,„,.r.~..-,.^v"-vK':r' te3iJ' t:«i:' ■■'*c^. ^. ;. ^**^^'-j<;'-r i^ ■■ ^. '^m > rt. ^%'*-l^ =: f?tv *^^":^^*ii vf • -V LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN rORESTRY OUARTERLY VOLUME XIV PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF A BOARD OF EDITORS With Six Plates, Four Cuts and Twenty-three Diagrams 1410 H St., N. W., WASHINGTON, D. C. 1916 V. i BOARD OF EDITORS B. E. Fernow, LL.D., Editor-in-Chief Henry S. Graves, M.A., Hugh P. Baker, D. Oec, Forester, U. S. Forest Service Syracuse University Raphael Zon, F.E., R. C. Bryant, F.E., U. S. Forest Service Yale University Frederick Dunlap, F.E., Samuel J. Record, M.F., University of Missouri Yale University T. S. WooLSEY, Jr., M.F., Richard T. Fisher, A.B., Consulting Forest Engineer, Harvard University Albuquerque, N. Mex. Walter Mulford, F.E., Ernest A. Sterling, F.E., University of California Consulting Forest Engineer, A. B. Recknagel, M.F,, Chicago, III. Cornell University Clyde Leavitt, M.S.F., C. D. Howe, Ph.D., Commission of Conservation, University of Toronto Ottawa, Canada J. H. White, M.A., B.Sc.F., Filibert Roth, B.S., University of Toronto University of Michigan Asa S. Williams, F.E. P. S. RiDSDALE, Business Manager Washington, D. C. THE OBJECTS FOR WHICH THIS JOURNAL IS PUBLISHED ARE: To aid in the establishment of rational forest management. To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of interest to professional foresters of America. To keep the profession in touch with the current technical Uterature, and with the forestry movement in the United States and Canada. Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at the Univer- sity of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of editors. Subscriptions and other business mattes may be addressed to Forestry Quarterly, 1410 H Street, N.W., Washington, D. C. u CONTENTS Page An Efficient System for Computing Timber Estimates '1 By C. E. Dunston and C. R. Garvey Concerning Site 3 By Filibert Roth Addenda 12 By H. A. Parker Silvicultural Problems of Canadian Forest Reserves 14- By B. E. Femow The Costs and Values of Forest Protection 24 By P. S. Lovejoy Making Box Boards from Sawmill Waste 39 By P. L. Buttrick Teaching Dendrology in the Hawaiian Islands 46 By Vaughan MacCaughey Forest Provisions of New York State Constitution 50 By C. R. Pettis The Professional and Economic Situation of the Technical Forester as Seen by the Forester in Switzerland 61 By R. H. Campbell (^Translator) The Algerian Forest Code 66 By T. S. Woolsey, Jr. An Improved Form of Nursery Seed Bed Frame 183 By D. R. Brewster Forest Service Revenue and Organization 188 By T. S. Woolsey, Jr. Operations and Costs on Pennsylvania State Forests 236 By N. R. McNaughton The Cost of Forest Improvement Systems 238 By P. S. Lovejoy Business Rate of Interest and Rate Made by the Forest 255 By Fihbert Roth A Practical Application of Pressler's Formula 260 By A. B. Recknagel Fire Risk in Massachusetts 268 By H. O. Cook Removing Growth from Fire Lanes 270 By N. R. McNaughton Seed Testing with the Jacobsen Germinating Apparatus at the Danish Seed Control Station 273 By J. A. Larsen (Translator) A Day in an Irrigated Plantation, Chimga Munga, Punjab, India 277 By H. R. MacMillan News Notes from District 1, Forest Service 283 By J. F. Preston The Relation of Forestry to Science 375 By Barrington Moore A Historical Study of Forest Ecology; Its Development in the Fields of Botany and Forestry 380 By R. H. Boerker New Topographic Survey Methods 433 By J. H. Bonner and F. R. Bonner iii IV Page Cost of Logging Large and Small Timber 441 By W. W. Ashe Notes on a Method of Studying Current Growth Percent 453 By B. A. Chandler Notes on State Forestry in Ireland 461 By H. R. MacMillan County or Community Working Plans as a Basis for Woodlot Extension Work 467 By W. D. Sterrett Model of a Regulated Forest 471 By D. Y. Lin Some Suggestions on the Control of Mistletoe in the National Forests of the Northwest 567 By J. R. Weir Some Characteristics of Slash Pine 578 By W. R. Mattoon National Forest Organization 590 By S. W. Wynne Fire Season Forecasts on a California Forest 596 By R. W. Ayres Conversion Methods — A Visit to the Forests of Chaux and Faye de la Montrond, France 600 By H. R. MacMillan Passing Views of Forestry in British South Africa 606 By H. R. MacMillan Forestry in India from a Canadian Point of View 625 By H. R. MacMillan China's Forest Laws 65 1 By Forsythe Sherfesee The Significance of Certain Variations in the Anatomical Structure of Wood 663 By R. P. Prichard and I. W. Bailey Douglas Fir Fiber, with Special Reference to Length 672 By H. N. Lee and E. M. Smith The Economic Woods of Hawaii 697 By V. MacCaughey CURRENT LITERATURE 81,286,474,718 Other Current Literature 96, 312, 489, 741 PERIODICAL LITERATURE 104, 319, 497, 746 Botany and Zoology 112, 323, 500, 748 Forest Geography and Description 104, 318, 497, 746 Mensuration, Finance and Management 133, 337, 521, 763 Politics, Education and Legislation 150, 766 Silviculture, Protection and Extension 118, 329, 511 Soil, Water and Climate 117, 327, 509, 752 Statistics and History 147, 351, 535, 767 Utilization, Market and Technology 141, 346, 765 Miscellaneous 151 Other Periodical Literature 156, 536, 768 NEWS AND NOTES 157, 358, 539, 770 PERSONALITIES 177, 369, 559, 789 COMMENT 180. 372. 562. 791 INDEX Accidents in logging, etc., br — 155 Acorns, storing, ref 156 Administration, U. S. forest service, art 590 Africa, market conditions, n . . . . 542 South, forestry, art 606 Ajmer-Merwara, forest adminis- tration report, 1914-15, ref 495 Alabama, bird day book, 1916, ref 317 forest census, ref 491 Alcohol, ethyl, from sawdust, n . 780 Algiers, forest code, art 66 Alsace, forest management, br . . 109 Andamans, forest administration report, 1914-15, ref 495 Aneroid elevations, correcting, ref 494 Arbor day handbook, ref 491 Arizona, capacity of grazing ranges, ref 490 Arnold Arboretum, collection of Chinese plants, ref 743 Ash, management, rev 87 Ashe, W. W., art 441 Associations, Great Plains, for- estry, n 367 Mid-West forestry, ref 493 western, ref, 101 Assortments, in beech, br 5 19 tables, br 753 Australia, forest school, n 782 forests, ref 537 Ayres, R. W., art 595 Bagworm, ref 98 Bailey, I. W., art 663 Balsa, lightest wood, n 785 Balsam fir, Rocky Mountains, ref 312 Bandelier National Monument, N. M., ref 313 Bark, used for paper, ref 769 Bavaria, forest schools, br 150 statistics, br 353 Beech forest, ethology, br 112 Bengal, forest administration report, 1914-15, ref 495 Berlin Mills Company, N. H., third conference, 1914, ref. 491 woods department, rev 737 Bibliography.wood utilization, br 144 Biltmore stick and diameter measurements, ref 491 Biology of plants, ref 103 Bird counts, U. S., second report, ref 742 -day book, Alabama, 1916, ref. 317 Birds, how to attract, ref 741 of North and Middle America, ref 491 protection, ref 489 Blackwood, ref 495 Blueberry culture, 1916, ref 97 BoERKER, R. H., art., 380, er- rata 566 Bombay, administration report, 1914-15, ref 745 Bonner, F. R., art 433 Bonner, J. H., art 433 Border cutting system, br 513 Borneo, forest products, ref 745 Botany, Blackwood, ref 495 budding of trees, rev 83 Central American and Colom- bian plants, ref 313 Dhauri, ref 495 flora of Palmyra Island (Hawaii), ref 495 Heritiera minor Lam., ref 496 senile changes in leaves, rev. . 81 Box boards and waste, art 39 Boxes, strength, n 780 Brewster, D. R., art 183 Bridge and trestles, from Douglas fir, ref 769 Bridger National Forest, ref 741 British Columbia, forest branch, c 372 forest club, proceedings, 1915, ref 317 forest products, 1913-14, ref . . 495 forestry' report, rev 304 Ivunber commissioner in Great Britain, report, ref 495 traveling e.xhibit, ref 745 British North Borneo, forest products, ref 745 Brush disposal, Arizona and New Mexico, ref 98 Lodgepole pine cuttings, ref. . 98 Brussels, arboretums, ref 537 Budding of trees, rev 83 Buffalo, N. Y., park commis- sioners report, 1914, ref. . 99 Bulgaria, forestry, br 497 Burma, forest administration report, 1914-15, ref 317 BuTTRiCK, P. L., art 39 By-products of lumber industry, rev 308 VI California, forest protection handbook, ref 494 forest school, n 172, 365, 553 Campbell, R. H., trans. 61 Camps, typhoid prevention, br. . 155 Canada, British Columbia forest report, rev 304 commission of conservation, report, 1916, ref.. ^ 744 commissioner of parks' report, 1914-15, ref 317 entomologist report, 1914-15, ref 744 fire situation, 1916, ref 767 forest fires, n 164,539,775 forest products, 1914, ref., 317 1914-15, rev 734 forest products laboratories, n. 168 forest propaganda, n., 363, 366, 551 forest protection, 1913-14, ref., 101, rev 300 forest resources, n 359, 366 forestry branch, n 367 forestry conditions, ref 156 forestry meetings, n 162 forests. District of Patricia, ref. 536 New Bninswick survey, n. 163, 547 Ontario, Patricia conditions, ref 536 paper company planting, n.556, 773 oulpwood consumption, 1915, ^ ref. 536 supplies, br 773 report, director of forestry, rev. 303 research bureau, n 551 silvicultural problems, art ... . 14 timber conditions, Smoky river valley, rev 298 supply, n 167 water powers report, 1913-14, ref 102 White pine blister rust, n., 168,549 Catalpa, size, n 785 sphinx, n 170 Cedar, forest in Germany, br .. . 124 Cellulose textiles, progress, ref . . 537 Central America, an export field, ref 491 new plants, ref 313 Chandler, B. A., art 453 Chelan National Forest, Wash., ref 313 Chemistry an aid to timber physics, ref 314 to utilization of wood, ref., 536, 491 Chestnut blight, Pennsylvania, n. 549 cut-leaf, n 779 Chicle, n 780 Chili, exotics, ref 769 China, c 791 forest laws, art 65 1 forest service, n 358 forestry, ref 99 plants collected in, ref 743 City forests, U. S., n 779 Cleveland National Forest, ref. 97 Climate affected by forests, ref. . 100 geological changes, n 782 and leaf margins, br 502 Coeur d'Alfene protective associa- tion report, 1915, ref 316 Colloids, importance, br 327 of soils, ref 103 Columbia, new plants, ref 313 Community working plans, art. . 467 Congress, southern forestry, n. . . 367 Conifers and Hylobius pales, ref. 742 injtu-ed by mistletoe, ref 490 red rot, ref., 99, rev 294 Connecticut, botany report, 1915, ref 744 entomologist's report, 1915, ref 315 forester's report, rev 309 Conservation, association, meet- ing, n 556, 782 congress, meeting, n 360 and economic theory, n 361 and forestry education, ref. . . . 768 natural resources, ref 100 Southern pine region, ref 312 Conversion methods, France, art. 600 Cook, H. O., art 268 Cornell University, forestry, n . . 171 Costs, forest improvements sys- tems, art 238 growing timber, br 760 logging large and small timber, art 441 in Pacific northwest, br . . . . 141 Pennsylvania forests, art 236 Cronartium quercuum, ref 744 Cruising, modified system, ref. . . 494 Cryptogamic review, 1913, ref. . 537 Cymbopogon martini, uses, ref . . . 745 Cypress, grades and classifica- tions, ref 100 water requirements, ref 491 Damage, by asphyxiation, br . . . 749 lightning, br 127 rodents, br 336 Death camas, rev 89 Deforestation, effects, ref 100 Dendrology, spruce and Balsam fir, ref 312 teaching, art 46 tree form causes, br 500 "Density Rule," definition, ref.. 100 vu Deodar, girdling, br 131 notes, br 128 DeschuUs National Forest, ref. . 97 Dhauri, ref 495 Diameter and form factor, Long- leaf pine, ref 491 relation to volume tables, ref. 491 Dimorphandra megistosperma, n. 367 Diseases, Peridermium filamen- tosum, ref 156 White pine blister rust, ref. 99, 490, 495 ;n. 169 Distillation of hardwood, possi- bihties, ref 101 Dixie National forest, ref 741 Douglas fir for bridge and tres- tles, ref 769 in Chinook winds, br 324 creosoted, strength of, ref ... . 494 durability, n 167 fiber, art 672 growth, ref 98 seed germination, br 332 thinnings, br 123 Drying and waste, br 142 DuNSTON, C. E., art 1 Durability, railroad ties, br 144 Dutch forest, ref 536 Earth worms, food, br . 328 Ecology, physiographic, Cincin- nati, ref 493 Education and conservation, ref. 768 early in Germany, br 766 dendrology teaching, art 46 "Empire Forestry," vol. i, no. 1, ref 99 Empire Forester, n 363 Employment problems, rev 487 England, forestry, br 154 Entomology, Bulletin 94, index, ref 741 insects injurious to trees, ref. . 492 Lyctus planicollis, ref 490 Megastigmus spermotrophus, ref 313 Estimating, helps, br 338 system for computing, art. ... 1 Ethology in beech forest, br . . . . 112 Ethyl alcohol from wood waste, ref 101 Eucalyptus, monograph, ref., 317,496 Excelsior, manufacture, br 142 Exotics, Bavaria, br 518 Exporting to Central America, ref 491 Farm timbers, preservation, ref. 741 Felling budget and increment, br. 527 Fernow, B. E., art 14 Fertilizer, in nurseries, br 517 Finance, growing timber, ref., 316 br. 760 interest rate, art 255 valuation, new formula, br. . . 139 simplified, br 137 value production, br 529 Fir, Douglas, British Columbia, ref 317 structural qualities, ref 103 value production, br 345 variations, br 323 Fire-fighting, tank cars, n 774 -resistant wood, br 349 -season forecasts, art 596 -weather warnings, n 775 Fires, Adirondack protection map, ref 492 Canada, n 775 insurance, ref 103 lanes, clearing, art 270 losses in relation to wood structures, ref 493 patrolling under Weeks law, ref. 99 protection, District 1, ref 312 protective association, St. Maurice, n 774 risk, Massachusetts, art 268 statistics, Pennsylvania, n. . . . 362 and telephone, n 775 First aid manual for lumbermen, ref 744 Fitchburg, Mass., park commis- sioners' report, 1915, ref. . 492 Flax straw for paper-making, ref. 97 Fames officinalis, rev 738 Forest, administration, grazing capacity, ref 490 census, Alabama, ref 491 conservation. Southern pine region, ref 312 ecology, history, art 380 ecology problems, ref 98 fire protection conference, North Carolina, ref 99 fires, Canada, n 164 influences, ref., 100, 314, br. . . 752 on snow, br 117 pathology in forest regulation, rev 720 planting, manual, rev 474 Wisconsin, ref 493 products, British Columbia, 1913-14, ref 495 foreign trade, ref 98 laboratories, Canada, n . . . . 168 war-time uses, ref 768 protection, Canada, 1913-14, ref 101 vm Foust, protection, handbook, California, ref 494 ravages of insects, ref 536 recreational use, ref regulation and pathology, ref. 490 schools, Australia, n 782, 784 California, n 172, 365, 553 Cornell, n 171 Iowa, n 784 Eisenach, n 366 Minnesota, n 173 Mont Alto, n 365 Montana, n 174, 555 Munich, n 174 Oregon, n 172 Philippines, n 553 Syracuse, n. . . . 172, 173, 364, 554 United States list, n 552 Yale, n 170,364,554 second growth, ref 742 service, U. S., district 1, news, art 283 investigative program, 1916, ref 489 organization, art 188 silvicvtlture plans, ref 314 telephone construction, ref . . . 494 types, evolution, br 504 valuation, ref., 100, rev 286 and organization, br 342 new formula, new, br 139 simplified, br 137 Forestation difficulties, France, br , 511 Forester, American, opportuni- ties, ref 314 relations to Soc. Am. For., ref. 314 definition, ref 491 clubs, n 174 and lumbering, ref 314 situation of technical, art 61 Forestry, China, ref 99 and economics, ref 99 laws. United States, ref 96, 489 and lumberman, ref 314 private, n 776 and science, art 375 Form of trees, br 1 14 causes, br 500,749 France, forest service in war, br. 153 forestation diflficulties, br 511 forests and war, br 152, 356 statistics, br 351 use of prisoners in war, br. . . . 153 Fungi, timber-destroying, ref . . . 537 Fur-bearing animals, laws, 1916, ref 741 Game, laws for 1916, ref 741 preservation. Rocky Moun- tains, ref 101 Game, protective association, Canada, ref 536 Garvey, C. R., art 1 Georgia, forest school annual, ref. 100 Germany, effect of war, br 356 forest problems, br 355 wood trade, br 146 wood prices, br 765 Grading Southern pine, br 348 Grande- Prairie country, timber conditions, ref 101 Grazing, capacity, ref 490 experimental areas, b 160 India, br 132 industry, ref 743 on National forests, ref 494 ranges, capacity, rev 732 Great Britain, forestry, br 767 Growing stock and normality, ref 742 Growth, effect of lime, br 123 laws, br 114 percent, increment studies, art. 453 physiology, soil colloids, br . . . 327 rate, ref 496, 537 Douglas fir, ref 98 Gypsy moth, combating, n 169 New England, ref 99 Hardwood, ref 492 forests, ref 96 waste utilization, br 346 Hawaii, economic woods, art 697 forestry report, 1914-15, ref... 317 national park, n 78 1 Heritiera minor Lam., ref 496 Hess, Dr. R., obituary notice, n. 558 Hewn-tie vs. saw-timber rota- tions, ref 742 Hickory, variations in wood structure, art 663 HucKiNS, S. O., n 776 Hypoderma deformans, Yellow . pine, fungus, rev 736 Hypsometer, precision, br 337 Idaho, forestry laws, ref 489 Illinois, forestry laws, ref 489 Improvement cuttings, result, n. 778 systems, cost, art 238 Increment and budget, br 527 growth percent, art 453 height, young spruce, br 514 and thinnings, br 329 India, alluvial plain forest, br. . . 110 Burma working plans, br 345 Chunga-Munga, irrigated plantation, art 277 forestry, art 625 insect damage, br 132 market for timber, ref 495 IX India, olive in Punjab, br 112 over-grazing, br 132 sale system, br 155 Insects, in Canadian forests, ref . 536 fighting, br 520 Indiana, torestry laws, ref. . . .96, 489 forestry report, 1914, ref 316 wood-using industries, ref ... . 312 Injurious insects, leopard moth. Termites, prevention, ref. 312 Interest rate, art 255 Investigations, program of For- est Service, 1916, ref 489 Iowa, forest school, n 784 club annual, ref 493 Ireland, state forestry, art 451 Irrigation, plantations, India, art 277 Isle Royale, flora, ref 743 Japan, conifers, br 324 forest experiment station, rev. 95 John Muir, memorial, ref 536 Kansas, trees for, ref 494 Karst, br 110 Keene forest, ref 744 Kennebec Valley protective asso- ciation report, 1915, ref. . 314 Kentucky, forester's report, 1915, ref 100 forester's report, rev 721 manual for wardens, ref 100 Kinkaid Act, 1911, tree distribu- tion, ref 312 Knechtel, a., obituary, n 176 Kraft paper, ref 492 uses, n 557 Labor, conditions in Bavaria, br. 354 problems, rev 487 Larch, mistletoe, ref., 97, rev . . . 295 Western, British Columbia, ref 317 Larsen, J. A., trans 273 Lead pencil production, n 175 Lee, H. N., art 672 Legislation, forestry, United States, ref 96 early in America, rev 293 Lidgerwood skidders, ref 315 Lightning damage, br 127 Lime, etiect on growth, br 123 Lin, D, Y., art 471 Litter, influence, br 510 Lodgepole pine, growth and volume study, ref 494 Log, haulers, development, ref. . 492 rules, limitations and correc- tion, rev 91 Legging, accidents, br 155 by aerial method, ref 769 association, Southern, n 364 Logging camps, sanitation, br. . . 155 congress, meeting, n 556 costs, br 141 large and small timber, art. 441 course, California, n 553 Washington, n 554 engineering in forestry, ref 314 fixed diameter limit, ref 315 Lidgerwood skidders, ref 315 machinery, ref 315 tractor, n 785 Longleaf pine, diameter and form factor, ref 491 Louisiana, forestry laws, ref ... . 489 LovEjOY, P. S., art 24, 238 Lumber, American, markets, ref. 3 13 grades and classifications, ref. 100 industry, by-products, rev. . . . 308 manufacturers' association, bureau, n 551 trade extension, n 359 manufacturing, efficiency, ref . 494 markets, South America, ref. . 490 short lengths, n 784 uses, rev., 85; ref 493 Lumbering and forester, ref 314 Lumberman and forestry, ref . . . 314 first aid manual, ref 744 manual, ref 3 14 Lyctus planicollis, ref 490 MacCaughey, v., art 46 MacMillan, H. R., art., 277, 461; n. 167, 366; ref 791 resigns, n 786 trade commissioner, n 542 McNaughton, N. R., art. . .236, 270 Madras, forestry report, 1914-15, ref 318 Mahogany, destructive distilla- tion, ref 99 Maple sugar, Canada, ref 495 Maryland, forestry laws, ref . . . . 489 forestry report, 1914-15, ref... 316 Massachusetts, fire risk, art 268 forestry association report, 1914, ref 314 report. State forester, 1915, ref. 314 tree planting committee, 1915, ref 99 Mattoon, W. R., art Meetings, conservation congress, n 360 forestry at Ottawa, Canada, n. 162 Pan-American congress, n. . . . 163 Society of American Foresters, n 160 Megastigmus spermotrophus, ret. 312 Mensuration, assortment tables, br 753 Mensuration, Biltmore stick and diameter measure- ments, ref 49 1 correcting aneroid elevations, ref 494 diameters factor in volume tables, ref 491 diameter and form factor, ref . 49 1 fixed diameter limit, ref 315 errors in middle diameter, br. . 763 Douglas fir dimension, ref . . . . 317 estimating helps, br 338 girth increments, ref 496 growth of Douglas fir, ref 98 laws, br 114 of spruce, br 133 new hypsometer, br 337 log rules, limitations and cor- rection, rev 91 methods compared, br 521 mill scale study, pine, ref 101 system for computing timber estimates, art 1 Metric system in export trade, ref 743 Michigan, game and fish laws, ref 100 Milling industry, Canada, direc- tory, ref 102 Minnesota, forest school, n 173 forestry association, n 364 laws, ref 96,489 Mistletoe, control, art 567 injury to conifers, ref 490 on larch, rev 295 pest, n 549 Mont Alto forest school, n 365 Montana, forest school, n 174 club, n 555 annual, ref 494 forestry laws, ref 489 Moore, Barrington, art 375 Moors and peat, ref 318 Morocco, forestry, br 499 Mount Robson, plant succes- sions, ref 744 Munich, forest school, n 174 Municipal forests, U. S., n 779 Mushrooms and forestry, br. . . . 124 Muskeg and tree growth, br. . . . 509 Myrobolans, tanning material, ref 745 National forests, U. S. areas, 1916, ref 312 grazing of stock, ref 494 policies, ref 313 use permit regulations, ref . . 97 and working plans, ref 98 parks, conference, 1915, ref . . . 313 glimpses, ref 313 portfolio, ref 742 Natural Bridges National monu- ment, Utah, ref 313 Naval stores industry, rev 726 effects on wood, ref 318 New Brunswick forest survey, n. 163, 366, 547 New Hampshire, conference, n 776,782 tax report, 1915, ref 98 New Jersey, conservation report, 1915, ref 492 forest work, n 362 forestry laws, ref 96 New South Wales, forestry re- port, 1914-15, ref 317 New York State constitution, art. 50; c 180 development of education, rev. 296 forest purchases, n 783 forestry association, n 783 State college forest camp, ref. 315 street tree system, ref 492 woodlot conditions, ref 315 woods structure, ref 492 New Zealand, State nurseries' report, 1914-15, ref 102 Normal forest, model, art 471 stock, heresies, br. 524; n. . . . 562 North Africa, forestry, ref 496 North Carolina, erosion control, ref 492 fire protection, ref 99 forestry association, n 555 laws, ref 489 Nova Scotia, forest fires, n 164 Nurseries, acorns storing, ref 156 fertilizers, br 517 new seed-bed frame, art 183 Obituary Notices: Dr. R. Hess. . 558 A. Knechtel 176 Ochroma lagopus, lightest wood, n. 7 85 Ohio woods, qualities, ref 316 Olive in India, br 112 Ontario, fire prevention, ref 768 protection, n 539 report of minister of lands, and forests, 1915, ref . . . 495 White pine blister rust, n 549 Organization {see also Regula- tion) felling budget, br 527 model forest, art 471 normal stock heresies, c 562 Pressler formula, application, art 260 U. S. forest service, art 188 and valuation, br 342 working plans for national forests, ref 98 XI Oregon, forest school, n 172 forestry laws, ref 489 Osage orange, dyes, n 785 Ozark national forest, ref 313 Palisades Inter-State Park, ref. . 99 Palmyra island (Hawaii) flora, ref 495 Pan-American scientific congress, 1916, papers, n 163 Paper, new materials, ref 97 and pulp laboratory, ref 156 shirts, n 175 use of bark, ref 769 Parker, H. A., art 12 Parks, national, glimpses, rev. . . 486 Pathology, bagworm, ref 98 chestnut blight, n 549 Cronartium quercuum, ref 744 forest, ref 492 in forest regulation, ref. 490; rev 720 gypsy moth. New England, ref. 99 leopard moth, ref 312 mistletoe injury to conifers, ref 490 larch mistletoe, ref. 97; rev. . . 294 mistletoe pest, n 549 Peridermium harknessii, ref . . . 744 Pholiota adiposa, ref 537 Phoracantha beetles, ref 769 Pityogenes, ref 315 Pleurotus nidiformis, ref 537 prevention Termites, ref 312 red rot of conifers, ref. 99 ; rev. 294 root rot, br 508 smoke injury, ref 98 timber-destroying ftmgi, ref . . 537 White pine blister rust, ref. 99, 314, 490, 495; n 549 Paving brick from sawdust, br. . 144 Peat and moors, ref 3 18 Pennsylvania, chestnut blight, n. 549 forest fire warden report, 1915, ref 492 forestry association, n 556 State forests, operations, art. . 236 thinnings, result, n 778 Peridermium filamenlosum, ref . . 156 harknessii, ref 744 Pests, bagworm, ref 98 larch mistletoe, ref 97 Pettis, C. R., art 50 Phenology, chart, n 550 Philippines, forestry bvireau, n . . 551 forestry report, rev 737 Pholiota adiposa, ref 537 Phoracantha beetles, ref 769 Physiology, leaf margins, br . . . . 502 eflEects of tapping, ref 318 transpiration, rev 476 Picea orientalis, br 519 Pike National forest, ref 97 Pine, Southern, grading, br 348 Western soft, British Colum- bia, ref 317 Pinus caribaea, characteristics, art 781 longifolia Roxb., ref 496 Pityogenes, new species, ref 315 Planting, experiments, ref 156 forest, ref 315 machine, n 544 shelter belts, ref 490, 493 Pleurotus nidiformis, ref 537 Poland, early forest organization, br 149 Policies, regarding National for- ests, ref 313 Poplars, Black, rev 310 Porto Rico, forests, ref 741 Potash, ref 493 Potlatch protective association report, 1915, ref 316 Preservation of farm timbers, ref. machinery for timber, ref 316 strength of creosoted fir, ref . . 494 telephone poles, rev 86 wood paving, ref 769 Pressler formula, application, art. 260 Preston, J. P., art 283 Prices, wood, Prussia, br 765 stumpage, trend, ref 494 Prichard, R. P., art 663 Production, affected by de- and reforestation, ref 100 yield and treatment, br 135 Professional ethics, ref 314, 491 forester, situation, art 61 Protection, birds, ref 489 brush disposal, ref 98 Canada, 1913-14, ref 101 cost and value, art 24 fire, Adirondack map, ref 492 District 1, ref 312 game and fish, Michigan, ref. . 100 injurious insects, ref 492 legislation for railway and lumbering companies, ref. 98 North CaroUna, ref 99 trail construction, ref 97 Western associations, 19 15, ref. 101 Prussia, budget, br 535 forests and war, br 151 wood prices, br 765 Pulp, and paper industry, n . . . . 547 for powder, br 351 Pulpwood, kraft paper uses, n . . 557 loading and receiving, ref 492 supplies, n 770 xu Punjab, forest administration report, 1913-14, ref 102 Quebec, fire protection, n 540 reforestation, n 546 statistics, n 546 Railroad ties, durability, br 144 treatment, India 145 Railways right of way, planting, n 545 Rain affected by forests, ref . . . . 100 Reboisement, North CaroUna, ref 492 Recknagel, a. B., art 260 Reconnaissance, timber, manual, 1914, ref 316 Red cedar, use, ref 317 Redwood, ref 316 Reforestation, effects, ref 100 Quebec, n 546 Washington, ref .- • ■ 494 Regeneration methods, practical application, br 330 REPORTS: Aimer-Merwara, forestry, 1914-15, ref 495 Andamans, forestry, 1914-15, ref 495 Bengal, forestry, 1914-15, ref. 495 Bombay, forestry, 1914-15, ref. 745 British Columbia lumber com- missioner in Great Britain, ref 495 forestry, 1915, rev 304 Buffalo, N. Y., park commis- sioners, 1914, ref 99 Burma, forestry, 1914-15, ref. 317 Canada, commission of con- servation, 1916, ref 744 commissioner of parks, 1914- 15, ref 317 director of forestry, 1914-15, j-AV oUj entomologist, 1914-15, ref . . 744 water powers, 1913-14, ref. . 102 Coeur d'Alene protective asso- ciation, 1915, ref 316 Connecticut, botany report, 1915, ref 744 State entomologist, 1915, ref 315 Fitchburg, Mass., park com- missioners, 1915, ref 492 Hawaii, committee on forestry, 1914-15, ref 317 Indiana, State board of fores- try, 1914, ref 316 Kennebec Valley protective association, 1915, ref 314 Kentucky , State forester, 1915, ref 100 Madras, forestry, 1914-15, ref. 318 Maryland State board of fores- try, 1914-15, ref 316 Massachusetts forestry asso- ciation, 1914, ref 314 State forester, 1915, ref 314 tree planting committee, 1915, ref 99 New Hampshire, tax, 1915, ref. 98 New Jersey, department of conservation, 1915, ref . . . 492 New South Wales, forestry, 1914-15, ref 317 New Zealand, State nurseries, 1914-15, ref 102 Ontario, minister of lands, for- ests and mines, 1915, ref. 495 Pennsylvania, fire warden, 1915, ref 492 Potlatch protective associa- tion, 1915, ref 316 Punjab, forestry, 1913-14, ref. 102 Rhode Island, forestry, 1915, ref 314 South Australia, forestry, 1914-15, ref 102 Switzerland, forestry, 1915,ref. 745 United States sec'y of agricul- ture, 1915, n 157 Vermont, State forester, 1915, ref 314 timberland owners' associa- tion, 1914, ref 314 Washington fire association, 1915, ref 100 REVIEWS: American Academy of Political and Social Science, per- sonnel and employment problems 487 Abbott, F. H., red rot of coni- fers 294 Benedict, H. M., senility in leaves 81 Benson, H. K., lumber, by- products 308 Berlin Mills Company, second conf. 94; third conf 737 Betts, H. S., naval stores in- dustry 726 Betts, H. S., structural timber 309 Bray, W., New York State vegetation 296 British Columbia, forestry re- port, 1915 304 Bums, G. P., light in forests. . 718 Campbell, R. H., Canada, for- estry report, 1914-15 303 XIU Canada, forest products, 1914, 1915 734 Chandler, W. H., temperature and plant tissues 483 Chapman, H. H., forest valua- tion 286 Clawson, A. B., death camas . 89 Dixon, H. H., sap, transpira- tion and ascent 476 Doucet, J. A., Smoky River valley timber conditions . 298 FauU, J. H., Forties officinalis . 738 Filley, W. O., Connecticut, forestry report, 1915 309 Goss, O. P. M., structural tim- ber handbook 723 Greeley, W. B., structural tim- ber 309 Heinmiller, C, structural tim- ber handbook 723 Hosford, R. F., preservatives, results 86 Jolyet, A., silviculture manual 475 Kellogg, R. S., lumber and its uses 85 Kentucky, forestry report, 1915 721 Kinney, J. P., early forest legislation, America 293 Klebs, G., beech and rest periods 83 Lamb, G. N., willows 88 Leavitt, C, Canada, forest protection, 1913-14 300 McKenzie, H. E., log rules. . . 91 Marsh, C. D., death camas. . . 89 Marsh, H., death camas 89 Meinecke, E.' P., pathology and forest regulation .... 720 Rhode Island, commissioner of forestry's report, 1915,ref. 314 Rhodes, F. L., preservatives, results 86 Roth, F., forest valuation .... 286 Schorger, A. W., naval stores industry 726 Sherfesee, W. F., Philippines forestry report 737 Shirasawa, H., Experiment station, Meguro, Tokyo. . 95 Sterrett, W. D., the ashes 87 Sweden, experiment station report, 1912-14 307 Tkatchenko, M., American forest conditions 92 Tovimey, J. W., seeding and planting 474 United States, Dept. Agricul- ture year book, 1915 ... . 485 United States, scahng and measuring timber 724 Weir, J. R., Hypoderma de- formans 736 Weir, J. R., larch mistletoe. . . 295 Wooton, E. O., Arizona graz- ing ranges 732 Yard, R. S., national parks. . . 486 Road curves, ref 538 Robert Hartig, ref 744 Rodents, damage, br 336 Root rot, management, n 550 seedlings, br 508 Rosha grass, uses, ref 496 Rot, red of conifers, rev 294 Rotation, for ties, ref 742 value production, br 345 Roth, F., art 3,255 Rubber, tree experiments, ref. 318,496 Russia, forest conditions, br . . . . 319 statistics, br 147 St. Maurice fire protective asso- ciation, n 774 Sal, reproduction, br 130 Sale system, India, br 155 Sap movement, rev 476 Sawdust for ethyl alcohol, n . . . . 780 as food, br 143 for paving brick, br 144 Saxony, finance, br 352 Scaling in United States forests, rev 724 Science and forestry, art 375 Seed-bed frame, new, art 183 control, br 333 selection, aims, br 121 -testing, Jacobsen, art 273 Seeding, depth, br 122 Seedlings, root rot, br 508 Senility in leaves, rev 81 Serbia, forests, ref 768 Shade tree insect enemies, ref . . . 492 Sheep races, ref 538 Shelter-belt planting, ref 490, 493 Sherfesee, F., art 651 Shingles, Red cedar, ref 317 Silk, from wood, n 557 Silviculture, conversion methods, art 600 cypress, requirements, ref . . . . 491 depth of seeding, br 122 forest planting, ref 315 Forest Service plans, ref 314 forestation difficulties, br 511 hardwood forests, ref 96 light burning, ref 98 Lodgepole pine, growth, ref. . . 494 manual, rev 474, 475 Finns longifolia Roxb., ref 496 XIV Silviculture, possibilities in America, ref 491 problems in Canada, art 14 second growth forests, ref ... . 743 seed selection, br 121 spacing experiments, br 118 strip selection system, br 513 early thinnings, br 120 tolerance, New England trees, rev 718 tree-planting machine, n 544 relation to utilization, ref 536 Site, classification, art 3 Siuslaw national forest, ref 97 Slash pine, characteristics, art.. . 578 Smith, E. M., art .• 672 Smoky river valley timber condi- tions, rev 298 Snow, forest influence, br 117 Society of American foresters, badge, n 368 meeting, n • ■ 160 proceedings, January, 1916, ref 314 April, 1916, ref 491 July, 1916, ref 742 October, 1916, ref 742 Soil colloids, ref 103 South America, forest conditions, br 746 lumber markets, ref. 490, br. . 747 South Australia, forest adminis- tration report, 1914-15, ref 102 Southern pine, conservation, ref . 312 Yellow pine timbers, ref 100 Spacing experiments, br 118 Spruce, growth and yield, br 133 height growth of young, br. . . 514 Rocky Mountains, ref 312 value production, br 345 Statistics, Bavaria, br 353 Canada, forest products, 1914, ref 317 France, br 351 Pennsylvania, fire, n 362 Quebec, n 546 Sterrett, W. D., art. 467 Street tree system. New York, ref 492 Strip selection system, br 513 Structure, Douglas fir, art 672 timber handbook, rev 723 variation in wood, art 616 Stumpage prices, trend, ref 494 Survey methods, new topog- raphy, art 433 Sweden, conservation boards, ref. 769 experiment station, rev 307 Swedish pine-needle oil, ref 496 Switzerland, forest conditions, br 109 forestry, br 104 Switzerland, report, 1915. ref... 745 regeneration methods, br 330 Syracuse, forest school, n. 172, 173, 364, 554, 784 Tank cars, fighting fires, n 774 Tanning material, Myrobolans, ref 745 Tax report. New Hampshire, 1915, ref 98 Taxation, ref 742 Teak, germination, br 132 shelterwood system, br 131 Technology, British Columbia firfref 103 kraft paper, ref . 492 new paper materials, ref 97 Ohio woods, ref 316 rubber experiments, ref.. . . 318, 496 Telephone construction in for- ests, ref 494 Temperature, killing, rev 483 Texas, forestry laws, ref 489 trees, ref 494 Thermometer, change, n 787 Thinnings, classification, India, br 335 Douglas fir, br 123 and increment, br 329 results, Pennsylvania, n 778 value of early, br 120 and yield, br 336 Timber, conditions, Smoky River Valley and Grande-Prairie country, ref 101 cost of growing, ref 316 durability, ref 537 market in India, ref ... 495 physics, chemistry an aid, ref. 314 woods of New York, ref 492 preserving machinery, ref . . . . 316 reconnaissance manual, 1914, ref 316 Tolerance, New England trees, rev 718 Toxic effects, oak and olive, br. . 748 Trade, forest products, ref 98 Trail construction, ref 97 Transpiration and ascent of sap, rev 476 Tree-planting handbook, ref 491 machine, n • • • 544 Tropical forest, utilization, ref. . 314 Tupelo, grades and classifica- tions, ref 100 United States, Dept. Agriculture, Yearbook, 1915, rev 485 early forestry legislation, rev. 293 XV United States, forest and lumber industry, rev. ... 92 forest service annual report, n 157 compensation to employees, n 160 financial results, n 781 investigations, n 780 Montana, n 548 organization, arts 188, 590 profits, n 770 forests in war, ref 536 lumber cut, n 543 national forests, ref 536 areas, 1916, ref 312 extension, n 781 structural timber, rev 309 wood preservation, 1915, ref. . 489 Use permit regulations, national forests, ref 97 Uses for lumber, ref 102 Utilization, ethyl alcohol from wood waste, ref 101 lumber uses, rev 85 Rosha grass, ref 496 sawmill waste, art 39 relation to silviculture, ref . . . . 536 tropical forest, ref 314 wood, aided by chemistry, ref. 536 wood waste, ref 491 woodlot products, ref 489 Value production, br 345, 529 Vermont, reports. State forester, 1915, ref . 314 timberland owners' associa- tion, 1914, ref 314 Weeks-law fire-patrolling, ref . 99 Virginia, forestry laws, ref 489 Walnut, supply, br 349 War, effect in France, br. . . . 152, 356 in England, br 154 in Germany, br 355 on industries, br 154 on Prussian forests, br 151 Washakie national forest, ref 741 Washington fire association re- port, 1915, ref 100 forest club annual, ref 494 school, n 554 forestry laws, ref 96, 489 reforestation, ref 494 Waste, used for box boards, art . 39 due to drying, br 142 hardwood utilization, br 346 use of sawdust, br 143 and wood pulp, br 773 Water powers report, Canada, 1913-14, ref 102 Weight of lightest wood, br 145 Weir, J. R., art 567 West Virginia, wood-using indus- tries, ref 99 Western Yellow pine, mill scale study, ref 101 White pine blister rust, ref. 99, 314, 490, 495; n 361 Ontario, n 168, 549 Massachusetts, n 775 Willows, growth and use, rev . . . Wisconsin, forest planting, ref. . 493 forestry laws, ref 489 Wood, in relation to fire losses, ref 493 fire resistance, br 349 lightest, br. 145; n. 785 and plant ash, composition, ref. 156 preservation. United States, 1915, ref 489 used by shoemakers, br 350 utilization, books, br 144 variation in anatomy, art 663 waste utilized by chemical means, ref 491 yields ethyl alcohol, ref . . . . 101 Wooden tire, n 175 Woodlots, care and improve- ment, ref 313 and forestry, ref 743 management, ref 491 Kentucky, rev 721 market investigations, n 554 New England, ref 743 New York, ref 315 problems and status, ref 491 products, measuring and mar- keting, ref 489 United States, n 784 working plans, art 467 Wood-paving, creosoted, ref ... . 743 treatment, ref 769 Woodpulp, ground, rev 485 supplies' prices, n 771 textile fabrics, n 773 Woodsmen's manual, ref 314 Wood-using industries, Indiana, ref 312 West Virginia, ref 99 WooLSEY, T. S., Jr., art 66, 188 Working plans, ref 98 Burma, br 345 Wynne, S. W., art 590 Wyoming, forestry laws, ref ... . 489 Yale forest school, n 170, 364 Yearbook, 1915, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, rev 485 Yield, depending on treatment, br 135 tables, compared, br 136 Zacaton, paper-making material, ref 97 Zygadenus, rev 89 XVI JOURNALS BRIEFED Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd Zeitung L'Alpe American Forestry American Lumberman Barrel and Box Botanical Gazette Bulletin of American Institute of Mining Engineers Bulletin of the New York Botanical Garden Bulletin de la Soci6t^ Dendrologi- que de France Bulletin Soci^t6 forestiere de Franche- Comt6 et Belfort Canada Lumberman and Wood- worker Canadian Engineer Canadian Forestry Journal Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen Conservation Cultura Experiment Station Record Forest Leaves Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt Gardeners' Chronicle Geographical Review Hardwood Record Indian Forester Jahresbericht Vereinigung angew. Botanik Joiirnal of Agricultural Research Journal of the Board of Agriculture Lesnoy Journal Logging Lumber Review Lumber Trade Journal Minnesota Forester Mitteilvmgen der Deutschen Land- wirtschaftlichen Gesellschaft Mitteilungen aus der Kgl. Sachs- ischen forstlichen Versuchsanstalt zu Tharandt Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Centralanstalt fiir forstliche Ver- suchswesen Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural In- telligence and Plant Diseases Mycologia Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Landwirtschaft New York Lumber Trade Journal North Woods and Wild Life Ohio Journal of Science Philippine Journal of Science : Botany Praktische Blatter fiir Pflanzenbau und Pflanzenschutz Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences Proceedings of the Society of Ameri- can Foresters Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada Phjrtopathology Quarterly Bulletin of the Canadian Mining Institute Quarterly Journal of Forestry Revue des Eaux et ForSts Rhodora Rod and Gun Science Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forst- wesen Sierra Club Bulletin Skogsv&rdsforeningens Tidskrift St. Louis Lumberman Tharandter forstliches Jahrbuch Timber Trades Journal Timberman Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society West Coast Lumberman Woodcraft Wood Worker Yale Review Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagd- wesen VOLOIE XIV NimiBER 1 FORESTRY QUARTERLY A PROFESSIONAL JOURNAL MARCH, 1916 Subscription Two Dollars Per Annum 1410 H STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C. Entered as second class mail matter February 1, 1915, at the post oflBce at Washington, D. C, under the Act of March 3, 1879 FORESTRY QUARTERLY BOARD OF EDITORS B. E. Fernow, LL. D., Editor-in-Chief Henry S. Graves, M. A., Forester, U. S. Forest Service Raphael Zon, F. E., U. S. Forest Service Frederick Dunlap, F. E., University oj Missouri T. S. Woolsey, Jr., M.F., Consulting Forest Engineer Albuquerque, N . M. Ernest A. Sterling, F. E., Consulting Forest Engineer, Chicago, III. Clyde Leavitt, M.S. F., Commission of Conservation, Ottawa, Canada FiLiBERT Roth, B.S., University of Michigan Hugh P. Baker, D. Oec, Syracuse University R. C. Bryant, F.E., Yale University Samuel J. Record, M.F., Yale University Richard T. Fisher, A.B., Harvard University Walter Mulford, F. E., University of California A. B. Recknagel, M.F., Cornell University C. D. Howe, Ph. D.. University of Toronto J. H.White, M.A.. B.Sc.F., University of Toronto Asa S. Williams, F. E. P. S. RiDSDALE, Business Manager Washington, D. C. the OBJECTS FOR WHICH THIS JOURNAL IS PUBLISHED ARE: To aid in the establishment of rational forest management. To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of interest to professional foresters of America. To keep the profession in touch with the current technical literature, and with the forestry movement in the United States and Canada. Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at the Uni- versity of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of editors. Subscriptions and other business matters may be addressed to Forestry Quarterly, 1410 H Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. NATIONiO. CAPITAL PRESS. INC. WASHINGTON, D. C 4^ ^ ... ._ . ., .. J. 1 1 1 \ 0 « i \ V 5 S I 1 1 1 O /? s^> ffL upg ir ll I 1 II 1 — "3 i___j ^^^ "'I '1 lJj.-__ ii ? 1 ^- 5 ^ S ^1^^^ S ^r* nULTIPLt VOLUHE: T/IBLE SPRUCE H 2 n jl r"i ,il "■"1 iT^r'" 1 '^ "dl ^ M 11 1 IT iiii ::::: K IJ 2 1 i = 1 1 1 V i ^ ^11 ^ 11?'^ t '^ ■ a IJ "5 r, t ■< 5 ^ ^i 1 J Jl S 5 ^ * ^ ^^2 ^ ^ S: ? 1 ? il^M s 5 — - Ji ^^ »v ,S S m 1 t S Kv .^ > Ir ^ 1'. "^ 2 ? ci «3 >t » Ji I*! "J <0 » ^0 j , ,1 s^iv.-"j's:^if^'. _ _^7 jt 0 2~' M r> m 1 1 " 1 . '^ IS > 1 c :S ^ r- V :S _».«_ „ = = = = ; la ID 2: CM cr CU 1- 1 v: 5 i 0 s 1 ■}?. <* ^ 0 Wl .i -^ m r? ■o M 1 1 '^ ■ • iJ^ >*^ 1^ ^ .... ^ u W ») .■,:,.■ »v , ._ ._ _., ■t •« ^ ^ _„=_>=.=.=_ ( ' C*! ?: inr < ^ T,^ 1 a d a ■ (0 —1— i;* N *o "i^ >c > To I ^ •^ £!!: » '^ si- ^1 ■^ qS z _i? "1 < • - 1 2 ... , 5- 1> •^ ila st J «) |5 5 ^ 5 .^ ^■^1^ |lU^1iJ?^| g— - (///M p9^a/l03 )/0'i//_ f/, >t±zJ::j:/:v::::~. ■8 FORESTRY QUARTERLY Vol. XIV March, 1916 No. 1 AN EFFICIENT SYSTEM FOR COxMPUTING TIMBER ESTIMATES By C. E. Dunston' and C. R. Garvey- With the use of an adding machine and a simple device for holding timber estimate sheets and volume tables, it has been possible for two men to compute the estimates on about 4,000 sheets in approximately thirty days, a task which, without these aids, would have taken the same men not less than eighty days to complete. The field work of the timber estimate in question wa^ carried on in the field season of 1915, and covered approxi- mately 80,000 acres of the Quinaielt Indian Reservation. This Reservation, with an area of about 250,000 acres, is located just north of Grays Harbor on the Pacific Coast, in a region of heavy stands of Western hemlock. Western Red cedar, Sitka spruce, Douglas fir, Amabilis fir and a small percent of Western White pine. The valuation strip survey method of estimating was employed, merchantable trees being tallied by diameter at breast height and number of thirty-two-foot logs. Since merchantable trees range in size from 14 to over 100 inches d. b. h. and from one to five thirty-two-foot logs, and since the major part of the cruised area contains a stand in excess of 50,000 feet b. m. per acre, it will be seen that the work of computing these estimates without the mechanical aid afforded by the adding machine and the case, herein described, for holding estimate sheets and volume tables, would have been a long and laborious undertaking. A diagram of this case with a sample estimate sheet and spruce volume table in place appears in frontispiece. It consists of a thin board with narrow wooden strips A and B at top and side edges and a similar strip D which forms a partition between compart- ments for estimate sheets and volume tables respectively. The dimensions of this case may be varied to suit special requirements ^ Supervisor, U. S. Indian Service. * Forest Assistant. ^c 2 Forestry Quarterly as to size and shape of estimate sheets and volume tables, both of which must be of such size as to fit snugly in their respective com- partments. The sheets and volume tables are held flat in the case by narrow, thin metal pieces attached to and projecting about an eighth of an inch over the side and center wooden strips. A thin, beveled straight-edge C, which slides on the edges of the case parallel to the lines on the sheets and volume tables, is essential for preventing mistakes in reading volume figures. Multiple volume tables are used in order to obviate the neces- sity of making multiplications in instances where several trees of one diameter-log-length class have been tallied on the same sheet. Each log-length class in the volume table has a distinc- tive color. Through this means it is possible to locate a desired column in the table at a glance, and the chances of making mistakes through reading from a wrong column are practically eliminated. The computations are made by two men. One reads the total volume of the trees in each diameter-log-length space from the volume table and the other records these figures on the adding machine. When all the volumes of one species on the sheet have been called, the total is written in the space provided for it at the head of the species column. The volume tables are provided with an indented marginal index which facilitates changing them when several species are being worked up on the same sheet. In cases where large tracts of timber are being estimated, it would prove an excellent plan to compute the estimates in the field in this same way. A small adding machine which may be easily transported could be used in most instances to good advan- tage. Everyone who has had experience in timber estimating will appreciate the advantages of completing the estimate calcu- lations at the time field work is in progress, rather than at a later date in the office. CONCERNING SITE By Filibert Roth* The classification of lands into more fertile and less fertile ones is as old as agriculture itself and antedates all written history. The farmer today classifies lands into good and poor lands and uses the volimie (rarely quality) of the crop produced as his meas- ure. This measure is usually local; good corn land is determined by a different limit in Michigan than in Iowa or Texas. That the classification varies with the kind of crop and is therefore different for com, wheat, potatoes, etc., is self-evident. And not only do we expect a much larger niimber of bushels of potatoes from good potato land, but good potato land is not necessarily good corn land, in fact, generally, it is not. With more extended inter- course and the development of agricultural research and literature the old local classifications of land are not always convenient or sufficient and more general classification has become desirable at least for certain purposes of comparison. In addition, the classi- fication is being extended, and the farmer speaks of good corn country and good corn land as two things not at all synonymous, the idea of corn sites is developing. Classification of land by the forester is old also, it is based on volimie as standard, and developed locally. But unlike agricul- ture, forestry early combined land and climate into site, and instead of leaving the standard undefined, made it a matter of written record and of definite agreement and use. As in agricul- ttire, the development of a science called for comparison of results and measurements, and after long controversy the question of site and the limits of site classes were settled in 1888 at least for Germany, by the Association of Forest Experiment Stations. The following table gives yields in cubic meters per hectare of the stand 100 years old and the relative values where the yield of site I is set at 100. Relative Values Fir and Average of all Site Pine Spruce Beech Beech four species I 700 1100 720 100 100 II 550 900 580 81 81 III 420 720 460 64 64 IV 300 550 350 49 48 V 200 400 250 35 34 * Professor of Forestry, University of Michigan. 4 Forestry Quarterly The following is evident: Beech ruled the situation. Well rounded values were chosen for site I, this choice was arbitrary within limits. The intervals were made on well rounded values and in a rather regularly decreasing series, as follows : For Pine: 150, 130, 120, 100 cubic meters. For Spruce: 200, 180, 170, 150 cubic meters. Numerous, reliable tables based on careful measurements of well stocked and properly cared for stands served as skeleton in this classification. Particularly interesting in this matter are : Arbitrarily rounded values; regular decreasing intervals; un- qualified use of the volume of the main stand at the age of 100 years ; the fact that spruce and fir were not separated, so that trees with similar habits of growth are combined in the German classi- fication. That these standards would not replace local standards was clear from the outset. That they do not quite satisfy even for general comparison for all Germany is admitted today. These standards were hardly expected to need modification with changes in silvicultural methods and consequent changes in normal or accepted yield tables. Least of all, did it seem necessary to abandon the volume as basis, though it was well known and quite generally admitted long before 1888 that the volume of the main stand at 100 years was influenced by treatment, thinnings, etc., and that the height was a valuable criterion of site and that it was largely independent of methods of management and even of accident. Since 1888, the Forest Experiment Stations have continued the study of growth and have improved the yield tables. Professor Schwappach, especially, has guided the work in North Germany, and his tables are the normal or accepted tables. It is interesting to see how far these tables adhere to the old standard of sites and how far the workers have been obliged to introduce height as a factor. The following table gives volimie in cubic meters per hectare of the 100-year-old stand and the relative values, after Schwappach. p^-^g 5^^„ce Pine Spruce Site Cubic Meters Relative Values I 470 826 100 100 II 398 683 85 82 III 323 547 69 66 IV 260 421 55 51 V 203 299 43 36 Concerning Site 5 From these figures it is evident that : The volume of site I in pine or spruce is less than the volume of site II of the old standard. The intervals are no longer the same, in pine, not even approxi- mately, and they no longer follow the regularly decreasing series. The proportion between different sites is approximately main- tained. Volume is still the main guide or standard. That Professor Schwappach felt the difficulty in using volume as basis in classification of sites is clear from his statement in "Die Kiefer," 1908, p. 45, where he discusses the derivation of the yield tables. Freely translated it is: "The starting point is the study and determination of the height curves of the main stand. The height is the factor least influenced by treatment." Also: "/ consider, therefore, the height, leaving out some abnormal cases, as the best criterion of the site in the stands of middle age and older, while the volume of the main stand is suited for this purpose if the stand has been properly cared for and is in normal condition for a long period." He then goes on to say that if the total volume produced, i. e.,main stand and sum of all thinnings are known, the volume answers very well as measure of site. On page 47 he publishes the following table of heights for pine on different sites: I II III IV V Age Height in Feet 80 84 71 60 47 36 100 92 80 67 S3 40 120 100 85 72 58 44 Comparing these figures of height for the 120-year-old stand with the relative figures given before, it would seem that Schwap- pach used height primarily as measure of site. That these changes should have come both in yield tables and site classification is not surprising, for the great changes in the practice of thinnings alone fiilly accounts for them. Thinnings have increased to the point where in a well regulated forest of pine with normal yields the sum of the thinnings each year exceeds the cut of ripe timber or final cut. Here, in the United States, the matter of site and site classifica- tion is important. A "valuation survey" or forest survey covering several townships of land and costing thousands of dollars should certainly tell at least approximately what proportion of the land is good, fair or poor forest land. 6 Forestry Quarterly How much this means in agriculture is strikingly brought out by a study of corn production in Ohio {see Bulletin 266, Ohio Experiment Station, p. 118), where it is shown that corn in Ohio costs 61 cents a bushel to produce whenever the yield falls below 30 bushels. Such land, then, has practically no value for corn, since the owner makes only expenses. On the other hand with good land producing 40 to 50 bushels, the corn costs the farmer only 29 cents per bushel and leaves him about 30 cents net income. Similarly the income value of land used in raising pine in North Germany is, according to Schwappach {Kiefer, p. 150), under an 80-year rotation at 3 per cent interest rate : $74 per acre for site I ; $45 for site II; $25 for site III; $5.50 for site IV; and is a negative quantity or a loss of $8.90 per acre in site V. The expenses are there, and even scrub woods need at least protection, and often much more than the good timber. In a survey of a large forest area it is of no small importance to know whether a portion of the land can not be expected to pay at all, and what part is worth $5 and what $25 per acre. Some effort has been made in the determination of site in this country. Just how much has been accomplished is not evident. In various recent publications of yield tables the matter of site has been considered, and it is interesting to examine a few of these with regard to the limits set and the basis employed. Margolin in his study of White pine {see Woodman's Handbook, 1910, p. 198) establishes three sites as follows, for the stand 90 years old. Volume Corresponding Height Site 100 Cubic Feet Relative Value Feet Relative Value I 127 100 97 100 II 110 87 93 96 III 92 72 89 91 Here, evidently a classification by volimie has been used, following closely the scale represented in the recent Schwappach tables, leaving out inferior lands or sites IV and V altogether. That the heights for the three sites vary so very little is sur- prising and indicates the necessity of further field study. Sterrett in his studies of Loblolly pine (Bulletin 11, 1914) has given us some very interesting and useful tables in which the matter of site is fully recognized. He makes three sites which for the 50-year-old stand, the oldest given, are as follows: Concerning Site 7 Sites Classified by Volume Corresponding Height Total Volume Relative Relative Site Cubic Feet Value Feet Value I 8000 100 87 100 II 6600 82 73 84 III 5100 64 60 69 The soils are described quite fully, but no statement is made as to the basis of classification, whether by volume or height. The table itself indicates that it is well based on ample field data and that height and volume in these even-aged, young and thrifty stands closely correspond. In fact, it will be seen that Sterrett's classification if based on the heights agrees almost perfectly with the classification as represented in Schwappach's tables for pine, the scale running: Schwappach: 100, 85, 69, 55, 43; Sterrett: 100, 84, 69. The fact that we deal here with stands of different age, 100 years, as against 50 years, is not serious in view of the fact that Loblolly pine is very far developed even at 50 years. In any case it is evident that Sterrett's classification is as well based on height as on voliune. Mason, in Bulletin 154, 1915, on Lodgepole pine, page 31, gives a most interesting yield table for that species as actually deter- mined from sample plots on the Deerlodge Forest, taking, however, "the best quality of sites." In preparing a normal yield table or "table of average yield per acre of normal stands," he decides, on basis of observation and measurements, what a fully stocked stand should be. He then selects data of such stands from his material and constructs a yield table. Mason makes only two sites and as he states: "The original figures were sectued on quality I sites, and the yields for quahty II sites have been derived by multiplying the yields for quality I sites by sixty per cent which seemed a fair reducing factor." Here, then, we have an entirely new method of classification of sites, site I based on actual measurement of good stands and site II arbitrarily given 60 per cent of site I values. This classification is new in making only two classes and in setting 60 per cent as a proper factor or making 40 per cent the proper interval. The height, which is so sensitive a criterion in mountain country, is not mentioned in this connection. Chapman, in Bulletin 139, 1914, on Norway pine, gives a yield 8 Forestry Quarterly table (p. 21), in which again three sites are recognized. The table gives only age and volume in board feet for the three sites, leaving out height, diameter and even voltime in cubic feet corre- sponding to these yields in board feet. The table begins with age at 40 years. Chapman describes his method, plotting the results of measurements of 85 tracts and drawing three curves, arbitrarily, to represent the different values. For 120 years, probably a fair rotation here, the values run as follows ; volume in board feet per acre as measure : Site Volume M. Feet B. M. Relative Values I 50.8 100 II 36.7 72 III 23.1 45 If the heights as recorded, page 17, as maximum, average, and minimum, are taken for 120 years, the values would be: actual height, 104, 94, 78; relative: 100, 90, 75. Here we have a classification by volume into three classes with a distinctly new set of limits. The bulletin does not give the actual data, so it is impossible to judge to what extent the plots really covered different classes of lands. This lack of real data and the presentation only of averages and derived values is a serious omission in much of our recent forestry publications and is sure to militate against any general acceptance of the published values. A very interesting table is presented by Chapman (p. 22, table 13), where he attempts to work out a yield table based on the nvunber of trees per acre and their size, the number being based on the width of crowns as actually measured. The number of trees at 200 years seems extraordinary and it would be interesting to know if a stand of Norway pine has ever been calipered with a basal area of over 300 square feet per acre as this table requires. The following brings together the few cases of site classification mentioned, the figures being simply relative, site I taken at 100, all but last column by volume. Schwappach Sterrett Chapman Mason Margolin Sterrett German Loblolly Norway Lodgepole White Loblolly Pine Pine Pine Pine Pine by Height 1888 1908 1914 1914 1915 1910 1914 Site I 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 II 79 85 82 72 60 87 84 III 60 69 64 45 72 69 IV 43 55 • ■ V 29 43 , , • • • • , , • • Concerning Site 9 Keeping in mind that site classification has a very practical bearing, that the determination of sites on any property is a necessary and important part of survey, the question arises what the basis of classification should be and what qualities must this basis possess to be of value. As far as the classification is concerned, the following seems agreed upon : 1. It must fit actual conditions, size and yield, and will therefore move within limits actually set by the timber itself. 2. It will be arbitrary within these limits; there may be 2, 3, or 5 site classes as man chooses and the intervals between these classes are set arbitrarily, they may be equal or not. As regards the basis this seems true : 1. It must be applicable in any forest, in any stand, and, there- fore, independent of the degree of stocking, excepting certain cases where overstocking leads to stagnation. It must apply as well to a broken stand of wild woods, to a mixed stand, to a stand con- taining several age classes as to the pure, even-aged stand. 2. It must be sensitive and reliable, and readily and fully indicate a change in site. 3. It must be applicable in ordinary field work, i. e. it must be simple enough to be used in ordinary work by ordinary men. The voltmie of the fully stocked stand is not a satisfactory measure for the following reasons : 1. Even in the pure, even-aged, "man-made" stand, Schwappach admits that proper stocking and proper care must have worked together for "a long period." But how is the man to know this, and what is proper stocking and good care under these particular conditions? Who decides? 2. In the mixed stand the normal yield table is not normal, it is not accepted. What then is the volume of an 80-year-old stand to be? If we do not agree on this volume, how can it serve as a measure ? 3. In our wild woods with several age classes, mixture of species, accidents of all kinds, with the average 40-acre lot normally irregular and only partly stocked, what use is the volimie of a fully stocked, even-aged stand as a measure ? But even granted that it might be, how is any one to ascertain the age of such a stand? The height of the dominant tree, the average height of the 10 Forestry Quarterly dominant part of any stand, is quite free from the difficulties involved in the volume of the fully stocked stand used as criterion. Summing up, we may come to the following conclusions: 1 . The height is a sensitive measure. A change of a few hundred feet in altitude at the proper point is promptly indicated in the change of height. White and Norway pine on Jack pine lands show the site clearly and unmistakabl}^ in their height and this at any stage of their life. It is the height which characterizes Scrub oak, Jack pine. Bog spruce and the timberline stands. European experience fully bears out this fact. 2. The height is independent of mixture and stocking. Height in a broken stand of White or Norway pine, of Loblolly or Longleaf , is not affected by this condition. Again, even in a crowded stand, within limits, the height of Spruce, Hemlock, Douglas fir, etc., and even our hardwoods, remains little affected, so that an old dogma built itself on this misinterpreted observation, crediting crowding with stimulus of height growth. The height of White pine in mixture with hemlock and hardwoods is entirely independent, each kind going its own gait and reaching its own normal limits, and so clearly expressing that a particular acre is site I for pine and site HI or IV for maple or beech. 3. The height of a few trees and their age (the diameter-height relation is of no value here) is easy to determine, and where very large old timber exists the general age and size indicate correctly the site. Even the White pine stump may prove quite clearly the quality of the land. As to the limits, they are set by the timber. The number of site classes will probably remain debatable ground. Four classes would seem quite sufficient, though the fifth class is convenient to include that class of forest where timber is scrub and all expenses are cut to the possible minimum, and where no real income of value is expected. Oiu" Bog spruce, part of the Scrub oak, and Jack pine lands, a large area of timberline coimtry come in this class. So far, site classification has followed the old trail and attempted classification for each species. The German standard of 1888 combined spruce and fir and so recognized the important fact that we are dealing here with a classification of a simple dimension and that one set of limits of size may very well apply to all species which reach a certain size or yield at a certain age. In other words to Concerning Site 11 all species which at 100 years have their dominant timber from 90 to 110 feet tall (or corresponding values for fully stocked stands) may well be applied one and the same classification standard, both as to limits and intervals. If this is granted it remains to be seen what species belong together and how many different stand- ards are desirable. Germany works really w4th three standards, for five species; in fact other species are fitted in as the case warrants. With the large number of species in the United States it might appear that a large number of standards are needed in keeping with the great variety in the rate and character of growth of timber. The following suggestion is based on a considerable niimber of published values of height growth. The intervals between groups or standards a, b and c are taken, arbitrarily, of course, at 20 feet in site I ; the intervals between classes at 20 feet, 15 feet and 10 feet for the three groups. Standards of Site Classification Based on the Height of Tree at 100 Years Site Standard a Standard b Standard c I no feet 90 feet 70 feet II 90 75 60 III 70 60 50 IV 50 45 40 Standard a, site I, has timber 100 feet and over in height at 100 years and would include chiefly the Pacific coast giants on their native sites. Standard b, site I, 80 to 100 feet in height, includes Eastern and Western White pine. Sugar pine, Western Yellow pine in Cali- fornia and Oregon; Norway, Loblolly, Cuban, Longleaf, Shortleaf, Pitch and Jersey pines ; Noble fir. Of hardwoods : Yellow poplar, chestnut, Black oak and Red oak, and probably most of our good hardwoods in Southern Michigan and the Ohio valley. Standard c would include Western Yellow pine, and Douglas fir of the Rockies, Eastern spruce, tamarack, White fir, hemlock. Jack pine, White oak, hickory. Yellow birch. Sugar maple, beech in Northern woods. What shall be done with eucalyptus, with cotton wood in river bottoms, with Pinon, Mesquite, and shall Redwood and Douglas fir have their own standard, are still questions to be debated. It may seem like playing with a few figures to even suggest the 12 Forestry Quarterly above standards. But if tamarack in its native sites grows to be 35 to 75 feet tall at 100 years, varying in this with the quality of the soil, drainage, and if Jack pine fits into this same group, it is hard to see why in such classification of mere dimension we might not have some simplicity and uniformity and use the same foot rule in gauging any particular tract of land, whether swamp with tamarack or poor sand stocked with Jack pine. However, all this is for the futiu-e and the important thing is to get a measure which the forester can use when he is asked to survey a tract of timber land. ADDENDA By H. a. Parker^ The above data have even a greater content for the purpose in hand than that utilized by Professor Roth. It is the purpose of this addition to bring out more fully the close relationship of height and volume, and especially the interesting volume-height relation of one genus, the pines, so widely distributed as the Scotch pine, the White pine, the Loblolly and Shortleaf pines, as appears from the following tabulation : PINES Relative Values — Volume (1) (2) (3) . (4) (5) Germany Schwappach Margolin Sterrett Mattoon (1888) (1908) (1910) (1914) (1915) Scotch Pine Scotch Pine White Pine Loblolly Pine Shortleaf Pine Aged Aged Aged (Peeled) Aged Site 100 Years 100 Years 90 Years 50 Years 80 Years I 100 100 100 (100) 100 100 II 79 85 87 (79) 79 79 III 60 69 72 (60) 61 57 IV 43 55 • • • • V 29 43 • • • • Relative Valiies — Corresponding Heights I 100 100 100 (100) 100 100 II 88 87 96 (87) 84 88 III 75 73 91 (76) 69 74 IV 60 58 , , , , V 45 43 > Student, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto. Concerning Site 13 The first data of Schwappach's were gathered under a very differ- ent thinning practice than the later ones, yet the relative heights were not far different, being just two points higher in the less severely thinned stands. But in comparing the heights and volumes or the volumes in the two cases alone, the difference is considerable, to the disadvantage of the older practice. Under the intensive thinning practice, the relative volume values of the latter have been made almost equivalent to the relative height values. Excepting those of columns 1 and 2, all the other values given in the above table are for unmanaged forests, or for forests where thinning practice has been only imperfectly or not at all developed. The relative volume values for White pine show a less range than those of Scotch pine for sites I, II and III. Is this not due to the fact that, granting White pine site I is equivalent to Scotch pine site I, White pine sites II and III are superior to Scotch pine sites II and III in the ratios of 87: 79 and 72: 60 respectively? Had the White pine sites been chosen so as to give volume values, say, 100, 79 and 60, instead of 100, 87 and 72, then the height values, 100, 96 and 91, proportionately reduced, would have been approximately 100, 87 and 76, which figures show a striking resemblance to those of Schwappach for height. The relative volume values for Loblolly pine in column 4 are different from those given in the above article, in that they are for peeled material. They are almost identical with those of column 1, but the corresponding height values have a greater than average range. This may be due to peculiarities of growth and to the short age. The values in the last column are from Biilletin 308 of the United States Department of Agriculture (Forest Service); they show similar volume-height relations. These conclusions follow : 1. Given normal stocking, a certain kind of tree, age and site classification, there are definite relative voliime values for the various sites, also definite corresponding relative height values. 2. The intervals between pairs of consecutive height values are less than those between corresponding volimie values. 3. As a basis for site classification for normal stands not less than middle-aged, we may use either volume or height. But, as Professor Roth suggests, for abnormal stands the height is the better indicator. SILVICULTURAL PROBLEMS OF CANADIAN FOREST RESERVES' By B. E. Fernow^ Last summer, through the courtesy of the Director of the Dominion Forestry Branch, and in his company, the writer had the privilege of inspecting conditions in some of the Dominion Forest Reserves in the prairie provinces and of some parts of the Rocky Mountain Reserves. This inspection was made with a view of enabHng the writer as chairman of the newly established Advisory Board of the Forestry Branch, to formulate propositions for investigatory work as a basis for an eventual technical management of the Reserves. While ten weeks travel can, to be sure, give only a very super- ficial insight into conditions and problems, contact with actualities and intercourse with the men in charge permits at least a judgment of the general requirements in the administration and manage- ment of these properties. * * * The visitor will, however, at once realize, that to fulfill their function, namely to furnish con- tinuous wood supplies, a systematic technical management is a more or less urgent necessity and should be inaugurated as early as possible upon the basis of carefully prepared working plans. So far, in the minds of the public not only, but of officials as well, the problem of the Forest Reserves has appeared of the same nature as that of the mere administration of timber lands ; so far, indeed, hardly more than a timberland administration has been attempted, albeit with a somewhat more conservative disposal of available supplies. Of the practice of forestry, the technical art, there is as yet hardly a beginning. For such an administra- tion as has been hitherto attempted technical men and technical knowledge are hardly required. The fact that most reserves are under the management of non-technical men bears out this con- tention: Forestry practice is still absent. The application of forestry means efforts to reproduce the har- vested crop, efforts to make the Reserves continuous producers, to manage them with a view to sustained yield, which can be * Before Commission of Conservation of Canada, Ottawa, 1916. 2 Dean, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto. 14 Silviculture in Canada 15 done only by application of silviculture, the art of forest crop production. The principal reason for the absence of such forestry practice is probably an economic one. Most of the Reserves are located where, as yet, no market, or only a limited market, exists, and, moreover, the best timber, the marketable portion on most of the Reserves, had been placed in timber limits, which were haggled away before the Reserves were created, hence the administration was financially handicapped at the start. In addition, the administrator of the Reserve, if he consulted the technical man, would have found out that to reproduce the forest crop costs money just the same as reproducing the farm crop, and as he is accustomed to deal at any rate only with present-day affairs, he is apt to let the future take care of itself and to confine himself to present-day timber sales of whatever available supplies are at hand. He thinks that if he has made provision against fire danger and for reduction of waste generally, perhaps restricting the cut to a diameter limit, he has done all that can be expected. Surely, these administrative measures are of primary importance and need first consideration but if this were to remain the proper attitude, the Reserves would fail of their object and altogether the prosperity of the country would suffer in the future. The forester also takes into consideration the economic condi- tions under which he is to practise his technical art ; he also is shy at avoidable expenditures, but he makes a long range calculation. His business is to provide for the futiu-e and hence he looks into and calculates with the future, and he knows from the experience of other nations that it requires expenditure and apparently dead work in the present to secure results for the future. His finance calculation is for the long run ! We must not allow ourselves to be deterred by the fact that the forest crop is slow in maturing, that it takes many decades from the seedling to the log tree and not less than 60 to 120 years for a profitable crop to mature. On the contrary, this is the very reason for a timely beginning to start the crop. It is this time element which makes the forestry business unattractive to private enter- prise and furnishes the argument for government to engage in it, the justification for setting aside Forest Reserves and for handling them for the sustained yield under systematic forest management. 16 Forestry Quarterly Only a government with the duty to consider a long future, with providential functions, can afford to do this. From the standpoint of the more or less immediate need of inauguration such systematic forest management, we may classify the Reserves into four or five classes. There are some Reserves, located near well populated districts, whose natural supplies are already being heavily drawn upon, as e. g. the Cypress Hills Reserves in Alberta and Saskatchewan, the Pines and Nisbet Reserves in Saskatchewan, the Turtle Mountain Reserve in Manitoba. Here, there should be immediately inaugu- rated a well considered felling plan and a judicious reforestation program. Under present methods of mere exploitation the virgin supplies must be soon exhausted, unless adequate provision is made at once for a new crop. Next, we have Reserves which, as yet, are but lightly drawn upon, but which within the next decade promise to come into market more fully, as the settlements come up to their boiuidaries and the settlers' wood supplies are giving out. Such are the Duck and Riding Mountain Reserves in Manitoba. Here, ever^^ oppor- tunity for more careful study of the silvicultural problems should be embraced, and a thorough preparation for technical manage- ment should be begun now in anticipation of their coming fully into market soon. Then there are a number of Reserves that were not set aside on account of their timber, which was either used up, burned up, or naturally absent, but on account of the unsuitability of the soil for farm purposes and the possibility of using it for timber crops. Such Reserves are the Sprucewoods Reserve in Manitoba, partly wooded, and the JManitou Reserve in Saskatchewan, largely without natural growth, and several other sand hill territories. Here, planting operations should be begun at once, first trial plantations with various species and methods, and, after experi- ence has been gained, on a larger scale, with or without assistance, by natural regeneration as the case may be. Lastly, there are extensive Reserves in the northern prairie regions and in the Rocky Mountains which are as yet so far removed from market as to place them last from the standpoint of the need of technical management. Here the problems are still mainly of administrative character: to prevent further deterioration of the properties, especially by fire; to regulate the Silviculture in Canada 17 use of whatever resources may be available, like, e.g., pasturage; to improve these resources; to make them accessible, and, as far as technical interest is concerned, to study the silvicultural prob- lems against the day when they must be solved. All Reserves, however, once set aside for permanency, should be administered under systematic working plans, more or less elaborate, especially with reference to their utilization; and, if they are to do justice not only to the present, but also to future needs, such plans must eventually provide for the application of proper silvictiltural methods for securing a continuance of wood crops. There is no other productive business that needs so much planned and consevative procedure as the business of producing forest crops, for the reason that not only do these crops mature slowly, but there is little chance to advance and improve the crop after it is once started; its proper start, therefore, is the important thing. The manufacturer can change his processes in a few weeks, the farmer from year to year, but the forester, once his crop is started, may not change his procedure for a century, and there is only limited chance during the life of the crop to interfere with its development; therefore, the necessity of careful planning. If our Reserves were all first-class, useful virgin timber, the working plans would be a simple affair. They woiild consist in prescribing the cutting of the year's requirements in such a manner as to secure reproduction — a natural regeneration. But this is by no means the condition, even in the well-wooded Reserves; only small portions consist of mature, useful timber, largely spruce; large portions, as a result of fires, represent young growth or are grown up to undesirable or at least less useful species, prin- cipally aspen; some of these aspen stands are rotten and useless; some areas are mere brushlands, and still others entirely waste — dilapidated woods which only a laborious buUding-up process can bring into desirable productive condition, and that means careful planning and eventually the necessity of expenditure in starting future crops. In this connection, there is one feature of importance to which I may refer in passing, that pertains at least to some of the Re- serves in the prairie region which is encouraging in this respect, namely the remarkable rapidity of growth, which excels that of the eastern provinces, and promises early maturing of a valuable 18 Forestry Quarterly crop. This statement has special reference to the White spruce, which on the deep soils which it occupies grows for a long time on the average at a rate of 5 to 6 years to the inch, making a 15-inch tree, 80 feet in height, in 80 years. In order then, to inaugurate a systematic management of any property, the character and condition of the property needs to be known in detail; next, its administrative, its economic, and its technical problems must be recognized and solved. These requirements in a forest property involve first of all a detailed forest survey, including a close stocktaking, and mapping; next, a suitable subdivision into smaller units or compartments for convenient handling; a study of the materials that can be marketed, and a study not only, but a stimulation of the market for the minor materials; next a study of growth conditions and their effect and results in regard to regeneration and in regard to increment. Based on this information, an admissible felling budget may then be calculated and the felling areas may be suit- ably located; finally, study and experiment is necessary to learn how the local silvicultural difficulties may be overcome. These are the data which must be ascertained in order to formu- late a working plan and to inaugurate a technical management. There is no need here, I hope, to insist on the necessity of employ- ing men with professional training to collect these data and to apply them ; no need to insist that permanency of tenure of office and continuity of organization are essential to successful execution of the plans. I propose now to point out a few illustrations of the kind of silvicultural problems that must eventually be solved by experi- mentation, those that arise in attempts to secure a new crop of desirable character. Each Reserve has its special problems, according to its charac- ter and composition. The Aspen Problem In the Riding and Duck Mountains, we find conditions and problems very much alike. The most valuable species here at present is the White spruce, hence it is this species for which the management would have to be devised, especially as at least 60 per cent of the soil is adapted to this species. Unfortunately, numerically, another species, the aspen, is most Silviculture in Canada 19 prominent, as a result undoubtedly of fires which in past ages and also in modern times have reduced the spruce to only a limited amount; hence the spruce must be re-established in competition with the aspen. There is no diffictilty on this account, in the nature of the two species, for the spruce is a tolerant species and can stand the light shade which the aspen gives, almost without being retarded in its growth. The only problem is that of the profitable or at least costless removal of the surplus of aspen. Aspen is by no means a useless weed tree. Not only is it val- uable as a mere soil cover, recuperating the soil after fires, but it furnishes an acceptable fuel wood and pulpwood, and even an inferior grade of lumber, especially for flooring. Aspen also lends itself to use for small woodenware, boxes, crates, pails, excelsior. The establishment of industries near or in the Reserves using this material is probably possible and shotild be brought about by investigating the possibilities of securing a sufficient supply of the raw material and other factors favoring such industries. Unfortunately, it is liable at an early age to rot. Large areas of mature aspen, which look as if they would cut satisfactory saw material, are to the extent of 50 to 80 per cent "punky," and so far as known useless. The silvicvdtural problem of re-establishing the spruce must wait upon the solution of the technological prob- lem of finding a use for "punky" wood, or a use where at least a certain per cent of rot is not objectionable. Such large areas of pure aspen of all ages are found in these and other Reserves that it will become an unavoidable necessity to work in part for aspen reproduction, and in that connection to solve the problem of reducing or stopping the progress of the disease, keeping it out of the yoimger growths that are not yet affected. The aspen problem is, indeed, a general one throughout the whole Eastern Dominion; the development of its profitable utili- zations should be made one of the studies of the Forest Products- Laboratories. The Underbrush Problem There is little or no difficulty in establishing spruce under aspen because of the shade endurance of the latter, but another, worse, inimical agency comes in to make difficulty. The light shade of 20 Forestry Quarterly the aspen favors the establishment of a dense underbrush, espec- ially of hazel, with an admixture of half a dozen other shrubs. This underbrush keeps out the spruce, keeps it from establishing itself by natural seeding, and would choke it out if planted, and hence must be removed before a young crop of spruce, and even of aspen, could be established. Experiments are needed to deter- mine the cheapest effective method of dealing with this trouble. The inquiry would be as to whether cutting or burning produce the more favorable conditions and at what time of the year it is best to do the one or the other. Planting Problems The desire of the forester is to secure his crop, if possible, by natural regeneration; that is, to so handle the matiure crop that the seeds falling from it establish the new crop before the seed trees are all removed; this in order to avoid the outlay for plant- ing. But there are large areas in these Reserves on which no old crop of desirable species is to be found, and it becomes necessary to establish such species by planting. The problem, then, is to find the most suitable species and the cheapest successful manner of propagation. To gain an insight as to what species to introduce, trial planta- tions on a small scale are indicated. It is my impression that not only in the aforementioned forest- less Reserves, and where desirable species are lacking, but also in the weU-wooded ones, planting will be found often preferable to reliance on natural regeneration. While the apparent economy in relying on Nattue's ability to establish a new crop is in favor of natural regeneration, avoiding the cash outlay necessary to start the crop by artificial means, sowing or planting by hand, in the end result the latter often proves the cheaper. To use Nattu-e as a planter reqtdres knowledge, judgment and skill not only, but lucky weather conditions, satisfactory seed production and favorable conditions of the ground for germination and growth of the seedlings. This combination of favorable cir- cumstances does not occur frequently. On the other hand, by growing seedlings in nurseries where they can be given the best care, and setting out plants, success can be forced, and especially time can be saved. Silvicultrue in Canada 21 Hence, early attention should be given to finding out the best materials and methods of planting. The Jack Pine Problem Large areas of sandy soils are covered with a dense growth of pure Jack pine, standing so dense that each tree has little chance for development, hence the individual development is extremely slow. By reducing the number per acre, i. e. by thinning, as it is technically called, the remaining stand can be given opportunity for better development. The problem is to find out at what time of the life of the stand to thin and how many trees to the acre promise the most satis- factory result. The most valuable use of the Jack pine is for railroad ties, and it would, therefore, be desirable to grow tie trees. For this pur- pose, there is no need of freedom from knots, hence branchiness is no objection, and the increase in increment due to fully devel- oped crowns that can develop in open stand may be secured with- out injuring quality. That means an early and severe opening up is indicated, only taking care not to expose the soil too much at a time. The Jack pine is a rapid grower when young, but not persistent, hence this tendency should be utilized by giving it a chance to develop its rapid rate early. This may, perhaps, be done by reducing the number in the stand early to say, 300 or 400 trees per acre or perhaps even less. The narrow-minded manager will object that the operation would not pay because, perhaps, he could not dispose of the material coming from the thinnings profitably, but if it could be shown that instead of having to wait 80 to 90 years for a 5-tie tree to develop, a full crop of railroad ties, 1500 to the acre, could be produced in 40 to 50 years, the profitableness of the operation might justify its inauguration even without the possibility of disposal of the thinnings. Experiments, then, for determining the most satisfactory density of these stands should be under- taken at once. The possibility of shortening the time of production of sizeable materials by a rational thinning practice has even in Germany been fully realized only dtuing the last 30 years, and now, not only are from 25 to 50 and more per cent of the final harvest crop 22 Forestry Quarterly secured by thinnings, without reducing the amount of the harvest crop, but the rotation as far as it is designed to produce sizes can be reduced at least 20 years. It is, then, desirable to institute thinning experiments in other than the Jack pine stands. The Muskeg Problem Such experiments suggest themselves at once also for the Black spruce stands on the peaty muskeg areas which occupy such large extent in the Reserves, and usually grow in overcrowded condi- tion, retarding the development to size of the single individual. Whether by thinning, the rate of growth can be changed covild be easily found out. The probability, however, is that lowering the water-table would show better results. Altogether, the problem of the proper use of these extensive peat bogs is one that should early occupy the attention both of the Forestry Branch and the Agricultural Department, for there is hidden in them a great resource that it has so far not been given to us to fully realize. The Fallen Timber Problem In the Rocky Mountain Reserves fires have killed large areas of mature growth, and as a result there are thousands of acres of windfalls covering the ground with a labyrinthian maze of down trees, which make the areas almost inaccessible and unmanageable for cropping. What can be done with this unforttmate condition? After some time this material rots, disintegrates and becomes a part of the soil, but in the alpine climate this process takes a long time. Meanwhile, these areas form also dangerous fire traps. Here again, the Forest Products Laboratories may be able to work out a solution, devising means of utilizing such material. Altogether, the problem of finding use for minor wood mater- ials is one that would often make it economically possible to solve the silvicultural problems. There are, then, a host of problems which it takes time to solve. Their solution should be attempted at an early date. This is possible by experiment on a small scale before the necessity of solving them on a large scale arrives. But it should be reaUzed Silviculture in Canada 23 that the answers to these inquiries by experiment come as slow almost as the crop itself for which they are made. Therefore, the time to inaugurate them is now. Fortunately, the experiments outside of reqviiring careful and judicious plan- ning can be made with very small expense, and considerations of economy, due to the exigencies of the war, need, perhaps, not delay them. THE COSTS AND VALUES OF FOREST PROTECTION By p. S. LovEjoY^ The analogies between the costs of protection in forests and the operations of commercial fire insurance are rather close, but tend to be misleading. An insured property must pay a certain premium each year. In the case of damage, the owner is reim- bursed for his losses. The charges depend on the value of the property and the likelihood of its being damaged by fire or other agencies. The theory of insurance involves the assumptions that there will be fires, that the fires will cause damage, and that the number of fires and the resulting damages can be statistically foretold so that the premiums can be adjusted to the losses and the cost of doing business. But such insurance for the forest cannot be purchased in America. In the forest, fires are expected, and the ratio of fire to damage is fairly well understood. The problems of salvage are similar to those of other kinds of property. With the accumulation of dependable statistics the forester will be able to forecast with large accuracy, the source, location, and number of fires, and their normal damage. As in insurance, there are annual charges to be paid, and the amount of such charges should bear a rela- tion to the value of the property and the likelihood of its being damaged. But in insurance the annual charge buys indemnifi- cation in case of damage ; in the forest it supports merely the protective organization. Save in a special business sense, insur- ance does not buy protection ; it buys only reimbursement for losses. Expenditures for forest protection pay for the protection only and, in case of losses, the owner is not reimbursed and his sole object is to prevent or minimize losses. Save in that there are annual charges to be met, and that the charges are in definite relation to the values of the property and the likelihood of its suffering damage, there is little identity between the problems of insurance and of forest protection. The objects of each are quite dififerent. The cost of insurance is not the only expense to which the ordinary business is put on account of the likelihood of damage I Assistant Professor of Forestry, University of Michigan . 24 Costs of Forest Protection 25 by physical agents. To secure safety from wind damage, for instance, more expensive buildings are required than would other- wise be necessary. There is a specific charge for fire protection proper. Taxes paid for the support of the city fire department, the city water system, paved streets which permit greater effi- ciency by the fire-fighting organization, the costs of supporting a telephone system, etc., all of which are useful for other purposes than protection, nevertheless should be considered as parts of the actual costs of protection. Such items as the costs of watchmen, alarm systems or automatic sprinklers are direct charges against protection. Charges for protection proper are therefore common to all usual business, as well as to forests. The sum of all such charges may frequently be greater, for the ordinary business, than the costs of insurance. Because they are not so obvious as the costs of insurance, they are often overlooked and it is assumed that the forest must bear costs not borne by other forms of property. Sometimes a very large business "carries its own insurance." In such case, the phrase may be a figure of speech and no in- surance of any kind may be effective, or when properly applied, the phrase indicates that the business each year sets aside sums directly comparable to the premiums of insurance, the sums so appropriated being accumulated into a fund to provide for the rebuilding or replacement necessary on account of fire losses. This practice is practicable where the property holdings are well scattered and no considerable proportion of the entire plant is likely to be wiped out at one time. The object of such proce- dure is to save the administrative costs of commercial insurance, which, of course, are included in the premiums ; in efifect real insurance is in force. Forest owners have sometimes assumed that they were ''carry- ing their own insurance," but this has probably indicated only that their financial affairs were in such shape that they could stand the losses from fire which they anticipated might occur. A factory can be rebuilt and a business re-established after a fire. A forest cannot be replaced in the same sense, and there would, therefore, be no object in setting aside sums correspond- ing to the premiums of insurance. The calculated financial dam- age suffered by an owner in case of forest fire may be reimbursed, as in a judgment in a fire trespass case, but the judgment cannot 26 Forestry Quarterly replace the forest. The phrase "carrying his own insurance" would seem to be wholly misapplied in the case of the forest owner. Most of our American forests are subject to total destruction by fire, and practically all of them are subject to very serious damage. The amount of damage suffered in the past cannot be approximated save very crudely on a stumpage basis. A great amount of our burned forests have had only nominal stumpage values so that calculations on this basis are practically useless. Statistics bearing on the acreage burned over are more valuable. Calculations of the damage caused by fires, based on the cost of replacement of forest on the burned acreage, would, of course, indicate losses many times as great as those based on current stumpage values. Should an efifort be made to calculate losses on the assumption that a given acreage of burned forest will ulti- mately be replaced and maintained as forest, the result would doubtless show a financial loss well into the billions of dollars. Plummer^ estimated an average annual stumpage loss in the United States of $25,000,000 and that 10,000,000 acres a year were burned over. With any reasonable value assigned to the damages to young stands and to site, the indicated losses would certainly be more than doubled. Fire insurance eases the situation for the insured individual who suffers loss, but, of course, the whole group of policy holders actually reimburses all loss. Insurance being general, the policy holders add the costs of insurance to the costs of their business and the general public actually pays the bill of losses plus the administrative costs of the insurance companies. An individual who pays for a certain degree of fire protection which proves inadequate, and who has not insured his property, on suffering fire damage has his business either wiped out or must replace the damage out of what would otherwise be profit. In every case there is an economic loss in addition to the money loss of the property owner. It seems to come to this : the general pub- lic must pay the bill whatever happens; the uninsured owner must add to his costs of operation the cost of protection plus losses. Since the forest owner cannot insure his property, the costs of protection plus the value of his losses is a legitimate « Bulletin 117, U. S. Forest Service. Costs of Forest Protection 27 charge to be absorbed into his cost of doing business and to be reimbursed in the sale value of his product. In the long run. the stumpage value of timber must equal the cost of producing timber. Our forests must be protected, and it will cost an aggregate of very great sums to protect them. If we are to have forests, and if they are to pay for themselves, the cost of protecting them is an integral part of the cost of produc- tion. In a rather vague way this is already recognized. A tract of uncut timber surrounded by inflammable slash, brings much less on the market than a similar tract included within the boun- daries of an efficient Fire Protective Association. An owner bonding a timber tract where the fire danger is known to be high, must pay more for the money he borrows, because the bonding company will discount the issue so as to absorb what it assumes the risk to be. That is, the stumpage is worth less if unprotected. For the timber owner it is a matter of determin- ing whether it is cheaper to pay for protection or sufifer what- ever losses may occur. A property subject to great damage or total loss, and non-insurable, if without protection, is certainly an exceedingly poor investment, and the quality of the invest- ment will be in inverse proportion to the period of investment. An owner may be able to afford the risks for a few years previous to logging, but he can less afford unmitigated risks if he must wait for ten or more years for his timber to reach a satisfactory sale value. An owner contemplating indefinite or permanent forest maintenance without planning for the work and expenses of protection would be a speculator of low intelligence. Only the past rise in stumpage values, the concentration of great holdings in few, financially strong hands, and the practice of buying just ahead of logging have permitted timber investment under past and prevailing conditions to be a tolerable business venture. With the growth of stumpage values, the elimination of the small scattered holdings and, above all, the forester's demon- strations of the possibility of fire prevention and control, it is the exceptional timber owner who is not ready to admit that he can afford at least a little for a protective organization, even though he expects to log his timber within a few years. The growth of Private Fire Associations in numbers and in acreage patrolled is proof of this conviction. But the ineffectiveness 28 Forestry Quarterly of much of the association work and the fact that the State organizations for fire prevention and control, in most of our timbered States, are still, as a rule, either hopeless pretenses or largely helpless for lack of adequate appropriations, show that there is still little real understanding of the situation. Since the advent of the forester to America the owner and the public have learned that fires are largely preventable and that much can be done to control them at reasonable cost. But even forest- ers do not seem to have given much attention to the questions : What degree of prevention and control is possible ? What degree is practicable without prohibitive cost? What is prohibitive cost? For ordinary business any charge is prohibitive if it con- fiscates profits, or if it reduces profits below the current rates of interest on investment. For the private timber owner, this would be the case. For State or National Forests it is not neces- sarily true that there must be a direct cash profit from the forests in order to justify their maintenance, but such a profit should usually be possible, and it should be assumed that there will be such a profit. Practically all of our privately owned forests are, financially, little more than timber reservoirs with a land by- product ; their values are on a speculative rather than a stable, economic basis. The State and National Forests are to be, pre- sumably, permanent forests, and are on a different financial and economic basis. For the private owner, therefore, a prohibitive cost for protection would be one which threatened to confiscate the profits of the speculation. For State and National Forests, if they are required to return interest on their investment, a prohibitive protection cost would differ from that of the privately owned forest by the difference in the interest required to be carried on each. If the State or Nation can borrow money for 2, 3 or 4 per cent, they would probably be satisfied with that much return from their forests. If the private owner must net 6 per cent, there would be a difference in the maximum, tolerable protection costs of 4, 3 or 2 per cent. In the long run, this might amount to a good deal, but for present practical purposes it is of little importance except in that, under present conditions, the private owner must look more closely to the costs of his protection than need State or Nation. As far as the administrative forester is concerned, prohibitive costs are those beyond which the owner, private or governmental. Costs of Forest Protection 29 refuses to go. But this is not a fixed limit, and when the forester is clearly able to demonstrate to himself and his principals that greater appropriations arc amply justified, that, indeed, they redeem themselves at once, the forester can expect at least a great deal more than he is able to secure at present ; all he needs. The owner of a factory does not put in a sprinkler system until he knows that there is such a thing, knows that it will work under his conditions, and knows that the reductions in the cost of his insurance and the greater security which his business will receive from the increased protection, will be justified. When the forester is able to show the owner that it will pay. and pay well, the owner will be willing to incur any expense whatever. The possibility of the complete elimination of fires and fire damages from most of our forests may at once be given up. While it is theoretically possible, it may never be expected. At the same time, it is more than reasonable to anticipate that fire losses can be reduced to but little more than nominal. "As late as 1778 the necessity of keeping the . . . fire lanes open in the forests of Eastern Prussia is justified by the statement that 'otherwise the still constantly recurring fires could not be checked.' . . . 'Not a single acre of forest could be found in the province that had not been burnt in former or later times.' "* "In Prussian forest districts, in fifteen years, 405 fires were re- ported but only 191 acres in 1,000,000 were damaged out of the 7,000,000 acres involved."* On the strength of this testimony, and especially on the strength of what American foresters have already demonstrated to be possible under our own conditions, it is obvious that fire losses in our forests can be reduced to a point, which, according to past and present precedents, must be consid- ered nominal. For instance, the St. Joe National Forest lost tremendous areas of its timber during a few days, in 1910. Dur- ing the summer of 1915 Supervisor Holcomb reports: "We had in all a total of 103 fires, 51 of which were reported into head- quarters within a period of 52 hours. All of them were light- ning fires. . . The fires were all handled with absolutely no loss of timber of any appreciable value. The largest fire reached about eight acres. . . . The total expenditures were a little ' Fernow, History of Forestry, p. 48. * Fernow, Economics of Forestry, p. 133. 