exceeded than to hold the cut strictly to a sustained annual
yield.

An additional argument for the rapid cutting of the over-
mature timber on the National Forests is found in the fact that
the timber producing area of the United States is being constantly
decreased. This will ultimately result in a timber shortage, which
will probably not come, as supposed by some, as a sudden catas-
trophe but in the form of a slowly diminishing supply, to which
the United States will adjust itself in part. This condition can
be met much more effectively by the National Forests with a
young thrifty stand of timber yielding its full annual increment
than with old deteriorating material. It is believed that the Na-
tional Forests can, by extensive cutting of over-mature timber,
be converted into good producers before the "pinch" is felt.

Preparing IV or king Plans. 151

Forest Service Policy.

The timber sale policy of the Forest Service, as expressed in
Amendment 163 (of March 21, 1913) to the Timber Sale Section
of the National Forest Manual (issued December i, 191 1) is as
follows :

"Sales of small amounts of timber are preferred and will be
encouraged by every means possible. In no instance will more
timber be sold under one contract than is necessary to cover the
cost of improvements which must be constructed for its exploita-
tion and to permit logging and manufacture under practical and
economical conditions. Timber which can be practically logged
under Classes A, B, and C sales will be reserved for operations
of this size as far as such demand exists. Class D sales, where
larger investments must be made and more timber handled, will
ordinarily not exceed 75,000,000 feet in amount and five years
for removal.

"Where the inaccessibility of the timber requires very large in-
vestments for railroads or other improvements, enough stump-
age will be contracted to justify the outlay for these purposes and
the size of operation necessary to make the enterprise feasible.
The cutting period in such instances will be determined by prac-
tical logging and manufacturing conditions.

"There are no fixed limits as to the size and period of sales of
inaccessible timber requiring expensive improvements. The prin-
ciple of contracting enough to justify the outlay will govern in
each instance. It will, however, seldom if ever be necessary to
exceed 1,000,000,000 feet, or a cutting period of 25 years.

"In lieu of the sale of a large amount of timber, the contract
may specify that certain areas, in addition
Reserved areas. to the stumpage purchased, will be reserved

from sale until the termination of the con-
tract and then offered for competitive bids. A reserve available
to the improvements of the purchaser is thus held, while the terms
under which it may be bought are left for future adjustment and
will necessarily be subject to advertisement and competition in
the regular manner. Such agreements to offer additional blocks
for sale will be made only in accordance with the plan of manage-
ment adopted for the unit or watershed concerned. This method
will be used where acceptable to purchasers. It is preferred to
the sale of larger bodies in the initial contract.
In the management of watersheds or other units, the construc-
tion of new and competing mills will be en-
S table industries cou raged to such a number as can operate

encouraged. for a reasonable period in accordance with

prevailing standards in the industry. Pri-
vate timber available for such plants, both as to situation and

152 Forestry Quarterly.

ownership, will be considered together with accessible National
Forest stumpage. A number of small mills is always preferred
to one or two large plants; and wherever the accessibility of the
timber and other local physical conditions permit, the development
of the industry by small or medium sized operations will be
strongly encouraged.

"As far as practicable, the rate at which timber is sold from any
unit will insure a reasonable operating life
Reservations for for new mills constructed in connection
future operations. with sales. Future sales to estabUsh mills
can not be guaranteed, and the National
Forest timber will not be administered so as to give particular
mills a monopoly; but the amount to be cut from year to year
will be regulated, so that established plants, if there are successful
competitors for the timber offered, can be assured continued op-
eration for reasonable periods."

In accordance with this policy large sales are being made where
timber is inaccessible and requires large investments to place it
upon the market. This policy disregards sustained annual yield,
but it is justified from a silvicultural standpoint, since without
doing this no timber could be placed upon the market. It is also
a sound business policy.

The Proposed Plan.*

The main difference between past plans and the proposed
sheme for National Forests is that under the new system, the
material is so arranged as to be more easily handled, and that
the plans become actual plans of management, which are a live
issue of practical value in the administration of the National For-
ests.

Forest management, sales regulation and systematic silvicul-
ture will be carried on by means of:

1. Card records to be kept up to date by annual additions or
corrections from the annual plan.

2. Annual plan by Supervisor. This should include any pro-
visions which are necessary in the periodic plan.

3. Maps by specialists (including reconnaissance sheets).

* This follows the informal district instructions to be tried out during
1914 before being put into effect ; these were prepared by the writer and
Mr. T. S. Woolsey, Jr.

Preparing Working Plans. 153

4. An appendix file to comprise all data on silvics, logging, etc.
These to be filed by subjects and to be cumulative.

5. Preliminary plan to be made by specialists.

6. Final plan — not to be attempted at present.

1. The card records will consist of all data which are ordinarily
tabulated. Tabulations are kept on separate sheets. They in-
clude tabulations of areas of types, estimates of timber, sale costs,
records of stumpage rates, minimum stumpage prices, timber cut
and sold, limitation of cut, lumber prices, percentage of lumber
grades, species, etc. These tabluations are kept to date by annual
additions to the information. The information for the revision
is obtained from the annual plan.

2. Annual Plan. This is made in winter by the Supervisor.
It includes the following information: General conditions of the
Forest, cost of handling sales, limitation of cut, minimum prices,
proposed changes in silviculture manual, recommendations for
silvical report, sowing and planting, timber sale policy, seed col-
lecting (to be submitted August i), working plan modifications,
converting factors, free use, timber sale advertising, trespass,
timber reconnaissance, new sales proposed, protection of timber
resources, stock excluded areas, brush burning and proposed in-
vestigative projects.

Under each caption there are sub-heads, which suggest the in-
formation necessary and desired. Practically all of the informa-
tion wanted is data which are called for from Supervisors during
the course of the year. The annual plan, therefore, accomplishes
two things. It brings together all the information which super-
visors must submit to the District Forester during the year, and
it gives the Supervisor a chance to bring to the attention of the
District Forester in a systematic way certain facts about his For-
est, which cannot be discussed in any other place. This plan
should be brief, and only subjects in which the Supervisor desires
to bring changes or new policies to the attention of his superiors,
should be discussed. The annual plan, in other words, is to be a
practical business measure. This will also give a chance to
remedy any defects in the periodic plan. In other words, if the
periodic plan contains anything which is not practical and does
not work, the Supervisor here has a chance to remedy it.

3. Maps. These are of great importance, as everyone will

154 Forestry Quarterly.

admit. Here should be included type, stand, reproduction, plant-
ing and timber sale maps. They should be prepared on a base
map showing topography. The type map may show the aliena-
tions. Others need not. All m.aps (or part of them only) may
show logging units, inaccessible areas, protection forests and such
other necessary data.

In addition to these maps, topographic township plats, section
sheets (reconnaissance), and logging unit descriptions will be
maintained. These descriptions will be detailed and comprise all
forest description data necessary for timber sale work. They
will be the most detailed descriptions of the whole plan. The
description of each logging unit should be a separate report.

4. Appendix. This will comprise, in separate folders in the
files, information of permanent value. From year to year this
information should be built up. It need not necessarily be com-
piled, although all information on a certain subject should be
placed in the same folder for compilation in the future. Data on
silvics, lumbering, costs, scaling, marking, brush disposal, plant-
ing, insect control, etc., etc., will be included here.

5. The preliminary plan. In the past, preliminary plans have
been considered by some as mere inventories of resources. They
should be more than this, however. This inventory under the
plan here proposed will come under the card records and the ap-
pendix file. The preliminary plan on the other hand will be a
true plan of management for the forest.

The fundamental basis for the preliminary plan is that the for-
est is the largest unit for the plan, that the plan should not be for
over 10 years, that it shall be made by a specialist, and that it
should be revised annually.

It has been found that, unless the forest is taken as the largest
unit for a plan, so many difficulties arise that the plan is not prac-
tical. Separate plans may, however, be made for parts of a
forest if they are distinct units, which should be handled sepa-
rately. The continuity of the stand of timber generally deter-
mines this.

Ordinarily, plans have covered a full rotation in a general way
and a period of from 10 to 20 years very definitely ; that is, plans
have been attempted for a complete rotation. The writer con-
siders plans for policies, cuttings, etc., for a period of more than

Preparing Working Plans. 155

10 years as mere paper work at the present stage of the develop-
ment of the National Forests. It is thought, therefore, that to
be of practical value they should be confined to a ten y«ar period
or even less.

It must be conceded that to be of the greatest value, plans must
represent the best thought of the District. Therefore, to secure
uniformity and to obviate the need of rew^riting much of the ma-
terial submitted to the District Forester, a special corps of forest
plans men must be organized. These men must have knowledge
of timber and logging requirements, and at the same time be able
to present the data collected in a clear concise and systematic way.
In short, they must be practical foresters of a high type. It is
not proposed that these men make the plans independent of the
Supervisor. On the contrary, the plan should be drafted in closest
co-operation with him.

The Supervisor must be consulted on all points of policy, for
there should be joint responsibility. Field assistance, necessary
to complete the plan, should be rendered by him. Annual re-
vision of the plan is provided for in the Supervisor's annual plan.
At the end of the period which the plan covers a new one should
be made by a specialist.

The preliminary plan should cover approximately the following
points: Introduction (very brief); Markets; Past Lumbering
(very brief) ; Forest types (very brief).

In the introduction the objects of the management should be
discussed. This is very important. A discussion, for each im-
portant type, of the kind of product desired, with special refer-
ence to present methods of cutting, should be given here. Markets
must also be taken into consideration. Clear-cut conclusions as
to how to attain the ends desired must be drawn.

The silvicultural methods (by type and logging unit) are to be
discussed, covering the objects and methods of cutting and pro-
tection after lumbering. The plan need not go into details in
reference to logging units on which no cutting is probable in the
10 year period of the plan.

The timber sale policy is one of the main points in the plan.
Here should be discussed the proposed timber sale business, such
as restriction, development, encouragement, location and regula-
tion of sales. It really shows what business is to be transacted
and the business policy of the forest.

I $6 Forestry Qiiarterly,

The free use policy (very important) should be discussed as
shown under timber sale policy.

There should be a discussion of yield based on timber sale and
free use policy (above) and the fixing of the annual or periodic
yield. According to this, yield regulation must be subordinated
to silvicultural requirements and to market. It is clearly valueless
to impose a limitation of cut, which is impractical, because of the
necessity of a large annual cut to justify commercial logging. At
least until the over-mature timber is removed the policy of a sus-
tained annual yield need not be applied. Even a periodic sus-
tained yield need not be attempted until it is clearly and posi-
tively necessary for reasons of public policy. In other words, it is
unnecessary to pursue an academic ideal of sustained annual yield.

In the discussion of the yield problem, however, it will be ad-
visable to check the practical requirements with an academic
estimate of the yield capacity by formula, volume, area or such
other theoretical checks as can be applied. This will necessitate
a short discussion on rotation, which will be based on the class
of material which it is desired to produce and not upon financial
or volume returns'.

Distribution of yield should also be discussed, i. e., areas cor-
responding to logging units which should be cut in order of im-
portance. The discussion, while it should be practical, should
consider these areas both from a silvicultural and market stand-
point.

The plan will really constitute in itself a concession that policy
and silviculture must overtop regulation.

It is not intended that the outline for a preliminary plan should
be rigidly followed. It is given merely as a suggestion of the
kind of material to be included in the plan. The writer wishes
to convey the idea that preliminary plans- should be practical and
for short periods; that they should be as brief as possible yet
omit no essential details; that they should be based on actual
local conditions; that they should contain more policy and less
theoretical regulation of yield than in the past, and that although
the conclusions should be based on silvical facts, these facts need
only be referred to and need not be a part of the plan.

6. Final Plans. It is believed that the time is not yet ripe for
final plans. As far as the writer is aware, no practical prelimin-

Preparing Working Plans. 157

ary plan for a national forest has yet been made. When one of
these has proved practical after several years use, it is time
enough to talk of final plans.

The system of annual and preliminary plans and other data,
described above, has not been put into actual practice. If plans
on this basis are attempted a great many stumbling blocks will
probably be encountered and during the progress of the work
numerous changes may be necessary. It is believed by the writer,
however, that the general scheme is sound, and that by following
it a practical form of forest management may be established for
the National Forests.

The writer intends this article to stimulate discussion on this
very interesting, yet most difficult of the problems which the Fed-
eral Forest Service has to solve.

STEM ANALYSES.
By John Bentlky, Jr.

From the experience gained in instructing several classes in
the subject of volume growth in individual trees, it is apparent
that the method described in the text books in use in this country
is difficult of comprehension by the average student of forest
mensuration. As a general rule, the problems of height growth
and diameter growth are handled by the majority of students
quite readily, but they frequently have difficulty in mastering the
subject of volume growth as exemplified in "stem analyses." In
searching for the cause of this trouble, it appears that much of
it arises from the form in which stem analyses are usually re-
corded in this country; and the object of this discussion is to
recommend a more logical tabulation of the data usually included
on a stem analysis blank.

It will be remembered that the blanks provided for stem
analysis by the Forest Service (Form 334, "Tree Measurements")
include a page in which the measurements on each cross-section
of the tree are recorded in columns numbered i, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.,
(which represent decades), the values showing the "distance on
average radius from heart to each tenth ring." If, as is gener-
ally the case, there is not an even multiple of ten annual rings
on the section, the measurement of the odd years is recorded
under column i, (since the measurements begin with the inner-
most period and proceed outward), and from that point on, the
difference between the values in any two adjacent columns repre-
sents a decade's growth. So far, so good ; but when the measure-
ments for the second and subsequent cross-cuts are recorded, the
measurements in each case are tabulated beginning in column i
again; and since there is almost always at least ten years differ-
ence in the total ages of successive cross-cuts, and sometimes
twenty, or more, the measurement for the last, or current decade,
falls, not in the column for the corresponding decade on the pre-
vious cross-cut, but in a column to the left. Glancing down the
numbered columns, then, we find a series of measurements each
one of which represents a diflferent decade in the tree's life-

Stem Atialyses. icg

history. An example of this method of tabulation is shown in
Professor Graves' well known book on "Forest Mensuration,"
page 264, where the age of the tree at cross-section number i
(stump) was 60 years, and the last measured radius was conse-
quently recorded in column 6. The age of the second cross-cut
was 50 years, and the last measured radius was recorded in col-
umn 5, etc. When the volumes of the several sections are
computed for different decades there is a very large chance that
the wrong pairs of values for cross-sectional dimensions will be
selected, because, instead of being arranged one under the other
in the same column, the dimensions of the cross-cuts belonging
to any particular age of the tree are found in different columns,
and they must be selected by counting backward from the last
recorded measurement. This is one point at which the average
student has difficulty, and one which can be obviated entirely by
the use of a more logical method of tabulating the measurements.
A second point at which there is usually some difficulty is in the
doubling of the measurements given for radii, so as to obtain the
corresponding diameters. The form already referred to reads:
"Distance on average radius from heart to each loth ring —
inches" and the student not infrequently forgets to double the
value recorded for the radius, in order to obtain the diameter.
While this may seem like a trivial point, it is, nevertheless, one
which often leads to slight errors in doubling, or neglecting to
double at all; and when the use of a scale reading 2 : i would
obviate the necessity of recording radii, and permit the recording
of diameters directly, it seems wise to take simple precautions
and eliminate the chances of errors, by recording diameters in-
stead of radii. Stem analysis rules as now made by instrument-
makers, usually make readings of this kind easy by supplying two
scales', — one graduated to inches and tenths, for measuring di-
ameters, and the other for measuring radii graduated to half-
inches and twentieths, but reading as doubled inches and tenths,
so that radii may be read directly as diameters. The stem analysis
blank would therefore read, preferably, over the columns pro-
vided for the measurements: "Average diameter of section, by
decades," instead of "Distance on average radius from heart to
each loth ring."

A third point, — and one which is a source of frequent errors

i6o Forestry Quarterly.

in computing the volume of the tree at different periods — is the
somewhat laborious and involved method of determining the
dimensions of the tops (above the last cross-cut), in preceding
decades. These tops are generally regarded as cones (see
Graves' "Mensuration," page 292), and their volumes computed
as such. The difficulty arises in obtaining the heights of the sev-
eral cones as they appeared further and further within the top,
or down the stem, with each preceding decade. The method de-
scribed by Professor Graves, namely, to take a distance propor-
tional to the number of years required to grow the distance be-
tween the two sections in question, thus assuming a regular rate
of growth for the period, is quite accurate, but it is likely to
confuse the student, and has been the cause of more errors in com-
putation than any other one factor, according to my observation.*

In German text books the method described for obtaining the
volumes of the tree in preceding decades frequently disregards
these small cones, or tips, because the sections into which the tree
is divided for analysis are short, — rarely more than 2 meters.
The volumes are therefore relatively insignificant. In this coun-
try, however, where we have to compute stem analyses from
trees where a top of 15, 20, or even 30 feet is left, it becomes
necessary to include these tops, and their dimensions at different
periods, otherwise the calculated volumes would be inaccurate to
such a degree that they would be of no scientific value. Some
way must be devised, therefore, which will yield accurate results,
and at the same time will be readily understood and applied by
the student.

In the hope of simplifying the work of making and recording
stem analyses, and eliminating some of the obvious causes for
mistakes in the calculations, the following suggestions are made.
Nothing new or original is claimed for these suggestions ; on the
contrary, they have all been prompted by a perusal of the stand-
ard German text books. They are presented here simply for the
purpose of showing how the work may be made more logical, and

* It has even led to an error in the very example chosen to illustrate the
niethod (page 291 in "Forest Mensuration"), where, in the computations
for the tree as it was 30 years old, the length ascribed to the tip is 475
feet. Since the tip at that age comprised 10/16 of the length of the section
(10 feet) it should evidently be 6.25 feet, and not 4.75 feet, as printed.

Stoii Analyses. l6i

at the same time more comprehensible to the mind of the average
student of forest mensuration.

First, as to the methods of tabulating the measurements taken
in the field. Figure i (page 162) shows a revised form filled in
with data from a White Pine, in which the usual measurements
are recorded, together with a few additional ones which will ren-
der the computations in the office less liable to error. For con-
venience, the spaces in which the measurements are recorded are
both named and lettered, to correspond with the following list;
and in the discussion which follows the several columns will be
referred to by letter.

(a) The number of the section; the stump being considered

No. I, the top of the first log section No. 2, etc.

(b) The age of the section, i. e., the age up to that section,

and the number of annual rings on that section.

(c) The length of the section, expressed in feet and tenths.

(d) The diameter, outside bark, of each section, in inches' and

tenths.

(e) The diameter, inside bark, of each section, in inches and

tenths.

(f) The width of the bark at each section.

(g) The width of the sapwood at each section.

(h) The average diameter of the several sections, by decades,
as explained in the following paragraphs.

(j) The diameter, breast-high.

(k) The total age, obtained as explained in the following para-
graphs.

(1) Clear length.

(m) Used length.

(n) Merchantable length.

1 62

Forestry Quarterly.

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Stem Analyses. 163

It must be remembered that the object of stem analyses is
to secure figures of volume growth for a given species which will
enable us, after compiling a large number of values and averag-
ing them together, to construct a table showing the average in-
crease in volume by decades. That is, it is desired to know what
the volume of White Pine, or any other species, will
be, under average conditions, at an age of 10 years, and
again at 20 years, 30 years, 40 years, etc. Since the age at
the stump (cross-section i) is always slightly less than the true
age of the tree, (from 2 to 10 years, often, depending on the
stump-height, and the rate of growth of the seedling of the
species), and a number of years, — usually determined by a study
of seedlings — has to be added arbitrarily to secure the total age
of the tree, it is suggested that these years be added before the
stem analysis is recorded, instead of afterward, thereby making
it possible to secure results which can ultimately be averaged to-
gether with a smaller degree of error. For example, it is known
that White Pine seedlings attain an average height of one foot
at an age of 5 years ; a height of 2| feet at an age of 6 years,
etc. (*) ; if the stump of the White Pine being analysed is one
foot high, it is then determined that 5 years must be added to the
age of the stump to secure the total age of the tree, which is
entered on the blank form at ("k"), the space provided for it.

Now, as each section is analysed, the rings are counted back-
ward from the bark to the center, beginning at the outside and
designating the outermost ring with its proper number, viz., the
total age of the tree, and not the number of rings which happen
to be found on that section. Thus, if the total number of rings
at the stump is 80, and 5 years are to be added for a stump one
foot high, then the outermost ring on the stump will be counted
"85" and the next one inside "84", etc., counting backward, and
placing a mark at the even decades, 80, 70, 60, 50, etc. In like
manner, the outermost ring on all subsequent sections will be
called "85," and the counting proceed backward, until the center
is reached, marking each decade as before. t

* Values are taken from U. S. Forest Bulletin 22, "The White Pine," by
V. M. Spalding and B. E. Fernow, page 28.

flf it is preferred by some to count from the center outward, the num-
ber of rings on the section can be subtracted from the total age, and the
counting begun at tJie age obtained. For example, on section 5 there are
38 annual rings ; this subtracted from 85 = 47, and the counting may begin

164 Forestry Quarterly.

In the column marked "Age" (Column "b") the age should be
entered as composed of two values, the first expressing the num-
ber of years required to grow to the height of that particular
section, and the second, the number of annual rings on that section.

This method of entering the age enables the reader of the
form to determine the rate of height-growth very quickly, by
simply glancing at columns lettered "b" and "c" respectively.

The form, it will be noticed, is practically the same as that
formerly in use. The method of entering the values under "h,"
however, is quite diflferent from that generally described in text-
books, in this respect, — ^the measurements for all the sections at
a corresponding age of the tree fall in the same column. That
is, if the tree is 85 years old, showing 80 rings at the stump, the
last measured diameter,* representing the size of that section in
1914, will fall in column 9, and the size at 80 years of age, in
column 8. This is entirely logical, for the measurements of
each decade's growth fall in the column bearing the correspond-
ing number. The measurement of the odd years, representing
an incomplete decade, fall in the last column, instead of in the first
column, as was the case in the method formerly used. If the
number of annual rings at the top of the first log (Section No.
2) is 70, the age at that section will be expressed as "15-I-70," in
-column "b," and the last measured diameter will be placed, not
in column 7, but in column 9, directly under the corresponding
measurement for section i. Similarly, the measurements for the
last section, although it shows only 15 annual rings, will be en-
tered so that the diameter of the stem at that point in the year
1914 will fall in column 9. To find the volume of the tree in
the year 1914, the dimensions of the several sections are read
directly from column 9, where they appear one under the other
in their logical order. There is now no chance of selecting the
wrong pairs of values in computing the volumes of the several
sections, and no chance for errors in doubling the radii, for di-
ameters have been recorded directly. It would appear that one of
the great stumbling-blocks to students in computing volumes from

at the pith (center), counting "48," "49." ''SO." etc., and a mark placed on
the even decades, 50, 60, etc. This accomplishes precisely the same result,
and obviates the necessity of counting backvi^ard, which may be objection-
able to some.

*Diameters are recorded instead of radii.

Stem Analyses. 165

stem analyses could thus be removed by tabulating the data in
the manner described. The advantages of recording the data and
measurements in this form are obvious, and at the same time the
whole arrangement is much more logical, since the measurements
for any particular decade all fall in the same column.

The second point, — namely, the recording of diameters directly
instead of radii, which will necessarily be doubled later, has al-
ready been sufficiently explained, and the advantages are self-
evident.

For the determination of the dimensions of the several "tips"
or "tops" or "cones," which appear as we trace the history of
the tree from decade to decade, (which was the third source of
trouble mentioned), it is recommended that the graphic method
be employed. It is a simple matter to plot the height on age by
taking the values given in columns "b" and "c"; and once a
curve has been drawn connecting the several points plotted, the
height of the tree at an age of 10 years, 20 years, 30 years, etc.,
etc., can be read directly from the curve. For example, the data
in columns "b" and "c" give the curve shown in Figure 2, (page
— ), and from this curve it is easily learned that the height of the
tree at the age of 50 years was 60 feet. The top of the tree,
then, at the age of 50 years, fell between sections 5 and 6; and
the length of the cone which had a base of 0.9 inches diameter
(column 5, under "h," and opposite section 5) at that period, is
obtained by subtracting the height of section 5 from the total
height of the tree at that age,— that is, 60-57.8 feet, or 2.2 feet
In like manner, the heights of the other small tips, or cones, can
be just as readily found for any and all other decades.

As a test of the accuracy of this method when compared with
the old method, the calculations were carried out for the volume
of the tree at every decade, by both methods, and the results
are shown graphically in figure 3. It will be observed that the
plotted values fall at different ages, — those by the new method
falling at the ages of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 and 85 years,
while by the old method they occur at the ages of 5, 15, 25, 35,
45. 55» 65, 75 and 85 years. When the two curves are drawn,
they are found to coincide throughout their whole course. This
proves the accuracy of the new method, and its adaptability to any
age tree.

i66

Forestry Quarterly.

While the introduction of any departure from a method which
has long been in general use is almost always regarded with more
or less skepticism, it should be remembered that any innovations
tending to simplify the work of the student, especially if they are
very obviously more logical, should be acceptable. It is hoped
that this method of recording a stem analysis, and the method
used for obtaining the dimensions of the tree at different de-
cades, will lead to a clearer understanding of the principles of
volume growth in individual trees.

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ERRORS IN ESTIMATING TIMBER.
By Louis Margoun.

A timber estimate, at best, is an approximation of the actual
amount of timber on the ground. The very term "estimate" in-
dicates this. The accuracy of the approximation will depend on
the accuracy and the intensiveness of the estimate, though the
true error involved can never be determined because the actual
volume can never be determined with absolute accuracy.

The sources of error in timber estimating may be divided into
three classes, as follows :

1. Errors inherent in the method of estimating used. It stands
to reason that if the principles on which any system of timber
cruising is based are fallacious', the results obtained will be in-
accurate, no matter how carefully the work is done.

2. Errors in the application of the system. The system of
estimating used may be sound in principle, yet if it is not ap-
plied accurately, the results will not be correct. Personal mis-
takes, carelessness and negligence, as well as errors due to the
use of unreliable volume tables, come under this heading.

3. Errors involved in making an estimate on only a small part
of the area. Even if the system used is correct and it is ap-
plied carefully, there may still be errors in the estimate due to
the fact that the cruise does not cover an extensive enough pro-
portion of the area to which it is- applied and the proportion cov-
ered is not representative of the rest of the area.

This paper will confine itself largely to the last mentioned
source of error.

It is hardly necessary to enter here into a detailed discussion of
the different methods of cruising timber. With the exception of
a very few systems of ocular estimating, most of them are based
on a per cent, estimate. That is to say, only a given per cent,
of the area is measured and the content of the entire stand is
obtained by proportion. Other things being equal, the higher the
per cent, of the area actually measured, the more accurate, of
course, is the cruise. Still it is only in very rare cases' that a
100 per cent, estimate is practicable. The usual cruise covers
either 5 or 10 per cent, of the area.

i68 Forestry Quarterly.

The accuracy of any given per cent, cruise will depend :

1. On the uniformity of the distribution of the timber. The
more evenly distributed the timber, the more accurate is the
estimate, because the sample areas measured are then most likely
to be representative of the entire forest.

2. On the size of the area to which it is applied. While a
5 per cent, estimate may give very inaccurate results when ap-
plied to a single "forty," it may give quite satisfactory results
when applied to an entire section, because the errors in the esti-
mate of the individual forties are then compensating, the cruise
on one being too high and on another too low.

Assuming that a given system of estimating is correct and that
its application is faultless, the question arises: How small a
per cent, of area is it safe to estimate to obtain a satisfactory
cruise of a given stand, and for a given per cent, cruise how
small an area can it be safely applied to?

Some light on this question has been thrown by work done in
California by the Forest Service during the past year. Here a
complete lOO per cent, estimate was made on 2200 acres of
forest. By comparing a 5 per cent, and a 10 per cent, estimate
on the same area with the 100 per cent, cruise, the errors in-
volved can be determined and studied.

The area of 2,200 acres on which the test was made consists
of two parts ; one, an area of 640 acres on the Plumas National
Forest, and the second, an area of 1,560 acres within the Yosemite
National Park. On the Plumas, the work was done primarily
for the purpose of determining the relative accuracy of a 5 per
cent, and a 10 per cent, cruise. In the Yosemite, the test was
necessary for administrative purposes. The two areas will be
discussed separately.

The Plumas Area.

The area selected contains 640 acres and is of irregular shape,
covering parts of four sections. The stand of timber averaged
about 28,000 board feet per acre, and the forest was mainly of
the mixed conifer type in which yellow pine and Douglas fir
each averaged about one-third of the stand, sugar pine about one-
sixth, incense cedar about 5 per cent., the remainder being white
fir. Although the topography was not as rough as' is typical on
most of the Sierra forests, several exposures were represented.
The work consisted of:

Errors in Estimating Timber. 169

1. Measuring the breast high diameter of every tree on the
area more than 12 inches in diameter.

2. Measuring the heights of a sufficient number ,of trees for
reliable height curves.

3. Running valuation survey strips, one chain wide, at inter-
vals of 10 chains.

The diameters of the trees were measured with Biltmore sticks,
checked up frequently with diameter tapes. In order to avoid
measuring the same trees twice, the lines were run in strips and
the outside strip on every trip was marked with white chalk or
crayon. There were 18,072 trees on the area, 12 inches and over
in diameter, an average of 28.2 trees per acre. Only compara-
tively few trees were more than 42 inches in diameter.

It was, of course, impracticable to measure the height of every
tree on the area with a hypsometer. A sufficient number of
heights of the different species was therefore taken to furnish
the data for a reliable curve. Height measurements were taken
on over 1,000 trees well scattered over the entire area and repre-
sentative of all the types and situations found on the area. These
were then curved and a local volume table was' constructed for
each species from the regular District volume tables.

After all the trees on the area were measured land a sufficient
number of heights were obtained, the work of estimating the
timber was begun. The total tract of 640 acres was divided into
five lots', as below.

It would have been more satisfactory to have divided the area
into 40 acre tracts, and estimate and compute each forty sep-
arately. This, however, was impracticable for various reasons.

Strip lines were run 10 chains apart twice through a forty.
By taking only one of these strips through each forty, a 5 per
cent estimate of the timber was obtained. By taking the other
strip through each forty, a second 5 per cent, estimate was ob-
tained. By combining these two strips', one gets a 10 per cent,
estimate. In estimating the timber, the personal equation of
the cruiser was eliminated as far as possible. Most of the di-
ameters were measured, the hypsometer was frequently used, and
the distance from the compass line to the edge of the strip was fre-
quently paced or measured in order to get the proper width. The
crew consisted of the most experienced reconnaissance men in the
District.

170

Forestry Quarterly.

Table I shows the results of the estimate. The percentages
of error have been worked out for each species, for each lot
and for the totals.

Table i.

PLUMAS AREA.

Comparison of Bstimates.

5% Estimate.
First.

5% Estimate.
Second.

10% Estimate.
Average.

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Species.

Yellow Pine
Douglas Fir
Sugar Pine
Incense Cedar
White Fir
Total

Yellow Pine
Douglas Fir
Sugar Pine
Incense Cedar
White Fir
Total

Yellow Pine
Douglas Fir
Sugar Pine
Incense Cedar
White Fir
Total

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718,521

304.545

278,287

73,120

8,436

1,382,909

1,100,615

832,897

389,545

134,849

5,244

2,463,150

1,262,095

1,431,463

646,234

325,872

63,879

3,729,543

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584,800

171,000

190,000

13,200

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550,200
628,200
294,800
24,800
148,800

1,150,400
693,400
339,600
107,400

2,290,800

987,700

1,515,600

628,000

364,000

106

6
—66

959,000 — 31 1,646,800 19

5 980,600 — 1 1

-17 926,000 II

-13 201,200 — 48

-21 96,000 — 41

567,500

399,600

242,400

19,000

74,400

1,302,900

-22

6

- 3
12

902,800

798,000

1,081,400

267,800

—28

—44

67

—17

— 21

31

—13

—74
— 6

1,065,500 — 3

809,700 — 3

270,400 — 31

101,700 — 25

7 2,203,800 — 10 2,247,300 — 9

945,250 —25

1,156,800 — 19

854,700 32

315,900 — 3

3,495,300 — 6 3,050,000 —18 3,272,650 —12

o

Yellow Pine
Douglas Fir
Sugar Pine
Incense Cedar
White Fir
Total

1,467,544

1,219,173

73^,322

304,945

149,937

3,872,971

1,311,200

749,800

836,800

257,000

15,200

3,170,000

— II

-38

15

—13

1,420,000
832,000

1,294,600
146,800
28,200

3,721,600

— 3
—32

77
—45

— 4

1,365,600
790,900

1,065,700

201,900

21,700

3,445,800

— 7

—35

46

—29

-II

Yellow Pine
Douglas Fir
Sugar Pine
Incense Cedar
White Fir
Total

2,153,465
2,410.881
1,459,038

389,843

230,857

6,644,084

2,840,400
1,616,000
1,573,200
207,800
122,400
6,359,800

30

—33

8

—47
— 4

2,541,600
2,260,200
1 ,872,200
240,800
364,600
7,279,400

18
- 6

28
38

2,691,000
1,938,100
1,722,700
224,300
243,500
6,819,600

24
20

18

—43

3 %

Yellow Pine
Douglas Fir
Sugar Pine
Incense Cedar
White Fir
Total

6,702,240
6,198,959
3,504,426
1,228,629

458,403
18,092,657

6,874,500

4,745,800

3,567,600

949,400

137,600

16,274,900

3 6,395,200
23 5,444,400

2 4,744,200

23 776,200

541,600

ID 17,901,600

- 4
-II

40
-37

6,634,850

5,095,100

4,155,900

862,800

339,600

17,088,250

— I

—18

19

—30

— 6

Errors in Estimating Timber. 171

There are a number of interesting points' in the above table
worthy of note. It will be noticed, for example, that in many
instances the 5 per cent, estimate gave better results than the 10
per cent, estimate. This is to be expected since the 10 per cent,
estimate is the total of the two 5 per cent, strips, and the error
is half way between the errors involved in the 5 per cent, esti-
mates. It also shows that a particular cruise line often happens
to pass through a stand more typical of the entire area than is
represented by the average of the two strips. On the other hand,
the maximum error, as might be expected, is very much greater
in the 5 per cent, than in the 10 per cent, cruise. Thus, while
the greatest error by the 10 per cent, method, considering only
the totals, is minus 12 per cent, in Lot C, the greatest error in
the 5 per cent, estimate is minus 31 per cent in Lot A.

The totals for individual lots show greater error than the
total for the entire section, the greater errors' being respectively
minus 31 per cent, and minus 10 per cent, in the 5 per cent, cruise,
and minus 12 per cent, and minus 6 per cent, in the 10 per cent,
cruise.

The individual species, especially on the separate lots, show the
greatest error, which in one case amounts to over 100 per cent.
When the totals for the entire section are considered, the great-
est per cent, of error is plus 40 for sugar pine in the 5 per cent,
estimate and minus 30 for incense cedar in the 10 per cent,
cruise.

Ths Yosemite Are;a.

The check-cruise on the Yosemite tract covered an area of
1,560 acres, located at an elevation varying from about 4,000 to
6,800 feet. The forest consists of a fine stand of timber averag-
ing over 46,000 feet per acre. The species in mixtures are yel-
low pine 37%, sugar pine 32%, fir 19% and cedar 12%. The
topography is quite level and all exposures are represented. The
usual types are yellow pine and sugar pine. There were 35,529
trees, 12 inches and over in diameter, on the area measured, or
an average of 22.8 trees per acre. Of this number, 491 trees or
an average of .3 trees per acre were more than 60 inches in
diameter.

The original estimate was made by a crew consisting of nine
men, four of whom had had previous reconnaissance exper-

172

Forestry Quarterly.

ience. Before the actual work of estimating was begun hypso-
meter height measurements were taken on about 4,ocx) standing
trees on the tract to be cruised. From these data three height
curves were constructed for each species, showing the average
height of trees of each diameter class on site I, II and III.
Cruise strips one chain wide were then run 10 chains apart, giv-
ing the 10 per cent, estimate of the area. All trees on the strip
more than 12 inches in diameter were tallied by species in 2 inch
diameter classes. Trees 32 inches in diameter or less were esti-
mated, but the eye was checked several times a day by taking
actual measurements. Trees more than ;^2 inches in diameter
and less than 60 inches were measured by means of a Biltmore
stick. Trees more than 60 inches in diameter were measured
by means of a diameter tape. Every strip on each "forty" was
classified by the cruiser into its proper height class. The re-
sult of this cruise was two 5 per cent, estimates which, when
combined, gave a 10 per cent, estimate.

The 100 per. cent, estimate was made by a four-men party as
follows : One man ran compass and lightly blazed the trees along
his course; a second man ran through the center of the strip
tallying the trees and watching the cruisers to see that no trees
were omitted. The other two men measured or estimated all the
trees on the tract and called them out to the tallyman. A strip
2j chains in width was taken on each trip, which necessitated
32 trips for each section. The height class of each species was
determined from the height curves as in the original estimate,
the hypsometer being frequently used to check the eye.

Table 2 shows the results of this check-cruise.

TABLE

II.

YOSEMITE

AREA

Comparison of Estimates

First

Second

Average

100% Bsti-

5% Bstimate

5% Estimate

10% Estimate

Acres

• mate

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Area

Bd. Ft.

Bd. Ft. Error

Bd. Ft. Error

Bd. Ft. Error

160

7,315,370

5.520,620 —25

4,886,580 —22.

5,203,600 —29

160

6,790,570

5,876,420 —14

4,381,860 —35

5,129,140 — 24

160

6,461,450

5,480,560 —15

4,709,880 — 27

5,095,220 —21

160

5.757,870

3,774,760 —34

4,183,260 — 27

3,979,010 —31

640

26,325,260

20,652,360 — 22

18,161,580 —31

19,406,970 — 26

40

1,530,480

2,388,840 56

1,475,640 — 4

1,932,240 26

120

5,563,640

6,537,280 18

4,252,250 —24

5,394,770 — 3

Errors in Estimating Timber. 173

160

7,620,980

8,236,900

8

6,813,700

— II

7,525,300

— I

160

7,324,340

9,941,540

36

8,310,160

13

9,125,850

25

480

22,039,440

27,104,560

23

20,851,760

— 5

23,978,160

9

80

2,755,150

3,628,100

32

2,979,320

8

3,303,710

20

40

1,600,440

2,207,540

38

2,203,040

38

3,205,290

38

40

1,624,490

3,170,840

34

2,292,940

41

2,231,890

37

40

2,924,100

2,909,300

— I

5,005,380

71

3,957,340

35

40

2,833,680

2,638,220

— 7

1.756,540

-38

2,197,380

— 22

40

1,873,360

1,553,220

—17

1,234,320

—34

1,393,770

—26

40

2,398,840

2,692,480

12

3,102,220

30

2,897,350

21

40

2,750,900

2,888,180

5

2,853,900

4

2,871,040

4

40

2,698,760

2,028,940

—25

1,911,960

—29

, 1,970,450

—27

40

2,208,220

1,637,240

—26

1,986,860

— 10

1,812,050

—18

Total 1560 72,032,640 72,110,980 o 64,339,820 — II 68,225,400 — 5

The above table emphasizes more strongly the points brought
out in the first table. To bring them out more clearly the maxima
errors have been picked out and listed below, beginning with those
occurring on the largest area. Section 16, covering a total of 640
acres, has been omitted from this tabulation because it is a very
erratic section and a check on the ground showed that the original
estimate on it was very poorly made, being quite unreliable.

TABLE III

Greatest Errors (Per Cent.).

Difference
Area 5 %Estimafe 10% Estimate betmee^i 5 and I0%

Acres Tot. Est. By Spec. Tot. Est. By Spec. Tot. Est. By Spec.

1560 II 17 5 12 6 5

480 23 40 9 37 14 3

160 36 75 25 68 II 7

80 32 116 20 45 12 71

40 71 179 38 III 33 68

The first column in the above table shows the area of the tract
considered. The second column shows the greatest mistake
found in the total estimate of each tract by the 5 per cent, method,
while the third column shows the greatest error in any one
species in the tract by the 5 per cent, estimate. Columns four
and five are repetitions of columns three and four respectively,
but consider only the 10 per cent, cruise. Column six shows the
difference between the greatest error by the 5 per cent, and the
10 per cent, estimate, when the total cruise of the tract is taken

1/4 Forestry Quarterly.

under consideration, while column seven shows the same for the
individual species in each tract.

The last two columns in the table are the true measure of the
relative accuracy of the 5 per cent, and the 10 per cent, estimates.
It will be seen that when the entire area of 1560 acres is con-
sidered the 10 per cent, estimate cuts down the maximum error
by 5 or 6 per cent., but when individual "forties" are considered
the difference in the greatest error between the 5 per cent and
the 10 per cent, cruise amounts to 33 per cent., if only the total
estimate is considered, and to 68 per cent., if the individual
species' are taken into consideration.

The table brings out very clearly the danger of giving out de-
tailed estimates by small areas when only a comparatively small
per cent, of the area has been estimated. It shows, for example,
that when a 5 per cent, cruise is made and the error is as high
as 71 per cent, on an individual "forty" it drops to a maximum
of only II per cent, on 1,560 acres. In a 10 per cent, cruise the
greatest error drops from 38 per cent, to 5 per cent. When in-
dividual species are taken into consideration the increase in ac-
curacy by lumping the estimates is still more apparent.

The inaccuracy of the estimate on individual "forties" in the
Yosemite tract was no doubt increased by the occurrence of a
few very large sugar pines from 70 to over 100 inches in diameter.
It stands to reason that where these large trees occur sparingly
on a "forty" and the cruise strip happens to strike one or more
of them the estimate will be too high; if it misses them the
estimate will be too low. In either case the error will be large
unless there is a sufficient number of these big trees to allow of
a uniform distribution.

It should be borne in mind that the object of the discussion
is to show the relative accuracy of a 5 per cent, and a 10 per
cent, cruise, and that we are therefore not concerned with the
actual errors made. It must be remembered also that Table 3
gives the greatest errors and is no indication of the actual ac-
curacy obtained by the original cruise.

Since most of the government timber on the National Forests
is sold by actual scale, and not by estimate, it would seem that
a very careful cruise is not required. However, since the stump-
age price charged will depend to some extent on the amount of

Errors in Bstimating Timber.

175

timber on the area for sale, an accurate cruise becomes of con-
siderable importance. To discover how serious a change in the
stumpage price would be made by an error in estimating, two
bodies of timber, one in the Yosemite and the other on the Plumas,
each containing approximately 300,000,000 feet, were appraised
and then reappraised after changing the timber estimate by 5 and
then by 10 per cent. It was discovered that an error of 5 per
cent, in the estimate would make a difference of approximately
8 cents per M feet in the case of the Yosemite timber, where the
appraised stumpage was $3.15 per M. and about 7 cents in the
case of the Plumas, where the appraised value was $2.37. An
error of 10 per cent, in the estimate will make a differenc of
about 20 cents per M. feet in either case. Figuring an average
cut of 20,000 board feet per acre, this error means a loss per
acre of $1.40 if the error is 5 per cent, and $4.00 if the error is
10 per cent., either to the Government, if the cruise is an under-
estimate, or to the operator if the cruise is' an overestimate. This
expressed in terms of per cent, of stumpage price means that an
error of 5 per cent, in the estimate will affect the price by 2^
per cent, and an error of 10 per cent, will affect it by 7.2 per cent.

Cruisers estimating timber for private purchasers or sellers
as a rule aim to get the estimate within 10 per cent. In other
words, a cruiser's work is passable if he comes within 10 per
cent, of the actual timber on the tract. Providing his cruising
is uniform this would mean an error of 10 per cent, in the
value of the timber on the area. It appears advisable, there-
fore, to spend a little more money in order to get a more ac-
curate cruise.

The following deductions may be safely made from the above
discussion and tables :

Assuming that the method of estimating is correct and it is
carefully applied, a 5 per cent, estimate will give fairly satisfac-
tory results for an area not less than about 1,500 acres. A 10
per cent, estimate may give fairly satisfactory results for an
area as small as a section in extent, but for smaller areas than
that even a 10 per cent, cruise is not very reliable. Where more
detailed estimates are desired more intensive cruises are essen-
tial. The practice of making a 5 per cent, or even a 10 per
cent, cruise and then giving out the estimate by 40 acre units is

176 Forestry Quarterly.

inaccurate and misleading and should be discontinued, especially
so since such a detailed estimate seldom serves a useful purpose.
The greater accuracy obtained by a 10 per cent, cruise over a
5 per cent, cruise is entirely out of proportion to the difference
in the costs, and it appears to be good business therefore to make
the more intensive cruise, especially where detailed figures are
desired.

EXPLOITATION OF CROSSTIES IN NORTHERN NEW

MEXICO*

By Ci<arh;nce; F. Korstian.

The following data on the various operations in the exploita-
tion of crossties are based on the methods employed by a com-
pany which has been operating for the past six years in northern
New Mexico. The area which is now being exploited lies on the
west slope of the Sangre de Cristo Range, at elevations of 8,000
to 11,000 feet above sea level. The lower slopes of these moun-
tains merge into rolling hills and gently sloping mesas. The
upper portion of this area is quite rugged, consisting of deep
canyons which have steep slopes. Most of the timber is found
on the mesas, slopes and ridges. The soil is usually of sufficient
depth to cover the underlying rock, so that it does not interfere
with logging to any great extent.

Hewn Ties — Woods to River.

The following species suitable for hewn ties are found in this
locality: Western Yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa), Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga taxifolia), White fir (Abies concolor) , Engelmann
spruce (Picea engelmanni) , Alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) , and
Limber pine (Pinus flexilis). Western yellow pine, Douglas fir
and White fir are the most important species on the area now
being cut.

The following defects were found common to Western Yel-
low pine: stump and heart rot, cat- faces, mistletoe and injury
caused by the pine bark-beetle. The cat-faces were caused by
fires, occurring from 25 to as much as 100 years ago, and by the
removal of the inner bark for food by Indians, a custom which
has been discontinued but which seems to have been prevalent 25
to 50 years ago. Trees having stump rot and cat-faces require
long-butting, which not only increases the waste but results in
a lower grade of ties. Mistletoe and the bark-beetle cause the

*The writer is indebted to Assistant Forest Ranger Wayne Russel for
assistance in collecting the data contained in this article.

178 Forestry Quarterly.

trees to become pitchy and burly, which renders them difficult to
work. Generally, however, western yellow pine is not difficult
to work but is heavy to haul. Douglas fir is usually sound, being
the least defective of the species used for ties. It makes the
most desirable ties because of its durability and lightness, but is
not liked by the majority of tie makers because of its hardness.
White fir is very soft and easy to work, and for this reason is
preferred by many of the tie makers. It is often seriously in-
fected with stump and heart rot. This policy of seldom mark-
ing white fir about 18 to 20 inches D. B. H. has been adopted
for this locality, because trees above this diameter usually show
considerable rot. White fir makes the least desirable tie because
the wood is soft, brittle, and does' not hold the spikes firmly.
When creosoted it makes a fairly satisfactory tie as evidenced
by the fact that the railroad company, in this section of the
country, accepts white fir ties together with those of the other
species without discrimination.

Trees from 10 to 16 inches are suitable for hewn ties', al-
though the tie makers prefer those from 11 to 13 inches. At
the lower elevations where cutting is now in progress the trees
average 2.7 ties per tree. This figure is kept rather low, due to
the marking for cutting of all suppressed and defective trees,
from which at least one tie can be made, and the short-boled
timber toward the lower limit of the yellow pine type.

Three classes of hewn ties are made; squares, firsts and sec-
onds. The butts of large trees are made into square ties, which
are not less than 10 inches on the face, and do not exceed 8
inches in thickness and 8 feet long. First class ties are 8 inches
wide, 7 inches thick, and 8 feet long. Only one inch increase is
allowed in thickness or length. Second class ties must be 7
inches thick, so long as the log is large enough to permit, and
under no circumstances less than 6 inches thick and 6 inches
wide. No ties under 6 inch by 6 inch, or over 1 1 inch by 8 inch,
are accepted by the tie inspector.

The company's agreements with all of their tie makers con-
tain a stipulation which states that all timber of the proper size
for hewn ties' must be cut and if sound shall be made into ties.
If not sound, it must be cut into every four feet sufficiently to

Cross ties in A' or them New Mexico

179

show the defect. All ties must be smooth and of tmiform width
and thickness. The specifications further state that all ties must
be free from shake, loose knots, rot, score hacks and bark.

The per cent, of the different classes, according to the past
season's cut, is approximately as follows :

Class Per Cent.

Squares 8.3

Firsts 35.8

Seconds 52 . 7

Drys (made from dead timber) 6

Culls 2.6

Total 100 . o

Making. Areas are allotted to the contractors who in turn
subdivide them, allotting small areas to subcontractors who are
held responsible for the proper utilization on their area. A full
crew usually consists of three contractors, about 40 subcontrac-
tors, and approximately 100 laborers, most of whom are Mexi-
cans who make their homes in northern New Mexico. From
one-third to one-fourth of the laborers are from the State of
Chihuahua, Mexico. These are the most efficient and rapid tie
makers, each man averaging about 25 ties' per day, while the
natives average only 18. A few Picuris Indians have worked
at intervals but cannot be depended upon for steady labor. An
unskilled laborer in this locality receives $1.50 per ten-hour
day, without board.

The subcontractor organizes his gang, consisting of from two
to five men, and pitches his tent or some simple shelter close to
water v/hich may be near his area. The matter of available
water has a great bearing on the desirability of any area. It is
difficult to get men to make ties in timber that is more than a
mile from a spring or stream.

The tie makers or, as they are commonly called, "tie hackers"
use the following tools and equipment : one 4 to 4^ pound double-
bitted axe and one 12 inch broad axe to each man, and one 5
to 6 foot cross-cut saw, one steel wedge, one light sledge hammer,
one 8- foot measuring pole and a bottle of kerosene (to cut the

i8o Forestry Quarterly.

pitch from the saw) to every two men. These are furnished by
the tie makers themselves.

Enough trees for the day's cut are notched by the men, work-
ing singly, in such a manner that when they are felled any
crooks the trees may contain will be perpendicular to the ground.
The object of this is to face the tie so that when finished it will
lie flat on the ground. Care is also taken with small trees that
their greatest diameter is perpendicular to the ground. This'
gives the ties the widest possible face and necessitates less scoring
After the trees are notched two men fall them with a cross-cut
saw.

Two methods of scoring are employed. In the more prevalent
method followed by the native Mexicans the chopper stands on
the fallen tree and with the axe cuts into its side at an angle of
about 45 degrees at intervals of about six inches. The Chihua-
huans, in scoring, stand at the side of the fallen tree and split
large slabs from its side until it is nearly the desired size. This
method requires more skill on the part of the chopper but is more
rapid and leaves no possibility of the score hacks showing after
the tie has been faced. The limbs are chopped off as they are
reached in scoring.

In facing, the maker stands on top of the tree in all cases and
with the broad-axe works the two faces to their desired size and
smoothness. The "cant" or faced tree is then bucked into 8-foot
lengths with the cross-cut saw. The unfaced sides of the larger
ties are hewn until they become rectangular, making them into
squares. The bark is then peeled from the unfaced sides of the
remaining smaller ties. As this requires no skill it is often done
by boys or apprentices.

The following prices are paid for making the ties : Squares,
$0.14; Drys, $0.12; Firsts, $0.10; Seconds, $0.08.

The average price, including the culls for which nothing is
paid, is $0.09 per tie. The contractors sublet the making at
practically the same prices, expecting to make their profit on
the haul from the woods to the river.

In timber averaging three ties per tree, two men, making 40
ties in a ten-hour day, will spend i^ hours felling, 3^ hours limb-
ing and scoring, 3 hours facing, i hour bucking, i j hours peel-
ing. At this rate the average cost of each operation is as fol-
lows:

Cross ties in Northern Neiv Mexico i8i

Felling $0.oi i per tie

Limbing and scoring 032 per tie

Facing 027 per tie

Bucking 009 per tie

Peeling 01 1 per tie

Total $0.09 per tie

One man making 20 ties per day of the average grades earns
about $1.83 per day. However, loss of time due to getting sup-
plies and inspections and the wear and tear on tools reduces their
daily wage to approximately $1.50 per day.

The season in which most of the hewn ties are made is between
May first and October first. While the better tie makers prefer
to work during the summer, some of the less skillful prefer to
work during the winter, because the frozen timber is less- liable
to sliver, rendering it easier for the less skillful man to make a
smooth face on a crooked-grained or knotty tie.

Brush Disposal. All limbs are lopped from tops which are left
in the woods. Large limbs are cut up so that when piled the
piles are about four feet high and eight feet across. The piles
are placed from ten to fifteen feet from the nearest top, tree, re-
production or other inflammable material, except in extreme cases
which would work a hardship on the operators. Such cases are
left to the discretion of the Forest Officer in charge of the sale.
As a rule each tie maker piles his own brush for which the opera-
tors pay him $0.03 per tree, or approximately $0,011 per tie.

Skidding, Hauling and Yarding. The contractors are de-
sirous of allowing a month or two to elapse between the time
the ties are made and the time they are hauled in order to take
advantage of the weight loss in drying. In some cases it is pos-
sible for the haulers to drive to where the ties lie in the woods
and load them directly on their wagons. Where this is impos-
sible skidding is necessary. Skidding is usually done by a man
and one horse. A chain about six feet long having three to
four grabs about 18 inches apart is used. The grabs are driven
into one of the faces near the end of the tie. Two to four ties
are skidded at each trip. Where more ties are skidded at one
time an extra chain is needed. With the use of an extra chain
three ties are skidded in front and two or more trailers are

i82 Forestry Quarterly.

hooked to the rear of these. The number of ties skidded in a
day by one man and horse varies greatly with the distance which
they are skidded and obstructions, such as underbrush, rocks,
steep slopes, and arroyos. A man and horse can skid 500 ties
in a ten-hour day on the mesas, which are comparatively level
and free from underbrush, or where the skidding distance is
short. In the canyons and on the brushy slopes of the Douglas
fir type, or where the ties must be skidded 200 yards or more or
where they are scattered, one man and a horse can skid but
from 150 to 200 ties per day.

The ties are loaded on wagons which have been lengthened
enough to permit two tiers of ties to be piled end to end. An
average load for a team of the small native horses is about 25
ties. Ordinarily each man requires about one-half hour to load
the ties and bind them on the wagon with a chain.

The average haul from the areas at present allotted the con-
tractors to the yards at the river is about two miles, all of which
is down grade over comparatively good roads. For this haul
they receive $0.09 per tie for all classes. Subcontracts are let
at different prices, varying according to the distance the ties
must be hauled and the accessibility of the areas. The haulers-
receive from $0.05 for the shorter hauls to $0.10 for the longer
and more difficult ones, with an average of about $0,065 P^^"
tie. The haulers are required to construct all but the main trunk
roads, many of which are county roads. The number of trips
a man and team can make in one day varies from two on the
longer hauls, or where skidding is difficult, to four trips on the
shorter hauls or where skidding is easy or unnecessary. One
man and team can skid and haul an average of 75 ties per day.
At this rate he earns about $4.86 per day actual time, but con-
siderble time is lost due to breakdowns and inclement weather,
which considerably reduces the haulers' average wage.

About fifteen minutes are required for the hauler to unload
and pile his load in the yard. In piling, two ties are laid on the
ground about five feet apart. About eight ties are placed across
these forming the first tier. Other tiers are then laid upon these,
the ties of each tier being at right angles to those of the tier be-
low. The piles contain about fifty ties each and are placed about
two feet apart. The piles are placed as close to the edge of the
water as possible, and not more than five piles back from the

Cross ties in Northern New Mexico 183

river, to prevent carrying the ties considerable distances when
they are put in the river in the spring.

Each contractor furnishes or rents his ov^n yard. One con-
tractor yarding about 50,000 ties this year paid $50.00 yard rent,
or $0,001 per tie. However, as the majority of this year's ties
are yarded on rich agricultural land which is under irrigation,
this is believed to be slightly above the average annual cost of
yarding.

Sawn Ties — Woods to River.

Sawn ties, at present, are being made only from western yellow
pine and Douglas fir. The entire operation from the felling of
the timber to the delivering of the ties at the river is covered by
contract with one contractor, who in turn lets subcontracts for
the cutting and hauling of the saw-logs to the mill and the haul-
ing of the ties' from the mill to the river.

Logging. The logging does not differ from that of any other
small operation in northern New Mexico.

Felling, Limbing and Bucking. These operations are usually
covered by a single contract. Only 16-foot logs are cut for which
the choppers receive $0.75 per M. feet, Doyle scale.

Skidding and Hauling. Skidding and hauling are included in
one contract. On some of the steep slopes it is necessary to
skid as much as an eighth of a mile. The length of haul varies
from one-fourth of a mile to three miles. The average haul is
about one and one-half miles, for which $3.00 is the average
price paid.

Milling. The contractor uses a portable mill having a daily
capacity of about 10 M. feet B. M. The mill is composed of
one 45-horsepower boiler, one 35-horsepower engine (which runs
the circular saw, feed and edger), one 6-horsepower engine
(which runs the cut-oflF saw), friction feed with cable, edger and
cut-off saw. The cost of this mill is approximately as follows:

Boiler and 2 engines, second hand, $650.00

Mandrel, husk, feed works, carriage and

track, new, 300.00

Two 60-inch circular saws, new @ $100

each, 200.00

One edger, new, 250.00

184 Forestry Quarterly.

One 30-inch cut-off saw, with attachments, 35.00
Freight and hauling 100.00

Total, $1,535-00

The mill has been used in this condition for five years, and,
with considerable repairing, can probably be used for about five
years longer.

Moving Mill. The mill was moved a distance of six miles
and set up in the winter on a trestle work about eight feet above
the ground. The rollway is also on trestle work, and because
of the small space available for the mill site, contains an angle
of nearly 45 degrees. When the ground thawed in the spring
the foundation settled, making re-inforcement of the foundation
and re-alignment of the machinery necessary. The water supply
failed with the approach of the dry season. In addition to a
delay of about a month this necessitated an additional expendi-
ture of about $100.00 for water development.

The angle in the rollway requires the services of an extra man
for turning logs, and even then often causes delays. The bank-
ing ground for logs is inadequate and it has been necessary to
stop logging at times because of the lack of space. The edger
is on the opposite side of the carriage track from the saw. The
logs used in the trestle work and rollway contain about 20 M.
feet, B, M. The trestle work rendered flooring of the mill nec-
essary, and this required 2 M. feet of lumber which would not
otherwise have been needed. About 3.5 M. feet B. M. were
used in roofing.

The cost of moving and setting up the mill under consideration
is estimated at about $600.00, but for the reasons given above,
this cost is considered excessive. Another mill of about the
same capacity was moved the same distance and set up in this
locality for less than $200.00. The contractor expects to be able
to cut 4,000 M. feet B. M. at this set. This gives a cost of $0.15
per M. feet.

Sawing. The mill, when running at full capacity, employs, in
addition to the contractor who is foreman and filer, the follow-
ing crew:

Crossties in Northern New Mexico 185

I Sawyer $4.50 per day

I Fireman 2.50 per day

I Man tailing down 1.75 per day

I Log turner 1.75 per day

I Ratchet setter 2.25 per day

I Off-bearer 1.50 per day

I Edgeman 2.00 per day

I Cut-off man 2.00 per day

I Roller man 1.50 per day

I Lumber piler 1.50 per day

I Man wheeling sawdust 1.50 per day

Total daily wage $22.75

Allowing contractor's wages 4.50

Total pay roll $27.25 per day

With an average cut of 10 M. feet per day, the average cost
of sawing is $2.72 per M. feet.

Depreciation on Plant. As it is estimated that the mill will
have no wrecking value at the end of five years, it is now worth
about one-half of its original cost, or $767.50. An annual cut
of 2,000 M. feet would require $153.50 to be charged off annually,
or $0.07 per AL feet.

Interest on Investment. The present value of the mill and
the value of tools, belting and equipment aggregates $1,000.00.
With an annual cut as above, the interest at 6% would be $60.00,
or $0.03 per M. feet.

Taxes, Repairs and Maintenance. The mill was assessed at
$400 or approximately one-third of its valuation by the County
Assessor. The taxes at $0.04 per dollar amounted to $16.00
for the year 1912. The outlay for taxes, repairs, files and oil
aggregate about $250.00 per year, of $0.13 per M. feet.

Grades and Prices. At the present time the mill-run averages
about 60% ties and 40% side lumber. Side lumber is produced
incidental to the squaring of a tie cant and the sawing of ties
from the heartwood. The percentage of ties is low, due to the
fact that the company does not accept sawn ties showing any de-
fect or wane.

The lumber is graded in but two arbitrary grades which run
85% No. I and 15% shipping culls. The contractor receives

i86 Forestry Quarterly.

$7.50 per M. feet for both grades of sawed lumber piled at the
mill. The company is able to dispose of a limited amount of
lumber for local consumption at $15.00 per M. feet, E. M., for
No. I and $8.00 per M. feet for the shipping culls. The re-
mainder will have to be hauled 30 miles over rough roads to the
railroad at a cost of $6.50 per M. No further consideration
will be made of the side lumber since no data is available as to
amount that will be disposed of locally and the amount to be
hauled to the railroad, but it is thought that the company makes
very little profit on the side lumber.

About 65% of the ties' are cut 7 inches by 9 inches, 8 feet
long; 25% 7 inches by 8 inches, 8 feet long; 10% 6 inches by
8 inches, 8 feet long. With the above percentages and allow-
ing 24 7x9's, 27 7x8's and 32 6x8's per M. feet, B. M., the
average is 25 ties per M. feet. The contractor receives $6.00
per M. feet, B. M. for the ties at the mill, or 24 cents per tie.

The average price received by the contractor for the mill run is :

Side lumber @ $7.50 per M. feet. B. M 40% $3 .00

Ties @ $6.00 per M. feet, B. M 60% 3.60

Total, 100% $6.60

Summary of Logging and Milling Costs.

Costs per
M. ft.,B.M.

Felling, Limbing and Bucking $0.75

Skidding and Hauling 3 • 00

Gross Logging Cost $3-75

Net Logging Cost, allowing 25% overrun, Doyle

scale $3 -oo

Moving Mill o. 15

Sawing 2 . 72

Depreciation on Plant 0.07

Interest on Investment 0.03

Taxes, Repairs and Maintenance o. 13

Total Logging and Milling Cost $6.11

Profit 0.49

Average mill run price received $6 . 60

Per cent of profit 8

Crossties in Northern New Mexico 187

Hauling Ties to River. The contractor is relieved of the side
lumber at the mill, but is required to deliver the ties in the yard,
at the river. For this he receives $0.05 per tie. He sublets
the contract to two men at $0.04, making a profit of $0.01 per
tie or $0.25 per M. feet, B. M. The haul is all down hill a
distance of two miles. The haulers average about three trips
per day and haul about 30 ties at each trip. At this rate their
wages average $3.60 per day. The men hauling sawn ties each
earn smaller wages than those hauling hewn ties, but have
steady employment.

Hewn and Sawn Ties — Yards to Cars.

Placing in River. The ties are placed in the river when the
spring freshet is at its height. About 200 men were employed
for common labor at $1.50 per day without board, while 30 Mexi-
can patrons received from $1.75 to $2.50 per day without board,
and 10 Americans received from $2.50 to $3.00 per day with
board. The head foreman received $4.50 per day with board.

Forty men with a payroll of $70.00 placed 22,000 ties in
the river in one day. This gives an average of $0,003 per tie.
However, when all things are considered, such as isolated yards,
distance of piles from river, depth of water, and current at
point where thrown in, it is believed that on the average this
cost will be approximately $0,005 P^'" tie.

Driving. About $4,000.00 is spent annually in clearing out
the rivers in preparation for the season's drive. Some piles
were so placed that the spring freshet carried them away before
the drive started. Many of these ties became water-logged and
interfered with the driving, causing trouble enough to more than
offset what the cost of placing them in the river would have
been. The drive proper is quite similar to a log drive in the
northeast. On the smaller streams the camp or wongan is moved
every few days with a wagon, but on the larger river it follows
the men in the boats. A few men were put on the drive as
soon as the ties were started. The drive proper started with
about 150 men and ended with about 15 men, with an average
of approximately 65 men, most of whom received their board.
About 80 days were required, from the time the ties were first
placed in the river until the rear of the drive reached the boom.

i88 Forestry Quarterly.

covering a distance of about 90 miles. This time was required
to break jams, keep the ties moving, place stranded ties in the
stream, take out dead heads and remove boulders loosened by
the ties.

About 6,000 ties became stranded and water-logged but will
be picked up next year. A like number of last year's ties were
picked up in their place. The following data is based on a drive
of 30,000 ties, as the company considers this an average economi-
cal drive. ' Approximately 3,000 ties were broken in the jams
and by dynamiting. It is believed that these ties cost the com-
pany $0.28 each at the time they were broken, making a total
cost of about $840.00. During the drive damages caused to
ditches and land adjacent to the rivers, for which the company
is held responsible, amount to about $600.00.

The cost of driving may be summarized as follows :

Clearing river $4,000 . 00

10 Americans @ $3.00 per day, 80 days, 2,400.00

65 Mexicans @ $1.75 per day, 80 days, 7,700.00

Board, 50 men @ $0.50 per day, 80 days, 2,200.00

3,000 broken ties @ $0.28, 840.00

Damages, 600. 00

Dynamite and pike poles 100 . 00

Camp equipment, 250 . 00

Total, $17,890.00

This makes the average cost of driving $0.06 per tie.

Booming. The boom is about 800 feet long and is composed
of 92 thirty-foot yellow pine logs from 18 to 30 inches in
diameter, with an average diameter of about 22 inches. In the
case of small logs they are often placed two deep. Two logs
are fastened side by side with pieces of cull ties. Often cull
ties are spiked on top of the logs. The pairs of logs are fastened
together, end to end, about 18 inches apart with large chains passed
through the ends of the logs. The logs were hauled by wagon
a distance of 10 to 15 miles at a cost of $2.00 per log. The
boom is taken out of the river every summer at the close of the
loading operations. With such care the boom is replaced about
every six years.

Crossties in Northern New Mexico 189

Sixteen square cribs' hold the boom in place diagonally across
the river. Each crib is constructed of about 6 tiers of 16-foot
logs about 6 inches in diameter. These are filled with rocks.
The construction of each crib required the services of 6 men for
about 4 days.

The improvements to be charged off in six years are as fol-
lows:

Boom :

60 M. feet logs, at. $1.00 per M, $60.00

Hauling, at $2.00 per log, 185 .00

Boom chains, 100, at $1.50, 150.00

Cribs :

Logs and hauling 100.00

Building 16 cribs, 6 men, 4 days, at $1.75, 672.00

Total $1,167.00

This makes a charge of about $0,001 per tie on the
1,800,000 ties exploited in the six years.

A canal was dug to a pond about a quarter of a mile
below the boom. This provided for the storage of the
ties until they could be loaded. The digging of this
canal required the work of 20 men for about 25 days,
for which they received an average of $1.75 per day,
which totaled, $875 .00

A levee was built along the canal and around the pond
to keep the ties from escaping in case of an overflow, at
a cost of $3,500 . 00

The construction of an ofiice, bunk houses, sheds and
other outbuildings aggregated, 3,000.00

Total improvements to be charged off during life of
operation, 20 years, $7,375-00

On 6,000,000 ties to be exploited in the 20 years, this
gives a per tie cost of about $0,001.

The annual recurring booming charges are as follows:

The services of 10 men and teams for 10 days are
required to put the boom into the river. At $3.00 per
day for team and driver this cost is, $300.00

The cost of pulling the boom out each year with
teams aggregates, 400.00

A care-taker is kept at the boom camp the entire year,
whose salary is about, 480.00

An average of 5,000 ties pass the boom each year and
must be picked up along the river below the boom and
hauled to the railroad at a cost of $0.10 per tie, aggre-
gating, 500.00

Total, $1,680.00

This, together with the improvement charges, aggre-
gates $0,008 per tie.

190 Forestry Quarterly.

Loading on Cars. The loading is done with the aid of three
endless chain conveyors. A six or seven horsepower gas engine
furnishes the power for one, while the other two are run by a
15-horsepower upright boiler and engine. Each conveyor is com-
posed of two endless chains about 50 feet long fastened together
3 feet apart with pieces of 4-inch strap iron.

The following crew, not including men along the canal and
on the pond, is used for each conveyor:

Four men in car, one engineer or leverman, 1-2 tie inspectors,
four men in water at foot of conveyor.

In a lo-hour day 150 men can load 40 cars. As gondolas
are used they hold about 300 firsts or, as they are more com-
monly loaded. 425 firsts and seconds. Each car contains an
average of 190 firsts and 235 seconds. About thirty days are
required to load the ties working continually, but a longer time
is required as the ties arrive at the boom irregularly. About 7
tons of coal and 200 gallons of fuel oil are required to run the
engines. The value of the loading equipment is so small that
the charge per tie is almost negligible.

The loading charges may be summarized as follows :

Labor : Per Tie

150 men, at $2.00, loading 17,000 ties, $0,018

Fuel and Oil :

7 tons coal, at $6.00, $42.00

200 gals, fuel oil, at $0.15 30.00

$72.00

Oil, 10 gals., at $0.40, 400

Total, $76.00

o.ooi

Total Loading Charges, $0,019

It is believed that loss of time and shortage of cars increase
this cost to $0.02 per tie.

Supervision. The woods administrative force consists of one
superintendent, one bookkeeper, and one tie inspector, whose sal-
aries aggregate about $5,000.00. Since a part of their duties is
to administer the grazing of 1,200 cattle and horses and 4,000
sheep and goats on the company's holdings, as well as to super-
vise the commissaries operated by the company, all of this sum
should not be charged against the company's tie operations. A

Crossties in Northern New Mexico igi

small ranch is also operated on which a portion of their forage
and provisions is grown. For the above reasons it is believed
that of the $5,000.00 but $4,000.00 should be directly chargeable
to the tie operations.

The expenses of the main office, such as salaries of bookkeeper
and stenographers, stationery and supplies, and office rent amount
to $9,000.00. The total annual charges against supervision ag-
gregate $13,000.00, or $0,043 per tie.

Interest on Capital Involved. The entire 300,000 ties have, at
this point, cost the company about $0.33 per average tie. The
cost of the annual output is invested for at least six months. The
interest on $99,000.00 at 6% for six months is $2,970, or ap-
proximately $0.01 per tie.

Stumpage. The timber from which the hewn ties are made
is valued at $2.50 per M. feet B. M. The original agreement be-
tween the U. S. Forest Service and the company under which
timber is being cut contained the following clause:

"Hewn railroad ties without disqualifying defects whose
widest diameter inside the bark at the small end exceeds 12
inches will be scaled."

In actual practice it was found that this would not work out
satisfactorily to all parties concerned. In the first place it was
impossible for the Forest Officer to be on the ground when all
ties over 11 inches by 8 inches were squared to those dimensions.
The Forest Officer had no way of knowing from what sized log
the tie was made. Secondly, such a clause worked a hardship
on the company by causing them to pay for material which they
could not use. It was more satisfactory to count all ties in
number equivalent to 1,000 feet board measure according to size
The squares and faced ties whose largest diameter at the small
end was more than 12 inches were counted at 28 per M. feet,
B. M., while the other faced ties were counted at 32 per M.
feet B. M. 3.5 per cent, of the faced ties were over 12 inches,
and were counted by the Forest Officer at 28 per M. This
amount is too small to have any appreciable effect on the stump-
age value per tie. At 28 per M. feet B. M., each tie is worth
$0,089, while those counted at 32 per M. are valued at $0,078
per tie.

192 Forestry Quarterly.

SUMMARY
Cost per Tie F. O. B. Cars at, Boom

Hezvn Ties Sawn

Squares Drys Firsts Seconds Ties*

Making, $0,140 $0,120 $0,100 $0,080 $0,240

Brush Disposal, o.oii o.oii o.oii o.oii *

Hauling and Yarding, .... 0.090 0.090 0.090 0.090 0.050

Placing in River, 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005

Driving, 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060

Booming, 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008

Loading on Cars, 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020

Supervision, 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.043

Interest on Capital o.oio o.oio o.oio o.oio o.oio

Total, $0,387 $0,367 $0,347 $0,327 $0,436

Stumpage, 0.089 0.078 0.078 0.078 *

Grand Total $0,476 $0,445 $0,425 $0,405 ••••*

Total cost of average hewn tie, $0,415.

*Cut on Company's own holdings where they make no disposal of brush
and no data is available on stumpage.

THE CISPUS BURN.

A Discussion of the Present Condition of the Burn and Plans'
For Its Improvement.

By E. J. Fenby,

On the second day of September, 1902, a fire of unknown
origin, but generally supposed to have been set by a prospector
to aid him in his search for metal bearing rock, burned over
73,600 acres of timber land on the Cispus watershed in the
Rainier National Forest. The sources of the Cispus river are
the glaciers on Mt. Adams and the Goat Rocks, on the summit
of the Cascade mountains. The river flows w^estward in the
shape of a sickle for fifty miles to its confluence with the Cowlitz
river. The river flows in a northwesterly and westerly direction
for 12 miles through the northern part of the burn. There are
three separate bodies of timber in the interior of the tract which
escaped the fire ; they are confined to the bottoms of deep canyons
and comprise in all 9,400 acres of land. Practically all the tim-
ber on the burn is dead. There are clusters of green trees in
coves and other sheltered places and here and there an oc-
casional living tree in the open, but green trees are too few and
far apart to serve as seed trees for any considerable area.

The Cispus Valley, through the burn, is from an eighth to a
half mile wide, and the mountains facing the valley rise abruptly
from the river bottom, from an elevation of 1,400 feet to 5,000
feet or more. Facing the valley the slopes have north and south
exposures. The main tributaries of the river, which flow through
the burn, run in a northerly direction through deep canyons, the
sides of the canyons then have east and west exposures. The
rock formation over most of the tract is basaltic and the soil is
a loose coarse volcanic ash, locally known as "pumice stone."
This increases' in depth towards the southwestern portion of the
burn which is in the vicinity of Mt. St. Helens, an extinct volcano
cone and the source of the "pumice stone." The chief character-
istic of this soil is its inability to retain moisture, but although
it is deficient in fertility for agricultural purposes it can neverthe-
less be classed as good forest land.

194 Forestry Quarterly.

Three forest types are included in the burn, the Lower Slope,
Upper Slope and Alpine. The Lower Slope type embraces
15,360 acres of the whole, and the Upper Slope practically all
of the remainder, for the Alpine type is confined to a few rocky
mountain crests so small in extent, that they may be left out of
consideration.

The burn included in this type was very heav-"

The Lower ily timbered before the fire. The stand in the

Slope Type valley would have averaged close to a 100,000
B. F. At present the surface is thickly covered
with fallen trees, bark and debris. The bottom land is largely
shaded by black-berry briars, growing over the debris and by
soft and vine maple, elderberry and along the river banks by
Cottonwood and willow. There are small scattered areas over
the bottom which are restocked by dense stands of Douglas fir
and western hemlock seedlings and there is more or less re-
production throughout the whole lower slope type, although it
is not dense enough at present to produce a satisfactory stand of
timber. The factors which determine the occurrence of the dense
patches of seedlings are the presence of seed trees and the con-
dition of the surface. On the best soils in the valley there is
generally the least reproduction, for although there may be seed
trees present the land was quickly overgrown by vine maple which
has so completely shaded the ground as to choke out all the seed-
lings. On poorer soil the underbrush is not so dense and, where-
ever the ground is covered by debris, seedlings have become es-
tablished. The amount and variety depend upon the proximity
and kind of seed trees. On account of the thick bark of the
mature Douglas fir more large trees of this species survived than
either hemlock or cedar. For this reason and because until re-
cent years the seed bed has been favorable to its reproduction the
Douglas fir is the predominant species in the young growth.
But each year more dead trees, bark and branches are falling and
covering up the mineral soil and the conditions become less favor-
able for reforestation, particularly by Douglas fir. As the debris
and logs decay the advantage is given to hemlock for it will ger-
minate in vegetable matter and endure more shade than fir. It
is desirable to secure conditions which will result in reforestation
by Douglas fir. This can best be done by the use of fire.

Another fire in the burn would increase the area of the seed

The C is pus Burn. 195

bed in the valley by a third, and over the whole Low^er Slope by
a fourth merely by removing the debris. Most of the reproduc-
tion now on the ground would, to be sure, be destroyed, but the
opportunity for the ground to become restocked after this fire
would be greater than it has been in the past. The Douglas fir
seed trees which survived the previous fire are large ones with
very thick bark and most of them would live through another
fire. The damage inflicted upon them would serve as a stimulus
to the production of greater quantities of seed.

While it is true that reproduction is generally denser in the
vicinity of seed trees yet the seeding of burns in the Lower Slope
types is not dependent entirely upon seed trees occurring in the
burn. This statement is sustained by observation on many old
burns in the surrounding country which have become densely re-
stocked by Douglas fir. An old burn on the mountain side north
of Randle on the Cowlitz river, a watershed adjoining the
Cispus, was frequently burned over by the early settlers as long
as there remained sufiicient inflammable material to spread the
fire. No veterans remain on the burn but it now supports a
dense stand of large Douglas fir poles. Eight miles above on
the Cowlitz river, near the Cora ferry, there is a large area of
land on the Davis mountain which is completely restocked by
Douglas fir saplings 12 years old, although there are no old seed
trees on the mountain side and it is a safe assumption that there
were few if any when the present stand began. There are no
small logs nor litter on the ground, showing that the land was
burned over several times. Again, on the Cispus watershed,
bordering the burn under discussion there is a tract of very dense
Douglas fir poles 20 years old and the old seed trees are not so
frequent as one in a forty. There too the forest floor is free
from the remains of the primeval forest excepting large tree
trunks. All the litter could not have decayed in 20 years. It
must have been burned by a series of fires following the one
which killed the original stand. Many other similar cases could
be cited. Indeed it is a rare occurrence to find a stand of young
growth which has reached pole size amid the debris of the for-
mer stand.

It would seem then that the proper method to handle recent
burns may be in many cases to fire them again to clear away the
remaining litter and reduce the fire risk on the future young

196 Forestry Quarterly.

stand. The fire which kills the green timber usually burns up but
little of it. In accessible locations the dead timber may be logged.
This results in bringing enough tops, branches, small poles, etc.,
to the ground to make a consuming fire. In inaccessible locations
where it is not practicable to log the dead timber, a period of
years must elapse before there will have fallen a sufficient amount
of litter and timber to make a consuming fire. The length of
time before the conditions are favorable for the second fire de-
pends largely upon the amount of snow and wind in the succeed-
ing winters after the timber is killed.

This particular burn is sure to be set afire sooner or later
either by lightning or by the carelessness of one of the many
fishermen, berry pickers, or other campers who frequent the val-
ley. In the middle of the summer the entire burn within the
Lower Slope type is one continuous mat of dry timber. Each
summer all the conditions are favorable for a fire to start which
could not be kept under control and each summer a miracle has
prevented it from starting. The fire would be a destructive one
if it started in the dry season, for with the great heat to be gen-
erated by so large a quantity of inflammable material as occurs
on the burn the fire could escape into the large bodies of timber
to the north, south and west. With this inevitable fire but a few
years oflf, the reproduction now on the ground has no value for it
will never reach pole size, and each year the fire is delayed in-
creases the length of time this tract of land is kept non-produc-
rive. This loss may be expressed in figures, for if the expectation
value of the soil be capitalized at $50 an acre the interest at 3
per cent, on the value of the 15,000 acres of non-productive land
would amount to $22,500 yearly.

There are five private holdings in the burn, a patented home-
stead, a listed homestead, a shingle bolt camp, a prospector's cabin,
and a mining company's property. Two of them present the only
difficulties in carrying out the plan to fire the burn. They are
the patented homestead and bolt camp. The most valuable asset
on the patented homestead is the dead cedar on it, about 2,000
cords, which would be cut if the bolt camp resumed operations.
About 6,000 cords remain on shingle bolt sale area, and although
an extension of time was allowed, until June 30, 1914, the com-
pany seems disinclined to take advantage of it. After the close
of the sale the buildings on the sale area revert to the govern-

The Cispus Burn. 107

ment. They have but a nominal value. The prospector's cabin
would not be in danger for he set fire out around it in the spring
of 1912. The improvements on the Hsted homestead consist only
of a shack which could be replaced for $50. But the advantage
of a fire as a help in clearing the land would so greatly exceed the
value of the shack that the homesteader's permission could be
secured free of charge. These holdings are all in the valley.
The mining property is situated at an altitude of 3,200 feet and
the dead timber around it has been cleared away to a large extent,
besides there has been a second fire over the property and there
would be small risk of destroying it. It is quite likely the miner's
consent could be had. The plan depends upon the bolt camp re-
suming and logging the cedar on the patented land. If the bolt
camp does not resume then the only alternative is to purchase
the cedar on the patented land or pay an indemnity for the dam-
age. While this would be highly profitable to the Government
from a financial standpoint, it would be as a matter of policy
out of the question. In addition to these private holdings there
is a ranger cabin on the sale area worth $150. This could be
protected. There is also perhaps 10,000 cords of cedar shingle
bolts scattered over the bottom land but this cedar is so scattering
and the cost of logging so high that it could not be sold. The re-
mainder of the dead timber is not merchantable.

It is possible to fire this burn and keep the fire in control and
direct its course to a large degree so that it will be confined to
serve the purpose and at the same time do no damage excepting
to the cedar and fences on the patented land and camp buildings
on the sale area. To accomplish this every advantage must be
taken of wind, weather and natural barriers. It is not practical
to build fire lines there because of the prohibitive cost in such a
jungle. The fire could be started at the end of summer after
the first few rains of fall. The weather always becomes stormy
in the high mountains first, so the fir season ends several weeks
earlier in the highlands, than in the lowlands. This is an im-
portant fact, for by the time there has been enough rainfall in
the valley to prevent fire from running too freely, there has been
sufficient rainfall in the mountains to prevent it entirely. So
there would be no possibility of the fire sweeping up the moun-
tain sides into the Upper Slope type. It is when fire can get
such a run up hill that strong drafts are created which drive it

198 Forestry Quarterly.

along and spread the fire by sparks in front of the main fire. Be-
sides it is desirable to keep fire out of the Upper Slope type en-
tirely. The fire would be started around the edges of the burn
and there would be little danger of it spreading into the green
timber for more moisture from the first few rains is retained in
the green woods than in the burn. The success of the plan de-
pends largely upon the judgment of the man put in charge of
the undertaking. He should have large experience in handling
fires and should be familiar with the country. There are several
local forest officers who are well qualified and competent for the
job. The responsibility of inviting a possible disastrous con-
flagration in the dry season by permitting the present condition
to continue is a greater one than that assumed by the man who
would undertake to fire the burn after the close of the fire season.
A portion of the burn in the valley is included in the Cispus classi-
fication project and if it is decided to list any of the land it
would be advisable to fire the burn before the land is opened to
entry and avoid additional complications by increasing the num-
ber of private holdings.

The natural reseeding of the Upper Slope type
The Upper is a much slower process and the problem a more
Slope Type complicated one. A larger number of seed trees
is required in this type than in the lower one, and
in the absence of seed trees it is sometimes a difficult matter to
predict of what composition the coming stand will consist. Fire
in the uplands is a dangerous instrument, for the results differ
widely. But then the quantity of debris is never so great after
the first fire as on the bottom lands, for the timber is smaller
and the fires have stronger drafts and burn more of it up. Fire
is followed by huckleberry brush and willows. In the eastern
part of this burn numerous patches of huckleberry have come in
since the fire. When fire recurs frequently, chaparral sometimes
replaces the huckleberry brush as is illustrated on Lone Tree
mountain, which is a part of this burn and was fired continually
every spring for a number of years before the big fire by a home-
steader who settled at its base. On this mountain there is three-
fourths of a section captured by chaparral, and there are several
other patches of it, from 10 to 30 acres apiece scattered over the
eastern one-third of the burn. But chaparral is otherwise of in-
frequent occurrence on this forest, although it might become
more common if fire was not suppressed at the higher altitude

The Cispus Burn. 199

of this burn. In time, a few Noble fir, Amablis fir or White pine
creep into the open spaces in the brush and by shading the brush
out and scattering seed the patches slowly become restocked by
coniferous trees. There is such an example near the head of the
Cispus river. It does not require so long a period for the growth
to become established in the berry patches as in chaparral, and
on the eastern borders of the burn there are many berry patches
which are becoming restocked. A good illustration is found be-
tween the forks of Cat creek. There once was a large huckle-
berry patch at this place as is evident from the numerous old
Indian camp ground and burnt logs where the berries were
dried, and by remaining bushes. It is now grown up with a good
stand of White pine, Amabilis and Alpine firs, saplings about 15
years old. There is no way of determining how long the berries
usurped the land before the growth reappeared, though it probably
required several decades for the transition. Unexpected species
and stands are sometimes found on old burns along the eastern
edge of the Cispus burn. The old burns are in a berry country
frequented by Indians who in former times burned the country
to expand the berry patches. As one Indian expressed it, they
used to "bum some country every year, sometimes a little bit,
sometimes a big bit." Near the Chain of Lakes there is a pure
stand of Lodgepole pine and in the same locality are specimens
of both Western larch and Western Yellow pine. This is one
of the very few places where these species are known to exist on
the west slope of the mountains on this Forest. Fire was un-
doubtedly the controlling factor in introducing these species so
far from their usual range. Reproduction is generally found
to start first in moist situations at the bottom of draws and other
sheltered places, and it often happens that seed trees survived
in such sheltered locations and the reproduction around them is
sometimes very dense. On the west side of Juniper Mountain
there are deep draws carved out by streams flowing down the
mountain; in these draws, especially in those with seed trees,
the Douglas fir and hemlock reproduction is excellent. On the
dry ridges between the draws White pine and Noble fir form 3%
of the reproduction, although there are no White pine or Noble
fir seed trees in the vicinity. The ages of the seedlings show that
most of them became established during the moist summers.
Very few four year old plants were found ; four years ago the
summer was an exceptionally dry one.

200 Forestry Quarterly.

On the burn east of Niggerhead Creek quite a little vegetation
has started to grow. It consists mostly of fire weed, cheat
grass, willow and huckleberry. Scattered through the vegetation
there are a few seedlings but very few, and in the most favorable
places' there are small patches of good reproduction. Judging by
older burns on the localities which nave become restocked, one
can expect this tract to become restocked also in the course of
time. The growth on the ground affords the necessary protec-
tion to young plants from frost and from withering sunlight, but
it is quite probable that the tract will not become fully restocked
until the seedlings now on the ground develop into seed trees and
restock the areas around them.

The prospects for much of the land west of the Niggerhead
Creek are not so encouraging. The soil there is very loose and
porous and is subject to excessive dryness in the summer. Much
of it is totally denuded and where vegetation of any kind appears
it is thin and limited to fire weed, wild strawberry and rye grass.
Much of this land will have to be restocked artifically.

Assistant District Forester C. S. Judd, commenting upon the
above article expresses himself as doubting the wisdom of burn-
ing over the area for the purpose of securing a better reproduc-
tion. He says:

"If there is already a tolerably good stocking of reproduction
over much of the area, I should hesitate to burn it up intentionally
merely because it might be burnt up anyway before it reached
maturity. In any operation of timber growing, we have to take
some chance that our investment will be lost ; on an area of this
kind our chance of loss is merely increased in degree but not in
principle. Most studies that we have made of the natural re-
production of Douglas fir show that after every successive fire
the reproduction becomes poorer and poorer, and therefore to
burn off a tolerably good stand of reproduction with the idea of
getting a better one would be fallacious. A very intensive study
of a portion of the Yacolt Burn made this last season showed
that on most of the area looked over the reproduction was ex-
cellent, but it was almost all of ii-year old seedlings. These had
evidently sprung either from the seed stored in the ground and
not consumed or from seed which survived the fires on trees
which were themselves killed. A second fire pn this area that
wiped out existing reproduction would necessitate artificial re-
forestation, since it is evident that not enough reproduction is
starting from the extremely scattered seed trees to restock the
whole area, although surface conditions appear favorable."

BARK DISEASE OF THE CHES'I^NUT IN BRITISH
COLUMBIA.

By J. H. Faull and G. H. Graham.

Early in the summer of 1913; Mr. H. R. Christie of the
British Cohimbia Forest Service sent us specimens of bark
taken from diseased chestnut trees growing on the Experimental
Farm at Agassiz, B. C, with the information that several trees
were dead and others dying. This material was implemented by
other sendings and additional information from the Superinten-
dent of the Farm, Mr. P. H. Moore. Naturally the chestnut
bark disease was suspected, although at that time it was not
known to occur outside the confines of the Eastern States, and
no plantings of chestnut trees had been made at Agassiz since
1890, or more than a decade before the blight had been first
observed in America. The confirmation of that surmise would'
have been of peculiar interest just then, because of the bearing
it might have had on the discussions relating to the dissemination
and eradication of chestnut blight, and on the views held re-
garding the origin of the causative agent. Happily the latter
has since been permanently removed from the bogs of hypotheses.
In June, Meyer, who had been prosecuting a search in China
under the direction of the Department of Agriculture of the
United States reported that he had found a bark disease of a
native Chinese species of chestnut, and that the Chinese have been
treating their chestnuts for this' disease for centuries. A speci-
men forwarded by him was turned over to Drs. C. L. Shear and
N. E. Stevens, who at once isolated a fungus from it, which
they have proved beyond question to be identical with Endothia
parasitica, the cause of chestnut blight in America.* It is note-
worthy that the action of this fungus on the oriental species is
much less virulent than on Castanea dentata.

How long the Agassiz trees have been diseased is not known.

*Shear and Stevens, "The Chestnut-blight Parasite (Endothia parasitica)
from China," Science, Aug. 29, 1913. Fairchild, "The Discovery of tJie
Chestnut Bark Disease in China," Science, Aug. 29, 1913.

202 Forestry Qua/rterly.

The only certain fact is that they were quite badly affected four
years ago.

The appearance of the material sent us is the same as any that
might be collected from diseased trees in the affected areas of
the East. There are the same pustules and cankers, and under
the bark the same characteristic mycelial fans. Photographs like-
wise show that there is the same tendency to produce - water
sprouts below the killed portions of the trees. The pycnospores
in respect to color, form, and size coincide with those of the true
blight-fungus. No perithecia have been found, and if present at
all are not abundant.

Cultures were made on various media. Their characters' are
those of Bndothia parasitica. The cultures on potato agar were
compared side by side with those of the blight fungus obtained
from Pennsylvania, and they were found to be alike. For pur-
poses of identification of the Endothias', potato agar cultures have
been pronounced by the Andersons and by Shear and Stevens
to be the most distinctive. The latter emphasize one feature of
tube cultures as being especially characteristic of the blight fungus,
namely a peculiar brassy appearance in the lower part of the
tube. They state that "this metallic appearance has been found
to be the most constant and reliable distinguishing character of
B. parasitica," as it never occurs in the case of closely related
species. t

We have found, as stated above, that the potato agar cultures
of the British Columbia fungus are indistinguishable from the
Pennsylvania material grown alongside, even to this metallic ap-
pearance by reflected light. We are further permitted to state
that Dr. P. J. Anderson has confirmed our observations. Under
date of October 13 he writes, "Your cultures from British Co-
lumbia grow like typical Bndothia parasitica up to the present,"
and under date of October 25, "I have cultivated on potato agar
the form from British Columbia, and the regular strains from
Pennsylvania, and cannot tell the difference between them." It

t Anderson, P. J., and Anderson, H. W., "The Chestnut-blight Fungus
and a Related Saprophyte," Phytopathology, II, 1912. pp. 204-10, and
Bull. 4, Penna. Chestnut Tree Blight Commission, 1913. Shear and Ste-
vens, "Cultural Characters of the Chestnut-blight Fungus and its near
Relatives," Cir. 131, pp. 1-18, Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C,
1913.

Bark Disease of the Chestnut. 203

thus seems reasonably certain that this fungus is the true blight
fungus. Inoculations constitute the final test, and they will be
reported on later.

Where the infection came from remains uncertain, though it
is significant that a connection with the Orient exists. The
chestnuts growing at Agassiz are of Oriental, European and
American origin. The stock was purchased from nursery firms
located in New Jersey, Ohio and California. One of these at
least "was a heavy importer of Oriental trees and shrubs."

REFORESTING CUT-OVER CHESTNUT LANDS.
By E. C. M. Richards.

A large percentage of timber found in the forests near New
York City — in Connecticut, New Jersey, Long Island and South-
ern New York — is chestnut. Most of this is still too small to
be cut if the maximum value is to be obtained from it, and the
best management would, under normal conditions, advise thin-
ning and postponement of cutting for ten to thirty years. The
advent of the Chestnut Blight has, however, made severe damage
cuttings necessary over much of this area, and with it a new forest
problem has presented itself. What shall be done with the cut-
over chestnut timberlands in the blight-infected section of the
country? This is a question of importance and it is the purpose
of this' article to discuss it and if possible, to render some service
towards arriving at- an effective answer.

There are several points which need to be considered before
taking up any general conclusions as to the treatment of cut-
over chestnut lands. Among them are the following: What will
result if the chestnut sprouts are allowed to grow unmolested?
What is to be found in the way of reproduction of species, other
than chestnut — oak, hickory, etc. — on the cut-over lands? What
will be the result if the cut-over lands are left untouched after
the removal of the chestnut? When these questions have been
answered then some general conclusions may be reached in re-
gard to the proper treatment of land now producing chestnut.

In order to secure accurate information concerning cut-over
chestnut lands, a study was made of the conditions found on
such areas in northern New Jersey. The method of procedure
in this study was as follows : Sample plots were taken on all
qualities of soil where

First: The chestnut had just been cut.

Second: The chestnut had been cut six months before (con-
taining one year's growth).
Third : The chestnut had been removed seven years before.

On these sample plots the number, size and species of every

Reforesting Cut-Over Chestnut Lands. 205

stump were recorded, along with the age and number of the
sprouts coming from it and their apparent present condition.
In the case of the chestnut, the age, number and size of the dead
sprouts and the number and size of the sprouts infected with
the disease, but still alive, were also recorded. The number of
seedlings of each species was noted down, and with it their
height and growth, and in each case where dead sprouts or
seedlings were found, the cause of such death was ascertained
and noted where possible. Notes on the rock, soil, subsoil,
humus, slope and exposure to wind, sun, snow and rain, com-
pleted the sheet for each plot. When a sufficient number of
plots had been taken the results were tabulated and studied and
a good idea of the actual conditions existing on such cut-over
lands was obtained.

To make more valuable the results of the study, a brief de-
scription of the local conditions influencing forest growth should
be given :

The forest land on which the study was made is located in
Somerset County, New Jersey, on the extreme Southern boundary
of the geological region known as "The Highlands." The rock
is entirely composed of granite gneiss of the Archean period.
The region is a few miles south of the limit of glaciation and the
soils are to a large extent residual, having been derived from the
rock upon which they now lie. These soils are almost wholly of
a silty loam in texture, containing a slightly lower percentage of
silt than silt loam, and, as the subsoil is of the same material
and the depth of the bedrock below the surface is fairly great,
the drainage is very good. In fact this porosity of the subsoil
tends to aid droughts too much during the severe heat of sum-
mer. The soil is very thickly intermingled with pieces of gneiss,
varying in size from masses weighing several tons to small ir-
regular stones, the usual size being about as large as a saucer.
On the hilltops these rock fragments are so numerous as to
give an appearance somewhat similar to that found on a talus
slope. The average annual rainfall is about 45" and is well dis-
tributed throughout the year. The average temperature for the
year is 49° F. The topography of the country is that of a group
of rounded hills rising from an elevation of 300 feet above sea-
level at Bernardsville to about 850 feet on the highest hilltops.
The valleys are often deep and the slopes abrupt, but one character-

2o6 Forestry Quarterly.

istic of the region is the absence of rocky outcrops or cliffs. The
number of small brooks and springs make the region very at-
tractive and beautiful.

The greater portion of the forest land is found on the upper
slopes and tops of the hills, where the presence of so many rocks
in the soil renders agriculture impossible. Most of the land is
held in the form of large estates, and is used for summer resi-
dences and country places.

The forests are almost entirely hardwood in composition — oc-
casional stands of hemlock on steep, cold, north slopes and in
ravines, being the only natural evergreen forests found. Three
main types of forest exist: i. the Hilltop; 2 . the Slope; 3. the
Bottom.

Each type is characterized by the presence of certain species
of trees. The Hill-top Type contains a high percentage of
Chestnut Oak, Quercus prinus, L. — which on account of its ex-
acting light requirements and ability to grow on dry sites, ex-
cludes most of the other species. The chief trees of the Slope
Type are the Chestnut, Castanea dentata — which exists in practi-
cally pure stands, with some Butternut — Juglans cinerea, and
Oaks, and on the lower portions of the type, with some Ash
and Tulip. This latter portion of the type is so characteristic
that it seems best to call it a sub-type under the name of the Lower
Slope Type. The Bottom Type is found only along streams and
near springs and it is made up largely of Black Birch — Betula
lenta, Ash — and Tulip, White Oak, Quercus alba, and now and
then a Cherry, Basswood or Black Gum. In percentage of area
covered, the Slope Type is the largest, and the Hilltop the sec-
ond, while the Bottom covers only a small portion of the forest
lands.

On the sample plots', the total number of chestnut stumps ex-
amined was 107. The average number of sprouts on each stump
for all three types was so nearly uniform that it may safely be as-
sumed that the site has no effect upon the number of sprouts
produced. The average number of sprouts per stump was 21.3
and 5.5 of them, or 26% had already died. These figures are
general for the whole area covered by the study, but the majority
of the plots were taken, perforce, on areas cut over less than a
year previous. From the few plots taken on land cut over seven
years ago, nearly every chestnut sprout was infected by the

Reforesting Cut-Over Chestnut Lands. 207

blight and over 65% were dead. On no plot was a chestnut
sprout or seedHng found, that exceeded three inches in diameter,
which was not badly infected by the blight. In fact the con-
clusion reached after the study had been completed is that only
for a year or, at the most, two, are the sprouts and seedlings free
from the disease. There is little or no reason to hope for se-
curing an uninfected forest of chestnut, either sprouts or seed-
lings, as long as the blight continues to remain as virulent as it is
to-day.

The second question inquired into the number, variety and
vigor of the reproduction of other species occurring on the cut-
over lands. In answering this, it seems best to consider each type
individually, for in passing from one to another the differences
of composition are strongly marked.

On the Hilltop Type the percentages of each species present
(chestnut excepted) show, a very marked favoritism for Rock
Oak, 44% of the reproduction being of this species. This of
course is to be expected from the prevalence of mature seed
trees of this species which had been left standing. As to the other
species, it was found that 11.8% was Pignut Hickory — Hicoria
glabra; 6.8% Red Oak, Quercus rubra, and 3% White Ash,
Fraxinus Americana. These were the most valuable of the
species found and they comprised a total of 65.6% of the re-
production. The remainder, 34.4%, mor€ than one-third of the
total stand, was made up of Red Maple, Acer rubrum, Cherry,
Butternut, Birch and Sassafras, all trees of little or no value.

On the Slope Type, the Rock Oak was present in large num-
bers but the more favorable site caused it to be somewhat re-
placed by other species. Only 22% of the reproduction was
Rock Oak, while the total percentage of Maple, Cherry and
"others" was 62. This brings out a fact which is of great im-
portance in connection with the regeneration of these forest
lands. In passing from the poorest type, the Hilltop, to types
occupying the better sites, a decrease in the percentage of Rock
Oak is evident. But the loss is made up entirely by inferior
species — Cherry, Maple, Butternut, etc. — the better species even
losing ground. The remainder 16%, was Red Oak, 6%, and
Pignut Hickory, 10%. Adding these to the Rock Oak a total of
38% is obtained which represents the whole of the reproduction
present of desirable species.

2o8 Forestry Quarterly.

The Lower Slope Sub-Type is of particular interest, there
being a marked change in the composition of the reproduction
found upon it from that found upon both of the other upland
types. Hickory, Red Oak and Rock Oak combined make up only
8% of the, reproduction, while 72% is cipmposed of ash and others.
The increase in the amount of moisture and the deeper and more
fertile soil of this type account for these changes, but only two
species of the "others" so predominating this type are desirable —
the Ash and the Tulip. The remainder is made up largely of
Birch and Butternut, both of which are undesirable. There is
present, however, a fairly large number of seed trees of these
desirable species and natural regeneration from seed should be
very successful if properly encouraged. If left, however, to the
undisturbed occupation of the soil, the competition with the Birch,
Butternut and other worthless species will end in producing only
a moderate amount of Ash and Tulip. A careful handling of the
cutting on this type, therefore, is necessary to secure the best
results.

Owing to the fact that the Bottom Type contains no chestnut,
it therefore does not come under the head of this article.

Originally the forest on each one of the three types containing
chestnut was characterized by one species or group of species.
On the Hilltop the Rock Oak, on the Slope the Chestnut, and
on the Lower Slope the group designated as "others," along
with the chestnut. The chestnut has been cut on the Slope and,
except for the Tulip and Ash, the "others" are not good species
to encourage on the latter type. Although the Rock Oak is
a good species, producing valuable timber, its rate of growth is
not rapid and the substitution of a fast growing conifer which
could endure the severity of conditions found on the Hilltop Type,
would tend to increase the productivity of the forest. It can be
seen therefore that, except for the preservation of the Ash and
Tulip on the Lower Slope, a change of type in some form appears
to be the most logical solution of the problem of handling all of
this land. And in changing the type, the predominance of the
chestnut, which now is rapidly dying, has left little in the way
of species native to the region with which to build up a new forest.

This scarcity of suitable native species upon which to rely for
natural reproduction necessitates the selection of some tree which
may be satisfactorily introduced, and the White Pine suggests it-

Reforesting Cut-Over Chestnut Lands. 209

self for this purpose. But the White Pine has been largely
planted for ornament in the neighborhood, and in practically
every instance the leader has been destroyed by the weevil, so
that the planting of White Pine for forest purposes would not, in
all probability, prove successful. Scotch and Austrian Pine are
both good species, being of rapid growth and suitable for plant-
ing on poor sites, but it has been found that they are not to be
wholly relied upon in this country for producing the best results
under forest conditions. The native Red of Norway Pine seems
to be much more suitable. This tree ranges naturally as far
South as Pennsylvania and should be excellent for planting in
Northern New Jersey. It is entirely immune from the weevil,
grows at approximately the same rate as the White Pine and is
well able to thrive upon a poor site. Although the wood is not
quite as good for commercial purposes as that of the White Pine,
it will make satisfactory lumber for many uses and taking every-
thing into account, the Red Pine seems to be the logical tree to
substitute for the fast disappearing chestnut.

In dealing with the planting of Pine on these cutover lands, it
should be remembered that for the most part, these areas have
been cut clear, the few scattered oaks or clumps of oaks in no
way being adequate for the distribution of seed, either in distribu-
tion over the areas or in production for distribution. This being
the case, artificial regeneration in some form is the only solution
to the problem.

The plan of procedure in changing to the Red Pine Type, sug-
gested above, is to plant the pine at intervals of six feet — as nearly
as possible — on the cut-over lands, disregarding the presence of
chestnut or other stumps, as far as possible. For the first two
years or so the sprouts of the chestnut will cover the pine, but
within four years the blight will have killed the greater part of
these sprouts and with their death, and the resulting opening up
of the young stand, the pine will receive more light with a cor-
responding stimulation of growth. The two or three years partial
shading will not seriously injure the young pine, but will keep the
forest floor in good condition. In dealing with the reproduction
of the other species, which for the most part are undesirable,
cleanings can be made as it becomes necessary to allow the pine
to come up, but after a few years its' rapid growth will enable it to
compete with the native hardwoods. On the Lower Slope Sub-

2IO Forestry Quarterly.

Type the artificial regeneration will be aided to a certain extent
by the natural seeding from the scattered Ash and Tulip, while
the Rock Oak will likewise be of assistance on the Hilltop Type,
but the chief reliance should be placed upon the plantation of
pine.

The result of the adoption of the above system of handling
cut-over lands will lead to the complete alteration of type in the
forests of the region, but now that the chestnut has to go, leav-
ing no suitable native species to take its place, the pine appears to
be the best answer to the problem of how to reforest the areas
denuded by the Chestnut Blight.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF A FOREST EXPERIMENT

STATION.

By G. a. Pearson.

The creation of nine forest experiment stations during the past
five years has given rise to a new form of administrative work
in the Forest Service. The principles and many of the specific
regulations laid down in the National Forest Manual apply to
experiment stations as well as to National Forests; but the ad-
ministration of an experiment station is more specialized, and in
many ways quite different from that of a National Forest. While
the experiment stations in the various Districts of the Forest
Service are affected by different local conditions, it. is believed
that the administrative problems have been sufficiently similar
to warrant a discussion of the subject on broad lines, with the
object of developing policies of general applicability. This ar-
ticle is based upon five years' experience as director of the Fort
Valley Experiment Station. Undoubtedly many of Hie problems
which have arisen here have been met and solved at other sta-
tions, perhaps in different ways. It is hoped, therefore, that this
article will stimulate discussion from experiment stations and the
Service in general.

The administration of a forest experiment station falls under
two general heads: (i) operation, including the establishment
and maintenance of the plant; and (2) scientific work.

Operation.

Location. The location of the station is' a matter demanding
thorough consideration. Ready access to typical stands of ex-
ploitable timber is a primary requisite. Both virgin and cut-
over stands in different forest types or life zones are desirable.
To handle scientific problems bearing on the work of the Service,
the station should be located on or near a National Forest on
which important forest activities, particularly timber sales, are
in progress. There should be facilities at the station headquar-
ters for at least a small forest nursery. Proximity to a railroad

212 Forestry Quarterly.

station, while less essential than natural facilities for research, is
important from the standpoint of economy and general efficiency.
Construction. It need scarcely be stated that the plant should
be built according to a definite plan. The most economical pro-
cedure is to construct all the buildings for which there is present
need within a short period. The ideal way would be to devote
the greater part of the first year to building and acquiring equip-
ment. Then this phase of the work would be to a large extent
disposed of, and the station force would be free to devote the
greater portion of its time to scientific work. A building pro-
gram extending over several years is uneconomical because both
the cost of construction and cost of supervision will be greater
than if all the work is done at one time and under one or a few
contracts. The supervision and office routine incident to the con-
struction of one building is almost as great as for several erected
during the same season. A building program is, however, depen-
dent upon the availability of funds, and in any event the plans
must always provide for expansion with the growth of the station.
The purchase of equipment requires judgment and foresight.
This applies not only to scientific apparatus, but to other equip-
ment such as tools, wagons, horses, etc. It is poor economy to
work with inadequate or unsuitable equipment, but it is almost
equally bad to purchase equipment which is not needed or which
is unsuitable. More or less waste of this character is unavoid-
able where the character of the work is changing from year to
year; nevertheless this is a phase of the administration which
requires careful study.

Maintenance. The upkeep of buildings and equipment requires
continuous attention. For extensive repairs, the employment of
skilled workmen, if available, is generally most satisfactory, but
since experiment stations are located at a distance from towns,
it is usually impracticable to send for a carpenter, plumber, ma-
son or machinist for the small jobs which come up from day to
day. A common laborer can often be used as a "handy man,"
but such men can not as a rule be given much responsibility. At
larger establishments, such as agricultural experiment stations,
this problem is solved by the employment of a foreman or super-
intendent who is made responsible for keeping the entire place
in proper condition ; but the average forest experiment station is
too small to warrant the employment of such an officer. The di-

Forest Experiment Station. 213

rector of the station should give this work his personal attention,
but the details should, as far as possible, be left to assistants,
preferably non-technical men.

The standards of the Forest Service require that all stations
be kept in presentable condition. This end can be attained only
by insisting upon the observance of certain rules by the entire
station force. Here there is perhaps as much danger from one
extreme as the other. The appearance of a station should be in
keeping with the dignity of the Forest Service. The public ex-
pects this of any government institution. Moreover, order and
system are necessary to efficiency. A Forest Assistant who ha-
bitually neglects to replace and care for tools and instruments,
wastes materials, and is generally careless about the appearance
of his quarters, shows that an important branch of his training
has been neglected. On the other hand, to make a forest experi-
ment station into a public show place is both unnecessary and
unjustifiable. An experiment station is essentially a work shop
and the casual appearance of a few working materials should
not offend the eye of even the most fastidious visitor.

On account of the isolation of experiment stations, some pro-
vision for boarding the men is usually necessary. At the Fort
Valley Experiment Station, the usual force, including laborers,
during the field season is about five men. Temporary men em-
ployed on improvement work and visitors frequently bring the
number up to ten or twelve during short periods. It is presumed
that practically the same condition exists at other stations. When
three or more men are employed at a station, the Service can
afford to pay the salary of a cook, rather than have the men pre-
pare their own meals. It may be argued that they should do
their cooking outside of official hours. This they do to a great
extent, but the question can not be settled on this basis. Scien-
tific men are frequently called upon to do a great amount of
work outside of official hours. This they can not do if they must
devote several hours per day to culinary duties. Moreover,
proper food and regular meals are essential to high efficiency.
Usually it is not necessary for the Service to pay all the cook's
salary, but it should assist to such an extent that the men em-
ployed at the experiment station can secure their meals at a
reasonable figure.

The following plan has been followed at the Fort Valley Ex-

214 Forestry Quarterly.

periment Station. A man is employed to do the cooking and
janitor work, at $60.00 a month and board. Of this amount, the
Service pays $40.00 per month for janitor services and cooking
for day laborers, while the permanent employees pay $20 per
month and the man's board, or the equivalent of about $40, as
their share of the cooking expense. The cost of food supplies,
dishes, cooking utensils, table linens, etc., is pro-rated among the
men according to the number of meals received, excepting the tem-
porary laborers who are charged a flat rate of 25 cents' per meal,
since they usually can not afford a higher rate. All moneys are
paid to the treasurer of the mess who is responsible for the pay-
ment of bills, excepting that in case of temporary day laborers
who can not be relied upon to pay, the amount of their meals is
deducted from the daily wage and the difference applied on the
payment of bills for supplies on government vouchers. With
an average force of three permanent men and two temporaries,
the cost to the former, including their share of the cook's salary,
is about $1.00 per day per man.

Office Routine. The efficiency of the scientific staff may be
greatly impaired by devoting too much time to office routine.
The situation is generally that work of this character is not con-
sidered sufficient in volume to warrant employing a clerk. At
stations employing two or more technical men, however, the
usual office routine, particularly if the station has supervision
of District work, together with the compilation of scientific data
and typewriting reports, is usually sufficient to occupy the time
of a first-class clerk. Because of the diversity of clerical work
at an experiment station, it requires fully as broad training and
involves as much responsibility as the position of chief clerk in
a Forest Supervisor's office. A clerk of limited capacity and ex-
perience can not be employed to good advantage. Viewing the
situation in a broad light, it is considered more economical to
keep a clerk at $1,200 per year, even though he may be idle an
hour per day, than to have two or three higher salaried men who
are specially trained for scientific work spend a half or a third
of their time on clerical duties for which they are not fitted.

Scientific Work.

This is the primary and only vaild justification for the exis-
tence of an experiment station. Such a statement seems self-

Forest Experiment Station. 215

evident, but it is a fact which is often in danger of being over-
looked. Current matters, such as correspondence, accounts, im-
provements and maintenance, often demand immediate attention,
and the director of the station naturally feels that if such work
is not handled promptly it will reflect upon his administrative
ability ; but if it should become necessary to sacrifice one for
the other I have no hesitancy in saying that the scientific work
should take the right of way.

Organization. The supervision of scientific work is the first
duty of the director of a station. Under proper conditions, the
individual investigator should require but little supervision once
his project and plan of procedure are approved. This is the
policy followed in higher institutions of scientific research, such
as universities and agricultural experiment stations, but such a
system can not at the present time be put into effect in the Forest
Service. In the former class of institutions, the scientific staff
is made up largely of persons of recognized ability, and when an
individual undertakes a problem he is expected to complete it.
The great majority of men engaged in scientific work in the For-
est Service are new to the Service; they have no record of
scientific achievements; and they may be transferred at any
time. Under such circumstances it is necessary for the super-
vising officer to keep every project under his direction well in
hand, first, to prevent costly errors by inexperienced men, and
secondly, because it may be necessary at any time to assign the
problem to a new man who will be expected to take up the work
where his predecessor left it. Under such circumstances, the
presence of a directing head who has followed the study from
year to year, profiting by the experience of each year's work, is
of the greatest importance.

While more or less supervision is necessary, for the reasons
given in the preceding paragraph, individuals who have shown
themselves capable of independent research should be given prac-
tically free range after the project and plan of procedure have
been approved. A system whereby all investigators merely carry
out instructions from their superiors will stifle initiative and will
develop a corps of clerks instead of scientists.

Because of the changes in personnel and the employment of
more or less inexperienced men, all scientific data should be
submitted to the director of the station for inspection at fre-

2i6 Forestry Quarterly.

quent intervals, and should be placed in the office files instead
of being carried by the investigator until he is ready to submit
a complete report. Field data should be compiled from time to
time by the man who gathers them. If they are left in rough
form until the end of the season when a report of the year's
work is due and when the original collector may have gone, the
man who prepares the report will find himself confronted by a
formidable task, to say nothing of the loss from his inability to
interpret another's notes. The original field notes should be filed
with the compiled results. They are often of value in checking
errors and in clarifying various perplexing problems.

The director should examine and correlate the data on each
project sufficiently often to keep in touch with all developments.
In addition to this, he should make frequent inspections on the
ground, particularly if the work is being conducted by inexper-
ienced men. This is necessary not so much for the purpose of
checking the accuracy of his assistants' work as to check their
judgment and to observe facts which may have escaped their
notice. Many instances could be cited where absolute reliance
on the data gathered by assistants, though accurate and in ac-
cordance with instructions, would have resulted in overlooking
important facts, the omission of which might have materially
changed the conclusions. No investigator can foresee all the
factors which may enter into an experiment, and consequently
he can not prepare instructions sufficiently complete to cover
all points. The highest type of scientific work is done by scien-
tists who, if they can not actually perform all the work them-
selves, personally supervise all important details.

While the preceding paragraph shows the inadequacy of in-
structions unaccompanied by thorough inspection, it is by no
means the intention to belittle the value of detailed instructions.
Fortunately the Forest Service now requires that a working plan
be prepared for every experiment before the work is begun.
The value of the plan is not so much in guarding against im-
proper methods of study as in the assurance that a plan of work
is actually made. The working plan should cover every detail,
if for no other reason than that it requires the investigator to
think out these details in advance. A complete plan is especially
valuable when the responsibility for the project is delegated
temporarily or permanently to an assistant. If the director of

Forest Experiment Station. 217

the station should be called away for a month during the field
season, satisfactory progress would be practically impossible
without complete plans for ever>' line of work. The working
plan for each project should be revised each winter, indicating
all changes in the previous plan with respect to time and extent
of operations, location of plots, and other details which may
change from year to year. To guard against overlooking details
at the proper time, a summarized schedule of operations should
be made up for each project. In addition, a schedule showing
the work planned for all projects at different times through the
year is recommended.

The director of a station may frequently be called upon to
make minor modifications in his plans. Perhaps the work out-
lined for a certain period is found too heavy, and then he must
decide what work can be deferred and when it can be done to the
best advantage. Climatic conditions or other circumstances may
arise which render it advisable to defer or omit entirely certain
operations, or to add others not provided for in the plan. Ob-
viously, the number of changes which become necessary in the
execution of the plan is determined to a great extent by the
amount of forethought exercised by the writer of the plan and his
knowledge of the conditions under which it is to be carried out.

The preceding statements apply to experiment stations under
present conditions. As scientific standards rise, more responsi-
bility will be placed upon individual investigators, with a corre-
sponding decrease in supervision.

Personnel. The general qualifications required of the scien-
tific staff of an experiment station are much the same as for
other forest officers. Until recently it seems to have been taken
for granted that a Forest Assistant who showed any scientific
inclination, even though he failed generally in the usual work
on a National Forest, was qualified for scientific work. For-
tunately, this impression is being corrected. Men of poor ad-
ministrative ability or unfortunate personality may be well fitted
for certain kinds of scientific work, but the man who fails in
National Forest work through lack of character, industry or
mental capacity will also fail at an experiment station. An un-
derstanding of National Forest work and the aims and problems
of the Service is of great value to every man engaged in scientific
work, and at least one year's service on a National Forest should

2i8 Forestry Quarterly.

be required of a Forest Assistant before he can be permanently
assigned to an experiment station.

The number and training of men on the scientific staff will
obviously be determined by the amount and character of work
carried on. The director and one assistant, who will be called
upon to take charge in the absence of the director, must have at
least ordinary administrative ability. In addition, if the amount
of work warrants, one or more purely technical men may be
employed. For detailed work involving comparatively little
judgment and responsibility, young men of incomplete scientific
training can be used to good advantage. Forestry students are
as a rule exceedingly ambitious and energetic, and on work
more or less routine in character, requiring physical activity
rather than scientific knowledge, they are often more efficient
than older men of higher technical training. But the mistake
of placing students in positions requiring training and experience
should be avoided. Two technical men assisted by one or two
students generally constitute a more effective force than one
technical man assisted by three or four students.

A common mistake of technical men is to devote too much of
their time to work which can be performed more economically by
a common laborer. Often such work is necessary as, for in-
stance, when the amount of work does not warrant employing
a laborer; but it is clearly poor economy for a $1,200 technical
man to spend much of his time building fences, digging ditches
or packing burros, when the same work can be done better by a
laborer employed at $2.50 per day. The above does not apply
to students who generally receive no more pay than a laborer,
and who can often be employed temporarily at manual labor
when not needed on scientific work.

The greatest need of the scientific branch of the Forest Ser-
vice is for higher scientific standards in the personnel. For-
esters must be developed within the profession, and since forestry
is new in this country few of our scientific men rank with the
leaders in the older scientific professions. To remedy the situa-
tion, men of high training and ability are needed who will de-
vote their lives to forest research.

Forest experiment stations should in years to come represent
the highest scientific talent in the Forest Service. The personnel
should be made up of specialists. The director of a station

Forest Experiment Station. 219

should be a recognized authority who has perhaps spent his life
time in the study of forest problems. Such men should rank
with the highest officers in the administrative branch of the
Forest Service. There is, however, little danger that the director
of a station will not receive due recognition. The danger is with
the subordinate officers. Every man wants to be able to see
something ahead, and if he can not he is going to look for a new
field. At present, a position as assistant at a forest experiment
station carries with it no scientific recognition and gives little
promise of leading to anything higher. Occasionally one of these
men will be called upon to fill a vacancy as director of a station,
but such promotions will be rare.

The best solution of this problem is to make the subordinate
positions carry with them responsibility, remuneration and dig-
nity commensurate with the abilities of high class scientific men.
At agricultural experiment stations a specialist is in charge of
each line of work and he is designated by a title such as agro-
nomist, horticulturist or botanist, which gives him recognition
in the scientific world. A similar system could be put into effect
at forest experiment stations, although there are objections to
adopting a number of highly technical titles. The following
scheme proposed by District Forester Ringland seems to meet
the requirements. The officer in charge of the station would be
designated "Director" and the assistants in charge of the various
lines of work "Assistant Directors." There would be as many
assistant directors as there are men in charge of special lines of
work, and all would be of equal rank.

The following tentative division of work and designations
of officers are suggested:

Class of Work. Designation.

1. General supervision. Should al-^

so include one of the follow- L Director,
ing special fines of work. J

2. Management and mensuration.

3. Forestation, forest influences

and special ecological studies.

4. Dendrology, pathology and other j^ ally not more than two)

botanical work.

5. Entomology.

6. Grazing studies.

Assistant Directors (Usu-

220 Forestry Quarterly.

Ordinarily only one or two Assistant Directors will be em-
ployed at one station for the present, but a growing volume of
work and need for greater specialization will in time necessi-
tate an increase in the force. The rank of Assistant Director
should be reserved for men of proven ability, and should require
in addition to other qualifications at least two years' previous
service as Forest Assistant on a National Forest, or equivalent
training. Ordinarily a period of apprenticeship at an experiment
station should be required, although it would not be advisable
to make this an inflexible rule. Higher requirements would be
desirable, but are not practicable at present for the reason that
qualified men are not available. As the scientific standard rises,
the requirements should be greatly increased, until after per-
haps ten or fifteen years only seasoned men of high scientific
training and ability are eligible to one of the higher positions at
an experiment station.

Scope of Scientific Work. The primary purpose of our ex-
periment stations and, in fact, of all scientific investigations in
the Forest Service is to furnish scientific data needed in the
management of National Forests. To accomplish this, the sta-
tion must be actively in touch with the work on National For-
ests. Every investigator should be given an opportunity to see
the conclusions of his studies put into practice. The specialist
in forest management at the experiment station should take an
active interest in marking, cutting, brush disposal, etc., and his
services should be utilized in the inspection of timber sales.
When extensive planting operations are undertaken the specialist
in charge of reforestation at the experiment station should be
consulted in regard to technical matters, such as the selection of
areas, methods, species, etc. He should make inspections of the
work from time to time with a view toward lending helpful sug-
gestions and solving problems which can not be solved by the
administrative force. Similarly, the services of officers in charge
of insect, grazing and botanical investigations should be utilized
within their respective fields.

Obviously such a system of co-operation can not be fully real-
ized until specialists in the various lines become available. More-
over, experiment station men should not be required to give an
undue amount of time to District inspection at the expense of
individual research. They should act in advisory capacity in co-

Forest Experiment Station. 221

operation with administrative officers and should not ordinarily
be burdened with administrative responsibility. In special cases,
however, it may be desirable for such officers to take entire
charge of a project in order to familiarize themselves with the
conditions met in actual practice.

What promises to be a new field of activity for the experi-
ment station is developing out of the demand of the public for
technical advice on forestry. Already a considerable number
of requests for information in regard to tree planting are being
received from western states outside of the field of the Wash-
ington Office of State Co-operation. If these requests increase
materially in number, as they undoubtedly will, some provision
must be made for handling them. In some states, a large por-
tion of this work can be referred to the agricultural experiment
station, but in states' which do not maintain a Department of
Forestry, it will fall upon the Forest Service. It has been the
experience in District 3 that many of the requests for informa-
tion, particularly in regard to tree planting, are difficult to handle
because they come from agricultural sections in the lower alti-
tudes where conditions are entirely different from those on the
National Forests. If the Service continues the policy of fur-
nishing advice to private owners it must make the investigations
necessary to give reliable information. These investigations will
logically devolve upon the experiment station, but routine cor-
respondence and the execution of co-operative agreements should
as far as possible be handled by administrative officers.

The experiment station has an unusual opportunity for edu-
cational influence. The public is rapidly awakenmg to the im-
portance of forestry and is looking for evidences of the work of
the Forest Service. An experiment station, if at all accessible,
is visited by a great number of people annually. Many are at-
tracted by mere curiosity, but others show a genuine interest in
the work. Not a few of these visitors are persons of scientific
prominence. The experiment station is thus called upon to up-
hold the scientific prestige of the Forest Service. A well con-
ducted nursery and a few successful plantations are a revelation
to the average layman. Reforestation appeals to the public more
than any other phase of forestry, and for this reason it is desir-
able that the experiment station locate its nursery and some of its
plantations where they can be conveniently reached by visitors.

222 Forestry Quarterly.

Advantage should also be taken of the opportunity to explain
the broader aspects of forestry. The object and possibilities of
forest management through the practice of good silviculture, con-
servative lumbering, fire protection and regulated grazing should
be pointed out and demonstrated as far as possible. To this end,
a model forest managed by the experiment station would serve
an excellent purpose. Forest influences, especially if studies of
this character are being carried on at the station, can be profitably
discussed. The time which must be given to visitors by officers
of the experiment station is a considerable item which should be
considered in fixing the annual program of the station.

THE PROBABLE ORIGIN OF THE FORESTS OF THE
BLACK HILLS OF SOUTH DAKOTA.

By p. L. Buttrick.

In 1896, the U. S. Department of Agriculture published a list
of plants from the Black Hills Section of South Dakota.* It
was compiled by Dr. P. A. Rydberg, mainly from his own col-
lections. In the introduction he speaks briefly of the probable
manner in which the various species reached the region.

Perhaps- an amplification of the subject as it applies to forest
trees may be of sufficient interest to foresters to warrant publi-
cation. Most of the conclusions expressed here were reached
by the writer before seeing Dr. Rydberg's Bulletin.

The Black Hills in southwest South Dakota and eastern Wyo-
ming rise to a height of nearly 5,000 feet above the surrounding
plains', and cover an area about the size of the State of Connecti-
cut. They present conditions in every way different from the
treeless plains and Badland surrounding them. In contrast the
Hills are (or were) heavily timbered.

They form what is essentially an island — an island in the
midst of the land. Like other islands they have received their
fauna and flora from neighboring but larger lands, and, after
receiving it, have modified it to suit their own peculiar insular
conditions.

Islands receive such plants and animals as are, in some man-
ner able to cross the barriers to them. Wind, water, birds and
insects are among the agents supplying islands with plant life.

Doubtless these have done their part in the colonization of the
Black Hills. However, migrations along well defined lines are
responsible for the presence of most, possibly all the tree species
of the Hills.

Western Yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) is the most important
tree, constituting at least 90 per cent, of the forest. The other
pines, Lodgepole (Pinus murrayana) and Limber pine (Pinus

*Contributions from U. S. National Herbarium, Vol. Ill, No. 8, 1896.
Division of Botany, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

224 Forestry Quarterly.

flexilis), are found as' scattered trees or in small groups, so rare
that they long escaped notice.

White spruce (Picea canadensis) occurs in a few solid bodies
on the slopes of the highest hills. Elsewhere it is largely con-
fined to canyon bottoms and steep north slopes in mixture with
other species.

Red cedar (Juniperus sp.j is scattered about the foothills,
chiefly in the Wyoming section. The form in the Hills seems
intermediate between the eastern and the western Red cedar.

There are a large number of hardwoods, all of minor impor-
tance. The list comprises such species as : elm (Ulmus Ameri-
cana), hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), Bur oak (Qiierciis macro-
carpa), boxelder (Acer negundo), Paper birch (Betula papyri-
fera), Red ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) , Trembling aspen
(Populus tremuloides), cottonwood (Populus deltoides), and
others'. There are several other species but they are too insig-
nificant to mention.

Bur oak is the only hardwood reaching any size. Occasionally
in stream bottoms in the foothills it becomes large enough for
railroad ties.

All the hardwoods, with the exception of aspen and paper
birch, and in a few sections Bur oak, are confined to the stream
bottoms or the vicinity of water. They are more numerous
and better developed in the foothills and at lower elevations.
Aspen and birch often form temporary types after fire or clear-
ings'.

It will be seen that the species in the Black Hills fall into four
groups according to the forest regions where they are most com-
mon. These are : Rocky Mountain species ; Northern Forest
species ; Eastern Forest species ; and Transcontinental species.
Most of the last group might be classed also in the third.

The pines belong in the first group. The spruce and Paper
birch in the second. The other hardwoods in the third. Trans-
continental trees such as aspen and boxelder are undoubtedly of
eastern origin.

How have these representatives of different forest regions
found their way to this prairie island — the Black Hills?

There seem to have been three migration lines. From the
north, the east and the west.

At one time, the climate of the west was much more humid

Probable Origin of the Black Hills Forests. 225

than now, and much of the treeless area north and west of the
Black Hills was doubtless forest covered. The Rocky Mountain
forest extended more or less completely across that strip of
relatively high land called the Wyoming Badlands, which stretches
from the Bighorn Mountains in Wyoming to the Black Hills.
Even to-day a few stunted yellow pines are found scattered
across this area. Undoubtedly across this forest isthmus came
all the pines of the Hills.

From the north a tongue of forest may have stretched south-
ward along the isolated buttes and ridges lying in what is now
eastern Montana and western Dakota. If so, this slender strip
of forest is responsible for the presence in the Hills of the
white spruce and the paper birch. It may be, however, that these
species owe their place to the accidental agencies of birds or
winds, as is apparently thought by Dr. Rydberg to be the case
with the spruce.

From the eastern forest long tongues extend westward across
the plains following the river banks and smaller water courses
almost to the foot of the Rockies. It is probable that most of
the hardwoods of the Hills reached there by this "river route,"
ascending the Missouri and then the Cheyenne and its tributaries
which enter the Hills'.

The transcontinental trees such as aspen and hackberry prob-
ably came up the rivers from the east in the course of their
journey across the continent. The Red cedar which follows the
uplands may have come from the east or the west or both.

It is a law of island colonization, that of the various forms
which reach an island, some are rejected as unfit to cope with
the conditions of their new environment, and others are modi-
fied to conform to it. Perhaps still others well suited to the
insular conditions never reach them.

These are well illustrated in the Black Hills. Lodgepole and
Limber pines have not found suitable conditions, and have been
reduced to a subordinate position. In time they will probably
disappear from the Hills. It is' possible that other Rocky Moun-
tain species crossed the forest isthmus only to be unable to get a
foothold or to be later driven back by the unfavorable conditions
they encountered in the Hills.

The trees from the northern forest, which of all the species
have probably been longest in the Hills, have been more or less

226 Forestry Quarterly.

modified by their environment and isolation. The specific status
of both the spruce and the birch is in doubt, some authorities
make distinct species of both.

The species from the east have, in most cases, been modified
both botanically and silvically. In some cases this modification
took place on the long journey across the plains, in others since
the arrival in the Hills. The narrow-leaved cottonwood (Popu-
lus acuminata) , a varient of the common cottonwood of the
plains, is an example of the first. The various willows are ex-
amples of the second. These after the cool moist canyons of
the eastern Hills after their long prairie journey under such
vastly different conditions, have after the well known habit of
willows varied greatly. It is almost impossible to separate them
into recognized species. Bur oak and American elm, being old
and stable species, have not varied botanically, but were dwarfed
by the long plains journey, and have only partly succeeded in
regaining their size. Perhaps the relatively dry climate is a fac-
tor in this.

The cosmopolitan Yellow pine has not varied botanically in
the Hills as it has in its further eastward journey in the sand
hills of Nebraska, where it has developed into a sub-species
(Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum) as a result of its changed en-
vironment. Nevertheless Black Hills Yellow pine is silvically
quite distinct from that in the Rockies.

If the supposition that a narrow strip of forest once connected
the Black Hills' with the great northern forest of the continent
is correct, it is probable that at one time other species of the
northern forest occurred there. Eastern larch, Balsam fir and
Jack pine or forms very closely resembling them, would likely
have been represented. A climatic change or the competition of
the Yellow pine could account for their disappearance.

The path from the Rocky Mountains was closed by the ad-
vancing aridity of the region, perhaps aided by forest fires.

The migration from the east is still going on. Many hard-
wood species, such as the backberry and the ash, have scarcely
yet penetrated beyond the eastern foothills. Few of those which
have, have as yet been able to adapt themselves to grow upon the
uplands, Bur oak and aspen being those which have come closest
to it. If natural conditions were not interfered with in time it
might be that some of the eastern hardwoods would regain the

Probable Origin of the Black Hills Forests. 227

capacity to grow abundantly on upland sites as they do in their
old eastern homes.

It is possible that there are other species from the three forest
regions which are more or less suitable for the Black Hills, but
which have never been able to reach them.

It is probable that the forces of evolution will continue in the
future as they have in the past to produce specialized forms for
insular conditions and that the differentiation of the trees of the
Black Hills into local varieties and species will continue, chiefly
among the hardwoods. It is not impossible that further acces-
sions will be made from the eastern hardwoods as they work
their way further and further west. And those species now at
the gate-way of the Hills will climb higher and higher into them.
Whether these changes will be rapid enough to be perceptible to
us remains to be seen.

It is unlikely that any species will of itself usurp the place of
the Yellow pine, which despite the ravages of fire and insects
holds its own so well. For the purposes of the forester and the
lumberman the development of the forests of the Black Hills is
complete.

THE SCOPE OF DENDROLOGY IN FOREST BOTANY.
By H. DE Forest.

Any new branch of science, in its earlier stages, is necessarily
in a plastic condition. For some time its organization represents'
little more than accumulations of more or less closely related
facts. Exactly what scope and proportions the subject shall ulti-
mately assume remains a matter of conjecture and discussion.
Then, later, as experience and further investigation lead to
clearer comprehension and greater definiteness of intention, these
facts are classified and arranged in established categories, so that,
while the subject even then is still not a body of unchangeable
form, it nevertheless has taken on definite proportions and occu-
pies a more or less fixed space.

It is peculiarly necessary at the present stage of the develop-
ment of forestry in this country that the concepts of several
branches' of the general subject be subjected to critical analysis
with a view to their occupying their proper places in the forestry
system and so most effectively discharging their functions. It
is only by such methods that real advances in the technique of
any line of scientific work can be made. Furthermore, such
critical investigation, in order to serve best its' object of establish-
ing sound bases for technical training, must be divorced from
any purpose of making an acceptable popular appeal, a purpose
that rightfully prevails in the presentation to the public of many
lines of forestry work, and remain based solely upon scientific
principles, with the somewhat abused term scientific employed
here in its implication of technical service of a utilitarian object.
It is proposed to examine briefly the subject of dendrology. For
the clearest understanding of its scope it will be desirable to
consider first what relations it bears to the rest of the general
subject of forest botany to which it belongs.

Place of Dendrology in Forest Botany — Its Relation to Ecologi-
cal Science.

Forest botany, it is believed, consists of two distinct parts.
One deals with tree species, with facts concerning the individual

Scope of Dendrology in Forest Botany. 229

trees that go to make up the forest. This is non-ecological. The
other deals with associations of such trees, with those dynamic,
organic entities known as forests, and is ecological. The former
of these two parts is dendrolog}% while the latter is silvics. Some-
times the term silviculture, which originally was reserved for the
art of establishing, developing, and reproducing forests, is used
to denote also the science back of that art, that is to say as a
synonym for silvics, just as, for example, the single term medi-
cine is often used to denote either the science or the art. Den-
drology will be handled in the main body of this short article.
Here it is necessary for a complete understanding to treat briefly
the subject of silvics. It appears to the writer that the natural
subdivision and the arrangement best suited for presenting the
materials to students lies in this already well recognized separa-
tion into dendrology and silvics. In addition to this there must
be remembered the powerful and all-important fact, that alone
should bring about such a subdivision to-day, to wit that now
all ecological investigation, in order to facilitate scientific de-
velopment in the methods of attack upon the intricate problems
involved, is placed in a category by itself under some one or
more ecological sciences.

Silvics covers, it is believed, all ecological investigations of
forests. Ecological investigation of vegetation is to-day pur-
sued by means of the two sister sciences known as plant-geogra-
phy and plant-ecology. The former of these is also known inter-
nationally as phytogeography, while the latter has the interna-
tional term phytecology proposed. They cover the field of eco-
logical science in botany. Exhaustive expositions of the terri-
tories included within these respective subjects or of their present
stage of advancement would be both out of place here and im-
possible within limited space. Suffice it to say, by way of fur-
nishing accurate indicators of their meanings rather than ex-
haustive definitions, that plant-geography is essentially a regional
study of vegetation and proceeds along three lines, the genetic,
the floristic, and the ecological. The first considers the his-
torical origin and development of the vegetation of a region and
is largely geologic. The second interprets the present regional
flora from the point of view of its origin, migration, etc. Its
delimitations are largely topographic. The third puts the pres-
ent regional vegetation in its proper categories (ergo plant asso-

230 Forestry Quarterly.

ciations, forest types), based upon the types of vegetation found
in it. Its delimitations are on the basis of the vegetative re-
sponses to environmental conditions. Plant-ecology, on the other
hand, is distinctly local. One part deals with the ecological signi-
ficance of the morphological and physiological characteristics of
the plants of a locality. The other part deals with the local minu-
tiae of the vegetation of that locality (habitat), — with the relation
of its vegetation units and their subdivisions to the climatic and
edaphic conditions, etc., i. e. to the summation of their habitat com-
plex. Forest-geography and forest-ecology are, of course, both
branches of the broader subject of plant-geography and plant-
ecology. It is never implied that other growth forms than trees
are ignored in the former subjects, but only that the attention
and interest are focused upon their forest rather than upon
shrubby or herbaceous vegetation. Further, such investigations
when made, not by botanists for botanical purposes, but by for-
esters for forestry purposes, have features that serve to make
the subject of silvics not coterminous with forest-ecology, as is
sometimes supposed, but broader in scope, including such man-
ner of investigations, for instance, as the effects of methods of
brush disposal upon forest regeneration, the effects of fire dam-
age upon the quantity and quality of the yield, etc., embodying
technical questions of forest management belonging distinctly
to forestry and not to botany. Hence silvics covers in large part
the very ground of forest-ecology and yet, as well as this, covers
also a part of the investigative field not included within the
botanical subject of forest-ecology. Furthermore, the point of
view of silvics throughout is different because of its different
object. The forest-ecology of the botanists is concerned with
adding to the sum total of botanical knowledge. Silvics of the
foresters, on the other hand, is concerned with any and all forest
investigations, whether of indirect or direct value, that bear in
any way upon the practical questions of forest production.

Dendrology — Its Scope.

An examination of what the writer considers the specific scope
of dendrology is now in order. Dendrology, the science of trees,
as the word itself indicates, deals with tree species and not with
communities of trees, not with forests. Within this still broad

Scope of Dendrology in Forest Botany, 231

compass four distinct subdivisions may to-day be distinguished.

Systematic dendrology dealing witii such characteristics' of
trees, in their summer and winter conditions, as are of practical
service in field identification. The distinctively winter charac-
ters are usually not dwelt upon in botanical field courses. All
this differs, too, from the taxonomic study of botanists in being
confined exclusively to those characteristics that are of service in
the field. In almost any botanical manual, except to some extent
in the newer ones for trees designed along forestry lines, half
or more of the taxonomic characters mentioned are not used in
systematic dendrology, whose sole purpose is to afford a field
basis for distinguishing one tree species from another, and not
to present a complete taxonomic scheme. So much of botanical
taxonomy as the forestry student requires belongs to his botanical
study proper and not to his dendrological work in forest botany.
Dendrology, in its four subdivisions as here detailed, covers a
very wide range. The practical needs are for drawing its boun-
daries closer rather than for extending them.

Geographic dendrology, or the ranges of tree species.

Biologic dendrology, or the systematic consideration of those
characteristics of tree species that relate to their life-histories,
pursued along non-ecological lines. This part of the subject
verges upon the domain of silvics. Biologic dendrology is, how-
ever, systematic, that is to say rather a recital of the facts in-
volved in the climatic requirements of the species', their edaphic
needs, habits of growth, tolerance, reproduction, and so on, than
an analytical exploration of the ecological problems embraced
within these matters, which properly belongs to the subjects of
forest-ecology and silvics. Biologic dendrology may, indeed,
fairly be thought of as preliminary to this. Quite aside from this'
aspect of the subject as one preliminary to the study of silvics
is its important aspect of furnishing the student of forestry with
information that is indispensable to him from almost the be-
ginning of his study of forestry, a selected array of facts that>
he would best get first in clear-cut, systematic form, before in-
volving himself in the far more difficult considerations of their
ecological meanings. This has been recognized in educational
practice to the extent that so far in the teaching of forestry in
this country it has been largely biologic dendrology that has been
taught rather than silvics, whatever titles may have appeared in

232 Forestry Quarterly.

the curriculum. Silvics, with its immense significance for the
attainment of substantial scientific results in forest investigations,
remains, in its lack of scientific organization, one of the least
developed technical branches of American forestry.

Structural dendrology includes a consideration of the external
features and structural elements of wood ; the value of macro-
scopic and microscopic characteristics in identification and classi-
fication; and the classification and identification of commercial
woods. If dendrology is the science of trees then the study of
wood structure belongs to it rather than to the srudy of forest
products, which, as its title indicates, would be confined to the
branches of wood technology or the application of wood in the
arts, and to timber physics or the physical and chemical proper-
ties of wood and minor forest products, both havmg to do with
the woody product, while the structural features of the wood
itself is more closely related to the science of the trees them-
selves.

Critical Bxaminaiion — Not Pedagogical Discussion.

It should be distinctly understood that this paper presents a
short critical analysis of the subject of dendrology, with some
necessary preliminary explanation of the rest of forest botany,
i. e. the ecological science of silvics, in order to make clear their
relations', and does not present an outline of a plan for teaching
dendrology. Hence it is not within the province of the article
to discuss the various methods of presenting the dififerent parts
of the subject to students. How many species' within different
genera or groups of genera should be included for typical rep-
resentation in a course in biologic or in geographic dendrology
belongs to another topic altogether. The teaching of the differ-
ent subdivisions must ever be subject to the exigencies of par-
ticular cases, and, quite aside from the needs of any particular
curriculum, the successful presentation of any part of the subject
will, of course, always depend upon the individual initiative of
the instructor. It seems, however, a ripe time for an endeavor
to establish certain fundamental principles as to the scope of
the subject that shall be abreast with the best present-day devel-
opment. On the one hand it is highly desirable that foresters
shall not confine the subject of dendrology to its systematic as-
pect alone, nor solely to its systematic and geographic aspects,

Scope of Dendrology in Forest Botany.

233

as is still being done in some places. And surely geographic
dendrology, or the ranges of tree species, a single phase of den-
drology, should not be taught under the title of forest-geography.
The latter is a branch of the established science of plant-geogra-
phy, the ecological science known internationally as phytogeog-
raphy. It appears to the writer inadvisable to a high degree to
attempt to take over one of its titles' to denote one single phase
of the non-ecological science of dendrology. On the other hand,
it appears to the writer equally inadvisable to go to the other
extreme and endeavor to avoid the natural distmction between
the non-ecological study of the various features of trees as indi-
vidual species and the ecological study of forests as organic
entities' by attempting to force all of this into one subject called
dendrology. The best investigative tendency over all the world
to-day is directly opposed to this course. And one of the chief
present needs of American forestry is a solid scientific basis for
its practice, a basis that can be secured only by the use of the
best investigative procedures. The study of vegetation as the
dynamic thing it is now recognized to be is immensely facilitated
by this logical separating-out of all ecological matters. As direct
witness to this may be cited the two established botanical sciences
of plant-geography and plant-ecology, distinct signs of the times.
Silvics, as conceived by the writer, is but the natural forestry
outcome — forest-geography plus forest-ecology plus the widen-
ing of the field through diflferences brought about in investiga-
tions by the distinctive forest production pomt of view of for-
estry.

Practical Discussion Not Academic.

While the essential problem in teaching what is considered in
this paper as the subject of dendrology is obviously to cover the
necessary ground, it is not, at the present stage of development
of American forestry, whatever it might have been at an earlier
stage, a purely academic matter to endeavor to determine and
define the scope of its constituent parts and their place in the
general scheme of forestry. It seems reasonable to account such
systematizing quite as practical as the determination of a definite
policy for the carrying out of any prolonged piece of work. It
may, indeed, even be likened to the planning and outlining of the
most advantageous route to follow in undertaking a long jour-

234 Forestry Quarterly.

ney. One could probably arrive at his destination without such
careful planning, but the best way to shorten a long trip is to do
it. Nor are such plans ever iron-clad and unchangeable. Cer-
tainly if forestry is to take its rightful place among scientific sub-
jects its technical phases must be handled by scientific methods,
and among these that of critical analysis with the object of a
logical and therefore most useful classification of its parts is
essential.

Re-marks on Above Article: by the Editor.

We agree most decidedly with the author in the last sentence,
but we do not think that he has been altogether successful in
securing a logical classification, although he has used much lan-
guage in trying to secure it.

The gist of his contention is that the term dendrology should
be confined to non-ecological parts of the knowledge. We fail
to see any logic in so circumscribing a self-explanatory term,
which means "all about trees." Such circumscription is merely
arbitrary, not forced by logic, and not acceptable or accepted.
Dendrology is merely a segregation from the general field of
botany of that part which concerns itself with trees. This part
can be considered, like any other vegetation, from various points
of view.

The first point of view is from the standpoint of description of
the material : descriptive dendrology — which may confine itself to
the botanist's narrow point of view or extend to the dendrolo-
gist's more complete analysis, including even wood-structure.

As a result of the descriptive knowledge, we come to dendro-
logical classification or taxonomy, a self-explanatory field of
botanical inquiry limited to trees. We next come to study trees
from the physiological point of view ; plant physiology with
special reference to the physiology of arborescent forms. Last
we may take up the biological (in the narrower German sense)
phenomena of tree life, which includes phaenology and ecology
of trees, i. e. a study of their cycle, of the causes of tree form,
of their habits, of their biological requirements on the environ-
ment, etc.

This completes the whole field of dendrology. These subdi-
visions are, of course, nowhere strictly limitable, for Nature
defies our classification, which is only a device for limiting fields

Scope of Dendrology in Forest Botany. 235

of inquiry practically and to enable us to overlook a large field of
inquiry.

But what about silvics? Before Dr. Gifford coined this unfor-
tunate word — unfortunate because of its linguistically bad form!
— the subject which it comprised was known to foresters — and
botanists had nothing to do with it — as' "silvicultural character-
istics of species." As this term explains itself, it is a segregation
of the ecological knowledge (biological dendrology) which is of
special interest to the silviculturist in the practical application of
his art — the behavior of the species under forest conditions in-
cluded.

This very simple classification of the subject seems to us com-
plete, and is hardly needful of argument, except for those that
misuse terms and they are often incurable.

The fact that a Committee for the Revision of Terminology
of the Society of American Foresters has just begun its work,
makes this discussion, however, timely.

Remarks on the Above Article by C. D. Howe.

The statement of the author that dendrology "deals with tree
species, with facts concerning the individual trees that go to
make up the forest," would include the study of the biological
relationships of single trees. Such a study should be included
under silzncs. Silvics is not alone a study of associations of trees
as the author states.

The term dendrology without a limiting adjective carries with
it, I think, the idea of descriptive and taxonomic relationships.
Dendrology might be included in the term forest botany, but
silvics should not be so included. The study of biological re-
lationships is a science co-ordinate with a study of the descrip-
tive relationships, as in botany proper we have taxonomy (sys-
tematic botany) and plant ecology, or as in zoology we have
systematic zoology and ecological zoology. Therefore dendrolo-
gy and silvics (granting the use of the term) should be regarded
as co-ordinate branches, and only the former may be included
under forest botany.

Silvics is not a "sister" to plant geography and plant ecology,
but is a daughter of the latter and only a cousin to the former
From its derivation, plant ecology means the household relations.

236 - Forestry Quarterly.

the home life of plants. Trees are plants. Therefore the study
of the conditions of the home life of trees (silvics) is a sub-
division of the study of the conditions of the home life of plants
as a whole (plant ecology).

Plant geography deals with the distribution of plants as indi-
viduals or as aggregations. It locates and tabulates the habitats
of these individuals or aggregates. It is a census of plant habi-
tats. Strictly speaking, such a census could be made (and often
has been made) with only a very general knowledge of the causes
which have brought the habitats enumerated into existence. A
knowledge of the conditions of a habitat and its resultant vegeta-
tive structure, however, would increase the efficiency of a plant
geographer. The plant geography of the past has been chiefly
descriptive, while the modern plant geography is both descriptive
and causal. The study of the causal relations is plant ecology;
the application of such causal relations is plant geography. The
one is concrete, the other discrete ; the latter, the application to
wide areas of deductions from the intensive study of small areas.
Therefore logically plant geography is a child of plant ecology.
I am perfectly well aware that historically there has been no
such relationship between them. In fact, so far as actual lineage
is concerned the relationship is reversed, but we are discussing
now a logical arrangement of the subjects.

Since silvics is a subdivision of plant ecology, its relation to
plant geography is the same as that of plant ecology one degree
removed. Silvics is to forest geography as plant ecology is to
plant geography.

I can not see why the two terms Forest Ecology and Sihics
may not be considered as synonyms. A forest ecologist study-
ing only for botanical purposes would not lose caste by investi-
gating the effects of brush disposal and fire upon reproduction.
In fact an ecologist would have to go far afield nowadays to study
vegetation unmodified by man. He is studying such modifica-
tions continuously and he remains a botanist, not a forester or
an agriculturist. To say that forest ecology stops the moment
practical considerations enter, is similar to saying that the study
of the chemical nature of wood is not organic chemistry because
the results of the study may be applied to such practical consid-
erations as the making of paper.

Scope of Dendrology in Forest Botany. 237

Systematic dendrology. Here again the author is splitting
hairs with the "practical" and the "scientific." A botanist dis-
tinguishes herbaceous plants in the field by readily recognizable
"ear marks." This does not make him any less a botanist.

Biological dendrology. A forest is a collection of trees of the
same or different species. The character of the forest is the sum
of the characters of the individuals composing it. It seems to
me that if one made a study of "the facts involved in the cli-
matic requirements of tree species, their edaphic needs, habits
of growth, tolerance, reproduction and so on," he would be
making "an analytical exploration of the ecological problems
embraced within these matters." But according to the author,
if he performed the work indicated under the first quotation he
would be in the domain of biological dendrology, while if he per-
formed the work indicated under the second quotation he would
be in the domain of silvics. I think this all I need to say of the
author's attempt to separate the two.

It is possible that there may be a logical division between the
concept of biological dendrology and silvics, but the author
does not make it clear. It is helpful in many respects to regard
the forest as an organism, an entity, with its own structures and
functions and with environmental interactions differing from
those of an individual tree. The study of a forest from this
point of view might be called silvics, while the study of trees in
their ecological relationships as individuals might be called bio-
logical dendrology. For example, the reactions of the forest as
an entity upon light and temperature conditions, upon soil and
hydrographic conditions might be considered as a distinct com-
partment of forest knowledge. When, however, we begin to
apply these reactions in their influence upon living plants, we
must consider such plants as individuals, and then we fall back
into the domain of biological dendrology as defined above. For
example, if we study the influence of the forest as an organism
upon reproduction a.'^■ expressed by the kind or the nature of the
young growth, we are dealing with one of the components of the
forest, not with the forest as a whole. I do not know, however,
that the intergrading of these two concepts would be any greater
than that of other divisions of forest knowledge.

238 Forestry Quarterly.

Conk Borer vs. Squirrel.
An Important Correction.

Mr. J. i\I. Miller, Entomological Assistant, Branch of Forest
Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology, and in charge of
investigations of insect damage to forest tree seeds, writes the
following :

The January number of the Proceedings of the Society of
American Foresters (Vol. IX, No. i) contains two articles on
squirrels and sugar pine reproduction (pages 95-101). These
articles are of some interest as I note that the description of
damage to sugar pine cones, which is ascribed by both authors to
squirrels', corresponds to that which I have usually found to be
caused by the cone beetle. I would be interested to know just
how close an examination was made of the sugar pine cones which
were found on the ground during July and the first part of
August. In Mr. Jotter's observations of August 20, 191 1, he re-
cords 75 cones on the ground and only 6 of them eaten by
squirrels, but the squirrel is evidently assumed as the cause of all
the damage. There is a question as to whether or not the re-
maining 69 cones showed teeth marks on the stem, which would
indicate that they had been cut by rodents. I have examined great
numbers of these cones which fall before maturing, yet have very
rarely found the teeth marks of squirrels until just before the
seed was ready to ripen. Practically all of these fallen cones did
show, however, the attack of the cone beetle. Usually there was
a tiny mass of pitch on the stem to indicate the entrance of the
beetle, but where this was lacking either the beetle or presence of
its attack could nearly always be found by close examination and
sectioning of the stem. I am satisfied from observations made in
different localities in California, that 90% of the damage to im-
mature sugar pine cones, ordinarily referred to the squirrel, is
caused by the cone beetle.

This hardly seems fair to the squirrel. Both of these articles
would indicate that the gray squirrel cuts the greater portion of
the sugar pine crop before it ripens, thereby deliberately destroy-
ing its own food supply. It is also worth noting that the exter-
mination of the squirrel is recommended as a measure for pre-

Cone Borer vs. Squirrel. 239

venting this loss to sugar pine. This measure would have little
effect on the falling of immature sugar pine cones as long as the
ravages of the cone beetle continue.

These articles only emphasize the need of some published in-
formation on the cone beetle. The material for a bulletin on
this subject will be ready by the close of this season.

CURRENT LITERATURE.

Third Annual Report of the State Forester to the Governor,
Slate of Oregon. Salem, Ore. 1913. Pp. 46.

This third report of the State Forester is devoted to a record
of the fire losses and to a statement of the fire protection work
of the State and private agencies.

Forty-six per cent, of the land area, or twenty-eight million
acres, requires protection from fire. Sixteen million acres are
protected by the United States Forest Service, while twelve mil-
lion acres are patrolled on the co-operative basis by the state and
private owners'.

The average area burned over per fire on private lands has been
reduced from 137 acres in 191 1 to 30 acres in 1913. Nearly
27,(X)0 acres of slashings were burned in accordance with the
Oregon slash burning law.

In 1913 a law was passed requiring every owner of timber land
to provide a sufficient fire patrol for his land. This law has re-
sulted in doubling the membership of existing fire patrol associa-
tions and in forming several new associations.

Half the report is taken up with detailed statements of the work
of the sixteen fire patrol associations. The cost of protection in
these associations ranged from one-half cent to three cents per
acre. R. C. H.

Annual Report of the Potlatch Timber Protection Association
for ipij. Potlatch, Idaho. Pp. 16.

This contains the annual reports of the President, Chief Fire
Warden, and Treasurer of the Association.

Eight members, paying assessments on 309,887 acres, (two and
one-fourth cents per acre) are enrolled, but 594,000 acres lie
within the boundaries of the Potlatch Timber Protective Asso-
ciation and are regularly patrolled. The total acreage burned
over in the season of 1913 was less than 70 acres, with injury to
13,000 feet of timber, which was promptly cut and used. The

Current Literature. 241

Association shared in the Government funds distributed under
the WeeivS Law. Two hundred miles of trail and a telephone
system are maintained. R. C. H.

Third Annual Report of the Conserz'ation Commission, State of
Netv York. Albany, N. Y. 191 3. Pp. 52.

The Commission received in direct revenue (chiefly from hunt-
ing and fishing licenses) $316,407.87, and spent $744,103.99. If
timber could be sold from the state lands, the Commission would
turn in a large surplus, the annual revenue from the sale of timber
being estimated at $1,000,000.

Special emphasis is placed on the problem of the water resources
of the state, which is considered to be the most important con-
sen.^ation question now needing attention.

In the report of the Division of Lands and Forests, increased
efficiency in fire protection and decrease in trespass on state lands
is shown. New legislation is urged to permit the leasing of camp
sites and the utilization of dead, down and ripe timber within the
Forest Preserve. R. C. H.

The State Forester of Massachusetts, Tenth Annual Report.
Public Document No. y^. Boston, Mass. 1913. Pp. 114.

This report in appearance and arrangement is similar to that of
the last few years. It gives full details of the work accomplished
during the year. One cannot peruse its pages without being im-
pressed by the variety and amount of work under way.

A decade has passed since the establishment of the office of
State Forester. Substantial progress has been made in this first
decade, and indications point to even more rapid development in
the next ten years.

In 19 1 3 the first organized attempt was made to apply forestry
to the moth problem, and wath distinctly successful results.

The object aimed at is to encourage tree growth which will
furnish unfavorable food for the moths. This is done by cutting
out the non-resistant species, such as oaks, willow, cherry and
gray birch. Both trees and brush on which the moths like to feed
are removed. The final result will be the replacement of oak
forests by pine, ash and a few other resistant species.

242 Forestry Quarterly.

A relatively intensive survey and mapping of the forests of the
state has been started.

Among the recommendations of the State Forester for future
work are the following: —

1. Development of state forests on a more pretentious scale
than is now possible under the reforestation act.

2. Enactment of legislation to regulate disposal of slash,

3. Change in present methods of taxing forest land.

R. C. H.

The Woody Plants of Kentucky. By H. Garmen. Bulletin
169, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station. Lexington,
Ky., 1913.

The author of a tree flora is confronted with two problems,
each capable of consuming the bulk of the manuscript and both
essential to a complete flora. The first is the proper presentation
of the distinguishing characteristics of the trees, and the second
is the detailed account of their distribution. Consideration of the
distinguishing features of the species is perhaps of greater
value to resident students, while detailed range data is of great
interest to outside investigators who are concerned with the geo-
graphical distribution of trees. A detailed account of the tree
ranges by counties may not be of as much assistance to resident
students as would a work with keys and distinguishing descrip-
tions, but to the outside investigator who has ample references on
these botanical distinctions, it is of great value, as it gives specific
information as to just what species may be found in the state and
in what situations they occur.

An ideal preliminary list undoubtedly is one which presents dis-
tribution data in the greatest detail and gives the authorities for
those trees reported but whose presence seems quite doubtful on
account of their range outside of the state. Distribution of such a
preliminary list necessarily brings to the author many range ex-
tensions, corrections and confirmations which could not be
secured in any other manner.

In this bulletin such emphasis has been placed upon detailed
distribution data. Stating that the work is to be regarded as pre-
liminary to a more complete account of the woody plants of the

Current Literature. 243

state, the author presents an interesting historical account of
botanical work in the state. The character and peculiar features
of the forest flora are then discussed, together with the influences
which may have been operative in limiting the ranges of species.

The author notes that owing to the intermediate position of the
state, northern and southern species are here associated. Twenty-
two of the eastern oaks and all of the elms are represented. It is
noted that all of the ashes probably occur in the state, although
pumpkin ash {Fraxinus profunda) has not been found on the
Kentucky side of the Mississippi. The statement, however, is not
corroborated by the list of species, as Fraxinus caroliniana and
its near relative, Fraxinus pauci flora are not mentioned and do
not grow in Kentucky,

Of interest, is the record of Finns palustris in Kentucky, as re-
ported by Lafayette De Friese from near Pound Gap. Although
this observation was made many years ago and at a time when the
forest flora of Kentucky had not been disturbed by farming and
lumbering operations, yet the author very properly questions such
an unexpected northern range extension of this southern pine.

It is observed that soil influences appear to have less control
on the distribution of Kentucky trees than have climatic influences
and means of dispersal. With one exception, the trees all appear
to grow on almost any soil, if only climatic conditions are not un-
favorable. Chestnut alone appears to be influenced by the char-
acter of the soil and is found almost entirely in soils containing
sand. It can be transplanted to the clay loams of the Bluegrass
Region but does not grow there spontaneously.

The author presents a list of species, following the arrange-
ment of the seventh edition of Gray's Manual. A question mark
precedes the names of species w^hose presence is doubtful and the
authorities are given for those species reported by other investiga-
tors but not observed by the writer. A brief note on special pecul-
iarities of the plant is added and a detailed statement of its dis-
tribution by counties is included, which constitute a most valuable
record. A number of half tones and line drawings of trees are
added. In some of these (Bur oak, magnolia, and holly), no ad-
vantage has been taken of the great refinement in line which may
be secured by drawing for reduction, but they are sufficiently ac-
curate to add to the value of the volume.

On account of the large number of our eastern hardwoods

244 Forestry Quarterly.

which have either their northern, western or southern line of
termination passing through Kentucky, this pubhcation will be
greatly appreciated by investigators who are concerned with
larger problems of forest distribution. W. H. L.

Forest Tree Diseases Common in California and Nevada. A
Manual for Field Use. By E. P. Meinecke, Forest Pathologist,
Bureau of Plant Industry. U. S. Forest Service. Washington,
D. C. 1914. Pp. 67.

"This manual, designed for practical use in the field, discusses
only the more important tree diseases found in California and
parts of Nevada, though most of them are common also in other
forest regions. Its aim is to enable the field man to determine
the cause of the commoner diseases and injuries and to under-
stand their effect on the living tree. It discusses also ways and
means of control of fungi and mistletoes, as well as climatic, bio-
logical, and soil conditions which bring about diseases in forest
trees."

The above opening paragraph of the manual states admirably
the scope of the publication. The author deserves much credit
for successfully presenting a highly technical subject in popular
form well adapted to the use of forest rangers and other field
men.

Before entering into a discussion of the common tree diseases
and the fungi which cause them, several pages are devoted to a
brief, comprehensive description of the structure and normal
functions of the tree, as a basis for the understanding of disease
which the author defines as an unbalancing of normal functions.
This is followed by a brief discussion of disease and its more
common causes in trees, methods of examining and diagnosing
abnormalities, and a description of the more common symptoms
of poor health.

The nature and development of fungi, their mode of growth
and their effect on plant tissues are next discussed, and the more
common forms of their fruiting bodies are described.

The description of the diseases of trees is divided into two
parts ; first, the diseases affecting the increment, that is the future
timber supply, and second, the diseases affecting the present
supply of timber.

Current Literature. 245

Under the first are discussed the various more common needle
diseases such as Lophodermiiim and Hypoderma. The incense
cedar rust, {Gymnosporangium bias d ale antim) , and the pine gall
fungus (Peridermium harknessii), are described at some length.

Among the more important diseases of the second group dis-
cussed are the following :

Fomes annosus, which is very destructive to trees in Europe
and Eastern United States, but which is as yet not dangerous in
California. Trametes pini, the ring scale fungus, which is the
cause of destructive diseases of mature and overmature conifers.
Fomes laricis, the chalky quinine fungus, which causes red heart-
rot in various valuable conifers, including the sugar pine. ^0/3;-
porus sulphiireus, the destructive sulphur fungus, most often
found on oak, chinquapin and red fir, but occurring also on
Douglas and white fir, and yellow and Jeffrey pine. Polyporus
aiiiarus, which in producing dry rot of incense cedar, causes enor-
mous damage on the Pacific Coast. Polyporus schzifeinitsii, one
of the most serious enemies of Douglas fir and which also occurs
on certain pines and on white fir. Fouies pinicola, the red-belt
Fomes, which is the commonest timber-destroying pore fungus in
California, attacking all the important conifers except incense
cedar, juniper, redwood and bigtree. Polyporus dryophilus,
which causes a destructive heartrot in living oaks. Fomes igni-
arius, the false tinder fungus, which is confined to the deciduous
trees and is especially common on willows, cottonwood and quak-
ing aspens, causing a white heartrot which sometimes extends into
the sapwood. Bchinodontmm tinctorum, the Indian paint fungus,
which is one of the most common wood-destroying fungi in Cali-
fornia, found almost exclusively on white fir, causing the char-
acteristic stringy brown rot. This is the fungus, the effect of
which has brought the white fir into great disfavor among the
lumbermen. ArmiUaria mellea, the honey fungus, which is one
of the most destructive root fungi of oaks and orchard trees. It
is not very common in our forest trees, but sometimes attacks
coniferous trees of all ages, often spreading through diseased
roots to roots of sound neighboring trees which it kills in a short
time.

246 Forestry Qnurterly.

Several pages are then devoted to the two types of mistletoes
found in California, Phoradendron and Rasoumofskya, v^hich
latter are the common causes of witches' brooms on coniferous
trees.

The manual concludes with a discussion of the practical
methods of controlling tree diseases. Two general rules for con-
trol are laid down :

First — Save the merchantable timber of a tree as long as the
amount to be saved justifies it. This simply means closer utili-
zation of our timber supply. Second — Prevent the infection and
infestation of sound timber by getting rid of all diseased and in-
sect infested living or dying trees. This means sanitation of our
forests.

"Systematic elimination of the common fungi or mistletoes will
take many years. The method which gives the best results is
illustrated by a stipulation inserted in the Forest Service timber
sale contracts. This requires the purchaser to cut all trees marked
apon the cutting area, whether merchantable or apparently un-
merchantable. Trees must be opened up sufficiently to satisfy the
Forest officer in charge of their condition, and any logs in such
trees which, in his judgment, are merchantable, must be removed
from the woods, scaled and paid for. This enables the Forest
Service to get rid of all undesirable stuff and to leave only sound
seed trees and sound reproduction in healthy surroundings. It
also makes possible utilization of merchantable timber left in un-
desirable trees, which would otherwise go to waste." L. M.

Forest Management of Loblolly Pine in Delazvare, Maryland
and Virginia. By W. D. Sterrett. Bulletin 11, Department of
Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington,
D. C. 1914. Pp. 59.

This bulletin covers the subject of the management of this
species in a comprehensive manner, and it is presumed repre-
sents the results of a large amount of data collected during past
years by the Forest Service in the states mentioned. The tables
are especially valuable, those on costs and net profits should be
helpful to private owners, and those on growth and volume to
the professional forester.

Current Literature. 247

The recommendations under Fire Protection for piling and
burning slash after lumbering are of doubtful value to private
owners of loblolly timber since it is not believed that these rules
can be profitably carried out. Before even a very rough system
of fire protection can be inaugurated there must needs be practical
and comprehensive state laws enacted by the states concerned in
this bulletin, and especially in Virginia, where such rudimen-
tary laws as exist at present are inoperative. A hopeful sign,
however, is that in Virginia at the present writing the question
of up-to-date and efficient forest laws is being seriously con-
sidered, and it is hoped that such bills may be enacted into law
by the present State Legislature. There must, however, ensue a
long period of education and publicity before such laws, if passed,
will become really effective.

An unusual omission in the publication is that nowhere in its
fifty-nine pages is the scientific name of loblolly pine mentioned,
not even under the paragraphs Forest Types and Characteristics,
nor even in the Appendix under Nomenclature. It is understood,
of course, that Pinus taeda, Linn, is referred to. Associated
species are honored with their scientific nomenclature but the
species whose adaptability to forest management is so fully dis-
cussed is overlooked.

From the writer's personal knowledge of the species in Vir-
ginia he doubts the absolute accuracy of the range of botanical
distribution as shown on the map on page 3, believing that the
species is found considerably farther west in the Piedmont
Plateau than shown on the map.

On the whole, the bulletin is a valuable contribution on this
economically important species, and should be very helpful to
the private owner of loblolly stands as well as to the consulting
forester. J. D. G.

The Reseeding of Depleted Grazing Lands to Cultivated For-
age Plants. By A. W. Sampson. Bulletin 4, Department of Agri-
culture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington,
D. C. 1913. Pp. 34.

Excellent results have been secured in reseeding depleted ranges
to cultivated forage plants on certain of the national forests where
this system has been inaugurated. The best results were obtained

248 Forestry Quarterly.

by sowing a mixture of timothy, red top and Kentucky blue grass
on moist mountain meadows, sowing 16 pounds of seed per acre
and brushing it in with a brush drag, at a total cost of $1.40 per
acre. Timothy gave the best results in these studies and October
is named as the best month of the year for sowing. Reseeded
areas should be very lightly grazed during the first year.

J. H. S.

Range Improvement by Deferred and Rotation Grazing. By
A. W. Sampson. Bulletin 34, Department of Agriculture. Wash-
ington, D. C. 1913. Pp. 16.

This report gives the results of three years' study of range
grazing and its effects on the principal forage plants. It is written
in a popular style and is apparently intended primarily for grazers
and range managers, as well as for federal forest officers. The
results secured by this study give information of great value on
the proper seasons for grazing summer ranges, a problem on
many national forests. It is clearly shown that close grazing in
the early spring and summer months prevents reproduction of
palatable plants by retarding seed maturity, and results in an in-
crease of the non-palatable species and a decrease in carrying
capacity. The figures secured show that the best results can be
obtained by close grazing in the late summer, after seed has ma-
tured, at which time the grazing animals tend to thresh out the
seed and trample them in the ground, which answers the purpose
of harrowing. J. H. S.

The Shrinkage in Weight of Beef Cattle in Transit. By W. F.
Ward. Bulletin 25, Department of Agriculture. Contribution
from the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. 1914.
Pp. 78.

Some interesting and valuable figures to the forester, who must
know facts outside of his forestry work, are contained in this
bulletin on the shrinkage of beef cattle in shipment, covering three
years' study in the southwest and the northwest. That the method
of handling cattle, the distance they are driven from the range
to the loading pens, and the fill given them just before loading
play an important part in the per cent, of shrinkage en route are
clearly brought out in this report, but for the reasons given above,

Current Literature. 249

the figures given in the tables can be considered as only ap-
proximate. The old practice of giving a herd a light v^ater and
3 or 4 hours grazing before loading is shown to be better than
giving the cattle a good fill, or none at all, and the reasons for this
are also clearly shown. Taking an average of the shipment, the re-
port shows that the shrinkage is greater on fed cattle than on
range cattle. This is due largely to the fact that most range
cattle are driven a considerable distance to the railroad and some
shrinkage takes place before they are loaded, while fed cattle are
usually loaded close to the feeding place and have not yet begun
to shrink when they go in the cars. It is found that as a general
rule bulls shrink more than any other class of cattle, with cows
a close second. Heifers shrink less than cows and steers less
than heifers. Calves shrink less than the other classes but the
general average in proportion to weight is close to that of steers.
It is unfortunate for foresters on the national forests that this
study did not include figures on the shrinkage of cattle from the
time they leave the range until they are loaded, since had such
figures been given the study might have been of very great value
in the utilization of unused range, which is to be found on many
of the national forests, and which is a problem confronting many
federal forest officers at the present time. J. H. S.

The Gipsy Moth and the Brozvn-Tail Moth, ivith Suggestions
for their Control. By A. F. Burgess. Farmers' Bulletin 564.
Washington. 191 4. Pp. 24.

This bulletin summarizes the past and present status, the life
history, food plants, injury caused, natural and introduced ene-
mies, and methods of control of the gipsy and brown-tail moths
in a way to be of great value to the citizens of the northeastern
states.

A map showing the area infested by and quarantined for these
moths is an interesting feature. The habits of the moth are too
well understood to need repetition, but conclusions in regard to
methods of control are worthy of note. Orchard, street, park and
ornamental trees can be protected without prohibitive cost by
methods now generally employed. "The control of these insects
in forests is extremely difficult, owing to the small amount of

250 Forestry Quarterly.

money that any owner can afford to expend in preventing injury
to his woodlands."

"Experiments have shown that coniferous trees are not injured
by the gipsy moth if grown in isolated pure stands, and if the
growth is such that the trees can be thinned to a stand of coni-
fers no hand suppressive measures are necessary in order to pre-
vent injury by this insect. (See fig. 10.) Such lots will also be
immune from attack by the brown-tail moth, as the larvae of this
insect do not feed on conifers.

"If mixtures containing a large percentage of deciduous trees
are to be protected from moth injury, it is very necessary that the
species involved should be carefully considered before a decision
is reached as to the best methods of treatment. Sometimes prac-
tical methods of thinning can be adopted so that species will be
left that are only slightly subject to injury by these insects. A
limited number 01 experiments have shown that mixtures of
chestnut, pine, red maple, ash, and hickory, regardless of the pro-
portion of each species, are seldom injured by the gipsy moth.

"In woodlands the oaks are the most favored food plant of
this insect, and unfortunately the infested region abounds in large
areas where these species predominate. At present there seems
to be no means aside from hand treatment which will prevent
serious injury to oak woodland. . . .

"This problem is being given special study and consideration
in the hope that some economical method may be devised for pro-
tecting and improving wood lots of this character at moderate
expense. . . .

"The damage caused by the brown-tail moth is ordinarily not
so severe as is that resulting from gipsy-moth infestation because
the former species does not have so wide a range of food plants
and, further, because the bulk of the feeding is done early in the
season so that the trees have an opportunity to recover before
midsummer. In the territory where both insects exist the cater-
pillars of the gipsy moth supplement the work which is done by
those of the brown-tail moth and the injury^ is therefore greatly
increased. The large acreas of oak-sprout growth furnish abun-
dant food for brown-tail moth caterpillars. . . .

"Elimination of oak, scrub apple, and wild-cherry trees would
assist greatly in reducing the numbers of this pest."

At the present time both the New England States and the

Current Literature. 251

United States Bureau of Entomology are engaged in the fight
against the moths. The United States Forest Service is' carrying
on silvicultural investigations to determine whether a practicable
system of forest management to hold the insects in check can be
devised.

The final conclusions of the writer are expressed in the follow-
ing paragraph and are in general encouraging:

"During the past season conditions in the oldest infested area
have not been as serious as in previous years. The records show
that the mortality of the gipsy moth and brown-tail moth cater-
pillars as a result of the attack of parasites, predaceous enemies,
and disease has been greater than in any of the years preceding.
The experiments which are being conducted are giving informa-
tion which will serve as a basis for handling infestations more
satisfactorily and economically, and although new territory has
been found infested the outlook for diminishing the aggregate
amount of damage which results from the work of these insects
is more favorable than it has been heretofore. It is necessary,
however, that aggressive measures should be continued in order
that the pests may be brought under better control."

R. C. H.

Forest Fire Protection by the States. As described by Repre-
sentative Men at the Weeks Law Forest Fire Conference. Edited
by T. Girvin Peters. Forest Service. Washington. 1914. Pp.
85."

This is a detailed record of the proceedings of the conference
held in Washington on January 9-10, 1913, between representa-
tives of the United States Forest Service and other parties co-
operating in fire protection under the provisions of Section 2 of
the Weeks Law.

Valuable information is given on various phases of forest fire
protection from Maine to Washington and south through the
Appalachians. The pamphlet should be read by all those inter-
ested in the question of forest fire prevention. R. C. PL

252 Forestry Quarterly.

The Air-seasoning of Timber. By William H. Kempfer, U. S.
Forest Service. Reprint from Bulletin 161, American Railway
Engineering Association. 1913. Pp. 163-231.

This valuable publication comprises the various data collected
by the Forest Service in regard to the air-seasoning of cross-ties'
and, to a less extent, of poles and sawed timbers. Much of this
has already been published in various circulars and bulletins, but
the present work brings all of it together in comparable form
and adds considerable data not previously made public. It is all
too evident, however, that much remains to be done before our
knowledge of this important subject is satisfactory.

The cross-ties tested were procured at monthly intervals
throughout the year and each month's cut piled in different ways
so as to ascertain the effect of the form of pile on the rate of
seasoning. The piles of 50 ties each were exposed to the weather
without cover other than that afforded by the solid tier of ties on
top. The progress of the seasoning was determined by weighing
each tie at intervals usually of a month. The data from these
experiments is presented graphically in numerous curves.

Seasoning experiments on western yellow pine, white fir, and
Douglas fir were conducted at Pecos and Rociata, New Mexico,
where the elevation is between 7,000 and 8,000 feet above sea
level. Ties cut in January and February required from 4 to 5
months to reach a constant moisture content ; those cut in May
and June only 2 months at Rociata and i month at Pecos ; those
cut in November and December, 6 months. There was not much
variation in the rate of seasoning of the different species.

Lodgepole pine, Douglas fir, and western larch of the North-
west were tested. Lodgepole cut in Montana in May, June or
July was practically air-dry in 3 months, and even when cut in
September became fairly well seasoned before winter; but if
started in winter it required until the next July to become dry.
Larch in Idaho and Douglas fir in Idaho and Washington, when
cut in early spring, required from 4 to 5 months to season, while
if cut in July they lost almost as much moisture in the succeeding
2 or 3 months as they did by holding them until the following
summer.

Local climate effects on seasoning were shown by tests at
Tacoma in the western and at Pasco in the eastern part of Wash-

Current Literature. 253

ington. Both lots of ties came from the same place and the
weights were taken at the same time, but the seasoning was more
rapid and a lower rate was reached in the drier climate at Pasco
than at Tacoma.

Of the eastern conifers only hemlock and tamarack ties from
Michigan have been tested. The hemlock had a very high mois-
ture content when green and lost water rapidly during the sum-
mer months but did not reach a constant weight within the period
of the observation which varied from ii to 16 months. There
appeared to be practically no difference in the rate of seasoning
of ties openly piled (7x2 and 8x1) and those closely piled (7^:7).
It required from 4 to 9 months, according to the time of year,
to reduce the moisture content of hemlock from a green weight
of 55-57 pounds per cubic foot to 40 pounds, while the average
dry weight of the wood is only 24 pounds per cubic foot.

Seasoning records were obtained on loblolly, longleaf, and
shortleaf pine at Silsbee, Texas, and on loblolly at Ackerman,
Mississippi. Ties cut in January and February were fairly dry at
the end of 4 or 5 months, but continued to lose weight for several
months longer. From April to October the seasoning was so
rapid that the ties lost little weight after the first 2 or 3 months,
even if held till the following summer.

Tests were also made on some southern hardwood ties. Hard-
woods in general dry more slowly than conifers. Red oak ties cut
in Arkansas in spring and early summer were far from dry when
they ceased to lose weight at the approach of winter, and the
following summer they lost nearly two-thirds as much moisture
as during the first summer. When the ties were cut in winter
and carried through two years the loss of weight during the
second summer was nearly half that of the first. The tests on
other hardwoods were not conclusive but indicated that red gum
and beech dry faster than red oak.

Data on the rate of seasoning of northern hardwood ties are
very meagre. The data on the pole-seasoning tests will not be
reviewed here as they are presented in the present publication in
only slightly different form from Bulletin 84, "Preservative
Treatment of Poles."

The accelerating effect of wann, dry weather on the rate of
evaporation, and the retarding effect of cold, damp or wet weather
are plainly visible in the tests started at different times of the

254 Forestry Quarterly.

year, and also when the weighings were continued from one sum-
mer through the winter into the succeeding summer. Timbers
which had become fairly dry ceased to lose or even absorb
moisture during rainy or cold, damp weather. Timbers cut under
such conditions showed a moisture loss regardless of the weather,
and by the time warm, dry weather arrived their seasoning had
advanced so far that the rate of loss was fairly constant through-
out both periods.

"Of two pieces of wood differing in moisture content, other
conditions being equal, the one with most moisture will dry the
more rapidly, and in a comparatively short time both pieces will
reach about the same condition. This rule does not apply strictly
between different species, even when of similar structure and in
pieces of the same size and form, but with conifers the usual
variation between the species does not seem sufficient to neces-
sitate separate treatment.

"Sapwood of the conifers contains, as a rule, very much more
moisture than does the heartwood, and the difference in the pro-
portion of heartwood and sapwood in two timbers of the same
species accounts for a large part of the difference in moisture
content, But sapwood loses moisture more rapidly than the heart-
wood, and this tends to equalize the time required for the two
pieces to become air-dry. . . .

"The complaint is not at all uncommon that cross-ties or other
timbers of certain species, such as the soft pines, the gums, beech
and maple, will decay before they will season. It is believed that
this can be prevented usually by piling the timbers so as to dry
rapidly. The tree should be barked as soon as felled, and the
timbers piled openly. Injury by insects may be prevented in the
same manner.

"While quick seasoning prevents injury by decay and insects,
it is not always necessary or desirable. Timber cut and set dry-
ing in hot weather checks more seriously than in cold weather,
and sometimes becomes 'case-hardened' and very resistant to pre-
servative treatment. Timber cut in the late autumn or winter
seasons more slowly and evenly; if peeled and properly stacked,
or skidded off the ground, it dries enough before warm weather
to resist attack by insects or fungi. But whatever the time of
cutting, careful attention is needed in piling the timber, either

Current Literature. 255

more openly or more closely, according as local climatic and other
conditions are found to require. . . .

"The extreme rapidity with which saturated wood loses mois-
ture when exposed to dr}'ing conditions is doubtless responsible
for the belief that the seasoning of timber may be facilitated by
soaking it in water. In the tests to determine the etfect of this
process, timbers which had been soaked for short periods, upon
removal from the water, lost the extra moisture so fast that they
soon reached practically the same condition as similar timbers
not immersed. Whether the soaked timber ultimately reaches a
lower moisture content is still open to question." S. J. R.

Tests of Wooden Barrels. By J. A. Xewlin. Bulletin 86, U. S.
Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 12.

This paper describes tests made at the Forest Products Labora-
tory in co-operation with the Bureau for the Safe Transportation
of Dangerous Explosives, the purpose being to obtain data upon
which specifications and changes in the design of wooden barrels
used in the transportation of dangerous liquids might be based.
The tests do not afford comparisons between barrels made of dif-
ferent material or of different kinds of timber.

The barrels which were made of quarter-sawed white oak, were
completely filled with water, closed and tested. Two barrels of
each group v/ere tested in side compression, two in diagonal com-
pression, one each in side and diagonal 'drop, and two by internal
pressure.

The tests indicated that the chimes should not be less than one
inch long ; that the spacing between the bilge hoops should not be
less than eight inches ; that the weakest part of the barrels was the
heads which should be much thicker than the staves; that the
dowel holes weakened the heads materially, making desirable
some improvement of the head joints ; that it is advisable to grade
the staves and heading with reference to the strength.

S. J. R.

256 Forestry Quarterly.

Tests of Rocky Mountain Woods for Telephone Poles. By
Norman de W. Betts and A. L. Heim. Bulletin 67, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 28.

This paper gives the results of tests on western red cedar,
lodgepole pine, and Engelmann spruce poles to determine their
suitability for telephone poles'. The tests included fire-killed pine
and spruce. Although pine and spruce are not naturally durable
in contact with the ground, the general adoption of preservative
treatment by railroad and telephone companies would permit their
use if otherwise satisfactory.

On a basis of the fiber stress developed, the air-seasoned lodge-
pole pine is superior to the cedar in all of the mechanical pro-
perties tested. Fire-killed lodgepole pine proved to be only 80
per cent, as strong as the cedar, but in elastic values was prac-
tically equal to it. Fire-killed Engelmann spruce was found to
be inferior in all mechanical properties to the cedar and pine.

Since a comparison based on the fiber stress developed is
equivalent to one based on uniform ground-line diameter, while
in practice it is customary to specify top diameters, it is evident
that a difference in taper, such as ordinarily exists between poles
of the different woods, would afifect the strength of the poles. On
a basis of equal top diameters it appears that there is practically
no difference between air-seasoned lodgepole pine and western
red cedar, while in stififness the pine exceeds the cedar by about
25 per cent. The fire-killed poles of both lodgepole and spruce
were practically equal to the cedar in strength at elastic limit and
about 20 per cent, below it at maximum load. S. J. R.

Balsam Fir. By Raphael Zon. Bulletin 55, U. S. Department
of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 67.

This paper deals with all aspects of balsam fir, its distribution,
the forest types in which it occurs, the present stand and cut, its
economic importance, particularly in relation to the pulp industry,
methods and cost of lumbering, life history of the tree, char-
acteristics of the wood, rate of growth and yield, and suggested
methods of management.

The total stand of balsam fir throughout its range is roughly

Current Literature. 257

estimated to be five billion board feet which, not counting the in-
crement, should last thirty years at the present rate of cutting.

The principal objections to the use of balsam for pulp are: (i)
In the ground-wood process the pitch covers the felts and cylinder
faces. The writer contends that this is not due to any property
of the wood itself, and must either come from bark left on the
surface of the blocks or else is formed in the process of grinding.
The statement is made that balsam fir is one of the fezv conifers
that lack resin ducts entirely, when as a matter of fact only four
out of thirteen indigenous genera contain ducts normally. (2)
The fiber of balsam fir is weaker, shorter, and softer than spruce
fiber, (3) The yield in paper and pulp per cord of wood is less
than in spruce.

Under present methods of cutting, balsam fir is increasing
at the expense of red spruce in the second growth throughout the
entire range of the two species. The fir grows much faster
throughout its whole life than the spruce, but is shorter lived and
reaches maturity very much sooner. The fir should be cut at an
age of from 100 to 125 years, while spruce as it now grows in
natural forest should be cut at an age of from 175 to 200 years.
The annual increment per acre of balsam over its entire range
varies from one-sixth to one-third of a cord.

Selection cutting in small groups is recommended as the best
silvicultural system for balsam. The natural reproduction of both
spruce and balsam is assured under this system, with the pos-
sibility of increasing the proportion of spruce in the new stand.

S. J. R.

Tyloses: Their Occurrence and Practical Significance in Some
American Woods. By Eloise Gerry. Reprint Journal Agricul-
tural Research. U. S. Department Agriculture Vol. i. No. 6.
1914. Pp. 445-470-

This paper embodies the results of a careful study of a con-
siderable number of specimens of both hardwoods and conifers
with reference to tyloses. Emphasis is laid on the previously
known fact that tyloses may occur in the sap wood of all species
in which they occur in the heartwood, sometimes in the outer-
most rings near the bark.

Attempt to explain the relation of tyloses to the properties of

258 Forestry Quarterly.

the wood is not very satisfactory. "The woods in which tyloses
are abundant as a rule are durable," yet there is nothing to prove
that the presence of the tyloses is in any way responsible for the
increase in durability. It is shown that tyloses when strongly de-
veloped in the vessels of wood tend to keep air and liquids out of
the vessels, but in the case of impregnation of the wood with
creosote they apparently have no effect on the penetrability of the
other wood elements.

This paper may well be considered a valuable contribution to
the knowledge of the subject, but more so because of the ques-
tions it raises than those it settles. Much remains to be learned
regarding the "practical significance" of tyloses. The plates are
excellent and demonstrate the great possibilities of photomicro-
graphy in the study of wood structure. S. J. R.

A Meteorological Study of Parks and Timbered Areas in the
Western Yellow-Pine Forests of Arizona and New Mexico. By
G. A. Pearson. Reprint from Monthly Weather Review. Wash-
ington D. C. Vol. 41, 1914. Pp. 1615-1629.

The object of the study was to determine the influence of the
forest cover upon climate locally in the Southwest, in so far as
this influence might be of importance in the management of
timberlands and the possible afforestation of parks and denuded
areas. Comparatively little attention was devoted to purely me-
teorological problems or to the influence of the forest upon the
general climate of the region.

It was found that the mean annual temperature in the forest
is 2.7° F. higher than in the park, and the maximum averages
0.9° F. lower and the minimum 6.4" F. higher. The mean daily
range is y.^'^ F. smaller in the forest. This relation is believed to
be due to the influence of the forest canopy, partly by the action of
the tree crowns in checking the loss of heat by radiation, but
mainly by the deflection of cold air currents from surrounding
mountains and high mesas. The temperature of the soil in the
forest during the summer, when shaded by the trees was found
to be about 5° F. lower at a depth of two feet than at the same
depth in the park.

The snowfall in the park is more even and the depth some-
what greater than in the forest where the crowns of the trees in-

Current Literature. 259

terfere, but it remains from two to three weeks longer on the
ground in the forest and a greater proportion of the snow water
is absorbed by the forest soil. The average wind movement in
the forest is only about half as great as in the park, while the
evaporation from a free water surface is only 70 per cent, as
great.

"The influence of the forest upon all factors studied, with the
exception of relative humidity for which our data are inadequate,
is similar to that shown by European observations. In the
European forests, as in those covered by this study, the extremes
of temperature are modified ; but in European forests the maxima
are lowered more than the minima are raised, with the result that
the mean temperature is lowxr in the forest than in the open,
while in our forests the maxima are lowered less than the minima
are raised, with the result that the mean temperature is higher in
the forest than in the open. The influence of the forest in de-
creasing evaporation is 30 per cent greater in Europe than is
shown in this study."

This investigation shows that the climatic conditions are de-
cidedly unfavorable to the establishment of forest growth in the
parks, and that little or nothing can be expected from natural
seeding. In cutting original stands it is highly desirable to leave
a portion of the stand not only to furnish seed but also as a pro-
tection to the young growth. The Forest Service had previously
adopted this shelterwood system and this report states that the
reasons for doing so are well founded.

Some planting experiments of 1912 gave excellent results, due
presumably to the use of a higher grade of plants than had pre-
viously been tried. There is no assurance, however, that the planta-
tions will grow to maturity, as it is probable that unfavorable soil
conditions, as well as adverse atmospheric conditions which make
it impossible for the seedlings to survive the first year, are in-
volved. Although the most of park areas in the yellow-pine
type will eventually be devoted to agriculture, yet there are some
portions too rocky for farming which should be forested if pos-
sible.

"Further investigations on cut-over areas, with special refer-
ence to the efifect of dififerent degrees of cutting upon the physical
conditions which are now being conducted by the Fort Valley
Forest Experiment Station, will undoubtedly determine with

26o Forestry Quarterly.

greater scientific certainty how our western yellow-pine forests
should be managed. This study merely attempted to lay the
scientific foundation upon which to base the broad principle of
forest management of western yellow pine in the Southwest."

S. J. R.

Anfiual Report of the Director of the Department of Botanical
Research. By D. T. MacDougal. 1913. Pp. 1-87.

Dr. MacDougal's annual report contains an interesting account
of the treelessness of the prairie regions, by W. A. Cannon, and
the root characters of trees grown in the coastal climate of Cali-
fornia, by the same writer. It appears that "Mesophytic trees
should attain a perennially moist soil — such resistant species as
mesquite may persist — if the water table lies within 40 feet of the
surface." In Kansas and Nebraska the water table is often less
than 40 feet along streams, but on adjacent higher lands it is
from 60 to several hundred feet, where, although the soils may be
favorable, forests are unable to exist. The open character of the
oak forests so typical of Southern California, Dr. Cannon found,
were directly the result of far-reaching superficial roots.

T. S. W. Jr.

Makers of British Botany. A Collection of Biographies by
Living Botanists. Edited by F. W. Oliver. Cambridge Uni-
versity Press. 1913. Pp. 332.

This book consists of a series of delightful essays on the life
and work of outstanding British botanists of the past, from the
earliest down to Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker who died in 191 1 —
Morison (1620-1683), Ray, Grew, Hales, Hill, Robert Brown,
William Hooker, Henslow, Lindley, Griffith, Henfrey, Harvey,
Berkeley, Gilbert, Williamson, Ward, and Joseph Dalton Hooker.
The title is not a happy one, for neither has there been a school of
British botany as distinct from German, Italian, or any other,
nor does the editor make any such assumption.

British botanists have taken a part in most of the important ad-
vances made in the science of botany and some have been pioneers.

Current Literatttre. 261

Morison and notably Ray were among the first to successfully
attempt a rational classification of plants. Grew shares with
the Italian botanist Malpighi the distinction of laying the founda-
tions of plant anatomy. It is noteworthy that Grew's Anatomy
of Plants (1672) appeared the very day on which Malpighi's
manuscript was submitted for publication. Hales was probably
the first plant physiologist (1727), standing "in the solitude of
all great original inquirers." Brown was foremost among modern
morphologists, worthy of Von Humboldt's estimate of him —
"facile botanicorum princeps." The elder Hooker occupies a
place with the elder De Candolle of Geneva, as a great descrip-
tive botanist, the last of the pre-Darwinians, and as an organizer
of botanical gardens — his name is indissolubly associated with
the making of Kew. Henslow was a pioneer ecologist and
botanical educationist. Lindley (1799-1865) linked botany with
horticulture. Gilbert (1817-1901) has done the same with agri-
culture, making the Rothamstead experiment station perhaps the
best known of all its kind. Harvey was a pioneer algologist, and
was the first to give an account of the seaweeds of our continent
in a magnificent work published by the Smithsonian Institution
(1858). Berkeley ranks as a foremost mycologist, and "it is not
too much to pronounce Berkeley as the originator and founder of
Plant Pathology." Some measure of the extent of his labors is
possible when it is remembered that in his herbarium of fungi
presented to Kew in 1879 — 10,000 species in all — 5,000 were types
of his own description and naming. Williamson leads in the van
of British palaeobotanists. Joseph Hooker fills a large place as
a systematist of the post-Darwinian era. His natural system of
classification (Bentham and Hooker's) held the field for a gen-
eration. It was the immediate predecessor of the Engler system
now in vogue. Ward was among the first to apply strict bacterio-
logical methods to the study of fungus diseases of plants. He
was associated for a time with a forest school, and published the
well-known Manuals on Trees. His leading studies were in the
field of parasitism and one of his books, worthy of perusal by
every forester is "Disease in Plants." J. H. F.

262 Forestry Quarterly.

OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE.

Hearing before the Committee on Agriculture, House of Rep-
resentatives, Sixty-third Congress, Second Session, on the Esti-
mate of Appropriations for the Fiscal Year ending June so, 1915-
Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1913. No. 75.

This contains the substance of the hearings before the Com-
mittee on Agriculture of the House of Representatives on the
Appropriation bill for the Forest Service.

Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science: Proceed-
ings of the Thirty-fourth Annual Meeting, November, 1913.
Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 115.

The Birds of North and Middle America. By R. Ridgway.
Bulletin 50, Part VI. U. S. National Museum. Washington,
D. C. 1914. Pp. 882.

Forest Fire Protection in Maine Forestry District, 1913. By
B. S. Viles. Bullf^tin Department of State Lands and Forestry.
Augusta, Me. 1914. Pp. 11.

Forestry in New Hampshire : Twelfth Report of the Society
for Protection of Forests, 1913. 1914- Pp- 96.

Fifth Annual Report of the State Forester of Vermont. By
A. F. Hawes. Burlington, Vt. 1913. Pp. 43.

Connecticut Forest Fire Manual, ipi4-ipi§. Issued by the
State Forest Fire Warden. New Haven, Conn. 1914. Pp. 39.

Includes the Connecticut forest fire laws and full instructions
to all persons concerned with the execution of these laws.

The Brozvn-tail Moth. By W. E. Britton. Bulletin 182, Agri-
cultural Experiment Station. New Haven, Conn. 1914. Pp. 26.

The brown-tail moth is now present throughout the north-
eastern portion of Connecticut, about one-third of the area of the
state being infested. Though not yet sufficiently abundant to
cause noticeable injury, the pest is spreading gradually and will

Other Current Literature. 263

soon infest the entire state. The bulletin describes in detail the
life and habits of the moth and suggests methods for its control.

Annual Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment
Station, ipis : Part III, Thirteenth Report of State Entomologist.
By W. E. Britton. New Haven Conn. 1914. Pp. 181-256.

Contains numerous notes on forest insects.

New York Conservation Commission: List of Lands in the
Forest Preserve, January i, 1914. Albany, N. Y. Pp. 503.

Check-list 'of the Woody Plants of a Portion of the South\
Mountains near Mont Alto, Pennsylvania. By. J. S. Illick. 1913.
Pp. 10.

The list is based primarily upon the author's observations dur-
ing five seasons of field work in dendrology with the students of
the Pennsylvania State Forest Academy, and was prepared pri-
marily for the use of such students.

First Biennial Report of the State Forester of Kentucky, 1913.
Frankfort, Ky. Pp. 104.

The bulk of this report is devoted to shade trees.

Yellow Poplar in Tennessee. By W. W. Ashe. Bulletin 10. C,
Geological Survey, in co-operation with U. S. Forest Service.
Nashville, Tenn. 1913. Pp. 56.

Alabama Bird Day Book. Prepared by John H. Wallace. De-
partment of Game and Fish. Montgomery, Ala. 1914. Pp. 88.

The seventh of a series of books designed for use in the schools
on Bird Day, and containing numerous selected sketches and
poems appropriate to the occasion, and rendered very attractive
by the beautiful illustrations, of which seven are in colors.

Thirteenth Annual Report of the State Board of Forestry,
State of Indiana, 1913. Indianapolis, Indiana. Pp. 121.

Minnesota Foresty Board: Third Annual Report of the State
Forester, 1913. Duluth, Minn. 1914. Pp. 147.

Minnesota is to be congratulated on the third annual report,

264 Forestry Quarterly.

which conchisively shows a decided accompHshment during the
past year, notwithstanding the fact that the appropriations asked
for were not granted by the State legislature. While the report
specializes on fire protection, it also contains data on tree plant-
ing for shelter in Minnesota, on tree diseases, woodlot manage-
ment and wood using industries.

Tree Planting for the State of North Dakota. By Fred W.
Smith, State Forester. Quarterly Bulletin North Dakota State
School of Forestry, Vol. i, No. i. 1914.

In accordance with the action of the North Dakota legislature
of 19 1 3 which created the office of state forester to be filled by the
president of the School of Forestry and provided for the grow-
ing and distribution of forest tree seedlings, the school is making
an effort to supply the nursery stock needed for planting on the
prairies of the state. In 191 5 they expect to have ready at least
a million trees. This article answers questions relating to the
distribution of forest trees, seeds, seedlings and cuttings.

Proceedings of forest Fire Conference, Western Forestry and
Conservation Association, Vancouver, B. C, December 13-16,
IQ13. Reprint by The Timberman, Portland, Oregon. Pp. 32.

Forest Windbreaks as a Protection to the Light Soils of the
Columbia River Basin. By George L. Clothier. State College
of Washington, Series i, No. 4. Olympia, Wash. 1914. Pp. 12.

Urges the planting of trees for protective purposes on the light
and easily blown soils of the Columbia basin, particularly that
part embraced in central Washington, and gives advice regarding
how and what to plant.

Annual Progress Report upon State Forest Administration in
South Australia for the Year 1^12-13. Adelaide, S. A. 1914-
Pp. 12.

New South Wales, Report of 1912, Botanic Gardens and
Government Domains. By J. H. Maiden. Sydney, N. S. W.
1913. Pp.45.

The Production and Utilization of Pine Timber in Great Bri-
tain. Part I. Production. No. 2. Sample Plot of Scots Pine

Other Current Literature. 265

at King's Lynn. By E. Russell Burdon and A. P. Long. Bulletin
No. 2, University of Cambridge School of Forestry. Cambridge,
1913. Pp. 16.

The plot selected for measurement formed a small part of a
block of woods, some 450 acres in extent, situated in the parishes
of Gaywood, Mintlyn and Bawsey. The trees were 91 years old,
had an average height of 65 feet, and the number per acre was
216 with a mean diameter of 13.3 inches. For the most part the
boles of the trees were free of branches up to 25 or 30 feet. A
sample tree contained a total of 27.9 cubic feet of which heart-
wood formed 7.8, or 28 per cent; sapwood, 17.9, or 64 per cent,
bark, 2.2, or 8 per cent. The equivalent volume of converted ma-
terial per acre, on the basis of the battens, scantlings and boards
actually sawed from a sample tree, was 4,082 cubic feet.

Irish Forestry Society: Rides and By-laws. Dublin. 1913.
Pp. 12.

The objects of the society are the advancement in Ireland of
scientific and practical forestry, the dissemination of knowledge
of such branches of science and arts as are connected with for-
estry, and the diffusion of information as to the benefits to be de-
rived by the Nation by the science of arboriculture properly un-
derstood and applied. The society was organized in 1900.

Irish Forestry Society: Transactions and Statement of Ac-
counts for the Year ended ^ist December^ ipi2. Dublin. 1913-
Pp. 18.

"Ireland of old was famous as a land filled with ..... sublimity,,
that of woods and forest grandeurs ; we could be as cheaply poetic
over woods' as over bare flint, and Ireland would be the happier
and every way the better ; .... we are the least wooded country
of the temperate zone, and every other country is working might
and main, men and money, and method to increase its forests.
We have of late a small nucleus of effort ; the lost idea begins to
come forward again ; but progress is slow. . . All that bare area,
those vast acres of nothingness, would, in well governed coun-
tries be clothed still with the secular woods, and immeasurable
source of work and of national wealth, to say nothing of the
good that follows to climate and to the beauty of the country or

266 Forestry Quarterly.

of the exceptional good there is in the very nature of forestry,
and of the trades it brings about, as healthy and happy occupa-
tions for the people .... far more manly and moralising than
the work of the factory." Quotation from the Freeman's Journal
in Appendix.

Physikalische und chemische Bigenschaften der sur Holzkon-
servierung angewandten Teere und Teerderivate. Von Dr.
Friedrich Moll. Sonderabdruck aus' der "Zeitschrift fiir ange-
wandte Chemie," Jahrg. 26, Nr. loi, 1913, Seite 792 fif.

Der kunstliche Schutz des Holzes durch dtzsublimat (Kyan-
isierung). Von Dr. Friedrich Moll. Sonderabdruck aus
der "Zeitschrift fiir angewandte Chemie." Jahrgang 26, Nr. 67,
1913, Seite 459 ff.

Beitrag zur Beurteilung der holzernen Gestdnge zir Telegra-
■phen und Fernsprechlinien. Von Dr. Friedrich Moll. Archiv fiir
Post und Telegraphie, Nr. 8, 1913, Pp. 229 if.

Skogvaesenets Historie. i. Del Historik. 11. Del StatisHk.
Kristiana, 1909. Pp. 292 and 181 respectively.

Gives a history of the Forest Service of Norway for fifty
years, 1857-1907.

Indberetning om det Norske Skogvaesen for Kalander-aaret
igi2. Kristiana, 1913. Pp. 152.

PERIODICAL LITERATURE.

FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION.

An article by Barbey summarizes the de-
Forest velopment of forest practice m Switzer-

Bvolution land. After explaining that forestry was

in not originally homogeneous on account of

Switzerland. Switzerland being divided into twenty-two

federations, he shows that the birth of real
forestry in Switzerland was in the eigh-
teenth century when the first silviculturists were trained at
Tharandt. Under the influence of this training, an attempt was
made to adopt clear cutting methods, to regularize the forests and
simplify management, but after a half century of practice the re-
sults of clear cutting in the Alps and in the Jura were far from
satisfactory. Consequently, the selection method of felling has
now been almost uniformly adopted, especially through the teach-
ing of Professor Engler. The type of selection cutting is what
the writer calls a system of concentrated selection fellings with
a long period for regeneration either by single trees or by groups,
with a cutting cycle of ten years. In Canton of Vaud, for ex-
ample, it is interesting to learn that even in an ordinary high
forest if a private owner wishes to cut more than twenty cubic
meters of wood, he must be authorized by a representative of
the state. In protection forests not a single tree can be cut
without the approval of federal officials. By a law passed in
1914, except under the most unusual circumstances, clear cutting
in protection forests is absolutely forbidden.

T. S. W., Jr.

Revue des Eaux et Forets, January i, 1914, pp. Z^-2i^-

Moussetafine presents data on the forests
Forests of Turkestan which are divided into three

of characteristic types ; ( i ) mountain forests,

Russian (2) river and valley forests', (3) plateau

Turkestan. forests. The forests of Turkestan are de-

scribed as having enormous importance
from the standpoint of soil protection, water conservation, and

268 Forestry Quarterly.

protection against moving sand ; and as having great economic
importance since they are the sole source of fuel and building
material. The important species are listed and their distribution
described.

T. S. W., Jr.

Revue des Eaux et Forets, January i, 1914, pp. 105-109.

LeBressan generalizes on the impover-
Forests ished condition of Spanish forests. After

of commenting on the varying acreage as re-

Spain. ported by different writers, he reviews the

damage which has resulted from overcut-
ting and overgrazing. Most of this damage seems to have re-
sulted from the substitution of goats for sheep.

J. S. W., Jr.

Bulletin Societe Forestiere de Franche — Comte & Belfort, March, 1914,
pp. 312-315-

SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE.

The depth to which the soil is open
Soil enough to allow the penetration of tree

Physiology. roots does not always determine the dis-

tance the roots descend. In other words,
the absolute soil depth and the physiologic soil depth are not
necessarily equal. It is only the moist, crumbled, well aerated
soil which contains a high percentage of the organic matter that
supports root growth. A compact, sticky soil and a too open
sandy soil without humus alike prevent root growth.

The distribution of the soil water is a most important factor.
Trees require a large amount of water, but also the drainage
must be good. In fact, xerophytic plant formations are found
on sandy soils under which the water table is high because it is
only the top layer of soil which is well enough aerated, and that
drys out rapidly on account of its sandy character.

The following table shows the relation of soil depth to site
quality for pine:

Periodical Literature. 269

Quality. Depth. Geometric mean.

Site II 28"— 120" 85"

in 35"- 85" 55"

IV 25" — 60" 40"

V 25"- 65" 35"

Stunted 5" — 40" 20"

The problem of improving forest soils cannot be solved by fer-
tilization. That is too expensive. Much can, however, be done
by cheaper methods of cultivation prior to reproduction ; provid-
ing there is a proper mixture of deep and shallow rooted species,
so as to completely utilize the soil and prevent its deterioration
through weed growth, excessive light, and loss of humus. In
the application of such methods the three main objects to be at-
tained are drainage, complete aeration and the maximum humus
content.

The following table shows the comparative cost of different
methods of cultivation prior to securing natural regeneration or
planting :

Ridge cultivation, (especially applicable to swampy

soils and sandy soils with a high water table, $20 an acre

Deep plowing (over 12 inches), $8-10 an acre

Shallow plowing, $4 an acre

Dynamiting, $16 an acre

K. W. W.

Beitrdge zur Physiologic dcs Badens. Forstwissenscliaftliches Central-
blatt, January, 1914, pp. 26-44.

It is a common practice of the profession

Soil in Germany to have excursions which visit

Preparation points of interest and take up, under the

for guidance of the responsible officials the

Natural problems of management which the forest

Regeneration. visited presents. While it will be several

generations before we can show the results

of long time management, the excursion idea is a good one. It

profits both the visitor and the visited.

The most interesting points about the Langenbrand Forest in

270 Forestry Quarterly.

southwest Germany is the method of soil preparation employed
to secure natural regeneration. The forest now has the following
composition: Fir, 63%; Spruce, 14% ; Pine, 17% ; Hardwoods,
60%, (mostly beech). The problem is to secure natural regener-
ation of the desirable softwoods without opening up the stand
too much, drying out the soil and encouraging weed growth.
Still the thinning must be severe enough to afford the relatively
intolerant spruce and pine an advantage over the tolerant beech
and fir. Good results have been obtained over 280 acres in the
period 1907-1913 by digging up the ground to a depth of 15
inches in spots about 2 feet square. The moss and weeds are en-
tirely removed in these spots and the mineral soil thereby ex-
posed. Success was attained over 93% of the area regenerated in
the period from 1905-1913.

Another interesting point in the management of this forest is
the recent reduction of the rotation from 120 to 100 years. This
has resulted in an increased total yield with a smaller percent-
age of thinnings. The present yield is about 10 cu. ft. per acre,
25% of which comes from thinnings.

At this time the distribution of age classes is as follows :

1-20 years

11%

21-40 years

20%

41-60 years

11%

61-80 years

13%

81-100 years

29%

Over 100 years

16%

K. W. W.

Bericht iibcr den Waldbaukurs in Langenbrand im Sept., 1913. Forst-
wissenschaftliches Centralblatt, February, 1914, pp. 87-97.

The author, S. Okliabin, describes the

Interception results of his observations conducted at

Crowns one of the forest experiment stations in

In Russia (in the province of Samara) upon

Pine Forest. the amount of precipitation that penetrates

through the crowns of a pine forest from

80 to 100 years old and having a density of from 0.6 to 0.7.

Twelve rain gauges were installed on an area of about 1,000

square meters under the crowns of the trees and in the spaces

between the tree crowns. In addition to these rain gauges there

Periodical Literature. 271

were three other rain gauges, of which one was placed under the
crowns of the trees on a tower, another in a small opening, and
a third under the crowns. Measurements of rainfall by means
of all these rain gauges were carried on from December 15, 1904,
until October i, 1909.

The most essential results obtained by the author are as fol-
lows :

(i) Precipitation in the form of rain is intercepted by the
crowns of trees to a larger extent than in the form of snow. In
the case of rain the average amount intercepted is 28 per cent.,
in the case of snow 12 per cent.

(2) The lighter the precipitation the more of it remains on
the crowns. Thus the amount intercepted, on an average, in
the case of rains from o.i to 1.9 mm is 41 per cent ; 2.1 to 4. 9 mm
is 36 per cent; 5.0 to 9.9 mm is 19 per cent.

In the case of snowfall a similar dependence is observed, but
it is less pronounced, since the snow intercepted by the branches
is gradually blown down into the rain gauges.

R. Z.

Lesnoy Journal, 1913, No. 5-

Water Lost In order to establish a relation between

by the evaporation that takes place from an

Pine Trees evaporometer and the loss of water by a

and three-year-old Scotch pine, parallel obser-

Evaporometers. vations were conducted by A. P. Tolsky
during the summer of 191 1 at the Forest
Experiment Station in the Province of Samara, at 7 a. m., i p. m.
and 9 p. m. The pine was planted the year before in a zinc
vessel with soil. The loss of water was determined by weigh-
ing. The amount of water lost was replenished by means of a
tube that reached through the lid covering the vessel to the bot-
tom. The lid closed the vessel hermetically and had in addition
to the opening through which the tube was inserted only one
other opening for the stem of the pine. By watering, the level
of the water in the soil was- maintained at the same level through-
out the entire experiment. From the results of these observations
the author came to the conclusion that the loss of water by pine :
(i) Depends, just as in the case of the evaporometer, upon the
temperature, solar radiation, humidity of the air, and the velocity

272 Forestry Quarterly.

of the wind. It was impossible to establish this relation during
the entire vegetative period, since, in order to do that, much
shorter intervals were required.

(2) During the period of development of young shoots, the
loss of water in the pine does not go on parallel with the loss of
water from the evaporometer, especially in May and June. This
would indicate that physiological processes have more to do with
the loss of water from plants than meterological conditions.

(3) During the day, the greatest loss of water by the pine
was observed in the morning and the forenoon hours. The
evaporometer lost most water in the afternoon hours.

(4) The ratio between the loss of water by the pine and that
by the evaporometer is especially great during the months of
May and June. This period coincides with the vigorous growth
of young shoots and needles.

(5) By comparing the loss of water from the pine with that
from the evaporometer for definite periods of time, it is possible
to determine converting co-efificients by means of which the in-
tensity of physiological activity of plants for different periods of
their development can be ascertained from the records of the
evaporometer.

R. Z.

Transactions of the Forest Experiment Stations, Vol. XLVII, 1913, St.
Petersburg.

Prof. Albert, of Eberswalde, states that
Effect artificial fertilizers in pine forest did not

of prove successful in Germany, while at-

Cover tempts to substitute cultivation of forest

Upon soil by covering with different vegetable

Soil Moisture. refuse, such as lupine straw, tops of potato
plants, pine needles, gave favorable results.
He describes the results of moisture determination in the soil dur-
ing the summer of 191 1 in a poor forest stand near Eberswalde
on alluvial sand on three sample plots : ( i ) which was not culti-
vated at all; (2) cultivated in the spring and sown to lupine,
which, however, entirely disappeared; and (3) covered with pine
litter.

Moisture determinations at a depth of 20 and 40 centimeters
clearly showed the effect of covering upon the greater humidity
of the soil during the entire year.

Periodical Literature. 273

Without cover, the soil at times lost its entire moisture avail-
able for plant growth. Albert sees the effect of the cover not
only upon the moisture contents of the soil, but also upon a num-
ber of other factors' and, for this reason, he believes that by cov-
ering the ground it will become possible to eliminate the failures
in the reforestation work in sandy soils. R. Z.

Mitteilungen der Deutschen Landwirtschaftlichen Gesellschaft, 1912,
No. 3.

SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION.

Wimmenauer presents the results of cer-

Thinnings tain investigations conducted by the Hes-

in sian Forest Experiment Station. The ob-

Beech ject of these investigations was to compare

and the financial advantages of various meth-

Pine. ods of thinnings, to wit: (i) thinnings

from above, (2) thinnings from below, and

(3) selection thinnings. The results show that the first two

yield approximately equal money returns, whereas the last named

lags far behind. The volume increment is greatest with (i), least

with (2), and intermediate with (3).

Many interesting figures are developed, in tabular form, and
the author reaches the justifiable conclusion that the static (com-
parison of values) of thinnings requires just as exact a division
into grades of timber secured as does that of the final yield.

A. B. R.

Durchforstmigsversuche in Buchcn- tind Kiefernhestdnden. Allgemeine
Forst- und Jadg- Zeitung, March, 1914, pp. 84-90.

Weber briefs an interesting investigation

Grades of the Royal Saxon Experiment Station

of at Tharandt dealing with the influence of

Thinning various grades of thinnings on the incre-

in ment of Scotch pine stands. The investi-

Scotch Pine. gation was made on the State Forest of

Kunersdorf near Schandau. It was begun

in 1862 when the stand was 20 years old and was ended in 1912,

when the stand was 70 years old. During these 50 years three

comparative areas were thinned ten times, to wit: in the years

274 Forestry Quarterly.

1862, 1869, 1874, 1879, 1883, 1889, 1894, 1900, 1905 and 1912,
one area always with a light (A-grade) thinning, another with
a moderate (B-grade) thinning, and the third with a heavy (C-
grade) thinning.

The results show that the heavy thinning in no way retards
the height growth, that it, in fact, reacts favorably thereon. Most
interesting is the comparison of the volume increment of the
three areas.

Total final yields of A grade thinningr=7,693 cu. ft. per acre.

Total final yields of B grade thinning=8,i65 cu. ft. per acre.

Total final yields of C grade thinning=9,438 cu. ft. per acre

or an increase of 22.7% over A grade and 15.6% over the

B grade area.

Another important result is that the heavy thinning does not
bring about a lessened clear-length (lower crowns) but, on the
contrary, an increased clear-length commensurate with the greater
height growth.

Regarding the form of the bole, Dr. Kunze, the investigator,
himself says: "The experiments by no means justify the assump-
tion that heavy thinning of Scotch pine means poor form of the
stems,"

The volume increment is greatly stimulated by the heavy thin-
ning; the exact figures are not given in Dr. Weber's review.
(The results are published by Paul Parey, Berlin and sold at 38c
a copy.)

All in all, concludes the reviewer, these results coincide with
similar experiments elsewhere and are an additional argument in
favor of heavier thinnings. A. B. R.

Mitteilungen aus der Kgl. Sdchsischcn forstlichen Versuchsanstalt zu
Tharandt. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd- Zeitung, March, 1914, pp. 93-95.

Weber reviews the latest bulletin of the
Influence Swiss Experiment Station on the Influence

of of the Source of Seed upon the Character

Source of Forest Growth. Readers of the quar-

of TERLY, however, need no extract of Web-

Seed. er's article, since an excellent brief of the

bulletin itself is given in a review thereof
by Director Toumey in the "Proceedings of the Society of Ameri-
can Foresters," Vol. IX, No. i, 1914, pp. 107-113.

Periodical Literature. 275

Such studies as these of the Swiss Experiment Station deserve
to be read widely. A. B. R.

Mittcilungcn der Schwcizcrischcn Zentralanstalt fiir das forstliche
Versuchswesen. Vol. X, No. 3, 1913, Zurich. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd-
Zeitung, January, 1914, pp. 18-24.

Wimmenauer, with characteristic mod-

Volume Production esty, contributes some interesting data on

of this question. In mixed stands of beech

Pure and Mixed and oak in Hesse, where the beech oc-

Stands. cupied from 88 to 35% of the total basal

area of the stems and the oak from 12 to

65%, investigation showed that such mixed stands yield more

volume than pure stands, when the proportion of oak is 20%

and over.

In mixed stands of beech and Scotch pine in the Odenwald,
where the beech occupied from 63 to 15% of the total basal area
of the stems and the pine from 2)7 to 85%, investigation showed
that such mixed stands yield more volume than pure stands by
19% and may run as high as 34% and 37% greater volume. This
advantage in volume accrues when the proportion of pine is 50%
and over. A. B. R.

Zur Fragc der Mischehcstandc. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd- Zeitung,
March, 1914, pp. 90-93 (see also p. 109).

Forstmeister von Gabnay brings together
Damage the latest information regarding the in-

by fiuence of asphalt or other tar coverings on

Tar. trees. He first points out that the tarring

of trees against insects produces the death
of the cambium layer and, if the bark has been removed near
to the wood, of several layers of sap wood, which may after-
ward be overgrown, but leave a defect that can never be cured.
A number of Frenchmen were first in the field investigating
the influence of asphalting roads, but the most extensive investi-
gation is that of Professor P. Claussen, who reports in the Pro-
ceedings of the Imperial Biological Institute for Agriculture and
Forestry (Vienna). These investigations show that there is a
great deal of diflFerence in the tar used, some of the manufactures
being poisonous and others not. The vapors arising from as-
phalting during the operation are fotmd to be damaging the foli-

276 forestry Quarterly.

age, some plants suffering more than others, the degree of dam-
age depending in the first place on temperature ; when this ex-
ceeds' 25° C the damage is insignificant, but when it is raised
to 40-45° C the damage increases rapidly, so that even woody
plants succumb. The dust arising from tar coverings is also
damaging, especially on young leaves. Some plants lose their
foliage, in others the leaves remain small, become red, or red
spots develop, or they even develop specially protective tissue.
The author recommends to be careful in the choice of tars, not
to tar the road in its entire breadth, but leave a strip along the
row of trees, so as to keep bole and root system free, and to
choose trees which are more resistant to this kind of damage.

Uher die pHansenschddliche Wirkung dcs Teers. Centralblatt f. d. g.
Forstwesen, November, 1913, pp. 497-504.

A. H. Graves discusses diseases of the
Tree Scrub pine {Finns znrginiana) and in addi-

Diseases tion to the writer's observations presents a

in comprehensive outline of the pathological

Southern data concerning this species. The tree was

Appalachians. found to be subject to the attack of a variety
of insects, which cause locally considerable
damage. Of the fungous diseases, the most important is the "burl
disease" caused by Cronartium quercus. It is also occasionally
affected with heart rot produced by Trametes pint, and to a lesser
degree by a rust, Gallozvaya pini, causing a "leaf cast." Among
injuries due to inorganic agencies are mentioned, windthrow un-
der certain conditions, and occasional damage from ice and snow.
In spite of the loss from these causes the writer states that "the
species considered as a whole may be looked upon as being, in
general, in a thrifty condition."

Phytopathology, 1914, IV, No. i, pp. S-io.

This new disease has been causing local
Bark damage in various plantations near New

Disease Haven and elsewhere in the state of Con-

of necticut. Its exact nature is not known,

White Pine. states A. H. Graves'. The first indication
is a slight yellowish cast to the foliage, read-
ily noticeable at considerable distance. Examination of the trunk

Periodical Literature. 277

near the ground line reveals a canker covered with minute black
pustules of some fungus. Sometimes the trees are entirely gir-
dled, the lesions extending 3 or 4 inches from the ground in some
cases. Nine fungi have been isolated from the bark of dying
trees and several more from the bark of dead trees, the one of
constant occurrence being a species of Fusicoccum. Pure cul-
tures have been made of all the fungi found on the dying trees,
and inoculations with these species on healthy trees in the green-
house are now in progress. The results of these together with a
more detailed account of the disease will be published later.

Owners of white pine plantations are advised to be on the
watch for this trouble which is quite probably of parasitic na-
ture and liable to spread disastrously. Where found, it is ad-
visable to remove all diseased trees, or at least the portion of
the stem affected, and burn them.

Mycologia, Vol. VI, No. 2, 1914, pp. 84-87.

C. T. Greene describes Agromysa pruin-
Cambium Miner osa, a dipterous insect, the larva of which
in mines in the cambium of living trees. These

River Birch. mines or tunnels heal over but leave scars
known as pith-flecks in the wood. The
pith-flecks in birch were carefully studied, and it was decided
that the species in question is at least one of the insects that pro-
duce pith-flecks, and it is possibly the only one. This is claimed
to be the first recorded instance in America of the production of
flecks in birch by a definitely known species.
Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol i, No 6, 1914, pp. 471-474.

MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT.

Investigations carried on by A. P. Tol-

Weather sky at the forest experiment station in the

and Province of Samara upon the progress of

Height Growth. the development of plantations and their

growth in height led him to the following

conclusions :

d) The growth in height of young shoots of Scotch pine in
southeastern European Russia takes place during the months of
May and June ; the growth of the pine needles in July and Aug-
ust. This phenomenon has been annually confirmed by observa-
tions extended for four years, between 1908 and 1912.

2/8 Forestry Quarterly.

(2) There is no gradual, uniform development of the shoots.
The growth of the shoots varies in accordance with the condi-
tion of the weather. During cold nights in May the growth often
stops entirely. In June, because of the warmer weather, the
growth during the night exceeds that during the day, whereas in
May the growth during the day is greater than that during the
night.

(3) The length of the annual shoots is influenced by the
weather conditions of the year before, especially during July and
August, when buds are formed. If the weather during these
months is warm and humid, the growth of the next year is
much greater than if the weather was cold and dry. These ob-
servations confirm the investigations conducted by Professor Cies-
lar in Austria and by Forester Turmer in Russia upon the growth
of spruce.

(4) Unfavorable weather conditions during early spring, i. e.
in April and May, for instance, low temperature, late disappear-
ance of snow and a large number of late frosts — or the reverse,
abnormally high temperature during the spring — may affect more
or less considerably the growth of the year.

(5) Weather conditions during the further growth of the young
shoots influence directly only the degree of development of the
needles. The latter, just as in other herbaceous vegetation, de-
pends most intimately upon the actual condition of the weather,
that is, upon temperature and humidity. Moderate temperature
and humid weather increase the length of the needles. Reverse
conditions decrease it. The weather conditions, however, dur-
ing the growth of the young shoots have only a secondary effect
as compared with the influence which the weather of the previous
year has upon them. R. Z.

Transactions of the Forest Experiment Stations, Vol. XLVII, 1913, St.
Petersburg.

The 2 1st annual meeting of the German
Reserve "Forstwirtschaftrat" in Trier in 1913 dis-

Funds. cussed, among other vital matters, the i>ol-

icy of money reserve funds in forest man-
agement. Dr. Endres of the University of Munich pointed out that
such funds, designed to tide over years of low income or heavy ex-
pense in the forests, are really necessary only in small countries.

Periodical Literature. 279

so as to secure a truly sustained annual (money) yield and to
avoid unsilvicultural cuttings — e.g. where low prices for wood
might otherwise necessitate an increased annual cut.

Dr. Speidel of Stuttgart considered that such funds could best
be created by setting apart a portion of the income from the
sale of excess growing stock or of enforced cuttings (storm,
fire, etc.). The general discussion seemed to favor timber re-
serve funds rather than tnoney reserve funds.

A. B. R.

Die XXI Tagung des Deufschcn Forstzvirtschaftsrates in Trier, 1913.
Allgemeine Forst und Jagd- Zeitung, January, 1914, pp. 35-39.