30 Forestry Quarterly over $4,000." It is no longer a question as to whether fires can be kept down. The only remaining question is as to how much the forester can afford to spend for fire prevention and control. The importance of attempting to define the reasonable limits of protection expenses lies in that, with the State and National Forests especially, it is necessary to secure appropriations for the work. In the absence of general information on the subject, it is naturally very difficult to persuade legislative bodies to take unprecedented action. But it is to be feared that foresters them- selves have paid but little attention to the matter, probably on the assumption that they could amply justify more than there was any chance of their getting. The same condition obtains to a greater or lesser degree among the Private Protective Asso- ciations, where the competent administrative officers have peren- nial difficulty in getting really adequate appropriations. As with all other forms of property, forest protection will justify any expense up to the point where profits are confiscated. The forester should be able to demonstrate that, long before any such point is reached, he can furnish his forest with protection which protects adequately. In the European forests mentioned, it is not unusual to have a gross annual expense of about $1 to $3 per acre. Of this amount approximately 6.25 per cent, or about 25 cents, is spent for protection. The forests, of course, pay a satisfactory interest on their capital value, which is high. At this rate, about $250 per 1,000 acres, per year, goes for pro- tection, which will include more or less work in connection with insects and fungi, trespass, etc., as well as fire protection work. The average assessment among our Private Protective Asso- ciations runs between 2 and 5 cents per acre and year. Under unusual conditions, usually where large fires have to be fought, the assessment reaches as much as 10 cents per acre. It has seldom, if ever, been higher. Out of this, is paid the salary of the year-long force (usually very small), the summer patrolmen, packers, fire-fighters, etc., and relatively small sums for permanent improvements, such as trails, cabins and telephone lines, and equipment. In a number of cases the assessments are only a fraction of a cent per acre and practically no improvement work is attempted. Without adequate statistics it is impossible to rate the relative efficiency of the protective work of the Asso- ciations in proportion to their costs. As a rule, the losses are Costs of Forest Protection 31 minimized by the reporting officers, and, because the tim- ber embraced within the patrol areas of such organizations is usually the most valuable and accessible in the region, burned- over timber can usually be logged out promptly and before serious deterioration takes place, thus salving much of the loss. The private timber owner figures his investment and values in terms of merchantable stumpage only. As a result of these factors, the reported damage is usually light on association areas. Under the circumstances, the sum of actual protection costs, plus losses, seems seldom to exceed the assessments by more than a few cents per acre and the figures cannot be properly checked against those from forests which are permanent timber properties. Figures as to costs and losses in the States where more or less protection work is done are as yet usually useless. Where the Fish-Fire-Game-Warden system prevails, the proper protection costs must be pro-rated out of the total costs. With a few notable exceptions, the State administrative officials are non-technical and untrained. Perhaps for this reason, the statistical records of the several States seldom even approximately follow the same form and frequently vary in form in consecutive years. The losses which are reported seldom assign a value to anything save merchantable timber, and, as in the case of the Private Associa- tions, even this tends to be minimized. Lack of consecutive and competently prepared records makes most of the State fire records useless for the present purpose. The published records of the Forest Service are the best available and are especially dependable since 1910. They leave much to be desired, however, in that expenses "for administra- tion and protection" are lumped, and in that it is impossible to arrive at the net sums which are expended on the National Forests directly. The total fire bill on any forest has two major items: 1. Expenditures in connection with fire prevention and control. These include a proportionate charge from the salaries of the permanent field force according as their time is chargeable to protection activities, the salaries of all fire patrolmen and fire- fighters and their assistants, such as packers, the cost of fire- fighting tools and equipment and of construction exclusively of value for protection purposes, such as lookout stations, and their equipment, lookout trails and telephone lines, etc. In addition 32 Forestry Quarterly a proportionate charge to protection should be made from the costs of constructing and maintaining the entire permanent improvement system of the forest, since every Ranger Station, trail road, bridge or telephone line may play an essential part in the protection system. 2. Aside from direct expenditures must be considered indirect costs. These would include the value of the losses occasioned by fire in the destruction of merchantable timber, the cost of forest replacement after fire, damage to improvements and range. Still other losses are apparent, as in the depreciation of site and the lowered sale value of stumpage where the investments of purchasers may be threat- ened or wiped out by fire, and the stumpages prices paid by them must compensate for the risks of operation. The sum of all these items of expenditure, loss and depreciation make up the total bill occasioned by the danger of fire — and there are other haz- ards besides fire to which the forest is exposed. Even the Forest Service does not, as yet, attempt to approximate more than a part of the direct costs and the more obvious losses occasioned by fire. On about 160,000,000 acres of the National Forests, large areas are non-forested. Other great areas have more or less cover of unmerchantable timber. The Forester's Reports segregate "tim- bered" from "open" lands. For the nine years 1905-1913, an average annual loss of 3.94 acres per 1,000 acres on "timbered" and "open" lands is reported. Of this there is reported an aver- age loss of 1.53 acres per 1,000 in the "timbered" and an average of 2.41 acres per 1,000 in the "open." Excluding the exceedingly unfortunate year 1910, the losses in "timbered" country aver- aged 0.47 acres per 1,000 and for the "open,"' 1.72 acres per 1,000, a total of 2.19 acres per 1,000 acres. Because of the great variation in weather and other conditions from year to year, over such a short period it is futile to attempt the comparison of records by years in trying to determine the relative progress in protective efificiency. This, however, is known to have been very great — doubtless many hundred per cent. The lowest reported losses were in 1906, with 0.7 acre per 1,000 acres. The greatest losses were in 1910, when 19.90 acres per 1,000 were burned. If about 0.5 acre per 1,000 acres were burned each year, and if each burn should be in a new place, at the end of a rotation Costs of Forest Protection 33 of 100 years some 50 acres per each 1,000 acres of forest will have been burned over, or o per cent. Irrespective of the value per acre, if the burned areas sample the forest, there is an annual charge of 5 per cent of the total forest income in losses alone. It is, of course, a prohibitive rate and in itself proves that present protection is inadequate. But the other charges must be added. The value of the timber losses per year, aver- age $1,788,000. In 1910, they were $24,183,000. Exclusive of 1910, they averaged $150,000. Losses in non-merchantable young stands ("reproduction" in the Reports) averaged, for the four years, 1910-1913, $2,37-4,000 per year. In 1910, they were placed at $9,180,000. Exclusive of 1910, the average is $105,000. In addition, other losses for "forage" were reported. The average total losses reported for the 9 years are $2,857,000. In 1910, the total losses were $24,183,000. Exclusive of 1910, the average is $116,000. The costs of fire-fighting are also reported by the Forester, but these do not include the salaries of the regular force or the expenses incurred by them in connection with fires. These amount to an average of $202,000 for the 7 reported years. Ex- clusive of 1910, the average is $162,000. In 1910, it was over $1,037,000. The sum of the expenses and the losses caused by fire, as reported, total to an average per year, for 9 years, of $2,929,000. Exclusive of 1910, $178,000. In 1910, they totaled $25,220,000. In order to approximate the actual total costs of the protective system it is necessary to include the value of the time of the regular forest officers and their expenses while engaged on fire work. There is no indication as to this total in the published reports. There should also be added a pro-rata charge against protection from the sums expended in permanent improvements such as roads, trails, telephone lines, lookout stations and equip- ment, fire-fighting equipment, etc. No data as to this item is available, but assuming that one fourth of the total appro- priated "for administration and protection" reaches the Forests and is expended in protection, about 0.25 of a cent per acre was spent for protection in the fiscal year 1914, which was about average. In that year a total of about 0.2 cent per acre was spent for permanent improvements. On the basis of these statistics it seems possible to conclude 34 Forestry Quarterly that Private Protective Associations are securing a fair degree of protection for their holdings at a total cost (operating cost plus losses) of less than 15 cents per acre per year, equivalent to a rate of about 2.5 per 1,000 on the sale value of the prop- erty subject to damage or destruction (assuming an average stand of 30M feet b. m. per acre and $2 stumpage). It would seem obvious that such a charge is but little more than nominal. It is less than the average rate for commercial insurance. It is also more than likely that much better protection than that secured can be secured for the same expense. Should it be necessary to expend as much as 25 cents per acre per year, in order to reduce the losses to a negligible amount, it w^ould be difficult to show that the cost would be prohibitive or even unrea- sonable in proportion to the sale value per acre of forest. It could probably be demonstrated that this amount would be less than that paid by any other large business for protection plus an insurance policy which would indemnity for losses occurring in spite of the protective system. The fact that such a charge per acre would run into very large sums in the case of certain owners, would only go to prove that certain owners owned very large acreages of valuable timber lands. With the repeated proofs that fire can be prevented and fire losses reduced to indefinite limits, it seems likely that business acumen will shortly realize that, with standing timber, as in the case of factory owners, adequate protection from fire is far cheaper than the bill for poor protection plus losses, and that with good protection losses become negligible. With the National Forests and to a large degree the State Forests, the situation is somewhat different, owing to the fact that the total acreage to be protected is very large in proportion to the acreage of highly valuable timber. In other words, the average value per acre of the forest is low as compared to the heavily timbered forests covered by the Private Associations. In the National Forests more than those of the States, the inher- ent difficulties of protection are vastly increased by the rough- ness of the country, its lack of development, the broken nature of many of the stands and the press of current administrative work not associated with protection. In spite of this, the pro- tective work of the National Forests is the model to which all other attempts at fire protection tend to conform. Undoubt- Costs of Forest Protection 35 edly, the Forest Service gets more forest protection for its money than any other organization, in this country, or, indeed, in the world. But the Forest Service would be the last to admit that the quality of its protection was adequate, or nearly adequate. The record shows l.o3 acres to each 1,000 acres of timbered land burned over each year for nine years. With a rotation of 100 years this is to assume that 153 acres in each 1,000 acres of timber will burn over during the rotation. Forestry is not a business which can stand a loss of 15 per cent on each turn-over of its stock. Assuming that there will be no more losses like those of 1910, even though similar seasons occur, and that the average losses can be held down to a rate of 0.47 acre per 1,000, the business of the National Forests cannot justify itself with a loss of 4.7 per cent during a rotation. Of course such a method of calculating is not strictly accurate, since it is not probable that all the areas burned over would be total loss or that each fire would run in a different tract, but the method is accurate enough to prove that the rate of loss must be greatly reduced. If Euro- pean experience counts, as we are perhaps learning that it does, and if our forests are not to be expected to earn more than 3 or 4 per cent on their capital value, it is obvious that a loss of even 1 per cent on the income of the rotation is an exceedingly serious matter. One per cent on the rotation amounts to a yearly burn of 1 acre per 10,000, or 0.1 acre per 1,000 acres; which is about one ninth the loss on the National Forests in the very favor- able year of 1912. There was a reported loss of 19.90 acres per 1,000 in 1910. While the losses were extraordinary, the season can hardly be said to be without precedent, in view of the season of 1914. For every region and for the whole country, repetitions of such condi- tions are quite to be expected at intervals of, say, from 5 to 10 years. That means that very bad seasons are to be expected some 10 or 20 times during a rotation. Or it means that there must be a perfect record, with no losses for 20 years, if the damages are to be reduced to an average of even 1 :1,000 acres per year. Such figuring is of use in attempting to form some notion as to the relative quality of the protection we are receiving and the extent of the effort and expense to which we must go. The statistics quoted indicate that it may be possible with the present system on the National Forests, to hold the losses in 36 Forestry Quarterly average years, to about 0.5 acre per 1,000 acres, or 1 acre per 10,000. If the cost of this quaHty of protection can be determined, the desirability and the possibiHty of increasing the investment in protection may be made obvious. Practically all of the permanent improvements constructed vvrould be required for protection alone, were there no adminis- trative needs for them. For correct book-keeping the cost should be pro-rated between the different lines of Forest work, but for present purposes they can all be charged against protection. This comes to 0.2 cent per acre. For "administration and protection" a total of about 2.47 cents per acre is reported. It has been assumed that about a fourth of this reaches the Forests for protection work, or about 0.5 cent per acre. With an average, annual loss through damage of $116,000, the average loss per acre is about .78 cents per acre. With an average annual bill for fire-fighting of about $62,000 the average costs per acre are about 0.004 cents. The totals for permanent improvements, protection force, losses and emergency fire-fighting costs, according to these calculations, reach less than 1.5 cents per acre. If the costs and losses of 1910 are included, the total averages about 2.6 cents per acre. This figure does not represent any fair index as to the total cost to the forest business caused by fire. That cost will be far greater. It should, however, indicate the disproportionately small amount which the Forest Service has been able to invest in actual protection work, and it proves the tremendous effective- ness of the organization. It would be highly profitable to know what the ratio between cost and effectiveness in protection is. If the type and work of the protective forces remain the same, what would be the effect on losses of doubling the amount expended for protection? Would this lower the losses by 50 per cent? If such a ratio could be determined it might be possible to approximate the cost of an organization which would reduce fire damage to a satisfactorily nominal amount. It will be for a long time impos- sible to determine any such ratio from the statistics. Weather conditions, changes in effectiveness with the increase of experience in the fire force, etc., must be discounted, and the statistics must Costs of Forest Protection 37 be uniform and running over long periods before such an attempt might be profitable. But we are certain that doubling the miles of road or trail more than doubles the accessibility of a region. Two well located lookouts can cover more country than twice what can be cov- ered by one lookout, and with much greater effectiveness. Ten men on a fire can put it under control more than twice as quickly as a five-man crew. The explanation may lie in the fact that fire tends to spread in several directions at once. The damage done (and the cost of control) is in ratio to the area burned over. Other things being equal, the area burned over is in proportion to the time elapsed between the start of the fire and the time it is attacked by an adequate crew of competent men. It may therefore be said that fire damage increases geo- metrically with the elapsed time between start and control. But the increase in cost of maintaining the protective organization would normally be an arithmetical increase. While this is all very theoretical, there seems reason to suppose that there is truth in it. It seems likely that the ratio will be something as 2:5. That is, if with a cost of 2 cents per acre for protection proper, the average fire burns over 25 acres, by increasing the cost of pro- tection to 4 cents, the acreage of the average burn may be reduced to 5 acres. Of course such reasoning cannot be carried to an extreme. The variable will not reach the limit, and it is to be expected that the law of diminishing returns will be encountered. If the Forest Service is able to furnish the quality of its present protection at a cost of less than 1 cent, for five cents per acre it should be able to give a degree of protection under which the losses would be much less than one fifth of the pres- ent. For about 10 cents per acre per year, there seems reason to expect that a complete and proper system of improvements manned by fully equipped crews of experienced men could be put in and maintained so as to reduce losses to practically a nominal amount. If the capital value of the National Forests were so low as to average only $10 per acre, an investment in their protection of 10 cents per acre per year would represent 1 per cent. Where 1 per cent of the forest stock is far too great an annual loss to be tolerated, 1 per cent of the present capital value is practically insignificant because of the certain 38 Forestry Quarterly increase in stumpage values. If the value of stumpage only doubled once during the first rotation and stumpage bringing $1 per M feet b. m. now were only worth $3 in 100 years, the pro- tection cost would still be justified. But an increase of a hun- dred per cent in average stumpage values may confidently be looked for during the next rotation, and the cost of protection against fire becomes then nominal. In any case, it is certain that the value of stumpage will not settle till the full cost of produc- tion has been reached. Production without protection is not possible and will not become possible. The costs of protection, therefore, are an integral part of the production costs and the value of stumpage must always be high enough to absorb them. That this is already being recognized in a vague way is shown in the higher sale value of tracts included within the protected area of the better Associations, as compared with similar tracts which are unprotected. It is, also, even more clearly shown by the greater discounts required by the better class of bonding com- panies in placing the bonds of timber corporations whose hold- ings are known to be subjecst to high fire dangers; this indicating that the security represented by such tracts is less than those having comparatively little fire danger, and that the investment values of such tracts are thereby lowered by the fire danger. In connection with fire protection and its costs, it must be remembered that the forest is subject to many other prevent- able damages, the most important being trespass, fungi and insects. While the fire danger is the greatest and protection from fire is the most urgent item, a forest reasonably safe from fire is not necessarily at all safe. A charge against trespass protection is properly to be made from the funds expended for general admin- istration. The necessary measures and the costs of protection against insects and fungi we know little about, as yet. That the costs of such operations may frequently exceed those for fire protection is not unlikely. It is high time that American foresters stopped thinking of forest protection in terms of fire only, and high time that it was recognized that the present degree of fire protection is, even at best, wholly inadequate, and that the forest business can fully justify the costs of adequate protection, which will probably approximate 20 cents per acre per year, of which perhaps 10 cents will be chargeable to fire protection. MAKING BOX BOARDS FROM SAWMILL WASTE By p. L. Buttrick^ One of the most important subjects before the lumber trade is the disposal of "waste." In the days of low stumpage it did not greatly concern the lumbermen that they threw away about a third of the log in slabs, edgings and trimmings, which they burned to get rid of. As we look at it today, their operations lacked efficiency. Now that logs have become so much scarcer and stumpage so much more valuable, to say nothing of compe- tition having become so much keener, they should take an interest in that mysterious thing called "efficiency." Efficiency means absence of waste. Yet it is impossible to cut round logs into rectangular boards without leaving a residue. This residue is called in sawmill parlance "waste." It can, however, be used as a raw material for a number of wood products not strictly classified as lumber. The more impor- tant of these are: lath, shingles, staves, box boards, wood pulp, and various chemical products such as turpentine and tannic acid. Nevertheless, with the exception of lath, most of these products are still made directly from logs or cordwood cut for the pur- pose, and the waste is still largely destroyed. This has not been altogether the fault of the lumberman, since it often cost so much to manufacture from waste that it could not profitably be done. Today increases in value and consumption of these products and the rise in value of the raw material are beginning to make it financially possible for those manufactured from waste to compete with those from logs and cordwood. Efficiency demands that this be done, and it is an economic gain to the public as well as to the lumbermen that it be done, since the closer we utilize our timber the less we are obliged to cut at a time, and so the longer it will last. Since the manufacture of box boards from waste is not a very well known scheme of utilization, it is possible that the following account, based on an experience of some months at a factory, which utilizes waste exclusively, may be of interest to lumber- men, foresters and conservationists. » Constdting Forester, New Haven, Conn. 39 40 Forestry Quarterly The various products made from sawmill waste often demand quite different size, shape and quality of pieces, so that it is usually impossible, or at least unprofitable to utilize all waste from a given mill for a single product. Nevertheless, a box factory manufacturing a suitable grade of box boards should be able to utilize from 40 to 60 per cent of the normal waste from the average mill (provided, of course, that it cuts woods suit- able for box boards), and to leave a sufficient unsuitable remainder to stock the lath mill. There are few kinds of wood which cannot be made into box boards, although some, such as cottonwood and White pine, are exceptionally desirable. Among the more common hard- woods which can be used are cottonwood, Yellow poplar. Red gum, tupelo, basswood, buckeye, chestnut, butternut and others. Among the softwoods are White pine, spruce, balsam. Southern and Western Yellow pines, Western hemlock and certain of the cedars. Box factories generally use fairly high grade lumber, and have not taken kindly to the idea of using sawmill waste. Hence such work as has been done along this line has been by the sawmills themselves, some of which have successfully established box factories of their own. There are four classes of sawmill waste which can be used in the manufacture of box boards, or "shooks" as they are often called. First, trimmings and edgings from the main sawmill ; second, culls from the planing mill ; third, odds and ends which accumulate about the plant and yard ; fourth, slabs. Trade customs which make it necessary that practically all lumber be cut into lengths which are multiples of even feet, and the necessity for trimming boards to rid them of wane or other defects insure a constant supply of boards too short for ordinary uses. These make excellent material for boxes. Edging strips are not so valuable, as they are apt to be too narrow, but heavy ones can be used. Every planing mill turns out a certain amount of finished lumber which is imperfectly manufactured. Boards with skips in dressing, or with a tongue or a groove split off, or perhaps with a strip of wane left on are examples of such culls. Many such boards cannot be manufactured profitably, but are suitable for box shook stock. Every mill has its quota of dead stock, such as boards spoiled in seasoning, odds and ends of special orders, badly sap-stained pieces and the like. A box Box Boards from Waste 41 factory can work up a great deal of such material and thus save it from becoming a total loss. Slabs are a perennial problem at the sawmill. By installing a slab resaw and cutting them into short boards for the box factory the waste from this source can be greatly lessened. The manufacture of box boards requires extra floor space and special machinery. The shop can best be arranged in connection with the planing mill rather than the sawmill itself. If the plant is large, the box factory can be made a separate unit of man- agement. At smaller plants its management can be incorporated with that of the planing mill. The main machinery in a box factory consists of rip-saws, cut-off saws, planing machines and resaws. Nailing machines, splicers, matchers, equalizers and many other special machines are used for various kinds of work, but are not essential in a factory using mill waste. A twin-band resaw, however, might be useful if trimmings from timbers and dimen- sion stock are abundant. The planers must be specially designed for the work and should be wide gauge short-bed machines capa- ble of running large numbers of short irregular pieces at high speed. Any standard resaw such as intended for planing mill or box factory use should be satisfactory. There are numerous types of cut-off and rip-saws designed for box factory use. Hand- feed rip-saws are probably more satisfactory for box factories using waste than are power-feed machines. A good arrangement and combination of machines would seem to be the following: 1 band resaw, in front of 3 planers, then 2 more resaws, all followed by 6 cut-off saws arranged in a line at right angles to the resaws and planers, and then 7 rip-saws in a line at right angles to the cut-offs. Special machinery is usually placed beyond the rip-saws. (It is generally well to provide storage room both for waste and for completed shooks.) Such a factory should be able to turn out from 50,000 to 80,000 feet of shooks a day, and to utilize waste from a mill of from 200,000 to 300,000 feet capacity. For a mill of from 50,000 to 100,000 feet daily capacity, a resaw, a planer, 2 cut-off and 3 rip-saws should be ample. The resaw could, perhaps, be used jointly with the planing mill, since it would generally be less in use in the box factory alone than the planer. Smaller mills can sometimes resaw slabs and planing mill culls and sell them to box factories to be worked into shooks. 42 Forestry Quarterly Provision must be made for the collection of waste from various parts of the plant and its delivery at the box factory. In the main sawmill, the easiest plan is to pick out suitable pieces from the waste as it passes along the main refuse conveyor on its way to the refuse burner. It may be dropped on to trucks or wagons, or — if there is enough of it — on to a conveyor arranged to carry it to its destination. If the plant also has a lath mill, the box factory should be given first choice in working over the refuse, since box boards are a higher grade product than lath. There need be no fear of there not being enough pieces left too narrow for box boards with which to supply the lath mill. Box shooks must generally be made of seasoned lumber, else they will warp ; consequently it is necessary either to send the waste to a dry kiln or to pile it in the yard to season for several weeks. The dry kiln is better, since the cost of the extra handling of such small pieces increases rapidly. The illustration shows how sawmill waste is stacked on kiln cars. The edging strips are used for moulding stock. Such a car is estimated to contain 6,000 board feet. Planing mill culls can easily be loaded on trucks and moved directly to the box factory, since they are usually already sea- soned. Planing mill trim, if enough exists to make it worth while, can go in on a special conveyor. Occasionally a wagon or a trash car can be sent over the yard and the dead stock and trash which accumulates be loaded into it and hauled to the factory. If a slab saw is installed in the main mill it is a simple matter to sort out all the short boards cut on it from the slabs and see that they reach the box shop. Box boards used for tops, bottoms and sides are generally cut 5/16 or 3/8 inches thick. Ends and cleats are usually from 1/2 to 13/16 inches thick. It is generally possible to get 2 pieces for tops, bottoms, or sides from an inch board and 4 from a two- inch one. To obtain the required thicknesses, two-inch pieces are resawed, then planed and finally resawed again, since most shooks require dressing on one surface only. Inch boards are simply surfaced on two sides and then resawed, while pieces less than an inch in thickness are usually worked down entirely on the planers. Pieces of the required thickness for ends and cleats can sometimes be obtained directly from planing mill waste. For many uses it makes little difference if tongues or Box Boards from Waste 43 grooves remain on boards after they have been cut for box boards. This is more especially true in the case of rough crates where no attempt is made to remove them. After the boards have been reduced to the desired thickness they are cut to length on the cut-off saws and then ripped to width on the rip-saws, imperfections being cut out in both processes. The completed shooks are then bundled in convenient numbers and shipped to their destination, where the boxes are built up from the different pieces. They are seldom assembled at the factory, since their bulk makes shipment in the completed form too expensive. Shooks are seldom cut in advance of orders, since nearly every customer has his own requirements as to dimensions and speci- fications. Expensive boxes calling for dovetailed corners, matched boards, sliding tops and the like have not so far been made commer- cially from sawmill waste. Until more experience and knowledge regarding the possibilities of this form of waste utilization has accumulated it is not likely that they will be. Small and medium sized packing boxes and crates do not require such expert knowledge or special machinery for their manufacture, and it is with them that box factories utilizing waste will specialize. In manufacturing shooks from waste, great difficulty is expe- rienced in securing enough wide stock. Narrow stock accumu- lates in abundance. Consequently, orders requiring wide boards such as one-piece sides, tops and bottoms for large and medium sized boxes are avoided. Nor are large boxes of any descrip- tion considered desirable, since it is (or should be) difficult to obtain large pieces from waste. There is a large and steady demand for medium sized boxes for canned goods, tinned fish and meats, salt and frozen fish, soap, dried fruit, preserves, bottled liquors, cheap glassware, crockery and hundreds of other articles. Such boxes need not be made with special care or of very high grade material. They can easily and satisfactorily be made from sawmill waste. Crates, which are made of narrow slats, are, however, the most desirable product for a box factory using waste. Oftentimes the slats can be made from waste pieces at the same width they were originally cut, or if not, at such widths that there is little loss in ripping them. Sometimes the ends of these crates can be assembled on nailing machines in the factory before shipment. 44 Forestry Quarterly Such crates are used as containers for a variety of articles such as oil cans, syrup cans, empty bottles, pasteboard boxes, smoked meats, fruits, and light machinery. There are in addition to shooks a number of other products which can easily be made from sawmill waste at a box factory. Stock for chair rungs, table legs and other wood turnery articles of a like nature, and for novelty uses of various kinds can be made of pieces too small or narrow for box boards. By installing a band or circular rip-saw, moulding strips may be sawed out of thick clear edging strips. Lumbermen seem to be agreed that there is no profit in making mouldings from stock boards. The use of edgings should yield a return. The making of box shooks from sawmill waste is such a new enterprise that few men, either in box factories or sawmills, fully understand it. A box factory superintendent who has never used anything but standard lumber is apt to be out of sympathy with the idea of using waste. For this reason it may be better to place a man from the sawmill in charge, who is without previous prejudices, since in either case a man must be broken into the work. The same is true to a certain extent of rip-sawyers and other skilled workers. The success of a box factory using waste depends to a large extent upon the run of orders. Orders for shooks of dimensions which cannot readily be obtained from waste may greatly increase the cost of manufacture, or make it necessary to use standard lumber to fill them. Except at very large plants, a box factory will not be of sufficient capacity to keep a special box salesman busy disposing of its output. Since lumber salesmen seldom have much knowledge of boxes or of the patterns which can be made from waste it is desirable that the superintendent have the power to refuse or cancel orders which it is not for the interest of the factory to accept. Mills with waste enough to manufacture only a small quantity of shooks might be able to make arrange- ments through regular box companies. There is always the danger that the box factory will come to be regarded too much in the light of a catch-all, and material will be sent to it that could be more profitably utilized in other ways. There is no economy in sending mis-manufactured boards to the box factory if they can be remanufactured or trimmed with- out a loss of more than a third of their footage. Yet it is gen- Box Boards from Waste 45 erally easier for the planing mill to send such material to the box factory than to deal with it themselves. Likewise, it is easier for the box factory to use such material than to use waste, hence it is not likely to protest. In the sawmill itself, the knowledge that heavy slabs and edgings and long trimmings will all be used in the box factory may encourage carelessness on the part of sawyers and others unless a sharp watch is kept. At the average mill which has no other way of utilizing waste, enough of it must necessarily accumulate to stock the box factory without permitting lax cutting to obtain it. It should not cost more than from $10 to $12 per thousand feet of shooks to manufacture them from sawmill waste. The average selling price of a grade made from Southern Yellow pine is about $15. However, it will generally prove that shooks cannot be as cheaply manufactured from waste as from standard lumber — or at as great a profit. This need not dismay the lumber- man who is cutting woods suitable for box manufacture, for ordinarily his waste is of no value and it is an expense to him to dispose of it, so if, by a small investment in labor and machinery, he can turn it to even a small profit, it is that much added to his income. As before remarked, the use of waste in this way is an advantage to the public, since the close utilization of our timber resources is the practice of conservation, and therefore an eco- nomic gain to all. TEACHING DENDROLOGY IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS By Vaughan MacCaughey^ The study of trees and their timbers has won a place of recog- nized technical standing, not only in the curriculum of foresters, but also in the training of the engineer. In every realm of structural engineering there has been felt increasingly the neces- sity for accurate knowledge of timber sources and timber prod- ucts. The rapid shrinkage of the world's great lumber supplies is enforcing rigid economy in the use of wood for structural purposes, and this economy is reflected in a growing knowledge of the specific properties and uses of wood. In the engineering courses offered by the College of Hawaii, a one-semester, three- credit course in dendrology is required for graduation. The unique and interesting flora of the Hawaiian Archipelago ; the peculiar geographic and biologic isolation of this island world ; the diversified forests, varying widely in composition, rainfall, altitude, and economic uses ; the entire dependence of the local lumber markets upon supplies from California and Puget Sound — these and other conditions give a distinctly local atmosphere to the teaching of dendrology in Hawaii. Many of the students have never been away from their island home, and to them the names of maple, elm, ash, hickory, pine, and oak are almost as lacking in concrete associations as the names kukui, lehua, koa, kiawe, lama, would be to the average mainlander. The course in dendrology is organized around four phases or aspects of the subject, as follows: First, the structure and life history of the tree as an individual ; the physiological processes of the tree ; modes of reproduction ; ecologic adaptations. Second, the formation and development of the forest as a whole ; the for- est floor, canopy, wood-volume ; the life of the forest ; conserva- tion. Third, the forests and important forest trees of the Hawaiian Islands; of the mainland United States; and great for- est areas in other parts of the world. Fourth, detailed studies of the histologic structure of representative woods ; and the * Professor, College of Hawaii, Honolulu. 46 Teaching Dendrology 47 identification of woods by means of sections for the microscope. The topical outHne of the course by weeks is as follows : 1. The life of the tree as an individual organism 2. Structure and organs of the tree 3. Classification of trees 4. Methods for identification of trees 5. Life of the forest as a whole 6. The lumber industry 7. The forests of Oahu 8. Forests of the other Hawaiian Islands 9. Forests of the mainland United States 10. Important forests in other parts of the world 11. The minute structure of wood 12. Properties of wood 13. Methods for identification of woods 14. The "Hardwoods" 15. The Conifers 16. Other important commercial woods 17. Hawaiian woods of economic value 18. Thesis, review, and final examination The work of each week consists of one lecture, one laboratory or field period, one reading assignment — all with accompanying note-book records. The field work is an essential and distinctive feature of the course. The College of Hawaii is remarkably situated with reference to dendrological field studies. The island of Oahu, upon which is the city of Honolulu, is a volcanic doublet, 25 by 35 miles, skirted in part by a wide coral plain and reef. The Waianae Range, which forms the western portion of the doublet, is of much greater age than the recent windward Koolau Range. The Waianaes include a striking series of biological zones, from extensive arid plains and valleys, up to a boggy summit of 4,000 feet elevation. The Koolau Range is deeply carved into a picturesque succession of beautiful valleys, gorges, knife-edged ridges, and peaks, all covered with dense rain-forest. These two ranges compose the main mass of the island — originally two islands — and between them lies an elevated central plateau, deeply dissected by tortuous gorges. The coastal plains are diver- sified as to geologic formations and plant societies, and certain 48 Forestry Quarterly districts are studded with conspicuous secondary volcanoes of tufa and ashes, long extinct. From the standpoint of dendrological studies all these varied regions are quite accessible ; many of them are within half a day's walk, and the most remote can be reached within a single day. In addition to the automobile roads, plantation roadways, wagon trails, and foot trails, there are two railway lines, a number of stage lines, and a comprehensive motor-car service. There are also available a number of excellent topographic maps, includ- ing trail maps. Food supplies and potable water are obtain- able throughout the island. It is therefore a relatively simple matter to make a dendrological or other scientific expedition to any given region, to transport needed apparatus and equip- ment, and to continue the studies and collecting for as long a period as is essential. There is doubtless no other region in all the world — insular or otherwise — similarly blessed with all the conveniences of modern civilized society, where so many diverse types of tropical environ- ment are so easily available within small compass. Within a radius of half a dozen miles of the College campus, for example, there occur the following well-defined ecological districts: Manoa Valley: one of the largest of the Oahu valleys, with » spacious, well- forested amphitheater of erosion; broad, wet-crop floor ; and precipitous ridged walls. Waikiki Flats: extensive coastal plain area, artificially flooded, and planted with various wet-land crops ; rice, taro, lotus, banana, etc. Ka-imu-ki District: elevated, arid, with secondary craters, basaltic lava flows, and volcanic debris. Waialae: arid coastal region, penetrating adjacent valleys. Extinct Craters: Diamond Head, Punchbowl, Round-top, Sugar- loaf, Tantalus, Ka-au, etc. Koolau Range: average elevation 2200 feet, summit 3,000 feet; dense mantle of indigenous montane rain-forest. Introduced Plantings: Prosopis, Eucalyptus, Acacia, Pithecolo- bium, Casuarina, Bambusa, etc. Valleys and Streamways: Moanalua, Kahauiki, Kalihi, Nuuanu, Pauoa, Makiki, Manoa, Palolo, Waialae, etc. Foothills and Lower Ridges: eroded remnants of original volcanic dome ; chiefly xerophytic. Littoral Zone: including coral, lava, and tufa beaches. Teaching Dendrology 49 The coral reefs and other marine formations are not listed here. This list is not intended to be complete, but it will serve to indicate the unique variety of life conditions and plant habitats that occur within easy reach of the College. Another distinctive feature of the Honolulu region is that it is freely accessible for field work every day in the year, due to the equable climatic conditions of Hawaii. The absence of winter, the total absence of frost and snow, the great rarity of storms, and the balmy quality of the showers, make it possible to conduct field studies on any day of the year. There is no inclement weather. There is no dormant or leafless season ; plant life flour- ishes throughout the year, and field observations and collecting suffer no change because of abrupt seasonal changes. The natural background of the College thus affords a delight- ful outdoor laboratory for dendrological work. The following list of some of the commoner native trees that compose the forests in the vicinity of Honolulu will show the floristic peculiarities of this background : Aleurites moluccana, kukui, candle-nut tree Acacia koa, koa, Hawaiian mahogany Metrosideros polymorpha, lehua Pittosporum glabrum, hoawa Pisonia umhellifera, papala kepau Charpentiera ohovata, papala Dracaena aurea, halapepe Cibotium chamissoi, hapur, tree fern Santalum ellipticum, iliani. Sandalwood Jamhosa malaccensis, chin ai Ilex sandwicensis, kawau Cheirodendron gaudichaudii, olapa Bobea elatior, ahakea The laboratory periods are chiefly devoted to identification; all work with wood specimens and sections. Much use is made of the excellent slides and mounts prepared by Hough ; these are of special value to us, as our students have not even a superficial knowledge of the trees that furnish the timber supply of North America. For reference purposes, much use is made of the large photomicrographs by Weale, of London, of which the College has a complete series. The purpose of the laboratory exercises is to familiarize the students with the important types of woods ; the histologic characters used in timber identification ; and the details of wood structure upon which its economic properties depend. FOREST PROVISIONS OF NEW YORK STATE CONSTITUTION By C. R. Pettis^ The constitutional convention of the State of New York, which was held in 1893, adopted a provision (Article 7, Section 7) which read as follows: "The lands of the State, now owned or hereafter acquired, constituting the forest preserve as now fixed by law, shall be for- ever kept as wild forest lands. They shall not be leased, sold or exchanged, or be taken by any corporation, public or private, nor shall the timber thereon be sold, removed or destroyed." The reason for the act of this Assembly cannot be under- stood without a few words in regard to the land policy of the State of New York. The policy of the province and state had been to dispose of its lands. As early as 1708 the entire Catskill area was patented by Queen Anne, while large areas in the Adirondacks were first sold by the English colonial government, although some of them were later forfeited to the state under the "Acts of the Attainder." The early state government found itself in possession of extended tracts of land in the Adirondacks. Some of these were set aside as bounties for soldiers; small areas were reserved for the encouragement of gospel, school and literary purposes ; while vast areas were sold. The money received was but a pittance. In some cases the consideration was a few cents per acre. The conveyances were usually by townships of approximately 26 to 30 thousand acres, or even larger areas. Many names that appear in the history of this state were patentees. Sir William Johnson and Alexander Ellis, the latter, president of the Hudson Bay Co., were large grantees. There seemed to be a desire to create large estates in this wilderness and no less a person than Joseph Bonaparte was one of the principals. An immense amount of money was spent in attempts at colonization and development. The dreams of Arthur Noble, John Brown of Providence, Macomb and many others of a developed estate in the wilderness failed. The first quarter of a century after the grants were made by the state government, there were substan- ^ Superintendent, State Forests of New York. 50 New York State Forestry 51 tially no taxes upon these properties. About 1820 the owners commenced to feel the continued expense of taxation, without deriving revenue from their lands, and their interest in the properties decreased. This became so general that the State found it necessary to enact laws which would require the payment of the taxes, and in case the taxes were not paid a statutory machin- ery was established providing for the sale of the land for the unpaid taxes. During the same period acts were passed for the improvement of streams for driving purposes, and miscella- neous lumbering commenced. The following years lumbering increased and in many instances the finest of the pine was cut and the owners permitted the land to revert for taxes. In case no one was found who would pay the taxes assessed against the land and take the property, the State had to pay the taxes and, of course, took the land. The purpose of the State at that time was to secure, through taxes, money for the support of the government. The Comptroller, the State's fiscal officer, was charged with the duty of collection and had charge of sales. He would hold the land for a period of years and if a purchaser appeared would, therefore, sell the land for the amount which the State had against the property. His function was to secure cash revenue. These purchasers usually acquired the land simply for the purpose of taking off another cut of timber and would then permit the land to again revert for unpaid taxes, the State would again become the owner, and in many instances this process was repeated several times. In the late TO's a Commission was appointed to make an inves- tigation and report upon the desirability of establishing a park in the Adirondacks, and about this time there was some agitation and recommendations by the Governors in regard to this property. It was not, however, until 1883 when Chapter 13 was enacted prohibiting the further sale of any lands in what is now the major portion of the forest preserve counties, that this practice was prevented. With the enactment of this law the State found itself in possession of approximately 800,000 acres of land indicated upon the books of the Comptroller by land grants, patents, town- ships and lot numbers without any definite knowledge as to their location, value, etc. In the following year a small appropriation was made and a committee was appointed to make an examination 52 Forestry Quarterly and report. The result of their efforts was a fixed policy, viz., that the State should hold this land, and that there should be a competent body to administer the same. In 1884 a Forest Commission was established. The timber speculators, having been stopped by this law which prohibited the further sale of land, then through divers means would make application to the Comptroller for cancellation of the State's tax deed or apply for redemption, and a few hun- dred thousand acres of the State's lands were lost in this way. These applications were usually based upon very flimsy techni- calities. One of the most common ones was that the assessment roll of a town upon which the tax levy was based was verified on some other day in August than the third Tuesday prescribed by the statute. The next step to defeat the retention of the lands was ques- tioning the validity of the tax titles. In order to reduce this trouble certain laws to "cure" technical defects in the tax sales were enacted. The enactment of these laws required much effort, several years' time and then finally their constitutionality was questioned. It was only after the determination of numerous points in these cases by the state courts and when their constitu- tionality was finally determined by the United States Supreme Court that the State's title to large areas was finally decided. There are today numerous lesser questions of different phases of the subject, which have not been decided upon by the court and are being raised. The newly created Forest Commission found themselves sur- rounded by numerous difficulties. The law transferred to their jurisdiction approximately 800,000 acres of land scattered over portions of sixteen forest counties. They had but five or six men who knew substantially nothing as to the location of the lines. There were very few maps and field notes which could be found of record. The force had the greatest difficulty in building up records of surveys, descriptions of property, chains of title, field work in locating lines, and then after property was located, they had to procure the necessary evidence to convict parties of trespass. Inasmuch as trespasses were very common it was difficult to secure necessary proof because there were so many parties implicated. No one was willing to give any sub- stantial evidence, because in many instances, the witness himself New York State Forestry 53 would be guilty in this or some other case. The green timber was called "Adirondack Corn." The result was that in the succeeding ten years they had an impossible task with the assistance granted. Trespasses were not stopped, but were, on account of the work of the Forest G3m- mission, becoming better known; the "curative acts" were being passed upon by the courts and the excitement was tense. Simul- taneously the Constitutional Convention convened. It adopted Article 7, Section 7 of the State Constitution, above quoted, as a protective measure. It was a new section. About this same time the State embarked upon the policy of purchase of land for an Adirondack Park, and for the period during 1890 to 1900, two and one-half million dollars was expended for this purpose. The first appropriation in 1890 was for $25,000 and provided that the price to be paid should not exceed $1.50 per acre. Under this appropriation they were able to buy lands upon which the spruce had been cut to approximately 10 inches in diameter, and these lands today are among the most valuable acquisitions, which the State has made. The succeeding ten years saw the consolidation of the forest department with the fish and game interest and also the creation of a separate board for the purchase of land. During this period, there were many political changes in the complexion of the Com- mission, and some of the most prominent politicians of the state were from time to time appointed commissioners. About 1904, a new plan was adopted whereby the State's title to land was questioned, and pursuant to powers conferred by a special statute the commissioner was authorized to compromise any question of title. Numerous compromises were made, stipula- tions entered into and judgments entered by which the State lost large areas of valuable property and in exchange received other less valuable lands, or the compromise was afifected upon the ground that the contestants would agree that the State was the owner but they reserved to themselves the softwood timber 10 inches or over with the right to remove the same within ten years. These compromises are now being set aside and the questions of title judicially determined. During this same period purchases of land were made. In some cases there were occupants upon the property and no reservation was made to protect them. In other instances, the 54 Forestry Quarterly State's title was in dispute; in some cases, parties were attempt- ing to destroy the State's title and the people either went upon the land in dispute or in some cases, it is alleged they went there at the request of parties who were attempting to destroy the State's title for the purpose of protecting the property for them, and these people or their successors have made improvements and for years lived thereon. In some cases, farms have been acquired and people have remained thereon or new tenants moved in. Large numbers of small hunting camps have been built; cheap shacks have been built upon lake shores as sum- mer homes; farmers living adjacent to State land have moved their fences back to increase their pastured area and about 780 occupancies of various kinds and of long and short duration have grown up on state land. There has been agitation in the press and in the public mind for several years as to the desirability of leasing camp sites and, therefore, the matter of occupancies have been permitted to remain pending a decision of the question by the constitutional convention. During the twenty years that have elapsed since 1894, the Forest Preserve has increased in size from 720,744 acres to more than 1,800,000 acres. In a similar manner, the proportion of timber under State ownership increased. It is estimated that in 1895 approximately 10 per cent of the timber in the forest preserve section was owned by the State, while it is estimated that over 30 per cent of the total stumpage in the same area is today owned by the State. The population of this section has increased. The timber on private lands has decreased, and today we find localities that are in great need of wood for fuel, the price in many instances being as high as $3.00 per cord for 16 inch wood. Within these localities are thousands of cords of wood lying upon state land going to decay each year, while the citizens of the State are required to pay excessive prices for wood or coal. An examination shows that there are approximately one thou- sand miles of water frontage in the Forest Preserve exclusive of the Lake George Islands, and that 584 miles of this frontage is suitable for camp sites. An inventory made by the forest rangers shows that there are approximately 8,066.000,000 feet of lumber of all sizes and pulp in the Forest Preserve, although this is believed to be a very low estimate. New York State Forestry 55 A Constitutional Convention convened at Albany during the past summer and appointed a conservation committee which held hearings and made a report to the Convention. There seemed to be a general antipathy to any modification of the constitution, which would permit the lumbering of State land. The criticism was so severe in some instances, that professional foresters were accused of being subservient to the lumbermen ; the forest schools looking for employment for their students; and forestry itself nothing but destructive lumbering. The matter of occupancies was considered and the committee, finally recommended, by nearly a unanimous vote that camp sites be leased to persons who were occupying land subsequent to December, 1909, but after a vigorous discussion on the floor of the Convention, it was defeated by a vote of 66 to 60. In the opinion of the writer there can be no doubt but that it was a decided mistake to veto leasing of camp sites. There are sites enough for both rich and poor. The private lands are held at a speculative price and only the wealthy can afiford to purchase. There is no doubt but that a lessee is a protector of the property and the game, while the transient has only a passing interest. The Empire State is not so wealthy that she needs to refuse an honest and substantial source of income. Leas- ing of camp sites would have solved the most difficult admin- istrative problem, would have been an excellent means of pro- tecting this property worth many millions of dollars, and would produce a large revenue. The proposed new conservation amendment adopted by the Convention and submitted by referendum to the people is as follows : ARTICLE VII Section 1. The department of conservation shall consist of nine commissioners to serve without compensation and to be ap- pointed by the governor by and imth the advice and consent of the senate for terms which shall expire in nine successive years, the first ending on the first day of January, one thousand nine hundred and seventeen, and their successors shall be appointed for terms of nine years. Vacancies shall be filled for the unex- pired term. One commissioner shall reside in each judicial dis- trict. No person shall be eligible to or shall continue to hold the office of commissioner, who is engaged in the business of lum- bering in any forest preserve county or who is engaged in any 56 Forestry Quarterly business in the prosecution of zvhich hydraulic power is used or in which water is distributed or sold under any public franchise or who is an officer or holder of the stock or bonds of any cor- poration engaged in such business within the state. They shall be subject to removal by the governor on charges, after an op- portunity to be heard. Subject to the limitations in this consti- tution contained, the department shall be charged with the de- velopment and protection of the natural resources of the state; the encouragement of forestry and the suppression of forest fires throughout the state; the exclusive care, maintenance and ad- ministration of the forest preserve; the conservation, prevention of pollution, and regulation of the waters of the state; the pro- tection and propagation of its fish, birds, game, shellfish and Crustacea, except migratory fish of the sea zvithin the limits of the marine district, with the power, subject to the veto within thirty days of the governor, to enact regulations with respect to the taking, possession, sale and transportation thereof, which shall have the force of law, zvhen filed in the office of the department of state and published as the legislature may provide, until and unless the legislature shall thereafter modify such regulations. The department shall also be entrusted zvith the enforcement of the general laws of the state respecting the subjects hereinbefore enumerated and exercise such additional powers as from time to time may be conferred by lazv. The department shall appoint and may at pleasure remove a superintendent. It may also ap- point all other necessary subordinates. Section 2. [Old matter is first two sentences of former section seven of former article seven.] The lands of the state, now owned or hereafter acquired, constituting the forest preserve as now fixed by law, shall be forever kept as wild forest lands. They shall not be leased, sold or exchanged, or be taken by any corporation, public or private, nor shall the trees and timber there- on be sold, removed or destroyed. The department is, however, empowered to reforest lands in the forest preserve, to construct fire trails thereon, and to remove dead trees and dead timber therefrom for purposes of reforestation and fire protection solely, but shall not sell the same. Nothing herein contained shall pre- vent the state from constructing a state highzvay from Sarafiac Lake in Franklin county to Long Lake in Hamilton county and thence to Old Forge in Herkimer county by way of Blue Moun- tain Lake and Raquette Lake. Section 3. [Part of former section seven of former article seven, without change but t.] The legislature may by general laws provide for the use of not exceeding three per centum of such lands for the construction and maintenance of reservoirs for municipal water supply, for the canals of the state and to regulate the flow of streams. Such reservoirs shall be constructed, owned and controlled by the state, but such work shall not be New York State Forestry 57 undertaken until after the boundaries and high flow Hnes thereof shall have been accurately surveyed and fixed, and after public notice, hearing and determination that such lands are required for such public use. The expense of any such improvements shall be apportioned on the public and private property and mu- nicipalities benefited to the extent of the benefits received. Any such reservoir shall always be operated by the state and the legis- lature shall provide for a charge upon the property and munici- palities benefited for a reasonable return to the state upon the value of the rights and property of the state used and the ser- vices of the state rendered, which shall be fixed for terms of not exceeding ten years, and be readjustable at the end of any term. Unsanitary conditions shall not be created or continued by any such public works. Section 4. The legislature may authorise the use by the city of New York for its municipal zvater supply of lands now belong- ing to the state located in the tozvns of Hurley and Shandaken in the county of Ulster and in the town of Lexington in the county of Greene, for just compensation. Section 5. The legislature shall annually make provision for the purchase of real property xvithin the Adirondack and Catskill parks as defined by law, the reforestation of lands and the mak- ing of boundary and valuation surveys. Section 6. [Last sentence of former section seven of former article seven.] A violation of any of the provisions of this [sec- tion] article may be restrained at the suit of the people or, with the consent of the supreme court in appellate division, on notice to the attorney-general at the suit of any citizen. Note : — Matter in italics is new ; matter in brackets [ ] is to be omitted. The Constitutional Convention itself through the work of the committee on state officers recommended a consolidation of ap- proximately 150 state offices, bureaus, etc., into seventeen de- partments. Conservation was to be a department by itself and to have jurisdiction over forest, fish, game, water power, potable waters and regulation of stream flow. It was argued that an attempt should be made to take the affairs of the Commission out of politics and that this could be done by the formation of a Commission modeled on the lines of the Board of Regents of this State, which has jurisdiction over educational interest ; that by the appointment by the Governor and confirma- tion of the Senate of nine commissioners, one from each judicial district of the State; a non-partisan board would be created which should be a buffer between the legislature, politics and a non-partisan administration. 58 Forestry Quarterly IV Section 2 prohibits any cutting of timber or trees, except that the Commission may cut trees for fire trails and remove dead and down timber for the purpose of reforestation and fire pro- tection solely, but prohibits the sale of such timber. The opin- ions of the Attorney General of the State have indicated that the Commission already has the authority, under the police powers of the State, to go ahead and cut fire trails or trees in order to protect the forests from fire. Therefore, this provision does not give any added power. It is difficult to understand the reason for prohibiting the selling of dead trees and timber cut for re- foresting and fire protective purposes. It was argued by some members of the Committee that if the material was sold it would be an inducement to set fire in order to permit the cutting of wood, but in my judgment, this is not a preventative or an in- ducement, because it has been found in trespasses and otherwise that wherever the parties pay as much or more than the material is worth that there is no incentive to trespass. The fact that such material cannot be sold would mean either that it would have to be burned or given away. If given away, there would be a greater incentive to fire, and if burned in communities where people were in great need of fuel, it would create such an un- pleasant feeling towards the Commission that more fires would likely result. This provision also permitted the construction of the State Highway from Saranac Lake to Long Lake. The reason for this is that the Attorney-General of this State has held that neither the State itself nor a municipality can take a part of the Forest Preserve for its own use for the construction of a neces- sary road, the idea being that the prohibition provided in the present constitution is so strict that the land cannot be taken for a road. The Adirondacks are a great playground for our people. With the advent of the automobile, improved roads have been built and in some places it is necessary to change their location. The Attorney-General has ruled that such roads cannot be built out- side of the existing highway bounds. The region is now accessi- ble except from the southwest and it was the purpose of this clause to permit the building of such a road for the necessary distance across the Forest Preserve. Section 3 is the same as now included in the present consti- New York State Forestry 59 tution and is an amendment which was adopted by referendum November 4, 1913, and permits the taking of three per centum of the Forest Preserve for regulation of stream flow and muni- cipal water supply. Section 4 — The City of New York has expended approxi- mately $190,000,000 in the Catskill region for the construction of a reservoir and conduits therefrom for a water supply to New York City. There are two small parcels of land, to which the State acquired title on account of unpaid taxes within the flow line of this reservoir, and therefore, the City of New York in the maintenance of this reservoir is violating the constitution of the State. It was the purpose to permit the use of this land by the city. There might be added other cases where no damage would be done in taking a small amount of water from state land for the use of small communities. Section 5 was to make a mandatory provision as to appropria- tion by the legislature for the purchase of land, for reforesta- tion, boundary work and valuation surveys. The first idea was to incorporate and provide for a definite appropriation each year. This section does not require any definite amount, and probably the legislature could comply with the provisions of the constitu- tion by making an adequate appropriation. There is no question but that there has been politics in forestry affairs in New York State; but the next question is would the proposed plan remove it and would it result in efficiency. Forestry in New York is much different from the educational administration. The former is both making policy and carrying it out, while the latter is chiefly administrative. There are questions which must be passed upon every day and orders is- sued. A single commissioner is now given authority and he is held responsible. How many unpaid members are going to be as diligent? It was sarcasm to raise the question at this time when there is in office a Commissioner, who never was in poli- tics, is not interested in politics, is giving service at a sacrifice and is administering the affairs of the Department without politics and in opposition to past methods. There is probably no depart- ment in any state or national service with less politics than the present Conservation Commission, which it was proposed to "take out of politics." The campaign for the adoption of the constitution was carried 60 Forestry Quarterly on most energetically. The Convention submitted a budget sys- tem, "shorter" ballot, reorganization of state department, con- servation and many other propositions in one question. The principal opposition to conservation was on adoption of the nine-headed commission. The election returns were a verdict of 540,000 majority against the adoption of the proposed constitution, which meant two out of every three voters in opposition. What caused this terrific slaughter is hard to say, but if the propositions had been submitted separately some of them would have been adopted. The only conclusion which can be drawn is that the people of New York are not in favor of opening their Forest Preserve to lumbering. THE PROFESSIONAL AND ECONOMIC SITUATION OF THE TECHNICAL FORESTER AS SEEN BY THE FORESTER IN SWITZERLAND Translated from La Forestiere, 1^14 By R. H. Campbell^ A Swiss forester devotes his activity exclusively to the service of the state, or to the communes, that is, to public administra- tion. Private forests are of entirely local importance and so small that there is not a single proprietor who can by himself use a manager. Further, Swiss foresters are limited almost ex- clusively to employment in their own country. There are scarcely twenty men who during the last thirty years have found per- manent occupation in foreign countries. It is a completely er- roneous idea, although widespread, to believe that our young foresters can find advantageous positions outside of the country. It is necessary to remember that in order to be eligible for any forestry post whatever in the country every technical for- ester has to undergo a state examination at the end of long pro- fessional study. The engineer, the architect and the chemist do not have to un- dergo a similar obligation, and it can be said that the whole world is open to them for the exercise of their profession, but let it be well understood there is nothing of deprivation for the Swiss forester in the fact that he is called to work exclusively in his native land. But it seems that in all equity the public and the state ought to recognize him as in a position corresponding to his scientific culture, to his activity, which should be equal to that of the representatives of the three professions above cited. For it is altogether too simple to seek to settle the question by repeating to the forester in every tone : "A beautiful profession, yours, and how healthy it ought to be, always running about in the woods!" Healthy assuredly, but above all for those who are strong. On this subject one often hears singular theories. Some parents imagine that if their son, who is of a weak con- stitution, could become a forester, his health would become bet- ^ Director, Forestry Branch, Ottawa, Canada. 61 62 Forestry Quarterly ter. This is nearly always a grave error. The physical effort which the forester has to make hardens a healthy body and makes it still more vigorous, but that effort is generally beyond the strength of a man of feeble constitution who cannot keep it up for a long time. It is a beautiful profession, that of the forester, without doubt. Those who love the stands of timber and interest hemselves in them, who feel the poetic charm of the life in the woods and know how to accommodate themselves to the simplicity which it requires, would not now change it for any other. A fountain of youth for those who have to manage the forest and live there. The forest is to such a one the source of emotions always fresh, the dispenser of energy of which the forester often has need in order to struggle against the difficulties which he meets as an official. That is a happy thing, for — it is necessary to say it — there is no other profession or group of officials among us, which has had to struggle against so many prejudices and suffer from so many adversaries. This is particularly true in the mountain regions. The population there, habituated at all times to the use and abuse of the woods freely, have considered the interference of the federal administration in their forest domain as a restric- tion of their rights. If the force of the ill humor of the moun- taineers has made itself felt against the forest officials charged with the application of the new law that is nothing but human. Alas, there was a time when it was the proper thing — not only in the newspapers but even in the halls of the Grand Council — to talk against "the green bailiffs," and we pass over in silence the numerous personal insults, the intentional depredations on forest plantations and on other important works. It is possible to say now that the first discontent has been to some extent appeased and that the people judge the situation in a more equitable fashion. They can now take note of the utility of the action of the forest service, of the zeal and of the dis- interestedness of which it has made proof. We must recognize also that here and there some foresters have shown excess of zeal, and in their desire to move quickly have not given suffi- cient consideration to old customs and established habits. To these strugglers of the early days for a cause of public usefulness we bring the expression of our gratitude. There is probably not a single other domain where it has been necessary Situation of Technical Forester 63 and where it is still necessary, as in that of the forest, to fight against prejudice and stupidity. Everyone thinks himself fit to judge and to criticize the forester's work. It is admitted with- out contradiction that to construct a railway, for example, it is necessary to have recourse to an engineer ; that a chemist is in- dispensable in directing the manufacture of chemical products. It would be equitable also to submit to the forester's care the management of the forests of which they have charge, since this is their business. It can be conceived that a friend of nature, if he is also a good observer, can acquire an almost complete ac- quaintance with the general treatment of the forest, but in a given case he will not know how to apply this knowledge in operations which the circumstances require. For that, it is neces- sary to know how to take account of many factors often diffi- cult to determine, which the specialist alone is able to do. It is not a very long time ago that many of the mountaineers refused to admit that a forest could be created by means of plantations, and nevertheless these are people to whom the forests are very familiar. Others go on stating with assurance that to become a fine tree the spruce should be eaten by the rabbits each years during twenty, thirty and forty years and even more. Moreover, in the Neuchatel district of the Jura for example, the opinion has prevailed for a long time that the black woods (coniferous trees) and the white woods (broad-leaved trees) would not be able to succeed in mixture ; because these trees are enemies excluding one another. In the En Haut country there exists a similar prejudice according to which the beech (one of our most valuable species and that which has the most marked fertilizing power) is to be considered an objectionable intruder in a stand of coniferous trees. Again, it is well known that clear cutting in the mountain forests has destroyed the woods of various mountain regions. In spite of this, in spite of the teach- ings of the past, this method of clear cutting which has the sole merit of being the most simple, would certainly be the oftenest applied if the forester were not there to oppose it, so difficult is it to uproot old habits, old customs, even the worst; and too often when it is a question of the public forests individual self- ishness prevails over the interest of the community. It must be recognized, however, that during the last decades public opinion has made great progress in this respect. Public 64 Forestry Quarterly opinion no longer permits persons to enrich themselves unduly at the expense of the public forest, and it comes now powerfully to the aid of the forest administration in its struggle against this ancient abuse. Let us examine now in what the activity of the forester in the forest consists, outside of administrative and police duties. It is necessary to set forth in relief the characteristics of the work of the forester, if it is to be compared with that of other technical men. The engineer, the architect, the chemist and the surveyor work under conditions which permit of the fruits of their activity be- ing judged immediately and without difficulty. It is not the same with the forester. The great public does not notice, so to speak, anything of his activity in the forest. It sees plants stand- ing of all sizes. It notes with pleasure the construction of new roads. Its attention will be drawn to the logs and the fagots made upon a tract by a felling. It is a special joy to admire the good order of a well-managed nursery. These obvious ex- hibits of the forester's activity interest the public most. As to the essential work of the foresters, there is generally little idea. It is also difficult to make the public in general understand in what it specially consists. This comprehension pre-supposes a knowledge of the natural, biological development of the forest through all the phases from its birth to its exploitation. Only a trained eye can seize the perceptible differences, slow to show, in the development which extends through three generations and more. Suppose a forest in which there has been made in winter a moderate thinning cut. The products of the exploitation have been taken away and the tract has been well cleared of all the debris. When in May or June the passer-by comes again to this spot when the forest has put on its spring dress, again it seems to him so beautiful, so harmoniously simple, that he often does not understand whence has come the supply of all the wood re- cently exploited and he has no idea of all the physical and men- tal work which the maintenance, in spite of the cut, of the beau- tiful picture which enthuses him represents. He is inclined to believe, knowing that the trees grow by themselves, that that comes about without difficulty and entirely naturally. He imagines too often that the planting of little firs is one of the principle oc- Situation of Technical Forester 65 cupations of the silviculturist, and he does not take account of the fact that it is by what is designated under the name of cul- tural operations that the forester acts on the development of the forest. By cultural operations it is necessary to understand in the general sense of the term all the operations which have to be repeated at the different stages in the development of a forest stand to make it in the last analysis a forest, healthy, strong, growing well, containing trees of value and beauty at the same time. These operations will vary, it goes without saying, with the age of the stands to be treated. There are particularly the fellings which are to take out progressively all the poor trees or those of defective form. They ought to favor the growth and development of the most beautiful and most valuable trees. These selections ought to keep as a constant aim the favoring of the best subjects, thus practising natural selection. In well administered forests these operations commence in the early youth of the stands even under the cover of the old stands still in place. Then come the thinnings which are repeated periodi- cally and increasing in intensity up to the moment of the re- generation of the old stand. Everything ought to be done with constant care to increase the production of wood and to have it in the most valuable trees. These operations which ought to be carried on by a competent staff require on the part of the managing silviculturist incessant action. The cultural operations under their diverse forms con- stitute the most efficacious action of the forester upon the forest. They are also and very much so the most interesting part. It is by them that he can model in some sort the woods to his taste and on them imprint his own work. This is also the criterion by which in the administration the standing and the abilities of the manager can best be judged. In many of our forest administrations silviculturists in office without interruption for twenty, thirty, forty years, have had thus the chance of being able to fashion their forests toward the ideal which they have set for themselves. Of all that, which is the essence of the work of the forester, the uninitiated has scarcely an idea. THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE* By T. S. WooLSEY, Jr.* The Algerian Forest Code was promulgated on February 21, 1903, to take the place of the Forest Code of 1827, which had been supplemented by the laws of July 17, 1874, and December 9, 1885, designed to cover the local fire and free use problems. The present Forest Code of 1903 is the product of careful study by a commission appointed in 1892 to modify existing forest laws to make them more applicable to local conditions. But, after inves- tigation, this commission recommended an entirely new code, since modification of the amended law of 1827 proved impracti- cable. ' ' Whatever may be its faults, ' ' Guyot considers the present code "a remarkable monument, since private and public interests had to be reconciled." But, at least one local officer in Algeria preferred the former law because it was more forceful and more drastic, better calculated, in his opinion, to enforce forestry practice on a native population. Unquestionably, the new law is simpler, easier to understand, less severe, and much more flexible than the old. At the same time, it is more complete in its provisions against deforestation, against the careless use of fire in or near forests, against the theft of forest produce. It is divided into eleven parts as follows : PART I. Forest R^gim6. PART II. Waters and Forests Administration. PART III. State Forests. SECTION I. Boundaries. SECTION II. Management. SECTION III. Auctions of Bark, Felling Areas and Sales by Agreement. SECTION IV. Exploitation. SECTION V. Check of Cutting Area. SECTION VI. Auctions and Rentals of Grazing, Mast, Miscellaneous Forest Products and Agricultural Land. SECTION VII. Wood Rights in State Forests. SECTION VIII. Expropriation. PART IV. Communal and Public Institution Forests. PART V. Joint Tenancy Forests. PART VI. Private Forests, Reforestation Areas and Clearings. PART VII. Police and Conservation of Woods and Forests. SECTION I. Provisions Applicable to All Woods. (Re: Damage other than fire.) (Re: Fires.) SECTION II. Provisions Applicable Only to Woods Placed under Forest Administration. 1 To simplify computations, 1 frank has been given the value of $.20, 1 hectare 2.5 acres, 1 meter 1 yard. 2 Consulting Forester, Albuquerque, N. M. 66 The Algerian Forest Code 67 PART VIII. Prosecutions for Misdemeanors and Offences. SECTION I. Prosecutions Undertaken in the Name of the Waters and Forests Service. (Re: Prosecution.) (Re: Examination.) SECTION II. Prosecutions for Misdemeanors and Offences in Woods not under Forest Administration. PART IX. Penalties and Sentences Applicable to Woods and Forests in General. (Re: Penalties.) (Re: Enforcement of Penalties, etc.) PART X. Execution of Judgments. SECTION I. Judgments Concerning Misdemeanors and Offences in Woods under Forest Administration. SECTION II. Judgments Concerning Misdemeanors and Offences Committed in Woods Which Are not iinder Forest Administration. PART XI. General Provisions. Part I. Forest Regime In Algeria, the forest administration includes woods and forests belonging to the state, to the commune, to public institutions, and those forests in which the state communes or public institutions have "proprietary rights conjointly with private individuals," as well as grotmd "either covered with brush or bare, the refores- tation of which has been recognized and declared to be of public benefit." In addition, certain forests in litigation between the classes of owners enimierated above, or within the territory under military control, are provisionally placed under forest administration. Part II. Waters and Forests Administration Forest officers employed in Algeria are subject to the laws and promotions of the Waters and Forests Service of France proper. They work under the Governor-General of Algeria, and promo- tions in grade and class are upon his recommendation. The subordinate force includes "natives who have served in the French Army, or Civil Service, and the sons of the native employes," who can be admitted as native forest guards when 22 years of age if they have learned the French language. When a man works for the Service, he cannot accept any other appoint- ment, "either administrative or legal." Curiously enough, imder Part II is included the regulations concerning marking hatchets. The special marks on these hatchets are registered at the record office, so that it is possible to identify by the mark on any tree what official did the marking. 68 Forestry Quarterly Part III. State Forests Section I. Boundaries — A regular procedure is outlined to govern the establishment of boundaries. When forest officers decide upon the correct boundary, "this delimitation shall be announced two months in advance by an order of the prefect." After this period has elapsed, forest officers can proceed with the boundary work whether the bordering owners are present or not. Ones who wish to file protests in regard to any boundary established, have one year in which to do so, but, if no protest is made within the speci- fied time, the boundary as established is finally marked by Service officers. When disputes arise during the boundary delimitation, they are brought into the proper court and judged according to the evidence submitted. "When the separation or settlement of the boundaries shall be effected by simply setting corners, the expenses shall be shared equally; when it shall be effected by planting hedges, these shall be carried out at the expense of the petitioner, and made entirely on his land." (Article 14.) It is interesting to see boundaries in Algeria marked by cactus hedges. These are permanent in character and serve as fences and seem to give very good satisfaction. Occasionally they serve as fire breaks. Section II. Management — According to Article 17: "No extraordinary felling whatsoever shall be made in the state woods, nor any felling in the reserved fourth, or of stands reserved by the management for growth to high forest, without a special decree, under penalty of the sales being declared null and void, except in the case of an appeal from the purchaser, if it takes place, against the officials or officers who shall have ordered or authorized such fellings." Section III. Auctions of Bark, Felling Areas, and Sales by Agree- ment— According to Article 18 of the Code: "No ordinary or extraordinary sale shall take place in a state woods, except by public auction, announced at least fifteen days in advance. ..." It is also provided, when cutting operations are completed, all roads, ditches, bridges, or tunnels "built for transport or for felling purposes shall become the property of the State without any indemnity whatever." In special emergencies and when forest products cannot be sold at public auction for any reason, "sales by mutual agreement can always be authorized. ..." It is specifically provided, however, that any sale which is not made by public auction or by mutual agreement is considered "a secret sale, and declared null and void." When a public auction is held. TJw Algerian Forest Code 69 the maximiim value of the product to be sold is estimated by forest officers and the auction is conducted in the presence of all pros- pective bidders by naming the maximum price and decreasing the amount called, until some bidder exclaims: "I take it!" According to Article 22 : "Any disputes which may arise during auctions either as to their validity, or as to the solvency of those making bids or giving securities, shall be decided immediately by the official presiding at the auction." This arrangement is designed to prevent long drawn out con- troversies in regard to auctions after they have been completed. Very stringent regulations were enacted to prevent oncers and employes of the Waters and Forests Service, or other officials con- nected with the sales, their "relations and connections in direct line, the brothers, brothers-in-law, uncles and nephews . . . throughout the territory for W'hich officers and employes are com- missioned," from taking part, directly or indirectly in sales of forest produce. It is especially interesting to note, that, according to Article 24: "Any secret association or negotiation between dealers in wood, cork, or other forest products, tending to lower or disturb the biddings, or to obtain the products at a lower price, will lead to the application of the penalties cited under Article 412 of the Penal Code, in addition to all damages, and if the auction has been transacted in favour of the secret association, or the parties to the aforesaid negotiation, it shall be declared null and void." This regulation was necessary because of illegal combinations between dealers to prevent bona fide bidding. According to Article 27 : "Every bid shall be considered final the moment it has been uttered; under no circumstances can it be outbid." Successful bidders give bond for the amount of their contract and for the payment of damages or fines. Section IV. Exploitation — After the auction of forest material has once been made, it is specifically provided that "no tree or portion of a tree shall be added thereto under any pretext what- ever." For a violation of this rule, a purchaser is liable for three times the value of the material marked as well as a refund of the material cut illegally. Moreover, it is provided that: "The officers of the Waters and Forests who shall have permitted or tolerated such additions or changes shall be fined in the same manner, and shall be liable to prosecution and penalties for mal-practice and peculation." After 70 Forestry Quarterly a sale has been made a purchaser cannot commence cutting until he has received a written permit to do so. In Algeria, where the native population is addicted to thieving, it was necessary to make special, stringent regulations to prevent theft, and, according to Article 39: "The purchasers by auction, or by agreement who shall fell, or remove any wood, bark or cork, before sunrise, or aiter sunset unless they have obtained a special permit from the Forest Service, will do so under penalty of a fine of not less than $20.00." To insure compliance with the contract. Article 42 provides: "In case the ptuchasers by auction, or by agreement fail to carry out within the stated time, and according to the manner prescribed by the regulations, the work herein enumerated (designed) to bring the cork oak into full bearing or protect the stands from fire, to remove and cord the branches trimmed, to clear the felling areas of briars, brambles and weed growth, to repair the logging roads, ditches or fences, this work shall be executed at their expense, at the convenience of the Waters and Forests officers by authorization of the prefect who shall thereupon approve the expense account, and render a writ of execu- tion for payment against the purchasers." Section V. Check of Cutting Area — When a cutting area has been completed, the regulations provide for a check of the stumps by an officer of the Service. His report is accepted as final unless it can be shown to be in error. Section VI. Auctions and Rentals of Grazing, Masts, Miscel- laneous Forest Products and Agriculture Land — According to Article 53: "In State Forests, declared exempt and free from rights for wood, mast or hog grazing and pasturage can be put up to auction for a maximum period of three years." But, before proceeding with an auction of grazing privileges, they must first be offered to the local permittees by means of a sale by mutual agreement. In other words, the priority right of the local population is recognized in grazing privileges and the auc- tions are only held if what are termed in the U. S. Forest Service class A permittees are not interested. In case no one bids at an auction of grazing privileges, then permits can be negotiated by private agreement. It is interesting to note that drive-ways are prescribed for going to and from allotments, and, in case of grazing trespass, "the herder shall be besides condemned to a fine of twenty cents to one doUar and, in case of a repetition of the offence, to imprisonment of one to five days." Miscellaneous forest products such as native grasses valuable for The Algerian Forest Code 71 fodder are sold in accordance with the provisions of Section III, heretofore described. The lease of land for a maximum period of 18 years can be author- ized by the Governor-General of Algeria. This land may include blanks, or clearings, existing in the federal forests and the lease may be by public auction or by means of mutual agreement. It is significant that the title to agricultural land within forests is retained by the Waters and Forests Service. Section VII . Wood Rights in State Forests — The law specifically provides that right holders must have been recognized at the time this law was promulgated (1903), and that no other rights or servi- tudes can be granted under any pretext whatever, except that "the rights which the natives enjoy by virtue of tradition shall be maintained until the application of the senatorial decree," or "in case of absolute necessity . . . with due regard for pre-existing rights, a decree of the Governor-General . . . shall concede to natives displaced for purposes of colonization rights in the forests of their new territory equivalent to those enjoyed in the first place." Arrangements are made for the wiping out of old rights by special grants of land, wood, or money payments. Rights other than those of pasturage can be redeemed b}'^ giving over to those who have common rights a piece of forest land where they can exercise these rights. On the first of August each year, forest officers announce the number of cattle to be grazed, and the local terri- torial officials draw up the individual lists of right holders, with the allotment for each individual. According to Articles 68 and 69 : "Article 68. The right holders in any case can only enjoy the rights of pasturage for their own cattle. "The herds, other than those used for exploitation, belonging to cattle dealers, even if those dealers are right holders, as well as herds on shares {en achaba), are excluded from the benefits of rights." "Article 69. The roads by which cattle may go and come from pasturage, shall be designated by the Waters and Forests Officers. These roads shall be considered as having at least a width of 20 yards. "If these roads cross any coppice, or any young growth of high forest which is not enclosed, ditches or enclosures may be constructed at the joint expense of right holders and the Service, and in accordance with the directions of the Waters and Forests ofl&cer, in order to prevent the cattle from straying into the woods." Right holders cannot bring sheep, goats or camels into forests without being penalized and the specific fine and imprisonment of herders who are guilty of handling stock in trespass is provided for. Provision is made, however, by specific order from the Governor- 72 Forestry Quarterly General to authorize sheep grazing in certain forests, and to throw- open closed areas for temporary use. "Under exceptional cir- cumstances, the introduction of the goats of right holders into the fire lines of state forests can be authorized." Unquestionably, this regulation is designed to clear inflammable debris from fire lines. Those who have wood rights can only remove the timber "after permission has been granted them by the warden or forest officers," otherwise it is considered to have been taken in trespass. Under certain circtimstances, however, forest officers are authorized to provide right holders with timber, either collectively or indi- vidually. According to Article 74, the sale of free use material is strictly forbidden : "Right holders are forbidden to sell the wood or other products granted to them or to employ them in any manner other than that for which the rights have been granted to them, under penalty of a fine of $1 to $10." Section VIII. Expropriation — Special provision is made in Article 76 for the right of eminent domain on land needed for the purposes enumerated below: "The expropriation of land which must be reforested or reclaimed, shall be recognized as necessary, and shall be declared a measure of public utility, under the following circumstances: 1. For the maintenance of lands on mountain slopes; 2. For protecting the soil against erosion by rivers or torrents; 3. To insure the existence of springs and water courses; 4. To render stable the coast dunes and those of the Sahara, and for protec- tion against the erosion of the sea, and drifting of sand; 5. For the defence of territory in the frontier zone which shall be determined by a regulation of the Civil Authorities; 6. For the sake of public health. "If the declaration of public utility is pronounced, the expropriation shall proceed in conformity with Algerian legislation." It is also provided that when access to state forests is across private land, a right of way can be secured by eminent domain. This includes roads or railroads established for facilitating the felling or removal of timber. There is a keen need of a similar law in the United States. Part IV. Communal and Public Institution Forests The forests belonging to communes and public institutions in Algeria are under the control of federal forest officers and "Communes and public institutions cannot undertake any clearing in their woods without special and express authorization by the Governor-General; ^. The Algerian Forest Code 73 any persons who have such fellings shall be liable to the penalties declared under Part VI against private individuals for offenses of a similar nature." Communal woods cannot be divided up among inhabitants nor can communes themselves demand subdivision of a forest property owned conjointly and with another commune. Communes and public institutions are required to pay the state 10 per cent of all gross revenue to cover the cost of forest administration. The general sale procedure is the same as in the case of state forests except that local officials must be consulted to a certain extent. Part V. Joint Tenancy Forests Where forests are owned jointly by the state, communes, public institutions, or private owners, practically the same procediu"e is followed as with state or communal forests. Part VL Private Forests, Reforestation Areas and Clearings Rights of the owners of private forests are restricted for the com- mon weal. Clearing is not allowed without specific examination and official permission. But, when the service objects to clearing, the report goes to the Governor-General, "who shall decide after deliberation with the government counsel if the objection shall stand." This signifies how important it is considered by the French Forest Service to prevent further deforestation in Algeria. The reasons against deforestation given in Article 99 are the same as those which justify expropriation quoted in Article 76 and it is clearly stated that: "clearing can only be opposed in case the preservation of the woods is recognized as necessary." The penalty for illegal clearing amounts roughly to from $15 to $50 per acre cleared ; * ' moreover, if ordered to do so by the Governor- General, he shall replant the acres denuded within three years," and if this planting or sowing is not carried out within the time pre- scribed, it can be executed by the Service and levied against the owner. Private owners can, however, clear woods less than 20 years old unless they cover regular forestation areas, parks or gardens, imfenced woods less than 25 acres in area (provided they are not on mountain slopes), or woods occurring within coloniza- tion areas. But, according to Article 104: -■1 "Excessive exploitation, grazing after fellings, coppicing operations or fires, which may cause the total or partial destruction of the forest in which they have been practised, shall be treated as deforestation, and in consequence 74 Forestry Quarterly those who have ordered them shall be subject to the penalties set forth under Articles 100 and 101. "All owners of stock allowed to enter, or found in woods less than six years of age, shall be fined in accordance with the rules set forth under Article 177, paragraph 2." Woods or brush within forestation areas, of course, cannot be denuded without special authorization in accordance with the pro- visions set forth in Article 76, already quoted in full. Private owners who desire special guards to watch their forests have them approved by the sub-prefect, and those who wish to free their forests from rights or servitudes can do so imder the same condi- tions prescribed for the federal forests. The damage to roads by stock in the western United States is well known. In Algeria, in accordance with Article 114: "The right holders shall contribute to the maintenance of the roads over private property where they exercise their rights." Areas sown or planted on mountains or on sand dimes are ex- empt from taxation for a period of 30 years and, where woods or forests have been burned over through no negligence of the owner, the part destroyed is exempted from taxation for 10 years. This latter rule might lead to abuse. Part VII. Police and Conservation oj Woods and Forests Section I. Provisions Applicable to All woods. (Re: Damage other than fire.) A fine of from $1 to $100 is prescribed for the injury, destruction, change, or obliteration of boundary marks or fences, and, if a con- siderable length of fence or boundary demarcation is moved or obliterated the offender can, in addition, be imprisoned for from three days to three months. In addition, civil damages can be collected. Moreover, the repair and return of the fence or bound- ary mark damaged is obligatory as is imprisonment, in case of a repetition. According to Article 118: "All unauthorized quarrying or removal of rock, sand, mineral, earth, turf, heather, gorse, grass, green or dead leaves, manure found on forest soil, acorns and other fruits, seeds of woods and forests, shall be punished by fines of 40 cents to $1 for each harnessed animal employed, of 20 to 40 cents for each pack animal and 20 cents for each man. "In case of a repetition of the offence, the maximum fine shall always be en- forced and the offender can, in addition, be sentenced to from one to three days' imprisonment." The Algerian Forest Code 75 While the Bridge and Roads Service has the right to excavate for pubHc works, yet their contractors are bound by the same rules as private individuals. The fine for illegal cultivation is from $4 to $16 per acre with a minimum of 40 cents. If the offence is repeated an additional sentence of 8 days' imprisonment must be enforced. According to Articles 121 and 122: "Article 121. Any persons found in the woods and forests at night, ofiF the highways and ordinary roads, with bill-hooks, axes, hatchets, saws or other instruments of a similar nature, shall be sentenced to a fine of $1 to $2 and have the aforesaid instruments confiscated. "The maximum fine shall be enforced in case of a repetition of the offence." "Article 122. Any persons whose wagons, stock, pack or saddle animals, shall be found in the forest off the highways and ordinary roads, shall be sentenced as foUows: "To a fine of $1 to $2 for each wagon found in a forest of over 10 years growth, and $2 to $4 if the wood is less than that age. The foregoing fines are given as illustrations of the severity of this code in dealing with the native population. Presumably, after thorough trial, such severity was foimd absolutely essential to successftil protection of public and private forests. The methods of imposing the fines are particularly explicit and simple, and the general rule of holding a man trespassing as guilty until he has proved himself innocent is adhered to, judging from the provisions of Articles 121 and 122, which are partioilarly significant. The conditions for the exploitation, sale, and removal of forest materials is according to the decrees of the Governor-General, and violations may be ptmished by a fine of from 20 cents to $20 and, in addition by 1 to 5 days' imprisonment and confiscation of the products. In case of repetition, imprisonment is obligatory. {Re: Fires.) A great deal of money is being spent in Algeria on fire protection. Most of this goes for the construction of fire lines. The fire laws are especially strict. It is illegal to kindle fires or carry torches outside logging houses or buildings within a distance of 200 yards of forests, and from July 1 until October 30 this applies even to owners of forests themselves, and forbids the manufacture of charcoal or the distillation of tar or resin. From November 1 to Jime 30, charcoal, tar, or resin manufacture is permitted provided the operation is separated from the forest by a suitable trench. The rights of adjoining property owners to protection from the carelessness of their neighbors is recognized by Article 124: 76 Forestry Quarterly "An owner of wooded or forested land (which has not been brushed out) or of land covered with dead wood, can be forced by the owner of a similar adjoin- ing property, to construct and maintain, on his side, on the boimdaries between the two estates a (fire) line cleared of all brush, and of all coniferous wood, and to keep it thoroughly cleared of brush. This (fire) line, whose width may vary from 10 to 100 yards shall be constructed half on each side of the adjoining boundaries, by agreement between the interested parties, and in case of disagreement, by the Prefect, the Conservator of the Waters and Forests acting for him. Actions concerning the construction and the maintenance of such protective lines shall take place, be put in practice, and judgment delivered in the same manner as in the case of boundaries." The setting of fires is only allowed after authorization by a forest officer and "if it is a question of ground situated less than 200 yards from the woods or forests during the period from Novem- ber 1 until June 30 and less than 500 yards between July 1 and October 31," bvirning cannot be allowed. Moreover, if, in spite of the precautions cited in Article 124, fire extends to neighboring properties, the originator of the fire is liable for all damages. A violation of this rule makes the violators liable to imprisonment from one to five years. In order to secure fire fighters from the native population, con- scription is allowed during the most dangerous season, July 1 to November 1. "This watch duty shall be obligatory for the right holders and, if they are insufficient, for all able-bodied men residing in the commune or section of the bordering forest. They shall not, necessarily, be paid." During this danger season, the Governor-General can detach troops commanded by officers and subalterns to cooperate with forest officers in fire protection, and by Article 129: "Any European or native requested to help in putting out a fire, who has refused his services without legitimate reasons shall be liable to the penalties carried by Article 136." Article 136 provides for a fine of $4 to $100 and imprisonment from 6 days to 6 months. Right holders are punished by suspen- sion of their rights for from 3 months to 5 years. Moreover, when it appears that fires are set maHciously and simultaneously in a number of places by preconsidered action on the part of the na- tives, this infringement of forest law may be treated as an act of rebellion and can lead to sequestration, in accordance with the royal decree of October 13, 1845. All grazing permittees are for- bidden to use burned-over land for grazing pvu-poses for a period of at least six years. In private woods, however, this can be waived by the Governor-General at the request of the owner, after consultation with the Forest Service. The Algerian Forest Code 77 Railway companies within or bordering forests are forbidden to allow grass or herbaceous growth on their rights of way from June 1 to November 1 , on penalty of a fine of from $4 to $60. "Article 132: . . . Moreover, fire lines may be (required to be) constructed along the track, cleared of all brush and, if it is considered necessary, of all conifers, and constantly maintained in good condition. These fire lines shall be 20 yards in breadth, commencing at the railway right of way and shall be constructed within six months from the date of the official order for their construction." If these lines are not constructed, they can be constructed by forest officers at the expense of the company. In case of fire, the ranking forest officer takes charge, and in the case of his absence, the ranking mayor or civil servant. This is particularly interesting, as it illustrates the widespread campaign against fire which extends outside the jurisdiction of the Waters and Forests Service. In case of backfire, it is specifically pro- vided that this "... can never give grounds for damages. ..." While these laws seem particularly stringent, yet, when the character and ignorance of the native population is considered, necessity for severe punishment is apparent to anyone who has visited Algeria. Section II. Provisions Applicable only to Woods Placed Under Forest Administration — No fire-using industry can be established within 500 yards of a forest without authorization from the Prefect, under penalty of a $20 to $100 fine and the demolition of the build- ings, nor can any tent or hut, built of inflammable material, be erected within 100 yards of a forest or wood under penalty of a fine of $1 to $10. When this ruling is impracticable the maximiun distance is reduced under certain conditions to 50 yards. Part VIII. Prosecutions for Misdemeanors and Of ences Section I. Prosecutions Undertaken in the Name oj the Waters and Forests Service. {Re: Prosecution.) According to the first paragraph of Article 139: "The Waters and Forests Service undertakes, not only in the interest of the State, but also in the interest of the other owners of woods and forests placed under forest administration, to prosecute for misdemeanors and offences committed in these woods and forests." The right is reserved to forest officers to compromise trespasses and offences, even after judgment has been delivered. Civil suits or fines may be compromised. Forest officials present their cases 78 Forestry Quarterly before the courts and argue them. They also have the right of appeal. {Re: Examinations.) Forest employes can seize trespassing cattle, or work implements, including wagons and teams. The only restriction upon their activity in following up trespass cases is that they cannot enter native houses, courts or enclosures unless in the presence of cer- tain officials. This special ruling was made in order not to violate the native hearth. They have the right of arrest in the case of unknown natives who are caught in the act of trespass. According to Article 153: "Offences or trespasses against forest property shall be proved either by reports, or by witnesses in default of reports, or in case these documents are insufficient." The report of a European forest officer is accepted as evidence unless it is proven incorrect. Forest employes can, moreover issue all necessary stmimons, judicial notice of writs, without formal subpoena, but this must be accompanied always by a copy of the official report. On the whole, these laws are designed to simplify and expedite legal action which is primarily taken against the native population. Section II. Prosecutions for Misdemeanors and Ofences in Woods not Under Forest Administration — Forest officers are required to enquire into and report upon trespasses against private forest property. They are assisted by the rural police and in general by the officers of the judiciary police. Even trespass reports of French guards privately hired are held as sufficient evidence of trespass unless contrary proof is given, but reports of private native guards are only considered as "information." Part IX. Penalties and Sentences Applicable to Woods and Forests in General {Re: Penalties.) Specific fines are provided for cutting down trees of whatever size and, specifically, for cartloads, packloads, or faggotloads carried by men. For example, a fine for a man carrying a faggot- load is from 10 to 40 cents, and in addition, he can be sentenced toamaximtmi of five days' imprisonment. The fine is increased if committed in cork oak forests. The injury of trees and the The Algerian Forest Code 79 removal of bark from cork oak is specifically fined. In every case, the fine is more severe upon repetition within a year. Grazing trespass in forests over 10 years of age is fined 4 to 20 cents for a hog, sheep or calf, 8 to 40 cents for a steer, cow, goat or horse, 20 cents to $1 for a camel. If the forest is less than 10 years old, the fines are doubled. "In addition, the herder may be sentenced to imprisonment for from 5 days to 6 months. In case of a repeti- tion of the offence, or if it has been committed in the night, the maximum fine shall be enforced." These specific grazing penalties will be particvilarly interesting to forest officers in the western United States where grazing trespass is particularly difficult to assess, since the fine must be based primarily upon the value of the forage destroyed, often an insignificant anount. Under these circimistances, it is unfortunately true that occasionally a sheep man will consider it good business to trespass and pay the costs. A United States law against illegal grazing patterned after the explicit Algerian code would certainly simpHfy settlement of grazing trespass. Counterfeiting or tampering with brands is punished by imprisonment of 3 months to 2 years. Where, in addition, there is civil award for damages, this can never be less than the fine imposed by the court, but, according to Article 182: "Private owners are entitled to restitution and damages; fines and confiscations are always reserved for the State." Part X. Execution of Judgments Section I. Judgments Concerning Midsemeanors and Offences in Woods Under Forest Administration — ^According to Article 187: "The recovery of forestry fines is entrusted to the General Tax Collector." Forest officers can allow trespassers to settle civil payments and costs by work on rural roads or in the forests. Even imprisonment for debt is exercised under this law to a maximum period of one year. Section II. Judgments Concerning Misdemeanors and Offences Committed in Woods which are not Under Forest Administration — Even in this case, "The recovery of fines shall be effected by the General Tax Collector," and insolvent trespassers are allowed to work out their fines by road work. 80 Forestry Quarterly Part XI. General Provisions According to Article 190: "The laws, regidations, decrees, and orders laid down as to matters dealt with by the present law are abrogated as to every point in which they are contrary to the regulations of this code, reserving to the code the rights pre- viously acquired. . . ." It will probably be some years before complete and satisfactory laws are enacted in all States of the Union. Necessarily, on account of our form of government, there will be many discrepan- cies and differences between the laws enacted in the various States, and it is at least of interest to thus examine in some detail the laws enacted in Algeria in 1903 to provide against forest offences after a careful study by a government commission. CURRENT LITERATURE Senile Changes in Leaves of Vitis vulpina L. and Certain Other Plants. By H. M. Benedict. Memoir 7, Cornell University Agrictiltiiral Experiment Station. Ithaca, N. Y. 1915. Pp. 89. Investigations have established the occurrence of fairly definite senile changes in animals, but very little work has been done in the attempt to demonstrate the presence or absence of such changes in plants. The latter condition of affairs may be due to the pas- sively assumed belief that woody perennials, such as trees, be- cause of their annual renewal of tissue through the agency of persisting embryonic cells, would be immortal, were it not for the inimical conditions contingent upon their increasing size, such as liability to breakage and thus to disease infection, distance from the soil, exposiu-e to excessive water-loss, and so forth. To quote the author: "The importance of determining whether there is any real senile change in plants lies not alone in the scientific need of such knowledge, but also in its direct bearing upon the long dis- puted question regarding the effect of continuous vegetative propagation of seed-producing plants. For, if the new growth from which cuttings are made, has not been affected by the time that has elapsed since the plant came from the seed, then its tissue is no more senile than the seedling tissue ; if, however, the embry- onic tissue which has been so actively growing and dividing since it originated from the parent plant, has itself suffered the senile deterioration that accompanies activity in animal cells, then the tissues arising from this embryonic tissue must partake of its senility." The greater portion of the author's investigations was made upon the leaf of the wild grape. About 20 pairs of vines of differ- ent ages, growing in similar conditions were selected and 10 leaves were taken from each pair. Care was taken to get fully matured healthy specimens. Each set of pairs was taken from the same height and as nearly as possible in the same light exposure. The size of the meshes of the photosynthetically active cells lying be- tween the network of veinlets was taken as a standard. These areas are called vein islets. The size of the vein islets was deter- mined by means of enlarged photographs. The author found that the size of the vein islets decreased with the increasing age 81 82 Forestry Quarterly of the plant on which the leaf was borne. Thus in plants 3 to 5 years old, the average size of the vein islets was 0.4914 square m. m. from 14 to 25 years old, 0.2969 square m. m. ; 28 to 35 years old 0.2211 square w. m., and in plants from 50 to 70 years old the average size of the islets was 0.1638 square m. m. A similar result was obtained when cuttings from plants of different ages were grown in water cultures and in soil cultures; as the leaves produced in these cultures were subjected to identical conditions, the possibility that the result obtained in the native, field grown plants may have been due to varying conditions of their environ- ment was eliminated. Leaves of certain cultivated varieties of grapes were examined, the age of the plants being the same, but the duration of the cutting propagation being different. For example, one variety of grape which had been vegetatively pro- pagated for 70 years disclosed 66 intersecting veinlets in 2 cm. While another variety which had been asexually propagated for 114 years, showed 82 intersecting veinlets in the standard length. The leaves of about a dozen species of trees were examined in the same manner, and they contributed corroborative evidence as to the effect of age in decreasing the size of the vein islets. For example, in case of chestnut trees, on the leaf of a tree, 5.1 cm. in diameter, the average size of the vein islets was 1 square cm.; a tree 12.7 cm. in diameter, vein islets 0.7 square cm.; a tree 25.5 cm. in diameter, vein islets 0.5 square cm.; a tree 61.2 cw. in diam- eter, vein islets 0.4 square cm., and the leaves of a tree 91.2 cm. in diameter showed vein islets having an average area of 0.3 square cm. A decrease in the size of the vein islets indicates an increase in the ntmiber of veinlets in a unit area, and an increase in the number of veinlets means an increase in the amount of vascular tissue at the expense of the photosynthetic tissue. It has been shown by other investigators that the veinlets are of little or no importance in the mechanical support of the leaf. Therefore, if the decrease in the number of photosynthetic cells results in a decrease in photosynthetic activity, the change of venation with age is a loss without any compensation. The author performed some experi- ments on this point and found that leaves of the sajne size and with the same exposure to light from plants of different ages varied according to age in their daily increase in weight through the accimiulation of food products. For illustration, the average Current Literature 83 daily gain in weight for leaves from vines 5 to 8 years old was 9.3 per cent, while the average daily gain for leaves of vines 20 to 25 years old was 1.9 per cent. The investigator also found by experi- ment that there was a decrease in the rate of respiration with increase in age of the plant on which the leaf was borne; also a probable increase with age in the number of stomata and a de- crease in the size of the stomatal aperature; and a probable decrease with age in the size of the palisade cells. The author concludes that certain tissues of the plants studied exhibit semle degeneration comparable to that in animal tissues. This is shown graphically by two curves, one showing the decrease in the size of vein islets and the other showing the senile decrease in the rate of growth of guinea pigs. The curves disclose a re- markable correspondence in the two phenomena. It is interest- ing to note how the pendulum swings! More than 100 years ago, Knight made this statement: "I am therefore much disposed to attribute the diseases and debility of old age in trees to an in- ability to produce leaves which can efficiently execute their natural office. It is true that leaves are annually reproduced, and, therefore, annually new, but there is, I conceive, a very essential difference between the new leaves of an old and of a young variety." Since that time practically all the men who have investigated the problem asserted that Knight's conclusion was wrong for the reasons stated in the first paragraph of this review. The present author, however, is apparently the only one who reached his conclusion through a mass of experimental data. Some 20 pages of this very interesting paper are given to a discussion of the causes of senile changes. After showing that most of the theories of animal physiologists are inadequate — at least as appHed to plants > — , the author develops his theory that senility is due to the progressive decrease, as age advances in the permeability of the protoplasm, thus producing an increasing degree of inability to absorb food materials from without as well as an increasing retention of toxic waste products within the cell. C. D. H. Ueber das Treihen der einheimischen Bdume, speziell der Buche. By G. Klebs. Heidelberg. 