Oberforster Fischer reviews a disserta-
Increment tion by Gustav Baader on methods of de-

in termining increment for purposes of forest

Yield Regulation, organization. After reviewing the wa3'S
and means of increment determination in
the working plan instructions of the various States of Germany,
the author adds his own suggestions: for example, that in for-
ests managed under the shelterwood system with a long period of
regeneration (Femelschlagbetrieb) , the yield as figured for a cer-
tain stand should be increased, for site qualities II to IV, by 25%
where the period of regeneration is 20 years; by 35% where the
period of regeneration is 30 years ; the normal growing stock in
reproduction fellings=( initial growing stock-f-final growing
stock) Xhalf the regeneration periodX-5 to .6 (according to den-
sity).

The reviewer is reminded of Strazeleckis' proposal* to calculate

the normal growing stock by the formula : nV= — I Jl -f- -— ''I

where r=rotation age; £ ^volume at ^ the rotation age;

2
Vr=volume at the rotation age.

Baader would regulate the yield, both final and intermediate,
by increment alone but this, the reviewer contends, is an insuffi-
cient basis: first, because of a lack of exact data — especially in
the case of intermediate yield (thinnings) ; secondly, because val-
ues as well as volumes enter into yield determination ; finally be-

*Allgeineine Forst- und Jagd- Zeitung, 1884, p. 88, p. 316.

28o Forestry Quarterly.

cause these are always conditions of ownership and utilization
which make a mere determination by volume based on increment
inexpedient. For all these reasons area as well as volume must
continue to play an important role in yield determination, espe-
cially in all intermediate yields.

The reviewer concludes that the proposal to abandon all area
control is rather previous and would increase the cost of control
and administration without any corresponding advantages over
present methods. He, however, commends Baader's dissertation
as clai*ifying the subject of increment determination and as stimu-
lating more exact work along these lines.

A. B. R.

Die Veranschlagung des Zuivachses hci Waldertragsregelungen. Allge-
meine Forst- und Jagd- Zeitung, March, 1914, pp. 100-102.

A unique and extensive detailed report
Evaluating is furnished by Oberforstrat Reus on the

Damage damage occasioned by the drought of 191 1

/row over the entire forest property of the Duke-

Drought. dom of Anhalt, comprising around 75,000

acres in very varied condition. In the year
191 1, precipitation was deficient by about 37 per cent, of the nor-
mal ; this, after a year, of ten per cent, below normal. The total
loss in money is figured at around $100,000, or $1.35 per acre of
the total area. In this calculation, there is included a reduction
in value on the forced cut which was found to be on the aver-
age 2/3 cent per cubic foot, a reduction in the productivity of
stands due to the killing of timber of $30,000 and in the cost
value of destroyed cultures and young stands of $65,000. To re-
cover the damage in the plantations, some $35,000 will be re-
quired. The total cut of dead material necessitated by this
drought was 840,000 cubic feet timberwood, or something like 12
cubic feet timberwood per acre.

The territory of the Harz Mountains suffered the most. Here
the cut was nearly 30 cubic feet per acre. The acreage of young
stands under 20 years which was entirely destroyed was around
1,250 acres, or about 2| per cent, of the total forest area.

Among the observations of the difference of damage under
different conditions the following are of interest. Of pine plan-
tations, 20 per cent, were lost, while of pine sowings 40 per

Periodical Literature. 281

cent, were killed, showing the plantations to have borne the
drought better than the sowings, made in both cases in furrows.
In the oak cultures, sowings showed very little loss ; plantings of
small stock 12 per cent. ; plantings of saplings 30 per cent. Here,
however, the good sites involved explain the small loss in the
sowings. In pine stands underplanted with spruce, 50 per cent,
were lost. The underplanted spruce in oak, beech and larch in
the Harz Mountains was entirely lost. Beech of natural re-
generation was lost to the extent of 22 per cent. ; but stands
over 20 years of age did not suffer much. On grassy soils the
cultures suffered considerably more than on open soil, even in
sandy situations. As regards mixed stands, spruce in the Harz
Mountains suffered more in the mixed than in pure stands,
especially in the deciduous mixture. Spruce with oak suffered
more than with beech, the lower stem classes particularly. When
mixed in single individuals the loss was less than when in groups.
Evidently the shallow-rooted spruce could secure less moisture
from the soil than the deeper-rooted deciduous' trees. In mixed
stands of pine with beech and oak no difference appeared, when
compared with pure stands.

The resistance to drought of different species was found on
the whole to depend upon the depth of root system. The series
being beech, pine, oak, alder, birch and aspen, spruce. In cul-
tures, however, the series is somewhat different, namely oak,
spruce, pine, birch and alder.

As regards the influence of depth of soil, even the young stands
suffered less on deep soil than on the shallower soils. As re-
gards exposure, apparently not much difference was found, the
loss on the plateau being 5 per cent., north and south exposures
9 per cent., south and west exposures 8 per cent. As regards
site classes, the better the more resistant were the stands shown
to be. As regards age classes, naturally the younger stands
showed the largest loss, the 1-20 age class showing a loss of 8^
per cent., the age classes from 21 to 80 years between one and i.i
to i^ per cent., the older age classes showing a slight fraction.

As a consequence of the larger amount of dead material, insect
pests began to develop rapidly, but the immediate utilization of
the dead material and pulling out of the young damaged growth,
and other thorough methods of combating the pests have prevented

10

282 Forestry Quarterly.

additional loss. It was found that a dry rot as a secondary re-
sult had attacked to a large extent the roots of spruce and
deciduous trees, but the fear that this would lead to a consider-
able further loss seems so far not to have been realized.

It is supposed that such a drought had not occurred within the
last 150 years, and therefore the damage is considered most un-
usual.

Die Durresschdden z'on igii in den Anhaltischcn Staatsforsten. Zeit-
schrift fur Forst- und Jagdweseii, February, 1914, pp. 70-82.

Fire insurance associations which insure

Forest against forest fires alone exist in France.

Fire Denmark and Norway. In the latter coun-

Insurance. try a mutual fire insurance company was

organized in 191 1, to which we referred in

volume XI, p. 525. There is now the first report of this society

at hand.

Norway possesses about 23,000 square miles of productive
forest area, of which something over 61 per cent, is coniferous.
Of this 85 per cent, is owned privately. The total forest value
is estimated at 160 million dollars, or about $12.50 per acre.
There are strict laws and for most districts good organization
to combat forest fires, with all modern methods of look-out sta-
tions, telephones, telescopes, maps, etc.

During the extraordinarily dry year of 191 1, after a number
of disastrous conflagrations, 50 of the largest private forest
owners, owning altogether nearly 500,000 acres, of the value of
around 5 million dollars, associated themselves for mutual pro-
tection, and by September, 1913, 1,372,000 acres, or 10 per cent, of
the forest area in the districts, valued at $9,000,000 were in-
sured, with the expectation of bringing up the insured values
to $20,000,000 by the end of the year. The premium paid on
acreage to the end of September was over $16,000 or 1.3 per
cent, of the insured values or 12 cents per acre. Only $72 dam-
age were paid out, and it was therefore possible to place $112,000
in reserve.

The insurance is made only on young plantations and on the
forest soil, which are representing the most vulnerable part, since
matured stands suffer little, and since these are relatively high in
value and the premiums which would have to be paid would be

Periodical Literature. 283

relatively disadvantageous. The owner himself is obliged to state
the value of his forest, as well as of the damage, if any, the as-
sociation reserving the right to review both. The association
pays all damage, no matter what the cause of the fire. Usually
the insured has to insure his entire property, and the agreement
is made for at least five years. No damage is paid unless at
least 2| acres are involved. Premiums are paid for the year in
advance, and an additional premium up to treble the original
may, if necessary, be levied. At present forests in the districts
with satisfactory laws against forest fires are taxed i;^ per cent.,
unless the forest is located in a zone of special danger (e. g. in
the neighborhood of towns), when if per cent, is levied, the
same as in other districts not well provided against fire. No
special consideration is made as regards railroads passing through
forest country, since the railroad companies are liable. It is
expected that as the number of insured grows smaller premiums
will suffice.

Die Waldversicherung in Norwegen. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir
Forstwesen, January, 1914, pp. 21-24.

UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY.

Professor Jaccard has published the re-

Failure of suits of his investigations into the char-

Wood in acter of the failure in compression parallel

Compression. to the grain. His first studies were with

specimens ruptured in a testing machine ;

later he included natural failures such as are found at the base

of limbs, in crotches, and other places on trees where as a result

of growth the fibers were subjected to stress great enough to

cause failure.

He finds that there does not exist a specific type of rupture,
i. e. one that is characteristic of every ligneous species, and that
test blocks taken from the same kind of wood or even from the
same log, may show on their homologous faces lines of rupture
of little similarity. On the other hand when the test blocks are
taken from woods that are of similar structure though of differ-
ent species the lines of rupture of homologous faces may exhibit
great resemblance. This is due to the fact that the resistance of
the fibers is influenced in an analogous manner by the size, num-

284 Forestry Quarterly.

ber and distribution of the vessels which accompany them, or in
the case of the conifers by the particular structure of the early
wood of the growth rings; in other words by the distribution of
the elements of unequal resistance in the body of the wood.

The shortening of a block in compression is obtained either by
the transverse bending of the fibers with a formation of a swell-
ing of rupture, or by curvature of the fibers with the bulging of
one or more of the faces of the test block. Among conifers and
in a general way among the ligneous species with a fine texture
and homogeneous structure the first type is commonly met with.

In addition to the anatomical structure the degree of humidity
of the wood has an influence on the mode of rupture, fresh or
green wood behaving quite dififerently from that which is air-
seasoned or kiln-dried. The author refers to the experiments
made by the U. S. Forest Service as recorded in the appendix
of bulletin 70 and states that his own observations are in com-
plete accord with Tiemann's.

It is Jaccard's contention that the direction of rupture is not
influenced by the distribution of the medullary rays, which simply
curve with the bundles of fibers to which they are attached.
When the compression is continued until failure results, the
rupture is in the form of longitudinal rents through the fibrous
mass aflfecting equally the rays, the elements of which break in the
median plane and not along the plane of attachment to the wood
fibers. In fact it is very rare to observe a true detachment of
the walls along the middle lamella.

The folding of the fibers or of the tracheids is accompanied
by characteristic alterations of their walls. The latter seem to
split into thin lamellae or sheets. Under high magnification the
walls of the tracheids cut longitudinally present a fibrile or
thread-like structure without definite arrangement, while on cross
section numerous concentric strata are visible. The author con-
cludes that the successive strata of growth of the fiber wall al-
ternate with planes of less cohesion which under the compressive
stress separate by shear or cleavage.

As previously shown by Tiemann the folding of the tracheids
may be materially influenced by the bordered pits which form
weak places in the wall. Sometimes the pit is crushed and again
only deformed.

In test blocks of certain broad leaf species such as Platanus

Periodical Literature. 285

and Gleditsia longitudinal rents often appear and separate bun-
dles of fibers. These splits do not occur along the rays nor even
along the large vessels which run through the mass of the wood,
but within the bundles of wood fibers' themselves. The rays in
the course of the rents are torn like the other elements, but those
imprisoned in the interior of the bundles are merely bent. Ex-
cept in the case of complete failure the lumen of the folded ele-
ments usually remains open, not only in the case of ligneous
fibers with thick walls, but also in the vessels.

The author's studies of the natural failure of wood bears out
his conclusions from the test specimens. His main point is that
the distribution of the rays has little eflfect upon the mode of
failure. This is not in accord with the findings of M. Thil who
says:

The sides of the medullary rays sometimes produce planes of
least resistance varying in size with the height of the rays. The
rays assume a direction more or less parallel to the lumen of the
cells on which they border, the latter curving to the right or left
to make room for the ray and then closing again beyond it. If
the stress acts parallel to the axis of growth, the tracheids are
more likely to be displaced if the marginal ray cells are weak-
walled. It is on that account that on a radial section of the test
•block the plane of rupture passes in a direction nearly that of a
ray, whereas on a tangential section the direction of the plane of
rupture is oblique, but with an obliquity varying with the species
and determined by the inclination of the spirals on which the
rays are distributed in the stem. — Constitution anatomique dii
hois, pp. 140-141.

S. J. R.

Etude anatomique de hois comprtmcs. Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen
Centralanstalt fiir Forstliche Versuchswesen. Band X., Heft I., Zurich,
1910, pp. 53-101.

Kanehira of Formosa, Japan, after a

Termites personal investigation, and after corres-

Resisting pondence with seventeen different coun-

Timbers. tries, gives a list of tree species which

resist termites or white ants, and which

may be termed termite-proof trees. He summarizes the

reasons for this quality in the wood as follows: (a) presence in

the wood of some substance which has a strong smell or taste

286 Forestry Quarterly.

which the insects do not like; (b) presence of some substance
which is poisonous to insects; (c) extreme hardness of the wood,
rendering it difficult to attack. Appended to the article is a note
by a research officer of Dehra Dun, India, who holds that the
data thus far are not conclusive.

T. S. W., Jr.

Indian Forester, January, 1914, pp. 23-42.

STATISTICS AND HISTORY.

Early reports on forest administration

Early in the northwest province and in Oudh

Administration throw an interesting light upon the crudity

in India. of the administration as it then was. An

officer in charge of an important forest

wrote in 1872 that he had spent $10 in protecting his forest from

fire, without avail. A novel method of sale was' then in force,

namely, to charge $1.00 to $1.60 per month per cart rather than

a rate per unit of product.

Students of forest history should not fail to read this article.

T. S. W., Jr.

Indian Forester, March, 1914, pp. 75-94.

In connection with the expected re-
Smiss vision of import tariffs, a very careful in-

Statistics. vestigation into forest supply conditions of

Switzerland is being made by a special
commission, of which Professor Decoppet is chairman. Switzer-
land comprises 16,000 square miles, with a population of 3,-
750,000. Its forest area is 2,141,000 acres. The Commission
finds the total production of wood as 95 million cubic feet, 44
per cent, of which is workwood, and 56 per cent, fuelwood.
The consumption, however, is 120 million cubic feet, distributed
between workwood and fuelwood in equal proportion, 90 per
cent, of the workwood being coniferous. The total value of the
manufactured lumber reaches $11,000,000, at 23.8 cents per cubic
foot, which makes the value per M feet B. 'M. in the neighbor-
hood of $20.

In the 26 years from 1885 to 191 2, a very considerable in-

Periodical Literature. 287

crease in quantities and values of imports' has taken place, the
importation in quantity having trebled, in value quadrupled.
While as to values, wood importations as a whole have increased
170 per cent, that of workwood alone has increased 500 per
cent., lumber in particular 328 per cent, and woodenware 200 per
cent. While Germany in 1885 furnished 66 per cent, of the total
wood import (2.4 million dollars), in 191 1 it had dropped to 33
per cent. On the other hand, Austria rose from 8 per cent to
44 per cent, with $4,000,000. France's contribution rose from
$600,000 to $1,000,000. Scandinavia, Russia, and America, which
in 1885 were almost not at all represented, have risen to 1.4 mil-
lion dollars. Exports, while during this period falling in quantity
to one-half, in value remained about equal.

Striking a balance, in production and consumption it is found
that the deficit which in 1885 was $200,000, in 191 1 had risen to
$8,200,000.

The conclusion is reached that it would be undesirable to have
a tariflf for protective purposes, on fuel wood. If the tariff on
fuelwood were increased, prices would rise for the moment, but
would soon go back to their former level, as' the consumption
of wood w^uld decrease. As regards the deficit of 22,000,000
cubic feet of workwood (230 million feet B. M.), it is pointed
out that the attitude of the tariff should be to encourage the im-
portation of unmanufactured material, and discourage that of
lumber. The importation of raw material increased during the
26-year period by 500 per cent. Experience has shown that the
tariff for lumber should be at least 6 times that for round material,
the difference representing the loss in labor value.

We may only add the conclusions, regarding the tariff question.
"Duties' on wood permit an equalization between domestic and
foreign production, which latter often works more cheaply, and
may be able to calculate with lower transportation costs, but the
net yield of the forest is not influenced to the extent, which it is
often assumed, by import duties, for wood prices depend on
other factors which exercise greater influence than tariffs. In-
deed, the increase in duties in the years 1885, 1898, and 1906,
did not have as a result a decrease of imports, but a very lively
market shortly before the new tariff came into action, then was
followed by a reduction in imports during the using up of the ac-
cumulated stores, and then the importation continued in the even

288 Forestry Quarterly.

increase of the former time. The yearly natural differences in
imports are often larger than those occasioned by new tariffs.
The periods of increased importation are, as a rule, also periods
of increased market for the producer. Increase in population and
general prosperity occasion the increased use and increased im-
portation.

Die Vorarheiten ztir Brnexirung der Zolltarifc und Handclsvcrtr'dge.
Kategorie Hols . Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstvvesen, February,
March, 1914, pp. 36-4S. 71-83-

The recently published Baden, official for-
Baden est statistics for the management year

Statistics. 191 1 are reviewed by Eberhard. They

show that on January i, 191 2, the total area
of state forests comprised i, 449, 310 acres. Since 1878 the an-
nual cut has increased from 45 cubic feet per acre to 107 cubic
feet per acre in 191 1. This rise is due in part, to increased ac-
cessibility and better markets, but also to frequent revisions of
the working plans which showed a larger growing stock and in-
crement. Furthermore, the change from pure beech stands to
mixed stands and the afforestation with spruce and fir has brought
about an increased yield. Finally the increase is due, in no small
measure, to a more intensive silviculture.

The net yield in 191 1 was $8.14 per acre. In the S3 years
since 1878 the income from thinnings has been between 20 cents
and 35 cents per acre for the total area. The cost of planting, in
191 1, was twenty-two and two-fifth cents per acre; the cost of
road building fifty and two-fifth cents per acre.

A. B. R.

StatisHsche Nachweisungen aus der Porstvenvaltung dcs Gro\ssherzog-
tums Baden fiir das Jahr igii. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd- Zeitung,
January, 1913, p. 27.

POLITICS, EDUCATION AND LEGISLATION.

The French parliament is now discussing
Taxation the present manifestly unfair taxation ot

of forests in France, on the basis that the

Forests. forest is of public interest and essential to

public health ; that it possesses an indispen-
sable influence on climate, on water, on erosion ; and that the crop
is not annual. It is suggested by Chancerel that taxation should

Periodical Literature. 289

be regulated by the following principles: (a) It should be based
on the net annual production with a reduction for the cost of
maintenance, management and reforestation; (b) The revenue
should be calculated by the average per cent, returned by aver-
age soils in the locality; (c) Areas recently stocked or reforested
should be free of tax during 30 years. As, yet final legislation
has- not been secured. T. S. W., Jr.

Revue des Eaux et Forets, March i, 1914, pp. 167-170-

A reprint from a report by Louis Marin

Forests (Deputy) reviews the advantages' of for-

and ests for warfare. He argues that the ad-

Warfare. vantages of maintaining forests along the

frontier have now been increased by the

use of aeroplanes for scoutng purposes, since the forests form

a cover for the movement of troops. T. S. W., Jr.

Bulletin Societe Forestiere De Franche — Comte & Belfort. March, 1914,
pp. 310-312.

An unsigned article advocates commer-

Commercial cial training for foresters. The writer

Training admits, of course, the necessity for sound

of silvicultural training, but argues that since

Foresters. forestry has become such a commercial

business, it is logical to insist on training

such as ordinary commerce would require. Unless this training

is required, "there is no possibility of our collecting the forest

revenue that we have a right to expect, with the results that the

development and improvement of our forest assets are being and

must be greatly retarded." T. S. W., Jr.

Indian Forester, February, 1914, pp. 63-70.

A summary of the entrance requirements,

Oxford courses, training, and methods of teaching

Course used in the two-year Oxford course of for-

of estry is syllabused in the January Indian

Forestry. Forester. The list of subjects, with a brief

outline of what is included in each course,

will be of particular interest to those engaged in teaching.

T. S. W., Jr.
Indian Forester, March, 1914.

290 Forestry Quarterly.

The recent election of advancement and

Promotion discipline committees for the French Forest

System Service calls to mind this interesting pro-

in cedure. Under present policy, district for-

France. esters (there are 32) and the directors of

schools with the rank of district foresters,

inspectors, assistant inspectors, and forest assistants elect (for

each grade), have representatives who shall sit in secret session

to determine the advancements in each class and also questions

of discipline.

T. S. W., Jr.
Revue des Eaux et Forets, January i, 1914, pp. 32-36.

MISCELLANEOUS.

In 1913 the annual meeting was held in

German Trier, August 23-28. In accordance with

Forestry the usual custom, the executive committee

Congress. met in advance and prepared the program

for the session of the Congress.

The first business of the general meeting was the presentation
of a paper on "Border cuttings," by Doctor Wagner of Tubingen.
No important points not already covered by previous reviews
were brought out in the paper or the discussion that followed,
so that a mere allusion is sufficient.

The findings of the Committee on Pine Seed may be summar-
ized in the injunction to use only local seed from the best in-
dividuals of the species, and in the recommendation to insure seed
inspection.

The committee which investigated timber trade conditions re-
ported the need of securing greater publicity in timber sales, in
order to obtain better prices. Some regular method was recom-
mended for this kind of advertising, and also for the dissemina-
tion among the profession of information in regard to the prices
being secured, which must be accurate and timely to be of
value.

Tariff conditions were the subject of a report by a special com-
mittee, and also worked considerable discussion in the general ses-
sions of the Congress. Agreement was finally reached on several
fundamental principles and desirable points for legislation. Since

Other Periodical Literature. 291

the Congress was unanimously in favor of protection for the
business of timber raising, these recommendations covered merely
the ways in which protection should be given. In general, the
purpose was to protect the lower grades of wood products from
competition, because of the necessity of furnishing a local market
for such material. The tropical hardwoods and other species'
which supply needs not to be filled by native woods would re-
quire no tariff. In the case of pine cones to be used for seed
extraction, it was recommended that the import duties be made
prohibitive, in order to insure the use of local seeds for reforesta-
tion.

The Comrnittee on propaganda recommended activity along
the following lines : Co-operation between state and national
forestry associations ; collection of economic and technical data ;
student trips through the forests; press notices; local meetings.

The question of reserve funds was discussed at length
apropos of the recent legislation in Wurttemburg. While a small
forest unit needs to make no distinction in the distribution of
such funds, the large state forests require separate funds for
cutting, improvements, and to produce normal stocking. The cut-
ting fund provides for carrying on the harvesting operations.
The second division covers the cost of road building, telephones,
and buildings. The fund for stocking is a form of insurance
against the accidents, like windfall and insects, which disturb
the normal condition of a forest.

K. W. W.

Die XXI Tagung dcs Dcutschen Forstwirtschaftsrates; Die XIV Haupt-
vorsammlung dcs Deutschen Forstvcreins in Trier. Forstwissenschaftliches
Centralblatt, January, February, 1914, pp- 44-S4r 97-ii6.

OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE.

American Forestry, XX, 1914, —

The Panama Canul and the Lumber Trade. Pp. 81-91.

The Torrey Pine. Pp. 92-100.

The Sprag Industry of Eastern Pennsylvania. Pp. 142-145.

292 Forestry Quarterly.

The Ohio Naturalist, XIV, 1914, —

Transpiration in Relation to Growth and to the Successional
and Geographic Distribution of Plants. Pp. 241-251.

Soil Bacteria. Pp. 273-278.

Pomona College Journal of Economic Botany, III, 19 J 4, —

The Palms Indigenous to Cuba iii. Pp. 391-417.
Third and concluding instalment of the monograph.

Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, XII, 1914, —

Forestry and Pulp Industry. Pp. 178-180.

The Journal of the Board of Agriculture, XX, 1913-14, —

Some Douglas Fir Plantations. Pp. 402-416; 499-503; 690-
696; 865-875; 1079-1088.

Poisoning by Conifers. Pp. 994.

The Indian Forester, XL, 1914, —

The Oxford Course of Forestry. Pp. 1-22.
Detailed outline of the training.

The Technical Training and the Work of the Forest Depart-
ment from a Commercial Point of View. Pp. 63-70.
Relates' to preceding article.

Timbers which Resist Termites. Pp. 23-42.

Bulletin de la Soclete Dendrologique de France, No. 31, 1914, —

Graines et Plantules des Angiospermes. Pp. 31-37.
Conclusion of the series.

Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural Intelligence and Plant Diseases. V,
1914, —

Recent Experience and Progress in Moor Cultivation in Ger-
many. Pp. 313-316.

Other Periodical Literature. 293

Zeitschrift fur Forst- u. Jagdwesen, 1913, —

Neue Wege der Forsteinrichtung. Pp. 447-454.

Untersuchungen iiber den Wertzuzvachs von Kiefer und Fichte.
Pp. 502.

Der Blendersaumschlag und sein System. Pp. 727-41.

Einfluss holier Essen auf die Verbreitung der Rauchschdden.
Pp. 782-90.

Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen, 1913, —

Reisenotiaen aus Skandinavien. Schweden und seine Holzaus-
fuhr. Pp. 105-113; 145-55; 185-95-

Centralblatt fur das gesamt* Forstwesen, 1913, —

Zur Praxis der Waldwertsherechnung. Pp. i-ii; 49-60.

Der Voranschlag filr die verschiedenen Zweige des staatlichen
Forstdienstes und fiir die Staatsforste und Domdnen insbeson-
dere fiir das Jahr 1913. Pp. 35-39.

Schweizerische Forststatistik (Literarische Berichte). Pp. 77-
80.

Ein altbekanntes Kinderspielzeug als Lehrbehelf fiir die Forst-
wirtschaft ini allgemeinen und den Waldbau insbesondere. Pp.
327-32.

Studien iiber die Amvendung der Stereo photo grammetrie zu
forstlichgeoddtischen Zwecken. Pp. 484-497.

This is a very full explanation of the use of photography in
surveying.

Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd- Zeitung, 1913, —

Die Sonnenenergie im Walde. Pp. 185-200.

NEWS AND NOTES.

The Forestry Branch of the Canadian Pacific Railway has
assigned three men to handle fire inspection work for the Com-
pany on its lines in British Columbia, and three additional men
on its Eastern lines, in Ontario, Quebec, Maine and New Bruns-
wick. These men not only investigate fires which may occur, for
the purpose of collecting information to be used in claims cases,
but, what is more important, they help to prevent the occurrence
and spread of fire by personally meeting section-men and other
regular employees of the Company and making sure that the men
are fully informed regarding the very strict instructions issued by
the General Manager relative to the reporting and extinguishing,
by railway employees, of fires occurring along rights of way.
These inspectors also assist the Operating Department in securing
efficient action in connection with the requirements of the Rail-
way Commission relative to the maintenance of special patrols in
forest sections, and the removal of inflammable debris from the
Company's right of way. Under this method of organization,
much better results are to be anticipated than was previously the
case.

The spread of the co-operative idea in forest fire protection is
evidenced by the recent organization of the Lower Ottawa For-
est Protective Association, Ltd. This Association represents
nearly 10,000 square miles or over six and a quarter million
acres of timber lands on the watersheds of the Gatineau, Lievre,
Rouge, Coulonge, Nation and Devils rivers in the province of
Quebec, l^e staflf will comprise a manager, three inspectors and
about 50 rangers. The headquarters of the Association will be at
Ottawa. In order to co-ordinate the efiforts of all the agencies
interested in protecting this region from fire, the manager of the
Association has been appointed an officer of the Forest Protection
Branch of Quebec, as well as of the Fire Inspection Department
of the Dominion Railway Commission. A close co-operation
with the settlers and with the railways operating in this territory
is also proposed, in order to reduce the fire hazard as much as
possible.

News and Notes. 295

The latest Canadian railway to organize especially for the more
efficient handling of fire protection work is the Algoma Central
and Hudson Bay Railway. This line taps a heavily timbered sec-
tion in Central Ontario, extending north from Sault Ste. Marie.
D. C. A. Galarneau has been appointed forester to the Company,
with duties which will include supervision of railway fire pro-
tection.

The lowest level of forest fire loss on record in Canada was
reached this year on Dominion Forest Reserves in Western Can-
ada. On the reserves in British Columbia, not a single fire suc-
ceeded in spreading over a larger area than 10 acres. The re-
cords are not yet complete for Saskatchewan and Manitoba, but
the available figures compare favorably with those for the re-
serves farther West. All the figures compare favorably with
corresponding ones for the National Forests of the United States
where the area burned in 1913, although the smallest in recent
years, was somewhat over 0.03 per cent, of the total reserved
area.

In the Fire Districts on Dominion Crown Lands in the west
patrolled by Dominion fire rangers the loss occasioned by forest
fires last season is also remarkably small, not due entirely to the
large amount of rain which fell last summer in the West. In
the Coast Fire Ranging District, B. C, which being situated in
the Railway Belt is administered by the Dominion Forestry
Branch, during June, July and August no less than tio fires
occurred, yet all of these fires were extinguished by the fire-
rangers before any standing timber was destroyed.

That the fire loss in the West has been so remarkably small is
due in large measure to the fact that the Government rangers un-
ceasingly sought, and obtained, the co-operation of all with whom
they came in contact, whether settler, Indian, hunter, tourist or
packer.

During 1913 the forces on the National Forests fought 4,520
fires or nearly twice as many as started in 1912. In both years,
practically 50 per cent, of all fires were detected and extinguished
before they burned over a quarter of an acre, and 25 per cent,
were put out before they covered 10 acres. In only 25 fires did
the damage amount to $1,000. The aggregate loss in timber and

296 Forestry Quarterly.

the damage to young growth and forage is estimated at about
$192,000, the timber loss, nearly 59 milhon board feet, being
valued at $82,000. About 18 per cent, of this total loss was in-
curred on private lands, within forests where 16 per cent, of the
fires had their origin.

Reports for the winter fire season in the southern Appalachians,
from southern Virginia to northern Georgia, covering the months
of January and February, just received by the Forest Service
show that the winter was dry and that fires have occurred on land
which the Government is acquiring under the provisions of the
Weeks Law. While these two months are normally not so dry
as the fall or the spring fire season, serious fires may occur in
an open winter, though they are not usual.

During January there were 9 fires, 5 of which covered more
than 10 acres each. In February there were 10, of which only
two spread over more than 10 acres. All of these fires occurred
during the latter part of January and the first of February when
the weather was unusually dry.

According to a press bulletin of the Forest Service, lightning
next to railroads is the most frequent source of forest fires and
the most numerous species in any locality is the one most likely
to sufifer. It is probable that most of the fires from lightning
start in the duiT at the foot of the tree. Especially in the South-
west, it is stated, "dry thunder storms" increase the danger.

The Cornmissioner of Dominion Parks Branch furnishes an in-
novation of fire notices by printing them on enameled tin sheets,
which are practically indestructible. An exceedingly clear im-
print is possible. The cost may be considerably more than linen,
but the durability and consequent saving in renewals may offset
this greater initial cost.

During the first three years of its administration, from 1905-7,
the problem of the U. S. Forest Service was to take care of areas
which had been badly overgrazed, and a material reduction had
to be made in the number of stock grazed before the damage
could be stopped. From the very beginning, the Forest Service
invited the co-operation of the stockmen, and consulted with

News and Notes. 297

them regarding the practicability of the plans which were to be
adopted. This co-operation was secured ■ through the various
stockgrowers' associations, and it has proved so successful that
similar associations have grown up among other users of the
National Forests,

Before range control was put into effect, the feed belonged to
the man who got his stock on the land first, though there was no
way by which he could hold it except by physical force. Such
a system proclaimed that might was right, and led to controver-
sies, and later to range wars. Under the present control, right
prevails, and such an achievement alone would have made the
work worth while.

The systematic use of the ranges has stopped loss of forage,
and feed formerly wasted has been putting the stock in better
condition.

Experiments of the Government in artificially reseeding the
grazing areas to cultivated grasses show that in some cases the
forage crop has been increased as much as 400 per cent., but
this method is both slow and expensive, and it has been found
that a great part of the range lands must be improved by protec-
tion and natural reseeding, for the next 20 years at least. In-
vestigations have established beyond a doubt that natural re-
seeding can be accomplished best by a rotation system of graz-
ing, based upon the simple principle that grazing aids in scattering:
and planting the seed after the seed has been given an opportunity
to mature. Reports show that areas protected until after seed
maturity and then grazed, as compared with areas absolutely
protected for the whole year against grazing, are approximately
50 per cent, better, and probably 200 per cent, better than range
which has not been protected at all. This means that ranges
can be improved faster in use than they can be in idleness, and
this principle is being adopted on many of the Forests.

In the "free for all' period of early days, the most palatable
forage plants were so closely cropped that they were unable to
develop the necessary plant food, and so literally starved. Also,
the roots were frequently injured by trampling, or killed by ex-
posure. As a result, the best kinds of vegetation grew weaker
from season to season, and where the practice of early and close
grazing was continued, the range at last became practically de-
nuded.

298 Forestry Quarterly.

The remedy suggested for range deterioration is a system of
deferred grazing. Under such a plan, an overgrazed portion
of the range, sufficiently large to supply the forage from the time
of seed maturity until the end of the grazing season, is protected
from stock until the seed crop has matured. Upon maturity of
the seed crop the forage is grazed during the first season, but not
to the extent of injuring seed plants. The same area is protected
in the same way during subsequent seasons until the new plants
have been securely established. When the area has been thor-
oughly reseeded it can be again grazed early in the season, and a
second area is protected until the forage is mature.

By this method of alternating late grazing from one area to
another, weakened vegetation can recover its vitality without the
need of having the land closed to grazing the entire year.

The new open system of handling sheep, which is quieter herd-
ing during the day and bedding the sheep where night overtakes
them, is in contrast to the old plan of herding them close by
the use of dogs and returning them each night to a fixed bed
Iground, an improvement. The old plan, of course, rendered cer-
tain areas absolutely bare and the going from and returning to
the bed grounds trampled a great deal of forage. He estimates
that an increase of 10 to 25 per cent, has been added to the carry-
ing capacity of the ranges and that 5 pounds weight has been
added per lamb, because they have not been harassed by herding
or forced to trail long distances to and from bed grounds.

One objection to the new method of handling sheep brought
up by many owners has been that the herders who were used to
the close system would not adopt the new one, for herders na-
turally take a pride in having their sheep look well, and, since they
are coming to realize that open herding means better sheep, they
voluntarily adopt it.

Grazing permits on the National Forests have been issued for
nearly 11 million animals, including nearly 2 million head of
cattle and horses, nearly 9 million head of sheep and goats, and
about 65 thousand hogs. This means an increase for the current
year of about 38 thousand more cattle and horses, and 347 thou-
sand more sheep and goats, although the gross area of the Na-
tional Forests at the beginning of 1914 is almost a million acres
less than at the beginning of 191 3.

News and Notes.

299

During 1913, according to the reports just compiled, more
than 2y thousand stockmen paid the government for grazing per-
mits on the National Forests.

For several years past the carrying capacity of the National
Forest ranges has been slowly rising, which, forest officers say,
indicates an improvement in general grazing conditions and a
better utilization of the forage resources. They claim that this
is due mainly to the enforcement of better methods of distribu-
ting and handling stock.

On the lands recently acquired by the federal government
within the Appalachian region of the East, regulated grazing
has also been introduced this year on six distinct areas.

The next Canadian Forestry Convention will be held at Hali-
fax, N. S., September i to 4, 1914. This will be the first
Canadian forestry convention ever held in Nova Scotia.

On May 15 a large audience assembled at Cornell University
to celebrate the opening of the Forestry Building of the New
York State College of Agriculture. Three sessions were held
with addresses by prominent men interested in the forestry move-
ment, the afternoon being specially devoted to forecasts of progress
for the next decade. The evening session had to be adjourned to
the large Auditorium to accommodate the crowd who had come
to listen to the poetic effusion of former Director L. H. Bailey
and to Mr. GiiTord Pinchot's address on the movement for con-
servation.

The following morning the Society of American Foresters held
its first open meeting outside of Washington, and both the attend-
ance and spirit of the meeting fully justified this departure. Be-
sides some 30 active members of the Society, a large contingent
of associate members and of forestry students filled the hall. The
latter came from various forest schools as delegates of their for-
est clubs with a view of forming an association of these clubs,
which was effected.

The open meeting was preceded by an executive meeting to
discuss action on the questions lately submitted to the member-
ship by letter ballot and on other questions.

The following resolution, offered by W. B. Greeley, was
adopted :

300 Forestry Quarterly.

That tht Society of American Foresters shall investigate scientific
problems through its own membership and resources, or in collaboration
with other agencies.

That the results of such investigations shall be placed before the entire
membership of the Society by publication in its Proceedings, or other-
wise; and a ballot obtained thereon when advisable in the judgment of the
officers or committees in charge of the investigations.

That the results of investigations may be published for general distri-
bution, in the discretion of the officers or committees in charge of them,
either as the conclusions of the members or committees conducting the
investigations, or with a statement of the vote of the Society thereon
when deemed advisable.

That the Society shall not officially endorse conclusions as to scientific
facts ; but may, with the concurrence of two-thirds of the members bal-
loting, take an official position upon matters of policy.

The policy of holding at least one meeting annually outside of
Washington was endorsed.

Efiforts shall be made to organize local sections and to affiliate
local organizations with the Society.

Committees shall be appointed to take up questions of nomen-
clature and terminology, the standardization of scientific methods,
and the bringing together of information regarding investigative
projects.

Among the speakers at the open meeting Mr. Gaskill outlined
the effort which should be made in the next decade in State For-
estry in the East; Prof. Roth presented his views on the outlook
in State Forestry in the West ; and Dr. Fernow, as President of
the Society, developed his views on the needs of the Society. The
most notable contribution in the program of the preceding day
was the address of Mr. Greeley on National Forestry.

At the forest products exposition in Chicago and New York
the Forest Service exhibited two models to show proper methods
of logging. The models were supplemented by a graphic chart,
which shows the increase of timber sales on the national forests
from 1905 to 191 3, inclusive. In 1905, the timber sold from the
national forests aggregated 96,000,000 board feet, which brought
the government not more than $85,000. Three years later the
amount of timber sold increased to nearly 390,000,000 board feet,
and the money received rose to $735,000. In 191 1, 830,000,000
board feet sold for more than $2,000,000, and in 1913 more than
2,000,000,000 feet brought in contracts amounting to $4,500,000
Not all this money was received in any one year, because na-

News and Notes. 301

tional forest timber is sold on contracts which range from one
to 25 years, and it is paid for as cut.

Dr. B. E. Fernow, dean of the forest school of the University
of Toronto, and Bristow Adams, of the U. S. Forest Service,
have been elected President and Secretary, respectively, of the
Society of American Foresters, one of the two organizations of
professional foresters of the western hemisphere, the other being
the Canadian Society of Forest Engineers, of which Dr. Fernow
is also President.

The Seventh Congress of the International Union of Experi-
mental Forest Institutes will be held in Budapest, Hungary, from
the 7th to 17th September inclusive. Excursions will be made to
Szabadka, Palics, Kiralyhalom, Horgosi-Kiralyhalom, Szeged,
Temesvar, Karasjeszeno, Vadaszerdoo, Godollo, Garamberzence,
Selmecbanya, Besztercebanya, Fenyohaza, Likava, Csorbato, and
Tatralomnic.

The sale of one billion feet of western yellow pine timber
from the Kaibab National Forest in northern Arizona was ap-
proved by the Secretary of Agriculture. In order to get this
timber out it will be necessary to build a railroad approximately
200 miles long. Such a railroad will connect Colorado and Utah
with the world-famous Grand Canyon of the Colorado, which
hitherto has been accessible only from the south.

For several years the construction of such a railroad has been
considered by various capitalists, but it has been stated that the
lack of assured immediate traffic was an effectual barrier. It is
pointed out, however, that a contract for a billion feet of timber
will overcome this difficulty by providing a commodity for trans-
portation which, together with tourist and local traffic, will place
the project on a paying basis practically from the outset.

The U. S. Forester says, however, that the Kaibab Forest is one
of the most beautiful in America, and gives assurance that the
marketing of the mature crop of timber will not be allowed to mar
the scenic beauty of the region.

The investment necessary to make this timber accessible will
amount to more than $3,000,000. By placing this quantity of
timber before the lumbermen of the country Forest Service of-

302 forestry Quarterly.

ficials believe that development in other directions may be looked
for, the necessary railway making accessible heretofore un-
developed resources. The whole region is rich in agricultural
land, in cattle and sheep range, and in coal and copper deposits,
as well as in timber.

Bids for the timber will be received up to the middle of June,
1914, and three years will be allowed for the building of the
railroad and mills, and 25 years for the cutting of the timber.
The stumpage rates, however, will be readjusted at the end of
each five-year period of the contract, the readjustments being
based on the then current lumber prices. The annual cut will be
not less than 40 million feet, most of which will be readily sold
in the large consuming lumber markets of Utah and Colorado.

The Kaibab forest is one of the most heavily timbered in the
southwest, the stand of timber being broken only occasionally by
beautiful meadows or openings locally known as parks. Lumber-
men who have visited it consider the country ideally adapted to
logging. There are, altogether, two billion feet of timber, of
which more than one billion feet are mature and ready for cut-
ting.

Arrangements have just been made for the sale of 40 million
feet of timber on the Tongass National Forest in Alaska. This
forest is cut up by bays and inlets, some of which give an op-
portunity for taking the -timber from the mill to the decks of
ocean-going steamers. The Tongass forest is now self-supporting
its lumber product being used largely in local industries, much
going into boxes for canned salmon.

The Secretary of Agriculture has designated a new area in the
southern Appalachians in which he thinks that lands should be
purchased by the Government for forest purposes in accordance
with the provisions of the Weeks law. This area is in north-
western Alabama, and includes 152,960 acres at the headwaters
of the Warrior River in Lawrence and Winston counties. For
a number of years extensive improvements by the Government
have been under construction on the Tombigbee and the War-
rior rivers, and a system of locks and dams to provide for 360
miles of navigable stream is now near completion.

The presence of a forest cover to protect the headwaters of the

News and Xo'cs. 303

streams and to help equalize their flow being considered ex-
tremely important, the location of a government forest area in
the region is found advisable.

This new area, in which purchases will be made, is at the ex-
treme southern portion of the Appalachian region, about 150
miles from the nearest lands which the Government has pur-
chased hitherto. The new area is almost completely covered with
forest ; 92 per cent, of it has never been cleared, and of the 8
per cent, upon which clearing has been attempted 3 per cent, has
been abandoned and is reverting to forest growth. There is a
merchantable stand of hardwood and pine timber, but there has
been no great amount of lumbering because the locality has been
too far from transportation facilities.

One striking thing about the region is that, although it has
been settled for more than 100 years, a part of the land is still
public domain, fully 9,000 acres never having been taken up by
private owners under the various land laws. These lands have
now been withdrawn from settlement, and request has been made
that they be set aside as a nucleus for the proposed National
Forest, the purchase of private lands being also undertaken, that
another Forest of sufficient size for economical protection and
administration may be built up.

The Government of the United States has just offered for sale
two tracts of timber on Lolo Creek within the Clearwater Na-
tional Forest, Idaho, aggregating 600 million feet of saw timber
and 350 thousand cedar poles, together with a considerable
amount of material for piling, shingles, and posts. The prices,
which represent the lowest rates which will be considered for the
saw timber, range from $3.50 for Green White Pine to 50 cents
a thousand for Douglas Fir, Western Larch, and cedar. The
prices of poles range from 5 cents to $2.40 apiece, depending
upon the size.

The readjustment of boundaries has resulted in a total reduc-
tion of gross area on the Paulina and Deschutes National For-
ests, Oregon, of about 400,000 acres. The lands eliminated are
located in the east-central part of the State, a considerable portion
being on pumice lands of low fertility and little value for present
or future forest purposes. A portion is located near the Des-

304 Forestry Quarterly.

chutes River, and already comprises a large percentage of private
lar^ds, and includes two towns. These eliminations are a part of
the work of boundary examinations initiated 5 or 6 years ago,
which is resulting in fixing, after careful survey, the definite
boundaries of those lands which should remain permanently in
forests.

Foresters' and lumbermen see a strong argument for forestry
in the following decision of the Treasury Department, namely
that " the gain from the cutting and disposal of stumpage is real-
ized in the year during which the timber is cut and disposed of,
and that the amount received in excess of the cost of such timber
is profit, and should be so accounted for as income for that year."
According to their interpretation, this decision means that no
timberlands shall be subject to the tax until the timber is cut and
marketed and that then only the profit will be subject to an in-
come tax assessment. In other words, all costs will be deducted
before the tax is levied, and these will cover the cost of grow-
ing the timber, including the cost of planting where necessary and
of protecting the growing crop from fire and other depredation.

Nearly 17,000 acres have just been added by act of Congress
to the Caribou National Forest, Idaho. This is one of the first
of such additions through congressional action, instead of presi-
dential proclamation under the law of 1907, and is the largest
so far made by direct legislation.

The addition was made upon the petition of residents of the
city of Montpelier, Idaho, the area included being the water-
shed of the stream which furnishes the city's water supply.

Direct seeding of Lodgepole Pine has been successful without
exception on the Arapaho National Forest, Colorado. Several of
the areas sown two and three years ago show from 5,000 to 10,000
seedlings per acre.

Western Yellow Pine cones, to the amount of 6,377 bushels,
obtained on the Bitterroot National Forest, Montana, yielded
9,482 pounds of seed. The average cost of the extracted seed
was 41 cents per pound.

News and Notes. 305

New grazing regulations for the Dominion Forest Reserves,
similar to those in operation on the National Forest of the United
States, permit the keeping of a much larger number of stock by
a much greater number of stock-owners, and also make available
to the Dominion Forest Service a source of revenue second only
to that derived from the management of the timber on these re-
serves. Unfortunately, due to the clamor of the cattle interest,
the regulations have been suspended in British Columbia.

Foresters who have just returned from winter work in the
White Mountains of New Hampshire report that, while some
hardship is entailed, as much can be accomplished in the dead of
winter as in summer.

During the past winter two camps of men have been estimating
and valuing the forests which the Government contemplates pur-
chasing on the slopes of the White Mountains. Because of the
softness of the constantly falling snow, the work was done mainly
on snowshoes. At times the temperature has been around 20
degrees below zero for considerable periods, and at times nearly
40 degrees below. The crews were housed in winter camps
like those of the lumberjacks, and during the short winter days
they were out by daylight and did not return until dark. The
work of the crews required continuous walking. Diameters of
trees were measured and the number of logs estimated in all
merchantable trees growing on parallel strips 4 yards wide and
40 rods apart. From these estimates the full amount of timber
was calculated, especially stormy days being used to work up
data.

During the whole winter it was noted that stormy days caused
no more loss of time than in summer, and the health of the men
in the party was as a rule better than in hot weather.

In replacing a railroad trestle, recently burned, along the north
shore of Great Salt Lake, engineers have just found that the
piles are still perfectly sound after 43 years of service. Looking
for the cause, since these were only of local pine and fir, they
found the timbers were impregnated throughout with salt from
the lake.

The first transcontinental telegraph line was transferred, when
the railroad was built, to follow its right of way, and the old

3o6 Forestry Quarterly.

telegraph poles were sawed off at the ground. Upon recent ex-
amination the butts left in the ground in the salt desert have
been found, although 50 years have passed since the poles were
cut off, to be perfectly sound.

Experts in the U. S. Forest Service who have been investi-
gating the preservative treatment of timber offer the suggestion
that ties and poles which have been immersed for some time
in the waters of the lake, which, being so much saltier than that
of the ocean, is practically a saturate solution, ought to be im-
pervious to decay if the salt is not leached out by the action of
the elements. It has been suggested that this can be guarded
against by painting the butt of the pole with a coat of creosote,
which will keep out the moisture and keep in the salt.

California State inspectors at San Francisco have found a
new canker disease on chestnut trees recently imported from
Japan. According to Dr. Haven Metcalf, the government's ex-
pert on such diseases, this appears to be of the same type as
the chestnut blight which is ravaging the forests of the eastern
United States, and it is possible that the new disease would be
equally as destructive if it became established in this country.

At the polls next November the people of Minnesota are to
vote on an amendment to the constitution for the establishment
of State Forests. The State Forestry Association started the
campaign for this object at its 38th annual meeting at St. Paul
on March 24.

It is pointed out that Minnesota has 15 million acres of non-
agricultural soil which should come under forest management.

Nearly 4,000 acres were reforested by the Forest Service in
Montana and northern Idaho during 1913, at an average cost
of $7.50 an acre.

The U. S. Forest Service issues a note on the use of the Mon-
terey Pine in New Zealand. The writer of the note refers to
the name used, "Remarkable Pine," as given by the New Zea-
landers on account of its rapid growth, without realizing that this
is simply the translation of its species name insignis!

The tree is remarkable, indeed, by its small range of distribu-

Neivs and Notes. 307

tion in spite of its evident adaptability to untoward conditions.
Tn New Zealand, as well as in South Australia, in the semi-
arid country, plantations of this pine have been made 30 to 40
years ago, which furnish now considerable material for fruit
boxes especially, making 75 to 100 M board feet of inferior
stuff in 30 years. An individual tree is reported as containing
6,000 feet at 46 years of age, rivaling the Eucalypts. The
character of the material is, to be sure, inferior.

The forestry division of the geological and economic survey
of North Carolina issues separate reports of the forest resources
cf each county in the State, each report being a concise state-
ment occupying less than four printed pages. It is intended by
the survey that these reports of individual counties may be
reprinted by the local newspapers, because in that way the
specific local information will be given to the people in the
cheapest and most direct way.

The Chinese national conservation bureau is considering re-
forestation at the headwaters of the Yellow River. The Govern-
ment report shows that this will ameliorate the torrents and
cause a more regular flow from the now denuded uplands. It
is acknowledged, however, that this reforestation may not have
an appreciable effect within the life-time of the present gen-
eration

The imports of matches into China greatly exceed in value
any other wood product. Most of the matches come in from
Japan.

A novel course is to be instituted at Harvard University next
session, the Graduate School of Business Administration and
the Forestry School co-operating. Ostensibly this course is in-
stituted to furnish "scientific knowledge of the business of manu-
facturing and marketing lumber," with the expectation that im-
provements may be introduced by which loss under present
methods may be turned into profits. Mr. John M. Gries, of
the United States Bureau of Corporations, who made the in-
vestigation into the timber trust, is to carry on this course.
This course is to cover two years, and is made up of a combina-

3o8 Forestry Quarterly.

tion of parts of suitable courses already given in the Business
School, together with some work in the forestry school for
those who have had no previous training in forestry. The first
year will include, besides new courses on the manufacture of
lumber and on general lumbering to be given by Mr. Gries, cer-
tain Business School courses on accounting, marketing, factory
management, business statistics and investments. In the second
year the Business School courses will be three ; in industrial
accounting, including cost accounting; corporation finance and
an advanced course on manufacturing made up of parts of two
existing courses. Lumbering occupies the whole of the second
half year, which will be devoted to special investigations in
the field, each student being given a large problem in the lumber-
ing business on which he will write his graduation thesis.

Besides this, there is also needed a kind of forestry research
not hitherto available, to which the Harvard School of Forestry
will now devote itself, turning over the subject of lumbering to
the Business School. Within the accepted field of forestry
there are several lines that give ample room for the training of
the specialist.

Allied with the business of lumbering, as well as with forestry,
are studies in wood technology, — research to discover, for in-
stance, what new sources of supply there are for wood pulp,
which is a pressing economic problem ; what uses can be found
for small trees, below accepted lumber sizes ; what are the most
practicable methods of reproducing forests; what processes of
preservative or other chemical treatment will bring into use
woods not suited to existing needs ; and how diseases and in-
sect pests can be controlled. Such things involve advanced tech-
nical research closely linked with economic conditions ; and in
this direction it is expected that the Forestry School will con-
tribute to the broadening of the business side of lumbering as
presented in the Business School.

The legislature of North Dakota has instituted a State School
of Forestry at Bottineau. From the circular issued by its presi-
dent, Fred. W. Smith, who is at the same time State Forester, it
would appear that its function is not to educate foresters, but to
educate the public and mainly in tree planting, the school dis-

A^ews and Xotcs. 309

tributing plant material and information as to its use free of
charge.

Undoubtedly the Nestor of our profession, the Oberforstin-
spektor of the Swiss Federation, Dr. J. Coaz, retired from ac-
tive service on April 30 of this year, at the ripe age of over 90
years. A service of 63 years, in various capacities, lies behind
him, 40 years of which (since 1874) he has' been the head of the
Swiss forest service. More than that! He has been the cr-
organizer of that service from its beginning, and was the fore-
most propagandist in securing its inauguration — the federal super-
vision of all forest services of Switzerland.

In an endeavor to get the public interested in the preservation
of our native forests, as far as can be done without loss to the
owners, and the establishment of forest plantings on all land that
is not suitable for successful farming, the State Board of For-
estry of Minnesota has this year and last year offered to public
school pupils money prizes for essays on forest influences, the fol-
lowing being the order required : Relation to rainfall, to tempera-
ture, to animal life, to industries, and to sanitation.

Mr. John S. Bates, B. A., B. Sc, one of the foremost authori-
ties on wood pulp manufacture in America, has been appointed
Superintendent of the Forest Products Laboratories, McGill Uni-
versity, Montreal.

Mr. John Appleton, Yale '04, died on April 2, at Bangor, Me.

Mr. Appleton was two years in the U. S. Forest Service, after
which he began private practice as a consulting forest engineer
at Bangor, being associated with Mr. B. S. Viles, and later with
Mr. J. W. Sewall. Besides mapping and estimating large areas
of trmberland, he organized a tree surgery department with head-
quarters later in New York. The work on the Yale and Bowdoin
campus was done under his direction.

Engineering Instruments

owe their success to the policy of the makers
for 69 years to furnish only instruments of
best quality at reasonable prices. They are
designed and made to fill the practical require-
ments of the man in the field.

Illustrated Catalogue on Request

W. & L. E. GURLEY, TROY, N. Y.

Established 1845
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Forestry Heports For Sale

Owing to the large demand for reports of the Forestry Com-
mittees at the National Conservation Congress, the Forestry
Committee has decided to place these reports on sale in pamphlet
form.

Full Set (12 reports), . . . $1.00
Single Reports, each, .10 cents

The Most Vaioable Addition to Any Library on Forestry
and Lumbering in Many Years

The Reports are:

Forestry Committee Organization Lumbering

Forest Pul)licity Forest Pianting

Federal Forest Policy Forest Utilization

State Forest Policy Forest School Education

Forest Taxation Forest Investigations

Forest Fires State Forest Organization

Order from

AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION

WASHINGTON, D. C.

Yale University Forest School

NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT

A two-year course is offered, leading to the
degree of Master of Forestry. Graduates of
collegiate institutions of high standing are ad-
mitted upon presentation of their college
diploma, provided they have taken certain pre-
scribed undergraduate courses.

"The summer term is conducted at Milford,
Pike Co., Penna. and opens July i, 1914."

For further infomation, address

JAMES W. TOUMEY, Director, New Haven, Connecticut

The University of Toronto
and University College

With Which Are Federated

ST. MICHAEL'S. TRINITY AND

VICTORIA COLLEGES

Faculties of Art, Medicine, Applied Science, House-
hold Science, Education, Forestry.

The Faculty of Forestry offers a four-year course,
leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Forestry.

For information, apply to the REGISTRAR OF THE UNIVERSITY, or
to the Secretaries of the respective Faculties.

THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY

AT

SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY

Syracuse, New York

Undergraduate course leading to degree of Bachelor of Science; Postgradu-
ate course to Master of Forestry, and one- and two-year Ranger courses.
Sophomore Summer Camp of eight weeks and Ranger School held on the
College Forest of 1,800 acres at Wanakena in the Adirondacks. Summer
Forest Camp in August on Upper Saranac Lake. Forest Experiment Station
of 90 acres and excellent Library offer unusual opportunities for research work.

For particulars address: HUGH P. BAKER, D. Oec, Dean

THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE
offers a two-years' course in FORESTRY leading to the degree of
Master in Forestry. The descriptive pamphlet will be sent on
application to W. C. SABINE, 15 University Hall, Cambridge,
Mass.

UNIVERSITy OF MAINE

ORONO, MAINE

Offers a four-year undergraduate course, leading to the degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN FORESTRY.

The Location and Equipment of the School and the Opportunities offered to

Students of Forestry are excellent.

For detailed information, address

JOHN M. BRISCOE, Department of Forestry, ORONO, MAINE

WOULD YOU LIKE

to receive regularly the Bulletins and Circulars pertaining to the actual
practice of preventing the decay of wood? While these frankly advocate
the use of Avenarius Carbolineum for the brush or open tank treatment of
timber they are none the less interesting on that account but rather
MORE so, for Avenarius Carbolineum is, without doubt, the one preserv-
ative that has demonstrated its decay-preventing qualities during thirty-
five years. The Bulletins and Circulars are sent free.

Circ. 56 contains a Bibliography of Technical References.

Circ. 58 covers Treating Tanks for Fence Posts, Shingles, etc. Address

CARBOLINEUM WOOD PRESERVING CO.
185 Franklin St., New York, N. Y.

The Care of Trees in Lawn, Street and Park

By

B. E. Fernow

American Nature Series. Working with Nature.

Published by

Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1910
392 pp. 8,° Illustrated. Price, $2.00 Net

For Sale by

Henry Holt & Co., New York

Economics of Forestry

A Reference Book for Students of Political Economy
and Professional and Lay Students

By B. E. RERIVOW

13mo., $1.50 not. &y mall $1.6S

"It is by far the best and most important work on forestry which deals with
American conditions." EDWARD M. SHEPARD,

"I find it as I expected meaty and complete. It fills the place it is written for.'"

PROF. F. ROTH,

University of Michigan.

"I have read few books on forestry with as much enjoyment."

PROF. DR. SCHWAPPACH,

Eberswalde, Germany.
A NEW MUCH REVISED EDITIOIV NOW IN PRESS

Ror 3ale by

T. Y. CROWELL & CO.

NEW YORK

REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION

History of Forestry

IN

Germany and Other Countries

By B. E. Fernow
506 Pages, 8° Price, $2.50 Postpaid

Dr. Schwappach 8ays: "The study of these conditions under
the guidance of the interesting expositions of Fernow is very
instructive."

Prof. Fisher of Oxford says: "Dr. Fernow's History of For-
estry is a welcome and important addition to our Hterature * * *
Fernow writes admirably about German forestry, with which
he is thoroughly acquainted."

Dr. Fankhauser of Switzerland says: "With great skill has
the author brought the voluminous material into a relatively
small volume and yet has everywhere brought out the essentials
in clear and easily intelligible exposition. The chapter de-
voted to Switzerland shows us clearly how exhaustively the
author has utilized the most important literature and how ex"
cellently he has understood how to orient himself in compli-
cated conditions."

A new and revised edition of this work has
just come from the press. Orders may be
placed with

FORESTRY QUARTERLY

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OR

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Laadon: CHAPMAN & HALL, Ltd. Montreal, Can. : RENOUF PUBLISHING CO.

BRYANT— Logging. The Principles and General Methods of Opera-
tion in the United States. By Ralph ClemKnt Bryant, F.E., M.A.,
Manufacturers' Association Professor of Lumbering, Yale University.
8vo, xviii+SQO pages, 133 figures. Cloth, 3.50 net.
The more important features of operation are covered in this book.
Discusses at length the chief facilities and methods for the movement of
timber from the stump to the manufacturing plant, especially logging rail-
roads.

The greatest emphasis is laid on features about which there is not
much written material available.

RECORD — Identification of the Economic Woods of the United
States. By Samuel J. Record, M.A., M.F., Assistant Professor of
Forest Products, Forest Service, Yale University. 8vo, vi-)-ii7 pages,
IS figures. Cloth, 1.25 net.

This volume includes a discussion of the structural and physical prop-
erties of wood. Designed primarily as a manual for forestry students, but
will also aid others in the study and identification of wood.

RECKNAGEL— The Theory and Practice of Working Plans (Forest
Organization). By A. B. Recknagel, B.A., M.F., Assistant District
Forester, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 8vo-f235
pages, 6 half-tone plates. Cloth, 2.00 net.

A book which will assist you in becoming thoroughly conversant with
the value and need, scope and sphere of working plans.

Designed both for the student and the practical forester. In prepar-
ing this book the author constantly kept in mind the experience which he
gained while doing active work for the forest service in various parts of
the United States.

HAWLEY-HAWES— Foresty in New England. A Handbook of East
ern Forest Management. By Ralph Chipman HawlEy, M.F., Assistant
Professor of Forestry. Yale University, and Austin Foster HawEs,
M.F., State Forester of Vermont and Professor of Forestry, Univer-
sity of Vermont. 8vo. xv+479 pages, 140 figures, principally half-
tones and 2 colored maps. Cloth, $3-S0 net. -c 1 j -^
While this book is written with special reference to New England, it
has a much wider field of direct application, as forest conditions similar to
those in portions of New England prevail over a large part of New York,
New Jersey, in Pennsylvania, and also in southeastern Canada.

AMERICAN FORESTRY

$2.00 a Year Issued Nonfhly

A profusely illustrated magazine with articles by ex-
perts on all phases of Forestry and Scientific Lumbering.

Every Forester Should Have It.
American Forestry Association

WASHINGTON, D. C.

Mappmg and Surveying of Wild Lands

ESTIMATION OF TIMBER AND WORKING PLANS

(Formerly Forestry Manager of the Applefon & Sewall Co.)

14 Centre Street Old Town, Maine, U. S. A.

MANUAL FOR NORTHERN WOODSMEN

By AUSTIN CARY, Harvard University Publisher, Cambridge,
ipio; Pages, 2jo. Price, $2.00.

A newly revised and improved edition of the above pub-
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Forestry Quarterly

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containing 4,000 pages, covering the development in tech-
nical knowledge for the last decade, an invaluable refer-
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an index. ^ It is calculated that the Index volume
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APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP

Date

THE AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION
1410 H Street N. W., Washington, D. C.
Dear Sir: I hereby signify my desire to become an Annnal Member and SDi>>
of the AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION. , CoS^^Member ($10)

and enclose $ for dues. a Sustaining Member ($25)

a Life Member ($100)

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Forest Engineer

Timber estimates, forest surveys and maps, inspec-
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holdings, fire prevention, appraisal of damage by fire,
gases or trespass, tree planting.

56 Worth Street, New York City.

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Write for Catalogue and Forest Planter's Guide.

CONTENTS.

Design of a Range Finder, - _ » _ 1^7

By L. Crowell.

A Mechanical Tree Planter, - - - - 139

By F. T. McLean.

A New Measuring Instrument, - - - - 141

By H. W. Siggins.

A Proposed Method of Preparing Working Plans for

National Forests, - _ _ _ 145

By J. C. Kircher.

Stem Analyses, _-_-__ j^S

By J. Bentley, Jr.

Errors in Estimating Timber, - _ _ _ 167

By L. Margolin.

Exploitation of Crossties in Northern New Mexico, - 177

By C. F. Korstian.

The Cispus Burn, - ----- - 193

By E. J. Fenby.

Bark Disease of the Chestnut in British Columbia, - 201

By J. H. Faull and G. H. Graham.

Reforesting Cut-over Chestnut Lands, - - - 204

By E. C. M. Richards.

The Administration of a Forest E^tperiment Station, 211

By G. A. Pearson.

The Probable Origin of the Forests of the Black Hills

of South Dakota, - _ _ _ 223

By p. L. Buttrick.

The Scope of Dendrology in Forest Botany, - - 228

By H. deForest.

Current Literature, _ - - - _ 240

Other Current Literature, . - - _ 262

Periodical Literature, ----- 267

Other Periodical Literature, - - - - 291

News and Notes, ------ 294

Volume XII No. 3

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ERRATA

By a peculiar accident Mr. Korstian's article was printed twice,
namely, on pages 177 to 192 and pages 408 to 424. The first
printing contained a few typographical errors, which do not
occur in the second printing.

In the article by Mr. Haasis a few errors occurred, which do
not influence the sense, or else correct themselves.

p. 312 read Apr. 6 a. m. 5
Mar. 6 a.m. 8
Dec. 9 a.m. 2.5

p. 318 shift exposure headings one place to
the left, leaving out o, and inserting
1 hour before 2 hours.

In the article by Mr. Upson, change in table on p. 324: in 5th
column 365 to 385 ; in table on p. 326 : headings should read

D.B.H Feet Ties Lineal Aver. Ht. Feet Ties Lineal Aver. Ht,
Inches B.M No. Feet Feet B.M. No. Feet Feet

AN INDEX

to the first ten volumes of the

Forestry Quarterly

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an index. II It is calculated that the INDEX volume
will require about 100 pages, and that if the majority of
subscribers to the journal subscribe to the Index, it may
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FORESTRY QUARTERLY

Vol. XII. ] September, 1914. [No. 3.

RESULTS OF AX EXPERIMENT ON THE EFFECT OF

DRYING OF THE ROOTS OF SEEDLINGS OF

RED AND WHITE PINE.

By Ferdinand W. Haasis.

The following experiment was conducted on the lands of the
Northeastern Forestry Company at Cheshire, Connecticut. It
was made possible through the kindness of the Superintendent,
Mr. F. S. Baker, in supplying material and ground.

The object was to determine to what extent seedlings would
recover after having had the roots exposed to sun and wind. A
slight amount of exposure is inevitable in the lifting, bundling,
packing and transplanting. The question was : will the plants re-
cover after exposure for hours, or is exposure for minutes fatal ?

The chief factors influencing the result, are :

1. The sun's altitude.

2. The latitude.

3. The absolute and relative altitudes and the locality.

4. The time of day.

5. The cloudiness and place of exposure.

6. The temperature.

7. The humidity.

8. The precipitation.

9. The direction and velocity of the wind.

10. The treatment after exposure.

11. The species.

12. The age and character of the material.

13. The soil in which planted after exposure.

14. The weather after transplanting.

^- As to the sun's altitude, only one experiment was conducted,
^ beginning on April 19th the following table (taken from P. N.

312 Forestry Quarterly.

Hasluck, Book of Photography, 1905, p. 88, having been pre-
pared by Prof. A. Scott) shows the actinic (not thermal) ratios
for the various months and hours for latitude north 40".

May

Apr.

Mar.

Feb.

Jan.

a.m. p.m.

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

D^c.

12 m.

I

I

I

I

1-25

1-5

2

II I

I

I

I

1-25

1-25

1-5

2

10 2

I

I

1-25

1-25

1-5

1-75

2.5

9 3

1-25

1-25

1-25

i-S

2

2.5

3-5

8 4

1-5

1-5

1-75

2.25

2.75

4

8

7 =!

2

2.5

2.75

4

7

6 6

3-5

5

8

5 7

9

The present experiment was, however, started at about the
height of the shipping season, so that, from the standpoint of
present commercial practice, this variable may be ignored.

The nursery is in about 41** 30' N. Lat., 15 miles from salt
water (New Haven Harbor), at an altitude of about 200 ft.
above mean sea level, on level ground.

The sun's heat evidently varies in intensity from hour to
hour, and a series of hourly exposures might be made through
the day, but it was desired to try prolonged exposures as well,
and these, as, for instance, a lo-hour exposure, are evidently
rather limited as to time of day. A series of exposures varying
from one another in duration by ten minutes was, however, con-
ducted about noon.

It is obvious that a cloudy day would be less harmful than
a brilliantly clear day. The day chosen happened to be clear
though not brilliant (see Table i), probably as nearly average a
day as obtainable. In the nursery practice much of the work
is done under shelter of some kind. Stringing the plants in the
transplanting boards is done under the shelter of burlap shanties
which give considerable protection from wind and perhaps half
protection from sun. Some of the counting and bundling is
done here, also. The greater part of this, however, as well as
all the packing, is done in the counting and packing sheds which
afiford complete sun protection and nearly complete wind pro-
tection, and it was only in the packing shed that the shade ex-
posures were made.

The temperature, the humidity, and the precipitation do not
need comment, though perhaps the significance of the humidity

Drying Roots of Seedlings. 313

is at times overlooked. The drier the air, the more rapid the
evaporation.

As to the wind, it is an elementary principle of physics that
rate of evaporation is increased by increased movement of air
over the body from which the evaporation occurs. The in-
fluence of wind direction would probably be included under other
factors. It might influence humidity, temperature, precipitation,
velocity. In the present instance, the south wind is apt to be
warm, and perhaps, moist, though not markedly so.

The exposures were made on pine planks. This is prob-
ably a severer test than it would be to leave them on the ground
as would probably happen in practice.

As suggested above, the plants may be either replanted or
packed for shipment after exposure. In some cases the roots
are puddled whether for shipment or transplanting. In the
present experiment all the exposures in a series w^ere started
at the same time the successive lots being stopped at different
times and placed with the roots in wet sphagnum in the pack-
ing shed until evening, when all were planted after sunset. It
has been suggested that perhaps the wet moss had a tendency
to revive the exposed plants, but it is the treatment they would
receive if shipped to a customer. From the standpoint of im-
mediate transplanting it might have been better to start the ex-
posures at dift'erent times, and stop them all at once, transplant-
ing immediately. It was, however, desired to plant after sun-
set to reduce, as much as possible, untimed harmful exposure,
and to use the method suggested would have involved continu-
ing the exposure for a time (an hour or two or half an hour,
perhaps) after the sun at least, and possibly the wind had con-
siderably declined in destructive effects. True, commercially,
plants would never be planted at night, but it is' believed the
treatment adopted eliminated some variables difficult to de-
termine.

To avoid having so many plants that the handling would lack
precision because of mere numbers, but two species (Pinus strobus
and Pinus resinosa) were used, and only three year seedlings
of these, two of each kind to each set. Even so the results show
a considerable variation. The individuals used were not chosen,
but taken as they came from the bed.

314 Forestry Quarterly.

The place in which the plants are planted would undoubtedly
have a determining influence in the case of weakened plants, as
would also the weather conditions after planting but a con-
sideration of these is scarcely within the province of the present
investigations. As variables they may both be ignored in the
present instance.

It is realized that these investigations are by no means com-
plete. From the scientific standpoint it was an error not to
have unexposed checks given otherwise the same treatment as
the exposed plants', though from the commercial standpoint it is
significant that some of the plants lived even after an exposure
of several hours. Merely two plants for each variable allowed
for, time of day, species, place of exposure, length of exposure,
is a small number but the reason has, it is believed, been satis-
factorily stated above. A recent article in "Forestry Quarterly"
(vol 12, p. 31) is based upon experiments along similar lines
started April 29th and kept under observation until the beginning
of August. Such extended study is desirable, but was imprac-
ticable in the present instance. Exposure immediately upon lift-
ing might work for more accurate results than the method used
(see infra.)

The conduct of the experiment was as follows :

The approximate number of plants of each species needed
was counted roughly in the bed and a double quantity dug, after
sunset, with the earth adhering to the roots, like a sod. These
sods were heeled in over night in the packing shed. The next
morning the requisite number of plants was taken, the original
earth shaken from the roots, and the exposures begun, the plants
being exposed on pine boards and held down against the wind by
a narrow strip of wood laid across the root collars and weighted
with rocks in such a way that no shade was cast upon the roots.
(A transplanting board might be more satisfactory, though it
would probably be more difficult to remove a few plants at a
time than in the case here described.) As before stated, the
plants were taken as they came, except that care was exercised
to use the ones near the center of the clump, and dead ones were
discarded. The exposures were thus begun, the Red pine being
started at 6.40, the White at 6.45. One group was left on the

Drying Roots of Seedlings. 315

bench in the packing shed ; the other was placed in the full sun
and wind.

At one-hour intervals (approximately the table [i] shows the
time to the nearest five minutes) two Red pines and two White
pines from the sun and from the shed were labeled with the time
and character of the exposure, and the roots packed in wet
sphagnum.

A similar series was begun at 11.45. The interval being 10
minutes*, and completed at 12.45.

The exposures, with an hourly interval were completed at
4.40 p. m.

All were planted about 7 o'clock in the evening, care being
taken to expose the roots as little as possible, the label being re-
moved from the bundle and fastened to one Red pine before the
roots were uncovered, the four being then planted in a trench
in regular order, and with the sets in a regular order, as rapidly
as possible. The spacing was 1.5 inches on an average.

Table I gives a correlation of the periods of exposure with the
meteorological data. These latter were supplied by the Observer
of the United States Weather Bureau at New Haven, Conn., 15
miles south of the nursery.

After planting the weather was' rather favorable. The first
rain occurred on the 20th. The plants were not watered dur-
ing the progress of the experiment. Weeds were pulled oc-
casionally. Observations were made at weekly intervals be-
ginning with the fourteenth day after planting. The results are
shown in tables II and III. The final observations are given
in table III which shows the condition of the plants in each case
about two months after transplanting. Owing to the small num-
ber of plants used it is hardly practicable to give percentage re-
sults. It can be seen, however, that some of the plants which had
been exposed several hours were still living at the end of two
months. It is perhaps safe to say that an exposure of two
hours in the sun and perhaps more in the shade is not necessarily
fatal (though of course this exposure was in the earlier part of
the day.) The Red pine seems to have been affected to a
greater extent than the White, but it is here that the lack of an

*Sun exposure for this series was 2 min. in shed, the rest (8, 18, etc.) in
full sun.

3i6

Forestry Quarterly.

unexposed check is especially felt.
the large number of Red pines
shade.

Another unexpected result is
dying after exposure in the

Table I showing the Hourly Weather Conditions, April 19, 1914.

•0

15S

Wind

<u z

c

0

U

0

>p^

a ii

Time.

perati

F at

houi

T, ^

tive
umidi
d of

c

<u •
c ^

C <u

0

1° "o

1) l-H 0 1

^

§K

S^

OJ

H

Ph

P^

m

s

P

5 — 6 a. m.

46

0

0.88

5

S

6-7

47

0

I.O

5

s

7-8

51

0

81

I.O

6

s

&-9

54

0

1.0

6

s

9 — 10

55

0

I.O

7

SE

10 — II

68

0

1.0

II

s

II — 12

66

0

I.O

12

s

12 — I p. m.

67

0

1.0

9

s

I — 2

72

0

I .0

13

s

2— 3

70

0

I.O

15

s

3— 4

68

0

1 .0

18

s

4— 5

63

0

0.4

20

s

5-6

60

0

0.0

24

s

6- 7

59

0

0.0

24

s

7-8

58

0

74

0.0

27

SW

After sunset.

Meteorological data taken from

the U.

s.

Weather

Bureau's ]

Local Rec-

ord at New

Haven,

Conn.

PERIODS OF EXPOSURE.

Duration.

10 min. ^

20

30

40

50

60

I hr. V

2

3

4

5

6

7
8

9
10

Time
11.45 a. m
11-45
11-45
11-45
ir-45
11-45

6.40

6.40

6.40

6.40

6.40

6.40

6.40

6.40

6.40

6.40

of Day.

—11.55 a. m.

— 12.05 P- m-

—12.15

— 12.25

-12.35

—12.45

— 7.40 a. m.

— 8.40

— 9-40
—10.45

—11-45
—12.55

— 1.30

— 2.45

— 3-40

— 4-40

' Sun exposure for 10 minute series was 2 min. in shade, the rest (8,
18 etc.) in full sun.

* All Red pine started at 6.40, White pine at 6.45 a. m. All planted
about 7 p. m.

Drying Roots of Seedlings. 317

s,{up ZQ <^^o^f^c^lMo^'M^^lN'Nc^^o^<Mc^o^M^-^^^o^>-H(^^c3:sr;c^l-ll-lC>^►HMN^(
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6V

d

w

«• 5 5e

«5 ^ Zi Xetat ^^^^"^'^^^'^'^'^^^^'^<^'^'^'^'<><<^^^^^^<^'"^"^<N<N0)

c

a;
!5 01 Xbjai

r^C^iN01MC^01(NM(NC^<NNiM0<iNN(N0)0|iNC^C^(N0)C^(M<Nf^OCS01

ii •EDt'I

SjCbD rO i-i(Nw0)(Ni-<(N0)wi-iC^0)<N<Mw<MM>-ii-iOi-W0!OOOOMh-(OOO

-^^ OZ 3unf

W> . -^ , i-H0q>-iC^(MwCM(NiN»-iMC^(N0)i-i0Ji-iHHi-(OO'-iCMOOO>-i"i-iOOO

^4 ? vi aunf

PQ c

< o

r-'i*^ ^ ►-iCS!N0)<Nw(NM0<M(N0)iN01i-i(N'-iC\|wi-i-iwMi-iO>-ii-ii-ii-iOOO

bo Z 3unf

'>

""* ^" i-HlMO)0)0)w(NC^Oh-iC^(NO)0)i-iC>li-i(Ni-iMi-(MC)i-iOCqi-iC^hHO)*-iO

^ I 3unf

Sj'J , o M0)rqrq<N0)C^<NC^iNM(>)0<OhH04i-i<Ni-iHH<N<M(Ni-HO0<(N0|iN<N>-<C*)

g g Zl iCBp^I

SAEp FI 0<INM<N0)04CS<N<NINMC^0^M(NMmCMi-ii-hC^1(NO)i-ii-'0)MMiNO)i-iCM

uo ;r-j2 3j: nj= sjn 3j: 3j= sxi 3x; 3j= 3-c 3x; d4= nx: nx; 3J= sx 3

bo
■u .S

3 ..... . <"

(/irt) flCCCCC , , , , , , , , . , •*■

O c '^^ ■?■?■? 'c 'e ^ •- •- ^ ^- *- ^ •- *- *" 53

,$!>£-! OOOOOOMO)fOT}-ir)\Ot^OOO\0

3i8 Forestry Quarterly.

TABLE III.

Showing condition of the transplants at the conclusion of the experi-
ment. Tune 20th, 1914 (62 days after the exposures).

Minutes.

Hours.

Exposure :

0

10

20

30 40 50

60

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10

<u Shade

Thriving
Existing
Dead
Remarks

I

I

I
I

2

2

I
I

2

2

I
I

I
I

I
I

I
I

1
I

2

0

I 2

•0

Pi

Sun

Thriving
Existing
Dead
Remarks

2

I
I

I

I

I
I

I
I

I
I

2

I
I

I
I

2

a

2

2

I
I

2 2

S Shade

Thriving
Existing
Dead
Remarks

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

I
I

2

I
b

2

I
I

I
I 2

IS

^ Sun

Thriving
Existing
Dead
Remarks

2

2

2

2

2

I

I

I
I

I

I

2

I
I

I
b

I
b

I

I

2

2 I

I

a 2. Missing; b i. Missing, (i "Thriving" white pine found cut off by
cultivator.)

"Thriving" indicates plants that are putting out new leaves and seem
firmly established.

"Existing" indicates plants that are not putting out new leaves and seem
unlikely to recover.

The missing plants were chiefly cut ofif by the wheel cultivator knives.

VOLUME TABLE FOR LODGEPOLE PINE.
By Arthur T. Upson.

General experience has shown that timber sale and intensive
reconnaissance estimates demand the use of reliable volume tables
for different classes of forest stands. By no other means can
results be obtained with certainty and as little expense. Besides
the elements of accuracy and uniformity, a table must involve
those of simplicity and ease of application. The Lodgepole pine
stands found growing in the Colorado Rockies are homogeneous
only in composition and age and vary in their physical develop-
ment as a result of the fertility of the soil and the relative alti-
tude, which conditions give rise to three site qualities. The deep,
moist soil at the low altitudes represents conditions for the opti-
mum development of the species and consequently forms' the zone
occupied by quality L pine; the second quality occurs under
the conditions represented by the thinner, drier soils of the mid-
dle slopes ; and the upper slopes and ridges present the conditions
of soil and relative altitude which induce the poorest develop-
ment of pine, and fix the zone occupied by site quality IIL The
amount of ground cover beneath the stand is a fair indicator of
the fertility of the soil, and consequently of the quality of the site,
for in I it is usually abundant and in III almost lacking. Volume
tables for Lodgepole pine in this region then, should be divided
into three site qualities.

Such a site-quality volume table may assist in the preparation
of a site-quality map.

The writer has had the opportunity during the past year to
gather volume data on 2015 Lodgepole pine trees on the Arapaho
Forest, Colorado, and to compile a volume table which gives vol-
umes of sawtimber and linear feet of props for each D. B. H.
class by three site qualities. The data were gathered in stands
in which cutting and logging were in progress, the measurements
on the entire trees just as they lay after felling and bucking into
logs and props, and before the swampers had an opportunity to
disturb the top or before the skidders removed any of the logs.

The usual procedure in measuring was followed.

Since in the Rocky Mountain region the smallest piece which

329 Forestry Quarterly.

can profitably be sawed into lumber is six inches at the small
end, and since the Forest Service timber sale contracts in this
region usually specify that all material down to six inches in
the top will be scaled by the Scribner Rule, Decimal C, a volume
table which gives accurate results must include scaled material
to this minimum size. All log scales were read from an ordinary
30" Forest Service Scribner Rule scale stick, after the average
diameter had been secured, and the scale was recorded in one
of the extra columns, headed "Scrib. Dec. C." If the log was
defective, proper deduction was made and the resulting scale
recorded in the column, "Defect Scale," which therefore, signifies
the scale after the defect, if any, has been deducted from tlie gross
scale.

In this region mine props are utilized to a minimum diameter
limit of 5 inches inside bark, and this was usually adhered to
in the operations' on which the present data were gathered. The
length of the top above the 6-inch point was measured to the
nearest foot and recorded as the next section after the last
sawlog. The amount of material in the top which was 5" or
more in diameter inside bark, was measured and recorded in feet
in an extra column, headed "Linear Feet," and on the same line
as the total length of the top.

Under "Remarks" in the right-hand column, notes on the
amount of character of any defect or on utilization were entered.
Under "Remarks" at the bottom were placed the estimate of
the site quality and utilization notes. In volume measurements
the "Age" column and the reverse side of the form were not
used. A brief and concise forest description was written for
each set of measurements collected in a given stand and designated
so as to apply to certain tree numbers. An endeavor was made
to select trees which were fairly representative of that particular
stand. However, it was necessary that measurements be taken
in very good and very bad stands as well as in average ones, in
order that the entire range of merchantable Lodgepole pine might
be represented by the data.

The "Used Length" is that portion of the tree between the
stump and the 6-inch point which has been utilized. The "Mer.
(merchantable) Length" is the entire length between these points
and may be greater or the same as the "Used Length." The "Clear

Volume liable for Lodgepole Pine. 321

Length" is seldom entered as it is of no special importance since
Lodgepole pine is seldom capable of yielding clear lumber.

Data for Sawlog-Tie-Prop Table.

In securing measurements on trees cut into ties, the record
is modified so as to present the use of the data for both a sawlog-
prop table and a sawlog-tie-prop or simply tie-prop volume table
providing a column for "No. Ties" and a double set of "Totals."

The bole of 11" to 15" trees to a point approximately 10" in
diameter, is usually cut wholly into ties, and above that point to
a 5" minimum diameter, into prop material. From trees 16" to
20" D. B. H., one or more sawlogs are butted off until tie dia-
meters are reached, when the remaining portion of the bole is
cut into ties' and prop material.

In measuring trees cut wholly into ties and props, the figures
as mentioned above are so recorded as to furnish data for both
kinds of volume tables. Each tie is recorded as an 8.0' log, the
d. i. b. and d. o. b. determined as with logs and actually scaled,
gross and defect, and the log is also tallied as' one tie. Beyond
approximately 10", the point where props begin, the pieces down
to 6" are entered only as logs. From 6" to 5" the regular prop
is entered in the "Linear feet" column opposite "Top." Two lines
of totals are computed for all columns except "Length." The
upper line of totals furnishes data for the tie-prop table; the
lower line for sawlog-prop table.

In measuring trees cut into logs, ties and props, the manner
of recording the data is simply a combination of that usual for logs
and that for ties and props.

Although in this method of double recording a slight inac-
curacy occurs in that no overrun of length is allowed in the ties
and large props, nevertheless, this seldom makes a total dif-
ference of more than 1.5 feet in the total height of the tree and is
more than offset by the fact that data for two different tables
are combined in one set of measurements and recorded on a
single tally sheet.

Deterviination of Site Qualities.
The simplest and probably the most accurate method of de-
termining the site qualities of stand is that of Bauer, who uses

322 Forestry Quarterly.

the total yield in cubic feet, as related to age, as the criterion
of quality.* Another method is to use heights instead of volumes.
This method is based on the experience that the height of an
even-aged stand is a reliable index of the quality of site and it
has been proved that the classification of sample plots by this
method and by that of total volume leads to practically the same
results.

Since Lodgepole pine in this region occurs in remarkably pure
and nearly even-aged stands of fairly uniform density, it was
safe and a reasonable assumption that, in determining the site
quality of stands' in which the measured trees grew, the D. B. H.
in inches of the individual tree could be substituted for the aver-
age age of the stand ; the total height of the individual tree could
be substituted for the average height of the stand. This allows
the site qualities to be determined by the use of curves plotted on
D. B. H. in inches and the total height of the tree in feet in the
following manner :

All measurements were tabulated by inch diameter classes' and
two- foot height classes in a semi-final table, to determine the num-
ber of trees of each class.

The diameters were then plotted as abscissae on a rectangular
system of co-ordinates and the height in feet as' ordinates. Be-
side each point plotted the number of trees of that class was noted.
The comet-shaped band of plotted points was carefully scrutinized
and those which represented abnormally high or unusually low
trees for a specified diameter class were thrown out. Then a
curve was carefully drawn through the average maximum points,
which represented the maximum heights for all diameters of
trees of site quality I, and a curve through the minimum points
represented the minimum heights for each diameter of site quality
III trees. Then the ordinates, on each vertical diameter line,
were divided into three equal parts and curves drawn through
the two points of division. These curves, therefore, bounded
the data for each site and indicated the maximum and minimum
heights' for the three site qualities. Curves were finally drawn
through the centers of each of the three bands and the average
heights for each were read off and tabulated in the volume table.

♦Graves' "Forest Mensuration," pp. 325-326.
Schenck's "Forest Mensuration," pp. 60-61.
Schenck's "Forest Management," pp. 16-17.
Schlich, Volume III, pp. 102-104.

Volume Table for Lodgepole Pine. 323

After the maximum and minimum heights for each site quality
and D. B. H. class were determined, the tree measurements were
gone over again, and the volumes in feet B. M. and the num-
ber of linear feet of props were grouped by diameters and site
qualities, totalled, averaged, and expressed in a semi-final table
of the following character:

Table i— Site i.

D B H
Inches

Volume Ft. B. M.
No. of Decimal C. Linear feet
Trees Total Aver. Total Aver.

Height in feet

from curves

Max. Min. Aver.

6

7
etc.

700 150 21.4
II 31 2.8 116 10.5
etc

57 46 52
64 53 59

Tables 2 and 3 were similar to Table i except they showed
data for sites II and III respectively. In these operations the
gross scales instead of the "Defect Scales" were used, since a
table compiled from measurements of perfect trees is more valu-
able than one which includes the local average defect. In se-
curing the original data, defect deductions were only made to
ascertain how defective were the local Lodgepole pine stands.

The method described above was employed in compiling the
semi-final tables for the tie measurements except that only trees
11" to 20 " in diameter were used, and the results recorded in a
semi-final table of the following character:

Table 4— Site i.

No.

No. of

Hts.

in ft.

from

D B H

No. of

Vol. Feet

of stand.

lin. ft.

curves.

Ties

to 5"

Inches

Trees

B M Aver.

Aver.

Aver.

Max.

Min.

Aver.

II

10

0

2.66

34

88

74

81

etc. to

15"
16

10

138

4.40

23

102

89

96

etc. to

20"

Tables 5 and 6 were similar to Table 4 except they represented
data for sites II and III respectively.

These six tables were made a permanent record, for by so
doing it will, with little office work, be easily possible to add
data on additional trees at a future date without tearing apart or
reworking the present data.

324 Forestry Quarterly.

Compilation of Final Volume Tables.

In order to round off and harmonize the values given in the
fourth column of Tables i to 3, the average volumes for each
diameter class were plotted in the usual manner, and curves
were drawn for each Site Quality, due weight being given to

LODGEPOLE PINE.

Site Quality Volume Table.

Arapaho National Forest, Colorado

computed from actual scale of logs and props : scribner rule, decimal c.

Values read from curves — Basis 2015 trees.

Site Quality i Site Quality 11 Site Quality iii

D. B. H. Feet Lin. Ft. Aver. Ft. -Lin. Ft. Aver. Feet Lin. Ft. Aver.
In. B M Props Total B M Props Total B M Props Total
Ht. Ft. Ht. Ft. Ht. Ft.

6 o 20 52 o 18 40 o 15 30

7

25

10

59

20

10

47

15

10

35

8

45

10

65

35

10

53

30

10

40

9

65

10

71

55

10

58

45

10

45

10

90

10

76

75

10

63

60

10

49

II

120

8

81

100

8

67

80

7

53

12

ISO

8

85

125

8

71

100

7

56

13

185

8

88

150

8

74

125

7

59

14

220

8

91

180

8

77

150

7

62

15

260

8

94

215

8

80

175

7

65

16

300

7

96

250

7

82

200

6

68

17

340

7

97

280

7

84

225

6

70

18

380

7

98

315

7

85

250

6

72

19

420

7

99

350

7

86

280

6

71

20

460

7

99

365

7

86

310

6

7A

21

500

7

100

420

6

87

22

540

7

100

460

6

87

=23

585

7

lOI

24

630

7

lOI

STUMP height equals i foot. Volumes in feet, B. M. include all ma-
terial down to the 6-inch diameter in the top ; linear feet from this point
to a minimum of 5 inches. This table is built from perfect trees, there-
fore, does not allow for defect.

those points which represented the largest number of trees
These three curves each showed uniform increases of volume
with diameter, but did not always show uniform progression for
the same diameters in different sites. Theoretically this latter
uniformity could have been obtained by again plotting the values
from the first set of curves for each diameter class in the three
sites, but since for each diameter class there would have been
but three points, it was found difficult to draw uniform average

Volume Table for Lodgepole Pine.

325

curves. Consequently, a uniform progression of values in the
horizontal columns was secured mathematically.*

The same general method of harmonizing the values in col-
umns 3 and 4 of Tables 4, 5 and 6 was used.

It was impossible to harmonize the linear foot values from

LODGEPOLE PINE.

Site Ouality Volume Table.

Arapaho National Forest, Colorado

BASED on stump DIAMETER OUTSIDE BARK EOR USE IN TRESPASS CASES.

Computed by conversion of D. B. H. Table and stump measurements of
2015 trees. Values read from curves.

Site Quality i

Site Quality 11

Site Quality iii

D. O. B. Feet Lin. Ft. Aver. Ft. Lin. Ft. Aver. Feet Lin. Ft. Aver.

Stump B M Props Total B M Props Total B M Props Total

Ht. Ft. Ht. Ft. Ht. Ft.

7

0

20

52

0

18

40

0

IS

30

8

25

10

58

20

10

46

15

10

35

9

40

10

64

35

10

52

30

10

40

10

60

10

70

50

10

57

45

10

44

II

85

10

75

70

10

62

60

10

48

12

no

8

79

90

8

66

75

7

51

13

135

8

83

no

8

69

95

7

54

14

165

8

87

135

8

72

105

7

57

15

195

8

90

160

8

75

125

7

60

16

225

8

93

185

8

78

145

7

63

17

255

8

95

210

8

80

165

7

65

18

290

7

96

235

7

82

185

6

67

19

32s

7

97

265

7

83

205

6

69

20

360

7

98

295

7

84

230

6

70

21

395

7

99

325

7

85

255

6

71

22=

430

7

99

360

7

85

285

6

71

23

465

7

100

395

6

86

315

6

72

24

50s

7

100

430

6

87

25

545

7

lOI

465

6

87

26

585

7

lOI

FOOT note same as in regular D. B. H. Volume Table.

columns 6 of Tables i, 2 and 3 by a series of curves since little
apparent relationship seemed to exist. The method which was
employed in determining the linear foot values for the different
site qualities and diameter classes was similar to the Arbitrary
Group Method of computing volumes of woods. As 6" trees
yield only prop material, the linear foot values assigned to them
were almost identical with the true average secured by the

*Schenck's "Forest Mensuration," pp. 58-59-

326 forestry Quarterly.

actual field measurements. The remaining diameters were arbi-
trarily grouped into the following:

Pole Group /' to 10" D. B. H.

Tie Group, 11" to 15" D. B. H.

Sawlog-Tie Group, ..15" to 20" D. B. H.

Sawlog Group, 20" to 24" D. B. H.

The arithmetical mean number of linear feet of props was
then computed from the averages secured by actual measure-
ments for each group in each site quality, and the result used

LODGEPOLE PINE-

Site Quality Volume Table.

Arapaho National Forest, Colorado

from actual scale and count of logs, ties and props ;
scribner rule, dec c.

Values read from curves and harmonized with those of regular Vol. table.

Basis, 206 trees.

Site Quality I Site Quality III

Ft. Aver. Feet Lin. Ft.) Aver.

iches

B. M.

Ties

Feet

Hi Feet

B-. M.

Ties

Feet Ht. Ft.

II

0

2.70

32

81

0

2.00

26

67

12

0

3-55

29

8S

0

2.80

24

71

13

0

4-35

26

88

0

3-45

22

74

14

0

5.00

24

91

0

4.00

20

77

15

0

5.60

23

94

0

4-45

20

80

16

140

4.20

23

96

120

3-55

20

82

17

155

4.00

22

97

130

3-30

20

84

18

190

370

22

98

160

2.95

20

8S

19

245

3-20

21

99

205

2.45

19

86

20

320

2.50

21

99

270

1.80

19

86

Site Quality III

II

0

1 .25

20

53

12

0

2.00

19

56

13

0

2.55

18

59

14

0

3-05

18

62

IS

0

340

18

6S

16

100

2.90

18

68

17

105

2.60

18

70

18

130

2.20

18

72

19

165

1.70

17

73

20

220

1. 10

17

74

Trees smaller than 11" yield only small sawloRS and props. From trees
16" to 20", one or more sawlogs are butted off before ties are made. Trees
over 20" usually made wholly into sawlogs and props. Props include all
material from last tie to 5" point. No allowance made here for defect.

Stump height=i foot.

Volume Table far Lodgepolc Pine. 327

in the final volume table. A similar method was used in the
sawlog-tie-pi op table.

In addition to the general table, a volume table which can be
used in working up trespass estimates, etc., was constructed
based on stump diameters outside bark and site qualities, after
the following manner:

All stump diameters outside bark for each D. B. H. class were
tabulated and the average secured, (e. g., the stump d. o. b. of a
ii.o" D. B. H. tree was found to be 12.4"). Then on a system
of rectangular co-ordinates the average stump diameters out-
side bark were plotted as abscissae and the volumes in feet B. M.
for their corresponding D. B. H. (taken from the regular vol-
ume table based on D. B. H. and site qualities) were plotted
as ordinates. The values for the final stump d. o. b. table were
secured by reading from the curves, the volumes for the even
stump diam.eters. This gave immediately uniform progression
of values in both the vertical and in the horizontal columns.

Conclusions.

There are two ways of applying a site-quality volume table,
one of which may be used to check the other. The inexperienced
estimator by use of a hypsometer may take the total heights of
ten to twelve trees and by comparison wnth the average heights'
given in the table for each diameter, determine the quality of site.
Should very accurate results be desired, interpolation between the
values for two site qualities may be made. The experienced
man may judge site qualities by careful observation of the stand,
taking into account the height of the trees, the character of the
soil, the relative altitude, and the nature of the ground cover.
Since the determining factors of site quality of pine stands are
fertiHty, depth and moisture content of the soil, and since the
characteristics of the soil vary almost directly with the relative
altitude above the valley bottom, and since the density of the
ground cover is an index of the fertility of the soil, this means
of determining the quality is reliable and at the same time simple.
This makes the work progress rapidly in spite of the fact that to
apply this table it is necessary to make a site-quality map. As
mentioned before, this map is extremely valuable in reconnais-
sance; and the same is true in timber sale work, for when a

328 forestry Quarterly.

site map is included the usefulness of the timber sale map does
not cease with the completion of the sale.

One of the good points of a site-quality volume table for Lodge-
pole pine based on d. o. b. on the stump instead of D. B. H. is the
ease with which it can be applied in computing the volume of tim-
ber cut in trespass. Trespass usually occurs in good stands which
yield much brush and under which abundant advance growth is
found. These conditions necessitate, in logging, heavy swamp-
ing which causes the removal or misplacement of the tree tops,
the only indicators of the total or merchantable heights of the
trees. For these reasons other forms of volume tables cannot be
used with as great accuracy as the site volume table, for in the
latter the estimates may be secured by the use of the soil factors
as means of determining the height of the trees.

Sawlog-tie-prop tables of any form are valuable only as indi-
cators of how certain pine stands will run in sawlogs, ties and
props. As a rule accurate estimates of these classes of material
on specific operations cannot be secured for the following rea-
sons : A tie table can only give results for ties of certain specifica-
tions {y"yi7" in this case), while on the other hand, railroad tie
contracts call for ties varying from 6" to 10" faces, and their tie
inspectors are not uniformly rigid in their inspections, often al-
lowing undersized ties to be "run through." Moreover, the de-
gree of utilization of trees practiced by the tie choppers varies.
Some will cut and others will not cut into ties, large tie-sized
trees, small tie-sized trees, trees swelled at the base, and limby-
boled trees. These variable factors make it undesirable to spend
too much time and money in the preparation of tables which give
results in feet B. M., number of ties and linear feet of props;
for that reason the site-quality, sawlog-tie-prop table given in
this article h based on but 206 trees, and yet it serves the purpose
for which it was intended.

Since this volume table is probably the first of its kind for
Lodgepole pine, a good deal of comment has been made in re-
gard to its accuracy and its applicability to all Lodgepole pine
stands.

The table can, of course, only be used for large averages, like
any other volume tables it does not give correct answer for in-
dividual trees. Check tests on 62 trees, taken at random, gave

Volume Table for Lodgepole Pine. 329

for 30 trees higher scale than the table, for 20 trees lower and for
12 trees the same volume; the differences altogether averaged
2.18 ft. B. M. per tree, or 1.2% for stands higher than the detail
scale.

In using the volume table on any specific work of estimating, it
must be kept in mind that this table gives the contents of the
bole in feet B. M. to a point 6" in diameter. In the event that
this minimum limit is raised, as may be the case in sales where
the operator can satisfactorily show that he cannot dispose of
the smaller material, the results given by this table must necessarily
be reduced to allow for this portion of the bole between 8" and 6"
which is not utilized.

THE RELATION OF CROWN SPACE

TO THE

VOLUME OF PRESENT AND FUTURE STANDS

OF
WESTERN YELLOW PINE.

By George A. Bright.

The most striking feature of a stand of Western Yellow pine
is its open character. This peculiarity is the first thing which
strikes any one looking upon such a forest for the first time.
Even growing on the best soils and under favorable climatic
conditions, it would be difficult, if not quite impossible, to find
a full or normal stand of Yellow pine over an area of forty or
even ten acres. There appear openings even where the very
best conditions for the growth of this tree occur, as well as in lo-
calities where conditions are less favorable.

This peculiarity of Yellow pine stands is due to five primary
causes, as follows: (i) fire, (2) insect infestation, (3) windfall,
(4) root competition and (5) light competition,

(i) In stands of Lodgepole or Engelmann spruce a fire will kill
most of the trees that it touches and the ground is practically
cleared for an entirely new stand, which generally comes in
quickly and evenly, the light seeds of these species being blown
for considerable distances. In the case of Yellow pine, on the
other hand, comparatively few trees are killed by a single fire.
Openings are only made here and there in the crown cover by
the destruction of one or a few trees at best.

On deep, moist soils the damage done by fire is less than on
dry soils or where the soil is shallow ; also reproduction is here
far less precarious. For these causes primarily the openings on
dry soils are apt to be large and more frequent, although the trees,
once having obtained a start, make good growth. In a report by
Mr. Munger he discusses the damage done to Yellow pine by
surface fires. A table taken from this report follows :

Burned

Felled

to

by

Death

Fire

Crown Space of Western Yellow Pine. 331

Table I.

Showing for the average acre, on three representative areas, after surface
nres, the number of trees per acre of Yellow pine and their proportions in
the total stand, in four classes, according to the damage which they sus-
tained in the fire.

Scarred
by O. K. Total

Fire

No. % of No. % of No. % of No. % of No. % of
Trees Total Trees Total Trees Total Trees Total Trees Total
per Stand per Stand per Stand per Stand per Stand
Acre. Acre. Acre. Acre. Acre.

Wallowa

N F
Average ^'^^ ^'^^ 7-70 32.59 8.92 37.75 17.83 75-46

70 Acres.

Wallowa

N F
Average '^ ^-^^ ^^o 30.90 9-27 32.92 18.57 65.94

30 Acres.
Wallowa

Average '^^ ^"^^ '43 i-3i 8.34 25.23 9.02 27.24 18.29 55-30
30 Acres.

It will be seen from this table that surface fires in Yellow pine
have a decided tendency to thin out the trees, especially if the
fires are repeated many times during the life of a stand. But,
if the damage to the large trees is considerable, the damage to
the seedlings, saplings, and poles is very much greater. Indeed
it seems almost certain that in times gone by, when the Indians
were in the habit of setting great numbers of fires to drive game,
very few seedlings were able to reach maturity solely because of
the frequent fires.

(2) Insects, especially bark beetles, have also had a strong
tendency to thin out forests of Yellow pine. The most de-
structive of the bark beetles working in Yellow pine is the Den-
droctonus species, of which there are a considerable number of
varieties. These beetles work in colonies, flying from one group
of trees to another and killing each group in succession, thus
opening up spaces of considerable size in the forest.

The injury wrought by these beetles is usually more severe
than the injury done by fire, and beetles are harder to subdue than
fire. They are probably present in all Yellow pine forests in
Washington and Oregon. In the Black Hills, a few years ago.

332 Forestry Quarterly.

it often happened that every tree over large areas was killed by
them.

(3) Windfall is not a serious menace in a Yellow pine stand,
even where through any one of the various causes the stand
may have been considerably thinned. It rarely causes large
openings, picking out a tree only here and there. In future stands
it will be possible still further to minimize the loss by wind by
cutting out the weak and top heavy trees.

(4) Root competition may exert a slight influence toward keep-
ing a stand of Yellow pine open, but it is believed that this' is by
no means a very important factor. It would, however, exert a
very important influence on the character of a stand, were it
not for the fact that Yellow pine is most intolerant, so that the
trees, in order to obtain the amount of light which they require
for their best development, must be separated by a distance suf-
ficiently great to preclude root competition.

The roots of Yellow pine rarely extend farther out from the
tree than the limbs of the crown in normal trees growing on
good soils. This was observed by measurements taken, from
time to time, on a great many trees which had been recently
toppled over by the wind. This estimate should be conservative,
as the trees which are most readily thrown by the wind are those
whose root systems are superficial and accordingly broad. The
area of the crown of a Yellow pine forms, therefore, a good
working index of the area of its root system.

Rain falling upon the earth soaks, for the greater part,
straight down with very little lateral spreading, at least until
it has sunk below the level where it will be available for the
roots of trees. Rain, therefore, which falls beyond the immediate
reach of the roots is, for the most part, lost, as far as the trees
are concerned.

That root competition is not very severe, even directly be-
neath the crowns of large Yellow pines, is shown by the fact that
seedlings often spring up and make good growth in such places.
In a Forest Service Bulletin discussing reproduction of Western
Yellow pine in the Southwest, the author of that publication shows
it to be a fact that reproduction is more prolific under the partial
shade of the old trees than it is out in the open. The seedlings
derive more benefit from the partial shade than harm from root

Crown Space of Western Yellow Pine. 333

competition. In other words, the shutting off of part of the
sun's rays by the foliage of the big trees and the attendant de-
crease in evaporation from the soil more than offsets the moisture
absorbed by the large trees, and reproduction is consequently here
able to get a start, which would not have been possible for it in
the open.

It has been frequently noticed in dense thickets of Lodgepole
pine where a few very large old larch were still left standing,
that the Lodgepole reproduction was very much thinner, or entirely
absent within 15 or 20 feet of the trunk of the larch. This cir-
cumstance was undoubtedly due to the fact that the large trees
absorbed so much of the moisture that none or little was left
for reproduction. Light did not enter into the matter to a
sufficient degree to account for the phenomenon, as very little
shade is cast by such trees. It must have been root competition.
However, as it would be impossible to grow Yellow pine of the
size of these larch within a distance of 40 or 50 feet of one an-
other because of the light requirements of the species, there is
no fear of root competition taking place to any serious extent.

Were no other factor involved, it would be possible to judge
the correct spacing of Yellow pine according to the area oc-
cupied by the roots as judged by the crowns, and the approxi-
mate number of dominant trees that could stand on an acre
could be found by dividing the area of the crowns in square
feet into the area of an acre in square feet. But the light re-
quirements of the species compel a wider spacing of the trees
than is demanded for the development of the roots.

(5) This extreme demand of Yellow pine for light, or intoler-
ance of shade, has played its part along with the other factors al-
ready mentioned, in keeping the forests composed of this species'
open. It will always necessitate that the trees be spaced well
apart. The crowns require light from the side as well as from
the top, in order that the tree may thrive and make good
growth. The large, irregular spaces primarily due to the rav-
ages of fire, insects, and wind are, however, entirely unneces-
sary and represent only so much waste ground from the stand-
point of timber production. Moisture, which might be available
for tree growth in these openings is now lost through evapora-
tion due to the unbroken rays of the sun and drying effects of

334 forestry Quarterly.

the wind, whose movement is unchecked by the obstacle which
might be afforded by the trunks and foliage of trees. In other
parts of the forest, the trees are usually so crowded together
that many are suppressed to such a point that, if not eventually
killed, their growth is very nearly nil, and they serve only to
absorb moisture and nutriment from the soil, that had much bet-
ter go to the dominant trees standing in the light. By proper
spacing it will be possible in future stands to avoid root competi-
tion and allow the proper amount of light to reach each plant,
for its best growth and development.

On good, average soils supporting average stands of pure Yel-
low pine, containing no large openings, it was found that on ten
different sample plots comprising in all 60 acres, there was an
average of 33 trees per acre, nearly half being either suppressed
or intermediate, as a result of their persistingly growing in groups.
The suppression, however, was evidently not primarily due to
root competition but to light competition, because no matter how
closely together the trees stood, none appeared sickly until they
were over-topped by some of their associates, and the light shut
off. As soon as this occurred, they rapidly lost ground, and
many perished. If the suppressed and intermediate trees occur-
ring in these plots had been distributed evenly through the open
places in the stand, none would have been suppressed, as each
tree large and small over 12" D. B. H. would have been sup-
plied with a crown space of 1320 square feet, which is greater
than is demanded by any but the very largest of pines, as we
later will show.

By observing single acres, it will be found that more than 33
trees can stand within the limits of an acre and thrive, and there
should accordingly be no reason why the number of trees over
large tracts, where the essential conditions are the same as on
the single acre, should not be equally large except as the openings
are caused by accident.

By the suppression of fire and insects, and care to guard
against conditions resulting in windfall, forests can be put in a
position to return the maximum yields of which they are capable.
Fires and windfall are comparatively easy to control. Beetles,
it is feared, however, will always prove to be a serious problem.

It is a characteristic of Yellow pine to fill quickly with repro-

Crown Space of Western Yclloiv Pine. 335

duction gaps caused by the death of old trees through one of
the above mentioned causes. In this respect, Yellow pine behaves
in a manner just the reverse of fruit trees which do not thrive
well where another tree, especially of the same species, has re-
cently stood. Old cut-over areas of Yellow pine frequently have
growing on them a fine stand of reproduction, while the sur-
rounding area which had never supported trees is still bare, al-
though the conditions for tree growth appear practically identical.
This has been noted frequently on small patches of timber cut
on the lower units of tree growth, where climatic conditions are
more or less severe.

In times gone by the frequent fires killed out the patches of
reproduction about as soon as they occurred, but since the fires
have been in large measure stopped, reproduction has come in
very thickly in most Yellow pine forests, and its abundance points
to a heavier future stand than the existing stand. This abund-
ance is decidedly out of proportion to the comparatively small
number of old trees in most Yellow pine forests which make up
the present stand.

Just how much the forest can be made to yield after the in-
juries resulting from fire, insects, and wind have been reduced
to a minimum, will depend on the number of dominant trees of
merchantable size which it will be possible to grow on an acre
without crowding. This number will depend on the amount of
space required by each tree, and for this purpose it was neces-
sary to find the actual average area occupied by the crowns of
Yellow pine of various diameters, and to add to this area the
proper allowance of space around the periphery of the crowns
which would admit the sufficient amount of side light.

For this purpose the actual areas of the crowns of 113 Yel-
low pines of diameters ranging from 12 to 42 inches D. B. H.
were measured and the results of this study are shown in the
following table and curve.

The crowns were measured by standing immediately under
the periphery in five or six dififerent places and measuring from
each place the distance in, to the center of the tree. These dis-
tances were then plotted on a conveniently large scale, the shape
of the crown drawn in, and the area determined by a planimeter.
These results were finally evened off on a curve. There appears

336

Forestry Quarterly.

a very distinct relation between the diameter of the tree and
the size of the crown. The crowns of only normal, dominant
trees were chosen for this table.

It was observed that the crowns of Yellow pines whose D. B. H.

TABLE II.

Showing the relation between the diameter b. h. and the diameter and
area of the crowns of dominant, normal, Western Yellow pine in Oregon.

Average

D. B. H.

Inches

12

14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32

34
36
38
40
42

Showing, for various diameter classes, the distance at which Western
Yellow pine must be spaced in pure stands in order that all trees will be
dominant.

Actual
Diameter

of

Crowns

from

Table II.

FfiET.

Average

Area of

Average

Basis

Area of

Crowns

Diameter

Number

Crowns

Evened

of

of

Not Evened

on

Crowns

Trees

on Curve

Curve

Ft.

Sq. Et.

Sq. Ft.

2

100

100

II

5

190

160

14

6

195

210

16

4

235

250

17

10

260

28s

19

14

330

325

20

12

375

360

21

16

400

390

22

17

410

420

23

3

400

455

24

II

555

500

25

3

440

550

26

5

620

605

27

3

525

665

29

0

0

735

30

I

795
TABLE III.

830

31

D. B. H.

INCHES.

12
16
20

24
28
32
36
49

II
16

19
21
23
25
27
30

Distance apart
Trees should
stand, allowing
for space beyond
Periphery of Crowns.
FEET.
16
22
27
31
35
40
44
50

Crown Space of JVcstern Yellow Pine.

337

are from 12 to 20 inches are not suppressed by the crowns of
other trees of the same species and of similar size, if the edges
of the crowns are separated by a space of from 5 to 10 feet.
In the same way trees having a D. B. H. of from 22 to 32 inches
require a space of 10 to 15 feet between the edges of their
crowns, and, for trees 34 inches D. B. H. and over, a propor-
tionately larger space, say of 15 to 20 feet is required.

This extra distance between the crowns should then be added
to the diameter of the crowns shown in Table II, to obtain the
total distance at which the trees should be separated frorri one
another.