1914. Pp. 166. This work is of peculiar significance in the theoretical field, but, nevertheless, it is of importance to the forester, as it brings 84 Forestry Quarterly nearer to our understanding the hitherto puzzling appearance of change between the period of rest or the growth of the beech sprouts. Formerly, attempts were made from the scientific point of view to interrupt at will the winter rest period of our woody growths. By etherization, by warm water treatment, and in other ways, attempts were successful in inducing a number of woody plants to sprout in the middle of winter. No result was attained with the beech. From numerous experiments, it was concluded that a period of rest, harmonizing with climatic conditions, takes place "from inner causes," which may be altered but not done away with. Klebs succeeded by uninterrupted electric lighting, using lights of strength of 200 to 1,000 candle power, in inducing beech plants and cuttings to sprout as desired during the usual rest period, sprouting continuously from November to spring and forming far more leaves than were evidently in the bud at the beginning of the experiment. The conviction reached by the author was that the relation between the supply of carbo-hydrate and food salts to the growing points determined whether growth or rest takes place in our trees. The influence of light is also brought into relation in his experi- ments. In the light space the breathing was always more in- tensive than the carbonic acid assimilation, so that the food salts were able to flow to the buds and excite them to unfold. Quanti- tative differences in the supply of food stuff of the different buds explain the changing behavior of the experimental twigs. Klebs explains behavior of beech in natiure thus: the buds develop in spring as a result of the increase of light, in conjunction with sufficient food salts from the ground. Summer budding ceases because the competition of the leaves and of the cambium inter- feres with the food supply to the buds, and the accumulation of the assimilates stops the energy of the growing points. The mid-summer growth signifies the victory of the strong light effect. Sleeping buds are those which do not possess the faculty of acquiring for themselves the flow of food salts going past them to the end buds. Removal of competing buds, however, causes them to sprout. Klebs, also, made observations on the anatomical structure of the leaves and annual ring formation. He is incHned to explain with R. Hartig and Wieler the differences between late and early Current Literature 85 wood from variations in the nourishment of the cambium cells. Since, however, in his winter experiments he found wood of early and of late character, he decided to replace the terms "early" and "late" by "wide" and "narrow" wood. Oaks, ash and ironwood are also briefly introduced, but no necessary rest under all circumstances is apparent with them. Only with the iron- wood, the light seems to possess a similar influence as with the beech. However, Klebs' view concerning the dependence of rest and growth on outward conditions does not hinder him from ascribing an inherited structure to a plant of which its properties are the expression. Our woody growths have, according to their inherited structure, the faculty of growing on continuously or of resting at times, at any time of the year. Which of these facilities becomes active is dependent upon light and nourishment at that time. It is not so much the periodic change between rest and growth that is a quality of the beech, but the faculty of allowing this change to occur under definite conditions. It is the task of the future, says Klebs at the end of his important work, to learn to know for every plant the relation of its specific structure to the outer world so exactly that its capabilities may be developed at will any time. Klebs deserves great credit for having completed such thorough examination. He has materially advanced our knowledge of the life phenomena of forest trees. J. D. A. Lumber and Its Uses. By R. S. Kellogg. The Radford Archi- tectural Company. Chicago, 111. 1914. Pp. 352. 111. With considerable success, the author has undertaken to con- dense within the limits of a single voltime, a statement of the multitudinous ways in which lumber enters into modern life and industry. While combining the information contained in the various reports on wood-using industries that have been published, much more is accomplished than a mere catalogmng of uses. The object of the book is to make readily available to the users of wood a brief but comprehensive siirvey of the ntimerous species of wood which the forests of the United States offer in such abun- dance. The author argues, with reason, that in spite of the dis- placement of wood by substitutes, the intrinsic qualities of wood 86 Forestry Quarterly are such that no general substitution is conceivable and that these qualities need only to be aggressively advertised to counteract the trend toward substitution. About one-half of the book is given over to a consideration of the uses of lumber and the commercial woods of the United States. Under the first heading, various products which have lumber as their basic raw material are considered, the annual consumption indicated, the essential qualities of the wood suitable for such products are described, and the various species so used, together with the annual consumption of each, is stated. Under the sec- ond heading, the species themselves are considered separately, their properties are briefly mentioned, and in most cases two tables are appended, the first showing the distribution of the cut among various major classes of products, and the second, the specific products manufactured from each species. In the other half of the voltmie, Ivmiber is considered in a gen- eral way aside from the specific uses. Although of necessity brief, the author has been able to give an extremely useful survey of the physical properties of wood, of grades and standard sizes, shipping weights, and the seasoning of timber; wood preservation, paints and stains and the fire-proofing of wood are also considered at some length. Recognizing the cursory treatment of most of these subjects, the author devotes special attention to indicating the sources of more detailed information, giving not only a Hst of government pubHcations bearing on the subjects, but also point- ing out the interest taken by lumber manufacturers' associations in suppl5dng information about the woods produced by their members and the ways in which they are prepared to aid the wood- user to secure authoritative information. The low price of $1, at which the book sells, is made possible by the use of a low grade paper and plain but substantial binding. This is in keeping with the object of the publication, which is frankly the advertisement of lumber, and for which purpose a wide distribution is desirable. W. N. M. Recent Results Obtained from the Preservative Treatment oj Telephone Poles. By F. L. Rhodes and R. F. Hosford. Pre- sented at the 314th meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, St. Louis, Mo., October 19, 1915. Pp. 44. Current Literature 87 This pamphlet gives an analysis of 18 years' experience of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company with poles treated by pressure, open tank, and brush methods. Experimental series of creosoted poles were installed as parts of lines used for regular service, with untreated poles included as controls. These were periodically inspected and detailed obser- vations made on their condition and all possibly related factors noted. The experimental series were located mostly in Nebraska, New York, Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi, and large numbers of poles were concerned. The species used were Southern Yellow pine, chestnut. Eastern cedar, and "juniper" {Chamaecyparis thyoides) . The earliest experiments were begim in 1897 and 1899, using whole length (pressure) treatment, chiefly with Yellow pine. In all the later series butt treatments only were given, both brush and open tank methods being used. These investigations were carried on in cooperation with the U. S. Forest Service. As yet, the writers consider it too soon to give much more than general conclusions, but the data presented in the various ana- lyzed tables of condition are of great interest. On account of the wholesale and systematic character of the investigations, future progress reports will be of much value. J. H. W. The Ashes: Their Characteristics and Management. By W. D. Sterrett. Bulletin 299, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Con- tribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1915. Pp. 88. The introductory portion of this bulletin emphasizes the eco- nomic importance of this group of trees. The annual cut of ash limiber in the United States is aroimd 250 million feet, estimated 45 per cent White ash, 37 per cent Green, and 18 per cent Black ash. The White ash comes largely from the Central States, the Green ash from the lower Mississippi valley, and the Black ash from the Lake States. Tables are given for the separation of the species by botanical characters, and showing the relative importance for commercial or silvicultural purposes. The different species are discussed as to their occurrence (types and habitat), biologic requirements, reproductive characteristics, 88 Forestry Quarterly susceptibility to various forms of injury, and silvical characters. Tables are given for the three leading species, relating diameter, height and age, on various sites in various States. Yield tables from 62 sample plots, aggregating 17 acres, in comparatively pure, even-aged stands (about half in plantations), show 38,000, 28,000 and 18,000 board feet per acre on sites I, II and III respectively, at 80 years. A calculation is presented showing the interest on investment to be expected from quality I, II and III stands for stumpage values of $5, $10, $15 and $20 per M feet, and for total invest- ments ranging from $5 to $30 per acre. According to this, the best financial rotations fall between 30 and 60 years. "Where quality I yields and $20 stumpage are to be obtained, the operator may spend as much as $20 per acre in buying land and establish- ing a stand of ash and still get 6 per cent on the investment. Where quality II or average yields and $20 stumpage are to be obtained, it is possible to get 6 per cent interest on an investment of $10 per acre. Quality III yields with $20 sttmipage will only pay a little over 5 per cent on an original investment of $5. It may be said in general that growing ash timber as a profitable investment is practically limited to lands which will produce good yields of ash and which do not cost over $10 or $15 per acre." For commercial timber growing the White and Green ash are the more desirable. Directions are given for reforesting by either natural or artificial means, the author preferring the former method where feasible. An appendix of 26 tables comprising bark, form, volume, and yield tables for the leading species is added. On the whole this bulletin is of a superior character. J. H. W. Willows: Their Growth, Use and Importance. By G. N. Lamb. Bulletin 316, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1915. Pp. 52. This bulletin opens with a description of the dozen or so species reaching fair tree size. Of these, the only native one of economic importance is the Black willow {Salix nigra) , which is a large tree of rapid growth and widely distributed. Accordingly, the major portion of the bulletin is devoted to this species, with special Current Literature 89 reference to the lower Mississippi valley, where it reaches its best development in the alluvial bottom lands. Tables of height and diameter growth are given for such site conditions. Mature stands averaged 18 to 24 inches in diameter and 85 to 120 feet in height. A study of 255 trees gave an average height of 32 feet at 5 years, 50 feet at 10 years, and 96 feet at 35 years. The average diameter breast high was 12 inches around 20 years, and 20 inches around 40 years of age. Volume tables and tables of yield on small sample areas are given. A set of form tables is also given, based on 252 trees in 5 States, giving taper measurements for diameter classes from 8 inches to 36 inches at intervals of 1 inch, and height classes from 60 to 130 feet at intervals of 10 feet. It is only within the last few years that the production of willow lumber on the lower Mississippi has become important enough for the lumber to be placed on the market \mder its own name. At present, its mill price is about $16 per thousand, mill run. The lumber is used mostly for box shooks, furniture and cabinet drawers and backing, and various special uses. Willow is also manufactured into slack cooperage stock, the coarser grades of excelsior, charcoal for special uses, artificial limbs, willow furniture and baskets, etc. The use of willows for protection is discussed. The species is very suitable for protecting soil from erosion by running water or wave action. The most extensive employment for this purpose is for bank revetment work along the lower Mississippi system, where an average of 350,000 cords per year is required. Willows are also used as sand binders, and are the favorite tree for wind- breaks and shelter belts in the central prairie states. The last ten pages are devoted to the subject of planting willows, under the various headings of soil requirements, species suitable, handling of cuttings, costs and yields. J. H. W. Zygadenus, or Death Camas. By C. D. Marsh and A. B. Clawson, and H. Marsh. Bulletin 125, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. 1915. Pp. 46. This bulletin covers completely in a comparatively^ short space the description of the poisonous species of the genus Zygadenus, 90 Forestry Quarterly the losses of live stock in the United States from the plant, going into the pharmacological side of the effects of the plant upon different classes of stock, symptoms of poisoning and a number of practical remedies, with tables showing the results of detailed experiments with death camas upon stock. The publication is intended to supply general information on the relation of Zyga- denus to the losses of live stock on the western ranges, and is suited for distribution throughout the western one-third of the United States. A complete description of the poisonous species of Zagadenus is given, with plates, showing the visual charac- teristics of the plant. Zygadenus is known commonly through- out the West by a large nimiber of names, as death camas, lobeHa, soap plant, alkaH grass, water lily, squirrel food, wild onion, poison sego, poison sego lily, mystery grass and hog's potato. Nine species of Zygadenus are known to be poisonous. The species is found very widely distributed throughout the United States and even as far north as Alaska. The plants are most abundant from the Rocky Mountains west to the Pacific Coast, and so are of importance and interest to forest officers in the West, since the annual loss of live stock on the National Forests from this plant is considerable. The results of the extensive experiments with the plant on different kinds of stock are given in detail. Hogs apparently eat the bulbs with no bad effects; cases of cattle dying from eating the death camas are not common; many cases of horses being made sick from it have been reported, but deaths are rare; while sheep are most frequently poisoned, due, the authors think, to sheep being close herded on areas where death camas is found. There have been cases — not a few — of children being poisoned from eating the bulbs. Experimental work has been carried on in Colorado for five seasons to show the effect of Zygadenus poisoning on different classes of stock, and in Montana for three seasons. The tables showing the methods used in this experimental work and the results are of practical interest. The S5niiptoms observable in different classes of stock experimented on are of distinct value to forest officers and live stock owners as well. Some 12 remedies for death camas poisoning are given, with practical suggestions how to prevent losses of stock, the important thing being the ability to recognize the plants and keep stock away from them. The bulletin concludes with a bibliography of literature cited. J. D. G. Current Literature 91 A Discussion of Log Rules — Their Limitations and Suggestions for Correction. By H. E. McKenzie. Bulletin 5, California State Board of Forestry. Sacramento. 1915. Pp. 56. This is an important contribution to the literature of this subject. The fimdamental principles of board foot log rules as developed by Daniels and by Clark, and discussed in Graves' Mensuration, are here again set forth in a still more complete and convincing form. A formula is given for the calculation of an elastic log rule which may be modified with change of widths of saw, average width of timber sawed, and average thickness of lumber. Diagrams and analyses are given of the Spaulding, Scribner, and Doyle Rules, and the waste allowance shown in per cent of the product for logs of different diameters. For the Doyle Rule this varies from 191 per cent for 10" logs, to 23.6 per cent for 50" logs. It is shown that in principle the Doyle Rule is mathe- matically sound, but that it errs in providing too great an allowance for slabbing, and too small a loss in sawdust. The author then develops a formula in which the slabbing allowance is found by subtracting a constant from the diameter, as in the Doyle Rule, and computing the board foot contents of the resiiltant enclosed cylinder. The sawdust allowance is based on the principle of saw kerf on the side as well as surface of each board and reads : Volimie of saw kerf = width of kerf X area of kerf. The latter area amounts to width plus thickness of board plus width of kerf itself as may be seen from a diagram. The volume of the board plus kerf equals width of board plus kerf X thickness of board plus kerf. From these expressions the per cent of volume in sawdust is obtained, and the net per cent of product. The method is probably a slight improvement over previous plans. Excessive taper in small logs, tending to increase the out- put, is allowed for by adding a constant. In appljdng this rule, at Lassen, California, a saw kerf of >^" width board of 12", and thickness of 5/4" was used. The constant subtracted for slab was 1" from the diameter, instead of 4" as in the 92 Forestry Quarterly Doyle Rule. The constant for taper was +2. This gave a formtdaof .942 (D — 1) ^+2 = B M for 16-foot logs. A taper allowance of 1" for 8-foot was allowed for other lengths. The resultant log rule shows an almost constant excess of be- tween 6 and 7 per cent over that given in Clark's International Rule, a result largely attributable to the \}/i" thickness of lumber used as against 1" in the International. For other widths of saw and thickness of dimensions, different resiilts would be obtained. For adoption as a State standard, these variable or elastic factors would have to be eliminated and a definite agreement reached. There cannot be as many log rules as there are different factors in sawing. The function of a log rule is to set a commercial standard for measurement. There will always be overrun or underrun from most mills, for any log rule, preferably the former. Inaccurate and falsely constructed log riiles, however, should eventually give way to rules based on correct principles, and this bulletin is an aid to those seeking this result. After analyzing the principles and formulae applying to many standard log rules now in use, the author shows when it is possible to convert a volume table of tree contents expressed in one rule into terms of a different rule, and when this transformation is not possible. This depends upon the construction of the respective rules. Tables made on the following riiles can be so converted by using the proper factors, which are discussed : Constantine, Saco River, Derby, Square of Three-fourths, Partridge, Vermont, Inscribed Square, StUlwell, Ake, Square of Two-thirds, Two-thirds, Orange River, Cimiberland River, Bangor, Boynton, Parsons, Warner, Spaulding, Wilcox, Ropp, Favorite, Nineteen-Inch Standard, New Hampshire, Cube Rule, Twenty-two-inch Standard, Twenty-four-inch Standard, Seven- teen-Inch Rule. The Doyle and Scribner Rules cannot be transposed. H. H. C. Forests, Forestry, and the Lumber Industry in the United States oj America. By M. Tkatchenko. Petrograd, Russia, 1914. The author of this book, containing 273 pages and a large number of splendid illustrations and maps, is known to many foresters in this country. Mr. Tkatchenko spent almost an entire year in Current Literature 93 the United States and visited many of the National Forests, forest experiment stations, and the large lumber centers of the country. His report, which now appears as an official pubHcation of the Russian Department of Forestry, shows a thorough under- standing of American forest conditions and will undoubtedly prove of immense interest to the Russian foresters. As a matter of fact, except the impressions of Mr. Tichonov on American forestry, written nearly 17 years ago. Russian literature lacks publications on American forest conditions. Mr. Tichonov's articles touch upon a period in the development of forestry in this country which may not be so very remote in time, yet belong to a stage which we have long outlived and is a matter of history. Mr. Tkatchenko's book must, therefore, be considered as really the first Russian presentation and discussion of American forest problems. There are a few inaccuracies here and there, but on the whole it gives a true picture of the historical development of forestry in this country and an estimate of the activities of the Forest Service. The book, however, lacks an anal}i:ical discussion of our forest practice in the light of Russian experience. American foresters, therefore, will not find in this book anything that will make their own work clearer to them or suggest any improvements. Possibly one of the statements which may interest American lumbermen and foresters is that Mr. Tkatchenko sees an opportunity for Russian hardwood lumber to be shipped to the Pacific Coast. According to Mr. Tkatchenko, the Pacific Coast is in need of hardwoods which do not grow there naturally and which are expensive to ship from the East where hardwood lumber, anyhow, is being exhausted. His opinion, therefore, is that a Russian exporter of hardwoods to the Pacific Coast may find there a market for his product. Another curious conclusion which he makes for the benefit of his Russian readers is the need of an editor in the Russian Department of Forestry who would go over all the different reports before they are pubHshed. American foresters, who have always admired European freedom of the authors to express themselves in their own way, even at some expense of printing, would be inclined to doubt the wisdom of introducing an editor in the Russian Department of Forestry who would act as a censor of manuscripts submitted for publication. R, Z. 94 Forestry Quarterly Second Annual Conference of the Woods Department, Berlin Mills Company. November, 1914. Pp. 48. For elegance in bookmaking this report, issued for private distribution, takes easily first rank. In its make-up it is most worthy of the great company by which it is issued; paper and print and illustrations are first-class; and as far as they go, the articles, offerings by various members of the Woods Department of the Berlin Mills and allied industries, are "all right." But so far as forestry interests are concerned, they do not go far enough ! What the forester would like to know is what the company is doing in introducing forestry and other conservative methods, since the company employs, according to its roster, not less than four men called "foresters," and has employed foresters, as far as the reviewer has knowledge, for more than a decade. Instead of the very general discussion on "Applied Forestry," by de Carteret, we would like to know how much of this theoretical knowledge has it been possible to apply in the woods; instead of the general article on "Forest Fire Protection" we wotild be interested to know what means the company has employed and with what success. And so with all seven articles of the contents ; they lack the flavor of actual practice. Of course, we appreciate that the object of these meetings and of this report are of a private nature and probably mainly to bring the men, — 76 were reported in attendance- — of the department together for the development of an esprit de corps; but, since the General Manager, Mr. W. R. Brown, is not only a Director of the American Forestry Associa- tion, but also a member of the New Hampshire Forestry Com- mission, and Vice-President of the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests, we hope to induce him to consider whether some time he might not let us know about the actual application of forestry in the work of the company as far as such publication cannot harm the interests of the company. One article which perhaps deserves special attention by foresters is Mr. S. S. Lockyer's "Logging Plan for a Hypothetical Valley," accompanied by maps, which perhaps hints at the actual work done by the foresters of the Company, and which shows a con- scientious analysis of the situation, and systematic procedure. B. E. F. Current Literature 95 Extracts front the Bulletin of the Forest Experiment Station, Meguro, Tokyo. Bureau of Forestry, Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Tokyo, Japan. 1915. Pp. 221. This elegant publication brings on 221 pages, with many excel- lent illustrations, tabulations and diagrams, the result of investi- gations during the period of 1905-14, at the Japanese Forest Experiment Station. Under 21 headings, as many different subjects are treated, some of general biological and other scien- tific interest, some of more local interest; each reported upon by some member of the Station, ten in number. The English, while perfectly intelligible, is sometimes quaint and unusual. Dr. Shirasawa discusses the influences of derivation of seed, of course on Japanese material, and comes to some conclusions which do not quite tally with German and Swedish findings, e. g., that seeds from young (20-30 year) trees are larger and show a better growth than that from older trees. Otherwise, the con- clusion that the best tree seeds should be taken from a locality resembling in climate the place where the seeds are to be sown confirms the well-established European experience. An investi- gation into storing seeds does not bring out anything new. The chemist furnishes analyses of fallen leaves and an investi- gation into the proper season of applying fertilizers to seedlings in the nursery. Timber physics investigations refer to transverse strength of Japanese woods, in which the banal effect of knots is accentuated, and foresters are advised to pay attention to pnming; the caloric power of wood and electric resistance of wood, where it is shown that woods of high specific gravity offer far less resistance than those having low specific gravity, provided the amount of moisture is the same. The charcoal-burning practices are described and investiga- tions into temperatures and their results reported which coincide with the old findings of Violette ; also the wood vinegar production as a by-product of charcoal-burning is discussed. Researches on the culture of some edible fungi, Cortinellus edodes and Tremella fuciformis are of special interest. Notes on fatty and essential oils, the tapping of lac, a number of fungus diseases, damage by white ants and coccids occupy some 70 pages. Then follows a very learned mathematical and philo- sophical discussion on the analytical interpretation of growth 96 Forestry Quarterly curves and its application for the construction of yield tables for Cryptomeria japonica, and form height tables for the principal conifers and some broad-leaved trees of Japan. Especially the former discussion reveals a highly scientific procedure with proper consideration of the pertinent literature, producing new formulae for the expression of growth relations. Nothing as learned has as yet appeared in the American press! This publication sets a pace which is most promising not only for Japanese forestry, but for forestry literature in general. B. E. F. OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE The Northern Hardwood Forests: Its Composition, Growth, and Management. By E. H. Frothingham. Bulletin 285, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1915. Pp. 80. A treatise on the character of northern hardwood forests, their economic importance, and management. An appendix contains volume tables in board feet and cubic feet, and also form tables. The author states that for the present, at least, management of these forests is largely a matter of Federal, State, or municipal, rather than of private, concern, since the practice of forestry by private owners is practicable only in the case of certain quick growing, valuable species, or where wood of small sizes is in steady demand, for slow-growing species under short rotations, or on estates maintained for recreation, hunting, or park purposes, in which the cost of maintenance is not charged against the stumpage value. State Forestry Laivs, Indiana, Minnesota, New Jersey, Wash- ington. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contributions from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1915 and 1916. Pp. 0, 14, 7, 8. Other Current Literature 97 Trail Construction on the National Forests. U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1915. Pp. 69. A valuable manual on this important subject. Water Power Projects, Telephone, Telegraph, Power Trans- mission Lines on the National Forests. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washing- ton, D. C. 1915. Pp. 90. Regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture and instructions regarding applications for permits for water power projects un- der the Act of February 5, 1901, and for easements for tele- phone, telegraph and power transmission lines under the Act of March 4, 1911. Cleveland, Deschutes, Pike, and Siuslaiv National Forests. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1915. Maps and directions to tourists and campers, Zacaton as a Paper-Making Material. By C. J. Brand and J. L. Merrill. Bulletin 309, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. 1915. Pp. 28. The information contained in this bulletin was noted in F. Q., vol. XIII, pp. 574 f. Larch Mistletoe: Some Economic Considerations of Its Injuri- ous Effects. By J. R. Weir. Bulletin 317, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 27. Utili::ation of American Flax Straiv in the Paper and Fiber- Board Industry. By J. L. Merrill. Bulletin 322, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. Pp. 24. Directions for Blueberry Culture, ipi6. By F. V. Coville. Bulletin 334, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. 1915. Pp. 16. 98 Forestry Quarterly The Bagworm, An Injurious Shade-Tree Insect. By L. O. Howard and F. H. Chittenden. Farmers' Bulletin 701, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 12. Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. Volume X. Number 4. Washington, D. C. October, 1915. Pp. 341-484. Contains: In Memoriam: Robert Langdon Rogers; The Need of Working Plans on National Forests and the Policies Which Should Be Embodied in Them, by B. P. Kirkland; Regional Forest Plans, by D. T. Mason ; Working Plans, by H. H. Chap- man ; New Aspect of Brush Disposal in Arizona and New Mexico, by W. H. L,ong; Brush Disposal in Lodgepole-Pine Cuttings, by D. T. Mason; Some Notes on Forest Ecology and Its Problems, by R. H. Boerker; Five Years' Growth on Doug- las Fir Sample Plots, by T. T. Munger; Light Burning at Castle Rock, by S. B. Show; Uniformity in the Forest-Fire Legisla- tion Affecting Railroad Operation and Lumbering, by P. T. Coolidge; Reviews. Report of the Selby Smelter Commission. By J. A. Holmes, E. C. Franklin and R. C. Gould. Bulletin 98, Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior. Washington, D. C. 1915. Pp. 528. A contribution to the literature of metallurgical smoke in its relation to plant growth and to public health and comfort. It outlines what is believed to be a satisfactory method of dealing with legal controversies over the damage inflicted by mining and metallurgical establishments. Our Foreign Trade in Farm and Forest Products. Prepared by P. Elliott. Bulletin 296, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Crop Estimates. Washing- ton, D. C. 1915. Pp. 51. Of special interest to foresters are the statements in regard to logs, lumber and timber, naval stores, gums, and minor forest products, pp. 46-8 inclusive. Fifth Annual Report of the New Hampshire State Tax Com- mission. Tax Year of 1915. Concord, N. H. 1915. Pp. 126. Other Current Literature 99 The Red Rot of Conifers. By F. H. Abbott. Bulletin 191, Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station. Burlington, Vt. 1915. Pp. 20. Report of the Circuit Tree Planting Committee. Massachu- setts Forestry Association. Boston. 1915. Pp. 16. Empire Forestry. Volume 1, Number 1. New York State College of Forestry. Syracuse, N. Y. January, 1915. Pp. 79. Contains the following articles: The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University; Some Phases of Forestry in China ; White Pine Plantations vs. Blister Blight and Weevil ; Description of Canadian Woods Life; Forestry Club; Recon- naissance Survey in the Palisades Inter-State Park; The Gypsy Moth Problem in New England ; Cruising in Quebec ; Fire Pa- trolling in Vermont Under Weeks Law; Reconnaissance and Estimating in Lewis and Oswego Counties; Activities of the Student Body; Destructive Distillation of African Mahogany; Notes from the New York State Ranger School ; A Description of Summer Work. Forty-sixth Annual Report of the Park Commissioners of the City of Buffalo. Buffalo, N. Y. 1915. Pp. 118. Some Economic Factors Influencing the Forestry Situation. By A. F. Hawes. Reprinted from Popular Science Monthly, August, 1915. Pp. 181-6. Wood-Using Industries of West Virginia. By J. C. Willis and J. T. Harris. Bulletin 10, West Virginia Department of Agriculture. Charleston. 1915. Pp. 144. Organisation of Co-operative Forest Fire Protective Areas in North Carolina, Being the Proceedings of the Special Conference on Forest Fire Protection Held as Part of the Conference on Forestry Nature Study. Prepared by J. S. Holmes. Economic Paper, No. 42, North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey. Raleigh. 1915. Pp. 39. 100 Forestry Quarterly Georgia State forest School, Forest Club Annual. Volume I. Athens. 1916. Pp. 73. Devoted to a miscellaneous set of popular articles on the Con- servation of Natural Resources. Forest Valuation. Volume II of Michigan Manual of For- estry. By Filibert Roth. Published by the author. Ann Arbor, Mich. 1916. Pp. 171. Price $1.50. A Synopsis of the Game and Fish Laws of Michigan for ipi^-i6. Northern Forest Protection Association. Munising, Michigan. Second Biennial Report of the State Forester of Kentucky, IQ15. J. E. Barton, State Forester. Published by the Direction of the State Board of Forestry. Frankfort. Pp. 140. Manual of Instructions for County Forest Wardens and Dis- trict Forest Wardens. By J. E. Barton. Frankfort, Ky. 1915. Standard Grades and Classifications of Cypress and Tupelo. The Southern Cypress Manufacturers' Association. New Or- leans, La. 1916. Pp. 31. Southern Yellow Pine Timbers Including Definition of the Nezv "Density Rule." Southern Pine Association. New Orleans^ La. 1915. Pp. 47. Southern Yellozv Pine Timbers Including Definition of the "Density Rule." Approved and Adopted by the Southern Pine Association. New Orleans, La. 1915. Pp. 19. Deforestation and Reforestation as Affecting Climate, Rain and Production. By M. Wicks. Bulletin 17 (new series), Texas Department of Agriculture. Austin. Pp. 11. Eighth Annual Report of the Washington Forest Fire Asso- ciation, 1915. Seattle. 1915. Pp. 20. Contains the following reports : Financial statement, Secre- tary's, Chief Fire Warden's ; also a table showing burned areas Other Current Literature 101 and losses during the year, and a list of standing committees, and one showing the membership. The report shows that a total of 97,352 acres were burned over during the year, 13,930 M feet of timber being killed and 4620 M feet of timber being destroyed. The losses from fires during 1915 were less than for any year, except 1913, since the Asso- ciation was organized. Proceedings of Forest Industry Conference of the Forest Pro- tective Organisations of tlie Pacific Coast, Composing the Wes- tern Forestry and Conservation Association. Reprint from the Timberman. Portland, Ore. 1915. Pp. 30. A Mill Scale Study of Western Yellow Pine. By H. E. Mc- Kenzie. Bulletin 6, California State Board of Forestry. Sacra- mento. 1915. Pp. 171. The Manufacture of Ethyl Alcohol from Wood Waste: Pre- liminary Experiments on the Hydrolysis of White Spruce. By T. W. Kressman. Reprint from Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. August, 1914. Pp. 625, ff. The Possibilities of Hardwood Distillation on the Pacific Coast. By R. C. Palmer. Reprint from Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, October, 1914. Pp. 623, ff. Forest Protection in Canada, igi^-14. Compiled under the direction of Clyde Leavitt, associated with C. D. Howe and J. H. White. Commission of Conservation of Canada. Ottawa. 1915. Pp. 317. Game Preservation in the Rocky Mountains Forest Reserve. By W. N. Millar. Bulletin 51, Dominion Forestry Branch. Ot- tawa, Canada. 1915. Pp. 69. Timber Conditions in the Smoky River Valley and Grande- Prairie Country. (Being a continuation of "Timber Conditions in the Little Smoky River Volley.") By J. A. Doucet. Bulletin 53, Dominion Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1915. Pp. 55. 102 Forestry Quarterly Report of the Superintendent of Water Powers for the Year Ending March 31, 1914. Part VIII, Annual Report, 1914, De- partment of the Interior, Ottawa, Canada, 1915. Pp. 309. Comhinafion or General Purpose Barns. Bulletin No, 1, Farm Building Series. British Columbia Department of Lands, Forest Service, Victoria, B, C. 1915, Pp, 54. Sheep Barns. Bulletin No. 5, Farm Building Series. British Columbia Department of Lands, Forest Service, Victoria, B, C. 1915, Pp. 34, Piggeries and Smoke Houses. Bulletin No. 6, Farm Building Series. British Columbia Department of Lands, Forest Service. Victoria, B. C, 1915. Pp, 38, Poultry Houses. Bulletin No, 7, Farm Building Series. British Columbia Department of Lands, Forest Service, Victoria, B, C. 1915. Pp, 35. Implement Sheds and Granaries. Bulletin No, 8, Farm Building Series. British Columbia Department of Lands, For- est Service. Victoria, B. C, 1915, Pp, 38. Directory of the Milling Industry in Canada. Compiled by E. S. Bates. Industrial and Educational Press, Limited. Mon- treal, Canada. 1915. Pp. 116. Progress Report of Forest Administration in the Punjab for the Year 1913-14, with a Quinquennial Review. Lahore, India, 1914. Pp. 20 + civ. Annual Progress Report Upon State Forest Administration in South Australia for the Year 1914-15. By W, Gill. Adelaide, 1915. Pp. 13. Report on State Nurseries and Plantations for the year IQ14-15. By J. McKenzie. Department of Lands and Survey, New Zea- land. Wellington, 1915. Pp, 69, Of interest in this report are the notes on "Various Schemes for Training Officers in England and Scotland." Periodical Literature 103 Structural Qualities of British Columbia Fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia). By H. R. MacMillan. (Special Paper.) Reprinted from Minutes of Proceedings of the South African Society of Civil Engineers. Cape Town, S. A. 1915. Pp. 15. Report of the Agricultural Department, St. Lucia, 191^-15. Issued by the Imperial Commission of Agriculture for the West Indies. Barbadoes. 1914. Pp. 33. Report of the Agricultural Department, St. Lucia, 1Q14-15. Issued by the Imperial Commission of Agriculture for the West Indies. Barbadoes. 1915. Pp. 30. Waldhrandversicherung. Ein Leitfaden fiir die Versicherungs- nahme und Schadenregulierung. Von Dr. C. Ludwig. Aachen. 1914. Pp. 80. Mk. 2.50. Die Bodenkolloide. Bitte Brgdnzung fiir die iiblichen Lehr- bilcher der Bodenkunde. Von Dr. P. Ehrenberg. Dresden and Leipzig. Pp. 563. Mk. 14.50. Contains the essentials of the new chemistry of colloids. Biologic der Pflansen. Von R. v. Wiesner. 3d (increased) edition. Vienna. K. 11.40. PERIODICAL LITERATURE FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION Dr. Martin resumes his critical discussion of Swiss methods, technical and political, of various Forestry forest administrations on the basis of his travels by a long chapter on conditions in Switzerland compared with those in Germany. We advise any American forester who contemplates visiting the continent for study to take advantage of informing himself in advance under the guidance of this competent critic. Switzerland is forestally exceedingly interesting on account of the great variety of conditions. Differences of altitude, exposure, slope with a variety of climatic conditions vary the behavior of species. Soil conditions are exceedingly varied in chemical and physical directions according to the rock from which derived. PoHtical conditions also vary, and the history of forestry in the different cantons varies, as well as present administrative and managerial conditions. Switzerland teaches better than any other land that it is necessary in developing forest management to bring to issue two different directions: centralization and decentraHzation, general rules of management and regard to special local conditions. The discussion takes up first site conditions, then silvicultural methods, regeneration and thinning practice; aims and methods of forest organization; finally, aims of forest policy. The forest per cent is 20.6, or relating it only to the productive area 27.7 per cent, very unevenly distributed. The State owns only 4.6 per cent; the bulk, 66.8 per cent is in municipal ownership, leaving only 28.5 per cent to private owners. We can single out only a few points of interest. The site optimtmi is, of course, for oak in the lowest, broad valleys and southern exposures; for beech and fir at 400 to 800 m, for spruce between 800 and 1200 m. The timberlimit, indicated by Pinus cemhra and Larix, and not far from these, for the spruce lies in the Alps between 1650 and 2200 meter, and on the Jura at 1500 w. These elevations are considerably higher than those of the German mountains. 104 Periodical Literature 105 In Germany, humidity is the important factor found in mini- mum, hence silvicultural methods have to look carefully to avoid drying of the site, in Switzerland such care is entirely unnecessary, even to the extent of favoring exposure to the sun. The differences of climate are indicated by the occurrence of fig, olive and chestnut forest forming in the southern cantons up to the cessation of tree growth at timberlimit, through the broad- leaf forest of oak and beech, the mixed broadleaf and conifer, then the spruce and finally the White pine and larch. Frost danger is small in the mountains, due to fogs and late opening of vegetation. Wind danger is also less than one would expect, due to the break of the wind by the mountain configura- tion. Significant, however, is the Fohn, corresponding to our Chinook winds, which sometimes necessitate to locate felling series from North to South. Otherwise localized direction of wind must be studied. The soils vary, alluvial and diluvial deposits continue to form. Tertiary formation is found in the parts between Jura and Alps and chalk formation especially around the foot of the Jura. Silurian and Devonian formations are rare, but the crystalline gneisses and slates aboimd, as well as the various granites, while porphyry and basalt are rare. Here a close connection between soil quality and rock is observed. Spruce is most widely distributed and forms about 40 per cent of the forest. Stands are characterized by even growth, com- pleteness, large stem number, large cross section area and volume, and low bark per cent, excellent quality, even grain, freedom from damage. Its management is very easy, since it keeps a close cover, preventing undergrowth, has the capacity to recuperate from suppression and responds to thinning practice of any kind readily. Pure stands are financially best, admixtures bring economic detriment, except with beech, merely in small propor- tion; even below 5 per cent. Going up from the optimum be- tween 800 to 1,000 w, growth conditions rapidly change, decreas- ing in development in all directions until close stands cease to exist and in 200 years is accomplished what can be produced in 100 years on its proper site. A 189-year old stand at 1830 m elevation exhibited still 440 stems with a basal area of only 258 square feet, a height of 60 feet and an average diameter of 11 inches, not less than 17 years to the inch. 106 Forestry Quarterly The question whether to propagate spruce in the warmer situations than its optimum is a most important one. The success in this respect in Switzerland is phenomenal if compared with German results. Stands with an annual increment of 430 cubic feet between 30 and 40 years of age have been recorded, and the average of measurements in the hill country, shows a culmina- tion of average increment on I site with 408 cubic feet in the 30th year, on II site with 326 cubic feet; even the poorest site shows at 60 years an average of 130 cubic feet. Nevertheless, after the 60th year these remarkable rates collapse, the stands open and undergrowth appears, rot starts; hence after all, in these sites pure spruce stands are undesirable and the species must become merely an admixture. Fir also finds favorable sites, but occurs more rarely in pure stands. In the city forests of Biel at 850 m a stand with a basal area of 297 square feet and 13,320 cubic feet, 23 inch average diameter at 140 years is cited. The adaptation to the warmer sites together with the ease of propagation, that fir improves the soil, is not liable to damage, can utilize the light for increased increment, is a first-class producer, and adapted to mixed forest, leads the author to formulate the silvicultural policy to aim at mixed fir-spruce-beech growth with the fir predominant in the milder, the spruce in the cooler situations. Especially for selec- tion forest, the fir is most fit. Larch — a sound one 800 years old is mentioned — finds its best site between 1200 and 1800 m, although it goes over 2400 m, where, however, it would take at least 200 years to make a 16- inch tree. Pinus cembra, a timberline tree, hardly occurs in dense forest; its resistance against the ills of organic and inorganic nature, in which it excels all other species, and its valuable wood make it valuable in these high elevations, also as bulwark against avalanches. Of Scotch pine more is found than one would expect, up to 1700 m. It is the best species for afforestation of moimtain wastes and sunny heads and slopes. Beech is mainly valuable in mixing with the conifers and as soil improver. Lately, its technological use has increased. Its silviculture in the mild situations is easier than in most parts of Germany, due to absence of frost and greater tolerance in the humid climate. The other broadleaf trees are of minor impor- tance. Periodical Literature 107 That growth conditions are more favorable in Switzerland than in Germany is shown by a comparison of yield tables. To be sure, those of the alpine sites differ greatly from those of the hill country. The comparison with the latter shows a great differ- ence in numbers per acre, hardly any in height, but again con- siderable difference in volimies. The following figures refer to spruce on III site, the Swiss site, though corresponding in height, producing at much better rate. Percent sum Diam- Basal Thinnings of Final Current Average Number Height eter Area Volume A mount Yield Increment Incremet 60 Year: Swiss. . . 842 56 7 208 7865 2360 23 226 173 German . 596 53 7 151 5506 2431 31 215 132 100 Year: Swiss . . . 352 84 11 247 11798 6292 35 152 182 German. 258 83 11 169 7822 6750 46 137 146 As regards sytems of management, Martin points out a differ- ence of attitude regarding selection forest in Switzerland and Germany. In the latter country, the objection to and the reduction of the selection forest dates from the 17th and 18th centuries, with Cotta and Hartig leading the objectors in the 19th century; the acknowledged advantages of the system being decidedly out- weighed by the disadvantages except in certain locations. In Switzerland the selection forest occupies over 35 per cent of the total forest area, in private forest even over 41 per cent, and many Swiss foresters sing its praise and the cantonal forest admin- istration of Bern has stopped converting its selection forests into even-aged timber forest. The soil, it is claimed, is best protected. In a sample area, 186 per cent fir, 11 per cent spruce, 3 per cent beech, by measuring crown diameters the crown cover per hectare was found for the main stand (over 36 cm) 2702 qm, for the side stand (21-35 cm) 3691 qm, for the undergrowth (12-21 cm) 2310 qm, to which add for the young reproduction 4500 qm, or alto- gether a crown of 13,200 qm, i. e. one third of the hectare is twice covered, which is possible only due to the tolerance of fir and its ability to establish in the shade its yoimg generation. But such conditions are by no means to be found everywhere, for instance not in most German conditions, where deterioration of the soil through undesirable undergrowth is frequently met. In the selection forest assistance in this respect is impracticable, while in the uniform forest with clearing this is possible by underplant- 108 Forestry Quarterly ing and otherwise so that it can be asserted, soil conditions in many German forests have improved through change to a clearing system and planting of pine. The city forest of Zurich is also cited, where a clearing system has been in vogue four centuries and soil con- ditions are mostly excellent. The claim that selection forest on account of the protection of the soil was a better producer could also not be maintained; the retardation under the shade in the early development is never lost ; the form of the crown in the selection forest is not as favor- able to the utilization of the light as the less spreading, conical crown of the timber forest. Spruces with their slender, conical crown in close crown cover at 30 to 50 years can produce up to 425 cubic feet per annimi, more than any figures reported from selection forest; the average production in the Swiss hill country is 256, 215, 172, 143 cubic feet for the four site classes, as good a product as any selection forest. Similarly, the value production, if average conditions are taken and not only the best trees, lags behind the timber forest; more taper, more branchwood and knotty material balance the possibly greater diameter development. Nevertheless, selection forest may be managed profitably under favorable conditions; both volume and value increment in the young age classes being very small, due to suppression, they im- prove in later life, so that at 120 years with 12 inch diameters the two increments present still 5 per cent and at 140 years with 16 inch diameter still about 4 per cent. While economic considerations will hardly lead one to the selection forest, its undoubted value lies in its resistance to dam- age by wind, snow, frost, fire, etc. Judgments on the value of these methods of management can, however, have no general value; they can have reference only to given cases and conditions. Admitted must be that in Switzer- land the moments which condition the selection forest are much more strongly present than in Germany. In similar fashion, Dr. Martin discusses the practices of Swiss foresters in regeneration, species by species. A consideration of the question whether natural regeneration or artificial reforesta- tion is preferable leads to a cautious r^sum^. To secure satisfactory natural regeneration, certain conditions must exist; if they do exist then this regeneration is in every Periodical Literature 109 essential respect satisfactory; but if they are lacking, the attempt to practise it bad? to economic sacrific33 and evils which grow- worse the longer one persists. Die wichtigsten forsUechnischen und forstpolitischen Verhdltnisse und Mass- nahmen in der Schweiz mit Bezugnahme auf den gegenwdrtigen Stand der Forstmrtschaft in Deutschland. Tharandter Forstliches Jahrbuch, 66 Band, 1915, pp. 159-94, 253-80, 329-49, Fortzetzung. In connection with the above critical dis- Swiss cussion of Swiss forestry practices readers Forest will be glad to have the official publication, Conditions Die forstlichen Verhdltnisse der Schweiz, published by the Swiss forestry association in 1914, covering the statistics, history, legislation, description, organization and practices in detail on 34:2 pages. A brief re- view may be found in the journal referred to below. AUgemeine Forst- und Jagd-Zeitung, July, 1915, pp. 171-6. A. S. (probably Schaeffer, formerly Chief Management of Management at Grenoble, and now Con- of a servator) gives an interesting management Forest review of a "forest in Alsace," which in covers ground captured by the Allies. The Alsace oak comprises the most important species, although the beech has an important place, especially for soil cover. When this forest was taken over by the Germans at the end of the Franco-Prussian war, it was chiefly coppice under standards and simple coppice. For a long time, apparently, the frequent clear cutting of cop- pice lowered the soil quality and decreased the percentage of valuable species. The ground ran wild to a certain extent and the beech reserves suffered from bark scald. The average yield for 30 years on an average rotation of 27 years was 6.44 cubic metres per hectare. In addition to the sale of wood, the collec- tion of dead wood was authorized in summer one day a week and in winter two days a week. The open fields and the hunting privileges were rented. Originally, the transformation to high forest of the entire area was recommended and the Germans continued this conversion, but, on account of demands of the local commune, restricted the conversion to a quarter of the area. The remainder was treated as coppice under standards, but the rota- tion for the coppice was reduced from 27 to 24 years to permit 110 Forestry Quarterly an increased annual cut in the coppice made necessary by the in- creased restriction of cutting in the area under conversion. The openings were being restocked as rapidly as possible with fast growing species, notably beech, spruce and ash, and, to a less ex- tent, with oak, elm, maple and alder. In order to increase the percentage of the beech, the soil was raked around and under seed trees before seed years. It will be interesting to see what changes, if any, are made in the management of this forest and other Alsatian forests by French Administration after the war is over. Apparently the Germans made no radical changes from the method of treatment followed by the French. T. S. W., Jr. Revue des Eaux et For^ts, December 1, 1915, pp. 745-751. J. Reynard gives an interesting account The Karst of the famous Karst plateau on the left bank of the Isonzo River, where the Italians and Austrians are now fighting. The deforestation of this region is well known. Formerly, the Karst was covered with splendid oak and beech forests which were cut by the Ro- mans and the Republic of Venice for the construction of their navies. This overcutting was followed by heavy grazing by goats and sheep which resulted in almost complete deforesta- tion on account of the accompanying conflagrations. Reynard explains that the Karst plateau is valuable for nothing except forests and that, although Austria commenced reforestation, there are still large denuded areas. He points out that if that region is captured by the Italians, their first duty will be to take up more actively its forestation, since it is today almost uninhabited and requires forests for protection against the famous Bora tempest. T. S. W., Jr. Revue des Eaux et For6ts, December 1, 1915, pp. 756-757. .,, • 7 pi • Coventry contributes an exceedingly in- - terestmg article on the so-called Jand forests . , in the Punjab, British India. The similar- p . . ity of local conditions between these areas and the semi-desert brush land in the south- west and in southern California is quite marked. In the Pun- Periodical Literature 111 jab, the hot weather lasts from April 15 until the middle of October. The hottest month is June, when the average mean temperature for the month is 93° F. Maximum temperatures of 115° to 120° F. are frequent occurrences. Scorching winds blow during May and June and sandstorms are frequent. The rainfall varies from 5 inches to 30 inches, decreasing as you proceed from the hills. The general slope is in a southwest di- rection from the hills to the Indus River, varying from 3,000 to 300 feet in elevation. Topographic features are high, newly formed plains, due to erosion of the soil by flood waters ; low- land, subject to river inundation; intermediate land above flood level ; high bar land with deep water level. The soil is quite fertile and with irrigation produces excellent crops, except where there is an excess of sodium salts. The Jand (Prosopis sicigera) rarely exceeds 30 to 40 feet in height, or a diameter of 12 to 15 inches. It is intolerant, with scanty foliage. Its most important characteristic is its exceed- ingly long taproot which has been known to penetrate to a ver- tical depth of 64 feet. It forms root suckers and coppices freely. Where goat grazing is allowed, it assumes a bush-like growth due to constant browsing. It makes excellent firewood and char- coal. Associate species are the wan {Salvadora oleoides) and haril {Sapparis aphylla). It is possible to travel through hundreds of miles of these forests "and yet not find a single young seed- ling." The usual explanation for this has been from grazing or a change of climate. There are large areas where Jand forests must have occupied the ground in spite of the low rainfall. That they have been able to do so, is on account of the long taproot which reaches the sub-soil water supply. Attempts to raise Jand artifically without irrigation has failed. With irrigation, planta- tions have been successful. The writer concludes that practically all the plains must have once been covered with these Jand forests, pure and in mixture with other species. With the in- crease of cultivation, the forests were driven to the more arid areas and "the time, in fact, does not seem far distant when pro- bably the whole of the Jand forests in the Punjab will be wiped out of existence by being replaced by cultivation." T. S. W., Jr. The Indian Forester, September, 1915, pp. 307-315. 112 Forestry Quarterly H. O. Coventry writes interestingly of The Olive the native Punjab olive (Oleo cuspidata). of In India it withstands heat, drought, and The Punjab moderate frosts during the winter months. The mean annual rainfall varies from 15 to 30 inches. It grows on high alluvial plains and low lying hills, but requires a good depth of soil. Reproduction from seed is poor on account of grazing, but it coppices and root suckers readily. The overgrazing naturally results in the absence of humus. The forests are used for firewood, poles and for fodder. The firewood return is estimated to average about 300 cubic feet (stacked) per acre. The tree attains a height of 30 to 40 feet and a diameter up to 24 inches ; it develops a long taproot and is slow in the first few years' growth. This species should un- questionably be tried out by experimenters in southern California, .since, apparently, it would be admirably adapted to some of the hills around Los Angeles and San Diego. T. S. W., Jr. The Indian Forester, November, 1915, pp. 391-8. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY Under this rarely used term Dr. Sed- Ethology laczek of the Austrian Experiment Station of the depicts the character of the animal world Fauna in the beech forest in a most fascinating in and practically useful manner on around Beech Forest 80 pages. To explain the term the author states: "biology, the doctrine of the life activities of animals, may be divided into two parts : physiology, which treats of the functions of organs, and ethology, which describes the life of the animal as an individual, and especially its relations to the environment." "The object of ethological studies is to explain scientifically the occurrences in the outer life of a definite group of animals and thus to secure a safe basis for practical application," in the present case for forest protec- tion. (This would make ethology the philosophical part of ecology and phenology! Ed.) Usually these studies, as far as forest protection is involved, have concerned themselves with the ethology of the single species. The author, perhaps for the first time, discusses groups of species, indeed the entire fauna in combination in connection with their special habitat — what is called biocoenosis. Periodical Literature 113 By combining all the animal forms which live under the same life conditions, such as a forest type at one and the same period of the year offers, he hopes to secure principles for the biology of the forest fauna. The elements of such ethological system are: 1. The influences which the condition of the soil of a given site exercise ; 2. The influences of humidity, free water and soil water, modi- fied by site and weather conditions in different seasons; 3. The influences of air, temperature, hght, also changing with the season ; 4. The influences which vegetation exercises, on one hand depending on the same factors which are determinative for the fauna, but nevertheless forming an independent factor in the development of the flora. The author then enumerates forest types and locality types, each of which would present different faunas, in part consisting of elements which in the particular site are always and per- sistently present, and in part only temporarily, changing with the season. In every such habitat the elements of the fauna are again differently distributed, and e. g. in the forest can be classified according to their existence in certain layers. Such characteristic groups are: I. Animals of the soil (terricol fauna) : a.) All animals living underground; b.) The species living on roots; c.) Inhabitants of humus; d.) Those living in the litter. 11. Animals of the soil flora and undergrowth : a.) 'Most larger game animals; b.) Reptiles and amphibians of the forest; c.) Gastropoda (snails) ; d.) Insects of soil fauna and undergrowth; e.) Spiders and other small animals. III. Animals which inhabit the trees above ground: a.) Ornis (birds) ; b.) A few mammals; c.) Insects: /.) On trunks; 2.) In the wood; 3.) In the crown. 114 Forestry Quarterly Next, a division of the year into periods is necessary to study the relationship of the animals and its change with the season. This division cannot be made analogous to that of the botanist, because the development of the fauna, although to some extent synchronous with the flora, does not entirely coincide; flower- ing and animal propagation, ripening and births occur at dif- ferent periods. Winter does not occasion such cessation in the animal world as in the flora. Early summer is the time in which all animals are in their babyhood, hence this is the time to be- gin the study. The most characteristic forest fauna will be found in a stand of a shade-enduring species like the beech. The author then proceeds to describe in great detail, according to the schedule above regarding the layering or grouping of the environment, the fauna of the beech forest in early summer, in high summer, in autumn, in winter and in spring. His description is not a mere enumeration of species, but full with glimpses into the life of the animals and their mutual in- terdependence, each season ending with a discussion of the bear- ing of the information on forest protective measures, which are critically discussed from biological and practical points of view. It would lead us too far to given even a sample of the fasci- nating story which the author develops, especially as it deals with species and conditions foreign to us, but the study of the method is recommended to our forest ecologists. Die Ethologie der Tierwelt des Buchenwaldes. Centralblatt fur das gesammte Forstwesen, January- February, March-April, May-June, 1915, pp. 24-50, 102-30. In a detailed discussion, on the basis of a Laws large array of data in tabulations and of curves, von Guttenberg disproves the three Tree theories which attempt to explain the form Growth of trees, namely Pressler's, Metzger's and Jaccard's. As is well known, Pressler ex- plains the tree form, physiologically, by conditions of nutrition, Periodical Literature 115 as a function of the active crown; Metzger bases his theory on static laws, recognizing the form as a reaction to wind pressure — a girder or pillar constructed with a view of offering resist- ance to bending pressure. Jaccard returns in part to the physio- logical explanation and sees the cause in the requirement of equal water conductivity throughout the annual ring. None of these theories explains satisfactorily all the exhibitions of form, varying from species to species, from age to age, from site to site, from stem class to stem class. The author uses a large number of stem analyses of spruce, fir, pine, larch, beech, oak, tabulated for comparison of diameter and area development at different heights of trees of all sorts of conditions, and finally draws the following conclusions. 1. The form of stems unquestionably in the main is built ac- cording to static laws, since the stem as carrier of the crown, must be able to resist the pressure of air movements against bending and against overthrow; but by no means is it necessary to react so precisely as Metzger would make us believe. Nature is wasteful, and even here does not work economically. 2. Pressler's assertion that the food materials elaborated by the foliage distribute themselves evenly along the shaft from the crown downward, that, therefore, area and volume increment at any cross section below the crown is approximately the same, in the crown, however proportionate to the leaf surface above the section, is — even if we leave out the unlawful accumulation at the root collar — not entirely supported by the facts, since the area increment even in the middle part of the stem general- ly decreases upward and occasionally remains the same for a distance. The same may be said regarding Jaccard's or Deccopet's theory, that equal water conductivity requirement is determina- tive, for this also supposes an equal area increment in all cross sections from the crown downward, especially since Guttenberg found that the width of the annual ring and, therefore, still more the area increment, increases in the lower part of the stem from 16 to 26 feet downward. 3. The behavior of diameter increment in the stem at varying heights differs with different species and, therefore, the result- ing tree form must be considered as a characteristic belonging to the species. 116 Forestry Quarterly In youth, the ring ividth decreases and that rapidly from the breast height to the top. Later, the same condition exists up to a point which changes with age, beyond which the ring width increases at first slowly, towards the crown at increasing rate. In pine and oak, this first decrease of the ring width and diameter in the lower part is most rapid and up to a highest point at 24 to 30 feet, less in beech and least in fir. Beyond this point of small- est ring width, the increase in spruce, fir and pine is progressive up to nearly the tip, so that the ring width is largest in the upper, part, on the average 2 to 2.5 times the width at breast height. In beech and oak on the contrary, after the increase in the middle part, in the crown and toward the top a rapid decrease of diameter increment takes place, so that it may sink below that of the increment at breast height. From the point at breast height down almost in all cases, and especially in spruce, an increase of ring width is found, so that at one foot from the ground, stump height, it is in spruce 20 to 40 per cent, in other species 10 to 20 per cent, larger than at breast height. Only exceptionally, in the youngest age classes the stump shows the same or even a smaller ring width. 4. The cross section area increment decreases generally from base to top, and that rapidly up to 10 or 16 feet, only little in the middle part, and again more rapidly toward the top. In the youngest age classes this decrease is rapid. Only in pine and fir, and occasionally in spruce has an equal or even slightly in- creasing area increment been observed in the middle portion of the stem. 5. The influence of site shows itself in that on poorer sites, with smaller height development, the diameter increment (ring width) increases more rapidly and the area increment decreases more rapidly than on better sites. Also the increase is less on the poorer sites of both increments than in the tall stems of the better sites. 6. Density, closer and opener stand, has an influence, at least on spruce, in that the lower stem classes show a still greater in- crease of ring width towards the top, up to 3 and 3.5 times that at breast height than the better stem classes, and while in the latter the area increment in the middle portion invariably de- creases, in the lower stem classes it remains even or even in- creases somewhat. The root collar is also more developed in Periodical Literature 117 the dominant trees. Hence the well-known cylindrical form of the lower tree classes. 7. In older trees, which are liberated, a considerable change in increment and form takes place. The ring width invariably decreases upwards except, perhaps, in the middle portion, where it may remain even, and especially toward the root collar the ring width increases, the taper is accentuated. The same is ob- served in trees that grow up in the open. These changes in older trees are characteristic for the different species ; only the spruce lacks somewhat in this respect. 8. Due to the difference in the disposal of substance each species shows a characteristically different form. Beech and fir are columnar, cylindrical to the base of the crown, then in the fir a parabolic top piece, in the beech a slender conical, and in later age neiloid form follows. Pine develops its top similar to fir, but in the lower trunk, especially below breast height, it is rapid- ly tapering, hence its form factor is considerably lower than that of fir. The spruce is slightly more tapering than the fir and beech, but very much less so than the pine, except again in the top pieces, hence its form factor lies between pine and fir. (We would conclude that Pressler's theory is still good in ex- plaining in general the development of tree form with slight changes which may be due to the dynamic needs accentuated by Metzger and Jaccard. Rev.) Die Formausbildung der Baumstdmme. Oesterreichische Vierteljahrs- schrift fiir Forstwesen, 1915, pp. 217-62. SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE Five years of records near Flagstaff, Forest Arizona, indicate that the snowfall in the Influence forest and adjacent grass and farm land on park is the same ; but that the rate of melt- Snow ing is different. In the park the minimum temperatures are lower and the maxima are higher than those in the forest. Thus the soil in the park is generally frozen before the winter snow cover is established, while in the forest the soil may freeze only in a few spots. Any water from melting snow in winter forms an ice layer at the base of the snow cover in the park, but sinks into the ground in 118 Forestry Quarterly the forest. In winter on account of the generally higher tem- peratures and the heating of the local bare spots and trees, the snow melts more rapidly in the forest than in the park. In spring, on the contrary, the formation of slush, the strong sun- shine, and higher wind velocity in the park cause the snow to melt a week, or even more than two weeks, before the last drifts of snow in the forest. The frozen soil and the basal ice layer in the park allow the water to run off very rapidly, while only occa- sionally is there any surface run-off in the forest. The value of open forest for water conservation is evident. The Influence of a Western Yellow Pine Forest on the Accumulation and Melting of Snow. Science, 1916, p. 213. SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION Dr. Schwappach reports on experiments Cultural in five lines of cultural experimentation, Experiments namely as to the influence of method in in planting; the influence of different spac- S pacing ing; the result of mixing Scotch pine and P. rigida; the resistance to snowbreak in different spacings; the influence of early severe thinnings on spruce stands. The author points out that most attempts to determine influ- ence of method, relative value of planting tools, questions of cost, and a number of other similar inquiries have proved failures, often because too many experiments were started at once; be- cause as far as costs are concerned, the small nursery experi- ment is not translatable into broad practice; because the influ- ence of different methods and use of different tools is soon lost, and differences in results occur with the same method as striking as with different methods. Of the large number of experiments made in Prussia under observation for 30 years, only 14 are tabulated as of some value, and of these only 11 are of special use, mostly those with differ- ent spacings in pine and spruce. Plantations of pine with one- year, two-year seedlings and transplants, and three-year with ball do not show a notable difference, but on the whole the one- year pine deserves preference. The planting with ball is char- acterized by special height development of the 100 stoutest stems ; otherwise shows no advantage. Periodical Literature 119 In comparing the spacing of 3 feet and 5 feet, the wider spacing is found to favor height, diameter and basal area devel- opment, but from the age 27 to 31, the closer stand had the larger increment. At first the wider spacing showed spreading habit, but this has corrected itself satisfactorily. Plantations of pine varying from 4444 to 10,000 plants per hectare at 34 years showed practically the same number of plants; but the looks of the stands varied; the wider spaced sliow irregular development, branchy, poor shaft form. In a specially good example of spacings at 1, 1.25, 1.50 meter square, the closest spacing is most unfavorable, the widest spac- ing shows greatest increment and diameter, but poor form, while the middle spacing (4 feet) developed best height and basal area and better form. Much more influence is found from spacing on poor sites than on good sites, the greater plant number, i. e., the closer spac- ing, being unfavorable, and especially reducing the height growth. To secure close and in every way satisfactory polewood stands by no means the large number of plants usually planted seems necessary, 2400 to 4,000 giving the best result. Bunch planting has no value. In spruce plantings the wider spacings, especially the 5-foot ones are superior in every respect to closer ones, but by the 30th year a thinning becomes necessary to permit sufficient crown development. The wider spacing helps even the height develop- ment. The general success of the wide spacing is specially noticeable on better sites, different from pine. Curiously enough through a misunderstanding of American nomenclature Pinus rigida, one of our poorest "Pitch pines" was introduced in large quantity into Germany. It is now found, that the more abundant leaf fall of P. rigida, the early soil cover which it can afford, and the rapidity with which the Scotch pine outgrows it, make it desirable in mixture, when it shows a considerable increase in current increment as against pure stands (basal area .714 sq. m. as against .480). An experiment to test snow-break danger shows that square spacing which permits even crown development on all sides is preferable to unequal spacing; also produces better increment. A comparison between a dense plantation of spruce which needs early thinning and an open plantation a la Schiflfel, namely 120 Forestry Quarterly 3>4 x6.5, soon reduced to 6.5 foot square (1800 plants) ^hows in all directions advantage of the latter in increment of height, diameter, volume and in even development over a plantation with 2660 plants except in clearing of branches. Die Ergebnisse forsUicher KuUurversuche. Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Jagdwesen, February, 1915, pp. 65-84. Old teachers of silviculture and practi- Value tioners have held as an incontrovertible of tenet that to secure good soil conditions Early crown cover must not be interrupted. Dr. Thinnings Albert points out with Ramann that the critical period for pine on poor sites when it makes the most demand on the soil falls about the 30th year. Hence, a little before that time site conditions must be improved by thinnings — reduction in numbers, equalizing of crown space. To furnish definite data to demonstrate the influence of such early thinning, pine thickets 20 to 25 years old were thinned, in some areas removing the brush, in others leaving it, and then in- vestigating for two years the water conditions of the soil from week to week at 8 and 16 inch depth, sampling with borer and preserving the layering of the soil; check tests being made in each case and average curves constructed, which immediately showed the influence of the different treatment. As was to be expected, the decrease in stem number produced not insignificant and continuous increase of water in the soil, and the leaving of the brush increased this considerably. This occurred at both depths. Numerically, the influence of the thin- ning increased the water contents 1.12 to 1.23 at the 8-inch depth; .71 to .74 at the 16-inch depth, to which for brush cover need to be added .59 to .64 and .53 to .88 respectively. These differ- ences are not as small as they appear, for if translated into area figures it means 90 cbm per hectare, which for poor sand soils is a considerable addition. Sometimes the increases were as much as 3 per cent in the upper, and 2 per cent in the lower, strata during the summer months. It was also apparent that a larger accumulation of winter waters occurred in the thinned stands, reduced interception and evaporation from the crowns being responsible. Comparison is also made with rainfall data, which confirms the influence of treatment. Periodical Literature 121 Comparing an open field and the areas covered with brush brings out more fully the influence of the latter treatment: in the field from April to December the evaporation factor was 4.10 and 3,80 per cent, at the two depths under the brush 6.70 and 6 per cent respectively, showing a considerable influence of the latter treatment, which also reduces weed growth. The early thinning under the conditions investigated presents itself as a rational procedure, as well as the leaving of the brush. Ungiinstiger Einfluss einer zu grossen Stammzahl auf den Wasserhaushalt geringer Kiefernboden. Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Jagdwesen, April, 1915, pp. 241-8. After a lengthy discussion on the pro- Aims priety of using the term Zuchtzvahl (for of which a good English equivalent seems to Seed be lacking) as expressing the selection for Selection breeding purposes of seeds from certain sites and individuals. Dr. Reuss claims that the subject from the forester's point of view was first broached and the term used in 1890 by Dr. Cieslar and himself ; that to Dr. Cieslar belongs the credit of having in 1887 confirmed Bauer's finding that to the heavier seed corresponds a qualitatively better development of the plant ; of having recognized the heredity of rate of increment; of having, in 1899, recommended the need of securing seed from similar site ; of having recognized climatic varieties and the need of using seed from climatically similar stations ; all of which facts have become basic and generally accepted. The author himself began careful experiments in the direc- tion of study of heredity in 1879 as regards the influence of the age of the mother tree, using spruce, of 13 to 143 years old, in a series of 15 trial plantations which are still under observation. The result was in favor of seed of medium old and older trees. He then cites findings of Cieslar (1895), according to which the weight of spruce seed generally declines with altitude, while according to Reuss with age of mother tree the weight of seed increases (the younger trees containing also much dead seed), hence the difficulty of judging seed derivation by weight. While Engler and Kurdiani consider color of pine seed con- stantly hereditary, Reuss found that in spruce with age of mother tree the seed is darker. He then cites four or five authors dis- 122 Forestry Quarterly agreeing as to the influence of size of the seed on the young plant. All this discussion is to show the complexity of the problem of heredity and selection. The author cites evidence of the heredity of growth forms, such as pyramidal shape, twisted grain, pendulous branching. The resume of the lengthy discussion is worded as follows: "The forestal selection for breeding, i.e., the selection of the mother tree for seed, must have regard not only to climatic derivation of the seed, but also to the individual character of the mother tree, and make sure that the seed comes not only from perfectly mature (suchtreif), but sound trees, which from the standpoint of the breeder appear without objection, and which up to the time of its use is kept in full breeding quality (Zuchtgiite)." The author contends that consideration of the individuality of the seed tree has always prevailed in selecting the mother trees in natural regeneration. The same consideration must be given in collecting seed only from the best stock, and that means in the end collecting on own account. But the author warns against drawing conclusions regarding heredity too hastily, for it is necessary to observe the develop- ment up to mature age. Aufgaben und Ziele der forstlichen Zuchtwahl und ihre Neigung zur Kursand- erung. Centralblatt fur das gesammte Forstwesen, March- April, 1915, pp. 81-102. Forstmeister von Seelan undertook to Depth find out the most favorable depth for sow- of ing acorns. To this purpose he prepared Sowing six beds on entirely uniform soil, which was fresh, loose, limy loam, into which he sowed in rills 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 cm deep, 240 acorns each, giving 2 cm space, laying acorns on their sides and covering loosely with soil without pressing — a method which he had successfully used on a large scale, using a hoe, lifting the surface and letting the chunk of earth drop back. A table shows the progress of germination, the number sur- viving until spring, their total weight and per hundred weight with explanatory remarks regarding the character and develop- ment of the plants. The 4 cm depth gave the earliest and most numerous germina- Periodical Literature 123 tion and the largest number surviving (although the difference was not very great). Also the quality of the plants as regards root development and stem from this depth was best, but in weight the 2 cm and 8 cm produced the heaviest per hundred, and the latter the heaviest total weight. The 2 cm depth produced fewer, but good plants. The plants from greater than 4 cm depths showed a smaller number, a poorer development, and those from 10 and 12 cm depth, especially the latter, a much smaller weight. The author concludes that 4 cm (less than 2 inch) is the best depth, on lighter soils more, on heavy soils less. Wie tief soil man Saateicheln legen? Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Jagdwesen, October, 1915, pp. 601-4. Kubelka's article on experimental thin- Thinnings nings of Douglas fir, which constitutes Part in 2 of Bulletin XXVIII of the Austrian Ex- Douglas Fir periment Station at Mariabrunn, is re- viewed by Dr. Wimmer. The thinnings were made in a stand of Douglas fir planted 1.3 X 1.5 meters apart in 1887 at an elevation of 600 meters on sandstone formation. In 1905, when the stand was 18 years old, thinnings of 3 grades were made : I — light thinnings (par le haut) in the dominant II — medium thinnings (par le has) in the subdominant III — heavy thinnings {par le has) in the subdominant. Kubelka concludes that a heavy thinning results in the great- est increment, and therefore recommends that Douglas fir be closely spaced when planted (4,500-5,000 plants per hectare) but that the thinnings be so made that the trees chosen for the final stand have a wide spacing. A. B. R. Mitteilungen aus dem forstlichen Versuchswesen Oesterretchs. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd-Zeitung, May, 1915, pp. 122-5. An investigation was started at the Royal Lime Agricultural College, Circencester, in 1914, Effect by Hopkinson and Elkington, the object of on which was to ascertain the effect of varying Growth quantities of calcium carbonate on the growth and development of certain conifers. Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga donglasii Carr) was the species selected, since it is supposed to be calcifuge. Two-year seedlings were 124 Forestry Quarterly obtained from a district where the soil contained insufficient cal- cium carbonate to affect their growth. Artificial soils were made from sand free from lime, 5 per cent of leaf mold obtained from a beech wood, and varying quantities of calcium carbonate in the form of ground chalk. The soils were placed in specially pre- pared concrete pits, which were similarly situated and all adjoin- ing, and the seedlings, 25 to a pit, were planted at equal distances from one another. The seedlings were planted in March and measured in the following May. Their heights were again taken in the May of the present year. The conclusions which can be drawn from the experiments are summarized as follows : 1) Douglas fir grows well in sandy soil with small amounts of calcium carbonate; 3) Increasing quantities of calcium carbonate, up to 8 per cent, have a distinct retarding effect on their growth; 3) Above 8 per cent of calcium carbonate, some factor, whose influence has not yet been established, dominates this retarding effect of the lime. R. Z. Investigation into the Retarding Effect of Lime on the Growth of Conifers. Agricultural Students' Gazette, New Series, Volume XVII, Part 4, July, 1915, pp. 176-8. The well-known pencil manufacturers. Red Cedar Forest Faber, 40 years ago, planted 15 acres of in Germany Juniperus zirgimana near Niirnberg. The trees on the outer edge of this successful plantation are now 26 feet in height and 7 inches in diameter, the interior trees 5 inch, showing a very fair rate of growth. The plantation was made on a light sand soil with 3-year-old, twice transplanted stock in 3.5 feet spacing. Other attempts at introducing the species near Munich and in other severer climate proved a failure, mild climate appear- ing assential. Der Zedernwald bei Stein- Niirnberg. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt . June, 1915, pp. 286-7. While in Germany mushrooms have al- Mushrooms ways played a role in the food supply and and are regularly found in the market, the Forestry need, created by the war, in making every source of food supply more intensely available, has directed attention to the possibility of utilizing and propagating this vegetable to a greater extent. A number of Periodical Literature 125 articles in journals and a number of books on edible fungi, their recognition, their value, their cultivation, their preparation, etc., have been the result. It is stated that over 100 species of edible fungi exist in Ger- many, of which hardly ten are in the market, while only six poisonous species need to be known. To make sure that no poisonous fungi are offered, the city of Koenigsberg lately insti- tuted a fungus examination office where, free of charge, identi- fication is made for citizens, and against a small charge for out- siders. Dr. Falk in a long article covers the ground quite fully. He points out that since about one quarter of the German soil is imder forest, withdrawn from food production, it is incumbent on the mycologist to determine how a rational soil culture can make the forest useful in this direction. Since strawberries have be- come articles of horticulture, and huckleberries on account of their raw humus formation are a damage to the soil, fungi alone may be made objects of culture, for which they are specially fit in the forest, since they are independent of light, hence adapted even to dense young stand ; moreover, the best condition not only is furnished them by a true forest soil, but they improve the soil by preventing with their mycelia the formation of raw humus. Whether this may be asserted as regards the mycelia of edible fungi is, to be sure, not yet quite certain ; at least they can not be damaging to the soil. This is certain, that due to the now extensive exploitation of the natural growth of edible fungi without attempt of their propagation, the non-edible fungi and bacteria are favored. Hence means must be taken to favor the edible ones, either by improving their growth conditions or by actual, more or less intensive cultivation. The improvement would consist in removing non-edible fungi by merely pushing them over and allowing edible ones, if exist- ing, to remain until they naturally decay and fully seed the ground. This method would not lead to a rapid extension. It is pointed out that the spores are too minute to be collected from the caps, and at the same time for natural seeding it is necessary for the fungus to stand upright, since the spores are not dispersed, or only with difficulty if the hymenophores (gills) are not placed vertically. In some species a few degrees devia- tion from the vertical arrests spore dispersal. If, therefore, one wanted to use the mushroom itself for seeding, it would be 126 Forestry Quarterly necessary to place it on pointed sticks, so that the cap stands horizontal, a little higher than it stood, for wider dispersal. This is best done in windstill weather, since otherwise an uneven seed- ing would result. Another way is to collect the spores by cutting the fungus off so that the cap will stand only slightly above the glass or paper on which it is placed, leaving small space between the glass and cap; then washing the spores together with plenty of water and sowing them from a watering pot with fine rose. Intensive culture is indicated from a forester's point of view, where raw humus is beginning to form. The crop must then be started by inoculation in patches which are not yet humified, when it will spread and presumably change the raw humus. The sowing should then be made with mycelium, which has been grown in pure cultures ; the stumps in the woods of freshly felled trees furnish a good substratum. The Mycological Institute of the forest academy at Eberswalde is now prepared to furnish seed material in plenty of several species, such as Psalliota campestris, silvatica; Armillaria excoriata; Tricholoma graveolens, gambosus, borealis; besides Agaricus campestris. Cultures of Boletus and truffle have not yet succeeded. By analysis of various vegetables and lean beef in comparison with Agaricus, it appears that the fungus contents may most nearly approach the vegetables in nitrogen, especially in the fresh state, on account of the water contents. In the dry substance the three materials compare as follows in regard to nitrogen: mushroom 7.59 per cent; vegetables 3.94 per cent; meat 13.98 per cent. Yet, since in frying and cooking, mushrooms lose more water than meat does, the composition of the two foods when prepared comes closer, and the position as regards nutritive ele- ments places the fungus in all directions halfway between the two. Whatever of nitrogen compounds is soluble may be con- sidered digestible. A thorough investigation into the composition of mushroom extract compared with beef extract was made, when it appeared that the dry substance of mushrooms contained three times as much material extractible with water as the meat extract. The value of the mushroom as food (nutrition plus palatable- ness) is to be measured by the extract materials. The author refers to the use of yeast extract as substitute for meat extract, in commerce under the name of Sitogen and Ovos, Periodical Literature 127 which approaches in extractibles the mushroom extract, but not in delicacy of taste. While the three extracts do not differ very essentially in amounts of organic substance, nitrogen contents and ash, the composition of the extractibles is very different ; especially the presence of Mannit sugar in the mushroom extract is char- acteristic. In general, mushroom extract must be considered equal in value to beef extract. For food, mushrooms should always be used in unripe condition. One section of the article is devoted to the preparation and conserving of mushrooms. The author inveighs against the French conserving method which gets rid of all extractible materials in order to secure a good-looking, white material. To secure a satisfactory extract the mushrooms must first be killed by drying or boiling water, and then be extracted with cold water. A whole mushroom cook book is published by Professor Macku, and a number of illustrated identification books have lately come on the market. Ueber die Kultur, den Extractgehalt und die Konservierung essbarer Pilze. Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Jagdwesen, October, 1915, pp. 583-601. The Hessian Oberforstrat Joseph brings Damage together the results of observations during by 1914 of lightning damage in the forests Lightning of the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt. The data were gathered by the rangers. The most interesting statistics are as follows : Number of trees struck by months : March 1, April 5, May 13, June 186, July 184, August 10; total 399. With the exception of 3 trees, these were all struck in the afternoons. Trees Struck Species Per Cent Species Per Cent of All Forests Pine 48.5 38.1 Oak 29.8 12.9 Spruce 11.4 14.9 Larch 4.0 0.4 Beech 3.4 31.3 Fir 0.4 0.2 Alder 1.7 1.0 Birch 0.2 1.0 Aspen 0.2 1.0 Poplar 0.2 1.0 A. B. R. Beobachiungen iiber Blitzschldge. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd-Zeitung, July, 1915, pp. 165-70. 128 Forestry Quarterly Quite the most interesting reference to Notes Indian silviculture that has come to my on notice is the article on "The Deodar," by Deodar C. G. Trevor. It is based on data presented at an important forest conference. After describing the prolific seed crop, he shows clearly how heat, sun, hailstones, insects, and excessive humus does away with the seedling. "This is the reason why seedlings are so often found growing on roadsides or other places where the mineral soil has been exposed." Excessive dampness or extreme shade also causes the loss of seedlings, as well as grazing and trampling, undergrowth, matted grass and other minor causes. The soil often becomes chemically or physically unsuited to the species, owing to excessive humus and vegetable debris. Trevor contends, however, that the physical state of the soil is of the greatest importance to secure repro- duction. "It therefore follows that the factors enumerated below must be suitable: a) Physical condition of the soil, b) Moisture, c) Light, d) Protection." Trevor then follows with a discussion of the silvicultural sys- tems in practice, the selection method, the group method, the regu- lar or shelterwood compartment method, which, he states, "appears to have very great advantages" on account of the "importance of the even-aged woods, definite areas under regeneration, tending of the seedling, and its demands on light." Under reproduction, he discusses measures (which seem quite intensive for Indian conditions) to improve regeneration. Re- garding excessive vegetable deposit, he says : "It will have been broken up to a certain extent by the felling and removal of timber which has just taken place; it will be still more reduced by the collection and burning of felling refuse. . . . If still excessive, it may be raked up and burned, or hoed up and mixed with the soil." Periodical Literature 129 With cheap labor, of course, more can be done than in this country, but this seems more intensive than the average deodar forest would justify. Speaking of moisture, Trevor explains that excessive dampness is as fatal as excessive drought. Correct conditions will be secured only when there is partial light and the seedlings take hold of the mineral soil. As regards light, he feels, "that ample light is most beneficial to the seedlings, and that it can thrive without any overwood at all." His conclusion is : "From the foregoing facts it appears that an ideal method of regenerating deodar (especially applicable to Kulu and other forests on easy ground) is to regenerate on the principles of the regular method under a moderate shelterwood and to rapidly remove the same as reproduction is obtained. Under this method a mixture of deodar and Kail can be obtained with the greatest ease. It is only necessary first to admit sufficient light for the reproduction of deodar and thereafter, when sufficient has been obtained, to make a heavy felling, retaining a few Kail as seed bearers, when complete reproduction of Kail will be obtained. This has actually happened in practice in more than one instance." Under the heading, "Protection," "It has been proved that goats are most destructive to all forest growth," but the grazing of horn cattle "is often of advantage," yet he points out that extensive grazing is dangerous, "in fact, this damage may be so severe as to entirely destroy the total crop." "It may therefore be expected that grazing may be permitted up to the commencement of regeneration, but, thereafter, should, as far as possible, be excluded from the regeneration area." He deprecates the selection system, so generally used, since so little can be done to improve regeneration. He comments on the necessity for seeding and "minor improvement fellings, con- sisting in the cutting of shrubs and malformed advanced growth." Cleanings and thinnings, early, often, and late — "par le haut" — are advocated. Finally, he summarizes the crop which can be secured on a 120-year rotation. As an example of systematic silviculture in India, it is perhaps the most notable article that has been published in the "Indian Forester" for the past ten years. T. S. W., Jr. The Indian Forester, November, 1915, pp. 439-62. 130 Forestry Quarterly For some time, the death and dying back Improving Natural of sal {Shorea robusta) seedlings has pre- Reproduction of sented a silvicultural problem to Indian Sal Seedlings Forest officers. Under the direction of the Forest Botanist, R. H. Hole has conducted a study of the damage in the neighborhood of Dehra Dun. Mr. Hole found that the injury by porcupine, deer, insects and fungi were factors of minor importance ; that while frost "undoubtedly does great damage in open grass lands," it is a minor factor to the damage in the forests themselves. The most serious factors are poor soil aeration, especially during July and August, and drought, which is particularly destructive during the months of September to June, inclusive. Drought, however, is a natural phenomenon which cannot be corrected. The chief facts ascer- tained regarding bad soil aeration are : (1) Too high a percentage of water coupled with a small vol- ume of air space may injure up to 100 per cent of sal seedlings. (2) This damage is chiefly confined to shady areas and does not affect seedlings growing in the open. (3) The damage depends chiefly on the presence of organic matter, "especially dead sal leaves." (4 to 8) The damage is inoperative on well drained sand, and is greatly decreased if the ground is clear of dead sal leaves. The damage is not co-related with the deficiency of plant food and apparently "under the impact of heavy rains which interfere with the access of air and water into the soil, the damage is especially serious." Mr. Hole points out that ideal conditions for the devel- opment of sal seedlings are: (1) "A well aerated seed bed free from raw humus; (2) full overhead light; (3) light side shade sufficient to prevent damage from frost and to keep the soil as moist as possible during the season of short rainfall." To produce these favorable conditions, "clear felling in strips or patches, combined with artificial sowing and seeding during the first rains" is recommended. Under present conditions, clear felling in narrow strips and small patches seems entirely practi- cable. "The experiments carried out, however, indicate an alterna- tive method of aiding the establishment of reproduction, viz., by the continued removal of humus and dead leaves by leaf fires or other means." No final conclusions, however, can be authorita- tively given until the different systems have been tested out on a considerable scale. Periodical Literature 131 Hole discusses the application of the Dehra Dun investigation to other localities and reviews at some length the application of these advanced silvicultural measures which in the past have been lacking in Indian silviculture. T. S. W., Jr. The Indian Forester, October, 1915, pp. 351-361. It has been the practice for some years Girdling to girdle species such as kail (Blue pine), in Deodar and other weed trees interfering with Forests deodar reproduction. These girdlings were especially intensive in the Chakrata division at the headwaters of the Ganges. Daya Tam now reports that the Himalayan bears, enjoying the sweet sap which flowed from girdled trees, have commenced to girdle on their own hook, much damage thereby resulting. T. S. W., Jr. The Indian Forester, October, 1915, pp. 382. H. T. Blanford gives an interesting reply Shelter Wood to Walker's article contained in the April System for Teak Indian Forester, on The Uniform System in Burma in Burma. The main point in controversy seems to be whether to continue the appli- cation of the selection system or whether "the uniform system" should be applied. Blanford argues that Walker has clearly misunderstood the recommendations of the Burma Forest Confer- ence which he reviews, namely, "That improvement fellings, to be useful, must be concentrated and repeated" ; . . . "that in this way only will it be possible to work over the whole area of suitable forests with required intensity, once in the course of a rotation" ; that these intensive improvement fellings entail a little sacrifice and "may eventually lead to the formation of a series of even-aged gradations at the end of the first rotation." As Blanford points out, Walker's chief objections were reduc- tion of yield; impossibility of artificial generation over 1/150 of the area ; danger of anthrax to the elephants used in lumber operations. Those interested in a study of silvicultural systems will find much of value in Walker's article and Blanford's reply. T. S. W., Jr. The Indian Forester, April, October, 1915, pp. 105-111, 366-371. 132 Forestry Quarterly ! Mascarenhas describes an interesting Germination experiment in germination of teak seeds : of (1) Wlien soaked in cow dung for 15 days; Teak (2) ordinary seed; (3) charred seeds col- Seeds lected from burned areas. The seed was planted on March 5, and "profuse germination" of the charred seeds was observed within a fortnight, and by the end of June the plants were nearly a foot and a half in height. At the end of April, the seed soaked in cow dung showed signs of germination, and the plants were 6 inches in height at the end of June. The germination of the ordinary seeds was unsuccessful. T. S. W., Jr. The Indian Forester, May, 1915, p. 147. Ali Beg discusses in some detail the Over-grazing over-grazing by native cattle in the Hydera- in bad State. According to the statistics the Central available, it appears that, during 1901, there Provinces were but 1.9 to .5 acres per animal grazed, resulting in the destruction of forage, damage to the forests and deterioration in the cattle. According to a field study, there should be at least 3 to 5 acres of grazing land per head of stock, but local grazing rights precluded an immediate decrease. After a careful study, it appears that graz- ing units are to be formed, on portions of which grazing will be entirely prohibited. No grazing will be allowed by stock belonging to villages located a distance from a forest, and but one head per three acres in areas under regeneration, and one head per one and a half to two acres in grass areas is to be the maximum number allowed per land unit. It is unfortunate that the article is not clearly written because a clear presentation of the regulation of grazing in India would have been of great interest to American foresters. T. S. W., Jr. The Indian Forester, June, 1915, pp. 176-190. Beeson describes damage to Chir pine Insect Damage (Pinus longifolia) by a species of Tomicus. in India The methods of control recommended are: Periodical Literature 133 1. All trees felled and not removed by April 1 should be barked. The bark should be removed from the whole length of the bole and main branches and burned with the top and small wood. 2. All trees felled during April and subsequently which are not removed within one month of felling should be barked, and the bark burned with the tops and small branchwood. 3. All refuse (branchwood down to 12 inches girth) remaining on the felling area after April, which is not removed within one month, should be burned. The remedial measures suggested include the removal and burning of dead, dying and freshly attacked trees, removal of bark where beetles have laid their eggs, the treatment repeated again after a fortnight to ascertain if damaged trees have been overlooked. T. S. W., Jr. The Indian Forester, September, 1915, pp. 317-325, MENSURATION, FINANCE, AND MANAGEMENT A work based on over 40 years of inves- Spruce tigation and observation. Dr. von Gutten- in berg's "Growth and Yield of Spruce in the Higher Alps," is of special value in bringing out Altitudes laws of growth in the mountain country ; moreover an unusual number of measure- ments lies at their basis, namely 220 sample areas within a limited territory and about 160 careful stem analyses. The latter cover considerable space in the volume and perhaps are the most valuable part of the work in exhibiting laws of growth. While the chapter on the development of the single stem is complete and may be considered basic, the same can hardly be said for the second chapter on the development of the stand, the data for which were secured by only single measurements of the stands, and relying largely on stem analysis. These tables, there- fore, can be considered only preliminary, but in the absence of similar tables for such a growth region nevertheless valuable. The site classification into five classes was made entirely upon the basis of height, since as regards volume the greatest variety was encountered ; on apparently the same site here a dense regen- eration, there an open stand, the two with entirely different 134 Forestry Quarterly volumes. This necessitated reliance on height and made it diffi- cult also to decide what to consider normal. This difficulty was increased by the fact that none of the stands were under manage- ment and hence no knowledge exists of what the possibilities of increment under proper thinning practice might be. Characteristic of alpine situations and remarkable seems that the spruce exhibits into old age a constantly rising increment; the current increment on medium and poor sites, for stands as well as single trees, not culminating as yet at 150 years. Guttenberg states it as a law that the increment in youth is the smaller but also the more persistent the higher the altitude. The fact of the very slow height development in early youth in alpine situations is accounted for not only by the short period of vegetation, low temperature, deficient chlorophyll develop- ment and greater light requirement, but by the mechanical effect of the snow until the head reaches above snow line. The increment studies at Paneveggio in Southern Tirol, which at an elevation of 6,000 feet exhibit heights of over 130 feet, show to what extent more favorable geographical location counteracts the effect of altitude, so that the common teaching that an alti- tude difference of 100 m influences plant development the same as a difference of one degree latitude needs revision. Guttenberg was the first to point out that while the standing room influences form and basal area of spruce, it has no influence on the height: spruce in the open attains the same height as in close forest. This is important in thinning practice when com- pared with pine or broadleaf species which in the open develop into branches and rounded off crowns. Guttenberg's stem analyses also show that Pressler's dictum, that the basal area increment is a function of the crown or amount of foliage above the area, does not hold for spruce in these situations, but that static moments (after Metzger) cooperate. Also, Weber's formula does not apply on the alpine spruce, but Keller's formula y = - — represents well the curve of normal height increment. Schwappach, in reviewing the work, brings into comparison the results in timberwood production for 60- and 130-year stands from four localities. Periodical Literature 135 Main Stand Basal Volume Height A rea Timber Age Feet Sg. Ft. Cu. Ft. Up to Age Total Thinnings Increment Current Volume Volume Increment Cubic Feet SITE I Guttenberg 60 75 237 8394 1931 10325 257 242 Alpine Tirol 52 178 4419 1101 5520 172 177 Alpine Tirol 83 288 10997 1959 12956 297 Swiss 82 184 7579 2531 10110 275 Schwappach 120 118 296 16073 5119 21193 123 107 Alpine Tirol 98 253 11454 3804 15258 139 126 Alpine Tirol 124 345 18018 8294 26312 140 Swiss 118 209 10711 11440 22151 137 Schwappach SITE III 60 50 177 4290 872 5162 152 150 Alpine Tirol 38 145 2674 572 3246 122 Alpine Tirol 58 208 6607 915 7522 209 Swiss 53 141 4118 1314 5434 186 Schwappach 120 84 241 9567 3003 12570 94 83 Alpine Tirol 77 220 7822 2631 10453 110 103 Alpine Tirol 93 257 11526 5491 17017 92 Swiss 93 160 7036 6793 13828 97 Schwappach Dr. Adolf Ritter von Guttenberg, Wachstum und Ertrag der Fichte im Hoch- gebirge. Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Jagdwesen, September, 1915, pp. 577-80. Centralblatt fiir das gesammte Forstwesen, March-April, 1915, pp. 130-4. Dr. Hemman points out that after the Treatment war all resources will have to be strained atid to the utmost, and the forests will have Yield more than ever to do their best. Fortu- nately, experimentation has gone on long enough to permit a judgment how far felling budgets can be increased, and particularly what kind of treatment may lead to best result. Hitherto, the regulator and the manager, the organizer and the silviculturist have not worked in harmony. The author has brought together in tabular form what yield tables show under different treatment, which, therefore, should be the aim of the manager. 136 Forestry Quarterly We give the data in translation for I and III site, as suggestive to our experimenters. COMPARISON OF YIELDS UNDER DIFFERENT TREATMENT Average Average Average Volume Total Number Diameter Height Volume Average Thin- Total of 0 j S t a n d Tree nings Yield Trees Inches Feet Cu. Ft. Cubic Feet SITE I 1. Oak. 160 years, in open management (Wimmenauer). 29 25 123 6221 211 9853 16073 2 Oak 160 years, under moderate thinning in subdominate (Wimmenauer). 56 24 117 10382 176 5935 16316 3 Oak. 160 years, under regular thinning in practice (Schwappach) . 51 23 105 7965 158 8709 16674 4. Pine. 140 years, in open management (Wimmenauer). 40 33 116 6163 140 11111 17274 5. Pine, 140 years, under moderate thinning (Vorkampflf-Lorey) . 12 18 116 10210 70 6449 16660 6 Pine. 140 years, under severe thinning (Schwappach). 90 17 104 6549 70 7450 14000 7 Pine 140 years, under moderate thinning in subdominant (Schwappach). ' 126 17 109 8952 70 5005 13957 8 Beech. 140 years, under severe opening in dominant (Wimmenauer). 56 20 127 8180 140 10811 18990 9 Beech 140 years, moderate thinning in subdominant (Wimmenauer). 81 20 127 11326 140 6764 18090 10 Beech. 140 years, moderate thinning in subdominant (Eberhard). 138 16 113 70 5806 16245 1 1 Beech. 140 years, moderate and severe thinning in subdominant (Wimmer) . 10124 . . . 8566 18690 12. Beech, 140 years, moderate and severe thinning in subdominant (Schwap- ^^^/.. ..■ 125 9081 ... 6406 15487 13 Beech. 140 years, moderate and severe thinning in subdominant (Grundner) 91 19 121 10625 105 6635 17260 14 Fir. 120 years, moderate thinning in subdominant (Lorey). 174 19 110 16159 88 6793 22952 15 Fir 120 years, moderate and severe thinning in subdominant (Eichhorn). ' 162 18 112 15315 88 9166 21622 16 Soruce. 120 years, severe and open thinning in dominant (Schwappach). 115 18 118 10711 88 11440 22151 17 Soruce, 120 years, moderate thinning in subdominant (Schwappach). 190 17 113 14440 70 8037 22437 18. Soruce, 120 years, severe and open thinning (Grundner). 114 19 120 12184 105 11340 23524 19 Soruce. 120 years, moderate thinning in subdominant (Lorey). ^ 206 17 117 15987 70 6221 22208 Volume Total Average Thin- Total Tree nings Yield C u b i c F e e t Periodical Literature 137 Average Average Average Number Diameter Height Volume of 0 f S t a n d Trees Inches Feet Cu. Ft. SITE III 1. Oak, 160 years, in open management (Wimmenauer). 45 19 97 4404 105 5935 10879 2. Oak, 160 years, under moderate thinning in subdominate (Wimmenauer). 86 19 94 7579 88 3661 11240 3. Oak, 160 years, under regular thinning in practice (Schwappach). 89 16 76 4690 53 5105 9796 4. Pine, 140 years, in open management (Wimmenauer). 81 18 87 4762 53 6149 10911 5. Pine, 140 years, under moderate thinning (Vorkampff-Lorey). 133 15 87 6106 35 3704 8090 6. Pine, 140 years, imder sever thinning (Schwappach). 117 14 77 8004 35 5205 9209 7. Pine, 140 years, under moderate thinning in subdominant (Schwappach). 179 13 84 5977 35 2789 8766 8. Beech, 140 years, under severe opening in dominant (Wimmenauer). 105 14 95 5420 53 5563 10982 9. Beech, 140 years, moderate thinning in subdominant (Wimmenauer). 162 13 95 7307 35 3418 10725 10. Beech, 140 years, moderate thinning in subdominant (Eberhard). 202 12 91 7064 35 2960 10024 11. Beech, 140 years, moderate and severe thinning in subdominant (Wimmer). 6864 4590 11454 12. Beech, 140 years, moderate and severe thinning in Subdominant (Schwap- pach). 93 6335 .. 4705 11054 13. Beech, 140 years, moderate and severe thinning in subdominant (Grundner) 117 16 96 7879 70 3747 11626 14. Fir, 120 years, moderate thinning in subdominant (Lorey). 243 14 87 10425 35 3975 14440 15. Fir, 120 years, moderate and severe thinning in subdominant (Eichhom). 239 14 84 10139 35 5520 15659 16. Spruce, 120 years, severe and open thinning in dominant (Schwappach). 187 13 93 7036 35 6793 13828 17. Spruce, 120 years, moderate thinning in subdominant (Schwappach). 324 12 85 10210 35 3375 13585 18. Spruce, 120 years, severe and open thinning (Grundner). 182 15 93 9081 53 5949 15029 19. Spruce, 120 years, moderate thinning in subdominant (Lorey). 288 12 91 10182 35 3790 13971 Ueber die Abhdngigkeit der Ertragsregelung und Bestandspflege vom Versuchs- wesen. AUgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitimg, May, 1915, pp. 112-6. Oberforstrat Frey demolishes the method Simplified of forest expectancy and cost values in Practical determining the value of a forest for practical Forest purposes. He contends that exchange value. Valuation the result of compromise and agreement of two subjective estimates in the market, is the only rational one — a judgment based on commonsense, 138 Forestry Quarterly tangible values and not on the fanciful interest rate and time calculations of the expectancy method. The latter starts with the idea of the empty acre and intermittent incomes; the author considers that forest management can only be considered when a forest is in existence, just as agriculture requires a farm, mining a mine, and innkeeping an inn. With unforested soil one would have to wait 40 or 50 years before forest management becomes possible. Soil and stands in inseparable combination are the means for producing annual wood increment and a forest industry, hence forest valuation must proceed differently from stand valuation. It might be supposed that the money value of the present annual forest yield capitalized (the forest rent value) represented the capital value of the forest, but the author rejects this method of valuation as practically untenable because it requires the arbitrary choice of an interest rate, when e.g. using 2 per cent the capital value would be 50 times, using 4 per cent only 25 times the annual rent. In a forest which can furnish a yield annually, the value of the stands, i.e. the stock on hand, is by all odds the greatest asset; hence an exchange or sale value is first to be ascertained for them. To do this the author develops a method he had elaborated in a publication of 1888 and later writings, namely valuing all stands by relating them to the stimipage value of the mature timber. Maturity, according to the earlier arguments of the author not here repeated, must not be determined by the arbitrary calcula- tions of the soil rent theory, but it has arrived for a stand when the value of the stumpage of that stand per acre is equal to the value of the average per acre of actual stock of the forest. While, then, for all old stands their stumpage value is the proper sale value, for all younger stands practically applicable approximate values can be secured by multiplying the average annual value increment at maturity with the age of the stand. Individual judgment, such as must always be at work in valua- tion, may modify these values for the younger stands, but they furnish a good basis for such judgment, from the one-year stand to the oldest. For any forest, then, on which forest management can be carried on the present money value of the actual stock on hand can be determined in a manner which will permit all valuators to come nearly to the same result. The value of the total stock (st), which must permanently be Periodical Literature 139 on hand, to secure with any rotation (r) an annual money return (Yf) can be also secured by multiplying this return by half the f rotation {st= -^ ). Z r For ascertaining the sale value of the soil (S) , an estimate alone is necessary, and the author proposes that it be based on the value of the most distant and poorest agricultural land in the locality, unless special circimistances give it a higher value. The exchange or sale value of a forest, then, whose total annual increment can be harvested in saleable material is simply St-\-S, increased or decreased according to the subjective valuation of the exchangers, but, of course, never below the money value of the stock, which is the fixed capital. If desired, the interest at which this capital works can be figured by the annual interest formula : it means that at the present and so long as the values remain as they are, this is the rate at which the business pays. The fact that whoever 50 years ago invested in forest property, content with 2 or 3 per cent, makes 6 to 8 per cent (in a particularly cited case 15 per cent), is merely due to the change of values; in other words, like all other things the value of forests changes. If, however, the present value of stock on hand is figured with present prices the interest relation, of coiirse, also changes most likely to that which had existed previously and the same 2 or 3 per cent seem to be the result. Pointing out that the soil rent theorists, finding that long rota- tions furnish small to negative soil rents, try to meet the difficulty by choosing low interest rates and reducing rotations to the detriment of the national wealth, he recommends on the basis of his method of calculation to manage the existing forests "with possibly highest rotations in dense position till maturity and under a natural regeneration system" — a questionable attitude, not a necessary corollary to his finance calculation ! Zur Losung der Waldwertrechnungsfrage. Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Jagd- wesen, May, 1915, pp. 279-90. Riebel points out that the usual soil and New Forest stand expectancy value determination, which Valuation starts out with the idea of an intermittent Formula return, is faulty when applied to a whole normal working block. While the usual method of calculation may fit the case in static inquiries, it does not fit for sales, exchanges, division of properties, damage suits 140 Forestry Quarterly and all practical market questions: the new owner in the price- making does not care what it has cost to produce the stand, what soil rent and administration cost has been charged against it, what revenues the previous owner has already derived from it; the concrete present value, possibly derived from attainable future yields alone interests him, hence soil value, cultural and administration cost should be disregarded; they should be found in the end result. He then develops a new way of approaching the problem by the following analogy: somebody has a claim for a certain capital {kn) to be paid him n years hence; he can then make an arrange- ment with a bank to secure under assumption of a certain interest rate {p) from now on an annual equal rent (r) , but for some reason for m years this rent has not been drawn, and it becomes necessary to determine the value of this accumulation of rents to the year m, then, since r = -. — ' „ ^ , the final value of m times recurring rents l.op —i . kn.op ,, \.op'"-\ , \.op"'-\ up to the year m is - — — -r X — - = kn - — — — - ^ -^ \.op"-\ .op l.op"-l for kn we can set the value of a tree or a stand and expect the same result. For instance, a 90-year-old tree would have $20 value, how much 1 O330-I is its value at 30 years, figuring at 3 per cent ? 20 V.090 ., = $2. 15. The same formula applies to the final harvest crop occur- ring in the year u or the thinnings (D) occurring in o, b, etc., years. The final formula for the stand value in the year m, becomes " \l.(?p"-l \.op,-\) ^ And this formiila applies to all systems of management, whether uniform or imeven-aged, selection forest, etc., in the simplest way; and the formulae for normal stock, for soil value may also be developed from it. The author applies the old and new formula on a number of concrete cases for comparison to show the diiTerence in method and result, the latter after the old method being very variable accord- ing to the soil values used. The new calculation is not only simpler and excludes any arbitrariness (except the ^?), but gives the concrete present sale value independent of costs and passed incomes. Periodical Literature 141 The three typical examples show that the new formulae are adapted for calculating rational soil values, stand values, normal stock values, etc., for all forms of sustained yield forest, and especially for selection and composite forest, especially giving weight to the consideration that in stand values and normal stock determinations costs can not be calculated, since they are already charged in the soil value. Ein Beitrag zur Praxis der Waldwertrechnung. Centralblatt fur das gesammte Forstwesen, January-February, 1915, pp. 1-15. UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY The costs that are listed below represent Logging a part of a general study of the lumber Costs industry of the Pacific Northwest that is being made by the Departments of Agri- culture and Commerce in cooperation with the lumbermen. The figures do not include the cost of stumpage, interest of any kind, discounts on logs sold, towage to mill, nor taxes on the standing timber. Average haul is 23 miles. A VERA GE COST DELI VERING LOGS FROM TREE TO P UGET SO UND (Based on Figures from 20 Camps) Output {1913) and Investment Percent of total output (approximate) 75 Average output per year per camp , 45,000,000"ft. B. M. Average output per day per camp 200,000 ft. B. M. Average fixed investment $140,000. 00 Average working capital $35,000. 00 Average labor cost per M board feet $3 . 09 Cost per M feet, Log Scale Felling and bucking, labor $0. 683 Woods to car, labor (yarding, loading, running line) 1 . 259 Railroad (spur) and pole construction, labor . 586 Train crews, labor 206 Dumping and rafting (includes contract work) 211 Supplies and maintenance (labor and materials) of R. R. dump and boom 177 Supplies and maintenance (labor and materials) of equipment, tools, buildings, etc 307 Fuel of logging engines, locomotives, shops, etc 239 Wire rope 137 Depreciation, equipment 240 Depreciation, main line railroad grade, boom and buildings 066 142 Forestry Quarterly Scaling 049 Return of boom sticks 046 Log freight 882 General expense: Salaries and commissions $ • 139 Taxes 029 Industrial insurance 096 Sundry expenses 076 . 340 Total average cost per M feet log scale $5 . 428 O. L. S. West Coast Lumberman. July, 1915. Manufacturers who know admit that Waste there is a waste of 30 to 35 per cent due to in improper methods of handling the lumber in Lumber drying. When not properly piled for air- Due to drying, the overhanging boards check, twist Drying and bend; stickers of uneven thickness and when not placed directly over each other, cause twisting and bending. The lack of knowledge of proper means for kiln-drying cause twisted, checked, warped and honey- combed Itmiber. When this lumber reaches the saw the defects removed as waste reach the large percentage mentioned above. Most of this waste could be prevented by properly handling in the yard. O- L. S. Hardwood Record, November, 1915. Excelsior is manufactured from any wood Excelsior having a Hght colored, tough, straight fiber. Manufacture such as basswood, poplar, balsam, spruce and Uses and willow. The greater quantity is made from basswood and poplar. The wood, cut into four foot lengths and bark peeled off, is piled and allowed to air season for about a year. Green or damp wood is unsatisfactory because it clogs in the machine and is apt to mould when com- pressed into bales. Air-seasoned is preferred to kiln-dried; the latter is considered to be more brittle. Before going to the machine it is cut into 16-inch pieces. Two types of machines are in use — the upright and the hori- zontal. Both kinds are adjustable for different grades of excelsior shavings and wood wool. The grades of excelsior shavings vary from one-thirty-second to one-eighth of an inch wide by Periodical Literature 143 about one-one-hundredth of an inch thick. The machines can be adjusted, however, to cut one-sixty-fourth to one-half inch wide and from five-one-hundredths to one-fiftieth inch thick. Higher production per day of the coarse material is offset by the higher price commanded by the finer grades. A cord of wood produces approximately one ton of excelsior. The upright double head machines require five horsepower each and have a capacity of about one ton per day. The horizontal, eight block machine has a capacity of about five tons per day. Excelsior sells at about $20 per ton and wood wool at about $30 per ton. The cost of production varies from $3 to $5 per ton. O. L. S. Canada Lumberman and Woodworker, October, 1913. Forstmeister Schinzinger reports the re- Sawdust^ suits of investigations of the Prussian as Academy of Sciences looking toward the use Means of forest products for himian nutriment. of Ordinary sawdust positively can not be Food digested at all by either man or animals. The reserve food supply of our trees consists chiefly of starch, sugar, oils and, to a slight extent, of albumens. These foods are stored only in the living sap wood. Woods with noticeably large percent of sapwood are maple, birch, elm, bass- wood and poplar. These are the species most worth considering as soiirces of human and animal food. The food content is greatest in October. Experiments showed per 100 units of dry wood substance 20 to 25 imits of starch and sugar, 10 of oils, 2 of albumen; the rest is wood fiber. To make the foods available, the woods must be pulverized, or else the food stuffs separated out chemically. The foliage of broadleaf trees is of proven value as fodder for animals. This reaches its maximum value in August and then decreases rapidly. Since photosynthesis takes place during the day, the foliage should be cut at night. Twigs up to 3^ centimeter in diameter can be digested by cattle. For winter feeding, the small twigs are best because of difficulties in storing the leaf-hay. For this purpose, the one- to three-year- » See also F. Q., Vol. XIII, p. 568. 144 Forestry Quarterly old shoots are cut with pruning shears or brush hooks, tied in loose bundles and placed under cover. It takes a week for these bundles to dry, and the bundles must be shifted frequently to prevent mildew or other fungus attack. The dried bundles can be stored in barns but piled loosely, so that there is a good circulation of air. The best species for such feed are poplar, elm, basswood, birch, ash, chestnut, buckeye and mulberry. Beech is not suitable, neither are the conifers. A. B. R. Holzmehl und Volkserndhrung. AUgemeine Forst- iind Jagd-Zeitung, August, 1915, pp. 190-3. Through a series of experiments to ob- Sawdust tain a satisfactory paving brick from Paving sawdust, a Florida lumber company has Brick evolved one from cypress sawdust and hydroline. The bricks are made under a pressure of 50 to 100 tons ; they weigh about one-half as much as the vitrified brick, i.e., about five pounds each; and are ready for shipment in twelve hours after manufacture. O. L. S. Southern Lumberman, July, 1915. A short Hst of books, bulletins, and Wood magazine articles in which are found fur- Utilisation ther references to wood utilization contains the following: Utilization of Wood Waste, by E. Hubbard; Wood Products, Distillates and Extracts, by P. Dumesny and J. Noyer; Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, 1911, by Walker, p. 934 Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, by Frank- forter, Vol. 3, p. 4; Chemical Engineer, 1912, pp. 223 and 231 Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, by Hirty Vol. 12, p. 101 ; United States Bureau of Chemistry Bulletins Nos. 105, 144 and 159. O. L. S. Southern Industrial and Lumber Review, April, 1913. r, , .,., r A committee of the American Railway Durability of j -n -j a • .• • /• r> -7 J tT- 1. and Bridge Association give averages for Railroad Timbers . , ... ° , . , , „ ** durability of timbers as follows: Periodical Literature 145 Durability Name of Timber In Soil In Air Cedar 20 years Chestnut '..... 12 Cypress 20 20 years White oak 10-15 15 Longleaf pine 10 12 Douglas fir 8 16 Tamarack 8 10 White pine 7 10 Spruce 7 10 Norway pine 6 10 The Southern Pacific Railroad has 105,000 creosoted Douglas fir piles in trestles, of which two thirds are over 12 years old, ranging up to 23 years; not more than 500 have been taken out on account of decay. O. L. S. Canada Lumberman and Woodworker, November, 1913. A series of interesting experiments in Treatment the treatment of ties is reviewed by R. S. of Pearson. Unfortunately, the data pre- Ties sented is not complete, but, no doubt, those in interested in a study of this subject could British India secure the original and complete record by correspondence. T. S. W., Jr. The Indian Forester, May, 1915, pp. 148-150. Mention is made of a tree named ambach, Wood belonging to the Mimosa family, covering Lighter swamp areas in the region of Lake Chad, than Africa. While the specific gravity of dry Cork cork varies from 2 to 24, that of ambach varies from 1 to 34. At the same time it will grow from 12 to 15 feet in height and 8 to 10 inches in diameter in one year; the fibre texture is so close that it can be cut into planks for tables and doors. If the report of discovery is exact, this species should have great commercial value. T. S. W., Jr. The Indian Forester, September, 1915, pp. 338-339. 146 Forestry Quarterly An elaborate article on the timber trade German conditions in Germany for the year 1914 Wood is of interest in fixing the ante-bellum mar- Trade ket prices. In the introduction the writer refers to the world war "which proper feeling in antagonism with reason had a thousand times declared an impossibility, and which Germany for more than 40 years, often under most difficult conditions, had prevented." "Both Austria and Germany, during these 44 years, since the Franco- Prussian war have shown that they wished to develop the energies of their people in peaceful economic competition." The commer- cial envy of Great Britain over the German competition in the world market is recognized as the ultimate cause of the war. This competition is also found in the wood-working industries, which in Great Britain employ over 250,000 people, with an annual product worth over $115 million, which is all consumed at home, together with $7 million import, while Germany, producing in part its raw material, employs 685,000 workers and exports $40 million alone of furniture and woodenware. It appears that the year 1914, as it was, began with a depression in the market, and the wood industry even before the outbreak of the war was at low ebb. The war, of course, stopped all work for export, but the needs of the military departments helped over the trouble, a careful distribution of orders being inaugurated. During the 20 years from 1895 to 1914, prices for log material have increased a round 20 per cent. This is for rafting timber, which rose from 16 cents to 19.5 cents per cubic foot. For pine boards in the five years up to 1913, the rise had been up to 40 per cent according to sizes, but in the war year prices dropped nearly 10 per cent. It is interesting to note how prices vary with the size : e. g. pine, 16 foot mill run boards f. o. b. mill of widths 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 inches brought in 1914 26 27 27.6 27 27.5 26 38 cents per cubic foot in 1909 19 20 21 21 22 21,6 24 " " " " These prices would make the average prices per M feet board measure run from $18 for 6 inch to less than $22 for 12 inch boards, over 20 per cent higher than the small size material. Such prices come near enough to our own. Das Wirischaftsjahr 1914. Centralblatt fur das gesammte Porstwesen, January-February, March-April, 1915, pp. 000-000, 149-157. Periodical Literature 147 STATISTICS AND HISTORY From the Yearbook of the Russian Forest Russian Department for 1911 we quote the follow- Forest ing data. The total area of forest under Statistics government management was around 260,- 000,000 acres in Europe, 12,000,000 acres in Caucasus, 600,000,000 acres in Asia, but of this 872.000,000 acres only 50 per cent are real woodland, and only 50 per cent are in sole ownership of the government, which controls 132,000,000 acres of wood area in Europe, about 5,000,000 in Caucasus and 150,000,000 acres in Asia ; the whole territory being divided into 1419 supervisorships and 22,156 protective circuits. The size of the latter varies from 260,000 to 300,000 acres in Europe, but up to 2,500,000 in Asia! For this forest protective service, $2,600,000 were spent for the 10,600 guards. The central office of the forest department is headed by 13 technical men and 62 subalterns, besides a council of 9. Other technical men are in the forest corps 860, in the local administrations 3262 ; in the Forest Institute 42 ; and topographers and surveyors 272 ; a total of 4520, of whom 3937 are technical foresters. The Forest Institute (only higher forest school) had in 1911 647 students. There are 39 lower schools with 737 students, 470 of whom receive entirely, 160 partially free, tuition. Salaries were improved in 1912; still they are low, the highest $3,000 for the Vice-Inspector down to $250 for "forest conduc- tors" ; supervisors secure from $800 to $1350, besides emolu- ments for houses, traveling expenses, etc., and farm land. Ac- cording to plan 1,000 new supervisorships were to be organized in the first decade after 1900; actually by 1911 only 58 had mate- rialized. Of the total wooded area of 450 million acres only about 60 million are under working plans, mostly in Europe, and 180 million only explored. There are 126 survey parties making working plans, with 662 technical men employed in this work. The sale of wood is mainly made on the stump, which is important, since much of the material placed in the budget is not sold. 148 Forestry Quarterly For 1911, the budget called for 9,571,391 cubic faden* from former years remained unsold 6,195,361 hence there should have been cut. . 15,766,752 but actually there was only cut. . 7,233,088 hence remained unsold 8,543,664 Presumably, this amount should be cut under sustained yield, but does not find takers. The total income of the forest administration for 1911 was around $42 million, the expenditures being $13.5 million, leaving $29.5 million net, an increase of $5 million over 1902. If we take the European figures by themselves, this works out about 12 cents per acre net. The best result in Poland was, however, in the neighborhood of $4 for a whole district. The purchasers of timber still pay a tax for reforestation, preferring to forfeit the charge than reforest themselves, as was originally intended. Here, as in the cutting, the plans do not materialize ; nearly 2 million acres that ought to have been refor- ested remained unplanted by 1911, and of the budget of $63,000 set out for planting other areas than that of the timber mer- chants, also only $20,000 were spent. Stealing timber is the rule of the day. In 1911, 733,723 cases of trespass had to be adjudicated, the damage aggregating $4 miUion with penalties $4.7 million, but only 350,000 cases were settled and $850,000 collected. Forest fires occasioned nearly one million dollars of damage. The conservation law now has force on over 150 million acres. There are 67 committees in charge with a membership of 662, with 12 secretaries, 64 foresters and 5569 police officers employed in carrying it out. The activity of this service in 1911 is expressed by the declaration of protective forest of 25,000 acres ; the approval of working plans for 34,000 acres protective forest and for 1,700,000 acres of other forest; the ordering of planting for over 100,000 acres ; the approval of change of use for 570,000 acres, and the prevention of devastating fellings on 340,000 acres. Over 1,250,000 acres protective and planted were freed of taxes. * 1 cubic faden equals about 220 cubic feet solid. Periodical Literature 149 Some 20,000 cases of infractions of the conservation law came before the committees in 1911, but not more than 7600 were adjudicated. In the same pubHcation, one chapter brings a sketch of the forests of the Caucasus, and four chapters are devoted to dis- cussions of fixation of shifting sands in various parts of the empire. These shifting sands are the result of forest destruc- tion and excessive pasture. There are dififerences in condition calling for different treatment, various grasses, willows, poplars, pine, black locust, oak, maple and mulberry find use in this work. In Astrachan, since 1904, some 140,000 acres have been recuperated at a cost of around $200,000, mostly borne by the State, the communes contributing about 15 per cent. Aus dem Jahrbuch des Russischen Forstdepartemenis von 1911. Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Jagdwesen, May, 1915, pp. 309-15. A very interesting historical reference is Forest made by von Wangenheim, a descendant Organization of the well-known forester, to whom the in American forest botanists owe some recog- Poland nition. It is, perhaps, not known that in the third division of Poland (1795), Prussia secured nearly all the territory which the German armies now occupy, Warsaw included, but in 1815 was forced to give it up to Russia. In 1798, von Wangenheim, the older, then Oberforstmeister at Gumbinnen, received instructions to organize the 1,500,000 more or less of forest properties, located in the two departments of Bialystock and Plock in "New-East-Prussia." The full language of the instructions is given, which are remark- able in the absolute reliance on Wangenheim's judgment and the free hand which the government gave to the organizer as regards method of organization, determination of felling budgets, per- sonnel to be employed ; merely giving him an idea of the general policy to be pursued. Among other interesting provisions, the following language is characteristic: "The forest ordinance for East Prussia and Lithuania, of 1775, may be used as a basis for a similar one for the new province with the needful modifications dictated by 150 Forestry Quarterly local conditions. Especially the penalties are to be toned down, for as regards the morality of actions one must consider the nationality for which the law is made." In this forest ordinance all that refers to forest police is to be included, "without reference as to royal, municipal or nobility forests, since his Majesty expressly desires that private forests also shall be properly managed." The instruction also includes the statement of expense account, which was a daily rate of about $3.50, including team, and a promise for special remuneration for the work at home. No account is given of the execution of this work and the final organization, which undoubtedly collapsed with the cession of the territory. For the time being these forests are again under Prussian administration. Grundziige fiir eine Einrichtung der hisher polnischen an Preussen gefallenen Forsten Neu-Ostpreussens von 1798. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, September, 1915, pp. 535-43. POLITICS, EDUCATION AND LEGISLATION In 1888, Bavaria created underforester Important schools (IValdbauschulen). Three of Changes five were abandoned at the close of the in year 1914-1915, and only two, at Kelheim Bavaria in southern Bavaria and at Lohr in North- ern Bavaria, remain. The reason for this abandonment is found in the excess of supply over demand, even though the number of students in these government schools was restricted. The character of instruction at the remaining schools is unchanged. For entrance, a common school education is required and the passing of an examination which involves also the satis- factory proof of fitness for the ranger career. The course covers four years. The first 12 weeks are probationary. A rigid medical examination of all students is made annually. Instruction in for- est management has been curtailed; instruction in stenography and typewriting added. A. B. R, A ufhebung tnehrerer Waldbauschulen, etc. AUgemeine Forst imd Jagd-Zeitung, September, 1915, pp. 221-3. Periodical Literature 151 MISCELLANEOUS War conditions have induced the Prus- Prussian sian forest administration to issue alleviat- Forests ing instructions to the managers of State in properties. Moratoria for rents and wood War purchases are permitted under circum- stances. Brushwood may be given to the poor at one quarter its usual cost. All the oak bark and spruce bark for tanning purposes is contracted to the War Leather Association (in which the gov- ernment is partner) under easy conditions. For oak bark in three grades the price is set at $1.70, $2.00, and $2.25 per hundred weight; spruce bark at 75 cents, in the woods air seasoned. A serious deficiency exists in rosin, which has been mostly imported, and is especially used for manufacture of lubricants and of writing paper. There are three possibilities of securing rosin, namely by tapping spruce as used to be done long ago, by distilling any coniferous wood, by scraping the rosin exuded on spruce when damaged by game animals. Curiously enough, the latter method is supposed to give at least most rapid results ; while the second method is being experi- mented with. Instructions are issued how to scrape the rosin, which is to be 70 per cent pure and is taken over by the ''rosin accounting office" at about $2.50 per hundred weight f. o. b. In experimental areas about 80 pounds per acre at a cost of $1 to $1.25 per 100 pounds could be secured. In March, 1915, the administration pointed out that in order to assure sufficiency of bread grain and potatoes for human needs the number of pigs would have to be reduced. To prevent, however, later a meat famine, breeding stock and young stock should be carefully preserved, for which purpose the forest pasture should be opened up, herding the pigs wherever larger communities are involved, even to the extent of transporting the herds by train. The pasture is to be free of charge, to be con- tinued till late fall or early winter. Pasture is also opened up for cattle, sheep and goats, and the wood for building shelter, etc., is to be given free of charge. To eke out the pasture, brushwood of hardwoods is to be fur- nished by the forest administration from thinnings or special 152 Forestry Quarterly provision. For this only the woodchoppers' wages are to be paid. Acorns, which had been, or could be, secured for sowings are to be used for feeding purposes, and grassy ground, which was to be planted, is to be left for pasture. Permits for gathering berries, mushrooms and grass are reduced to one third the usual cost. Felling areas are permitted to be given over to farm use for one to three years, especially for potato culture. This land is given free of charge, unless the recipient fails to put in his crop, when he is obliged to pay a penalty. Aus der Preussischen Forstverwaltung. AUgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung. May, August, 1915, pp. 126-8, 196—200. Dr. Schulze discusses the damage done French to forests in France, the bulk of the article, Forests however, merely relating the history of and forests in the past. It will take many War decades to make good the damage. The forest is a factor in warfare of first importance, more so now than ever in the past, for its cover is now of value not only to front and sides, but above, against aircraft. A forest is an advantage if a battery is to be brought into position and to be kept unobserved by aeroplanes, cut brush being used to hide it. In the open field the disposition and number of troops is readily ascertained ; in the forest they can be hidden, but also the danger of an enemy sneaking up unob- served may be a disadvantage. The French themselves have destroyed considerable forest tracts to prevent their use by the enemy and also to secure free field for shooting; the forests of Montmorency, Bouvigny near Arras and Berthonval have suf- fered severely. Large amounts of planks and logs to make roads passable and wood of all shapes for building structures in the trenches have been used up, partly imported, partly cut at home in the forests of La Haye, of Meaux near Nancy and Arencourt. Thousands of trees have been destroyed by artillery fire. Fires, intentional or accidental, have wasted many acres. While the Germans have made free use of materials, having established portable sawmills behind their front, and even burning char- coal for their field kitchens, the French army administration has not hesitated to disregard the wishes of the forest administration. Periodical Literature 153 While the territory from northeast of the Seine to northwest of the Oise is flat and mostly forestless, south of the Oise and Aisne becomes hilly and better forested and forms the transition to the well wooded territory of the Argonnes and Vosges mountains. It is suggested that this topographic and forest condition accounted for the German invasion by another route, through Belgium ; but in 1870 this forest condition was used to advantage in covering the movement of troops. While the exigencies of the war on both sides excuse the destruction of the impediment which the forest oflfers, or make its utilization necessary, it appears that the inhabitants themselves use the opportunity of robbing the forests while the forest police is absent. Die franzosischen Wdlder und der Krieg. Zeitschrift f iir Forst- und Jagd- wesen, August, 1915, pp. 497-512. In the Revue des Eaux et Forets of French Forest September 1 (p. 699) is given a list of the Service loss to the Forest Service after a year of in the War war. This comprises 46 men, including one inspector, 7 assistant inspectors, 27 forest assistants and students, 5 students who were just admitted to the forest school at Nancy, and 6 officers who have disappeared (possibly captured), but concerning whom no official informa- tion has been received. Judging from the account of the work done by foresters each month, the French Forest Service is making an enviable record, since quite a number of them have been not only cited in the orders of their brigade, but for exceptional bravery in the army corps orders of the day. T. S. W., Jr. On May 6, 1915, the Minister of War, Prisoners at the suggestion of the Minister of Agri- of War as culture, facilitated the employment of Lumberjacks prisoners for lumber operations in France, with the provision that not less than 50 men would be employed in one place. The employer guarantees food and lodging and pays the sum of 8 cents per prisoner per 154 Forestry Quarterly day; 4 cents going to the prisoner and 4 cents for his clothing. If the employer only furnishes lodging and beds without food, he must pay, in addition, 20 cents per day. If neither food nor lodging is supplied, the total cost to the employer of each pris- oner is 30 cents per day, (1 fr. 57). In case of laziness, it is provided that the 4 cents will be withheld from the prisoner. T. S. W., Jr. Revue des Eaux et ForSts, November 1, 1915, pp. 731-733. For the year 1912, there were 61,230 Effect of War wood-using factories in France, employ- on ing 323,837 workmen. In August, 1914, Wood-Using there were only 652 shops running that Industries employed but 8,481 workmen. In October, 1914, the number was 938 and 12,971. In January, 1915, there were 1,117 factories employing 18,404 work- men. Thus, the war immediately resulted in closing 64 per cent of the factories. That the number of workers is not less than it is, is undoubtedly due to employment of women. T. S. W., Jr. Revue des Eaux et Forets, December 1, 1915, pp. 757-758. An unsigned, but interesting, comment Forestry on Forestry and the War, by Sir William in Schlich is here summarized. Schlich stig- Bngland matizes English forestry as "too much talk and too little action." The conclusion seems to be reached that there is need for a national School of Forestry, together with a systematic management, "and the ad- vice and control by this school of crown woodlands and the extension of this latter by the gradual planting up of these areas acquired by purchase from year to year." It is certainly a criticism of the English government that so much forestry is practised in its colonies and so little in the mother country. T. S. W., Jr. The Indian Forester, May, 1915, pp. 143-146. Periodical Literature 155 Ranade describes the working of what Monopoly he terms "Monopoly cum Royalty System cum of Sale," where the purchaser, by paying Royalty System a certain sum of money, obtains the right of to cut timber at a fixed price per unit and Sale in India per variety and size of timber, the current rates being ordinarily about half the value of the material. The Forest Service guarantees to the pur- chaser a certain minimum amount of timber. From Ranade's description of the sales routine, it would appear that the system would be entirely feasible in the United States. By requiring a considerable "monopoly" payment, the advantage accrues to the government of protecting itself against loss in case the con- tractor fails to complete the sale. Those interested in the study of government timber sales should read this article. T. S. W. Jr. The Indian Forester, August, 1915, pp. 251-257. The Industrial Commission of the State Accidents of Washington worked out a series of dia- and grams to show the relative hazards of vari- Liabilities ous lines of work. Logging, electric sys- tems, coal mines and paper mills show the greatest hazard, especially as regards loss of life; shingle mills are shown highest in accidents resulting in permanent disability. In all, about two dozen occupations are rated and the diagrams given in full in West Coast Timberman, July, 1913. O. L. S. The Industrial Surgeons' Association of Typhoid Washington, composed of physicians and Prevention surgeons, who care for fully 90 per cent in Camps of the sixty odd thousand employes in the lumber industry, has issued a bulletin on typhoid. It estimates that 75 per cent of the cases of typhoid are fly-borne. It has been demonstrated that fly-proof toilets, proper garbage disposal, proper manure disposal, and safe water supply will reduce typhoid danger to a minimum, if not prevent it absolutely. O. L. S. West Coast Lumberman. July, 1915. OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE Forest Leaves, XV, 1915, — Tree Planting Experiments. Pp. 41-2. Gives interesting figures of the cost of planting on four different soils and situations with six different tools at the Cloquet Experiment Station, Minnesota. Journal of Agricultural Research, V, 1916, — A Serious Disease in Forest Nurseries Caused by Perider mium Jilamentosum. Pp. 781 ff. Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, XIII, 1915, — Notes on the Design and Equipment oj a Paper and Pulp Mill Laboratory. Pp. 503-10. "The object of these notes is to give an idea of the arrange- ment of ' any old room ' in a mill for the purpose of carrying out the usual technical tests required by a mill making chiefly newspaper, but also mechanical and chemical pulp. They are intended to apply chiefly to mills, whose location, generally speaking, is more or less remote from large cities and sources of chemical and scientific supplies." The article is liberally illustrated with diagrams and photographs. The Journal of the Board of Agricultiu-e, XXII, 1915, — The Composition oj Wood and Plant Ash. Pp. 766-8. Analyses showing amounts of potash and some other salts. The Indian Forester, XLI, 1915,— The Present Conditions of Applied Forestry in Canada, Pp. 171-7; 226-38. Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural Intelligence and Plant Diseases, VI, 1915, — Method of Preserving Acorns for Sowing. Pp. 956-7. 156 NEWS AND NOTES From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for the year 1915, we quote the following statements having refer- ence to the National Forests and to the grazing situation : Before the national forests were created practically no effort was made to protect the timber on public lands from destruction by fire, notwithstanding the fact that the situation was peculiarly hazardous. During the last decade a fire-protective system has been developed. Extensive improvements have been made, in- cluding more than 25,000 miles of roads, rails, and fire lines, 20,000 miles of telephone lines, many lookout stations, and head- quarters for the protective force. In the year 1914, when con- ditions were exceptionally unfavorable, nearly 7,000 fires were fought successfully. They threatened bodies of timber valued at nearly $100,000,000, but the actual damage was less than $500,000. This work not only is saving public property ; it is conserving the material for local economic development and for permanent industry. . . . "During the last 11 years the number of permits for free tim- ber to settlers has been multiplied 13 times and the number of sales 27 times. The amount cut annually by settlers under these permits is more than four times what it was in 1905, while that under commercial sales has increased eight-fold. Nearly 51,000 lots were disposed of during the last year. Probably not less than 45,000 persons or corporations obtained timber directly from the national forests. More than half of the timber now cut annually is used in the vicinity of the forests. This includes all that taken free and under sales at cost, and approximately 45 per cent of the com- mercial cut. Hundreds of mining districts throughout the West, from small projects requiring an occasional wagonload of props or lagging to the great copper district of central Montana, which consumes about 380,000 pieces of mining timber annually, are supplied. Railroads also are furnished a large part of the ties and other material required for their lines in the Rocky Moun- tain regions. A million and a half ties now are cut from the forests yearly. The national forests also meet the demands of the general 157 158 Forestry Quarterly lumber market. More than 300,000,000 feet are cut annually for the nation-wide trade. Since 1908 there have been taken from them 5,000,000,000 board feet of wood and timber products. The greater part of the summer range in the Western States is in the forests. Under the regulated system the forage is uti- lized fully, without injury to the tree growth and with adequate safeguards against watershed damage. There were grazed last year under pay permits 1,734,000 cattle and horses and 7,300,000 sheep and goats. Several hundred thousand head of milch and work animals were grazed free of charge, and more than 3,500,- 000 head of stock crossed the forests, feeding en route, also free of charge. Not including settlers who have the free privilege or persons who have only crossing permits, there are 31,000 in- dividuals who have regular permits. During the year ended June 30, 1905, there were only 692,000 cattle and horses and 1,514,000 sheep and goats on 85,627,472 acres. The number of animals now sustained in proportion to the area of the forests is 50 per cent greater than it was 10 years ago. Since 1905 the number of persons holding grazing privileges has increased nearly 200 per cent. This is due in part to the enlarged area of the forests, but can be attributed principally to wider use by settlers and small stockmen. When the regulated system was established the forest ranges, like the open public lands today, rapidly were being im- paired. The productivity of the land for forage in most places has been restored and everywhere is increasing; the industry has been made more stable; stocks comes from the forests in better condition ; range wars have stopped ; ranch property has increased in value ; and a larger area has been made available through range improvements. It is probable that 100,000,000 pounds of beef and mutton are sold each year from herds and flocks occupying the ranges. That the forests have promoted the development of the stock industry is indicated. In another part of the report the Secretary refers to the graz- ing on public lands outside the National Forests, "of which there are about 280,000,000 acres, are not supporting the number of meat-producing animals they should. In the absence of any con- trol by the Government these lands have been overgrazed. That they can be restored to their former usefulness is proved by what has been accomplished on the national forests and in Texas, On the forests under regulated grazing the number of stock has been News and Notes 159 increased 50 per cent. Practically the same increase has been secured in Texas under its leasing system. There should be a classification of the remaining lands at the earliest possible date to determine their character and to secure information upon which to base plans for their future improvement and use and for the distribution among settlers of those portions upon which it is possible to establish homes." "Of the existing 1,800,000 water horsepower in the Western States, 50 per cent is in plants constructed in whole or in part on the forests and operated under permit from the department. Plants under construction will develop about 200,000 additional horsepower, while over 1,000,000 more is under permit for future construction. The chief obstacle to further immediate water- power expansion is the lack of market, for plants in operation in the West now have a surplus of power of which they can not dispose." There is also a discussion on mining in the National Forests, and their use as recreation grounds, and on the return of agricul- tural lands to settlement. "During the last five years about 14,- 000,000 acres have thus been released. In addition, individual tracts are classified and opened to entry upon application of home seekers. Since the work was begun more than 1,900,000 acres have been made available for the benefit of 18,000 settlers." Reference is made to the purchase of forest areas in the East. "An appropriation of $11,000,000 was made for these purchases, to be expended during the fiscal years 1910 to 1915. The funds made available under the first appropriation are nearly exhausted. In its report to the Congress for the fiscal year 1914 the National Forest Reservation Commission recommended that purchases be continued until about 6,000,000 acres shall have been obtained and that the Congress authorize appropriations through another five-year period at the rate of $2,000,000 a year." The two Alaska National Forests are more specifically re- ferred to. "The Tongass comprises approximately 15,000,000 acres in southeastern Alaska, while the Chugach, covering the timbered area about Prince William Sound and thence westward to Cook Inlet, contains about 5,500,000 acres. Most of the tim- ber on them is of the coast type, Sitka spruce, hemlock, and cedar being the predominant species. On the Tongass single spruce trees not uncommonly reach a diameter of 6 feet, a height of 200 160 Forestry Quarterly feet, and a yield in merchantable material of 20,000 board feet. Limited areas carry 100,000 board feet to the acre, and 40,000 to 50,000 feet over considerable areas is common. The timber is accessible, of excellent quality, comparatively easy to log, and close to water transportation. The presence of available water power will facilitate the development of wood-using industries. While the Chugach Forest has less favorable conditions for tim- ber growth and a less heavy stand than the Tongass, neverthe- less in it there is a large amount of merchantable Sitka spruce and hemlock, which will have an increasing importance for rail- road construction, mining, and other industrial purposes. Large areas have an average stand of 15,000 to 20,000 board feet to the acre, and the best run as high as 50,000 feet. The volume of timber on the two forests is estimated to be between sixty and eighty billion board feet, about one-eighth of the total estimated quantity on all the forests." Representative Lever, of Southern California, has introduced in the House a bill, the purpose of which is to extend to the em- ployes of the U. S. Forest Service the provisions of the act granting to certain employes of the United States the right to receive compensation for injuries sustained in the course of their employment. The purpose of the bill is to give compensation to those employes of the Service who are injured while fighting forest fires. The Santa Rita Grazing Reserve near the Coronado Forest in Arizona, and the Jornodo Grazing Reserve in New Mexico, for- merly under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Plant Industry, have been turned over to the Forest Service for the continuance of the experiments. Grazing Inspector James T. Jardine and Grazing Examiner C. E. Fleming, of the Washington office, have been inspecting these grazing experimental areas during the past summer. The annual meeting of the Society of American Foresters was held on January 22, 1916, in Washington, D. C. The forenoon and the late afternoon were devoted to the reports of the various committees. During the early part of the afternoon an open meeting was held at which the following papers were presented : "The Possibilities of Silviculture in America," News and Notes 161 by Dr. B. E. Fernow; "Vegetation Zones of Argentine and Ad- joining Regions," by Dr. Cristobal Hicken. At the business meeting of the Society a number of important matters came up, among which the amalgamation of the Proceed- ings of the Society and the Forestry Quarterly provoked most of the discussion. The meeting endorsed the following recommendations of the executive committee : 1. That an amalgamation of the Proceedings and the Forestry Quarterly be made, whether or not an increase in dues is neces- sary to accomplish it. 2. That the plan of control of the combined publications con- form to that given for the Proceedings in the present Constitution of the Society (Article V, Section o), subject to amendment as to the number of members on the Editorial Board, upon the recommendation of the Board after organization. 3. That the details of publication and policy of the journal be left with the Editorial Board. On motion by Mr. Dana, the meeting expressed itself as in favor of an increase in dues for Active members from $3 to $5 per year. On motion by Mr. Dana, the meeting also expressed itself in favor of levying no dues on Associate members and at the same time of ceasing to send them the Proceedings of the Society except on special subscription. All of these matters were referred to the Executive Committee for its action and later reference to letter ballot by the entire Society. The recommendation of the Executive Committee that no steps be taken by the Society to incorporate was indorsed. The recom- mendation that the budget system adopted last year be continued was also indorsed. Dr. Fernow moved that the recommendation of the Executive Committee, that the matter of indorsing the Federal Migratory Bird Law be referred to the entire membership for letter ballot, be amended to provide for the indorsement of this law by the present meeting. The motion was agreed to and the law thereby indorsed without further action. The meeting expressed its approval of the recommendation of the Editorial Board that a change be made in the name of the Proceedings and referred the matter to the Executive Com- 162 Forestry Quarterly mittee for consideration in connection with the amalgamation of the Proceedings and the Forestry Quarterly. The meeting indorsed the recommendation of the Committee on Admissions that the creation of a new class of members, to be called ''Fellows," is undesirable, for the present at least. The proposal of the committee that a new class of members, to known as "junior" members, be created was discussed at con- siderable length. The progress report of the Commitee on Terminology was pre- sented by the Chairman, Dr. Fernow. The recommendation of the special committee on the estab- lishment of a section in Washington, that such a section be established, was indorsed and the desirability of holding as many general meetings of the Society as possible was emphasized. Mr. Clapp spoke of his attendance recently at the annual meet- ing of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. He recommended that the Society adopt the policy of holding a meeting of the Society in connection with the annual winter meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Science as often as practicable, and that the program be arranged in time so that it might be printed with the rest of the Association pro- gram. His recommendations in these respects were indorsed by the meeting. The result of the recent election of officers was announced by the Acting Secretary, Mr. Murphy, as follows: President, B. E. Fernow ; Vice-President, E. H. Clapp ; Secre- tary, Findley Bums; Treasurer, S. T. Dana; Executive Commit- tee: W. B. Greeley (5-year term) ; R. C. Bryant (4-year term) ; Clyde Leavitt (3-year term) ; D. T. Mason (2-year term) ; F. A. Silcox (1-year term). In the evening a smoker, attended by 67 members and friends of the Society, was held at the University Club, at which a num- ber of informal talks were given. Following the example of the joint lumbering and forestry meetings at San Francisco in October, the plan has been adopted this year in Canada of holding a number of related annual meet- ings conjointly. These meetings occurred at Ottawa, Ontario, January 18, 19 and 30, 1916. The annual meeting of the Com- mission of Conservation was held January 18 and 19, the forestry News and Notes 163 portion of the program being presented on the first day. At this meeting, papers on various aspects of forestry work in Canada were presented by Messrs. B. E. Fernow, Ellwood Wilson and J. B. Harkin. The report of the Committee on Forests was presented by Clyde Leavitt, Forester for the Commission. The Canadian Society of Forest Engineers met at the Laurentian Club on the evening of January 18, dinner being followed by a general discussion of the forestry situation in New Brunswick. The Candian Lumbermen's Association held their annual meet- ing January 19, and the Canadian Forestry Association January 20. At the latter meeting, papers were presented by Messrs. W. R. Brown, E. J. Zavitz, R. H. Campbell, S. L. Decarteret and W. J. Vandusen. A full report of the several meetings will ap- pear in the February and March numbers of the Canadian Forestry Journal. On the evening of January 19, the four organizations above named held a joint banquet at the Chateau Laurier, at which ad- dresses were presented by Sir George E. Foster, Minister of Trade and Commerce; Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Leader of the Op- position; Hon. W. J. Roche, Minister of the Interior; Hon. Michael Clark, M. P. ; Dr. Frank D. Adams, Dean of Applied Sciences, McGill University, and Hon. O. T. Daniels, Attorney General of Nova Scotia. At the session of the Pan-American Scientific Congress held at Washington during the first week of the year subjects of spe- cial interest to lumbermen were discussed. Papers given of special interest to foresters were : Forest Problems and Economic Development of South America, by R. Zon ; Conservation of the Natural Resources of Wealth, Agriculture, Irrigation and Forest Culture, by Senor Raoul Brin; The Attitude of the Government in the Matter of National Forests: Relation of Forest Culture to the Future Development of Central and South America, by E. L. Quiros. The outstanding feature of forestry progress in Canada dur- ing the past year is the announcement by the Government of New Brunswick that definite steps are being taken toward be- ginning the forest survey and classification of crown lands, for which legislative provision was made early in 1913. P. Z. Caver- 164 Forestry Quarterly hill has been appointed Provincial Forester, to take charge of this important work. Mr. Caverhill is a graduate of the forest school of the University of New Brunswick, being a member of the first graduating class, in 1910. Since that time he has been connected with the Dominion Forestry Branch and the British Columbia Forest Branch, and has held various positions of responsibility. The crown lands of New Brunswick comprise an area of over 10,000 square miles, or approximately one third the total area of the province. The provincial government derives an annual revenue of over half a million dollars from these lands. A careful stock-taking, together with a thorough and scientific investigation of the questions of reproduction and rate of growth, will be required to determine the means necessary for the per- petuation of the forest and of the revenues resulting from its exploitation. It is expected that the Dominion Commission of Conservation will co-operate to some extent, in connection with the more technical features of the work in the field. The latest Canadian lumber company to engage the services of a professional Forester is J. B. Snowball & Company, Limited, Chatham, N. B. This Company has employed Mr. J. R. Gareau, a graduate of the Quebec Forest School, Laval University, to have general supervision over the woods operations on the Company's limits. He will also make a map and timber esti- mate of these limits, as well as enforce close utilization of all merchantable material. Cutting operations will be regulated with a view to ensuring the perpetuation of the forest, and par- ticular attention will be paid to fire protection. Other com- panies in eastern Canada employing professional foresters are the Laurentide Company, the Riordan Pulp and Paper Company, the New Brunswick Railway Company, and the Canadian Pacific Railway. The Crown Lands Department of Nova Scotia report a total of approximately 13,000 acres burned over by forest fires during the season of 1915. On a considerable portion of this area, no merchantable material was destroyed, so that the total estimate of damage done by these fires is but $15,000. Nearly all of this News and Notes 165 damage was done by a single fire, in the vicinity of the Inter- colonial Railway. The system of forest fire protection in Nova Scotia is among the most effective in Canada. An important feature is the provi- sion that no person shall make, kindle or start a fire for the purpose of clearing land, or other like purposes, nor set up nor operate a portable steam engine within 60 rods of any woods, between the fifteenth day of April and the first of December next following in any year, without first having obtained leave in writing from the chief ranger or sub-ranger. Such leave is granted only when, in the judgment of the ranger, the action may be taken safely. Similar provision for the regulation of the setting out of settlers' fires exists in British Columbia, on Dominion Forest Reserves in the West, in Quebec, and in a portion of New Brunswick. It does not exist in Ontario, nor on Crown Lands or lands in private ownership outside of Forest Reserves in the Frairie Provinces. During the drouth of May, 1914, a very destructive fire from the Canadian Pacific Railway burned over several hundred acres (about 400) near Gordon Bay, Parry Sound District, Ontario. Miss A. E. Sinclair, the principal owner of the devastated area, took action in the Supreme Court of Ontario. The trial was held in Parry Sound in June, 1915, Hon. Mr. Justice Clute, presiding; Mowat, Maclennan and Parkinson acting for Plaintiff. The case was tried by jury. A unanimous verdict was rendered that the plaintiff' recover from the defendant $2235 for 65 acres, and further that the defendant pay to the plaintiff costs amounting to $554.55. Subsequently the Canadian Pacific Railway settled with another of the claimants, paying $515 damages and $50 toward costs. The verdict was rendered on the basis that the evidence went to show that there was "a reasonable certainty" that the fire was set by a spark from a Canadian Pacific Railway locomotive. Enormous damage has been done by forest fires in the Smoky River Valley and the Grande Prairie country, in northern Alberta, according to a report just published by the Dominion Forestry Branch. The examination, made under the direction of J. A. Doucet, covered an area of 8,000 square miles previously well 166 Forestry Quarterly stocked with forests of various species, including Lodgepole pine, White, Black and Engelmann spruce, Alpine fir, tamarack, aspen and birch. Of this area, only a very small percentage can ever be used for agricultural purposes, on account of unfavorable soil and topography. The agricultural lands are for the most part limited to the prairie, of which there are considerable areas, and in the de- velopment of which the timber resources would be of the great- est value. The report shows that the results of the many repeated fires in this region have been apalling : Out of the 8,000 square miles well wooded even within the last hundred years, only 648 square miles, or 8 per cent, still retain a forest cover 100 years old or over. These are the only portions which can be regarded as having a virgin cover. Thus, 92 per cent of the area has been burned over from once to many times during the past hundred years. About 8.5 per cent of the total area bears timber from 50 to 100 years old, averaging 70 years, while 14 per cent bears timber of small pole size, averaging 25 years of age. Less than 20 per cent is covered with young reproduction, while 3690 square miles, or 46 per cent of the total area examined, is covered with brule, mostly swept by fire within the last 30 years. Taking in the young reproduction area, the percentage of the territory swept by fires during the last 50 years is brought up to about 65 per cent. In some places, the soil cover has been en- tirely removed, and it will take a long time before another forest can take root; in others, the heavy slash endangers the young growth and what little is left of the old forest. It is estimated that within the territory covered by the report, not less than 16,000 million feet of merchantable pine and spruce timber has been destroyed by fire during the last 30 years. At an average valuation of 50 cents per thousand, this represents a loss to the country of $8,000,000, in addition to the serious deple- tion of game and fur-bearing animals. The report closes with a strong recommendation for the estab- lishment of Forest Reserves and for the allotment of sufficient funds to provide for adequate fire protection. A despatch from Victoria, B. C, states that a bill will be in- troduced at the next meeting of the British Columbia Parliament News and Notes 167 providing for a bond issue by the Provincial Government to be used in building 30 four-mast semi-Diesel auxiliary schooners. These schooners will have a carrying capacity of about 2,000,000 feet of lumber each. They are to be turned over to lumber manu- facturers of British Columbia, who are to assume the bonds and pay for the schooners as bonds fall due. They are to be operated in the lumber trade of the entire Pacific coast. Keels of 6 or 8 of these vessels are to be laid in British Columbia by April 1, and the remainder are to be built as the demand increases. It is reported that these vessels will take about 200,000,000 feet of lumber annually, whereas the present exportation is only about 60,000,000 feet. Mr. H. R. MacMillan, Chief of the British Columbia Forest Service, who holds a special commission under the Department of Trade and Commerce to study the extension of foreign mar- kets for Canadian lumber, has forwarded to Dr. J. S. Bates, Superintendent of the Forest Products Laboratories of Canada, from Johannesburg, South Africa, a small specimen of wood for identification. This was a piece of wood from an ore bin which had seen 20 years hard usage in one of the Johannesburg mines and is still in an excellent state of preservation. Microscopic examination by the wood technologist of the Laboratories showed that the specimen was Douglas fir. It is interesting to see that Douglas fir has shown up so well in this particular service test and is another proof of the high quality of the foremost Cana- dian structural wood. The decision of the various Dominion Government Departments and of the Canadian Pacific Railway to use Canadian timber only, to the exclusion of imported timber, is a decided advantage in the utilization of Canadian timber and, therefore, marks a definite gain for the cause of conservation in Canada. Southern pine, even in the year of 1915, when Canada was at war and when there was a great decrease in the consump- tion of lumber, was imported to the extent of 95 million feet, having a value of over 3 million dollars. In previous years, very much larger quantities were imported and this in the face of an adverse trade balance for Canada and in the face of a supply in Canada of better timber at an equal or lower cost, grown and manufactured entirely within the Dominion. 168 Forestry Quarterly The Dominion Government have in past years used many million feet of Southern pine in the various public works, but hence- forth Canadian timber will be used to the exclusion of the foreign imported article. Douglas fir will replace Southern pine in such works as Quebec harbor improvements, Montreal harbor improve- ments and Hudson Bay terminals. Douglas fir has been used entirely in the Toronto harbor works, as a clause was inserted in that contract calling for Canadian material. The action of Baron Shaughnessy in ruling that Canadian timber only should be used in works of the Canadian Pacific Railway shows that large private users are also finding it consistent with present conditions to use Canadian products. Other users throughout Eastern Canada, large and small, will follow the lead of the two largest users. Architectural and engineering professions also are rapidly swinging from Southern pine to Douglas fir and from the imported woods to the home grown product. The Dominion Forest Products Laboratories at McGill Uni- versity, at Montreal, which have been in operation for nearly a year, were formally opened on December 3 by the Minister of the Interior. Several representative speakers took part in the program. The testing machines, the paper plant, the museum and the laboratories were found, upon inspection, to be complete and capable of valuable work. Mr. W. H. Houston has been appointed Lumber Commis- sioner for British Columbia for the Prairie Provinces, with offices at Regina, Saskatchewan, A ranch owner near San Jose, California, according to Popu- lar Mechanics Magazine, trims his eucalyptus trees with the aid of a high powered rifle. It is 180 feet from the ground to the lowest branches of the giant. The owner, it is said, takes the easy method of lopping off unnecessary limbs by a few moments of pleasant marksmanship. With a most laudable spirit the government of the Province of Ontario has made an adequate appropriation for making a close survey to locate and perhaps eradicate the White pine blister rust, which unfortunately has found entrance into the News and Notes 169 Province before the law preventing the importation of White pine seedlings had been in operation. It is also contemplated to improve this law, having force for the whole Dominion, by excluding not only all five-needled pines, but importation of the other host, the currant, as well. State Forester A. F. Hawes of Burlington has received a tele- gram from Senator Carroll S. Page announcing the passage, by Congress, of a $20,000 appropriation for the eradication of the blister rust disease of the White pine. With this sum the United States Department of Agriculture will make a careful examination of the Eastern States to find out whether there are any cases of the disease in addition to those already known, and will be able to carry out the work of eradication. Over 12,000,000 specimens of two parasites which prey on the gipsy moth and brown-tail moth were released in 201 towns in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts and Rhode Island during the fall of 1914 and the spring of 1915, according to the Annual Report of the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture. As a result of scouting work carried on by the entomologists in 223 towns in New England, the gipsy moth was found in 4 towns in Maine, 23 in New Hampshire, 3 in Vermont, 10 in Massachusetts, and 10 in Connecticut, making a total of 50 towns where the insect had not been previously reported. This scouting consists in an examination of all roadsides, residential sections, orchards and woodlands. Where colonies are found, the tgg clusters are treated with creosote and the trees are banded with tree tanglefoot and sprayed with arsenate of lead. The spread of the brown-tail moth during the past year has been inconsiderable, the indications being that this pest has not infested any territory other than that already reported. In cooperation with the United States Lighthouse Service, the work of collecting moths at night along the coast of Connecticut and Long Island has been continued. Other activities of the Bureau in relation to the gipsy moth include the inspection of forest products, nursery stock, and stone and quarry products shipped from gipsy-moth territory, as well as extended investigations along other lines. 170 Forestry Quarterly The forest academies of Eberswalde, Miinden, and Tharandt are closed during the war, but the Universities of Munich, Giessen and Tubingen keep open and register students even if absent. Even the Catalpa has an enemy that can become serious, namely the Catalpa sphinx, a large yellow and black caterpillar with a stout black horn. It is described in Farmer's Bulletin 705, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Hand picking and spraying with a combination of arsenicals and Bordeaux mixture is recommended. A wasp-like fly, in evidence in September and October, is a para- site, during the presence of which the caterpillars should not be killed, but rather collected in a barrel covered with wire netting, in which they may hatch the parasite. Two useful compilations have been made, which give an insight into the status of the academic side of forestry in the United States and Canada, namely a census of students and alumni and their employment made by the Yale Forest School News and a canvass of the forest schools as to number and character of students as well as of instruction, number of in- structors and their salaries and load of work, by Professor H. Winkenwerder of the College of Forestry in the University of Washington. The information collected by the Yale Forest School News is in print (in Volume IV, Number 1, January, 1916) and may be quoted: There were 634 bachelors and 523 masters of forestry (or equivalent titles) graduated from the 22 schools reported, but of these 1157 technically educated men, only 803 are employed in forestry work. Details of the manner in which the schools are run are given for each school, which are highly interesting. The information gathered by Prof. Winkenwerder is more complicated and is so far only private. We hope to have an analytical discussion of it by the collector in a future issue. Here we may, however, state that in the 19 institutions for which data are given, there seem to be around 900 students enrolled for straight forestry work, besides some 500 taking secondary work in forestry. There were 72 instructors in these 19 institutions, 61 giving full time, ranging from one to eleven JBstructors in one school, News and Notes 171 three to four in the majority of cases. The greatest variety seems to exist in the load which instructors carry at different institutions. The incredible assignment of "20 hours and from 6 to 10 hours of laboratory" seems to be the heaviest ; a number report 14 to 16 hours ; the lowest carrying from 7 to 12 hours, excepting Directors who may have even less teaching hours. Salaries run from $1,000 to $1800 for Instructors; $800 to $2,000 for Assistant Professors; $1600 to $2500 for Associate Professors; $1800 to $4,000 for full Professors, and Directors up to $5,000. From the Report of the Dean of New York State College of Agriculture to the President of Cornell University we learn that the College is divided into 24 departments, with 238 separate courses for regular students ; and there is a tendency of still further expansion in the number of courses. The forestry de- partment offers a five-year course, leading to the degree of mas- ter in forestry for professional foresters, but it also provides for "students of general agriculture who wish elementary in- struction in the care of woodlands and in forest planting and forest nursery work ; for prospective teachers, business men, lawyers and others who desire an understanding of the place of forestry in the life of a nation ; and for technical students in other lines who wish one or more technical courses, such as wood technology." Moreover, it makes an effort to be of direct help to owners of forestlands in New York State by correspondence, publications, lectures, personal inspection of woodland or of land to be planted, and cooperative care of forestlands. Besides, research work is in contemplation. Unfortunately, there is no large forest tract at the disposal of the department for such research work. In the enumeration of the 2773 stu- dents attending the College of Agriculture, the students taking forestry courses are not segregated. From an academic point of view, there is of interest the propo- sition to divide the university year into four quarters, three of which constitute a year's work for professor or student — the Chicago scheme. Such an arrangement would be particularly advantageous to agricultural as well as forestry students, per- mitting summer work. 172 Forestry Quarterly Three hundred and fifty-four students of the University of CaHfomia have enrolled in the course in "Elements of Forestry" offered this year for the first time by Professor Walter Mulford, This course is designed to present a general picture of the re- lation of forestry to the every day life of a nation. Among the topics discussed are the influence of forests on water supply, climate, soil and public health, the life story of the tree and the forest, general principles of forestry practice, and protection from fire and insects. Nine lectures on the fish and game of the State will also be given in connection with the course, by experts in these fields. To reach a large number of students in other de- partments with instruction in elementary forestry is considered by the School of almost equal importance to the training of professional students. A new forestry building, costing $40,000, has been authorized by the board of regents and will be erected on the Oregon Agri- cultural College campus during the coming spring and summer. It will be a brick structure, three stories high and 80 feet wide by 140 feet long. A large laboratory for logging-engineering will be located on the first floor, with smaller laboratories for the manufacture of wood products. The second and third floors will be occupied by offices, classrooms and smaller experimental laboratories. The building will be ready for occupancy at the opening of the next college year, September, 1916. The Semet-Solvay Company of Syracuse, which owns and operates large mines in West Virginia under the direction of the Solvay Collieries Company, has recently become interested in reforestation on its holdings in West Virginia. It has asked the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse to examine and report upon reforestation on holdings at Kingston and Mary- town in Central West Virginia. Professor J. Fred Baker of the College is now in West Virginia examining these holdings and is accompanied by a party of eight Senior students who will take part in the field examination of the properties. Mr. H. J. Kaestner, State Forester of West Virginia, will join the party at Kingston and will assist in any fire protection plans which may be suggested. After the field studies are completed, the party of Seniors will visit several large lumbering operations in Central West Virginia. News and Notes 173 Nelson C. Brown, Professor of Forest Utilization in the Col- lege of Forestry, at Syracuse University, attended the Annual Meeting of the American Wood Preservers' Association held in Chicago on January 19, 20 and 21. Following this meeting Professor Brown visited a number of large wood-using indus- tries in and about Cadillac, Michigan. Professor Brown is .securing data along the line of utilization of waste materials and visited plants at Cadillac for data to be used in a bulletin soon to be issued by the College. On February 7 a party of 30 S'eniors started for the Adirondacks with Professor Brown to spend about three weeks in studying logging operations and sawmills in and around the Tupper Lake section. This month of required field work on the part of the Seniors of the College completes a year of practical experience which is required of every student in the College of Forestry before graduation. Registration for the second semester of the College year has just closed at the New York State College of Forestry at Syra- cuse with 260 men and one woman registered as applicants for the degree of Bachelor of Science. No special students are accepted in the College at Syracuse. Already 22 men have signed up for the year's work in the State Ranger School at Wanakena which opens on the first Tuesday in March. Out of the 35 men who have been graduated from the State College of Forestry, 28 are in some phase of forestry work. It is not expected by the College that 80 per cent of its graduates will continue in forestry work and yet these 28 men have secured positions in forestry work during a time when it was pretty commonly stated that there were no openings. The College of Forestry at Syracuse offers a correspondence course in Lumber and Its Uses to any person in the State of New York. This phase of its general educational work has been developed as a result of an increasing number of inquiries from every section of New York regarding the technical quali- ties of various American woods. The University of Minnesota makes announcement of a cor- respondence course in Lumber and Its Uses, beginning in the first semester of 1916. This course is to teach technical data relative 174 Forestry Quarterly to structure and of wood as a construction material. It is given primarily for the lumber dealer, wood worker and wood user, since it is considered now that substitutes are competing with wood that more should be generally known of the particular qualities of woods which render them suitable for special purposes. Senator Walsh of Montana has introduced a bill which has been referred to the Committee on Public Lands, providing for a grant of 100,000 acres of the public lands in Montana for the support of a school of forestry at the State University. The bill provides that the lands are to be selected by the State author- ities from the surveyed, unappropriated and otherwise unre- served lands, not mineral, belonging to the United States within the National Forests of the State. In Munich for the summer semester, 1915, there were regis- tered 5748 students, 163 being foreigners. Out of the natives, 7^ per cent, to be sure, were enlisted, leaving still about 1600 in attendance. There were inscribed 156 forestry students, 6 being foreigners, 4 from Greece, 1 Hungarian, 1 from British India; but few of the forestry students are present. Ever since the formation in 1900 of the first Foresters' Club at the then New York State College of Forestry in Cornell University, it has become customary to establish such clubs at the educational institutions with more or less elaborate pro- grams of lectures and entertainments. Of late, the more ambi- tious of these student clubs are not satisfied with the ephemeral character of club meetings, but have entered upon the publishing field. As a matter of fact, the Forestry Quarterly really started in this way as a student publication in 1902, but in the very next year, due to the collapse of the College, became a private undertaking. Perhaps one of the first Clubs to publish a technical Annual was the Nebraska Foresters' Club, and a good one, too, begun in 1909, containing technical papers delivered before the Club. The latest two such publications come from the Syracuse and Georgia schools. The New York State College of Forestry at News and Notes 175 Syracuse starts what appears at first sight as intended for a periodical under the title "Empire Forester" (the frequency of appearance is somewhat enigmatic, for it starts with "Volume I, Number 1," but is to be "published annually"!), the material consisting of actual experiences which the contributing students obtained in the field. The "Georgia State Forest School Forest Club Annual," in its first volume confines itself almost entirely to extracts from speeches or from other sources elaborating the arguments for conservation of ; resources in general and of forests in particular. This compilation is undoubtedly useful in furnishing technical foresters with the necessary material to help propaganda along. The two publications are made up in elegant style, showing that forestry students at least are thriving, but could be improved in literary direction. It is said the paper shirts made in Japan are now being served out to Russian soldiers for use in the cold and wet weather. A number of these paper shirts were used by the Russians last win- ter and they proved to be much warmer and cheaper than ordi- nary shirts. The paper is made from the bark of the paper mulberry tree. Shirts of this kind have been used by the Japanese army and people for many years, their only drawback being that they cannot be washed. The world's production of lead pencils probably amounts to nearly 2 million a year, half of which are made from American grown cedar. Owing to the growing scarcity of Red cedar and to the fact that many other trees now little used appear to be more or less valuable substitutes for that wood in pencil making, the Forest Service has carried out a series of tests which show that next to the two species heretofore used for the purpose the best trees are in order of merit. Rocky Mountain Red cedar, Redwood, Port Orford cedar, and Alligator juniper. According to newspaper reports an Austrian engineer in Vienna, named von Dunikowski, recently applied for a patent on a tire built of wood fiber and certain binders. It is said the 176 Forestry Quarterly specifications show the new tire follows in every detail the prin- ciple of the pneumatic tire, having an inner and an outer tube. The main material used is willow and birch fiber, but the nature of the binder has not been revealed. A motor car fitted with the new tires is said to have run 437 miles under adverse conditions showing no signs of undue wear. According to reports a large Vienna bank is financing the new enterprise. Mr. Abraham Knechtel, Forester to the Dominion Parks Branch, died at Ottawa on December 10, 1915, after a short illness, at the age of 56. He was a Canadian by birth, but be- came a superintendent of schools in Michigan, From this posi- tion he had the courage, when over 40 years of age and with a family, to take up the study of forestry at the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell University, and after graduation and a short employment by the U. S. Forest Service, became in 1902 one of the foresters of the New York State Forest Com- mission, with which he stayed until 1908, when he was called to the Dominion Forestry Branch as Inspector of Forest Reserves. In 1913, he transferred to the Dominion Parks Branch as For- ester, which position he held when he died. Both in his position with the New York Commission and the Dominion Branch he gave much time to propaganda of forestry ideas by lectures. The first large plantation undertaken by the State of New York in the Adirondacks was made under his direction. In the June number of The Indian Forester, 1915, is given an interesting critical review of H. H. Chapman's Forest Valuation. PERSONALITIES 1. Northeastern United States and Eastern Canada Dr. B. E. Fernow has again been honored with the presidency of the Society of American Foresters. Roy L. Marston and Miss Mary E. Emery, of Skowhegan, Me., were mar- ried on October 17, 1915. H. Warnick Robb, Biltmore, 1911, is professor of forestry at the Inde- pendent Agricultural School at Essex County, Mass., and, incidentally, organizer and manager of the American Timberland Association, a group of consulting foresters scattered throughout the country. Robb's address is 14 Hunt Street, Danvers, Mass. Mr. Albert Grigg, M. P. P., for Algoma, has been appointed Deputy Min- ister of Lands and Forests, for the Province of Ontario, succeeding the late Mr. Aubrey White. R. G. Lewis, F. B. Robertson and D. Brophy, of the Dominion Forestry Branch, Ottawa, have enlisted. Page S. Bimker, formerly of the Forest Service, is in charge of the municipal forest of Fitchburg, Mass. Mr. George Chahoon, Jr., a director of the Canadian Forestry Association and Associate member of the Canadian Society of Forest Engineers, has been elected president of the Laurentide Company, Limited. Abraham Knechtel, chief forester, Dominion Parks Branch of the Depart- ment of the Interior, died at Ottawa recently, being in his 56th year. Knech- tel held the degree of Forest Engineer from Cornell University. George H. Wirt has been appointed chief forest fire warden of Pennsylvania, The marriage of Bessie Idella, daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Herbert F. Drew, and Harrison V. Bailey took place in Brockton, Mass., on December 23. The continued serious illness of Eugene Bruce, which confines him closely to his home in Washington, D. C, will be learned with keen regret by his many friends. Messrs. B. Guerin, G. H. Boisvert, and E. Menard, graduates of the Laval Forestry School and now of the Quebec Forest Service, where each holds the rank of District Inspector, have been elected to Active membership in the Canadian Society of Forest Engineers. 2. Southern United States Sydney L. Moore is with the Sizer Lumber Company, but has changed his headquarters from Savannah to Jacksonville, Fla., address 43 Bay Street. Lincoln Crowell has been transferred from Neopit, Wis., to Cherokee, N. C, where he is in charge of a reconnaissance of the extensive timberland s of the Cherokee Indians. Mr. and Mrs. Bruce J. Downey took an extended trip through South America last summer. They are living at Nashville, N. C, where Downey is connected with the Fosburgh Lumber Company. Alfred Akerman is dean of the recently incorporated Georgia College of Forestry. The college is located in the woods, four and a half miles from 177 178 Forestry Quarterly Greenboro. It has camp grounds in the woods of North and South Georgia, and the students are exercised in working out actual problems. 3. Central United States E. A. Sterling is head of the Trade Extension Department of the National Lumber Manufacturers' Association, with headquarters at Chicago. G. Harris Collingwood, for some time a ranger on the Apache National Forest, has resigned from the Forest Service and has returned to his home in Lansing, Mich. Collingwood graduated in forestry at Michigan Agricultural College and later spent a year and a half studying forestry at the University of Munich. 4. Northern Rockies C. A. Lagerstrom, formerly with the C. A. Smith Timber Company at Marshfield, Ore., is conducting cruising and appraisal work for the Union Pacific Railroad at Evanston, Wyo. 5. Southwest, Including Mexico John D. Guthrie has been elected Vice-President of the Arizona Yale Alumni Association. J. D. Lamont, who graduated from Cornell as Master in Forestry in 1915, is in charge of a large timber sale to the New Mexico Lumber Company on the Jicarilla Apache Indian Reservation. His address is El Vado, New Mexico. 6. Pacific Coast, Including Western Canada Walter B. Hadley has been elected Secretary-Treasurer of the Southern California Arboricultural Association. Prof. Mason, of the University of California , plans an eastern trip for early February. He will visit the leading Eastern forest Schools. Thornton T. Mtmger will give this year's course in National Forest Admin- istration at the Yale Forest School. H. B. Murray has been appointed District Forester at Cranbrook, B. C. G. T. Robb, Acting District Inspector of Forest Reserves at Prince Albert, died recently during an operation for appendicitis. 7. Hawaii, the Philippines and the Orient W. F. Sherfesee, Director of the Philippine Forest Service, has recently been ofifered the position of Co- Director of the newly organized Bureau of Forestry of China. Pan Chen King, who received his Master's Degree in Forestry at Cornell in 1914, has been appointed forester for Anhui Province, China. His assistant in this work is D. Y. Lin, who graduated from Yale Forest School in 1914. Theodore C. Zschokke has left his post with the Southern Pacific Company at San Francisco and accepted an appointment with the Bureau of Forestry at Manila, P. I. Foreman T. McLean has accepted an appointment with the Philippine Bureau of Forestry, as has also Roscoe B. Weaver. Personalities 179 C. S. Judd, Superintendent of Forestry in the Territory of Hawaii, wa» appointed by Governor Pinkham, on January 6, as Chairman of the Conser- vation Commission of Hawaii. 8. Europe Dr. Schenck is occupying an administrative position in Brussels, Belgium, where his address is Rue de la Chancellerie, 19. Dr. Kern, who assisted Dr. Schenck in the conduct of the Biltmore School during 1911-1912, died on the battlefields of Galicia. COMMENT The comment in Forestry Quarterly, Number 4, of Volume XIII, on the action of the people of the State of New York in rejecting the proposed Constitution of 1915 is very interesting to a resident of the State and especially to one who followed more or less closely the development of the 1915 Constitution and its rejection by the people in November of last year. The comment by Dr. Fernow is upon the conservation phases of the 1915 Constitution only. Because this was made without develop- ing the background of the formation of the Constitution and the relation of the Conservation Articles to the Constitution as a whole it may be a bit misleading and especially to the readers of Forestry Quarterly in States outside of New York. There- fore, certain features of the 1915 Constitution are pointed out below with a hope that they may clear up any misunderstanding as to the part the disapproval of the Conservation Articles played in the rejection of the Constitution. At twenty-year intervals the State of New York may, and usually does, hold a Constitutional Convention. Mr. C. R. Pettis, Superintendent of State Forests of New York, discusses in the present issue very fully and clearly the action of the New York Constitutional Convention of 1893 and shows by discussion of the past land policies why the present Constitution has a clause forbidding the use of the Adirondacks and Catskills as the forester likes to see forest land used. Through the action of the Legislature and the people of the State a Constitutional Convention was called for 1915. The platform of both the older parties in the State favored such a Convention and came out clearly for the embodiment in a new Constitution of certain policies for the future development of the State. An unusually strong and representative body of men were elected to the Con- vention of 1915. Several of these had served in the Convention of 1893. The President of the 1915 Convention was Hon. Elihu Root. Anyone conversant with the New York of today must agree that it is seldom that a stronger and more representative body of men was brought together for action upon governmental policies. Throughout the summer of 1915 the Constitutional Conven- tion both through committees and in a body, went over all the 180 Comment 181 various phases of the present Constitution and finally evolved a Constitution which embodied, almost without exception, the re- quirements of the platforms of both the old parties and a Con- stitution which, according to former Senator Root, Hon. Henry L. Stimson, Hon. Louis Marshall and many other well known lawyers, was the strongest document ever produced by a State Constitutional Convention in this country. It would be impossi- ble to give in a few words the many conditions and incidents which brought about the rejection of the Constitution by the people of the State in the election of November, 1915. The form of the articles dealing with conservation had compara- tively little to do with the rejection of the Constitution. It was rather the result of cumulative antagonism aroused largely by misunderstandings. A bitter attack was made on the Conserva- tion Articles and a propaganda interestingly financed was car- ried on throughout the State against these Articles. However, this was but an incident and alone would not have defeated the Constitution. The comment by Dr. Fernow would seem to give the impression to the outsider that the form of the Conservation Articles was largely responsible for the failure of the Con- stitution. Foresters from the Conservation Commission, from the De- partment of Forestry in the State College of Agriculture at Ithaca and from the State College of Forestry at Syracuse ap- peared before the Conservation Committee of the Constitutional Convention repeatedly, and many others representing all inter- ested in forests and forestry in New York appeared before the Committee. While the report of the Committee was not all that foresters of the State would like to have had it, yet it seemed to some to be an advance over the present Conservation Article and it seemed wisdom to accept a half loaf which meant some progress rather than no loaf at all and remain under the unusual provisions incorporated in the present Constitution in 1893. However, the people of the State refused the Constitution, and all of us in the State who are interested are going ahead with an educational campaign with a hope that eventually the people will see the wisdom of using the forests and the forest lands of the State in the right way. Dr. Fernow comments adversely upon the provision in the 1915 Constitution that the Conservation Commission should be 182 Forestry Quarterly made up of nine members. Such a nine-head Commission which was one of the large reasons for opposition by certain organizations in the State to the Constitution, was thought by the Conservation Committee of the Convention to solve the problem of putting the forest work of the State out of politics. The State Board of Regents and the Board of Trustees of vari- ous State Educational Institutions were used as examples for the nine-headed Conservation Commission. It was felt that a Commission of public men interested in the forests of the State appointed or elected for a period of years would serve as a buffer between the technical forester selected by the Commission as Superintendent and wrong political control. It was not the idea of the Conservation Committee of the State Convention, as the writer understands, to expect the Commissioners to act as execu- tives in any way whatever, but they were to select a technical forester as a Superintendent as the Board of Regents of the State selects a State Commissioner of Education or as the Board of Trustees of the College of Agriculture selects a Dean. The chief executive, who would be the Superintendent or the For- ester, would then have a free hand in carrying out the forest work of the State backed by the united strength of the nine members of the Commission. The fact that there have been six changes in the head of the Conservation Commission of the State in the last five years would seem to indicate that something must be done to take the Conservation Commission and the forest interests of the State absolutely out of politics. The Conservation Articles of the 1915 Constitution made pro- vision for more extensive reforestation than can now be carried out by the State, and called for the classification of the forest lands of the State and the demarcation of boundaries. All these things are advances over what is allowed under the present Con- stitution and must eventually come about in the development of the Conservation policies of the State. It is possible to bring these about in the next five, ten or twenty years and it is believed that every forester in the State and every forester outside who is interested in forest policies in the country will hope that some of these advances may come in five or ten years, which is entirely possible, rather than to let the present policy toward our forests of "hands off" continue until the next Constitutional Convention which may be held in 1915. Hugh P. Baker. APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP Date. THE AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION 1410 H Street, N.W., Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: I hereby signify my desire to become a Subscribing Member of the AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION, and enclose $3.00 for dues. Very truly yours. Name. P. O. Address. Forestry Reports For Sale Owing to the large demand for reports of the Forestry Com- mittees at the National Conservation Congress, the Forestry Committee has decided to place these reports on sale. Full Set (12 reports, strongly bound), $1.00 The Most Valuable Addition to Any Library on Forestry and Lumbering in Many Years The Reports are: Forestry Committee Organization Limibering Forest Publicity Forest Planting Federal Forest Policy Forest Utilization state Forest Policy Forest School Education Forest Taxation Forest Investigations Forest Fires State Forest Organization Order from AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION WASHINGTON, D. C. Yale University Forest School NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT A two-year course is offered, leading to the degree of Master of Forestry. Graduates of collegiate institutions of high standing are ad- mitted upon presentation of their college diploma, provided they have taken certain pre- scribed undergraduate courses. For further information, address JAMES W. TOUMEY, Director, New Haven, Conn. The University of Toronto and University College With Which Are Federated ST. MICHAEL'S, TRINITY AND VICTORIA COLLEGES Faculties of Art, Medicine, Applied Science, House- hold Science, Education, Forestry The Faculty of Forestry offers a four-year course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Forestry For information, apply to the REGISTRAR OF THE UNIVERSITY, or to the Secretaries of the respective Faculties. THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY Syracuse, New York Undergraduate course leading to degree of Bachelor of Science; Postgradu- ate course to Master of Forestry, and one- and two-year Ranger courses. Sophomore Summer Camp of eight weeks and Ranger School held on the College Forest of 1,800 acres at Wanakena in the Adirondacks. Summer Forest Camp in August on Upper Saranac Lake. Forest Experiment Station of 90 acres and excellent Library offer unusual opportunities for research work. For particulars address: HUGH P. BAKER, D. Oec, Dean HARVARD UNIVERSITY Department of Forestry Bussey Institution Offers specialized graduate training leading to the degree of Master of Forestry in the following fields: — Silviculture and Management, Wood Technology, Forest Entomology, Dendrology, and (in cooperation with the Graduate School of Business Adminis- tration) the Lumber Business. For further particulars address RICHARD T. FISHER, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts D. E. LAUDERBURN Forest Engineer Timber estimates, forest surveys and maps, inspection of logging operations, management of private holdings, fire prevention, appraisal of damage by fire, gases or trespass, tree planting Metropolitan Life Building New York, N. Y. WOULD YOU LIKE to receive regularly the Biilletins and Circulars pertaining to the actual practice of preventing the decay of wood? While these frankly advocate the use of Avenarius Carbolineum for the brush or open tank treatment of timber they are none the less interesting on that account but rather MORE so, for Avenarius Carbolineum is, without doubt, the one preservative that has demonstrated its decay-preventing qualities during thirty-five years. The Bulletins and Circulars are sent free. Circ. 56 contains a Bibliography of Technical References. Circ. 58 covers Treating Tanks for Fence Posts, Shingles, etc. Address CARBOLINEUM WOOD PRESERVING COMPANY 185 Franklin St., New York, N. Y. The Care of Trees in Lawn, Street and Park By B. E. Fernow American Nature Series Working with Nature Published by Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1910 392 pp. 8° Illustrated Price, $2.00 Net For Sale by Henry Holt & Co., New York Economics of Forestry A Reference Book for Students of Political Economy and Professional and Lay Students By B. E. FERNOW 12mo, $1.50 net. By mail, $1.65 "It is by far the best and most important work on forestry which deals with American conditions." EDWARD M. SHEPARD, New York. "I find it as I expected meaty and complete. It fills the place it is written for." PROF. F. ROTH, University of Michigan. "I have read few books on forestry with as much enjoyment." PROF. DR. SCHWAPPACH, Eberswalde, Germany. A NEW MUCH REVISED EDITION NOW IN PRESS For Sale by T. Y. CROWELL & CO., New York Nursery Stock for Forest Planting Seedlings TRKK SKKDS Transplants $2.25 per 1000 Write for prices on large quantities 56.00 per 1000 THE NORTH-EASTERN FORESTRY CO., Cheshire, Conn. REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION History of Forestry ■IN Germany and Other Countries By B. E. FERNOW 506 Pages, 8° Price, $2.50 Postpaid Dr. Schwappach says: "The study of these conditions under the guidance of the interesting expositions of Femow is very instructive." Prof. Fisher of Oxford says: "Dr. Femow's History of Forestry is a welcome and important addition to our literature * * * Femow writes admirably about German forestry, with which he is thoroughly acquainted." Dr. Fankhauser of Switzerland says: "With great skill has the author brought the voltiminous material into a relatively small volume and yet has everywhere brought out the essentials in clear and easily intelligible exposition. The chapter devoted to Switzerland shows us clearly how exhaustively the author has utilized the most important literature and how excellently he has imderstood how to orient himself in complicated condi- tions." A new and revised edition of this work has just come from the press. Orders may be placed with FORESTRY QUARTERLY 1410 H Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. *'We Raise Our Oivn Trees*' EVERGREENS Seedlings — Transplants From our specialized collection of young conifers you will find what you want for every place and purpose. Our stock is hardy and field grown and admirably adapted for forest planting and lining out. Your order will have personal attention and the price will be right. Send for catalog and save money The North-Eastern Forestry Company Tree Seeds and Nursery Stock Box B Cheshire, Conn. JAMES W. SEWALL TIMBER ESTIMATES TOPOGRAPHIC AND BOUNDARY SURVEYS PLANTING LOGGING MAPS PORTABLE MILL OPERATIONS Technical Training Thoroughness Experience CENTRE STREET. OLD TOWN, ME. BACK NUMBERS of FORESTRY QUARTERLY Each Volume Complete Write for Prices Address FORESTRY QUARTERLY 1410 H STREET. N. W. WASHINGTON. D. C. LIDGERWOOD SKIDDERS CONTENTS An Efficient System for Computing Timber Estimates ] By C. E. Dunston and C. R. Garvey. Concerning Site ------ 3 By Filibert Roth. Addenda ------- 12 ■ By H. A. Parker. Silvicultural Problems of Canadian Forest Reserves 14 By B. E. Fernow. The Costs and \'alues of Forest lYotection - - 24 By P. S. Lovejoy. Making Box Boards from Sawmill Waste - - 39 By P. L. Buttrick. Teaching Dendrology in the Hawaiian Islands - 46 By Vaughan MacCaughey. Forest Provisions of New York State Constitution 50 By C. R. Pettis. The Professional and Economic Situation of the Technical Forester as Seen by the Forester in Switzerland - - - _ 61 By R. H. Campbell. The Algerian Forest Code - - - - 6G By T. S. Woolsey. Jr. Current Literature ----- 81 Other Current Literature _ _ _ _ 96 Periodical Literature _ _ _ _ _ 104 News and Notes ------ 157 Personalities - - - - - - 177 Comment ---__-_ 18O VOLUME XIV NUMBER 2 FORESTRY QUARTERLY A PROFESSIONAL JOURNAL JUNE, 1916 Subscription Two Dollars Per Annum 1410 H STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C. Entered as second class mail matter February 1, 1915, at the post office at Washington. D. C. under the Act ol March 3, 1879 FORESTRY QUARTERLY BOARD OF EDITORS B. E. Fernow, LL. D., Editor-in-Chief Henry S Graves. M.A., Forester, U. S. Forest Service Raphael Zon, F. E., U. S. Forest Service Frederick Dunlap, F.E., University of Missouri T. S. WooLSEY, Jr., M.F., Consulting Forest Engineer Albuquerque, N. M. Ernest A. Sterling, F. E., Consulting Forest Engineer, Chicago, III. Clyde Leavitt, M. S. P., Commission of Conservation, Ottawa, Canada Filibert Roth, B.S., University of Michigan Hugh P. Baker, D.Oec, Syracuse University R. C. Bryant, F.E., Yale University Samuel J. Record, M.F., Yale University Richard T. Fisher, A. B., Harvard University Walter Mulford, F. E., University of California A. B. Recknagel, M.F., Cornell University C. D. Howe, Ph. D., University of Toronto J. H.White, M.A., B.Sc.F., University of Toronto Asa S. Williams, F. E. P. S. Ridsdale, Business Manager Washington, D. C. the objects for which this journal is published are: To aid in.the establishment of rational forest management. To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of interest to professional foresters of America. To keep the profession in touch with the current technical literature, and with the forestry movement in the United States and Canada. Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at the Uni- versity of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of editors Subscriptions and other business matters may be addressed to Forestry Quarterly, 1410 H Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS. INC. WASHINGTON, D C ^ f-Z. _^ "t^ ^ ia-0 -TL. "°v TOP VIEW OF FRAME m ■:-S.vM\w':-:Trvr * "4- J II "v-^'--- ■•■'••- SIDE VIEW .^^.Um^K ^V's --i-.'.->=-l i ,:^ o ■ N Wire '^ W.re Screen SIDE END DETAILS OF TAKE-DOWN CORNER TOP ;^-T \/Z INCH MtSH HARDWARE CLOTH IZ'-O TOP AND SIDE VIEWS OF SCREEN COVER TT SMOOTHING BOARD Nursery Seed Bed Frame Vr kj T Hi! FORESTRY QUARTERLY Vol. XIV June, 1916 No. 2 csi AN IMPROVED FORM OF NURSERY SEED BED FRAME By D. R. Brewster^ Some form of protection from mice, other rodents, and birds is necessary at most forest nurseries in order to protect the newly sown seed in the seed beds. Light frames covered with wire netting are commonly used. They vary in width from 4 to 6 feet and the length runs from 12 feet, for the portable type, to an indefinite length for the stationary form. The height varies from 6 to 24 inches and the tops are covered with removable screen covers, made in one or more sections according to the length of the bed. In the case of species which need shading, the frame also serves to support the lath shades. At some nurseries, where burrowing animals are a serious pest, the wire on the sides is made to extend from 3 to 12 inches below the surface, entirely around the bed, and a portion of the lower edge, from 1 to 3 inches in width, is sometimes turned outward at right angles to the side of the frame to prevent the animals from going under the wire. In such cases the frames are usually set permanently in place, and the work of spading and preparing the bed is done by hand. However, it is considered more practicable at most large nurseries to use some form of portable frame which can be removed at the end of the first year, after danger to the seed is past, and used elsewhere. This permits of using horses in pre- paring the ground for sowing and allows more constant utilization of the frames, thus reducing the cost of protection. These portable frames are usually 4 feet wide and 12 feet long and from 8 to 24 inches high. A frame of this type which is in common use is described by C. R. Pettis in Forest Service Bulle- tin No. 76, "How to Grow and Plant Conifers in the North- eastern States," page 16. 'Forest Examiner in charge of Priest River Experiment Station, U. S. Forest Service, Idaho. 183 184 Forestry Quarterly In several of the western nurseries, various adaptations and changes in the "Pettis" frame have been made in recent years to meet the requirements of local conditions and secure greater efficiency and economy in nursery practice. Principal among these changes has been the introduction of a "take-down" con- struction by the Wind River Nursery, in Washington, designed by A. R. Wilcox in November, 1912. This "take-down" feature allows of taking the frames apart and storing them in compact form in sheds in the winter, thus reducing deterioration. It also makes the frames less bulky and clumsy to move, and makes it possible for one man to do all the work of setting up and taking down alone, which means an economy of labor at small nurseries. It has also been found desirable at many places where mice are difficult to control, and particularly at Forest Experiment Sta- tions, where the rodent factor must be absolutely eliminated from experimental beds, to use y^- or ^-inch mesh galvanized hard- ware cloth in place of the ^-inch mesh poultry netting specified by Pettis, since the latter will riot exclude mice but only protects against birds and large rodents. An improved type of frame which includes some original fea- tures and which has proved itself particularly well adapted for use at Forest Experiment Stations has been developed at the Priest River Experiment Station in northern Idaho. As shown in the accompanying diagram (frontispiece), the outside length is the standard 12 feet, for economy in the use of lumber, since a 16- foot stick will just make one side and one end piece. The width, however, is 4 feet, 2 inches on the outside, or exactly 4 feet inside. The lumber permits this width and by its use it is possible to use 48 square feet as the practically correct growing space in the bed, in calculating density and yield of seedlings. If the inside width were reduced to 3 feet, 10 inches by making the outside measurement an even 4 feet, there would be a net loss of 2 square feet from the area of the bed and the common practice of figuring the area of a 4 x 12 bed at 48 square feet would introduce a 4 per cent error. , The frame is made low, 5 inches being allowed between the top and the bottom side pieces, as shown in the diagram, being sim- ilar in this respect to the "Pettis" plan. This low side is particu- larly desirable in experimental beds, since it permits of reaching all parts of the bed easily and quickly in making germination and New Seed Bed Frame 185 survival counts of seedlings. It is also of value, where beds are shaded, in bringing the shade close to the seedlings and reducing the direct light which comes in at the ends and sides. At Priest River, burrowing rodents can be controlled by plac- ing the wire a comparatively short distance below the surface on the sides and ends. The 13^-inch extension shown in the diagram is therefore sufficient and provides this underground protective feature without making it necesssary to leave the beds permanently in place as when the wire is placed to a greater depth. By extend- ing the upright portions of the frame on the sides and ends 3j4 inches below the lower side piece and sharpening them to a wedge-shaped point, it is possible to tack this l^^-inch extension to the uprights, thus preventing it from bending and catching in handling and making it possible to bury or lift this underground portion of the screen with practically no more time or trouble than is required in handling, if the frame is placed entirely on the surface. The arrangement for fastening the corners together, as shown in the detail drawing, is very simple, and the fact that setting up or taking down can be done by merely pushing in or pulling out three, loose, 30-penny spikes at each corner makes it possible to do the work very easily and quickly. The use of bolts or screws, which would require considerably more time, is thus avoided. At the same time this arrangement furnishes a solid, tight, square corner as good in every way as a nailed or bolted corner. In constructing these knock-down frames it is desirable to use a templet or guide board for boring the holes for the spikes, in order that all holes will be made at the same point and all end and side sections will be interchangeable. The dove-tailed con- struction of the corners of the top screens, as shown in the diagram, is for the purpose of utilizing the lumber to the fullest extent and making a solid square corner. The life of frames can be materially increased by treatment with a creosote preservative. Experiments carried on by the Wind River Experiment Station indicate that if carefully applied long enough in advance of use, so that all creosote is completely ab- sorbed by the wood and dry, no injury to the young seedlings should result. In these experiments, both creosote and carbo- lineum were applied with a brush in from one to three coats. Penetration and drying were aided by having the wood warm 186 Forestry Quarterly before treatment and by stacking the treated frames in a warm room with blocks between to allow good circulation. Carbo- lineum, being more volatile, dried somewhat more rapidly than the creosote. The amount and kind of material used for each frame and the approximate cost at Priest River are given below : Lumber Feet B. M. Cost Frame 4 pieces 1 x 2—16 feet 10>^ 1 piece 2 X 2— 10 feet 3>i Screen Cover 2 pieces 2 x 2—16 feet 10^ 1 piece 1 X 2 — 8 feet \yi Lath Cover 2 pieces 2 x 2—16 feet 10>^ 37' at $20 $0.74 1 bunch lath . 05 M at $2.50 . 13 Hardware 1/2 pound 8 penny barbed box nails at 6 c 03 ^/j pound 30 penny common nails at 4c 02 Vs pound 3 penny common nails at 5c 01 2 dozen 2-inch No. 8 wood screws at 5c 10 1 pound galvanized poultry netting staples 10 75 square feet 2 mesh, 18 gauge, galvanized hardware cloth at 23^ c. . 1. 87 Total cost of material per frame $3. 00 Approximate cost of labor per frame 1. 00 Total cost per completed frame $4. 00 A good grade of common pine lumber should be used in the frames, and if appearance is no object it should be left rough for greater strength and durability. It has been the common practice at Priest River to use finished lumber so as to present a somewhat neater appearance and take paint better. The frames have been painted white with an inexpensive cold water paint bought in the form of a powder. In the list of hardware, box nails are specified to prevent split- ting which is apt to occur if large common nails are used. The wood screws are used at each corner of the screen cover and lath cover frames, running from the ends of the side pieces into the end pieces, and help to preserve the rigidity of the frames during the frequent lifting on and taking off incident when counts are being made in experimental work. The hardware cloth is figured on the basis of using 92^/2 linear feet of roll 4 feet wide for five beds. After cutting off 5 pieces 13 feet long for the covers, the remaining 32^ feet is split longitudinally into five equal strips 9.6 inches wide, which are then cut into two New Seed Bed Frame 187 parts 12 feet long and two parts 4^ feet long, the extra ^ foot being used for the lap at the corners. If this lap shows a tendency to come open at the corners it can be stapled to the ends of the 1x2 side pieces. The frame is so constructed as to permit of exactly regulating the depth of cover by the use of a smoothing board, shown in the diagram. Recent experiments at the Savenac Nursery have shown conclusively that it is important to regulate this depth of covering to within ]/% of an inch in order to get the greatest and most rapid germination. The 2x2 uprights on the sides of the frame are placed on the outside so that the board can slide on the lower horizontal side pieces from one end of the bed to the other. It is notched at either end where it rests on the side pieces and can be made to cover the seed to any depth by making the difference between the notches on one edge and the notches on the other edge equal the desired depth. The edge with the deeper notch is used for smoothing the surface of the bed preparatory to sow- ing and the edge with the shallower notch is drawn across the bed to smooth and equalize the covering material. A "crown" of ^ inch is given to each edge, thus leaving the bed higher in the center than at the sides to provide for surface drainage. This board has been found very satisfactory for regulating the depth of covering seed, particularly in experimental beds. FOREST SERVICE REVENUE AND ORGANIZATION By T. S. WooLSEY, Jr/ The conclusions reached in this article do not agree in all respects with my conclusions in "Managing a National Forest from the Business Standpoint," (Proc. Soc. Am. For., Vol. Ill, p. 41) written in January, 1908; but it must be realized that the conditions are vastly different. In those days, the problem of publicity and of getting men to fill execu- tive positions was foremost. As in Europe, American foresters will some day come to small one-man units when intensive business justifies such expenditures. Names of Forest Service officials whom I have quoted have been omitted so as to make the article as impersonal as possible. — The author. Introduction The success of any business depends chiefly on its abihty to pay a satisfactory return on the capital invested. A purely commer- cial undertaking may be faultlessly organized as regards adminis- trative methods, but, if the organization absorbs all the gross revenue after the preparatory and constructive period, then inves- tors are indignant and demand a different form of management. While it is true that the Forest Service is a vast business engaged in renting and selling natural resources, it is self-evident that it is much more. It should provide a recreation ground for millions of people ; it should play an important part in American national life. The conservation of forest resources, whether it pays in money returns or not, is, thanks to a few public-spirited men, permanently welded to American internal policy. Every- one realizes that no great power can afford to sacrifice its forest wealth for present speculation. In the case of some forests, it is highly improbable that they can ever become self-supporting. But who would ask that such a playground and watershed as encircles Los Angeles be abandoned simply because it does not pay in dollars and cents? The indirect value to a community is too great. Nor can "commercial timber" forests yield a net reve- nue until these resources can be conservatively sold. This devel- opment and sale takes time and intelligent preparation. In the meantime, this timber wealth must be protected from fire, insects- and disease. 'Consulting Forest Engineer, Albuquerque, N. M. 188 Forest Service Revenue and Organization 189 Forest Service Deficit Under present conditions, the Forest Service costs about twice what it earns. This condition exists after eleven years of adminis- tration. The deficit is not quite so serious as might at first glance appear because part of the appropriation is spent on permanent improvements ($400,000 last year) and on investigative work of great value to the country; this scientific work benefits the Na- tional Forests as well as private companies and individuals. This constructive research is like that of the Bureau of Plant Industry, which should never be expected to return a direct revenue. Nat- urally, it is vital that public service should not be discarded because of a mere failure to pay expenses. Protection of valuable timber is an economy rather than an extravagance. There can be no skimping in fire protection. In the general administration of the National Forests there could be a substantial saving, but not enough to change the balance sheet ; such a saving could only be effected by a careful study of administrative and executive con- ditions. This phase will be discussed later in this article. When it comes to increasing the revenue, it is here that the Forest Service (or perhaps Congress) may be justly criticised. The National Forests can be and should be self-supporting, be- ginning with the next fiscal year. American forests are unique, of all national forests, in their deficit. Even in British India there is a handsome net revenue. It may Ibe that the changes suggested must wait a few years before attainment, but with such a cataclysm as is now going on in Europe, economy in the United States Government is desirable. Special taxes are being levied ; there is even talk of increasing the income tax and of having an increased tariff. The present administration is faced with a large deficit. Is it not logical, therefore, to have the Forest Service take the lead (rather than lag behind) in an economical policy indicated by administrative and national needs? To wipe out the present deficit in Forest Service administration is not so difficult as might be imagined by an outsider. Politics alone stand in the way. It is well known that the prices of current timber sales are based upon careful appraisals and that the aim is to secure the full commercial value of the product. Curiously enough, this policy does not hold true for grazing or for special 190 Forestry Quarterly uses. There is some justification, to be sure, for special rates in the fees of some special uses, but the writer has consistently favored higher rental rates for stores, pastures, roadhouses, re- sorts, as well as for all other purely commercial rentals. Today, rental prices are from 1/2 to 1/10 below the market value. The sole justification seems to be the desire of the Forest Service to curry favor with the small man. This certainly is not necessary in carrying out such a policy as regards grazing. Is not the large man favored also? Is this fair, considering the timber-sale policy of appraising at the full market value? The present grazing fees are the strongest illus- tration of the variance of the commercial policy of the Forest Service. Another reason for the deficit is the amount of free use. There is said to be some danger of creating permanent rights and servitudes such as arose in the Middle Ages in Europe from the free use of wood for fuel. There the conditions were different. There was a peasant and servitor class, dependent upon the feudal lords for gratuities. The hardy western settler can hardly be thus classed. He is independent and resourceful. So, per- haps, the best solution is to abolish free grazing and free timber, although the real danger of servitude may be largely theoretical. Congress has already provided for the sale of timber at cost to agriculturists. Grazing fees are already low, and even if in- creased (as they should be) it is believed the settler can afford to pay them. If, however, it is desired to assist the small grazer, why not give the large man the same privilege? Still another alternative (if free use is abolished) might be to base the grazing fees for the small local resident (say up to 50 head of cattle or its equivalent) on the cost of grazing administration (as is granted the wood-user for timber at cost by congressional law). At all events, the policy ought to be made uniform for the disposal of all resources. The small man, at present, is favored by Regulation G-5, which reads, in part : "Milch or work animals not exceeding a total of ten head, owned and in use by bona fide settlers residing in or near a National Forest, require no permit . . ." Forest Service Revenue and Organization 191 This is obviously contrary to the policy underlying the federal income tax, and does not treat all citizens of the Republic equally. It favors the small man. This is, in theory, beneficial to the Forest Service, since it makes friends for the administration among the small settlers throughout the West. If such a regula- tion followed the policy incorporated in the federal income tax, this ten head would he exempt for all owners, rich and poor alike. This, to my mind, would be preferable. The grazing administra- tive regulations and instructions are admirable. They excel, in the detail of range regulation, anything that has been put in force by any power in the world. Yet, in the h\g factor of grazing fees, the grazing administration is lamentably weak. The grazing business of the West, notwithstanding figures published by the Forest Service, is mainly in the hands (judged on the basis of number of stock grazed) of the big men. In Arizona, on the Coconino Forest, probably 65 to 75 per cent of the grazing business is directly or indirectly in the hands of three families. Those who know the West, know that this statement is prac- tically true for most of the big grazing centers. Since the "htg business" controls the grazing of the West, why should not com- mercial rates he charged? Private owners charge much higher rates than the Forest Service, and even the Indian Service charges about five times as much as on the National Forests. For exam- ple, on the Apache Indian Reservation, the 1916 year-long rates for cattle were $3.50 and 50 cents for sheep. These rates were the result of competitive bid. Forest Service timber sale rates are in theory at least also fixed by competitive bid. On the Sitgreaves National Forest, which joins the Apache Indian Reser- vation, the year-long rate for cattle is 48 cents, and for sheep 12 cents. The main business difference is that, on the Indian land the range may be fenced. Is there any reason why the Forest Service should forfeit two or three million dollars a year simply to prevent regulated fencing? The main reason for not allowing fencing on the National Forests is the desire to keep grazing for the small man. The Forester wishes to prevent the big man from outbidding the small man and putting him out of business, so does not use a complete system of bids in fixing grazing fees. These arguments, to my mind, are not sound. They are political catch-words; politics, and politics alone, prevent the Forest Ser- 192 Forestry Quarterly vice from charging fair rates. The writer believes unreservedly in the policy of an immediate and considerable increase in the fees. The cattle, horse, sheep, and goat business has never been more prosperous. Now is the time for an increase. A considera- ble increase, at once, to my mind, is preferable to a large number of small increases. Anyone familiar with the stock business knows that owners could well afford higher rates. To argue otherwise is merely playing politics. Does the Forest Service have to submit to political domination? It is believed that to allow fencing would be popular with the permittees and regula- tions could be drafted to prevent unfair monopoly. Community fences, making suitable provision for water, would take care of the settler. With fencing, the number of cattle upon which fees are paid would be increased. The writer does not venture to quote the exact rates which should be charged, but, generally speaking, about double to four times the present rates would be fairer than those now in force. At the same time it would, to my mind, be preferable to change the last paragraph in Regulation G-5, to correspond with the exemption clause of the federal income tax: "All permittees may graze, free of charge, not exceeding a total of 10 head of cattle (or their equivalent) upon National Forests. This stock can, hoivever, only he admitted after permit has been issued/' This would be treating all owners alike, whether millionaires or poor homesteaders, and would be more democratic than the pres- ent unequal class exemption. The Forest Service has made a name by its administrative efficiency. How can it afford to permit such a glaring error in its grazing administration to go unnoticed? To base the decision as to partial grazing fees purely on politics and on the question whether the Wilson administration can afford to make political enemies of the stock men of the West is a poor sort of argument. The stock men know the truth of the state- ment that the grazing fees are not in accordance with commercial usage. They would, undoubtedly, bring tremendous pressure to bear against an increase, but, deep down in their hearts, they would recognize the fairness of the measure and respect the Forest Service all the more. With desirable fencing priznlegcs, they might even prefer the higher rates. They realize the inherent Forest Service Revenue and Organization 193 justice of giving the preference range right to the small local resi- dent. They must realize that even if the rates were largely increased the small owner would still be able to make an equita- ble return on his investment ; the smaller the outfit, the larger the proportion of his stock would be grazed free (if Regulation G-5 were modified). Under the modified G-5 regulation pro- posed, a man running 30 head of stock would pay on 2/3 ; the man running 1,000 head would pay on 99/100. Its fairness is obvious. As already explained, there are the alternatives of abolishing all free grazing, or, if preferred, the small settler could be allowed a few head of stock at rates based on the cost of administration. The point argued by the writer is that the present system exemplified by Regulation G-5 is unsatisfactory. How far would increases in special use and grazing fees go toward making the National Forests self-supporting? According to the Forester's Report for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1915 : "Approximately $5,281,000 was expended for the protection, utilization, and improvement of the National Forests, including all overhead administrative costs." The cash receipts were $3,481,469.35— a deficit of $3,799,530.65. The special use returns were $176,000, and for grazing $1,130,000. By doubling the special use fees $176,000 would be saved and by tripling the grazing $3,260,000 — enough to wipe out the deficit when coupled with administrative economy, and when it is realized that last year the expenses were "beyond the normal" because of an extraordinarily severe fire season, and that $400,000 was spent on improvements. Even if the grazing fees were merely doubled it is likely that, with a 'better demand for timber, coupled with the abolishment of all free use of timber and grazing, the deficit would be wiped out by 1918. Some saving could be made admini- stratively by perfecting the present organization. An analysis of this phase of the problem is of such interest professionally that it will be discussed in some detail under the following heads : Forest Reserves under the Land Office ; Forest Service In- spection Districts ; Western Administrative Districts ; Centralized Supervisor Organization ; Arguments Favoring Consolidations ; Organization Development ; Possible Organization Reform ; Con- clusions. 194 Forestry Quarterly Forest Reserves under the Land Office When Professor Fernow left the employment of the Depart- ment of Agriculture in 1898, there was no administrative organi- zation for the existing reservations. In his own words : "There was no organization at all, but the forest reservations were under the General Land Office like all other public timber lands. In 1898, legislation was passed handing over the survey of forest reservations to the Geological Survey and a rider was hung onto the bill to charge the General Land Office with the administration of these forest reservations . . . Later . . . Professor Roth was called into the General Land Office to or- ganize this service." The writer secured from Professor Roth a great deal of data in connection with the early Land Office administration, both historically and professionally of wide interest. Professor Roth took charge of Division R in the General Land Office in 1901. When he took charge, the Secretary of the Interior approved grazing permits and all sales of timber, no matter how small, and made all appointments. The Commissioner of the General Land Office signed every letter, and other correspondence was for- bidden. The Chief of Division R merely initialed all letters and directed the office and field force from Washington. The field work was in charge of a general inspector who was supposed to be the eye of the Commissioner of the General Land Office. The General Inspector at that time was closely allied to Dinger Hermann (then Commissioner of the General Land Office) and kept him informed politically, but did not engage in professional forestry. There were in addition, superintendents of forest re- serves. Originally, it was intended to have one for each state, but, of course, the number of forest reserves organized at that time, did not justify this number: California had two, Oregon, Wash- ington, Idaho, and Montana, one each. There was but one super- intendent for Wyoming and South Dakota, for Colorado and Utah, and for New Mexico and Arizona. These superintendents acted as inspectors, and since they had no real administrative powers, papers had to be forwarded to Washington, thus causing much delay. When Professor Roth took charge, he curtailed the powers of inspectors to that of mere inspection. These inspectors were originally political appointees, had little or no power for Forest Service Revenue and Organization 195 good, and while they had an office they were not supplied with clerical help. The supervisors, who often had charge of more than one "reserve," had no real power for good, but were almost all political appointees, often incompetent. Unfortunately, they had a great deal of power for evil, since they could hinder, prevent and neglect everything that they wanted to. They were usually appointed by local Congressmen and were considered his men. Naturally they hired as rangers men the Congressman recom- mended. Nominally, they did practically everything that rangers do now, but they had uniform pay with no office worth the term, and no clerical help. The ranger was ordinarily a temporary man, employed for a few months, recommended by the super- visor and appointed by the Secretary. According to Professor Roth, their pay at that time was actually but $60 per month flat, and even continued bad weather might lead to their removal from the rolls; on paper the pay was $60, $75 and $90! Of course, there were some good men, as well as very bad ones, but few were really competent. Professor Roth feels that: "With competent men this outfit could have done good work and kept a small organization largely for field use. As it was, the whole affair was no good. We got things changed some, but the right opinion and point of view was lacking from top to bottom. One strong point in favor of the old regime was the fact that it had the politicians with it." A forest official (whose name I do not care to give) wrote in regard to Division R : "Any organization which tended to close field supervision was theoretically good, especially in those days, but our experience was that the average Forest Superintendent was appointed for political reasons ; that there was no way by which they could be checked up and that as a class they were not worth their salt. . . . Professor Roth did his best to dispense with them . . ., but the Commissioner of the General Land Office — presumably for political reasons — did not follow out his wishes . . . The main trouble was the lack of field supervision, there being but two inspectors, and as I recall it, Binger Hermann was not very anxious to have them do much inspection work." Fred S. Breen, of Flagstaff, Arizona, who proved an efficient administrator (1905-1908) under the Forest Service regime, com- mented on the early organization in these words: 196 Forestry Quarterly "The Forest Superintendent at that time for this district was at Santa Fe and had Arizona and New Mexico under his juris- diction . "The system as run then was mighty cumbersome. A free use of timber permit or appHcation was made out by the Forest Supervisor, sent to the Superintendent, then to Commissioner G. L. O. and was finally approved by the Secretary of the Interior; no matter how small the amount. There were no blanks printed at that time for a supervisor and we made a weekly report on blanks used by the special agents of the Land Office. Rangers made the same weekly report. I started for Prescott, where I had been assigned a reserve of one township, but was met at Lamy Junction by the Superintendent, who advised me that the San Francisco Mountain Reserve had been created and that the people were holding mass meetings and condemning the whole business. And in good truth there was a hostile atmosphere when we arrived. Few men wanted the job as ranger (at $60 a month and keep his own horse) because of the feeling against the whole outfit, but I succeeded in getting five men, all I was allowed, to cover the 3 million-acre patch of trees. "From 1898 to the summer of 1905 there was a steady drought with high winds and you can imagine about how the fires whipped us to death. "I think the superintendent scheme was mainly a failure because he had no authority and I think they were afraid to turn any loose in Washington." The letter of instructions which Mr. Breen received on August 6, 1898, is interesting as showing what a supervisor was sup- posed to do. It is, therefore, quoted in full. Naturally it has some historic value, signed, as it was, by Binger Hermann : August 6, 1898. Mr. Fre;d S. Breen, Forest Supervisor, Manteno, Illinois. Sir: Having been appointed a Forest Supervisor, you are hereby placed under the supervision and direction of Forest Superin- tendent J. D. Benedict, located at Santa Fe, New Mexico, who will direct your work and through whom you will submit your reports to this office. You will, in turn, have under your imme- diate direction various Forest Rangers. You are assigned to duty in, and will have charge of the Prescott Forest Reserve, with headquarters at Prescott, Arizona. Report yourself by mail to Superintendent Benedict. Forest Service Revenue and Organization 197 You will carefully study the Circular of June 30, 1897, and amendments thereto, prescribing rules and regulations governing forest reserves, and become thoroughly familiar with the sub- ject, as it will be your principal duty to see to the enforcement of the regulations. Copies of said Circular will be sent you for distribution to persons desiring information on the subject. You will familiarize yourself with the conditions existing in the reserve under your charge for the purpose of preventing, as far as possible, forest fires and violations of the forest reserve regulations. It is of the first importance to protect the forest from fire, and, to this end, it is desired that you call the attention of those likely to start fires, such as campers, sheep-herders, hunters and prospectors, to the Act of February 24, 1897, ''to prevent forest fires on the public domain," set forth in the Circular of March 13, 1897 (compilation of Public Timber Laws, etc., page 144), and embodied in the forest reserve regulations. Copies of said Circular of March 13, 1897, will be sent you for distribution ; and a supply of the forest fire poster, printed on cloth, will be sent you for posting in conspicuous places in the Reserve. Should prompt action on your part be required at any time to extinguish or prevent the spread of a forest fire, and your force of rangers, is not available, or is inadequate, you are authorized, in such emergency, to employ assistance, under your personal supervision, to beat out the fire or get it under control. You must exercise great caution in employing such assistance, being care- ful in incurring expenses, which must be kept at the lowest pos- sible figure. Whenever practicable consult by mail or telegraph with the Superintendent before incurring such expenditure. All reliably obtained evidence against persons violating the provisions of the forest fire law, you will report to the proper United States Attorney, and render any assistance that may be necessary in the prosecution of the parties. Superintendent Benedict will give you additional instructions in regard to sheep-grazing, illegal appropriation of public lands, timber trespasses, the free use of timber, elimination of lands from reserves, and other kindred subjects in connection with forest reservations. You will establish correspondence at numerous points with persons residing in or near the Reserve under your care, who will keep you advised of forest fires and depredations on the same or public lands near by, in order that you may have prompt notice of such matters and that they may receive your immediate attention. You will make weekly reports to this office showing in detail, the daily services rendered by you, and a summary of the work done each week by Forest Rangers under your charge ; which re- ports you will forward through the Forest Superintendent in 198 Forestry Quarterly charge of your field of duty. You will also require the Forest Rangers in your charge to submit, through you, weekly reports to this office, showing in detail the daily service rendered by them,, which reports you will forward direct to this office. It is further desired that you will submit monthly reports to- this office, through said Superintendent, covering all matters of importance coming to your attention respecting forest reserva- tions; especially in regard to the matters of sheep-grazing and forest fires, being careful to make the several matters the subject of separate communications. In regard to fires you will state the dates and numbers of the same, the names and addresses of the parties responsible for their starting or spread, the origin thereof, the locality burned over, the probable area of same, in acres, the extent of the damage done (that is, whether under-growth only was burned, or there was partial or complete destruction of the standing timber), and an estimate of the value of the timber destroyed — stumpage and probable market values ; also state the efifect upon the forest cover and water supply; and all other information of value relating to the subject. It will also be well for you to report the names and addresses of campers and tourists and the degree of care exercised by them to prevent forest fires. You will direct the Forest Rangers under your charge to ob- serve closely the operation of the Forest Reserve regulations, and ask them to express their opinions respecting the same, and to make any suggestions in relation thereto that may seem to them to be of advantage in change or modification ; all of which you will submit with your monthly reports, with any comments or recommendations you may deem it advisable to make. In addition to submitting monthly reports, you vill keep this office currently advised of all action of importance, taken by you, forwarding your reports through said Superintendent. You will have under your direction a force of Forest Rangers to patrol the entire district in your charge, and you will assign to each a specified territory, which it will be his duty to patrol under your orders. Your district should be, as far as practicable, equally distributed among the force assigned to you. Each Ranger will be required to make his headquarters in the territory assigned him, at some elevated central point, to be selected by you, over- looking the surrounding country. The duties of these rangers are set forth in a circular addressed to them, copy of which is enclosed herewith ; and you will see to it that they carry out the instructions given therein. A supply of circulars, posters, stationery, etc., will be for- warded to you, from which it is desired that you will supply the rangers in your charge. Very respectfully, (Signed) Dinger Hermann, Commissioner. Forest Service Revenue and Organization 199 The Forest Reserve Manual, published in 1903 by the General Land Office, is of interest, and occasionally one sees expressions ,which have even been handed down and incorporated in the Forest Service Use Book and official instructions. For example (p. 29), "a fire which can not be controlled by twenty to forty men will run away from a hundred or even more men ..." This certainly sounds familiar. Another example of progressive work (on paper no doubt) was: "plans for the coming month. Brief statement as to what work will be carried on . . ," (p. 57). The official description in this Manual regarding the organiza- tion (p. 85 and following), showed that the inspector of Forest Reserves "is superior officer in the field"; that superinten- dents "act as local inspectors" and "he assists by suggestion and advice the central office, as well as the local officers, and consults with the supervisors and helps plan the work on the reserves." According to the Manual, the supervisors were men "well grounded and experienced in forest survey, timber estimating and timber business ..." The head rangers "will act as technical assistants to the forest supervisors . . . and will direct the marking, cutting , . , and will inspect cutting and attend to other Reserve work ; . . . ; they will act as superiors to the ordinary rangers . . . ." Nominally, the forest rangers were divided into three classes ; class one, $90 ; class two, $75 ; class three, $60. But all men connected with this organization had already learned that there was too much authority centralized in Washington. As already emphasized, the Secretary of the Interior went so far as to grant the right to repair local roads and trails. He granted permits for hotels, stores, etc. He granted grazing permits, but curiously enough, according to the Manual, no grazing permits were issued unless it could be shown that no damage would be done to the Reserve and the burden of proof was placed upon the permittee. According to the Manual (p. 9), "the grazing of sheep, goats and horses in herds is generally pro- hibited . . .," but "cattle are generally allowed to graze in all Reserves." How could such a mixture of rules, with the centralized power in Washington, hope to be popular in the West? It is true that a Grazing Association allotted the range, subject to the recommendation of the superior who transmitted the permits for issuance by the Secretary of the Interior; if there 200 Forestry Quarterly was no local association, then the application was made to the supervisor direct, who could also issue free use permits for wood up to twenty dollars in value. In the sale of timber, the preference was for local use and export could be denied. The timber was advertised, as is now the case, if the value was over $100. The duties of the general force were chiefly to protect the forests, to prevent fire and trespass, supervise special grazing improvements (if there were any) and other general administra- tive duties. Some detail has been given so as to leave a fairly exact idea of the conditions at that time. Forest Service Inspection Districts The "Forest Reserves" were placed under the Forest Service, February 1, 1905. Until the spring of 1907, this Land Office type of organization was nominally continued by the Forest Service with some changes; such as the addition of timber sale inspectors and the granting of additional authority to supervisors. In 1907, Chief Inspectors were appointed, but were superseded in 1908 by the forest administrative districts. The main reason why the inspection system of 1907-08 was not a success as a permanent organization was because supervisors had too little authority and were inexperienced. The top notch supervisor of today is better acquainted with policy and methods than the chief inspector of 1907. Another drawback was the necessity of chief inspectors taking up all reports with Washing- ton and the fact that the office was saddled with June 11^ field work which occupied at least half the time. But even today, the district forester must "recommend" rather than make important decisions. Then, too, the inspection form of organization was not thoroughly tried out. It was in operation scarcely a year. Who can say it would not have worked, if, after 'being given a thorough trial, it had been modified to meet Western require- ments ? Western Administrative Districts In 1908, six administrative districts were established at con- venient centers in the West, and, in 1913, a seventh district was added for the Appalachian areas, Arkansas, Florida, and Okla- homa. The establishment of this seventh district unquestionably ' Forest Homestead Act of June 11, 1906. Forest Service Revenue and Organization 201 indicates that the Forest Service beheves thoroughly in the dis- trict organization, since its headquarters are in Washington, in the same building occupied by the Forester. The scheme of this three- fold organization is clearly, (1) to have the broad policies and procedures developed in Washington, (2) to have the seven districts administrative, executive, and inspection offices together with some pure routine (such as accounts), and (3) to have the supervisor more and more purely an executive officer. This form of organization has been maintained since 1908, with few modi- fications. Ordinarily, the administrative offices in Washington inspect only their own work. One General Inspector is provided for a close study of important problems (chiefly personnel), but no corps of special inspectors is maintained. Within the districts the organization has varied considerably. When the position of associate district forester was abolished in 1912, in some districts the different chiefs of office (assistant district foresters) alternated with the district forester during his absence; in other districts, the chief of operation always alter- nated and, in effect was made an associate district forester, al- though this was not expressed in increased salary. In one dis- trict, the district forester felt that all of his office chiefs should be general men ; that, simply because one happened to be chief of silviculture was no reason why in the field he should not un- dertake general inspection. Another district forester rather leaned towards specialists ; he felt that the repetition of travel which this necessitated would be more than paid for through in- creased efficiency gained by having specialists undertake only the work with which they were most familiar. There is still a good deal of variation in the district organizations. In District 3, for example, the plan formerly adopted was to have general inspec- tions made of all the forests in the district at least once every year or so. These general inspections were carried on by the different office chiefs and apparently gave them excellent training; super- visors believed in it. In 1913 and 1914, in District 3, all strictly general inspection was limited to operation and the District Forester. The writer has always argued for more general inspection for the district office and for the participation of all assistant district foresters in the general administration as acting district fores- ters. In March, 1916, such a policy was officially promulgated 202 Forestry Quarterly in District 3 by the District Forester after a study in part of the organization perfected by Major Hine for the Southern Pacific and Union Pacific Lines. Such a change is gratifying, since it is beHeved necessary for efficiency to have all assistant district foresters undertake general inspection and continue familiar with the conditions in other lines of district activity. It is safe to say that intelligent general inspection is cordially welcomed by most forest supervisors. The idea underlying this change is that the acting district forester is chief of staff. One reason why, in past years, this scheme did not succeed as well as it might have, was because the acting district forester was supposed to be responsible for routine in his own office as well as for the routine going over the district forester's desk. According to the latest scheme, the as- sistant district forester, while acting district forester, will not only sign all correspondence from his own office, but will have routed over his desk (while acting district forester) for information and review all letters from all offices. It is very welcome to see that the plan calls for the rotation of all as- sistant district foresters as acting in charge of the district. The officer temporarily in charge of the office whose assistant dis- trict forester is acting as chief of the district will handle the work just as if this officer were actually absent. Another variance in organization has been the relative size of the units under one supervisor in the various districts. Usually there are administrative reasons for placing a large or small area under one man. In the words of a Western officer : "The difference in the size of the Forest Units in the various Districts is not so pronounced at the present time, with the exception, perhaps, of District 2, where the tendency has always been toward relatively small units. District 4, with an average Forest Unit area of 960,000 acres, probably occupies a middle-ground. The chief justification for the system or organization prevailing in District 4 is found in the intensity of the grazing use, and the large volume of free use business and small timber sales. Upon the Forest over 2600 grazing permits are issued annually, or a greater number than the total number issued in at least one or two of the other National Forest Districts. There are several other Forests where the number of grazing permits is considerably over 1,000. The population is relatively dense surrounding the Forests in Utah, the San Pete and Castledale valleys, which lie east and Number < ^/ Gross Area Average Area A dtnin istra tive Units (1,000 Acres) (1,000 Acres) 26 26,934 1,036 33 22,904 716 16 21,521 1,345 31 29,761 960 19 26,148 1,376 26 27,319 1,051 Forest Service Revenue and Organization 203 west of the Manti, containing, for example, about 27,000 people, all engaged in agricultural pursuits and all interested to a greater or less degree in the use and administration of the Forest." The following table shows approximately the size of the units for the six western districts. District 1 2 3 4 5 6 150 154,587 1,030 The above figures are approximate and are subject to correc- tions caused by the redistricting which is continually taking place. The table indicates that the average number of units per dis- trict is 25 ; the minimum of 16 for District 3 and the maximum cf 31 for District 4. The average unit is slightly over 1,000,000 acres, but varies from 715,740 acres in District 2 to a maximum of 1,376,208 in District 5, with District 3 a close second to the maximum with 1,345,078 acres. Surely such difference in the acreage between units in District 2 and District 3 must signify a fundamental difference in organization. This is all the more significant, when it is realized that District 3 has advocated a further increase in the size of its units. The details of this plan will be analyzed later. Fundamentally, the variance seems to be due to two forms of administration; one, where the supervisor is assisted by specialists, and where he himself devotes little time to details, and the other, where the supervisor is an all-round administrator and is personally familiar with the detail of all lines of work. The local conditions in District 2 and District 3 are very similar (but District 2 includes Michigan), so that one sys- tem must be wrong, and the other right. Which is correct and what changes in organization are demanded? This will be discussed later. Forest Organisation in Other Countries The present Forest Service organization is quite similar to that of Austria, where, however, the districts are in part dictated by the political and racial differences. In Austria,' the head of the ' Proc. Soc. Am. For., Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 7-37. 204 Forestry Quarterly Forest Service is concerned with judicial, legislative, and admini- strative problems, including technical management, forest experi- ments and examinations. Under his direction, subordinate officials at the central bureau examine and approve district budgets, prices of forest products, technical studies, free use, wages, promotions, appointments, and organization regulations. There are 7 districts (Vienna, Gmunden, Salzburg, Innsbruck, Gorz, Lemburg, and Czernowitz), each in charge of a director or district forester that directs and supervises the "forests." He is an executive who recommends and carries out schemes ap- proved by the central administration at Vienna. He maintains the property of the State and funds lands, and plans increases in revenue; supervises free use, building operations, shooting and fishing, working plans, annual and current reports, finances, allotments, and appointments within their districts. Important district problems, however, are not decided within the district, but only after consultation with the chief officials of the other districts. Judging from the large number of forests (196), and bearing in mind that the total area administered is less than 4,000,000 acres, it is clear that the supervisors in charge of forests are all-round men who personally supervise all field work done by their subordinates, besides being responsible for office work. There is clearly no room for a supervisor staff with administra- tive districts. In France, there are no districts in the sense that districts are maintained in Austria. There is a central bureau at Paris having much the same functions as the Vienna bureau, but instead of seven districts there are thirty-two "conservations," not including three in Algeria, and one in Tunisia. The French "conservation" is, therefore, practically identical (but far less important) than the proposed staff supervisor organization, proposed by District 3. In France, the conservator makes personal trips to superin- tend important work on the various units within his conservation, holds the more important timber auctions (which are oral), and generally represents the district in the local department; is the personal representative of the Waters and Forests Service in dealing with the Prefect or local governor. Under the conserva- tor, are comparatively small forest units, usually in charge of an inspector or assistant inspector who personally supervises impor- tant marking and other field work and "management" (working Forest Service Revenue and Organization 205 plans). "Reboisement" are projects separate from the regular "inspections" or forests in certain districts where there is specially important work. In Algeria, there is some variation from the organization of France proper. Here, there are three con- servators, one of them acting as chief conservator, working di- rectly under the Governor-General of Algeria. Each conservator has, as an associate, a so-called "controleur" who is really a gen- eral inspector working in co-operation with the conservator. This position was formed in order to give employment to an addi- tional number of high officials so as to prevent stagnation in pro- motion which was current in 1903. Moreover, there are no "in- spections" under a "supervisor," as in France ; instead, there are "chefiferies," or small forest divisions, usually under forest as- sistants, examiners, or assistant inspectors. This gives men a chance at slightly higher pay and increased responsibility, without having to wait for their regular promotion. The French rangers in Algeria have, as assistants, native guards who really act as couriers, guides and protectors against lawless acts by the native Arabs. In India, there is still another form of organization. An in- spector general, under whom there is a superintendent of work- ing plans, reports directly to the Viceroy. He supervises the policy of the local conservators, but these conservators work directly, in real matters of routine, under the local governments. The Indian organization is very much as if there were state foresters in every state of the union reporting directly to the local governors, subject to the approval of a central federal bureau as to working plans and certain forest policies of importance to the whole of the United States. Much the same plan is now in force where the Forest Service is charged with the allotment and super- vision of federal fire protection money given to States when they qualify for allotments by passing satisfactory forest fire laws. The Indian organization is really a compromise between the organiza- tion proposed by the states rights men in the United States and the "Federalists." On the continent the army type of organization is followed. Ordinary promotions follow naturally certain terms of service, unless a man is disqualified by inefficient work. In India, the method of promotion is more nearly that of the United States, except that Anglo-Indians and natives are not given the same ad- 206 Forestry Quarterly vancement as is the pure English Stock. In all of these countries there are pensions on a fairly liberal scale. As is natural, the salaries on the Continent are less than those in the United States, while the salaries in India are considerably more; they vary with the cost of living. Every important forest service has an annual budget (except the United States), followed by formal annual reports. The rangers are generally housed, and, except in France proper, the executive and administrative staff is pro- vided with houses. The forest schools in all these countries are maintained by the state, and, in India, local ranger schools are being maintained in order to give the local ranger a local training to fit him directly for the field work which he must undertake. In France, there is a ranger school at Barres and a staff school at Nancy. The directors of practically all schools are also in charge of local forests ; this enables them to keep their hand in and to be ad- ministrators as well as professors. The school forests are always used as demonstration grounds for the students and are often model forests. The table which follows shows (with some exceptions) the equivalent titles and salaries for the American, French, Austrian, British Indian, and German (Prussian) forest services. A glance at the titles used in other countries, it seems to me, indicates that our own titles are unsatisfactory. Titles which seem pre- ferable are: Chief Forester and Assistant Forester to correspond with the title of Forester and Associate Forester of today. The title, Chief Forester, seems better than that of Director, Director General, Inspector General, or any such un-American name. Since the Associate Forester is really a sort of advanced Assist- ant Forester or branch Chief, there is no reason for having a separate title beyond the fact that the statutory roll now car- ries one. Assistant Forester and Inspector should remain as at present. The term Administrator for Assistant Forester has been suggested, and the term Executive Assistant instead of Inspector, but they are unnecessary. In Wash- ington, under the proposed new organization there should certainly be one Chief Inspector, with an inspector as assistant, and if the present district organization were replaced by inspectors there should certainly be a district inspector in charge, also assisted by inspectors. On the forest, the title should Forest Service Revenue and Organization 207 to to 8 I c3 is; c^SS "13 BQ ■2S ->* I I <*2 00 O 00 fj -^ O <^ r*5 O O t^ ro rf »-i tN O O o (/I (1> OJ 4> o S e ^ andf ister forst -s ? ii; 0)73 bi u u .f, Z^% t> 4) t/J O J O I I ro O 0> "-^ <^ O "^ '55 y'- aj rt M 1^ 03 c ui u 00 3 O 00 o oo o oo o o o 00 vo"*^ 4j w en O O & fi b "5 j=*" o O O o o o O J_<>J o fo ~in 00 03 C oi > -►-> o3 C l-< tu M C 05 I I O 00 Ov »^ Tf 00 -^ ro ■«** lO CN <>0 CN CN 03 •c (LI tn '2 OS Si Si 03 03 03 OS C b, Ol 4) W C 0EL( fo j5 J cs I I o o o o o o o o |2.§ioio c^oioio c8 ■-' oi C 03 NO) I5 O 2 03 3 03 Q < 13 * (U O 03 ►So (U 03 > bi 03 c o O o<; bl 5 3- - 4J O i"! OJ 03 u 3 (U +-> Oj u VU C o 03 O (U bi OS O c 00 o 00 O O "0 10 rJ ^ 0000 o 0000 O 00 •^ ■^ 00 0000 + 00000 CN ■* tN "^ O 43 03 41 li o 41 -tJ 03 4> Vh O c OS 01 u O ♦J o 41 O, to C 4) +-> 01 4i kH O o •c .5 Q 03 bi o 03 41 3 ceo U 4) iH a, 4» 3 01 m 4> 0 U3 4) [i. bi X 5 I- ^ ■^ 41 01 <^ 03 U 03 4) u 4^ 4) 4) c o3 -u 03 41 o fa 03 4> bi O -tJ I- 03 oS 4) 3 o 4) 03 03 +-> a; o c 01 C/3 <1^ o 03 4) •a Oj S a 03 OJ J3 03 4) -s 43 CJ C y oS X 41 o c 2i c4 03 43 • »i bi c/3 4) 03 4> 4) ■(-> o 208 Forestry Quarterly be supervisor and assistant forest supervisor rather than deputy. The word deputy is a county term which should be dropped. "Forester" has been suggested instead of Forest Supervisor, but the latter seems preferable. Forest Assistant and Forest Ex- aminer could be retained for lack of a better term. The names Forest Ranger and Assistant Forest Ranger are good. It has been suggested that the word Forest in front of Supervisor is superfluous, but there are so many kinds of supervisors in this country (as for example, supervisors of poor farms, supervisors of counties, etc.), that the prefix Forest is absolutely necessary. These titles proposed are in accordance with usage in the States ; for instance, we have accepted State Forester and Assistant State Forester as standard. Why can't we get away from the abnormal and complex titles which have crept into the Forest Service organi- zation ; there are something like 73 different titles at present ! One of the chief reasons for these seems to be that whenever a special man is required to do special work the Civil Service Com- mission must have an examination for a position governed by some new title. This does not seem reasonable. Mr. Ringland favors a scheme of graduated advancement based upon service, inspection, and examination for promotion. It is something like that of the Public Health Service. Chief Forester, Senior Forester, Junion Forester, Forester — anything is better than the present titles. Centralized Supervisor Organization This idea of an even more centralized supervisor administra- tion has been considered officially in District 3 (Arizona and New Mexico), but, so far as is known, the Forester at Wash- ington has not decided to make any drastic changes. According to a letter received from the District Forester on January 4: "The moving reason for my recommendations is this: Mind- ful of the millions needed for military defense and the loss in revenue due to economic disturbances, the Forest Service can look for no increase in its appropriations for sometime to come. Therefore, the problem is wholly one of adapting our organization to secure the greatest efficiency with money now available. In my judgment, the present organization does not accomplish this. Therefore, I have given a great deal of study to ascertain in what way the organization can be bettered. It is not claimed that there will be a decrease in costs but rather there will be a decided increase in efficiency for the same money. Some day, of Forest Service Revenue and Organization 209 course, we shall need small forest units intensively administered. We must wait, though, for business to justify this. Obviously, if I make my ideas of forest administration stick, there should be changes in the District office organization. In brief, the changes I have in mind would be the elimination of much of the Forest work now of necessity carried on in this office. The Supervisors with their staffs should be able to handle practically all such executive work as we are now handling. The effect would be a small staff in here engaged in inspection of the work as executed in the field and in the development and shaping of administrative policies." This consolidation if applied to District 3 means the elimina- tion of six units by contracting sixteen administrative units into ten. Let us consider one of these consolidations (Santa Fe-Carson) in detail^ ; on paper it seems logical and progressive. The total gross area of these forests will amount after the consolidation to 2,426,670 acres, with an unusually long boundary of 1,005 miles, due chiefly to the indentations of private land grants within forest areas, yet the units are homogeneous and, notwithstanding the high mountains, the travel by valley routes is usually practicable. There is an eight months field season. A field telephone system is practically completed and the Carson can be connected to the proposed headquarters at Santa Fe by the construction of a few miles additional telephone. The look- out points will be conveniently located with respect to Santa Fe and the shipping and travel will be as easy or better than from Taos, the present headquarters of the Carson. The population is conveniently located with respect to Santa Fe, which is the capital of the State. Extensive land classification is well along, but very restricted grazing reconnaissance has been undertaken. The boundaries of the various divisions are well established and suitable. Other routine work is pretty well lined out. Extensive timber reconnais- sance has been collected for all forests, except the Taos division of the Carson. The salary roll at present for the Carson and Santa Fe, ad- ministered separately, totals $41,745. After the combination, the total expenditures are estimated at $39,565. This second figure ^Based on data compiled by A. C. Ringland and D. P. Johnson ; pre- sented to the Soc. Am. Por., Albuquerque Branch. 210 Forestry Quarterly provides for the salary of two $2,000 men, who would be trans- ferred from the District Office to the Supervisor's Office. One of them would specialize in timber sales, the other in engineering. Apparently, there are no obstacles to such a consolidation under the head of geography, topography, climate, communication or transportation. While the volume of business would be large, it can, for the most part, be systematized so as to be reduced to mere routine work. If the consolidation were made, the work would be divided into three heads — silviculture, grazing, lands and engineering, which would include both permanent improve- ments and fire protection. Silviculture and lands and engineer- ing would each be in charge of a specialist, while the supervisor would probably specialize in grazing. It is significant that, when the Forest Service first took over the then-called Forest Re- serves, the Jemez, Pecos, and Taos Reserves were administered by three supervisors, all located in Santa Fe, but, at that time, there was no organized office machinery to speak of, practically no telephone conveniences, Forest Service policies were poorly defined, map and status data were meagre, the rangers were in- ferior, and the supervisors had no stafif. Under present condi- tions all this has been changed. In the words of a local officer, the specialist idea as applied to the Santa Fe-Carson is exemplified as follows: "In the first place, it is not the idea to relieve the ranger of his present duties, or in other words to depend upon a lower class of rangers. They already have more than they can do properly and the specialist idea would not relieve them materially. An en- gineer, for instance, would be busy for two years in adjusting boundary disputes with grants. Important trails should be sur- veyed and instructions given, — even in a lesser important trail construction ; as a matter of fact, there is no end of engineering questions which would come up to a good specialist. It was the idea that fire protection, all sorts of improvements, and survey work which the district rangers have not time to handle, even if they are qualified, would be handled by the engineer. A lands specialist would be nothing new — we have had two of them for the past two years, and with the occupancy permit work staring us in the face, we will have more work than one land specialist can handle of that class of work alone in the future. The graz- ing man would not count cattle, nor would he be an office man. With 500 grazing permits, it may easily be seen that there is enough administrative work in connection with these permits and the attending complications to keep one man from the Forest Service Revenue and Organization 211 Supervisor's office busy on handling complaints. In addition to this, we simply must have more information on the carrying capacity of our ranges. We know little enough to enable us to take decisive action on the applications we receive, to say nothing of properly utilizing what is apparently a present surplus on some units which in reality resolves itself into a fire menace. "The timber sale specialist would not handle the timber sales, but he would be required to do the work which the Supervisor should do if he had time, viz., mark the timber, make frequent check scales ; or in other words, in addition to marking the timber, be able to give frequent inspections. In my opinion, there is less need for a timber sale specialist than for the other three named, for the simple reason that our timber sales ar limited and so far, the Supervisor and Deputy have been able to handle the inspec- tions. However, we have not personally handled the marking, as I know we should have done." Arguments Favoring Cotisolidations The arguments in favor of larger units with a staffs organiza- tion are summarized from a paper Mr. Ringland read before the Albuquerque Section of the Society of American Foresters on December 11. As he pointed out, geography alone may preclude certain consolidations which, otherwise, might be desirable, "for example, geography alone precludes the Wichita National Forest in Oklahoma from consideration with any other National Forest area — it is then the governing factor." Geography, in its nar- rower sense, will become less and less an obstacle to efficient com- munication with the increasing use of motorcycles and automo- biles. "Topography is a factor commonest ... in high and rough mountain regions. . . . Topography determines in- tensiveness of administration." Communication, whether by travel, telephone, or telegraph, naturally must be considered. "The most important factor determining the size of a Forest Unit is the intensity of business. The Datil Forest, referred to, is a striking example of a Forest where because there is as yet little development, the geography and topography and communi- cation permit the supervision of a very large area. On the other hand, it was business needs alone that dictated the present ad- 'It is important that the word "staff" be clearly understood. According to Major Hine : "The staff officer is the playwright, the line officer the actor; one designs, the other executes." In Mr. Ringland's paper he referred to the supervisor's staff personnel as composed of executives, "line officers." 212 Forestry Quarterly ministration of the Coconino and Tusayan Forests as separate areas, for the communication faciHties are excellent, and geography and topography are not influencing factors." The denser the population, the smaller the area that can be administered. In any reorganization it is naturally advisable to consider, somewhat less seriously to be sure, the homogeneity of the climate as affecting work, the progress of the early devel- opment activity on each unit and the relative expense. It is argued that where factors permit, it is a mistake to place too small an area under one man because of the danger of having to fill the position with a mediocre man having the pay small and the forest allotments meagre. Such an officer must concern himself with petty details since the area under administration cannot afford a regular clerical staff. On the other hand, the writer wishes to call attention to the danger of overadministra- tion. The goal should not be the highest possible efficiency, but rather a reasonable efficiency coupled with a moderate and reasonable expense. Moreover, it is well to consider what a forest unit should constitute: "Under existing conditions, financial and other, and expected conditions, a National Forest administrative unit is to be consid- ered all that tract of National Forest land, so situated as to geography, topography, climate, means of transportation and communication and population, amount and character of forest business (including forest protection), and public sentiment, that the Forest Supervisor with adequate executive and clerical assistance can keep in actual, close, personal, field supervisory touch with his field officers, and in close field and office super- visory touch with all activities, business, improvements and con- structive policies of the Forest of which he is in charge as ad- ministrative head, and for the welfare of which he is responsible." It is well to remember that in railroad reorganization, when- ever you can replace a specialist with an all-round man your business is the gainer. "Unnecessarily small forest units cause the ineffective expen- ditures of large sums of money — in rent, salaries, travel and the handling of the business with the District Office." The District proposes two classes of National Forest units. One is defined by Don P. Johnson, as a unit "which produces enough administrative, protective and con- structive work to warrant a specialized supervisor's staff of at Forest Service Revenue and Organization 213 least four men, specializing in Silviculture, Grazing, Lands and Engineering. A second-class unit is one which, on account of geography, topography, communication, or population factors, does not produce enough of each of the four broad activities to warrant the full specialized staff." Naturally, the volume of business as well as its character may vary from time to time and, consequently, will impose modifica- tions in the staff organization. The plan as outlined is simply to carry a modified form of district organization to very important forest units which are to be formed with the special object of giv- ing a large enough area under one man to justify a rather expen- sive staff. This staff naturally divides itself into three divisions: (1) ad- ministrative; (2) executive; (3) clerical. The administrative includes a supervisor and deputy forest supervisor who alternate in office. The executive includes the specialists whose duty it will be to perform much of the special field work now undertaken by rangers. The clerical division will include a chief clerk, and suitable as- sistants to take care of the clerical routine of accounts, property, letter-writing, filing, etc. With such an organization, it is obvious, as Mr. Ringland points out, that a change must occur in the duties and organization of the ranger force. "Major executive work involving unusual mental effort is taken away from the ranger. To him is left minor executive duties — very small sales, free use, and the like." He will put more time on fire protection, and in bossing per- diem guards "engaged in physical effort." This is, in theory; in actual practice, it is not always true. The ranger force will be reduced, provided the ranger can be given a district. "Topographically possible to cover adequately. While it is with hesitation that a definite area is suggested, yet 333,000 acres may be assumed as the standard." The rangers will oversee forest guards and the work of forest protection, and perform minor executive duties more economically handled by them than by the staff executive. Most significant of all, they will be expected "to assist the staff executives in the performance of their major activities." Rangers of unusual ability 214 Forestry Quarterly will graduate to the staff. Applying this theory to District 3, Mr. Ringland argues that "using funds now available . . . this will mean ... a personnel of ten supervisors, ten deputy supervisors, twenty executive staff assistants and twenty clerks, a staff of sixty, supervising sixty rangers and one hundred ninety forest guards, or a full staff of two hundred fifty. The forest guards will work at round-ups, count stock, do improvement work, burn brush, police, haul supplies, and cultivate and harvest forage crops." They will be recruited for eight months a year at $60 a month from the local population. In addition, there will be fire patrol- men serving not over four months. In conclusion, Ringland argues: "That here is an organization, systematically distributed, . . . made up of individuals selected for the work at hand. It is a simple organization susceptible of expansion or contraction — it is flexible. Can we not then meet our needs more independently? Can we not then make it possible to recognize the work of the in- dividual and attempt to pay him accordingly ?" These recommendations appear theoretically sound, except for one weakness — a most important one — ,his failure to comment more adequately^ on the future of the district office. To my mind, a competent supervisor's staff means the end of the district staff in its present form. There are, to be sure, almost insurmountable objections to the Supervisor staff organization, especially forceful unless the district office is abolished. Then, too, how will it affect public sentiment? Having a local supervisor in a town, often makes that town exceedingly loyal to the Forest Service, on ac- count of the personal intercourse between the supervisor and the more prominent citizens. With the staff organization, there will probably be less real intimacy on the part of the supervisor, even if he were enabled to make systematic public sentiment tours, giv- ing lectures at convenient points — something that is sadly lacking at present. There will be a greatly increased travel expense, since it might readily happen that, in rotation, you would find on one forest district the grazing specialist, the improvement specialist, the timber sale specialist, and the land specialist — each of them perhaps accompanied by the respective chiefs from the district and ' Since this was written, it is understood that Mr. Ringland planned a study of the District organization as a corollary to his other organiza- tion studies. Forest Service Revenue and Organization 215 from the central bureau. It is possible that one all-round man could handle these problems with sufficient efficiency without the necessity of this duplication of travel. As the Service grows older and the forest efficiency increases, cannot good all-round men be secured to obviate the necessity of so much travel in duplicate? Moreover, there can be such a thing as too much efficiency. In any business there is a certain theoretical limit when it pays to be less efficient and more economical. Has not paper efficiency often been put at too high a premium? When one compares the highest efficiency with work that is somewhat less efficient but much cheaper, often the less efficient work should be our ideal. It is similar to the case of the company that hired a tool custodian at $75 per month to prevent an annual tool loss of $100. There was greater efficiency in looking after tools but the net loss was $800 a year. Another point is that, although the ranger is obviously becom- ing more and more effective and although recruited from a higher class of men (many of them with technical forest educa- tion), he is to be given under the new plan (unmodified) less important work than the frontiersman was given in the past. The new organization might mean more frequent changes of resi- dence on account of the varying volume of business necessi- tating reductions or increases in the staff. On paper, it looks as though we would be maintaining at needless public expense two district organizations. Why can't the present district organi- zation he abolished if ive adopt the supervisor staff organisation? If this change were made one of the main objections would be the fear of tremendously increased traveling expenses between Wash- ington and the West, yet, if the trips are properly systematized, this travel would be more than paid for by the saving in the large rental cost of the present district offices. Another objection to the abolishment of the district office is its beneficial effect on local public sentiment, but this could probably be handled quite as efficiently by a general inspector free from onerous routine duties. There would probably be slightly decreased efficiency if the District were abolished; this would be more than counterbal- anced by economy and uniformity. Perhaps, $100,000 to $300,- 000 a year could be saved and the present District policy would be welded together. The application will be discussed later on. 216 Forestry Quarterly It is significant, when considering expense, to remember how large the district office forces are, but one must remember that many of the men spend much of their time in doing forest work that would otherwise have to be done by the supervisor. In February, 1916, one of the District Offices (typical of other District Offices) numbered 72 officials. Of this number, there were in the office of operation alone, 1 assistant District For- ester in charge, 2 men on fire protection, 1 on improvement, 1 on telephone, 1 on roads, several stenographers or clerks. The dis- trict overhead amounts to 8 per cent and the Washington over- head to roughly 19 per cent, making a total of 27 per cent for overhead supervision. One of the other Districts favors a moderate unit for these logical reasons, which present a strong argument: "The division into Forests is based primarily on topography and communication. As the methods of communication increase, it might be possible to increase the size of units, but this I rather doubt, since I believe it extremely important from the standpoint of protection to keep the units small enough to prevent the or- ganization becoming unwieldy. An example of increased efficiency due to a smaller unit of organization is well borne out in the case of the Forest. This Forest is composed of what were formerly parts of the and Forests. Before its organization on its present basis the number of Class C fires doing considerable damage in this territory was very high. Since that time, however, the damage has dropped much lower, and the same is the case on the two adjoining Forests. This indicates that considerable efficiency in fire pro- tection is often gained by smaller subdivisions. Aside from topography and communication, the deciding factor is one of business. Here, again, the factor of supervision on the part of the supervising officers is met with. I feel that any saving from reducing the number of supervisors below those we now have would seriously decrease the efficiency of the individual and of the organization as a whole ; neither do I believe that the work of the Forest Service, at least in this District, is such as to lend itself to any considerable amount of specialization. The work of the ranger varies greatly, and any attempt to secure administration through specialists in a difTerent line would lead to endless duplication and greatly decrease the efficiency of the organization as a whole, and greatly increase costs. The time may come when an organization of the kind suggested will be prac- tical, but until it does, the District organization with its corps of specialists available to render assistance to the supervisors along special lines is, in my opinion, indispensable. Forest Service Revenue and Organization 217 "The advantage of the District organization, as distinguished from a centrahzed authority in Washington, aside from the direct increased efficiency in the conduct of the affairs of the organization, which is, of course, its chief function, lies in bringing closer to the community the direction of local affairs. This is a very real advantage, and in my opinion, a most important one." Organisation Development The organization charts which follow show the development of the forest, district, and Washington organization for the years, 1904, 1907, 1909, 1915, and as proposed. The Forest organization changed as follows: CHART 1 1904 Supervisor Chief Ranger Rangers (class 1, 2, 3) 1907 Forest Supervisor Forest Assistant Rangers (on districts) Rangers (on projects, as large sales) Guards 1909 Forest Supervisor Deputy Forest Supervisor (on Forests) Forest Assistants Rangers (on districts) Rangers (on projects) Guards 1915 Forest Supervisor Deputy Forest Supervisor (on Forests) Forest Examiner (Chief Clerk) Rangers (on districts) Rangers (on projects) Special Assistants Fire Lookouts or Patrols. Proposed: Forest Supervisor Deputy Forest Supervisor Forest Examiners [on large units: staff] [on small units: no staflE] (Chief Clerk) Rangers (on districts) Fire Control Rangers (on projects) Under the forest district organization of 1904 (Chart 1), it is evident that few changes have taken place between 1907 and 1915 The only really fundamental change is an elaboration in order to take care of more complicated work ; even as far back as the fall of 1905 there were project men in charge of timber sales as well as rangers on districts. A recent elaboration is in fire protection, where the fire chief controls the fire lookouts. No change in the 218 Forestry Quarterly CHART 2 The development of district organization shows the following : 1904 District Offices (7) Superintendent 1907 1909 Supervisors (on Forest Reserves) District Inspection Offices (6) Chief Inspector 3-5 Inspectors Land Examiners (Act, June 11) Forest Supervisors (on National Forests) District Offices (6) District Forester District Law Officer Associate District Forester Operation Grazing c .2 hn >. G ^-i o • H 0) C3 C 4) 4-> G ^ rt (l> G 0) r! O. rl :3 ^ Iti xi •fi q O o Products 1915 Forest Supervisors (145 National Forests) District Offices (7) District Forester Silviculture C/l (U cd w &/1 b .s w J3 -t-J G CJ • »-< Law Officer Engineer unts Operation 1 1 Silviculture 1 1 Lands Graz 1 1 Tl 1 ' .S 01 G % cr .2 I G s 8 5 (/J G ;nt Sta cialists 0} G CO C/2 '+3 y u Experime (Spe C/2 y a C/3 Inspectio Entry Survey 01 Proposed : Forest Supervisors (153 National Forests) Inspection Districts (8) District Inspector Law Officer | Inspectors Forest Supervisors (100-120 National Forest Units) Forest Service Revenue and Organization 219 •B UOMBZIUBSjOfQ) 1 c c H- 1 c V-) spu'Bi (e) w X \ J / 3 Si ^ 30UBU3:(ure TO (f?) f^ saunooov (?) ca; — uoxinqu;siQ — 3upuU(j 2 . M3IA3\r 3 CL,_ c o — S9pi:MV S • • CO ^1 in o P-. i 8 3 o 1 1 S9Sn POOAV 9rmTPT/T Wi xa -I^O c<3 SO -4^ o ^ 3m:}ndui03 _^ ■♦J 1^ 3 ^ XjBjqiq c5 o 1 — SB^^V H i GOUBSSIBUUOOa-^ "* g w C uoi^BjgdooQ l-( S91BS J9quiiX 220 Forestry Quarterly I c3 o o w 1^ o W) l-t Si o On tj-c i" 4) p-( O ^ ^ o oj b (I< cd o -^ yi Jj «*3 Qi CO c S s a W o a -a c -3 (Z5 _ uop'BjadooQ ' UOIJBjadoOQ It3J3p9^ C/I w -t-> t-l o (U •T-l +-> C U] (U Q O a; > '5 -M CtJ Oj (h Ih -l-> •4-> OJ C/5 •i-H :h s <3 <3 f^ VD PO Forest Service Revenue and Organization 221 g a u a s < o ON o •c < CuO O d Q 1 o «< -^ S o +-> o o o o in -C o u a - ^ a s O a CO fe o