The crowns of trees are in reality circular, but for the sake
of insuring a conservative estimate, they will be considered as
square. Thus the number of dominant trees of any D. B. H.
class which it will be possible to grow on an acre can be deter-

TABLE IV.

Western Yeulow Pine.
Relation of Crown Space, Number of Trees and Volume.

0

rt

1i

0

Ui

J_)

.- <sj

C 0

"■

tj

^

^ t-

rt i:

i

S

s

0 _ fci

3 t;

a on
by C
Feet.

f Cro

H

<.H..

0

h <-■ 0

c a

u. 0 0

0

w

■^ ^'

H~* CJ

C. u

<5J5

^ <y rt r" 0

>^

0 d

. »— •

"rt S s

^-. 0 n

J3 <u

— > D • "

- p-

— . 0

<u *"

CQ y

3 u o"

rt 1- cr

in

rt 0 cr

f; 0

rt <u

60'^

p— 1 r^

■COw

ruixi

^Uc/i

j^

0^

<

Q^

<

5^

^

H Q

^

75

12

ICO

256

168

16,800

39

16,800

100

16

210

484

90

18,900

43

22,000

133

20

285

629

60

17,100

39

28,000

183

24

360

961

45

16,200

37

37,000

262

28

420

1225

36

15,120

35

46,000

348

32

500

1600

27

13,500

31

51,000

425

36

605

1936

22

13,310

31

57,800

495

40

735

2500

17

12,495

30

56.700

mined by squaring the figures given in Table III representing the
distances at which the trees are spaced, and dividing the result-
ant product into 43,560, which is the number of square feet in an
acre. From these calculations the table IV could be constructed,
adding ages and volumes from other compilations in the District
office.

338

Forestry Quarterly.

This table shows that the density for all diameter classes is
less than .5 and that it decreases as the diameter increases. This
compensates for the greater intolerance of old trees as compared
with young trees, and for the greater shade cast by tall trees as
compared with short trees.

The volume which an even aged stand of Yellow pine may
be expected to produce in a certain time, having a normal num-
ber of dominant trees per acre as permitted by the crown space
requirements of the trees, is' also shown.

In order to compare the results of this table with conditions
as they actually exist in the wild state, ten sample plots com-
prising altogether 60 acres and composed of pure Yellow pine
were chosen. A summary of these plots is given in Table V
which follows:

TABLE V.

Showing summary of 10 sample plote taken in pure stands of Yellow-
pine in Oregon.

Average Average

Total No. D. B. H.

Size No. of Trees of Trees

Locality of Trees per Acre above

of Plot on above 12"

Plot Acres. Plot. 12" D. B. H. Inches

Palmer Jet.

.1

Palmer Jet.

5

Palmer Jet.

4

Palmer Jet.

4

Palmer Jet.

6

Whitney

20

Whitney

10

Austin

4

Spray

I

Prineville

I

170
190

119
176
159
669
301
124
30
Z2,

34
38
30
44
26

30
31
30
33

21

23
19
19
21

21
22
22

21
24

These sample plots were taken in stands where no large open-
ings occurred, the endeavor being to find as even a crown cover
as possible. They do not by any means represent maximum
yields, however. It is noticed in these plots that the average
number of trees per acre falls below the figures given in Table
IV. The average diameter for the diflferent plots varies between
19 and 24 inches. According to Table IV the number of trees
per acre of 19" trees should be about 68, and for 24" trees, 45.
On the sample plots respectively but 44 and 33 trees were grow-
ing on an average acre. It was very evident that these plots were

Crown Space of Western Yellozv Pine. 339

by no means fully stocked. Their average density hovered around
two-tenths and was generally less.

The last two sample plots of one acre each were studied more
intensively than the other plots. The acres of the crown's were
carefully measured and plotted on maps' where the irregularity
and broken character of the forest cover, which was of pure Yel-
low pine, is strikingly illustrated. Especially is this noticeable
in the one case, where many of the trees are so crowded together
as to be very much suppressed, while if distributed at regular in-
tervals over the plot, there would have been ample space and to
spare, for every tree to have reached its best development. Prob-
ably these clumps of mature trees are the survivors of a dense
thicket of seedlings such as are seen everywhere throughout
the Yellow pine forests. If root competition for water were
an especially important factor in keeping Yellow pine forest
as open as they are characteristically found, it does' not seem likely
that the species should be so often found crowded together in

TABLE VI.

A summary of two i-acre sample plots taken in stands of Western
Yellow pine in Oregon.

TREE CLASS

0

i<

s

r"

c

<u

^ rv-

U

0 .

u

to

>
0

c

0

II

i1

0
03

B ^

2 .^
0 0 ij

0 of^

11

u 3

C
1— 1

tH^

h<>

Q

Q

Q

c

7i

A.

30

16,600

.19

21

17

6

3

4

B.

33

31,000

• 23

24

19

7

2

S

groups. Large spaces do not occur around single trees, as a
rule, but around groups of trees. It seems probable that the
crowding together of the species rather aflfords a measure of
protection by shading the ground and thus lessening evaporation.
When the trees grow into poles and veterans, the competition
for light is the factor which thins out their numbers more
especially than the competition for moisture.

In the second case the stand is more uniform than in the first,
but the same grouping of the trees is still evident enough. In
the first case the average tree is 21 inches D. B. H., the volume,

340 Forestry Quarterly.

therefore, should approach 31 M., and in the second case where
the D. B. H. of the average tree is 24" the volume should approach
37 M. As a matter of fact, the volumes on these two acres
are respectively only 16,600 and 31,000 B. M.

Probably many years will be required before it will be pos-
sible, in this country, to obtain very extensive normal forests of
Yellow pine. Trees will be spaced, not usually by planting as is'
the case in most of the German forests, but they will be spaced
by means of the axe. That is, the stands will be thinned out,
as the increasing size of the trees require, and the spacing will
consequently be more or less rough. On very dry soils it will
be necessary to make the spacing greater than on moist, for
the reason that on a moist soil a tree can put up with a greater
degree of shade. The shade is compensated for by the increased
allowance of moisture. It has been the endeavor in this report
to deal exclusively with average conditions of soil and climate
as' they exist. Extreme conditions of soil and climate will al-
ways require special treatment.

In conclusion, it may be said that possibly various statements
in this report may lend themselves to criticism as not being suf-
ficiently backed up by evidence. It was necessary to make this
study entirely a side-issue along with more immediately imperative
work of another sort, so that the procuring of much field data
was impossible. It is felt, however, that the subject treated is
an important one, and, before concluding, it is desired to call at-
tention once more to the method described earlier in this report,
of measuring the areas occupied by the crowns of Yellow pine,
which, it is thought, yielded very satisfactory results.

The importance of knowing the crown area of trees of all
species, for different diameter classes will become increasingly
important as it becomes more and more possible and necessary
to practice intensive forestry in this country. In planting and
thinning, it will be of value in determining the most advantageous
spacing of the young trees. In forest management, it will as-
sist in estimating the probable future yield of stands.

By means of sample plots, the various habits and peculiarities
of the different species can be graphically shown and compared
in a most instructive manner.

NOTES OX STRIP MAPPING FOR INTENSIVE RE-
CONNAISSANCE.

By a. F. Kerr.

The objects of intensive reconnaissance are to secure: ist an
accurate map, 2nd an estimate of the timber, and 3rd other data
necessary for the proper management of the Forest — all at a rea-
sonable cost.

The strip survey has been generally adopted as' the best system
for securing this information, for the following reasons : — The
gridiron arrangement of the strips permits of the simplest and
most effective methods of control, and the most accurate location
of details in mapping, and it fits well into the rectangular scheme
of the Land Office Survey. The gross estimates are practically
reduced to a mathematical basis, and may be worked up for con-
veniently sized, legal subdivisions. The application of correc-
tion factors for defect, etc., require judgment, but the bulk of
the estimating can be done by inexperienced and, consequently,
low-salaried men.

The question of control is an extensive one in itself and, for
that reason, will not be considered here.

In general the location of data on the strip map depends upon
pacing for distances and the aneroid barometer or Abney hand
level for elevations. Topography is shown by contours or form
lines drawn as the mapper proceeds along the compass course.

This system is usually applied in one of two ways. Since the
Abney level is merely a substitute for the barometer in either
plan it need not be considered separately.

By the one method which was commonly used, "form lines"
are drawn on each strip in accordance with the barometer
readings, and entirely independent of the form lines on adjacent
strips. That is, the form lines of adjoining strips are not con-
nected in the field but simply serve to indicate the direction that
the contours will take on the finished map. These form lines are
drawn on the map as' final contours, in the office, in accordance
with the "corrected" barometer readings.

By the other method actual contours are drawn, and are con-

342 h ores try Quarterly.

nected as far as possible in the field. They are based, not upon
barometer readings alone but, upon differences' in elevation deter-
mined by the barometer and checked by judgment and by angle
and distance. In other words this map is completed in the field,
and is dependent to a certain extent upon the judgment of the
topographer. Barometer and time readings are recorded upon
the field map at regular intervals as in the first case, but are dis-
regarded until the map is turned in for final adjustment.

The important difference between these two methods is, that
in the first case form lines are not connected in the field while
in the second case form lines are connected in the field.

It is for the purpose of discussing the relative merits of these
methods' that this paper is written.

The barometer and a reasonable ability to pace constitute the
new topographer's chief assets, and perhaps because of the rela-
tive accuracy of the barometer, he is inclined to place unlimited
confidence in it.

Considering now the method first described : — the topographer
starts from a control stake of known elevation and when the
barometer shows a change equal to the contour interval to be
used he unquestioningly indicates it by a line drawn across the
strip, showing the general direction of a contour at that point.
Other form lines, at irregular intervals, are drawn to indicate
minor changes in slope. He proceeds along the compass course
concentrating his attention upon the mechanical factors, his pacing
and the barometer. Important topographic features will be noted
superficially, but the business of properly indicating barometer
form lines on the strip occupies his mind. He misses the general
scheme of things entirely.

Succeeding strips will be done in the same manner. Each
strip is a unit in itself, since no individual contour, and therefore
no particular land form of one strip is actually connected with
the complementary elements of the same land form on adjoining
strips. It is seldom that an important topographic feature is
complete in a single strip, and if the portion on each strip is
sketched as a detached fragment the feature as a whole is lost.

No matter how careful the topographer may be, work done in
this manner will become mechanical and the form lines across
the strip will be simply a graphic representation of the barometer
readings taken.

Mapping for Intensive Reconnaissance. 343

It is a fact, that should require no argument, that a map made
in this manner can be no more accurate than the topographer's
mental conception of it. If he does not connect his lines on the
sheet and thus develop a complete and tangible representation of
succeeding impressions he can not retain a clear idea of the
country over which he passes. A given land form seen from one
strip may have a decidedly different appearance when seen from
the next strip, and the form lines representing it may be entirely
unconformable. In the office a case of this kind can be settled
only by guess work.

Following such a method the mapper will perhaps develop
speed and, to some extent at least, his sketching ability, but his
judgment of perspective, of topographic forms, and of the inter-
relation of physical features will certainly remain latent.

The stock argument in favor of this method is that "owing to
atmospheric changes which can not be allowed for in the field
the topographer is liable to connect form lines' of different eleva-
tions." Such an argument is in itself an admission that the work
is being done mechanically. It says in effect that the barometer
readings must stand, and that the topographer may not use his
judgment as to whether or not the reading is correct. It is based
on the assumption that a topographic map depends for its value
upon the exact location of certain contours, rather than on the
proper relationship of the contours to each other.

If it were possible to locate contours accurately throughout
their entire length, and at close enough intervals, the resulting
map would necessarily be a correct representation of the topo-
graphy. But with reconnaissance work in rough country and
heavy timber it is only possible to approximate their locations, at
points from an eighth to a quarter of a mile apart, and usually
at vertical intervals of 100 feet. It is evident that under such cir-
cumstances the exact location alone of a few points will not give
a very reliable map.

To produce a reasonably accurate map under the conditions
which ordinarily obtain, requires an understanding of physio-
graphic features, of the interrelation of land forms, of perspec-
tive, and more than this it requires topographic sense and imagina-
tion.

To concentrate attention on the strip line and to locate contours

344 Forestry Quarterly.

by arbitrary barometer readings is to develope only the mechanical
ability of the mapper, and to positively weaken his topographic
sense. A completed field sketch made in such a manner will show
scarcely a single definite feature. The lines on it merely suggest
the form which the draftsman is supposed to develope. It is'
practically unintelligible until it has been thoroughly worked over.
In this process it usually loses whatever character it m.ay origin-
ally have had, and takes on the wooden appearance of the conven-
tional map, with long regular curves, contours uniformly spaced
and streams all traced in the same pattern.

Whatever the method of securing the data, the purpose of a
finished, contour map is to convey to the user a correct and
definite impression of the topography of the country which it
covers. It is obvious that no contour can be accurately drawn
on the map until it is first developed in the mind of the topo-
grapher. Therefore, anything which will give him a better grasp
of the details or a more thorough knowledge of their arrange-
ment, will tend toward the production of a better map.

If the mapper can be made to actually see and appreciate the
controlling topographic features of an area, the problem of rep-
resenting them on the map sheet will ofifer little difficulty.

The plan of connecting in the field, contours of approxi-
mate elevation, is a means toward this end. It is simply the
application to strip mapping, of a principle of extensive recon-
naissance in which large areas must be mapped from a few points.
In such work it is impossible to depend altogether on artificial
means for the location of contours, and the topographer is forced
to rely to a certain extent upon his eye and his judgment. Ap-
plied to strip mapping it does away with the purely mechanical
use of the barometer and with the idea that "the draftsman can
distribute the error," and it places the responsibility for the ac-
curacy of the map squarely upon the topographer. The barometer
is used as far as it can be relied upon, but the actual location of
many of the contours on the ground is largely a matter of judg-
ment.

The fact that the contours of separate strips must be connected
makes it essential that special thought be given to every feature.
The lines can not be drawn carelessly, merely as a suggestion to
the draftsman of the probable direction of the final contour. They

■ Mapping for Intensive Reconnaissance. 345

are, in the best judgment of the topographer, the final contours
themselves. Intermediate form lines to show minor changes are
used only in exceptional cases, as their presence confuses the map
and there is' little advantage in putting indefinite data on the field
sketch which will be eliminated from the final map.

It may be argued that, since only a limited portion of the area
he is covering is visible to the mapper, he should not attempt to
sketch in those portions which can not be seen. There is no rea-
son however to suppose that this part of the map can be supplied
any more accuately in the oflfice. The details are in the field, and
there the topographer has the advantage of being able to see at
least a part of the feature he wishes to represent, and from this
can make a reasonably good estimate of the unseen portion. In
the office it is a sheer guess.

In order that the field sketch may be retained exactly as it is
turned in, a carbon copy is made and the corrected barometer
readings placed on it. The necessary adjustments are then made
on the copy. Such adjustments usually consist in a slight shifting
of some portions of the map in order to correct for errors in
bearing and distance, and to check up the contours with the cor-
rected elevations. It is very seldom that any change in the rel-
ative positions of the contours is required, and the finished map
loses none of the character of the original sketch.

To sum up : — the first method encourages the use of the baro-
meter as a crutch, and bases its claim for accuracy chiefly upon
the accuracy of the barometer readings.

Nothing definite, in the manner of representing topographic
data on the field sketch is required, and nothing definite is ob-
tained.

Since it is the mechanical element that is emphasized, rather
than the personal there is little improvement in the quality of
the maps produced.

By the second method the location of the contours is based to
some extent upon the topographer's judgment. The barometer
readings are used especially in making the final adjustments,
that is, backed by the best judgment of the topographer, as
well as by the barometer.

Everv feature must be shown on the field sketch in a complete

346 forestry Quarterly.

and definite form. No gaps are left to be filled in by a drafts-
man.

The map is a direct expression of the topographer's personality,
and will improve in quality as' the topographer gains in experience.

The first method is unsatisfactory in many respects, under
conditions such as those found on the west side Forests, The
second method is suggested as a possible improvement.

The foregoing observations are based on a thorough trial of
both methods, covering areas aggregating over 50,000 acres on
the west slope of the Cascades, and on the opinions of several
topogrnplier'j whose combined experience covers at least six
season's work.

[The experience of the Forest Service corroborates the con-
clusions of the writer, and the Service's instructions for 1913
definitely provided for the use of the second method only. Ed ]

OBTAINING VERTICAL CONTROL OF PRACTICAL
VALUE WITH THE ABNEY HAND LEVEL.

By William J. Paeth.

Method and system become of more and more importance as
the work of Reconnaissance is done on a more intensive scale.
The object of the survey is to obtain, at all times, as much data
of standard value as possible, in a given time, and with the
amount of money allowed for the work. In order to approach
this ideal, the method and system of doing the work must be
adapted to the conditions encountered while doing each portion
of the work. Any one system will not result in this maximum
efficiency, at all times, and under all circumstances.

Understanding, however, the nature and effect of the local
conditions under which the work is being performed, the method
and system can be chosen scientifically to meet the peculiar de-
mands of the situation, and this method and system should be
changed at will as soon as changing factors and influences war-
rant the use of another method.

The maps obtained by cruising methods now employed vary
greatly in character and accuracy, depending upon the degree
of intensiveness with which the work is done. However, maps
of the greatest practical value and efficiency must be consistently
accurate within the limits of accuracy determined upon for the
type of map being made. To be consistently accurate the vertical
control and the horizontal control must be obtained with equal
degrees of precision. It would be out of place to obtain the
horizontal control accurately and to plot the vertical control
from less' accurate vertical location. A practically accurate forest
map is not always obtained unless all the factors affecting the
accuracy of the methods used are considered and understood.

As stated before, methods must be chosen to fit local needs.
Circumstances may affect the balance in accuracy between verti-
cal and horizontal control and in order to make the map con-
sistently accurate new methods of obtaining either the horizontal
or vertical control must be adopted. To illustrate; the compass
man may be able to work within the prescribed limits of error

348 Forestry Quarterly.

imposed upon his work in horizontal location, at the same time
however, local factors may so influence his work in obtaining
elevations with an aneroid that the vertical location will be de-
cidedly less accurate than his horizontal location. As a conse-
quence a large error is' introduced into the horizontal location
of the contour.

The importance of the accurate horizontal location of con-
tours is apt to be overlooked when only the representation of
the general character of the topography is desired in the topo-
graphic map. Maps prepared by extensive methods, on a scale
of one or two inches to the mile, will be of this kind, and these
extensive maps will be consistently accurate because the horizontal
control and the vertical control are obtained with relatively equal
accuracy. If however, a map is prepared by supposedly intensive
methods the resulting map is more than a general representa-
tion of the ground and in order to give this technical character
to the topographic map prepared by intensive methods the com-
passman must appreciate the necessity for preserving the balance
between accuracy in vertical and accuracy in horizontal location.

The accurate horizontal location of a contour is perhaps of
greatest importance to the timber appraiser, the logger, and the
trail and road builder. The minimum grade of a haul is de-
termined by the difiference in elevation between two points and
the horizontal distance between these two points. A topographic
map having this quality of consistent accuracy will show the
timber appraiser, logger and road builder a fairly accurate ap-
proximation of the grades within the limits of accuracy of the
map. An inconsistently accurate map will not, because the
horizontal location of the contour is not reliable.

As a rule, in the construction of forest maps it is more dif-
ficult to get accurate results in the vertical location than in the
horizontal. The error in horizontal location can be corrected
and distributed between stations along the strip line so that
the final results will be well within the standard limits of ac-
curacy. Experience has demonstrated, however, that corrected
aneroid elevations, under some conditions, still exhibit an error
in vertical location, when compared with bench marks, out of
all proportion to the error in horizontal location. Under favor-
able circumstances, on the other hand, the elevations secured

The Abney Hand Level. 349

with the aneroid compare favorably with bench marks and the
resultant accuracy is well within the limits of the precision of
the horizontal control.

In order to secure a consistently accurate topographic map of
greatest practical value to the timber appraiser, logger, trail and
road builder, and forester, the conditions affecting the work
with the aneroid should be studied, with the end in view, that
some other method of obtaining vertical control may be substi-
tuted at the time when local factors affect the work with the
aneroid so unfavorably as to destroy the value of the results
for the construction of the type of forest map desired.

The Aneroid Barometer.

The aneroid is not always an accurate instrument and the
errors encountered in working with the aneroid can hardly be
controlled by the man in the field. The elevations arc not secured
by geometric principles. The levels are determined by an intricate
mechanism which measures the weight of the column of air
pressing upon the top of a shallow cylindrical box. The top
is composed of corrugated metal so elastic as to respond to
changes in pressure. The interior of the box is in vacuum.
When the atmospheric pressure decreases the elasticity of the
corrugated top presses it outward, and when the atmospheric
pressure increases the top is pressed inwards. This movement
of the corrugated top is communicated to an indexed dial by
means of a complex system of multiplying levers, chains, and
springs. The possibilities for error in the mechanism of such
an instrument are apparent. No system of office corrections
will compensate for them. The errors caused by the daily and
hourly changes in atmospheric pressure can be eliminated by
determining these changes with a stationary barometer in camp
and correcting the elevations taken during the day in the field.
This, however, can only be done with an accurate camp baro-
meter, preferably a mercurial barometer. Two aneroids read
in camp will often vary considerably even if not moved and it
can not be determined which is the more accurate. The errors
peculiar to each instrument in the field however, can not be de-
tected and remain undiscovered. Errors in the aneroid readings-

350 Forestry Quarterly.

often become obvious to the compassman and he has no means
of accurately correcting them.

The instrumental errors of the aneroid are outlined as fol-
lows in Wilson's book on Topographic Surveying: —

1. The elasticity of the corrugated top of the vacuum chamber is
affected by rapid changes in pressure.

2. The readings are affected by changes in temperature which it is
impossible to readily compensate.

3. The different spaces on the scale are seldom correct relatively one
to the other, but the scale of pressure in inches is more accurate than
the scale of feet since the latter contains the error due to the formiplae
by which it was graduated.

4. The weight of the instrument affects its indications, its readings
differing in accordance with the position in which it is held.

5. It lacks in sensitiveness frequently not responding quickly to changes
in altitude.

6. The chains and levers sometimes fail to quickly respond to the
movement required of them.

7. Because of its containing so many mechanical parts these are sub-
ject to shifting or jarring by movement made in transporting it, the
only remedy for which is frequent comparison with known altitudes or
a mercurial barometer/'

It is readily understood that most of these errors are different
for each instrument in the field and that no office correction can
eliminate them. No corrections based on camp readings can re-
move the errors in the field barometers caused by other factors
than atmospheric changes. The only possible method of cor-
recting or eliminating these other errors of the aneroid is in
the field by the compassman. The compassman must study the
cause of these errors and must not rely too much upon the camp
corrections applied by the camp draftsman.

In order to get the best results with the aneroid the instru-
ment must be handled carefully and intelligently. The errors
introduced by changes of conditions must be recognized by the
compassman and topographer. Ignorance of all the factors
influencing the accuracy of the results of the use of the aneroid
will depreciate the value of the map, and this depreciation will
not be due to any defect of the instrument itself. Understanding
clearly the cause and nature of the errors encountered it is pos-
sible to draw some conclusions as to the conditions under which
the aneroid is most favorably used and to determine approxi-
mately under what conditions the aneroid is an unsuitable in-
strument.

Conditions Favorable to the Use of the Aneroid.
I. The change in slope or topography must be gradual. Ab-

The Abney Hand Level. 351

rupt and steep slopes are unfavorable because it has been found
that the aneroid is most liable to show instrumental error when
there is a sudden change in pressure under which conditions the
aneroid is not able to respond as quickly as is required. If there
are abrupt changes in elevation and slope the aneroid will act
sluggishly and the first reading will not be accurate. The com-
passman must wait a few minutes and allow the instrument to
settle. Where these abrupt descents and ascents are made fre-
quently much time will be lost in waiting for the aneroid to
read correctly. Herein lies the objection to the use of the
aneroid in rough and rugged country. Where the change in
elevation is gradual the instrument adjusts itself to the change
in atmospheric pressure while the compassman paces along the
line. No time is lost then in waiting for the aneroid to read
correctly and large instrumental errors are not so apt to occur.
This is the case in uniformly sloping country where the slopes
are rounded and the grades are not changed abruptly at definite
points. Such country is most favorably adapted to the use of the
aneroid.

2. In country where the strips can be run with some speed and
where it is possible for the compassman to finish the mile be-
tween base line benchmarks within a comparatively short time
the aneroid can be used satisfactorily. Frequent comparisons
with known elevations will thus compensate the errors in the
readings of the aneroid. Wilson on this point says: — "Where
the changes in slope are not great and the journey is made with
considerable speed and when the time consumed in travel is
comparatively short, the aneroid may safely be used for dis-
tances as great as three to five miles though in such cases the
aneroid may not check out within a contour interval on the
next comparison." In smoothly sloping country where the topo-
graphy is not broken the compassman can work with greater
speed than where the topography is rough and rugged. As a
consequence he will be able to compare his aneroid readings with
base line benchmarks within short intervals of time.

However, the speed with which the compassman can run the
strip is not the only factor in determining the working speed of

352 forestry Quarterly.

the crew. Topography will influence the speed of the com-
passman, and timber cover will determine the speed of the esti-
mator. Where there are many species the estimator will work
slowly. Where there are only a few species or only one the
estimator will work fast. Thus where both topography and
timber cover conditions favor speed in the work of the recon-
naissance crew as is the case in uniformly sloping Yellow pine
country, conditions are very suitable for the use of the aneroid.
The strips can be run with speed and frequent comparison with
known elevations will correct the errors in the elevations taken
along the strip.

3. Weather conditions must be favorable to the use of the
aneroid. Wilson states : — "It frequently happens as on the ap-
proach of a storm or change from stormy to clear weather that
atmospheric pressure will change in a few hours by over an inch.
This means an apparent change in elevation at one place of
over 1000 feet or more." In winter cruising on the Crater Na-
tional Forest the corrections of the great aneroid variations caused
by the unsettled weather conditions will introduce errors of
over 300 feet in the final corrected results. It has been found
almost impossible to correct these big errors caused by the daily
weather variation in the winter time. The aneroid is most suit-
able only when the weather conditions are settled.

The Abney Hand Level.

Realizing that the aneroid is liable to introduce errors in the
horizontal location of contours when that instrument is used
under unfavorable circumstances, the following methods have
been outlined in order to substitute a geometric system of ob-
taining vertical control. It should be borne in mind, however,
that the trigonometric methods here mentioned should not be
used with the object of doing work of high precision. The sole
aim of the use of these methods is to bring the work of obtain-
ing vertical control within the proper limits of accuracy which
limits can not be attained with the aneroid under prevailing
unfavorable conditions. If these methods of using the Abney are
used with a clear conception of the degree of precision to be
attained the mapper will not waste time in attempting to do
work of too great refinement.

The Abney Hand Level. 353

The work in vertical location along the strip is' valuable only
to guide the office man in the positioning of the contours upon the
form line field sketch turned in by the compassman. Consequently
if the field man preserves the general profile of the strip the
elevations secured along his line will be accurate enough for all
practical purposes of the work. The precise elevations of particu-
lar points along the line are of no moment. The relative value
of the slopes the one to the other along the line are of intense
practical value to the man in the office when plotting the final
map. Errors in absolute elevation along the strip line are con-
trolled by the precise elevations of the base line stakes at each
end of the strip line.

In order to handle the Abney intelligently the compassman must
clearly understand the theory of the Abney level and its practical
application in obtaining elevations along the line on a strip sur-
vey. The geometric principle is readily understood; the slope
is measured either in degrees or per cents of slope ; the tangent
of the vertical angle represents the per cent of slope ; the two are
synonymous ; in descending a slope of two per cent the com-
passman drops two feet in elevation in every 100 feet of hori-
zontal distance.

The real difficulties in the use of the Abney are encountered
in its practical application. The compassman is too apt to be
confused by every little irregularity of the ground. Before at-
tempting work with the Abney the compassman must under-
stand that the object of his work is to obtain a general profile
of the ground along the strip. The final map is drawn on a
scale of four inches to the mile. The small irregularities which
attract the attention of the compassman are lost sight of in the
preparation of the final map. The accurate approximation of the
per cents of the slopes along the strip becomes the guide of the
office draftsman when he expresses the character of the various
felopes by contour lines. Then the value of the slope data be-
comes most apparent and the desire for the representation of the
minor points of relief is recognized as impractical and unneces-
sary.

The compass man need not sight upon any definite object. His
sight must be largely influenced by judgment and this judgment
can be practiced so that the compass man will be able to approxi-

_^54 forestry Quarterly.

mate the slope of the ground accurately without having definite
points of sight. The final resulting profile by this method of
sighting will be sufficiently accurate to- be of real practical value
in plotting the final map.

The errors in profile by this method will never be too large to
destroy the value of the work. A profile drawn from eleva-
tions taken with an aneroid would at times show glaring errors
in slope which errors would be detected at once in the field by
the compassman with an instrument based upon a geometric
principle such as the Abney. Aneroid reading frequently will
show errors of fifty feet in descending an abrupt slope of 200 feet
in less than five chains. The compassman must make an all too
apparent error with the Abney in order to introduce this same
error into his profile. Yet the aneroid reading stands' and the
error remains uncorrected by the office corrections applied to re-
move the errors caused by weather and temperature changes.

The compassman will usually be able to take the sightsi
illustrated. Snags and trees are usually found in bodies of dense
brush. Furthermore the compassman can obtain the heights
of the snags and low trees sighted upon with sufficient accuracy
by guess alone. If the situation calls for greater accuracy
in the determination of the height of the tree or snag the com-
passman can obtain the height of the snag or tree using the Abney
as a hypsometer.

The compassman should always bear in mind that he is not re-
quired to do work of precision. He is' asked to exercise ac-
curacy in judgment and to cultivate obtaining practical accuracy in
results without paying attention to distracting details. Always
bearing in mind the nature of the final map the compassman will
be able to recognize the important topographic features and he
will lose sight of the insignificant points of relief. Then in tak-
ing his sight he will be able to sight parallel to the general slope
of the ground or avail himself of other means of sighting as
trees, shrubs, etc., to obtain the slope profile. His judgment and
ingenuity will improve and speed will come with practice.

In order to do accurate work the adjustment of the instrument
must be checked before using it. Simple diagrams and instruc-
tions are shown in figures i and 2 explaining how to check
the adjustment of the level and how to adjust the instrument

The Abnev Hand Level.

355

when the same has been found to be out of adjustment. Two
methods are illustrated. The first method is the best when it is
possible to place two boards or stakes at equal elevations with a

„j,,j

Tht t»io jtcWl a<^

Tf»t5 at. Itas*. 100 fett af*'^

level or a transit. These adjustments can be made in the main
camp at the beginning of the years' work, and with care the hand
level will remain in adjustment for a long time. If through
accident the level is thrown out of adjustment and the crews are
in sidecamp where a level or a transit is not available, Method 2
will answer the purpose.

A Simple Method of Working imth the Abney Hand Level.

This method of keeping field notes is proposed in order to
simplify and shorten the work of the compassman. It is recognized

356

Forestry Quarterly.

that one of the chief objections to the use of the hand level in
reconnaissance is in the matter of speed. However, this ob-
jection can be removed if the compassman avoids doing work

Fiyt/rc Tu/o.

/i Field Method oF Tcatinj the^AJjuitmtnt
and oF Adjusting the. flbmj Le.ve.1.

r"e«t.— Ciamf a.± C' or O/^.

/. Cut a notch in Trctt */ a^ fiott-h fl. Holctina -Ihe initri^mtn't

perFcc-ti-j Ic^-e/ S'jhi to Tree ^2. u/hare -ihn ustrt atnkei

Tre€.*A Cut a no1 her notch B

a., firocs^d to 77-ec *■& a/fd hoidiiyiht. tnifrvmeTt perfcct/ji
/e^e.1 sighi- batik -to Tree */. Tf ihe Ime of nyht tfpofi
Tree */ />»»« ftotch 3 Jcei net shri Ae notch A

ihe lei/el a rat in aafjUi't tusn't. Alark-lhc
point u/herc Ihe J^^'^ from notch d J^rikei
Tree */ U"-/^ a no1f.ii C.

7^eC5 about /OO afJort

To ftdjuitl—

I. Meoivre -/he rfu-Cotcc 6etwt.e.n -/he. notcha A-C
Cut a n^uj ndlcd "o" half lu an be-t-ureen «o'Xr/ics
/7-C
2 Proceed -i-o 5 and adji/jt lo'iih '/he adjiti+m^
jc'eit/i sheuin m f-^ure One. cf/t-fU '/he. bubble,
/i dead cen'/'^r u/hi/e. Si^^'t''']^ from Bto
'O'. A hue Co»rt^c^-mj tlo+thei 0 ond o"
/s a

^yoid ntoyiM ihz. mden arm iF ihe arm n rJampet^
"to -Jhe. ^rad<feite.d arc.
unnecessary for the purposes of sketching topography. It must
be strictly understood by the compassman that his absolute ele-
vation along the strip line is of no consequence in making his
form line field sketch. He must work with speed and he has not
the time to perform the numerous arithmetical calculations ac-
curately to determine his absolute elevation on the line.

Running the strip, the compassman enters the precise elevations
of the base line stake on the map sheet; he determines the line
of the strip with the compass ; he then sights parallel to the slope
of the ground along the compass line with the Abney and enters

The Ahney Hand Level. 357

the reading on the map sheet. He paces along the Hne until a
change of slope is encountered. He marks this position on the
map sheet where the change in slope occurs. The slope reading
now applies to the horizontal distance along the line between the
point of the first reading and the position where the change in
slope occurred. Having marked the point on the line where
there is a change in slope the compassman takes another sight
parallel to the slope of the ground along the compass line and
pioceeds as before. It is desirable to take several readings at
different points along the same degree of slope, in order to get
better average approximation of the slope.

The compassman does not attempt to run a line of levels ; the
object of the field work is not to establish a set of absolute ele-
vations along the strip line, but in most cases the compassman
is working between two base line stakes having precise eleva-
tions, and if he preserves the relative value of the slopes in per
cents or degrees along his lines between these two bench marks
at each end of his line the office draftsman can determine the
absolute elevations of the slope station in the office. The field
man however does not, attempt to perform this unnecessary work.
These datas are as valuable as a set of absolute elevations.

The compassman sketches the topography passed over along
the strip. The guess of the man in the field as to the form of
the country is better than the guess of the man in the office. The
field man draws fine form lines following points of equal eleva-
tion. He does not attempt to draw these form lines separated by
known contour intervals. The man in the field is not drawing
contours but sketch lines. These sketch lines are supposed to
show the man in the office that the points on the sketch line to
one side of the strip are of the same elevation as the point of in-
tersection of the line of strip and the sketch or form line. By
clamping the Abney at O degrees or per cent the form line can be
traced to some distance on each side of the line.

It is an established rule to sketch only the country already
passed over and lieing behind the compassman.

The direction of sketch lines is governed by streams and valley
lines, peaks and ridge lines. These points of topographic control
are of great assistance to the man in the office when plotting the
map ; hence the field data obtained with the Abney include the

358 Forestry Quarterly.

profile of streams and valley lines expressed in degrees or per
cents of slope.

When the line crosses a stream the compassman plots the di-
rection of the stream upon his map sheet. If he carries an
aneroid alone the office man gets only an idea of the horizontal
location of the stream. The compassman equipped with the
Abney hand level after having plotted the stream on the map sheet,
takes a sight straight down stream and up stream. He then enters
upon his map sheet the gradient of the stream, valley or draw.
From this data the office man can calculate the drop of the
stream or valley in feet and he can plot the exact location of the
contours crossing the stream bed. The final map will show the
true character of the stream, valley or draw with more accu-
racy than a map prepared from less detailed vertical control data
with the aneroid.

The compassman also notes the difference in elevation between
a ridge, peak, lake, etc. and the point of observation on the line.

Often low leaks, lakes and spurs or ridges lie to one side of the
line. The compassman sights to the top of the peak or point of
the ridge, and obtains the vertical angle or per cent of the slope
to that point with his Abney. The point is located horizontally
by intersection. The absolute elevation of the point is not neces-
sary to the man in the field. The field man only determines the
difference in elevation between his position on the line and the
point sighted at. The sight is plotted so that the man in the office
will know from what position on the line the sight was taken.

In the same manner, the difference in elevation between lakes,
valleys, draws, etc., and the position on the line can be determined.
The sights are all plotted on the map and the difference in elevation
in feet entered on the line indicating the sight as either a plus or
minus difference. The man in the office, when he calculates the
elevation of the point, of observation on the strip, then adds this
diflference of elevation to secure the absolute elevation of the
point sighted at.

It can not be too often repeated that the field man does not
need absolute elevations to draw sketch or form lines. The dif-
ference in elevation between his position and the points to one side

The Abney Hand Level. 359

of his line are sufficient to guide him in drawing his sketch
form lines.

Passing Obstacles Encountered Along the Line.

When obstacles are met with along the line, making an offset
necessary, the work of the compassman can often be simplified
and much sighting with the Abney avoided if the compassman
practices a little ingenuity in meeting the peculiar needs of the
situation with original methods and application of the Abney
principle. A few special cases are cited for example.

1. Cliffs. Assuming that the strip ends on the edge of a steep
cliff. The compassman marks his position with a stone, a cut
branch, etc., and, having plotted the edge of the cliff on his strip,
he can make the offset without further sighting. Having made the
descent the compassman offsets back again to the line and marks
his position on the strip. From this new position on the line he can
sight back upon his former position on the cliff, and knowing
the horizontal distance between his first position on the cliff, and
his present location on the line, he can obtain the difference in
elevation between these two points. Drawing a heavy line to
indicate the sight, he enters upon the map sheet, between the two
points of sight, the difference in deration in feet and the degree
of per cent of slope. He then proceeds along the line as' before,
entering upon his map sheet only the per cent or degree of slope
of his line.

2. Dense Bodies of Brush ivhere no offset can be made. As-
suming that a dense body of underbrush separates two open
spaces. The compassman may find it convenient to sight upon
the tip of a tree on or adjacent to the line, on the opposite side
of the brush. Marking the point of sight on his line, he proceeds
through the dense brush without further sighting until he emerges
from the brush, coming opposite the tree sighted upon along his
line, he marks the position. Having determined the horizontal
distance between his point of sight and the tip of the tree, he
calculates the difference in elevation of his point of sight and
the tip of the tree. Quickly pacing out from the tree he ob-
tains the height of the tree, and adds this height to the difference
in elevation. He has now obtained the difference in elevation
between his point of sight on the opposite side of the brush and

360 Forestry Quarterly.

the point on the line at the base of the tree, the tip of which
was sighted upon.

3. Crossing Exceptionally Steep Ravines. When crossing very
steep ravines, one accurate sight to the bottom, going down, and
one to the top, going up, will suffice, although the form of the
sides will suggest changing degrees of slope. On very steep
slopes the horizontal distance between contour intervals on the
map does not differ much for a change of 5% in slope or more.
It will be sufficient under the circumstances mentioned to show
upon the map sheet only the difference in elevation between the
two edges and the bottom. At the bottom of the ravine the com-
passman should indicate the grade of the ravine by sighting
straight down the water course. He enters this reading as a per
cent or degree of slope upon the stream or valley line.

4. Lakes and Marshes. When offsetting to pass lakes or
marshes, the compassman can do away with sighting for obvious
reasons. With judgment he can ascertain the point on the line
at the opposite side of the marsh or lake which has the same
elevation as the point where the offset was made.

5. Sighting in Dense Brush. Sometimes the compassman will
find it convenient to sight upon the tops of dead snags or stumps,
etc., on his line ahead of him. Taking a sight upon a snag or
stump in the brush ahead of him, he proceeds without further
sighting until within a few chains of the stump or snag. A sight
from this point on the line will give him data for a sufficiently
accurate approximation of the height of the stump or snag. Then
the compassman can calculate the difference in elevation between
the point of his first sight and the point on the line opposite the
stump or snag. In brushy areas the compassman will frequently
find such opportunities to do accurate sighting. The error in
elevation introduced by error in pacing will be corrected when
the horizontr.l distance between the two points is corrected by the
office man, or the camp draftsman.

For sights taken parallel to the compass line, the angle or per
cent as well as the difference in elevation should be entered upon
the map sheet, the angle or per cent being placed on one side
of the line, indicating the sight, and the difference in elevation
between the two points on the other side of the line, indicating
the sight.

Tying in.

At the end of the strip the compassman enters the precise ele-

The Abney Hand Level.

361

vations of the base line stake (if attainable) on his map sheet.
Thus his line begins with a precise elevation and closes in on a
precise elevation.

Figure Four

The. F/naf Mop F/je F/e/c/ Mop

3co/e /6'//V//e "^

For/ri'Lint F/e/c/3Ae^/i

s^so Baseline s* ro
-^ : ©-

S.M 3oA^Li'na ffl/W

iS3S . SSfa

A sample map is shown in Figure 4 to illustrate the field work
of the compassman using the Abney hand level. Such field notes
will furnish the officeman with a greater wealth of detail than
is furnished by a set of aneroid elevations taken along the strip.
Furthermore, this detail is all of practical value to the logger,
trail builder, herder and all practical woodsmen.

The final map will express the true character of all the running
streams. The gradient of mountain streams does not vary uni-
formly. There are frequent narrow inaccessible gorges where

362 forestry Quarterly.

the streams become rapids, and again the stream will flow upon
an underlying shelf of harder rock for some distance on a smooth
grade. The compassman can indicate very approximately the
changing character of the stream as he encounters it on his strips
without an Abney hand level, but when the field man gathers all
this data, not haphazardly and by guess alone, but with good
judgment aided by a practical instrument, the value of this data
is greatly enhanced.

The logger is interested in the character of the draws, ravines
and gullies, and even a rough map should give the logger an ap-
proximate idea of his logging chance.

The draftsman can express the true nature of all the draws and
ravines on the final map with the field data furnished by these
methods. The inaccessibility or accessibility of timber, from the
logger's point of view can be determined approximately from
such a map, and the closer examination of the ground can then be
made more intelligently.

The collection of these data may introduce a greater cost on an
area basis, but the total cost on a basis of the relative value of
the final map will be much lower.

Office Work in Plotting The Pinal Map.

With such field data the camp draftsman is called upon to do
much of the work usually done by the man in the field. In order
to shorten the increased work of the office man as much as pos-
sible a profiling scale has been designed as illustrated in Figure 5.
This rule is to answer the purpose both of obtaining the eleva-
tions of the slope stations on the strip line and of interpolating
the contours.*

The profile in Figure 4 was drawn from the field data on the
sample strip shown in the same figure. This profile has been pre-
pared in order to illustrate the character of the data and to make
the work of the ofiice man more easily understood.

I. Horizontal Closure. The error of horizontal closure is cor-
rected first and this error of closure is distributed along the line
between the slope stations pro ratio to the distance between sta-
tions. The greater part of the error is thrown between stations

*See also the following article.

The Ahney Hand Level. 363

having the greatest horizontal distance between them. Having
corrected the area of Hne and pacing, the draftsman proceeds to
correct the vertical control obtained from the field data.

2. Vertical Closure. Beginning with the precise elevation on the
base line stake, the draftsman works across the strip obtaining the
elevations of all slope stations. These operations are very simple
and can be perfomied with speed. At the end of the strip the
draftsman compares his calcidated elevations with the base line
stake elevation. If there is a sufficiently large error to correct, this
error is distributed along the line, pro ratio to the difference in ele-
vation between the slope stations. A large part of the error is
thrown between stations having a large difference in elevation than
between slope stations having small difference in elevation regard-
less of the horizontal distance between slope stations. It is im-
perative that the draftsman calculates the elevations of the slope
stations only after he has corrected their position horizontally on
the strip line. The error due to pacing will affect the vertical
control unless the horizontal control is corrected first.

Having corrected the errors of horizontal and vertical closure
the next operation is the location of the contours upon the form
line field sketch turned in by the field man.

The Location of Contours on the Form Line Sketch.

The form lines are an absolute index to the direction of the
contour crossing the strip line and the office man is not to inter-
fere with the field sketch. The man in the field was' on the
ground when the form lines were drawn and his guess in the field
is more valuable than the guess of the man in the office who may
be unacquainted with the country being mapped.

This form line as drawn by the man in the field is the guide
line for the contour. A contour drawn at an acute angle to a
form line would be revealed as an obvious error to the office man
were he at the spot in the field to compare his contour as drawn
with the actual topography. In plotting these Abney field notes
the draftsman should conform strictly to the form lines drawn
by the man in field, having first corrected their horizontal location
if an error in horizontal closure has been made by the man in the
field. The contours will then represent the true character of the
topography of the country mapped. The finished map will have

364 Forestry Quarterly.

a. real practical value instead of merely having the appearance of
a topographic map.

The draftsman can locate his contours- on the strip by drawing
a profile for each strip and then projecting the contours on the
strip as shown in figure 4. This method is simple and easily un-
derstood but it has the disadvantage of being a very slow method.
The plan here proposed is an adaptation -of a practical method used
by Professor H. H. Chapman of the Yale Forest School for locat-
ing contours with an Abney.

Chapman's Method.

The draftsman has the following data: the angle or per cent
■of slope; and the horizontal distance to which this slope ap-
plies.

Tables can be prepared showing the number of contour in-
tervals in a given horizontal distance for each degree or per cent
of slope. Thus, on a 15% slope there will be a fifty foot con-
tour interval every five chains, approximately. If this slope ap-
plies to 18 chains of the strip the draftsman has 3 3-5 contour
intervals. Assuming that the base line stake has an elevation
of 5810 feet, the first 50 foot contour will be located about four
chains from the base stake, the second contour nine chains dis-
tant, the third fourteen chains, and there will be a remainder of
3-5 of a contour interval to apply to the next degree of slope.

When sketching contours in the field, and the field man has
time to perform these mental calculations, the above method is
easily used. In the office where the calculations must be made
with speed, a mechanical device will be of value. The profiling
rule designed is based upon the same principle as the above
method. This scale automatically divides the strip into contour
intervals and locates the contour on the strip. This scale can be
graduated for either per cents of slope or degrees of slope.
The graduations of figure 5 are based on a horizontal scale
of 16 inches to the mile.

For each degree of slope or per cent of slope there is a fixed
horizontal distance between contours. By graduating this hori-
zontal distance between contours, plotted on a field scale of 16
inches to the mile, into drop in feet the rule will show the drop

*See next article.

The Abney Hand Level.

365

or rise per chain or unit of
horizontal distance along
the slope of the given de-
gree or per cent, on the
map sheet.

Thus the draftsman does
not have to calculate the
distance to the position of
the contours. He scales the
distance directly with this
rule and the whole opera-
tion is performed with
speed and precision. The
camp draughtsman is not
called upon to do much
arithmetical work. The
office work is done by
graphic methods and speed
will become a matter of
practice. Arithmetical cal-
culations are tedious and
speed is very much influ-
enced by mental fatigue.
Using this rule the eleva-
tions of the slope stations
can be obtained by reading
the drop in feet from the
rule and adding or subtract-
ing the difference in eleva-
tion to the elevation of the
preceding slope station.
The position of the contour
can be read directly from
the rule.

In order to explain the
character of this rule and
its application the whole
operation is here explained
in full; applying to the
strips shown in Figure 4.

-N

-N

?^o

o

2

Si

5i

5^

is*

^ -

<Sr-=:ri,

§:

366 Forestry "Quarterly.

Obtaining the Elevations of Slope Stations with the Profiling Rule.

1. The elevation of the base line stake is 5535 feet. The strip
is being run due north. From slope station No. i on the base line
to slope station No. 2 on the slope reading is — 20%. Taking the
rule and applying the graduations for the 20% slope: — place the
O point of the scale on the base line station. Read to slope station
No. 2. The drop is found to be 99 feet. Subtracting 99 feet
from the elevation of the base line stake gives the elevation of
slope station No. 2 as 5436 feet.

2. The elevation of the base line stake is 5470 feet. The strip
is being run due south. From the base line stake south the first
slope reading is 8%. Taking the graduations for 8 per cent the
drop is found to be 26 feet. Subtracting 26 feet from the
elevation of the base line stake 5470 feet gives the elevation
of the slope station as 5444 feet. The slope station is on the
edge of a dense body of brush.

3. The compass man has sighted upon the tip of a tree on or ad-
jacent to the line, on the opposite side of the body of brush or in
the brush as the case may be. The slope reading to the tip of the
tree is plus 10%, Applying the 10% graduation the drop in this
case will be a rise. The rule gives a 26 feet rise. Adding this ele-
vation to the elevation of the slope station, 5444, gives the tip
of the tree an elevation of 5470 feet. The compassman has ob-
tained the height of the tree and has entered on his map sheet
the height as 55 feet. Subtracting 55 feet from 5470 feet gives
the elevation of the Slope Station at or near the base of the
tree sighted upon as 5415 feet.

4. On the strip starting from base line stake 5535, in the
swamp from slope station 5361 and from 5369 the compassman
has intersected the small knob to the right of the line. From
slope station 5369 the slope reading is plus 20 %. The rule gives
a 57 foot rise to the tip of the knob. Adding 57 feet to the ele-
vation of slope station 5369 gives the elevation of the knob as
5426 feet.

Locating the Contours Betzveen Slope Stations on the Strip.

I. On the strip ending with Station 5480: —

The last slope reading is 5%. The elevation of the last slope
station is 5480 feet. Tqlcjnsr the rule graduation for the 5% slope

The Ahney Hand Level. 367

the graduation representing O feet is placed upon the station
5480. This station is on the contour. Reading to the 20 foot
graduation the first contour 5460 is found to be about 6 chains
from station 5480.

2. On the strip ending with station 5470, the last slope read-
ing is 8%. The elevation of the last station is 5470, ten feet above
the 5460 contour. Taking the rule graduations for the 8% slope
the 10 foot graduation is placed upon the station 5470. Reading
to the 20 foot graduation the next 20 foot contour 5460 is found
to be about two chains from the slope station 5470.

Observe that this system is identical v/ith Chapman's method ;
the only difference being that this adaptation is a mechanical solu-
tion of every problem, and that the office man can perform the
work with speed.

A thorough study of figure 4 will explain the character of
this rule. The graduations represent the drop or rise in feet per
chain for each degree or per cent of slope. This rule is based on
per cents of slope on a scale of 16 inches to the mile which scale
is to be preferred to a smaller scale in intensive mapping.

Summary of Office Work.
A brief resume of the draftsman's work is as follows : —
I. Correction for horizontal closure. 2. Graphic calculation of
the elevation of slope stations and correction for vertical closure.
3. Obtaining elevations to one side of the line. 4. Drawing con-
tours in strict conformity with the form lines of the field sketch.

These operations are all simple, and easily understood. Speed
will become largely a matter of practice. The correction of
aneroid elevations takes considerable time and value of the
final result is not always satisfactory. The draftsman can per-
form all his office work using this rule described as quickly as
preparing a creditable map from aneroid data. In thus using
graphic methods almost entirely one of the chief objections to
the use of the Abney is removed and the draftsman will be able
to meet all demands for speed made upon him in his work.

The greater wealth of detail furnished by these Abney field
notes may call for more work in plotting the data supplied. The
practical uses however, to which a map can be put should be the

368 Forestry Quarterly.

real index of its value and the cost of a map on an area basis alone
is not a fair measure of the efficiency of the methods used in the
preparation of the map.

Experimental mapping with the Aneroid Barometer and
the Abney Level.

Under certain conditions the use of the aneroid is accompanied
with so many objections that the choice of another instrument
would be decided upon provided the new method was of proven
value. However, if such methods deserve any attention at all
they ought to be given a thorough trial experimentally first.

The experimenter has in mind the following sets of conditions :

1. There are two broad types of topography. The first type
is the uniformly sloping type where the slopes are not very steep.
The second type is the broken and rugged type.

2. Further there are two kinds of timber cover. Where the
trees are mostly of one species the estimator will work fast.
Where there are many species the estimator will work slowly.

3. There are two kinds of weather conditions, the settled, and
the unsettled.

All of these three factors will enter into the experiment. Each
of these factors influences the accuracy of the work done with the
aneroid or else have such an influence that the compass man may
have spare time to use slower but more accurate methods than
the method with the aneroid.

The degree of accuracy to be attained in the work is fixed and
uniform. The object of the experiment shall be to determine with
what instrument and with what method can we secure this de-
gree of accuracy at the lowest cost, under the conditions existing
at the time the work is being done.

In this problem it is understood that the aneroid is incapable
of recording changes in elevation of less than 25 feet accurately.
Country so flat as to fall within that class is not considered in
this connection.

Experiments could be made as follows : —

1. A section, 640 acres, is selected to represent a type.

2. Base lines are established for this section of land to be used
for this experiment. Let us assume that the north and south

The Abney Hand Level. 369

section lines are supplied with good vertical and horizontal control
stakes providing for the double running of the forty.

3. These sections of land are mapped as carefully as possible
by three crews of equal efficiency.

a. The first crew will make as careful a map as possible using
the aneroid.

b. The second crew will make as careful a map as possible using
the Abney.

c. The third crew will make an absolutely accurate map using
the transit.

Each strip crew will use the same primary control and this con-
trol will cost the same for each method.

4. Careful cost figures will be kept of the work done by each
method.

5. The final maps will be plotted and tracings made of each
map. The tracing of the aneroid map will now be laid over the
tracing of the transit map and the degree of error absolutely
determined. The tracing of the Abney map is then laid over the
transit map and the error determined. The cost figures kept will
give the total cost of the final map by each method. The ex-
perimenter will now have absolute knowledge of the relative ac-
curacy and cost of each instrument and method for each type
of topography, timber cover, and weather condition.

The choice of instrument and method can now be made in-
telligently in order to obtain the most valuable results, Such a
scientific choice of methods by the reconnaissance party chief
will result in the obtaining of maps of equal value although the
separate portions of the work were done under widely different
conditions. The aim always should be to maintain the standard set
for the type of map being made.

In the use of a new instrument and new methods there is in-
troduced a loss of time and efficiency which will disappear with
practice. This point should be borne in mind when studying the
practical value of the method for the use of the Abney Hand Level
here proposed.

THE USE OF THE ABNEY HAND LEVEL.
By M. L. Erickson.

For two winters I have experimented with the use of the Abney
level in timber reconnaissance with the view of using it as a sub-
stitute for the aneroid barometer. For winter use the aneroid
barometer has proven very unsatisfactory. Probably the main
reason for this is the constant great change in atmospheric pres-
sure distributed over small areas. The atmospheric changes
apparently vary and change greatly in areas as small as a square
mile. It was found that careful camp aneroid readings taken
hourly failed to provide the desired corrections of the field read-
ings, for even after these corrections were made it was nothing
uncommon to still find an error of 200 to 300 feet. Perhaps, the
aneroids we used were not sufficiently high class to register true
atmospheric pressure. At any rate, I have found it necessary
to abandon, for the most part, the use of the aneroid barometer
in winter cruising and I think, the Abney level should be substi-
tuted for the aneroid in summer work also.

The use of the Abney hand level was found to work satis-
factorily practically in all forest conditions. The greatest ob-
jection to it at first was the amount of computation necessary to
determine elevations. It involved long office work and I did not
care to employ the Abney so long as its use seriously increased the
cost of the work. This winter, however, I have prepared a
table by which all office computation is eliminated, and the ele-
vations can be carried in the field and noted on the field sketch.
Mr. W. J. Paeth has devised a scheme by which the office compu-
tation due to the use of the Abney is very materially lessened, and
I think his plan is practicable and cheap enough where a draughts-
man is employed steadily in the office. But I was not satisfied
until all office computation was eliminated and also the added
expense of a camp draughtsman. This winter's experience has
demonstrated that the office computation is not necessary and the
use of the Abney was found to be entirely practicable.

The table used is based on readings in per cent, but similar
tables can readily be prepared for Abney levels graduated in de-

The Use of the Abney Hand Level. 371

grees based on horizontal distances expressed in paces, chains, or
any other equivalent. For our use I prefer the Abney level gradu-
ated in per cents and prefer to express distances in double paces

TABLE FOR USE OF ABNEY LEVEL.
Slope
in
% Distance in Paces (5.28')

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

200 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 10 10 10 10 10 10

455 5 5 5 10 10 10 10 10 15 15 IS 15 20 20 20 20

6 5 5 10 10 10 10 15 15 15 20 20 20 25 25 25 25 30 30

8 5 10 10 10 15 15 20 20 20 25 30 30 30 30 35 35 40 40

10 10 10 15 15 20 20 25 25 30 30 35 3,5 40 40 45 45 50 50

12 10 10 15 20 20 25 30 30 35 35 40 45 45 50 50 55 60 60

14 10 15 20 25 25 30 35 35 40 45 so so 55 60 65 65 70 75

16 10 IS 20 25 30 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 60 65 70 70 75 85

18 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

20 15 20 25 30 35 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105

22 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 75 85 85 90 100 105 no 115

24 20 25 30 40 45 50 55 65 70 75 80 90 95 105 no 115 120 125

26 20 25 30 40 50 55 60 65 75 80 90 95 100 105 115 120 125 135

28 20 30 35 45 50 60 65 75 80 90 95 105 no 115 125 130 140 145

30 25 30 40 50 55 65 70 80 85 95 100 no 115 125 130 140 150 155

32 25 35 45 50 60 65 75 8s 90 100 no 115 125 130 140 150 155 165

34 25 35 45 55 60 70 80 90 100 105 115 125 130 140 150 160 165 180

36 30 35 45 55 65 75 85 90 100 no 120 130 140 150 155 165 17S 185

38 ^0 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 no 120 130 140 150 160 165 175 185 195

40 30 45 55 6s 75 85 95 105 115 125 13S i45 I55 165 i75 185 195 205

42 35 45 55 6s 75 85 100 no 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 195 205 215

44 35 45 55 70 80 95 105 115 125 135 150 160 170 180 195 205 216 230

46 35 50 60 75 85 95 no 120 130 14s iss 165 180 190 205 215 225 240

48 35 50 65 75 85 100 no 125 135 150 160 175 185 200 210 220 235 250

50 40 55 65 80 90 105 115 130 145 155 165 180 190 205 220 230 245 260

52 40 65 70 80 95 no 125 140 150 165 180 190 205 220 235 245 260 275

54 45 55 70 85 100 no 130 145 153 170 185 200 215 225 245 255 270 285

56 45 60 75 90 105 115 13s 150 160 175 195 205 220 235 250 260 280 295

58 45 60 75 95 no 120 140 155 170 185 200 215 230 245 260 275 290 305

60 50 65 80 95 no 125 140 160 17s 190 210 220 240 250 270 285 300 315

64 50 70 8s 100 no 135 150 170 185 200 220 235 250 270 290 305 320 335

68 55 70 90 no 125 140 160 180 195 215 23s 250 270 285 305 325 340 360

72 6b 75 95 115 13s 150 17s 190 210 225 250 26s 285 300 325 340 360 380

76 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 350 380 405

80 65 85 105 130 150 170 190 210 230 250 27s 29s 315 335 360 385 400 42s

84 65 00 no 13s 155 175 195 220 245 26s 290 310 330 340 380 400 420 445

88 70 90 IIS 140 160 185 205 235 255 275 305 32s 345 370 395 420 440 465

90 70 95 115 14? 165 190 210 240 260 285 310 335 355 380 405 425 450 475

(equal to 5.28 feet). It will be noticed that the elevation table
gives the reading in the nearest 5 feet, vi^hich was found to be
sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. Thus using the
multiple of 5 for elevations, makes mental calculation easy. Any
error introduced by reading the elevation closer than 5 feet is
very small, for all such errors are compensating. The per cent

y]2 Forestry Quarterly.

indicated in the table is given in the nearest 2 per cent. Ordinar-
ily, it adds nothing to the practical accuracy of the work to read
the Abney closer. When long sights are taken the exact per cent
can be read and the elevation determined a little closer by interpo-
lation. The paces, too, are indicated in the table to the nearest 5.
It seems to add nothing to the practical accuracy of the work
to indicate this more closely.

The use of the table is very simple.

The compassman first sets up his compass, secures an alignment^
and then sights with the Abney level at some object along the
compass course at approximately the height of his eye. The
slope (plus or minus) is then noted on the field map, as indicated
in the accompanying sketch. The compassman then paces to the
object sighted at, which is usually a point where the slope cnanges.
He then refers to the table already prepared and pasted on the
front cover of his tatum holder and directly determines the rise
or fall in elevation. He adds or subtracts this to the elevation
previously established at the starting point. This takes but a mo-
ment's calculation and usually it is a mental one. The true ele-
vation as determined is noted on the map to the left of the strip
line. The station indicated in paces is set down on the map at
the right of the strip line. He then draws a form line contour
through the station and proceeds with his observation for the
next station.

It is always best to sight at some object approximately the
height of the eye, but this is not at all necessary, especially when
long sights are taken. For distances over 75 double paces the dif-
ference in per cent by sighting at an object several feet above
or below the height of the eye is so small that it can not be read
on the Abney scale. It is not advisable to take observations for
distances much over 200 paces unless the object sighted at is very
distinct. Because the table does not give direct differences in
elevation for horizontal distances greater than 100 double paces
it should not be assumed that this difference in elevation can not
be obtained. For distances over 100 double paces note the read-
ing for 100 double paces and then add to it the reading for the
additional distance. The sum of the readings gives the dif-
ference in elevation between the two points.

In cruising the most economical crew is 2 men. The compass-

The Use of the Abney Hand Level. 373

man takes the course with a compass and the grade readings with
an Abney and carries his horizontal distance by pacing.

There are numerous practices in the field that the topographer
soon learns to employ.

1. Sight a definite object on ground. Determine elevation
at that object and then add 5 feet for distance ground to eye.

2. Sight at peculiar markings on trunk of tree (black knots,
scars, wood-pecker holes, etc. ) . Add or subtract difference in feet
above or below approximate height of eye.

3. Sight at peculiar definite limbs in tree. Make approximate
allowance for distance above eye.

4. Sight at top of a tree or snag. Determine height of tree by
any of the simple methods and add this to elevation determined
for the top of the tree.

A great help in plotting the contours between strip lines when
the course follows steep side hills is to note with the Abney the
slope up or down by plus or minus; the direction of slope being
indicated by arrows.

The exact location and elevation of points of ridges or other
topographic relief not directly on line with the compass course can
be determined. The location is determined by bearings from two
stations taken with the compass, and the vertical angle is taken
from one of these stations with the Abney level. Knowing the
distance and the vertical angle, the elevation of the object can be
easily computed.

The Abney is a great aid in checking one's own work in the field.
Often observation from stations along the strip line to tops of
peaks, ridges, cabins, ponds or other objects already located will
give a check on the elevation previously determined.

Incidentally the tallyman need depend on no other instrument
for determining the number of logs or height of trees.

On very steep hillsides, through dense brush, or across difficult
obstructions it is often unsatisfactory to pace the distance. The
Abney level can be used to determine the horizontal distance as
well as the vertical difference in elevation.

Example : The cr^w arrive at the brink of a very deep canyon
with precipitous walls. The compassman determines an object
on the opposite bank for his course, then with the Abney level

374 Forestry Quarterly.

takes readings at the base and the top of a tree on the opposite

bank. The first reading at the base of tree is 2%, the reading at

top of tree is 20%. The vertical angle then is 18%. Arriving

at the opposite side the height of the tree is measured and found

to be 150 feet high. For every 100 feet of horizontal distance

150
there is a vertical distance of 18 feet, therefore — tt- x 100=8^'?.

18 '^'^

distance across the canyon.

The difference of elevation between the two banks is .02 x 833
or 16.6, or 15 feet expressed to the nearest five feet. Since the
observation was taken at the base of tree 5 feet (height of eye
above ground) should be added to this reading.

The above method of determining distance was employed many
times last winter and it works out beautifully.

While aneroid barometers with the most careful use and careful
corrections were daily giving us errors of 100 to 200 feet, our re-
sults from the use of the Abney level were checking within 5 and
10 feet. Occasionally, one makes an error of 20 feet in a two-
mile strip. The greatest error made was 35 feet in running a dis-
tance of 2-| miles. Such small errors are easily distributed.

Every individual would not be adapted to use the Abney hand
level with practical success. Curious as it may seem, those that
are inclined to be too precise and fussy often make the biggest
errors. The compassman using the Abney must keep ahead of the
cruiser ; he can not take time to make a second observation, he can
not aflford to lose his object sighted at, he can not consume extra
time in making more close computations than are necessary, and
he must learn what features of topography to omit. Numerous
short sights requiring reference to the table frequently should be
avoided. One learns to estimate small differences in elevation
to the nearest 5 feet and it does not add to the accuracy of the
work to take observations for short distances involving small dif-
ferences of elevation.

In going through patches of dense, tall reproduction where
long sights can not be secured one learns to estimate the diflference
in elevation as he goes along and checks this by estimating the
average per cent of slope. After a few days' practice it is sur-
prising how close one checks up on this work.

Often just before reaching a big patch of brush or reproduction

The Use of the Abney Hand Level. 375

a sight can be secured on a tree or snag at the further edge of the
patch. This should always be done when possible to avoid esti-
mating the difference in elevation as the course is projected
through the brush.

Just as big a day's work should ordinarily be accomplished by a
two-man crew using the Abney as with the aneroid barometer.
We could double run eight forties a day in rather difficult going,
and that is certainly satisfactory.

In our work last winter we ran a transit level through ap-
proximately the middle of the area covered by reconnaissance.
Absolute bench marks were established at section line intersec-
tions and at other points where necessary. From these bench
marks, base lines usually 2 miles apart were run with the Abney
hand level. In establishing base lines, especially long ones, with
the Abney a little more accurate computation is employed than
for regular strip cruise work. Distance was measured with a
chain and elevations w^ere computed to the nearest foot. Our
base line surv^eys w^ith the Abney proved very satisfactory. A
two-man crew^ can run and blaze about 2| miles of base line per
day.

T 31 S, R 3 E, within the Crater National Forest, was cov-
ered last winter in this kind of a reconnaissance survey, and it
is the only large area on the Forest mapped with a high degree
of accuracy.

One valuable feature in using the Abney is the fact that a
contour map of any fineness desired can be secured with scarcely
any additional work or increased cost. Ten-foot contour inter-
vals can be sketched in on the field map as easily as 25 or 5ofoot
contours.

The Abney hand level has undoubtedly come to stay as an
instrument useful in reconnaissance work and if the right men
are secured to use it, it will supplant the aneroid barometer.

Some improvements' in the Abney hand level should be made
to make it more convenient and less liable to get out of adjust-
ment. The graduated arc should have about twice as great a
radius. It should be graduated in both degrees and per cent.
The tangent graduation should extend to 200 per cent, and the
case for it should be arranged so as to carry on the belt instead
of over the shoulder.

STUMPAGE APPRAISAL FORMULAE.

By Donald Bruce.

While there are a number of different formulae in common
use at the present time in appraising stumpage, they may be
classified into two distinct types. The first is based on the
principle of allowing a certain percentage of the operating cost
as profit and considering the difference between the selling value
and this cost plus this profit as the stumpage value. The second
allows as profit a per annum percentage on the invested capital.
The most common example of the first class is what is generally
known as the Forester's formula, expressed mathematically as fol-
lows:

X=S— O— .op (O+X)
or simplified
S

x= o

I. op
Where S=selling value ; O=operating cost, including deprecia-
tion, interest on fixed investment, etc. ; proper cent profit allowed ;
and X=rstumpage.

It will be noted that in this particular formula, interest on
the fixed investment is included as an operating cost. This is
not, however, an essential characteristic of this type of formula.
The characteristic formula of the second type is as follows:

.op C

x=s-o- -~-

Where C==average capital invested, and A the average annual
output of the operation; the other letters retaining their above
defined meanings.

The main complication in this case is involved in the determina-
tion of the average investment and the method of charging off
depreciation and profit. Several quite complicated formulae have
been devised for this purpose, of which the most accurate but per-
haps the most intricate is what is known as Hunter's formula.

Stumpage Appraised Formulae. 377

There are advantages inherent in each fomiula. The oper-
ating cost method is simpler to apply while the other is con-
sidered to be more accurate though possibly more difficult of
application. It is, however, an error to claim that either formula
is universal in its application. It can be shown that cases are
possible where each gives ridiculous results unless' the profit per-
centages are varied through an extreme range. To thus vary
these percentages widely almost nullifies the value of the formula
since it places the final decision squarely back on the judgment
of the appraiser. The customary percentages with the Forester's
formula are from 15 to 20 per cent, and for the investment
formula from 10 to 15 per cent. The following examples will
show cases in which widely different figures must be used. While
these cases are hypothetical, the figures used are typical of log-
ging chances in western Montana and northern Idaho. The
conditions are extreme, but yet are actually met.

Case I. An easy logging chance of about 22,500 M. B. M.
to be handled at the rate of 7,500,000 a year; largely direct
skidding to the river bank where the logs can be sold in the
deck.

Estimated cost of logging, $3.00 per M.

Estimated cost of improvements and
equipment (including interest) .45

Total cost of operation $.3-45

Average sale value of logs, 6.50

Margin for profit and interest 3.05

Average investment, improvements, . . $1,000.00

Average investment, equipment, 4,000.00

Average working capital, 5,000.00

Total average investment, $10,000.00

By the investment method: allowing 15 per cent, per annum
profit on the average investment gives as total profit, $1500 on
7,500 M. B. M.; profit per M. 20c; stumpage ($3.05 — 20c) —
$2.85. It is obvious that this profit of 20c, while a fair return on
the invested capital, is a ridiculously small margin over the esti-
mated operating cost and one which would not justify a logger in
undertaking the job. By the Forester's formula, on the other hand ;
allowing 20 per cent profit, the stumpage amounts to $1.95, and
$1.10 is allowed for profit. ($i.95=$6.50 — $3.45 — 20% X ($345

378 Forestry Quarterly.

+$1.05) (approx.). This figure is quite consistent with the
actual stumpage values current in the sales of this character. The
profit allowed on this basis would, however, be 82.5 per cent,
return on the invested capital. Obviously this is a case where
the investment method is practically valueless.

Case 2. A railroad chance of 4OO,(X)0 M. B. M. to be handled
at the rate of 20,000,000 a year; expensive construction in-
volved, but otherwise cheap logging.

Estimated cost of logging, $4.00 per M.

Estimated cost of improvements and

equipments (including interest) 3.00 per M.

Total cost of operation, $7.00 per M.

Stumpage, .50 per M .

Profit, 1 . 50 per M .

Value of logs, $9.00 per M.

The stumpage and profit above given are determined by the
Forester's formula allowing 20 per cent, profit. ($.5o=$9.oo —
$7.00 — 20%X($7-00-f-$.5o). Checking this by the investment
method we find the following results :

Average investment for improvements, $300,000

Average investment for equipment, 80,000

Working capital, 100,000

Total average investment, $480,000

$1.50 profit per M. on 20,000 equals $30,000 per annum, which
is 6\ per cent return on $480,000. In this case, then, the re-
sults of the Forester's formula are shown to be ridiculously low
when checked by the investment method. On the other hand,
a 15 per cent, profit on the investment would equal $3.60 per
M., or over 50 per cent, of the operating cost. This, however,
is so high a profit that the stumpage is more than wiped out,
indicating that in this present case the chance cannot be handled
at a reasonable profit. The case, however, is distinctly one
where an operating cost formula is of little or no value.

Under certain conditions then, each formula is useless unless
checked by the other. When analyzed the reason for this is
that the prospective purchaser demands, and justly, assurance
of two things, first, that he will obtain a reasonable return on
his invested capital and second, that he has a reasonably wide

Stumpage Appraisal Formulae. 2>79

margin over the cost of operation as an insurance against the
many minor hazards inherent in the logging business. In the
first case above described the return on the capital was ample,
but the margin over the operating costs was so ridiculously
small that no sane logger would attempt the job since the
least accident such as a period of bad weather might easily
wipe out all profits. In the second case the margin on the
operating cost was ample but the return on the money in-
vested was insufficient to interest capital. Obviously both de-
mands must be met. Neither formula alone can measure both.
The investment method, of course, defines absolutely the return
to the invested capital, while the operating cost method is an
excellent measure of the margin necessary above the cost of
operation. Therefore, both should be used, constituting a double
minimum. Thus used, the range of percentages in each may be
kept reasonably low. With the percentages standardized, the
formula which gives the lower profit must govern.

This simultaneous use of the two methods brings in question
at once the advisability of including interest as a cost in the
operating cost method. This practice, which has become al-
most universal since its adoption in the Forester's formula, has
something in its favor where the investment method is not
used as a check. To include interest makes a formula which
is in a sense a hybrid between the two methods. Extra profit is
allowed in the form of interest for extra invested capital not
fairly represented in the operating cost. This compensation is,
however, only partial since the interest rate is invariably (and
necessarily) low, say 6 per cent, as compared with the profit
rate. Further, its inclusion tends to confuse the results. Neither
the margin over the real operating costs nor the return on the
investment is shown.

The profit allowed consists of three factors: i. A percent on
the operating costs (which may be earned several times a year).
2. A per cent, per annum of a part of the invested capital,
(usually only the fixed investment), and, 3. A per cent (profit)
on this last percentage since the latter is carried as a cost item.
And these three factors are so confused that analysis is dif-
ficult.

When both formulae are used, the interest charge should

380 Forestry Quarterly.

unquestionably, in the opinion of the writer, be omitted. The
necessary return on the capital is obviously shown by the in-
vestment method, and, as previously suggested, the straight op-
erating cost method is an admirable measure of the margin
necessary. The $6.00 logging job involves roughly twice the
chance of unforeseen costs as does a $3.00 job, and demands
approximately twice the margin. This is not true, however,
where interest on invested capital is added as a cost. The same
logging chance handled by a railroad instead of by driving may
well involve less operating cost but greater invested capital. It
is obviously, however, a more stable proposition and can be
handled on a lower margin. The decreased operating costs and
the correspondingly lower margin necessary should be reflected
by the operating cost formulae while the increased capital in-
vested can better be expressed and handled by the investment
method.

While, in general, both formulae are necessary, in certain
specific cases it can be seen from inspection that one or the other
will give the lower stumpage rate and hence govern. Small
sales similar in character to that first described ordinarily in-
volve such a small investment that the operating cost method
can safely be applied without check. This is a great advantage
to the seller of stumpage since appraisal of these small chances
must usually be made by men of narrow experience who, while
thoroughly competent to estimate logging costs, are somewhat
at sea on questions of invested capital.

To summarize, it is felt that (i) if stumpage is to be ap-
praised by formulae, both the operating cost and the investment
methods must be used and the lower stumpage indicated adopted,
and (2) that interest on fixed capital invested should not be in-
cluded as an operating cost.

STANDARDIZATION OF FIRE PLANS, ORGANIZA-
TION, EQUIPMENT AND METHODS IN
DISTRICT III.

By John D. Guthrie.

An interesting and productive conference was held at the
District Forester's offices' in Albuquerque, N. M. in March,
1914. The Supervisors of the Datil, Coconino, Sitgreaves, Gila,
Apache, Pecos and Jemez Forests, with certain of the District
officers, acting as a committee, considered the standardization of
fire plans, organization, methods and equipment. The desire of
the committee was to find out how far the District should go in
making the features of the present annual fire plan standard,
with the idea of making all instructions of the plan, upon which
the committee agreed, as mandatory hereafter for the entire
district.

It was realized that local conditions had to be considered in
any attempt at standardization, yet it was felt that certain pro-
visions of the fire plan and certain methods and equipment could
well be made uniform for all forests in Arizona and New
Mexico.

This committee went on record as adopting the following:

Discovery of Fires and Method of Reporting.

As standard the triangulation system of detection, from pri-
mary lookout stations, to be supplemented by riding patrol only
on those portions of a forest which cannot be covered from
lookout stations.

On forests having adequate telephone communication fires will
be reported to both the supervisor and district ranger or fire
chief.

Rank of Officers.

It was decided that ordinarily the primary lookout man will
rank next in authority to the district ranger or fire chief. No
objections, however, will be made if the fire organization is
such that patrolmen should outrank lookout men. The im-

382 Forestry Quarterly.

portant consideration is that instructions to lookout men and
patrolmen must be definite in this matter of rank in order to
fix responsibility for action. In the ideal fire organization, pa-
trolmen will be essentially fire fighters. Under this heading there
was considerable discussion regarding the giving of an appoint-
ment as forest guard to lookout men and patrolmen, who might
in many cases be excellent men for these positions yet who were
not ranger material, and in a way were performing the work
of day laborers. Some of the committee held very strongly that
no new men should be given a guard's appointment who would
not possibly later develop into ranger material, and that all look-
out men and patrolmen should be day laborers. As opposed to
this view it was pointed out that the Forest Service has em-
phasized very strongly that every member of the forest force
whether he be supervisor, deputy, forest assistant, ranger or
guard is an integral part of the fire organization, and each man
must realize a sense of responsibility if results are to be ex-
pected, also that there is no more important position in the
fire organization than that of lookout man, that the qualifica-
tions for the duties required were peculiarly exacting. In view
of these facts the point was made that it did not look consistent
to consider the lookout man as a mere day laborer, that it could
not be expected that his sense of responsibility would be aroused
or that he would feel that he was part of the fire organization if
he were a day laborer, paid so much per day, and liable to be
dropped any day, that by giving him an appointment it would
in itself be impressed upon him that he was a forest officer
and a part of the fire organization, and that he had certain re-
sponsibilities and duties.

The statement has been made frequently that the Forest Ser-
vice should not give guards' appointments to all men used tem-
porarily on the forests ; that a forest guard should be an assistant
to a ranger ; that the Service should reserve this title for men who
have decided to enter the Service work to become eventually
rangers, and that it is not desirable to give men serving in such
capacities the power to arrest. It is extremely seldom that the
actual power to make arrests is made use of by any forest of-
ficer— there is no need of it — and therefore it is not felt that

Standardization of fire Plans. 383

that question in itself is worth considering. There are certain
men on almost any Forest, who by reason of several summers'
experience as guards and of their intimate knowledge of the
country and local conditions, make the very best possible guard
material. These very often are men who do not intend to be-
come rangers, who own ranches and who could not pass the
ranger examination if they took it, and others in exactly the
same class who are too old to take the ranger examination.
These men are glad of the opportunity to earn some money dur-
ing the summer, make excellent guards, but would not be willing
to work as day laborers at all.

The solution of this matter is that there should be special
positions of lookout man and patrolman, to be appointed as
such. Surely every field forest officer realizes that there is no
more responsible nor important position than that of lookout
man — then why not recognize it by making a special appoint-
ment?

Divorcing Protection From Administratton.

Until protection can be absolutely divorced from administra-
tion, fire plans cannot be considered perfect. On those forests
where the administrative work during the fire season is of such
a character that it can either be neglected entirely or handled
by the district rangers without interference with their protec-
tive duties it may be said that the two are now already divorced.

On large forests containing extensive stands of timber, the
first step to be taken toward divorcing protection from adminis-
tration is the establishment of fire units, with the assignment of
a fire chief in charge of each unit. Such units will be made
without regard to the boundaries of administrative districts. If
two or three administrative districts are included in whole or
in part in a fire unit, their respective rangers in charge will con-
tinue the administrative work and will be called on only in the
event they are needed for actual supervision of fire fighting. Un-
der this system, the organization for fire protection is separate
from the administrative organization until there is a large fire
or a number of small fires. This means that a district ranger
in charge of an administrative district will not be called upon

384 Forestry Quarterly.

until the need for his services has' been indicated by the fire chief
or supervisor.

Rate of Wages.

The maximum wage for inexperienced men as either lookout
man or patrolman will not exceed $60.00 per month, together
with subsistence, which will not cost over $15 per month; this
subsistence to be furnished by the Forest Service. Inexper-
ienced patrolmen who will be so situated that there is no necessity
for the Service to furnish subsistence will be paid not to exceed
$75 per month. Experienced lookout men and patrolmen (those
who have rendered one years' service or more and whose services
because of their detailed knowledge of local conditions, are in-
valuable so that they could not be replaced), may, in the discre-
tion of the supervisor, be recommended for a wage greater than
$60. The District Forester will be informed of the facts in such
cases, and his approval secured in advance.

Instructions to Protective Force.

Either the supervisor or a competent member of his force
specifically designated will, in advance of the fire season, or
as soon as the special protective force is on the ground, per-
sonally instruct each man as to his duties. This will not take
the place of written instructions. This field inspection will give
the opportunity to orient protractors. The importance of im-
pressing upon each officer the necessity of discipline must not be
overlooked. It should be made clear to a lookout man that he
must remain at his post until permission for leaving is secured
from either the supervisor or the fire chief or district ranger,
as the case may be. To relieve the monotony of a lookout man's
duties, if it can be arranged without detriment, he can be al-
lowed to exchange positions with a patrolman for a week or
more; this is to be done only after specific authority has been
given.

Co-opera^tion.

Inter-forest boundaries will be practically disregarded in con-
sidering protection against and fighting of fires.

On those forests which adjoin Indian Reservations', supervisors
will personally take up the matter of co-operative fire protection
to ascertain if mutual arrangements can be made. If such ar-

Standardization of fire Plans. 385

rangements can not be made, the District Forester will, after
being duly informed of the facts, take the matter up with the
Forester. The idea, as indicated, will be to work from the bot-
tom up rather than vice versa.

Supervisors will write to local postmasters calling to their at-
tention the matter of co-operation, as indicated in an Order is-
sued by the Postmaster General in 1913.

Before the beginning of the fire season a circular letter should
be sent to each permittee; the letter will be in the nature of an
appeal — instructions and commands must be avoided. Cards or
posters containing the Six Rules will be given as wide distribu-
tion as possible ; fire signs and notices are to be posted in well
chosen location, avoiding the "bunching" of them. Large painted
fire signs (2x3 or 4 ft.) well placed at the entrance to a Forest
or occasionally along a well travelled road should possibly be
of greater benefit than a larger number of ordinary signs posted
indiscriminately.

The fire campaign must at all times be an active one; in so
far as possible — following up circulars with personal talks, and
preparing fire news items for local papers whenever there is a
"lead" for a story.

Per Diem Guards.

Per diem guards will be appointed on every Forest where
the class of men suitable for this position can be secured. They
will be considered as a part of the fire organization. Such ap-
pointments are conducive to responsibility and quick action in
time of fire, where no other forest officer happens to be in the
immediate vicinity. The appointment of per diem guards at
the rate of $.35 per hour for time actually worked in fighting fire
together with the fact that rangers can now act as notaries in
administering oaths, should remove any possible objections to
the plan. The rates of pay for fire fighters are to be: Laborers,
$.25 per hour — maximum; Cooks (regular experienced) $.35
per hour — maximum ; Foremen, $.35 per hour — maximum.

Instructions in the time book (form 875), which was sent out
in 1913, will be followed in determining the time of fire fighters.
Ordinarily the officer in charge of a fire will keep the time of
fire fighters.

Studying the Efficiency of Lookout Stations.
One very important feature of the 1914 fire plan will be the

386 Forestry Quarterly.

thorough study by the supervisor or a competent forest officer
whom he may designate, of the efficiency of lookout points, be-
fore new points are selected and towers erected. Generally it
may be said that every forest has a few prominent peaks and
they have been selected as lookout stations as a rule. What is
wanted is to know accurately whether these points already se-
lected really cover the areas they are supposed to. To deter-
mine this, go to a lookout point and take bearings on all prom-
inent points in the area covered by the lookout, as well as bear-
ings in canyons and on natural boundary features, making an
estimate of the distance to all such points and plot them on
the map so that a meander line can be drawn around the
"seen" area. Where nearby ridges or other small peaks are
so located as to interfere with fires on their far sides being
readily discovered, special note should be made of these con-
ditions, so that they can be checked from other lookout points.
If after checking the area of efficiency of all lookout points, it
is found that there are certain areas that can not be seen from
any of them, the advisability of establishing another primary
lookout or, if none is available, the location of a patrolman's
route will be in order.

Fire Maps.

The present fire map, a sample of which was sent out in
the spring of 1912, has been adopted as the standard fire pro-
tection map for the district. This means the adoption of all
the information as given on that map. When there is a riding
patrol the routes of patrol will be indicated. The organiza-
tion diagram will be placed on the map. The protractor should
be drawn directly on the tracing at each primary lookout point.
On the forests where the tri-colored base map is now in use or
where there is any reason for not placing the protractor on the
tracing, the transparent protractor will be pasted on the map.
Where there are inter-forest primary lookout points, a double
arc, with the projected bearings from the lookout point of an
adjoining forest marked on each arc, should be on the border of
the map, so that a correct bearing may be had from the
lookout point of such adjoining Forest. In order to get this it
will be necessary to give each Forest its proper location with

Standardisation of Fire Plans. 387

regard to adjoining forest maps and strike a circle with a
radius long enough to reach from the exact location of the look-
out point to the border of the map. Maps of inter-forest areas
comprising a fire protection unit will be prepared as rapidly
as possible.

Report Forms — Equipment and Supplies.

A blank form to be used by lookout and patrolmen as a daily
report was adopted for general use ; likewise a blank report form
to be used by the supervisor, fire chief or district ranger in
recording the daily reports from the lookout and patrolman was
adopted. On Forests inadequately provided with telephone
communication, where the so-called mail box system is used for
checking the work of patrolmen, a suitable galvanized iron box
was adopted, as well as a blank form for the purpose of record-
ing the visits of lookout men.

Standard supply lists will be left with each store-keeper living
in or near the Forest and necessary arrangements made so that
he can send immediately when requested the supplies specified in
the list. The standardization of subsistence supplies for fire
fighters was thoroughly considered, but no list adopted, due ap-
parently to the great variation in local conditions.

With the intent of avoiding possible criticism or comparisons
between adjacent Forests', the following list of food supplies,
when supplied by the Forest Service to lookout or patrolmen
was adopted as standard:

Beans Fresh meat

Flour Coffee

Baking soda Lard

Dried fruit Tea

Pepper Salt

Canned milk Bacon

Canned tomatoes Sugar and syrup or jam

Canned corn or peas I'-lacaroni and rice

Baking powder Potatoes

It was felt that the above list gives sufficient opportunity
for selecting a diet that can be relished by the most fastidious
employee. The total cost of supplies that may be purchased

388 Forestry Quarterly,

from this list for one man for one month will not exceed $15.00.

The, following equipment for a lookout station was made
standard : The fire maps ; A metal protractor 14 inches in di-
ameter; A metal sight alidade 14 inches long, with a pointer on
one end, and hole in center to fasten in center of protractor. The
sights will be at least 6 inches high.

Where needed a lookout watch-box, or shelter, is to be con-
structed. The telephone installed on the tower, and if pos-
sible a second one installed on the ground or in the lookout's
cabin, which must be as near as possible and convenient to the
lookout point or tower.

The tools will be a rake, axe, shovel, and saw.

In reference to the type of telephone to be used in enclosed
towers of lookout shelters, considerable discussion did not re-
sult in standardization. Some favored the adoption of desk setb
or regular wall sets, while others believed the use of the metal
box telephones should be continued.

Standard equipment for a patrolman will be as follows : i axe ;

1 shovel, hoe or rake, with handle ; Emergency rations ; Instruc-
tions in writing; Forest Service key, at the discretion of the
supervisor.

An upright galvanized metal tool box was adopted. This box
is very stoutly made, knock-down style, 27 inches wide and 30
inches deep and 8 feet tall. The door is 4 feet 10 inches tall by

2 feet 4 inches wide, and the bottom of the door is 16 inches
from the base of the box. There are two racks inside on the
back wall for holding rakes, shovels, axes, etc., and on each side
a shelf for storing canteens, water bags, etc. The space in the
bottom will hold food supplies, pack outfits and other fire box
equipment. The box is water and rodent proof. On the inside
of the door of the box will be posted a list of the tools in it —
a duplicate of this list will be kept in the ranger's ofifice, and
also in the supervisor's office, if desired. A standard list of
tools for boxes was considered, but not deemed advisable.

There should be a rodent-proof box at all places where a
reserve food supply is kept. This should be made of galvanized
metal similar to the tool box.

Pack train outfits will be kept at strategic points for the
purpose of bringing in supplies to fire fighters, if in the judg-
ment of the supervisor such outfits are needed for efficient pro-

Standardisation of Fire Plans. 389

tection. Before purchasing burros, mules or horses for this
purpose the approval of the District Forester is necessary.

Use of Improvement Crews.

Wherever it is possible to do so, improvement crews during
the fire season should be placed on w^ork where they can be avail-
able for fire jighting, thus giving an additional reserve supply of
fighters in case they are needed. The foreman will have a
wagon and team, or some other means of transportation, and
will be equipped with a portable telephone and enough emergency
wire to conveniently reach the telephone system. In case of fire
he will be called on to go to it immediately, with his crew if
necessary.

Awards.

The committee decided that the plan of making awards should
be tried out this season. These are to be given to Forests hav-
ing at the end of the fire season the best record in fire protec-
tion. A first and second prize will be given. The award will
consist of a framed official letter for posting at the Forest head-
quarters, designating the winning Forest, together with a list
of the entire Forest personnel, copies of the letter being sent to
each member of the Forest force as well. The first prize will
be designated by a blue ribbon attached to the letter; the sec-
ond by a red ribbon. The awards will be determined on: i.
highest percentage of class A fires; (2) smallest average acreage
per fire, including all classes of fires; (3) inspection reports

Inspection.

The committee went on record to the effect that it is of the
first importance for the supervisor himself to personally in-
spect the workings of the protective plans in the field. Monthly
field plans for the supervisor's office force must provide for
this during the fire season and will be scrutinized by members
of the District Office with this end in view.

The committee fully discussed the following, but did not
feel at that time that standardization was practicable; pack
saddles and outfits; nested cooking equipment; water packing
outfits for use on pack animals ; electric storage battery ; lanterns
for tool boxes.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TWO LOG RULES, AS
APPLIED TO TIMBER IN CENTRAL NEW YORK.

By John Bentley, Jr.

It is a well known fact that there are a great many log rules
in use in different parts of the country, and that the values given
in these rules vary within wide limits even for logs of the same
size. Differences of 25% or more are not uncommon in logs of
the smaller diameters, and while the relative differences in logs
of large diameter are not so great, the absolute differences are
sufficient to cause one to marvel that the same log could by any
chance yield such uncertain quantities of lumber. The factors
influencing the board foot contents of logs are, of course, numer-
ous ; but with sound logs and a definite allowance for saw-kerf,
it seems that any log rule constructed on sound principles should
be able to stand comparison with the actual mill cut of a num-
ber of representative logs. That the same log, when scaled by
the Doyle rule should yield only 16 board feet, and when scaled
by the Scribner rule should yield 32 board feet seems absurd,
and yet these are the figures assigned by these two rules for a
log sixteen feet long and 8 inches in diameter. If the differences
were fairly constant, one might feel inclined to excuse such dis-
crepancies on the ground that saw-kerf and slabs were allowed
for in different degrees ; but when one follows these same two
rules to a log 48 inches in diameter, and finds the relative posi-
tions just reversed, — that by the Doyle rule the log contains 1936
board feet, and by the Scribner rule 1728 board feet, it then be-
comes obvious that the rules can not both of them be con-
structed on sound principles. What are we to do? What, in
particular, is the man to do who is not familiar with the in-
consistencies of log rules ? Some people may even be buying by
one rule and selling by another rule, ignorant of the fact that
there may be a difference of from 10 to 20 per cent.

It has long been the desire of the writer to test the accuracy
of the "Universal" Log Rule, devised by Prof A. L. Daniels,
of the University of Vermont, and published by him in Bulletin
No. 102 of the Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station, in

A Comparative Study of Log Rules. 391

1903.* This rule appeared to be based on principles entirely
sound ; and when compared with other rules, it seemed to have
escaped the errors which are often so noticeable. It was de-
cided, therefore, to test the "Universal" Rule in a way which
would prove its accuracy when applied to logs of various dimen-
sions, and afford a comparison with some other rule in com-
mon use.

The opportunity came when a small portable mill was found
in operation not far from Ithaca. Three students* were assigned
to a study involving a test of the "Universal" Rule and the Scrib-
ner Rule. The method consisted in scaling numbered sound
logs of different sizes by both log rules, and then comparing
these results with the actual product of those same logs, when
measured as lumber. In this way it was possible to discover
whether the differences were constant, and if so in what degree,
so that some definite conclusions could be drawn as to the
relative accuracy of the rules when compared with the mill-
cut. While it might be argued by some that a portable saw-
mill hardly affords ideal conditions under which to study a
problem of this nature, let it be said that the logs that are
bought and sold in New York state to-day are more likely to
be sawed at a portable mill than at a large stationary mill. The
day of big lumbering operations in New York, except for a
few in the Adirondack Mountains, is past. A great deal of
work in other sections of the state, where woodlots rather than
large forests are the rule, is done by portable saw-mills. And
they are operating in some remarkably good pieces of timber,
woodlots that have been protected and preserved for two gen-
erations or more, where stands of 25,000 feet, B. M., per acre
are occasionally met with.*

In the case now under consideration, the mill was a small
one, with a 52-inch rotary saw cutting a kerf of ^ inch. The
logs were mostly White Pine and Hemlock, although a few
hardwoods were also included. The logs were sawed into inch-
boards or two-inch planks, the proportion of the latter being ap-

* See also Forestry Quarterly, Vol. Ill, p. 339.

*Messrs. H. B. Steer, C. S. Hahn and P. C. King.

*The stand per acre in the present instance averaged 25,000 bd. ft. The
writer knows of one acre of nearly pure pine in New York State, that
was cut a few years ago, yielding 50,000 bd. ft.

392 Forestry Quarterly.

proximately 30%. While leaving some things to be desired in
the way of equipment and efficiency, the operation was typical
of much of the work being done by the portable saw-mills in
the state.

The number of logs scaled and measured was 62, of which
^4 were White Pine, 21 Hemlock, and 7 hardwoods. They
.anged in size from 8 to 16 feet in length, and from 6 to 28 inches
in diameter. The smallest log scaled and sawed was 8 feet long
md 6 inches in diameter. The largest log scaled and sawed was
iO feet long and 28 inches in diameter. Each log was scaled by
both the "Universal" Rule and the Scribner Rule, and a tally
kept of the actual product, measured as it came from the saw.
The logs were divided into seven groups, based on the amount
of lumber indicated in the scale, as follows : Group I, included
all logs scaling from i to 50 board feet; Group II, included all
logs scaling from 51 to 100 board feet; Group III, included all
logs scaling from loi to 150 board feet; and so on, Group VII,
including all logs scaling more than 300 board feet. (Table 2
shows the number of logs in each group.)

Table i is a summary of the results, showing only the amount
of the over-run in board feet, and expressed as a percentage.
This table shows the "Universal" rule to approach quite closely
to the actual mill cut. Table 2 shows in more detail, just how
the over-run was distributed, according to the size of the log.
This Table is very instructive in respect to the fact that the
greatest percentage of over-run, in both rules, occurs in the
logs of small diameters. This would indicate that the rules are
inaccurate for the very small logs, and since in any "run" of logs
there must always be more small ones than large ones, this ten-
dency of log rules to undervalue the small logs should be re-
membered. In the larger sizes, particularly from 16 inches in
diameter to 26 inches in diameter, the differences noted are not
so great. In this connection, it is interesting to note that a
sound log 10 feet long, and 28 inches in diameter, scaled 364
board feet by the "Universal" Rule, 360 board feet by the Scrib-
ner Rule, and the measured lumber from this log amounted to
just 364 board feet. It would seem, therefore, that our log rules,
— most of them — are not liberal enough with the small logs, and
in these days of close utilization, the small logs may often count
for a good deal, in the aggregate.

A Comparative Study of Log Rules. 793

Table 3, showing the mean over-run in board feet for logs of
the several groups, discloses the fact that the Scribner rule is
less reliable than the "Universal." The mean over-run for the
Scribner is about double that of the ''Universal" in all groups
excepting Groups V and VII. This confirms the figures shown
in Table i, where the percentage of over-run on all logs is nearly
in the same proportion for the two rules.

It is acknowledged that in a study of this kind there is some
opportunity for the lack of skill on the part of the scaler in dis-
counting for defects to affect the figures to such an extent that
no definite conclusions could be reached. If the full scale were
allowed on defective logs, then the mill-cut would be quite likely
to fall short of the scale, and conversely, if too liberal a discount
were made the mill-cut would greatly exceed the scale. In the
present instance the conditions were favorable to a high degree
of accuracy, because the logs were most of them sound, and the
task of scaling called for the exercise of judgment chiefly in
the matter of determining the average diameter, and proper al-
lowances for slight crooks in the logs.

The general conclusions reached in this comparative study
of the two log rules may be stated as follows :

(i) Both the Scribner and the "Universal" Rules give a sound
log less than can be produced from it under favorable con-
ditions.

(2) Both rules fall short by larger percentages in the small
logs than in the large logs. The scales apply with the greatest
accuracy in logs of medium size, that is, from 16 to 26 inches in
diameter.

(3) With sound logs, the mill-cut may be expected to over-
run the Scribner scale by about 10% and to over-run the "Uni-
versal" scale by about 5%.

(4) All things considered, the "Universal" Rule will give bet-
ter results than the Scribner Rule, but both run low for the logs
of small diameters.

Note. — The "International" Rule, as printed by Dr. J. F. Clark in
"Forestry Quarterly," Vol. IV, page 79, may be adapted to allow for a
saw kerf of % inch by applying a reducing factor of 9.5%. This was
done, and the logs by this scale would yield a total of 7,435 board feet,
or only 2^% less than the actual mill cut. It may be said, therefore,
that the "International" Rule, when adjusted to allow the proper amount
for saw-kerf, will undoubtedly give very good results.

394

Forestry Quarterly.

TABLE I.
Summary of Results.

Total Scale

Over-run

Percent

Total No.

How scaled.

(board

(board

of

of Logs.

feet)

feet)

Overrun

62 By Scribner Rule 6.847

By "Universal" Rule 7-194

By measurement of

sawed lumber 7.625

TABLE 2.
Distribution ov OvaE-run.

No. of
Group.

778

431

10.1%
5.6%

I. ( i_ 50 bd. ft.)
II. ( 51— ICO bd. ft.)

III. (loi— 150 bd. ft.)

IV. (151—200 bd. ft.)
V. (201 — 250 bd. ft.)

VL (251—300 bd. ft.)
VII. (300+ bd. ft.)

Total,
*Under-run.

Daniels

'Universal" Rule

Scribn

;r Rule.

Net

Net

Amount

Per-cent.

Amount

Per-cent

of

P

of

of

Over-run.

Over-run.

Over-run.

Over-run.

145 bd.

ft.

21.7%

221

bd. ft.

27.9%

93

10.3

169

17

4

22

2.0

III

9

4

36

3-9

71

9

3

129

6.0

143

5

9

-34*

—4.5

23

7

7

40

3-9

40

3

8

(Average)

(Average)

431

5-6%

778

10

1%

TABLE 3.

Mean Over-run, for logs of Different Sizes.

Mean Over-run, Board Feet.
No. of Group. Daniels' "Universal"

Rule. Scribner Rule.

L ( I— 50 bd. feet) 6.6

II. ( 51—100 bd. feet) 8.5

III. (loi — 150 bd. feet) 2.4

IV. (151—200 bd. feet) 7.2
V. (201 — 250 bd. feet) 14-3

VL (251— 300 bd. feet) 11.3

VII. (301+ bd. feet) 13.3

9.2
16.9
12.3
17.7
13-0
23.0
13-3

THE YOUXGLOVE LOG RULE.
B3; Wm. W. W. Colton.

The Younglove Log Rule is mentioned in the Woodsman Hand-
book and also in Graves' Forest Mensuration, but the author
states that he was unable to obtain the rule and could find out
very little about it. Consequently, when a few months ago I was
looking in a local hardware store for a caliper to measure logs
with, I was rather surprised to find that the only one in stock
was a Younglove Scale Caliper.

Upon making inquiries, I discovered that the Younglove Rule
had at one time been the only one in use in this section of the
State (Fitchburg, Mass.) and that even up to the present time
saw mill owners and people selling logs throughout this locality
claim that the Younglove Rule is the only one to be used. As
there was so little known about this rule, I thought it might be
of interest to others to learn more about it and I have therefore
sought out the following information.

The Younglove Rule was originated by Tyler Younglove, who
was born in Fitchburg about 1812. He was a carpenter by
trade and worked for many years in a local saw mill and lumber
yard. About 1840 he worked out this rule and in later years,
together with his son, manufactured calipers and sticks for
measuring sawed lumber. After his death, his son conducted
the business enlarging it to some extent and made scale sticks and
calipers of all kinds. He died a few years ago, and with him
died the secret of his log rule. A grandson of Tyler Younglove,
Mr. Wm. K. Younglove, is now a captain in the Fire Depart-
ment in Fitchburg, and through his courtesy I was allowed to
look over the papers and other effects of his late father and
grandfather. Among these, I ran across one copy of the mill
table for log measure which is in my possession. No record,
however, could be found of the principle upon which the scale
was made. I have talked with a number of old residents who
knew the old gentlemen in life, and the general opinion is that
the table was constructed from diagrams and from actual meas-
urements of logs at the mill. In comparing it with the other

396 Forestry Quarterly.

tables given in the Woodsman Handbook, I find it corresponds
very closely to the Baxter Rule. For logs over 20" in diameter,
the contents of logs given is slightly less than in the Baxter Rule.
By applying Prof. Daniel's Method given on page 34 of Graves'
Forest Mensuration, we find the formulae for this table to be
V=f D^-f 9/20 D— 7.

According to Mr. Wm. Younglove, his father would never im-
part the secret of making this to anyone, and often boasted that
it would die with him. Since his death, there have been no
more Younglove Calipers made, and I believe at the present
time I have in my possession the last one ever placed on the mar-
ket for sale. From those who have used this rule, I find that
the best results are obtained from taking the diameter outside
the bark at the small end of the log. I have used the caliper
myself this year in measuring logs, cut from a small woodlot
near by, and have taken measurements both at the small end,
and one third of the way from the small end. These logs have
been marked and I hope to follow them through the mill at some
later date to see which measurements tally up the best.

It would seem that the table would give very fair results for
the measurement of small diameters but runs rather low for dia-
meters above 24 inches.

(The logscale itself was submitted, but is not printed for lack
of practical interest. — Ed.)

PROGRESS OF THE U. S. FOREST SERVICE.

AS REFLECTED IN THE FORESTER'S

REPORTS FOR 191 1, 1912, 1913.

By Alexander J. Jaenicke.

Any one familiar with these annual reports will realize that
it is impossible to adequately give an idea of their contents in a
brief abstract such as this purports to be. An annual report con-
cerns itself with the activity and the plans of the U. S. Forest
Service, and this is discussed in an exceedingly concise and not
at all detailed manner. An abstract, therefore, must necessarily
omit much that is exceedingly important; in fact, nothing but a
general idea of the contents can be given.

The report for 191 1 is really Mr. Graves' first report, the 1910
Report being the last one of Mr. Pinchot's' administration. In
abstracting ]\Ir. Graves' reports for 191 1, 1912 and 1913, it was
thought best to consider them together rather than separately in
order that the growth and progress of the Forest Service during
these three years could more easily be traced. In the following
pages, when the year 191 1 is mentioned, this will mean the fiscal
year 191 1, or the period between July i, 1910 and June 30, 191 1
and similarly for the other years. All three reports are much
alike as' regards the order in which the various topics are taken
up, and this sequence will be followed in this brief, the main topics
being indicated by headings.

Classification of Expenditures and Receipts.

For the years 191 1, 1912 and 1913, the annual expenditures of
the Forest Service have been between $5,000,000 and $6,000,000.
Thus these years have seen no marked rise in the annual appro-
priations. Under the heading of salaries and general expenses,
over 90% of the annual appropriation was used each year, less
than 10% being used for the permanent improvement of the
National Forests. Consequently the administration and protec-
tion of the National Forests has cost an annual average of 2-|
cents per acre while the improvements have amounted to less than
2^ mills' per annum.

The receipts of the Forest Service can be classified under the
following three heads:

398 Forestry Quarterly.

1. Timber.

2. Grazing.

3. Special uses.

In 191 1, the total of these receipts amounted to slightly over
$2,000,000. In 1912, there was an increase of $100,000 and by
1913 the total annual receipts were practically $2,500,000. The
average distribution of these receipts is roughly about as follows :'

Timber— 55 %—$ i ,350,000.
Grazing — 40% — $1 ,000,000.
Special uses — 5% — $150,000.

In the future, there is no doubt but what the receipts from
timber will show the greatest increase, although steady gains in
grazing and special use receipts can be confidently looked for.

Organization and Personnel.

Perhaps the most noteworthy of mention here is the tendency
toward the reduction of supervisory officers in Washington and
in the districts. The officers in Washington were decreased by
placing increased responsibility upon the district officers, and
these in turn were reduced in number by gradually increasing
the responsibilities of the supervisors.

In addition, during Mr. Graves' regime, there has been much
attention paid to the organization of the protective force and the
investigative work. There has been a marked increase in ef-
ficiency in both as' a result of this re-organization.

The classification of the forest force at end of the year 1912
was as follows:

Supervisors, 147

Deputy supervisors, 9^

Rangers, 1393

Guards, 7^

Forest examiners and forest assistants, 156

Clerks', 171

Miscellaneous lumber men, experts, hunters,

etc., • 15^

Total, 2895

Progress of the U. S. Forest Service. 399

The previous year the Forest Service numbered 2624 men.
These figures are indicative of the very gradual increase which
may be expected in the future, in contrast to the rapid increases
in the earher history of the Service.

Area and Boundaries of the National Forests.

During the past three fiscal years, the area of the National
Forests has remained practically the same, amounting to ap-
proximately 187,500,000 acres at end of the fiscal year 1912, in-
clusive of Alaska. Exclusive of Alaska and Porto Rico, the
National Forests at the end of 1912 included roughly 160,600,000
acres. This area is distributed in approximately 160 National
Forests, a National Forest thus averaging slightly over one mil-
lion acres. Exclusive of the acquisitions under the Weeks Bill,
National Forests exist in 20 states, California leads in the area of
National Forests within its borders with almost 28,000,000 acres.
Idaho and Montana follow closely with almost 20,000,000 acres in
each of these two states.

The policy which has governed recommendations for additions
and eliminations since the fiscal year 191 1, may be briefed as
follows :

Lands to be retained within the National Forests:

1. Lands wholly or partly covered with brush which are valu-
able for watershed protection, or open land on which trees may
be grown, unless their permanent value is greater for cultivation
than for protection.

2. Lands wholly or partly covered with timber and under-
growth which are more valuable for growing of trees than for
agriculture.

3. Lands not possessing timber or brush which should be in-
cluded in National Forests for administrative reasons.

Lands to be eliminated from National Forests:

I. Lands not wholly or partly covered with timber or under-
growth upon which it is not expected to grow trees.

Claims and Settlements on the National Forests.

The claims on the National Forests may be divided into two
large classes : i. Homestead claims. 2. Mining claims.

400 Forestry Quarterly.

Claims within the National Forests are constantly the source
of much annoyance and trouble because of the frequent attempts
at fraud.

During the fiscal year 1913, 1,690 individual tracts of land
in the National Forests' passed into private ownership through the
patenting of claims. These included:

Homestead claims, 977

Desert land claims, 6

Timber, stone claims, 35

Mineral claims, 639

Coal claims, 24

Miscellaneous claims, 5

In 191 1, this total was almost 3CXX), while in 1912, it had
dropped to 1500. There are several reasons for this, but they
cannot be discussed here. Suffice it to say, that the criticism that
the Forest Service hinders homesteading and prospecting is un-
just, and not substantiated by facts. Those who have been foiled
in attempts to patent fraudulent claims have naturally been the
chief opponents of the present "claim policy" on the National
Forests.

Land Classification.

This work was seriously inaugurated in 1909, but the work has
seen its greatest development since the fiscal year 191 2, because
of previous experience gained, and the increased appropriations.
The purpose of the work in Mr. Graves' own words is "to segre-
gate and make available for the establishment and development
of homes, all National Forest land which will serve its best pur-
pose by being brought under cultivation."

In general the work includes the following:

1. Classification of areas where the amount of land chiefly valu-
able for agriculture warrants large eliminations.

2. Detailed classification of considerable areas.

3. Examination and classification of single scattered tracts for
which prospective settlers make application.

Timber Sales.
The total stand of timber on the National Forests inclusive
of Alaska is approximately 600,000,000,000 board feet. Of this

Progress of the U. S. forest Service. 401

about 350 billion feet is overmature and mature. The annual
yield is roughly estimated at slightly over 6 billion feet. With
the proper deduction for local requirements near the various
National Forests, over 5-^ billion feet are available for timber
sales to supply the general market.

Timber sales are rapidly increasing. Comparison of the fiscal
years 1912 and 1913 brings this out clearly:

Year.

Total sales (ft. b. m.)

Stumpage Value

1912,

800,000,000

$1,600,000

1913,

2,000,000,000

$4,500,000

The aims of the National Forest Timber policy may be sum-
marized as follows : —

1. Prevent losses by fire.

2. Utilize ripe timber in such a manner as to insure restocking
of the land and continuance of production,

3. Sell timber at the proper price.

4. Sell ripe timber so as to prevent speculation.

5. Prevent monopoly of public timber and maintain competi-
tive conditions in the lumber industry by its sale.

6. Provide for requirements of local communities and settlers.

7. Make timbered lands of agricultural value available for
proper settlement and use.

8. Make the National Forests self-sustaining, and yield revenue
to the various states to offset loss in taxes.

The most important factors influencing the sale of timber are:

1. Distance of larger bodies of N. F. timber from markets and
transportation facilities.

2. Condition of the lumber markets.

3. Difficulties in logging — topography exceedingly rough on
many portions of the National Forests.

4. Presence of privately owned timber tributary to same
markets as National Forest timber.

The relative importance of these four factors vary from year
to year, an4 their fluctuation results in corresponding changes
in timber sale receipts.

A brief classification of the timber sales by years will clearly
show their rapid growth in total values : —

402 /

forestry Quarterly.

Less than
Year $ioo $ioo-$500

VALUE.
$5oo-$iooo $iooo-$50oo

Over
$5000

Total.

191 1 5144 327

1912 5279 378

1913 5696 209

70 73
78 . 92
7Z 142

Protection.

39

45
62

5653
5772
6182

Fire losses are reported by calendar years, and not by fiscal
years. The calendar year 1910 was an exceptional one for
severity, and especially to be regretted is the large loss of life
which took place in the fight against the fires.

The following summary will give a general idea of the acreage
burned over on the National Forests during the past three years
for which figures are available :

Calendar Year. Timbered Area per locx) Acres.

1910 19.90

191 1 1.78

1912 0.91

Lightning, railroads and campers cause almost two-thirds of
the fires which occur. Half of the discovered fires burned over
much less than an acre, 25% burn over between 0.25-10 acres,
and the remaining 25% burn over more than 10 acres. About
3000 fires are annually fought on the National Forests. It is
difficult to get at the exact cost of fighting these fires, since the
time spent on them by regular forest officers is not considered in
the annual reports.

The present efficiency in the protective work of the Forest
Service is due to :

1. The rapid development of permanent improvements such
as' telephones, look-out stations, etc.

2. Preparation of detailed fire-protection plans on a large num-
ber of forests and their rigid execution.

3. Co-operation of private owners and railroads.

Aside from protection from fire — there are also the following
phases of the protection problem :

Progress of the U. S. Forest Service. 403

1. Protection against pollution of streams.

2. Prevention of insect depredations.

3. Control of forest-tree diseases.

Reforestation.

It is estimated that there are 7,500,000 acres on the National
Forests which must be reforested by artificial means. In ad-
dition to this, the natural regeneration on 1,000,000 acres cut over
annually by timber sales must be taken care of.

A great deal of the work of reforestation is still in the ex-
perimental stage, and hence in many sections of the country,
extensive and expensive plantations are not yet justifiable — dis-
trict 3 and district 5 are examples of this.

In 1912, the following tentative distribution among the dis-
tricts of the area to be reforested annually was agreed upon : —

District Acreage

1 9000

2 6000

3 500

4 6000

5 500

6 9000

Direct seeding, under which the tree seed, is sown upon the
ground with or without simple forms of cultivation, and the
growing of seedlings' in nurseries under ideal conditions to be
transported into the field when of suitable size — these are the
two general methods used in reforestation work in the Forest
Service.

In the matter of direct seeding, three problems are con-
fronted, i. e. : I. Seed supply. 2. Rodent injury. 3. Cheap culti-
vation.

In 1913, the reforestation work covered approximately 30,000
acres. About 24,000 acres was sown at an average cost of $4 per
acre — 6000 acres planted at $1 1 per acre.

Most of the seed used was collected by Forest officers. In 1913,
40,000 lbs. of coniferous seed was collected at an average cost of
$.78 per lb.

The nursery stock used was obtained from the various forest
nurseries on the National Forests. The cost of seedlings in 1913

404 Forestry Quarterly.

was $3 per looo, and $5 for transplants. These figures will un-
doubtedly be materially reduced in the future.

Of the 30,ocx5 acres reforested in 1913, the following is the
species distribution :

Species Acreage

Douglas fir, 10,000

Western Yellow pine, 7,000

Western White pine, 7,000

Lodgepole, 2,000

Miscellaneous, 4,000

30,000 acres.

The most notable thing in connection with the reforestation
work, is the rapid decrease of per acre costs from year to year,
and the increasing success of the work. The experimental work
in connection with reforestation is still, however, of first im-
portance.

Range Management.

Over 20,000,000 head of stock are partially dependent on the
National Forests for forage. The system of range control de-
vised and placed in operation by the Forest Service has won the
approval of the vast majority of the western stock growers. To
further increase the efficiency of this system, the following
studies are under way : —

1. Exact character and condition of all forest lands.

2. Distribution and economic importance of all the herbaceous
plants.

3. Natural, artificial methods of reseeding valuable herbaceous
plants.

4. Most efficient methods of handling live stock to conserve
the range.

5. Character and extent of damage by stock to forests, water-
sheds, and methods of minimizing these injuries.

A study of the number of stock grazed under permit, shows a
gradual increase in the carrying capacity of many forests. This
is due to: —

1. Increased forage production.

2. Better knowledge of the ranges'.

Progress of the U. S. Forest Service. 405

3. Improvements in handling stock.

4. Better distribution of stock.

5. Gradual substitution of shipping by railroad for trailing.

Some of the notable things which indirectly contribute to the
success of the present grazing policy of the Forest Service
include: —

1. Protection against disease.

2. Protection against wild animals.

3. Prairie dog extermination.

4. Protection against poisonous plants.

5. Co-operation of Forest Service with live-stock associations.

Water-power Development.

In spite of the fact that the regulations make it impossible to
grant permits for a term of years, power development on the
National Forests is rapidly increasing. It is estimated that at
least 12,000,000 horse power can be developed on the National
Forests from natural stream flow. This can of course be greatly
increased by storage reservoirs. To again quote Mr. Graves,
"The purpose of the administration of the water power sites on
the National Forests is to encourage power development in every
way possible, while safeguarding the interests of the using public."

Since water-power development in the National Forests has
aroused so much discussion recently, it may be well to summarize
the main features of the Forest Service policy with respect to
this development: —

1. The speculative holding of the power sites is prevented.

2. Provision is made for complete and prompt development
together with continuous operation.

3. A return is secured for the power site privilege.

4. Permittees are required to abide by certain regulations.

5. The capitalization of the value of the privileges conferred by
the permit is prohibited.

6. Sufficient power is retained by the Forest Service so that the
placing of unjust burden on the consuming public is prevented.

Permanent Improvements.
The chief improvements carried on by the Forest Service on

4o6 Forestry Quarterly.

the National Forests include roads, fire lines, telephone lines,
trails, bridges, fences and buildings. By the end of the fiscal
year 1913, these improvements had a value of almost $3,500,000.
Ten per cent of the receipts of the National Forests are de-
voted to the building of roads primarily for the benefit of the
public. In addition to this, 25 per cent of the gross receipts of
the National Forests reverts to the states for the benefit of county
schools and roads. In the fiscal years 1913 and 1914, the ten per
cent item will have amounted to considerably over $200,000 per
annum, w^hile the 25^ item v^ill mean an annual $500,000 for the
present fiscal year.

Acquisition of Lands Under the Week's Bill.

Up to the end of the fiscal year 1913, the National Forest
Reservation Commission approved for purchase a total of slightly
over 700,000 acres. These lands are located in 14 purchase areas
in the Southern Appalachians and White Mountains. The states
in which these lands are located are: Maine, New Hampshire,
Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Caro-
lina, Tennessee and Georgia.

The work of the Forest Service in fire protection in these pur-
chase areas has already resulted in a great improvement in the
local sentiment on the forest fire question. Improvement work
on these lands has already been begun.

Most of the land which has been bought is in a cut-over or
culled condition and in many cases only the inferior species are
left. Plans have already been made for the management of these
areas, especial attention having been given to the grazing busi-
ness and special permits, as well as to the timber sale business and
the proper restoration of the areas.

Co-operaiion With States.

The Weeks Law which began its operation on March i, 191 1
with an original appropriation of $200,000 to be expended in the
various states with a limit of $10,000 in any one state in any one
year has been productive of much good. Among the benefits
which have resulted because of this' co-operation are: —

I. The shaping of forest policies and forest legislation in vari-
ous states.

Progress of the U. S. Forest Service. 407

2. Increased activity of the public and the legislatures in the
forestry movement.

3. Increased efficiency in all lines of forestry work in the vari-
ous states because of the interchange of ideas on effective methods
of State organization and fire control.

National Forest Investigations.
At present there are nine forest experiment stations. Re-
forestation problems are given the most attention. The following
phases of reforestation are given the greatest attention : —

1. Methods of seed extraction.

2. Methods of direct seeding.

3. Nursery work.

4. Methods of field planting.

5. Studies in the breeding.

6. Factors governing production fertility of tree seed.

In addition, mensuration studies, thinning experiments, studies
in forest management, forest influences, efforts of grazing, are
only a few of the things to which the experiment stations devote
their attention.

Silvicultural and dendrological studies are carried on by the
Washington investigative force.

Other studies given consideration by the Forest Service are
those that deal directly with forest products. Among these
studies are : —

1. Utilization of National Forest timber.

2. Wood preservation.

3. Wood chemistry and distillation.

4. Timber physics.

5. Pulp and paper investigations.

6. Industrial investigations.

Conclusion.
In this abstract, as little attention as possible has been given
to mere figures and statistics. It was deemed far more important
by the writer to outline the scope of the work of the Forest Serv-
ice, and to give briefly the policies which govern this work. Much
that is essential and important had to be omitted in order to give
this digest the brevity that is demanded of it.

EXPLOITATION OF CROSSTIES IN NORTHERN
NEW MEXICO.*

By Clarence F. Korstian.

The following data on the various operations in the exploita-
tion of crossties is based on the methods employed by a company
which has been operating for the past six years in Northern
New Mexico. The area which is now being exploited lies on the
west slope of the Sangre de Christo Range, at elevations of 8,ocxD
to 11,000 feet above sea level. The lower slopes of these moun-
tains merge into rolling hills and gently sloping mesas. The up-
per portion of this area is quite rugged, consisting of deep can-
yons which have steep slopes. Mostly the timber is found on
the mesas, slopes and ridges. The soil is usually of sufficient
depth to cover the underlying rock so that it does not interfere
with logging to any great extent.

Heivn Ties — Woods to River.

The following species suitable for hewn ties are found in this
locality: Western Yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa), Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga taxifolia), White fir {Abies concolor), Engle-
mann spruce (Picea engelmanni), Alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa),
and Limber pine {Pinus flexiUs). Western yellow pine, Douglas
fir, and white fir are the most important species on the area now
being cut.

The following defects were found common to Western Yellow
pine: stump and heart rot, cat-faces, mistletoe and injury caused
by the pine bark-beetle. The cat-faces were caused by fires, oc-
curring from 25 to as much as 100 years ago, and by removal
of the inner bark for food by Indians, a custom which has been
discontinued but which seems to have been prevalent 25 to 50
years ago. Trees having stump rot and cat-faces require long-
butting which not only increases the waste but results in a lower
grade of ties. Mistletoe and the bark-beetle cause the trees to

* The writer is indebted to Assistant Forest Ranger Wayne Russel
for assistance in collecting the data contained in this article.

Crossties in Northern New Mexico, 409

become pitchy and burly, which renders them difficult to work.
Generally, however, Western Yellow pine is not difficult to work
but is heavy to haul. Douglas fir is usually sound, being the
least defective of the species used for ties. It makes the most
desirable ties because of its durability and lightness, but is not
liked by the majority of tie makers because of its hardness.
White fir is very soft and easy to work, and for this reason is
preferred by any of the tie makers. It is often seriously infected
with stump and heart rot. The policy of seldom marking White fir
above 18 to 20 inches D. B. H. has been adopted for this locality,
because trees above this diameter usually show considerable rot,
White fir makes the least desirable tie because the wood is soft.
brittle, and does not hold the spikes firmly. When creosoted it
makes a fairly satisfactory tie as evidenced by the fact that the
railroad company, in this section of the country, accepts white
fir ties together with those of the other species without discrimi-
nation.

Trees from 10 to 16 inches D. B. H. are suitable for hewn ties,
although the tie makers prefer those from 11 to 13 inches D. B. H.
At the lower elevations where cutting is now in progress the trees
average 2.7 ties per tree. This figure is kept rather low, due to
the marking for cutting of all suppressed and defective trees,
from which at least one tie can be made, and the short-boled
timber toward the lower limit of the Yellow pine type.

Three classes of hewn ties are made; squares, firsts, and
seconds'. The butts of large trees are made into square ties,
which are not less than 10 inches on the face, and do not exceed
8 inches in thickness and 8 feet long. First class ties are 8 inches
wide, 7 inches thick, and 8 feet long. Only one inch increase is
allowed in thickness or length. vSecond class ties must be 7
inches thick, so long as the log is large enough to permit, and
under no circumstances less than 6 inches thick and 6 inches wide.
No ties under 6 inches by 6 inches, or over 11 inches by 8 inches,
are accepted by the tie inspector.

The company's agreements with all of their tie makers contain
a stipulation which states that all timber of the proper size for
hewn ties must be cut and if sound shall be made into ties. It
not sound, it must be cut into every four feet sufficiently to show
the defect. All ties must be smooth and of uniform width and

4IO Forestry Quarterly.

thickness'. The specifications further state that all ties must be
free from shake, loose knots, rot, score hacks, and bark.

The per cent of the different classes, according to the past
season's cut, is approximately as follows : —

Class Per Cent

Squares, 8.3

Firsts, 35.8

Seconds, 52.7

Drys (made from dead timber), .6

Culls, 2.6

Total loo.o

Making.

Areas are allotted to the contractors who in turn subdivide
them, alloting small areas to subcontractors who are held re-
sponsible for the proper utilization on their area. A full crew
usually consists of three contractors, about 40 subcontractors, and
approximately 100 laborers, most of whom are Mexicans who
make their homes in Northern New Mexico. From one-third to
one-fourth of the laborers are from the State of Chihuahua,
Mexico. These are the most efficient and rapid tie makers, each
man averaging about 25 ties per day, while the natives
average only 18. A few Picuris Indians have worked at intervals
but can not be depended upon for steady labor. An unskilled
laborer in this locality receives $1.50 per ten-hour day, without
board.

The subcontractor organizes his gang, consisting of from two
to five men, and pitches his tent or some simple shelter close to
water which may be near his area. The matter of available water
has a great bearing on the desirability of any area. It is difficult
to get men to make ties in timber that is more than a mile from a
spring or stream.

The tie makers or, as they are commonly called, "tie hackers"
use the following tools and equipment ; one 4 to 4I pound double-
bitted axe and one 12 inch broad-axe to each man, and one 5 to 6
foot cross-cut saw, one steel wedge, one light sledge hammer,
one 8- foot measuring pole and a bottle of kerosene (to cut the

Crossties in Northern New Mexico. 41 1

pitch from the saw) to every two men. These are furnished by
the tie makers themselves.

Enough trees for the day's cut are notched by the men, work-
ing singly, in such a manner that when they are felled any crooks
the trees may contain will be perpendicular to the ground. The
object of this is to face the tie so that when finished it will lie
flat on the ground. Care is also taken with small trees that their
greatest diameter is perpendicular to the ground. This gives the
ties the widest possible face and necessitates less scoring. After
the trees are notched two men fall them with a cross-cut saw.

Two methods of scoring are employed. In the more prevalent
method followed by the native Mexicans the chopper stands on
the fallen tree and with the axe cuts into its side at an angle of
about 45 degrees at intervals of about six inches. The Chihua-
huans, in scoring, stand at the side of the fallen tree and split
large slabs from its side until it is nearly the desired size. This
method requires more skill on the part of the chopper but is more
rapid and leaves no possibility of the score hacks showing after
the tie has been faced. The limbs are chopped off as they are
reached in scoring.

In facing, the maker stands on top of the tree in all cases and
with the broadaxe works the two faces to their desired size and
smoothness. The "cant" or faced tree is then bucked into 8-foot
lengths with the crosscut saw. The unfaced sides of the larger
ties are hewn until they become rectangular, making them into
squares. The bark is then peeled from the unfaced sides of the
remaining smaller ties. As this requires no skill it is often done
by boys or apprentices.

The following prices are paid for making the ties : —

Squares, $0.14

Drys, 0.12

Firsts, o.io

Seconds, 0.08

The average price, including the culls for which nothing is
paid, is $0.09 per tie. The contractors sublet the making at prac-
tically the same prices, expecting to make their profit on the haul
from the woods to the river.

In timber averaging three ties per tree, two men, making 40 ties

412 Forestry Quarterly.

in a ten-hour day, will spend i^ hours felling, 3^ hours limbing
and scoring, 3 hours facing, i hour bucking, i^ hours peeling. At
this rate the average cost of each operation is as follows : —

Felling, $0.01 1 per tie

Limbing and Scoring, .032 " "

Facing, 027 " "

Bucking, .009 " "

Peeling, ,011

(( ii

ii a

Total, $0.09

One man making 20 ties per day of the average grades earns
$1.83 per day. However, loss of time due to getting supplies and
inspections and the wear and tear on tools reduces their daily
wage to approximately $1.50 per day.

The season in which most of the hewn ties are made is between
May first and October first. While the better tie makers prefer to
work during the summer, some of the less skillful prefer to work
during the winter, because the frozen timber is less liable to sliver,
rendering it easier for the less skillful man to make a smooth
face on a crooked-grained or knotty tie.

Brush Disposal.
All limbs are lopped from tops which are left in the woods.
Large limbs are cut up so that when piled the piles are about four
feet high and eight feet across. The piles are placed from ten to
fifteen feet from the nearest top, tree, reproduction or other in-
flammable material, except in extreme cases which would work
a hardship on the operators. Such cases are left to the discre-
tion of the Forest Officer in charge of the sale. As a rule each
tie maker piles his own brush for which the operators pay him
$0.03 per tree, or approximately $0,011 per tie.

Skidding, Hauling and Yarding.
The contractors are desirous of allowing a month or two to
elapse between the time the ties are made and the time they are
hauled in order to take advantage of the weight lost in drying.
In some cases it is possible for the haulers to drive to where the
ties lie in the woods and load them directly on their wagons.
Where this is impossible skidding is necessary. Skidding is usual-

Crossties in Northern New Mexico. 413

ly done by a man and one horse. A chain about six feet long
having three or four grabs about 18 inches apart is used. The
grabs are driven into one of the faces near the end of the tie.
Two to four ties are skidded at each trip. Where more ties are
skidded at one time an extra chain is needed. With the use of an
extra chain three ties are skidded in front and two or more trail-
ers are hooked to the rear of these. The number of ties skidded
in a day by one man and horse varies greatly with the distance
which they are skidded and obstructions, such as underbrush,
rocks, steep slopes, and arroyos. A man and horse can skid 500
ties in a ten-hour day on the mesas, which are comparatively
level and free from underbrush, or where the skidding distance
is short. In the canyons and on the brushy slopes of the Douglas
fir type, or where the ties must be skidded 200 yards or more or
where they are scattered, one man and a horse can skid but from
150 to 200 ties per day.

The ties are loaded on wagons which have been lengthened
enough to permit two tiers of ties to be piled end to end. An
average load for a team of the small native horses is about 25 ties.
Ordinarily each man requires about one-half hour to load the
ties and bind them on the wagon with a chain.

The average haul from the areas at present allotted the con-
tractors to the yards at the river is about two miles, all of which
is down grade over comparatively good roads. For this haul
they receive $0.09 per tie for all classes. Subcontracts are let
at different prices, varying according to the distance the ties must
be hauled and the accessibility of the areas. The haulers receive
from S0.05 for the shorter hauls to $0.10 for the longer and more
difficult ones, with an average of about $0,065 P^^" tie. The haul-
ers are required to construct all but the main trunk roads, many
of which are county roads. The number of trips a man and
team can make in one day varies from two on the longer hauls,
or where skidding is difficult, to four trips on the shorter hauls
or where skidding is easy or unnecessary. One man and team can
skid and haul an average of 75 ties per day. At this rate he earns
about $4.86 per day actual time, but considerable time is lost due
to breakdowns and inclement weather which considerably re-
duces the haulers' average wage.

About fifteen minutes are required for the hauler to unload
and pile his load in the yard. In piling, two ties are laid on the

414 Forestry Quarterly.

ground about five feet apart. About eight ties are placed across
these forming the first tier. Other tiers are then laid upon these,
the ties of each tier being at right angles to those of the tier
below. The piles contain about fifty ties each and are placed
two feet apart. The piles are placed as close to the edge of
the water as possible, and not more than five piles back from
the river, to prevent carrying the ties considerable distances
when they are put in the river in the spring.

Each contractor furnishes or rents his own yard. One con-
tractor yarding about 50,000 ties this year paid $50.00 yard
rent, or $0,001 per tie. However, as the majority qif ithis
year's ties are yarded on rich agricultural land which is under
irrigation, this is believed to be slightly above the average an-
nual cost of yarding.

Sawn Ties — Woods to River.
Sawn ties, at present, are being made only from Western
Yellow pine and Douglas fir. The entire operation from the
felling of the timber to the delivering of the tie at the river
is covered by contract with one contractor, who in turn lets sub-
contracts for the cutting and hauling of the saw-logs to the
mill and the hauling of the ties from the mill to the river.

Logging.

The logging does not differ from that of any other small
operation in Northern New Mexico.

Felling, Limbing, and Bucking.

These operations are usually covered by a single contract.
Only 1 6- foot logs are cut for which the choppers receive $0.75
per M. feet, Doyle scale.

Skidding and Hauling.

Skidding and hauling are included in one contract. On some
of the steep slopes it is necessary to skid as much as an eighth
of a mile. The length of haul varies from one-fourth of a
mile to three miles. The average haul is about one and one-
half miles, for which $3.00 is the average price paid.

Milling Equipment.

The contractor uses a portable mill having a daily capacity of
about 10 M. feet B. M, The mill is composed of one 45-horse-

Crossties in Northern New Mexico. 415

power boiler, one 35-horsepower engine (which runs the cir-
cular saw, feed and edger), one 6-horse power engine (which
runs the cut-off saw), friction feed with cable, edger, and cut-
off saw. The cost of this mill is approximately as follows:

Boiler and 2 engines, second hand, $650.00

Mandrel, husk, feed works, carriage and

track, new, 300 . 00

Two 60-inch circular saws, new at $100 each, 200.00

One edger, new, 250 . 00

One 30 inch cut-off saw, with attachments, . 35- 00

Freight and hauling, 100.00

Total, $1,535.00

The mill has been used in this condition for five years, and,
with considerable repairing, can probably be used for about five
years longer.

Moving Mill.

The mill was moved a distance of six miles and set up in the
winter on a trestle work about eight feet above the ground. The
rollway is also on trestle work, and because of the small space
available for the mill site, contains an angle of nearly 45 degrees.
When the ground thawed in the spring the foundation settled,
making re-inforcement of the foundation and realignment of the
machinery necessary. The water supply failed with the approach
of the dry season. In addition to a delay of about a month this
necessitated an additional expenditure of about $100.00 for water
development.

The angle in the rollway requires the services of an extra
man for turning logs, and even then often causes delays. The
banking ground for logs' is inadequate and it has been necessary to
stop logging at times because of the lack of space. The edger
is on the opposite side of the carriage track from the saw. The
logs used in the trestle work and rollway contain about 20 M.
feet, B. M. The trestle work rendered flooring of the mill neces-
sary, and this required 2 M. feet of lumber which would not
otherwise have been needed. About 3.5 M. feet B. M. were
used in roofing.

The cost of moving and setting up the mill under considera-
tion is estimated at about $600.00, but for the reasons given

4l6 Forestry Quarterly.

above, this cost is considered excessive. Another mill of about
the same capacity was moved the same distance and set up in
this locality for less than $200.00. The contractor expects to
be able to cut 4,000 M feet B. M. at this set. This gives a
cost of $0.15 per M. feet.

SaTmng.

The mill, when running at full capacity employs, in addition
to the contractor who is foreman and filer, the following crew:

I Sawyer, $4. 50 per day

I Fireman, 2 . 50 per day

I Man tailing down i • 75 per day

I Log turner, i . 75 per day

I Ratchet setter, 2.25 per day

I Off-bearer, i . 50 per day

I Edgeman, 2.00 per day

I Cut-off man 2.00 per day

I Roller man i • 50 per day

I Lumber piler i • 50 per day

I Man wheeling sawdust i . 50 per day

Total daily wage, $22.75

Allowing contractor's wages, 4- 50

Total pay roll, $27.25 per day

With an average cut of 10 M. feet per day, the average cost
of sawing is $2.72 per M. feet.

Depreciation of Plant.

As it is estimated that the mill will have no wrecking value
at the end of five years, it is now worth about one-half of its
original cost, or $767.50. An annual cut of 2,000 M. feet would,
require $153.50 to be charged off annually, or $0,077 P^^ ^^^
feet.

Interest on Investmetit.

The present value of the mill and the value of tools', belting
and equipment aggregates $1,000.00. With an annual cut as

Crossties in Northern New Mexico. 417

above, the interest at 6% would be $6o.(X), or $0.03 per M.
feet.

Taxes, Repairs and Maintenance.

The mill was assessed at $400 or approximately one-third of
its valuation by the County Assessor. The taxes at $0.04 per
dollar amounted to $16.00 for the year 1912. The outlay for
taxes, repairs, files and oil aggregate about $250.00 per year, or
$0.13 per M. feet.

Grades and Prices.

At the present time the mill-run averages about 60% ties and
40% side lumber. Side lumber is produced incidental to the
squaring of a tie cant and the sawing of ties from the heart-
wood. The percentage of ties is low, due to the fact that the
company does not accept sawn ties showing any defect or
wane.

The lumber is graded in but two arbitrary grades which run
85% No. I and 15% shipping culls. The contractor receives
$7.50 per M. feet for both grades of sawed lumber piled at the
mill. The company is able to dispose of a limited amount of
lumber for local consumption at $15.00 per M. feet, B. M., for
No. I and $8.00 per M. feet for the shipping culls. The re-
mainder will have to be hauled 30 miles over rough roads to
the railroad at a cost of $6.50 per M. No further consideration
will be made of the side lumber since no data is available as to
amount that will be disposed of locally and the amount to be
hauled to the railroad, but it is thought that the company makes
very little profit on the side lumber.

About 65% of the ties are cut 7 inches by 9 inches, 8 feet long;
25% 7 inches by 8 inches, 8 feet long; 10% 6 inches by 8 inches,
8 feet long. With the above percentages and allowing 24 7x9*3,
2y yxS's and 32 6x8's per M. feet, B. M., the average is 25 ties
per M. feet. The contractor receives $6.00 per M. feet, B. M.
for the ties at the mill, or 24 cents per tie.

The average price received by the contractor for the mill run is :

Side lumber at $7.50 per M. ft, B. M., 40%, $3.00
Ties at $6.00 per M. feet, B. M., 60%, 3.60

Total, $6.60

41 8 Forestry Qtmrterly.

Summary of Logging and Milling Costs.

Costs per
M. ft,, B. M.

Felling, Limbing and Bucking, $0.75

Skidding and Hauling, 3 • 00

Gross Logging Cost, $3.75

Net Logging Cost, allowing 25% overrun,

Doyle scale, $3 . 00

Moving Mill, o. 15

Sawing, 2 . 72

Depreciation on Plant, 0.077

Interest on Investment, 0.03

Taxes, Repairs' and Maintenance, 0-I3

Total Logging and Milling Cost, $6.11

Profit, 0.49

Average mill run price received, $6.60

Per cent of profit, 8 . 00

Hauling Ties to River.

The contractor is relieved of the side lumber at the mill, but
is required to deliver the ties in the yard at the river. For this
he receives $0.05 per tie. He sublets the contract to two men
at $0.04, making a profit of $0.01 per tie or $0.25 per M. feet,
B. M. The haul is all down hill a distance of two miles. The
haulers average about three trips per day and haul about 30
ties at each trip. At this rate their wages average $3.60 per
day. The men hauling sawn ties earn smaller wages than those
hauling hewn ties, but have steady employment.

Hewn ami Sawn Ties — Yards to Cars.

Placing in River.

The ties are placed in the river when the spring freshet is at
its height. About 200 men were employed for common labor

Crossties in Northern New Mexico. 419

at $1.50 per day without board, while 30 Mexican patrons re-
ceived from $1.75 to $2.50 per day without board, and 10 Ameri-
cans received from $2.50 to $3.00 per day with board. The head
foreman received $4.50 per day with board.

Forty men with a payroll of $70.00 placed 22,000 ties in the
river in one day. This gives an average of $0,003 P^^ tie. How-
ever, when all things are considered, such as isolated yards, dis-
tance of piles from river, depth of water, and current at point
where thrown in, it is believed that on the average this cost will
be approximately $0,005 P^^ tie.

Driznng.

About $4,000.00 is spent annually in clearing out the rivers in
preparation for the season's drive. Some piles were so placed
that the spring freshet carried them away before the drive started.
Many of these ties became water-logged and interfered with
the driving, causing trouble enough to more than offset what
the cost of placing them in the river would have been. The
drive proper is quite similar to a log drive in the northeast. On
the smaller streams the camp or wongan is moved every few
days with a wagon, but on the larger river it follows the men in
boats. A few men were put on the drive as soon as the ties were
started. The drive proper started with about 150 men and ended
with about 15 men, with an average of approximately 65 men.
most of whom received their board. About 80 days were re-
quired, from the time the ties were first placed in the river until
the rear of the drive reached the boom, covered a distance of
about 90 miles. This time was required to break jams, keep the
ties moving, place stranded ties in the stream, take out dead
heads and remove boulders loosened by the ties.

About 6,000 ties became stranded and water-logged but will
be picked up next year. A like number of last year's ties were
picked up in their place. The following data is based on a
drive of 300,000 ties, as the company considers this an average
economical drive. Approximately 3,000 ties were broken in the
jams and by dynamiting. It is believed that these ties cost the
company $0.28 each at the time they were broken, making a
total cost of about $840.00. During the drive damages caused
to ditches and land adjacent to the rivers, for which the com-
pany is held responsible, amount to about $600.00.

420 I'oresiry Quarterly.

The cost of driving may be summarized as follows:

Clearing river, $4,000 . 00

10 Americans at $3.00 per day, 80 days, .... 2,400.00

65 Mexicans at $1.75 per day, 80 days, .... 7,700.00

Board, 50 men at $0.50 per day, 80 days, 2,000.00

3,000 broken ties at $0.28, 840.00

Damages, 600.00

Dynamite and pike poles, 100. 00

Camp equipment, 250 . 00

Total, $17,890.00

This makes the average cost of driving $0.06 per tie.
Booming.

The boom is about 800 feet long and is composed of 92
thirty-foot yellow pine logs from 18 to 30 inches in diameter,
with an average diameter of about 22 inches. In the case of
small logs they are often placed two deep. Two logs are fastened
side by side with pieces of cull ties.

Often cull ties are spiked on top of the logs. The pairs of
logs are fastened together, end to end about 18 inches apart
with large chains passed through the ends of the logs. The logs
were hauled by wagon a distance of 10 to 15 miles at a cost of
$2.00 per log. The boom is taken out of the river every sum-
mer at the close of the loading operations. With such care the
boom is replaced about every six years.

Sixteen square cribs hold the boom in place diagonally across
the river. Each crib is constructed of about 6 tiers of 16-foot
logs about 6 inches in diameter. These are filled with rocks.
The construction of each crib required the services of 6 men for
about 4 days.

The improvements to be charged off in six years are as fol-
lows :
Boom —

60 M. feet logs at $1.00 per M, $60.00

Hauling at $2.00 per log, 185.00

Boom chains, 100 at $1.50, 150.00

Cribs

Logs and hauling, 100 . 00

Building 16 cribs, 6 men 4 days at $1.75 . . • 672.00

Total, $1,167.00

Crossties in Northern New Mexico. 421

This makes a charge of about $0,001 per tie on the 1,800,000
ties exploited in the six years.

A canal was dug to a pond about a quarter of
a mile below the boom. This provided
for the storage of the ties until they
could be loaded. The digging of this
canal required the work of 20 men for
about 25 days, for which they received
an average of $1.75 per day, which
totaled, $875 . 00

A levee was built along the canal and around
the pond to keep the ties from escaping
in case of an overflow, at a cost of $3,500.00

The construction of an office, bunk house,
sheds and other outbuildings aggre-
gated $3,000.00

Total improvements to be charged off during

life of operation, 20 years, $7,375.00

On 6,000,000 ties to be exploited in the 20 years, this gives
a per tie cost of about $0,001.

The annual recurring booming charges are as follows:

The services of 10 men and teams for 10
days are required to put the boom into
the river at $3.00 per day for team and
driver this cost is, $300.00

The cost of pulling the boom out each year

with teams aggregates, $400.00

A care-taker is kept at the boom camp the

entire year, whose salary is about .... $480.00

An average of 5,000 ties pass the boom each
year and must be picked up along the
river below the boom and hauled to the
railroad at a cost of $0.10 per tie, ag-
gregating, $500.00

Total, $1,680.00

This, together with the improvement charges, aggregates
$0,008 per tie.

422 forestry Quarterly.

Loading on Cars.

The loading is done with the aid of three endless chain con-
veyors. A six or seven horsepower gas engine furnishes the
power for one, while the other two are run by a 15-horsepower
upright boiler and engine. Each conveyor is composed of two
endless chains about 50 feet long fastened together 3 feet apart
with pieces of 4-inch strap iron.

The following crew, not including men along the canal and
on the pond, is used for each conveyor:

Four men in car, one engineer or leverman, 1-2 tie inspectors,
four men in water at foot of conveyor.

In a lo-hour day 150 men can load 40 cars. As gondolas
are used they hold about 300 firsts or, as they are more com-
monly loaded, 425 firsts and seconds. Each car contains an
average of 190 firsts and 235 seconds. About thirty days are
required to load the ties working continually, but a longer time
is required as the ties arrive at the boom irregularly. About 7
tons of coal and 200 gallons of fuel oil are reported to run the
engines. The value of the loading equipment is so small that
the charge per tie is almost negligible.

The loading charges may be summarized as follows:

Labor Per Tie.

150 men at $2.00, loading 17,000 ties $0,018

Fuel and Oil

7 tons coal at $6.00, $42 . 00

200 gals, fuel oil at $0.15,. . 30.00

$72 . 00

Oil, 10 gals, at $0.40, 4.00

Total, $76.00 o.ooi

Total Loading Charges $0,019

It is believed that loss of time and shortage of cars increase
this cost to $0.02 per tie.

Supervision.

The woods administrative force consists' of one superintendent,
one bookkeeper, and one tie inspector, whose salaries aggre-

Crossties in Northern Nezv Mexico. 423

gate about $5,000.00. Since a part of their duties is to ad-
minister the grazing of 1,200 cattle and horses and 4,000 sheep
and goats on the company's holdings, as well as to supervise the
commissaries operated by the company, all of this sum should
not be charged against the company's tie operations. A small
ranch is also operated on which a portion of their forage and
provisions is' grown. For the above reasons it is believed that
of the $5,000.00 but $4,000.00 should be directly chargeable to
the tie operations.

The expenses of the main office, such as salaries of book-
keeper and stenographer's, stationery and supplies, and office
rent amount to $9,000.00. The total annual charges against
supervision aggregate $13,000.00, or $0,043 P^i" tie.

Interest on Capital Involved.

The entire 300,000 ties' have, at this point, cost the company
about $0.33 per average tie. The cost of the annual output is in-
vested for at least six months. The interest on $99,000.00 at
6% for six months is $2,970 or approximately $0.01 per tie.

Stumpage.

The timber from which the hewn ties are made is valued at
$2.50 per M. feet B. M. The original agreement between the
(J. S. Forest Service and the company under which the timber
is being cut contained the following clause :

"Hewn railroad ties without disqualifying defects
whose widest diameter inside the bark at the small end
exceeds 12 inches will be scaled."

In actual practice it was found that this would not work
out satisfactorily to all parties concerned. In the first place
it was impossible for the Forest Officer to be on the ground
when all ties over 11 inches by 8 inches were squared to these
dimensions. The Forest Officer had no way of knowing from
what sized log the tie was made. Secondly, such a clause worked
a hardship on the company by causing them to pay for material
which they could not use. It was more satisfactory to count
all ties in number equivalent to 1,000 feet board measure ac-
cording to size. The squares and faced ties whose largest

424

Forestry Quarterly.

diameter at the small end was more than 12 inches were counted
at 28 per M feet, B. M., while the other faced ties were counted
at 32 per M. feet B. M. 3.5 per cent of the faced ties were over
12 inches, and were counted by the Forest Officer at 28 per M.
This amount is too small to have any appreciable effect on the
^tumpage value per tie. At 28 per M. feet B. M., each tie is
worth $0,089, while those counted at 32 per M. are valued at
$0,078 per tie.

SUMMARY

Cost per Tie F. O. B. Cars at Boom

SAWN
HEWN TIES TIES*

Squares Drys Firsts Seconds

Marking $0,140 $0,120 $0,100 $0,080 $0,240

Brush Disposal o.oii o.on o.oii o.oii *

Hauling & Yarding 0.090 0.090 0.090 0.090 0.050

Placing in River 0.005 0.005 0.005 0OO5 ooo5

Driving 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060

Booming 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008

Loading on Cars 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020

Supervision 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.043

Interest on Capital o.oio o.oio o.oio o.oio o.oio

Total $0,387 $0,367 $0,347 $0,327 $0,436

Stumpage 0.089 0.078 0.078 0.078 *

Grand Total $0,476 $0,445 $0,425 $0,405 *

Total cost of average hewn tie $0,415.

*Cut on Company's own holdings where they make no disposal of brush
and no data is available on stumpage.

FOREST TYPE: A DEFENSE OF LOOSE USAGE.
By E. H. Frothingham.

Almost from the beginning of forestry in America the ex-
pression "forest type" has been used by writers in this field,
each using it in his own way, and apparently to his own and
his readers' perfect satisfaction. This happy state of affairs was
not of long life. Questions as to the precise meaning of the
term were raised by cautious critics, and strenuous attempts
were made to fix a standard definition for "forest type." In
consequence, those who have been addicted to the lavish use of
the word can hardly avoid a feeling of uncertainty, as of con-
fidence misplaced.

In the "Symposium"* recently conducted by the Society of
American Foresters the attempt was apparently made to clear
up the existing confusion as to the meaning of "forest type,"
and to arrive at some standard definition or definitions. What-
ever its object, the "Symposium" has- not clarified the situation;
it might, indeed, be said to have left "confusion worse con-
founded." When ideas clash, words are often to blame. It
is possible, then, that a glance at the word "type" in its ordinary
usage will reveal the source of the trouble.

Before proceeding, however, it would be well to review the
qualifications that a word must have for technical use. In his
comments on "Terms Used in Forestry and Logging,"* Dr.
Fernow has proposed a number of standards by which to test
the situation of technical terms. All of these apply to the case
in hand; but one in particular is of interest here:

b. Words' which are current with well established
meanings should not be employed as terms in another
sense, especially where it is likely that ambiguity would
be introduced by the simultaneous use of the ordinary
sense and the term meaning.

Are we not committing this very error when we borrow the
word "type" from recognized usage and impress it for service,

♦Proceedings, Society of American Forresters, Vol. VIII, No. i, pp.
61-104.
♦Forestry Quarterly, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 255-268.

426 Forestry Quarterly.

not in one, but in several different new senses, thus inevitably in-
troducing the ambiguity referred to?

The New Standard Dictionary publishes 13 distinct definitions
of "type," of which the following have a direct or remote bear-
ing upon the various uses in forestry which have been pro-
posed for the word :

Type, n. — 3. One of a class or group of objects that
embodies the characteristics of the group or class; an
example, model, representative, or pattern, as of an
age, a school, or a stage of civilization; also a character-
istic style or kind ; as the blond "type" of beauty. 4.
Biol, (i) Plan of structure; a fundamental structure
common to a number of individuals; as, the vertebrate
type. (2) The ideal representation combining essential
characteristics, as of a species, genus, or family ; an
organism exhibiting the essential characteristics of its

group 8. A plan

to which proposed work or action should conform;
guiding style; specif., in the fine arts, an original ob-
ject or conception as the subject of copy.

The first of these definitions is one which a person unfamiliar
with forest terms would be apt to understand by "forest type,"
since it is in the sense of "a characteristic style or kind" that the
word is most commonly heard in general usage. But the authors
of the "Symposium" have used the word in all three of these
senses : ( i ) in the sense of "a characteristic style or kind," to
denote a "kind of forest," designated either by the principal
species which compose it or by the character of the land it oc-
cupies; (2) in the biological sense of "the ideal representation
combining essential characteristics," referring not to the essential
characteristics of individual trees as "types" of species or genera,
but, strangely, to those of the soil and climate; and (3) in the
sense of a "plan to which proposed work or action should con-
form," to designate a kind of forest which it is believed desirable
to produce.

There are here three distinct meanings of the expression "for-
est type" — and there are possibly others. To assume that a
single technical term can be applied satisfactorily to ideas so

Forest Type: A Defense of Loose Usage. 427

distinct and at the same time so closely associated within the
bounds of a single science is, of course, absurd. Furthermore,
its specific application to anyone of them invalidates it for
either of the others; but all of the ideas must find expression,
and all involve, in one sense or another, the notion of "type."
The solution seems, therefore, to lie in the substitution for the
word "forest" of some more specific term, designating the
category to which the type belongs.

This has already been done. The three terms cover type,
phys-ieal type, and management type have recently been pro-
posed, to denote what are in effect the three ideas above men-
tioned. Of course, however, only one — cover type — actually re-
fers to the existing forest itself. The others relate to (i)
locality, and not existing forest; (2) future forest, and not
existing forest. It seems clear, therefore, that the expression
"forest type" has one and only one logical application, and that
in the sense of a "characteristic style or kind" of existing forest.
The basis on which the distinction between forest types should
rest can not be constant any more than if the words "style" or
"kind" were substituted for "type." The term is extremely
elastic. It varies with the purpose of the author, but in spite
of this, it can not mislead, since we expect nothing more from
the word "type" than is specifically provided by the author's
definition. A "hardwood type" may be, by this definition, noth-
ing more than a kind of forest consisting of hardwoods, but it
may also, of course, represent a definite relation of forest and
environmental factors if the author makes clear that he is giving
it this meaning ; similarly, a birch-beech-maple type may be merely
a kind of forest consisting of birch, beech and maple, or it
may be a climax forest for definite physical conditions. Ex-
cept for the different degrees of intensity which individual authors
may, by definition, give the term, the meaning of "forest type," as
of "kind" or "sort" can not be limited without a sacrifice of con-
sistency and precision.

In papers dealing with forestry from the ecological standpoint,
it would often be better, therefore, to employ the terms used in
ecology. Among ecologists, a forest considered with relation to
its total environmental factors would be called a "formation," and
as this term is without an equivalent in American forestry there

428 Forestry Quarterly.

is no reason why it should not be adopted. For use in a general
scheme of forest classification it would be most serviceable.

Used to designate "locality" the term "forest type" is totally
inconsistent, as has been shown by Barrington Moore.* Mr.
Moore's point is that "physical factors are the cause of forest
types; hence can not be forest types' in themselves."

The "aggregate of physical factors" is often implied in the
words "locality" or "site." Like "type," "locality" and "site"
should be used in harmony with their common usage, and their
intelligibility should not be endangered by special technical mean-
ings. To classify aggregates of physical factors, it would, of
course, be perfectly proper to use either "locality" or "site" in
connection with "type," just as "forest" is used with "type" to
designate kinds of forest. "Habitat" differs from these in that
it denotes all environmental factors, both physical and physiologi-
cal. Compounded either as "habitat type" or "locality type,"
there would be no danger of confusion with "forest type," and
the terms would be self-explanatory.

The above discussion has attempted to show that the
term "forest type" is exceedingly useful in silviculture and
forest description, so long as it is allowed perfect freedom;
that it is elastic and adaptable to modification by different writers
to serve any specific purpose, provided this is done in the sense
of "kind" or "style" of forest and not otherwise; but that as a
general expression in forest terminology any attempt to limit
its meaning to a restricted technical sense can result only in
ambiguity and destroy to that degree its usefulness.

It may be said in dispute of these points that they amount
to a distinction without a difference. If the author may define
"type" to suit himself, why may not the profession at large agree
on a rigid definition? The answer to this, like the ancient re-
ceipt for rabbit stew, is "first catch your agreement." If perfect
agreement can be secured, the demands of intelligibility will, of
course, be satisfied. Until this is accomplished, however, the
word "type," in true proletarian fashion, will refuse to work at
the expense of liberty.

^Proceedings, Soc. of Amer. Foresters, Vol. VIII, No. i, pp. 73-75-

THE SCOPE OF DENDROLOGY— SOME CORREC-
TIONS.

By H. de Forest.

A careful consideration of my paper on "The Scope of Den-
drology in Forest Botany" appearing in the June number of the
Quarterly will not support the conclusion of Dr. Howe that I
hold the subject of silvics to be a study of associations of trees
alone. The paper states definitely that I consider silvics to
cover all ecological investigations' of forests, that such investiga-
tion is pursued by means of plant-geography and plant-ecology,
one part of the latter dealing with the ecological significance of
the morphological and physiological characteristics of the plants
of a locality, (the part Dr. Howe says I exclude from silvics),
and the other part dealing with the local minutiae of vegetation.

Dendrology, I believe, deals with facts concerning the indi-
vidual tree species that go to make up the forest. Dr. Howe in
his appended comment says that this ''would include the study of
the biological relationships of single trees." It is undoubtedly
and obviously true that the facts mentioned are deduced from
the study of the biologic relationships of trees. It is not, how-
ever, necessarily true that dendrology itself should include this
study. In systematic dendrology, for example, students learn
certain facts, certain "ear marks" of tree species Dr. Howe calls
them, in order to be able to identify species, but they do not in
that subject go into the problems of how and why these "ear
marks" occur. The latter is recognized as belonging to another
part of botany. The case between dendrology and silvics is
somewhat similar. Dendrology has arisen in response to needs.
The need so far as biologic dendrology is concerned may be
stated as the necessity in educating foresters for giving to them
early in their course of training a systematized collection of facts
concerning the chief biologic characteristics of important species.
It is especially needful in forestry education to learn what may be
termed metaphorically the numbers and numeration of the subject

430 Forestry Quarterly.

before engaging in its mathematical processes. Silvics embraces,
so to speak, the problems and runs into the higher miathematics.

I must protest against the statement that I have said forest-
ecology stops the moment practical considerations enter and silvics
begins only when practical considerations are in hand. I stated
that "the point of view of silvics is different (from that of forest-
ecolog}') because of its different object. The forest-ecology of
the botanists is concerned with adding to the sum total of botan-
ical knowledge. Silvics of the foresters, on the other hand, is
concerned with ... all forest investigations . . . that bear in any
way upon the practical questions of forest production." The
well known fact that botanical research has the high purpose of
adding to the sum total of botanical knowledge while forestry re-
search has the high purpose of furthering the interests of forest
production as their main objects is obviously not exclusive of
practical activity on the part of botanists, nor entirely, I hope,
of activity purely for the sake of knowledge on the part of for-
esters.

A botanist does, of course, distinguish herbaceous plants in the
field by certain "ear marks." In other words he uses a method
somewhat similar to that used by foresters with trees and shrubs.
Botanists, however, have not as yet developed their "ear marks"
for herbs into the definite form that foresters have developed
theirs for trees and shrubs. It is a noteworthy fact that leading
taxonomists among botanists protest frequently to-day against the
unnecessarily difficult taxonomic schemes given in many manuals
schemes derived mainly from herbarium specimens rather than
fresh material, and often involving characters that appear in na-
ture only several months apart. The "complete taxonomic
scheme" of botany mentioned in my paper involves, it is well
known, the recognition of the different orders found along the
three main lines of advancement from primitive to highly
specialized characters, with the various families belonging to
each, the connecting thread to-day being genetic relationship.
Further, the characters there considered are largely floral. As
much of this as the prospective forestry student needs belongs, I
think, to his botanical study proper. Systematic dendrology, as
my paper states, does not deal with most of this material but
only with such characteristics as are of service in field identifi-

Jlie Scope of Dendrology. 431

cation. I fail to see why the recognition of the difference be-
tween this important work of botanical taxonomy and the work
of systematic dendrology, serving two different purposes, con-
stitutes a hair-splitting between the "scientific" and the "prac-
tical."

The expression "sister sciences of plant-geography and plant-
ecology," used in my paper was employed in the sense common
throughout English literature as a metaphorical equivalent for
"closely related." It indicates no exact family relationship.

I do not believe Dr. Howe's remarks on plant-geography and
plant-ecology are abreast with the best later developments of
these subjects. As certain botanical journals have expressed an
intention to review this aspect of the paper discussion here is
unnecessary.

Since its publication the paper has been read at my request by
several American botanists who tell me, without exception that
they not only find it clear but also do not get from it any such
impression as Dr. Howe appears to have been given.

[The Editor has reluctantly given additional space to this
academic discussion in order to satisfy the author's sense of injury
by Dr. Howe's criticism. He must, however, protest that there is
still perversion in the definitions of the author, if the originators of
terms have any right to give them their meaning.

The combination "biological dendrology" was for the first time
used by the Editor (so far as he knows) in making out a curricu-
lum for the forestry courses at Cornell University, and he knew
perfectly well what he meant, namely, not "the chief biologic char-
acteristics of important species" as the author proposes to define,
but a statement of the general biological laws to which trees of any
species are submitted in their development. On the other hand, it
was Dr. Gifford as Assistant Professor at Cornell, who invented
the term silvics, really as a mere shortening of the phrase "silvi-
cultural characteristics (i. e. part of the biology) of important
species," — precisely what the author proposes to make the defini-
tion of the broader subject of biological dendrology.

As this definition suggests, silvics has, indeed, a practical object
— silviculture — in view. It does not, however, deal with problems
but with facts or observations. The problems begin only when
silviculture is to be practised, namely, how to apply these observa-
tions or facts.

This much was needful to add in view of the committee work on
terminology by the Society of American Foresters.]

COST OF GROWING TIMBER ON THE PACIFIC COAST.
By H. R. McMillan.

Professor Kirkland of the University of Washington Forest
School addressed the British Columbia Forest Club on the cost
of growing timber in the Pacific North West. The discussion
was based on the crop which can be produced on second quality
soil, valued at not more than $5.00 per acre. It is estimated that
there are 10,000,000 to 15,000,000 acres at least of this soil type
in the Vancouver and Vancouver Island Forest Districts.

The yield according to Munger's yield tables is estimated to be
100,000 feet per acre in 100 years on Site i ; 65,000 feet per acre
in one hundred years on Site 2; 35,000 feet per acre in one
hundred years on Site 3.

The costs which will enter into the production of timber are : —

1. The interest on the cost of land — This cost would not be
felt directly by the Government of the Province or State, but
would bear heavily on the private owner who has purchased land.

2. Cost of reforestation — This will vary from zero ( ?) to
$12.00 per acre. The average for the regions discussed was con-
sidered to be $5.00.

3. Interest compounded on cost of reforestation,

4. Cost of administration at 20 cents per acre per year. This
cost appears high, the United States Forest Service is calculated
as spending 2 cents per acre per year. But it must be remem-
bered that in this calculation barren areas are eliminated. The
cost of administration on the National Forests' now is about 10
cents per acre for the forest areas actually effected by administra-
tion,

5. Compound interest on the cost of administration.

6. Taxes.

7. Interest compounded on taxes.

On this type of soil at the end of sixty years it is estimated
that the yield in Douglas Fir will be 52 M feet per acre.

The cost per M feet of growing it under a sixty year rota-
tion is : —

Cost of Growing Timber on Pacific Coast. 433

I. At 3%, the Federal Government Interest rate $3-54

16
42

27

2. " 4%, the Provincial or State Government rate 6

3. " 4i%, the Municipality rate 8

4- " 5%> the interest rate paid by the large owner 9

5. " 6%, the interest rate paid by the moderate sized

corporation 15

6. " 7%, the interest rate paid by small corporation or in-

dividual 25

21

77

The deduction to be made from this table is that the growing
of timber is a function to be performed by Federal, Provincial
or State Governments and Municipalities. The policy of Cana-
dian Governments in reserving timber lands is thus economically
sound.

The interest rates quoted are interest rates ruling in the North-
western States. There is not in Canada the same difference in
interest rates paid by Dominion and Provincial Governments
as exists between rates paid by the Federal and State Govern-
ments in the States. The Province will not be at such a disad-
vantage in growing timber as appears in the comparison quoted.

The large owner is not entirely out of court. Stumpage value
of White pine is now over $16.00 per M in Eastern Canada. It
is reasonable to expect that stumpage in the West will eventually
reach this point. The large owner who can borrow money at 5%
will then be able to grow timber at a profit.

Another interesting deduction is the effect of taxation on
forestry by private owners. Professor Kirkland pointed out that
the taxation rate is now claimed to be the chief obstacle to the
growing of timber by private owners. He disagreed with this
objection, holding that the interest rate paid by private owners
was an even greater obstacle.

Where the rate of interest is 5%, and taxes the present average
in the Pacific Northwest, i-| cents per thousand feet annually,
the tax, with interest on taxes, is only 15 per cent of the cost of
growing timber on a rotation of sixty years, while other interest
charges are 75 per cent of the total cost. Where the interest rate
is 6 per cent the proportions become 11 per cent and 81 per cent
respectively, and where the interest rate is 7 per cent the propor-
tions are 9 per cent and 86 per cent. Clearly the rate of interest

434 Forestry Quarterly.

is a much more important factor than is taxation in determining
whether the Government or the individual will grow the forests.
The argument outlined above does not apply to the woodlot
owner as it does to the private owner of large tracts of timber
land. The woodlot owner is freed from considering many costs
which vitally afifect large owners, labor, interest in the land cost,
cost of restocking, and frequently taxes.

COST OF GROWING TIMBER ON QUALITY II FOREST SOIL.

N C eg

-£" c CO-- ■:Z73,

Tip-,. 03 ^ W t^ u .S

-oo rt § ^3 oU cOoa

to en S h4 S en

Estimated interest rate 3% 4% 4^% 5% 6% 7%

Compound interest on soil value

6o years $24.46 $47-SO $69.64 $93-39 $159-95 $289.24

Cost of stocking with young
trees 5-00 5-00 5-00 5-00 5-0O 5.00

Compound interest on cost of
stocking 24.46 47.50 69.64 93.39 159-95 289.24

Sum of annual charges for ad-
ministration and protection
for 60 yrs 12.00 12.00 12.00 12.00 12.00 12.00

Compound interest on all
amounts spent on administra-
tion and protection from the
time incurred to the time of
cutting 20.61 35-60 45-90 58.71 9462 150.71

Taxes under general property

tax 28.66 28.66 28.66

Interest on taxes 45-42 53.23 76.52

Yield tax 25% 26.64 49-34 67.39

Total oer acre 11317 196-95 269.57 336-57 5^3-41 851.37

Total per M on basis of S2M
per acre in 60 years 3-54 6.16 8.42 9.37 i5-2i 25.77

CURRENT LITERATURE.

The Trent Watershed Survey. By C. D. Howe and J. H. White,
with introductory discussion by B. E. Fernow. Commission of
Conservation. Ottawa 191 3. P. 156.

This report issued by the Canadian Commission on Conserva-
tion after a careful field study of a mismanaged forest area in
Ontario is quite the most valuable publication on forestry which
has yet appeared in Canada.

It throws the spotlight on the results inevitably following the
mismanagement of forests in Eastern Canada.

The area described is typical of the greatest forest region of
Canada, the Archaean formation characteristic of the permanent
timberlands throughout Canada east of Lake Winnipeg, and even
west of Lake Winnipeg, north of the prairies. What is true of
the 2100 square miles of the Trent valley in Old Ontario is true
of hundreds of thousands of square miles in New Ontario, Que-
bec. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia where the forest, the only
possible crop, has been left to manage itself.

The Trent Valley was originally heavily forested, two-thirds
pine, chiefly. white, and one-third hardwoods, beech and maple.
Lumbering under the licence system began in 1840, reached the
maximum cut of 160 million feet per year in 1872 and dwindled
to 18,000,000 feet pine, 24,000,000 feet hardwoods in 191 1. The
pine will be cut out in five years.

The forest was milked. The total cut of timber and total
revenue received is not shown ; whatever the revenue may have
been none of it was used to perpetuate the forest. No expendi-
ture was made, no care was taken to protect logged over lands
from fire or to encourage another crop of timber, even though
the Government was informed that the land was non-agricultural.
The results of this policy as already apparent, are shown in the
report, both generally for the region and in detail for each town-
ship. A similar policy of destructive lumbering and neglect of
logged over lands' by governments is still in force in many ex-

436 Forestry Quarterly.

tensive regions in Canada; therefore the conditions disclosed by
this survey merit special study.

The whole pinery has been burned over once and in many
places several times. Where originally one million acres of
pine stood there are now 560,000 acres of poplar and birch,
300,000 acres of cordwood and 90,000 acres of moderately culled
timber. There has not been, and is not now any fire protection
except in the few square miles of remaining licenses and there
is no attempt to encourage and protect the natural reproduction
of the extremely valuable White pine. On the average 14,000
acres are burned over annually. Fires in 1913, since the com-
pletion of the survey covered 175,000 acres and did damage es-
timated at $300,000. When it escapes fire White pine reproduces
readily and vigorously except in repeatedly burned areas. In
this district $12,000,000 worth of White pine reproduction has
been destroyed by fire. The destruction goes on at the rate of
$250,000 per year and not one attempt is made to prevent it.

A most important feature of this report, especially for On-
tario, is the clear manner in which the value of White pine repro-
duction is shown.

Another serious loss to the Province has been the expensive
agricultural experiment carried on, an expense which can be
measured only in human blood and tears. The logged over lands
though known to be non-agricultural were opened to settlement
fifty years ago, and settled by the same hardy timber following
folk who settled the most of Eastern Canada. The report deals
exhaustively with subsequent conditions. The thin soil scattered
amongst boulders and rock ridges has refused to raise any crop
but timber. In half a century ten per cent of the area has been
cleared and the population of 2100 square miles has risen to
15,000 people. Only about two per cent of the whole area is cul-
tivated. The settlers now in the country realize that the land
was never meant for agriculture. The population has declined
fifteen per cent in ten years; in 1912, 194 farms were to be sold
for taxes averaging i8c per acre. Social conditions are unsatis-
factory.

Recommendations for the future management of the territory
are included in the report. The district though now unproduc-
tive because of lack of fire protection, is estimated to be capable

Current Literature. 437

of producing 100 million feet of timber and pulpwood annually,
equal to an annual business of $5,000,000 to $6,000,000, With
this timber yield will come new industries and the area now in
waste, may be made to produce by fire protection alone $2.00 per
acre per year in perpetuity. There is now sufficient merchant-
able timber on the ground to meet the cost of administration.

This report reduces to definite terms the condition which is
known by foresters to be true now, or becoming true, throughout
extensive forest regions in Canada. It could not be more clearly
shown that the failure of the Canadian people to protect forest
lands from fire, to restrict agricultural settlements to agricul-
tural lands, is leading in a large degree to the destruction of our
forest resource and the reduction of our agricultural resource.

The chief cause of delay in organizing fully equipped forest
services in Eastern Canada may be the fear that such services
will cost money which is needed for other apparently more pres-
sing government expenditures. This study shows how a great
forest reserve will quickly pay for itself by the protection of
valuable young stands from fire, by the encouragement of new
industries in now barren districts, by the protection of the public
timber from trespass and the collection of the full public revenue.

H. R. McM.

Woodlot Forestry. By R. Rosenbluth. Conservation Commis-
sion. State of New York, 1913. 104 pp.

The literature devoted to the woodlot laid down in the great
mass of articles, bulletins and other published material has been
exceptionally meager in application up to the present date.

The latest available statistics show that out of a total forest
area of 545 million acres in this country at least 202 million are
included in woodlots or in remaining portions of the original vir-
gin forest which in character of ownership, products, etc. may
be classed as such. Surely this is going to play an important part
in the production of our future wood supplies, and therefore the
proper care, maintenance and utilization of our woodlot areas are
of great economic interest. It is therefore with pleasure that we
welcome this latest contribution to the professional literature of
the forestry profession. Many of our states have added valuable

438 Forestry Quarterly.

contributions to the only too limited knowledge of certain tech-
nical as well as general phases of forest distribution, growth,
forest utilization and protection.

Mr. Rosenbluth's bulletin entitled woodlot forestry, admirably
fills the need for a complete up-to-date manual as well as treatise
for woodlot owners not only in New York State but in a good
portion of the northeastern section of the country. It also serves
as an excellent model for investigations of similar nature in the
woodlot regions. Much of the subject is generally known and
understood by foresters, it is intended presumably for the use of
owners of woodlots, estates, and small timber tracts and is ex-
pressed in simple, direct and readily understood phraseology.
And in this very particular lies the great strength, value and use-
fulness of the publication. Naturally very little claim may be
laid to originality and investigative research. As stated in the
acknowledgments much of the material has been suggested and
contributed by others. However, Mr. Rosenbluth's extensive ex-
perience over the State of New York in various associated lines
of work have been of great assistance to him in collecting and
collaborating the material embodied in it.

On page 7 it is stated that there are over 4,436,000 acres in
woodlots in the state and 2,750,000 acres of unimproved land.
This latter, presumably may be classed as abandoned pastures,
waste land, etc. and therefore belonging in the same class as the
woodlot for general forestry purposes. It is unfortunate that
the planting up of waste lands has not received more attention in
the bulletin, in as much as according to these figures one-third of
the farm areas are not used for purely agricultural purposes.

On the whole too much space is devoted to elaborating the
principles involved in woodlot management and too little to the
actual application of these principles. It is a well accepted fact
that woodlot owners do not often get the full market value of
their forest products and the bulletin would be of much greater
usefulness had there been more discussion of the practicability
and methods of utilizing the products of the woodlot both to
assist in perpetuating the timber supply and to benefit the wood-
lot owners. The space given to utilization is excellent, however,
as far as it goes inasmuch as it gives at least approximate prices

Current Literature. 439

paid for the principal woodlot products and shows how they can
be marketed to advantage.

The illustrations and drawings are unusually well selected and
convey at once to the layman reader their illustrative purpose.

Altogether it is a most commendable contribution to our litera-
ture and it has shown the results of painstaking effort on the part
of one who has familiarized himself on the subject.

N. C. B.

Silvical Characteristics of Canadian Trees. Compiled by For-
esters' Club, University of Toronto. 19 14. P. 63.

The members of the classes of 1913 and 1914, Faculty of
Forestry, University of Toronto, Canada, have recently put out
a publication entitled, "Silvical Characteristics of Canadian
Trees." Fifty-six species in all are discussed. The silvical
characteristics taken up are the size, growth, root system, crown,
tolerance, wood, reproduction, range, soil, and association of
each species. In addition, under a heading entitled ''General,"
the commercial importance, technical features, supply, common
enemies, and management recommended, are given some atten-
tion. The silvical characteristics are first taken up by descrip-
tive words, or short concrete expressions or sentences under each
heading. Then on a table they are shown in a comparative form
by giving to each silvical characteristic heading three grades rep-
resented by numbers. Thus under the heading "Growth" species
of slow growth are designated by the figure i, of medium growth
by the figure 2, and of rapid growth by the figure 3. Under the
heading "Tolerance," the same figures represent intolerant, me-
dium, and tolerant trees respectively, etc.

The conception of the publication is good in that it attempts
to bring together in concrete form for easy reference the main
silvical facts in regard to these species. The publication is a
compilation of data from various sources and similar to much
other compilation work, it impresses the reader as not being en-
tirely a finished product. This is without doubt due to a lack of
knowledge of some of the species, to a lack of published knowledge
of some of the others, but it appears to be due also almost unques-

440 Forestry Quarterly.

tionably to not consulting carefully all available sources of data.
Some contradictions appear in the publication and it is certain
that a few of the statements will not stand the test of very care-
ful weighing. Thus Elms in general are given as "tolerant" but
each of the species as "intolerant."

Nevertheless, the faults do not destroy the value of the work
as a whole and it is quite commendable for a students' publication.

C. R. T.

A Study of the Growth and Yield of Douglas Fir on Various
Soil Qualities in Western Washington and Oregon. By E. J.
Hanslick.

Mr. E. J. Hanzlik's manuscript report of 40 pages dated March
14, 1912, is of keen interest to all foresters, and hence receives here
a very full review.

The report covers a series of seven studies :

(i) Yield tables for Douglas fir stands.

(2) Mean annual growth and the rotation.

(3) Site quaHties of Washington and Oregon.

(4) Influence of aspect upon the density and growth of Doug-
las fir.

(5) Influence of density of stocking on growth and volume.

(6) Comparison of yield on bench and bottom lands.

(7) Methods of determining site qualities of Douglas fir
stands.

I. Yield Tables. The study was carried on in about thirty-five
different localities, west of the Cascade Mountains into the Coast
Range in Oregon, from the Canadian Line on the north to Cot-
tage Grove, Oregon, on the south. The altitude of the territory
covered varies from about 200 feet along the coast to about
2500 feet in the Cascade Mountains.

This study aimed to include all types and qualities of stands of
Douglas fir, providing they were even-aged, pure and fully stocked
and under 140 years of age. Care was exercised especially in
getting fully stocked stands, so as to obtain data which would
approach closely to that which there is reason to believe will be

Current Literature. 441

obtained when Douglas fir is placed under a definite system of
management. For that reason, the yield shown, in the tables is
higher than is attained now in the average run of Douglas fir in
its present state of growth.

The yield tables in this report indicate the average yield for
each quality and not the maximum yield which can be obtained
under very favorable conditions. Therefore these tables are
very conservative on the whole and can be safely used after the
conditions and quality of the site have been determined. In ap-
plying the tables, it is very important that the quality of site be
known, and in many cases this is a difficult matter to decide
easily. Therefore, in study No. 7 there is a discussion concern-
ing the question as to the determining factors.

The data for these tables was secured by the method of stand
measurements, consisting of ascertaining the size and number of
trees per acre in even-aged stands of various ages. About sixty-
one tracts', ranging in age from 24 to 137 years, were measured,
in each of which from five to thirty-three sample plots, in size
from one-sixteenth to one acre, aggregating 598 in all, were ex-
amined. The diameter of each tree on the plot and the heights
of a few of them were measured and the data systematically
tallied.

The tables were derived by applying volume tables found in
Forest Service Circular 175 "The Growth and Management of
Douglas Fir in the Pacific Northwest" by T. T. Munger, to the
actual sample plots measured in stands of various ages, and the
results read from evened-off curves. The yield in cubic feet in-
cludes the contents of the whole stem of all trees ; that in board
feet includes only the merchantable contents of the trees which
are 12 inches or more in diameter breast high.

442 Forestry Quarterly.

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444 Forestry Quarterly.

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446 Forestry Quarterly.

The following table (No. 5) gives the approximate time in
years required to produce different wood crops according to the
different qualities of site in western Washington and Oregon.

TABLE No. 5.

Approximate

time required

to produce

different wood (

crops.

Site
Quality

Posts
Aver.
Diam.
6"

For all trees

Pulp wood
fuel, props
average
Diam. 8"

Ties
Aver.
Diam.
II"

For trees 12" or
more D. B. H.

Poles & Pile Saw Timber

Average Average

Diameter 14" Diam. 18"

Years

Years

Years

Years

Years

I

II

III

25
40

35
40
SO

45
.S5
70

60

70

no

65
85

Note — In the saw timber column the average diameter is taken as the
diameter of the average tree of all the trees 12 inches or more in D. B. H.

2. The Mean Annual Groivih and the Rotation. The mean
annual growth of Douglas fir varies considerably for each quality.

On the Quality I sites, the mean annual growth ranges from
413 feet B. M. per acre at 40 years of age to 1,013 feet B. M. at
no years of age. At this latter period the growth culminates,
decreasing therefrom to 965 feet at 140 years.

In cubic volume, the maximum volume production is attained
at the age of 50 years, at the rate of 181 cubic feet per year.
The decline in the mean annual growth is very slow, decreasing
only a few feet each year, so that at 100 years the rate of growth
is only 6 cubic feet a year less than at 50 years. Therefore for
a stand which is to be managed on a cubic volume rotation, such
as for cordwood, pulp wood, etc., it is seen that a rotation of from
50 to 70 years might be best, depending much upon the quality of
the product desired.

For Quality II soils, the mean annual growth in board measure
varies from 300 feet per acre at 40 years to 673 feet at no and
120 years. After this period the growth decreases gradually to
653 feet at 140 years. For this quality, it is recommended that,
silviculturally, a rotation of no years be used, with a mean an-
nual growth of 673 board feet per acre, making a total stand per
acre of 74,000 board feet.

For a cubic volume rotation, the culmination of the mean an-

Current Literature. 447

nual growth is at the age of 55 years, at which period the growth
is 147 cubic feet a year. After this age, the decline is very
gradual, allowing a rotation of from 50 to 60 or 70 years, ac-
cording to the quality of the products desired.

On Quality III sites, the mean annual growth in board feet
culminates at the age of 115 years, giving a growth of 505 board
feet per year, making a stand per acre of 58,000 feet B. M.
This period may be considered as the silvicultural rotation of
Douglas fir stands on the poorest quality of soils.

Taking the cubic volume, the mean annual growth culminates
at the age of 50 years, with a rate of growth of 113 cubic feet a
year. The decrease is gradual from this period, making a rota-
tion of from 50 to 60 or 70 years possible.

In the following table (No. 6) is given the length of rotation,
the mean annual growth, the stand per acre, for the different
soil qualities.

TABLE No. 6.

Table showing the silvicultural rotation for cubic volume and board vol-
ume production for three qualities.

CUBIC VOLUME BOARD VOLUME

Quality Mean An. Mean An.

Rotation Yield Growth Rotation Yield Growth

Years Cu. Ft.. Cu. Ft. Years ft. B. M. ft. B. M.

I 52 9,050 181 no looM 1,000

II 55 8,110 147 no 74M 673

III 52 5,650 113 115 58M 50s

3. A Study of the Site Qualities of Washington and Oregon.
In this discussion an attempt is made to classify the soils of
Oregon and Washington into different site qualities on the basis
of the cubic volume of Douglas fir stands.

In summing up the question of sites, the following conclusions
are reached:

1. In the State of Washington about one-half the Quality I
sites will be placed under cultivation for agricultural crops ; in
Oregon much of this quality is absolute forest land.

2. The Quality III sites in both states will always remain as
true forest land.

3. The Quality II sites both in Washington and Oregon will
only in part be turned over to the raising of agricultural crops.

448 forestry Quarterly.

4. The better qualities are for the most part a medium to deep
loamy soil, with a mixture of sand or gravel.

5. The poorer qualities occur upon soils, for the most part,
either a shallow or very shallow sand with a rock subsoil, with
much outcropping rock.

6. The best quality sites in Washington occur below 1000 feet
elevation; in Oregon below 1700 feet; both in the region of great-
est precipitation and most even temperature.

7. The poor quality sites occur above 1200 feet in Washington ;
in Oregon no doubt at much higher elevations.

8. The medium or second quality sites are found at interme-
diate elevations' between the best and the poorest qualities.

9. Douglas fir is found mainly in pure stands either on bench
or slope lands which are well drained, while the poorer drained
bottom land stands contain a mixture of Hemlock and Cedar with
the Fir.

4. The Influence of Aspect upon the Density and Growth of
Douglas Fir. In general it has been noted that stands with cer-
tain aspects appear to be either more or less densely stocked than
similar stands situated on different aspects. The study shows
that this is actually the case, and not only is the density of the
stand afifected, but also that the cubic volume, the board-foot vol-
ume, the basal area, and the diameter growth are affected.

1. A south exposure bears the densest stocked stands; a north
exposure bears the least densely stocked stands.

2. The trees on a north exposure have a greater diameter
growth, and the growth in cubic feet and board foot volume ex-
ceeds that of other exposures.

3. The trees on a south slope, having a smaller diameter give
a larger basal area in square feet than those on other exposures.

5. Influence of Density of Stocking on Growth and Volume.
In order to attain the maximum yield in bpard measure, it is de-
sirable to thin out most of the smaller, suppressed trees and thus
give the larger ones a chance to attain the best development pos-
sible under the conditions.

Mr. Hanzlik illustrates this with two otherwise similar tracts
located in the Coast Range. Both are on Quality I sites and

Current Literature. 449

show a maximum of cubic volume production. The tracts are,
however, at different elevations. The Glenada tract contains a
very dense stand of trees while the Saddle Mountain tract seems
to be about normally stocked, though somewhat below the aver-
age stocking for that age. The figures shown are for the average
of ten sample acre plots in each case.

TABLE No. 7.
Effect of Density on Yield.

FOR ALL TREES. FOR TREES 12" OR
MORE IN D. B. H.

Tract ^zwuffibcrt'".--'** ^ h-i

4-1 t) W

,^

Glenada 39 years 510 9-0 225.7 7503 75 I37 76.9 2800 9,726

Saddle Mt. 38 years 281 10.7 175.4 6477 90 i4-7 106.0 3929 20,661

From this table it is evident that a densely stocked stand has
a backward effect upon the growth of the individual tree, as
there is no other factor which might have had influence upon the
tree growth.

The most noticeable eft'ect of the overstocking is that the
Saddle tract with nearly 50% less trees per acre than Glenada
nevertheless has a larger average D. B. H. and only 13.6% less
yield in cubic feet. Still more favorable to Saddle is the com-
parison of trees 12 inches D. B. H. and over, for Saddle has 90
trees, Glenada only 75 and the cubic volume of these stems in
Saddle is 29% greater than in Glenada; the board foot volume
42% higher. This is because on the Glenada tract only about
15% of the trees are 12 inches or over, D. B. H. while on the
Saddle tract 32% are of merchantable size.

Accordingly, density is a prime factor in the development of
Douglas fir stands, especially where the largest quantities of saw
timber are desired at the earliest possible time.

In agreement with the Austrian experiments by Bohdannecky
and Schiffel, and the Russian plantations of Douglas fir by Dr.
Schwappach, Mr. Hanzlik reaches the following conclusions in re-

450 forestry Quarterly.

gard to the present stocking of Douglas fir stands in western
Washington and Oregon: —

1. The immature stands contain from 25-50% too many stems.
Heavy thinnings are necessary for increased increment and will
give a fairly good money return, at the same time benefiting the
stand silviculturally. Stands on the better quality soils require
very little thinning after 70 to 100 years of age.

2. Mature stands of the better qualities are probably very little
overstocked ; on the poorer qualities the stocking is too heavy
due to an excessive number of trees under 12 inches D. B. H.,
which no doubt retards the growth of the larger trees.

3. In even-aged mature stands (over 100 years of age) of the
first quality a stocking of about 100 trees per acre at maturity will
produce the greatest yield in board measure as practically all
the trees in the stand are of a merchantable size (12 inches or
more in D. B. H.).

6. Comparison', of Yield on Bench and Bottom Land. The con-
clusion is reached that land which is considered as first class agri-
cultural soil will not always yield as large a forest crop as land
which is classed as inferior for agricultural crops. Mr. Hanzlik
also shows that Douglas fir makes its best growth on a slope
rather than on level land and that one of its requirements is that
the land be well drained.

7. Methods of Determining Site Qualities of Douglas Fir
Stands. Mr. Hanzlik compares the four chief methods of de-
termining site quality: i) by optical inspection. 2) by the use of
the height growth of the dominant trees, 3) by the growth of the
stand in cubic volume, 4) by the density factor (based upon the
assumption that the height, basal area and the age of a stand are
related by a constant factor). Except for some slight discrep-
ancies, this factor agrees with the site quality as determined by
the growth of the stand in cubic volume. The factors are be-
tween 200 and 500; for division between Quality I and Quality
n 400 is an appropriate number, while 300 separates the second
quality from the third (on scale of five qualities H-HI and HI-V).

Dr. Adam Schwappach has briefed Mr. Hanzlik's report in
the October, 1913, number of the Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Jagd-

Current Literature. 451

wesen* and has converted the yield tables into metric measure.
He comments on the great height growth and comparatively
poor volume production which these tables' show. He calculates

(volume in cubic feet \
— i — r—. — : — z ; I for all
height m feet x basal area /

trees at 140 years of age and finds the factor to be .32, .35 and

.37 for the three site qualities respectively, which is very low.

This, Dr. Schwappach attributes to the volume tables ; Mr. Hanz-

lik himself says' that his volume figures are very conservative.

Furthermore, as Dr. Schwappach points out, the tables are for

final yield only and do not take into account the intermediate

yield from thinnings which, in Norway spruce, aggregate about

50% of the total production. Even allowing 20% increase over

Hanzlik's final yield figures to allow for trees dying out, the yield of

the Douglas fir is only 20% greater than that of Dr. Schwap-

pach's own figures for Norway spruce, Site Quality I, age, 120

years.

Comparing Hanzlik's figures with the latest Saxon yield table

for spruce, printed in F. Q., Vol. XH, No. i, p. 114, one finds

at age 100 years for Site Quality I : —

Douglas fir, 17,600 cubic feet per acre.

Norway spruce, ...14,915 " "
— an increase of only 17% over the Norway spruce.

Assuming the stand- form-factor to be the same at 120 years
as that of Norway spruce — i. e. .44 — and using the values for
height and basal area as given in the table, the yield becomes for
120 years, 27,880 cubic feet as against 20,700 cubic feet per acre.
"One sees, therefore," says Dr. Schwappach, "what an influence
the method of volume determination has and how carefully the
data must be analyzed before the American figures can be used
as a comparison with the production of German species — in this
case with the production of spruce and fir."

Dr. Schwappach concludes from Mr. Hanzlik's figures that
the plantations of Douglas fir in Germany are yielding, at least
in youth, just as much as similar stands do on their native sites.

A. B. R.

"Ertragstafeln fiir Pseudotsuga Douglasii," pp. 652-657.

452 Forestry Quarterly.

Dry Rot in Factory Timbers. Inspection Department of the
Associated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Companies, 31 Milk
St., Boston, Mass. 1913. Pp. 34. Illus.

A brief summary of the results of investigating several thou-
sand beams in buildings, more than one hundred of which were
"examined chemically and microscopically." The pamphlet deals
exclusively with southern yellow pine timbers, since this wood
is the only one now used to any extent in the East for heavy mill
frames. Attention is called to the great confusion in the commer-
cial names used to describe the southern yellow pines, and to the
indefiniteness of some of the terms used in rules for the inspection
of timbers. The difficulty of identifying the various southern yel-
low pines is also brought out.

After discussing briefly the various causes of dry rot and the
influences which encourage it, the pamphlet mentions some of the
preservatives which have been used to arrest decay.

The following observations are made :

1. "The percentage of resin in hard pine can be taken as an
index of its power of resistance to dry rot.

2. "Hard pine lumber 12 inches square or larger is practically
not obtainable with sufficient natural resistance to withstand
fungus in a moist atmosphere.

3. "The non-resinous and sappy hard pine, which is obtainable
is not safe to use for the important parts of a building without
antiseptic treatment.

4. "Holes through columns, narrow spaces between beams and
hollow spaces in floors or roofs are of no value in preventing dry
rot, and serve to rapidly spread it to all susceptible material.

5. "Heating a new building to 115° F., for twenty-four hours,
or more, several times has a value well worth its cost in preventing
serious dry rot damage.

6. "Of the various antiseptic treatments in practical use at pres-
ent, corrosive sublimate appears to be the best adapted to mill
timber. Modification of the present process may be necessary
when deeper penetration is required."

R. C. B.

Current Literature. 453

Annual Fire Report, ipij. California State Board of Forestry.
Sacramento, 1914. Pp. 94, illus.

This is a review of the forest fire situation in CaHfornia during
the past year.

The State Forester points out that his office must rely upon
Federal Forest officials for reports on fires in the National For-
ests and upon 1,300 voluntary unpaid fire wardens for all reports
of fires outside of the National Forests. The latter class of men
fail to make reports, hence the statistics given probably do not
come very near the actual truth so far as the whole State is con-
cerned.

The year 1913 appears to have been more unfavorable than any
for some time past, a total of 559,370 acres being burned over at
a loss of $511,077. The reported acreage burned during 1912 was
156,241 acres with a loss of $31,906.

The most unfavorable months for fires are September, August,
July and October.

Several pages are devoted to a description of a few average
fires which occurred during the year 1913. This is followed by
a discussion of protective associations operating within the State ;
the character of assistance rendered by the Federal Government
and to proposed legislation.

An appendix contains a copy of the early and also the present
forest laws of the State.

R. C, B,

Flumes and Fluming. By Eugene S. Bruce. Bulletin 87, De-
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, 1914.

Contains an analysis of the methods of constructing box and
V-shaped flumes, cost of construction and upkeep. The bulletin
is well illustrated and contains tables showing the amount of water
required to fill flumes at the various depths with given grade per-
cents, weight of water, velocity of water when filled to various
depths at different grades, and estimates of material. Besides
being of interest to the profession itself, the bulletin unquestion-
ably contains material which would be of great value to lumber-
men. T. S. W., Jr.

454 Forestry Quarterly.

A Naturalist in Western China. By E. H. Wilson. London,
England. 1913. 2 volumes, pp. 251-229.

The writer of these two volumes has made four separate ex-
peditions, covering nearly 11 years since 1899, into western China,
for the purpose of collecting botanical specimens and plant in-
troductions. The first two explorations were in the interest of
the well-known house of Veitch, and the last two for the Arnold
Arboretum.

An introduction by Professor Charles S. Sargent, of 37 pages,
contrasts the forest flora of eastern continental Asia with that
of eastern North America. According to this, in general, the
American trees are larger and more valuable than the related
Chinese species ; while the shrubby members are less showy.
The 129 natural families represented in the two regions are dis-
cussed in detail, and a very interesting comparison made as to
representatives of each in the two areas. Reference may be
made to the Coni ferae, which is represented in China, by 14, and
in eastern North America by 9, genera. China lacks the Tax-
odium and Chamaecyparis of eastern North America, while the
genera Libocedrus, Cupressus, Cunninghamia, Pseudolarix, Kete-
leeria, and Eokienia have no eastern American representative. In
eastern North America 15 species of Pinus occur as contrasted
with 8 in eastern Asia. In Picea and Abies, however, the advan-
tage lies with China, with 20 and 9 species respectively, as against
3 and 2. The numerical representation in the remaining genera is
approximately equal. Summing up, of the 129 families, 92 fami-
lies are common to the two regions; 12 occur in eastern North
America, not in eastern Asia ; and 25 occur in eastern Asia not
in eastern North America. Owing to the greater variety of topo-
graphy the forest flora of China is richer in genera than that of
eastern North America. Of the 692 woody genera in the two
regions, 155 are common to both; 158 are found in eastern North
America and not in eastern Asia, and 379 occur in eastern Asia
and not in eastern North America. Of the tropical genera, y6
have reached Southern Florida, and 89 southeastern China. It is
concluded that the number of species of trees and shrubs is proba-
bly nearly equal in the two regions.

The first volume is largely an account of the various journeys,

Other Current Literature. 455

with special reference to the manners and customs of the non-
Chinese races inhabiting the China-Thibet region explored, but
much botanical information accompanies the narrative.

The bulk of the material of botanical interest, however, is to
be found in the second volume. The nature of this is indicated
by the following headings : the flora of western China ; the prin-
cipal timber trees ; fruits, wild and cultivated ; Chinese materia
medica ; gardens and gardening ; flowers cultivated ; principal
food-stuff crops ; trees, shrubs and herbs of economic importance ;
tea and tea-yielding plants, and the tea industry.

J. H. W.

OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE.

Workmen's Compensation- Laics of the U. S. and Foreign Coun-
tries. Bulletin of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Whole
No. 126. Washington, 191 4. Pp. 477.

Hearings before the Committee on Agriculture, House of Re-
presentatives, 6^rd Congress, 2d S'esuon, on H. R. isS/p — a bill
making appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the
Hscal year ending June 30, 1913, and report on the bill. Washing-
ton, Government Printing Office, 1914.

Statement of H. S. Graves. Chief Forester, Forest Service, is
given on pp. 239-312 inclusive. Report on the Agriculture Ap-
propriation Bill so far as it refers to the Forest Service is given
on pp. 662 and 686-692 inclusive. The appropriation for 191 5 is
$5,399,679, an increase of $143,577 over 1914.

Grazing Homesteads and the Regulation of Grazing on the
Public Lands. Hearing before the Commission on the Public
Lands. March, 1914. Washington, 1914. Pp. 504.

The Lumber Industry and the Railroads. By John R. Walker.
Published by the Southern Hardwood Traffic Bureau, Memphis,
Tenn. Pp. 15. •

A statement made on behalf of the Southern lumber interests in
the general advance rate case before the Interstate Commerce
Commission at Washington, D. C, February 20, 1914.

The article is a plea against the proposed 5 per cent advance

456 Forestry Quarterly.

in the freight rate on lumber in the territory east of the Mississippi
river and north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers.

History of the Pacific Coast Shippers' Association, and organiza-
tion of wholesalers and manufacturers of Pacific Coast forest
products. Compiled and edited by F. D. Becker and S. B. Bel-
lows. Published by the Association. Seattle, Washington. Jan-
uary I, 1914. Pp. 80.

The Country's Forests. U. S. Department of Agriculture. For-
est Service. Washington, 1914. Pp. 14.

Our Timber Supply. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Forest
Service. Washington, 1914. Pp. 8.

Western Red Cedar in the Pacific Northzvest. By J. B. Knapp
and A. G. Jackson. Rep. from West Coast Lumberman, Seattle-
Tacoma, February i, 1914-March i, 1914. U. S. Department of
Agriculture. Forest Service. Pp. 24, illus.

Section i. Forest Characteristics of Western Red Cedar.
Section 11. Utilization of Western Red Cedar.

Systematic Fire Protection in the California Forests. By Coert
DuBois. For forest officers in District 5, U. S. Forest Service
(not for public distribution). U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Forest Service. Washington, May 29, 1914. Pp. 99, illus.

An excellent manual dealing with methods and means of fire
prevention and control.

Suitability of Longleaf Pine for Paper Pulp. By H. E. Sur-
face. Bulletin 72, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washing-
ton, D. C. 1914. Pp. 26.

Rocky Mountain Mine Timbers. By N. De W. Betts. Bulle-
tin yj, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C.
1914. Pp. 34.

Other Current Literature. 457

Cost and Methods of Clearing Land in the Lake States. By
H. Thompson. Bulletin 91, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 25.

New Facts concerning the White-Pine Blister Rust. By P.
Spaulding. Bulletin 116, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 8.

Uses for Chestnut Timber Killed by the Bark Disease. By J.
C. Nellis. Farmers' Bulletin 582, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture. Washington, D. C. 19 14. Pp. 24.

Stock-watering Places on Western Grasing Lands. By W. C.
Barnes. Farmers' Bulletin 592, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 27.

The Road Drag and Hozv it is Used. Prepared by the Office
of Public Roads. Farmers' Bulletin 597, U. S. Department of
Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 15.

Proceedings of The Society of American Foresters. Volume
IX, Number 2. Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 149-292.

Contains : Forest Administration for a State, by A. F. Hawes :
Recent Ecological Investigations, by H. deForest ; The Use of
Yield Tables in Predicting Growth, by E. E. Carter; The Meas-
urement of Increment on All-aged Stands, by H. H. Chapman;
Determination of Stocking in Uneven-aged Stands by W. W.
Ashe; Yield table Method for Arizona and New Mexico, by T.
S. Woolsey, Jr. ; Yield in Uneven-aged Stands, by B. Moore ;
Determination of Site Qualities for Even-aged Stands by Means
of a Site Factor, by E. J. Hanzlik; Damage by Light Surface
Fires in Western Yellow-pine Forests, by T. T. Munger; Fire
Damage in Mature Timber, by J. A. Mitchell ; Diseases of the
Eastern Hemlock, by P. Spaulding; An Improved Method of
Infiltrating Wood with Celloidin, by A. Koehler; The Applica-
tion of Range Reconnaissance to the Southwestern Stock Ranges,
A. D. Read ; Damage to Reproduction by Snow, by R. H. Boerk-

458 Forestry Quarterly.

er; The Use of Wood in Gas Producers, by R. Thelen ; The Dis-
tinguishing Features of the True Firs (Abies) of Western Wash-
ington and Oregon, by E. J. HanzHk ; Reviews.

A Classified List of American Literature on Forestry Subjects
for General Reading and Reference. Timely helps for farmers.
Vol. 7, No. 8. Orono, Me., 1914. Pp. 53-60.

The Brozvn-tail and Gypsy Moths and Parasites. Bulletin of
the Department of Agriculture, Vol. xii, No. 4. Augusta, Me.,
1913. Pp. 18.

The Fire Wardens^ Manual. State of New Hampshire, Bulle-
tin 5, Forestry Commission, 1914. Pp. "^2.

"It is the special aim of this bulletin to instruct the wardens
how they may perform their services easier by the use of sys-
tematic methods, and make their work more effective. The pur-
pose is also to show how the warden service may benefit by the
work of lookout watchmen, patrolmen and other employees, and
how the wardens can assist and keep a check on the other kinds
of work."

The Chestnut Bark Disease — Control: Utilization. New Hamp-
shire Forestry Commission, Bulletin VI. Prepared in co-opera-
tion with the Bureau of Plant Industry and Forest Service. Con-
cord, April, 1914. Pp. 40, illus.

Contains a summary of present knowledge on the spread of the
disease in New Hampshire, and facts in regard to the utilization
of chestnut wood.

Reforesting Waste and Cut-over Land. Bulletin IV, New
Hampshire Forestry Commission. Concord, February, 1914. Pp.
2y, illus.

Treats of the importance of reforestation both to landowners
and the State; gives informaition on how trees for reforestation
may be secured and how they should be planted.

Forestry in New Hampshire. Twelfth report of the Society
for the protection of New Hampshire forests. N. p., 1914. Pp.
96. Illus. I map.

Other Current Literature. 459

Third Annual Report of the Nezv Hampshire State Tax Com-
mission. Concord, N. H. 191 4. Pp. 148.

Report of the Commission on the Taxation of Wild or Forest
Sands. Boston, Mass. 1914. Pp. 97.

Massachusetts Forestry Association, Its Work and Character,
Bulletin No. 109. N. p., 1914. Pp. 4.

What Does a Shade Tree Mean to You? Bulletin no. Massa-
chusetts Forestry Association. N. p., 1914. Pp. 4.

State Forests for Massachusetts. Massachusetts Forestry As-
sociation. Bulletin No. iii. N, p., 1914. Pp. 8.

Tenth Annual Report of the State Forester of Massachusetts,
1913. Boston, 1914. Pp. 114.

A Preliminary Working Plan for the Portland State Forest. By
W. O. Filley and A. E. Moss. Seventh report of the State For-
ester. Forestry Pub. No. 10. Rep. from report of the Conn. Ag.
Exp. Sta. Pp. 391-420. 2 maps.

Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station,
igij : Part VI, Seventh Report of the State Forester. By W.
O. Filley and A. E. Moss. New Haven, Conn. 1914. Pp. 391-
419.

A Forestry Arithmetic for Vermont Schools. By A. F. Hawes,
State Forester. Vermont For. Pub. No. 14. Burlington, April,
1914.

A unique forestry publication designed to create an interest in
forestry in the common schools of the State. This bulletin is to
be used as a supplement to the regular arithmetic text-book now
used.

Forest Fires. Bulletin 10, New York Conservation Commis-
sion. By W. G. Howard. Albany, N. Y. 1914. Pp. 52.

460 Forestry Quarterly.

Third Annual Report of the Conservation Commission, igi^ :
Divisions of Lands and Forests and Fish and Game. Albany, N.
Y. Pp.366.

Methods of Determining the Value of Timber in- the Farm,
Woodlot. By J. Bentley, Jr. The Cornell Reading Courses,
Volume III, Number 62. New York State College of Agricul-
ture at Cornell University. Ithaca, N. Y. 1914. Pp. 133-164.

Rural and City Shade Tree Improvement. University Exten-
sion Service in Forestry, New York State College of Forestry.
Syracuse, N. Y. 1914. Pp. 15.

Possibilities of Municipal Forestry in New York. By N. C.
Brown. New York State College of Forestry. Syracuse, N. Y.
1914. Pp. 19.

The Lumber Industry. By R. S. Kellogg. Published by Alex-
ander Hamilton Institute, New York. 1913. Pp. 104.

Ninth Annual Report of the Forest Park Reservation Co^n-
mission of New Jersey, 19 13. Union Hill N. J. Pp. 82.

Report of the Maryland State Board of Forestry for ipi2 and
IQ13. Baltimore, Md. Pp. 56.

Contains a review of the work performed during the years
1912-1913. The chief features of note are the authorization given
by the last legislature for the purchase of lands along the Patapsco
river for a State Forest Reservation ; an extension of the fire pro-
tection system ; the completion of the forest survey of the State in
1912 which was begun in 1906; the examination of 6,000 acres of
private land, chiefly woodlots ; and the marked extension of for-
estry knowledge in the State through addresses and illustrated
lectures.

Forest Laws of Maryland. Maryland State Board of Forestry.
Forestry leaflet No. 15. Baltimore, Md., 1914. Pp. 8.

Timber Resources of Warren County. Press Bulletin 115 of
Geological and Economic Survey. Chapel Hill, N. C. 1914.
Pp.4.

Other Current Literature. 461

Timber Resources of Orange County. Press Bulletin 116 of
Geological and Economic Survey. Chapel Hill, N, C. 1914.
Pp. 4.

Forestry Report. State of Michigan, igij. State Game, Fish
and Forestry Warden. Lansing, Mich., 1914. Pp. 16.

Report of the Public Domain Commission, Jan. i, 191 1, to June
30, 1913. Lansing, Mich., 1914. Pp. 67.

The Control of damping-off Disease in Plant Beds. By J. John-
son. Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. Research Bul-
letin 31. Madison, Wis., 1914. Pp. 59.

Third Annual Report of the State Forester. Minnesota For-
estry^ Board. December 31, 191 3. Pp. 147. Illus.

Illinois Arbor and Bird Days. Compiled by H. T. Swift.
Springfield, 111. 1914. Pp. 7.

The Ames Forester. Volume II. Published by The Forestry
Club of Iowa State College. Ames, Iowa. 1914. Pp. 68.

Contains the following articles: Impressions of German
Utilization; Red Pine on the Minnesota National Forest; A
Lookout on the Sopris National Forest; Stumpage Appraisals
Involving Use of a Railroad; Ex-12, Ex-Guard, Ex-Ranger;
Grasses of the National Forests of the Rockies ; The Manufacture
of Walnut Gun Stocks in Iowa; A Summer Camp for Ames
Foresters.

A Study of the Vegetation of the Sandhills of Nebraska. By
R. J. Pool. Lincoln, Neb. 1913. Pp. 312; plates.

The University of Washington Forest Club Annual. Volume
II. Seattle, Wash. 19 14. Pp. 74.

Contains, in addition to a review of the year's club meetings,
letters from the field and a roster of students, the following
articles : Lumber Publicity ; Overhead Systems of Logging in
the Northwest; Forestry in the Philippines; The Panama-Canal
and the Lumber Industry of the Northwest ; The Elements of

462 Forestry Quarterly.

Cost in Milling; Seattle's Municipally Owned and Operated
Lumber Dock; Growth and Reproduction of Western Hemlock;
Changes in the College of Forestry During the Year.

First Biennial Report, State Forester of Kentucky, 191 3. Frank-
fort, Ky. Pp. 104.

Report of Conservation Commission of Louisiana, 1914. New
Orleans, 1914. Pp. 136.

Third Annual Report of the State Forester. State of Oregon.
Salem, 1914. Pp. 46.

The Forest Protection Problem in California. Circular No. 5,
State Board of Forestry. 1914. Pp. 7.

Annual Fire Report, 1913. State Board of Forestry, Cali-
fornia. Pp. 94.

Manitoba — A Forest Province. By R. H. Campbell. Circular
7, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1914. Pp. 16.

Chemical Methods for Utilizing Wood Wastes. By W. B.
Campbell. Circular 9, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1914.
Pp. 6.

The Care of the Woodlot. By B. R. Morton. Circular 10,
Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1914. Pp. 16.

Co-operative Forest Fire Protection. By G. E. Bothwell. Bul-
letin 42, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. Pp. 28.

Report of the Commissioner of Dominion Pmks for the Year
Ending March 31, 1913. Canada Department of the Interior.
Ottawa, 191 4. Pp. 96,

The Maple Sugar Industry in Canada. By J. B. Spencer. Bul-
letin No. 2B, Dominion of Canada, Department of Agriculture.
Ottawa, 1913. Pp. 64. Illus.

This bulletin contains a brief historical review of the industry ;

Other Current Literature. 463

a statement of its present extent and importance ; a discussion of
sugar grove management ; the sugar-making plant and its opera-
tion ; marketing; the future of the industry; and the objects and
aims of the Co-operative Maple Sugar Makers Association.

The Training of a Forester. By G. Pinchot. Philadelphia and
London. 1914. Pp. 149.

A Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus. Volume II, Part
10, and Volume III, Part i. By J. H. Maiden. Sydney, N. S.
W. 1914. Pp. 291-31 1, Pis. 85-88; and pp. 1-22, Pis. 89-92.

Annual Irrigation Revenue Report of the Government of Ben-
gal, 1^12-13. Calcutta, 1914. Pp. 60.

Annual Report of the Woods and Forests Department for the
Year Ended ^oth June, 1913. Perth, 1913. Pp. 9.

Boletin de la Sociedad Forestal Argentina, Ano I., 1913.
Buenos Aires.

Forestry. Education Department, Victoria. Circular of In-
formation No. 17. Melbourne, 1913. Pp. 16.

Identification of Timbers. By P. J. Drew. Department of
Forestry, N. S. Wales. Bulletin No. 7. Sydney, 1914. Pp. 7.

Preservation of Outdoor Timber. London Board of Agricul-
ture and Fisheries. Leaflet No. 284. London, 191 4. Pp. 4.

Rapport du departement federal de I'interieur sur sa gestion en
1913. Bern, 1914. Pp. 16.

Amtliche Mitteilungen aus der Ahteilung fiir Forsten des K.
Preussischen Ministeriums fiir Landswirtschaft, Domanen und
Forsten ipi2. Berlin, 1914. Pp. 47-

Etat der schweizerischen Forstbeamtan mit zvissenschaftlicher
Bildung. Bern, 1914. Pp. 21.

464 Forestry Quarterly.

Das Fachwerk und seine Besiehungen sum Waldbau. Von G.
Baader. Giessen, 1914. Pp. 67.

Beitrdge zur einheitlichen Ausgestaltung der Wald brandstar-
tistik. Von Heinrich Gaertner, 1913. Kiel, Gartenstr. 4.

A Pamphlet written from the standpoint of the needs of forest
fire insurance, giving plans of securing the necessary statistics
for a rational insurance.

Grundsuge der Waldwerts berechnung auf volkswirtschaftlicher
Grundlage. Von Offenberg. Berlin, Paul Parey, 191 2.

Discusses the choice of interestrates for taxation purposes as
differing from those for regulating purposes.

PERIODICAL LITERATURE.

FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION.

Of the 368,000 acres of forest on the
Forests island over half is commercial, less than

of a fifth private forest, and 30 per cent is

Corsica. State Forest (French) and under good ad-

ministration, accessible by excellent road
systems constructed during the last 50 years. Neger enthuses
particularly over the coniferous mountain forest. From the sea-
shore to about 3000 feet the characteristic Mediterranean tree
flora, called macchia, prevails, composed of a variety of broadleaf
trees and shrubs of little economic value. This is followed by
a narrow belt of open chestnut forest, Castanca vesca — the chest-
nut and olive being the most important food trees of the island,
hence this region having the densest population — sometimes up to
4000 feet, old veterans of over 1000 years old being not rare.
Above the chestnut zone, up to 4500 feet, the conifer forest ex-
tends, while strange to say the timberline is formed by a broadleaf
forest, in which the beech (up to 100 feet high) is the dominant
species and Abies pectinata its concomitant with Betula verrncosa,
Alnus cordata, Ilex aquifolium. Neger explains this peculiar, un-
expected distribution by the absence on the island of the northern
timberline conifers, the coniferous forest below being made up of
the Mediterranean species Pinus pinaster and P. corsicana with
Abies pectinata. The pines show a magnificent development,
diameters going sometimes up to 5 feet and heights to over 150
feet. The two pines are not easy to dififerentiate without cones
except by habitus, the Corsican pine remaining pyramided to old
age and presenting a clear bole, the Pinaster pine assuming a
rounded crown and remaining branchy. Seed production is very
plentiful hence natural regeneration easy. Although the stands
appear a picture of health, fungi are not absent, and mistletoe is
sometimes unusually developed.

Die Bergwalder Korsikas. Naturw Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Land-
wirtschaft. April, 1914, pp. 153-161.

466 Forestry Quarterly.

In the barren land of Herzegovina, ef-
Forestry forts for some years have been directed

in the to reforestation, in order to save the

Balkans. country from becoming a desert. The

Venetians and Romans once drew supplies
of timber from that region, but now there is little left. In many
places bare mountains of stone occupy regions of former forests ;
but the people are planting trees and trying to make them grow.
One of the common methods is to blast holes for the trees with
dynamite and carry soil to fill the pit. Some places have be-
come covered with green vegetation in two years. No grazing
is permitted at first on newly planted mountain slopes. Sheep
are the first animals to be admitted to these new pastures, the
year following cattle are admitted, and finally goats when the
shrubbery is high enough to care for itself. Parallel plots of
these reserves are laid out over the province, so that when one
plot is entirely reserved, the next plot is open to sheep, the third
has sheep and cattle, and in the fourth, sheep, cattle and goats
graze together.

Very strict forestry laws exist and violations are subject to
imprisonment. Instead of jailing the men, however, they are
used for forest work.

Hardwood Record.

The great forest of the Amazon basin is

South 1 1 GO miles long east and west by 750 miles

American north and south, an area of nearly a mil-

Forests. lion square miles. The woods are tropical

species ; among which there are none that

are suitable for construction purposes. Very little cutting has

been done and that for the common woods of commerce, cedar,

mahogany, rosewood, lignum-vitae. fustic and ironwood, and

these cuttings extend only a few miles back from the coast, and

the principal ports and rivers. Railroads charge exorbitant rates'.

There are no solid stands of single species, but instead there are

hundreds of species growing thoroughly mixed and scattered.

The wood of most species is so hard that a narrow-bitted ax

specially formed is used.

American Lumberman, 1913.

Periodical Literature. 467

About 47 per cent of the total area of
Afforestation Korea is still under forest, although reck-

in less cutting has almost denuded the moun-

Korea. tains, especially in the Southern part. The

government has established nurseries with
the idea of educating the people to the importance of tree plant-
ing. Several large firms have started reforestation and have plans
for planting up areas varying from 4,000 to 30,000 acres, totaling
more than 50,000 acres. The area of the whole country is about 60
million acres. The trees found in Northern Korea are Chamae-
cyparis, larch, fir, birch, pine and others ; in the Southern part,
oaks, walnuts' and pines.

American Lumberman, P'ebruary, 191 3.

BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.

Wood A few points in wood identification are

Identification. brought out in an article, not signed but

apparently from the Forest Service, in the
Hardwood Record :

1. Hollywood — fibers are marked with spirals.

2. Cucumber — vessels with ladder-like or scalariform markings.
Tulip poplar — vessels with ordinary bordered pits.

3. Birch — vessels with scalariform markings.
Maple — vessels with ordinary pits.

4. Willow — marginal cells of pith rays irregular and different

from the rest of the ray cells.
Cotton-wood — ray cells all alike and elongated in one di-
rection.

5. Hackberry — same as willow in (4).
Elm — same as cottonwood in (4).

Analogous to the use of parasites in
Parasites combating insect pests, a method which

of has been so successfully inaugurated by

Fungi. American entomologists. Dr. Tubeuf pro-

poses to fight fungus pests through their
parasites, and discusses as a first example the parasite of the
Peridermium strobi, the white pine blister rust, which we are

468 Forestry Quarterly.

trying hard to keep out of the country. In the yellow aecidia of
this rust there lives a lilac colored fungus, Tuberculina maxima,
which spreads over the mycelium of the blister rust under the
bark and forms conidia, which as the bark splits are dispersed
over the blister rust aecidiae, suppress these and inhibit fur-
ther spore formation, thus hindering the spread of the disease.
It requires, however, experimentation to find out how far the ef-
fect of the parasite goes, to determine whether this biological
method of fighting the disease may become practical.

Biologische Bekdmpfung von Pilzkrankheiten der PAansen. Nat.urw.
ZeJtschrift fiir Forst-und Landwirtschaft. Jan., 1914, pp. 11-19.

SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE.

Russian investigators are active in try-
Forest ing to establish the truth of the influences

Influences. of forestcover. The forestal significance

of the retention of precipitation of crowns
is under discussion in the Journal of the St. Petersburg Foresters
Society. Five year observations show that in a pine forest of
.6 to .7 density 23% of the precipitation was retained by the
crowns; of snow 12 to 15% was so retained. In the majority
of cases (50% of the rainy days) from 26 to 50^ remained in
the crowns ; the lighter rainfalls, which are more frequent, na-
turally are retained to a greater extent. With regard to snow the
wind plays a role ; the severer winds benefiting the soil by larger
masses being deposited, while rain is more rapidly evaporated
and lost to the vegetation.

A technical expertise regarding the devastating floods in Trans-
caucasia, especially on the southern slopes, which annually de-
stroy millions of property with loss of life, states the affected
water basins as 13 142 square werst and estimates the needed
preliminary expenses for reboisement work at over $8oo,ocxD.
Conditions- are more difficult than in the French Mountains, since
the streams rise at elevations of 8000 to iiooo feet, the slopes
are steep, and the rocks easily disintegrating sandstone, with
marl, clay and lime layers.

The forest region extends to 7000 feet ; the forest area is partly

Periodical Literature. 469

in private hands, badly used and should be declared protection
forest, and pasturing should be prohibited ; in some districts na-
tural regeneration will be successful, in others, planting is neces-
sary.

Das V Heft des Lesnoj Journal, May, 1913. Zeitschrift fiir Forstm.
Jagdwesen. Jan., 1914, pp. ci-58.

SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION.

Natural In a thoughtful article, Forstmeister

Regeneration. Lieber develops his ideas on natural re-

generation, which he summarizes in the
following rational prescriptions :

1. Preparation of stands for natural regeneration must be be-
gun in early youth by means of thinnings in such a manner that a
special preparatory felling is not required and so that richer or
poorer seed years find a larger part of the stands ready for the
reception of seed.

2. The decision whether regeneration is to be begun depends
on whether sufficient desirable volunteer growth is at hand; and its'
development dictates the progress of fellings.

3. The fellings are to be conducted not only with reference to
the needs of the young growth but with regard to the best utili-
zation of the old growth. Both considerations have equal rights ;
the "ripeness"' of the trees to be removed must be determined.

4. Keeping foremost in mind the object of the management to
secure highest yield the desire to form a certain stand in form
and kind must be kept in the background. Change in species and
form one must not fear because of a preconceived plan.

5. It is equally justifiable to finish the regeneration in a short
time as to extend it over a long time as considerations sub 3 in-
dicate. The transition to a selection form or to the real selection
forest may in some places satisfy the needs.

6. Consideration of yield regulation must not deter the choice
of a method of silviculture which is difficult to regulate if better
yields can thereby be secured. Yield regulation is a servant of

470 Forestry Quarterly.

the management, it must not become the master and demand
forms, because they are easier to obtain or to judge.

Ueber naturliche Verjungung. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt.
Apr., 1914, pp. 181-195.

Forstmeister Bauer (Bavaria), beUeving
Natural that the spruce is one of the species which

Regeneration is adapted to natural regeneration and has

of large areas under such management comes

Spruce. to the conclusion that only on I and II

site is this method of regeneration tech-
nically and financially successful. On
poorer sites, natural regeneration remains poor, so that, if no
thinning is done (which is expensive) in 50 years only bean and
hop poles are found, and at 30 years stands are hardly over man-
height, while 10 year old plantations side by side have
reached that height. He recites the disadvantages of natural re-
generation on poor and medium sites ; enormous loss in incre-
ment ; loss through poorer values of the wood product ; great
cost of cultural measures to remedy these defects ; more punky
wood due to injuries received in gradual removal of timber and
reduction of workwood per cent; execssive cost in moving ma-
terial from seeding area which alone would pay for planting.

Technisches und Hnanzidles Vcrsagen der Natur vrjiingung in reinen
Pichtenbestdnden auf Boden mittlerer. Bonitat. Forstwissenschaftliches
Centralblatt, Oct., Nov., 1914, pp. 520-522.

Dr. Wimmenauer compares the produc-

Production tion of mixed stands of beech and pine,

of beech and oak, beech and larch by ascer-

Mixed taining the cross section area per cent in

Stands. which each participates in the composition

and compares their volume proportionately

to what the normal yield tables for the

single species calls for. He finds beech and oak produce more in

pure stands if the participation of oak exceeds 2 per cent. In

the mixture of pine and beech similarly an admixture of 50 per

Periodical Literature. 471

cent at least of the light needing species is desirable and favoring
the same by reducing the beech.

Zur Frage der Mischbestdnde. Allgemeine Forst-und Jagdzeitung,
March, 1914, pp. 90-93.

Dr. Kunze reports from the Saxon ex-
Influence periment station the results of 50 years' of

of thinning experiments in a stand of Scotch

Degrees pine, 20 years old at the start which on

of three sample plots was thinned ten times,

Thinnings. lightly (a), moderately (6) and severely

{c). The final measurements were made
in 1912 when the stand was 70 years old, by the method of
sample trees, due attention having been paid to stem classifica-
tion. The results agree with what other investigators have found.
Severe thinnings are most effective ; they do not curtail the height
growth, but on the contrary stimulate it more than the other two
degrees. In total production the c-grade furnished 22.7% more
than the a-area, and 15.6% more than the &-grade. It appears,
however that the three areas were not equally stocked at the be-
ginning, which vitiates the value of the figures. The severe thin-
ning did not lengthen the crown but on the contrary shoved the
crown up in proportion to the great height growth; the crown
diameters also show great regularity in gradation, as appears from
a comparison of branchwood to bole wood, the boles being also
more cylindrical.

Mitteilungen aus der Kgl. Sachsischen forstlichen Versuchsanstalt zu
Tharandt, Band I, Heft 2, 1913.

The attempts at the introduction of

Exotics exotics for forest purposes in Saxony dates

in back only ten years. The results are dis-

Saxony. cussed by Neger. Expectations were in

many cases not fulfilled. Causes of failure

were mainly damage by game and misplaced expectations on the

ability of exotics to thrive on untoward sites and especially to

severe frost conditions which the clearing system followed to an

extreme in Saxony has produced. Abies concolor has failed for

472 Forestry Quarterly.

both causes ; A N ordmanniana is discarded ; Pscudotsuga, the
green form succumbs to frost, the bhie form from Colorado is
hardy, although relatively to the green slow, grows faster than
spruce in some locations, the form from British Columbia has
not thrived ; in the hill country the green variety seems to hold
its own. Picea sitchensis is only fit for the mildest locations;
Piccea pungeus, valueless. Pinus banksiana (divaricata), the
same. Pinus Strobus suffers much from game, besides from
Peridermium and Lyda campestris, but is resistant to drouth and
frost and is soil improving. Larix Icptolepis suffers from drouth
more than the native, its resistance against the larch disease is
its best recommendation. CJiamaecy paris laivsoniana needs high
degree of humidity and side protection, suffers from game and
is given to form double leaders. The most successful species has
been Quercus rubra on poorer soils than the native thriving and
grovv^ing rapidly, also Populus canadensis in overflow lands.

Der Stand dcr Anbauversuchc etc. Naturw. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und
Landwirtschaft. Jan., 1914, pp. i-ii.

Dr. Tubeuf dismisses as unpractical the

Fighting proposition of Eberts to spray the Ribes

White Pine host of the White pine rust with Bordeaux

Rust. mixture on account of the impossibility of

protecting the underside of the leaves

which is more liable to infection than the upper side.

Bekdtnpfung der Ribes-hewohnenden Generation dcs Weymouthskiefern-
blasenrostcs. Naturw. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Landwirtschaft. March,
1914, pp. 187-189.

AI. Canon advocates fire lines planted to
Novel Fire a shrub called "Mille pertuis," which is

Protection said to resist fire, to grow densely up to

18 inches in height, and to remain in foli-
age the entire year. Canon advocates the use of this shrub in
central France for covering fire lines. This presents a new idea
which might be applied on this continent.

T. S. W. JR.

Revue des Eaux et Forets, April 15, 1914, pp. 270-271.