  • S3j]ddns saipn^g sapiAx^ov MO^vjadocQ 222 Forestry Quarterly present organization is proposed, although on very large units, it may be desirable to adopt the District 3 scheme of a staff organization ; but this staff is more elaborate than appears neces- sary. Instead of having grazing, timber sales, engineering and lands specialists, probably two specialists could handle the four activities (Chart 2). The changes in the district organization out- lined above do not require explanation. The intensiveness of organization in 1907 is interesting (Chart 3). Take the branch of operation for example. It was divided into accounts, maintenance, lands, engineering and organization. This, it should be remembered, was when the administration was cen- tralized in Washington. What brought this organization into disrepute was the fact that it was over-organized. Accounts was divided into: (1) disbursements, (2) bookkeeping, and (3) receipts, each with a chief; maintenance was divided into (1) purchase, (2) record, (3) supplies, and (4) photography; lands, into (1) special uses, (2) claims, (3) agricultural, (4) settle- ments, (5) status, and (6) boundaries; organization, under a chief and assistant chief, was divided into six districts cor- responding with the inspection districts, each under a forest assistant or supervisor, detailed for routine work. Of course, this early district organization was designed to train the super- visors. Probably the mere routine under "organization" done by these six men could be readily handled today by one or two competent officials with perhaps the assistance of a chief clerk. The organization proposed is, to be sure, somewhat similar to that of 1907, but there is a vast difference. It has been sim- plified ; most important of all we have trained men in the office to handle the routine economically and simply. Even more significant is the fact of the increased authority super- visors enjoy, so that the argument that since the organization did not work in 1907, it will not work today, can by no means hold true. If the Forest Service is ever to be upon a self-sustaining basis, it is absolutely essential, to my mind, that research be separated from administration. Therefore, in the chart of the proposed organization (p. 223), a United States Department of Agriculture Bureau of Research is indicated under a chief who would be assisted by an editor and perhaps by a technical expert in an advisory capacity. The bureau would be divided according to Forest Service Revenue and Organization 223 en o u OJ t/) l4 o o 1 ^ - o H < N !z o o a u to O o o 3 o 'C -4-> o o (U to 00 ^ « » o •^ ^ S PQ x3 i; 03 C o - ih r -u O OJ nJ w Oh C/3 - C SUIIBJ3 sauBpunog (sjua-g) AouBdnooo sAaAjng Xj^ug sniB^s (s:j03Coa(j) uoi^BoyissBQ o o o < o . 'A VI p< OJ o ^ 3 at (72 -t-j '1 +-> O c - 0) iJo^ S;9>IJB]/^ pj:}U03 3SB9SIQ pUB ;39SUI sa^BS isquiix uoi^BjadooQ a cU o 0) a +-> o I t/3 ID -t-3 * Tf ri< r-i O r^ O t— O •r) o i^ C3 1 • 00 lO O vo '^ O ro '-I O 00 • lO t<^ CM CN CN »-< ^H ^H ^^ Si ID 2 2 r~OfNio 0 O ID fN ro ^H CO vO s • 8 > 1 8 < ^ 8 Cj 8 '"' '^ to 00 •2 to lOO". >0000^0\0\'*00 CD OM^ vO lO to PO r<^ fO CS ^-H o •^ t— o fo lio 00 o ■^ fc a b §^ t^r-rJ-\0>O •rH •^H 1-1 t-l r-l ,-1 §.2 CJ 0, o •«-* •^ S ^ Oli0 s 3 .§ \0 O Ov to to OOOO0^OO^O!7^00a^0^t^0^t^00Q0 II to a tH ^— ( l-H *-H T-t ^-H •** oq in c t/) 05 s s a a , a to tu O 'f r^ "* O 00 .S i) o c O^ (M t^ ID T* rt< CO 03 ft. •3 ^^^^ T-H r-t s •** S^ fO Wh ■i-> ■^ ^ K) 51, tei to C O OJ %> « •«r* cqO-^'-'-^cO^--00O^O■•-'CN ■ *-« e < -1 a 1 262 Forestry Quarterly ? •3... 1 1 1 a 8 8 ^ kC^ •S e &3 ^ tHc3 Q fti rN 0\ 8 8 8 bS^- 8 K S hw ^-1 •** u^- - a; J^ g :^' ?S ^ ti^ K >s;:5 Q ^ u •** "a 1 a s e s s: s 8 8 8 h-' 1 1 u-^^ "a; M •^ ^in tl3 55 S "§ . 8 •e^< K (-o ■^ a^^^^i" s ^ Os "•^4 8 u S^uo •*.* 1 if: K, a S O ^ .^ 51h tq ■*•»* o "^ ^ ^ . ^ Eq e l-ScQS K R ^^ C^ "^ 5? «o 8 1 i^r* a a^^^r 1. 5^^ &5 c^ $> ■^ -, -» . ^-^ a « ^ l-^K^CJ. n < 1^^ ci H O^Ot~^>•^»'>«'>lOUO■TJ^•«i^^OfOTJO • ■«*< ro CS CS P^ ' '^ S ?5 y, > rt'C P C. O O O •^ '-• ■^ '-^ ■^ f^ fN CN P<1 ioir>r~t^ y-l ^-1 ^-1 1-t ^-t ^-t tJ< »-H ON PO t^ ^ 00 Tf ^ CO PO f*5 CS rO 6 o o a o J3 PQ«o «-i . 4-> ^ r< ^ O ^<^ Q -s • C/; CO '^'-i tn. ^- 4) p C ^ - — •vogo^3 Zf^- ^. cpq ► _: w. t* - : a o ir)\Ot~ooo>0^^esfC^iovOt^ooo>0-^tSPOMo>u> p^ PO ■^ 'O O t— c s U -t-> c8 Q Application of Presslers Formula 263 The Adirondack data were obtained on typical hardwood land in St. Lawrence County, New York. Stump analyses were made of 162 beech, 47 Yellow birch and 143 Hard maple trees. Incre- ment borings were made on 200 hemlocks. The customary diame- ter-age curves were prepared for the hardwoods; the data for the hemlocks were also averaged and curved. Existing growth tables for Red spruce and Balsam fir were used. It should be noted that the Adirondack figures are for a forest from which the soft woods were culled 17 years ago to a diameter of 8 inches at point of cutting. This explains why, at present, the beech con- stitutes 34 per cent of the stand (34% of volume), the birch 18 per cent of the stand (28% of the volume), the maple 15 per cent of the stand (28% of the volume), the hemlock 11 per cent of the stand (5% of the volume), the spruce 19 per cent of the stand (3% of the volume), and the Balsam fir ^ per cent of the stand (^% of the volume). The Catskill data were based on virgin stands as far as the hardwoods are concerned. The results are given in Table 2. The current annual increment per cent must be translated into terms of board feet in order to be useable. For example, in the case of the hemlock in the Catskill data, the current annual in- crement in board feet per acre would be figured as follows: Table 3 Current Annual Volume on Current Annual Increment Average Acre Increment D. B. H. Per Cent {Stock Table) Per Acre Inches (Pressler) Board Feet Board Feet 7 7.19 6.80^ .488^ 8 4.30 6.41 .276 9 4.00 12.18 >X .487 >Xi 10 2.69 17.98 .484 11 2.68 24.08 .645 12 2.26 28.83. .652, 13 2.08 26. 681 .5551 14 1.75 21.45 .376 15 1.55 15.48 .240 16 1.69 18.36 Y .310 Yi 17 1.48 22.23 .329 18 1.24 20.51 .254 19 1.10 13. 60. .150 20 21 .97 .89 7.781 17.56J \^ .0761 .156, \u continued in stock table* * Table 5, Bull. 11, N. Y. State Conservation Commission. 5.478 264 Forestry Quarterly The same thing should usually be done for each species and, of course, separately for each type. The next step is how to use these data to determine the allow- able cut. The increment may be used directly, as described by Hufnagl, that is the simple summation of the current annual in- crement per acre which, in the case of hemlock, adds up to 5.478 board feet per acre, but a better method, which we may call the "Swiss Method" is described in an anonymous article on selection forest management in the Swiss Forestry Periodical for 1913, briefed in Forestry Quarterly, vol. XIII, pp. 260-2, as follows: "Divide the volume of the oldest size classes by the annual in- crement of the entire stand. This will give the number of years during which the volume of the oldest size class must last. If this be 45 years, then the cut for the next decade would be from one fifth to one quarter of the volume of the largest size classes." Expressed mathematically : Let X = the volume of the size classes below the diameter limit " Xi ^= the current annual increment thereon " Y =: the volume of the size classes above the diameter limit but within a current annual increment of, say, 1 per cent " Yi = the current annual increment thereon " Z =: the volume of the size classes beyond a current annual increment of, say, 1 per cent — that is over- mature timber — surplus growing stock " Zi = the current annual increment thereon " CC = the cutting cycle y-t-z Then CC = xi-\-yi-{-zi Y+Z And annual cut — ^^ This is the strict interpretation of the method as described, but since Z is surplus growing stock, it should play no part in deter- mining CC; nor should the increment thereon (Zi). Y Then CC^ —^, — : xt-\-yt y-\-z And annual cut— -^ Application of Pressler's Formula 265 Using the data given above (Table 3) and a 12-inch d.b.h. Hmit, the cut for hemlock figured by this method would be as follows : CC= xi-{-yi-\-zi y= 138.31 board feet 168.48 ., 306.79 Xi= 3.032 " Yi= 2.214 " Zi= .232 " 5.478 Substituting, CC = _ .^ = 56 years. V -i— 7 'X,(\f\ 70 Annual cut = -— — = _' = 5.478 board feet or, for the 1730 CG 56 acres in the slope type = 9,477 board feet of hemlock. Eliminating Z and Zi in figuring CC : _y 138.31 _ 138.31 Xi^Yi ~ 3.032+2.214 ~ 5.246 " ^'^^''^' V_l_ 7 'XC\f\ 70 Annual cut = ^^ = — z^ = 11.797 board feet, or, for the CC 26 1730 acres on the slope type, = 20,409 board feet of hemlock. For the other species in the Catskills, the cut, to a diameter limit of 16" b. h., figures out as follows: Beech: 10.878 bd. ft. per acre Birch: 29.183 " " " '* Maple: 17.345 " " " " Others : 14.610 " '' " " 18,819 bd. ft. for 1730 acres. 50,487 " " " " 30,007 " " " " 25,275 " " " " These volumes must, however, be reduced 15 per cent for local defect in the timber. For example, the hemlock is reduced from 9477 board feet to 8055 for the 1730 acres. The corrected values for the Catskills, together with the probable rotation and a com- parison of the cut as figured by von Mantel's method, follow : 266 Forestry Quarterly Table 4 Regulation of Cut— 1730 Acres of Slope Type. Catskill Mts. Rotation Allowed Annual Cut, Board Feet Corresponding D. B. H. Swiss von Mantel's Species Years Inches Method Method Hemlock 160^ 12^ 8,055 7,411 Beech 200 16 15,996 14,646 Birch 140 16 42,913 40,715 Maple 160 16 25,506 16,573 Other hardwoods (16) (21,484) Total of first four species. ... .. 92,470 79,345 Total all species . . 113,954 In the case of the Adirondacks, the same data were worked up. The Swiss method was then appHed, not separately by species, but for all the species in the given type.^ The diameter limits, b. h., and corresponding ages were: spruce 12", 100 years (Graves' Principles of Handling Woodlands, p. 12) ; hemlock 14", 160 years (U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 152 [N. S.]) ; Balsam fir 10", 128 years (U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 55 [N. S.] ) ; beech 14", 184 years; Yellow birch 14", 147 years ; Hard maple 14", 167 years.^ The other species were considered as being similar to the Hard maple. "X" in the Swiss Method = all below the named diameter limits ; Y = all between the named diameter limits and including 24" d.b.h. ; Z = everything 25" d.b.h. and over. In tabular form the data are as follows : Table 5 Current Annual Increment Per Acre in Feet Board Measure Mis- Soft Bal- Hem- Black cellan- Type Beech Birch Maple Maple Spruce sam lock Ash eous Total Swamp 12.92 1.49 10.24 8.78 9.44 6.54 3.64 3.66 56.71 Spruce 12.74 20.40 13.32 17.12 16.86 7.79 18.84 47 96.54 flat Hard- 47.69 24.09 55.55 5.61 5.66 0.33 7.30 .05 146.28 wood Y Y+Z Applying the Swiss Method, CC = y'j-V ^'^^ ^^^ ~ ~~rr~ the results are as follows : 1 U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 152 (N. S.), Table 10. With a cutting cycle of 56 years there would be about 3 cuttings in a rotation; with a cutting cycle of 26 years there would be about 6 cuttings in a rotation. ^ If this had been done in the case of the Catskill data, the result would have been 112,493 as against 113,954 board feet, from which it is evident that the total cut is practically identical in either case. However, the figuring by species is, undoubtedly, the more accurate. » This compares closely with Table 7, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 285 (N. S.), which gives for 14", beech 180 years, Yellow birch 155 years, Hard maple 171 years. Application of Pressler's Formula 267 CC Annual Cut Per Acre Type Years Board Feet Swamp 44. 3 60. 52 Spruce flat 41.8 109. 77 Hardwood 36. 9 194. 91 Average 41.0 In order to compare these results with other methods, the rota- tions used being: spruce, 100 years; hemlock, 160 years; Balsam fir, 120 years; beech, 180 years; Yellow birch, 140 years; Hard maple, 160 years; other hardwoods, 160 years; the annual cut was figured by von Mantel's, Heyer's and Hufnagl's methods, as fol- lows ; the cutting cycle for the Swiss Method being taken as an even 40 years : Table 6 Allowed Annual Cut Per Acre, Board Feet von Mantel Heyer Hufnagl Swiss Average XII CC= 40 Type II IX Var. 2 Years Swamp 39 ... ... 67 48 Spruce flat 77 210 ... 115 134 Hardwood 105 324 305 180 228. 5 Note: The Roman numerals refer to the numbers of the methods in Forest Working Plans, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1913. From this it would appear that the cut as figured by the Swiss method is amply conservative. It would seem to be a very com- mon sense method of finding the allowed annual cut in a selection forest. It should be checked, however, by other methods, such as those illustrated above and by the area check. The basic data should be revised at least once every decade. If the growing stock then shows an unintentional and undesirable diminution, the cut was set at too high a figure; if conversely, the growing stock at the time of revision, shows an unintentional and undesirable increase, the cut was set too low. FIRE RISK IN MASSACHUSETTS By H. O. Cook^ We have so long emphasized the forest fire risk in this country that I believe we have blinded ourselves to certain facts concern- ing the danger to forest property, and under some circumstances unduly exaggerated it. It has seemed to me that the principal fire risks in our more densely-populated commonwealths are limited to certain sections and that there is a great difference in the average fire risk as between sections of the states. I have held the theory that in a State like Massachusetts the principal fire risks were confined to a belt of land about one eighth mile wide on either side of the railroad right of way for reasons that are obvious, and to the vicinity of manufacturing communities where there is a more or less irresponsible population which on Sundays and holi- days spreads out into the surrounding woodlands and carelessly sets many fires. Acting upon this hypothesis, I have taken our forest fire data for 1914 in an endeavor to see whether my theory is correct, although in order to make a really satisfactory test of this matter one should take the data for a series of years. I am free to confess that, although the results of this investigation bear out my theory, it does not do so to such an emphatic degree as I expected. We have in Massachusetts 253 cities and towns with a total area of 5,321,000 acres. I have picked out 73 communities, including 21 cities, which have a distinctly manufacturing population. Four- teen cities were left out because they have no forest land and con- sequently no forest fires. I do not mean to imply that none of the remaining 280 communities have no manufacturing industries, but that their industrial population is not a large factor in the town. In comparing these two groups of communities we have used the non-railroad fires only, assuming, as we have a right to, that a great part of these are due to the direct carelessness of the popu- lation itself. We find that 73 industrial communities (20% of the towns), having 25 per cent of the total area, had 33 per cent of the fires of the year 1914 both in area and number, while 80 per cent of the towns, largely rural or residential, had but two thirds of the fires. My original idea was that the disproportion should be ^Assistant State Forester, Massachusetts. 268 Fire Risk in Massachusetts 269 greater. Possibly if I had gone a step further and had joined to the industrial towns the adjoining communities, I might obtain more pronounced results, because an industrial community on Sundays and holidays spreads beyond its own political boundaries. Coming to the matter of railroad fires, and taking a strip one eighth mile wide on either side of the track as the danger zone for twenty-five hundred miles of railroad, we find that there are 400,- 000 acres in this zone. I understand that many railroad fires spread more than one eighth mile from the track, but when we see that the average fire only covers six acres it is evident that the ma- jority of the fires extend but a short distance. On 400,000 acres of railroad zone, or 8 per cent of the State, we have 830, or 26 per cent of all the fires. The relative fire risks may be summarized as follows : Railroad zone as 3 is to 1 ; industrial zone as 3 to 2 ; all other as 2 to 3. Classified Causes of Fires — 1914 Number of Fires Per Cent Unknown 1,174 37 Railroad 830 26 Burning brush 196 6. 2 Hunters. 520 16. 4 Steam mills 3 1 Children 140 4. 4 Miscellaneous 318 9. 9 3.181 Distribution of Fires — 1914 Average Number Total Per Cent Number Per Cent Acres Per Cent Fire Towns Acreage Total Fires Total Burned Total Acres Manufacturing Towns 73 1,262,460 25 786^ 33^ 11,860 33^ 15 (20 %) All Other Towns 280 4,058,540 75 1564^ 66^ 22,340 66^ 14 (80 %) Railroad Belt 400,000 8 830 26^ 4,800 12^ 6 1 Non-railroad fires only. 2 Per cent of all fires. REMOVING GROWTH FROM FIRE LANES By N. R. McNaughton^ In Forestry Quarterly, Volume XII, there appeared on page 472 a note on the use of a shrub called Mille pertuis as a non- inflammable cover for the fire lanes in France. The note was called to the attention of the writer, who was then conducting experiments with the same end in view on the Karthaus State Forest, Clearfield County, Pennsylvania. Inquiry about this shrub was made at several of the large seed houses, but replies were received from but two. Neither recog- nized it as Mille pertuis. One replied that it is known as Hypericum elegans in America, and that a small supply of seed was available at $2 per ounce, but that it was doubtful if the stock could be increased or the price lowered until after the war. Under the circumstances, and in consideration of the small amount of money available for experiment, none of the seed was used. Other experiments, however, no less interesting, have been carried on on the Karthaus Forest, and although sufficient time has not elapsed to make possible definite statements as to results, it may not be amiss to give a rough outline of methods and material used. The first experiments on this Forest were made with the idea of finding some evergreen cover for fire lanes, similar to Mille pertuis. To this end, in the early spring of 1914, six measured strips of plowed fire lanes were thoroughly raked and sown to white clover, red clover, crimson clover, buckwheat, timothy, and pulverized rock salt. The idea in using buckwheat was to so loosen and modify the soil that an evergreen could be success- fully introduced the following year. In every case, except where rock salt was used, the experiment was a total failure. This is not to be wondered at, and was rather expected, since the lanes were exposed to glaring sunlight all the time, absolutely no tree cover being present, and the soil contained a large percentage of sand. Under these conditions, probably the only preliminary treatment which will make pos- ^Forester in charge, Karthaus State Forest, Pennsylvania. 270 Removing Growth from Fire Lanes 271 sible the introduction of one of the evergreen covers is a liberal application of lime. All growth on the rock salt plot was killed within a week, and to this day — almost two years — not a wisp of anything green can be found there. Forty pounds of the crushed salt were applied to an area of about 300 square feet. The experiments should be continued until the minimum amount of salt which will produce these results is found. In 1915, the experiments were continued, but were modified, in that the result striven for was the complete removal of all growth present. For this purpose a spot was chosen on which was found the greatest diversity of species which it is desirable to remove from fire lanes, such as bracken, sweet fern, huckle- berry bushes, grass, weeds, and hardwood and scrub oak sprouts. All brush was cut to the ground, and the areas treated were mowed as closely as possible and raked, so that solutions might penetrate to the roots. The following materials were applied to the plots thus prepared o:i the morning of July 6, a cool, clear, windy day, immediately following a rainy period of several days. 14 oz. sodium hydroxide in 1 gal. water to 50 sq. ft <^ll 11 11 llTll It 111 QQ 11 3 qts. granular salt in 3 gals, water " 72 " 3 " sulphuric acid in 3 qts. water " 45 " •3 It 11 11 41 fl 11 11 tl '7^ 11 ^11 11 11 It fi It t< tt on ** 1 gal. kerosene " 60 " 1 " gasoline " 60 " 1 " "Mount Vernon Weed Killer" in 25 gals, water " 375 " All growth was killed in less than a week on every plot except the one treated with kerosene. Every plot, however, was again covered with a growth of bracken, sweet fern, and grass before the growing season was over, except the one treated with weed killer. On this plot all growth is dead now, but it is suspected that new growth will appear this spring. Numerous cases are on record of damage done to crops by the oil from burst mains escaping over fields. In at least one case, damages were awarded on the basis that the fertility of the soil was permanently destroyed. If this be true, crude oil will solve the problem, and should be given a fair trial. Also, there are several by-products of the distillation of petroleum which may do the work as well, and which are much cheaper than crude oil. 272 Forestry Quarterly Chief among these is a comparatively light, oily by-product which goes by the trade name of "Pennsylvania distillate." Insufficient funds make it impossible for the Pennsylvania De- partment of Forestry to experiment with these materials in any large way now, but it is hoped that in the near future the experi- ments will be continued until some definite result is obtained. Any method will be of value which, at a reasonable cost, will either remove growth from fire lanes and keep it off, or else replace the present growth with some non-inflammable, evergreen material. SEED TESTING WITH THE JACOBSEN GERMINATING APPARATUS AT THE DANISH SEED CONTROL STATION Translation by J. A. Larsen^ The Danish Seed Control Station at Copenhagen is now the oldest institution of its kind in the world. It was organized as a private enterprise by E. Moller Hoist in 1871 and taken over by the Danish Government in 1891. The committee of five by which it is governed is representative and comprises one member of the legislature, one farmer, one seed merchant, and two others having expert knowledge in matters pertaining to seed. Its main object is to provide the farmers, seed breeders and seed merchants with information as to the quality of seeds which they have to use or sell. The work is done in a special building at No. 15 Biilows vei, Copenhagen V, under Director Herr. K. Dorph-Petersen, three chief assistants, six assistants and up to twenty temporary as- sistants as the work demands. That this is at times considerable may be gathered from the fact that the Station has tested an average of over 4,000 samples per annum since 1891. A complete analysis of the seed embraces a determination of the genuineness, purity per cent, weight, vitality and germinative power. Genuineness is usually determined by comparison with standard samples, or in doubtful cases by measurements, micro- scopic examination or raising plants. Purity per cent is obtained by mixing the sample well, spreading it out upon a flat surface by shaking so that every seed touches the plane, and then remov- ing at will two or more sectors which are weighed and hand picked, whereupon the amount of clean seed and the various kinds of extraneous material such as pieces of plants, earth, gravel, broken seeds, weed seeds, etc., are separately determined. By clean seed is meant all uninjured seeds of the species in question whether large or small. Three separate samples of 200 seeds each are counted from the carefully mixed sample, weighed separately and their mean mul- tiplied by five to obtain the weight of 1,000. In case any of the 'Forest Examiner, Priest River Experiment Station, Idaho. 273 274 Forestry Quarterly three samples vary more than 5 per cent from their mean the process is repeated. Usually a 5 per cent variation from the mean weight is allowed for seeds making 1,000 or more to the 5 grams, and a 10 per cent allowance for larger seeds. The dry weight, number per hectoliter, and other customary measures are listed for agricultural seeds. The three samples of 200 seeds previously counted and weighed may be used for the germination test, which is made in triplicate, ,J^P6^M!lF:^=jhZ^sm-^m^-== CL, C^/oss strc/ys, C. 3i/r?ser7 /?c/r/7er. their mean result being used as the figure representing the true germination per cent. However, should the result of one of the tests vary more than 10 per cent from the mean of the three, this figure must be disregarded, and if the results show more than 6 per cent variation between the dififerent parallel tests the whole test must be repeated. Practically all tests are made in the Jacobsen germination ap- paratus, which consists of a square metal tank about five inches high within which narrow strips of glass rest upon an inside rim Seed Testing 275 a short distance below the upper edge. The glass strips are put close together so as to allow the wick attached to the 8 centimeter woolen disc placed on the glass to run down into the water. Above the woolen disc, which is made from all wool blanketing, is placed a coarsely knitted disc made out of loose yarn, and above this again is a circular filter paper upon which the seed to be germinated rests. The three different discs and the seed are then covered by a glass bell jar provided with a hole near the apex to allow entrance of air. For the same reason the filter paper, knitted disc and woolen cloth have a hole near the center. The water in the tank which is heated by means of a Bunsen gas burner is made to circulate by placing a metal plate resting upon metal supports about two inches above the tank bottom. The temperature of the water is allowed to vary from 15 to 25 degrees centigrade. This apparatus is easy to operate, occupies re- latively small space for the number of tests and insures uniform results of high standard. Though the main work of the Seed Control Station centers around seed used in agricultural practice, the later years have witnessed a steady increase in the number of forest seeds sub- mitted for testing. The work in this field extends over a much shorter period so that the desired standards for all species have not in all cases been perfected, but most of the tests are run from 21 to 28 days, though in one instance the seed of one species of Rhus germinated only one seed in one year, while the remain- ing seeds were in perfect condition. The articles published by the Station staff, principally by the Director, are very numerous and cover the field well in respect to peculiarities of different kinds of seed and the methods of overcoming them, the diflficulties experienced in testing, identify- ing the seed, and the regulation of the seed market. Some of the articles which may prove of interest to investigators are listed below : REFERENCES Tests of Forest Seed, 1902-1907, Dansk Tidsskrift for Skov- vasen, Volume XX; Danish Seed Control Station, 1896-1907, by K. Dorph-Petersen, published by J. Jorgensen and Company, Copenhagen; Analysis of Forest Seed for 25 years,^ (not for 'Reviewed in F. Q., volume XIII, p. 527. 276 Forestry Quarterly sale) by Johannes Rafn, Dansk Skovf rokontor ; Work of the Danish Seed Control Station, 1913-14, by K. Dorph-Petersen, published by Nielsen and Lydicke, Copenhagen; Work of the Danish Seed Control Station, 1871-96, by O. Rostrup, published by Det Nordiske Forlag, Copenhagen. (All above publications are printed in Danish, but Analysis of Forest Seed for 25 Years is to be had in English.) In addition to these the Agricultural Journal, Landbrugets Planteavl, Volumes 4 to 14, contain numerous articles dealing with seed and seed testing. The nature of the matter treated may be judged by the following articles: Germination under Different Colored Light, Vol. 4; Relation between the Amount of Water Loss under Heating and the Num- ber of Rebellious Seed, Vol. 4 ; Examples of Decreasing Germi- native Power, Vol. 5 ; Influence of Carbon Dioxide Gas on Re- bellious Seeds, Vol. 5 ; Decreasing Germinative Power from Spring to Fall, Vol. 7. A DAY IN AN IRRIGATED PLANTATION, CHUNGA MUNGA, PUNJAB, INDIA By H. R. MacMillan^ A few days in Lahore, the capital of the Punjab and the head- quarters of the important Government railway system of India, afforded the opportunity of visiting a most interesting and suc- cessful forest plantation. The plains of the Indus and its tributaries, the -five rivers of the Punjab, in which Lahore is situated, constitute, naturally, in spite of the dense population and great scarcity of wood, a most unfavorable location for the production of timber. Al- through the soil is a rich alluvial clay, the climate with its combi- nation of heat and aridity has prevented the formation of any growth exceeding scrub. The precipitation varies from 5 to 20 inches a year, averaging about 15. The cold weather (there is no winter) does not go below a shade temperature of 68° F. in the day and 26° F. at night, and the hot weather brings hot blast- ing winds and a temperature which reaches 188° F. in the shade and averages at times, day and night, over 100° F. The land in the natural state lay a level desert, bare except for scattered shrubs and trees a few feet high. The first British work after establishing peace was to provide for the pressure of popu- lation by constructing the great irrigation schemes for which the broad level plain traversed by five large mountain-fed rivers was so well adapted. The area brought under irrigation for agricultural ourooses in the Punjab is now 8,300,00 acres, producing crops valued at about $88,000,000 annually. Areas of land suitable for cultiva- tion still remain unirrigated owing to the lack of water available for either the winter crops which require water in February and March or the summer crops which demand water in August and September. It is this land, suitable for agriculture in every way except that water is not available for it in the season in which it is demanded by agricultural crops, that is being used for forest planting. Fortunately there is sufficient water, unneeded for 'Timber Trade Commissioner, Dominion of Canada, and Chief Forester, British Columbia. 277 278 Forestry Quarterly other purposes during the months of May, June and July, when the forest plantations require irrigation. The plantations on the plains around Lahore were started in 1866 for the purpose of growing railway fuel for the govern- ment railways. At that time coal had not been discovered in India, the railways were burning wood, and with the rapid exhaustion of the accessible wood supply, feared the necessity of bringing coal from Great Britain. The earliest plantations consisted both of species native to the dry plains, the chief of which were acacia, Arabica, Dalbergia sissoo, a native of the flooded river banks and silt islands, and mulberry. The most successful species were the Shisham {D. sissoo) and mulberry, which were originally only tried on a small scale. The acacia, though a native of the region, was killed out by frost in the irrigated plantations. Great difficulty was experienced in starting the plantation. The first attempt, seeding broadcast in the cultivated plain, followed by flooding, was unsuccessful. It was believed the soil was too hard. Trenches were then dug, filled in with loose earth and seed sown along the filled trenches. This, too, was unsuccess- ful. Finally, a trial was accidentally made which proved most successful, of digging the trenches, sowing the seed in the edge of the bank of earth beside the trench and flooding the trenches to within about four inches of the level of the seed. The trenches are dug one foot deep, one foot wide and 10 feet apart. The seed is sown in March or April and the trenches flooded. The seedlings come up about two feet apart in the trenches and are 6 to 8 feet high in the first year. The first years of the plantations saw numerous failures after the seedlings were started, due to failure to supply water at the right time. The system adopted now is to flood the plantations two feet or more in depth during May, June and July. The plantation is traversed by a large canal from which leads run through every block and compartment. The blocks are sur- rounded by embankments to protect the roads. The system of irrigating is simple. Channels lead across each block and at right angles to the channels are the trenches dug when the area is planted and reopened after felling is completed. The general slope of the plantation is two feet in the mile. The A Day in an Irrigated Plantation 279 water is turned into each block for a depth of two feet for about two days. The remainder of the year the trees go without water except for the limited rainfall. Naturally it is difficult to find species capable of thriving under such conditions. Where patches of alkali soil occur, the blocks are trenched and irrigated several years before planting. The flooding re- moves the alkali and renders the soil fit for planting. The rotation first fixed for the plantation was 15 years, suffi- cient to furnish fuelwood 5 to 6 inches in diameter. When the railways ceased taking wood for fuel, the rotation was raised to 20 years in order that a larger proportion of workwood might be secured. The system now followed is coppice under standards. From 8 to 15 Shisham standards are left when the coppice is cut at 20 years and are allowed to stand over through another rota- tion for the production of logs. At 40 years the standards are 18 to 26 inches d.b.h. and 50 to 60 feet high, producing each one good log 12 to 17 feet long and a quantity of smaller timber. Nearly all the plantation was originally pure Shisham. Birds have distributed mulberry throughout the whole area, and its superior coppicing ability, more rapid growth and constant re- seeding have enabled it in two rotations or less to almost com- pletely oust the Shisham. A root fungus, not known to seriously affect the Shisham in its natural habitat, the flooded river lands of the region, has developed throughout the flooded plantation, and is hastening the disappearance of the species. Mulberry forms 80 per cent of the outturn from the compartments now being cut. It is already becoming difficult to find sufficient Shis- ham standards for the next rotation, and those standards being left over will largely disappear because of root fungus before the next cutting period. A question has already arisen concerning the species to be used for standards. Mulberry will not do, as it reaches the limit of its profitable development in 20 years. It will be probably necessary to plant for standards. Limited experiments have been made with eucalypts. Ordi- narily, this species cannot be planted in the Punjab because of white ants which devour the young trees. White ants have been driven out of the existing plantations by half a century of yearly 280 Forestry Quarterly flooding and the trees are safe there. The most satisfactory eucalypts for growth have been Rostra and Tereticomis. Speci- mens of these species on irrigated land have reached about two feet in diameter and 120 feet in height in 40 years. Neither of these trees produce satisfactory saleable timber here because of their certainty of splitting. The species which though slower growing produce the best timber in this district are Paniculata and Crebra. The working plan calls for final cutting on an area of 450 acres per year. This has never been done, the highest area cut over in the last 5 years being 350 acres. As a result, final cuttings are over 1,000 acres behind, a condition which seriously affects the profit from the plantation. Thinnings have never been tried in the plantation until this year, even though the condition of the stand, largely made up of such a ragged species as mulberry coming up so close together, urgently requires such treatment. The failure to have tried thinnings is more unaccountable, when it is taken into considera- tion, what must have been fairly obvious, that the first trial thin- nings in mulberry at six years of age produced 1,000 cubic feet of stacked wood per acre, and in addition to greatly improving the condition of the stand resulted in a net profit of $1 to $20 per acre. The working plan is now being revised and it may be expected that the new plan will provide for overtaking the arrears in felling and for thinnings throughout two or three times in the rotation. The outturn per acre is fairly high. The 20-year-old coppice, exclusive of standards, produces 4,000 cubic feet of stacked wood per acre. The utilization is very close, the stumps are cut level with the ground, all dead wood is taken and everything used down to a minimum diameter of one inch. The plantation is well supplied with good roads, each of the 10-acre blocks being surrounded by a road. The railroad runs along one side of the plantation and the Forest Service has built a 10-inch gauge tram with steel trucks operated by bullock power, over which all timber is taken out. The whole of the work is done departmentally under contract. The cutting of the timber is done under contract at 2 cents A Day in an Irrigated Plantation 281 per cubic foot for logs averaging 10 cubic feet or more, 1^ cents per cubic foot for smaller logs, $3 to $52 per 1,000 stacked cubic feet for fuel and workwood over two inches in diameter at the small end, and $3 to $20 per 1,000 stacked cubic feet for smaller stuff. These prices include felling the trees, cutting the timber, excepting the logs, into 5^/2 feet lengths, carrying it to the road and stacking it. Another contractor takes the timber to the depot at the railroad, using the government tram and trucks at 16 cents per 1,000 cubic feet per mile. The average haul is 23^ miles. A further 32 cents is paid for handling. The total cost for logs at the depot averages five cents per cubic foot and for fuel 42 cents per 100 cubic feet. The Divisional Forest Officer holds monthly auctions at the depot of the produce of the plantation. The purchasers are native merchants, who ship the wood by rail to the neighboring cities of Lahore and Amritsar (the seat of the manufacture of Persian, Turkish and Kashmir carpets for American purchasers). The logs of Shisham are used for furniture, carts, beds, beams in houses. The mulberry is used for vehicles, furniture and sport- ing goods ; large quantities of it are manufactured into the hockey sticks, tennis rackets and cricket bats used by the thousand, both by British regiments in India and in native schools. The wood is carefully picked over, everything that patience and ingenuity can turn to an industrial purpose is so used and the remainder is sold for firewood. The prices realized are good. The best Shisham logs sell at the depot for 44 cents a cubic foot quarter girth measure. The average realized for the Shisham logs is about 36 cents per cubic foot. The mulberry logs sell for an average price of 18 cents per cubic foot. Quantities of billets 53/^ feet long and 3 to 10 inches in diameter are sold mixed with firewood which are after- wards sorted out and industrially used. Including these billets, firewood over two inches in diameter sells for $3 to $50 per cord. The smaller firewood, less than two inches in diameter, sells for $1 to $17 per cord. The land is valued at $3 to $30 per acre. Irrigation costs $6,000 per year for the whole plantation for the water used. The cost of digging the trenches and establishing the plantation on new ground is $4 to $16 per acre. Supervision and care is 282 Forestry Quarterly very little. The staflf consists of one ranger, one deputy ranger and four of a subordinate grade, known as foresters, together with about 70 coolies — all natives. The total cost of this estab- lishment, together with a proportion of the Divisional Forest Office charges amount to about $1700 per year. The total cost of the plantation up to 1909, allowing inter- est compounded annually at 4 per cent was $224,000. Even though there were extensive early failures, though thinnings have not been practised, and the possibility of the plantation each year has not been realized through failure to cut over sufficient area each year, the surplus each year over actual expenditure now realizes 4.67 per cent on the invested capital represented at 1909. Under more intensive management, with such cheap labor, rapid timber production and an excellent market, the profit would undoubtedly be much greater. The failure to obtain better re- sults in the past appears to have been due in large measure to the fact that the plantation has been under the supervision of native district forest officers, who although trained as foresters, as a rule neither exhibit the initiative nor exercise the care necessary to make the most of an irrigated plantation. The failure to have experimented with thinnings is probably due to this cause. The Punjab Government is preparing to embark extensively on plantations, partly as a means of investing each year the surplus of Government revenue above expenditure and partly to meet the pressing demand for fuel and workwood. An area of 60,000 acres of irrigated plantations is contemplated, on the greater part of which a start has now been made. NEWS NOTES FROM DISTRICT 1, FOREST SERVICE By J. F. Preston During the past winter a Ranger Conference was held at the Priest River Experiment Station. Twelve rangers were selected and assigned to the station for the purpose of giving them some additional training. Members of the District Office gave special lectures and in addition the rangers were required to do sufficient improvement work to justify the expenses of their assignment. The need for better trained rangers is very urgent and this is one method the District has adopted in order to raise the general standard of the ranger personnel. This conference at Govern- ment expense is in addition to the short courses for rangers given at the various Forest Schools and is not intended to interfere with these courses in any way. In fact, the purpose of the conference is accomplished if the men who attend will have an added desire to take a more pretentious course of training. The conference this year was very successful. District Forester Silcox is developing what he calls an admini- strative plan for a Ranger District. This plan outlines in a simple way qualitative and quantitative standards of work and shows graphically the location of the work in the District with respect to the ranger's headquarters. This is along the line of scientific management and is another step in the effort to raise the general standard of ranger personnel. When it is remembered that 80 per cent of the Forest Service appropriation is spent for salaries, the importance of such efforts cannot be over-estimated. The office of Operation has inaugurated a rather comprehensive scheme for employing forestry students for short-term work dur- ing the summer, such as guards, surveyors, reconnaissance men, etc. The office is following in a general way the principles out- lined by Mrs. Katherine Blackford. The form of application which is required is rather formidable in appearance, but the results so far attained amply justify the methods. The big ob- jection to forestry students in the past has been the number of rather low quality men which have been obtained, not so much due to the men themselves as to the fact that they have not been fitted to the particular job for which they are best suited. The 283 284 Forestry Quarterly results of this system, as shown by the accomplishments last year, are very gratifying. It will mean evidently a very much larger percentage of the temporary force secured from Forest Schools, to the mutual advantage of the students and the Forest Service. There is in District 1 an urgent need for rangers of a higher type than the ranger examination of the past has produced. The ranger's position has grown in importance, the living conditions have improved, and along with it, the standard for the man to occupy the position has been raised. As a matter of fact, the ranger position is the best possible training for Forest Assistants. If they are not able to handle a Ranger job, they should not be retained in the service. If they can handle it successfully, there is just as much opportunity, and perhaps more, for advancement to higher positions as there is through the old way of entrance by the Forest Assistant examination. There is some Civil Service difificulty yet to be overcome. The University of Montana Forest School has this year ob- tained students from all over the United States and from some foreign countries. The District Forester of New South Wales, Australia, is in attendance, studying forestry methods in this country, as well as securing technical training. There have been some recent developments in fire protection which are worthy of note. The Adams portable telephone has been developed during the past year and will be used for the first time this season. This telephone was developed by R. B. Adams, Telephone Engineer in this District. The instrument weighs about two pounds and, with a "howler" attachment to the ordinary phone, this light, portable instrument does all of the work required of any telephone instrument. The lightest phone formerly available weighed ten pounds. Kitchen and mess equipment for fire fighting has been stan- dardized for 2, 5, 10 and 50 men outfits. All the cooking vessels are made to nest one within the other so as to secure the lightest weight and the smallest volume. For smoke chasers' outfits, a combination axe and mattock has been made, which, together with a shovel with a detachable handle, forms the smoke chaser's fire-fighting tools. The whole outfit weighs about 8 pounds, which is considerably lighter than any serviceable tools for this purpose ever before used. District 1 Notes 285 The problem of rations for smoke chasers is now receiving considerable study. It seems to be impossible to outline any ra- tions which will enable the men to do hard work, with a less weight than three pounds per day per man. The three District warehouses built last year — one at Missoula, one at Kalispell, and one at Spokane — have been about 50 per cent stocked. They have been proved to be amply worth while and every effort is now being made to stock them to full capacity. The equipment maintained will be for third line of defense only. The equipment for first and second line defense will be maintained in the Forest. By way of explanation, I might say that first line of defense is the smoke chaser's force, consisting of one and two men in a place. The second line of defense is the settlers, administrative officers and others locally available. The third line of defense is the floating labor force available at the larger towns. CURRENT LITERATURE Forest Valuation. By Filibert Roth. Volume II of Michigan Manual of Forestry. Published by the Author. Ann Arbor, Mich. 1916. Pp. 171. Forest Valuation. By H. H. Chapman. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 1915. Pp. 310. It is most interesting to note these two volumes, which have appeared within half a year of each other, together, for it would hardly seem possible to treat the same subject in so absolutely difTerent manner. The treatment in both is original, and in no way resembles that of previous authors, mostly German. Both books are written with American needs in view ; yet by merely looking at the table of contents one notices differences at least of arrangement, and in reading one is at once made aware of a difference as one of opposite poles. Professor Roth, as is his wont, approaches each problem in the simplest manner from the concrete case, such as is apt to occur in practice, and leads one by an interesting train of thought and with a persuasive com- mon sense to recognize the propriety of the abstract deductions and theoretical methods. Professor Chapman, on the contrary, prepares first with the heavy artillery of theory and scientific apparatus the way for attacking each problem, but he also con- tinues relentlessly the use of the same arm. While, if anything, Roth's presentation appears almost too ele- mentary and simple, and for a textbook, for which the volume is clearly designed, rather deficient in theoretical discussion. Chap- man's volume errs in the other direction by neglecting concrete example and at times the "pedantry of erudition" hampers lucidity of statement and makes the reading difficult and laborious, espe- cially since irrelevant detail appears without diiTerentiation to- gether with the essentials. Work such as these two volumes represent should, however, be judged leniently for it is breaking new roads, to bring the sub- ject of forest finance to fit American conditions and attitudes. If, therefore, we appear to criticize sharply, it is done not in the spirit of fault finding, but for the purpose of assisting in smooth- ing the road. 286 Current Literature 287 Both authors have chosen the more confined title of ''forest valuation," yet to some extent they introduce discussion on gen- eral financial and statical problems which would suggest as more appropriate the broader title of "forest finance." Discussions of the relation of capital and income, of a financial rotation, of a comparison of use of land in agriculture and forestry, as Roth has them — these are statical inquiries. Both authors have, how- ever, to the reviewer's mind an erroneous conception of the mean- ing of forest statics and its position in the larger subject of forest finance, of which forest valuation and statics are the two broad chapters. Although Chapman cites the proper and clear definition of Schlich and repeats it in the preface, thereby supposedly making it his own, his chapter under the title Forest Statics is concerned merely with the methods of balancing accounts and figuring profits. There is nothing of "weighing the comparative merits of dififerent methods of treatment to which forests may be sub- jected," as Schlich's definition would require, and as was the conception of the inventor of the term forest statics, Hundes- hagen. Only one of the static problems, that of the comparison of agricultural and forest values, is treated in a chapter of 14 pages. The balancing of income and outgo is, to be sure, in a manner a statical comparison, but the operation of mere book balancing needs hardly the dignity of a special term : statics connotes rather a balancing of such balances, the application of forest valuations to test the financial effect of different methods of management. The entire absence in Chapman's volume of attention to the most important statical inquiry, that of the financial rotation, is a serious omission. Even in a book on valuation pure and simple one can hardly afford to omit this subject, for expectancy values are based on rotation. Roth also defines statics as weighing "advantages and disad- vantages of both lines," i. e., "whether to change from farm crop to forest crop pays better," but eventually the balancing of costs and incomes seems to him statics and not alone the comparison of valuations, the comparison of methods of treatment or methods of capital employment in which costs and incomes have already been balanced. Incidentally, Judeich, whom Roth correctly cites as exponent of forest finance, was not, as is stated, at any time head 288 Forestry Quarterly of the Saxon forest department, only director of the forest school at Tharandt. While we are on the subject of definitions, we may refer to some others which appear to us deficient. Roth is sparing with definitions, taking for granted that capital, interest, etc., are well understood terms, while Chapman goes to unusual lengths in clearing the way by definitions of elemental economic concepts. We are inclined to quarrel with the definition of capital by Chapman as "wealth available for future use," that "all wealth is capital," and that classification into wealth intended for consump- tion and that used for the production of other wealth "leads to confusion." On the contrary, much clearness in financial con- ceptions is secured by recognizing capital as differing from prod- uct, and going still further into classification of current, fixed and specialized capital, which helps in the discussion of interest rates, making us realize why different classes of capital produce interest at different rates. In subsequent passages, indeed, the difference is tacitly under- stood, and under costs in forest production not only capital account and current expense account, but, with much less need, crop expenses are separately grouped. In neither book appears a clear distinction between subjective and objective cost values, that is between the actual investment value, which represents the actual (subjective) expenditure of whatever nature actually paid out in the acquirement of a prop- erty, or the cost (subjective) which was actually involved in creating it, as contrasted with the possibly very different expendi- ture (objective) which would be necessary to reproduce it. This lack of distinction as we will see later, leads to peculiar attitudes. It would also be better usage to reserve cost value for value represented by cost of production, and distinguish it from invest- ment value (see Roth, pp. 29 and 89). In both books, the discussion on interest rates, which is perhaps the most troublesome subject in the whole field of forest finance, receives but scanty and unsatisfying attention. For instance, although Roth's section on Interest contains over four pages, it confines the discussion to actual usages in various lands and various business, but fails to analyze the reasons which produce Current Literature 289 the different interest rates, and then arbitrarily (on p. 55) pro- poses the adoption of 3 per cent for calculatory use because this rate is ''used extensively in European works." The reasoning is not convincing. In discussing the interest actually made in European forest management he very properly calls attention to the fact, which we have repeatedly pointed out, that in the usual finance calculations of State administration the returns are not related to any original investment value, but are based upon a sale value not at any past time but the present. We disgree in think- ing that "this high value is not a fictitious one, but a very real thing, and that these properties could readily be sold at these high prices." We believe, on the contrary, that the values are merely calculated, fictitious ones, and while the exploitable timber part could perhaps be sold, there would never be a ready market for the large areas of the young age classes : the prices are figured, but there is no market. As Chapman correctly points out (p. 109), the method of recal- culating the investment with a standardized interest rate also clouds the question of profitableness of the investment. Chapman gives a much fuller and comprehensive discussion of the factors which influence interest rates, in a chapter of 13 pages. He leaves out, however, the practical considerations, applicable under American conditions particularly, of increment on stump- age price, which is a most potent influence on the interest rate. There are good reasons why wood prices should still rise in Europe, and still stronger reasons why they should rise with us, and by so much as they rise we can be satisfied with a lower inter- est rate on our investment, since the value of the investment is sure to increase without our effort and make up for the low rate. That the item of interest on borrowed capital is not paid from gross income and is "entirely a personal matter between the owner and his creditors" is a novel way of looking at banking business and misleading, for such loans are made on some sort of mortgage and not on personal notes. That such important fundamental conceptions of forest finance as the soil rent and forest rent should, in Chapman's book, receive only incidental notice in the chapters on Appraisal of Damages and Taxation, is, to say the least, an unsatisfactory arrangement. Better logical arrangement of matter is also in other respects 290 Forestry Quarterly to be wished. It is, indeed, dangerous to make any statement re- garding matter in the book that might not in another part be modi- fied. One would, for instance, in a chapter headed Values, expect to find the various values determined from different points of view at least cited, but we find in this chapter only sale value in juxtaposition to appraised value (as if sale value were not also an appraised value!). Nor is Roth's volume quite free from faults in logical coordina- tion. The chapter Application of Valuation, e. g., starts with three subjects of general import which are not application but basic, namely, nature and value of the timber crop, risks in forestry, and a discussion on the interest rate, which with other basic matter should have been placed into a separate chapter. There is no good reason why discussion on stumpage values on pages 43 and 44 should be separated from the chapter on Value of Stumpage on page 89. In Chapman's book, we feel constrained to point out some peculiar conceptions. In the discussion of the soil expectancy value, it is stated (pp. 94, 95) that this value "represents the value of all future income dating from a point just subsequent to the complete removal of a crop of timber. It is the value of all future crops exclusive of the one occupying the ground." And farther on, it is intimated that this value is good only for one year. This is an entirely novel way of looking at the soil expectancy value as a variable quantity deduced from an accidentally present crop ; instead of being based on best possible crops — the ability of the soil to produce. The condition of a crop may be due to fire, insects, or any other extraneous cause, but that has no bearing on the soil value. The soil value is, however, properly variable ac- cording to the kind of crop, as for instance, the species used will give one soil value which another species could not produce. Again, the unwillingness to accept the soil rent as a cost in bringing the timber crop to maturity "unless a different person owns the soil and rents it to the one who grows the trees" (p. 124), is a strange misconception of the whole basic fabric of finance calculation, which requires that every capital be charged with its appropriate interest. The soil may be considered worth nothing by the owner and, therefore, in his proprietary account he may leave out the charge, but this is not strict financial account- Current Literature 291 ing and in appraisal of damage the other party will surely and properly insist on having made account of it. The mere consideration that the owner of the soil could have used it for other purposes makes it clear that the soil rent is a cost against the timber. The trouble lies in mixing theory and practice, in failing to distinguish between financial methods and practical procedures. A financial method fits every contingency, but under practical conditions we may modify it, consciously deviating from its correct reasoning. Whether the Government or anyone else is the owner makes no difference, there is a soil value and a soil rent, but under cir- cumstances the one or the other party may waive consideration of this value. The proposition to throw all objective values overboard and relying entirely on subjective ones, utilizing only actual costs and sale value, may lead in many damage cases to utter injustice, when, for instance, at present unsaleable properties are involved. The absurdity of this position appears, indeed, on page 127, when for the Government at least, it is suggested, recovery of damage is precluded because it did not pay anything for the land and was to no expense in producing the stand of trees. This may be practical politics, but it is not finance. A curious inconsistency might be pointed out in the discussion on taxation, when, on page 141, it is stated "such investments of capital (taxes) add nothing to the value of the property," and on page 144, by taxes "the entire level of values is raised." We take it "value" means something different in the two statements. The main trouble in Chapman's book, which seems at the bot- tom of such misconceptions and the involved diction, is its origi- nal idea of reducing financial accounting to the bookkeeper's accounting. In no business is this customary or practical, and especially not in a business in which the time element is so promi- nent as in forestry, in which compound interest calculation is un- avoidable, in which much of the product is unsaleable and becomes saleable only in time. The time sacrifice is a value or investment which the bookkeeper cannot take care of directly. All the way through there is an attempt to subordinate finance calculation to bookkeeping instead of the reverse. Regarding the chapters on forest taxation in the two volumes a 292 Forestry Quarterly correspondent makes the following pertinent remarks in which we agree : "The ignoring of the influence of the financial rotation has led to all kinds of wild confiscation paragraphs which prove nothing as to the fairness or unfairness of the annual property tax for forests as compared with other forms of property. It is easy to show that any property (not only forests) will be confiscated if it for any reason no longer furnishes a satisfactory income to meet taxes, i. e., has passed the 'financial rotation' . . . The Loblolly pine in Chapman's example (p. 147) shows 40 years as the financial rotation, when it earns less than 5 per cent, so that the 2 per cent tax on sale value becomes confiscatory (absorbs more than 2/5 of net income). This tax confiscation becomes more pronounced as one gets farther beyond the financial rotation. This is no discrimination against forest investment, as a tax on any capital earning little or no income always becomes con- fiscatory and drives the owner to some effort to make it earn properly. . "Roth states his problem even more unfairly (p. 113) . "Forestry either does pay the current business rate of interest or it does not. If it does, it can pay the same annual tax as other property without any confiscation whatever. I favor the final tax on grounds of expediency not of justice. If forestry does not pay an acceptable interest rate to the private owner, but we still desire forests, then it is a matter for Government activity," There are quite a number of other minor points on which discussion might be profitable, but it would extend this review too far. Both books are worth close study; both of them if used as textbooks, leave, however, ample scope to the teacher to enlarge and to explain; indeed, if the two were merged in one and the good points in either taken and the deficiencies corrected we would have an ideal volume. Roth's volume brings incidentally a large amount of useful information regarding forest production, both in Europe and America. In the appendix there are several interesting helps to be found, namely, money yield tables for the German species, which are highly suggestive, and volume yield tables in curves to which in a novel way height and diameter curves are added so Current Literature 293 as to have the whole increment story in smallest compass handy for use in determining rotations and other problems. Only one interest table, namely, for extension, is given, up to 10 per cent. Whether it is worth while to give this in decimals is open to question. The same space might have been more usefully employed to introduce the usual discount, capitalization and rent tables. Chapman's book in this respect is better and also adds extensive logarithmic tables. In the use of the formulae, Roth gives the advice (p. 13, foot- note) to write i.op-i, in order to recall the derivation of the ex- pression. This seems gratuitous for it is just as easy and less cumbersome to see the derivation of — = C fromC "a = 100 '-P .op ' ' '^' The index to the 55 formulae developted by Chapman is useful, but we believe that there is much unnecessary formula work gone through in the volume. Finally, wc should mention approvingly the very desirable teaching apparatus furnished by Roth in the 37 problems for practice work. The execution of one or the other of these prob- lems would render the book fit for self-study. B. E. F. Forest Legislation in America Prior to March 4, ijSg. By J. P. Kinney. Bulletin 370, Agricultural Experiment Station, Cor- nell University. Ithaca, N. Y. 1916. Pp. 359-405. This interesting study, compiled as a thesis for the degree of Master in Forestry, has, to be sure, only historical value. It tries to show that even before the formation of the Union atten- tion was directed to "Conservation." The study is based on original sources, which are cited by titles filling three pages. The gist of the legislation is given under the name of each colony, and is divided into four sections, namely, legislation regarding forest fires ; regarding conservation and the prevention of tres- pass ; regarding control of forest industries ; and regarding spe- cial developments, such as control of sand dunes, control of river driving, and cooperative forestry. 294 Forestry Quarterly Most of the legislation one would hardly refer to as being inspired by the modern conservative thought, but it is rather dictated by property interests, although conservation ideas were not absent, as e. g., when in the Plymouth colony, as early as 1626, no man was allowed to sell or transport any timber out of the colony without approval of governor and council, the inconveni- ence from lack of timber being given as a reason. Later legislation regarding wood exports, except of manufac- tured materials might, however, be construed as merely a result of economic policy. Similarly, the Massachusetts law forbidding the cutting of White pine trees above 24 inch diameter was based on property considerations, such mast trees being reserved for the royal navy. But the restriction of a lowest diameter for fuelwood to six inches in the Albany market may perhaps have been true conservation policy. The most interesting developments mentioned are the control of the Cape Cod sand dunes, which began as early as 1709 and continued to be an object of legislation by many successive acts until 1797, and the encouragement of cooperative forestry. The wisdom which lay behind the legislation of Massachusetts (1744) of permitting a number of woodlot owners to cooperate in man- aging their forest properties calls for re-enactment in our times. Also the re-establishment of communal or municipal forests, which were common in those early times, recommends itself. We congratulate Mr. Kinney on having made such a good start for a history of forestry in the United States based on a systematic study of original sources. B. E. F. The Red Rot of Conifers. By F. H. Abbott. Bulletin No. 191, Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station. 1915. Pp. 20. Trametes pini, the cause of red rot, a decay characterized by a darkening of the wood and the formation in it of white spots or "pockets," is one of the most destructive of the parasitic and wood-destroying fungi, and from this standpoint has been the subject of numerous investigations. Few conifers are immune to its depredations; of our eastern species tamarack is most Current Literature 295 susceptible, though closely followed by pine, hemlock, spruce and balsam. Its greatest ravages are in unthinned stands, especially pure stands of White pine, and infection occurs mainly through broken branches. The annual losses to timber owners in Vermont alone were estimated to be a quarter of a million dollars, so that the losses throughout America each year probably run into many millions. Prevention is best effected by proper thinnings, remov- ing diseased trees and destroying the punks or fruiting bodies; though the practicability of the methods remains to be put to the test in forest areas in America. The lumber from diseased trunks is of very inferior quality, but is usable to some extent in box- making, cooperage, etc. J. H. F. Larch Mistletoe: Some Economic Considerations of Its Injuri- ous Effects. By J. R. Weir. Bulletin No. 317, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 25. Many of the conifers of North America are subject to attack from one or other of several species of dwarf mistletoes, slender, leafless, yellowish or brownish flowering plants, one to three inches in length, growing in small clumps on the stems and branches of their hosts. In the East the spruces not infrequently fall a prey to one of these pests ; in the West, Lodgepole pine. Yellow pine, Jack pine, Western larch, Douglas fir, hemlock and other species suffer. In this bulletin, Dr. Weir presents the first of a series of economic studies on these parasites — Arceuthobium laricis on Western larch. Infection is most abundant in thin, open, uneven, exposed stands, in some cases involving 80 to 90 per cent of the larch, and trees of all ages are susceptible. The effects produced arc witches' brooms, burls, open wounds, through which destructive fungi may gain entrance, stunted growth, and often death. Lumber from diseased trees is inferior in amount and quality. Mistletoe may be controlled by inserting in all timber-sale contracts a clause requiring the cutting on the sales' area of all larches infected with mistletoe, whether merchantable or unmerchantable. J. H. F. 296 Forestry Quarterly The Development of the Vegetation of New York State. By Dr. William Bray. Technical Publication No. 3, the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University. Syracuse, N. Y. November, 1915. Pp. 186. The object of the publication of the above title is to present the vegetation of the State of New York from the standpoint of its origin and development, and to set forth the factors, general and particular, which have differentiated it into its present aspects. The dynamics of plant life is the major motif of the bulletin. The present vegetation is used only to illustrate the adjustments to climatic conditions and the various stages in the developmental sequence. After devoting some twenty pages to an explanation of what vegetation is and how it works, the author passes to a con- sideration of its geological history from the Carboniferous period to the present, naturally stressing the profound influence of glacia- tion. This discussion covers about twenty pages. The considera- tion of the present zonal relationships of the present flora occupies around forty pages of the bulletin. Thus, about one- half of the bulletin is devoted to giving the reader an insight into causes, mostly climatic, which have fashioned the vegetation of the State in its present mould. Most of the remaining portion of the publication is concerned with filling in the details of the mosaic, that is, with the succession of vegetation, due to local factors, in the various habitats. This is included under two general head- ings : The developmental sequence of vegetation upon a sub- stratum having an excess of water, and the development of vege- tation upon a substratum subject to prevailing water deficit. The mean of these conditions, the prevailing one in the State, receives only about ten pages of generalized discussion. This dispropor- tionate presentation is intentional on the part of the author, in order to emphasize the developmental nature of vegetation, and he clearly shows that succession in the two general habitats men- tioned above leads to the establishment of mesophytic vegetation. One fears, however, that this method of presentation will leave the general reader with the impression that succession and developmental relations of vegetation come to a complete standstill in the climax type. As a matter of fact, vegetation is never stable. The dynamics in the climax type varies only in ^ Current Literature 297 degree from that in the types lower down in the developmental scale. All through the bulletin one is impressed with the importance of vegetation in increasing the water content of the dry situations and in ultimately decreasing the water content of wet situations, and in both, of increasing the fertility of the soil. The sig- nificance of this is brought to a head under the caption : The status of New York vegetation under cultural conditions. When one considers how large a percentage of the soil of the State is not at present producing anything of value, or at least a reasonable interest return, or worse, not in a position even to become really productive, he is impressed by the fact that the plant-producing capacity of the land has been grievously abused by the advance of man's dominion over it. The great problem in the State of New York, as in most other regions occupied by highly developed industrial peoples is to rectify this condition, or perhaps better, to educate public opinion so it will appreciate the economic losses which such a condition of affairs entails. Although the author does not mention it, the magnitude of the problem in this particu- lar State is indicated by the fact that the people have several times exhibited their determination to let rot on the ground the interest accrued by the annual growth of the forest in the State forest reservation. Several illustrations may be given to show the author's method of treatment of his subject. For example, under the topic: Zonal relations of the Netv York flora, he makes the following subdivi- sions : Zone of IVillozv oak, Sweet gum and Persimmon, in which the indicator species, besides those mentioned, are Shortleaf pine. Black-jack oak. Laurel magnolia and Hop-tree. The growing period is from 190 to 200 days. This zone is confined to Staten Island, the southern portion of Long Island, and along the Sound contiguous to the Connecticut coast. Zone of Dominance of Oaks, Hickories, Chestnut and Tulip tree, in which there are eleven species of oak and six species of hickory, besides Black walnut, Butternut, Hackberry, Kentucky Cofifee-tree, Honey lo- cust. Sassafras, Red-bud and Flowering dogwood. The growing season is from 160 to 180 days. This zone occupies the Hudson valley and its adjacent highlands nearly as far north as Lake George, a belt along the southern shore of Lake Ontario, the Fin- 298 Forestry Quarterly ger Lake valleys and the valleys of most of the southward drain- ing streams. Zone of Dominance of Sugar maple, Beech, Yellow birch, Hemlock and White pine, a mixed forest, in which the frostless period is from 130 to 150 days. This is the climax type of the State, and it occupies the greater part of the area. The under vegetation of the forest also reaches its climax here. Canadian-Transition Zone. In general, the dominance is the same as in the zone above, but there is a tendency, especially at the higher elevations, towards the dominance of Red spruce, balsam, Paper birch and Mountain ash. It is further characterized by the usual absence of oak, hickory, elm, tulip and chestnut. The herbaceous forms of the Appalachian region begin to drop out and more northerly ranging species to come in. The growing period is from 100 to 130 days. The zone is found in the Catskills from about 2,000 feet to 3700 feet in elevation and in the Adirondacks up to 3500 feet, more or less. Canadian Zone, characterized by the dominance of Red spruce, balsam and Paper birch, and it is found in the Adirondacks between 3500 feet and tree line. Arctic Flora of the Adirondack Peaks. The distribution of these zones is displayed on a map of the State. While this bulletin apparently belongs to a series of technical publications, from his conversational style, the elaborateness of his explanations and the reiteration of his point of view, it is evident that the author has a "popular" audience mostly in mind. As an educational medium one feels that the bulletin would have better served its purpose to have been issued in at least three distinct parts. It contains too much meat for the non-^:echnical reader to digest and assimilate at one meal. Even in its present condition its educational value would have been enhanced by a conspicuous display of a summary of its contents. To the botanist and ecologist, however, the enthusiasm of the author is contagious and the bulletin is an inspiration. C. D. H. Timber Conditions in the Smoky River Valley and the Grand- Prairie Country. By J. A. Doucet. Bulletin 53, Dominion For- estry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1915. Pp. 55. Current Literature 299 The area covered by this report lies mostly in the drainage basin of the Smoky River and its tributaries, whose waters flow into the Peace River in Alberta. The author's exploration extended over seven months and some 9500 square miles of territory were examined. About 8,000 square miles were found to be forest land and 1500 square miles prairie land, the latter being a south- eastward extension of the Peace River prairie country in British Columbia. It appears that only about one third of the forest land is covered with forest. About 2.6 million acres, or more than half of the forest land, have been burned, most of it several times, in the past 30 years. Approximately, one third of the burned area is restocking in potentially commercial quantities. The rest of it is probably destroyed forever, from the standpoint of commercial forests, unless it is artificially restocked. Virgin forest occupies a little more than one quarter of the actually forested area and about one twelfth of forest soil of the region. What there is of it, however, is in good condition, since it is estimated to contain approximately three billion feet of saw timber, around 7,000 feet per acre, besides three million cords of firewood. The forest is composed of spruce to the extent of 70 per cent of the stand, the remaining portion being pine and poplar. Stands from 50 to 100 years old occupy 28 per cent of the forested area. They are estimated to contain about three quarters of a billion feet of saw material and four and a quarter million cords of firewood. These stands are about one half pine and one third spruce. Pole-timber forest less than 50 years old occupies 735,000 acres, or 46 per cent of the forested area. In these stands poplar leads with 42 per cent, pine follows with 38 per cent, and spruce contributes only 10 per cent to the composition. This area is estimated to yield about 3.5 million cords of firewood. This forest of the younger age classes probably had its origin from the results of burning, leaving only that classed as virgin, above 100 years old (8% of the area), as having escaped the ravages of fire in the past 100 years. The author estimates that on the tract examined 16,000 million feet of merchantable spruce and pine timber have been destroyed by fire in the past 30 years. The author says : "The results of repeated fires have been appalling. However, the comparative figures, and other 300 Forestry Quarterly considerations given under this title, are as nothing compared with the impression the eye-witness receives." The author rec- ommends the placing of practically the entire area under forest reservation and he discusses plans for its protection from fire. C. D. H. Forest Protection in Canada, 1913-1914. By Clyde Leavitt. Commission of Conservation. Ottawa, Canada. 1915. Pp. 317. In a very attractively prepared and well illustrated volume, the second report of the Forester for the Commission of Con- servation has been issued, covering the years 1913 and 1914, This report, which is partly the work of Dr. C. D. Howe and Mr. J. H. White, and to which several others have contributed, is divided into six parts. Part I deals with the work of administering General Order Number 107, of the Board of Railway Commissioners for Canada. This Order places upon the railways under the jurisdic- tion of the Board — about 85 per cent of the railway mileage of Canada — the responsibility for safeguarding lands adjacent to their rights of way from fire damage caused by railway opera- tion, the manner of safeguarding being left to the Chief Fire Inspector, who is at the same time Forester of the Commission, to prescribe. This work was first organized in the Western Provinces in 1912, and the present report deals with the con- tinuation of the work as first organized, the improvements that have been made as a result of experience, and the extension of the work to the Eastern Provinces. In the East, arrangements were perfected for handling the inspection of patrols in Ontario, Quebec and New Brunswick. All inspection for the Board is by officials of the Dominion or the Provincial Government Depart- ments interested, acting as cooperators with the Board of Rail- way Commissioners at their own expense. The fire protection work itself is done entirely by the railway companies, with their own staffs and at their own expense, and the report points out that its efficiency is directly dependent upon the efficiency and sufficiency of the inspection staff provided by the railways and on the development by them of a special organization to handle protection work. Through such a policy the Canadian Northern Current Literature 301 Railway and the Canadian Pacific Railway have been much more successful and worked much more harmoniously with the representatives of the Board than have some of the other lines. Interesting features of this portion of the report are a sample letter of instructions in full to a large railway corporation specifying the patrols that are to be established, their equip- ment, etc., and a discussion of the velocipede versus the power speeder as a means of track patrol. The summary of fires reported in 1913 shows 709, of which 365 were known to be caused by the trains and 131 reported as cause unknown. The rest were due to miscellaneous causes or the cause is not reported. Total damage outside the 600-foot strip is placed at $40,587. In 1914, 1346 fires occurred; 904 caused by railways ; 227 cause unknown ; the rest due to miscel- laneous causes classified in the report. The damage outside the protection strip is placed at $433,442. Part II contains the reports of the Committee on Forests of the Commission of Conservation for 1913 and 1914. These out- line the progress of the investigative work undertaken by the Commission, the most important of which is the inventory of Canadian forest resources which the Commission has undertaken to make. Both reports repeat the recommendation made pre- viously, that the officers of the Dominion Forestry Branch be placed under the Civil Service Commission. Part III is devoted to a discussion of brush disposal. It is entirely made up of reports on the status of brush disposal in the various provinces by forest officials and by extracts from State Foresters reports, or special articles on the situation in various states near the international boundary. On the whole, brush disposal has not progressed far in Canada. The Dominion Forestry Branch leads in its work on some of the Forest Reserves, but here the natural and economic conditions are unus- ually favorable. British Columbia has done some good work along this line under adverse conditions. In the rest of Canada, practically nothing is done to remove this menace. Parts IV and V are by Dr. C. D. Howe. The first is a discussion of The Effect of Repeated Forest Fires upon the Reproduction of Commercial Species in Peterborough County, Ontario. It is a record of a detailed examination made on some 302 Forestry Quarterly 85,000 acres in a typical section of old logged-over lands in Ontario, where through lack of any kind of protective measures, fires have been allowed to run practically at will for years. The investigator finds that the number of fires in the area has increased 300 per cent in eight years. The entire cut-over area of pine lands, amounting to 70,000 acres of the 85,000 acres in the tract, has been severely burned at least once since lumbering, and some portions as many as eight times. The result naturally is the practical elimination of the valuable species and in some cases the creation of useless rock barrens bare of all trees. Some 12 per cent of the area is in this latter condition. It is inter- esting to recall, as giving point to the author's contentions, that between the first examination in 1912 of a larger area, the Trent Watershed, of which this smaller area forms a part, and the survey made by the author in 1913, some 20 per cent of the larger area was fire swept. If, as there is every reason to think, the area examined by the author is typical of the logged-off lands of the Province, the conditions revealed contain little to encourage any hope of future yields of timber from the second growth forests of Ontario. The total disregard, or rather the blank ignorance, of responsible officials who should be fully seized of the conditions existing on the cut-over forest lands of the Province, constitutes a most serious situation in a province so largely composed of lands fit only for timber production. The second report by Dr. Howe concerns the national repro- duction of Douglas fir in British Columbia. The author con- cludes that adequate natural reproduction can be assured by regulated broadcast burning of logging slash. Part VI is by Mr. J. H. White. It is a general survey of the status of "Forestry on Dominion Lands in the Four Western Provinces." The forest conditions in the various provinces are discussed, together with the fire protection, methods of adminis- tering timberlands and disposing of timber. In doing this, the author has necessarily explained the origin and relationship of the three forest administering agencies of the Department of the Interior, a relationship which is — perhaps, with reason — often a source of confusion to those not familiar with the situation. Current Literature 303 There is one suggestion we would make in regard to this report. There are three principal phases to the fire protection situation in Canada. These are railway fire protection, of which we have a great deal ; brush disposal, of which we have not very much, and forest protection, for which we spend well over $1,000,000 per annum without knowing whether we get any- thing or not. We think that a report of this magnitude entitled "Forest Protection in Canada," should tell us something about this important phase of the subject, W. N. M. Report of the Director of Forestry for the Fiscal Year Ending March SI, 1915. By R. H. Campbell. Part VI of the Annual Report of the Department of the Interior. Ottawa, Canada. 1915. Pp. 102. This annual report is now available as a separate, reprinted from the Departmental report. It follows the same general lines as previous ones, being made up of a general survey of conditions during the year by the Director, with separate reports by each of the officers in charge of the four inspection districts, the Chief of the Tree Planting Division and the Superintendent of the Forest Products Laboratories. No additions to the forest reserve area are reported, although large areas of land in the northern Forest Belt have been examined and those found unfit for agri- cultural development have been temporarily reserved. Attention is directed to the enormous areas in this region that have been fi.re swept in comparatively recent years and to the minute pro- portion of the region that now bears merchantable timber. The report emphasizes the extreme danger of complete and almost irremediable denudation that will result from the burning of these young stands of reproduction which have mostly not yet reached seed-bearing age. It rightly considers this one of the most important problems in forest protection before the Forestry Branch. The fire situation during 1914 was extremely dangerous, especially in Alberta and British Columbia. In all, 1986 fires were reported, of which 408 were on the Forest Reserves and 1578 outside the Reserves. The area burned over was 691,000 304 Forestry Quarterly acres and the timber destroyed amounted to 508 million feet b.m. As this shows an average stand of only 730 feet per acre, it is some indication of the lightness of the stands in these forests, since it is known that fires in the region generally cause the death of all the timber within the area covered by them. The Forestry Branch on the Reserves probably receives the most complete and detailed reports of the actual fire situa- tion each year secured by any agency in Canada, and their reports of present conditions on protected areas, considered in connec- tion with the facts as to past destruction revealed by its forest surveys, should be carefully studied by those interested in secur- ing efficient protection of Canada's remaining timber resources. One disquieting feature of these reports is the large percentage of fires that attain a considerable size. Nearly 50 per cent of the fires on the Reserves attained a large size, indicating that the fire protection has not been developed to a state of efficiency that is essential. The inspectors who comment on this rather obvious situation attribute it to lack of permanent improvements, and in some cases, to faulty personnel and lack of training. The distribution of trees for prairie planting shows a slight increase. The total for the year was over 3,800,000 trees dis- tributed. A new nursery was established near Saskatoon, to take care of the distribution to the more northern sections. The Forest Products Laboratories reports considerable pro- gress in organization and also in the starting of several impor- tant investigations. Much of the year was taken up in getting together the necessary equipment and stafif, especially in the pulp and paper division. As in other divisions of the Forestry Branch, the war has affected the work of the Laboratories through reductions in staff. This influence has been especially important in the clerical and technical staff of the Laboratories and in many instances has greatly handicapped the prosecution of established lines of work and prevented the undertaking of new work almost entirely. W. N. M. Report of the Forest Branch of the Department of Lands, Province of British Columbia, for the Year Ending December 31, 1915. Victoria, B. C. 1916. Pp. 56. This report is divided into eight sections: Market Extension, Current Literature 305 Lumber Industry, Forest Records, Land Classification, Forest Reconnaissance, Forest Branch Organization, Forest Protection, Permanent Improvements. The first section refers to the activity of the Forest Branch in extending the use of British Columbia wood products, to which we shall refer under Comment. It contains brief references to the experiences of the Chief Forester in his mission in search of markets. He found in London that the United States' timber brokers controlled entirely the Pacific Coast lumber trade, but succeeded in arousing patriotic interest to send at once orders for several cargoes worth over $200,000, through the Forest Branch to British Columbia. He expresses expectation that after the war Holland will handle much of the European import mar- ket of Douglas fir in competition with Longleaf pine. Similar competition is suggested for South Africa, if regular means of transportation can be established. Some 20 wood exhibits were established at as many industrial centers in various parts of the world. This work shows a considerable amount of initiative and is to be highly recommended. Statements as to lumber and other wood production places the total output for 1914 at 1152 million feet b.m., a total slightly more than Ontario and Quebec data. Elaborate tables, by dis- tricts and species, are given for the production of 1915, which totals lOlS million feet b.m., 42 per cent of which is Douglas fir and 35 per cent Red cedar, the balance divided among 10 other species. An estimate of the value of the output for 1915 places it at $29,150,000. On timber sales, in which less than 100,000 M feet were involved, the stumpage price of the two leading species were 95 cents and $1.05 respectively. Almost the entire cut must be exported as no large wood-working indus- tries are developed. Under Forest Records, the financial statements are included, which show that the war has a considerable influence on col- lection of dues, the $1,923,000 revenue being $420,000 below the previous year and more than one million dollars below 1913. The expenditures for the Forest Branch were almost $500,000, of which $166,000 for protection and $207,000 for general admini- 306 Forestry Quarterly strative expenditure. The outlay for protection, toward which the licensees contribute, was for 1914-15 $403,200, for 1915-16 fire season only, $182,000. Absolute forest land or land bearing the statutory amount of timber, i.e. 5,000 feet per acre east of the Cascade Mountains, and 8,000 feet west, is being reserved from disposal. In the past two years, 1,628,541 acres have been so reserved. In this connection, a land classification is carried on, which during 1914 could be done at 4.5 cents per acre, or 1 cent per M feet b.m. The Forest Branch is engaged in cooperation with the Com- mission of Conservation in making a survey of the forest re- sources of the Province, and in this connection carries on forest reconnaissances. From these, it has already become evident that previous estimates have been too low, albeit many large bodies of good timber found are for a long time going to be inaccessible. A classification into timber of varying degree of stocking, scrub timber, barrens, burn not yet restocking, burn with good repro- duction, undrainable swamps, muskeg, mountains above timber- line, areas suitable for grazing, etc., is made. The staff of the Branch during 1915 was very considerably reduced, from 558 to 378, largely through enlistment, and mostly from the temporary force, which was reduced from 391 to 218; there were, however, 10 technical men among the enlisted, which undoubtedly crippled the force considerably, representing about one third of this staff. The largest amount of space, 16 pages, is devoted to the dis- cussion of Forest Protection. It starts with an account of weather conditions. A fire season of unprecedented severity was experienced on the Lower Coast and Vancouver Island, due to lack of rainfall (half the normal) and high temperatures, fortunately with absence of winds. (It has been noticed that with temperature under 70° fires are generally not dangerous, unless accompanied by high winds.) Nevertheless, a smaller area than the previous year was burned, 244,000 against 355,000 acres, but the damage was greater, being estimated at 187,900,000 feet and $108,873, as against 118,600,000 feet and $72,000 the previous year. ' Cooperation with the United States Forest Service is organized at the boundary, also cooperation with the Board of Railway Current Literature 307 Commissioners, with the Dominion Forestry Branch, and with a number of lumber companies and timber limit holders. All the usual means, including moving picture shows, are used to edu- cate the public. It seems that campers' and travellers' fires are now the most frequent cause, with 30 per cent, next to it brush- burning, with 26 per cent, while railway fires are reduced to less than 10 per cent, a similar per cent being credited to light- ning. Less than half the expenditure of the previous year was made, namely $176,881, of which $19,449 for fire fighting, reduc- ing the cost per fire to $61 as against $319 the previous year; but a larger percentage of fires was left to take care of itself. A gratifying statement is to the efifect, that ''notwithstanding adverse financial conditions, considerable areas of logging slash were disposed of by logging operators on their own initiative." No damage resulted from these burnings, and operators are so well satisfied that each year will see more of it. Unfortunately, no statements of cost are made. The whole report from beginning to end breathes a business air which is a credit to the Forest Branch. B. E. F. Meddelanden fran Statens Skogsforsoksanstalt. Haeftet 13, 1915. Stockholm. 1916. Pp. 161 -\- xxviii. As usual, this volume is full of interest from the organization point of view, being a report on the activities of the Swedish Experiment Station for the period 1912-14, and containing the working plan for the following triennial period, the custom of a working period of three years being continued. In gratifying manner, most of the longer discussions are briefed in German, and, now, in addition, some are briefed in English at the end of the volume. The Station is divided in two sections, the natural history section and the forestry section, Dr. Hesselman being chief of the former, Gunnar Schotte of the latter. Considering that the whole establishment is allotted less than $12,000, its product is certainly admirable in quantity and quality. The forestry section studies the increment of different forest types on (by the end of 1914) 42 sample areas ; it conducted 308 Forestry Quarterly thinning experiments on 211 plots ; experiments with exotics on 65 areas; cultivation of heath soils on 62 areas; seed investiga- tions on 550 areas ; natural regeneration studies on 34 ; plantings of different spacing on 42; sowings at different dates on 18; cultivation of drained peat soils on 25 ; and methods of culture on 12 ; altogether 1061 experimental areas are involved in these investigations. The natural history section concerned itself with studying the influence of thinnings on soil flora ; the factors influencing natural regeneration ; the influence of light burning and clear cutting on the soil ; the change to swampy conditions in various localities; the muskeg, peat soil and heather problems, and soil studies generally; the influences of races of forest trees; dis- eases ; biology of seed germination ; etc. For the following period, 1915-17, entomological studies are to be added, an article on enemies of pine and spruce, by Ivar Trag^rdh, being briefed in English. Special accentuation is placed on the program as regards regeneration methods for the northern forest areas (Norrland), where both government and private owners desire more extensive utilization, but are also willing to spend more for regeneration. The question whether the old trees of the virgin forest furnish satisfactory seed is the first to be attacked ; also the value of influence of draining; the relative efficiency of various soil work; different planting methods ; the seed from other localities ; these are problems proposed to be solved during a period of 15 years at a cost estimated at $65,000 distributed over that period. B. E. F. By-products of the Lumber Industry. By H. K. Benson. Special Agents Series 110, U. S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Department of Commerce. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 68. This report comprises a brief survey of utilization of forest by-products in the United States preliminary to a more extensive investigation. The meaning of the term "by-product" is restricted to "such products as require the use of technical and more or less highly developed manufacturing processes for their produc- Current Literature 309 tion." The scope of the investigation was accordingly limited to a survey of the industries engaged in the distillation of wood, the manufacture of tannin extract, wood pulp, ethyl alcohol, pro- ducer gas, and various minor wood products. The report includes diagrams of apparatus, production costs and yields, statistics of production, future prospects of the industry, and in some in- stances names and addresses of principal manufacturers. It contains little that is new and bears earmarks of being more of a compilation than a report based upon first-hand information collected by the writer. S. J. R. Structural Timber in the United States. By H. S. Betts and W. B. Greeley. Paper Presented at the Meeting of the Interna- tional Engineering Congress in San Francisco, Cal., Sept. 20-25, 1915. Pp. 50. This paper gives a survey of the timber resources of the United States with special reference to structural uses. The important species are discussed from the engineer's standpoint, and a sum- mary is given of the data obtained by the U. S. Forest Service on their mechanical properties and factors affecting them, and the methods of timber testing employed at the Madison Labora- tory. Attention is also directed to grading rules and commercial specifications and suggestions made for their improvement. In an appendix are tables giving the number of sawmills and amount of lumber sawed annually, the amount of wood consumed by the principal wood-using industries, average strength values of various structural timbers, and nomenclature and characteristics of the Southern pines. S. J. R. Eighth Report of the State Forester of Connecticut for the Year 1915. By W. O. Filley. Part III Annual Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. New Haven, Conn. 1916. Pp. 193-232. The bulk of this report is devoted to "A Forest Survey of 310 Forestry Quarterly Connecticut," by Albert E. Moss, Assistant Forester. U. S. Geological Survey maps were used as a base, and by means of an automobile every road was traversed and the boundaries of the woodland sketched in. An odometer was used to check dis- tances between points on the road map, while distances to the woodland boundaries were estimated by eye. In this manner every woodland tract was completely circled and the boundaries noted. These areas were then colored on the map, the two types distinguished being hardwoods and conifers. It was computed from the map that 1,482,700 acres or 46.4 per cent of the land area of the State is wooded. The largest areas of woodland are in the northwest corner, the northeast quarter, and along the Connecticut River near its mouth, extend- ing some distance to the west. The following table summarizes the forest areas by counties, with the water area eliminated. The forest areas include not only land which is growing merchantable wood and timber, but also pasture land and old fields with sufficient growth to indi- cate that it is reverting to forest. Total Area Forest Area Per Cent County Acres Fairfield 417,118 Hartford 472,154 Litchfield 611,184 Middlesex 249,377 New Haven 389,853 New London 451,676 Tolland 272,577 Windham 330,506 Acres Forest 127,600 31 192,750 41 308,550 50 132,300 53 178,000 46 217,700 48 152,850 56 173,550 53 3,194,445 1,483,300 47.2 S. J. R. The Black Poplars. By A. Henry. Reprint from the Transac- tions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, Volume 30, Part I. Edinburgh. January, 1916. Pp. 14. No group of trees is more obscure than the cultivated species of Populus; besides the natural species and varieties there are many sports and hybrids. In the present article Prof. Henry deals with the many forms of the European Populus nigra and the North American P. deltoidea. Current Literature 311 The glabrous form of the European Black poplar (P. nigra var. typica) is confined to southern and southeastern Europe and is rarely cultivated in Great Britain. Its fastigiate form, the Lombardy poplar, (var. italica) is a well known tree, and is probably of sport origin. As is known, most Lombardy pop- lars are staminate, but Henry instances a pistillate tree at Kew. He considers the pistillate trees reported in Germany to be of hybrid origin. The other variety, P. nigra var. betulifolia, differs from the typical form in the presence of dense short pubescence on the twigs. It is native to France and southern England, and has been slightly introduced on this continent. The corresponding fas- tigiate form of the pubescent variety is known as var. plantieretisis. The North American Black poplar differs from the Euro- pean in the shape of its leaf, its ciliated margin and the pres- ence of glands on the base of the blade in front, as well as by floral characters. Henry distinguishes three geographical varie- ties— var. nionilifera of the northeast, var. occidentalis of the western plains, and var. missouriensis of the southeast. The Black poplars cultivated for timber in England, France and Belgium are almost invariably of hybrid origin between the above American and European forms. These are chosen largely on account of their exceptional vigor. Eight of the prin- cipal hybrids are discussed, with distinguishing botanical char- acters, elucidation of their origin, and very interesting figures of size and rate of growth. He instances one 150 feet in height and over 8 feet d.b.h. at 81 years. Until lately all the hybrids in cultivation had originated as chance seedlings. But the artificial production of fast-growing hybrids is now receiving attention. We have already noted Prof. Henry's own experiments in this direction in Forestry Quar- terly, vol. XIII, p. 97. The article concludes with a key to the above mentioned pop- lars reproduced from The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland, with two plates. This is very useful, as this expensive set is not widely available. J. H. W. 312 Forestry Quarterly OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE The Spruce and Balsam Fir Trees of the Rocky Mountain Region. By G. B. Sudworth. Bulletin 327, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Wash- ington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 43. Maps 10. Fire Protection in District 1. U. S. Department of Agricul- ture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1915. Pp. 117. National Forest Areas, January 1, 1916. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Wash- ington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 7. Tr^ Distribution under the Kinkaid Act, 1911. 1st Revision. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 13. The Wood-Using Industries of Indiana. Compiled by J. C. Nellis. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 37. Forest Conservation for States in the Southern Pine Region. By J. G. Peters. Bulletin 364, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 14. Termites, or "White Ants," in the United States: Their Dam- age and Methods of Prevention. By T. E. Snyder. Bulletin 333, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 32. Pecan Culture: With Special Reference to Propagation and Varieties. By C. A. Reed. Farmers' Bulletin 700, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 32. The Leopard Moth: A Dangerous Imported Insect Enemy of Shade Trees. By L. O. Howard and F. H. Chittenden. Farmers' Bulletin 708, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Wash- ington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 12. Other Current Literature 313 The Care and Improvement of the Wood Lot. By C. R. Tillot- son. Farmers' Bulletin 711, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 24. Oviposition of Megastigmus Spermotrophus in the Seed of Douglas Fir. By J. M. Miller. Reprint from Journal of Agri- cultural Research. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Wash- ington, D. C. April 10, 1916. Pp. 65-8. Lazvs, Decisions, and Opinions Applicable to the National Forest. Revised and Compiled by R. F. Feagans. U. S. De- partment of Agriculture. Office of the Solicitor. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 151. Australasian Markets for American Lumber. By F. H. Smith. Special Agents Series 109, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, U. S. Department of Commerce. Washington, D. C. 1915. Pp. 48. Ground Water in the Waterbury Area, Connecticut. By A. J. Ellis. Water-Supply Paper 397, U. S. Geological Survey. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 71. Glimpses of Our National Parks. U. S. Department of the Interior. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 37. New or Noteivorthy Plants from Colombia and Central America. By H. Pittier. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, Volume 18, Part 4. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 143-71. Proceedings of the National Park Conference, . . . 19 15. Washington, D. C. 1915. Pp. 166. Chelan National Forest, Washington; Ozark National Forest, Arkansas; Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico; Natural Bridges National Monument, Utah. Proclamations by the Presi- dent of the United States. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 2, . ., . ., 1 leaf and diagram. 314 Forestry Quarterly Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. Volume XI, No. 1. Washington, D. C. January, 1916. Pp. 1-170. Contains : Forest Service Silviculture Plans, by T. S. Wool- sey, Jr. ; The Utilization of a Tropical Forest, by G. P. Ahern ; Notes on Forest Cover and Snow Retention on the East Slope of the Front Range in Colorado, by N. deW. Betts; Chemistry as an Aid in the Identification of Species, by A. W. Schorger; Foresters Have a Vital Interest in the White Pine Blister Rust, by P. Spaulding; The American Forester: His Opportunities, by C. DuBois ; Professional Ethics, by B. E. Femow ; The American Forester : What the Society Has Done and Can Do for Him, by D. T. Mason ; The Forester's Duty toward Lumbering, by G. M. Cornwall ; The Place of Logging Engineering in For- estry, by J. F. Clark ; The Lumberman's Duty Toward Forestry, by F. E. Olmsted ; Scientific Notes and Comments ; Reviews. Fourth Annual Report of the Kennebec Valley Protective Association. Bingham, Me. 1916. A Manual for the Use of Lumbermen, Woodsmen and Sports- men. Published by the Kennebec Valley Protective Association. Bingham, Me. 1916. Pp. 32. Seventh Annual Report of the State Forester of Vermont, 1915. St. Albans, Vt. Pp. 55. First Annual Report of Vermont Timberland Owners' Asso- ciation. Bloomfield, Vt. 1915. Pp. 6. Twelfth Annual Report of the State Forester of Massachu- setts, 1915. Boston, Mass. 1916. Pp. 130. Eighteenth Annual Report of the Massachusetts Forestry Asso- ciation. Bulletin 117. Boston, Mass. 1915. Pp. 41. Tenth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Forestry of the State of Rhode Island, 1915. By J. B. Mowry. Providence, R. I. 1916. Pp. 18. Other Current Literature 315 Forest Planting. By J. B. Mowry. Leaflet 2, State of Rhode Island. Providence, R. I. 1916. Pp. 4. Fifteenth Report of the State Entomologist of Connecticut for the Year 1915. By W. E. Britten. Part II of the Annual Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. New Haven, Conn. 1916. Pp. 81-192. Woodlot Conditions in Dutchess County, New York. By F. B. Moody and J. Bentley, Jr. Bulletin 368, Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station. Ithaca, N. Y. 1915. Pp. 302. State Forest Camp in the Adirondacks. Bulletin of the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University. Vol. XV, No. 8. Syracuse, N. Y. March, 1915. Pp. 16. /. A New Species of Pityogenes. By J. M. Swaine. //. Ob- servations on the Life History and Habits of Pityogenes hopkinsi Swaine. By M. W. Blackman. Technical Publications No. 2 of the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse Univer- sity. Syracuse, N. Y. Volume XVI, No. 1. November, 1915. Pp. 66. Logging to a Fixed Diameter Limit in the Adirondack For- ests. By H. P. Baker. Address before The Empire State Forest Products Association at Its Annual Meeting in December, 1915. Separate. Pp. 16. Lidgerwood "19 13" Overhead Skidder. Bulletin 54, Lidger- wood Manufacturing Company. New York, N. Y. Pp. 9. Lidgerzvood Portable High Spar Skidders for Overhead Skid- ding. Bulletin 55, Lidgerwood Manufacturing Company. New York, N. Y. 1915. Pp. 15. American-Hill Steam Niggers, Kickers, Log Stops and Other Log Deck Machinery. Bulletin H-1, American Sawmill Ma- chinery Company. Hackettstown, N. J. Pp. 16. 316 Forestry Quarterly Report of the Maryland State Board of Forestry for 1914 and 1915. Baltimore, Md. 1916. Pp. 77. Qualities and Uses of the Woods of Ohio. By W. R. Lazenby. Bulletin 6 (Volume II, No. 2), Ohio Biological Survey. The Ohio State University. Columbus, Ohio. 1916. Pp. 75-111. Fifteenth Annual Report of the State Board of Forestry of Indiana. Indianapolis, Inda. 1915. Pp. 168. Indiana Centennial Patriotic Arbor and Bird Day Manual. Indiana State Board of Forestry. Indianapolis, Inda. 1916. Pp. 52. Timber Preserving Machinery. Bulletin 1439-A, Allis-Chal- mers Manufacturing Company. Milwaukee, Wis. 1915. Manual for Timber Reconnaissance, 1914. U. S. Forest Dis- trict 1, F. A. Silcox, District Forester. Missoula, Mont. 1915. Pp. 63. Tenth Annual Report of the Coeur d'Alene Timber Protective Association, 1915. Coeur d'Alene, Idaho. 1916. Pp. 16. Annual Report of the Potlatch Timber Protective Association, 1915. Potlatch, Idaho. 1916. Pp. 20. Walnut Culture in Arizona. By J. J. Thornber. Bulletin 76, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Arizona. Tucson, Ariz. The Cost of Grozifing Timber in the Pacific Northzvest, as Related to the Interest Rates Available to Various Forest Owners. By B. P. Kirkland. Reprint from the Forest Club Annual, University of Washington. Seattle, Wash. 1915. Pp. 23. California Redwood. California Redwood Association. San Francisco, Cal. 1916. Pp. 30. Other Current Literature 317 Alabama Bird Day Book, igi6. Alabama Department of Game and Fish. Montgomery, Ala. 1916. Pp. 96. Report of Committee on Forestry, 1Q14-15. Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association. Honolulu, Hawaii. 1915. Pp. 22. Report of the Commissioner of Dominion Parks for the Fiscal Year Ending March ji, 1915. Part V of the Annual Report of the Department of the Interior. Ottawa, Canada. 1915. Pp. 70. Forest Products of Canada, 19 14: Lumber, Lath and Shingles. Compiled by R. G. Lewis, assisted by W. G. H. Boyce. Bulletin 56, Dominion Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1916. Pp. 62. British Columbia Douglas Fir Dimension. Timber Series, For- est Branch. Victoria, B. C. 1916. Pp. 15. British Columbia Western Larch. Bulletin 16, Timber Series, Forest Branch. Victoria, B. C. 1916. Pp. 16. British Columbia Western Soft Pine. Bulletin 17, Timber Series. Forest Branch. Victoria, B. C. 1916. Pp. 15. British Columbia Red Cedar Shingles. Bulletin 18, Timber Series. Forest Branch. Victoria, B. C. 1916. Pp. 3. Proceedings of the British Columbia Forest Club, 1915. Vic- toria, B. C. 1915. Pp. 74. Report of the Department of Forestry, Netv South Wales, for the Year Ended 30 June, 1915. Sydney, N.S.W. 1916. Pp. 12. A Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus. By J. H. Maiden. Volume HI, Part 4 (Part XXIV of the Complete Work). Pub- lished by the Government of the State of New South Wales. Sydney, N.S.W. 1915. Pp. 63-79; pis. 100-3. Report on the Forest Administration in Burma for the Year 1914-15. Rangoon, Burma. 1916. Pp. 109. 318 Forestry Quarterly Annual Administration Report of the Forest Department of the Madras Presidency for the Year 1^14-15. Government Press. Madras, India. 1915. Rubber Manuring Bxperim^ents at the Experiment Station, Peradeniya. By M. K. Bamber. Bulletin 18, Ceylon Depart- ment of Agriculture. Colombo, Ceylon. 1915. Pp. 12. Physiological Effects Produced on Hez'ea. braziliensis by Various Tapping Systems. By L. E. Campbell. Bulletin 19, Ceylon Department of Agriculture. Colombo, Ceylon. 1915. Pp. 2r. Henaratgoda Experiments: The Effect of Different Intervals between Successive Tappings of Hevea brasiliensis. By T. Petch. Bulletin 20, Ceylon Department of Agriculture. Colombo, Cey- lon. 1915. Pp. 26. Moornutsung und Torfverwertung. Von Paul Hoering. Julius Springer. Berlin. 1913. Pp. 683. Mk. 12. PERIODICAL LITERATURE FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION M. Tkatchenko, of the Russian Forest Timber Department, had a paper under this title of before the International Engineering Con- Russia gress in San Francisco. In Forestry Quarterly, vol. xiii, p. 402, we had briefed the last official statement regarding Russia's forest resources quite fully, and will note here only such additions as appear in the advance copy of the above mentioned paper (24 pages). The statistics do not always gibe, which may often be due to dififerences in translating measures and to the uncertainty of all Russian statistics. As to area, the present author's statements are slightly (16 million acres) lower than the official ones. The forest per cent over the whole European and Asiatic territory is 37, and 8 acres per capita. In Finland, the forest per cent is 45. The distribution is very uneven, from 50 to 82 per cent in the northern, falling to 1-1.5 per cent in the Steppe country. Ownership statistics also vary considerably. In Asiatic Russia, the national forests in the official statement are given as 253 million acres, or 75 per cent, in Tkatchenko's statement 772 million, or 90 per cent. The description of forest conditions is divided into four sec- tions, namely the forests of the northern country, those of other provinces of European Russia, those of the Caucasus, and those of Asiatic Russia. Under each heading, the distribution of species, mechanical properties and commercial uses, methods of lumbering, and management and yield are touched upon. The best yields in the North country of the two principal species are stated as follows for best soils : Volume Height Diameter per Acre Age Feet Inches Cubic Feet Scotch pine 100 88 12 7075 Spruce 100 90 12 7650 319 320 Forestry Quarterly In the northern forests spruce at 200 years, commonly with 14 inch diameter, cuts 5300 feet, while the largest trees reach 121 feet in height and 38 inch diameter. Larch-pine-spruce for- est on clay soil in 160 years cuts 6500 cubic feet per acre. In addition to the above species, Pinus cembra and Abies sibir- tea are discussed. The logging is done mostly for logs alone, in selection fashion, the standard log being 23 }i feet in length and 8^ inches in diameter at top. Lately, the strip method has been employed and pulpwood secured as well. Stumpage prices for Scotch pine is from 2 to 5 cents, for spruce from 1 to 3^ cents per cubic foot (say from $1.25 to $6 per M feet b.m.). River driving and rafting is the usual means of transportation. In 1912, the allowable cut in the northern national forests was set at 942,480,000 cubic feet, the actual cut was only 40 per cent of this. Since the pine and spruce grows naturally in even-aged stands, the diameter limit cutting leads to devastation and the supposi- tion that after the first selection, a rotation of 60 to 80 years would suffice has not been realized ; 140 to 160 years is stated as proper rotation. In the other provinces of European Russia to the south of a line from Petrograd to Ufa, conifers still predominate, but broadleaf trees are admixed or occur in pure stands. Oak, in 220 years, with a diameter of 30 inch and height of 120 feet, often yields 6500 cubic feet per acre. Fraxinus and Tilia also abound. Yield statements for this region are unfortunately omitted. Stumpage prices in this region vary much from province to province, the lowest prices even for oak and pine being 1 cent per cubic foot, and for spruce even ^ cent ; on the other hand the highest prices are 11 cents for spruce, 13 cents for pine and 24 cents for oak ; these prices for coniferous wood resemble our own White pine stumpage prices. In these forests, more intensive management is possible ; rota- tions usually are 120 years for pine, 100 years for spruce, 160 years for oak and 60 years for oak coppice. In most national forests a strip clear-cutting system for all three species is fol- lowed, the width of the strip being 140 to 210 feet; for other Periodical Literature 321 hardwoods than oak 350 feet; sometimes for pme 10 seed trees are left on the strip ; or for spruce and oak, under favorable economic conditions, planting is taken recourse to. Here about 81 per cent of the permissible cut was actually realized in 1913. The forests of the Caucasus are rich in species {see F. Q., viii, p. 494, and xii, p. 100). Among the 100 real timber species, six conifers appear, coniferous forest occupying one quarter of the forest area. Among the hardwoods. Black walnut, beech, chestnut and 11 species of maple are enumerated. Spruce and pine, of which latter there are six species, grow up to 7,000 and 8,000 foot elevation. The Black Sea coast forest is said to resem- ble in luxuriance of development the Pacific Coast forest. Similar luxuriance is found on the west coast of the Caspian Sea, where Bnxus sempervirens, Parrotia persica, Quercus castanifolia are holding sway. Sixty per cent of the forest is, however, made up of beech, oak, and hornbeam. The production varies with species from 5,000 cubic feet (oak at 120 years) to 8,000 feet (pine at 120 and beech at 200 years), 12,000 feet for spruce and 16,000 feet per acre for fir, the latter two in 250 years rotation when d.b.h. are from 5 to 7 feet and heights 170 to 180 feet. Stumpage prices vary here from 1 to 5, and for conifers to 8 cents per foot. In 1912, only one fifth of the permitted cut was realized ; lack of transportation being the drawback. The forests of xA.siatic Russia are as diversified over the enormous area as the climate, from the north country, as for instance around Yakutsk, where the quicksilver freezes in the thermometer, to the dry, hot mountains of Turkestan. The forests of the west slope of the Ural Mountains remind one of those of the European northeast districts, a mixture ("black taiga") of Picea obovata, Abies sibirica, Pinus cembra and Larix sibirica. White birch and aspen come in after fire ("white taiga"), and to a limited extent oak and elm appear. Pure pine forest is found "along sandy borders on the elevated right-hand banks of the rivers," hence the more rivers the more pine forest. The farther east one goes from the foot of the mountains, limestone out-croppings increasing are productive of growing frequency of larch, two species, L. sibirica and dahurica, 322 Forestry Quarterly the most widespread species, especially on northern slopes to the very north, together with Populus suaveolens and Siberian pine. The southern slopes are usually occupied by Scotch pine, Pinus cembra forming there the timberline tree. A new flora is found in Kamchatka, Abies glacialis and Betula ermani being associated with Larix dahurica. To the southeast of the Jablon ridge, the milder climate gives rise to broadleaf forest with Mongolian oak, Betula dahurica and Ulmus campestris. In the Ussur and Amur countries, Japanese and Chinese flora appear, with a great variety of broadleaf and coniferous species. Toward the south of the great Siberian forest there is a gradual change to the forest- steppe zone, where birch and aspen give tone to the forest. On the mountains of Turkestan, especially their northern slopes, Picea schrenkiana appears, together with Abies sibirica, Betula alba and Populus laurifolia, towards timberline replaced by Juniperus excelsa. In the central Turkestan mountains, such species as Juglans regia, Pistacia vera, Morus alba, Platanus orientalis, Acer laetum, Celtis australis, and in the river bottoms Populus euphratica, Eleagnus hortensis and Fraxinus potomorphia give an entirely new aspect to the forest. A table of growth data apparently exceeds the rates of our northern forest, 1 inch in 7 or 8 years seeming to be general. Stumpage prices for Scotch pine and Siberian larch range from Yi to 5^ cents, for Siberian fir ^ to 2 cents, and for other species remain below 23^ cents, say $3 per M feet b.m. It is suggested that the Pacific Coast United States could import at such low prices. Selection cutting is the practice, not however, the largest, but the most convenient sizes are mostly taken. In Siberia, not over 20 inch trees are taken. In 1912, of the permissible cut only 11 per cent were taken. Fires are the greatest bane. Taking the whole government forest area of around 500 million acres, for which 3.5 billion cubic feet are permitted to be cut (7 cubic feet per acre), only about one half is sold and given for free use. The present income, which has increased in the last 20 years fourfold, amounts to only $45 million with an expenditure of $14 million. There are 4500 persons permanently employed, of whom 1500 Periodical Literature 323 inspectors and supervisors and 800 technical assistants, besides some 32,000 guards. There are two higher forest schools and 43 lower with a two-year course, supported entirely at govern- ment expense. In 1912, Russia exported $124 million ( ?) worth of timber, 40 per cent of which was sawlogs at very low rates. Private forests are under government control (law of 1888) when of protective character; in such, selection method only is permitted ; at the same time taxes are remitted. Again, in forest at headwaters, clearing is restricted. In other private forests — on paper at least — working plans are prescribed and wasteful practices forbidden. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY The fir, Abies pectinata, different from Variation spruce, has very little tendency toward in variableness, nevertheless, Klein in his Pir Forest Botany gives 8 different sports or freaks, which are cited as so many lusus. He makes reference to only two specimens of branchless firs (Lusus irramosa) in two localities. Burger has found a locality in Switzerland where branchless firs occur in numbers ; an illus- tration is given. They are found in the midst of a dense regen- eration of 15 year average, in which height growth shoots of 20 to 32 inch are not rare. The details of 14 specimens are given, varying from 16 to 27 years in age, and from 16 to 66 inches in height (the latter not 1 inch in diameter) ; some without any branches at all, some with 1 to 3 side branches, not at all or little branched, and one (19 years old and 48 inches high), with no stem at all, except the base, each shoot showing the characteristics of a side branch with the combed position of the foliage. This latter specimen has at the end of each shoot 1 to 2 buds, and at one shoot only the normal 3 buds. Unfortunately no mother tree to which this generation might belong was found. The author looks, however, to seed variation as a cause of the freaks. 324 Forestry Quarterly Of the other cited lusus, that called flabellata, the fan fir, is quite frequent, in which all side branches lie in one plane with the stem, so that the whole tree looks like a branch. Such usually show near the base a curvature or thickening of the stem, which leads to the suspicion that at that place an original end shoot was killed, and it is really an erected side branch we have to deal with. By and by this character is lost and a regular tree developed. The author, therefore, thinks this should not he considered as a lusus, but a growth form. He advises careful watching of the lusus, protecting the species by freeing from over- growing neighbors. Spielarten der Tanne. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen, January- February, 1916, pp. 13-9. Dr. H. Shirasawa, of the Japanese Ex- Japanese periment Station, reports five new conifer- Conifers ous species from Japan, namely, Picea ko- yamai, new species, a dwarf mountain tree of 30 feet height; Picea bicolor Mayr var. acicularis Shira- sawa et Koyama, also a dwarf mountain tree of the same height ; Picea bicolor Mayr var. reflexa Shirasawa et Koyama, a tree of the valley ; Picea maximotviczii Regel, lately discovered to occur in Japan, a large tree resembling P. polita, hut very rare. Abies veitchii Lindl. var. olivacea Shirasawa, with glossy olive-yellow cones. Neue und we.nig bekannte Picea- und Abies-Arten in Japan. Mitteilungen der Deutschen Dendrologischen Gesellschaft, 1914, pp. 254-6. Munger has been observing the effect of Douglas Fir dry winds upon the leaves of Douglas fir in Leaves and the vicinity of Portland, Oregon. In March Chinook Winds and April, when the Chinooks come down the Columbia Canyon, the leaves of the fir on easterly exposures turn brown. The injury is sometimes so striking as to give the impression that all the timber is dying. The year-old twigs are often killed, but as a whole the affected trees recover during the growing season. The coast form of the tree is more susceptible to the injury than the Rocky Mountain form, which the fir east of the Cascades resembles, so the effect Periodical Literature 325 of the injury is less noticeable eastward and is not apparent east of the crest of the Cascades. The author suggests "parch blight" as an expressive and distinguishing name for this injury. C. D. H. Parch Blight on Douglas Fir in the Pacific Northwest. The Plant World, February, 1916, pp. 46-7. Curiously enough, the explanations of the How commonplace phenomenon of diameter Trees Grow growth are still quite fragmentary and in usually the formation of the annual ring Size is merely declared an "inherited character- istic." Dr. Jaccard discusses the matter in detail under three headings, namely, the change in anatomical composition of wood during the season ; the periodic formation of annual rings under influence of exterior factors ; the form acquired as a result of annual ring formation and their varying width. The formation of the early or spring wood zone, with many vessels of large lumen, is ascribed to the need of increased trans- portation of water and nutrients upon the formation of foliage. The flattening of the later woodcells is not so easily explained. De Vries could produce flat cells in spring wood by applying a rigid bandage around the bark, and spring wood in the sum- mer by properly located incisions in the bark, from which he deduced the change of spring and summer wood to bark pressure, which growing in the summer is by the splitting of the bark re- leased in winter. This Sachs-de Vries theory, however, does not explain the sud- denness of change from spring to summer wood. Russow ad- duced change of osmotic pressure in the cambium cells at different seasons, but Wieler's attempts to measure these pressures did not substantiate the theory. The author suggests that Wieler's series was too small to permit generalization, and Krabbe has shown that this pressure does not vary very much through the year; the bark expands with formation of the ring, hence does not explain the phenomenon. The reduction in lumen of summer wood cells is often accompanied with thickening of the cell walls : 326 Forestry Quarterly this, however, is not at all as frequent as is usually supposed, and more apparent, an ocular delusion, than actual. In desert plants, and in others with small root system and hence reduced transpi- ration, spring wood cells are thick-walled. According to Wieler, this can be artificially produced by regulating water supply. The same phenomenon was shown by the author in scrubby pines and spruces from acid moor soils, which he explains as due to de- ficiency of water reducing turgescence of tissues accompanied by large amount of concentrated nutritive sap (osmotic pressure!), which is used in thickening the walls. The phenomenon of double rings due to defoliation and of change from spring to summer wood, and prevention of the vari- ation due to regulation of supply of water and of food, enabling King and Kiihns, Jost and Wieler to produce any desired forma- tion, leaves no doubt that the anatomical variations in structure of the wood accompany variations of water supply. As to the periodicity of growth phenomena and annual ring formation, the usual explanation of hereditary habit is demolished by the citation of most interesting observations of behavior in tropical regions and experiments which show that exterior condi- tions influence the periodicity and that some species have the ability under given favorable conditions to grow uninterruptedly. Trees from the temperate zone, where periodicity of growth coincides with periodicity of season, transplanted into tropical conditions (Buitenzorg) show still periodicity, but vary this not only from species to species, but from individual to individual. Nurserymen have learned to overcome the natural periodicity by the application of ether vapor, warm water baths, water in- jections below the buds, concentrated food supply, electric cur- rent and intense light. Klebs' most interesting experiment with a beech plant is cited, in which a beech still in foliage by Septem- ber 11 was exposed to 200 candlepower light. After 10 days the dormant buds began to lengthen and by September 25 a com- plete new foliage was formed. After keeping it during October to December in a hothouse, growing, by December 25 it was exposed to a second illumination by 1,000 candlepower, and by January 27 a third foliage was formed, complete by the middle of February, the old leaves dropping. By the middle of March a fourth foliage began to form naturally. Periodical Literature 327 This experiment proves conclusively the influence of exterior conditions on growth. Was wissen wir vom Wachslum der Bdume. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen, January-February, 1916, pp. 1-12. SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE The importance of the chemistry of col- Importance loids with reference to soil conditions and of the use of soils in forestry and agriculture Colloids is brought out by Prof. Dr. Rohland in the in following manner: Forestry Clay and clayey soils, according to the author, as well as the humus and peat soils, owe their characteristics to the colloid materials contained in them; these soils owe also their fertility to the colloids. Sandy, crystalloid soils are free from colloids and, therefore, possess less water capacity than the former and less absorption of water vapor. One may conceive the colloids as a tissue of fine mesh in which the water can adhere as in a sponge. In this water the nutritive salts are found in solution, as well as the crystalloids, and owing to this sponge action are not as readily leached out as in a sandy soil. There are also certain chemical exchange processes taking place in the colloid soils according to the laws of equivalency, e. g., calcium may be displaced by a corresponding amount of potassium, which is much more valuable in the nutrition of plants. Similarly, the magnesium salts, important in the formation of chlorophyll, can displace the calcium salts. Hence the applica- tion of gypsum is effective only when such soluble salts are pres- ent, which they are in colloid soils ; and so other fertilizers, such as superphosphates, plaster, marl, depend in their effectiveness on the presence of exchangeable salts. Alkali and alkaline earths applied to clay soils effect flocculation of their colloid contents with concomitant volume increase; the clayey constituents experience a colloid-chemical change of con- stitution with consequent loosening of the soil. If, however, clay and clayey or humus soils are dried, they give up the colloid-chemically absorbed water, and they lose some- what the capacity of taking up water; and, if repeatedly dried, 328 Forestry Quarterly finally if artificially dried, they lose almost entirely their water- absorbing quality. The time element, then, must be taken into consideration. But since in nature constantly additions of water by rain and humidity are replenished, so that new colloids can be formed, they never attain this condition. It is proved that raw humus reacts acid and that moss-turf con- tains acid which, however, do not form salts ; also that humus material react partly neutral, partly alkaline, partly acid, but lack some characteristics of acids, hence true acids are probably not present, but presumably colloids. According to colloid contents, soils are more or less stable, the soils deficient in colloids having the tendency to slide. The presence and quantity of colloids can be tested by the ease of absorption and aniline colors, so that it is easy to determine for practical purposes the value of the soil. The author, then, refers the low water stages in German rivers to lack of colloids. The widespread change of broadleaf by coni- ferous woods has the consequence of reducing the humus cover, and hence the capacity for absorption of water and vapor has been reduced. Especially with regard to waste lands this lack of colloids is important and must be supplied by adding clayey or humus material. In connection with the discussion on the colloids of peat, the interesting statement is made, that during the war there has been developed a method of substituting peat for cork. Peat of moss, heather, roots of alder and willow can be compressed into plates of varying thickness and hardness and serve satisfactorily as protection against heat and cold in hospitals and barracks. Die Bedeutung der BodenkoUoide fiir die Forsl- und Landwirlhschaft. Forst- wissenschaftliches Centralblatt, 1915, pp. 2.57-63, 455-60. Since earthworms are supposed to be nse- Food ful in comminuting the soil, it is of interest of to note that, according to von Aichberger's Earthworms careful studies, the earthworm feeds mainly on the edaphon, i. e., minute animals of the lowest orders, of which 1 cubic millimeter may contain as many Periodical Literature 329 as 29. The earthworm also, but not necessarily, feeds on dead vegetable matter, but never on live plants. As regards the com- minuting of the soil, the significance of the earthworm has been overestimated ; in this respect, the edaphon has much more signifi- cance, and forms an intervening link between the mechanical action of the earthworm and the chemical of the soil bacteria. Untersuchungen iiber die Erndhrung des Regenwurms. Forstwissenschaft- liches Centralblatt, November, 1915, pp. 523-4. SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION Upon the basis of 20 tree sections (fir Interlucation and beech), several of which are pictured, and Forstmeister Roth, of the Hungarian Ex- Increment periment Station, discusses the influence of severest thinning (Lichtung, for which we propose the new term interlucation) on increment. The response to sudden access of light, as is well known, is, as a rule, not immediate, at least not in height growth : an adaptation of the foliage to the new light conditions is first necessary ; indeed, a retardation of growth is usually noticed. As regards diameter, the response appears in the width of the annual ring almost sud- den. On a section of fir which for 105 years showed hardly .7 mm average width of ring, the first ring after interlucation showed no influence, the following rings showed a width of 2 to 4, 5, 8, 10, 10 mm; in 5 years an increment ten times as large as in the preceding periods. Another section of 134 years age, for 55 years made hardly .4 mm rings, then for 8 to 10 years in opener position made up to 2 mm width, then for another 55 years under suppression the width fell to .6 mm on the average, altogether in 126 years the diameter was only 135 mm ; then suddenly set free, the first ring showed no influence, but the next year's ring was 2 mm, and then followed rings of 4, 7, 7, 7, 8.5, 7, 7 mm, in other words, the light produced 14 times greater increment. A third section, at 84 years old, showed only an average of .7 mm ; after interlucation no response for first year, then 2, 4, 6, 6.5, 7.5, 8, 8, 6 mm, or ten times the former increment. 330 Forestry Quarterly The same conditions were observed in beech sections, showing from 10 to 13 times the increment after interlucation, with one or two years non-response between. By looking over stumps, it was found that the response continued at least for 15 and 16 years on 80- to 100-year trees, and appearances promised a longer continuance of such response. This response was also shown in the upper sections, although the width of the annual rings in the upper sections was relatively smaller than those of lower sections (increased taper!). The greater reaction at the base, the author explains as due to reaction to wind. As to the undesirable quality of this uneven-grained wood, the author states, that these examples are extremes showing the reaction of suppressed trees, chosen to bring out the fact of the reaction strikingly, but that, if normally developed trees were taken, the quality defect would be lessened or would vanish altogether. Beitrdge zur Lichtungsfrage. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, Janu- ary, 1916, pp. 43-48. Dr. Martin, in continuation of his discus- Practical sion on Swiss conditions, elaborates on the Application practical considerations in the application of of silvicultural methods of natural regenera- Regeneration tion, and especially the direction of the Methods progress of fellings, the importance of which Wagner, with his strip-selection method, has lately so much accentuated. In Switzerland, rules in this and other respects are often noticeable by their absence, and success is secured in spite of their neglect, as e. g., in the forests of Winterthur, where excellent regeneration is secured with a progress of fellings from south- east to northwest, while Meister in Zurich regenerates one half his forest from north to south, the other from south to north with equal success. The direction of valleys and aspect of slopes, to be sure, influence the direction of fellings, and these in Switzer- land being very varied, general rules cannot be given ; moreover, climatic conditions are so favorable that almost any method suc- ceeds. Periodical Literature 331 For pure stands under a clearing method with planting, in which fellings are located by definite lines, considerations for a strict felling series are of more importance than with natural regenera- tion which adapts the outlines of fellings to topography. The dangers from wind and sun dictate the directions in which fellings are to progress. Where drouth is to be feared, as in most German conditions, the progress from north to south is indicated, but in Switzerland with ample precipitation, this consideration in most cases does not have any importance. On the contrary, it is often desirable to open towards the south in order to warm the soil, especially in high alpine situations. To avoid wind danger, progress from northeast to southwest is now considered the most satisfactory, or where direction of winds differs a position of the front of fellings turned by 45° from the direction of the most dangerous winds. Dealing with natural regeneration, wind resistance of the seed trees is to be secured by timely thinnings, which method is lately much advo- cated in Switzerland, when a greater freedom as to location of fellings may also be granted and regard can be paid to the needs of the reproduction for protection against frost, heat and weeds by even distribution of the nursetrees. For mixed stands, Martin advocates specially Gayer's group method, opening the crown cover by small holes not only over volunteer growth, but in closed stands in more or less regular distribution, and gauging the opening so as to give advantage to one or the other species. Such procedure produces the desira- ble uneven conditions for development. It is however, to be realized that only the first openings, say of the diameter of tree height, in their center, have favorable conditions for regeneration, the margin and subsequent openings introduce difficulties from insolation and competition of the old timber and weeds; snow- breakage, too, is increased. Since in pure stands, there is no call for creating uneven con- ditions of regeneration, or favoring one part of the stand against another, the group method is not applicable here. But to pre- serve and advance a species, which without assistance of the manager would lag behind the other or be crowded out, openings made in such a manner as to secure earlier regeneration of the species to be favored than the other are an excellent means of 332 Forestry Quarterly keeping the mixture. Only for this purpose is the group method appHcable. Species in need of light require larger openings than the tolerant, larger than the height of the timber. For such species (oak and pine) the enlargement of the group makes, how- ever, conditions less and less favorable, and it is safer to resort to underplanting. But for tolerant mixtures, as, e. g., fir, spruce and beech, the group method is to be recommended and is favored in Switzerland. A further discussion of the location of fellings brings out additional considerations, all of which show the impossibility in the mountains to stick to rules. "Neither a uniform nor an irregular position in the regeneration fellings, neither the Saxon felling series, nor Wagner's strip selection can serve as rule." The totality of the factors of production and the aim of the management, not a circumscribed principle or method, must direct judgment in the location of fellings. Age, completeness of stocking and healthy condition, as well as topography, influ- ences regeneration and location and progress of felling areas. The most important requirement for success in regeneration consists in correctly recognizing and appreciating the given con- ditions in their single factors which are active in securing regen- eration, and in their total combined effect. Die wichtigsten Verhdltnisse und Maasnahmen in der Schweiz, etc. Tharand- ter Jahrbuch, 1915, pp. 432-49. Busse has made germinating tests of Douglas Douglas fir, grown in Germany, which show Fir a remarkably low germination per cent. The Seed trees were only 25 to 30 years old; cones were easily opened by room temperature at 25° C in 12 hours; cleaning of wings, however, was found difficult on account of exuded resin ; the yield was .36 kg. per 1 hi. A knife test gave only 9 per cent germination ; three regular tests averaged 7 per cent, while in the trade 70 to 75 per cent is guaranteed. The reason for this low per cent is sought either in the age of the tree or in the climate. Another test from another locality and from 30-year-old trees Periodical Literature 3ZZ showed for the green variety a similarly unfavorable per cent, namely, 6 per cent, while for the blue variety the per cent was 37.5. Zum A nbau der Douglasie. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, June, 1915, pp. 284-6. A long article by Dr. Schwappach gives a Seed detailed account of the arrangements and Control work in the seed control station at Ebers- walde. He points out that in the method of seed testing there are practical requirements, especially on the part of seed dealers, that must not be overlooked ; the first is that the test should be rapid, and the second that it should bring out a possible high germination per cent. As regards samples, it is often overlooked that the test gives answer only as to the sample which can be applied to quantity only if the sample properly represents it, and the number of samples must be in proportion to the quantity of seed for which they are to be representative. As an example, three samples of larch seed from top, middle and bottom of bag varied in purity between 19.2 and 26.3, in germination between 67.7 and 75 per cent. A special instrument, Nobbe's sampler, is recommended for taking samples. Proper packing for shipment is also of moment. All samples, besides being properly identified, are examined for purity and germination. For purity test, an average sample of varying amount is used, for birch 2 g., for Chamaecyparis and Thuya 10 g., for small spruce seed 15 g., for most other conifers 20 g., for White pine. Black pine and similar large seed 25 g., for Abies 30 g. For larger broadleaf species, the entire sent-in sample is used. In segregating the admixtures broken and un- usually small seed, surely not germinative, are included, which may lead to disagreement of results. For many species, which, owing to slow germination or to dormancy, make the germination test impracticable, the knife test is applied. This is done with Abies, Acer, Carya, Fagus, Fraxinus, Juglans, Quercus. Two examples of Abies showed 61 and 73 per cent germinative power by the knife test ; while the one in 140 days had germinated only 20 per cent, the other in 120 days, 21 per cent ; similarly, two oak samples giving 67 and 95 per cent by knife test, had in 63 334 Forestry Quarterly days, in moist sand, germinated only 8 and 27 per cent, re- spectively. Besides temperature (25° C) and humidity, and even lighting is desirable in germinating apparatus. This is secured by 32 candlepower electric light at 2 m average distance through 8 hours daily, which is found sufificient. The tests are carried on usually for 20 days in various apparatus, on blotting paper (Jacobsen), clay plates (Cieslar), and wet sand. Clay dishes are specially recommended for Douglas fir (40 days). White pine (60 days), Chamaecyparis, Thuya, Betula ; blotting paper for spruce, Scotch pine and larch. To expedite germination of White pine, the seed is kept for 30 days in a cold room near freezing point or colder, when germi- nation in a Cieslar plate begins promptly, and in 30 days is fin- ished. Incidentally, an experiment with fall sowing of White pine produced considerably better results than spring sowing. Robinia, the application of boiling water, left for three minutes, when after two days 50 per cent will be germinated and after 30 days 80 per cent. Since in practice only the rapidly germinat- ing grains are of value, the determination of the germinative energy, i. e., the number of seeds germinating in 8 to 10 days, is of significance. The better the seed, the greater the energy as shown by a series of tests. The average values secured during six years testing, for species in which we might be interested or which might find equivalents with our species, are given as follows : Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Average Highest Lowest Abies pectinata 50 67 19 Larix europaea 45 88 11 Picea sitchensis 70 83 40 P. excelsa 83 98 11 Pinus divaricata 77 95 37 P. silvestris 83 100 39 P. strohus 60 100 19 Pseudotsuga 65 83 43 Acer platanoides 89 90 88 Betula alba. 18 19 17 Fraxinus excelsior 90 94 87 Robinia 65 80 55 Variations from year to year run for spruce from 74.6 to 92.3, for Scotch pine from 79.2 to 88.7. The high per cent of the Periodical Literature 335 latter over former statements is ascribed to better practice in seed extraction and storing. The combination of per cent of purity multiplied by per cent of germination divided by 100 has been considered to give the use value : a seed of 95 per cent purity and 90 per cent germina- tion gives a use-value of 85.5 per cent. But, it is argued, purity and germinative power are not of equal value, an impure seed of high germination per cent has a higher practical value, than a seed v^rith low^ germination. In the regulations for the control station given verbatim in an appendix a formula is given by which the true use-value is expressed, namely: _ {R^r){K±k)a ^" Rg-Kg in which Rg and Kg the guaranteed, R and K the actual purity and germination, r and k the permissible variation in purity and germination, a the contracted sale price, x the proper price. The permissible variations are for purity 1 per cent in seeds of 97 per cent and over, 2 per cent for seeds from 90-96 per cent, 3 per cent for seeds under 90 per cent purity. For germination 2 per cent for seeds over 90 per cent, 3 per cent for 80 to 90 per cent, 4 per cent for those below 80 per cent germination. The error per cent in tests also is discussed at length. For seeds whose germination lies near 50 per cent, the regulation permits variations of 15 per cent ; but Schwappach thinks even for these a variation of 10 per cent sufficient and for others 5 per cent. Die Waldsamenprujiingsanstalt Eberswalde. 2^itschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, November, 1915, pp. 631-51. "A Classification of Thinnings and Classification Increment Fellings," by Howard, is given of Thinnings in considerable detail. in India To start with, he divides thinnings into (1) ordinary thinnings, (2) crown thin- nings, (3) increment felling. The ordinary thinnings are divided into three groups: (a) light thinnings, (b) moderate thin- nings, (c) heavy thinnings. Crown thinnings are divided into (a) light and (b) heavy, as are also increment fellings. The 336 Forestry Quarterly data is based, frankly, upon European practice, but the modifica- tions suggested for British India will be interesting to silviculturists. T. S. W., Jr. The Indian Forester, February, 1916, p. 66-71. Emile Mer gives some interesting figures Thinnings on the yield in cubic metres of spruce and stands after thinning. His conclusions are Yield that, in the regular spruce stands of the Hautes-Vosges, the thinning should not only be begun early (25 years or thereabouts), but should be quite heavy, not only from the point of view of yield, but also for the sake of the production per cent. His conclusions are clear cut and decisive, notwithstanding a previously admitted theory that the young spruce stands should be kept dense. T. S. W., Jr. Revue des Eaux et Forets, February 1, 1916, pp. 45-53. V. Boutilly, Inspector of the French Rodent Waters and Forests Service at Algiers, Damage reports lack of success in reducing rodent damage by the use of "minium" or sulphate of copper in solution. Boutilly, who has charge of the forestation around Algiers, found that the only method of reducing rodent damage was to thoroughly brush out and clear the land to be sown instead of being content simply to brush out seed spots or strips. With complete clearing "the rodents have no clumps to hide in and almost all leave the area, and the damage is reduced accord- ingly. Moreover, I have noticed that the young cork oak plants which are quite tender during youth . . . , especially at the end of summer, resist the heat better if they are uncovered than they do if they are growing in the midst of brush. I think that this phenomenon is due to the freshness caused by proper aeration." Periodical Literature 337 The air circulates better and the plants survive when, other- wise, they would succumb to the heat. Bulletin de la Station de Recherches Forestieres du Nord de I'Afrique, December 30, 1915, pp. 113-4. MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT Dr. Hemman describes a hypsometer, constructed by Dr. Wimmenauer in 1868, and reports on a series of tests in which Christen's, Wimmenauer's old, and the same inventor's sextant hypsometer were used. Christen's hypsometer is generally the most favored, and is in most cases satis- 18G8 Precision Hypsometer ^ 3B M 1.6 at tl 10 11 1* "M 12 ' 0 32 \0 J-l li hJ v n ?0 s V. N n; k IS lb S. ^ X ^ \ -^ s > ^ 11 ^ K> k N h^ nN k 1^ >^.- n ^s N kN S ^..— J s^ ^ 8 ft \ ^ k N. \ H > 0 i M : S i 6 i •i 2 1 2 0 " t 1 0 ' « ' I < s 338 Forestry Quarterly factory enough, but where precision is required, as, for instance, in height increment studies, also in sales on the stump, etc., it does not satisfy; the sextant, with mirror, satisfies the requirement of precision, but it works slowly, and neither of these instruments is as good in stands with underbrush (cover of base!) as the old Wimmenauer, which for all these years existed only in one exemplar in the tool collection at Giessen, but can now be had from Sporhase Giessen for 27 mk. The instrimient consists of a zinc or brass plate with a gradua- tion as in the figure. Around point a a straight-edge turns, with a rectangular section cut out, in which a fine wire is stretched. At a, b, c sights are fixed. At d and e there are two holes through which by screws to attach the instrimient to a staff. In measuring, position is taken between 30 to 100 feet from the tree and the staff placed vertically by means of a plumb bob, when the straight-edge lies horizontal. An assistant holds a rod with two targets which are 2 meters apart, placed so high that the horizontal sight line strikes either the higher or lower target. Then sight c is sighted on the second disk when the length of the stand line can be read off from the horizontal graduation, where the wire ac cuts the zero line. Next, c is sighted on the top and the height above the horizontal is read off on the vertical graduation on the abscissa corresponding to the stand line. If, e. g., the latter were 16 w, the reading might be, as in the figure, 10.5 w. This is the height above the horizontal ; the lacking part is measured directly by the assistant. The small squares being of 5 mm side, corresponding to 1 m height or length of stand line, fifths and even tenths can be esti- mated. The distance between the sights being about 22 cm, an accurate sighting and reading is possible. The author considers this the all-round best instrument, easily worked and accurate, more so than the Christen. Zwei Wimmenauer' sche Hohenmesser. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd-Zeitung, October-November, 1915, 234-9. Fischer bemoans the fact that estimating Helps contents of trees, logs, etc., has in Germany in become a lost art, the mechanical use of Estimating tables having destroyed the ability, and therewith the interest, to the detriment of original thinking. One reason for this inability he finds in the Periodical Literature 339 metric measure as a unit, being too large to keep in one's eye, and, in cubic meters, requiring the handling of fractions which the mind does not grasp readily. Nevertheless, by using the decimeter for lineal measurement and square decimeter and liter for basal area and volume, and the are for sample area expression, this difficulty may be reduced. He then develops aids for rapid mental calculations which form part of the art of estimating. These are naturally given for meter measure, but similar short cuts could be devised for our own measures. We give some of the rules. 1. Avoid multiplications except by 10 and its multiples and the small numbers 2, 3 and 4. Substitute rather division and addition and subtraction. ino E. g., instead of 17x25 = 17 X- " 5.7 X. 7854 4 TT 5.7 4J 1.28 TT ."4 = 5.7-10x2% = 4.56 73 " 73X1.25(=V2) = 73X:4 =91.25 " 26X.57 (form factor) =26X^+7x2%= 14.82 This is the secret of rapid mental calculation. 2. To check a calculation mentally do not repeat the same calculation, but make a different kind of calculation, or at least follow a different sequence of calciilation, when also any errors in the factors (height, form factor, etc.) reveal themselves more readily. 3. Since exponential expressions are needed so frequently, it is worth while to memorize second and third potencies ; or in cubing, the memory may be assisted by the rule (10+a)3 = 2a3+(10-a)3+600a E. g., 143 = 2X43+6^+600x4 = 2744 Or squaring larger numbers : (10a±6)2=10a(10a±2t)+62 E. g., 542 = 50X(50+2X4)+42 = 2916 340 Forestry Quarterly If a is properly chosen, b"^ needs rarely to be more than 25 and can mostly be neglected. This method can still be used advantageously with halves and quarters and reducing the squaring of tens to squaring of units. E.g., 152=10x20+25 = 1x2 and 25 hungon = 225 352=30X40+25 = 3X4 = 12 and 25 hung on= 1225 7.52=10X5+6.25 = 7X8+. 25 = 56.25 4.752 = 5 X4.5+.0625 = 22.5625 The author then develops a number of approximation formulae, which give a siire judgment as to limits and average values of contents of trees of a given diameter. 1 . The volimie of a mature tree approximates in metric measure : IT v=\QOd'^, because in such trees —h.f. is frequently = 100. 4 [With our foot measure, v = r^, with the same reasoning, mathe- matically correct when h = 91.6, and /= .50. For different heights add or subtract 10 per cent for every 10 feet.] For young trees and meter meastire, two approximation formulae and their derivation are given with extensive explanations as to their application. (2) v = ^Xd^or (3) v= 2. To secure an estimate of the participation of the clear bole in the total volume, the following consideration is given: If the clear bole {h^ reaches to p per cent of the total height, h, P the volume of the clear bole v. is approximately — 10 per cent of the total volume (really a little larger), hence the formula f P 20- — lOJ (4) ..=10lL_10J ^ ^^, ^ ^ 100 100 hence for hc=lO per cent of h, v^ = 1(20— 1) = 19% of v = 20 " " " " •• =2(20- 2) =39% " " = 30 " " " " " =3(20-3) =51% " " = 80 " " =8(20-8)=96% " " Periodical Literature 341 The proof for the approximate correctness of the formula is given. A niimber of approximation formulae for giving contents of logs are elaborated. To these mathematical considerations is added a discussion on ''Anschauung,'' "conception," or the ability of securing a mental picture of the meaning of measurements ; for instance if a larch is given as containing 15 cubic feet, can we picture it and have an idea of its linear dimensions. Having been accustomed to go to tables, this ability remains undeveloped, a condition which is medieval as compared with other sciences ; progress in mensuration can be expected only from methodical cultivation of "Anschaiiung." To develop this ability, it is necessary first to have conceptions of the unit measures and their relations. Starting with a Christ- mas tree of 20 dm (80 inch) height, we may realize that it represents a cube of 1 liter ( = cubic decimeter = 61 cubic inches). This conception can be extended to stouter and higher trees and grad- ually by practice an eye is developed. Finally, however, there is a limit even for the practised eye, beyond which the conception, on account of the many liter, is not any more clear, when the ap- proximate calculation must help out. Then, we can secure a conception that the tree asstimes the form of a cylinder with the diameter at breasthigh and the form height. One can, then, mentally calculate the basal area with that height and get a conception of the size of the tree. Or we can apply formula (2) and come to the conception that it is possible to change the normal tree body into 40 cubes of the side of d. b. h. The eye learns not h only that normally (when — = 100, /=5) these 40 cubes represent d actually the tree volume, but also that when there is a deviation from these normal conditions, a complement is necessary. By the conceived change of the tree body into elementary unit bodies the estimate becomes siu-er. Again formiila (3) tells that normally the tree volume represents a cube of side. This side of the cube would exceed the d. b. h. 3 2 Vs times or 1 Vec? on each end ; to secure a conception in comparison with the tree, we would have to move out this side so that there develops a cube which on all sides symmetrically encloses the tree like a cuff. The practised eye also recognizes at once that, for instance, a long spruce pole can be represented by a body, the 342 Forestry Quarterly base of which is — but whose height must be more than , 3 3 perhaps A^/id. This forces one to investigate whether really the height in this case is greater than lOO^i (the normal condition of the h formula), or whether / is unusually large. The relation —=100 d is easily impressed upon the eye and helps greatly in discovering divergence. By securing in this way a conception of the forms, ocular estimating is aided and developed. Similarly, a special conception of the increment can be developed. This is done by using Breyman's increment per cent formula. The difficulty of estimating form factors, the author suggests, might be overcome by photographic representation of sample trees with various form factors, on which the eye could practise. Such photographic "estimating pictures" cotdd also be used to practise the eye in other directions. In conclusion, the author once more accentuates the necessity of developing the ability to estimate correctly, which he calls the "art" in mensuration. Especially in forest organization it is needed, for the tables are after all only average or limit values and in a given case can be said "to be always wrong." They require adaptation to the peculiarity of the stand in hand, which no table, no measurement, no rule can fully represent. This individualizing between limits set by theory and investigations laid down in yield tables is the function of the estimator, who, to be sure, must be an expert. Zur Schdlzung des Festgehalts von Bdutnen und Rundholzern. Allgemeine Forst-und Jagd-Zeitung, October-November, 1915, pp. 225-234. Oberforstrat Frey inveighs against the Forest soil rent theorists and their expectancy Valuottion values, which, according to him, have no and practical and only doubtfully theoretical Organisation significance, for they assume that wood prices and interest rates remain the same forever, which is contrary to experience. The arbitrary choice of interest rate leads to calculations which are difficult to gibe with the results of an organized forest management in an actual, exist- ing forest. He sneers at the advice of these calculators not to Periodical Literature 343 accept and manage according to their calculations, but to modify according to silvicultural, technical and economic considerations. Forest valuation and organization must in their results, and in the deductions from these results, be in full accord, if they are based on theoretically correct basis and are to lead to practically attainable results. Just because the expectancy calculations do not lead to results which can be realized in practice without arbitrary modifications, these calculations must be based on false theory and should be abandoned. The author then contends that calculations should be made only with present sale values. Moreover, he denies that the value of the soil is a measure for arriving at the best method of man- agement or organization ; the value of the stock alone is determi- native, for with the value of the growing stock rises and falls the value of the increment, the annual forest rent, or net yield. "The amount of the average annual income which different manage- ment, especially different rotations, can produce, gives the only judgment as to which, under given present conditions, is most ad- vantageous to the owner." Thus, for a forest near a city, on ac- count of higher wood prices and of a market for small material, a relatively low rotation may show itself advantageous, while for a forest more distant from market, the opposite may be found advantageous. A certain definite basis for organization can thus be established. Stock and increment alone determine what kind of management is admissible and advisable. The author continue his iconoclastic invective by declaring all the methods of regulation, allotment methods, management classes (working sections), predetermined rotation, etc., as having only historical or theoretical value. Away with the straight-jacket; freedom for the manager ! [We note that later on, he uses these regulators nevertheless!] If for a given forest, the mean annual total increment has been determined by estimate on the basis of yield tables, and it has been shown that this increment can be secured in "ripe" stands continuously without diminishing the growing stock, regenera- tion being provided, the problem of organization is solved. The "age of ripeness," the author, when first bringing forward this "method of exchange values" in 1889, defined as the age at which the value of a stand per acre coincides with the value of the nor- mal stock per acre. The author in his earlier publication proved 344 Forestry Quarterly that if then the annual increment (volume or value) is used, the stock remains unchanged, and the age classes establish themselves (Heyer's method?). If the question were to be discussed, what changes in existing condition or management of a given forest might be immediately (not in future) desirable in order to secure a larger and more valuable increment, it must not be overlooked that the owner is rarely in position practically to undertake anything affecting pres- ent conditions to radically change the stock. Every owner must organize his forest under the given stock conditions, and with present market conditions in view : speculations for the future will bring mostly disappointments. An ordinary yield table, giving contents of main and side stand and the mean periodic increment, furnishes all necessary basis for regulating a forest. From this, for various rotations, the annual yields for the working block and the corresponding nor- mal stock are figured, and finally the age of economic maturity as defined above ascertained. If x is the chosen rotation, I ^ the corresponding total increment per acre, and 5„ the normal stock per acre, then the equation c —l^ holds, and any stand, " 2 the yield of which shows this amount, has attained maturity. All older stands of a working section to which the rotation x is to apply are also to be considered ready for the axe, since their yield exceeds the minimum ; all younger stands remaining below the minimum -^ are immature. These stands are also not to 2 be placed in calculation with their present yield, but with the product of the mean annual total increment of the ripe stand into their age (Heyer's method?). If instead of the mean annual total increment, the mean felling age increment is used, the age of maturity coincides with the age of half the rotation, while with the mean annual total increment, the age of maturity lies mostly 10 and more years above half the rotation. The above regulation may, of course, be based on volumes or values. [We leave to our readers to discover the flaws in the radical position taken by the author. — Rev.] Uber die Beziehungen zwischen Waldwertrechnung und Waldertragsregelung. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Jagdwesen, December 1915, pp. 756-62. Periodical Literature 345 Schiipfer, pointing out that the German Value spruce is the best money producer, while Production fir beats it in volume production, makes a of Spruce comparative calculation for the two species and Fir on the basis of sample areas, to find out whether the tendency to favor the spruce against the fir is justified. In a 130-year-old spruce stand, with trees 8 to 32 inch diameter, the average sample tree had 19 inches with 109 feet height. From volume tables for spruce and fir the contents of the group of trees for the latter species showed 9.2 per cent greater volume. The form quotient for the sample tree of spruce was .68, for fir .71 (more full bodied). A subdivision into assortments made the first-class logs for fir nearly 4 per cent more. Loss in logging (over volume table contents) for spruce 11.4 per cent, for fir 12.7 per cent (larger bark per cent) ; in practice, these figures might increase to 13 and 14 per cent respectively. Taking log prices for spruce of various grades and averaging, the quality figure is 21.77 mk; with the same prices, the fir would work out 21,78 mk, but on the whole harvest the quality figure for fir could be 6 per cent lower in order, multiplied with the volume, to yield the same as spruce. Considering, however, that the fir being the most tolerant species can support a stand denser, produces a larger basal area, and during the period of regeneration, acquires a considerable in- cement on the nurse trees, has less enemies, regenerates readily, it may be assumed that it can compensate for a 10 per cent reduc- tion in volume-value difiference on sites that are suitable. Zur Massen- und Wertserzeugung von Fichte und Tanne. Forstwissenschaf t- Hches Centralblatt, December, 1915, pp. 537-42. Watson reviews at some length the Working Plans inaccuracies of past working plans. The in Burma main trouble has been that too small a percentage of the growing stock was measured and then only trees of the more important species above a certain size. The result was too much theorizing based on highly inadequate data. He states : 346 Forestry Quarterly "The later tendency to more sketchy field work and the sub- stitution of linear values for fixed sample areas has, in my opinion, greatly reduced the value of the later working plans. One of the chief causes of inaccuracy in the past was faulty classification of sound and unsound trees." Another fault in the early working plans was that they did not consider the relative accessibility and condition of the reproduc- tion and too frequently the richest compartments were cut over first, even if no reproduction had started ; the girdling of inferior species was not based upon the benefits to be derived. Often the recommendations were impracticable and the prescriptions for cutting species other than teak were vague or of little value. After analyzing the faults of past working plans, Watson gives in considerable detail recommendations regarding future plans which are well worth study. T. S. W., Jr. The Indian Forester, January, 1916, pp. 4-17. UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY A Wisconsin hardwood lumbering com- Utilization pany had been cutting its birch to 8 inches of Waste "clear surface" and its maple to 10 inches. from Hardwoods The stumpage value had gone up over $5 per M feet, and the company thought it might lower its log specifications to 7 inches for birch and 8 inches for maple. This was tried and the lowered specifications in- creased the cost of logging, per M feet, by $1 to $8, log scale. The smaller and rougher logs decreased the mill output by about 20 per cent with a consequent increase in the cost of milling of the same amount. The lowered average grade of lumber low- ered the mill-run value so that the net result was to increase the cost of production by about $5 per M, "and, if we had any means of determining the cost of manufacturing the poorer logs due to lumber, it would probably amount to four or five times the value of the product obtained." The old diameter limits were therefore accepted as "the limits of economy." But these log specifications remove only about 65 to 70 per cent of the weight of standing timber, the balance being left as economically worthless. In addition there is the mill waste in kerf and slab (20% with circular and 8% with band saws). This mill waste, when reduced to its economic limit by rehandling slabs Periodical Literature 347 for lath, square, crate and box lumber, etc., still leaves over a cord of mill waste per M of manufactured lumber. Of this cord, about ^2, is used for fuel and hog-feed and y^ is available for other uses. Altogether there is about 50 per cent of the log goes into lumber, 30 per cent into fuel, and 20 per cent is available for other uses. On the basis of these figures, only about 15 per cent of the weight of the standing hardwood forest can be made into lumber under the most modern practice. Where logs have to be hauled some distance, the freight charges act to increase the quality of the poorest log which can be profitably handled. Efforts to dispose of the mill waste as city fuel usually fail, or the results are unprofitable on account of freight or cost of handling. Efforts made to utilize the mill waste in small "novelties" such as tent pins, broom handles, billiard cues, etc., failed because the best of logs and not refuse are re- quired. The only practicable method of salvage so far discovered, except for mills with exceptionally favorable location, is the distillation plant. Such a plant was erected. The plant erected has six retorts, each of 8 cords daily capacity. The plant, wood yard, track equipment, etc., cost about $200,000 and an additional $25,000 for working capital is required. At the prices charged by the woods to the plant for its wood, a piofit of about $1 per cord is realized as stumpage. Allowing for depreciation, the plant has been earning 6 to 8 per cent on the investment. Since the values of products have been high, the profits have also been more than was expected through a long term of years. The Company will be satisfied, however, if it can realize an average profit of 50 cents per cord as stumpage on its wood. The requirements for chemical wood are exacting. All wood must be seasoned for a year, maximum cross section must be under 6 by 12 inches, the minimum size allowable permits only the heaviest slabs and edgings to be used. The wood must be practically all sound, etc. To make up the cordwood into wood proved unsatisfactory since labor was often scarce or unskilled at the work, constant inspection was necessary, the first risk while seasoning in the woods was great, the labor cost for handling and hauling the wood amounted to as much for chopping and piling, and the spur tracks had to be left in a year after logging was finished, thus doubling the steel required. 348 Forestry Quarterly For these reasons the present practice is to log clean, taking everything out in log lengths, and leaving only saplings under five inches in diameter, tops and very defective trees and logs. Good and poor logs go to the mill where they are sorted, those too poor for the saw going to the wood-mill, where they are sawed into 50 inch lengths and run through split-saws to reduce the cross section to the required specifications. Slabs and edgings from the sawmill are mixed with the product of the wood-mill loaded on cars, and taken to the wood-yard for seasoning. The retort plant requires only a few highly skilled men, but must be very carefully operated. The labor required aggre- gates 90 men. Products of the plant run about as follows : per cord of wood 50 bushels of charcoal, 11 gallons of 83 per cent crude alcohol, IGO pounds of acetate of lime. Under usual conditions there is a ready sale of alcohol and acetate. Charcoal, on account of its bulk, low value, and tendency to spontaneous combustion, is diffi- cult to transport over long distances. Its principal use in whole- sale quantities is in special iron furnaces, which are not often available near the chemical plant. The cost of the distilling operation is about $8.50 per cord. The value of the products has recently fluctuated between $6 and $11 per cord. The use of the chemical wood has just about doubled the total amount of merchantable wood which can be economically removed from the forest. The essentials for a successful chemical plant are: (1) saw- mill located near the forest and having hardwood supply ade- quate for 20 years at the rate of ten million feet per year, (2) a large supply of running water, and (3) proximity to a char- coal iron furnace. P. S. L. Canadian Lumberman and Woodworker, June, 1913. The Southern Pine Association has Grading adopted and published a set of grading of rules somewhat different from any here- Southern Pine tofore used. In this new classification all the southern pines are thrown into one group which is separated into two grades. Species distinctions are entirely ignored. The grades are based upon the number of Periodical Literature 349 rings per inch, the percentage of summer wood, and the sharp- ness of the color contrast between the summer and the spring wood. There are other points of interest, all of which are brought out in the coyprighted standards of the American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia, reprinted in the Lumber World Reznew, December 25. 1915. O. L. S. Circassian walnut, Juglans regia, to the Future extent of 1,745,000 feet is consumed an- Walnut nually in the United States. Most of it is Supply used as veneer for furniture, interior finish and musical instruments. The supply comes wholly from old orchards in the northeastern part of Asiatic Turkey, where they were planted originally for the nuts (English walnuts). After bearing a hundred years or more they are cut for the wood. In the United States there are 1,720,000 trees planted in orchards producing more than 20,000,000 pounds of English walnuts annually in California alone, where almost half the total number of trees are located. Texas and Oregon also have a large number of these trees. Thirty-'five States in all have bearing trees. Whether the wood from these trees will develop the fine figures and colors is not yet known; that grown in Europe has never come up to the native stock. The Black walnut, Juglaiis nigra, is planted for the nuts in nearly every State ; Iowa leads in Black walnut orchards, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska and Pennsylvania follow in the order named. At present the reports show 1,060,000 trees planted with three fourths of them bearing, and the nut crop of 15,630,000 pounds worth $245,000 annually. O. S. L. Hardwood Record, December 25, 1915. Tests made in Seattle, Washington, at Fire which quite careful records were made, Resistance show that a three-inch wall of wood is of more resistant to an exterior fire than an Wood inch thickness of wood covered with sheet iron. A small structure 4 by 6 by 8 feet was built with one wall of % inch shiplap lined on the inside with sheets of galvanized iron; the other three walls were of 350 Forestry Quarterly 3-inch tongue and grooved stuff painted with two coats of white lead and oil. Openings were arranged for draft and a fire was built inside. The progress of destruction is shown in the records following : Time in Temperature 3-inch l-inch Wood Wall with Minutes Degrees F Wood Wall Galvanized Iron 7 800 Paint started to burn 10 1300 Dense smoke through cracks in shiplap 19 2050 Shiplap begins to flame outside 25 2125 Outside still cold 30 2225 Four top boards burned through 40 2175 Red coals appear near bottom 43 .... Fire extinguished with water O. L. S. The Lumber World Review, December, 1915. Shoemakers' Wood Use The use of wood for shoe-making seems to be increasing, although no records are available to show at just what rate. The wooden heel is at present gaining ground on account of the high-heeled style in women's shoes. More than a dozen factories in Massachusetts manufacture them, and many turn out 500 dozen pairs per day. One firm has made wooden shoe heels continuously for 20 years. Sugar maple. Paper birch and beech are used. Shoe shanks that fit under the arch of the foot are made from wood for many shoes. Veneer of Paper birch and Sugar maple is used almost exclusively. Shoe pegs and "peg ribbons" are made from Paper birch. The "ribbons" are long strips as wide as the peg is long, peeled from the log. They are fed into a machine which splits off a peg and drives it as the shoe passes along through its pro- cess of manufacture. Wooden soles are used around furnaces and where workers are on hot floors. Cottonwood, basswood, willow, maple, birch and beech are all used. There are small factories in the United States that make one-piece, all-wood shoes. Cottonwood is preferred, but basswood, maple and birch are also used. O. L. S. Hardwood Record, December, 1915. Periodical Literature 351 An extract from the Indian Trade Powder from Journal shows that there is not the least Woodpidp difficulty in making as good propelling pow- der from wood pulp as from cotton. "The best woods for this manufacture are those free from resin, but resinous woods can be purified without difficulty and the Ger- mans have an ample supply of both varieties." T. S. W., Jr. The Indian Forester, January, 1916, p. 41. STATISTICS AND HISTORY Dr. Endres abstracts from the newest N'eiv (1912) official work of the French gov- French ernment ''Statistique et Atlas des Forets de Statistics France," par M. Lucien Daubree, Direc- teur general des Eaux et Forets, in two handsome volumes of 726 pages. Each department is treated by itself, the text being accompanied by a map, "the most perfect that has so far appeared in this line." The text goes into the minutest detail of forest conditions, stands, yields, ownership, etc. A summary at the end mechanically re- peats the statements for each department alphabetically without attempt at regional compilation. The statistics are for the year 1908. The forest area comprises 24,420,000 acres, or 18.7 per cent, and ,62 acre per capita; but 5.1 per cent of this is unproductive waste. The mountainous departments have the largest forest areas with over 30 per cent, except that the Landes, Var and Gironde exceed all others with 55.4, 49.5 and 46.2 per cent. The smallest per cent is found in the coast departments, where they vary between 3 to 6 per cent. The 12.1 per cent of State forest and 19.7 per cent of communal forest (31.8%) 3 are under the regime forestier, 2.7 per cent of communal forest and the 65.5 per cent of private forest, mostly in small areas, are without State control except the limiting of clearing in protective areas. The largest private ownership is found in the planted forests of Landes and Gironde, the largest State ownership in the Pyrenees, Vosges and Alps. 352 Forestry Quarterly Two thirds of the total forest area is occupied by coppice and composite forest, only one third is in timber. Only 20 per cent is coniferous, and most of the timber forest, 58.9 per cent of its possessions, is in the hands of the State. Besides 9.3 per cent of the State property is in process of conversion from coppice to timber. The production is poor, only 35.7 cubic feet per acre, of which only 28.6 per cent is workwood (as against 50-t- cubic feet and 40.6 per cent for Germany). The production in the State forests is only slightly higher than the average, namely 38 cubic feet, with, however, a higher workwood per cent, namely 36.2. Per capita, the workwood production is only 6 cubic feet, less than half that of Germany. Yet the importation is not large and very variable from year to year, between $20 and $50 milHon ; in 1911, 70 million cubic feet were imported, which brings the total workwood con- sumption to around 8 cubic feet, as compared with around 20 cubic feet in Germany, which imports (without wooden ware) around $80 to $90 million. The reviewer, then, gives details regarding the forest areas in the departments at present occupied by the German army, and in another section those of the more important other forest terri- tories. The occupied territory comprises over 5 million acres in 9 departments. These detail descriptions are of interest only by the incidental information on forest conditions and productivity, which, however, in the form given do not lend themselves to generalization. The most densely forested departments of the occupied terri- tory are the Ardennes, Meuse (Argonnes), Meurthe-et-Moselle, and Vosges ; the latter with 37 per cent. The Pyrenees, Alps and Jura are the forestally important districts outside the war country. Corsica is also briefly described. Die neue Forstslatistik Frankreichs. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, January, February, 1916, pp. 18-26, 84-98. The usual tabulation of the financial re- Saxon Forest suits of the Saxon State Forest adminis- Finance tration, given in great detail for every revier and district, for the year 1913, ex- hibits the following totals : Periodical Literature 3vS3 Wood growing forest area 426,312 acres Planned fellings 29,624,000 cubic feet of which workwood 82 per cent Actual fellings, all sold (66 cubic feet per acre) 28,355,566 cubic feet of which workwood 85.7 per cent Receipts $4,169,000 Expenditures : Administration $493,800 Improvements 375,700 Woodchoppers 517,885 General 66,915 Total $1,454,300 Net income $2,715,700 Per acre $6.33 Per cubic foot 9.5 cents Forest capital $103,250,000 Forest per cent 2.63 per cent The large amount of expenditure on improvement (capital ac- count?) is particularly noticeable. On the whole, this showing differs but little from the preceding year (briefed in F, Q., xiii, p. 406), the net income being slightly less. The lowest forest per cent for a single revier figures out .12, the highest 4.15. This time only six reviers remain below 1 per cent as against 10 in the previous year, but also only two bring over 4 per cent as against 7 in the previous year. The fact that not the actual capital investment, but a present sale value is the basis for finance calculation renders it impos- sible to figure the real profitableness of the business. Compared with 10 years ago, the net income, with nearly the same cut, has increased over 40 per cent, the expenditures only 12 per cent, and the expenditures for improvement have increased over 50 per cent. Die Reinertragsilhersichten der Kgl. Sachs. Staatsforsten fur das Jahr 1913. Tharandter Forstliches Jahrbuch, 1915, pp. 419-31. From a very comprehensive discussion Bavarian of forest conditions in Bavaria by Dr. En- Statistics dres, we quote a few interesting figures comparing conditions in 1900 with those of 1913 for the total Kingdom. The age class distribution is given for the different species. It shows decidedly an excess in old stands for the age class over 120 years, which a few years ago was charged against the State 354 Forestry Quarterly administration as irrational ; 20 per cent of the spruce area is over 100 years and 40 per cent of the fir area. The age classes show that since 1833 to 1852 no progress had been made to propagate pine, while for spruce and fir an increase in the young- est age classes of 29 per cent has taken place. The wood yield in the 14 years has increased 16.7 per cent, the increase being specially noticeable in workwood, the workwood per cent having increased from 53 to 57.4 per cent. The stout- wood product in 1913 having come to 55 cubic feet per acre for the whole State, the State forests produced 74 cubic feet. The greatest increase in production (34.5%) is recorded for the State forests, while in private forests the increase was only 2.4 per cent. Bavaria is the one State in Germany which exports surplus, almost half its cut, to other parts of Germany, which im- ports altogether in the neighborhood of 500,000,000 cubic feet. There has been an increase of forest area for all Germany of 1.63 per cent since 1900, for Bavaria 1.13 per cent (Saxony and Alsace-Lorraine alone experiencing a reduction). Die forstwissenschafUiche Bodenbenutzung Bayerns in Jahre 1913. Forst- wissenschaftliches Centralblatt, November, 1915, pp. 499-519. A close canvass of labor conditions in Forest the Bavarian Forest Department is of in- Labor terest on account of the completeness of the inquiry. The first thing that will strike the American reader is that of the around 75,000 laborers 42 per cent are women and boys. These latter are, of course, used mainly in planting and other light labor in spring and summer, while winter work falls to men. Counted by days of labor, how- ever, 4/5 of the work is done by men. Only 22 per cent of the 43,107 men are forest laborers by "profession," and if 200 days in the year are counted as full work the number of men doing full year's work is reduced to less than 10 per cent, or 4151. About 9/10 of all persons occupied in forest labor give less than half a year's time, and in the average hardly 2y^ months. Altogether, the labor days represent 15,119 full 300-day years. The re- quirement per 100 acres is given as 224 labor days, less than 1 man per year. There is, however, from district to district a vari- ation from 150 to 370 labor days per 100 acres noted. Periodical Literature 355 Logging labor consumes 59 per cent, of which, however, 88 per cent is done by contract or by the piece; road building requires 11 per cent ; cultures, 24 per cent ; other work, 6 per cent. Of all the work, 54 per cent is done under contract. The length of day for day labor varies from 8 to 10 hours, according to season. The pay varies very considerably from district to district. Men get from 40 cents to 87 cents, or 56 cents on the average, but in logging by the piece the earnings may rise to as high as $1.75, averaging 75 cents in winter and 95 cents in summer. The con- tract price for most districts is about 60 to 70 cents per 100 cubic feet logs of hardwoods and 10 per cent less for softwood logs ; cordwood is cut for 70 to 90 cents. Woodchoppers' wages have risen since 1900 more than wood prices. Women's wages average only a little over 40 cents, 73 per cent of men's wages; boys' and girls' not over 36 cents. The wages are mostly paid bi-weekly, the foreman collecting and disbursing them for a 2 per cent commission. In the high mountains, the administration furnishes shelter, straw and blankets, and elsewhere at least shelter. Of course, all the general insurance and aid for the sick ap- plies to forest laborers. For the full year (1908), the care of sick, given entirely free of cost, amounted to nearly $2 per head for 26 weeks. Invalid insurance, paid half by the State, amounts to $1.60; accident insurance, to $3.34; altogether "social care" requires $10.96 per laborer for full time. In concluding the review in the Swiss journal, the writer ex- presses the expectation of a wholesale emigration after the war. Die Forstarheiter. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen. January- February, 1916, pp. 23-30. Dr. Borgman discusses interestingly for- German est political conditions and post-bellum Forest problems for Germany. Germany's import Problems of workwood has in the last 10 years risen from about 350 million to not less than 500 million cubic feet, equivalent to 40 per cent of the consump- tion, the home product satisfying hardly more than 60 per cent 356 Forestry Quarterly of the consumption. Shortage, especially of mine timbers has been felt since the war, and increase of home production will be- come necessary even after the war by reduction of unprofitably high forest rent rotations, increased thinning practice, and reduc- tion of superfluous growing stock, as well as by supplanting poorly growing old timber by vigorous young stands. All of these mea- sures will also improve the financial result through improved value increment, both absolute and relative. The forest reserve fund question is also discussed in this connection and the use of these funds for purchase and reforesta- tion of waste areas. Even for Saxony, the author asserts that the forest administra- tion could be made more profitable by using accumulated excess forest capital. On the other hand, the author cautions against confounding capital and rent, and if the war leads to over-cutting, the forest should be credited with its contribution to the general industrial reestablishment and a return to sustained yield manage- ment made possible. After the war, tarifif politics, development of transportation, wood trade, and new commercial treaties are expected to occupy attention, and especially new relations in this respect with Austria. Extension of forest area and assistance to forest owners, reor- ganization of forest departments, education and association prob- lems are touched upon, and the article closes with confidence in ultimate victory. Forstliche Tagesfragen. Tharandter Forstliches Jahrbuch, 191.S, pp. 456-71" Perhaps the most authoritative statement Effect of that has yet been published is given by War on C. de Lesseux, summarizing the class and French amount of material used for specific mili- Forests tary purposes and the damage resulting from actual fighting. According to this authority, the average trench requires about one stacked cubic meter of wood per ten meters of trench. This is used for barricades, benches, elbow rests, etc. The shelters of various types require 5 to 20 stacked cubic meters per shelter, while the artillery screens average 40 to 50 meters. This means an Periodical Literature 357 expense for wood of about 6,000 francs for a complete battery, including munition shelters. These figures, however, are often exceeded since the shelter for some single guns has cost from 2500 to 2700 francs each. Aeroplane covers, to protect guns against observation by aeroplanes, usually consume about 35 meters. An ordinary block house consumes 2500 to 2700 francs worth of wood. At the commencement of the war, before the heavy artillery was brought into action, the damage was usually localized and, for the most part, small. At some of the passes, small areas were completely destroyed because of intensive operations. After the heavy artillery got into action, the damage became more complete. At such places as Hartmannsvillerkopf, the forest was completely destroyed by bombardments. This destruction was often very rapid. For example, on July 23, 1915, on the north slope of Schratzmannele, opposite the French positions, a very dense pole wood was ^ destroyed in less than a day. By the middle of September, there was nothing left of this particular forest. In spite of the numerous bombardments, however, there has been very little fire. Only one fire of any size is recorded, namely, on July 25, 1915, in the attack on Linge, the forest was lighted by French artillery on a north slope and resulted in heavy damage to the German defense, since it made visible their trenches, barricades, and barb wire entanglements. In addition to actual destruction by fighting or for use in fight- ing, considerable forest areas were denuded to facilitate artil- lery. The construction and heating of temporary camps has also consumed a great deal of wood. Lesseux concludes that the French forests have paid a large tribute to the war. T. S. W., Jr. Revue des Eaux et Forets, April 1, 1916, pp. 110-6. NEWS AND NOTES With the beginning of the year, the first Chinese Forest Service has been inaugurated under the Department of Agriculture and Commerce. The Minister of Agriculture, Mr. Chow-tsz-chi, is credited with the initiative and with a genuine desire to make this Service effective, taking a very active detailed interest in its organization. The Vice-Minister, Mr. Ching, is ex-officio Direc- tor-General of the Service, and Mr. Forsythe Sherfesee, for six years employed in and lately Director of the Philippine Forestry Bureau, on leave of absence for a year, has been called to act as Adviser and Co-Director, another Co-Director being Mr. Ngan Han, who studied forestry in Cornell and Michigan several years ago, published an elementary forestry book in Chinese, and se- cured experience in Manchuria regulating the operations in gov- ernment timber concessions. There is also on the staff one other foreigner, Mr. William Purdom, coming from Kew Gardens, who acts as botanist and collector of the most necessary data, at present entirely lacking. It is proposed to organize the Service in six divisions. Investi- gation, Reforestation, Education, Propaganda, Provincial, and Clerical. The first difficulty will, of course, be the finding of men capa- ble to carry on the work in the absence of native foresters until they can be educated. In the present temper of the people, it might be difficult to employ any more foreigners. We are not informed whether the forest school founded at Mukden a few years ago is still running. While all this is interesting news, it would be strange if the rule of "ups and downs" which has beset the development of for- estry practice in other parts of the world should fail in China. Indeed, we expect no clear sailing, especially in these revolution- ary times. The developments which come from political changes may displace the forest-friendly head of the Department and substitute a less favorable one ; besides, there are peculiarities and complexities in carrying on government, and obstacles which we in the West do not need to consider. If we were correctly informed, a first attempt at a Department of Agriculture and 358 News and Notes 359 Forestry was made three years ago under the leadership of C. S. Chan; two years ago the Chinese National Conservation Bureau discussed the matter of reforesting at the headwaters of the Yellow River. The Germans, too, at Tsingtau and Kiaustschou had started plantations which were so successful as to encourage private imitation with plant material furnished by the Germans. In this connection, we can refer those readers who are inter- ested to an article by Rosenbluth, published in Forestry Quar- terly^ vol. X, p. 647, on "Forest Conditions in China," and an- other article by P. C. King, a Chinese forestry student at Cornell, suggesting details of an organization for China, in Forestry Quarterly, vol. XII, p. 578. To not only extend, but wisely direct the use of wood materials has become a special function of the National Lumber Manufac- turers Association in its Trade Extension Department. This is of interest to foresters especially because this powerful Associa- tion has seen fit to entrust this work to trained foresters. Mr. E. A. Sterling starts with an Introductory Publication entitled, "Structural Timber" (January, 1916), in which he explains the object of this work and pleads for a rational use of wood in construction, analyzing the many engineering phases connected with the use of structural timber. The reference to the fire hazard of wood structures is cleverly handled, the fallacy of drawing conclusions from a comparison with European experi- ence being disclosed. "To say that the annual fire loss in the United States is $2.50 per capita against 58 cents in Europe is to ignore a necessary measure of value. The fact that the United States has about three and one half times the number of fires and also very nearly three times the number of buildings leads to the simple conclusion that Europe has fewer fires because it has fewer (wooden) buildings." Foresters will find much useful reading in these "Engineering Bulletins," which we understand can be se- cured free of charge from the Association. Mr. R. H. Campbell, Director of the Dominion Forestry Branch, discussing in the Canadian Engineer the question, "How Long Will Our Timber Last?" very properly considers it futile to 360 Forestry Quarterly estimate the probable date of exhaustion. Even if the data of supply were on hand, which they are not, the data of consump- tion are most variable. "We can hope to postpone exhaustion of supply indefinitely" by proper forms of conservation, such as the use of inferior material. That this is being done now the writer demonstrates from price movements. In the last five years the average price of lumber has increased slightly compared to the increase in value of the best grades. In 1900, "White pine good sidings in Ottawa was from $33 to $38 ; in 1914, $58 to $65, an increase of $3 per year. The average price for White pine lum- ber in 1908 was $20.03, in 1913, $30.79, an increase of only 15 cents a year. On May 4, a National Conservation Congress was held at Washington, D. C, the result of which has been a serious set- back to the Conservation movement. As at the last Conserva- tion Congress in 1913, the question of how to handle the national water powers was the principal problem to be discussed, and this time the advocates of handing over the water powers to private exploitation had the upper hand over the advocates of adequate national control. Two measures, the Shields bill and the Myers bill before the II. S. Senate, were endorsed by an over- whelming majority, which bills provide only a nominal control and conditional recovery of the granted privileges after 50 years. There can be an honest difference of opinion as to what in detail is the best policy for developing the national water powers under federal control, but a close analysis of the two mentioned bills will leave little doubt that .they were drafted by and for grabbers of natural resources rather than by patriotic citizens, and that the introduction of the clauses of perfunctory control was ,to serve only as a sop and to blind the innocent conservationists as to the real purpose. A committee on forestry headed by Professor J. W. Toumey, presented a resolution advocating extension of National, State and communal forests, which seems also to have been lost. Mr. Zon, as Secretary of the Committee, was responsible for a report to which we expect to return when in print. A committee of five members was appointed to represent the Society of American Foresters. Nevus and Notes 361 Prof. Richard T. Ely, Professor of Political Economy at the University of Wisconsin, has in preparation a volume on Con- servation, which he anticipates by a paper submitted to the Februar}^ meeting of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, entitled Conservation and Economic Theory, and which is printed in Bulletin No. 109 of the Institute and also appears in reprint. Prof. Ely was one of the first among the economists who occupied himself with this subject, before the name had become familiar and while it was still mainly forest conserva- tion. He recognizes the fact that the foundation for the con- servation movement was laid by the pioneers in the forestry move- ment. In discussing some economic principles of conservation, he makes the statement, "the higher the price of land, the bet- ter the farming in the absolute sense," and denies that the high products from the land is the cause of intensive farming. In forestry, this would probably not hold : the higher price of the product makes forestry principles practicable. Another inter- esting statement is that "the conservation of human resources limits the conservation of natural resources," having reference to a reduction in labor cost as conducive to improvement in farm- ing, accentuating that in the final analysis conservation problems depend in their solution upon individual social philosophy. "We need a keener social consciousness and a new state-sense if we are ever to solve the problems of conservation, and the solution can be put in force only by conservation commissions." To arrest the ravages of the White pine blister rust, which has now gained a foothold in six eastern States and is suspected in the Ohio Valley, the United States Department of Agriculture, through the Federal Horticultural Board, has sent to all eastern nurserymen an urgent request not to ship White pines, currants and gooseberries west of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas. At a conservative estimate, the value of the Government and private holdings in these forests is $240,000,000. At the same time, the Department has issued a warning to the States within the range of the Western White pines, of the danger of allowing nursery stock of these three kinds, from eastern nurseries, to enter their territory. 362 Forestry Quarterly The forest fire statistics of Pennsylvania show that in 1915 the losses total up to $850,000. Some 42,000 acres of State forest and 295,000 acres of private forest were burned over, and $32,000 was spent in extinguishing fires. Railroads are still the largest single cause — an almost entirely avoidable cause, as is being demon- strated in Canada. The average fire covered 300 acres, did damage estimated at $775, and cost $30 to finally extinguish. It is found that 77 of the 1,101 fires burned over 1,000 acres each, or about 60 per cent of the total burned area, showing that these larger fires need par- ticular attention of the protective service, which has by the last legislature been created into a Bureau of Forest Protection with an appropriation, to be sure, of only $45,000. The total number of wardens charged with fire protection is now 1800 ; but the appropriation is too small to use this force effectually, and is only just about one fortieth of the loss for 1915 in timber alone. But as a newspaper editorial points out, the indirect loss caused by keeping unproductive 5,000,000 acres of forest, every acre of which is burned over once in ten years ; the loss of floods, water famines and impure water supply ; the loss of taxes due to depre- ciation amounting to about $300,000, and other such losses may aggregate 15 to 25 million dollars. A striking tribute to the efftciency of the fire protection work of the State Forest Service is conveyed in the reduction of the insurance rate for Northern Minnesota by the State Insurance Commissioner to that prevailing for Southern Minnesota. The aggregate of the reductions far exceeds the total appropriation for the whole forest service. The forestry work of New Jersey, which was first carried on by the Geological Survey, then by a forest commission, has grown into wider scope in 1915 under the Department of Con- servation and Development, Alfred Gaskill Director, which is charged by law with the "full control and direction of all State conservation and development projects and of all work in any way relating thereto, except such work as is conferred on other boards." This Department works under a Governing Board of eight appointees with two Divisions, namely that of Geology and that of Forestry and Parks. A pamphlet lately issued de- News and Notes 363 scribes very briefly the features of the State as basis for such development. For elegance of appearance in paper, print and illustration, The Empire forester (should be Empire State Forester), the an- nual publication of the students of the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse, takes first rank. The contents of the hundred odd pages are very varied and besides contributions of students, contain short articles by several professors and outsiders. By an unfortunate lapse on the part of the proofreader, Mr. Fernow, giving a brief statement regarding the formation of the first New York State Forestry Association in 1885, is made to say that Mr. Roosevelt at the organization meeting over which he presided "perhaps for the first time had the subject of forestry, of conservation, brought to his closer attention," and then is made to continue, "This was a misfortune, for the gentleman, however good with his pen, had not the art to make himself agreeable to man." This in the light of the future doings of this "gentleman," would astonish anybody, even a proofreader. The blunder con- sisted in leaving out a paragraph which referred to a reverend gentleman who was elected secretary, and to whose door may be laid the failure of the Association. The Canadian Forestry Association, during the last year, since Mr. Robson Black became its Secretary, has launched a re- markably diversified propaganda to arrest public interest. The newspapers have been plied by articles and cartoons as never before, the Journal of the Association has set a new standard of propaganda, the Boy Scouts have been enlisted with booklets, prizes, etc. The latest is an edition of 25,000 booklets entitled "A Matter of Opinion," giving in commonplace conversational language expression to the attitude of the past and appreciation of the modern situation by various classes of citizens, the set- tler, the camper, the banker, the railway man, the power engi- neer, the fire ranger, the taxpayer. If democracy means the prevailing of public opinion, this flood of sane, informative lit- erature should do much to waken up the democratic spirit and lead to results. 364 Forestry Quarterly The Minnesota Forestry Association has effected combination with the Game Protective League in making the little, neat publication, The North Woods, the official organ of both Asso- ciations, under the title, The North Woods and Wild Life. During a Southern Logging Association meeting two hundred and twenty-three questions concerning pine operations were sub- mitted to the logging superintendents present. These questions, with a summary of the answers, are given in the Southern Lum- berman, of October, 1913. They include many phases of the log- ging business, varying from costs of different operations to kinds of animals used for skidding, food value of different grains, kinds and sizes of different parts of equipment, camp board, amuse- ment, home life of men, wages, durability of equipment, and many other items. The answers are illuminating, in spite of the small number answering each question. Yale Forest School is about to institute "research and instruc- tion in tropical forestry" and has appropriated $5,000 for two years for this purpose, to start the new enterprise the next academic year. The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse Univer- sity, announces University Extension work in forestry, in charge of Shirley W. Allen. In the circular, it is announced that four technical foresters give their entire time to this State-wide edu- cational work. The College offers a regular reading course in Lumber and Its Uses, for which a charge of $5 is made. A travel- ing forestry library is also one of the methods employed. An interesting development in the education of the general public to secure a proper attitude towards forestry is the sum- mer camp in the Adirondacks instituted by the New York State College of Forestry three years ago, which is designed especially for high school boys. The camp for 1916 will open on August 2, at Raquette Lake Station, under supervision of W. A. McDonald, who will give instruction in elementary forestry and woodcraft through the month. Lectures on plant relationships, on com- mon animals and insects, and on beneficial and injurious fungi, will be given by specialists. News and Notes 365 A very complete outline for Study of Lumber Operations by Students has been prepared by Mr. H. H. Tryon, of the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University, as Bulle- tin No. 7, Vol. XVI of the University publications. A readable account of the work of the Mont Alto Forest School is to be found in Forest Leaves, April, 1916. It appears that the school has so far graduated 78, of whom 60 are employed in the State Forest Service, 8 in other forestry work, and only 7 in other callings, 3 having died. Much stress is laid on the location of the school in the forest, which, by the way, is said to be in first-class condition and already paying one third of its cost of maintenance. The advantage of such location is, however, in part offset by the loss of the advantages which come from the con- tact with other interests at a University. The old controversy between the advocates of University and Academy for forest edu- cation will never be settled for the advantages and disadvantages of either location are compensatory; hence we need both to de- velop different classes of men. From exhibitors at the Panama-Pacific International Exposi- tion, the University of California has received a large amount of demonstration material for forestry, including the very complete collection of Japanese lumber presented by the Japanese govern- ment, and representative samples of the principal woods of China, Honduras, and Guatemala. Sweden gave an exhibit showing by- products obtained through distillation of wood. The C. A. Smith Lumber Company presented its entire exhibit of different woods, cut on its holdings in the Coos Bay region. The Louisiana State Commission gave samples of eastern lumber, a tapped Longleaf pine tree trunk, and products obtained by the naval stores indus- try. A large amount of other demonstration material has been donated by lumber and manufacturing establishments. Mr. Shoitsu Hotta, Assistant Professor of Forestry at the Tokyo Imperial University, has entered the Yale School of For- estry as a candidate for the degree Master of Forestry. Mr. Hotta will be in the United States for a period of two years. 366 Forestry Quarterly The forest academy at Eisenach, which had been founded in 1830 and had produced many noted foresters, among whom Koenig and Stoetzer, has been abolished, partly due to financial difficulties due to the war. In the last semester before the war, of the 78 students 30 were foreigners, mostly Russians. H. R. MacMillan, Chief Forester of British Columbia, now under temporary appointment as Dominion Trade Commissioner, is expected to return to Canada in September, from his tour of the world in the interest of the wider use of Canadian timber. The work of the British Columbia Forest Branch is being seri- ously hampered through enlistments for service at the front. In all, 81 members of the staff have enlisted, of whom 9 are forest school graduates and 8 are forestry students. P. Z. Caverhill, Provincial Forester for New Brunswick, has made plans for the beginning of field work, in connection with the survey of Crown lands. He will be assisted by G. H. Prince and H. C. Belyea, both graduates of the Forestry Department of the University of New Brunswick. Prince recently resigned his position as District Forester in the British Columbia Forest Branch to take up this work. Belyea is now completing a grad- uate course at the Yale Forest School. In addition to the work of the survey parties, Prof. R. B. Miller, with some of his stu- dents, will this summer make some volume and growth studies. The Boy Scouts' Association of Canada has made provision for the issuance of a Forestry Badge, to members passing the prescribed test. This is a material expansion of the previous pro- vision for a Woodman's Badge. It is expected that the reports on the forest resources of British Columbia and Saskatchewan will be completed in July. Data for these reports have been in process of collection by the Com- mission of Conservation during the past two to three years. Dr. H. N. Whitford and R. D. Craig have been in charge of the work in British Columbia, and J. C. Blumer in Saskatchewan. Close cooperation has been afforded by the British Columbia Forest Branch and the Dominion Forestry Branch, as well as by a large number of hmit-holders and private owners. News and Notes 367 The Dominion Forestry Branch has lost 37 of its regular staff through enlistment. Of these, 10 are forest school graduates, 8 are technical men (not foresters) from the Forest Products Laboratories at Montreal, and 19 are non-technical men. In addi- tion, about 20 men have enlisted who were regularly employed for the summer season only, on such work as fire-ranging, etc. One of the men from the Forest Products Laboratories was killed in the Battle of Langemarck. lx\ his recent botanical exploration of Panama, Mr. Henry Pit- tier discovered a tree known to the natives as alcornoque, and to which he has given the name of Dimorphandra megistosperma. The species name has reference to the enormous seeds borne by the tree, exceeding in size those of any other known dicoty- ledonous plant. Mr. Pittier collected some of these seeds over 7 inches long by 4.7 inches broad, growing in pods nearly 10 inches long. The tree is allied to the mora of Guiana, and grows to heights exceeding 100 feet. Its wood is said to be better than any other for structures kept permanently under sea water. A "meeting for those interested in the formation of a Great Plains Forestry Association" had been called for December 31, 1915, at Columbus, Ohio, in conection with the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. A program was announced in which E. H. Clapp, of the U. S. Forest Service, F. Dunlap, of Missouri, C. A. Scott, of Kansas, Dorr Skeels, of Montana, J. H. Foster, of Texas, took part. Besides questions of organization, tree planting problems in the different States represented by these men were discussed. The meeting was not very well attended, but a society was formed under the title, "The Midwest Forestry Association," with Dr. F. Dunlap, of Columbia, Missouri, President. An- other meeting was to be called for May 20, at Kansas City, to formulate more definitely the problems of the new society. There seems still an open question whether this is to be a propagandist association or made up of practising foresters. A Southern Forestry Congress is to meet in Asheville, N. C, July 11 to 15, with a view to discussing the particular needs of the 368 Forestry Quarterly Southern States as regards forestry. The call is issued by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist of North Carolina, as presi- dent, and J. S. Holmes, State Forester of the same State, as secretary. A number of associations, forestry and manufacturers, are invited to be represented, and it is proposed to form an Association of Southern Foresters. Excursions to the Biltmore Estate and to the Pisgah National Forest are planned. Mr. W. L. Hall is appointed representative of the Society of Ameri- can Foresters and it is contemplated to hold an open meeting of the Society at the same time. Mr. Roy L. Campbell, B. A. and B. Sc. F., 1914, of the Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, has been appointed Secre- tary of the Dominion Trade Commission, who will travel about three months in England, France and Italy, with the object of finding means for the extension of Canada's foreign trade. The Commission sailed from New York in the fore part of May. A committee to design a badge for the Society of American Foresters was appointed last year, with Mr. C. R. Pettis as chairman, who reports that a pin in the shape of a shield has been selected, of size and weight like that of the Society of Civil Engineers, green enamel with letters and border in gold. The price is $3.25. Orders for pins should be sent to the Secretary, Mr. C. R. Tillotson, accompanied with the price. PERSONALITIES 1. Northeastern United States and Eastern Canada Horace W. Chittenden has severed his connections with the Lehigh Valley Coal Sales Company, and is now with John M. Nelson, Jr., in the wholesale lumber business, with an office at 115 Broadway, N. Y. James L. Grimes is forester for the towns of Pitts, Knoxville, and Carrick near Pittsburgh, Pa. Nelson C. Brown has been elected chairman of the forestry committee of the Empire State Forest Products Association. Nelson C. Brown, Professor of Forest Utilization in the State Col- lege of Forestry has been in New York completing field investigations of the wood distillation industry. While in New York City, Professor Brown was able to get in touch with the industries which have developed from the bringing in of tannin extracts from South America. The infor- mation which Professor Brown has secured will be used in a bulletin on this phase of the wood-using industries of the State. F. F. Moon, Professor of Forest Engineering in the New York State College of Forestry, spent a week this spring in Central New Hampshire. While there he visited the holdings of the Yale Forest School at Keene and several other large plantations in the same section. Richard H. Goode is engaged in the timber brokerage business at 88 Broad Street, Boston, under the firm name of the Imperial Lumber Company. The wedding of Miss Elsie V. Myers and Bernard R. Levy took place in New York on February 29. Levy is with the International Paper Com- pany of Bangor, Me. Edward R. Linn, of the Brown Corporation, Taschereau Beauce, Que., was married on February 12 to Georgene W. Greenwood at Columbus, Ohio. John F. Heck and Miss Eva F. Wilson, of Watertown, S. D., were married on December 28. Heck is connected with the Berlin Mills Com- pany, N. H. Stanley B. Hall, formerly with the Forest Service, has opened an office at 101 Milk Street, Boston, for the special practice of law as it affects timberlands, lumber concerns, and their interests. Hall retains his connection with Miles and Hall, Consulting Foresters, at the same ad- dress. William D. Hayes is now connected with the Langtown Lumber Com- pany of Redington, Me. R. R. Bradley, Forester for the New Brunswick Railway Company, was married on April 19, at Ottawa, Ont., to Miss Elizabeth Blackburn Bryson. A. C. Volkmar, formerly of the U. S. Forest Service, is forester for the Riordan Pulp and Paper Company, at St. Jovite, Que. 369 370 Forestry Quarterly W. J. Boyd, B. Sc. F., University of Toronto, 1916, was married on May 2 to Miss Cleda Sara Singleton, at Kingston, Ont. Mr Boyd has enlisted for Overseas Service and holds a Lieutenancy Commission with the Fifty-third Battery. C. H. Morse, B. Sc. F. and B. A., University of Toronto, 1915, has en- listed for Overseas Service with the 224th Battalion, the Foresters' Battalion. 