Periodical Literature. 473

Glover gives an interesting account of
Light Firing the progress which has been made in the

in Punjab toward light firing in Chir pine

British India. forests to prevent the excessive damage

that occurs after a forest has been success-
fully protected from fire a number of years and then subjected to
a general conflagration. The forest conference of last year re-
solves :

That the principle of Departmental firing in Chir for-
ests, coupled with the regular method of regeneration be
accepted * * and that experiments regarding the
feasibility of introducing a similar scheme into the
Kangra Division be carried out.

Details of the methods followed are described. The firing is
usually done during the winter months, the object being "to keep
the fire line moving regularly and evenly down hill." The article
concludes with an account of the damage to a tree crop, under-
growth and soil cover, and the writer summarizes the experiments
as showing "most conclusively that, except in regeneration areas,
woods can be fired on a larger scale without doing appreciable
damage to the Chir." It is recommended, however, that the selec-
tion system be abandoned for these areas, and that a uniform
system be adopted as being more suitable, since the regeneration
could then be protected more systematically. It is argued that
there is no reason why forests where trees are tapped for resin
should not be similarly burned provided the bases of the tapped
trees are first cleared of needles and grasses, as is now the practice
on the Florida National Forest in the United States.

T. S. W., Jr.

Departmental Firing in Chir Forests in Punjab. Indian Forester, June,
19 14, pp. 292-306.

An anonymous writer describes the poor

Natural Regeneration results which have followed the use of the

of Deodar. selection system, the selection system in

groups, and the group system in the deodar

forests of the Himalaya Mountains in British India. A new

method was proposed early in 1914 which bids fair to give success.

The entire layer of decaying vegetable debris was dug
up, raked together into heaps along with the larger refuse

474 Forestry Quarterly.

in former exploitations and burned. The ashes were
then scattered over the treated area, which was subse-
quently planted with deodar or a mixture of deodar and
kil (Blue pine). Results have surpassed all expecta-
tions. T. S. W., Jr.

Annual Regeneration of Deodar. Indian Forester, 1914, pp. 306-309.

MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT.

The Hungarian Forstrat ]\Iarton de

New Method Zsarolyan proposes a new way of esti-

of mating closely the bole contents of stand-

Cuhing ing trees by the introduction of what he

Standing Timber calls conus cubic numbers. He starts

with the idea that the upper diameter of

whatever log length is considered can be more readily and with

less error estimated in tenths of the measured b. h. d than in

inches. If V is the volume, D the b. h. d, d the upper diameter

and I the log length, then d=^(o..v)D and

V =

[D- D-1 ID- ri+o..v--l

-+o.x=,-J^iX-=-[^-J Pit.

i-|-o.x-

The figures calculated for various .v are the conus cubic

* 2

numbers. The formula can, however, be still further simplified

D-pi
into F=:— 5— (i+o.x)^l=D-o.3927( 14-0x^)1, and havmg ascer-

o

tained the values for (i-fox^) and carried out the multiplication
with 0.3927, we get rounded off conus numbers

far x= I 2 3 4 5 5 7 8 9
40 40 45 45 50 55 60 65 70

This series easily memorized does away with the need of tables
or cumbrous calculations: with the upper diameter estimated
as .5D the conus number, with which DXl must be multiplied is
also .5; for every additional tenth 5% is to be added, for every
tenth below 5% to be deducted.

Neucs Verfahren znr Bestimniung des Kiibikinhaltcs von stehenden
Stamnien. Allgemeine Zeitschrift fiir Forst-u. Jagdwesen. March, 1914.
pp. 113-114.

Periodical Literature. 475

Hans Honlinger, who has written a

Nezi' Ideas book on "Practical Forest Valuation"

on (Praktische Waldwertrechnung) briefly

Forest answers his critic by showing that the dif-

Valuation. ference between the soil rent theory and his

own consists in that the former charges the

expenditures entirely against the soil and none against the stock,

which is the reason that negative soil values may be figured out,

although the forest rent is positive. Honlinger distributes the

expenditures in the same ratio as the incomes against soil and

stock.

Briefly the difference in the formula would be :

Y^— ra . ry

Soil rent: i. Forest value= ; 2. Soil value=

.op i.op'^ — I

— rA ; Stock value= Y'" — . In formula 2 and ? the for-

i.op'" — I

est income (from formula i) appears distributed on stock and

soil, but the forest expenditures charged entirely to soil ; while in

formula 3 no expenditures are charged. Honlinger's formulae

Yr— ra r (Y^— ra) Y""— ra r(Y'-— ra)

read: F= ; S= — — ; Str= — ;^ — —

.op i.op' — I .op i.op"^ — I

Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. Dec, 1913, p. 564.

Kirchgessner points out that while in-
Facts crement should be the basis of utilization,

and it is not easy to determine it, subjective

Bstimates elements affording much variation. Esti-

in mates move on a middle line; the better

Increment. sites being underestimated the poorer far-

ing better. He then proceeds to compare
the actual yields during the last 70 years of management of ten
communal forests of medium quality in Baden, some 2000 acres,
with the latest estimates of increment.

The comparison is most flattering to the estimator, for while
the ten positions figured on actual returns show on the average
an increment of 58 cu ft. p. acre (varying from 49 to 71), the
estimate averages 55 (varying from 50 to 64) cubic feet per acre.

4/6 Forestry Quarterly.

To show how the calculation is made we translate the sums of
the items :

Area, 2,070 acres; total cut in 70 years, 5,724,000 cubic feet (of
which 25 per cent in thinnings) ; latest estimate of stock, 10,630,-
000 cubic feet ; stock estimate 70 years ago, 2,000,000 cubic feet ;
increment in 70 years by adding cut and present stock, and de-
ducting previous stock, 14,354,000 cubic feet ; from which incre-
ment per year and acre can be determined and compared with
the increment estimate.

Zuwachsschdtsung verglichen mit dem tatsdchlichen Ertagsergebniss.
Forstwissenschraftliches Centralblatt. March, 1914, pp. 149-150.

Professor Dr. Wimmenauer reports in
Financial great detail and with ample tabulations

Aspects results of experimental thinning in the

of dominated stand at the station of Hesse,

Thinnings carried on within the last 25 years, some

17 areas for pine and beech on plots of
two-thirds to two and a half acres being reported. The inquiry
was directed not merely to volume but to value production. For
the latter to overcome the difficulty of dividing into assortments a
value meter (Wertmeter) calculation was introduced. For beech,
where at the age of 79 years workwood is as yet not developed,
the value meter was determined by assuming brushwood to be
Jialf in value of timberwood, hence if there were 60 fm of the
latter and 40 fm of the former, this would give 80 zvm, value-
meter. For pine the calculation was made differently. Since
the relation of assortments in a stand is primarily dependent on
the mean diameter of the stand, the assortments corresponding to
each such diameter were ascertained and their values in the local
market ascertained (since only relative values are to be deter-
mined), and then a quantity of wood of the value of 10 Mark
was accepted as valuemeter. For illustration : to a 40 cm diam-
eter corresponds 40% of sawtimber at 22.6 mk, 40% of building
timber at 17.1 mk 10% fuel wood over 3 inch at 5.3 mk and 10%
brushwood at 0.6 mk; this makes the average value 16.5 mk.
Such a tree would then contain 1.65 value meters.

The results are somewhat unexpected and disappointing. The
beech areas show that total volumes as well as increment per cents
under a, h, and c, i. e. light, moderate, and severe thinnings in

Periodical Literature. 477

the understand (par le has) vary irregularly and differ very little,
while in d and e, i. e. thinnings in dominant and selection thin-
nings which were made in a few cases did not show much better.
The total average showed

Thinning degree a b c d e

Valuemeters 100 98 102 106 92

Increment per cent 4. 4.1 4.5 4.5 4.9

The thinnings in the subordinate stand of pine showed also no
tangible result, the increment per cent for a, h, and c thinnings
being 4., 4.1, 4 respectively, the volumes 96, 100, 96.

A much more satisfactory experiment with different methods
of calculation was carried on by the author independently in
beech. The procedure started with the thought that a thinning
produces two effects: an increase of increment on the remaining
stand which is expressed by the difference of the increment per
cent of the thinned stand {s) and that of the unthinned main
stand (3') ; and on the other hand, an earlier money income which
can earn interest (p) instead of the increment per cent (x) of
the subdominant stand of the unthinned stand, so that, if the
original dominant stand was H, the thinned stand D, a precise
financial expression of a thinning would be: ^^=H(c — y)
-{-D (p — x). In practice, recognizing five stem classes, the per-
formance of each of them would have to be ascertained and the
sum found.

The three experimental areas were thinned every 5 years, alto-
gether 5 times (original ages 6y, 67, 63), the first one, with thin-
nings in the subdominant, tree classes I-III ; the second, by selec-
tion thinning, tree classes III-V; the third one by thinning in
the dominant, tree classes II-IV. A fourth area lightly thinned
was used to determine increment per cents 3; and x of the form-
ula, while the increment per cent s of the thinned stands was for
each stem class in each area calculated from the 20 year period.
The following results appear.

Stem class I II III IV V

X or y 3 2.2 3.3 3.6 3.8

2: in area 1 1.2 2.1 3.6 4.3 3.9

z in area 2 2.4 ^.6 3.8 3.5 3.1

z in area 3 1.5 3.6 4.6 3.9 4.1

4/8 Forestry Quarterly.

The different kinds of thinning exhibit characteristic results.
After moderate thinning in the subordinate stand the stouter
stem classes benefit generally more. In the selection thinning ir-
regularity is striking. In the thinning par le haut the maximum
increment comes to the middle class III. Nevertheless, the in-
crement per cents of total volume are little different, as in the
previous case, varying only as 3:3.7:3.4:3.6. Applying now the
ascertained data to the formula and choosing p=3, the final result
makes the three different kinds of thinning as 152. i : 75.2: 147.8.
That is to say the selection thinning is financially only half as
effective as the other two kinds, which are pretty nearly alike in
their results. The second object of thinnings, the money interest
instead of wood increment, is particularly advantageous in the
thinning in the subdominant, not so in the thinning par le haut,
and least in the selection thinning. The increase in increment
on the main stand appears as 86: 113 : 129 for the three kinds of
thinning.

The author believes to have proved that in the statistics of
thinning practice only exact calculations yield reliable results.

Diirchforstungsversuche in Buchcn-und Kiefernbestanden. AUgemeine
Forst-u. Jagdzeitung. March, 1914, pp. 84-90.

Kiinkele in a very elaborate article of
Determining 50 pages develops a method of evaluating

Value the value increment per cent of standing

Increment trees, as well as stands, which should be

sufficiently accurate and at the same time
simple. The article is divided into five parts : Influences deter-
mining wood prices ; mathematics of price curves ; value incre-
ment of single trees ; value increment of stands ; helps and ex-
amples of the use of the new formulae. In the first part some
interesting data are brought showing, that length of log influences
the price only of small sized sticks essentially [masts? Ed.] ;
quality of wood influences price more than length, especially in
pine and that increasingly with size ; but by all odds the greatest
influence on price is exercised by diameter, increasing up to a cer-
tain size which varies with species. A table giving prices for
24 species paid in the Baden State forests exhibits the precise
variations. An idea of the relative value of species may be

Periodical Literature. 479

gained from the diameter which in different species command a
price of 20 cents per cubic foot (cut logs) : black locust 6 inch;
ash, 10 inch; walnut, 11 inch; oak, 13 inch; basswood and maple,
15 inch; pine and larch, 16 inch; elm, 17 inch; beech, 24 inch.
Translating the price per cubic meter into approximate values per
M ft B. M. for 12-16 inch logs, cut in the woods the following
prices are found : ash and walnut, $44 ; oak, $27 ; basswood and
maple, $25; pine and larch, $22; elm, $20; poplar, $21; birch,
$18; chestnut, $17; spruce and fir and beech, $16.

Different species show then, different price movement per unit.
In oak, while length does not vary the price more than 15% at
most, the diameter may vary it by 1700% over the smallest
diameter (6 inch). Here fame plays a role, oak of the Spessart
commands three times the price of logs in other forests. In beech
the influence of diameter may increase price by 300% ; in other
broad leaf species by 400%, the rise beginning only with medium
diameters. Spruce and fir show price increases for length in
different size classes varying from 3 to 35%, for quality from
10 to 21%, but for size up to 200%. In pine the price rises with
the diameter up to 500%, so that while the smallest logs bring 8
cents per cubic foot, the largest may bring 40 cents.

It is also interesting to note that the cost per cubic foot of
making logs averages for all kinds and sizes just about i cent
(about $1.25 per M ft. B. M..) which means i to 10% on the
final value ; and transportation from the woods to the woodyard
averages for all German forest product 4 cents per cubic foot.
This influences the prices in the forest by from 2 to 20%, and that
all assortments alike.

Market price increments in the last decade for beech pro-
gressed regularly 1% annually, but oak 3 times as much and in
some places over 4 per cent annually for medium sized logs
(16-20 inch middle diameter). Oak has experienced such con-
stant price increase in the last decade, especially in the Spessart
mountains so that "the sum of all increments in spruce cannot
measure up to the mere price increment of oak; in other words,
the oak in the woodyard unused brings better interest than the
spruce in the forest.

The mathematics of the price curve is then developed in
great detail with the use of calculus, and after critical reference

480 Forestry Qtuirterly.

to other formulae (Schumacher's rule) the author's own formula
is constructed, not quite so simply as the author promised. The
upshot of it is that Schumacher's rule, "the values per unit rise
with the diameters in arithmetic progression," is only partly true,
the curve being represented by a number of straight line parts;
which by shifting of the abscissae zero axis to a determinable
degree can be made straight : the prices then are in direct propor-
tion to the clianged diameters. The amount of shifting {s) for
different diameter classes {D to d) is capable of mathematical

D—d
expression ; being for straight lines s=^P — 5 D when P

and p are the prices for the two diameters ; and for curved parts,

Ax

To determine the price increment per cent, Pressler's well

known diameter increment per cent formula, somewhat modified,

200b
namely Pcfr=r-=— — z—, in which «= number of vears for which
D-^-nb

the investigation is made, and &=average periodic ring width,

200b

during n years, is modified to -^fir-, — r— . This holds if the mea-

* -^ D-\-nb-\-s

surement is made in the middle of the log length, for measure-
ment at other places, the coefficient 200 must be varied; if breast
high, to 240 or 300 for .8 and .9 density (change of form factor!),
and if measured at Pressler's "increment middle" to 160 and
130 respectively for the two densities.

Going into the discussion of the value increment of a tree, the
author reviews the various methods hitherto employed, and then
develops his own formula starting from the conception that this
increment is composed of the increment i. of the log volume
(^'^) times unit price (g^), 2. of volume of other wood (z/^)
times its unit price {q^), 3. of the participation of the log volume
in the total volume {x) or in the total value (^r) in hundreds of
the unit. The final result of the consideration of these factors

200b z
yields the formula of value increment percent: pval::^ , —

pj^p D—d D^d xq

to which s^=r= X > ^"d - ^^

P—p^ 2 2 ' -^ xq.-\-{i—x)^^

Periodical Literature. 481

In determining the value increment of stands Borggreve's
method, modification of Schneider's formula for volume incre-
ment is applicable, measuring from 10 to 30 trees and collating

^ {P.K.b.z. I

the data properly summed up by pval.

D-^s J

Sa.(P)

K, the constant, being 200 or varied as above. A graphic table
and other helps for easier calculations, etc. are given, too elabo-
rate to reproduce here.

An example may elucidate the procedure : The value incre-
ment per cent of a pine is to be ascertained measuring d. b. h.
45cm, the bored cores show in the last period (opening up 2 years
ago) a width of 1.2 cm, i. e. a ring width of 1.5 mm; density of
stand .7, height and form increment=o. From a table we obtain

200 P — p _

values for s, z, etc., and find s=39; z=.9i ; p= — — ^ 5

, . . .1 • 1 400X.15 200X.15X.91 ,

the value per cent then is pval.=: ^——^ \-i

^ ^ 45 — 1.2 16+62 ^

45— 1.2+ .

2

which (read from graphic table) reduces to 2.y%. An ex-
tensive literature reference on the subject ends the article which
was written for a doctor's thesis. B. E. F.

Beitr'dge zur Ermittlung des forstUchen W ertzuwachses. Forstwissen-
schaftliches Centralblatt. Sept., Oct., pp. 465-511.

The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania
Damages holds that, in an action to recover damages

for for the loss of growing timber by fire

Destruction caused by the defendant's negligence, the

of measure of damages was not the value of

Timber. the wood destroyed, but the injury to the

farm as a whole by the destruction of the
timber, where much of the timber was young and not marketable,
and had no value as wood, but was growing into value and added
to the value of the land it covered, and the whole of it added to
the value of the farm of which it was a part. Bullock vs. Balti-
more & Ohio Railroad Co., 84 Atl. R. 421.

American Lumberman. April, 1913.

482 Forestry Quarterly.

After discussing some of the inconsist-

Yield cncies in the method of yield regulation in

of Conifers France, M. Hatt cites some silver fir-

in France. norway spruce growth per cent figures for

Silver fir and Norway spruce which are extremely significant.

These are summarized as follows : On "gres vosgien" soil, with

a rotation of 135 to 144 years, the average production during the

past ten years was 80 cubic meters per hectare (1145 cubic feet

per acre) or a growth per cent of 25; in stands partly on "gres

vosgien" and partly on "gres bigarre" soil the production was

also 80 cubic meters per hectare for 10 years, or 27 per cent. In

the second case, the rotation was 144 to 150 years. On granite

soil with a rotation of 144 years the production was 70 cubic

meters for 10 years, (1000 cubic feet per acre) making 21 per

cent.

T. S. W. JR.

Revue des Eaux et Forets, April 15, 1914, pp. 254-257.

UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY.

Two well guyed trees or gin poles, one
Log-Loading on each side of the track and 200 to 400

Device feet from it, have a li inch cable stretched

tight between them 40 to 60 feet above
ground. A special carriage that can be racked in either direction
at the speed of about 800 feet per minute, rides this line. The
lifting line and this carriage are operated by a 3-drum, 4-cylinder
loader. The lifting line, handled by the lower drum, is fastened
as a tail-hold to one of the guyed trees and then passes through
the two lower sheaves of the carriage, looping down to a special
block in the bite of this line. This gives the engine a block
purchase on the log. The lifting and racking lines are handled
independently. The advantages of this system are : ( i ) no roll-
way or landing place is needed; (2) the landing is never blocked
up, for the logs can be delivered by the yarder anywhere between
the track and the guyed tree 400 feet away; (3) any log can be
picked up to make up a load; (4) timbers 160 feet long are
handled; (5) it is a safer system than any of the old ways; (6)

Periodical Literature. 483

a greater choice of settings for the yarding engine is afforded;
(7) the machine can also be used to spot cars.

American Lumberman, January, 1913.

The village of Liverpool, N. Y., with its

Basket Willow 1400 inhabitants, was the first place in

Business this country to start the manufacture of

in willow baskets. About 50 years ago the

Nezv York State. Germans there made baskets from willow
for their own use around the home, and
from this the demand grew to some 350,000 baskets annually at
the present time, with shipments all over the country in car-load
lots. Almost every family is now engaged in either raising the
willow or cleaning it, or making the baskets.

Raising willows was formerly restricted to the back yards,
and almost every German had a small patch, but now some farm-
ers make it a business and have 40 to 60 acres of them. Cuttings
are set about a foot apart and from each a cluster of 40 to 60 rods
will grow annually after the third year. Considerable care is
required to keep up good yields: the ground must be kept free
of weeds ; when cutting, the rods are clipped close to the ground ;
moist soil, although not necessarily swampy soil, is needed.
When full grown, an average yield is about 3 tons of rods per
acre each year; and they are worth about $18 per ton, green.
The rods are 3 to 5 feet long usually, although some reach 8 or
9 feet ; the latter are not much in demand.

After the willows are cut, they are steamed and the bark
peeled off by hand, and the rods sorted into 4 or 5 sizes. It is
dirty work to strip willows of their bark for they are slimy and
wet. The peelings are "thrown into the back yards, and when
they will hold no more they have to pay to have them carted
away. No use has been found for the bark. No machine has
ever been invented to strip willows successfully.

There are 150 basket factories in Liverpool, all doing hand-
work. Almost every basket-maker has a shop in his house. One
man can make 5 hampers a day or a dozen waste-paper baskets,
and all of the work is done by the piece. Formerly 15 hours
constituted a day, but now the hands work "only twelve hours."

484 Forestry Quarterly.

The average wage for the basket-maker is $1.75 to $2.00 a day.
Labor conditions are peculiar in that "no one is learning the
trade," and as a result hands are scarce and they do about as
they please, although many work all their lives in one factory.
There are four sizes of hampers made; clothes, market, office
baskets, and cat and dog baskets. Some years as high as 35,000
clothes baskets alone were made.

The Barrel and Box. 1912.

As a rough estimate there are about

History 1000 veneer establishments in the United

of the States, using approximately one-half bil-

Veneer lion feet of lumber yearly. There is an

Industry. annual production of veneer in 34 States ;

the leading States are Michigan, Indiana,

Illinois, Arkansas, Missouri and Wisconsin. Practically every

kind of wood is used ; the leading ones in the order of prominence

are gum, yellow pine, maple, poplar, cottonwood, oak, birch, elm,

basswood and beech, besides foreign woods in less amounts.

There is evidence of veneer cutting in one form or another
back as far as history goes ; but those early efforts were hand-
work and have little connection with modern veneer making.
The use of fine face veneer in cabinet work seems to have started
with Sir Ishambard Brunei in 1799 at the Chatham dock yards'.
Here he had the first steam saw-mill in England. He equipped
a shop at Battersea about 1805, and developed the practice of
sawing veneer from mahogany and rosewood. About this time
he invented the veneer-saw, pretty much as we know it today,
and cut veneer as thin as 1/16 inch with great precision.

Since that time there have been many veneer cutting machines
invented,all of which may be classed under three heads : sawing,
slicing and rotary cutting or peeling. The rotary veneer cut-
ting industry was just attaining importance in the woodworking
world 15 to 16 years ago. About that time there were some pre-
tentious experiments tried at making built-up lumber, which
proved unprofitable. The origin of the rotary cutting is obscured
a little, but some of the old writers claim, without clear references
however, that it originated in Russia. The best data seems to
give Gen. Bentham in England credit ; for the rotary method

Periodical Literature. 485

might logically develop from a power planer that he built. This
machine had some resemblance to a huge hand plane mounted on
slides, power driven, which in operation sliced thin pieces from
a block of wood. The pieces were used at first for making light
packages (hat-boxes). From these machines the modern basket
factories developed, and since they had a greater capacity than
was needed to supply the basket demand, the natural step for
some outlet was the development of the plain veneer and the
built-up lumber industry.

St. Louis Lumberman, December, 1912.

Australian hardwoods such as karri and
Block Paving iarrah, also the so-called Canadian red-

in wood and Baltic redwood, are used for

England paving-blocks in England. The blocks are

and usually 9x3x5 inches in size and are creo-

France. soted to about 10 lbs. per cubic foot of

wood. Red gum blocks from America
with medium to light traffic lasted 10 years, the other woods men-
tioned above last 15 to 20 years. (Other consular reports re-
lating to the use of wood blocks in England appeared May 29,
1908, May 21, 1910, September 13, 191 1; in Germany, August
3, 1910, October 7, 1910; in Italy, March 10, 191 1.)

In France, pine from the Landes (in Southwestern France),
"karre," a wood from one of the French colonies, teak, oak, and
beech, all creosoted, are used for paving. A wooden lath f inch
thick is placed between the rows of block to form a space which
is then filled with concrete and gravel. In Paris most of the
leading avenues and public places are paved with wood blocks.

Southern Industrial and Lumberman Review. January, 1913.

The standard wood for cigar boxes is

Cigarhox Spanish Cedar. It is supposed that this

Wood. cedar has a beneficial effect on the flavor

of high grade cigars, although nothing

definite can be said of the effect a box made of balsam fir, for

example, would have on the cigars packed in it. The increased

cost of the cedar has brought many substitutes into the market;

where a solid cedar box formerly cost 7c now it is iic. The

486 I'oicstiy Quaitoiy.

substitutes, other than veneers of the cedar, make a cheaper
looking package, and the dealer knows that the cigar will be
judged to a considerable extent by the box in which it is packed.
The principal substitutes are veneers of the cedar or basswood
or gum, basswood stained without veneering, or covered with
paper printed to resemble the grain of cedar. Many combina-
tions are used. One box may have a solid Spanish cedar top ;
the sides of gum stained on the inside and veneered with cedar
on the outside ; the ends unstained gum but veneered with cedar
on the outside; the bottom of soft elm stained a cedar color.
Most of the material is re-sawed to ^ or 3/16 inch thickness.
The cedar veneer is cut i/ioo to 1/40 inch thick.

American Lumberman, November, 1912.

The figures below are taken from data
Weights given in Service Circular 213 for the first

of column ; from the official estimated

Lumber. weights of air-dry lumber as published

by the Hardwood Manufacturers' Asso-
ciation of the United States for column 2 ; from similar official
estimated weights both dry and green as published by the Na-
tional Hardwood Manufacturers' Association for columns 3 and
4 except the figure for white pine in column 4 which was taken
from Forest Service Circular 213.

Weight per M Feet.

Absolutely Air-dry Air-dry Green
dry

Beech 3476 lbs. 4000 4000 5750

Birch 3435 4000 4000 5500

Hard Maple 3341 4000 3300 5400

Soft Maple 3222 3000 3300 5000

White Pine ..2032 2400 2500 3535

American Lumberman, April, 1913.

A number of problems concerning hard-

Hardwood wood distillation are suggested by Dr. L.

Distillation. F. Hawley in a pamphlet issued by Arthur

D. Little, Inc., chemists and engineers,

Boston, Mass. The questions deal with the value of different

Periodical Literature. 487

species of wood as affected among other things by the products
obtained, the amount of heat needed, the moisture content of the
wood, the relative vahie of different parts of the tree, and re-
covery of products from escaping gases.

Hardwood Record, April. 1914.

The results of four experiments carried
Douglas out on a commercial scale to determine the

Fir value of distillates from Douglas fir

Distillation. stumps, along with other supplementary

investigations, show that distillation as an
aid for clearing land is entirely out of the question, according
to G. M. Hunt of the Forest Service. The processes employed
were steam distillation with and without subsequent extraction,
destructive distillation, and combined steam and destructive dis-
tillation. The experiments are described in detail in a 3,000
word article, and the summary brings out a comparison of the
yields of Douglas fir to those of Norway pine and Longleaf
pine, although not an exact comparison.

Turpentine Other Oils Tar Rosin

Douglas fir 1-4 gal. 3- 8 gal. 15 gal. 75-150 tbs.

Norway pine 8-18 " 10-20 " 300 "

Longleaf pine 10-20 " 7-16 " 25-45 "

The yield of charcoal is about the same for each. While the
yields of acid and alcohol cannot be compared, those from Doug-
las fir are so low that it is doubtful if they could be profitably
saved.

Besides' the small amount of product, other things stand in the
way of profit. The products are different from those of Norway
and Longleaf, and are not favored on the market. The large
stumps make expensive handling, and, besides, the mill-waste is
more easily handled and is much more than sufficient to supply
the Pacific Coast demands, even if the market would take kindly
to the products and all of the eastern materials were driven out
of competition.

Timberman, April, 1914.

488 Forestry Quarterly.

By far the greater quantity of excelsior
Excelsior. is made from small, second-growth bass-

wood and poplar, although considerable
is made from cottonwood, balsam, spruce, and willow. The wood
is usually cut in 4-foot lengths, and peeled in early spring. The
peeled wood produces cleaner excelsior and dries quicker. Poplar
(probably Aspen) requires a year to become thoroughly seasoned.
Green or damp wood is unsatisfactory because it clogs the ma-
chinery and is apt to become mouldy when pressed in bales.
After the wood is seasoned it is cut square ended into 16-inch
lengths. Open air seasoned wood is preferred to kiln dried.

There are two classes of machines : an upright double-head
machine and an 8-block horizontal machine. Both are adjustable
for different grades of excelsior. Excelsior is usually cut from
1/32 inch to 1/8 inch wide and about i/ioo inch thick; these
machines can however, be adjusted to cut from 1/64 to 1/2 inch
wide and from 1/500 to 1/50 inch thick. The double upright
machines require about 5 horse-power each and have a capacity
of I ton per day, that is approximately i cord of 4-foot wood.
The horizontal machine cuts about 5 tons per day.

Excelsior is selling at $18 to $22 per ton and the finer wood-
wool at $30 to $35. The cost of production varies for $3 to $5
per ton. Many of the large consumers have plants of their own.

The best grades of excelsior are made from basswood. That
not more of this is used is due probably to its scarcity and to the
high price of the stumpage. Cottonwood is the favorite excelsior
wood, contributing 43.3 per cent of the total amount consumed.
It was used by manufacturers in 18 States. — U. S. Bureau of
Census Report for 191 1.

Canada Lumberman and Woodworker. October, 1913.

STATISTICS AND HISTORY.

The Prussian budget for the year 1914-
Prussian - 15 contains some interesting figures. It
Budget. is marked by increased receipts and ex-

penditures along most lines, as for many years.

For the state forests, an area of 7,518,159 acres, (or 6.7 million
productive) receipts and expenses are estimated as follows: —

Periodical Literature. 489

Regular receipts, $36,660,000.00

Regular expenses, 16,160,000.00

Net income, $20,500,000.00, or just

about $3 per acre ; the expenditures being 44% of the gross in-
come. Besides, there is an account of extraordinary expenses and
incomes, largely made up of sales and purchases of forest land;
the excess of expenditures over receipts, being $1,013,000.00;
$700,000 alone are to be spent on adjusting rights of user.

Of the receipts, wood sales are predicted to yield 387,176,134
cubic feet (57 cu. ft. per acre) at a value of $34,200,000.00 (about
9 cents per cu. ft.). Special Uses are estimated to bring in $1,740,-
000.00 ; the chase $190,000.00.

The income for wood has in the decade increased by 43%, but
the expenditure by 66% in steady rises.

Among the expenses there are the interesting items of $60,000
for telephones and $310,000 for road building.

The personnel for the current year comprises : —

I Oberlandforstmeister ; 5 Landforstmeister ; ^^ Oberforst-
meister; 88 Regierungs — and Forstrate; 822 Oberforster and
Forstmeister ; 5167 Revierforster and Forster (Ranger); 49
Waldwarter (Forest Guards) ; altogether 6165 persons.

The annual forestry conferences among 18 groups of higher
forest officers, described in Forestry Quarterly, Vol. VI, p. 444-
445 are to be continued and $4,500 are set aside for additional
travel costs arising therefrom. A. B. R.

Der Etat der Domanen Forst-und landwlrtschaftlichen Verwaltung fiir
das Etatsjahr 1914-13. AUgemeine Forst-und Jagd-Zeitung, April, 1914,
pp. 140-144.

Dr. Wimmer reviews a 32 page booklet

Private Forests by Oberforster Maucke, dealing with the

of regulations governing privately owned

Germany. forests in the various states of Germany.

The publisher is Paul Parey, Berlin. The

exact title of the book is given below.

Aside from communal and corporate forests, there are in Ger-

*For equivalent position in U. S. Forest Service, see " The Prussian
Forest Service" Forestry Quarterly, Vol. XI, No. i, p. 48.

490 Forestry Quarterly.

many 12,490,051 acres of privately owned woods, that is, 36%>
of the total forest area of Germany. (In the United States 395,-
000,000 acres, 72fo of the total 550,000,000 acres of forest, are
privately or corporately owned.)

The author favors complete freedom of management (except
in protection forests) encouraged by instruction and co-opera-
tion on the part of the government. This is already the case in
Prussia and Saxony; in southern Germany restrictive laws are
still in effect, dating from a time when the value of the forest
was small.

As means of improving the condition of privately owned forests
are cited : — Extension lectures ; advice on the ground by neighbor-
ing state foresters, especially at the time of planting and of cut-
ting; forming of associations; and the creation of a division of
forestry in the agricultural council (Landwirtschaftskammer)
as has been done successfully in eight provinces of Prussia and
lately also in Baden. In Saxony, prizes are offered for the best
managed private forest.

The author urges the need of a most careful census of all
privately owned forests in Germany in order to get a clearer
picture of existing conditions. A. B. R.

Die zur Erhaltun ■ der Privatforsten . . . in den deutschen Bundesstaaten
erlassenen . . . Bestimmungen." Allgemeine Forst-und Jagd-Zeitung.
April, 1914. Pp. 134-135.

According to an article by de Bendictis,
Buying Forests the Italian Government recently purchased
in 2,859,018 acres for the price of $215,157.

Italy. Other purchases are also listed. This is

particularly significant when taken in con-
nection with the recent purchase in France of the Forest of Eu
belonging to the Duke of Orleans, who was forbidden by the
State to make a sale to a private company, on account of the
doubt which had been cast on the conservatism of future man-
agement. This forest was located in the Districts of Dieppe and
Neufchatel. A total of 2,301,258 acres was purchased for a total
of $2,100,000 or in round figures at 91 cents per acre. This forest
was chiefly hardwood, coppice, high forest and coppice under
standards. T. S. W. Jr.

Revue des Eaux et Forets, April 15, 1914, pp. 267, 268 and 272.

Periodical Literature. 491

POLITICS, EDUCATION AND LEGISLATION.

New instructions for the preparatory

Forestry Training training in Bavaria and Wurttemberg wil

in be of especial interest to those readers

Bavaria of the "Quarterly" and of the "Proceed-

and ings" who are familiar with the require-

Wiirtteniberg. ments in Prussiaf and Austria* and in our

own countries of Canada and America.

In Bavaria, after the four year course at the University of
Munich and passing of the theoretical examination at the close
thereof, the government takes on a certain number of candidates
for the administrative service — called Forstpraktikanten — who
must serve a 3 years' apprenticeship ; 19 months on National
Forests, 17 months in a District Office. The first year is spent on
a designated forest where the supervisor introduces the candidate
into all the various lines of work granting him opportunity to
actually carry on some of the work. Emphasis is laid on instruc-
tion in the technical and business procedure. Details to neighbor-
ing forests where work of special interest is in progress, are ar-
ranged.

At the end of the first year, the apprenticeship is continued
on another forest, selected, this time, by the applicant himself.
The object of this second year is to broaden the training of the
first year ; the applicant may be assigned the regular work of an
Assessor (equivalent to our Forest Examiner) or of a Ranger.

Next comes the office experience where the applicant is de-
tailed first of all to the Working Plan Section : from May to Octo-
ber in actual field work. Besides assisting in the making of work-
ing plans, he must independently prepare the plan for a certain
unit — that is, do all the work necessary thereto. He gets his
expenses for this work and a stipend of $1.20 a day!

The following 11 months (November-September) are spent
in learning the District Office procedure.

This ends the time of preparation; the final or state examina-

*See "The Prussian Forest Service/' Forestry Quarterly, Vol. XI, No.
I, pp. 42-50.

fSee "A Glimpse of Austrian Forestry," T. S. Woolsey, Tr., Proceedings
of the Society of American Foresters, Vol. IX, No. i, pp. 7-37.

*The working plan practice in Bavaria will be found described in "The
Theory and Practice of Working Plans," John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1913, pp. 147-159.

492 Forestry Quarterly.

tion comes in November. This examination is a written one but
reference books — such as Lorey, "Handbuch der Forstwissen-
schaft" are allowed. Eighteen problems, covering the various
phases of forestry, are assigned, three hours allowed for each :
a total of 54 hours. The papers are marked independently by
three higher officials of the Bavarian Service.

The Wiirttemberg instructions provide for three examinations,
similar to the Prussian schedule, i ) Preliminary examination in
the basic sciences, 2) Referendar-examination at the close of the
University course and 3) Assessor-examination after 2^ years of
practical apprenticeship.* The number of candidates chosen for
the government service from among those who passed the pre-
liminary examination may be limited and those not chosen given
certificates. Three months of practical experience in the woods
must precede the Referendar-examination.

The 2^ years of practical apprenticeship are without pay, they
are to be spent as the ministry decides. However, two semesters
of advanced work at a university may be counted in with this.
At the end thereof, comes the final or Assessor examination — a
very 'stiflf' one.

The time of training in Wiirttemberg amounts therefore to 12
years of school (through the Gymnasium or about the equivalent
of our sophomore year) plus 8 semesters of technical study, plus
one year of military service, plus 2^ years of apprenticeship :
a total of 19I years. In Bavaria it is an even 20 years (with us
the 10 years of school, 4 of college and one or two of postgradu-
ate work for the Master's degree, makes a total of only 15 or 16
years). A. B. R.

Die neuen Bestimviungcn . . . fiir den bayerischen Forstverwaltungs-
dienst All<?emeine Forst-und Jagd-Zeitung, June, 1914, pp. 203-205.

Die Vorbereitiing aunt Forstdienst (Wurttemberg). AUgemeine Forst-
und Jagd-Zeitung, May, 1914, pp. 173-174.

MISCELLANEOUS.

There are some 20 active forester's as-
German sociations of more or less local character,

Foresters besides the Deutscher Forstverein which

Associations. covers the whole empire and comprises

2177 members (1913), the local associa-
tions showing a membership of over 4000, who represent pro-

tSee "The Prussian Forest Service," F. Q., Vol. XI, No. i, pp. 42-50.

Periodical Literature. 493

fessional men and timberland owners'. An account of the topics
under discussion is given.

Die deutschen Forstvereine, ihre letzten Versammlungen und Beratungs-
gcgenstande. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-u. Jagdwesen. May, 1914, pp. 296-302.

At the closing exercises of the Yale
The Theoretical Forest School on February 25, 1914, Dr.
vs. Fernow delivered an address on this sub-

The Practical. ject.* In it he pointed out how the so-

called practical man usually proceeds on
the basis of unformed empiricism. Along much the same lines
Forstassessor Weber argues in an essay on Science and Experi-
ence. That mere personal experience can ever displace careful
scientific investigation is untenable. On this most authors are
agreed. Occasionally some empiricist argues that experience is
the best teacher. Among these Forstmeister Frombling takes the
view that personal experience alone can teach the forester how
to proceed, on the ground that the exceptions to many important
rules are so numerous that scientific generalizations are worth-
less and for the exceptions experience alone can furnish the an-
swer. Has not Pfeil, himself, said: "ask the tree, it will teach
you ?" Answering this, Weber points out that science and practice
must work together and be in constant reciprocity, that the prac-
tising forester must never lose sight of the scientific develop-
ments and must keep in constant touch with these. He must not
forget that he alone, depending on his personal experience, can
make no real progress and that, without application of strictly
scientific methods of research in forestry, no lasting results can
be secured. Granting that generalizations are worthless, indi-
vidual experience is of necessity too circumscribed to furnish an
adequate substitute. Careful scientific research, alone, can cover
the field. Just because the theories of today do not solve all
problems of practice is no reason to throw away theory. It is the
aim of science not to solve all riddles — for this must always be
impossible — but to probe deeper and deeper into the reason of
things. Mere experience can not go as far as this, can not point
the way with any assurance of success. Only when theory oflFers
its sisterly hand to practice, when speculation is added to ex-

*See Yale Forest School News, Vol. II, No. 2, pp. 15-18.

494 Forestry Quarterly.

perience can science thrive. It is interesting to note that this
antagonisin between theoretician and practitioner has for more
than a hundred years been discussed in forestry literature, Weber
quoting the expressions of early masters. Among these, Moser
in 1757 in his Principles of Forest Economy hits the nail on the
head: "The road to wisdom and judgment by way of personal
experience alone without systematic teaching is a rough and very
uncertain one : few travel it without stumbling and many fall.
Only with a good scientific knowledge as a basis will experience
make us wise. Without such basis it would be difficult to see what
to observe, how to differentiate between the accidental and the
essential. Moreover, this road is long!" A. B. R.

Wissenschaft und Erfahrung. Allgemeine Forst-und Jagd-Zeitung,
April, 1914, pp. 1 17-126.

The Bavarian Government has recently

Forest set aside five areas on the Austrian frontier

Parks containing 343 hectares, in order to retain

in the original forest cover in its primeval

Bavaria. condition. With the artificially pure stands

which forest management generally finds

most profitable covering larger and larger areas, it seems very

desirable to retain a few examples of the old mixed stands.

In these parks all cutting and other use will be forbidden. Like-
wise, hunting and fishing will not be permitted so that these parks
will also form game refuges.

The Bavarian Government has already set aside for the same
purpose yy hectares of peat bog and some stands of old oaks.

K. W. W.

Natursclmtz in den bayerischcn Staatswaldungen. Forstwissenschaft-
liches Centralblatt, May, 1914, p. 291.

Not long after the colony at Jamestown
First was founded the colonists began to manu-

Saw-mill facture lumber in a crude way and a cargo

in of "clap-boards" was exported from

United States. Virginia in June, 1607. As early as 1625

a saw-mill with upright saws run by water-
power was established near the present site of Richmond.

St. Louis Lumberman.

Other Periodical Literature. 495

OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE.

American Forestry, XX, 1914, —

Sixteen Thousand Miles of Forested Shore Line. Pp. 319-
340. British Columbia coast conditions.

The South' s Forestry and Water Resources. Pp. 377-379.

An Epitome of National Reclamation. Pp. 393-402.

Forestry on the Country Estate. Pp. i, loi, 165, 261, 356,
448, 501.

Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, XliVI, 1914, —

A Method of Estimating Rainfall by the Growth of Trees.
Pp. 321-335.

A Geographical Study of Nova Scotia. Pp. 413-419.

The Ohio Naturalist, XIV, 1914, —

Starch Reserve in Relation to the Production of Sugar,
Flowers, Leaves, and Seed in Birch and Maple. Pp. 317-320.

The Botanical Gazette, JAfU, 1914, —

The Significance of Tracheid Calibre in Coniferae. Pp.
287-307.

The writer concludes that there is considerable evidence
that the width of spring tracheids is largely decided by two
factors, systematic affinity and available water supply.

Morphological Instability in Pinu\s radiata. Pp. 314-319.
Deals with shoot proliferation.

The Spur Shoot of the Pines. Pp. 362-384.

Winter as a Factor in the Xerophily of Certain Evergreen
Ericads. Pp. 445-489.

Bulletin of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, 1914 —

Fiiel Oil in the Southwest. Pp. 1023-1070.

496 Forestry Quarterly.

The Classification of Public Lands. Pp. 1139-1141.

Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fur Forst-und Landwirtschaft.

Brkankungen durch Luftabschluss und Ueberhitzung.
Von C. von Tubeuf. February, March, 1914. Pp. 67-88,
161-169.

Discusses especially the influence of stagnant water on
Ash, and of tarring wounds.

Hitsetot und Einschnurungskrankheiten dcr Pflanzen.
Von C. von Tubeuf. Jan. 1914. Pp. 19-36.

Discusses the effect of mechanical strangulation of tissues
and similar results produced by various fungi, as well as of
frost, heat and drouth.

Gibt es natiirlichc Schutsmittel der Rinden unserer Holzge-
wdchse gegen Tierfrass? Von Franz Heikertinger. March
1914. Pp. 97-113.

Demolishes convincingly the theory of protective means
of plants against animals.

Nochmals Hitseschdden in Waldpflanzen. Von Dr Miinch.
April, 1914. Pp. 169-188.

Addition to a previous article discussing in detail the effect
of heat much more frequent than supposed and as important
as frost, upon forest trees.

Aus dem M'iinchener Exkursionsgebiet. Von C. von
Tubeuf, May, June, 1914. Pp. 217-258.

A richly illustrated account of the exotic flora in the
valley of Bozen, Tirol.

Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt.

Beitrdge sur Physiologie des Bodens. Von Dr. Bembeck,
Jan. 1914. Pp. 26-44.

Discusses soil depth (absolute vs. physiological) ; improve-
ment of forest soils by choice of species and mechanical
means.

Other Periodical Literature. 497

Zeitschrift fur Forst- u. Jagdwesen —

Neue Wege der Forsteinrichtung. Von Oberforster Hiss.
July, 1 91 3. Pp. 447-454-

Untersuchungen iiber den Wertzwwachs von Kiefer und
Ficlite. Von Geh. Rg.-Rat Prof. Dr. Schwappach. August,
1913. Pp.502.

Der Blendersaumschlag und sein System. Von Prof. C.
Wagner. (Review by Dr. Kienitz). November, 1913. Pp.
727-41.

Binfliiss hoher Essen auf die Verbreitung der Rauch-
schaden. Von Oberforstrat Reuss-Dessau. December, 191 3.
Pp. 782-90.

Der Kiensopf. Von Oberforster Haak. June, 1914. Pp.
3-46. A very full account of investigations into the disease
occasioned by Peridermium pint.

Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen —

Reisenotisen aus Skandinavien. Schzveden und seine H0I2-
ausfiihr. Von Prof. M. Decoppet. April, 1913. Pp. 105-
113; May. Pp. 145-55; June, July. Pp. 185-95.

Centralblatt fur das gesamte Forstwesen —

Ziir Fra.vis der W aldivertsherechnung. Von Dr. Theodor
Glaser. January, 1913. Pp. i-ii; February, Pp. 49-60.

Der Voranschlag filr die verschicdenen Zzveige des staat-
lichen Forstdienstes und filr die Staatsforste und Domanen
insbesondere filr das Jahr 1913. January. Pp. i-ii.

Schzveizerische Forststatistik (Literarische Berichte).
(Dr. Pittauer). February, 1913. Pp. 77-80.

Bin altbekanntes Kinderspielseug als Lehrbehelf fur die
Forstzvirtschaft ini allgemeinen und dem Walbau insbeson-
dere. July, 1913. Pp. 327-32.

Allgemeine Forst-und Jagd- Zeitung —

Die Sonnenenergie im Walde. Von Max Wagner. June,
1913. Pp. 185-200.

498 Forestry Quarterly.

Chemie des Holses unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der
Impregnierungstechnik. Dr. F. Moll. April, 1914. Pp.
126-132.

A very full discussion of the chemical composition of wood
and its reactions to various chemicals.

NEWS AND NOTES.

Co-operation between the government and the State against
forest fires is made possible by the Weeks law, and has already
been taken advantage of by the States of Maine, New Hampshire,
Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey,
Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, Michigan, Wisconsin, Min-
nesota, South Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Oregon.

Under the terms of the co-operative agreements, the Secretary
of Agriculture may terminate the co-operation at any time that he
finds it not to be conducted in a satisfactory manner. In this way
the responsibility for organizing and maintaining the work is
placed upon the State, which must, therefore, keep its system up
to a good standard of efficiency in order to have the co-operation
with the government continued. Forestry officials of the depart-
ment of agriculture act as inspectors to keep the department in-
formed as to how the States are handling the work. Under this
plan a great advance has been made in the development of effi-
cient state systems of fire protection.

An agreement entered into between the U. S. Department of
Agriculture and the State of Michigan provides for an expenditure
by the government of not to exceed $5,000 a year toward meet-
ing the expenses of forest fire protection in Michigan.

In Montana co-operative agreements involve the Forest Service,
the State, and the Northern Pacific railroad. These have just been
renewed to extend through the fiscal year to June 30, 1915.

The agreement with the State provides that federal and State
patrolmen shall form one single force for handling forest fires,
which force acts under the direction of the forest supervisor in
charge of the nearest national forest. This arrangement, as is
intended, "secures the greatest efficiency and avoids duplication
of patrol." The agreement applies to all government and State
lands lying within the exterior boundaries of the National Forests
in Montana. The agreement between the railroad and the Forest
Service provides for similar patrol arrangements.

The government allots the State the sum of $3,500 a year, to be
expended for salaries of federal patrolmen, and the State agrees

500 forestry Quarterly.

to spend at least an equal amount for fire protection purposes of
any character.

One of the most progressive railways in matters of fire pro-
tection is the Boston & Maine, which operates in both the United
States and Canada. In addition to following the general practice
of most railways in burning off the right of way each year, to re-
duce grass fires, the Boston & Maine has adopted the policy of co-
operating with land-owners along their lines, in getting the in-
flammable debris disposed of on a narrow strip adjacent to the
right of way. It is recognized that in some cases sparks from
locomotives will fall outside the right of way, which usually ex-
tends fifty feet on each side of the center of the track. Fires are
likely to start in this way and cause serious damage before they
can be extinguished. Similarly, the danger from small grass
fires starting within the right of way is greatly increased by the
presence of inflammable debris, such as old slashings, immediately
adjacent to the right of way fence. So far as possible, the Boston
& Main Railroad secures the active co-operation of owners of
such lands in burning the debris at a safe time. Where this is
impracticable for any reason, the Company does the work at its
own expense, unless the land owner objects. The Company re-
ports that on seventy-five such places last year, the fire hazard
was materially reduced in this way. This is good business policy
from the point of view of the railway, since the elimination of
forest fires means in the long run not only decreased damage
claims, but also increased freight and passenger revenues. The
Company states that the adoption of the above policy means very
little added expense, since the section men handle the work on
rainy days, when there is no track work they can do. This is
also the safest time for burning such debris, since the fires can not
spread beyond control.

The Pennsylvania Railroad has also adopted a policy closely
similar to the above.

According to the Fire Inspection Department of the Board of
Railway Commissioners for Canada, the railways throughout the
Dominion are doing very much better this year in the matter of
fire protection than has ever been the case before. There has

News and Notes. 501

been better compliance with the requirements of the Board, and
a far greater degree of co-operation between the various agencies
interested in fire prevention. In particular, the railways are co-
operating much more closely than previously with the fire protec-
tive organizations of the Dominion and Provincial Governments.
The situation has also been greatly improved by the increase, in
number and strength, of lumbermen's co-operative fire protec-
tive associations, of which there are now two in the Province of
Quebec protecting a total of nearly 14,000,000 acres.

In the past, railways have always been regarded as one of
the principal causes of forest fire destruction. This situation is
now being rapidly changed, by the increasing care given this
matter under the requirements of the Railway Commission. The
fire hazard is being reduced by the expenditure of large sums by
railway companies in disposing of inflammable debris on right
of way. Great care is taken to keep the spark arresters on loco-
motives in good order. Through the more dangerous sections,
special fire patrols are maintained, and everywhere railway em-
ployees have received special instructions regarding the reporting
and extinguishing of fires in the vicinity of the track.

Reports received by the Chief Fire Inspector of the Board in-
dicate that to a very much greater extent than in previous years
the fires in the vicinity of the railways have been adequately
handled by the railway employees, and that most of the serious
fires reported as occuring in May, originated at a distance from
the railways, frequently escaping from settlers slash-burning
operations.

The Canadian Pacific Railway has reorganized the local ad-
ministration of the special fire patrols on its western lines, re-
quired by the Board of Railway Commissioners, by placing the
matter under the direction of its Forestry Branch of which Mr.
R. D. Prettie is Superintendent, with headquarters at Calgary.
The new arrangement affects the handling of fire protection work
on all lines of the C. P. R. running through forest sections west of
Fort William, Ont. The C. P. R. Forestry Branch has previously
been closely associated with fire protection work, through the
assignment of inspectors, but the new arrangements will greatly

502 Forestry Quarterly.

increase its scope by giving it administrative control as well. The
new plan is altogether logical in an age of specialization.

The Dominion Parks Branch has just gotten out a new fire
warning notice of striking and attractive form for use in the
National Parks throughout the Dominion of Canada. The new
notices are made of tin and the face with baked enamel. The
initial cost is higher but this is amply justified when the superior
lasting qualities of the tin over that of the cloth notices is taken
into account. The lettering is in red and black sufficiently large
to be easily readable at a distance. At the top of the notice is
a picture of a forest fire, depicting in a vivid manner the ravage
and devastating influence of fires to the timber resources of the
country.

Wireless telegraphy has been brought into use in connection
with protection of forests from fire. It is now possible for
rangers in the remote regions of The Pas and Fort Churchill to
communicate almost instantly with the Forestry Branch at Otta-
wa. This is probably the first practical application of wireless
telegraphy to forest fire protection in America or elsewhere.

An electrical engineer recently stated that "in the near future
the wireless telephone will not only progress far ahead of the
wireless telegraph, but take its place." When instruments are
perfected suitable for forest use, incalculable benefit for getting
fires quickly under control will result.

The British Columbia Forest Branch, by widely distributing
various styles of posters, etc., reiterating the danger from un-
watched small fires, made efforts early this year to seek the co-
operation of all people in the woods to prevent forest fires. Per-
haps the two notices that will prove most striking are the forest
fire law printed in six languages on a single sheet, and a pocket-
size grindstone, on the enamel holder of which the user is cau-
tioned against fires.

A report comes of a co-operative association for the prevention
of forest fires formed by ranchers within and adjacent to the

News and Notes. 503

Sierra National Forest, Cal. When using fire for clearing land
for farming, it will be done on a community basis, members of
the association being present to prevent the spread of fires.

The Post Office department of the United States two years
ago enlisted in the campaign against forest fires by instructing
rural mail carriers to report fires to the proper officials, lists of
names and addresses of local fire wardens and patrolmen being
supplied the carriers. This year wardens and patrolmen have been
instructed to seek out personally the mail carriers to discuss a plan
of action to be followed.

Manufacturers of hunting, camping, and sporting goods are be
ing asked for their co-operation also. It has been suggested that
their business profits during seasons when fires are fewer, and
so it would be well for them to issue with their goods printed
slips of warning. Railways print such warnings on time-tables.
They would aid still further if sportsmen's and campers' special
tickets showed a brief warning printed in red.

In F. Q., vol. XI, p. 617, reference was made to the enlisting
of Indians in the work of fire prevention. The following will
be of interest as a result of asking the Indians for co-operation
in this important national duty in Canada.

Owing to the precedent and example of Dominion Forestry
Branch fire wardens, the ingrained carelessness of the Indian,
for he has frequently and not always unjustly — been accused of
criminal carelessness with fire, has been supplanted by an en-
thusiasm for forest conservation. Several hundred Indians last
summer promised to observe every precaution to prevent forest
fires, and, as the Chief Fire Ranger writes, "The fact of no
fires this summer is proof positive that the majority of them have
faithfully kept their pledge." During the course of the summer
63 Indians voluntarily visited the Chief's headquarters to discuss
the plans of the Branch in the matter of conserving the remain-
ing forest in western Canada.

Many of these Indians are sufficiently well educated to serve as
fire rangers, and the Dominion government has enlisted quite a
number of them in the fire-ranging service, finding that their

504 Forestry Quarterly.

knowledge of the country and their enthusiasm for the work make
them admirably adapted for this service.

It is said that the best times of day to see forest fires from look-
out stations are just after daylight and just before sunset.

On the Deerlodge National Forest in Alontana one lookout
station has the record of reporting accurately, by distance and di-
rection, a fire that was 60 miles away.

Residents of Wallace, Idaho, now claim that results of the
disastrous forest fires in northen Idaho in 1910 are being made
evident in the changed flow from a watershed then burned over,
which furnishes the city its water supply, not only for domestic
purposes, but also for the development of electricity for power
and light. In view of the situation, the Forest Service has under-
taken to reforest the denuded watershed. Some planting has al-
ready been done and eventually all of the watershed which is
included within National Forest boundaries is to be reforested.

A little more than 33,000 acres in the White Mountains have
just been approved for purchase by the government at a meeting
of the National Forest Reservation Commission.

These are in two separate tracts, both in New Hampshire, the
larger containing 31,100 acres on the watershed of the Pemige-
wasset river, a tributary to the Merrimac. Most of the conifers
have been cut to make paper pulp, but there are good stands of
beech, birch, and maple of considerable value. With fire kept
out there is said to be excellent promise of a new stand of spruce.

The smaller purchase consists of several areas lying on the
watersheds of Little river and Gale river, both tributaries of the
Connecticut. These lands cover 2,000 acres in the locality of the
noted Franconia range and are contiguous to lands already ap-
proved for purchase ; hence they go far toward giving the gov-
ernment a solid body of land in this locality. The forest has
been cut over and consists chiefly of the northern hard-woods,
though some spruce remains from the original stand.

At the same time that these White Mountain areas were ap-
proved, the Commission also approved the purchase of the Pisgah

News and Notes, 505

Forest in North Carolina, from the George W. Vanderbilt estate.
These tracts bring the total eastern forests up to 1,077,000 acres.

The Massachusetts Forestry Association is energetically work-
ing for visible progress. In addition to the contest noted in the
first issue of this volume of the Quarterly, the Association this
year announces a contest to encourage reforestation by the estab-
lishment of "town forests." The prize is to be 50 acres planted
to three-year-old White pine transplants, 1200 to the acre.

There are over 40 different log rules now m use in the United
States and Canada, showing a variation of over 50 per cent in the
amount of lumber they ascribe to a log of any given size. Prob-
ably the best rule yet formulated is the International log rule
prepared by Dr. J. F. Clark (F. Q., vol. IV, p. 92), when Chief
Forester for Ontario.

So far as stumpage dues are concerned, it is safe to say that
very often the lumbermen pay for only half the merchantable
lumber the average log really contains. It is possible that when a
bonus is paid by lumbermen in addition to stumpage dues this
makes up for the loss in scaling. It is significant that when the
British Columbia government recently decided to increase the
royalty paid on timber cut in the interior of the province, it stipu-
lated that the B. C. log rule should henceforth be used in that
region instead of the Doyle rule, thus increasing by 45 per cent
the amount of estimated lumber in the logs cut.

The only final remedy would seem to be the adoption of a gen-
eral rule such as the International, or, better still, the substitu-
tion of cubic measurement of logs, a practice which has long been
in operation in Europe where high lumber prices make accuracy
not only desirable but necessary.

The American Wood Preservers Association in co-operation
with the U. S. Forest Service recently issued a report on wood
preservation.

1832 is the date given for the introduction into this country of
the Kyanizing process. This was followed a few years later by
the Burnett and the Bethel processes. All three processes, are
largely in use today.

The report gives the progress in number of pressure plants

5o6 Forestry Quarterly.

as three in 1885, 15 in 1895, and, skipping to the present time.
117 in 1913.

In Great Britain and many European countries today practically
every wooden crosstie and telephone or telegraph pole receives
preservative treatment; while in the United States less than 30
per cent of the 133 million crossties annually consumed are treat-
ed, and the proper treatment of an annual consumption of 4 mil-
lion poles may be said to have scarely commenced. Nevertheless,
the impregnation of wood, with oils and chemicals to increase its
resistance to decay and insect attack, is becoming an important in-
dustry, and the report states that the most notable progress yet
recorded was made last year.

In southern Nigeria, on the west coast of Africa, the British
government has done much to encourage the practice of forestry,
eight hundred villages now have communal plantations of rubber
trees. The natives supply the labor, the native chiefs the land,
and the Forestry Department the seeds, technical knowledge and
tapping appliances, the profits being divided equally among the
three co-operating parties.

A Vancouver lumberman has estimated that "one ton of refuse
goes to the burners for every M feet of lumber cut." In his own
saw-mill he has eliminated this waste by breaking up the refuse
into small pieces which are manufactured into fuel briquettes at
a cost of only $3 per ton.

In this connection it has also been learned that a large lumber
company in British Columbia is erecting a $50,000 plant, which
will have a daily output of about 30 tons of such briquettes, which
will sell for about $5 a ton at the mill.

Manufacturers have found that Red Alder from the Pacific
coast makes a white, smooth, springy clothespin. As a result of
this fact, a clothespin factory, said to be the first on the Pacific
coast, may be established at Portland, Ore.

Zentaro Kawase, professor of Forestry at the Imperial Uni-
versity of Tokio, Japan, has been making a tour of the national

News and Notes. 507

forests of this country to learn the government's methods of sell-
ing timber and of reforestation.

At a State timber auction in Minnesota, aggregating some
40,000,000 feet sold at approximately $250,000, pine stumpage
ran from $6 to $12 averaging $9, spruce, $4 to $5, tamarack and
cedar $3 to $4, Jack pine $4 to $5, bakam $2 to 3. The premium
paid in some cases amounted to over 140 per cent on the ap-
praised price.

Mr. Ralph Sheldon Hosmer, who for a number of years offici-
ated as Superintendent of Forestry, Bureau of Agriculture and
Forestry at Honolulu T. H. has been appointed Professor of
Forestry at the New York State College of Forestry, Cornell
University in place of Walter Mulford who assumes the new
professorship of Forestry at the University of California.

American foresters are beginning to compete for positions in
foreign services. The latest development in this direction is the
call of Mr. Douglas Mathews from the Philippine forest service
to take charge of the timber holdings' of the British North Borneo
Company. The same bureau has furnished Mr. H. M. Curran to
organize a forest service for the Argentine government.

We regret to learn from Major George P. Ahern that he is
forced to resign his position as Director of the Philippine Forestry
Bureau on account of trouble with his eyes. He will return in
November, taking up his residence in Washington with a view
of doing missionary work on behalf of the Islands. Mr. Sher-
fessee will replace him in the position of Director.

For fifteen years Major Ahern has held the position. He cre-
ated the bureau and has brought it to noteworthy efficiency in
spite of many drawbacks. Major Ahern began as a propagandist
of forestry practice when Captain in the regular army, stationed
in Montana some 20 years ago giving public lectures after he had
sufficiently informed himself. In 1897 he secured the appoint-
ment of military instructor at the Agricultural College at Boze-
man and immediately organized a class of students' to study
forestry. This was terminated when the Spanish war broke out

5o8 Forestry Quarterly.

in 1898, and when civil government was established in the islands
Captain Ahern was the logical candidate for the position as the
Director of the Forestry Bureau. His intelligent enthusiasm and
capacity for organization are responsible for the success of the
bureau.

Overton Westfeldt Price, Vice-President of the National Con-
servation Association and formerly Associate Forester of the
United States Forest Service, died on June 11, at his family home
in Fletcher, North Carolina. The ultimate cause of death was a
nervous disorder from which he had suffered intermittently for
years and which had returned in a sudden and acute attack only a
few days before his decease ; the immediate cause was a self-
inflicted wound which was in itself a symptom of the malady. His
untimely death removes from the profession of forestry in Amer-
ica one of its best known and ablest members, at the very height of
his powers and to its material loss ; while it leaves in the hearts
of those who knew his capacity for friendship, his loyalty to noble
ideals, his superb courage and fighting power, his stainless honor
and rectitude of motive and deed, a vacancy that will not soon be
filled.

The breakdown which closed his life may be traced back to his
work in the Forest Service, where for years he had thrown him-
self ardently into the upbuilding of a system of national forestry.
In this work he developed extraordinary^ powers of organization
and administration. During the last two or three years of his term
in public office particularly, he carried the main burden of internal
administration of the Forest Service, doing his utmost to leave his
chief, Mr. Pinchot, free to deal with the larger questions of policy
and to wage his fight for national conservation. Under the strain
imposed upon him by the conditions which immediately preceded
the conclusion of his official responsibilities his strength was taxed
to the utmost verge ; and he never subsequently regained perfect
health.

Mr. Price was born on January 27, 1873, in Liverpool, England,
whither his parents had gone from North Carolina to live after
the close of the Civil War. He received his earlier education in
that country and at the Episcopal High School near Alexandria,

News and Notes. 509

Va. After a special course at the University of Virginia lie took
up work at Biltmore under Mr. Pinchot, and was thus one of the
first Americans to turn towards what was then almost an unknown
profession in the United States. One year later he went to Ger-
many to obtain a complete technical preparation for his life work.
Two years at the University of Munich were supplemented by a
year of practical experience in various European forests. This
work abroad was largely guided by the friendly counsels of Sir
Dietrich Brandis. On his return to America he engaged in prac-
tical work at Biltmore and in the North Woods. In June, 1899,
he entered the Division of Forestry of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture as agent ; a year later he was promoted to the position
of Superintendent of Working Plans, and in 1901, when the old
Division of Forestry was raised to a Bureau, became its assistant
chief. The transfer of the National Forests to the charge of the
Forest Service in 1905 gave a new and broader field for the em-
ployment of Mr. Price's remarkable organizing and executive ca-
pacity ; largely to him belongs the credit for the work which estab-
lished national forestry in the United States on a sound and per-
manent basis.

In January, 1910, his connection with the Forest Service was ter-
minated ; and he shortly afterward became Treasurer, and subse-
quently Vice-President, of the National Conservation Association.
At the time of his death he was also consulting forester to the gov-
ernment of British Columbia, forester of the Letchworth Park Ar-
boretum, and adviser in forestry matters of the estate of the late
George W. Vanderbilt. In addition to a number of reports and
articles on forestry, he was the author of "The Land We Live In,"
an admirable popular book on conservation written especially for
boys, and of a work still in manuscript, on business organization.
To the latter subject his attention had been especially turned in
connection with the study of the Government's business system
made by President Roosevelt's so-called "Keep Commission," or
Committee on Departmental Methods. Though not himself a
member of that committee, Mr. Price had much to do with its
work and with the organization and direction of the numerous
assistant committees which carried out in detail the various sub-
divisions of the inquiry. In this work as well as in that which he
performed as Associate Forester he rendered a public service of
permanent value.

510 Forestry Quarterly.

As a technical forester Mr. Price made very substantial contri-
butions to the development of American practice, not so much in
the form of published writings of his own as through directing the
work of others and through the influence which he exerted on the
organization of the work of the Government in the field of for-
estry. «_»_«»™»._ ■^- ^- ^•

We record with great regret the loss of Mr. Louis Margolin
in the wilds of the Sierra of California in June. He started out
from the Dinkey Ranger Station in the Sierra National Forest
to get to a camp some 12 miles away, but did not make his ap-
pearance. Some weeks later his torn shirt with card case, diary
and other papers in the pocket was found in Dinkey Creek, an
affluent of Kings' River, along and across which his trail led, leav-
ing no doubt as to his unfortunate fate. A thorough search along
both rivers has failed to bring his body to light.

Mr. Margolin held the degree of F. E. from Cornell University,
1904, having completed his course at Harvard University. Since
1905 he was, with the exception of about a year and a half in
private employ, a member of the U. S. Forest Service. At
the time of his death he was in charge of the reconnaissance
work and working plan activities of the Service in the National
Forests of California.

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mitted upon presentation of their college
diploma, provided they have taken certain pre-
scribed undergraduate courses.

"The summer term is conducted at Milford,
Pike Co., Penna. and opens July i, 19 14."

For further infomation, address
JAMES W. TOUMEY, Director, New Haven, Connecticut

The University of Toronto
and University College

With Which Are Federated

ST. MICHAEL'S. TRINITY AND

VICTORIA COLLEGES

Faculties of Art, Medicine, Applied Science, House-
hold Science, Education, Forestry.

The Faculty of Forestry offers a four-year course,
leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Forestry.

For information, apply t« the KEGISTRAK OP THE UNIVERSITY, or
to th* Secretaries of tbe respectire Facalties.

THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY

AT

SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY

Syracuse, New York

Undergraduate course leading to degree of Bachelor of Science; Postgradu-
ate course to Master of Forestry, and one- and two-year Ranger courses.
Sophomore Summer Camp of eight weeks and Ranger School held on the
College Forest of 1,800 acres at Wanakena in the Adirondacks. Summer
Forest Camp in August on Upper Saranac Lake. Forest Experiment Station
of 90 acres and excellent Library offer unusual opportunities for research work.

For particulars address: HUGH P. BAKER, D. Occ, Dean

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE
offers a two-years' course in FORESTRY leading to the degree of
Master in Forestry. The descriptive pamphlet will be sent on
application to W. C. SABINE, 15 University Hall, Cambridge,
Mass.

UNIVERSITY OF MAINE

ORONO, MAINE

Offers a iour-ytar andergradaate course, leadiDg to the degree of
BACHELOR OF SCIENCS IN FORSSTRY.

The Location and Equipmeat of the School and the Opporttmities offered to
Students of Forestry are excellent.

For detailed information, address

JOHN M. BRISCOE, Department of Forestry, ORONO, MAINE

WOULD YOU LIKE

to receive regularly the Bulletins and Circulars pertaining to the actual
practice of preventing the decay of wood? While these frankly advocate
the use of Avenarius Carbolineum for the brush or open tank treatment of
timber they are none the less interesting on that account but rather
MORE so, for Avenarius Carbolineum is, without doubt, the one preserv-
ative that has demonstrated its decay-preventing qualities during thirty-
five years. The Bulletins and Circulars are sent free.

Circ. 56 contains a Bibliography of Technical References.

Circ. 58 covers Treating Tanks for Fence Posts, Shingles, etc. Address

CARBOLINEUM WOOD PRESERVING CO.
185 Franklin St., New York, N. Y.

The Care of Trees in Lawn, Street and Park

By

B. E. Fernow

American Nature Series. Working with Nature.

Published by

Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1910
392 pp. 8.*" Illustrated. Price, $2.00 Net

For Sale by

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Economics of Forestry

A Reference Book for Students of Political Economy
and Professional and Lay Students

By B. E. RERINOW^

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estry is a welcome and important addition to our literature * * *
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he is thoroughly acquainted."

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the author brought the voluminous material into a relatively
small volume and yet has everywhere brought out the essentials
in clear and easily intelligible exposition. The chapter de-
voted to Switzerland shows us clearly how exhaustively the
author has utilized the most important literature and how ex-
cellently he has understood how to orient himself in compli-
cated conditions."

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BRYANT— Logging. The Principles and General Methods of Opera-
tion in the United States. By Ralph Clement Bryant, F.E., M.A.,
Manufacturers' Association Professor of Lumbering, Yale University.
8vo, xviii+spo pages, 133 figures. Cloth, 3.50 net.
The more important features of operation are covered in this book.
Discusses at length the chief facilities and methods for the movement of
timber from the stump to the manufacturing plant, especially logging rail-
roads.

The greatest emphasis is laid on features about which there is not
much wrritten material available.

RECORD — Identification of the Economic Woods of the United
States. By Samuel J. Record, M.A., M.F., Assistant Professor of
Forest Products, Forest Service, Yale University. 8vo, vi-f-117 pages,
15 figures. Cloth, 1.25 net.

This volume includes a discussion of the structural and physical prop-
erties of wood. Designed primarily as a manual for forestry students, but
will also aid others in the study and identification of wood.

RECKNAGEL— The Theory and Practice of Working Plans (Forest
Organization). By A. B. Recknagel, B.A., M.F.. Assistant District
Forester, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 8vo4-235
pages, 6 half-tone plates. Cloth, 2.00 net.

A book which will assist you in becoming thoroughly conversant with
the value and need, scope and sphere of working plans.

Designed both for the student and the practical forester. In prepar-
ing this book the author constantly kept in mind the experience which he
gained while doing active work for the forest service in various parts of
the United States.

HAWLEY-HAWES— Foresty in New England. A Handbook of East
ern Forest Management. By Ralph Chipman HawlEY, M.F., Assistant
Professor of Forestry, Yale University, and Austin Foster Hawes,
M.F., State Forester of Vermont and Professor of Forestry, Univer-
sity of Vermont. 8vo. xv+479 pages, 140 figures, principally half-
tones and 2 colored maps. Cloth, $3-50 net. -c 1 j -*
While this book is written with special reference to New England, it
has a much wider field of direct application, as forest conditions similar to
those in portions of New England prevail over a large part of New York,
New Jersey, in Pennsylvania, and also in southeastern Canada.

»»««»«««»»«»•■•»•••>••••>»»•»♦>

AMERICAN FORESTRY

A profusely illustrated magazine with articles by ex-
perts on all phases of Forestry and Scientific Lumbering.

Every Forester Should Have It.
Subscribing Membership, $3.00

American Forestry Association

WASHINGTON, D. C.

TIMBER ESTIMATES
Surveying

JAMES W. SEWALL,
Center St., Old Town, Me.

MANUAL FOR NORTHERN WOODSMEN

By AUSTIN GARY, Harvard University Publisher, Cambridge,

1910; Pages, 250. Price, $2.00.

A newly revised and improved edition of the above pub-
lication, highly recommended by the editor of this journal, can
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ing and our Seedlings and Transplants are unexcelled
in quality.

Write for quotations on the species in which you
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FOREST TREES I

FOREST SEEDS

F.O.B. ROTTERDAM
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PETER SCHOTT, KNITTELSHEIM

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AN INDEX

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Forestry Quarterly

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containing 4,000 pages, covering the development in tech-
nical knowledge for the last decade, an invaluable refer-
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an index. <ff It is calculated that the Index volume
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Date

THE AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION
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and enclose $ -for dues. a Sustaining Member ($25)

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Name

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Timber estimates, forest surveys and maps, inspec-
tion of logging operations, management of private
holdings, fire prevention, appraisal of daimage by fire,
gases or trespass, tree planting.

Metropolitan Life Bldg., New York, N. Y.

LIDGERWOOD

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FISHER & BRYANT, INC.

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dary and Topographic Surveys, Worlting Plans,
Managarhent, Operation, Forest Planting
and Nursery Stock.

39 ASTICOU ROAD
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■V

FOREST TREES!

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Shipments of aoo

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Nurseries in Europe

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Americas RapmenUtive, OTTO HKINECKEN, WhitelwU BuiWinf

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Write ler Catiiloi;u» and Forest Pl&ator'i Guide.

CONTENTS.

Results of an Experiment on the Effect of Drying of
the Roots of Seedlings of Red and White
, Pine, ------ 311

'By Ferdinand W. Haasis.
A'olume Table for Lodgepole Pine, - - - 319

By Arthur T. Upson.
The Relation of Crown Space to the Volume of Pres-
ent and Future Stands of Western Yellow
Pine, - - - - - - 330

By George A. Bright.
Notes on Strip Mapping for Intensive Reconnaissance, 241

By A. F. Kerr,
ribtaining Vertical Control of Practical Value with

the Abney Hand Level, -*" - - . 347

By William J. Paeth.
'i he U'-e of the Abney Hand Level. - _ - 370

By M. L. Erickson.
; mmpage Appraisal Formulae. _ _ _ 3^(3

By Donald Bruce.
-'i:in,1rn-flization of Fire Plans, Organization. Equip-
ment and Methods in District III, - - 381
By John D. Guthrie.
\ (^"omparative Study of Two Log Rules, as Applied
to Timber in Central New York,
Ry John Bentley, Jr.
■inp;-love Log Rule, - - - - 305

W'm. W, AV. Colton.
' • ihe U. S. Forest Service, as Reflected in

he Forester's Reports for 191 1, 1912,
1913- ------ 397

By Alexander J. Jaenickc.
Exploitation of Crossties in Northern New Mexico, 40S

By Clarence F. Korstian,
Jhir-^^i; Tvpe: A Defense of Loose Usage, - -

By E. H, Frothingham.
'J'Jie Scope of Dendrology — Some Correction^. -

By H. de Forest.
(>:-t rif Growing Timber on the Pacific Coast, - 4.v~

By H. R. McMillan.
Current Literature, - - - - - 435

Other Current Literature, .. _ - - 455

Periodical Literature, ----- 465

Other ^Periodical Literature, _ - - - 495

News and Notes, - - - - - - 499

VOLUME Xn WUMBtR 4

FORESTRY QUARTERLY

A PROFESSIONAL JOURNAL

Subscription
Two Dollars per Anntun

WASHINGTON, D. C.

1410 H STREET, N. W.

1914

Apslication pending for mailing as secosd>clas8 ncatter at Washingtoo, O. C.

FORESTRY QUARTERLY

BOARD OF EDITORS
B. E. Fernow, LL.D., Editor-in-Chief

Henry S. Graves, M. A.,

Forester, U. 5. Forest Service
Raphael Zon, F.E.,

U. S. Forest Service
Frederick Dunlap, F. E.,

University of Missouri
T. S. WooLSEY, Jr., M.F.,

U. S. Forest Service
Ernest A. Sterling, F.E.,
Consulting Forest Engineer,
Philadelphia, Pa.
Clyde Leavitt, M.S.F.,
Commission of Conservation,
Ottawa, Canada
Filibert Roth, B.S.,

University of Michigan

Hugh P. Baker, D.Oec,

Syracuse University
R. C. Bryant, F.E.,

Yale University
Samuel J. Record, M.F.,

Yale University
Richard T. Fisher, A. B.,

Harvard University
Walter Mulford, F.E.,

University of California
A. B. Recknagel, M.F.,

Cornell University
C.D.Howe, Ph.D.,

University of Toronto
J. H.White, M.A., B.Sc.F.,
University of Toronto

Asa S. Williams, F. E.

P. S. RipsDALE, Business Manager
Washington, D. C.

the objects for which this journal is PUBLISHED ARE:

To aid in the establishment of rational forest management.

To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of

interest to professional foresters of America.
To keep the profession in touch with the current technical

literature, and with the forestry movement in the United

States and Canada.

Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at the Uni-
versity of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of
editors.

Subscriptions and other business matters may be addressed to
Forestry Quarterly, 1410 H Street, N. W., Washington, D. C.

NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC.
WASHINGTON. D. C

Girdled Pine.

Severed Fork.

Food Movement in Trees.
(See article page 559.)

llM.l%ittM|IUta£«-.^

.\iuuci ui Regulated Forest.

FORESTRY QUARTERLY

Vol. XII December, 1914 No. 4

A MECHANICAL MODEL OF A REGULATED FOREST.
By O. L. Sponsler and E. C. Luebben.

A mechanical model designed to demonstrate the growth of a
"clean-cut and planted" forest, under regulation, was built and
used as a part of the annual exhibit given jointly by the students
of the Engineering Department and of the Forestry Department
of the University of Michigan. The incentive for making this
model was a desire to impress, at a glance, the idea that a forest
can have a crop of timber to harA^est at regular intervals and
that all of the different sizes are gradually becoming larger. We
wanted to show a series of 10 areas, each with a different age
class ranging from 1 to 10; and we wanted the stand on each
area to slowly grow taller, while the people were looking on,
until the end of its rotation, when it would disappear and a new
crop start on the denuded area. We did not intend to show an
ideal area arrangement of the age classes of a forest, and the
model does not do that; but rather we wanted to visualize a
growing forest and convey the idea of crops harvested at regu-
lar intervals. At least 10,000 people saw the exhibit and the
majority of those who were interested in this model, which in-
cidentally formed quite a center of attraction, readily saw the
points we wanted it to demonstrate. We mention this to show
that the model is worth while and worth more thought.

Our first model, the one described and illustrated, is a very
crude affair in construction and had to be built in a hurry,
so simplicity was a necessity. The single cam idea on a main
shaft for raising each compartment, was adopted as the simplest
and most easily made, after quite thoroughly considering various
arrangements of two cams for each compartment, individual and
main shafts, racks and pinions, and sprockets and chains com-
bined in many different ways.

511

512 Forestry Quarterly

The general construction is shown in the accompanying photo-
graphs, and a few of the details which may not be clearly evident
are described here for the benefit of anyone wishing to build a
similar machine.

The model is 7 feet long by 18 inches wide and 40 inches high.
Each of its 10 compartments consists of a piston with the "trees"
fastened to the rectangular piston-head. This piston-head is
7x17 inches, of 1 inch soft pine and the "trees" are arranged
in 7 rows, 10 "trees" in 4 rows and 9 in 3 rows, making 67 "trees"
in all for each compartment. The "trees" are centrifuge brushes,
9 inches long over all, the brush part is 3 inches long, 1 inch di-
ameter at the bottom and ^ inch diameter at the top. The bristles
were stained green with Eastman's transparent photo colors. The
ring at the end of the handle was bent at right angles and fastened
to the piston-head by two staples. The piston rod is 2 inches
square by 12 inches long. The lower end bears directly on the
cam. In order to reduce friction here, the bearing parts were
smeared with soap and then oiled.

The cams are made of % inch hard maple. The a:'nensions
are given in the sketch. The shaft \s oi Yz inch gas pipe and
has holes drilled at regular intervals to receive the pins which
fasten the collars in place. The collars are of J4, inch ha^-d
maple 1% inch diameter. Each cam is nailed to its collars in
such a position that its straight side is 36 degrees in advance of
its neighbor on the left. Thus each compartment is raised one-
tenth of its full height, higher than its neighbor on the right.

We have demonstrated that the model will work nicely and
that it is worth developing into a neater and more finished form,
and are now planning a few improvements which are suggested
here. The wooden collars are to be replaced with metal and
keyed to a solid steel shaft. Instead of a direct crank attach-
ment to the shaft, a bicycle sprocket and chain will be used in
order to gear down the shaft revolutions, and bring the crank
to a more convenient height. The top of the model will be made
a few inches wider and instead of 3^ inch stuff, % inch cypress
will be used and the holes through which the "trees" appear made
\]4, inch instead of 1 inch. Underneath the piston-head a coil
spring will be used to reduce the jar when the compartment falls
after reaching maturity. The piston-rods will be made round
instead of square.

Model of a Regulated Forest 513

All of the mechanism is, of course, hidden from view when
operating and an attempt will be made to make the "forest" more
realistic by dipping the stems of the "trees" into a thick brown
paint, and by making a brown forest fioor and a green meadow
surrounding the compartments.

The principal part of the cost of material is in the brushes,
which amounted to about $15.00. The rest of the material cost
less than $5.00, and the labor was donated.

[It may be of interest to add that many years ago, the well-
known Dr. Robert Hartig, of Munich, had constructed a model
of a regulated forest with age-class distribution, which, while
omitting the moving picture show idea of the above model, was
designed true to nature in relative dimensions and number of
trees per unit area, in each age class, in which respect the above
fails.

A duplicate of Hartig's "Waldspiel" was exhibited at the
World's Fair by the United States Forestry Division and after-
wards found its way back to the Museum of the Department
of Agriculture at Washington. — [Editor.]

THE CREATION OF AN IDEAL.

By James B. Berry.

While the correlation of theory and practice in American forest
schools is usually very good, it is, one must admit, far from per-
fect, since the student is not brought into actual contact with
practical problems until after his period of training is over and
he is on a salaried basis. In other words, his possibilities,
whether great or small, remain dormant during his period of
training, and it remains for his employer to bear the expense of
his further development, to see whether he possesses the "making"
of a forester. Certainly this is unjust to the employer, for he
must shoulder the responsibility of the student's training with-
out any guarantee that the time and expense will be repaid. As
conditions become intensive and competition stronger the dis-
crepancies of the present system will become more api,-arent and
will, undoubtedly, be righted in the process of economic evolution,
which will in all probability be somewhat similar to that wMch
has taken place in Germany. The German forestry student must
have completed four years of work of University grade before he
may come up for the State examination, the successful comple-
tion of which entitles him to further training and a position in
the Government Service. Up to this time he may or may not
have had "field work" — if he is the son of a forest ofificial, his
training has been very good indeed ; otherwise the chances are that
he has had little training outside of his University or Forest
School courses.* That is to say, to the son who expects to follow
his father in the profession, come greater opportunities than
come to the man whose father is in another profession. Before
completing the four-year course of study it is possible for the
student to have obtained considerable practical experience, either
through inspection of operations on various forests or by secur-
ing actual employment in a survey or estimating crew ; although

*The writer overlooks that in most German State forest services, the
young men entering the forestry career are required to spend one-half
to one year on a forest under guidance of the manager, doing practical
work and becoming acquainted with the business. — Editor.

514

Creation of an Ideal 515

the latter opportunity is open usually to the sons of forestry of-
ficials only — for favoritism exists even under the German system.
In addition to this work, occurring during vacation periods, the
school year offers many excursions, of from one day to a v^eek's
duration, besides some practical training in the use of instru-
ments, particularly in connection with the courses in Mensuration
and Surveying. The excursion inspection work is very good, al-
though it is not possible always to arrange for the inspection
work to follow closely the class-room work. As a rule the entire
teaching force of the forest school takes part in the excursion,
each professor drawing attention to illustrations of his own par-
ticular course or courses. Thus, the German forest student, up to
the time of taking the State examination, has had a high grade
of training in theoretical forestry, very good inspection work of
practical operations and sufficient training in the use of instru-
ments to make him entirely conversant with their care and opera-
tion. It is entirely safe to state that, if the student has had the
advantage of "position," at the time of examination he has
had a correlation of theory and practice unequalled in America ;
yet he is not considered as being fully equipped for his profession.
Up to this time his training has been ''memory work" very large-
ly ; in the future it is to be of a nature to develop his executive
ability — in other words, a preparation to shoulder responsibility.
Successful competition in his State examination carries with it
the designation "Practicant" (in Bavaria), and he enters on a train-
ing period extending over three or four years, varying somewhat
in the different States. The first year of this period, during which
he receives no salary, the practicant has further opportunity for
the formation of ideals. He is, in reality, an advanced student in
forestry — a graduate student, if you please. He has been as-
signed to some forest where he is directly under the supervision
of some forest officer — Supervisor (Oberforster), Forest Assis-
tant (Forstassessor), Office Assistant (Adjunkt), Ranger (For-
ster). He is "under the supervision" of these men, yet his rela-
tion is rather that of a student to his teachers — they do not have
the right to place him at manual labor — he is there to be devel-
oped and purely manual labor is not a means to this end. Much
of his time he is in the forest with some one of these men, asking
and answering questions. A sample day with the Supervisor

516 Forestry Qua/rterly

might be as follows : The Officer keeps up a rapid-fire series of
questions: "What species of tree is that? This? What species
is that log ? How do you know it is that species ? What habitat
does it prefer? What grade of lumber does it make? What's
the matter with this tree? What species is this fruiting body?
Is there any method of control? What insect did this work?
Which of these trees would you fell in making a "light" cutting
under the shelterwood system? How would you fell that tree?
Is it sound? What would you estimate the volume of this tree to
be? See how the stump analysis compares with your volume
table. What quality of site is this? How would you regulate
cutting on this slope? How would you secure reproduction of
oak? Estimate the material, labor and cost of this stream regu-
lation," and so forth. There may be no particular order, yet the
questions are pertinent and of a character to bring out the best in
a man. The forest officer gives explanations and makes correc-
tions and suggestions, stating the results of his experiences.
One not accustomed to this work is much surprised at the earnest
enthusiasm which is present; the personal relation is invariably
good, yet the practicant shows every respect for his b!iperior in
rank. Various work is planned and the practicant makes studies
of practical forestry problems. In the office he becomes conver-
sant with the 'working plan and the system of account-keeping.
No one who has not been through such a "graduate" school can
appreciate the wonderful correlation of theory and practice which
is achieved, nor understand the rapid development in manly quali-
ties. It is more like a year of private tutorage, and the practicant's
ability to think and plan for himself is developed to a high degree.
After the first year, the practicant receives a small salary and is
given opportunity for further development. Perhaps he is given
charge of some line of experimental work, gathering data for
volume tables, or working up some problem in connection with
regeneration. Whatever is the character of this work, he carries
it to its completion and feels the entire responsibility of the enter-
prise. The last year, if his work has been very good, he is placed
in charge of a small area of forest over which he has full super-
vision. In this way there is a gradual development of ability dur-
ing the entire period and the result is a man of high efficiency — a
professional man worthy of a good position. If his work has

Creation of an Ideal 517

been entirely satisfactory, he is given the promotion standing of
Forest Assistant (Forstassessor), although some of the States
require a further examination for this promotion. Seldom is the
entire period, as practicant, spent on one forest ; usually he goes
from forest to forest and from district to district so that he may
see the best in each branch of work. In this way his training re-
mains broad, and he retains his power to think independently.

The countries of Europe have never failed to recognize the
value of the German educational system, especially in its appli-
cation to forestry, and practically all of the educational Institu-
tions now have regulations limiting the number of foreign regis-
trations to a certain per cent of the total. Foreign students pursue
the same courses as the German, take the State examinations and,
usually, spend at least one year as practicant. Most of these men
must take a further examination upon their return home, for few
of the countries recognize the standard of State examination of
the others. A few of the countries require that their students
in forestry spend at least a portion of their period of preparation
in Germany. England requires aspirants for the Indian Service
to spend one year following the university course in practical
work in Germany, and, in order that these men experience no
financial difficulty, makes them an allowance of $1,500 for the
year. Under a special arrangement with the Government these
men receive the training of practicants, although they are given
greater latitude in the choice of work. Semi-monthly they sub-
mit reports, in German, to the Home Office, describing the work
performed and giving the data collected. Italy, Greece, Rou-
mania all require that their students in forestry spend at least a
portion of the time in Germany, although they offer no financial
inducements.

Occasionally, German governments arrange foreign tours for
members of her Forest Service and it is expected that this feature
of the work will grow rapidly in the future. There should, in
fact, be an exchange of forest officials between the different
countries, for such an exchange of ideas would be most helpful
to all concerned. Of especial value, however, is an inspection of
German forest conditions to representatives of those countries
whose forestry is in the embr}'onic stage. It is all very well for
students to study methods of managment from books, but there

518 Forestry Quarterly

can be no real conception, no ideal, without a visual impression
of such a method in operation. Photographs and models may
serve upon which to hang theory, but practical forestry demands
practical demonstration. Germany is very fortunate in the ex-
tent of this demonstration work. Here the systems of management
have been localized and, as one travels from one locality to
another, he meets with demonstrations of each of the principal
systems : clear-cutting, shelterwood, group, selection, advance
growth. Many of these systems are already in the second rota-
tion and the visual impression becomes an ideal for that particu-
lar system. Later on, as one attempts the application of a system
of managment, he has a very real image toward which to work —
something very dififerent from photograph or a model. In this
way, the man who is to become thoroughly efficient goes on
gathering ideals so that whatever branch of work he takes up he
has a clear and definite idea of what he is trying to achieve.
Without this ideal, his work must be largely -'f an experimental
nature.

The forester will not find all of his ideals in Germany, or even
in Europe — many of these, particularly in utilization and trans-
portation, he will find in America — yet in Germany he will find
the best demonstration of system of management, and this is
admittedly the foundation of the science of forestry.

With these statements as a basis, there are several suggestions
which I would like to make for the consideration of American
foresters.

1. Lengthening the period of training for students in forestry,
so that the man who has completed his training may be a thor-
oughly efficient man in his profession. Perhaps this could be best
achieved through the introduction of a practicant period extend-
ing over one or two years — placing the graduates of forest schools
under the supervision of thoroughly efficient technically trained
men and making the period one of practical advanced study. In
this connection it should be borne in mind that "practical" does
not imply "improvement work," but rather the "practical appli-
cation" of the theories of the science of forestry. When the
forester becomes a "common laborer" he does not merit the re-
spect afforded a "workman." This period of training should not
be spent on one forest but the practicant should be given opportu-

Creation of an Ideal 519

nity to visit the different forests of the several Districts, thus
becoming conversant with the best work along each of the several
Hnes of forestry. In this way he fomis his ideals — the prerequi-
sites of future efficiency.

2. Arranging for a few practicants, or forest officers of higher
grade, to spend a few months in European forests under inten-
sive treatment. This wori< could be planned so that ten or a
dozen men each year would have the opportunity. Detailed
plans as to routes, features of forestry to be studied, character of
reports would, of course, be necessary. Perhaps it would be pos-
sible for these men to receive the courtesies afforded the English
forest students. At any rate the entire work should be planned to
build ideals.

3. The bringing about of a closer relation between America
and those countries in which the practice of forestry is intensive ;
best achieved, perhaps, through an exchange of forestry officials.
This would, of necessity, be limited to a few men each year or
every other year, and the exchange period would extend over
one or two years. These men would be given every opportunity
they are offered at home for development and, during this period,
they would be able to determine how much of the work could be
put into practice on their own State forests. Such an arrange-
ment would prevent much of the duplication of work which is
going on at the present time — not that the several countries desire
to duplicate work, but that they do not know, and often cannot
learn, what other countries are doing. In addition, each man
would receive a stimulus which would result in a fresh impetus
of enthusiasm and greater efficiency.

THE SIZE OF STATE FORESTS.
By J. S. Illick.

Thirteen of the United States own forest land aggregating
about 3,250,000 acres. New York ranks first with 1,645,000
acres and Pennsylvania second with 1,000,000 acres and 130
perches. The area of State-owned forest land in these two States
comprises three-fourths of the total State-owned forest land in
the United States.

The first requirement of every kind of soil management is the
division of the aggregate area into suitable parts, i. e., into ad-
ministrative units and managerial units. This is true in forestry as
well as in agriculture, horticulture, and gardening. A systematic
organization of a forest, which presuppose;": a subdivision of it,
is a prerequisite to orderly procedure. It facilitates the directive,
inspective, executive and protective function of the personnel.

This article will consider the division of State-owned forest
land into administrative units. Special reference will be made to
the forests owned by the State of Pennsylvania, because in them
organized forest management has been in operation for some
time. Pennsylvania owns at the present time 1,000,000 acres of
forest land located in 26 counties and purchased at a total cost
of $2,277,962.31 or an average of $2.27 per acre. The area
owned in the 26 counties varies from 1,176 acres in Wyoming and
3,538 acres in Lackawanna to 126,155 acres in Potter and 126,777
acres in Clinton. The total acreage of State-owned forest land
in the last two named counties comprises more than one-fourth of
the total owned by the State. The major part of the State-owned
forest land is located in the rough or mountainous part of the
State, and usually found in rather large contiguous areas. Most
of it is located in the northeastern, north-central, central, and
south-central part of the State. In order to facilitate the direction
and inspection of the various forestal activities, a grouping into
districts has been proposed and in part inaugurated. The dis-
tricting will be worked out primarily on a geographical basis. A
district may simply embrace the forest of a single county or it

520

Size of State Forests 521

may include those of a number of counties. A proposed scheme
of districting the State-owned forest land is as follows:

District 1. To comprise all State-owned forest land located
in the northeastern part of the State.

District 2. To comprise all State-owned forest land located in
the north-central part of the State.

District 3. To comprise all State-owned forest land located in
the central part of the State.

District -i. To comprise all State-owned forest land located in
the southern part of the State.

Some have suggested a division of District 2 into two separate
districts on account of the large acreage of State-owned forest
land in it, and a division of District 3 into an eastern and western
part on account of its elongated form and its large acreage. A
few, rather small, and isolated areas, such as those located in
Dauphin and Westmoreland counties, may not be embraced by
the proposed districting. They must be treated independently or
included in the most convenient district. Future purchases by
the State may modify the proposed districting.

Each District will be in charge of a forest officer known as a
District Forester. The duties of a District Forester may be limit-
ed to the forest land owned by the State, in which case he could
oversee 10 to 20 State forests with a total area of 200,000 to
400,000 acres, or they may embrace also other functions, namely,
the supervision of all Fire Wardens within the District, as well as
the giving of technical advice to private owners and co-operating
with the officers of Forest Protective Associations which are be-
coming numerous throughout the State. In the latter case he
would not be able to oversee nearly so large an area of State-
owned land. Each District will usually comprise a number of
executive charges formerly known as State Forest Reserves but
now known as State Forests. A State Forest then is an area in
charge of one executive officer known as a Forester. At the pres-
ent time the State-owned forest land of Pennsylvania is divided
into 49 State Forests with a technically trained Forester in
charge of each one. Each Forester is assisted by 1 to 6 Forest
Rangers and usually a permanent labor force. In some in-
stances the Forester is assisted by a recent graduate from the
Forest Academy who is serving a period of apprenticeship, usually

522 Forestry Quarterly

of one or two years' duration, prior to being given charge of a
State Forest. A State Forest may be isolated, as the Buchanan
State Forest, or it may be a part of a large contiguous area, as
the Pine Grove, Caledonia, and Mont Alto State Forests. The
last three are collectively known as the South Mountain State
Forests. The eight contiguous State Forests which comprise all
the State-owned forest land located in the Seven Mountains in the
central part of the State are collectively known as the Seven
Mountain State Forests.

The area in charge of one executive officer varies considerably
in size. This is true in the National Forests of the United States,
the State Forests of Pennsylvania, and the State Forests in the
different States of Germany, where forestry has been practised
for almost two centuries. The State Forests of Pennsylvania
vary from 4,145 acres (Nittany State Forest) to 60,000 acres
( Sinnamahoning State Forest). 'r:.<"ir average area is about
20,000 acres. A large number of factor: influence the size of a
State Forest, i. e., the area placed in charge of a Forester. The
following are the most important factors.

1 . Intensity and Kind of Management.

The more intensive the management the smaller should be the
area under one Forester or in one executive charge. The kind of
operations which the annual budget contains and the amount of
money allotted for them indicate in part the intensity of manage-
ment. State Forests which are very productive and yield high
returns should be smaller than those which yield little and are
practically unproductive. It is quite evident that a Forester can
handle a much larger area under extensive management which
consists mainly of informing the public concerning the importance
of forestry, protecting the area from organic and inorganic agen-
cies, regulating the cutting operations, planting unproductive
areas, and waiting watchfully for the economic time and the de-
velopment of public sentiment, than he could handle under inten-
sive management, which considers in addition to the above
enumerated fundamentals also such technical subjects as incre-
ment, the determination and regulation of the yield, the subdivi-
sion of the forest, age-class and growing stock conditions, etc.
The development of a Demonstration Forest is contemplated in

Sice of State Forests 523

Dauphin county where the State owns 3,358 acres. This acre-
age is small in comparison with the other State Forests, but is
of ample size for a forester in view of the intense and detailed
activities required in a demonstration forest. Under extensive
management as one finds on the National Forests, a Forest Super-
visor often has more than 1,000,000 acres under his charge ; under
conservative management as one finds in the State Forests of
Pennsylvania, a forester has charge of about 20,000 acres on an
average, while under intensive management as one finds in the
forests of the State of Saxony, Germany, a Forstmeistcr, or
Oberforster as he is called when first appointed, has charge of
about 4,130 acres on an average.

2. Species, Forest Structure, and Means of Regeneration.
Hardwood species are more difficult to handle than coniferous

species, and mixed stands more difficult than pure stands. The
natural forests of Pennsylvania are mixed, with the hardwoods
species far in the majority, hence a forester will not be able to
handle as large an area as if they were pure and coniferous in
structure. On account of the recent artificial establishment of
large areas the forest structure is changing. The transition is
gradual and cumulative in favor of the conifers. Natural seed re-
generattion is a more extensive method of reproduction than arti-
ficial regeneration, hence wherever natural seed regeneration is
the prescribed method of reproduction a forester can handle a
larger area than where artificial regeneration is in practice.

3. Degree, Kind, and Amount of Utilization.

The total amount of material that is utilized annually has an in-
fluence upon the size of a forest. The greater the productivity,
which manifests itself in the annual or periodic yield, the smaller
the area of a forest should be. Under extensive management
the total yield consists of the final yield but as the management
becomes more intense the intermediate yield becomes more im-
portant and may amount to as much as 50 per cent of the total
yield.

At present the thinnings in the State Forests amount to little,
but in the future they will amount to more. If history will repeat
itself we may be able to anticipate the growing importance of

524 Forestry Quarterly

thinnings by a study of the development of thinnings in the
Municipal Forest of Heidelberg, Germany.

Average Annual Yield of
Years. Thinnings per Acre

{Cubic Feet).

1837-1846 4.2

1847-1850 0. 35

1851-1860 8. 82

1861-1870 6. 86

1871-1880 7. 28

1881-1890 13. 16

1891-1898 24. 36

1898-1900 34. 72

1901-1909 44.94

A forester who is required to make extensive thinnings, clean-
ings, damage cutting, cannot handle as large an area as he could
if such operations were absent. In regions with a dense popula-
tion one finds greater demands for small material, especially fuel-
wood, which is absent in sparsely settled regions. The sale of
small material and of small lots as well as the filling of special
and small orders complicates the work of a forester. The satis-
fying of a local market tends to reduce the area of a forest. The
degree or extent to which a forester refines his production before
he sells them will help determine the area which he can handle
properly. He may sell the material upon the stump, or he may
fell it and cut it into logs, poles, posts, ties, cords, etc., and then
sell it, or he may refine it still further by running it through the
sawmill, and then dispose of it.

4. Number of Trained Men Available.

During the formative period of any art or business the number
of technically trained men able to handle it is usually very small.
Forestry was no exception to this. In response to a constant de-
mand for trained foresters many forestry schools have sprung
up. In 1898 the first forest school in the United States was es-
tablished at Biltmore, North Carolina. In the same year a second
one was established at Cornell University. To-day 24 forest
schools prepare men for the practice of forestry as a profession
and 50 more given general or special instruction in forestry. On
January 1, 1908, the State of Pennsylvania owned 752,492 acres
of forest land. At that time only 10 men, trained especially for
the position of forester upon the area, were available with an

Sice of State Forests 525

average of more than t."),000 acres per man. Three years later,
January 1, 1911, the total acreage had increased to 933,115 acres.
By this time 40 foresters were available with an average of 23,328
acres. At the present time the State owns 1,000,000 acres which
is in charge of 49 foresters or an average of a little over 20,000
acres per forester. In time the average acreage per forester will
be reduced to about 10,000 acres.

The training, which the executive managers of forests in
America have, varies widely. In Germany it also varies, but less
widely, because each State has some prescribed qualifications
which a man must be able to meet before he can be promoted, and
the prescribed qualifications in the several states approximate each
other. The German Oberforster is about 40 years of age when
he is appointed to this position. He holds subordinate positions
up to that time. It has, however, been recommended that the
limit be lowered so a man could attain this position not later than
at the age of 36 years. In America only a few executive mana-
gers have as yet attained this age.

The salaries which these trained executive managers receive
bear comparison and are given below :

State. A nnual Salary.

Wurttemberg $725-$1125

Hesse 700- 1500

Prussia 750- 1800

Saxony 975- 1875

Bavaria 1200- 1800

Pennsylvania 720- 1500

5. Number and Kind of Assistants.

The larger the number, and the better the training of the assis-
tants to a forester are, other things being equal, the larger the
area that he can handle. A forester who has another subordinate
forester assisting him, and in addition has a large number of
permanent and emergency rangers, a large permanent labor force,
and a satisfactory office force and office equipment, certainly can
handle a larger area than a forester who has very little and poorly
trained assistance. The number and kind of subordinate officers
should be determined by the area of the State Forest and the
intensity of management.

526 Forestry Quarterly

6. The Time a Forester Necessarily Devotes to Office Work.
The ordinary duties of foresters are alike in kind but differ in

degree. All have office work and forest work, but the amount of
office work some have far exceeds that of others. The apportion-
ment of time for forest work and office work helps to determine
the area which one forester can handle. The office work of a
forester is diversified, consisting of such items as correspondence,
reports, bookkeeping, making of working plans, utilization
plans, and planting plans, preparing cost reports of prospective
operations, advertising and reporting wood sales, etc. A
certain amount of office work for a forester is natural, but
too much means that his work in the forest is managed poorly
or given into the hands of a subordinate, in which case the
forester plays simply the role of an inspector, which is very
unsatisfactory. In cases of excessive office work a clerk, either
permanent or temporary, depending upon the amount of office
work, should be supplied. Up-to-date equipment should be
found in the office of every forester to facilitate office work.
The office work upon some of the State Forests of Pennsylvania
is starting to become burdensome. It will become more burden-
some as the management becomes more intense. Conditions are
not different in Germany. An accurate diary kept by a conscien-
tious Forstmeister shows that he spent during the year only 133
days of 9.4 hours each in the forest and 128 days at office work.
A forester who must spend one-half of his time in the office cer-
tainly cannot manage as large an area as one who spends only
one-fourth of his time there. A forester should spend at least 4
whole days per week or their equivalent supervising in person his
forest activities.

7. Auxiliary Duties of the Forester.

A forester who has no duties aside from those on the State
Forest upon or near which he is located, can manage a larger area
than if he has many or extensive outside duties. A forester may
devote little or much time to informing the public concerning the
importance of forestry, to assisting private owners in developing
their woodlands, in cooperating with the numerous Fire Pro-
tective Associations which have sprung up in recent years. In
some forests considerable time may be devoted to the location and
supervision of camp sites, while in others little time may be re-

Sise of State Forests 527

quired. Five large and eleven small forest-tree nurseries are
operated in connection with State Forests in Pennsylvania. The
amount of nursery work which a forester must attend to will in-
fluence very decidedly the amount of forest land which he can
handle in connection with the nursery. The number and kind of
his assistants is a very potent factor. One forester, without
trained assistance, cannot manage a nursery with an annual yield
of one million seedlings and at the same time handle properly a
State Forest of 25,000 acres. The area under the charge of a
forester should have such a size that his entire time will be com-
pletely used up without being overburdened either by ofifice duties
or by technical forestal activities. In addition to his official duties
he must have time for personal development as well as scientific
and managerial investigations. Last, but by no means least, he
needs some time for his family. His isolated location brings
many family tasks to him which men with homes in more popu-
lous regions are not required to fulfill.

8. The Situation, Form and Coherence of the Forest.

A certain amount of State-owned forest land may be so sit-
uated with regard to other State-owned forest land that it will
become necessary to include the former in a State Forest even
though its acreage may be somewhat excessive or somewhat be-
low that which a forester could carefully and conveniently handle.
For example the Stuart State Forest, named after ex-Governor
Stuart, contains only 8,749 acres. It is located in eastern West-
moreland and western Somerset counties. It is so distant from
other State-owned forest land that the acreage cannot be in-
creased. Contemplated purchases may increase the acreage.
Hence its isolated situation primarily determines the area of this
State Forest.

The form of the area also influences the total acreage which a
single executive officer can handle. If the area is in a compact
block approaching a square or regular in outline one can handle a
larger area, other things being equal, than if the area is decided-
ly elongated and very irregular in outline. The Poe State Forest
is on an average two miles wide and 14 miles long. The distance
around this area is about 45 miles, while it contains only 14,000
acres. The same area could be in a block with a perimeter of less

528 Forestry Quarterly

than 30 miles. If such were the case, it undoubtedly could be
managed more easily.

Coherence is also a factor which influences the size of an
executive charge or State Forest. If the total area is in one
compact mass, the area allotted to one forester can be larger
than if his forest consists of scattered patches, blocks, and
ranges. The Buchanan State Forest, named after ex-President
Buchanan, consists of two parts separated by a distance of six
miles. The total acreage is 10,973 acres, 6,760 acres in one part
and 4,213 acres in the other part. With the same efifort, the
forester could manage a larger area if it were in a coherent
block. Interior holdings also make management more difificult.
In case of scattered tracts too much time is spent on the road.

9. Topographic and Climatic Factors, Location of Forester's
Headquarters, and Means of Locomotion and Communica-
tion.

In a rough and mountainous country one man cannot handle
as large an area as in a level or rolling country. In regions with
intense and prolonged winters and in regions with heavy and
extended rainfall a forester can spend less time at activities
in the forest than in regions with less rainfall and with a longer
open season. The location of the headquarters is a factor in
determining the size of the areas over which a forester can take
charge. The most favorable location from the viewpoint of
accessibility is usually within the area or at the side of it. In
some cases this is impossible and the forester may be compelled
to live at a short distance and sometimes at considerable distance
from his forest. The means of locomotion is closely interrelated
with his headquarters. He may be able to look after his forest
better with headquarters on the outside of it than by having them
within if he has good means of locomotion in the former case
and poor in the latter. Good railroad and trolley service may aid
him considerably. Good roads will enable him to drive, or ride
on horseback or a motorcycle. A few foresters have automo-
biles, which are very helpful to them where good roads are
abundant and ramify through the major part of their forest.
Telephone communication with subordinate, coordinate and su-
perior forest officers will enable a forester to take charge of a

Sice of State Forests 529

larger area than the absence of it. The more important State
Forests are now well equipped with telephone communication.

From the above classification one can see that the number
of factors which influence the size of the area under one execu-
tive officer are many. It is impossible to classify the factors
in order of their importance. Their importance varies with the
general environment of the area. In some cases it is the conjoint
influence of a number of factors, rather than the influence of a
single factor. These factors have their influence under intensive
as well as under conservative and extensive management. On
account of these numerous factors and their influence under all
kinds of management, one can never expect to have State Forests
of equal size.

We have been and are still learning much from German ex-
periences and experimentations in forestry. The executive man-
ager of a forest in Germany is known as a Forstmeister or Ober-
forster, in the National Forests of the United States as a Forest
Supervisor, and in the State Forests of Pennsylvania as a For-
ester. The average acreage under the charge of one of these
executive managers in several states of Germany is given below :

Stale. Area in Acres.

Saxony 4,130

Hesse 5,000

Wurttemberg 6,175

Braunschweig 6,250

Oldenburg 8,000

Bavaria 8,250

Baden 9,000

Prussia 11,500

Alsace Lorraine 14,000

The average area under one executive manager or in one
executive charge varies from State to State and changes from
year to year in the same State. In 1908 it was 7,700 acres in the
State of Bavaria, and in 1911 is was increased to 8,250 acres.
These average figures for various States are interesting and in-
structive, but they do not give one any idea of the variation
in size of forests in charge of one executive officer within one

530 Forestry Quarterly

and the same State. The subjoined data will show the variation
within the State of Wiirttemberg :

1 Executive charge with less than 2,500 acres

7

charges ( 5%) with 2,500- 3,750 "

22

(14%) " 3,750- 5,000 "

50

" {ii%) " 5,000- 6,250 "

43

(29%) " 6,250- 7,000 "

20

(13%) " 7,000- 8,750 "

7

( 5%) " 8,750-11,250 "

150 Executive charges with- a total area of 925,000 acres or an average of
6,175 acres to each executive charge.

From the above outline one can see that there are in Wiirttem-
berg 30 executive charges, i. e., one-fifth of the total number,
that have less than 5,000 acres, and 80 or over one-half of
the total number, that have less than 6,250 acres. These figures
are of a comparative value and will act as a guide for those who
are concerned with the allotment of areas to forests. In Ger-
many a single executive charge may comprise State, Municipal
and Communal forests which make the forester's work more
difficult.

The subjoined data of 10 of the 49 State Forests of Penn-
sylvania will show their wide variation in size :

State Forest. Area in Acres.

Nittany 4,145

McClure 6,093

Stuart 8,749

Buchanan 10,973

Coburn 15,000

Hull 23,290

Caledonia 26,700

Blackwell 29,000

Cross Fork. 59,592

Sinnamahoning 60,000

One cannot help but realize that the factors which influence
the size of the area under the charge of one executive officer
are operative in all countries. The degree of their importance
varies, however, within the same country, the same State, and
often the same local region. That the size of State Forests varies
at the present time can be seen in the above tabulation of the State
Forests of Pennsylvania and that they will ever continue to vary
can be inferred from the tabulation given above of the forests
of Wiirttemberg, where forestry has been in practice for more

Sice of State Forests 531

than a century. We can never hope to have all our State Forests
the same size. It is, however, desirable that an attempt should
be made to equalize them as far as the results of the equalization
prove to be practical. The truism that "history repeats itself"
stands out clearly when we see how the development of forestry
in Pennsylvania recapitulates the development of forestry in
Germany. No doubt we will pass through exactly the same
course of development, only at a greater speed, on account of
our present economic condition and the many theoretical and
practical lessons which we have and can still learn from the
experiences of the countries and States of Continental Europe.
If we cannot adopt their results, we may at least adapt them, and
if we cannot adapt them, they will at least suggest problems to
us and indicate the best means of avoiding circuitous methods
of procedure in solving them.

NOTES ON GERMINATION AND REPRODUCTION OF
LONGLEAF PINE IN SOUTHERN MISSISSIPPI.

By p. L. Buttrick.

In the spring of 1914 the final term of the senior class of the
Yale Forest School was held on the holdings of the Great South-
ern Lumber Company in Marion County, Mississippi. Marion
County adjoins the Louisiana State line on the south and is
drained by the Pearl River.

The following data were partly collected by the students in
assigned work and later tabulated by the writer, who added ob-
servations of his own.^ They do not make a complete account
of Longleaf pine reproduction, but present some data which
may be of some value to others studying the problem.

The region lies within the Longleaf pine belt in what is
known locally as the pine ridges. The surface of the country
is quite undulating and rather more hilly than most of this pine
land. The forest is pure Longleaf pine and practically all virgin.
The section has been settled for nearly a century, but save for
small agricultural clearings the forest has not been disturbed by
the ax.

Since the first settlement forest fires have been an annual
occurrence. Early every spring the woods are burned over,
exposing the mineral soil, and, as a result, undergrowth is the
exception rather than the rule. While individual fires do little
damage to the mature timber, their cumulative efi^ect, by killing
the old trees and preventing the growth of others to take their
place, will probably be the gradual elimination of the forest.
Comparatively few trees under 100 or over 300 years are found.
The average age is about 220 years. What little reproduction
is found is in scattered groups and is totally insignificant in area
compared with the forest as a whole. It is evident that, if con-
ditions continue as they are, in another century the forest will

^Acknowledgments are due to the Yale Forest School for permission
to use the data, and to Professor H. H. Chapman, of the School, for sug-
gestions as to field studv and criticisms of this paper.

532

Germination of Longleaf Pine 533

be reduced to widely scattered groups of trees, and later will
disappear entirely.

The assigned work for the class consisted in individual studies
to determine the following points :

1. Number of seeds deposited from seed trees at different dis-
tances from their bases.

2. Per cent of seeds germinating on different types of ground
cover- : pine needles, grass, hardwood litter, litter of varying
ages and depths.

3. Effect on reproduction of fire and other agencies.

The study was made by taking small-sized sample plots (gen-
erally one foot square) under various conditions, but on sites
unburned that season, and counting the seeds and seedlings
on them, and noting the distance from the seed trees. Since but
one crop of seedlings was present, there was no danger of includ-
ing those of more than one age-class.

The year 1913 was a seed year for Longleaf pine in this region.
The seed fell during the fall and winter and began to germinate
in February.^ By the time this study was made, in late March,
the germination period was practically over. The seedlings bore
cotyledons fully expanded and the root system was often two or
three inches long. During or shortly after germination much of
the ground was burned over, destroying most of the seedlings.
A few escaped and some showed signs of at least a temporary
recovery from the effects of the fire. According to the best evi-
dence, seed years in the region occur about every seven years.

Seed Dissemination: The greatest distance given for the fall
of seed from the base of a seed tree was 150 feet^ (from a tree
on the edge of a field). The average maximum distance was
140 feet. Several observations were made to the effect that
the radius of seed dissemination seldom exceeded the height of
the seed tree. The dominant trees of the stands in the region
average about 120 feet high.

The amount of seed falling on about sixty plots one foot

^ This percentage is of course smaller than would be obtained from seed
tests in a nursery, and should not be compared with them.

^ U. S. Forest Service reports that by early December, most of the seed
had germinated, little seedlings of 2 or .3 inches high being found growing
in great numbers, and that at that time groups of seedlings were found
by the Conservation Commission of Louisiana as far distant as 300 feet
from the nearest seed tree. — Ed.

534 Forestry Quarterly

square at different distances from the bases of seed trees has
been plotted on cross section paper and a curve drawn which
curve shows the relation between distance and distribution. From
this curve a table was read, which shows that the maximum
amount of seed falls between 20 and 30 feet from the base of tree.
This table might be of use in connection with other data in fixing
the number of trees to be left per acre under some systems of
forest management.

Average Number of Seedlings Growing at Different Distances
From the Base of Seed Trees.

Distance (feet) No. Seedlings per Sq. Ft.

10 8.4

20 12.0

30 10.6

40 8.5

50 6.2

60 4.0

70 2.5

80 1.9

90 1.8

100 1.5

110 1.2

120 0.8

130 0.5

140 0.2

150 0.0

Germitiation : A mathematical average of the germination
counts on 753 square feet (.017 acres), under all canopy and
ground cover conditions, was 48%. The average maximum
was about 60%. The average minimum was about 25%. The
percentages seldom ran over 65 or under 25%.

Classifying the plots according to their ground cover, we get
the following germination percentages :

On one-year crop of pine needles 50%*

On grass 53%

On hardwood litter 28%

The difference between the results from pine needles and grass
are too small to leave room for generalizations. Individual

* These figures average 44 instead of 48%, the difference being due to
the necessity of excluding certain plots for which no site data were given.

Germination of Longlcaf Pine 535

opinions, as expressed by the students, vary as to which affords
the better germination site. Both, although different in appear-
ance, generally offered much the same conditions for germina-
tion, the ground having been burned over immediately before, so
that seeds could easily reach the mineral soil. As to hardwood
litter, the results seem conclusive ; not only was germination
much lower, but it frequently did not occur on well-seeded areas
where there was an excess of litter. Plots were taken on pine
litter of upwards of four years' accumulation, but not in suffi-
cient numbers to afford reliable averages. It was evident, how-
ever, that the germination per cent decreased in proportion to
the depth of the litter, and seemed to disappear altogether when
a litter of four or five years' accumulation was reached. It seems
that the chief requisite for germination is that the seed be in
contact with the mineral soil. Although occasionally seeds
germinate on rotten stumps and logs (but grow only a few
weeks), none germinate on litter so deep as to prevent instant
contact with the mineral soil.

The study shows an average of 2.6 seedlings per square foot
for all sites, or 113,256 per acre (counts on 543 square feet).
If 25,000 seedlings per acre be regarded as full stocking, such
a crop as fell in the fall of 1913 should be ample to provide for
reproduction. Judging from statements of the local inhabitants,
this was about an average crop for a seed year.

Destruction of Seedlings: Since there is actually no new forest
growing up, the question immediately arises : What becomes of
these seedlings? As has been intimated, fire kills the major
portion of them before they are fairly started. Late summer
and fall fires account for the loss of many more. Summer
drought and the shade of the old trees, light as it is, cause many
more to succumb. Under the combined effect of these factors,
only an infinitesimal portion of the seedlings survive the first
year. To discover the fate of those seedlings which did escape
and get beyond the first year, the writer made a study in the
next older seedling age class. A sample plot was taken on a
site where conditions were such that part of the crop of the
seed year of seven years ago had survived. The results from
the study of this plot give much information on the stocking.

536 Forestry Quarterly

rate of growth, and fire resistance of the seedlings. Following
is a copy of the notes taken on this plot :

Date: April, 1914:. Size of Plot: One-quarter acre, square.

Site: Crest of a lateral ridge between two water courses one-
half mile from their sources. About 25 feet above stream bot-
tom. Plot represents conditions prevailing for three-quarter
mile along summit and upper slopes of ridge. It is in an old
turpentine orchard.

Soil and Moisture: Soil a sandy loam, locally considered fit for
agriculture. Moisture conditions slightly better than average
for the section.

Seed Trees: None on the plot. Nearest, 100 feet distant. At
that distance plot is well surrounded with them. Average height,
80 to 100 feet.

Overhead Cover: Four pine saplings, 4 to 20 feet high, about
15 Spanish, Willow and Black Jack Oaks from 3 to 7 feet high,
and from 1 to 3 inches in diameter.

Ground Cover: Grass 2-3 density, 2 inches high, a little oak
brush 1 foot high, but not interfering with the pine seedlings.
Many down trunks of old turpentined trees.

Seedlings: Age, all, T years; size, range from 1 to 12 inches
high; tap root, 1 to 2 feet long. Number, total, 759; under 3
inches, 3S1 ; between 3 and 6 inches, 330 ; over 6 inches, 48. One
Shortleaf pine seedling.

Fire, etc.: Plot shows evidence of having been burned annually
ever since the seedlings started, but unfortunately it is impossible
to tell whether it was burned the first year or not. The last fire,
about six weeks previous to the making of the study, had killed
but two seedlings, although it destroyed the needles on all save
a few of those under 6 inches high.

Extended to acre terms there would be slightly more than
3,000 seven-^ ear seedlings on this area after it had been burned
annually for at least six years. Even this number should be
enough to provide for full stocking at maturity if only normal
losses occurred.

The chief thing which the plot shows, is what may be expected
in the way of stocking and growth, in spite of annual fires, when
overhead and ground cover conditions are favorable.

Figure 1. Seven-year-old Longleaf pine seedlings in the foreground. They have been burned annually for
at least six years. Compare with growth of unburned seedlings shown below.

Figurh; 2. Seven-year-old Longleaf pine secdlint's grown on an open field and never burned. Compare growth

with those above.

Gennin<ition of Longleaf Pine 537

Seedling Growth: That Longleaf pine seedlings are capable of
making a much better growth than that indicated by this plot
is shown by the accompanying photographs. Figure 1 is a view
taken on the plot, the small black spots representing the seedHngs.
Figure 2 shows a group of seedlings of the same age which
average two feet and over high. They come from the same
region, but grew on an open field and never had to contend with
fire. The field was abandoned some fifteen years before and
was well turfed before the seed fell. While soil and moisture
conditions may have been slightly better in this field than in the
old turpentine orchard where the other photograph was taken,
they could not possibly have been sufficiently so to account alone
for the great difiference in size. Assuming even as much as one-
half the height growth shown in Figure 3 to be due to superior
soil and moisture conditions, it is evident that fire has retarded
the height growth of the seedlings shown in Figure 1 more than
50 per cent.

A group of 15-year-old Longleaf pine saplings grown on an old
field averaged 3 inches in diameter and 20 feet in height. This
shows that Longleaf pine can make a very rapid growth when
conditions are in its favor.

Summary: The conclusions from the data here presented may
be summarized briefly as follows: (1) Longfeal pine seeds are
not apt to be carried more than 150 feet from the seed trees
which stand in the woods; (2) Longleaf pine seeds will not
germinate on a heavy litter; (3) germination takes place best on
mineral soil from which the litter has been burned; (4) most of
the seedlings perish from fire, drought or shade before the end
of the first season; (5) seedlings one year old will often with-
stand surface fires where the litter is only the accumulation of
a single year; (6) with soil, moisture and light conditions favor-
able Longleaf pine seedlings can withstand annual fires after
their first season for at least ten years and may be able to with-
stand them many years more; (7) such fires, however, retard
their height growth at least 50% for the first decade.

FOREST PLANTING IN NEW ENGLAND AS AN
INVESTMENT.*

By J. W. TouMEY.

The desirability of an investment increases with the inter-
est returns, the increase in the value of the property and the
diminution of the risk of impairment of the capital. A govern-
ment bond fetches a low rate of interest, but the capital is not
diminished and the risk of impairment is very slight. On the
other hand an unseasoned industrial bond may return nearly twice
the income but the risk to capital is correspondingly increased.
The greater the risk the higher should be the return in interest,
the less the risk the lower the return. In Europe, forest property
is classed with government bonds and other high grade se-
curities which involve but little risk of impairment of capital.
One reason for this is, forest soil or the land itself without the
growing timber is gradually increasing in value the world over.

The last two or three decades in New England have seen forest
soil increase to from two to four times its former value. If
we start therefore with a piece of denuded forest land having
a present sale value of one to five dollars an acre, and plant
it with timber, at the end of the rotation when the trees are
cut and the land again denuded it ought to be worth two or
three times its former value.

In the discussion of planting in New England as an invest-
ment we are inclined to turn to Europe and argue that since
with their lower cost for labor, higher wood values and less
danger from fires they cannot secure higher interest returns than
2 to 4%, but we hope in this country that forest plantations will
earn even this low rate of interest.

This argument, however, does not hold, because interest returns
depend almost entirely upon the soil value upon which it is figured.
It is the custom in Europe to increase soil value with increased
earnings from the forest so that necessarily the interest on the

*Read at the Annual Meeting of the Society for the Protection of New
Hampshire Forests.
538

Forest Planting as an Investment 539

capital appears to remain low. In other words, if soil value in
Prussia had not been increased in the calculation during the
past fifty or sixty years the forests would now show an earning
capacity of possibly 8 or 9 instead of the present 2 to 4 per cent.

In figuring interest from plantations in New England we have
a decided advantage over Europe in our low value of forest soil,
viz., from one to five dollars per acre. This value combined
with the cost of planting brings the cost of the established forest
usually well under twenty dollars per acre or but one-fourth to
one-half the cost in Europe. Because of this great difference
in soil value in Europe as compared with New England our
products from plantations may sell for less than one half that
in Europe and still we are able to earn a much greater interest
on the investment. The income from a forest plantation as an
investment is determined primarily by the initial cost, i.e., the
cost of the forest soil and the cost of planting. If our initial
investment is too high, no forest is capable of earning an ac-
ceptable rate of interest. Even under the most favorable con-
ditions of private planting as an investment in New England it is
my belief that the initial cost should not exceed twenty dollars
per acre.

In private forestry the great indirect value of the forest or
the benefit which comes to the entire community disappears as
an incentive for planting waste and idle land. Here the incentive
for planting and managing a forest is based entirely upon the
income in dollars and cents which the investment in the land, the
cost of planting and the cost of maintenance will return.

New England has many examples of plantations made thirty-
five or more years ago, which have already been cut and have
returned 6% compound interest or more on the investment.
Many other plantations have been measured in recent years and
the growth shows an equally large earning capacity. The same
earning capacity is shown in thirty-five to seventy-year-old fully
stocked second growth stands, which are no more productive and
usually less so than well-established plantations.

Dwellig, of Alassachusetts, reports the cutting of 200 cords of
White pine from two acres of fifty years' second growth. Stock-
bridge, of Massachusetts, reports the cutting of one hundred
thousand feet of five-eighths-inch box boards from two acres of

540 Forestry Quarterly

thirty-year-old second growth. In the spring of 1871 and in
the spring of the following year, three acres of poor, exhausted
meadow in Westmoreland, N. H., owned by Elijah Wyman, were
planted at from six to seven-foot intervals. This tract of three
acres was sold by Mr. Wyman in 1904 for $350 to Mr. Leon Hall.
In 1911 Mr. Hall sold the tract for an even $1,000.

A stand of White pine established in Switzerland by planting
was accurately measured when forty-two years old. The yield
per acre was 77 3-4 cords, or an average increment of approxi-
mately 1.8 cords. At a stumpage value of $8.50 per thousand feet
board measure, which is no higher than in some localities in
New England, its value per acre was $9.30. These are only a
few of the large yields recorded from plantations of White pine
and fully stocked second growth stands. From results already
obtained not only in New England but abroad it appears that one
can expect from fully stocked plantations and second growth
stands on first quality sites under a fifty-year rotation a maximum
yield of one hundred cords and an average of at least sixty-five
cords per acre. The study of a large number of fully stocked sec-
ond growth stands in New England on first quality sites gave an
average yield of nearly seventy cords per acre at fifty years.

These figures of maximum yield and high value per acre should
not be taken as an index of results to be expected from general
planting. They do show, however, what has and what can again
be attained in the most favorable localities. Experience has
shown that the average yield of White pine in fully stocked
second growth stands on third quality sites is less than forty cords
per acre at the end of fifty years. Plantations of White pine made
in southern France on very poor soil in 1873 gave an annual
increment of only about one-half cord per acre at the end of
thirty-eight years. It costs as much and usually more to estab-
lish a forest by planting on poor sites as it does on first quality
sites, while the yield may be but one-half or one-third as much.
In New England where the value of all forest soils is relatively
low a handsome profit may well result from plantations on first
quality sites, while a loss would result from planting the same
species on third quality sites because of the small diiTerence in
initial cost and the great difference in yield. The high yields and
values obtained from plantations and second growth stands

Forest Planting as an Investment 541

of White pine on first quality sites in New England, under a
rotation of thirty-five to seventy years, only takes into account
fully stocked stands accessible to a good market. The average
yield on first quality sites in New England is likely far below
these figures because of the fire hazard and the damage from
other external agents. So also the value of the product would
be less were our inaccessible waste lands planted because of
the poorer market. In my opinion the recent investigations
of the National Forest Service, and other investigations as
well, clearly show that 4 to 6% compound interest is well
within the possibility of second growth stands of White pine
on plantations when the soil value and the cost of regeneration
falls below fifteen or twenty dollars per acre; when the rota-
tion is between thirty-five and seventy years ; and the property
is located near a present or prospective market comparable, for
instance, with that at Keene, N. H., at the present time.

Although even under present conditions forest planting by
private individuals may be a profitable investment, it is my belief
that indiscriminate planting with all sorts of species, on all classes
of sites, under all conditions as regards damage from external
agents and in all localities as to markets is a very poor investment
for the owner of denuded forest land in New England.

In general, the returns from coniferous woods are much greater
than from broad-leaved species on the same quality of soil.
Europe, with a relatively small proportion of broad-leaved forests,
is increasing her coniferous stands and decreasing her areas of
hardwoods. Thus today we find the celebrated Sihlwald of
Switzerland and the Wienerwald of Austria being rapidly changed
over into coniferous stands. New England with her large areas
of hardwoods, which reproduce abundantly by natural means,
has little or no need for the planting of hardwoods. She has
great need for the planting of conifers, particularly White and
Red pine. To my mind these are the only species that give rea-
sonable assurance of success in planting as an investment in most
parts of New England. Although we have no plantations of Red
pine old enough to determine increment and value, plantations up
to fifteen years of age in southern New England show an even
better growth than White pine under similar conditions. Because
of the relative freedom of this species from insect and fungus.

543 Forestry Quarterly

damage it is my belief that future studies will warrant its ex-
tensive use in New England either in pure stand or in mixture
with White pine.

Under present conditions forest planting in New England as
a profitable investment for private individuals must, I believe,
meet the following conditions :

1. Be confined to the species which have an established market
and which experience has already shown produce the highest
financial return. These species are chiefly White and Red pine.

2. Be confined to first or possibly in some localities to second
quality sites, because the initial investment on such sites is but
little less than on third quality sites and the yield is much greater.

3. Be located near a good present or prospective market,
where an outlet can be found for thinnings and all classes of
wood products at remunerative prices.

4. Be confined to areas where the fire hazard has already
been practically eliminated.

5. Be confined to states or localities where the problems of
forest taxation have been satisfactorily and permanently ad-
judicated.

6. Be confined to sites where the market value of the denuded
land is ten dollars or less per acre.

When plantations can be made in New England that meet all
of the above requirements the investment is, I believe, of high
grade and gives assurance of returning a large income on the
capital invested. Only a small part, however, of the waste and
unused lands of New England meet all of the above requirements.
As more and more of these requirements cannot be met, the in-
vestment in planting becomes less and less attractive and finally,
if it is done at all, must be done by the State or community.

The earnings of governmental and communal forests, unlike
private forests, cannot be measured by the interest return on
the investment alone, derived from the sale of forest products.
It must be measured also by the influence of the forest on the
industrial, economic and social life of the community. The in-
direct value of forest growth to the community as a whole, par-
ticularly on land unfit for agriculture, is so great that govern-
mental and communal forests must be classed as sound and

Forest Planting as an Investment 543

excellent investments even when the direct return in interest on
the investment is very low.

It must, therefore, be left to the State and the community to
reforest by planting the idle and waste lands in New England that
on account of their location or quality are not attractive as a
planting operation by private capital and which, under natural
conditions, will not reclothe themselves with desirable stands of
timber. It is well to leave to private capital the planting of such
areas as can be planted with reasonable assurance of a profit
on the investment. Such areas in New England are relatively
small, and we can be sure that private capital will not wander
much beyond these limits. The State and community, however,
must assume their responsibility, and purchase and reforest areas
that private capital cannot profitably undertake. They can do
this when private capital cannot because they measure their
profits not only in wood products, but in the indirect value of
the forest to the community.

Investments made by States and smaller governmental units in
waste and denuded lands unfit for agriculture and in planting
them with valuable timber are fundamentally sound. They are
unlike most other governmental investments such as expenditures
for public buildings, roads, etc., in that they soon begin to return
an income on the expenditure while the others do not. It is my
contention that at least a part of the present large expenditure
by our States and communities for public improvements should
be spent in the purchase of denuded land that the private citizen
cannot afiford to own, much less to reforest and improve it by re-
establishing the forest.

TAXATION OF FORESTS IN MASSACHUSETTS.*
Re:marks by Professor Charles J. Bullock.^

In 1912 Massachusetts adopted a constitutional amendment
permitting the classification of wild and forest land for the
purpose of taxation, and the following year a commission was
appointed to draft a new law for the taxation of forests. Last
January this commission submitted its draft of a scientific forest
tax law which was adopted substantially without amendment and
given the title of The Forest Classification and Tax Act. The
enactment of this measure marks the end of a large campaign,
carried on through many years, for a system of forest taxation
that would encourage the conservation and development, rather
than the destruction, of the forest resources of the State.

The new law does not provide a new method of taxing all wild
and forest lands, but, like those recently enacted in other States,
is limited in its operation to lands registered under its provision.
Such registration may be made with the clerks of cities and towns,
after the assessors have determined that the land is suitable for
forestry purposes, and have made separate valuations of the land
and the timber growing thereon. Land may be classified either
as woodlot or plantation, the former being defined as land having
on it timber of merchantable value, the latter being land without
such timber.

By registering his land the landowner receives the benefit of
the new system of taxation. Lands registered under the Act
of 1914 are exempt from other taxation, and subject to, (a)
forest land tax, which is levied at the land rate upon the bare
value of the land excluding timber; (b) forest product tax, which
is levied on all timber when cut, and upon any other income
as it accrues; and, in the case of woodlots, (c) forest commuta-
tion tax, which is levied upon standing timber taxed in the year
1913, and at the valuation of that year. The land tax will,
of course, be very small upon land that ought to be used for
forestry purposes. The tax on the product will be levied at the

*Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Protection of
New Hampshire Forests.
^ Harvard University.
544

Taxation of Forests in Massachusetts 545

time when the owner is receiving an income from his land and
can afford to pay a tax ; and is in line with the provision of
recent legislation in other States.

Forest commutation tax, however, is an innovation. Proposals
to abolish taxation of standing timber and to introduce a tax
upon timber when cut, long encountered opposition in Massa-
chusetts, and in other States, from forest towns that derived a
large part of their revenue from taxes on standing timber. The
commutation tax will have the effect of insuring during the life
of timber now standing, the revenue that the town received in
1913. It will, however, prevent all increase of timber valua-
tions, and will therefore prevent an increase of the taxes levied
in 1913 on standing timber. This condition is to continue until
1919 when the commutation tax levied upon land thereafter
registered will be the amount of tax paid in respect of standing
timber in the year prior to registration. When timber standing
upon land at the date of registration is cut, forest commutation
tax comes to an end, and such land thereafter is subject only to
forest land and forest product taxes.

In return for the benefits of the new system of taxation, owners
of registered land will be required to plant any portion of such
land not already forested, to cut timber in such ways as to
encourage natural reproduction or, failing this, to replant, and
to make suitable disposition of slash. Enforcement of this part
of the new law will naturally fall to the State Forester, whose
office is materially enhanced in usefulness and importance by
the enactment of the law of 1914. While the duties imposed
upon landowners may at first thought appear somewhat formi-
dable, there is in reality nothing in them that is not actually for
the interest of the landowner. The law simply prescribes good
forest management and discourages slovenly methods; and this
will be apparent to landowners as they become familiar with its
provisions.

The law also makes suitable provision for consolidating small
woodlots into forests ; expressly authorizes the formation of cor-
porations, without limitation of term, to engage in forestry under
its provision; and finally permits the withdrawal of land from
registration under suitable conditions. What it will accomplish,
it is too soon to predict ; but in the opinion of those best informed,
the law of 1914 offers capital an opportunity to engage in forestry
upon reasonably attractive terms in Massachusetts.

FOREST TAXATION AND THE SINGLE TAX.*
By Louis S. Murphy.

The report of the sub-committee on taxation of the Fifth
National Conservation Congress last November would lead one
to believe that the adoption of the single tax would not leave a
tree standing or even permit one to grow, in other words, would
force the destruction of the forests and absolutely discourage
anyone from attempting the practice of forestry. This con-
clusion has as a basis the general statement of single tax propa-
gandists to the effect that "virgin forests are a part of land, a free
gift of nature, and should consequently be taxed as land or as
a land value." On the strength of such a statement their as-
sumption follows that the value of the land and the value of the
timber are to be added together and taxed on an annual basis.

But the assumption is in error in at least two fundamental
particulars. The assumption first of all ignores the fact that
the term "land" has an economic as well as a common meaning.
It is patent that if interpreted in its economic sense the above
statement is perfectly intelligible and clear; otherwise it is not.
Land in the economic sense comprises all the elements of nature,
the rocks and soil, the forests, the minerals and the waters.
When it is understood that the above basic statement simply
means, therefore, that the forest — the virgin growth — is a part of
nature and that its value should consequently be taxed as a
natural value, must we conclude that the only way open to us is
to tax it as land surface is taxed? Herein lies the second error
in the committee's assumption that it is necessary on the theory
that being a single tax there can be but one way to apply it, or
some single-taxer may have said so, misled, undoubtedly, by the
archaic general property tax idea.

The single tax is simply a tax on the utility values in nature.
There is nothing whatever in either the spirit or the letter of
the single tax doctrine requiring that timber be taxed annually.

*Read at the Annual Meeting of the Society for the Protection of New
Hampshire Forests.
546

Forest Taxation and the Single Tax 547

There is, consequently, nothing in reason to prevent the tax
being applied in the form of a cutting or yield tax. In fact it
can be shown that such method of application is the one simple
and sensible way to apply it to timber and mineral resources
as well. Both of these resources have a utility value entirely
different from the utility value of either the soil or a water right.
The two latter may be used, so far as we know, year after year,
indefinitely, and it is therefore proper that they be taxed annually.
But a given group of trees in the forest or a given portion of a
vein of ore once cut or mined may not be so utilized again. That
value which attaches to them in their natural state, therefore,
cannot justly be taxed more times than it can be taken from
nature. In the case of the forest, nature may produce more
trees in the same place, but their value will be a new and entirely
distinct value.

And if, therefore, we tax a piece of virgin timbered land by
laying an annual tax on the market value of the bare ground
and a yield tax on the value of any timber that is cut, how will
this force the destruction of our forests? Such a method of
taxing forests, the committee tells us in the main body of its
report, will not force the cutting and destruction of our forests,
but will aid in their conser\ation and conversion into well-man-
aged and regulated forests.

The committee's fear that the adoption of the single tax will
operate to the detriment of the practice of forestry may likewise
be set at rest. As a tax exclusively levied upon natural values,
labor and capital values of all kinds are expressly exem.pted under
the single tax. Now those who have attempted to practise for-
estry themselves or have induced others to do so know that it
involves the investment of both labor and capital. So that to
the extent that forestry is practised under a single tax regime
there would, to that extent at least, be a decrease in taxes on the
value of the forest until with the planted or regulated forest
there would be no tax on the value of the forest at all. The
soil would, of course, be taxed annually according to its market
value as it should be. Instead, therefore, of being destructive
in its effects, the single tax would be constructive so far as our
forests and forestry are concerned, whether applied to the
virgin forest, the planted forest or any of the transitional forms.

PITFALLS OF TIMBER BOND ISSUES.^
By Montgomery Rollins.

Although the Timber Bond in its present form is somewhat
new, yet the idea of loaning upon timber land is by no means
new. It is an old custom, but the loan was made in the usual
lorm of an ordinary real estate mortgage and of a size so that the
whole amount might be taken by a single individual or an institu-
tion, but as the need and desire arose to borrow larger amounts,
it became necessary to resort to the bond plan in order that the
loan might be divided up among many holders as being too large
for a single investment. Besides, the industry had been divided
into small units dependent upon the portable sawmill, but the
more enterprising manufacturers realized the waste incident to
operating small tracts, so the tendency to consolidation and cen-
tralized ownership, as it were, entered into logging and milling —
the same as in other industries. The larger financing incident
thereto, caused recourse to the investment banker.

Thus it was, that about 15 years ago, the timber bond actually
came into prominence.

Although the first issue was in the early "nineties," yet it is
rather a strange fact, as we view it today, that the interest rates
prevailing were 5^, whereas, of late years, 6% has been the rul-
ing rate on securities of this nature.

In this connection, it is somewhat amusing to have read a re-
cent publication of a society interested in social science, one issue
of whose magazine is devoted to timber bonds as investment
securities. It is evident that most of the articles appearing there-
in are the efforts of men directly or indirectly interested in the
sale of the wares discussed, for, although the fact was probably
not realized by the publishers, their pages were used as an ad-
vertising medium to boom bond issues of the class we are con-
sidering, and several misleading statements were incorporated.
To illustrate: take the matter of the interest rate; evidently the
writer who was treating that subject was somewhat new to the in-

^ Read at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Protection of New
Hampshire Forests.
548

Pitfals of Timber Bond Issues 549

vestment business, for, certainly, if he had been closely identi-
fied with that branch of banking during the last decade of the
nineteenth century, he would have realized that he could not
explain the present- 6% prevailing interest rate on timber bonds
by declaring that it was because the securities were somewhat
new, but that, in time, they would be better appreciated and sell
upon a 5% basis. The reason why timber bonds are now being
placed at 6^ as against 5% about 15 years ago (of which latter
fact the social science writer evidently was quite ignorant) is
not to be accounted for by his method of reasoning, for, in truth,
up to comparatively recent days, rates have been increasing rather
than decreasing. However, this rising rate has not been confined
to Timber Issues alone.

But that is quite in line with much of the enthusiastic litera-
ture which is put out, especially by some bankers, as they call
themselves — and who reckon not of the hereafter — who suddenly
bloom out with an office selling such issues, and who have had
little, if any, previous training in the very serious business of
selecting and marketing investment bonds.

There is no question but that, as a class, timber bonds have
suffered much abuse, due both to the lumbermen and the bond
houses. Such issues ought to be among our most desirable securi-
ties, because the property behind the mortgage is a staple product
which should find a ready market. A commodity of this character
undoubtedly has some good loaning basis. The present condition
of the market (which has been one of increasing suspicion as re-
gards the attitude of many investors towards timber issues)
would seem to be due, therefore, to unnecessary causes.

For some years previous to nineteen hundred and eight or nine,
there was a phenomenal increase in the value of timber holdings
throughout this great country ; so steady and rapid was this in-
crease that lumbermen grew to believe that there was no top to the
market price of their properties. During the last two or three
years, however, they have watched the pendulum swing in a
lessened arc, and prices have been sagging, if moving at all, so
that in the present market, there are bargains to be had which
would not have been dreamed of three or four years ago.

''This article was prepared by Mr. Rollins, just previous to the outbreak
of the present European War. — Editor.

550 Forestry Quarterly

Again, touching somewhat historically upon this subject, it is
interesting to note that the first outlet for timber bonds was
largely among the lumbermen themselves. Such investments were
then attractive, for the lumbermen could not be deceived by false
statements or values. Having shown his faith in the value of the
security, confidence was then established with outside investors
who, through the continued prosperity of the lumber market,
were deceived into believing that almost any issue of like nature
was good. But the investor was not alone misled in this regard,
for the bond houses were imposed upon in much the same way,
with the result that instead of these concerns dictating to the lum-
bermen as to the terms of the mortgage, the lumbermen, to a
great extent, actually took the whip hand and obtained pretty
much what they desired. Is it not a generally accepted fact that
a good many lumber companies sold their properties to the bond-
holders at fancy figures, and retained their equities (if such they
were) or, at least, temporary additional profits, through their
stock ownership?

Another evil which has crept into the business within the last
few years, is that of the investment bankers attempting to strad-
dle the fence, so as to speak. They had seen so much money
made in the lumber industry that some of them decided that it
would be to their advantage to become stockholders in the enter-
prises that were being financed.

When they assumed this position, their judgment was naturally
and unquestionably warped, to the detriment of the investor.

But the present condition of the timber security market is not
altogether due to the mishandling of the issues. It has been
caused, in part, it is believed, by a wrong principle in issuing the
bonds ; and here we come to the serial or sinking fund feature —
in other words, the method of ultimate redemption. There are
instances where bond issues have been readily purchased by in-
vestors, because of the large amounts maturing serially or of the
large sinking fund requirements, the investor supposing that the
quicker the issue should be retired the safer the investment. This
is very fallacious reasoning; it boots little that any form of re-
demption, dependent upon earnings, shall be greater than the
ability of the concern to meet the same.

Any company that is obliged to force its product upon the mar-

Pitfalls of Timber Bond Issues 551

ket, no matter what the condition may be, in order to meet the
charges for interest and principal, is poorly financed. Thus it is
a fair conclusion that no bond issue should be burdened with
maturities or sinking fund provisions such as to force an un-
economical marketing of the product securing the mortgage. Too
many issues have been put out in such form, and the market has
been glutted with an oversupply of lumber, largely because bond
houses, with the idea of increasing the salability of the issues,
have wrongly financed them as above suggested.

Serial bond issues are desirable upon tracts that are being cut
ofif, although a straight long term mortgage may be more desirable
upon properties that are not being lumbered, but, in the latter
case, it must be provided that in case lumbering begins, bond re-
demptions shall also begin or a sinking fund become operative
proportionate to the depletion of the values.

It is all too true that we are faced, probably, through the rapid
waste of our heritage, with a future scarcity of wood, yet that
may not be so imminent as to justify the placing of a sentimental
value upon a timber property, for it is not likely that the scar-
city will be so seriously felt as to materially enhance the value
under the mortgage during the life of the issue, for in mortgages
based upon all natural resources which are being exhausted, such
as mines, oil wells, timber lands, etc., it is a principle of finance
not likely to be disputed that the loan shall be such as, through
some plan of redemption, to all be retired considerably within the
estimated life of the property itself. Future values, therefore,
should not be seriously considered ; rather hard, bed rock worth
based on present and more or less recent known commerical ex-
perience. Of great importance is it that the last maturity shall
fall due while there still remains ample stumpage to protect the
holders.

The ordinary sinking fund method is by a payment to the
Trustee of so much per thousand feet or cord of lumber marketed.
Thus a sinking fund itself is a movable factor, and one should not
be beguiled into supposing that the amount of the sinking fund,
as estimated by the then output of the mills, may be as great in
succeeding years. The better timber may, at the moment, be that
which is being operated, or market conditions may change.

552 Forestry Quarterly

Under the serial form, a given amount of bonds matures yearly,
regardless of the output of the mills.

Another objection to the sinking fund plan is that the amount
of money turned into the Trustee is dependent upon the honesty
of the ofhcials, unless a plan for a periodical audit of the accounts
has been provided. Then, again, a not over discriminating man-
agement may select and cut the more choice tracts first, with re-
sults naturally undesirable.

It may be said here, that in timber bonds, more than in most
security issues, the good intentions of those managing the prop-
erty is an element to be reckoned with, and, perhaps, therefore,
it is all essential that the mortgage itself should provide also for
a periodical inspection of the property. This is in order to as-
certain that the provisions of the mortgage, which, in themselves,
should properly safeguard the investor, are being complied with.

Where timber companies are using their machinery for the
manufacture of lumber or pulp for other concerns, a certain pro-
tection should be given the investor so that he shall benefit by the
earnings received from such outside sources as an offset against
the natural wear and tear of the mortgaged property.

In some instances, a form of sinking fund is provided for buy-
ing additional stumpage each year to offset that cut. This pro-
vision may be fully as safe as an actual cash sinking fund or a
serial form of redemption, but it is a provision, nevertheless, that
places so much confidence in the hands of the officials of the com-
pany, that many experienced financiers are not favorably inclined
towards its adoption. The character of the timber thus purchased
may be far inferior to that which has been cut. Thus all the
conditions as regards the purchasing of such stumpage should
be as carefully passed upon by an expert employed in the interests
of the investor, as in the case of the whole property at the time of
the issue. It is just as necessary that timber land replacing that
cut should come up to the requirements of the careful investor as
that originally covered by his mortgage.

Under the serial form of issue, it is natural that the first
maturities should be the safer. This fact appeals to banks which
are legally permitted and do invest in timber issues, thus the
earlier maturities are naturally selected by those more experienced
investors. Upon the other hand, the ordinary investor more

Pitfals of Timber Bond Issues 553

naturally inclines to the longer term bond as providing a more per-
manent form of investment, consequently, but not necessarily
always, assuming the greater risk.

The conditions attached to the application of sinking funds
differ, but the best form is that which applies the money, as raised,
directly to the extinguishment of the debt for which it was
created, thus avoiding any possible loss by temporarily investing it
otherwise.

But my argument has lead me ahead of the natural order of
things, for the examination of the property and its valuation by
timber experts of large experience is a primary consideration.

Too many timber bonds have been sold upon a "dressed-up"
circular. One reads, for instance :

"Our cruisers estimate so much timber" or

"Our cruisers estimate the value of the timber to be such and
such ; the mills, railroads and permanent improvements amount
to so much."

The above statements, which may show fine figures and make
the issues attractive from the standpoint of the circular fabulist,
can, at the same time, be very misleading. The timber bond in-
dustry unquestionably developed a new cruiser, viz., the "Timber
Bond Cruiser." From experience, it has been learned that the
old lumbermen's cruiser, whose office was a tent in the woods, and
whose duty it was to get reliable and conservative facts for his
employer, who was to buy the timber on his estimate, was a much
more reliable and careful checker than a majority of the "timber
bond cruisers" whose offices are in some twenty-story office
building in a metropolitan city. It is very easy for the latter to
estimate that on a rough piece of land the loss by wreckage, when
the timber is cut, may run as high as 25%. It is also easy for him
to include, in the stand, timber such as over-mature hemlock, in
some sections, or hardwood in others, that only find a profitable
market under most favorable conditions. In the estimated value,
the same thing holds true. There never was a circular issued
that stated such a fact that because of the inaccessible location of
a certain portion of the tract, the timber on it is worth so much
less than other timber nearby, more favorably located.

Again, it is very easy to add the cost of the logging railroad and
sawmills to the value of the property, but this is liable to lead to

554 Forestry Quarterly

a financial fallacy. When the timber becomes cut off, the mill and
railroad may have no further value. Consequently, while these
properties will undoubtedly increase the value of the stumpage
for the purpose of operation, nevertheless, conditions may be
such that a very heavy depreciation should be provided to take
care of their final charge off.

No matter how excellent the timber may be, its accessibility
for milling and market purposes is even more important. For in-
stance, of what value would be the best electric light plant in the
world located in the midst of the Desert of Sahara? Upon the
other hand, a more or less run down property may have great
potential value in the center of a thickly populated area where its
earnings will not only provide revenues for satisfactory dividends,
but a surplus for the proper rehabilitation of the property itself.

Thus a good milling site, rail or water transportation facilities,
and all such conditions as enable one to economically and scienti-
fically harvest and mill the product, and furnish an outlet for
profitable conversion into money, are imperative.

For fear of omitting a possible asset from the standpoint of
the bondholder, I will mention the value of the land itself after
the timber has been stripped. It is undoubtedly true that some
lumber companies have marketed cut-over land for more than the
original cost of both land and timber, but that will be hardly a
fair statement as based upon present conditions, or, at least, it
will be a misleading statement, because the values which would
now be placed upon timber properties for loaning purposes are
quite different from the cost of such properties when acquired,
perhaps, many years ago, at prices immensely below present
values. It is to such as those that the rare occasion of selling the
land at greater than the original cost of the whole property must
apply. Then the character of the soil beneath the timber is im-
portant if this factor is to be counted as an asset at all — whether
such land would be adapted to agricultural purposes, its location
as regards marketing agricultural products, and the like. At
times, mineral values have been found underlying the timber, but
such exceptions must be classed along with the usual chances of
mining.

It would be useless to attempt the discussion, in a limited paper,
of the hundred and one features to be considered in the drawing

Pitfalls of Timber Bond Issues 555

of a mortgage for the full and ample protection of the bond-
holder. There are so many things to be considered that, after
all, one must place a good deal of reliance in the character of the
bond house offering the securities and in the reputation for ex-
perience in the drawing of such mortgages of the lawyers em-
ployed by the house. Personally, it would not satisfy me to know
that a house had made a specialty of timber bonds only and had
dealt in so many dozens of those issues ! I would much prefer to
seek an old established bond house which has had the experience
incident to handling corporation issues of various kinds, for only
in such a training can the wide knowledge necessary for the pro-
tection of the bondholder be acquired.

Therefore, it is almost useless to elaborate here on such facts
as the following : that all titles to the tracts must be clearly shown
upon the records ; that the mortgage must be a first mortgage, or
that the legal wording of the mortgage will vary according to the
State in which the land is located, and according to other condi-
tions, the same as in all corporation mortgages, etc. But it may
be worth while to suggest that there should be conditions included
such as that the maker of the mortgage must safeguard the prop-
erty by installing a fire patrol system and other methods of
protection ; that the property as well as the books shall always be
open to inspection, and that regular sworn statements of earnings
shall be rendered to the bond house ; and so on.

Taxation of timber lands is a vital matter to be considered,
particularly so in the case of long time bonds covering proper-
ties bought for speculative purposes rather than imm.ediate cut-
ting. Where the timber is rapidly being marketed, the question of
exorbitant taxes is not so material, but in timber that is to be al-
lowed to stand for any considerable time — covered by what are
termed "Holding Loans" — one must be assured that the local
taxes are not likely to eat up a great deal of its value.

I am not very enthusiastically inclined towards guaranteed
securities, unless guaranteed by a corporation, and even then,
there are many pitfalls, but timber bonds, when guaranteed, often
carry the endorsement of an individual. Unless that individual
puts up marketable securities, for the value of his guarantee, I
should not care to accept it regardless of the timber value. He is
no more than human ; he may be rich today and poor tomorrow.

556 Forestry Quarterly

Thus the merits of the investment should be judged entirely aside
from the guarantee. This does not assume that the latter is an
undesirable feature, it may prove very desirable; everything else
being equal, it should not be refused. The great danger lies in
that the guarantee of some very wealthy man may be so alluring
as to blind the bond house, and cause omissions ordinarily in-
corporated for the protection of the buying public.

Many will remember that one of the great factors which led
to the widespread losses in farm mortgage investments during
the early 90's, was the fact that they were guaranteed. Also, those
who, only a few years ago, so confidentially bought irrigation se-
curities in immense numbers through one of the leading banking
houses in the Middle West, have cause for serious self reproach,
because the guarantees have proved absolutely worthless. A
man's guarantees cannot very well be limited. The tendency is
that, when once entering upon this vicious form of greasing the
ways for security marketing, no sane limit is ever exercised, so
that even if guarantees to a certain value might prove safe, it is
almost unheard of that the guarantor ceases his pernicious
methods within such limits.

There is also a legal phase to be considered here, viz., the status
of an investor holding a guaranteed security in case of recourse
upon the guarantor, who may be forced into financial difficulties
thereby. The bondholder would merely come in with all the other
unsecured debts of the guarantor, all of whose property may have
been mortgaged or put up as collateral for other loans, and thus
his endorsements prove of little assistance.

One more consideration which I shall attempt in this discus-
sion is the fire hazard, for many objections have been harbored by
investors that timber bonds are more than ordinarily risky in-
vestments, because of the danger of having their property wiped
out by fire. This belief is certainly very much exaggerated, and,
in the large proportion of timber issues, mostly without founda-
tion.

This risk from fire to timber properties has in some ways
greatly diminished, due to government and state fire wardens
and patrols, and the general better education of the public as well
as the keen desire natural to the lumber companies for protec-
tion against such a fearful plague.

Pitfals of Timber Bond Issues 557

Upon the other hand, because of the railroads pushing back
into the wilderness, spreading sparks in territory never before
traversed by a locomotive; because of the almost universal use
now of the type of cigarette which does not go out but consumes
itself to the last ash after it has been carelessly thrown aside by
the thoughtless smoker ; because of the increasing trend towards
camping life and one thing and another, the fire hazard has not
only increased, in some ways, but the area of such risks has been
enlarged.

No matter, therefore, with what assurance the vendor of a tim-
ber bond may argue with a prospective buyer as to the lack of
risk from fire, yet it is practically impossible, in some stands of
timber, to wholly elminate such a risk; thus certain odds prevail
upon an issue of this nature as against an insurable property
like manufacturing plants or other combustible improvements.

I think it is fair to say, however, that as yet no large bond
issue has been put in jeopardy by a devastating fire, although
there must have been countless instances where such fires have
only been averted by prompt action — so the risk cannot be
escaped.

An enthusiastic dealer in bonds of this class will declare that
there are other greater dangers to the standing tree than fire ; that
insects, animals, storms, etc., are more damaging. This is prob-
ably true the world over, but it would not be true in the case of
a given tract— the insect, animal and storm destruction upon one
side as against fire upon the other. The latter might wipe out
the entire area in forty-eight hours. So, too, a cyclone or hurri-
cane might sweep through a narrow tract, but, even then, the
timber would not be destroyed, and it could be salvaged im-
mediately, although, to a certain extent, fire swept timber may
also be salvaged.

So let us guard against misleading statistics and misleading
statements ; statements which tell only half the truth as suggested
by the great destruction going on in standing timber from in-
sects, etc.

As a final word, it seems economically unsound that one should
loan money upon security which must, according to the contract,
be depleted in intrinsic value in order to pay off the loan, and
which really is opposed to usual practice, as most other corpora-

558 Forestry Quarterly

tions contemplate the payment of indebtedness from earnings
rather than through a depletion of the properties.

An instance might be cited of a timber bond issue which does
meet this requirement. The debt is secured by mortgage upon a
segregated tract of land. It was provided in the mortgage, that,
during the life of the issue, no timber should be cut upon the land
so segregated. The issue was guaranteed by another company,
and the guarantor covenanted that he would deposit with the
trustee a certain number of dollars per thousand feet of its cut on
additional and surrounding land, so that the debt might be liqui-
dated without lessening the value of the property securing it.

Nevertheless, many issues which have not met the rigid re-
quirements of the foregoing somewhat sweeping conclusion, have
been profitable and satisfactory investments, and probably many
others will prove equally so.

THE PROBLEM OF FOOD AIOVEMENT IN TREES.
By S. B. Elliott.

The old theory regarding tissues in which food materials move,
namely, the sieve tubes of the bast, would appear faulty when
we have to deal with girdled trees. There are examples of
trees completely girdled which nevertheless continue to live and
grow for years, showing that food materials must descend with-
out the bark and bast, and food materials and water must ascend
in sufficient amounts in the older portions of the wood. It is
also interesting to note that this takes place in conifers, which
are without tracheal tubes, the latter being known to assist in
food movement of broadleaf trees.

We can add one good illustration to the collection of evidence.
A young White pine girdled about 18 inches above the ground
by some rodent (the teeth marks being visible) by which bark,
cambium, and some sapwood had been removed supported three
whorls of branches above the girdle, but had no leader nor
branches below the girdle. No bark had formed on the girdled
part. The diameter below the girdle is 2.2 inches, at the girdle
2.1 inches, at 6 inches above girdle 3.9 inches, halfway between
first and second whorls 3.8 inches and halfway between second
and third whorls 2.2 inches. A counting of rings shows 13
(possibly 14) above and 8 at and below the girdle, showing that
the tree had lived at least 5 years after being girdled without
supplying food to the roots except what could have passed out-
side of bast tissues through old wood.* (See frontispiece.)

Some of the questions raised by the conditions given in the
above description are: First, Why did not the tree die when so
severely girdled; second, since it continued to live, why did the
lower portion between root and girdle not continue to grow ; and,
third, why has that part between second and third whorls of
limbs made so little growth each year as to appear, by diameter
measurement, to have remained stationary?

*An account of a similar case is found in the U. S. Forestry Division
Bulletin 22 : The White Pine.

559

560 Forestry Quarterly

First, the sapwood being practically uninjured, the mineral
food must have passed from the roots to the leaves.

Second, because the lower portion ceased to grow^ vv^e know
that food necessary for growth had no means of passage from
the leaves ; or at least growth was infinitesimal, while enough food
must have passed to keep the roots alive.

The answer to the third question regarding the apparent non-
increase in size of the still growing section between the second
and third whorls, remains an enigma.

If the injury to the tree were great enough and the root de-
velopment very much retarded a much reduced supply of mineral
food and especially water would be furnished. This supply
would be drawn upon to the usual amount by the leaves of the
first whorl of branches, and, only a scant supply being left for
their requirements, the upper leaves were not able to elaborate
sufficient food to that part of the trunk to enlarge it.

A second case, also a White pine, presents even more inter-
esting features. This unusual specimen is still alive and all
its parts are thriving. It was originally a forked tree, one of
the forks having been severed from the mother tree, the man
in the picture touching this fork. Its history relates that in
1882, for the purpose of securing pitch, a large chip was cut
from beneath the fork of the branch now without support of
stump (about 2 1-2 feet from the ground), the cut, however, not
being of sufficient depth to entirely sever the branch from the
stem. It is not known at what time the complete separation
shown in the illustration occurred. (See frontispiece.)

Natural grafting between the two forks has taken place in
three, probably four, places. The two branches of the forked
tree unite 8 feet above the severed end for a distance of 5 feet
4 inches. The second union is 2 feet 8 inches above the first,
and is 1 foot 8 inches long; while, again, 6 feet above this junc-
tion, the third graft is seen, where a large limb from the rooted
tree is joined to the severed branch almost at right angles.

There are no live branches below the first junction on either
stem, and it is probable that the dead ones had ceased to live
before the cut was made, for the tree is found to have been grow-
ing in dense shade. The growth in height of crown of the
severed branch for the last decade averaged 7.5 inches per annum,

Problem of Food Movement 561

this crown now being more vigorous and thriving than that of the
rooted tree. Splendid results have been attained by Nature's
endeavor to heal the wound at the base of the severed trunk.

The diameter measurements of the severed branch in com-
parison with those of the trunk supported by the roots are level
with the shoulders of the man standing by the tree (or trees)
12.25 inches and 17 inches; and at the first junction 12 and 13
inches. So, while in the rooted tree the taper is 4 inches, that
of the severed branch is only one-quarter inch. That a reversal
of the natural taper has been taking place probably ever since
the cut was made is borne out by careful measurements of a
photograph of the tree taken 13 years ago from the identical
point from which the one here produced was secured (Forest
Leaves, vol. 8, p. 1G8), which give the relative diameters at the
lower end as 8.5 and 13 inches, and by such other data as can be
secured. The tree stands near Mont Alto Furnace in Penn-
sylvania.

Increment cores taken at both the lower and upper ends show
that the annual rings are larger at the upper end.

The important features brought forward by this case are the
continual healthy growth of the severed stem below the graft
and the more rapid increase at the junction end of the branch
than at the severed end. Manifestly the same forces are work-
ing here as in the first case, and the cambium layer is alone
active in the severed stump, though, as mentioned before, it is
not known how long natural feeding from both roots and leaves
was going on before the lower end swung free from the mother
trunk. Roots, live limbs and leaves being absent, the reason the
upper end grows faster must be because that end gets a larger
supply of food, the upper end not allowing any more food to
pass its doors than is not actually required for its own growth.

AN APPRECIATION OF DR. SCHENCK.*
By Austin Gary.

When Dr. Schenck gave up his work among us, American for-
estry lost its most picturesque figure, also one of its strongest
individual forces.

Carl A. Schenck, a trained Hessian forester, came to this coun-
try in 1895 to assume the management of Mr. George Vander-
bilt's forest estate in North Carolina, succeeding Mr. Pinchot,
who started the work. Here he found the only field at that
time open in America which was suited to his training or tastes.
Here he could plant and thin, and try experiments. Here he
could build roads for the orderly and permanent working of a
forest property. Here, without necessity of producing immediate
profit, he could lay out a plan of development and improvement
that had in view income, and that on a limited scale, only at the
end of twenty years.

All this Dr. Schenck, being not only a well trained but a bright
man, could do most competently; but he did much more than
this. His system of protection, in the first place, was an original
and effective one. Then, finding that to get his products to mar-
ket, methods of operation and transportation were required
suited to the country and of a style new to him, with the utmost
energy he set himself to meet the situation. His experience at
this point was interestingly related at the last Pacific Logging
Congress. In the end and in the main, he succeeded, and the
fact was a triumph for his persistence and ingenuity. Incident-
ally, he acquired, as he often expressed, a great admiration for
the competence and initiative of plain American men.

Those men are very blind to facts who look on the Vanderbilt
property as a fair sample of genuine American forestry, as that
must be conducted on a large scale. As a matter of fact, it was
a German forest district transplanted to America, made possible
by a benevolent millionaire. It was, however, a mighty useful
thing to have among us, and no man in the world, probably,

* Written in June.
562

An Appreciation of Dr. Schenck 563

was better fitted than Dr. Schenck to develop its possibilities or
more competent to play it up.

Many interesting lessons might be drawn from the history
of the Pisgah Forest, which history, as a private owner's attempt
at forestry, has just now closed. Among them is one too im-
portant not to mention in passing. The writer in the spring of
1900 made a break in his own work in the Maine woods by
paying a visit to this contrasting field. With all his admirable
adaptability, Dr. Schenck was in many ways a high-class German
still. This was shown particularly in his treatment of labor.
Any man in the Maine woods who would talk to woodsmen
as Dr. Schenck did would get his head cracked on the spot.
North Carolinians took it differently ; they laid low, and took
out their grudge with a fire later on. The lesson that forest
managers must make allowance for the rights, interests and
feelings of local populations is one not likely to be too strongly
taken to heart.

Dr. Schenck's experience on the estate, his acquaintance all
over the country gained through forestry meetings, and his con-
sulting work seem gradually to have liberalized his views. That
liberalizing process further developed after he severed his con-
nection with the estate, and ran his school peripatetically, and
was completed seemingly under the stimulus of contact with the
lumber industry in the Pacific Northwest. His admiration for
Northwestern lumbermen, their ingenuity, force and daring,
hardly knew bounds. Through this contact, apparently, he filled
out his sympathy with the lumbering industry.

It was a marvelous thing for a man to do — to come over here
from that country in all the world where the individual is most
restricted, and where the most intensive forest management any-
where in force is fortified by a century of science, of popular
training, of established practice of the art — with this background
behind him to sense the contrasting conditions of a much newer
country, and sympathize with our lumbering industry in its
present form ; but that Dr. Schenck did. It is not to be wondered
at that in his reaction he went somewhat to extremes. Some such
strong reaction as his to balance opposite tendencies in the for-
estry profession of the day, in fact, was needed.

At the bottom of Dr. Schenck's teaching there seem to have

564 Forestry Quarterly

been three primary ideas. The first was, that forests exist for the
people, and not the other way around, as some apparently would
have it. The people, too, in his view, were not posterity alone,
but included the people of today, and from that classification the
members of the lumber industry were not excluded.

Another thing he taught was that the economy of existing
forest measures, the future of forest land also in large measure
as well, was not mainly a matter of planting, thinning and other
silvicultural operations on a minute scale, but was bound up with
the methods and organization of the industry at large, and in
great measure depended on its prosperity and success. Under
financial pressure and low prices for lumber, he saw that neither
good economy nor protection are possible, while fine silvicultural
measures must be dropped out entirely.

The third thing that Dr. Schenck made the subject of much
teaching was that conditions in the industry will be improved from
the inside, and cannot be greatly changed in any other way. The
idea of regulation from outside in advance of proved necessity
and of plans laid out for an owner without consideration of his
financial circumstances and business organization, were things
that filled him with disgust.

To these effects ran the weight of Dr. Schenck's teaching.
Plenty of other men in the country hold much the same ideas.
The weight that Dr. Schenck gave them arose from the fact
that he was a trained and recognized forester, a German one at
that.

Criticism and a negative position are easy. The Biltmore
Forest School was Dr. Schenck's contribution on the positive
side. Here his chief aim was to train men for the lumber in-
dustry. Biltmore in the old days was a school not mainly of the
class-room, but of the woods, and after it began its travels, the
same character prevailed. Whatever his classes may have gotten
in Europe, in this country they went where actual logging and
mill work were going on, and studied those processes face to
face ; and when they left the school, the majority of the men
found places in the industry. This, however unsatisfactory it
may have looked to the systematic educator, was effective work
nevertheless. Dr. Schenck brought his men in contact with
realities and showed them how to react upon them. The sons of

An Appreciation of Dr. Schenck 565

lumbermen and others had their wits sharpened, their horizon
broadened ; got starts and slants that will direct their thinking
and modify their actions through all their succeeding lives.

Dr. Schenck in the last number of "Biltmore Doings," suffer-
ing doubtless under intense disappointment, minimized his own
results. He need have no such feeling as long as the young men
whom he stimulated and taught were of the right stamp to start
with, and at the finish got foothold in the industry. Results
will be in evidence in due time, all the sounder for being a little
delayed. If, on the same occasion, he forgot some men who
have reached prominence in other lines, it is but fair to remember
the set purpose of the man, to work through the industry itself.

In the hurry and scramble of actual life, men do not always
carefully consider their words or maintain a position of nice
balance. It was so with Dr. Schenck, as has been indicated
above. Of an intense nature, his reactions and sympathies were
strong. When, for instance, as he did before the Society of
American Foresters, he said that forestry was anything that
had to do with the woods, he went to an extreme, and his friends
had to take him up. Forestry in any meaning sense is no more
that than it is German forest practice introduced on a large scale
in America today. Both are extremes, and the sensible, practical
mean lies between them. This, as far as private land in large
areas is concerned, consists in the first place, as all so far agree,
in good utilization and in protection that is efficient and on an
adequate scale ; and these things we know depend, in turn, on
the maintenance of values. Further than that, forestry includes
in some cases conservative cutting, reservation of young and
thrifty stands and cheap measures for re-stocking, all under con-
ditions imposed by sound finance. These things, to be sure, are
not ideal, but they are practicable to an extent, and they secure
something that is actual and worth while. All are in operation
at one place and another within the industry today, carried out
under actual business organization ; and extension of these de-
sirable things halts mainly for lack of men so equipped and so
placed as to carry them out. To the extension of the area over
which those things should hold, Dr. Schenck's school contributed ;
being, in fact, in that line, the most effective thing we had. The
two-year plan that was in Dr. Schenck's mind when he quit

oGQ forestry Quarterly

looked almost ideal. Those who criticize, for the most part,
have nat grasped the fundamental aim.

It is hard to write of the Biltmore School as a thing of the
past. We shall miss Dr. Schenck, and the country has lost a
force that was highly useful. Nobody will grudge him anything
good that he carries back home. We wish he might find a way
to return to work among us. If ever he feels like coming back
for a visit, there are men all through the country, from one
coast to the other, whose pleasure it will be to take hold and "give
him the time of his life."

*We regret to state that it is creditably reported that Dr. Schenck fell in
battle in France.

NOTES ON FORESTRY IN RUSSIA.^

Education. The Imperial Forest Institute at St. Petersburg
was founded 110 years ago at the time the Russian Depart-
ment of Forestry was established. At this school, a great deal
of research and experimental work is carried on by foresters
and other scientists ; and the results are applied in the Depart-
ment of Forestry. The qualifications for an instructor are a
wide range of experience in forestry in Russia and the study
of forest conditions in other countries, preferably Germany,
France or the United States, for a period of at least one year.
Forest school graduates must spend one summer on a private or
national forest, engaged in investigative work, before they are
admitted as Forest Assistants. The requirements for the posi-
tion of Forest Supervisor are technical training, about five years'
experience as a Forest Assistant or a Deputy Supervisor, and the
construction of at least one working plan.

Investigations. The investigative work is entirely carried on
by experiment stations with the exception of a portion of it
which is done at the Imperial Forest Institute. Forest Super-
visors and Forest Assistants attached to forests do not pretend
to carry on any of this work, but merely put into practice the
results obtained by investigators.

There are twelve experiment stations in the country, all located
within easy access to a railroad station, this being considered
highly important. The average annual appropriation for an ex-
periment station is 10,000 rubles.- Each station is in charge of
a director with two or three assistants, and in addition to this
permanent force a number of students are added in the summer
time.

The buildings at experiment stations are of a pretentious char-
acter. A 3,000 ruble house is provided for the director, and
smaller houses for the assistants with families. There are also

' From conversation with M. Tkatchenko, member of Superior Forest
Special Committee of the Russian Department of Forestry.

- 1 ruble^lOO copecks^$0.73. The ruble is practicall}^ of the same rela-
tive value with our dollar for commercial purposes.

567

568 Forestry Quarterly

private rooms for visitors, while separate buildings are main-
tained for office, library, laboratories, etc.

Yearly, in February, there is a meeting of the Central Com-
mittee for investigative work held in St. Petersburg, to which
come all directors and assistants at experiment stations, together
with professors of forest schools and specialists in allied lines
of research, such as plant physiology, ecology, and meteorology,
who are specially invited, and if these latter deliver lectures their
expenses are paid by the Government. At this meeting the
work of the past year and plans for the next year are discussed ;
the studies to be carried on during the next year are decided
upon and allotments of funds are made for each project.

There is a Superior Committee on Experimental Work which
passes on all reports and decides which are to be published. This
committee consists of three members.

Utiliaation. Russia furnishes one-half of the lumber supply
of Great Britain and one-third of that of Germany. Great
Britain gets principally Pinus syh'estris and Picea excelsa; Ger-
many the same, but in addition some Quercus pedunculata and
some Alnus. A large amoimt of wood is exported to Germany
for mine timbers, Picea excelsa being the principal species used
for this purpose.

The following is the average scale of timber prices per cubic
foot : Oak, 18 to 36 cents ; Spruce, 10 to 22 cents ; Pine, 15 to 25
cents; Larch, 12 cents, and Ash, 18 to 55 cents.

The best grade of pine and oak brings 2,000 rubles per hec-
tare^ ($590 per acre) on the stump; average quality for 800
rubles per hectare ($236 per acre). Three hundred rubles per
hectare ($88 per acre) is the minimum selling price for any
timber and this is for such species as birch, aspen, etc. The land
cannot be sold.

Pine is the wood principally used for ties and these are some-
times treated with creosote or zinc chloride before they are laid.
Larch is also used to some extent. The ties are sold by the cubic
foot. An engineering corps has entire charge of the preservative
treatment of timber and this is completely outside the jurisdiction
of the Forest Service.

Pinus sylvestris is the chief source of naval stores. The cup
and gutter system is used.

" 1 hectare^2.471 acres.

Forestry in Russia 569

Milling operations in Russia are on a much smaller scale than
in this country. In Archangels 2 T 5,000 cubic feet is a good
average cut for one mill.

In Northern Russia the usual top limit for cutting is 5 inch
with a log length of 20 feet, though this last may vary. After
cutting, in North and East Russia, the logs are driven to the
mills in streams. In West Russia there is some river driving,
but the usual means of transportation is here by canals and rail-
roads, while in Central Russia the only means of transportation
is by railroads.

The net annual income of the Russian National Forests is
$40,000,000 to $45,000,000.

Matmgement. There are ten divisions for management work
and making of working plans. Each division has a chief called
a Revisor of Management, and this chief has three or four assist-
ants. These so-called "Taxators" perform the necessary field
work with the assistance of two technical men and several
laborers to aid in running the compass, chaining, etc. The chief
of the management division visits the forest in queston to deter-
mine if the method is satisfactory. If so, he sends the prelimi-
nary plan to the Department of Forestry at St. Petersburg.
Before the field work is started a conference is held between the
District Forester or Revisor, the Chief of the Management Divi-
sion, the Taxator and the Supervisor. After one and one-half
years the working plan is supposed to be completed and is sent
to the Department of Forestry which, in turn, sends it to the
Forest Special Committee in St. Petersburg. Reports of this
Committee must be sent to the Vice-Secretary of Agriculture for
his approval or disapproval. It is composed of ten to fifteen
members, the chairman at present being Mr. Orloff, Professor
of Management and Mensuration in the Imperial Forest Insti-
tute— the best man in his line in Russia. One member must
read the plan and bring up the main points in one of the com-
mittee meetings, when it is either accepted or rejected, and if the
latter is the case, the working plan must be modified or in some
instances entirely reconstructed.

In Central Russia the minimum cost of making a working
plan is from four to five cents per acre and up to 7 cents, which
includes maps, survey and the necessary mensuration work.

570 Forestry Quarterly

Every ten years the working plan must be revised and each revi-
sion costs approximately 3 cents per acre. In 1765 A. D. an
excellent survey of the whole of Russia was made and the work-
ing plan maps are based on this. Very fine boundary maps have
been constructed for most of the national forests,

A good average size for national forests in Central Russia is
7,500 to 12,000 acres, while in Northern Russia they approximate
those of this country.

In Central Russia where subdivisions exist a compartment
contains 100 desiatins* or 270 acres, and on the best National
Forests only 25 desiatins or G7 acres, while in the North of
Russia it often contains 64 square kilometers (15,810 acres).

For working plans, the area is carefully mapped and sample
plots accurately measured in order to determine the actual con-
tents of the stand. Sample trees are felled and measured, and the
volume of the stand is computed by the Urich method.

In Northern Russia the selection system is used for Scotch
pine, while in Eastern and Central Russia the strip system,
followed by artificial regeneration, is applied to the same species.
Economic conditions are the reason for this difference. Northern
Russia being very thinly populated and the timber values are
relatively low, hence a more intensive and consequently more
costly system of management cannot be profitably applied. On a
good quality of locality the stand (shelterwood-compartment)
method with cuttings at fifteen year intervals is used. For
spruce in the north, from St. Petersburg on, the shelterwood
system, with two or three fellings instead of the four called
for in the complete system, is used, if the seed years are poor
and if there is a ground cover of dense grass, it is necessary
to aid natural reproduction by planting.

The corridor system devised by Mr. Molchanofif for use in
the State of Tula in Central Russia has been very successfully
applied to oak. This is used where a mixed type of young
aspen, maple, ash and poplar occurs. All the trees are cut out
in narrow strips ("corridors") three and a half feet wide, with
intervening strips fifteen feet wide, in which the stand is left
untouched. The corridors are then planted or sown to oak.
The stand in the fifteen foot strips then acts as a nurse, cleaning

* 1 desiatina=r2.7 acres.

Forestry in Russia 571

the oak without shading it or, in Mr. Tkatchenko's terms, "giv-
ing the oak an overcoat without a hat." These other species are
cut out year by year, as is necessary when they interfere with
the oak, and are used for fence posts, etc.

In Central Russia the size of the timber at the end of the rota-
tion is calculated very closely and often it is cut to a ten inch
limit on a hundred year rotation.

Sometimes, after cutting, the land is given over to the peasants
for agriculture for three years and then again planted with
trees.

Very few grazing fees are collected, because there is little
grazing in the forests ; furthermore, it is the policy to permit the
peasants to graze their stock free, thus making them friendly to
the Forest Service.

The loss by fires is much less in Russia than in this country,
due to the fact that the dry seasons in Russia are less severe than
in parts of the United States and that peasants must go to a
fire within a radius of fifteen wersts^ (approximately 9 miles)
without compensation ; but beyond this distance they receive pay
for their work.

Mensuration. The cubic measurement is used entirely in
Russia. Two hundred and twenty cubic feet, comparable to our
1,000 board feet, is the unit of timber sale work. In scaling,
each log is cubed as the frustrum of a paraboloid.

In accurate investigative work for determining the rate of
growth, the tree is cut at the surface of the ground so that the
entire age may be ascertained. The error which enters when the
tree is cut at some distance above the ground, and the total age
found by adding the number of years required by seedlings of
the present day to reach that height, is considered a great one.
The rings of annual growth are counted and measurements taken
much the same as in our work, though in many cases the distance
to each fifth ring, instead of each tenth ring, is measured.
Whether the rings are counted from the outside in or from the
inside out depends upon the character of the investigation. If a
volume study is being made, the first method is used ; if only the
rate of growth in diameter is desired, the latter method is em-
ployed. Complete stem analysis work is never carried on in con

' 1 American mile=1.5 Russian "wersts."

572 Forestry Quarterly

nection with logging operations, because the sections cut under
such conditions are of varying length, and usually too long for
accuracy. It is thought that too many errors arise from inter-
polation.

The length of sections into which the tree is cut for investi-
gative work varies from one to three meters, according to the
accuracy desired. Frequently the sections are only one meter
long. Sometimes the wood is used for fuel, but usually it is
left to rot after all the desired data has been obtained.

The diameter at each section is taken north and south, east
and west, and in the direction of the prevailing winds. The
direction of the longest and shortest diameters and radii are also
recorded. When sections are longer than one meter, taper
measurements are taken at this interval throughout the length
of the stem.

In computing the volume of the tree at different ages, the
formula for the paraboloid is employed. Thus, the tree is com-
puted as a single length, and is not divided into sections com-
puting the stump, logs and top by different formulae as in this
country.

The Pressler increment borer is used in rough work only. For
accurate work it has been found very unsatisfactory.

The Russian method of curving the growth data is much the
same as ours. A great deal of stress is laid upon form factors
and annual growth per cent. The growth is usually shown in
tables by decades.

Nursery Practice. Russian nursery practice is nearly the
same as that in vogue in this country. Most of their methods
have been obtained from Germany. Sometimes the "transplant
board" and "trencher" are used for transplanting, while some-
times "dibbling" is practised, or a notched board is laid along
the edge of a trench, into which the seedlings are placed by
hand. The term for the transplant bed is the "school," taken
from the German.

Very little water is given to nursery stock which is to be
planted on xerophytic sites, because it is considered best to get
the stock as well adapted to dry conditions as possible before it is
planted on such a site.

It was found in one of the Russian nurseries at one time that

Forestry in Russia 573

many of the young seedlings were dying from frost killing, while
the thermometer readings at the usual height gave temperatures
slightly higher than freezing. However, when the thermometers
were placed on a level with the tops of the seedlings instead of
at the usual height it was found that the temperature was several
degrees lower than freezing.

Planting and Seeding. There is in the Russian Department
of Forestry a branch of planting for work after fellings have
been made and another branch for planting on difficult treeless
sites. This latter work has been highly successful. Both of
these branches are entirely separate from the main division of
planting.

The first White pine plantation was established over one hun-
dred years ago by Mr. Shatillow on his estate "Mochowje" at
Novosilin in the State of Tula, Central Russia.

On favorable sites 85% is a good average of living seedlings
in a plantation; and on very poor and exposed sites 20% is
considered excellent. Ball planting is practised on the most diffi-
cult sites, for in such places this method is considered cheapest
in the long run.

When conifers are planted the stock used is nearly always
2-years transplants.

Planting on the steppes has proven very successful until the
trees are in their thirtieth or fortieth year ; then the trees begin
to die at the tops, and finally the whole tree dies. The soil is
very rich and well adapted to agriculture, but investigations show
there is too much NaaCOg and Na2S04 for trees. It is considered
by Professor Kravkofif that there is a deficiency of NjOg and
P2O5 in the soil. The salts CaS04 and CaCOg are present
in considerable quantities, but are considered indifferent.

Recently it has come to be a rather general opinion among
Foresters that a better root system is obtained from direct seed-
ing than from planting. The seed spot method is used to a
great extent, but considerably larger spots are made than is the
practice in this country. The soil is cultivated before broadcast
sowing and it is a common practice to rent the land to the peasants
for agricultural purposes for a few years before sowing the seed
for forest trees.

Cost of Planting, Eastern and Central Russia. The cost of;

574 Forestry Quarterly

planting pine seedlings on dry soils, 9,600 per desiatina (3,855 per
acre), can be jfigured as follows:

Labor (per desiatina)

0. 65 to 0. 90 horse days 0. 8- 1. 1 rubles

2.9 " 5.9 man days 5.8-11.8 "

8.6 " 15.2 woman days 11.4^20.2 "

Total 18.0-33.1 "

Cost per acre 7.3-13.4 " ($5.33 to 9.78)

Oak seedlings one to two years old in plots two feet square
by eight inches deep, 400 plots her hectare (162 per acre) and
from three to five seedling per plot.

0. 09 horse days 0.1-0.1 rubles

8.8-12.0 man days 17.6-24.0 "

5.8- 6.2 woman days 7.7-8.2 "

Total 25.3-32.2 "

Cost per acre 10. 2-13 . 0 " ($7.45-9.50)

On the steppes in Southern Russia, 10,800 transplants 1-3 year
are planted per desiatina (4,371 per acre), the species used being
elm, oak, ash, black locust, honey locust and others. The planting
area must first be plowed up in narrow strips. No figures were
given on the cost of this operation. The cost for labor per desia-
tina, including transportation of plants from nursery, grading,
counting, pruning, and planting, is as follows :

^- 1 . 0 horse days 0.7- 1.0 rubles

9.0-14.5 man days 18.0-29.0 "

11.0-17.5 woman days 14.6-23.3 "

Total 33.3-53.3 "

Cost per acre 13.5-21.7 " ($9.85-15.85)

After two years all the grass must be cleaned away from the
plants. The cost of this work per desiatina is as follows :

y^-iy^ horse days 0. 5-1 . 5 rubles

3^-1}^ man days 1.0-3.0 "

Total 1.5-4.5 "

Cost per acre 0.6-1.8 " ($0.44-1.30)

Two years later, or four years after the time of planting, this
■operation must be repeated, at a cost of 1.5 to 5.2 rubles per
•desiatina (.67 to 2.1 rubles per acre).

Forestry in Russia 575

After ten to fifteen years, thinning may be necessary. The
cost of thinning per desiatina is as follows :

1-2 man days (cutting trees) 2.0-4.0 rubles

1-3 woman days (carrying away

material) 1.3-4.0 "

Total 3.3-8.0 "

Costperacre 1.3-3.2 " ($0.95-2.33)

Total Cost of the Plantation

peracre 16.9-31.9 " ($12.34-23.28)

Cost of Seed Plots. Oak seed plots, 5-7 square feet per plot,
100-200 plots per desiatina (40-81 per acre), 50 acorns per lot.

Labor (per desiatina)

3 . 7-5 . 3 man days 7 . 4-10. 6 rubles

6.7-8.4 woman days 8.9-11.2 "

Total 16.3-21.8 "

Costperacre 6.6-8.8 " ($4.80-6.38)

Forest Enemies. Melolontha vulgaris, a species of the order
Coleoptera, does an immense amount of damage to young plan-
tations. The larv'ae which do the damage by devouring the roots
of the young stock remain in the ground from three to four
years, depending on climatic conditions. The adult beetle emerges
in the spring feeding on the needles of the trees, and the female
deposits the eggs in the ground during that season, hence all ages
of larvae may be found in the soil at one time. Sometimes it has
been found impossible to re-stock an area after a fire until ten
years have elapsed because of the damage done by these larvae.
No method of effectually combating this pest has been found.
Pouring kerosene and benzine into the soil around the seedlings
has been tried without success.

In 1908, Lyparis monacha, a white moth, did an immense
amount of damage to spruce in Scandinavia and Russia ; in 1909
in Russia and Prussia, and in 1910 in Saxony, Austria, Russia and
Prussia. The insect eats the needles, completely defoliating the
tree. It also attacks hardwoods, but these put on new leaves the
next spring; since the spruce cannot do this, it often dies. Pine
also suffers, but generally the defoliation is not complete, and
consequently this species usually recovers.

In 1909, Russia alone spent 90,000 rubles in an effort to check
the ravages of this insect. The method practised was to put rings

576 Forestry Quarterly

of a special glue ("caterpillar lime") around the trunks of the trees
at about breast height, which was done at a cost of 20 rubles per
hectare ($6.50 per acre). First, approximately, the infected area
must be thinned, then a ring smoothed on the bark of each tree
to make a surface for the glue. However, this method proved
valueless, since the larvae hatched out from the tgg clusters
above this ring, and it is impossible to collect the egg masses
because they are laid on all parts of the tree.

The only methods of combating this pest are to cut out all in-
fected trees, to cut clean and change species, or to change the
system of management of the spruce, giving many more thinnings
than is customary. If a tree becomes infected in the summer it
must be cut and the bark burned before the eggs hatch in the fol-
lowing spring, otherwise an enormous number of new larvae will
develop ; besides, the wood of the tree will begin to deteriorate,
being attacked by blue rot and other fungi.

The rabbit is a great enemy of oak plantations, eating the
leaves and gnawing the bark of the young trees. Shooting seems
to be the only means of checking the damage caused by this
animal since poisoning has proven unsuccessful.

Forest Laws. Over twenty-three years ago a law was en-
acted making it compulsory for every private owner of forest land
to have a working plan for his forest, and only permitting him
to cut the timber in such a way that a continuous supply will be
assured from the holdings.

For stealing timber from windfalls the penalty for the first of-
fense is a fine of 50 rubles plus the actual value of the timber;
for the second ofifense from one to three months' imprisonment ;
and for the third offense from one to six months' imprisonment.
The penalty is much higher for stealing logs already cut for tim-
ber, or for felling trees. If the timber is stolen from a planted
area the fine is possibly thirty times as much as that for the first
trespass on wind thrown timber.

The laws in regard to forest fires are very severe and rigidly
enforced. No fire warning notices are posted anywhere except
in the office of the head man in each village. If a fire is started
by carelessness such as smoking, etc., the fine is 100 rubles. Fires
started maliciously are divided into two grades in regard to
penalties. The first penalty is a jail sentence of from four to six-

Forestry in Russia 577

teen months. The penalty for the second grade, in case only
timber is destroyed, is deprivation of any noble or official title
the offender may possess and two years on improvement work
(no work in the mines) in Siberia; if any houses or settlements
are destroyed the term in Siberia is made much longer.

Salaries and Wages. A Forest Supervisor receives a salary of
from 1,500 to 2,500 rubles per year. In addition he is furnished
with a house costing from 1,500 to 3,000 rubles and has the use of
from 40 to 80 acres of agricultural land. The entrance salary of
a Forest Assistant is from 800 to 1,000 rubles, depending upon
qualifications and the nature of the work.*'

For common labor the wage scale is : Central, Southern and
Eastern Russia, 1 to 2 rubles per day ; and in Northern Russia,
3 rubles per day. A woman receives about half to two-thirds as
much per day as a man.

'After July 1, 1913, all forest officers were to receive an increase in
salary of about 50%.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FOREST ADMINISTRATION IN

CHINA.i

By p. C. King.

Introduction.

Although the complete deforestation in China, accompanied
by its disastrous consequences, has served the world as a moral
lesson, yet few have inquired into the causes of such destruction.
Economic pressure is often employed to explain the existence and
disappearance of certain social institutions. But its application
here is hardly plausible. The economic condition of the Chinese
people in the past was not any worse than that of the people
in India or Japan and perhaps not worse than that of the Euro-
peans in the medieval ages. Yet forests in these countries are
for the most part preserved.

Even granting economic pressure as the ultimate causal factor,
it must have favorable conditions under which to operate. In
the absence of better explanations, the writer offers to present
three causes or favorable conditions under which deforestation
has been going on without check. These are : (1) the early decay
of feudalism, (2) the laisses faire policy of the government, and
(3) the frequent outbreak of internal disturbances.

In the third century B. C, when the larger part of Europe was
still in tribal condition and was hardly ready for feudalism,
feudalism in China had had an existence of more than two
thousand years and was beginning to decay rapidly. The con-
quest of feudal kingdoms with the final establishment of a great
empire in 221 B. C. dealt the final death blow to feudalism in
China. The overthrow of feudalism effected a great change in
property conditions. Heretofore forests had been owned by the
princes. The pleasure of hunting indulged by them had kept
the forests under good care for the chase and, as on record in
the classics, manned with a regular force of forest officers. When

^ This article is part of a thesis prepared by Mr. King, a Chinese student
at Cornell University, for the degree of Master in Forestry. — Editor.
578

Forest Administration in China 579

these kingdoms were conquered and an empire established, and
the habit of hunting was giving way to more secluded pleasures,
forest land was free to all for exploitation. The growing popu-
lation probably demanded increasing clearing of land for agri-
cultural purposes. At all events, there have been since then no
more appointments, and the rank of forest officials to take care
of the forests fell into disuse. Vigorous exploitation and clearing
must have occurred at this time.

That the change from feudalism to other forms of state or-
ganization has its effect on forest conditions may be seen in
European history. From the 15th to the 18th centuries, when
feudalism was dying out in Europe, the change of property rights
and the uncertainty of property conditions resulted in consider-
able deterioration of the forest. "Every forest ordinance," says
Dr. Fernow in describing the forest condition at this time, "began
with complaints regarding the increasing forest devastation."
Japan escaped this fate, only because the overthrow of feudalism
there in 1886 was immediately followed by the introduction of
the modern and efficient state organization.

Had the Chinese government, upon the fall of feudalism,
taken measures to nationalize the forest or to regulate the ex-
ploitation, the change in the forest conditions in China would
have followed a quite different course. Unfortunately, the
theories of government as understood by the statesmen in China
advanced very little in the past twenty centuries. Until lately,
the government always took a disinterested attitude toward what
the people were pleased to do; except in such cases where the
peace of the country might be disturbed or the safety of the
throne endangered, state interference was never resorted to. A
policy of laissez faire was always observed as far as possible.
When the people are allowed, in following their own interest, to
do what they will, the result cannot be otherwise than it was in
China.

Internal disturbance or civil war must have contributed its due
quota in changing the forest conditions in all countries. We
have evidence of this fact in the Thirty Years' War and in the
French Revolution by which both the German and the French
forests were impoverished considerably. In the forty centuries
of the Chinese history there were twenty-five major revolutions

580 Forestry Quarterly

and numberless minor and unsuccessful ones. Although there
is no record to show how these revolutions affected the existence
of the forests, there can be little doubt that the property con-
dition must have been disturbed by these political upheavals. It
is stated that the civil war in the middle of the 17th century
destroyed extensive forests in Szechuan province and in the west-
em part of China.

These seem to be the salient causes of deforestation in China.
It is to counteract the evil effects of these causes that the insti-
tution of a vigorous forest policy by the government is now
most urgently needed.

Attitude of the People Toward Forestry.

It is an unfortunate fact that the Chinese people have in the
past twenty centuries never appreciated the value of a forest and
have neglected its welfare to the extreme. As indicated in the
introduction, it was not so in the days of feudalism. Forests
were then regulated and placed under responsible officials.
Fragmentary sayings .can even now be extracted from the classics
to show that warnings were served on the people by ancient
sages who apprehended the exhaustion of timber. But these
good institutions were long ago obliterated and these warnings
were never heeded. The result is the long continued devastation
of forest resources without ever being interfered with, or opposed
to, or even thought of by the Chinese public.

With the rapid march of western civilization into China in
recent years, there has come also a gradual realization on the
part of the educated people of the importance of forestry. The
repeated occurrence of floods in central China during the last
few years has set many people to thinking about the problem and
to seeking the causes, and the removal thereof, of such disastrous
phenomena. It is interesting to note that people who are appar-
ently least informed of the science of forestry are particularly
loud in asserting that reforestation would cure the floods. The
idea of reforestation by artificial planting has been taken up
readily everywhere and has engaged considerable public atten-
tion.

Late in the spring of 1914. the writer conducted an investiga-

Forest Administration in China 581

tion into the general agricultural and forest conditions in China
by sending out circular letters to the Industrial Commissioners
of the various provinces, requesting them to give the desired in-
formation. As the project was started rather recently, only
three provinces replied so far. Among them two provinces
have established tree nurseries and have started planting on waste
lands. The spread of the popularity of reforestation by artificial
planting is here quite evident.

Another case of interest is the colonization work at Nanking,
conducted by Mr. Joseph Bailey. It was originally a famine-relief
project conceived by Mr. Bailey, by which project a famine-
stricken people were taken to Nanking to reforest the foothills of
the Purple Mountain. This work was admired and highly com-
mented on by the government. Lands, contributions, and general
support, both from governmental and private sources, have been
given him to extend the work on a larger scale.

These desultory efforts in reforestation do not indicate any-
thing beyond the growing interest in the matter of forestry. They
are, however, straws that show the direction of the wind. In-
stead of a passive indifference toward the welfare of the forest
as in the former days, an active interest and enthusiasm in the
practice of forestry is beginning to leaven the whole country.

The reforestation work in China is a gigantic task. In view of
the vastness of the country and the depleted forest conditions, it
is easily greater than all the reboisement work either accomplished
or contemplated in Switzerland, France and Austria. But the
work should be faced, squarely and boldly. The rising genera-
tion should see that this growing interest be energized, widened
and systematized so that success will be our final reward.

Physical Conditions of the Countryr

Occupying a central and important part of the eastern hemi-
sphere and lying between 20° and 53° North Latitude and 74° and
134° Longitude east of Greenwich, China is, in position and in
extent, comparable to the United States. Topographically speak-
ing, however, there is a great difference. The great mountain
ranges and the great rivers in China generally run in an east and

' See also article by R. Rosenbluth, F. Q., vol. X, pp. 647-672.

582 Forestry Quarterly

west direction, while those in the United States for the most part
run in a north and south direction. The country is divided into
three natural divisions by three great rivers : the Yellow River in
the north, the Yangtze River in the middle and the West River in
the South. Almost parallel to these three rivers and forming their
watersheds, there are three important mountain systems: the
Alashan Range which is north of the Yellow River; the Peling
Range, between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River; and
the Nanling Range which lies north of the West River. From
these, as spurs, minor ranges run to the coast and to Manchuria.
Since the mountains rise in the west and northwest of China, the
country slopes towards the east; this is clearly indicated by the
courses of the great rivers. With vast plains in the coastal region,
fertile valleys along the river basins and mountain and tableland
between the great rivers and in the west, the topography is, in-
deed, varied, and is well apportioned between agricultural land
and forest area, though the amount of the latter is said to be very
small now and to have been stripped of the verdure it once pos-
sessed.

Climatically speaking, no part of China, except the deserts in
Manchuria and in Chinese Turkestan and the snow-clad moun-
tains in Thibet, is unfavorable for tree growth of certain species.
In temperature, the northern part is rigorous, reaching extremes
in Mongolia ; the central part is mild ; and the southern part par-
takes of a semi-tropical character. Thus, the temperature in
Pekin registers 100° F. as the maximum and 4° F. as the mini-
mum, the mean annual being 54.8° F. In Shanghai, the ther-
mometer registers 96.5° F. as the highest in the summer and
10.5° F. as the lowest in the winter. In Canton, the maximum
varies from 96° to 100.4° F. and its minimum is rarely below the
freezing point. These records are taken in cities along the
coast. As one goes into the interior part of China, these figures
must be modified considerably by the altitude and other factors.
But these figures do represent the general range of temperature.
The growing season decreases from 10 months in the south to
15 weeks in the extreme north bordering Siberia.

While the annual precipitation along the Pacific coast in the
United States increases northward from the driest part of south-
em California to Washington, where the annual rainfall is the

22'

40.8

48'

53.0

20'

51.0

19'

42.3

11'

39.2

Forest Administration in China 583

greatest, the annual precipitation along the Pacific coast in China
has just the reverse order; it decreases northward from 79 inches
in Pakhoi to 3? inches in Pekin. This may be shown by the fol-
lowing table :

Locality Latitude Ann. Precipitation,

in Inches

Pakhoi 21° 29' 79.0

Amoy 24° 27' 43.0

Shanghai 31° 12' 40.4

Tsingtau 36° 4' 27.3

Peking 39° 57' 27.0

The annual precipitation also decreases from the cost to the
interior, as the following figures tend to indicate :

Locality Longitude (E) Ann. Precipitation

in Inches

Chinkiang 119° 30' 41 . 0

Wuhu 118° ■

Kuikiang 115°

Hankow 114°

Ichang 111°

Chunkiang 104°

Though rich in many other natural resources, China is sadly
lacking in forests. On account of the lack of a survey of natural
resources, the forest area in China cannot be given, although the
general impression received by travelers in China is that the whole
country is practically devoid of any good-sized forests. The only
extensive tract of forest is in the northern mountains of Man-
churia. Here pine, spruce, oak, birch, elm, walnut and willow
are found in abundance. Timber from here supplies mostly
local demand in Manchuria and supplies only limited amounts to
the northern part of China. In Mongolia and in the provinces
north of the Yellow River, forests may be said to be entirely
lacking. Whatever remnant there is of forests in the central and
in the southwestern part of China is indicated only by the pres-
ence of a small amount of timber trade. This is chiefly in the
provinces of Hunan, Anhwei and Kweichow. Small-sized timber
of hardwood comes from these provinces. Fokien is the only
province along the eastern and the southwestern coast that has
some wooded slopes on the steep headwaters of the streams.
Forest conditions being such, is it any wonder that even with her
extremely economic use of timber and the presence of many kinds
of wood substitutes in building and in constructions, China is

584 Forestry Quarterly

still importing one-third of the amount of her timber consump-
tion?

Although the Chinese people are noted for intensive farming,
they have allowed vast amounts of cleared but untillable land to
be idle, especially on barren slopes and hills. From the topo-
graphical configuration of the country, the area of such land is
easily double that of the tillable land. It is here that the reboise-
ment work should eventually concentrate.

Altogether the physical condition of the country is, with the
exception of the outlying territories, generally favorable for tree
growth. But centuries of ignorance and misuse have reduced
most of the once forested area to the present treeless condition.
The demand of timber to meet various industrial developments is
already great and is growing greater every day. Nothing but a
vigorous policy of reforestation initiated by the government,
can save the country from industrial dependence on foreign
sources of timber supply.

Governmental Conditions.

As already indicated in the Introduction, one of the principal
causes of deforestation in China is the laissez faire policy main-
tained by the central government. To keep the country at peace
and to allow the people to manage things in their own way so that
the throne might not be endangered by uprisings was the main
object of the government. Promotive and police functions were
seldom exercised by the government except in case of necessity.
The people were so accustomed to the laissez faire policy that
they looked upon government initiative and promotive measures
with great disapproval. It is really no exaggeration to say that
the attempt, a good attempt withal, made by the Manchu govern-
ment to nationalize all railroads was met with such opposition that
it started the revolution of 1911.

Since the establishment of the Republic and through the ex-
perience of much hardship, the country has gradually come to
realize that the government interest is nothing more than the com-
posite interest of all the people, and that, in order to enjoy and
insure this collective interest, each individual must sacrifice a por-
tion of his own. State interference is permissible in so far as it

Forest Administration in China 585

promotes public welfare. The present administration has aimed,
with determined efforts, to unify all China in one concerted action
and to concentrate the power at Pekin. Many railroads which
were once strongly opposed to nationalization under the Manchu
rule are now being nationalized. A centralized system of tax
collection and financial control has been inaugurated to displace
the provincial system of financial management. While the pres-
ent administration has been severely criticized for its dictator-
like policy, no progressive mind can sincerely doubt that the
national problems of China, with her international entanglements
without and her confused system and disconcerted actions with-
in, are not to be solved by any meek, passive, laisses faire policy
of the old ways ; on the contrary, it must be met by a vigorous,
responsible, guiding and enlightened policy of the truest kind.

Suggested Policy of Administration.

a. General Considerations — In taking up this part of the essay,
the writer must acknowledge his limitations in the knowledge, not
to say experience, of any administrative work. Hence the dis-
cussions should be viewed only from the theoretical standpoint.

In such a vast country as China, it is really an open question
whether such administration as a Forest Service, an administra-
tion which is secondary in importance to Army, Navy and Finance,
should be centralized or decentralized. In the opinion of Dr.
Nagao Ardgo, an eminent Japanese jurisprudent and Constitu-
tional Adviser to China, the central government should consist
only of such important departments as Army, Navy, Finance,
Foreign Affairs and the Court of Justice, leaving such depart-
ments as Agriculture, Commerce, Communication, etc., to each
Province. The central cabinet should be non-partisan. The polit-
ical arena is thus limited to each Province. This novel idea has
few supporters. Viewed from the standpoint of efficiency, a cen-
tralized service seems the most desirable. True, the vastness of
the country may cause unavoidable delay in the work, but devel-
opment of the means of communication is rapidly coming to sup-
ply this deficiency. On the other hand, a centralized organiza-
tion is not without distinct advantages ; it is responsible for the
success of the work and is therefore responsive to public opinion.

586 Forestry Quarterly

It regulates and distributes work, it avoids duplication, and there-
fore reduces expenses. It co-ordinates the results of work, it is
better able to judge where lies the cause of success or the source
of failure.

The service should be in the form of a bureau and not in the
form of a commission. The latter is fit, by nature of its consti-
tution, only for deliberation and not for quick execution. As
most of the work of such a service requires prompt action, the
principle of expediency demands a bureaucratic organization.

The matter of appointment is an important one. Since it con-
cerns the government service of all departments, consideration of
this matter should not be limited to the forest administration
alone. At present, as the organization of the various departments
has not been completed, there is no uniform rule governing the
admission into the government service.

In the future, a uniform system based on the idea of Civil Ser-
vice examinations as in the United States may be worked out.
The civil service examination was a very old institution in China,
abolished only some ten years ago on account of its well-known
abuse in basing the examination exclusively on literary culture.
If that abuse is remedied and the examination is put on a more
scientific basis, there is no reason why that old institution should
not be restored. To all intents and purposes the system based on
testing the knowledge and ability of a man is the best, if not the
fairest, in admitting employees to the government service after
balancing all advantages and disadvantages. After admission in-
to the sendee, further promotions may be made on meritorious
achievement and on seniority. The combination of both princi-
ples appear more rational than dependence on either one alone.

h. Organization of Central Service — With the possible excep-
tion of estabhshing a National Forest in Manchuria, where forest
management will be the chief work, the forest administration in
China will be for years to come engaged principally in the work
of reforestation, especially along the headwaters of important
streams. Since this ,work means a very heavy initial cost with
very uncertain returns and draws heavily upon the treasury of
the nation, it has to get along on a small scale at the outset and
to organize the work so as to secure the maximum efficiency, ex-
panding the work as previous successes warrant. There is no

Forest Administration in China 587

place for showy work. It would be foolish to attempt in the be-
ginning to organize the service as completely as that of the
United States or of any other countries. But the skeleton of the
service may take somewhat the following form:

The Central Forest Office is to be established first : a provincial
forest service will be established in the Provinces where the need
of reforestation is most urgent. The Central Service is placed
under the Department of Agriculture and Commerce in the
Bureau of Agriculture and Forestry.^ The head of the Service is
the Forest Director. In the administrative work of the Service
four divisions seem indispensable. These are: Information and
Editing Division; Land Division; Investigation Division; Ac-
counts.

The Information and Editing Division is charged with the pub-
licity and the editing work. Data and results are co-ordinated
and compiled here. Publication and information of general in-
terest and not local in character are edited here in order to avoid
duplication.

To the Land Division is given the charge of the record of the
government lands. At present, the government lands are in the
form of small patches in every magistrate district. These may be
mountains, swamps, waste lands, and farm lands. The central
government has no record, the record being kept by the magis-
trate and the provincial authorities.

The records ought to be returned over to this Division. This
Division would see that these lands are reclaimed and kept in
good condition and, if possible, exchange agricultural lands for
those in mountains and on headwaters so as to make the govern-
ment lands a continuous tract of considerable area without being
mixed with private properties. To this Division may be also
assigned the function of acquiring land for the Government by
purchase if the Government desires to do so.

The Investigation Division has the general function of encour-
aging directly or indirectly the timber industry in the country.
It may be engaged in introducing and developing new uses of
forest products, in experimenting on silvicultural problems and

" The Department of Agriculture and Forestry has been changed into
the Department of Agriculture and Commerce which has four Bureaus,
namely, (1) Bureau of Agriculture and Forestry, (2) Bureau of Com-
merce, (3) Bureau of Mining, and (4) Bureau of Fish and Game.

588 Forestry Quarterly

in informing the public of the results. One systematic work of
great importance to the timber industry that needs to be done
by this division is the introduction of a uniform and rational
system of measuring wood to be used throughout the country.
Like the Chinese currency, the Chinese system of measuring
wood is very complicated and exhibits no uniformity. It needs
to be standardized ; it needs not adopt the unit from any particular
country, but the unit should be easily convertible to other units
and admit of mathematical calculation. In doing this work, the
Division should try to have the cooperation and support of all
the timber guilds in the country.

To the Division of Accounts is assigned the usual work of
recording money transactions.

c. The Provincial Service. The provincial service may be
called the Forestry Bureau of such and such province. The head
of the Provincial Bureau is responsible to the central office at
Peking. If the reforestation work to be done in a province is
on a limited area, the administrative work of the head of the
Provincial Bureau will consist in organizing and directing a
forest planting force with the help of a few assistants. There
is no need of an elaborate organization. If the forest interest in
a province, however, is considerable and promises extensive and
permanent work, the provincial administration may have the fol-
lowing divisions: Reconnaissance, Reforestation, Extension, In-
vestigation and Accounts.

The work of reconnaissance is necessary in reforestation work
of considerable proportion. To this Division is therefore as-
signed the work of ascertaining (1) how much forest area there is
in the province, (2) of what character and condition is the forest,
(3) where lies the need of improvement, (4) where is the need
of the reforestation work most urgent, etc. These conditions,
when ascertained, must be reported to the Central Bureau.

The Reforestation Division handles the organization and direc-
tion of the forest planting force, and supervises the field work.
It should also keep records of the areas forested, species used,
cost per acre, percentages of success or failure with explanations
thereof, etc. These also should be reported to the Central Bureau.

The work of the Extension Division is mainly to arouse public
interest in forestry and to help any private enterprise in forest

Forest Administration in China 589

planting. This may be done by traveling lectures and the circu-
lation of pamphlets containing simple advice in the practice of
forestry. These projects, besides enhancing the interest in for-
estry, will have the value of instilling the elements of rural edu-
cation.

The work of the Investigation Division is similar in character
to that of the same division in the Central Bureau, only more
local in its interest. It will help the Central Bureau to standardize
the unit of timber measurement.

The Division of Accounts keeps record of money transactions
in the Provincial Bureau.

All officers in the Central and in the Provincial Bureaus are
appointed or promoted by the Minister of Agriculture and Com-
merce, with the recommendation of the Director of the Central
Bureau.

d. Education and Training. Recognizing the education of
her people as the greatest asset of the nation, the Chinese Govern-
ment has within the last ten years or so taken up the gigantic
task of providing Government institutions for practically all
branches of learning. Impoverished as her treasury is, she has
not hesitated to set aside, just a few months ago, $12,000,000
for promoting and encouraging scholarship in advanced learning.
In forestry, there is now a Government Agricultural and Forestry
College at Peking, in which forestry is given as a separate course
with the expressed intention of educating foresters for Govern-
ment work. In a number of provincial agricultural colleges for-
estry is given as an accessory science. This spread of the educa-
tional movement will certainly make the people more conscious
of the need of forestry in China.

When once the field of forestry is open, the demand for edu-
cated foresters will naturally increase, but there will be no such
rush demand as was once experienced in the United States;
for the simple reason that most of the work will be reforesta-
tion which cannot be carried out on the same scale as the man-
agement of existing forests. Such demand can therefore be met
by Government schools. Private schools will not come into
existence for some years.

The standard of the Government schools, central as well as
provincial, must be set high. This requirement can be auto-

590 Forestry Quarterly

matically regulated by ordering that all graduates from forest
schools of collegiate grade who intend to enter Government
service must pass the same civil service examination.

Promising students, upon their graduation from Government
schools, may be conditionally admitted into the service and em-
ployed in the various lines of work for one or two years. Then
they are sent abroad for two to three years to study foreign con-
ditions. After they return they may be admitted into the service
without examination upon their presenting a written report of
their experience and work abroad.

Steps Necessary in Application of This Policy.

During or before the organization of the service, certain pre-
liminary measures are necessary. The following merely indi-
cates the types of such measures.

Education of the People. Every modern movement depends
for its ultimate success upon the intelligent support of the
people. This is especially true with forestry. The people must
be educated to understand the broad significance of the move-
ment and thereby to give their unwavering support. Such an
education can be brought about in three ways :

Extension work among the rank and file of the people
is necessarily important. Public lectures on principles of con-
servation among the educated classes and illustrated talks on
farm forestry to the country folk all help along the movement.
The opportunity of publicity through the press should be fully
utilized. This work should be taken up not only by the service
but also by men outside of the Government service interested in
forestry and the conservation movement.

Objective teaching in the form of model forests or experi-
mental work is often more effective than lectures. It has the
value of showing the people what a forest should look like and
how it can be brought about. It is of more educational value
to those who can observe things and can think for themselves.
In a few provinces model forests have been established. This
kind of work should be extended more vigorously.

The Forestry Association is an institution that cannot be dis-
pensed with in pushing forward this movement. It makes use

Forest Administration in China, 591

of combined and organized effort in arousing the interest and in
educating the masses. It has played and is still playing an im-
portant part in awakening public interest in forestry in Switzer-
land, in the United States and in Canada. That the Forestry
Association when established in China should exert a guiding
influence cannot be doubted.

Most of the reform measures now going on in China have been
taken up with the endorsement of a few leaders and promul-
gated without the demand of the masses. This is a wrong way
to bring about true reform. True reform must be brought about
from the bottom up. While the government should exert a guid-
ing influence, such influence should consist in awakening and
hastening the demand of the public for reform. In making the
forestry movement a truly progressive measure, the Associa-
tion can be of unlimited service to the Government.

b. Reconnaissance. This is not the regular reconnaissance
sun^ey which is a part of the work of the Provincial Bureau.
That would be too intensive for the preliminary step of adminis-
tration. It is simply a collection of the rough estimates from
each magistrate district in the different provinces. In each of the
organized districts (towns) in China (practically all districts
in China proper have long been organized, those in Manchuria
are beginning to be organized, not so with Mongolia, Chinese
Turkestan and Thibet) there is a district magistrate who receives
his appointment from the Central Government. These magis-
trates can therefore be ordered to consult men versed in local
conditions and to report on the following points: (1) land area
of the district; (2) Government or public land area in the dis-
trict; (3) the area of unreclaimed or waste land and its owner-
ship; (4) area of forest land, if any, in the district; (5) location
and general character of the forest (species, quality, etc.) ; (6)
area of forest according to ownership — public, private, temple, etc.

The estimates will necessarily be rough, but will give a general
idea of the forest conditions of the country, data which are now
sadly lacking. When these estimates from one district are
checked by those of the contiguous districts and by the railroad
and land surveys, they are much superior to the guesses now
made by authorities writing on Chinese forest conditions.

Further, these estimates have another important use in show-

592 Forestry Quarterly

ing the public what the actual forest conditions of the country
are, how much land lies idle, how much is the loss to the country,
and what is the prospective gain if such land is made productive
by being reforested. These concrete descriptions of actual facts
will add force and vividness to the appeal to public sentiment
and will foster real interest in this movement.

c. Legislation. Since forest laws will be a new feature in
Chinese legislation, they should have the following characteris-
tics: (1) the ameliorative and the protective measures should be
given more emphasis than the restrictive measures. (2) They
should be simple and never too wordy. (3) They should be
capable of being enforced, i. e., practical.

When these laws are enacted, their usefulness should be care-
fully explained and the broadcast publicity of them should be
insured.

Restrictive measures should be applied to the exploitation by
lumbermen, but the purpose of the law should be made known
to them, so that a good understanding and cooperation may be
established. At the same time measures of fire protection and the
measures against trespass should also be rendered available to
the lumbermen.

A good system of forest taxation goes far in promoting forest
interest in the United States. This will be the case in China.
But, as most of the waste lands are at present abandoned without
ownership and, therefore, go without taxation, the land reclaimed
by planting should be free from taxation for a considerable
length of time and any taxation after that period should be
nominal in order to insure permanent establishment of the forest.

CURRENT LITERATURE.

Forest Regulation, or the Preparation and Development of Forest
Working Plans. Vol. I, Michigan Manual of Forestry. By
Filibert Roth. 1914. 218 pp., 8°. Published by the author.

To anyone who knows the author of this textbook, his person-
ality reveals itself on every page. As was to be expected, orig-
inality of treatment characterizes the book.

There are two methods of approaching a complicated subject,
the analytical or the synthetical, the deductive or the inductive,
coming from the concrete to the abstract or the reverse. Professor
Roth prefers the former, or empirical method, and hence starts
with the description of a concrete case of "German forestry
business," and follows it up with the description of "an American
case." Throughout the book the effort is made to keep in close
company with practical problems, and in this lies its principal value
as compared with other textbooks. At the same time in this
method lies also a defect as a manual, for it leads to diffusive
discussions of matters that have only a distant bearing on the
main topic, and the systematic disposition of material is somewhat
hampered. To give an example, the normal forest idea, which,
consciously or unconsciously, is fundamental to the whole scheme
of forest organization, appears as it were incidentally in the middle
of the book when the methods of budget regulation are being
discussed. Especially in the absence of an index this lack in the
arrangement of matter somewhat disturbs easy reference. Yet
this fault is of minor consequence, and we would rather lose this
point than hamper the interest which is kept up in these dis-
cussions from cover to cover.

In passing, we may note two minor defects we have found in the
description of European methods of budget regulatioti (regulation
of the cut). The essential of Judeich's age class method is dis-
missed with a brief sentence, "the condition of younger stands is
also considered." Upon this consideration, however, and the
manner in which it is done rests the method: it is, as the name
implies, its characteristic.

In discussing the Hundeshagen method, which the author seems

593

594 Forestry Quarterly

to favor, it should certainly have been pointed out that it is based
on the false premise that wood capitals behave like money capitals,
hence a caution as to its application should have been extended.

The book contains pretty nearly all that the German textbooks
as a rule discuss, the one omission that we have noticed, but which is
also noticeable in German books, is a full chapter on increment,
which to us seems to belong here as an important basis for budget
regulation. On closer study we might perhaps find other defects,
but the value of the book lies, as we have accentuated, in its
thoroughly practical aspects and originality of treatment, and
must not be judged by pedantic standards.

There are, however, some points on the literary side which we
feel bound not to overlook. While the straightforward and uncon-
ventional or informal, sometimes breezy language for which the
author is noted, has its attractions, especially in the spoken dis-
course, we are old-fashioned enough to take lunbrage at its too
free use in print. Here, literary style and more polished diction
is indicated ; especially in a book intended for students, carelessness
in this respect is imfortunate. This lack of attention to form is
also painfully noticeable in other directions, as for instance on the
same page we may find written Lodge Pole and lodgepole, and
that with the "pine" left out.

Altogether, we may take this occasion to inveigh against the
malpractice in the use of capitals, which has become a besetting
sin of American foresters, and is found in a pronotmced manner
in this book, in which every word that approaches the meaning
of a forestry term is capitalized, like "Wild Woods," "Protection,"
"Utilization," "Silviculture," "Forest," "Forester," "Forestry"
and "Forestry Business," "Market" "Site," "Species," "Rotation,"
etc. Proper usage is to capitalize when a title is to be indicated,
like a National Forest, when a specially designated tract is to be
named; the Forester, a title of an official ; a coiu-se on Utilization, a
title of the course. Decapitalization is the general tendency of the
present day, but we believe that the retention of capitals to desig-
nate titles is useful. We may not go into the doubtful usage as to
capitalization of genus and species names of trees, except to an-
nounce that we believe ease of reading — ^which is the object of
print — ^makes it desirable to capitalize at least the species name
and write "White pine," in order to make its term quality at once
apparent to the eye.

Current Literature 595

Lastly we may call attention to the fact that the author has
revived for the title of his subject the term forest regulation, the
direct translation of the most generally used German term, instead
of forest organization. The latter term covers as fully, indeed
even more fully, the contents of the subject and relieves us of the
doubt arising in the use of its synonym which suggests police
regtdations.

All the strictures, however, which we have made are minor
faults, and we commend this volume, which is distinctly an
American product, to students and practitioners alike most
heartily.

B. E. F.

Elements of Forestry. By F. F. Moon and N. C. Brown. John
Wiley & Sons, New York; Renouf Publishing Co., Montreal.
1914. Pp. XVII + 392. 111.

This book covers practically the entire field of forestry, and
contains general information on every phase of the subject except
dendrology. It is designed for use in undergraduate and short
courses. In the words of the authors, the chief object has been
to gather data from sources not readily available, and to present
them in a form easily grasped by the average student.

To bring the discussion of so broad a subject within the limits of
one handy volume is a very difficult task. One must not only
choose with fine discernment from a formidable mass of material,
but also exercise the greatest care that generality and brevity are
not attained at the expense of accuracy and clearness. The critical
reader of this volume may find room for criticism, especially on
the broad generalizations, which are frequently made. Here and
there the work leaves the impression of having been done rather
hastily.

Statements indifferent parts of the text are not always in har-
mony. On page 34, Loblolly pine is said to be "extremely Hght,"
while on page 352 it is characterized as "fairly heavy." On page
79, it is stated that the shelterwood system cannot be used with
intolerant species, and yet on the same page the examples of its
use include Western Yellow, Lodgepole and Longleaf pines, which,
according to the table on page 32, are intolerant. On page 217
sapwood is said to be "much more susceptible to decay (than

596 Forestry Quarterly

heartwood) owing to its greater moisture content." On page 228,
"sap wood is more susceptible to decay than heartwood because
of its greater percentage of moisture and food for fungi and
bacteria;" while on page 229, durability is said to depend "on
certain chemical constituents, such as resins, gums, tannin and
other decay resisting materials" which are more abundant in
heartwood than in sap wood.

Not only are there numerous instances of faulty composition,
typographical errors, and inconsistencies, but, what is more
serious, there are not a few misstatements of facts. Many of the
faults are due to the attempt to make brief general statements
without qualification.

And yet for its chosen field the book will serve a useful purpose.
Study of it will afford the non-technical man a good general view
of the whole subject, and should bring him into closer touch and
sympathy with the forestry movement.

S. J. R.

Report of the Central Investigative Committee. U. S. Forest
Service. Washington, D. C. 1914.

In the U. S. Forest Service, a Central Investigative Committee
prepares annually an elaborate program and report on investiga-
tions of a scientific character, listing projects in a classified order
and reporting on the progress of each.

In the report for 1914, the classification comprises nine projects
under Dendrology, 31 under Grazing, 62 under Products, and 240
under Silviciilture, altogether 342 projects; 70 less than in the
previous year, 44 projects having been abandoned, 74 completed
or nearly so, and 47 new ones inaugurated.

As a result of these investigations, there were 55 bulletins
published, besides 75 articles published by outside journals.
Altogether aroimd $290,000 were spent on these investigations
during the year, nearly two-thirds of the total for Products, and
less than one-half of this for silvicultural projects. We recall
with a smile the fact that in 1898 the "timber physics" work of
the Forestry Division which was precisely what is now called
"Products" was abandoned and relegated to the scrap heap as
not germane!

The subject "Silviculture" seems to be the olla podrida, it

Current Literature 597

comprises everything that is not specifically assignable to the other
three classes. Here problems of forestation, forest influences,
management, protection, mensuration, regional studies, silvical
studies, tree studies, and liunbering find their harbor. From time
to time, a Review of Forest Investigations is published ; so far
only volumes I and II have appeared in 1913, and it appears that
then this useful publication has ceased.

Here the organization of the direction of this work is given.
The projects are submitted annually by District Investigative
Committees, composed usually of one representative of each of the
major lines of investigation and one supervisor of technical
training, and are based upon recommendations made by the differ-
ent Branches represented in the District organization submitted
to the Forester. The programs are reviewed by the branch chiefs
of the central office, and then submitted to the Central Committee
of three members, which merely amalgamates and revises the
program, suggesting improvements in the procedure, and outlining
the investigative policy for the entire Service. The Review also
discusses objects and methods of the different lines of investigation.

For the products investigations, as is well known, the elaborate
laboratory at Madison, Wis., serves mainly, while for the silvi-
cultural studies a number of small experiment stations are equipped
which it is proposed to enlarge so that a wide range of experiments
may be carried on. A distinction is made between administrative
experiments having in view answer to specific problems of some
locality, and investigative experiments trying to establish broadly
applicable principles. The Committee of 1914 recommends en-
largement in the latter, reduction in the former class of investiga-
tions.

The Investigative Program itself is a bulky voltmie of 100 closely
printed pages. In this program every project is briefly described
under ten headings, namely a brief statement of the project; its
object; cooperation, if any, \\ith outside agencies; location;
status of investigation ; plans for further work ; use to be made of
resiilts, publication or otherwise; probable date of completion;
assignment of the investigation to various stations or agencies or
investigators, proposed expenditures.

To scrutinize critically such an elaborate program would take
more space than we can afford. Suffice it to say that as far as
organization is concerned it is made on a great scale, and, if the

598 Forestry Quarterly

experiments are carried out as thoroughly as conceived, a remark-
able advancement of technical knowledge should be the result.

B. E. F.

First Annual Conference of the Woods Department, Berlin
Mills Company. Gorham, N. H., 1913.

This well-printed volume of 141 pages (for private distribution
only) denotes an interesting, new and significant departure attest-
ing to the progressiveness of the company which produced it.
Mr. W. R. Brown, the general manager, is one of the directors of
the American Forestry Association.

The meeting was, of course, conceived with a view of secur-
ing greater efficiency through the exchange of ideas among the
staff of this widely branched department.

The volume collects some twenty-two addresses by as many
members of the department, covering all the various practical
questions and problems of the Woods Department. This de-
partment, by the way, was represented at the meeting by 70 mem-
bers, among whom four are designated as Foresters.

We may recite only the titles of the addresses, of which, while
some of them are of elementary character, many are replete with
practical suggestions :

Scientific Management in Lumbering and the Care of Timber-
lands.

Wood and its Uses.

Government, Seigniory and Patented Lands in Canada.

Species, Value and Growth of Trees.

Preliminary Estimating, Surveying and Mapping.

Conducting Forest Surveys.

flaking. Driving and Loading 4-foot Pulpwood.

The Making, Driving and Scale of 13-foot Logs.

Alaking and Driving Long Logs.

Pulpwood Scale and Inspection.

Scaling of Long Logs.

Bookkeeping and Reports.

Agency and Contracts.

Business Functions of a Quebec Notary.

Railroad Transportation and Traffic.

Current Literature 599

Horse Management.

Bark and its Uses.

Mechanical Accessories to Logging and Driving.

Purchasing.

Funds and Banking.

Insurance.

Meals and Cooking.

Mr. Brown outlines what the work of a forester, developing
plans for a timber company, should be. The organization which
he conceives should include an inspector, to save waste, head-
sealer, telephone man, cost accountant, machinery expert, traffic
manager, purchasing agent, verterinary, and statistician, who
gathers and tabulates infomiation in a logical way for the man-
ager's guidance in the future.

He divides the operation of any enterprise into three natural
divisions, the "legislative," forming plans of what is to be done,
laid down in a budget; the "executive," which performs and
records the work; and the "judicial" or ''statistical,", which by
synthesis and analysis of record forms judgments. "Such judg-
ment joined with courage, imagination and capital, leads to the
forming of another plan."

A simple fonii for budget planning — which should be done by
securing a concensus of opinion of the district manager — is
appended; "The budget is to reduce loose plans or opinion
down to a scientific guess." The same skeleton plan should be
followed for budget, accounting, and statistics, a general formula
of elastic and free interpretation to be used for all headings under
ten questions : time, amount, kind, labor, equipment, measure-
ment, records and accounting, price, costs and payments, con-
ditions, accessories and incidentals.

It is of interest to note Mr. Brown's remark on the labor side
of scientific or efficiency management, "being uncertain as to its
advantages." "I doubt if it is always best to set wages by the result
of processes, or that tangible results always represent the true
value received from the service. The human and psychological
side often plays strange pranks with logic, and justice should be
often largely tempered with mercy."

B. E. F.

fiOO Forestry Quarterly

The Mechanical Properties of Wood. By S. J. Record. John
Wiley & Sons, N. Y., 1914. Chapman and Hall, Ltd., London;
Renouf Publishing Co., Montreal. XI + 165 pages, 52 figures,
22 tables, $1.75.

A notable addition to the series of books on forestry published
by John Wiley & Sons of New York is Record's "Mechanical
Properties of Wood." Record is Assistant Professor of Forest
Products at the Forest School of Yale University. In his chosen
field of Wood Technology he has already written one important
book, "Economic Woods of the United States," ^ which deals largely
with the structural and physical properties of wood and the means
of identif3nng the wood of different species. His present work is,
therefore, directly in line with his former, setting forth, as it does,
the mechanical properties of wood.

The author develops his subject in three parts and an appendix.
Part one treats of the mechanical properties: tensile strength,
compressive strength, shearing strength, transverse strength,
toughness, hardness and cleavability. This material includes
numerous tables showing the various strength values of many of
the more important American woods.

Part two deals with the factors affecting the mechanical proper-
ties of wood, such as rate of growth, heartwood and sapwood,
weight, density and specific gravity, color, cross-grain, knots,
various injuries, locality of growth, season of cutting, water
content, temperature and preservatives.

In part three, the author describes the methods of timber
testing, taking as standard those followed by the Forest Service
of the United States Department of Agriculture in its work at the
Forest Products Laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin.

This is suitably followed in the appendix by a sample working
plan used by the Forest Service in timber testing and by a table
showing the strength values of structural timbers.

A bibliography and an index complete the work, which exhibits
throughout that excellence in printing and binding which we have
learned to expect from the publishers, and that painstaking
thoroughness for which the author is already known.

First and foremost, this book will serve as a text in forest
schools and as such fills admirably a long-felt want in the subject

1 Review in Forestry Quarterly, Vol. X, pp. 495-497.

Current Literature 601

of Wood Technology. The author has wisely included the
elementary mechanics of materials in general, at the same time
avoiding all unnecessary technical language and descriptions.

But the book is more than merely a text. It is a valuable
reference work inasmuch as it brings together in concise form data
from a great many more or less inaccessible publications, sifts the
essentials from out a bewildering mass of details and presents
them in easily understood language.

It remains for the author to write, as a corollary to his two pre-
vious books, a third dealing with the technical uses of wood: such
as paper pulp, wood distillates, etc. That Professor Record is
admirably fitted for this task no one who has read his present
work will deny.

A. B. R.

The Lumber Industry, Part IV . Conditions in production and
wholesale distribution including wholesale prices. Department of
Commerce, Bureau of Corporations. Washington, D. C. April
21, 1914. Pp. 933.

Some years ago Congress directed the Bureau of Corporations
to make an investigation of the limiber industry for the purpose
of ascertaining whether or not there existed a "lumber trust"
for the control of limiber production and sales. After the expendi-
ture of a large sum of money and the lapse of several years' time,
three volumes, in four parts, have been printed and distributed.
The first three parts in two volumes deal with the standing timber
of the country and its ownership; also the tendency toward
concentration of large areas of lands into comparatively few hands.

Part IV, dealing with conditions in production and wholesale
distribution, including wholesale prices, is by far the most
voluminous and contains a severe arraignment of the lumber
industry, especially in certain sections of the country.

It is believed that the avowed intention of Congress in creating
the Bureau of Corporations and at different times charging it with
the investigation of certain large industries, was to provide an
agent which not alone would point out any transgression of the
Sherman Act, but also would pave the way to needed reforms
which would place the industry on a sound basis and enable it to
carrv on its business affairs in conformitv with existing laws.

602 Forestry Quarterly

Congress certainly did not contemplate the disorganization of
large industries which in a great measure are attempting to live
up to the laws as ordinarily interpreted, and whose continuance
in a prosperous condition are essential to the welfare of the Nation.
Constructive investigation, not destructive, was without question
the intent of those responsible for the establishment of the Bureau
of Corporations.

The report deals mainly with the activities of various lumber
manufacturers' associations, which are charged with openly
attempting to control output and prices during the earlier years
of their existence, and later attempting to violate the provisions
of the Sherman Act by subterfuge. It is admitted that the first
charge is more or less true, but the public should not lose sight of
the fact that such actions were not then looked upon unfavorably
by the general public. In the southern yellow pine trade espe-
cially, uniformity of action on the part of manufacturers appeared
imperative, since the competition of southern yellow pine with
.white pine and other woods was exceedingly keen in northern
markets; yellow pine mill men did not have their sales methods
as well organized as their competitors ; and yellow pine was a wood
not in especially strong favor in the Northern markets because its
qualities were not well known to the consumer. All of these
things and others tended to very low prices and ruinous competi-
tion among manufacturers throughout the South and it was only
by organization that they could protect their own interests and
secure even a low price for their product.

The charge of evasion of the Sherman Act by men in the yellow
pine industry would be difficult to prove and is believed to be
unjust in the extreme. It is inconceivable that public-spirited
and high-minded men of national repute, many of whom come
under this broad charge, should be knowingly guilty of an act of
this character, not alone because of the legal consequences involved,
but also because of the moral issues at stake. It is scarcely con-
ceivable that lumber maniifacturers would have willingly and
gladly opened all their records to the Bureau of Corporations, and
aided in every possible way the investigation by this Bureau, had
they knowingly been guilty of any violation of the Sherman Act.
It is possible that innocent technical violation may have occurred,
since even the advice of the best legal talent of the country has
been conflicting as to what may be done legally under the provisions
of this Act.

Current Literature 603

The conclusions reached by the Bureau of Corporations as to
the activities of lumber trade associations will hardly meet with
the approval of those who are thoroughly conversant with the
forest problems of the country and who are interested in the
preservation and wise use of our forest resources.

The statement is made that the activities of associations in fixing
prices and restricting output have profited the lumbermen at the
expense of the consiraier. Those familiar with limiber prices
during the past few years know that the profits seciired by lumber-
men have been meager and that in some cases stumpage has been
liquidated at a loss. Persons conversant with the general economic
situation in the industry deplore the general range of low prices
secured by lumbermen since close utilization fluctuates with the
market value of the sawed products of the tree — low prices tend
toward greater waste in the woods, while high prices mean the
reverse.

It is a well-known fact, illustrated by the low market demand
now existing due to money stringency and unsettled business
conditions, that supply and demand are the chief factors governing
values in lumber, and that any artificial standard can not be
maintained for long unless the visible supply of lumber can be
strictly regulated by some powerful organization. In the curtail-
ment policy of individual members of the associations the Bureau
of Corporations believes it detects the exercise of this strong hand.
This assimiption is undoubtedly not warranted, since curtailment
is a personal matter with each manufacturer, who closes his plant
during a period of low prices, provided he can afford to do so.
There are operators, who, because of the actual need of cash to
meet current obligations, must continue to operate even under the
necessity of liquidating their raw material at a positive loss, since
money cannot be borrowed readily from banks, and creditors are
often unceasing in their demands for settlement. There are other
factors which affect the policy of ctirtailment and greatly narrow
the limits within which it is feasible. Many operators feel a
moral obligation towards their workmen and rather than throw
them out of employment and disrupt the labor organization, the
plant is kept running. Overhead charges are only reduced to a
limited extent by closing the plant, hence only a small reduction
in expense is effected.

It is ordinarily assimied that an association or organization to

604 Forestry Quarterly

successfully control supply and by this means regulate prices,
should be able to dominate at least 50% of the cut of that particiilar
species. A comparison of the sales of the members of the Yellow
Pine Manufacturers' Association with the total cut of southern
yellow pine for the years 1907-1912 inclusive, shows that in 1907
the cut of the association represented 27.8% of the total cut of
southern YeUow pine; in 1908, 31%; in 1909, 23.2%; in 1910,
29.5%; in 1911, 35.4%; in 1912, 36%. It is certainly impossible
for any organization representing from 23 to 36% of the cut of a
single species to dictate prices. As a matter of fact, during the
last few years when the association membership has represented
a greater per cent of the cut than at any previous time, there has
been less discussion of and less cooperation in curtailment of cut
than at any other period.

It would be commercial suicide for yellow pine mantifacturers
to attempt to boost, by artificial means, the price of lumber,
since such actions would only increase the chances for cheaper
competitive woods of the Pacific Coast, which would flood the
yeUow pine territory and automatically lower the price of yellow
pine to a level probably below what it otherwise woiild have
been.

The statement "that the standardization of grades is the first
step to price fixing" seems a most puerile condemnation of one of
the most useful phases of association work. The Forest Service
for some years has devoted much time and energy to the encourage-
ment and development of grading rules, because they are a vital
part of the wise use of the products of the forest. It is incon-
ceivable that any department should take the stand, at least by
inference, that such activities in any way are a detriment to the
public interest.

The volume contains many extracts for lumber trade journals
bearing on the control of output and prices; correspondence
between association secretaries and others; price lists of limiber
and graphic representations showing the movement of prices for
specific grades of lumber diiring a period of years.

The general field covered is as follows : Introduction, Co-opera-
tion among manufacttu-ers' associations. Southern Yellow pine,
Douglas Fir, White and "Northern" pine, hemlock, spruce,
shingles, hardwoods.

It is greatly to be regretted that the report has been prepared

Current Literature 605

in an aggressive rather than a cooperative spirit, since there is no
great industry of the coiintry which is more vital to the general
welfare of the people; therefore an investigation of the above
character shotild be carried on in a constructive manner rather
than a destructive one.

R .C. B.

Relative Resistance of Various Conifers to Injection with Creosote.
By C. H. Teesdale. Bui. No. 101, U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington,
D. C, 1914. Pp. 43, ill.

One of the most perplexing problems in timber preservation is
the varying resistance different woods and parts of woods offer
to the penetration of creosote. This is especially the case where,
instead of treating to refusal, a limited or partial treatment is
given. The average injection per cubic foot is obtained by divid-
ing the total amount of oil consimied in the process by the total
cubic contents of the material treated. This does not take accotmt
of the distribution of the oil. If just enough oil is injected to
give an average of, say, ten pounds per cubic foot, some pieces will
probably receive too much and others scarcely any.

What is wanted is uniformity of treatment and to this end
extensive experiments have been made with a view of devising
some practical means of grading material before treating The
investigation reported on in this bulletin was concerned with the
relation between the structure of wood and the ease of injecting
with creosote.

This appears to be an excellent piece of work very painstakingly
done, but imfortxmately it does not settle the question at issue.
In the words of the author, "No satisfactory theory has yet been
offered to explain the penetration of wood by creosote." It would
appear from the apparently conflicting results obtained that
penetrability is not dependent upon structure alone, but that
the chemical properties also are concerned.

The following conclusions are given as a result of the experi-
ments: "1. Radial and longitudinal resin ducts penetrate inti-
mately the interior of the wood and thus form passages for the
preservative. Radial resin ducts were foimd to be especially im-
portant. Where these occiured the wood was usually penetrated
radially from one-fourth to three-fourths as far as longitudinally,.

60(5 Forestry Quarterly

and tangential penetration could usually be disregarded. Where no
radial ducts were present, radial and tangential penetrations could
be considered as equal, and they were found to be between one-
twentieth and one one-hundred-twentieth of the longitudinal
penetrations.

"2. Absorption curves platted for the specimens treated in the
cylinder show that those species which were most difficult to
impregnate gave the most uniform absorption results, and that
the sapwood of those species containing resin ducts gave the most
erratic absorption results. They also showed that the sapwood
of pines, as distinguished by its color from heartwood, was not
always easier to treat than the heartwood. The color line in the
wood does not necessarily separate the easily treated wood from
the portions treated with difficulty. Some sapwood treated like
heartwood and some heartwood treated like sapwood; all of these
conditions are possible in the same cross section of a tree. As a
consequence of this, the absorption curves for pines were, as a
rule, very erratic, especially the sapwood curves.

"3. The resiilts obtained with a given species of wood can not
always be applied to another species, however similar in structure
the two may appear to be. This fact is strikingly evident in the
treatment of heartwood larch and tamarack. Even woods of
the same species show variations when grown under widely different
conditions, as, for example, Western Yellow pine from California
and from Montana."

An attempt is made to group with respect to treatment the
woods of the twenty species of conifers tested, but the proposed
classifications are based too much on empirical data to be wholly
satisfactory. The following species may be successfully treated
in the round form: Engelmann spruce, Douglas fir, tamarack,
Western larch, and all of the pines. Those considered unadapted
to treatment in the form of round timbers include the Alpine,
Noble and White firs, Eastern and Western hemlock. Redwood,
Sitka spruce, and yew.

S. J. R.

Current Literature ' 607

Wood-using Industries of the Maritime Provinces. By R. G.
Lewis, assisted by W. G. H. Boyce. Bulletin 44, Forestry Branch.
Ottawa, Canada. 1914. Pp. 100.

This bulletin is the second of a series dealing with Canadian
wood-using industries, and embodies data gathered from over
600 manufacturers using wood as raw material, in the provinces
of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island.

The industries concerned used over 200 million feet of raw
material with an average value of $18 per thousand board feet.
In this amount 28 tree species groups were comprised, 16 of them
native. The bulk of the material used (88%) is of local origin,
being grown in about equal amounts in Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick, the province of Prince Edward Island supplying only
the small quantity of 1 .3 million feet. The raw material purchased
outside the maritime provinces comes largely from the United
States, and this is mostly hard pine used in car manufacture.

General building construction reqmres over 60 million feet of
raw material or nearly one-third of the total amount used. The
maniifacture of wood-pulp uses 21%, car construction 18, cooper-
age 11, boxes and crating 8, flooring 3, boat building 2, and
furniture manufacture 2%, of the total raw product required by
the wood-using industries.

Spruce is, of course, the most commonly used wood, this making
up 57% of the raw material of the manufacturers. The other
woods used are: White pine 11.8%, hard pine 8.8, birch 6.4,
Balsam fir 5, hemlock 3, oak 1.9, maple 1.8, beech 1%, and small
quantities of various species.

The average values of these woods per thousand board feet were :
spruce $13.69, White pine $23.58, hard pine $31.27, birch $17.86,
Balsam fir $11.79, hemlock $12.39, oak $41.17, maple $17.60, and
beech $18.13.

The uses to which the various woods are put are given in a set of
detailed tables. Thus, 33% of the spruce goes into wood-pulps
32% in building construction, and 14% is used in cooperage
plants. Similar percentages for some of the other leading species,
are as follows: White pine — building construction 60%, cars 16%,
boxes 8%; birch — ^flooring 27, furniture 15, cars 13, building con-
struction 13; Balsam fir — pulp 43, boxes 24, cooperage 17; hem-
lock— building construction 74, boxes 15, pulp 8; oak — cars 64,.

608 Forestry Quarterly

boats 12, furniture 12; maple — flooring 39, handles 28, furniture
19, cooperage 15%.

The bulletin is replete with information, much of it in tabular
form, giving a wholesale view of the wood-using industries and at
the same time enabling one to look up details regarding any partic-
ular wood or any particular article of manufacture. The qualities
of each kind of wood are described, and the suitability for various
purposes discussed. A valuable list, by species of wood, of the
articles manufacttued from each kind, is given, and a useful
classified directory of manufacturers. Seventeen educative illus-
trations are given, illustrating various manufacturing processes
and products.

The data compiled are very readable and useful, and it is to be
hoped that the bulletin is given a wide circulation among all
dealing in forest products.

J. H. W.

Does Cronartium Ribicola Over-winter on the Currant? By F. C.
Stewart and W. H. Rankin. Bui. No. 374. N. Y. State Agr.
Exp. Sta., Geneva, N. Y., 1914. Pp. 53, ill.

Cronartium ribicola is an heteroecious rust fungus parasitic on
Ribes and the five-needled pines, especially Pinus strobus. In its
aecidial stage, which is known as Peridermium sir obi, it produces the
destructive blister rust of the White pines. On the leaves of the
currants and gooseberries, both wild and cultivated, it produces
what is known as felt-rust and is of little economic importance.

The fvmgus is perennial in the bark of the pine trees, but the
fimgus cannot spread from pine to pine but must go from pine to
Ribes and back to pine. On the leaves of Ribes two fruiting forms
are developed, one of which (the uredospores) may infect only
other Ribes plants, while the other (sporidia from the promycelia
of the teleutospores) can infect only the pine. Since the leaves are
the only part of the Ribes plant affected, and the uredospores
are short lived, the fungus is believed to be unable to over-winter
■on Ribes.

The appearance from time to time since 1906 of the felt-rust on
the Experiment Station groimds at Geneva, but without any
cases of the blister-rust being discovered, led to a special investiga-
tion to see if the fungus could over- winter on Ribes. The experi-

Current Literature 609

ments gave only negative resvilts and the conclusion is that over-
wintering occurs rarely, if at all, and only under very exceptional
conditions. The chances of such occurrence are considered so
small that it is unnecessary to quarantine currants affected with
felt rust. The only precaution which needs to be taken is to see
that affected plants are leafless at the time of shipping.

The repeated outbreaks of the disease were explained by the
discovery, finally, of two white pines affected with blister-rust.

S. J. R.

Amounts and Kinds of Wood Used in the Manufacture of Boxes
in the United States. By J. C. Nallis. The National Association
of Box Manufacttirers in co-operation with the U. S. Forest
Service. Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 14.

The manufacture of packing boxes and shooks, crates, crating,
fruit and vegetable packages and baskets is the second largest
wood-using industry of the country, consuming annually 4,547,973
M feet of limiber of which 69% is softwood. Practically all of the
wood used for boxes is the product of the sawmill, comprising 11. 6%
of the limiber cut of the year 1912.

Statistics are given for the first time showing how much of each
kind of wood is used in the box industry and the amount consimied
by box makers in each of the important regions and states.
Virginia ranks first in consimiption, using approximately 433
million feet; New York is second, using 390 million feet; Illinois
is third, using 389 million. Nearly three-fourths of all the boxes,
shooks, crates, crating, etc., are manufactured in the region east
of the Mississippi River and north of Tennessee and North
Carolina. Some of the woods used in the greatest quantity in the
order of importance are White pine (1131 million feet), Yellow
pine (1042 million feet). Red gum (401 miUion feet), spruce (336
million feet). Western Yellow pine (289 million feet), cottonwood
(210 million feet), hemlock (203 million feet). Yellow poplar (165
million feet). A large number of species are used in quantities
less than 100 million feet.

Increase of Revenue from Forests as a Result of Their Drainage.

In the Report of the Russian Department of Public Domains
for 1912 are given figures of the increase in revenue from forests of

CIO Forestry Quarterly

poorly-drained soils as a result of their systematic drainage begun
since 1871. The excess in revenue from the State forests since
their drainage is estimated at approximately $2,500,000. The
cost of draining them was $750,000. A general increase of $125,000
in the net annual revenue, which is not ascribed to the drainage
of the swamps, has taken place during the last decade. By
deducting from the increased revenue the cost of draining and the
increase in the annual net revenue which is not due to the draining
of swamps, the increase in the revenue directly traceable to the
drainage of swamps constitutes about 16.4% on the invested
capital. This does not take into account the greater annual
increment of the timber on the drained land nor the increase in its
value.

R. Z.

OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE

Effects of Varying Certain Cooking Conditions in Producing Soda
Pulp from Aspen. By H. E. Surface. Bulletin 80, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service.
Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 63.

Yields from the Destructive Distillation of Certain Hardwoods.
By L. F. Hawley and R. C. Pahner. Bulletin 129, Department
of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washing-
ton, D. C. 1914. Pp. 16.

Southern hardwoods as the oaks. Red gimi, tupelo and hickory
have not been important in distillation and no information has
existed in regard to the amount of the varous products which
could be obtained. This bulletin aims to supply the above
information, also the relative value of the commonly used species
and of the different forms of material such as body wood, limbs
and slabs.

An Outfit for Boring Taprooted Stumps for Blasting. By H.
Thompson. Farmers' Bulletin 600, Department of Agriculture.
Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 5.

Other Current Literature 611

Directory of Officials and Organizations Concerned with the Pro-
tection of Birds and Game, 1914. Bureau of Biological Survey,
Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. Pp. 16.

The Lumber Industry. Part II: Concentration of timber owner-
ship in important regions; Part III : Land holdings of large timber
owners (without ownership maps). Bureau of Corporations,
Department of Commerce. Washington, D. C. 1913. Pp. 264.
Maps 12.

This report contains a portion of the results secured by the
Bureau of Corporations in its investigation of the lumber industry.
It is chiefly a more detailed treatment of the subject matter con-
tained in Part I, which was issued January, 1913.

Origin of the Scenic Features of the Glacier National Park. By M.
R. Campbell. Department of the Interior, Ofifice of Secretary,
Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 42.

A popular treatise dealing "with the causes that have been
active in producing the surface forms and the various conditions
which have modified and controlled the results." Prepared for the
information of travelers.

Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. Volume IX,
Number 3. Washington, D. C, July, 1914, pp. 293-456.

Contains: Plan for Better Management of Farm Woodlots, by
J. H. Foster; Co-operative and Community Marketing of Woodlot
Products, by F. F. Moon; The Administration of a National
Forest for Naval Stores, by I. F. Eldredge; Turpentine Possi-
bilities on the Pacific Coast, by C. S. Smith; Discussion, by W. H.
Lamb: Essential Features of Protection, Finances, and Fire
Plans, by J. F. Preston; An Economic Aspect of Slash Disposal,
by E. Koch; The Replacement of Moth-infested Oak Stands in
New England, by J. Murdoch, Jr.; The Control of Rodents in
Field Seeding, by C. P. Willis; Taper Curves in Relation to Linear
Products, by F. S. Baker; Forestation a Success in the Sand Hills
of Nebraska, by S. D. Smith; Replacement of Yellow Pine by
Lodgepole Pine on the Pumice Soils of Central Oregon, by T. T.
Munger; Forest Taxation in Washington, by F. G. MiUer; Reviews.

613 Forestry Quarterly

Instructions for Making Improvement Thinnings and the Manage-
ment of Moth-infested Woodlands. (3d Ed.) By H. O. Cook and
P. D. Kneeland. Boston, Me. 1914. Pp. 35.

A Forestry Arithmetic for Vermont Schools. By A. F. Hawes-
Vermont Forestry Publication No. 14. Brattleboro, Vt. 1914.
Pp. 30.

Connecticut Forest Fire Manual, 1913-14. Issued by State
Forest Fire Warden. New Haven, Conn. Pp. 39.

Report of the Botanist: Part I of Annual Report of Connecticut
Agricultural Experiment Station for 1913. By G. P. Clinton.
1914. Pp. 42.

Contains : Notes on Plant Diseases of Connecticut (among them
some forest tree diseases) ; So-called Chestnut Blight Poisoning,
discussing the supposition of connection between the blight and
certain cases of sickness.

Reforesting. (5th Ed.) By C. R. Pettis. Biilletin 2, Con-
servation Commission. Albany, N. Y. 1914. Pp. 38.

The Conservation Law in Relation to Fish and Game and to Lands
and Forests, as amended to the close of the regular Session of 1914.
Albany, N. Y. 1914. Pp. 293.

Lumber Manufacturing Accounts. By A. F. Jones. Ronald
Accounting Series, The Ronald Press Co. New York. 1914.
Pp. 112.

A treatise on lumber accounting methods suitable for either a
large or small business.

It contains chapters on the following subjects:

Part I. Lumber Manufacturing and its Records.

1 . Fixed assets : Timber bonds.

2. General office.

3. Classification of construction and operating expenses.

4. Logging and sawmill costs.

5. Public utilities and outside operations.

6. Shipping department.

Other Current Literature 613

7. Monthly and annual closing.

8. Debatable points in liimber accounting.

9. Technical terms used in the lumber business.
Part II. Records used in Lumber Manufacturing.

Graphic Methods for Presenting Facts. By W. C. Brinton. The
Engineering Magazine Co., N. Y. 1914. Pp. 371.

A book of value to anyone who has need of presenting facts in
a graphic manner.

Wood- Using Industries of Pennsylvania. By R. E. Simmons.
Bulletin 9, State Department of Forestry in co-operation with the
U. S. Forest Service. Harrisburg, Pa. 1914. Pp. 204.

Catalogiie of Ohio Vascular Plants (Ohio Biological Survey,
Bulletin 2). By J. H. Schaffner. Ohio State University.
Columbus, Ohio. 1914. Pp. 247.

Report of the North Carolina Forestry Association, Asheville
Meeting. Press Bulletin 129, North Carolina Geological and
Economic Survey. Chapel Hill. 1914. Pp. 8.

A Forest Policy for North Carolina. By J. H. Pratt. Press
Bulletin 130, North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey.
Chapel Hill. 1914. Pp. 4.

The following are mentioned as necessary state forestry meas-
ures:

1. A state forest fire protective system.

2. State owned and operated demonstration forest and
experiment stations.

3. The encouragement of forest planting by the maintenance
of one or more forest nurseries.

4. A forestry department supported by an adequate appro-
priation.

Soil Acidity. By J. E. Harris. Technical Bulletin 19, Michigan
Agricultural College Experiment Station. East Lansing, Mich.
1914. Pp. 15.

Utilization of Muck Lands By C. S. Robinson. Bulletin 273,

614 Forestry Quarterly

Michigan Agricultural College Experiment Station. East Lansing *
Mich. 1914. Pp. 27.

A Botanical Survey of the Sugar Grove Basin. By R. F. Griggs.
Bulletin 3, Ohio Biological Survey. State University, Columbus,
Ohio. 1914. Pp. ^3.

Constitution and By-Laws oj the Kennebec Valley Protection
Association. Pp. 7.

First Annual Report oj the Kennebec Valley Protection Association.

This Association ended the first year with 27 members, and with
a total holding of 1,189,391 acres. The total expenditures during
the year were $1,106.51, of which the Maine Forestry District paid
$319.00.

The Flood of igis in the Lower White River Region of Indi-
ana. By H. P. Bybee and C. A. Malott. Bulletin 22, Indiana
University Studies. Bloomington, Ind.

The Amalgamated Wood Workers' International Union of
America, a historical study of trade unionism in its relation to the
development of an industry. By F. R. Shipp. Bulletin 511,
University of Wisconsin. Economic and Political Science Series,
Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 235-445. Madison, Wis. 1912.

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the
University of Wisconsin. It treats in an interesting manner of the
industry and its early organization, and the history of the founda-
tion, structure and policies of the Amalgamated Wood Workers'
International Union of America.

Advisory Pamphlet on Camp Sanitation and Housing. Commis-
sion of Immigration and Housing of California. San Francisco,
Cal. 1914. Pp. 54.

Suggestions to owners and superintendents of labor camps and
the following topics are discussed:

Location of camp; layout of camp; water supply; tents and
buildings; kitchen and mess house; garbage and refuse disposal;
toilets; bathing facilities; towels; flies and manure; mosquitoes
and malaria; sanitation service.

Other Current Literature 615

Tamalpais Fire Directory. Tamalpais Fire Association. San
Francisco, Cal. 1914.

A list of the officers of the Association, the addresses of fire
agents, the location of fire fighting tools, and fire trails.

A Preliminary Note on a New Bark Disease of the White Pine,
By A. H. Graves. Reprinted from Mycologia, Vol. VI, No. 2.
1914. Pp. 4.

Commission oj Conservation: Fifth Annual Report. Ottawa,
Canada. 1914. Pp.

Contains of forestry interest: Report of the Committee on
Forests; Forestry Work in the Trent Watershed and in British
Colimibia; Work of the Forestry Branch, Department of the
Interior; Necessity for a Forest Reserve in the Lake of the Woods
District of Ontario.

Protection of Migratory Birds. By W. S. Haskell. Reprint from
Fifth Annual Report of the Commission of Conservation. Ottawa,
Canada. 1914. Pp. 8.

The Planting of Waste Land. Leaflet 65, Department of Agri-
culture and Technical Instruction for Ireland. Dublin. 1911.
Pp.4.

The Proper Methods of Planting Forest Trees. Leaflet 66,
Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland.
Dublin. 1905. Pp. 4.

Trees for Poles and Timber. Leaflet 67 (revised) , Department
of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland. Dublin.
1911. Pp. 4.

Trees for Shelter and Ornament. Leaflet 68 (revised) , Depart-
ment of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland.
Dublin. 1911. Pp. 4.

Planting, Management, and Preservation of Shelter-belts and
Hedgerow Timber. Leaflet 70 (revised) , Department of Agriculture
and Technical Instruction for Ireland. Dublin. 1913. Pp. 4.

616 Forestry Quarterly

The Management oj Plantations. Leaflet 7 1 (revised) , Depart-
ment of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland.
Dublin. 1912. Pp. 4.

Felling and Selling Timber. Leaflet 72 (revised), Department of
Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland. Dublin.
1911. Pp. 4.

Cost oJ Forest Planting. Leaflet 94 (revised), Department of
Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland. 1911. Pp. 4.

Annual Progress Report on Forest Administration in the Presidency
oj Bengal for the Year 1912-13. By C. E. Muriel. The Bengal
Secretarial Book Department. Calcutta, India. 1913. Pp. 45,
1 map.

Rate of Growth of Indigenous Commercial Trees. Compiled by
R. D. Hay. Bulletin 8, Department of Forestry, New South
Wales. Sydney. 1914. Pp. 2.

Report on the Botanical and Forestry Department oJ Hong Kong,
China, for the Year 1914. 1914. Pp. 21.

PERIODICAL LITERATURE

(The war in Europe delays or entirely prevents the circulation of foreign
periodicals. This explains the meagerness of this department. For example,
this issue of the Quarterly ordinarily reviews the July, August and Sep-
tember numbers of the leading forestry periodicals; so far, however, only the
July and some of the August numbers have reached this country, and some
have discontinued with the July number.)

FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION

As a result of tke interesting institution
Swedish of the Austrian Forest Service, namely.

Conditions annually to send a number of its forest

and Practice officers under proper guidance to visit other
forest administrations and wood techno-
logical establishments, Janka publishes an interesting account of
what was seen on the excursion in 1913, describing at the same
time general conditions.

A modification of the strip method of stock-taking has been intro-
duced in the work of ascertaining Sweden's timber and forest
production as a basis for the estimate. On the 32-foot strips
which are run every 4 km (about 2 miles) or more, all trees of
8 inch and more diameter are calipered; within this strip on a
portion 16 feet wide all trees 4 to 8 inch were also calipered, and
on a 3-foot (1 w) broad strip also all 2 to 4 inch trees. Further-
more, on limited portions of the strip, countings of the smaller
regeneration were made.

For Vermland, on about 3.5 million acres, the stand was found
to average around 8,000 cubic feet and the growth per cent 3.5%.
In the description of a typical broadleaf forest property in South
Sweden the account of the attempts of reforesting heath lands is of
interest. Pine, spruce, also Picea alba and larch proved failures,
and finally beech was used with tolerably good results for fuel wood,
by plowing and underplanting the rot infested pines or by natural
regeneration. With prices for fuelwood ranging in the neighbor-
hood of $8 per cord, it is not necessary that the beech stands be
very good. In a typical conifer forest (pine 70%, spruce 30%) of
Middle Sweden the reproduction is secured by leaving single pines,

617

618 Forestry Quarterly

12 to 20 per acre as seed trees, burning over the surface after
logging; but, if natural regeneration fails, the area is immediately
planted. Or else the area is rented for rye fields to farmers for
about 5 years, during which time it must be fenced, and after the
first season it is sown with tree seed, pine and spruce in the original
proportion. When the pine is about 20 feet high the trees which
are expected to form the dominant stand are pnmed of dry
branches at a cost of 3 ore, or .81 of a cent.

Such stands at 100 years have an average height of 85 feet, 330
trees to the acre and 7,680 cubic feet, with an increment of 138
cubic feet, less than 2%, the diameter having grown at about
1 inch in 10 years. The site of these stands is .6 to .8, Swedish sites
being expressed in fractions of the best site 1, the poorest site
being .2.

Sawlogs here must be at least 6 inch at small end in lengths of
14 to 22 feet, woodchoppers' wages being 48 cents per 100 cubic
feet. While the price f.o.b. of logs is about $3 (less than $4 per M
feet B.M.), Railroad ties (red heart) bring 25% more, the tie
costing about 50 cents; pulpwood about 25% less.

In a forest in northern Sweden (63° lat.) the influence of climate
on growth is exhibited by the open stand and the conical crown
form of all conifers, raw humus formation and frequent swamps.
Here the spruce does not thrive, the pine becoming entirely pre-
dominant. Fire had often visited these forest areas, giving rise
to good regeneration. At an age of 125 to 160 years on the best
sites, the stands contain rarely over 80 pines to the acre, say 80
feet in height, 12 inch diameter (1 inch in 12 years), and 8,000 feet
to the acre; the spruce having then attained only 6 to 8 inch.

Regeneration is secured by planting, for the old trees give rarely
good seed; although sometimes natural regeneration is successful.

Sweden has taken the lead in trying to secure acceptable pine
seed, which has taken the form of forbidding the use of German
seed on State forests entirely and to impose a heavy tariff on im-
ported seed so as to make importation undesirable ; hence seed
collecting on own account is the rule. Since seed years in pine
are rare, this is a bad handicap; the price in 1913 going to over
$1.25 per pound. Storing the seed in large glass balloons of
80-90 lb. capacity, closed, airtight, preserves germination well,
losing only 1 per cent, a year. A description of several seed-
extracting establishments is given. The yield is from .6 to .8 kg
per 1 hi, or 3^ to ^ lb. per bushel.

Periodical Literature G19

Cheap transportation by water, the rivers being of easy grades,
all short to sea, yet amply supplied with water, and the average
haul not over 4 to 5 miles, has given to Sweden its position in the
world's timber market. The water transportation also improves
the quality of the wood; it becomes less hygroscopic, less liable to
shrink and swell, to tw^st, to check, to rot. It is more easily
sawed than dr^^ wood, hence produces more lumber. Yet the
disadvantages of driving and rafting, damage to logs, sinkers,
himg-up drives, jams, etc., damage of all sorts, are not absent.
Details regarding water conditions and methods of driving, sort-
ing, etc., are given, which latter do not differ much from American
usage.

In regard to wages at the booms, the practice is to hold back a
certain amoimt, which is not paid until the season's work is finished,
so as to keep laborers steady. At one booming ground 800 men
work day and night sorting the logs of different owners ; at another
100,000 logs a day is the task. The loss by sinkers and otherwise
for sawlogs is from 1 to 3%, for pulpwood 8 to 10%.

The logs are made from 10 to 30 feet, 18 feet average, and top
diameter 7 inch or more, rarely over 12 inch, average 8 inch, i. e.,
only small logs, and a further reduction in size is anticipated.
The number of logs driven in any one water system counts by the
million. A few examples of cost of transportation are given as
3 to 7 cents per log (including damage from driving). On the
Angermanelf with a length of about 250 miles the cost is between
5 and 6 cents, about one-tenth of what railway transportation
would cost; for pulpwood the cost woiild be not over 2 cents per
piece. The rivers are divided into districts of from 3 to 25 miles
length, and the boom company charges differently for each
district according to the difficulties per normal logs of certain
length and diameter, so that a just distribution of cost is secured.
The damage to adjoiners is ascertained by an expert jury, and for
a given district (Dalekarlien) amounts annually to about $6,000.
The cost of up-keep of dams, etc., is figured at about $650 per mile,
while maintenanfce of railways would require about $20,000 per
mile. In other words, logging is cheap in Sweden, and with an
export of over $50,000,000 (40% of which goes to Great Britain),
its wood trade represents nearly 50% of all exports.

Fine forstliche Stiidienreise nach Schweden. Centralblatt fur das gesammte
Forstwesen, January and February, March and April, 1914, pp. 57-72, 138-148.

620 forestry Quarterly

Dr. Wimmer reviews'!^ Dr. Hofmann's
Forests recently^ published book on the forests of

of the Japan, Formosa, Korea, and adjacent parts

Far East of the Far East.

Dr. Hofmann was for five and one-half years professor of forestry
in the agricultural faculty of the University of Toldo which gave
him ample opportimity to become acquainted with the territory
described.

After describing the climatic features of Japan, Hofmann divides
Japan into four vegetative zones : —

1. Tropical zone — type trees: Ficus, Wightiana.

2. Subtropical zone — type trees: Evergreen hardwoods such as
Camphor tree.

3. Temperate zone — type trees: Fagus japonica, Castanea,
Magnolia, Thujopsis.

4. Cold zone — type trees: Abies veitchii.

Hofmann emphasizes the desirability of introducing into
Europe only such species as have no close kin there, and are not to
exigent in their demands on soil, climate and site, e. g., Cryptomeria,
Larix leptolepis, Alnus firma, Populus balsamifera, var. suaveolens,
Betula Bhojapattra, Albizzia, Sophora, Gleditschia, Cladrastis,
Phellodendron amurense, Cercidophyllum japonicum, and Zelkowa
keaki.

The forest area of Japan (including Hokkaido, Sachalin and
Formosa) is 74,841,000 acres or 65/^% of the total land area. In
Formosa the forested area is 8 1 % of the total land area. According
to ownership it divides: —

State forests 44,460,000 acres.

Imperial forests 5,434,000 acres.

Private forests 24,947,000 acres.

Of the last named 8,398,000 acres are commimally owned, 247,000
acres belong to temples and 16,302,000 acres are truly private
forests.

In old Japan (Honshu, Shikoku and K)mshu) the coniferous
forests comprise 21%, the hardwoods 25%, mixed forests 45% and

1 Wilhelm Frick, Vienna, 1913. Price about $3.00.

Periodical Literature 621

9% are blanks. Eighty per cent of the forest is managed as high
forest.

In the State forests under working plans only about 14.3 cubic
feet per acre are cut per year. The net income is $.187 per acre
per year (figures of 1907).

Hofmann describes the interesting minor industries of Camphor
gathering and of lacquer from Rhus vernicifera. The camphor
industry at present utilizes only 30% of the camphor in a tree.
Camphor is a state monopoly : the exports in 1906 were valued at
about $2,500,000.

"Aus den Waldungen des fernen Ostens," Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd-
Zeitung, July, 1914, pp. 236-237.

A. B. R.

This species is quite extensively used for

Growth of ornamental planting in Switzerland, where

Sequoia it thrives. Two specimens which in 1877

gigantea were planted before the forest school of

Zurich had to be removed in 1913 and

were analyzed by Prof. Jaccard.

One of these trees had been sickly for some time and had reached
only little over half the diameter and 20% less height than the
sound one, hence its record is of no value. The other, 45 years
of age, had attained a height of 66 feet and a diameter of 32
inches, with bark of 2 to 3 inches, a bark per cent of 24, and the
very low form factor of 24, the tree being beset with branches to
the very base.

The quinquennial periodic increment of diameter ran from the
first five to the last five years as .08, .15, .26, .36, .47, .68, .59,
showing a culmination in the 35th year. The wood is extremely
light, its specific gravity being .37, with a moisture content of
80 to 88 per cent.

The root system is described as consisting of a large ntmiber
(eleven) of stout roots, descending for a considerable distance
straight into the ground before branching or sidewise expansion;
the circumferences of this root system added together is 16 feet,
while the circumference of the tree at breast high measured only
8 feet.

Die Wellingtonien der Forstschule tn Zurich. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir
Forstwesen, June, 1914, pp. 176-180.

BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY

Studies of eccentric growth in trees have
Eccentric shown that in general the increased wood

Growth formation takes place on the concave side

of Ash in conifers and on the convex side in hard-

woods. The phenomenon is to be noted in
the case of horizontal branches, roots, isolated trees exposed to
wind, trees growing on a slope or on the border of a dense wood,
and in case of branches or trees accidentally or experimentally-
kept in a bent position.

The general explanation offered is that the eccentric growth is
a restdt of the longitudinal forces of tension and compression set
up in the convex and concave sides respectively by the bending.
In the case of conifers the cells of the increased growth are abnor-
mally lignified, and the wood in consequence is more adapted to
withstand compression than tension; whereas in the hardwoods,
these cells are found to be very imperfectly lignified and corre-
spondingly more elastic and able to withstand tension. This leads
to Metzger's explanation of the appearance of the greater amount of
wood on the concave side in conifers and convex side in hardwoods ;
taking the character of the cells into account these sides are the
necessary locations to strengthen the stem or branch.

In this article, the results of bending experiments with six five-
year-old ashes are given, these having been in progress from May to
November, 1912. Three of the ashes were bent to the east — one
all the time, the second only on alternate days, and the third on
alternate weeks. The fourth tree was tied to the east or west on
alternate days, and tree five on alternate weeks. At the end of
the season each trunk was cut into five sections, usually at the
base of each year's growth, and the increment for 1911 and 1912
measured on the base of each section along the north, south, east
and west radii.

The data from the first three trees showed for each tree, the 1912
ring on the west or convex side from 2 to 3 times the breadth of the
ring on the concave side, taking the average of the five sections.
In the case of trees four and five, the average growth on the east
and west sides was equal, in keeping with the alternate bending.
Comparison of the amount of growth on the east and west sides
with that along the neutral north and south radii brought out the

622

Periodical Literature 623

fact that the stimulated growth on the convex side exceeded
relatively the mean of the north and south current growth, and
also the ratio of the west radial increment to north and south mean
during 1911. This was even the case on both the west and east
sides of trees foiir and five, which were bent alternately east and
west. In these two deductions, allowance was made for the
maximiim percentic deviation of west-east from north-south radii
during 1911 when all the trees grew normally.

It is noticeable that the absolute radial growth in all four direc-
tions was lower in general in the bent trees than in the control
tree.

One wishes the experiments had included more trees.

J. H. W.

Experiments in Eccentric Growth of Ash. Quarterly Journal of Forestry,
July, 1914, pp. 218-29.

E. Ramann gives a complete analysis of

Transfer the ashes and of the nitrogenous content and

of Mineral phosphoric acid in green and dead leaves of

Substances oak, birch, maple, and locust. The results

show that in all cases during the normal

falling of the leaves there occurs a transfer of nitrogen, potassium,

and phosphoric acid from the leaves to the trunk of the tree.

The amotmt of lime and silica, on the other hand, in the dead

leaves greatly increases and sometimes even doubles. The

migration of the substances from the leaves into the trunk at the

time of their death is accomplished in a comparatively short time.

R. Z.

Zeitschrift Versuchs-Station 1912, p. 157.

SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE

Professor Graf zu Leiningen at the school

Soil Maps for Soilculture at Vienna discusses at length

and the making and use of soil maps, and

Instruction incidentally propositions of how to teach soil

knowledge.

Pointing out the inadequacy of geological maps as soil maps,

partly on account of their scale, partly because the geologist does

not consider the character of the rock from the standpoint of soil

624 Forestry Quarterly

formation {e. g., red sandstone of the geologist comprises clays and
limestones), he contends that at least in Germany and Austria
the problem of soil mapping is not solved. Cooperation of
geologist, petrographer, chemist with agriculturist and forester,
the practical men, who know what the map is to be used for in
practice, is necessary to solve it; and the map maker needs special
preparation for his business with special knowledge of the needs of
agrictdtiire and forestry. The information on the map should be
such as to direct practical problems: the statement that a soil
contains much lime means that manure is quickly decomposed and
utilized; a sand or granite soil, poor in lime, indicates danger of
raw humup and hard pan formation, that manuring without liming
is without value, that some tree species like the beech do not
prosper on such soils. Sufficiency of lime in the fodder is of
significance for meat and fat production. Even soils derived
from limestone contain often only traces of lime, which one
would not suspect unless the map calls attention to it. A soil
map for practical use should be on a scale of not less than 1 : 25,000,
and for detail maps 1:5000 (the U. S. Soil Survey seems satisfied
with a scale of 1 : 62,000). It should give answer direct or indirect
to the following questions: elevation above sea level; exposure;
degree of slope; drainage data; irrigation possibilities; water level
(accessible to roots) and stagnant water; typical soil profils and
soil classification of upper and lower strata; petrographic character
of geological formation; presence of stones, quantity, size and
location ; lime contents of upper and lower strata (most important) ;
himius contents ; clay and sand contents (heavy and light soils) .

Besides the main map, the author suggests parallel or aid maps
on transparent paper, giving some details by which to relieve the
legends on the main map.

Besides borings, fewer or more according to circumstances and
at least 6 feet deep, sample diggings are necessary to secure insight
into the stratification of the soils which influence aeration and water
conductivity. In loose soil the depth of bore holes may have to
be extended to 16 feet, since for forest purposes in such soils the
water conditions to that depth come into consideration. Depth to
layers of impenetrable soil and to groundwater need to be ascer-
tained, the latter by observation through several years. Since on
soils liable to raw humus formation or to other deterioration the
growing of even-aged uniform stands must be avoided, it would be

Periodical Literature 625

desirable to designate such soils. There is no need for many
chemical analyses which have only problematical value, except
the knowledge of lime and humus contents which should be noted
on the maps. Moor or peaty soils should be classified, as their
value varies much. On one of the parallel maps the manner of
present use, tree species, etc., might be usefully noted.

Even though the direct, practical use of such maps by farmers
may only be rarely secured, this could be increased by developing
rules of soil preparation, fertilization, crop sequence, drainage, etc.,
to accompany the map.

The teaching of soil knowledge in professional schools, the author
contends, shoiild not be left to geologists but to instructors in
plant production who appreciate the interrelation between soil
and plant.

Bodenkartierung und bodenkundlicher Unterrichi. Centralblatt fiir das
gesammte Forstwesen, March and April, 1914, pp. 81-97.

SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION

The problem of converting the forests of

Conversion beech and oak from the coppice-with-

into standards form into high forests has engaged

High Forest the attention of French foresters for a long

time. The earlier methods were either to

clear out and plant, or else fell the coppice and leave the standards

for natural regeneration. Both methods were failures on account

of suppression of the young groui:h by the new coppice shoots.

The conversion is now generally accomplished by first dividing
the whole area into periodic blocks, say 4 blocks for a rotation of
120 years. The first block is left untouched for 30 years to allow
the coppice shoots to grow up and kill each other out to some
extent, and the shoots to become exhausted. Coppicing is con-
tinued as usual over the remainder of the forest. At the end of
the 30 years, regeneration fellings are begun. A series of fellings
gradually opens up the crown cover, the best of the coppice shoots
and standards being kept as seed trees. The removal being
largely confined to the smaller trees, the story of the cover is raised.
Thus, during the second period of 30 years, while the second block
is lying untouched, the regeneration of the first block is accom-
plished, either by natural or artificial means or by both. The

636 Forestry Quarterly

diminishing yield of coppice is to some extent offset by the increas-
ing yield of improvement thinnings.

In the Jura and Vosges much underplanting or sowing with
conifers (chiefly Silver fir) is carried out during the conversion.
(See also F. Q., vol. VI, p. 151)

J. H. W.

The Conversion of Coppice-with-Standards into High Forest in France.
Quarterly Journal of Forestry, July, 1914, pp. 208-12.

Since the year 1913 was a "fail" year

Supply of for the seed of Scotch pine throughout

Pine Seed Germany, it was natural that the question

for Germany of a permanent supply of native-grown seed

should receive a great deal of attention at

the Forest Congress at Trier that stmmier. The main difficulty

is that the commercial seed concerns have been offering for sale

mainly seed from Southern France and Southern Hungary which

can be collected more cheaply. Naturally, however, this has led

to deterioration of planting material since seed of exotic origin is

not suitable for German conditions.

The supply of native-grown seed has been decreasing steadily
for the last seven years and the price has jimiped. For example,
in 1906 native seed was quoted at four-and-a-half marks per kilo-
gram while in 1913 the price was twenty-one and seven-tenths
marks per kilogram, an increase of nearly 500% in seven years.
This has not been due to poor crops in Germany because statistics
show that since 1890 there have been only three fail years, viz —
1896-1897, 1901-1902, 1913-1914, or three in a period of twenty-
four years.

The total demand for German grown pine seed has been esti-
mated to be one hundred twenty thousand kilograms annually.
In 1913 the dealers were able to supply less than 1% of this de-
mand from home-grown material.

The disadvantages that arise from this lack of good seed are
many. Cutting must often be delayed and the whole plan of
forest management deranged. The only remedies are State
oversight of private firms or the collection of seed by the State.
The problem affects mainly the private forest owners since the
State Governments generally collect their own seed. However,
it seems inadvisable for the state to attempt to supply enough

Periodical Literature 627

seed for the private and communal forests since this would result
in destroying the business of the commercial concerns. Therefore,
State oversight of the firms seems the lesser of the two evils,
although it ^vill be difficult to manage it efficiently.

Beschaffting von Kiefernsamen deutscher Herkunft. Forstliches Centralblatt,
June 1914, pp. 315-326.

Carl Batz, in charge of a forest near the

Damage by industrial towns of Barmen and Elberfeld

Coal Fumes from which emanate large masses of coal

smoke, warns against overrating the damage

to forest properties, which there is a tendency to do.

After detailing his observations in a long article, he draws the
following conclusions:

Where there is much smoke there is damage. It is not, however,
stilfur dioxide which occasions the damage but higher oxidations,
which do not, as has been assumed, interfere with assimilation but
exercise a direct exterior influence. Snow, frequent mists and
slow rain are especially dangerous conditions, as they produce
accumulations of acid on the foliage, destroying it, especially at
time of budding.

Topdryness or dead branches may or may not be caused by
smoke, nor is absence of vegetation on beech trunks a criterion.

Soil-poisoning by sulfuric acid does not seem to occur, planta-
tions of broadleaf trees succeeding well, although it is possible that
the acid seeks to combine with bases and may absorb lime, and
also kill microbes.

Conifers are most susceptible; among these most resistant are
Pinus austriaca and strobus with Picea sitchensis and Japanese
larch. Of broadleaf trees, oaks, Robinia, beech and birch are
most resistant.

Tolerant species are not to be grown pure in smoke-infested
localities, since they cannot preserve favorable soil conditions —
the most important need.

Wieler is quoted as doubting the influence of smoke on assimila-
tion and the propriety of determining damage by acid poisoning
because acid has been found in the analysis.

Die durch Steinkohlenverbrennung am Walde entstehenden und vermuteten
Rauchschaden. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-u. Jagdwesen, March, 1914, pp. 158-174.

628 Forestry Quarterly

A great and unique fight has been carried

Fighting on for 8 years in all the pineries of Prussia

Fungus (nearly 4 million acres) to get rid of the

infection by Trametes pini on Scotch pine.

Over 200 million cubic feet of infected wood has been cut and often

the whole management of revirs has been disturbed thereby.

Dr. Moeller, at whose instance this war was begun, reports on

results. Tables give details. Some $120,000 extra expenses

were incurred in designating and marking the infested trees and

in removing fruit-bodies and painting the scars with insect lime.

Out of 365 revirs, only 97 are not yet entirely free of fruit-bodies,

and it is estimated that nearly 85 million cubic feet more of

infested material remains standing.

The breaking out of the "consols" and painting the scar with
insect lime on trees that cannot at once be removed is done to
reduce spore distribution and retard formation of new fruit-bodies.
The latter do not reappear on the painted scars. The eflEicacy of
these measures is attested. Fruit-bodies occur usually from 10
to 20 years after infestation, so that the infection does not become
visible early, and hence much of the new fruit -bodies had their
origin before the fight began.

Moeller considers the final victory absolutely sure, if the meas-
ures are continued, the strictly localized occtirrence of its only
fruit-body permitting such expectation.

Investigations by Moeller lead him to side with Hartig in believ-
ing the Trametes on spruce as identical with the pine fungus,
although an absolute decision is still withheld.

Der Kampf gegen den Kiefern- und Fichtenbaumschwamm. Zeitschrift fiir
Forst- u. Jagdwesen, April, 1914, pp. 193-208.

The general method of timber extraction

Mahogany on the Gold Coast is to haul the logs by

Borers of manual labor to the nearest stream, down

the Gold Coast which they are floated to the mouth and

there rafted. During last August, when the

niunber of logs were greatest, there was an unusually small rainfall

and insufficient water to carry the logs to the rafting points

beyond the sand bars at the mouths of the rivers.

Dtiring the last seven years stranded timbers have shown signs
of attack from borers belonging to an undescribed species of

Periodical Literature 629

Teredo, the damage being especially severe during August, 1913.

The borer enters the log, from its stage as a free swimming fry,
by a minute hole and bores its way into the wood, quickly enlarging
the size of the bore until it measures about }i inch in diameter.
At this stage the borers do not exceed 10 inches in length. The
borers do the greatest damage when the river currents are sluggish
and the tides high. Both new and old timber is attacked, also
barked and unbar ked logs.

It is stated that no antiseptic treatment yet discovered can be
recommended as an effective preventive.

Damage is said to be greatest in the vicinity of mangrove trees,
which also are severally attacked, and it is recommended that
logs should be hauled out of the water if possible, and in any case
they should not be tied up near mangrove trees.

Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. No.
2, 1913, pp. 72-75.

MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT

Fritz Lauterbach of Battweiler has con-

Universal structed a simple universal dendrometer (to

Dendrometer be had from Eckstein-Eisenach) for which

or Polymeter he claims that for easy handling, rapidity

and accuracy it excels all existing ones.

It measures horizontal angles to 2 accuracy, can be used for

topography in degrees or per cent, with or without support on

tripod, staff or pendulum; for height measuring with or without

base line. From the illustration we would judge that it was not

quite so simple as desirable.

Ein neues Universalinstrument. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, July,
1914, pp. 395-6.

A startling and, if fully substantiated,
One Only most important and far-reaching discovery

Yield Table is announced by Oberforstmeister Fricke,

namely, that one yield table probably
suffices for each species, if properly constructed, applicable wher-
ever the species grows.

He comes to this conclusion by comparing yield tables of Scotch
pine from Russia, Sweden and various regions of Germany,

G30 Forestry Quarterly

after having made them comparable. To do this, it is necessary
to determine by graphical or calculatory interpolation the develop-
ment of stands of the same height — the height development having
been recognized as the best criterion of site. Calling the height
at 100 years of age the index height, being an index of stand and
site quality, he determined the progress of height development
from yield tables for stands with different index heights. He
finds that stands which have the same height at 100 years have
approximately the same heights at other ages no matter whether
grown in Russia, Sweden, North Germany, Black Forest, Alps or
Rhine valley. Differences appearing in the table are much
smaller than those which are met in a confined locality on the
same site, hence cannot be due to climatic influence. A table
of average heights, which the author claims would do service
equally well in Germany, France, Siberia, Canada, Japan and
China, has been figured out from the yield tables, smoothed out
according to Weber's law which determines the decreasing rate

of height growth as 1 : , x being age diminished by the duration

1.0^"

of the juvenile stage, and p a growth per cent derived from the
yield tables. This table also enables one to compare the different
yield tables, no matter what site class differentiation has been
made.

We can give only a sample of this table.

In Age

Stand Index Height at 100 Years
if the Stands have a Height of

10 11 12 13 14 15 etc. meter

30 24 26 27 29 31 2>3

40 19 21 22 24 25 27

50 16 17 19 20 21 23

e. g., when a 50-year stand has a height of 15 m it will be 23 m at
100 years, or if 13 m then 20 m.

Thus everywhere the same trend of height curves furnishes the
possibility to make uniform site classifications by the index height
— a purely objective classification found in the stand itself inde-
pendent of the estimator.

Next, it is found that the development of form factors is in all
regions the same: One can therefore everywhere determine the
volume for the same age and height and same treatment of stands

Periodical Literature 631

by using the same form factor. The influence of chmate, to be
sure, is expressed in the stand height, and on this height the form
factor depends, hence the stands grown slowly in the far North
at the same age have a higher form factor, they are more cylindrical,
but two stands in different climate which at the same age have the
same height, have approximately the same form factor or taper.

An investigation into the cross-section area progress reveals the
same condition. The whole investigation permits the claim that
the same yield table based on height relation may be used in all
climatic conditions.

A comparison of spruce yield tables has given the same result.
Especially for site classification the author believes this procedure
of using the index heights will prove most welcome.

Etnheitliche Schdlzungstafel fiir Kiefer. Zeitschrift fur Forst- u. Jagdwesen
June, 1914, pp. 325-342.

Honlinger explains, in replying to a criti-

Practical cism on his book of this title, the difference

Forest of his way of calculating from that of the

Valuation soil rent theory'-, which lies mainly in the

manner of charging expenses; the soil rent

theory charging expenses only against soil, and hence coming

occasionally to a negative soil rent, while Honlinger distributes

expenses against soil and stock.

The fundamental formulae of the two theories compare as
follows, for forest- soil- and stock value of the ideal management
class :

Soil rent theorv^ : F = — ; Sr = :; r^ ; St = — -—

.op ' \.op''—l' .op l.op"—!

TT- 1- 77 Yr-ra <-. r(Yr — ra) „ Yr — ra r{Yr — ra)

Honlinger : F = ; Sr = —. — r- ; oi = z — r-

^ .op l.op"^—! .op l.op'^—1

Centralblatt fur das gesammte Forstwesen, December, 1913, p. 564.

Glaser points out that values are, in

Approximating general, always compromises or averages of

Soil subjective opinions. The average of these

Values opinions may be considered as the average

value of the object, or the general basis on

which the price is fixed by the exchangers. Hence, to find simple

632 Forestry Quarterly.

approximation formulae to be used in figuring values should be
the aim of forest finance.

The mathematically correct formula for soil rent values is mainly
influenced by the chosen interest rate p, which is most uncertain in
its determination and which is usually based on some supposition of
soil value, which makes the formula to be a chain in a vicious circle.
Glaser proposes to obviate the difficulty by asstiming that the
interest on the incomes before the year r compensate the interest
on the expenditiu-es up to the year r, and hence the approximation
can be made Sr= Yr-\-'^Tr — c—ra. This looks like the forest
rent, but as soil rent it expresses the rettirn every r years from the
area unit, while as forest rent it is the annual income from r units.

The assumption of the equality of interest charges is left without
basis, but the author considers it as well justified as the other
assumptions of the formula, namely, of eternally equal yields,
continuously equal rotations and interest rate.

Setting this approximate soil value as 5;., the true soil value
formula would be Sr = sr.f{r), when/(r) signifies the average values

c
of — , figures for f = 40 to 120 and the different species and site

Sr

classes.

The author then compares the results of this and other approx-
imation formulae with the theoretically "actual soil value" figured
\\dth 3% for various species, site classes and rotations, and finds
his method furnishing best results.

Having ascertained the soil values of site I and setting them as 1,
the following fractions were found to approximate satisfactorily
values for other sites.

Site I II III IV V

Soil value 1 .7-. 75 .42-. 47 .21-. 23 .084-. 088

Ndherungsformeln fiir die Waldbodenwertsberechnung. Zeitschrift fiir
Forst- u. Jagdwesen, April, 1914, pp. 222-229.

Dr. Wimmenauer looks back upon twenty-

More About seven years of teaching at the University

Soil Rent of Giessen (in Hesse) and reviews the stand

he took on the question of soil rent at the

beginning of his teaching activity (March, 1888). At that time

he had defined the object of soil rent as a "satisfactory interest

rate on all forms of capital entering into forest production."

Periodical Literature 633

He added: "The fight about the theory, it is to be hoped, will
soon be a thing of the past; its practice in the forest belongs to
the future."

Unfortunately the fight about the theory is not yet over.
Opponents of the soil rent theory are still active as witness the
periodical literature on this subject. However, Wimmenauer, after
carefiilly reviewing the matter, sees no reason to change the stand
he took twenty-seven years ago (in common with Pressler, G.
Heyer, Judeich and Martin) that it is the task of forest manage-
ment to strive for the highest interest return on the forest capital
possible with the species and the silvicultural system.

When it is remembered that Dr. Wimmenauer preceded his
academic activity with twenty years of practical experience, this
result of forty-seven years of well-balanced thinking will not be
weighed lightly.

A. B. R.

Ueber den Streit um die forstlichen Reinertrdge, Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd-
Zeitung, July, 1914, pp. 221-224.

UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY

Last year a peculiar association was

Railroad Ties formed in Germany, the Beech Industries

in Germany Association, excluding from it the firms

which handle railroad ties, who make

imdesirable competition to the other industries, stimulated by

increase in prices of the latter. With the reduction in the offerings

of oak ties, the use of beech ties is increasing. Yet in the contracts

for ties made last fall, for this year's delivery, prices have somewhat

decHned.

To cover the requirement of the Prussian railways of 840,000 pine
ties and 314,000 hardwood ties, over 3,900,000 pine ties and
1,210,000 hardwood ties were offered, but of these only 143,800
foreign oak ties. On pine ties an increase up to 11 cents (price
varying much with locality) was experienced, but beech ties,
while as a rule from one-half to 10 cents dearer, in some places
show slight declines.

Prices for pine ties ran as a rule between $1.10 and $1.20 and for
foreign ties a little lower; creosoted ties are from 25 to 50 cents

634 Forestry Quarterly

higher; oak ties run up to $2.00, while treated beech ties run
somewhat lower and up to $1.66 at most.

An interesting discussion — made more interesting on account
of the war — was published in 1912 by General von Liebert,
comparing metal ties and wooden ties from the standpoint of
military value. He points out that the requirements of metal ties
as regards road-bed, fastenings, and tamping are such as to make
them tmdesirable in war time, while the wooden tie fits into any
situation and can be fastened to the rail much more simply. He
advises, therefore, on the frontiers to use only wooden ties, also
because restoration of destroyed tracks would be more easily
effected. (Half of Germany's mileage is on metal.)

Considering that in 1910 about 5 billion cubic feet of wood for
tie purposes had to be imported, it would appear that there is no
need from the forestry point of view to advocate the wooden tie.

Vom deutschen Holzschwellenmarkt. Centralblatt fur das gesammte Forst-
wesen, January and February, March and April, 1914, pp. 76, 77, 162-165.

Die Bucheneisenbahnschwelle. Centralblatt fiir das gesammte Forstwesen,
December, 1913, pp. 559-561.

STATISTICS AND HISTORY

The Development and Road Improvement
Forestry in Act of 1909 provided for the creation of a

United Development Fund and a Development

Kingdom Commission, and with the end in view of

promoting the economic development of
the United Kingdom. The fund now aggregates $14,500,000, and
may be applied for agriculture and rural industries, forestry,
reclamation and drainage, harbors, inland navigation, fisheries, etc.
As defined in the Act, forestry includes the conducting of inquiries,
experiments and research for the promoting of forestry and teach-
ing methods of afforestation, and the purchase and planting of
smtable areas. Money from the Development Fund may either
be granted or loaned, and applications for advances are received
only from public bodies, not from individuals. The Commissioners
have no executive powers, do not make grants or loans, or carry
out any schemes, but merely act in an advisory capacity to the
Treasury.

From this report we find that through the recommendations of
the Commissioners the Board was granted $32,500 for 1913-14 for

Periodical Literature 635

forestry research, technical advice, etc. Of this, $12,500 went to
support advisory officers at Oxford, Cambridge, Cirencester,
Bangor and Newcastle.

Steps were taken to enable the utilization of the Forest of Dean
for a forest demonstration area. An equipment grant of $68,500
provides for a foresters' school, woodmen's school, museum,
library, laboratory and arboretum. The maintenance grant for
the ensuing year is $8,500, which seems low. It is expected that
the Dean Forest will thus develop into a national centre for
forestry studies and experiments.

The Corporation of the City of Liverpool was recommended
for a loan of $125,000 for afforestation purposes.

J. H. W.

Fourth Report of the Development Commissioners. The Journal of the Board
of Agriculture, October, 1914, pp. 663-64.

Scottish Forestry in regard to the Developmetit Fund. Royal Scottish Arbori-
cultural Society, vol. XXVIII, part 2, 1914, pp. 138-53.

"The first annual joint report of the

Statistics Forestry Branches of the Board of Agricul-

Great Britain ture and the Crown Office of Woods gives,

besides a review of the year's work, a brief

survey of the attitude of the State towards forestry from early

times to the present, an outline of the history and present position

of the Crown forests, together with descriptions of the woodman's

school and the distillation works on the Forest of Dean. An

account is also given of the timber trade of the United Kingdom

from the eighteenth century onwards. A map showing the

extent of woodlands and uncultivated land in England and Wales

accompanies the report."

From the report we learn that the total woodland in England
and Wales is about 1,884,000 acres, 3.4% of which belongs to the
Crown. The annual production for Great Britain is arotmd 20
million cubic feet, or about 4% of the raw material used in the
Kingdom. The imports of wood (manufactured and unmanu-
factured) into the United Kingdom averaged $160 million annually
for the decade 1903-1912. The imports of the principal kinds of
unmanufactured timber had risen 23.5% per capita in 1911 over
that of 1891.

J. H.W

Forestry Report for 1912-13. The Journal of Board of Agriculture, August,
1914, pp. 430-33.

636 Forestry Quarterly

The Statistics of the Bavarian State

Bavarian Forest Administration for 1912, and in part

and Baden for 1913, are exceedingly interesting. The

Statistics figures are arranged as far as possible in

conformity with the 1910 instructions for

forest organization in Bavaria.^

Area: The present forest area of Bavaria is 6,473,408 acres, of
which 2,300,975 acres are state forests (of which, in turn, 1,981,259
acres are listed as better suited to growing timber crops than for
any other piirpose.)

Cut: The annual cut per acre in 1912 was 80.51 cubic feet per
acre as against 64.49 cubic feet per acre in 1908, a total annual
increase of 28,440,642 cubic feet due to the change from the
former ultra-conservative policy.^ What this means in increased
income may be judged by the fact that in 1908 the annual net in-
come per acre was $5.12 per acre and in 1912 $6.49 per acre, an
increase of 26.6%. The quantity of material increased 18% in
these four years; the gross income 24.5%.

Other Uses: From other sources than wood sales the income in-
creased 78% in these four years. The income from the chase
alone was in 1912 $96,692. This is the highest money retiun from
the chase of any state excepting Wurttemberg, as the following
comparison shows:

Wurttemberg $ . 065 per acre of forest.

Bavaria 046 " " " "

Prussia 025 " " " "

Saxony 025 " " " "

Receipts and Expenses: To show the volume of business it is
interesting to note that during 1912, the total receipts were
$15,510,371, the total expenses were $7,116,610, making a total
net income of $8,393,761, or $1,737,502 more than in 1912.

Planting: The total cost of planting amoimted to $25.15 per acre
restocked; per acre of forest land $.37.

Road Building: This cost $.36 per acre of forest land.

Forest Fires: Amounted to only one acre out of 24,754.

1 See "Management of Alpine Forests in Bavaria," Forestry Quarterly,
Vol. XI, No. 3, pp. 347, 348.

2 See Practice of Working Plans in Bavaria, pp. 147-159, Theory and Prac-
tice of Working Plans, John Wiley & Sons, N. Y., 1913.

Periodical Literature 637

Wages: Pay for workers in the woods rose from average of
$.715 per day in 1908 to $.833 in 1912.

In Baden the statistics for 1912 are as follows: —

Area: On January 1, 1913, the total forest area was 1,451,315
acres, of which 246,163 acres are state forests (of which, in tiim,
237,160 acres are listed as better suited to growing timber crops
than for any other purpose.)

Cut: The annual cut per acre in 1912 was 101.82 cubic feet as
against 61.35 cubic feet in 1878. The price of each cubic foot sold
averaged |.14. Products other than wood netted $.30 per acre.
The total net income was $5.64 per acre in 1912.

Species: Of the total growing stock on state forests oak equals
5.3%, beech 19.6%, other hardwoods 7.6% and conifers 67.5%.

Planting: The following figures show an interesting decrease in
the area artificially restocked due to the propaganda for natural
regeneration.

Years.

Area sown

Area Planted

Total

Acres

Acres

Acres

1878-1890

336

1,685

2,021

1891-1903

257

1,556

1,813

1904-1912

215

1,304

1,519

In 1912 the cost for sowing averaged $7.03 per acre sown; for
planting $28.40 per acre planted.

Road building: During 1912 $.48 per acre of forest was spent for
road construction. A. B. R.

Mitteilnngen atis der Staatsforstverwaltung Bayerns, Allgemeine Forst-
und Jagd- Zeitung, August, 1914, pp. 273-275.

Statistische Nachweisungen aus der Forstverwaltung des Grossherzogtums
Baden. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd-Zeitung, August, 1914, pp. 275-276.

Swiss importations in 1912-13 of non-

Swiss Imports manufactured wood products averaged

and Exports 240,000 tons against an export of 35,000

tons. The values of these imports and

exports were $6,900,000 and $1,260,000 respectively ($28 against

$36 per ton) .

The imports of 1913 were by over $1,200,000 less than the
preceding year; the export on the other hand increased by over
$200,000, the situation showing greatly reduced domestic con-

638 Forestry Quarterly

sumption, which was met by the public forest administrations by-
reducing the cut by 7 million cubic feet.

Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen, June, 1914, pp. 181-3.

MISCELLANEOUS

Acorns, Acorns, horse chestnuts and beech mast,

Horse Chestnuts if not moiildy or fermented, and if given in

and small quantities together with other food.

Beech Mast may be used with good results as food for

as Food stock, but care must be exercised.

Large quantities of acorns, without adequate supply of other
foods and of water, are liable to cause acorn poisoning, especially
in the case of young cattle under three years. Care should also
be exercised in feeding these nuts to pregnant sows and dairy
cattle. Their food value consists in the digestible carbohydrates
they contain; they are therefore suitable to give with green fodder
and food rich in protein.

Horse chestnuts also contain carbohydrates. They do not
appear to have any poisonous effects, but if taken in large quanti-
ties, not supplemented by green fodder or watery foods, have a
tendency to bring on digestive disturbances, especially stoppage.
Oil cakes (protein) , hay, straw are foods to be used in conjunction
with horse chestnuts.

Beech mast (the kernel only should be used, the husk containing
too much crude fibre to be suitable as food) contains albuminoids,
and so would be a supplementary food to those poor in protein
but rich in carbohydrates. It can be fed to cattle and pigs freely;
poultry, especially turkeys, fatten quickly on it. It, however,
contains a constituent injurious to horses, and sheep will eat it
only under compulsion.

All these nuts, acorns, horse chestnuts and beech mast make
better food if crushed and ground into meal. One poimd of horse
chestnut meal contains starch equal to that found in 1 lb. 1 oz.
feeding barley, 1 lb. 4 oz. oats, 1 lb. 8 oz. bran, or 2 lb, 5 oz.
meadow hay. Fresh and unprepared nuts have been fed daily
in the following quantities; sheep 3^ to 1 lb., or up to 2 lbs. to
fattening sheep; dairy cattle 4 to 10 lbs.; working oxen /^ lb.;
horses 6 lb. Pigs prefer the meal, and have shown good results
from 1/^ lb. daily.

Special Leaflet No. 9, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, October, 1914,

OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE

American Forestry, XX, 1914, —

The Story of Hemlock. Pp. 577-587.

Insect Pests in Forest Seeds. Pp. 588-590.

The World's Greatest Woodlot. Pp. 632-640.
Description of Pacific forests.

Fire Protection in California. Pp. 679-683.

A Forest of Stone. Pp. 709-718.
Yellowstone Park.

Practical Tree Surgery. Pp. 719-730.
Technique.

Filipino Foresters. Pp. 743-744.

Forests, Lumber, and the Consumer. Pp. 745-750.
Relationships.

Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, XII, 1914, —

Commercial Planting of Spruce. Pp. 483-485.
An account of the planting operations of the Laurentide
Company, Quebec.

Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, XLVI,
1914,—

The Period of Safe Plant Growth in Maryland and Delaware.
Pp. 587-590.

Forest Leaves, XIV, 1914,—

Forest Planting — Pennsylvania Department of Forestry.
Pp. 149-151.

Work accomplished in spring of 1914, with figures of cost.

639

640 Forestry Quarterly

Chautauqua Meeting oj the American Forestry Association.
Pp. 154-156.

British Forestry. Pp. 165-166.
Discusses the general situation.

Wood- Using Industries of Pennsylvania. Pp. 169.

The Botanical Gazette, LVIII, 1914,—

Evaporation and Soil Moisture in Relation to the Succession
of Plants Associations. Pp. 193-234.

The Popular Science Monthly, LXXXV, 1914,—

The Coniferous Forests of Eastern North America. Pp.
338-361.

Largely silvical notes on the different species.

Tree Distribution in Central California. Pp. 417-424.

Treats of the relationship between root characters, ground
water conditions and local distribution of Quercus agrifolia,
Q. lobata and Q. douglasii.

Quarterly Journal of Forestry, VIII, 1914, —

Some Douglas Fir Plantations. Pp. 187-190.

This gives statistical results of an inquiry conducted by the
English Board of Agriculture into rate of growth, on five
plantations ranging from 31 to 61 years. The figures differ
from Hanzlik's tables in greater diameter, fewer trees per
acre and greater volume.

The Journal of the Board of Agriculture, XXI, 1914, —

The Cricket Bat Willow. Pp. 289-292.
Discusses the identification, soil requirements, propagation,
cultivation, etc., of Salix coerulea Smith.

The American Enquiry into Agricultural Co-operation in
Europe. I. Mortgage-credit. Pp. 594-603.

Other Periodical Literature 641

Mountain "Ash" Berries as Food. Pp. 637-638.
Readily eaten by birds. In some parts of northern Europe
ground into flour. Chief use is in preparation of a game jelly.

Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society,
XXVIII, 1914,—

Discussion on Forestry in Scotland. Pp. 121-138.
Mostly resolutions to the Government regarding assistance
to the cause of afforestation.

Position of Scottish Forestry in Regard to the Development
Fund. Pp. 138-153.

Associated with the preceding article.

Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung, 1914, —

Uber den Streit um die forstlichen Reinertrdge . Pp . 2 2 1 -224 .
A commonsense definition of the financial aims of forestry.

Weitere Mitteilunger iiber die Wirkung von DUngungen in
ForchenkrUppelbestdnden des wUrtt. Schwarzwaldes. Pp. 228-
231.

States on the basis of experiments (among others with
Bahksian pine) that the favorable influence of once fertilizing
and scarifying the soil surface lasts only a few years.

Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fur Forst- u. Land-
wirtschaft, 1914, —

Aus dem Munchener Exkursionsgebiet. Pp. 294-311.
Gives interesting details of what may be seen of forestal
interest within reach from Munich.

NEWS AND NOTES

It is the aim of the Quarterly to pubHsh interesting news as
to the activities and whereabouts of men in the profession. It
is hoped to do this more fully than heretofore by the appoint-
ment of one of the editorial staff to look after this field. To this
end all readers having news of interest are requested to write
Mr. A. B. Recknagel, Department of Forestry, Cornell University,
Ithaca, N. Y.

In running this Department it is the intention to do for the
whole profession what is now covered by such local publications
at the Yale Forest School News, the Field Program and the
monthly news letters of certain Districts in the Forest Service.
It is to be understood that in a Quarterly only news that can lay
over two months may be printed.

The President of the Society of American Foresters during the
summer sent out a letter to the members inviting them to co-
operate in making the Society more effective, suggesting some
methods of doing so, and asking for suggestions. Out of a
membership of around 250, only 9 replies were received. Mem-
bers who read this and feel guilty are asked to re-read the "round
robbin" and mend their ways !

Pursuant to the expressed desire of the Society of American
Foresters (see page 300 of present volume), the President ap-
pointed a Committee of 21 members to revise and standardize
the terminology of forestry terms. The membership of the
committee comprises ten schoolmen, six members of the U. S.
Forest Service, two State Foresters and three Canadians.

The members of the committee are : Messrs. H. P. Baker, W.
B. Barrows, R. C. Bryant, W. M. Drake, E. H. Frothingham, A.
Gaskill, J. M. Cries, A. F. Hawes, C. D. Howe, B. P. Kirkland,
Clyde Leavitt, P. S. Lovejoy, W. N. Millar, A. B. Recknagel,
S. N. Spring, J. H. White, W. W. White, Ellwood Wilson, K.
W. Woodward, T. S. Woolsey, Jr., and A. E. Ziegler, and the
President.

The committee was subdivided into five sub-committees, each
having under advisement the terms referring to certain groups
of subjects. Following is the list of the subcommittees : Silvi-

642

News and Notes 643

culture, Silvics, and Forest Description; Organization, Mensu-
ration, and Management; Utilization and Protection; Valuation,
Administration, and General Terms; Collating Committee.

The following letter of instructions was all that was sent to
the members of the committee, leaving otherwise each subcom-
mittee to devise its own way of procedure.

"It is proposed to revise and explain the forest terminology,
with a view to securing as far as possible uniformity of usage;
selecting the terms in use which are preferable, and establishing
a synonomy.

"This revision may be based upon Bulletin Gl of the U. S.
Forest Service, keeping in mind that this first attempt at a termi-
nology is neither exhaustive nor in some respects acceptable.

"To make the work of a large committee practicable, it would
appear desirable to classify by subjects, each subject or class of
subjects to be assigned to a small subcommittee for first con-
sideration, its findings to be submitted to a collating committee.
The report of this committee is then to be submitted to the
whole committee, and the final findings, with appropriate argu-
mentation, to be printed for discussion by the profession at large
before final acceptance.

"First, attention should be paid to those terms the use of which
is doubtful or not uniform and to those lacking in term value,
leaving out of consideration those which appear generally
accepted.

"The first duty of each subcommittee should be to assemble the
terms in use referring to its particular subject or subjects, and
report same to collating committee without fear of overlapping,
the collating committee acting as reviser.

"The Committee is to consist of 19 members from the Society,
with three assessors from the Canadian Society of Forest En-
gineers, thereby giving the decisions an international character.

"It is expected that the chairmen of the subcommittees will do
the work, securing from the other members of each subcommittee
their criticisms."

The work of the committees can naturally proceed only slowly,
and so far only progress reports can be made. The following
statements have been made by the chairmen.

Subsection on Silviculture, Silvics and Forest Description: "The
members of this subsection met in May at Ithaca at the time of
the opening of the Forestry Building. It was decided to take the
terms in Bulletin 61 of the Forest Service relating to the subjects
assigned and modify, reject or add to these. Each member was

644 Forestry Quarterly

to prepare a separate list. Such list of terms and definitions have
been prepared by four of the five members. Compilation and
review of these, together with a study of their present usage in
forestry literature, has been delayed but is now under way. The
compiled results will shortly be resubmitted to the members of
the sub-section and to others for criticism and suggestion."

Subsection on Organization, Mensuration and Management:
"This committee was organized for work on April 16, under the
following plan of campaign : Based on Bulletin 61 and other avail-
able sources, a list of the terms in use referring to our par-
ticular subjects was compiled by the chairman and submitted
to each one of the subcommittee for criticisms and suggestions.
These criticisms and suggestions were compiled and sent to each
member of the subcommittee for a final vote ; terms favored by
the majority of the subcommittee to be referred to the collating
committee for further action.

"In accordance with this plan the nomenclature for Forest
Organization was sent out to the members of the subcommittee
under date of 29 May, criticisms and suggestions being asked
for by June 15. Owing to inevitable delays all the critcisms and
suggestions were not received and sent out to all the members
of the subcommittee for final vote until August 21. As yet only
two members of the subcommittee have responded with their
decisions on the Organization terminology ; however, the others
should be received before long.

"Upon the suggestion of Mr. T. S. Woolsey, Jr., the draft of
May 29, together with the compiled criticisms of August 21,
were sent to the Forester on August 21. Under date of Septem-
ber 24, the acting chief of forest investigations writes, 'Your
terminology for Forest Organizaion is now being gone over by
various members of the Washington office. As you know, it
takes some time to secure comments on anything of this sort from
a number of difiFerent men, and I am afraid that it will be hardly
possible to return the material to you by October 1. I hope,
however, that the suggestions may be secured and compiled so
as to reach you not later than October 15.'

"The same plan was followed in the terminology for Forest
Alensuration. The first draft was sent out to members of the
subcommittee under date of July 23, and replies were asked by

News and Notes 645

August 15. Up to the present all but one member of the sub-
committee have replied with criticisms and corrections. Reply
from this member should be received shortly, whereupon the
compiled comments will be issued to the entire subcommittee
for a vote.

"Owing to the geographical position of the members of this
subcommittee, everything has had to be done by correspondence,
which, of course, involved delay. It has also been difficult to
get action during the field season. The tentative draft of the
terminology for Forest Organization includes 73 terms ; the one
for Forest Mensuration comprises 76 terms."

One of the University members of this committee reports:
"Since receipt of draft with committee comments, our faculty has
held five two-hour (-f-) sessions, bringing out a tentative defi-
nition of 19 terms only — about an hour per term for the five of
us. We found that we did not know very much about our
own usages, that we differed among ourselves as to exact mean-
ing and practice, that it was necessary to re-define terms we
had thought finally done with, etc." Then, after elaborating on
the difficulties and the necessity of much work to come to any
conclusions, he continues: ''Our faculty has found the work so
interesting and profitable that we propose to go on through the
lists as rapidly as practicable — for our own benefits alone."

Sub-section on Valuation, Administration and General Terms:
"It will be at once evident that the Valuation terms, or better
the Forest Finance terms are engrossing the bulk of the com-
mittee's effort, since the need for concise scientific definition is
greatest in finance. Exactly here is one of the weakest spots in
English forestry literature, so that this committee's task is not one
of the easiest.

"This method of procedure is to construct a tentative alpha-
betical list of the terms needing definition, erring on the side
of too many terms rather than too few. A hasty review of the
English literature on the subject is made in doing this and the
terms admitting of ambiguous or conflicting use are specially
marked. This list is then used as a guide to the detailed work.

"The committee endeavored to divide the work alphabetically,
and when the chairman has assembled the manuscripts, it is to
be submitted entire to each member of the committee for sug-

046 Forestry Quarterly

gestion on terms submitted by other members. The final draft
is then made for the central collating committee."

The subcommittee on Utilization and Protection has divided
the field geographically among the three members, the Rocky
^lountains and Pacific Coast being one assignment, the North,
East and Lake States being another, and the Appalachian and
Southern region a third.

Each member of the Committee is to make not only a revision
of the logging terms contained in Bulletin Gl, but also to prepare
a list covering the terms used in lumber maunfacture. Results
are placed on "three by five" library cards, in order that they
may be readily classified. One member has already defined some
250 terms, and hopes to greatly increase these during the next
month. "I have found it somewhat difficult to properly define
some of the terms in a brief and concise manner, but I think that
we will be able to work that out satisfactorily before long. It
has seemed both to Kirkland and myself that it was very desir-
able that special stress should be laid on the terms used in manu-
facture, since at the present time there is no glossary of such
terms available, and personally, I have devoted more attention
to this part of the work than I have to the logging terms."

The Grand Trunk Pacific Railway has announced that con-
tracts have been let and other arrangements made for the in-
stallation of crude oil as locomotive fuel on their passenger
engines to be operated between Prince Rupert, B. C, and Jasper,
Alta., a distance of 718 miles. It is expected that this instal-
lation will be complete by next June. The announcement does
not cover the use of oil-burners on freight engines, it being under-
stood that these will continue to use coal, at least for the present.

The entrance of the Grand Trunk Pacific into the list of oil-
burning railways will nearly double the oil-burning mileage of
Canada, the total of which is 726 miles at the present time, all
in British Columbia. This is made up of 477 miles of Canadian
Pacific lines, 134 miles of the Esquimalt and Nanaimo, and 115
miles of the Great Northern.

A most successful and enjoyable meeting of the Society of
North-Eastern Foresters was held from July 18 to 20 in the

News and Notes 647

timber holdings and mills of the Berlin Mills Co., in New Hamp-
shire, the members and their friends to the number of some 25
being the guests of the Company under the excellent personal
guidance of Mr. W. R. Brown. A special feature was a visit to
the areas logged under Mr. Cary's advice some ten years ago.
Without anybody familiar with the ground and the detail of
previous condition and treatment this visit was, however, not as
instructive as it might have been. In the selection forest the
influence of any operation can be studied only by carefully ascer-
tained detail descriptions before and after.

This meeting was followed by the meeting of the SDC-iety for
the Protection of New Hampshire Forests at Gorham, N. H.,
which as usually was full of meat. The new taxation laws of
Massachusetts, Vermont, and Connecticut were explained and
"forestry investments" discussed. The most important feature,
however, was an arraignment of the procedures of the commis-
sion having in charge the purchase of forest reservations in the
White Mountains, for having neglected to acquire virgin timber
before logging where scenic beauty and protection require it.

Owing to war conditions the Forestry Convention, which had
been arranged by the Canadian Forestry Association in Halifax,
September 1 to 4, was indefinitely postponed.

A bill appropriating $1,000,000 for the purpose of enlarging
the Florida National Forest has been introduced in Congress,
showing that the idea of federal ownership of forests is accept-
able even to the Democratic states.

The Kaibab Forest in Northern Arizona is a very heavily
wooded region, containing two billion feet of timber, more than
half of which is mature and ready for the axe. The government
has decided to sell the m,ature timber to the highest bidder, under
fixed terms. An investment of large sums of money, possible
only where returns can be spread over many years, will be needed.
The necessary railroad extending the length of the tract will
open the region to tourists and campers, who will find here
much beauty; the sawmills will give employment to many and
other uses of National Forests will also induce settlement.

648 Forestry Quarterly

The Philippine Bureau of Forestry was to make their first
shipment of material for exhibition at the Panama-Pacific Inter-
national Exposition to be held at San Francisco by October 15.
Their building at the Exposition is to be finished entirely in
Philippine woods. Species so foreign to Americans will arouse
interest. Representatives of the Bureau, competent to give
information on all branches of forestry and lumbering, will be
in charge, and the hope has been expressed that the result, for
the Islands, will be an increased export trade in the commer-
cial woods. Primitive and modern logging, by means of moving
pictures, will also be a feature of the exhibition.

Distribution of seed of native trees has been begun in the
Philippine Islands by the Bureau of Forestry. The Bureau of
Education is co-operating and the Bureau of Public Works will
utilize all trees that can be spared for planting along roads. The
species found by experiment to thrive under adverse conditions
and at the same time to be valuable for market are : Teak, Molave,
Narra, Lumbang, Lanutan and Tuai.

Guijo, a Philippine wood, is being investigated by the Forest
Service to determine its possible use in decking boats and ships.
Hitherto the navy department has used mostly of the domestic
woods, Longleaf pine, Sugar maple and beech.

This brings to mind the fact that the first known forest reser-
vations in this country were made for naval material.

Mr. Ngan Han, Chief of the Forestry Division of China, visited
the Phihppine Islands for several months for the purpose of
studying Bureau methods, investigating both field and office work
thoroughly.

Mr. Ngan Han is a graduate in forestry from the University
of Michigan.

Settlers in Western Kansas are cutting and marketing soap
weed, or Spanish bayonet {Yucca hacata), to supply the demands
of soap manufacturers, the tops and roots being the parts of
value. Though its qualities have long been known, the harvesting
of soap weed is just now becoming commercially important.

Nezvs and Notes 649

This weed has been a nuisance, its nature being to spread over
extensive areas and kill off other vegetation. For the sake of
range improvement, the government desires to rid the forage
areas of all such injurious plants, and so Forest Service officers
hope that the commercial demand for soap weed will reach
such proportions as to not only take an otherwise useless product
but also eradicate it from areas utilized to supply forage to
cattle and sheep.

From the Indian reservations of New Mexico and Arizona,
Juniper is furnished as material for pencil wood.

One of the uses for blight-killed chestnut that should not be
continued is that of crating stone. Quarry owners have found
that this wood leaves an indelible stain on marble or granite.

The Powell National Forest, Utah, has passed 10 successive
years without a forest fire.

Sixty little Lodgepole pine trees to the square foot were
counted in Southern Idaho in the spring, from seed sown broad-
cast on the snow. The dry summer following, however, killed
all plants not sheltered.

The barking of Lodgepole pine trees, at various periods before
cutting them for use as telephone poles, in order that the effect
of the exuded resin as a preservative may be secured, is being
tried in the Beaverhead National Forest.

Lodgepole pine, when given preservative treatment, compares
well with red cedar as a pole timber, the latter untreated and
outside its own region being dearer than the former. Fire-killed
Lodgepole pine showed a strength, under test, equal to 80 per cent
of that of live red cedar.

The increased price of creosote since 1912 of from 7.35 to 10.04
cents per gallon led to an investigation relative to the compara-
tive economy of treating piles. Taking as basis the price of 10
cents per foot for untreated and 30 cents for treated Douglas
fir piles, the length of life of untreated piles as eight years, and

650 Forestry Quarterly

the investigative result that an increased cost of one cent per
gallon raised the cost of treated piles one cent per linear foot,
it v^^as found that the treating of piles would be economical up
to 22 cents per linear foot, a creosote cost of the same amount
per gallon.

Port Orford cedar, though sufficiently light, has been found
to be too coarse and brittle for the manufacture of artificial
limbs. It was tried as a substitute for English willow.

The United States Department of Agriculture is to inaugurate
a tree distribution system in the Western States. Mr. W. A.
Peterson, superintendent of the newly established Field Station
at Mandan, N. D., which is to be the distributing center, recently
visited the nursery station at Indian Head, Sask., with a view to
collecting informaton as to the method of handling the work in
Canada.

The State Board of Forestry of Indiana appointed two arbor
days for this year, one in the spring, the other in October, and
requested that the many hands of the people of the State make
light the labor of planting 1,000,000 trees. The Forestry Board
outlined its share of the work by offering to assist people to a
knowledge of what species are suited to certain localities, and
what care is needful to these trees.

A railroad company and two individuals have been fined
recently for shipping lumber from an area quarantined on account
of the gipsy and brown-tail moths. The existence of this quar-
antine, under the Plant Quarantine Act of Agust 20, 1912, was
given general publicity throughout the quarantined area by send-
ing copies of the order to all transportation companies and to
individuals, as well as by extensive newspaper advertising.

On November 9, 1914, an Order-in-Council was promulgated at
Ottawa, Canada, viz. : Plant Disease Regulation II, under the
Destructive Insect and Pest Act (9-10 Edward VII, Chap. 31),
reading :

"The importation into Canada of the following species of the

News and Notes 651

genus Pinus and their horticultural varieties, viz. : White pine
(Pinus Strohus L.) ; Western White pine {Pinus monticola
Dougl.) ; Sugar pine (Pinus cembra L,.), and all other five-leaved
species of the genus Pinus is prohibited."

In the last issue of Forestry Quarterly reference was made
to the use of wireless telegraphy for the purpose of speedy trans-
mission of news of forest fires. Our statement that practical
application of this science was first put in use for this purpose,
and that but recently, by the Dominion Forestry Branch has been
corrected by the information that wireless telegraphy has been a
regular part of the forest protection service of British Columbia
for the past three seasons, the Dominion wireless stations on the
coast weekly reporting fires visible from the stations, and, also,
when conditions are especially dangerous, giving the location,
weather, direction and velocity of wind, enabling guards to reach
the danger zone possibly in time to check incipient fires.

The St. Maurice Forest Protective Association of Quebec
patrolled last year somewhat over 11,000 square miles, a little
over 16 per cent of the provincial lands under license, with only
11 men. Of the 306 fires, 115 were started by settlers, 17 by
river drivers, 8 by sportsmen and 17 by railways. The Govern-
ment contributes $1 per day per man. There were 8 lookout
stations and 15 miles of telephone wire constructed and 200 miles
trail cut. The patrols traveled 60,800 miles, the total expendi-
tures were $23,000. It is calculated that fire losses had been kept
down to 1-1,00 of 1 per cent of the timber values involved.

As a result of the work done by the St. Maurice Forest Pro-
tective Association, there has been incorporated this year another
association under the name of the Lower Ottawa Forest Pro-
tective Association, for the purpose of protecting against forest
fires the districts in which are the Nation, Lievre, Rouge and
Gatineau Rivers. The area of timber limits protected by this
Association has grown during the summer from about 9,000
square miles to 11,812 or 7,500,000 acres. Forty-nine rangers
under a manager and four inspectors are permanently employed
and these in turn employ temporary help when needed. Forty
convictions of settlers for starting fires without a permit have

652 Forestry Quarterly

been secured, and it is expected this class of timber fires will be
more rare from now on.

The provincial revenue for Quebec from forests last year was
$1,760,466, with an expenditure of $327,383, $90,000 for forest
service and inspecting, only $18,000 for fire protection, and $5,000
for forestry education.

The Laurentide Company, having completed, under the forestry
division, a survey of its limits of 2,350 square miles of land,
mostly timbered, and a map, showing drainage, roads, portages
and trails, lookout stations, telephone lines and timber condi-
tions, proposes now to enlarge its forest nurseries as a provision
for replanting large areas of non-agricultural and cut-over lands.
Another step toward forest management !

This progressive company is also experimenting with reindeer
to take the place of dogs.

The timber revenue of the Dominion amounted to only $434,-
196, the result of the cut of 375,000 M feet and some 500,000
railroad ties, lumber sale prices ranging from $13.80 to $18.30
at various mills. There are 7,371 square miles under license and
970 square miles under permit. The sales of lumber in the West
ern Prairie Provinces are reported as 1,434,000,000 feet B. M.,
but it appears that only about 25% comes from home sources,
the bulk coming from British Columbia, and nearly 20% from
the United States.

The crown timberlands of New Brunswick in 1913 furnished
270 million feet B. M., yielding stumpage dues of around $300,-
000. About 65% was spruce and pine; fir somewhat over 20%,
cedar and hemlock about 10% and hardwoods a little over 1%.
Other products added some $14,000 to the revenue.

Douglas fir makes up 68% of the cut of British Columbia,
and the cut has increased 38% during the last two years, all other
kinds showing decreases.

Poplar (Aspen) is coming more and more into use. Latest

News and Notes 653

statistics show that 5,000 cords are used in Canada for the
manufacture of excelsior, employed largely in packing furniture.

Dominion government forest reserves and parks in the Western
provinces total 28,027,424 acres.

Two prizes of $100 each are offered for two photographs of
the largest tree of a nut-bearing variety in the United States —
chestnut, oak, walnut, butternut, pecan, etc. — and of the largest
broadleaf tree which does not bear edible seeds — elm, maple, tulip,
poplar, etc. Photos of cone-bearing trees will not be included.

These prizes are offered by two members of the American
Genetic Association, Messrs. Charles Deering, of Chicago, and
W. A. Wadsworth, of Genesco, N. Y.

The contest closes July 1, 1915.

It is hoped in this way to find out in what situations and
under what conditions trees attain their best growth, and later,
perhaps, to secure seeds, cuttings, grafting wood, etc., from the
regions where such trees thrive, for purposes of propagation in
less favored districts.

The University of Montana has now a Forest School, a new
department opened this session, with Dr. Dorr Skeels, an expert
logging engineer of the Forest Service, as Dean. Missoula, in
which city both the University and the Federal Forest Service
are located, is the center of an important forest region and of a
rapidly growing section of the country.

Mr. W. X. Millar, for the past two years with the Dominion
Forestry Branch as Inspector of Forest Reserves in Alberta, has
been appointed to an assistant professorship in the Faculty of
Forestry, University of Toronto. Previous to his leaving the
United States Forest Service, to take charge of the work in
Alberta, Mr. Millar was in charge of the Kaniksu National
Forest.

Professor James B. Berry, formerly of Pennsylvania State
College, is in charge of the newly established Forest School, of
the State College of Agriculture at the University of Georgia,

654 Forestry Quarterly

at Athens. This forest school is the only one in the Southern
states offering a four-year course leading to the degree of Bache-
lor of Science.

Mr. James B. Berry, who has spent some time in Germany,
wrote interestingly this summer, under date of July 1st, as
follows :

"I have just completed my first year in Germany and am very
well satisfied with the results. I must confess that the University
courses are not markedly stronger than ours at home ; yet because
of the "post-graduate" work, the correlation of theory and prac-
tice is better. I have been able to visit many of the forests of
Germany, and everywhere I have found much that is interesting.
The localization of theories, which has taken place in the past,
makes each locality a new study. . . .

"Forstmeister Meister of the Sihlwald, Zurich, is just complet-
ing 40 years of service on one forest and is to be retired this
fall. I think his forest is in better condition than any I have
visited thus far.

"While in Zurich I met Dr. Engler and his staff of assistants.
My inquiries as to the card index of international forestry de-
veloped the fact that the man who inaugurated the idea had left
Zurich, and that the present force had not had an opportunity
to take it up. I think the real difficulty lies in the fact that no one
had any conception of the enormity of the task, and that it was
not until after the collection of data had really started that any
idea was had of the amount of work necessary to carry it to a
successful completion. One of the assistants told me that the
work might be taken up again at almost any time, provided suffi-
cient support were forthcoming."

On September 13, Dr. Wm. Saunders died at London, Ont.,
ending a most useful life in his eightieth year.

The older generation of foresters and forest reformers remem-
ber him as one of the early pioneers, not only in making propa-
danga but instituting practical measures in the direction of for-
estry work. In 1882, he was one of the three commissioners
sent by the Canadian Government to the Forestry Congress at
Cincinnati, who invited the Congress to meet in Montreal that
same year.

Neivs and Notes 655

As organizer and director for more than 25 years of the re-
markable string of agricuhural experiment stations of Canada,
as early as 1886 he planted demonstration areas to test the be-
havior of different species and in different spacings under forest
conditions at the Central Experiment Farm at Ottawa and at all
stations. It was he who inaugurated the growing and distribution
of plant material in the prairie section, which now under the
Forestry Branch has reached such large dimensions. One of
the most interesting and, for a northern climate, most complete
arboreta owes him its conception and close personal attention.
In the remarkably sane development of the agricultural experi-
mental work of Canada Dr. Saunders, with rare versatility, kept
his hand on every detail, and unquestionably was in all matters
of agriculture the best informed man of Canada, and that not
in an amateurish but more or less specialist manner.

With all the characteristics of efficiency, he combined a kindly
and gentle disposition, which made him friends wherever he
appeared.

We need not recite the ephemeral honors by which the con-
temporaneous generation tried to distinguish him — his work will
live forever, and be his greatest distinction !

Dr. Bernard Borggreve, known by his literary activity and
especially by his selection method of thinning, even to American
foresters, died in his seventy-eigth year in April of this year.

He was retired as Oberforstmeister. For many years he was
director of the forest academy at Miinden, a highly suggestive
teacher, but pugnacious to the extreme in literary warfare.

Mr. R. H. Campbell, the Director of the Forestry Branch of
the Dominion of Canada, who attended the diamond jubilee con-
ference of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society at Edin-
burgh in July last, was made a Colonial Honorary Member of that
body.

COMMENT.

The great war, as everybody by this time must have realized,
extends its bHghting influences to the remotest corners of the
earth and into the smallest concern of the single individual, of
combatant and neutral nations alike. Even the Forestry Quar-
terly is no exception, for an important part of its raw material,
the European forestry literature, is to a large extent, cut ofT.
The German and Austrian magazines have ceased to arrive since
August, and the probability is that they have ceased to be issued.
We still receive, albeit belated, Swiss and Scandinavian publi-
cations, but the French have been discontinued or have at least
not reached us.

That most serious consequences must appear in time may be
inferred from the contemplation that in this war from 12 to 15
million men are withdrawn from useful productive occupations —
and that the most efficient portion of population — while the less
efficient portion has to feed these millions ; that daily not less than
30 million dollars are wasted in destruction of materials, leaving
out of consideration the destruction of capital values in the war
zones; that five billion dollars' worth of trade (Germany's export
and import trade) is practically entirely stopped, and that half
the world's trade (that of the warring nations) to the extent of
some 25 billion, is jeopardized ; and the neutral nations see their
trade injured proportionately.

At this juncture we are naturally inclined to speculate as to
what the influence of the war on forest administrations may be.
In our neutral nation, the financial depression which is in part
here, in part still to be accentuated, will bring naturally in its
train industrial depression, discourage enterprise, reduce not only
exports, but home consumption, and hence curtail logging and
mill operations. Such setback may also be inimical to forestry
work, wherever such had been begun by private forest owners,
for retrenchment is the word, and this can be most easily applied
by pruning off^ unnecessary innovations. The same feeling of
the necessity of retrenchment may also be reflected in the public
services. At least expansion is not likely to be permitted; the
forestry movement will be at a standstill while more urgent

656

Comment 657

interests demand attention. In Canada, the same conditions
prevail and in addition the call for men and for public expendi-
tures for the war, as well as reduction in industrial enterprise,
will also at least prevent extension of forestry work, if not cur-
tailment.

In the European, especially the warring nations, the questions
of personnel and labor supplies are probably of greater impor-
tance than the market question in the practical field of forest ad-
ministration, although the problem of securing forest supplies
may also influence the latter, and that sometimes in unexpected
places. The first definite views of this latter influence comes
from Switzerland. Strangely enough it is the supply of fuelwood
that is mainly deranged and in its turn is deranging silvicultural
operations, as we think possibly in part favorably. The usual
import of 80,000 cords, which figure in the total wood import of
some 35 million dollars, as well as the supply of coal is in difii-
culty. The federal government advises, therefore, the cantonal
governments to take measures to meet the difficulty. The result
will be a considerable increase in thinning practice besides in-
crease of fellings in fuel forests.

Great Britain, which relies practically for all its forest supplies
to the extent of around 160 million dollars on importations, has
her imports to some extent curtailed, and in some respects has
already suffered lack.

The Forestry Association points out that mine props and
similar material could be supplied from native woodlands but for
the excessive railroad freight charges which forbid traffic except
by water. A petition to the Royal Railway Commission to se-
cure the reduction of freight rates is supported by the Royal
English Arboricutural Society and the English Forestry Asso-
ciation. The grievances have been aired for many years, but the
war conditions have revived the agitation.

As regards importations, France can probably secure as much
as its wood industries may at this stage of reduced activity need.

Most of the French forest area is in coppice (75%), which
can readily be neglected for years without much damage. The
government forest area is relatively small (3 million acres), and
will probably suffer little.

But in Belgium and northeastern France, the scenes of the
greatest devastation in modern times, forest areas have naturally

658 Forestry Quarterly

suffered severe damage and sometimes utter destruction, and in
the occupied country all forest administration has, of course, prac-
tically ceased to exist. It will take many years to recover the
lost ground.

From all reports, it is evident that the forests in the war zone
have played no subordinate role in the warfare, being used for
cover of movements, for barricades and breastworks, and, on the
other hand, having been razed to prevent such use by the other
party. Artillery tire has destroyed or devastated many an old
stand, and common fire many a coppice growth or young age-class.
Recovery, as in all forestry work, will be slow — slower than that
of the ruined towns and cities.

In the end, the worst hit, as in every other respect, will be
Germany. While this country comes next to Great Britain in
the size of its wood imports with 150 million dollars, it exports
manufactured wood materials to the extent of 35 or 40 millions
of dollars, so that we may assume that the wood industries re-
duced in their activity to strictly home needs can probably be
supplied by the home product, with such additions as can be
secured from Sweden and Austria. But the fine machinery of
forest administrations will probably be very considerably damaged
through the disturbance of its administrative personnel and
woods labor. When we hear that Oberforstmeister Fricke,
Director of the Forest Academy of ]\Iiinden, fell in battle, we can
assume that the majority of administrative officers will have taken
the field. Indeed, such is the conception of duty to defend
the fatherland that probably the whole service is dismantled
and left in the hands of those Oberforster and Forster whose
age prevents their joining the army. The universities are closed,
and there is little doubt, the forest schools are in the same con-
dition.

In Germany, different from France, the Forest Service is not
directly related to the military organization, except that aspirants
for the lower service fulfil their regular military duties in special
battalions — Jaegerbattalione, where they receive instruction in
forestry matters and are developed as sharpshooters. In the
higher service there is only a group limited to 75 officers who,
while pursuing their regular forestry education are under military
organization as despatch bearers, an institution dating from the
time of Frederick the Great — the reitende Feldjdger Korps.

Comment 659

Woodchoppers are probably also scarce, and felling budgets
will probably fall behind as well as planting operations if the war
lasts beyond spring.

If the Germans succeed in keeping their enemies out of the
country, the efifect of the disturbance of regular administration
will be negligible, but if the country has to suffer an invasion,
especially on the Russian frontier, where extensive areas of
coniferous forest are located, the loss by fire will undoubtedly
be heavy, and it will require a long time to bring back the equilib-
rium of age classes, which it has taken a century to establish.
The same causes of forest destruction which have been active
in France and Belgium may repeat themselves on German soil.

Of course, all scientific and experimental work is for the
time abandoned, and after the war for some time there will be,
no doubt, curtailment necessary in this direction for financial
reasons. The question may be raised whether financial difficulties
after the war may not influence the forest policy of the German
states, should Germany lose and be mulcted by her enemies. In
our opinion, there is no danger in that direction, the management
under sustained yield in the state forests has proven too well
as the best financial policy to be easily abandoned. The time for
sale of state forest property as a financial need is passed. After
the war of liberation 100 years ago, it was Hartig's merit that he
prevented the sale of state forests ; they were mortgaged instead,
and it is only within a few years that the mortgage on the
Prussian forests had been entirely paid off. At that time the
forests were not one-tenth as valuable a property to loan on as
now when their regular income could be capitalized at 600 million
dollars for the Prussian forests, and for that of the whole of
German forests at two billion dollars. The communal forests
will not either be allowed to be disturbed in their administration
more than necessary.

In Austria, conditions are more variable than in Germany, the
far eastern forest areas being still exploited, and there as well as
in the western part of the bulk of the properties is in private hands.
Financial necessity is much more likely here to disturb the man-
agement for sustained yield, or urge less conservative exploitation.

Whatever happens, whoever the victor, such a dislocation of
financial and industrial activity as this world war necessarily
brings about can only be detrimental to all peaceful enterprises,
such as forestry.

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■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■MiHimniMHnnnnHnnni

LIDGERWOOD

SKIDDERS

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■flaiiniHIiraiMMBHHmMMlH

CONTENTS

A Mechanical Model of a Regulated Forest, - - 5]!

By O. L,. Sponsler and E. C Liiebben.

The Creation of an Ideal, _ - - - oil

By J. B. Berry.

The Size of State Forests, _ - _ - 520

By J. S. Illick.

Notes on Germination and Reproduction of Longleaf

Pine in Southern Mississippi, - - 533

By P. L. Buttrjck.

Forest Planting in New England as an Investment, - 537

By J. W. Toumen.

Taxation of Forests in Massachusetts, - - 544

By C. J. Bullock.

Forest Taxation and the Single Tax, . - - 546

By L. S. Murphy.

Pitfalls of Timber and Bond Issues, - - . 548

By M, Rollins.

The Problem of Food Movement in Trees, - - 559

By S. B. Elliott.

An Appreciation of Dr. Schenck, - _ _ 562

By A. Gary.

Notes on Forestry in Russia, - - - - 567

Suggestions for Forest Administration in China, - 578

By P. C King.

Current Literature, _ _ _ _ . 593

Other Current Literature, - - - - 610

Periodical Literature, _____ 517

Other Periodical Literature, - _ _ > 639

News and Notes, ---__- 642

Comment, -_-____ 656

New York Botanical Garden Llbrar

3 5185 00251 6373

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