2. Southern United States The marriage of Miss Marian F. Sturtevant of Washington, D. C, and William B. Barrows occurred on January 22. Barrows has for several ^ears had charge of the Division of Forest Measurements in the Washing- ton office of the Forest Service. Arthur Dubois is connected with the Florida Plantations Company with headquarters at 37 Wall Street, New York. Mrs. John H. Mitchell has announced the marriage of her daughter, Dorothy McGuire to Walter G. Schwab on February 22 at Washington, D. C. Schwab is connected with the State Forestry Department, Balti- more, Md. William J. Mills, formerly Vice-President of the Case-Fowler Lum- ber Company, at Macon, Ga., is President of the newly formed Boxer- Mills Company with offices in the American National Bank Building, Asheville, N. C. 3. Central United States Carl Crawford has been elected President of the American Wood Pre- servers Association. Walter M. Gleason has sold his interests in Wyman's School of the Woods and expects to enter the field of lumbering in the near future. R. F. Fenska is teaching at Wyman's School of the Woods, Munising, Mich., as is also R. J. Guyer. G. Harris Collingwood is taking graduate work in Economics at the University of Michigan. 4. Northern Rockies Joseph H. Potts was killed on January 4 by the overturning of his automobile. Potts was graduated from the Biltmore Forest School in 1909 and was an ex-Forest Examiner in the Forest Service ; at the time of his death he was Secretary and General Manager of the Wyoming Tie and Lumber Company. R. M. MacMurray, Yale Forest School, 1907, died on August 1, 1915. MacMurray was formerly in the employ of the Forest Service and of the State of Montana. Clinton G. Smith is now Chief of Silviculture in District 4 of the Forest Service, headquarters at Ogden, Utah. Solomon E. Perlman was married in New York on January 23 to Miss Goldstein. The Perlmans are located at Thompson Falls, Montana. W. E. Jackson, of the Forest Service, and Miss Nancy Robb, of Nicholasville, Ky., were married on November 24, 1915. Personalities 37 1 5. Southwest, including Mexico It is reported that Paul Redington has been appointed District Forester at Albuquerque, New Mexico, in place of Arthur C. Ringland who held the position since the inception of the District in December, 1908. Milton K. Lockwood is superintendent of logging for the Laguna Cor- poration holdings, at Matamoros Camp, near Campeche, Mex. 6. Pacific Coast, including Western Canada M. A. Benedict has been transferred from the California to the Sierra National Forest to replace Redington, and J. D. Coflfman from the Trinity to the California, vice Benedict. The marriage of Thornton T. Munger, of the Portland office of the For- est Service, and Miss Mary E. Heilman, of Evansville, Ind., took place on May 18. Henry B. Steer, who received the degree M. F. from Cornell in 1915, has been appointed Forest Assistant on the Quinault Indian Reservation near Taholah, Wash. Allen H. Hodgson has been transferred from the office of Lands at Portland (Forest Service, District 6) to the office of Operation, where he will have charge of the Section of Geography. The marriage of Miss Helen Adams of Kingston. N. Y., and George A. Bright occurred on February 4. Bright is stationed at the Portland office of the Forest Service. Neal T. Childs has sold out his nursery business and is devoting him- self entirely to landscape engineering and consulting forestry. His ad- dress is Foxcroft Building, San Francisco. Davis W. Lusk has been promoted to be Supervisor of the Dominion Forest Reserves, situated in British Columbia. George W. Hutton. of Olympic National Forest, was married on March 15 to Miss Elsie Wilburn, of Olympia, Wash. J. D. Gilmour, recently District Forester at Cranbrook, has been trans- ferred to the head office, Victoria. H. B. Murray, formerly District Forester at Kamloops, is now in charge of the Cranbrook District. E. B. Prowd, formerly District Forester at Kamloops, B. C, has been transferred to Nelson, replacing G. H. Prince, who has resigned to ac- cept a position in connection with the forest survey of Crown lands in New Brunswick. L. R. Andrews, formerly District Forester at Vernon, is now in England, a lieutenant in the Canadian Expeditionary Force. At present he is training for aerial service. G. P. Melrose is Acting District Forester for the Vernon District. 7. Hawaii, the Philippines and the Orient W. F. Sherfesee has been appointed as forestry adviser to China and Co-Director of the Forestry Bureau at Peking. Wilhelm Klemme has resigned from the Philippine Forest Service. Miss Dorothy Constance of Milford, Pa., was married on February 5, to William Crosby at Manila, P. I. Crosby is stationed at Zamboange, P. I. COMMENT During the last year or so the British Columbia Forest Branch has been strenuously and most efficiently at work to secure in- creased markets for the mill product of the Province. This has been done by installing promotion offices and exhibits at industrial centers and by publishing various series of bulletins. One of these is entitled Farm Building Series, of which eight have reached us, each of which takes up one class of wooden structures, such as General Purpose Barns, Sheep Barns, Horse Barns, Pig- geries and Smoke Houses, Poultry Houses, Implement Sheds and Granaries, etc. These bulletins are written for the prairie farmer and give detail instructions, as to plan, dimensions, quantities, etc., and as they are prepared in cooperation with Agricultural College instructors may be supposed to be thoroughly practical. A second series called the Timber Series discusses British Columbia woods, their uses and proper handling, e. g.. How to Finish British Columbia Woods, Boxwoods, Tie Timber, Dimen- sion Timber, Red Cedar Shingles, Western Larch, Douglas Fir, Western Soft Pine (an unfortunate name given to the Yellow pine!). Each of these gives a brief description of the tree, its habitat, qualities of wood and its uses, profusely illustrated. One handsome summary discusses the timber resources of British Columbia in general, and more briefly than in the series the dif- ferent species and products and their uses in various directions. A third series appears under the title Markets Bulletin, of which some ten numbers have reached us. While the other series are addressed to the consumer, this series is to keep the loggers, mills and trade informed of market conditions not only at home, but abroad. To cap the climax of this remarkable activity of the Forest Branch in securing markets, the Chief Forester, Mr. H. R. Mac- Millan, who is responsible for developing this phase of the Forest Branch, was appointed Special Trade Commissioner of the Do- minion Department of Trade and Commerce, and has been travel- ing for nearly a year to all parts of the world, with a view of establishing trade connections for British Columbia mill products 372 Conimeni 373 and of furnishing insight through personal knowledge into special requirements of markets. Of course, all this literature, which is distributed freely by the hundred thousands, is frankly propagandist and advertising matter, but considering the source, must be truthful and authori- tative, devoid of extravagant claims which a private concern might make. From the forester's point of view at first sight, this canvassing would appear out of his field, but as a matter of fact, application of forestry methods can only be afforded when the cost of the dead work — dead for the present — , always involved in any for- estry work — work for the future — , is covered by the price obtain- able for the present product. To find profitable markets and ex- tension of use of minor materials particularly seems to us a most needful undertaking, especially in British Columbia, where for years the lumber industry has been suffering by its distance from markets. There is one result which will come to the Forest Branch from this well directed propaganda, which must not be underrated, namely, that it will ingratiate itself with the lumber industry and through that with the politicians, so that it will be possible more readily to inaugurate conservative processes of forestry practices. We congratulate Mr. MacMillan on his enterprise in going out beyond mere routine administrative work ! APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP Date. THE AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION 1410 H Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: I hereby signify my desire to become a Subscribing Member of the AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION, and enclose $3.00 for dues. Very truly yours, Name. P. O. Address. Forestry Reports For Sale Owing to the large demand for reports of the Forestry Com- mittees at the National Conservation Congress, the Forestry Committee has decided to place these reports on sale. Full Set (12 reports, strongly bound), $1.00 The Nost Valuable Addition to Any Library on Forestry and Lumbering in Many Years The Reports are: Forestry Committee Organization Lumbering Forest Publicity Forest Planting Federal Forest Policy Forest Utilization State Forest Policy Forest School Education Forest Taxation Forest Investigations Forest Fires State Forest Organization Order from AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION WASmNGTON, D. C. Yale University Forest School NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT A two-year course is offered, leading to the degree of Master of Forestry. Graduates of collegiate institutions of high standing are ad- mitted upon presentation of their college diploma, provided they have taken certain pre- scribed undergraduate courses. For further information, address JAMES W. TOUMEY, Director, New Haven, Conn. The University of Toronto and University College With Which Are Federated ST. MICHAEL'S, TRINITY AND VICTORIA COLLEGES Faculties of Art, Medicine, Applied Science, House- hold Science, Education, Forestry The Faculty of Forestry offers a four-year course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Forestry For information, apply to the REGISTRAR OF THE UNIVERSITY, or to the Secretaries of the respective Faculties. THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY Syracuse, New York Undergraduate course leading to degree of Bachelor of Science; Postgradu- ate course to Master of Forestry, and one- and two-year Ranger courses. Sophomore Summer Camp of eight weeks and Ranger School held on the College Forest of 1,800 acres at Wanakena in the Adirondacks. Summer Forest Camp in August on Upper Saranac Lake. Forest Experiment Station of 90 acres and excellent Library oflFer unusual opportunities for research work. For particulars address: HUGH P. BAKER, D. Oec, Dean HARVARD UNIVERSITY Department of Forestry Bussey Institution Offers specialized graduate training leading to the degree of Master of Forestry in the following fields: — Silviculture and Management, Wood Technology, Forest Entomology, Dendrology, and (in cooperation with the Graduate School of Business Adminis- tration) the Lumber Business. For further particulars address RICHARD T. FISHER, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts D. E. LAUDERBURN Forest Engineer Timber estimates, forest surveys and maps, inspection of logging operations, management of private holdings, fire prevention, appraisal of damage by fire, gases or trespass, tree planting Metropolitan Life Building New York, N. Y. WOULD YOU LIKE to receive regularljr the Bulletins and Circulars pertaining to the actual practice of preventing the decay of wood? While these frankly advocate the use of Avenarius Carbolineum for the brush or open tank treatment of timber they are none the less interesting on that account but rather MORE so, for Avenarius Carbolineum is, without doubt, the one preservative that has demonstrated its decay-preventing qualities during thirty-five years. The Bulletins and Circulars are sent free. Circ. 56 contains a Bibliography of Technical References. Circ. 58 covers Treating Tanks for Fence Posts, Shingles, etc. Address CARBOLINEUM WOOD PRESERVING COMPANY 185 Franklin St., New York, N. Y. The Care of Trees in Lawn, Street and Park By B. E. Fernow American Nature Series Working with Nature Published by Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1910 392 pp. 8° Illustrated Price, $2.00 Net For Sale by Henry Holt & Co., New York Economics of Forestry A Reference Book for Students of Political Economy and Professional and Lay Students By B. E. FERNOW 12mo, $1.50 net. By mail, $1.65 "It is by far the best and most important work on forestry which deals with American conditions." EDWARD M. SHEPARD, New York. "I find it as I expected meaty and complete. It fills the place it is written for." PROF. F. ROTH, University of Michigan. "I have read few books on forestry with as much enjoyment." PROF. DR. SCHWAPPACH, Eberswalde, Germany. A NEW MUCH REVISED EDITION NOW IN PRESS For Sale by T. Y. CROWELL & CO., New York Nursery Stock for Forest Planting Seedlings ll\.tL»rL oErLOo Transplants $2.25 per 1000 Write for prices on large quantities $6.00 per 1000 THE NORTH-EASTERN FORESTRY CO., Cheshire, Conn. REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION History of Forestry •IN- Germany and Other Countries By B. E. FERNOW 506 Pages, 8° Price, $2.50 Postpaid Dr. Schwappach says: "The study of these conditions under the guidance of the interesting expositions of Femow is very instructive." Prof. Fisher of Oxford says: "Dr. Femow's History of Forestry is a welcome and important addition to our literature * * ♦ Femow writes admirably about German forestry, with which he is thoroughly acquainted." Dr. Fankhauser of Switzerland says: "With great skill has the author brought the voluminous material into a relatively small volume and yet has everywhere brought out the essentials in clear and easily intelligible exposition. The chapter devoted to Switzerland shows us clearly how exhaustively the author has utilized the most important literature and how excellently he has understood how to orient himself in complicated condi- tions." A new and revised edition of this work has just come from the press. Orders may be placed with FORESTRY QUARTERLY 1410 H Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. LIDGERWOOD SKIDDERS CONTENTS 183 An Improved Form of Nursery Seed Bed Frame By D. R. Brewster. Forest Service Revenue and Organization By T. S. Woalsey, Jr. 188 Operations and Costs on Pennsylvania State Forests By N. R. McNaughton. 236 The Cost of Forest Improvement Systems By P. S. Lovejoy. 238 Business Rate of Interest and Rate Made by the Forests ______ By Filibert Roth. 255 A Practical Application of Pressler's Formula By A. B. Recknagel. 260 Fire Risk in Massachusetts ----- By H. O. Cook. 268 Removing Growth from Fire Lanes _ _ - By N. R. McNaughton. 270 Seed Testing With the Jacobsen Germinating Appara- tus at the Danish Seed Control Station Translation by J. A. Larsen. 273 A Day in an Irrigated Plantation, Chunga Munga, Punjab, India ----- By H. R. MacMillan. 277 News Notes from District 1, Forest Service By J. F. Preston. 283 Current Literature ------ 286 Other Current Literature ----- 312 Periodical Literature -_--_- 319 News and Notes ------- 358 Personalities ---__-_ 369 Comment -------- 372 VOLUME XIV NUMBER 3 FORESTRY QUARTERLY A PROFESSIONAL JOURNAL SEPTEMBER, 1916 Subscription Two Dollars Per Annum 1410 H STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C. Entered as second class mail matter February 1, 1915, at the post office at Washington, D. C, under the Act of March 3, 1879 FORESTRY QUARTERLY BOARD OF EDITORS B. E. Fernow, LL. D., Editor-in-Chief Henry S. Graves, M.A., Forester, U. S. Forest Service Raphael Zon, F. E., U, S. Forest Service Frederick Dunlap, F. E., University of Missouri T. S. WooLSEY, Jr., M.F., Consulting Forest Engineer Albuquerque, N. M. Ernest A. Sterling, F. E., Consulting Forest Engineer, Chicago, III. Clyde Leavitt, M.S. F., Commission of Conservation, Ottawa, Canada Filibert Roth, B.S., University of Michigan Hugh P. Baker, D.Oec, Syracuse University R. C. Bryant, F. E., Yale University Samuel J. Record, M. F., Yale University Richard T. Fisher, A.B., Harvard University Walter Mulford, F. E., University of California A. B. Recknagel, M.F., Cornell University C. D. Howe. Ph. D., University of Toronto J. H.White, M.A., B.Sc.F., University of Toronto Asa S. Williams, F. E. P. S. RiDSDALE, Business Manager Washington, D. C. the OBJECTS FOR WHICH THIS JOURNAL IS PUBLISHED ARE : To aid in the establishment of rational forest management. To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of interest to professional foresters of America. To keep the profession in touch with the current technical literature, and with the forestry movement in the United States and Canada. Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at the Uni- versity of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of editors. Subscriptions and other business matters may be addressed to Forestry Quarterly, 1410 H Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS. INC. WASHINGTON, D. C FORESTRY QUARTERLY Vol. XIV September, 1916 No. 3 THE RELATION OF FORESTRY TO SCIENCE By Barrington Moore* In every activity the point of view determines the nature of the work and the accompHshment. What is our point of view toward forest research; what constitutes forest research, and what are its aims? Only recently, on this side of the Atlantic, every forester was an investigator on his own account. Working under new and unknown conditions it was felt to be the duty of every trained man entering the woods to glean as much knowledge as he could and to record this knowledge. His aim was the accumulation of data which would form the basis of silvicultural practice. The facts so collected, incomplete and fragmentary, form the groundwork of our silviculture. This collecting of information by observation, though still going on, is giving way to more accurate methods, and the work is being concentrated in the hands of specialists. Forest investi- gation is becoming a distinct phase of forestry. There are prac- titioners and there are investigators, as in medicine ; for one man cannot do justice to both. Each kind of work requires its own type of mind. This is the moment to decide what should be the nature and aims of the work of forest investigators. It is agreed that the ultimate aim should be the upbuilding of sound methods in all lines of forestry. But what is our conception of the nature of the work necessary to fulfill this aim? There are two distinct points of view. There is, first, the point of view of the world at large, that research must aim at solving some definite need of the community, research must be practical. Secondly, there is the point of view of the scientist, who believes ,— that research should seek fundamental knowledge. The acquisi- UJ CO 1 Private research, New York. 375 376 Forestry Quarterly tion of knowledge, rather than the immediate gain in the wealth or welfare of the community, is the guiding impulse, though the ultimate benefit of society which knowledge brings is always one of the motives of the scientist. Which of these two points of view guides forest investigators in this country? We must, in all frankness, admit that it is the first or so-called practical point of view. This has not always been the case. Formerly, although the facilities were limited, foresters saw the importance of seeking fundamental facts. They were not afraid of thinking out problems and evolving theories, though realizing that their theories were insufficiently grounded and must be revised from time to time as more knowledge was secured. But today as the opportunities broaden, the viewpoint narrows ; and practical considerations rule. This is not research, not science. It is superficial pseudo-science, obvious as such to scientists. Professor Lillie, in Science for April 16, 1915, says : "It is the fundamental investigations which are chiefly im- portant for science, and lay the foundations for those later appli- cations affecting mankind generally. Thus, in this sense we owe wireless telegraphy to Maxwell and Hertz rather than to Marconi, our freedom from many forms of disease to Pasteur, our mastery of the air to Langley and others who studied the lifting power of moving planes ; and many other similar examples could be given. In general, we may say that if an adequate body of theoretical knowledge has once been gained, it is a relatively easy matter to make the desired practical applications. It is when there is no guiding theory and we have to work empirically that problems are difficult or impossible of solution." The last sentence well expresses the status of forestry today. Most of the work must be empirical, and many of the problems are impossible of solution until a more adequate body of theo- retical knowledge has been gained. The problems bearing directly on the handling of the forests, or practical problems, must be solved, nobody denies that, but they can be studied by men having the average forest training, while the deeper problems require men of a higher degree of preparation. As a science advances its problems become more complex, research must go deeper. As one forester said, "the binoculars and canteen must give way to the microscope and burette." Forestry and Science 377 Fundamental work has come to include such problems as the intricate relationship between the plant and its environment. The causes of forest types lie at the root of silviculture ; to know how to treat a piece of forest, or to plant a denuded area, we must know all the factors influencing the forest or the plantation. So far all efforts along this line have been purely empirical or based on guesswork. It cannot be otherwise until we have determined what are the factors affecting plant life, and what is the response of the plant to each factor and to the various complexes or com- binations of factors. This involves, among other things, the quantitative measurement by delicate instruments of the response of the various plant functions to carefully measured, or some- times controlled, external conditions. Whether trees or herbaceous plants are studied is immaterial to the larger problem, though herbaceous plants offer more promise of evolving fundamental laws which will apply equally well to trees. This work requires a far higher training than that ordinarily received by the forester; it requires thorough grounding in physics, in chemistry, in plant physiology and in other sciences, combined with skill in instru- mentation, facility in absorbing vast quantities of literature in foreign languages, as well as a special type of mental ability. It means the hardest kind of work, generally with no popular recog- nition, because most of the results are but inconspicuous facts in the foundation of knowledge. It is seldom that investigators are able to bring out brilliant and startling pieces of work. But this very lack of recognition is fortunate in tending to exclude from such work all but those possessing the peculiar qualifications, chief among which is an inborn love of knowledge for its own sake. Many will say that this class of work is beyond the scope of forestry, that it is work for the meteorologist, the ecologist and the plant physiologist. True it is that most of the work which is building the foundations for forestry, such as the work of Shantz, of Livingston and of Cowles, is being done by men who are not foresters, and, what is more humiliating, whose names are scarcely known to the body of foresters at large. This situa- tion, far from being an argument against foresters undertaking investigations of this character, is the strongest reason for their doing just such research. For, unless forestry can contribute its 378 Forestry Quarterly share of fundamental knowledge to the world, it must cease to call itself a science, and drop into the list of skilled trades. That forestry can make this contribution is proven by the men who have prepared themselves to do true scientific research. It is for the profession to say whether these men shall be allowed the opportunity of giving their training and ability to forestry and to science, or whether they will be crushed under the wheels of the practical juggernaut. The practical point of view is not peculiar to foresters ; it runs through all the scientific work of the country. Professor G. A. Jacobson (in Science for October 29, 1915) points out that m Professor Pickerings' tabulation of eminent scientists,^ America produced only ten scientists accorded the distinction of being elected foreign associates of two or more of the leading scientific societies of the world, whereas Norway and Sweden, with a com- bined population of less than eight million, have produced nine scientists of tlie same distinction. Foresters have been forced, by the nature of their work, into close connection with the economic life of the country. This is advantageous in that it is enabling them to assist in solving some of the great economic problems to the permanent benefit of all concerned. Unquestionably, the strictly practical point of view is essential for foresters as a body. But there must, if forestry is to be more than mere empiricism, always be a certain small pro- portion of foresters engaged in scientific work. These few men should not, under any circumstances, be forced to assume the utilitarian point of view toward their investigations. No work comes into more direct contact with economic life than chemistry, for what could countless industries do without chemistry, yet chemistry is not overwhelmed by the utilitarian point of view. Professor Jacobson's words about agricultural experiment sta- tions, applying as they do equally to forest experiment stations, strike home with peculiar force : "The cry in the experiment stations is for something practical, not realizing that the most fundamental is the most practical in the long run." ^Popular Science Monthly, February, 1915. Forestry and Science 379 To obtain the best results, the scientist must have freedom. To place an investigator under an administrative officer is folly. This, it has been argued, keeps alive the interest of the adminis- trator in investigative work, and keeps the investigator practical. True, but the harm done is out of all proportion to the benefit received; investigation degenerates into hand-to-mouth em- piricism, and the fundamental problems are left untouched. A HISTORICAL STUDY OF FOREST ECOLOGY; ITS DEVELOPMENT IN THE FIELDS OF BOTANY AND FORESTRY^ By Dr. R. H. Boerker^ contents I. Introduction. II. The historical development of plant ecology. The philosophical trend of the science. The historical development of the study of vegetation. Modem plant ecology. III. The historical development of silviculture. The development of sUviculture based upon empiricism. The development of the ecological phases of silvicultiire. The beginning of forest investigations and the establishment of forest experiment stations. The determination of light values. The application of modern forest ecology to silviculture. The influence of modem forest ecology upon silvicultural management. The progress of investigations in forest ecology in the United States. IV. Historical summar>^ V. Bibliography. I. INTRODUCTION In a recent paper (91)' the author attempted to point out in a general way the scope and the methods of forest ecology and to show how this new science can help the silviculturist to work out his problems. The present paper, which is intended to supple- ment my former article, will attempt to treat the subject of forest ecology in a historical manner, and it is hoped that this study will lead to a clearer understanding of the subject and will suggest to the forest ecologist problems for investigation. It is becoming generally recognized by foresters, and especially by teachers of silviculture, that a thorough knowledge of forest ecology is essential in the practice of silviculture. Hence, in order to apply forest ecology in all its phases, it is necessary to be familiar with the principles, methods, and aims of the main body of ecological thought, namely, plant ecology. It is logical, therefore, for silviculturists to study plant ecology before forest - Being the introductory portion of a series of investigations in forest ecology carried on in 1914-15 by the author, at the University of Nebraska, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 2 Forest Examiner, U. S. Forest Service. 3 Numbers in parentheses refer to Bibliography at end of article, p. 430. 380 History of Forest Ecology 381 ecology, and to turn from the hitherto narrow viewpoint of forest ecology to the broader and modem conception of plant ecology. In pursuing this method of study not only does forest ecology become broader in its scope and meaning, but, in turn, it is a'ble to render a greater service to silviculture. The science of forest ecology is rather difficult to treat his- torically because it embraces research in two important fields, namely, plant ecology and silviculture. The interrelation between these two fields is a very intimate one. Forest ecology developed long before plant ecology, but mostly along applied lines. For example, in the study and measurement of habitat factors forest ecology antedates plant ecology. Strange as it may seem the real founder of forest ecology was a botanist and not a forester; and even down to the present day both botanists and foresters are working in this field. Foresters have worked out problems in plant ecology because of their direct application to silvics or silviculture. More than 50 years ago foresters studied the in- fluence of the forest upon local climate by means of systematic meteorological observations. On the other hand, plant ecologists have contributed not a little to the field of forestry because plant ecology in its principles and methods includes also the field of forest ecology, and because the forest offers working material, par excellence, for the plant ecologist. Plant geographers and ecologists like Schimper and Warming have taken much of their working material from the forest. Certain phases of plant ecology like the study of plant succession have been studied largely in the forest. In the determination of light values plant ecologists and foresters have often worked together in the forest because of the greater significance of the problem there than in smaller vegetation. It is indeed striking to note what a large part of the problems recently worked out by well-known plant ecologists, both here and abroad, have a more or less direct bearing upon silvics or silvicultural practice. On the other hand, foresters have recently largely contributed to the field of plant ecology. Many of the practical problems that are being worked out by forest investigators are really problems of an advanced phyto- ecological character, notably those investigated by van Scherm- beek and Erdmann in Holland and Germany respectively. On account of these intimate relations of the two fields it is desirable for the proper development of this paper to briefly sketch the 382 Forestry Quarterly historical development of plant ecology and then of sivictilture, and in so doing trace the progress of forest ecology in both fields. In the space allotted to this paper it is obviously impossible to go into many details and still cover the ground. I desire merely to broaden the general conception of the subject by a historical and in part descriptive treatment of the main body of ecological thought (namely, plant ecology), and to show that plant ecology has developed by progressive stages from the study of plant distribution to that of plant associations and formations, and lastly to the study of habitat factors and experimental ecology. I will, then, treat of a similar development in silviculture and attempt to show how it developed from an art based upon empiricism to a science based upon the fundamental natural sciences. A historical study of this kind, it is hoped, will be of value to the investigator as well as to the teacher. In pursuing it, we leave for the moment the study of the mere facts, theory, and technique of science and turn our attention to the broadening and cultural effects of scientific study. Most of us have heard and read too much of the orthodoxy of science and its tendency towards over-specialization, both in practice and in teaching, and not enough of the appreciation of science from the historical point of view. Therefore, this paper may not be out of time or out of place. The historical development of the principles and methods of a science, the evolution of the science itself, showing its prog- ress from unsystematized simplicity to organized complexity, and the correlation and interrelation between its different phases are subjects worthy of more attention in the future than has been given them in the past. A historical study of a science like forest ecology, which is of great economic importance, reveals many valuable lessons. History broadens the perspective. The psychologist would say that it strengthens our apperceptive basis for further study. By its study we learn the great men and the valuable literature which have made the science what it is, and we fix in our minds the important dates which indicate milestones of progress. We learn which phases of the subject are new and which had their origin many years ago, and in that way learn to appreciate the present stage of the development of a science. By a historical study of forest ecology in a country like Germany, which is far advanced in that particular branch, we are able to prophesy, to History of Forest Ecology 383 a certain extent, the future development in a country not so far advanced, like our own. At least we can benefit by the ex- perience of others, avoid mistakes and take short cuts. II. THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLANT ECOLOGY In 1866, E. H. Haeckel, the distinguished German naturalist, defined "oecology" as the science treating of the reciprocal rela- tions of organisms and the external world. Until quite recently writers both here and abroad used the term "biology," meaning to cover by it what is now included under ecology ; but it is quite clear now that biology is a general term including both botany and zoology and that ecology is a subdivision under each of these. Plant ecology is that branch of botany which comprises the study of the relations of the individual plant, or the species, or the plant community to the habitat. While the term "plant ecology" has come into use only comparatively recently, I am applying this term throughout the history of the science because what was years ago known by another name is nevertheless today included in the modern conception of plant ecology. The same explanation will also hold for my use of the term "forest ecology." Plant ecology, at the present time at least, is a science with only general delimitations. It overlaps many sciences and its study presupposes a foundation in the basic principles of physics, chemistry, physiography, geology, meteorology, and the mor- phology, jihysiology, and taxonomy of plants. It is largely due to this complexity that the science of plant ecology is today so im- perfectly organized and systematized. However, a start in this direction has been made. Generally, two aspects of the science are recognized, the one has to do with the individual plant and the other with groups of plants or plant formations. Recently the terms autecology and synecology have been suggested by Schroeter* for these fields respectively. Autecology may be further subdivided into morphological and physiological ecology; synecology is sometimes spoken of as physiographic ecology. The science of plant geography has always been closely allied with plant ecology. For this reason it is desirable to speak briefly of this relationship. Plant geography had its beginnings among Tnpathy for their work and place them under the direction of the large forest schools is a step which has proven to be the right course to take. The station in this case is under direct supervision of the director of the forest school, who in turn is more or less guided by the Chief of Forest Investigations of the state or government bureau. For example, in Prussia which has one of the largest investigative organizations, the central forest experiment station (as distinguished from the many sub-stations in the woods) is connected with the Forest Academy at Eberswalde, whose director is at the same time the head of the experiment station. It cornprises six departments : 412 Forestry Quarterly forestry proper, meteorology, geonomy, plant physiology, plant path- ology, and zoology, and each department is in charge of a chief. The work as carried on by the Prussian organization is fairly indicative of what is going on in other parts of Germany. Quite naturally the problems which are taken up depend largely upon local conditions. The work of the experiment stations as organized under the International Association of Forest Experiment Stations consisted, in 1904, principally of the study of the special ecology of species, inquiring into their physiology, phaenology, relation to .soil conditions, plant associates, manner of germination, and their geographical distribution. In Sweden, where forest conditions are very much like those which obtain in this country, the experiment station a few years back was working upon ecological investigations of forest typCvS, upon the races of pine and spruce, upon methods of thinning, yield tables, upon methods of natural reproduction in selection forests, upon brush removal, and upon methods of assisting natural repro- duction by the preparation of the soil. The Determination of Light Values (72, 75) The determination of light values has, without doubt, received more attention than has the measurement of any other habitat factor. Light is one of the master factors affecting plant life and is second only in importance to water. Both plant ecologists and forest ecologists have contributed to this field. It is a problem that has been given much study and investigation by some of the German and Austrian experiment stations. Hence it is desirable to at least mention the more important investigations on this phase of ecology. It was Ingenhousz in the latter part of the 18th century who first clearly perceived the tremendously significant interrelation between light and life. It was he who showed that plants take carbon dioxide from the air and give off oxygen. His great genius saw more than this, however. Since oxygen is necessary for animal life, and this gas, which is necessary for respiration, can only be regenerated by plant life, it was clear that light is neces- sary for animal life as well as plant life. From the time of that important discovery dates practically all our knowledge concern- ing the complex relation of light to plant life. History of Forest Ecology 413 Early in the 19th century trees were recognized as being either tolerant or intolerant of shade and there were several gradations between. This classification had been obtained in a purely empirical manner, and while it does not pretend to be accurate, it has great practical value and is generally used even today. It was not, however, until about 50 years later that the scientific determination of light values was first attempted. The first attempt to measure light rays was made by Bunsen and Roscoe about 1862 when they introduced the use of photo- graphic paper for determining light intensities in climatological investigations. Theodore Hartig was one of the first to attempt to determine quantitatively the light requirements of trees by this means. His experiments were made about 1877. Reinke in 1884 to 1885, by means of an instrument which he called the Spectrophore, broke up light by means of a prism and directed certain colored rays upon plants to determine the effect. Cieslar did much work upon the role of light in the forest, and Wiesner has measured light and determined the minimum intensities in which both tolerant and intolerant species could endure. These two men have done most of their work in the last 25 years. It was with the hope of giving mathematical expression to light requirements of trees that led Wiesner about 1896 to devise his insolator. This instrument makes use of the well known law, formulated by Bimsen and Roscoe, that products of light intensity and time of exposure correspond to darkenings of silver chloride paper of like sensitiveness. This method is the common one in use today. The instrument, however, which is most used in this country for this kind of work is the Clements Photometer, de- vised in 1905 upon the same principles as the Wiesner instrument. The most serious objection usually raised against the use of this method is that it measures the light rays which produce chemical changes on photographic paper and not those that are of importance in the chlorophyll apparatus. It is well known that photographic paper is affected mainly by the blue to violet rays of the spectriun and that chlorophyll utilizes mainly the red rays. This is not an unsurmountable objection, since it is well known that the intensity of the red and yellow rays of the spectrum may be proportional to the intensity of the blue to violet rays. In other words, the chemical rays are proportional to the photo- synthetic rays and, therefore, their effects are proportional, so 414 Forestry Quarterly that the record we get on photographic paper will give us a notion as to the relative intensity of the photosynthetic rays even though the other set of rays are the ones that are actually measured. One of the first attempts to measure separately the different rays of the solar spectrum was made in 1907 by Zederbauer, of the Austrian Forest Experiment Station at Mariabrunn. His theory was to measure the quality of light as well as the quantity, since a forest cover affects the light that penetrates it and trees are known to have the power of selective absorption. It is known also that intolerant trees use mainly the red rays and that tolerant trees use principally the blue to violet rays of the spectrum. These notions led to the invention of Zederbauer's spectrophotom- eter, and instrument which records the rays of varying length of which sunlight is composed. This is a complicated instrimient, unsuited for field use. There is no instrument for measvuing the quality of light in the field. For field use, the Clements photom- eter, even though it does not take into account the quality of light, is so far the best instrument we have. Probably the most recent investigations upon light determina- tions are those of Knuchel. In an article (80) which appeared in 1914 in the Proceedings of the Central Forest Experiment Station of Switzerland he not only summarizes the work done in that field, but gives us some new ideas concerning the quality and the quantity of light in the forest, especially as it is affected by the crown cover. By means of an instrimient devised by himself he measures the vertically incident diffused light and he shows of what importance this is to plant life. The work by Knuchel is probably the last word in light investigations and is worthy of more discussion than it is possible to give here. The Application of Modern Forest Ecology to Silviculture Before 1870, silviculture received its first scientific treatment at the hands of the old masters and their contemporaries. Not long after modern forest ecology was founded it began to exert its influence upon silvicultural thought and practice. The in- vestigative attitude began to pervade every phase of the art and the experiment stations began to throw light upon many problems which the practitioner had been unable to solve. The works on general silvicidture pubhshed between 1880 and 1885 by Gayer, Wagener, Borggreve, and others show the results of this new atti- History of Forest Ecology 415 tude. These men began to interpret the behavior of the tree and the forest in the light of th3 fundamental laws to which all plant life, without exception, is subjected. But the highest develop- ment to date of the application of modern forest ecology to silvi- cultural practice is to be found in the recent works of Wagner, Mayr, Duesberg and others. The last decade has seen the development not only of modern plant ecology, but it has likewise witnessed an important change in the science of forestry in that it has introduced modern ecological ideas into the practice of silviculture. Just as modern plant ecology in its stiidy oj vegetative units, is today concerned with the investigation and determination of habitat factors, in a similar manner modern forest ecology is trying to explain every observation, whether it deals with the individual tree, the forest formation, or u/ith some silvicultural practice, in terms of one or more of the factors of the habitat. Not only are we making use of broader ecological knowledge, but foresters are studying their problems in a systematic manner, making working plans for each investigation ; they are not relying upon the blind, groping methods of the past to lead them, perchance to the proper solution of their problems. In other words, empiri- cism has called science to its aid. As Mayr points out, neither empiricism nor science alone can solve the intricate and manifold problems of forest building, as the Germans call silviculture ; it is necessary to study first and then experiment, for only this method of procedure will obviate costly, time-consimiing, and purposeless silvicultural practice and lead to stable and rational forest man- agement. There are four important silvicultural works of which I desire to speak which really mark a new era for silviculture. In 1907, Christoph Wagner published his Die Grundlagen der rdumlichen Ordnung im Walde and two years later appeared Heinrich Mayr's suggestive book Waldbau auf naturgesetslicher Grundlage. In 1910, Duesberg wrote Der Wald also Erzieher and in 1912 Wagner wrote a book on his pet system Der Blendersaumschlag und sein System. These books mark the climax, up-to-date, of this new development. Wagner's first book is a valuable contribution to forestry litera- ture. Most of the book is devoted to silviculture and deals with the requirements of silviculture in formulating the principles of local order. In this connection he places silviculture first and regulation second. In his discussions of methods of reproduction. 416 Forestry Quarterly and especially of natural reproduction he makes use of aU modern ecological development. Mayr's work treats silviculture in the light of the various habitat factors which affect tree growth. His contribution to forestry is his recognition that climate is the basis for biological differences not only in industrial trees and tree formations but also in silvicultural practice. His dicta are suggestive working hypotheses upon which the future superstructure of silvioilture might be reared. Duesberg's book is not merely a scientific treatise on silviculture but it is a philosophy of the forest. He has developed rules and principles with due regard to historical, economic, legal, ethical, and aesthetic relations in nature and society. By a critical investigation of the interrelation of forest and soil he shows how the even-aged high forest outrages nature and that mixed, uneven- aged forests are the ideal towards which silviculturists must work. Every paragraph contains shrewd observations and a wealth of detail, every one of which is supported by whatever facts scientific investigators have contributed either to support or contradict. We have in this work the modern principles of ecology applied par excellence. Wagner's latest book deals largely with silvicultural systems and its discussion will be relegated to the next section. The Influence of Modern Forest Ecology upon Silvicultural Management Before the experiment stations came into being, pure, even-aged stands were the rule in many parts of Germany. Shortly after these stations were established, the investigative attitude began to pervade every branch of forestry. It was due largely to this new investigative point of view that a reaction set in in silvicultural management. The return to mixed selection stands was advo- cated by many foresters who saw in this purely formal treatment of the forest the violation of many fundamental natural Idws. In the protest against the old system which ensued, forest ecology was again brought into play and in the general controversy that followed, quite often the ecological discussions waxed so hot that the main issue of the discussions was lost sight of, much to the advantage of forest ecology. Natural reproduction methods were chiefly employed until almost the middle of the 19th century. The selection and coppice systems were used until Hartig and Cotta brought the shelterwood system into favor. Hartig's eight rules for the application of the History of Forest Ecology 417 shelterwood sj'stem were soon applied universally, even to the northern pine forests. The result was that pure, even-aged, high forests in many cases succeeded mixed forests. When the trans- planting of conifers became general, about 1840, the clear cutting and planting system was widely applied, especially in the pineries. The result was, that since the middle of the 19th century the common form of management in northern and central Germany was the establishment of pure stands of even-aged, high forest. The old masters, Hartig and Cotta, and those that followed them brought about this management because it fitted very well the conditions of the woodlands at that time and also because this system was best from the standpoint of yield. The reaction set in during the last quarter of the century. While the formation of pure stands was going on, investigations in natural methods of reproduction lingered. On the other hand, the old method of management became unexpectedly cut and dry and inelastic. Moreover, the shelterwood system, which had been developed according to the requirements of the beech was applied to pine and spruce. When failures became evident, much opposi- sition arose against the use of this system. Foresters began to realize that the formation of large areas of pure stands was in many ways antagonistic to the natural requirements of the trees. An era then set in which brought modern forest ecology to the fore to show the necessity of imitating nature's methods. Gayer, in 1878, set forth the advantages of mixing species and later developed the formation of uneven-aged mixed stands. In 1885, Borggreve pointed out the evils of clear cutting and the advantages of natural reproduction over the practice of planting. These men and others advocated a change from the shelterwood system in hardwoods and the clear cutting as applied to pines to the selection system and from pure forests to mixed forests. Two schools of silvicultural management then sprang up adhering to two opposite principles : the natural and the economic. The former school favored natural reproduction, many-aged stands, and the selection system; the latter school advocated the greatest possible return, even-aged stands, and the clear cutting and planting method. Without doubt modern European silvi- culturists have been guided by the economic principle. As a result, the natural principle which preserves the productive power of the soil has been neglected. Even today the clearing 418 Forestry Quarterly S3^tem has made most progress and the selection system has almost vanished, being replaced by the group and the shelter- wood methods. But that does not mean that the natural school had no adherents or in any way gave up the controversy. Gayer, Ney, Burkhardt, Borggreve, followed by Wagner, Mayr, Duesberg, Dittmar, and others have championed its cause during the last 30 years (88). And in so doing they have given the world some of its most sugges- tive and most original silvicultural literature. They have tried to solve the problem, each in an original way. By making use of the latest ecological investigations they have endeavored to show why the natviral system should replace a thoroughly artificial one. For a time the controversy between the two theories was eclipsed by the painstaking research towards the study of the natural laws imderlying the two silvictiltural systems. Wagner (83) prefers natural reproduction because this produces a race of trees adapted to the site and gives rise to mixed stands. His practice is to cut the forest in narrow strips running east and west, beginning at the northern edge of the forest, a narrow strip being thinned in advance of cutting to start the natural reproduc- tion. Mayr's ideal (59) is quite the opposite: a small pure stand in which species are mixed as smaU stands, not as individuals. It can be reproduced by artificial or by natural means and soil production is secured by tmderplanting. Wagner's method has been tested in the forest; Mayr's is based upon piu"ely theoretical grounds. Both claim universal application for their method. Other men have limited their observations and reflections to local conditions and are willing that their results should be applied only to those conditions. In the west we find van Schermbeck, Grabner and Erdmann; in the east Godberssen, Dittmar, Reuss and Duesberg. Van Schermbeek's problem was to rejuvenate run-down pine lands in the heath country of Holland which had become sour due to the exposure and the presence of pure pine stands. It was essentially a problem in the biology and chemistry of the soil and a classic among ecological investigations. His warning was to avoid pure stands of pine. Erdmann had a similar problem on heath lands. He studied the changing relations be- tween the soil and the stand on heath soils and came to the con- clusion that mixed stands and the avoidance of clear cutting was the only way to prevent the deterioration of the soil. Godberssen History of Forest Ecology 419 (86) was inclined to differ from these men. He asserts that mix- tures are better than pure stands, but that natural reproduction is not ideal. His opinion is that after all is said and done the clear cutting and planting method, judging from past performances, has produced the best results. Dittmar (87) held that clear cutting was unnatural and that natural reproduction was nearest to nature's method. As early as 1901, Reuss wrote about the detrimental effects of planting methods upon the future conditions of the stands with partiular reference to the spruce. He called the clear cutting method unnatural and considered its use mis- management. Later, (85) in his splendid manual upon forest reproduction, he established the golden rule : the simplest method of producing a crop without sacrificing the soil was to be the sole criterion between natural and artificial reproduction and between pure and mixed stands. Duesberg (84) proposed a system which is probably the most radical and at the same time the most thoroughly original one that has been propounded. In a most thorough and painstaking manner he seeks to break down the arguments which are in favor of large, pure stands. In doing this, he brings into play a great wealth of silvical observations and investigations. His thesis is that Nature, unguided by man, produces a forest which is in complete harmony with the soil and the plant and animal life in the forest. Man should not interfere with Nature's work, but should seek to understand the life-history of an unmanaged forest and the natural laws which determine it. With this knowl- edge he should decide upon the proper method of management, try to improve upon Nature's method and direct the natiiral forces to the production of economic values. Duesberg proposes a simple type of selection forest, which recognizes every essential of the uneven-aged forest, produces the highest yield and is most simple to manage. This selection forest has for its unit small areas of a size determined by the diameter of the crown of a full- grown tree in the virgin forest. These areas differ with the dif- ferent species and their typical shape is a regular hexagon. Seven of these hexagons are termed a group, each one of the group being a clump. Duesberg 's system impresses one as being too complex for general introduction and certainly too difficult to instue its in- auguration and success at the hands of the average forester. 420 Forestry Quarterly Like the proposed systems of Gayer, Ney, Wagner and Mayr this latest one is artificial. Moreover, it is based upon but a few experiments in the field. The real value of these systems must not, however, be measured by how widely Gayer's Femelschlag, or Ney's Ringfemel, or Wagner's Blendersaumschlag are applied to German forests. The value of the systems proposed by these men is in the detailed, incisive criticism which they have called forth against a purely formal treatment of the forest. In propounding their favorite systems they have penetrated to the bottom of the basic principles of silviculture. They have applied forest ecology as it never has been applied before. In a striking manner they have shown the relation between certain practices and the results which they produced and have formulated most excellent codes of directions and advice in dealing with both systems. No system can claim universal application. Each system will be accepted only in so far as it proves of service to the conservative practice of forestry. As Reuss has pointed out, the safest proced- ure is to consider what method is best adapted to the fundamental laws of Nature and the economic needs of the community. When once arrived at, this method becomes the ideal towards which the forester should elowly work. The result of all this excellent literatiire upon the ideal selection system will be that foresters will turn more to natural reproduction and the formation of uneven-aged mixed stands in localities where conditions will warrant. Before applying any system, foresters who have read these works will try to emulate these modern masters and thoroughly investigate the natural laws which are involved. The Progress of Investigations in Forest Ecology in the United States In tracing the development of forestry in the United States we are impressed with the fact that ecological investigations have had to give way to the more important problems of forest organization and administration. A brief sketch of the federal forest policy will illustrate this point. It is desirable to mention three periods in the development of the forest policy of the nation and to speak of the development of ecological investigations in each period. In 1876, Congress created the office of Commissioner of Forestry. The period from 1876 to 1891 may well be characterized by the term meristematic, for in this period the attempt was made to mould pubUc opinion in favor of a more rational use of forest resources by History of Forest Ecology 421 means of systematic propaganda. In the second period this fonna- tive condition gave rise to differentiated and more permanent struc- turts. The period from 1891 to 1909 may be termed the period of the creation of National Forests, the adjustment of their adminis- tration, the building-up of an organization for their protection, and the beginning of effective appropriations for making the forests accessible and useful. In this period the names of Theodore Roosevelt, Gifford Pinchot, Bernhard E. Fernow and Filibert Roth deserve special mention. From 1909 to the present time is dis- tinctly a period of the perfection of the organization at hand and the real beginning of forestry investigations of all kinds. Henry S. Graves has been instrumental in bringing about rational progress in the former field of activity and Raphael Zon has done more than any other forester in establishing sil\4cal investigations on a firm basis. It is quite obvious that previous to 1909 the time was not ripe for intensive ecological investigations. Greater and more urgent problems needed attention. It is true, however, that during the first two periods investigative work was initiative. While much of the work done, especially in the first period, has small value from the scientific standpoint, still some investigations carried on in the second period are pioneer works of permanent value. The establishment of forest experiment stations since 1909 was, of course, the actual beginning of experimental forest ecology; just as the erection of a forest products laboratory was the beginning of industrial forest investigations. During the incumbency of F. B. Hough as Commissioner (1876- 83) appropriations for forestry work were very limited and special original research was, of course, excluded. Hough compiled three large "Reports on Forestry" (1877, 1880, 1882) which were pub- lished by Congress. These contained information upon a wide range of subjects, including some dealing with silviculture. Hough, however, treated the subject of forestry as an interested layman, not as a professional forester, and his reports, while valuable compilations of existing facts, contained no original investigations. Eggleston, his successor (1883-86) was a preacher and like Hough did not see the subject from the scientific point of view. He compiled one report (1884) which was published by the Department of Agriculture. Its chief value lies in containing what may be termed the first silvical notes deahng with forest conditions in 422 Forestry Quarterly various parts of the country. His report treated, among other things, of tree planting on the prairies and plains, the decrease of woodlands in the state of Ohio and forest conditions in other states. B. E. Fernow, the successor of Eggleston was the first professional forester to occupy this important post. During his incumbency (1886-98) investigations along several lines received a great impetus. Fernow was really the man who put forest investigations upon a scientific basis (82). The first separate appropriation for forestry investigations was made in 1887, with the result that nimierous silvical and silvicultural problems were attacked includ- ing the growing of seedlings for field planting, the introduction of exotics, the planting of waste lands, and planting on the plains. In 1886, a number of botanists were engaged to make a study and report of the life-histories of some of our most important forest trees. This work however, was soon found to be foreign to these men because they did not see the problems from the forester's point of view. However, some interesting and valuable notes resulted. Twelve species were treated in this way, but only the life-histories of four important Southern pines (1896) and that of the White pine (1899) were published. The magnificent work on the Southern pines was the first attempt in the United States of a monographic study from a forester's point of view of the economic and technical phases and the silvicultural and habitat requirements of forest trees. Forestry literature, so far as government bulletins, circulars, and pamphlets dealing with forest investigations or one or more of the various phases of applied forest ecology is concerned, dates from 1886. The forest investigations carried on under the direction of Fernow, from 1886 to 1898, cover a broad field, about one half being original investigations and the other half being data adapted from foreign sources. The most important of these are the investigations of Filibert Roth, Johnson, and others in timber physics, between 1892 and 1898. These men investigated the general laws of the structure and of the physical and mechanical behavior of the wood of various species of trees and their work called forth great praise from no less a forestry authority than Dr. Schwappach. Other investigations were a forest botanical description of our forests, work by Roth upon the properties, characteristics, and identification of American woods (1895), and investigations upon the relation of the forest cover to waterflow, soil and climate (1893). The last mentioned study included a review of forest meteorological observations in History of Forest Ecology 423 Europe, and additional notes upon the relation of forests to water supplies and sanitary conditions. Since 1898, the new idea of making working plans for private timberland owners developed and much valuable silvical data has been gathered in this way. While the creation of forest reserves dates from 1891, a man- agement of the established reservations was not attempted until 1897. But the policy which was adopted even at that late date was far from efficient. The new law placed the authority over the forests in the hands of the Secretary of the Interior and the technical and scientific work with the Secretary of Agriculture. In the former department the admin- istrative work was carried on by the General Land Office, and the surveying, mapping, classification, and description of the reserves was done by the U. S. Geological Survey. This anomalous condition lasted until 1905 when the entire forestry business was handed over to the Department of Agricidture. It was while the administration of the forest reserves was in this chaotic condition that an important piece of work was done by the Geological Survey. This work concerned itself with the survey and description of the reservations and cost over a million and a half dollars. The results of these investigations were published in handsome volumes and they serve not only as a useful educational work but they mark a distinct advance in the field of silvics in the United States. It is true that this work was of an observational rather than of an experimental nature but that fact does not detract in the least from its value. It was a pioneer work well done and upon a gigantic scale. The forests of the country had been studied by botanists, but no attempt had been made to gather silvical data describing the conditions of the forest lands, not only those still bearing timber but also those lands cut or burned over. The men sent out by the Survey gathered information upon the character of the soil, litter, humus, underbrush, young growth, size of the timber, stand per acre, height, clear length, age, soundness, fire resistance, rate of growth, burned areas, geographical and alti- tudinal distribution of species and many other matters. This data was usually taken by legal subdivisions, and over 70,000,000 acres were covered both in the East and in the West. Among the men engaged in this work should be mentioned Graves, Leiberg, Ayres, Plummer, Dodwell, Rixon, and Sudworth. Of the dozen or more engaged in this work there were only two or three foresters, the rest being geologists, surveyors, etc. 424 Forestry Quarterly By far the most important fact to be noted during the period beginning in 1909 is the estabHsliment of 9 forest experiment stations and one forest products laboratory by the Forest Service. This date marks the beginning of the application of the principles and methods of modern ecology to American silvical and silvicultural problems and begins a new era for American silviculture. The crea- tion of these stations has given a much needed impetus to the investigative phases of forestry. Since they are scattered over the western half of the United States, the work of these stations covers a great many phases of silvicultural management and silvical problems of an extremely varied character. Reforestration prob- lems are taken up under seed testing, nursery work, and planting. Of great present value are investigations in methods and systems of cutting and the study of growth after cutting. The require- ments of species and of the important forest types are being deter- mined by systematic meteorological observations. Grazing inves- tigations, being intimately wrapped up with a great national industry are of special importance and have begun to receive the attention which they deserve. A study of the ecological life histories of grasses and other forage plants which grow on Western grazing lands has been begun for the ultimate purpose of increasing the carr3dng capacity of these lands. One of the largest tasks undertaken by a single experiment station is the study in Colorado of the influence of the denudation of a watershed by limibering upon the flow of the streams within it. This problem is scheduled to run over a period of years. In the main it is the purpose of these stations to attempt to solve those problems which confront the Forest Service on the various National Forests, hence they are of an applied rather than a purely scientific character. The recent literature upon the subject includes ntimerous reports, circulars, bulletins, etc., of a more or less silvical character by both government and state bureaus dealing with the forests and with forest conditions on government, state, and private lands. The data so far published by the forest experiment stations is very meager, being confined almost entirely to short contributions to periodical literature. This lack of literature, however, is not due to any lack of material but rather to a lack of facilities for having this kind of work published. Some forest investigations have been carried on by plant ecolo- gists at State Agricultural Experiment Stations, notably in Ver- History of Forest Ecology 425 mont. This is the proper place for these investigations and it is to be hoped that every state in the Union will emulate Vermont. This would eventually lead to a Forest Experiment Station coordinate with the Agricultural Experiment Station in every state. The most important recent contributions in government literature have been in the direction of the effect of forests on climate and streamflow (64, 65, 66, 67, 89). Zon has summarized the work done in this field both here and abroad very completely (68). A bulletin by Bates (69) upon Windbreaks studied the in- fluence of windbreaks upon climate, especially humidity, wind and temperature, and being worked out according to modern ecological methods, marks a distinct advance. A bulletin by Graves and Zon (72) upon Light in Relation to Tree Growth gives a resumd of the work done in determining light values in the woods. It is a sure indication of a closer scrutin}'- of habitat factors in silvicultural work. A third bulletin along the same lines was writ- ten by Clements (73) upon The Life-History of Lodgepole Burn Forests. This war an investigation in forest ecology by a plant ecologist and was one of the first attempts to apply the principles and methods of plant ecology to a forestry problem. The periodic forestry literature (70, 71) deaHng directly or in- directly with applied ecology in the United States during the last 12 years reveals the beginning of the study of certain great silvi- cultural problems in a systematic manner. The contributions are almost entirely by members of the U. S. Forest Service who are in an excellent position to undertake the study of the varied field problems. Although the data are to a considerable extent based on general observations rather than on conclusions based upon quantitative data yet we must admit that they have no small value. That foresters have followed the observational method for gathering their facts rather than the experimental is due to difficulties over which they have no control. We have begun to study our problems in an empirical way, but the methods of plant ecology are beginning to make themselves felt. When we happen upon a title like The Climatic Characteristics of Forest Types we begin to realize that the exact determination of silvical facts by means of systematic experimentation has begun. The complete silvical description of our important species based upon field studies is nearing completion. The effect of fires, snow and insects, both as they affect forest succession and the life of the 426 Forestry Quarterly individual tree have been studied. Problems in nursery practice and in field planting have been treated extensively. The chaparral type on 'the Pacific Coast has attracted no little attention, prin- cipally on account of its planting problems and its value as a watershed protection. There have been good articles upon the tolerance of trees and there have been symposia upon the principles involved in determining and classifying forest types. Some work has been done to determine the effect of exposure upon coniferous seedlings during transplanting. By far the greatest emphasis, however, has been placed upon reforestation. Men who have had direct charge of such work have described their experiences in various forest regions of the country: in Arizona and New Mexico; in the sandhills of Nebraska; on the sand plains of Michigan; in the brushfields of California; in the prairie states; and in the Black Hills. In all this work, whether experimental or observational in character, modern ecological ideas have been brought into play. It is apparent that the attempt is being made to correlate the results obtained in various branches of silvicultural work with habitat factors . We have in our possession a vast and rapidly growing body of ecological facts concerning the individual tree, the forest formation, and almost every silvicultiu'al practice, from which a few general principles are gradually being crystallized out; each established principle is one step nearer to our iiltimate goal in the develop- ment of the science of forest ecology, and therefore in the gradual building up of a rational American silvicultural system. IV. HISTORICAL SUMMARY Plant ecology, as we have seen, is the latest stage on the develop- ment of plant geography; the earliest stages of plant geography dealt merely with the description of vegetation and the distribu- tion of plants. The science of plant ecology was founded in 1838 when the plant formation was recognized as the fundamental unit of vegetation and the unit with which plant ecology is chiefly concerned. The next step was the study of the plant formation and its various phenomena. This led to the development of ecological plant geography, which was first treated in a systematic manner by Warming in 1895. Then followed the development of experimental plant ecology and a more critical study of the plant formation. Beginning with 1895, the emphasis has shifted History of Forest Ecology 427 from the study of vegetation to the investigation of the under- lying causes of vegetative units. The works of Schimper, Warm- ing and Drude are the best examples of the present trend of the science. Silvicultiu-e, on the other hand, began as a practice based upon empiricism. When forest ecology was founded in 1758 the fimda- mental sciences began to put silviculture upon a scientific basis. Diuing the last half of the 18th and the first half of the 19th cen- turies the tendency was to investigate tree and forest problems from the ecological point of view. As a result forest botany, forest pathology, forest entomology, and the anatomy and physi- ology of woody plants developed. At the beginning of the 19th century silviculture received its first scientific treatment at the hands of the fathers of modern forestry — Hartig and Cotta. Modern forest ecology was inaugurated when the forest experiment stations were established in 1870, and thereupon began a new era for silviculture. These stations forthwith began the task of basing silvicultural practice upon experiments. The investigative attitude began to pervade every phase of forestry. In this new era the investigations of forest ecology were brought into play to explain not only every observation deaHng with the individual tree and the forest formation, but also every silvicultural practice. The application of modern forest ecology has found its highest expression in the recent works of Mayr, Wagner and Duesberg and in the controversy that developed between two opposite schools of silviculttual thought. Thus it will be seen that three centuries before the corner-stone of plant ecology was laid the practice of silviculture upon an empirical basis began and that even during this early period the applied phases of many ecological problems were known to foresters About 80 years before plant ecology was founded the science of forest ecology had its beginning, when the fundamental sciences were applied to the study of the relation of the forest to its habitat. Plant ecologists began the determination of habitat factors in 1895, but foresters took such data at meteorological stations in connection with the study of forest influences between 1860 and 1870. In the study of this phase of ecology, therefore, forest ecology antedates plant ecology by more than 30 years. In spite of their interrelation, the two sciences developed independently; plant ecology chiefly along purely scientific lines and forest ecology 428 Forestry Quarterly mainly along applied lines. Since forest ecology came into being first, it would be an anachronism to say that forest ecology devel- oped as an offshoot of plant ecology. The parallelism of these sciences is evident when we consider that plant ecology deals with plants as a whole and forest ecology only with trees. From the time of Schouw and Grisebach to that of Schimper and Warming, a span of nearly 100 years, the two sciences often worked in the same fields, even though they looked upon the same problems from different viewpoints. In the deter- mination of light values, in the study of plant succession, and in many other phases of ecology foresters and botanists have worked together. It is significant that Mayr was for more than 25 years associated with the eminent forest botanist Robert Hartig both in botanical and in forestry investigative work. There can be no doubt that a mutual benefit was derived from this association. Certainly Mayr must have gathered considerable inspiration for his Waldhau. The coincidence of these two sciences at the present time is evident when we consider that both are inquiring into the causes of vegetation. It is significant that modern plant ecology and silviculture based upon natural laws are developing simul- taneously. This fact is especially emphasized when we note that Warming's Ecology of Plants and Mayr's Waldhau auf naturgesetz- licher Grundlage two epoch-making works both appeared in 1909 and both are concerned with the investigation of the relation between the plant and its habitat. While plant ecology and forest ecology developed independently (the former along purely scientific lines, the latter along applied lines), we are witnessing today a period in which they are becoming mutually helpftd. Modern plant ecology will have the tendency to make forest ecology a more orderly science. Forest ecology has never been properly organized and systematized. Plant ecology long ago recognized the plant formation as its fundamental unit ; why should not the same unit (called by foresters a forest type) be recognized as the fundamental unit of forest ecology? Also the recently established sub-divisions of plant ecology, namely, aute- cology , and synecology , apply just as well to forest ecology ? Plant ecology vuill also make forest ecology broader in its scope and meaning. While they have developed to a certain extent independently, I see no reason why they should continue to progress so. While forest ecology will always be looked upon as one of the applied History of Forest Ecology 429 phases of plant ecology there is no reason why the methods and principles of plant ecology cannot be applied in toto in pursuing its most important branch. Plant ecology will also have the tendency to make forest ecology, which previously existed only for applied reasons, more purely scientific. In the organization of the work of the forest experiment stations in the United States the principles and methods of plant ecology were employed with the result that forest ecology was put upon a more scientific basis. The forest investigator's viewpoint is apt to become narrowed by the applied nature of his investigations. For this reason he does not always use those methods that give the best results; hence, the necessity of plant ecology which will give him the purely scientific point of view. Present-day plant ecologists are usually scientists of attainment, many of them well-known teachers of the subject and in a position to be thoroughly in touch with the literature and progress of the science. Foresters are largely field men; most of them very prac- tical; a few with investigative ability. They have the advantage of being near to Nature, but they are usually far removed from academic influence, good libraries, and other facilities for carrying on research. The investigator of forestry problems of the near future must possess a combination of these qualities and oppor- tunities. The following table shows in a comparative manner the three great periods in the development of plant ecology and silviculture. Plant Ecology Before 1838. The era of plant geography; a period dealing with the study of vegetation as a whole and with the geographical distribution of plants. 1838-95. A period dealing with the study of the plant forma- tion; the plant formation rec- ognized as the fundamental unit of vegetation, thus laying the cornerstone of plant ecol- ogy; the division of vegeta- tion into units; the beginning of the study of plant succes- sion. Silviculture 1346-1758. Forestry practice based upon empiricism; the development of silviculture by practice with little reference to the fundamental natural laws involved. 1758-1870. The development of the biological phases of forestry, including forest botany, forest pathology, morphology and physiology of woody plants, etc. The theory of light and shade in the forest elaborated by Heyer. 430 Forestry Quarterly 1895-1916. The period of mod- ern plant ecology; dealing with the study of the habitat; the exact determination of phy- sical factors; ecology allied itself with plant physiology; whole field of plant ecology divided into autecology and synecology and otherwise organized. The works of Schimper, Drude and Warm- ing characterize this period. 1870-1916. The period of mod- ern forest ecology; period char- acterized by the estabhshment of forest experiment stations by most forestry practicing nations. The beginning of experimental ecology and the measurement of habitat fac- tors. Forest experiment sta- tionstake up the study of forest soils, forest influences, forest litter, forest climatology, the effect of source of seed, and the ecological bases for thin- nings. Works of Wagner, Mayr and Duesberg are the highest expression of the ap- plication of modern forest ecology to the practice of silviculture. V. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Clements, F. E., Research methods in ecology. Lincoln, Nebr. 1905. 2. Berg, E. von, Das Verdrangen der Laubwalder durch die Fichte und Kiefer. Grisebach Berichte 15. 1844. 3. HoFMANN, H., Der nordliche Ural and das Kustengebirge Pae-Choi. 1856. 4. Warming, E., Fra Vesterhavskystens Marskegne. Vid. Medd. Foren. 1890. 5. MiDDENDORFF, A., Die Gewachse Sibiriens. 1864. 6. Senft, F., Der Erdboden. Just, 45. 1888. 7. Warming, E., Plantesamfund, Grvmdtrok af den oekologiske Plante- geografi. 1895. 8. Drude, O., Deutschlands Pflanzengeographie. 1896. 9. Warming, E., Lehrbuch der oecologischen Pflanzengeographie. 1896. 10. Schimper, A. F. 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VON, Philosophia botanica. 1752. 34. Hildebrand, F., Die Verbreitungsmittel der Pflanzen. Just. 73:224. 1873. 35. Kerner, a., Pflanzenleben. Leipzig. 1891. 36. Grisebach, a., Die Vegetation der Erde. Leipzig. 1872. 37. BiBERG, I. J., Oeconomia Naturae. Amoen. Acad. 4:1. 1749. 38. Humboldt, A. von, Views of nature, 125, 213. 1850. 39. Henfrey, a., The vegetation of Europe. 1852. 40. Hult, R., Forsok till analytisk behandlung af formatioerna. Medd. See. Fenn. 1881. 41. Cowles, H. C, The ecological relation of the vegetation of the sand dunes of Lake Michigan. Bot. Gaz., 27. 1899. 42. Fuller, G. D., Soil moisture in the cottonwood dime association of Lake Michigan. Bot. Gaz., 53. 1912. 43. Fuller, G. D., Evaporation and soil moisture in relation to the succes- sion of plant associations. Bot. Gaz., 58. 1914. 44. Roberts, E. A., The plant successions of the Holyoke Range. Bot. Gaz., 58. 1914. 45. TouRNEFORT, J. P., Relation d'un voyage du Levant. 1717. 46. Ramond, L. F. E., Voyages au Mont-Perdu et dans la partie adjacente des Haut-Pyrenees. 1801. 47. Humboldt, A. von, and Bonpland, A., Tableau physique des regions equatoriales. 1805. 48. KoPPEN, W., Die Warmezonen der Erde. 1884. 49. Drude, O., Atlas der Pflanzenverbrcitung. 1887. 50. Raunkiar, C, Vesterhavets Ost-og Sydkysts vegetation. Bot. Cent., 41. 1889. 51. Magnin, a., Recherches sur la vegetation des lacs du Jura. Rev. Gen. Bot., 5. 1893. 52. MacMillan, C, On the occurence of sphagnum atolls in central Minnesota. Minn. Bot. Studies, 1. 1894. 53. De Forest, H., Recent ecological investigations. Proc. Soc. Am. Foresters, IX. 1914. (For bibliography of recent literature.) 54. Fernow, B. E., History of forestry. Toronto. 1911. 55. Heyer, G., Verhalten der Waldbaume gegen Licht und Schatten. Erlangen. 1852. 56. Heyer, G., Lehrbuch der forstilchen Bodenkunde und Klimatilogie. Erlangen. 1856. 57. Ramann, E., Forstliche Bodenkunde and Standortslehre. Berlin. 1893. 58. Ramann, E., Bodenkunde. Berlin. 1911. 59. Mayr, H., Waldbau auf naturgesetzlicher Grundlage. Berlin. 1909. 60. Wagner, C., Die Grundlagen der raumlichen Ordnung im Walde. 1907. 432 Forestry Quarterly 61. Hartig, T., Anatomic und Physiologic der Holzpflanzen. 1878. 62. Ebermayer, E. W. F., Die gcsammte Lehrc der Waldstreu. 1876, 63. Fernow, B. E. and others, Forest influences. Forest Service, U. S. Dept. Agric, BuU. 7. 1893. 64. Bray, W. L., The timber of the Edwards Plateau of Texas. U. S. Dept. Agric, Bureau of Forestry, Bull. 49. 1904. 65. Hall, W. L., and Maxwell, H., Surface conditions and stream flow. U. S. Dept. Agric, Forest Service, Cir. 176. 1910. 66. Schwarz, G. F., The diminished flow of the Rock river in Wisconsin and Illinois and its relation to the surrounding forests. U. S. Dept. Agric, Bureau of Forestry, Bull. 44. 1903. 67. TouMEY, J. W., Relation of forests to stream flow. U. S. Dept. Agric Yearbook. 1903. 68. ZoN, R., Final report of the National Waterways Commission. U. S. Senate Doc. 469. 1912. 69. Bates, C. G., Windbreaks. U. S. Dept. Agric, Forest Service Bull. 86. 1911. 70. Forestry Quarterly. Washington, D. C. Vols. I-XIII. 1903-15. 71. Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. Washington, D. C. Vols. I-X. 1906-15. 72. ZoN, R., and Graves, H. S., Light in relation to tree growth. U. S. Dept. Agric, Forest Service Bull. 92. 1911. (Contains bibliography.) 73. Clements, F. E., The life history of lodgepole bum forests. U. S. Dept. Agric, Forest Service Bull. 79. 1910. 74. Ganong, W. F., The organization of the ecological investigation of the physiological life histories of plants. Bot. Gaz., 43. 1907. 75. Wiesner, J., Der Lichtgenuss der Pflanzen. Leipzig. 1907. 76. CowLES, H. C, The physiographic ecology of Chicago and vicinity; a study of the origin, development, and classification of plant societies. Bot. Gaz., 31:73-108, 145-182. 1901. 77. Moss, C. E., The fundamental units of vegetation. New Phytologist, 9:19-49. 1910. 78. Tansley, a. G., The problems of ecology. New Phytologist, 3 :191-200. 1904. 79. Clements, F. E., Plant physiology and ecology. New York. 1907. 80. Knuchel, H., Spektrophotometrische Untersuchungen im Walde. Mitt. d. Schweiz. Central, d. forst. Versuchs., XI :1. Zurich. 1914. (For review see Proc. Soc Am. Foresters, X:l. 1915.) 81. LoREY, T. VON, Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft. Tubingen. 1903. 82. Fernow, B. E., Report upon the forestry investigations of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1877-98. Washington, D. C. 1899. 83. Wagner, C. H., Der Blendersaumschlag und sein-system. Tubingen. 1912. 84. Duesberg, R., Der Wald als Erzieher. Beriin. 1910. 85. Reuss, H., Die forstliche Bestandesgrundvmg. Berlin. 1907. 86. Godberssen, H., Die Kiefer. 1904. 87. Dittmar, H. J. A., Der Waldbau. Neudamm. 1910. 88. Jentsch, F., The rise of silviculture. Translated by F. Dunlap. Forestry Quarterly, IX :4. 1911. 89. Reynolds, R. V. R., Grazing and floods. Forest Service, Bull. 91. 1911. 90. Cooper, W. S., Plant succession in the Palo Alto region. Science, N. S., XLII:1094:877. 1915. 91. Boerker, R. H., Some notes on forest ecology and its problems. Proc. Soc. Am. For., X:4, 405 ff. 1915. 92. Shreve, F., The weight of physical factors in the study of plant dis- tribution. Plant World, 19:3, 53-67. 1916. 93. Shreve, F., The vegetation of a desert mountain range as conditioned by climatic factors. The Carnegie Institution of Washington. 1915. 94. Boerker, R. H., Ecological investigations upon the germination and early growth of forest trees. Univ. Nebraska Studies, 16:1, 1-89. January, 1916. NEW TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY METHODS By J. H. Bonner' and F. R. Bonner- (NoTE: The following article appeared in the January 6th issue of En- gineering News and the March issue of The Timberman, and has been widely commented on by engineers as presenting something entirely new and valu- able. Perry Baker, editor of the Engineering News, in commenting on the article, said: "It is not very frequently that the editor can direct attention to new methods in surveying, but the reader will find this article to describe some truly radical improvements in the field work of topographic surveying.") The last few years have witnessed a remarkable change in methods used in the logging industry in the Pacific Northwest. It is only a few years ago that a man with a quarter section of timber land, a team of horses and limited capital could engage in the logging business. But times have changed; the closa-in timber has been logged ; keen competition has reduced prices ; and the future logging operations of the large companies are planned out on a comprehensive scale for years to come. The old "tote" road is being supplanted by the logging railroad. The passing of the small-mill man is marked by the advent of the logging engineer, a profession vmknown a few years back. Practically all of the companies doing railroad logging in the Pacific Northwest now employ an engineer more or less continuously, who plans and directs the entire field operations. Time was when a company in building a logging railroad followed the general contour of the ground, with narrow roadways, steep grades, and insufficient drainage. But modern business efficiency no longer permits such methods ; the logging companies are now doing on a small scale what our transcontinental railroads are undertaking — eliminating sharp curves and reducing grades on the main lines. Such construction increases first cost but the logging engineer no longer plans on tearing up the steel in a few years when the area has been logged. The grade is so constructed that the owner of a body of timber beyond can afford to buy the road and haul his logs over it in preference to building another railroad. Also in special cases, owing to the present-day demand for logged-over lands for farming purposes, there is a chance of the road being used as a common carrier in years to come. • Professor of Forest Engineering, Forest School, University of Montana. * Chief of Geography, District 1, U. S. Forest Service. 433 434 Forestry Quarterly Accurate Map Essential The logging engineer's first demand in taking over a new job is for an accurate topographic map not only of the area that his company intends to log, but of all the adjacent territory. There is no need to dwell on the necessity for an accurate contour map. It becomes the working plan of the logging engineer on which he makes the locations for railroads, spurs, flumes, chutes, roads, camps and cable systems. The cruiser's maps, giving locations of streams and ridges, with occasional elevations taken with the aneroid barometer, served their purpose in their day, but modern logging business requires more detail. The topography must be accurately mapped, the reports must give a careful classification of all timber, for each species as standing, dead and down, timber suitable for piling, poles and ties, with an estimate of probable defects; also soil classification reports, conditions of undergrowth and mineral indications. The surveys for topogi'aphic maps for logging operations are made in various ways. The method to be used is determined by the lay of the land and the density of the forest growth. Until a year or two ago the custom was to make all such surveys by the aneroid method, which is simply a refinement of the methods used by timber cruisers. Elevations were determined by primary leveling along certain lines selected as base lines. If the area has been previously covered by the survey of the United States General Land Office, it is customary to establish the base along section lines ; while in unsurveyed territory irregular traverses are run along roads, trails or ridges, the work usually being done by transit and stadia and the elevation computed at fixed intervals. From these base lines parallel "strips" are run. The strip crew usually consists of a compassman and an esti- mator. The compassman runs a rough line by a box compass and paces the distances. Also he carries an aneroid barometer which he sets with a stationary camp barograph in the morning and sketches the contours each side of the line on his map. It is also necessary to record the time at which the aneroid readings were taken in order to make the corrections for the fluctuations of the instrttment during the day. The aneroid, while a handy instrument for taking rough eleva- tions, is too eccentric to be relied on to do accurate work, as any New Topographic Survey Methods 435 engineer is aware who has used one in mountainous regions subject to frequent and sudden atmospheric changes. As the working aneroid goes through the changing atmospheric conditions during the day, it is necessary to correct the readings in proportion to the fluctuations of the camp barograph. After the day's field work is completed and the aneroid reading corrected, there follows the difficult work of adjusting contours to form the finished map. It the topographer has been conscien- tious and is skilled at his work, he has gathered a wealth of topo- graphic detail which is all to be lost and wasted when his contours are put through the "juggling" process. The very lack of pre- ciseness and the knowledge that the map must be adjusted greatly discourages careful and conscientious sketching in the field. It is very evident that the map cannot be accurate except in a general way. All topography is approximately correct, but would hardly answer on a map on which to make the paper location for a railroad or a flimie. The cost of making surveys using the method outlined above is from 5 cents to 35 cents per acre. Such was the condition when the engineers of District 1 of the Forest Service commenced their series of experiments to develop a more efficient method of topographic surveying. Ordinary topographic-survey practice was not applicable. Heavy timber and dense brush and undergrowth prevented efficient use of plane-table method, as it was necessary to get beneath the cover of the forest in order to get the topographic detail required. Also the operations must necessarily be combined and co-ordinated with the timber estimating and appraisal work, and could not, therefore, follow the methods that would be adopted for the pro- duction of a topographic map alone. Low cost was an important consideration. The first tests were made with the ordinary Abney level or clinometer familiar to all engineers. While the results were satisfactory, it was a cumbersome method, in which the field men were compelled constantly to refer to reduction tables in order to ascertain their true horizontal position. The instruments as then made were not constructed for such work and it was almost impossible to keep them in adjustment. By constantly experi- menting and making improvements, a new Abney level was developed that is now manufactured expressly for work of this character. Simplified methods, introducing greater speed and accuracy, were worked out. 436 Forestry Quarterly New Abney Level and Its Use The improved Abney level, as illustrated in Fig. 1, is only slightly larger than the old Abney, and its cost is about the same. The arc is made larger and graduated to read directly the difference in elevation per chain (66 feet) of horizontal distance; a prism has been substituted for the German silver reflector; the bubble tube is made longer and with adjustment devices similar to those on the bubble tube of a transit. Also the bubble tube support is attached rigidly to the indicator arm of the arc, thus eliminating the inevitable loet motion between these two parts existing in all old-style Abneys. The bubble tube is arranged to allow adjust- ment to eliminate refraction, which made the old-style instru- ments so unreliable in measuring steep slopes. A semi-circular lens placed in the fore end of the eye-piece tube, as in the Locke level, magnifies the movement of the bubble so as to greatly facilitate accurate sighting. The various changes introduced have so improved the instrtmient and the results of its intelligent operation have proved so surprising, that the new Abney will doubtless meet with favor among the entire engineering profession, and its scope of use in field work of all kinds greatly extended. Aside from the special graduation shown in Fig. 1, which is applicable to all topographic work, plates with the usual degree and per cent graduations are furnished and also a special gradua- tion to give directly horizontal distance from slope chaining. This graduation has foimd much popidarity in cadastral surveys. Topographic Surveys of Timber Lands There was some objection at first to the Abney method on accoimt of the necessity of taping the slope distances, but two years of use have proved that this work can be done with practi- cally the same convenience and time as pacing. The unit of meastirement adopted was the chain of 66 feet for the reason that a large portion of the work is the retracement of land survey lines recorded in that imit, and also for convenience in timber estimating. Obviously a definite horizontal unit is necessary for operation without the use of tables, and after thorough trial it was found that a distance of 2 chains was the most con- venient for rough country covered with heavy timber. A special 2V2-chain tape has therefore been designed for use with the Abney method, the tape proper consisting of 2-chaiti lengths Fig. 1 — Improved Abney Level or Clinometer New Topographic Survey Methods 437 divided into links, with an additional half-chain "trailer." The trailer is graduated in order to allow the proper slope measure- ment for the excess of the hypotenuse of a triangle, the base of which is 2 chains. For example, suppose the crew to be ascending a slope as indicated in Fig. 2. The topographer reads from the arc that the rise per chain on that slope is 38 feet. The rear chainman (usually the timber estimator) then looks for the 38 etched beyond the 2-chain tag on the tape, which in this case would be 20.42 feet beyond. By stretching the tape tight, the point h is then located and is known to be 2 chains distant from and 2 X 38 feet higher than a. The topographer then sketches his contours, taking side shots in order to locate the distance between contours, and "side walking" if necessary. Fig. 2. — ^Illustrating Use of Special Slope Tape A strip crew of two men will cover about two miles of line a day. Frequently the brush and undergrowth are so thick that sights 2 chains long are impossible, requiring the use of a one-chain dis- tance or sighting by sound. Remarkably good closures have been obtained in many cases employing the latter method. In dense and dark forest? it is usually necessary for the estimator to carry a small mirror in order that the topographer may sight on the flash. In this way sights are obtained through brush that seems almost impenetrable to the eye. The general method followed is similar to that used in the aneroid method. Primary controls fixing the geographic position of the area both horizontally and vertically on the face of the earth are obtained by precise connection to adjacent primary stations of the 438 Forestry Quarterly United States Geological Survey. Secondary control lines are run around a block of sections or topographic unit, stakes or posters on trees being left at periodic intervals from which the strip surveys may be begun or closed. The Abney instrimient is used for the control as well as for the strips, it being found to be just about as accurate as direct leveling, and much faster. The work on control lines is, of course, much more carefully executed than on the strip lines, two Abneys being used. The control system is so planned that the strip surveys will not be run more than two miles without closing upon a control line. The strip surveys are run along parallel lines usually an eighth or quarter mile apart, depending upon the density of the timber and the degree of detail required. It is customary to combine the mapping with either the timber estimating or the soil classification work, thus making one survey serve two purposes and reduce the cost of each. The crew con- • • • » • • •. # » • • • • * . « • • . •■ • • • • • ■ • » Fig. 3. — Locating Contours by the Abney Method sists of the topographer, who keeps his direction with a staff compass, operates the Anbey and sketches the topography, and the estimator, who "snubs" the rear end of the tape, making the proper allowance for slope, and estimates the timber on a strip 33 feet wide on each side of the line. Experience has shown that the time lost by the estimator in holding the rear end of the tape to be practically negligible. The strips are usually belts 10 chains wide, the line being run along the center line and topography sketched for 5 chains on either side. It will be noticed that the method is not a system of determining the elevation of points along a profile line, and inter- polating the intermediate contours, such as the aneroid method, but a number of points are located through which each contour must pass, by taking side shots at right angles to the general direction of the contours, as indicated by the dotted lines and arrows in Fig. 3. Although the skeleton of the topography is thus accurately obtained mechanically, the sketching or filling in of the topographic detail depends entirely upon the skill and New Topographic Survey Methods 439 judgment of the topographer, which may only be attained through considerable experience and some amount of natural talent, often called "topographic sense." As the price of stimipage increases, the accuracy and detail de- manded on topographic maps increase. Some of the larger companies now have their strips riui at 2V2-chain intervals, estimating each tree separately and trusting nothing to averages. Accuracy of Method — Error of Closure The results attained by those who have been working with the Abney method as outlined are truly marvelous. On one project, comprising 54,000 acres in the Coeur d'Alene National Forest in northern Idaho, completed during the 1915 season, 64 miles of control line were run with an average elevation closure of one foot to the mile. The area mapped was very rough and mountainous and the timber cover consisted largely of heavy stands of Idaho White pine accompanied by heavy undergrowth and dense brush. The greater part of the area had been previously covered by both the 440 Forestry Quarterly General Land Office public survey and by the Geological Survey small scale topographic quadrangles, so that no primary control had to be executed. On this same project, over 500 miles of strip surveys were run with an average elevation closure of 10 feet to the mile. The minimimi error on such lines was one foot to the mile, while the maximum allowed was 30 feet. The errors of closure for alignment and distance on the strip surveys each averaged one-half chain to the mile. Mapping was done on a 4-inch to the mile scale, using a 50-foot contour interval. It is readily apparent, therefore, that the errors of closure resulting can be readily adjusted so as to be almost negligible on the scale of the map. The cost of the work, including the control, mapping, timber estimating, etc., was approximately 12 cents an acre. The results of this project furnish an average example of what is being accom- plished on a large amount of similar work. In less rugged and more open timber, as in the Yellow pine and Lodgepole pine stands, for example, closing errors and costs are more favorable. COST OF LOGGING LARGE AND SMALL TIMBER By W. W. Ashe^ It is well known that it costs more to operate small than large trees, since in converting the small trees it is necessary to handle more logs representing an absolutely larger cubic volume and there are more pieces of lumber per thousand board feet. The following data seek to show for several of the different steps of a sawmill operation what is the comparative cost of handling trees and logs of different sizes, and to call attention to the field of utility of the results: (1) as a factor to be considered in determining the cost of producing lumber; and (2) as a potent argimient in certain cases in favor of leaving the small trees to grow to larger size for future cutting. The results which are submitted can however be regarded only as an apergu, preliminary to intensive studies of different types of operations and the costs of production at individual operations, together with their bearings upon the introduction of conservative methods of cutting and forestry practice. Notwithstanding its evident importance, from the point of view of production costs particularly in the operation of stands in which the trees have a wide range of diameters, the subject apparently has never been thoroughly investigated. Each operator has fixed his cutting diameter according to his best judgment, but seldom with the basal data which would permit him to arrive at positive conclusions. If he was conservative in not cutting small trees, being apprehensive that to do so might cause a reduction in profits or even a loss, his precautions might result in leaving timber which could have been removed advantageously ; and this is particularly the case when logging is done by contract and it would be to the interest of the contractor to leave the small trees. On the other hand, when the stimipage is purchased by the acre there is an incentive on the part of the owner to clean-cut in order to reduce the cost of the stumpage per M, and in many cases this results in the cutting of timber of such small size as to be improfitable. The resiilts are intended to show comparative cost for different diameters; but not absolute cost as applicable to any particular operation or class of operations. However, they do show that the 'Forest Inspector, U. S. Forest Service. 441 442 Forestry Quarterly comparative costs for different diameters are approximately in the same general ratio for the same classes of operations, and they can be accepted as presenting these ratios. The conclusions, moreover, could seem to open a field for exact accounting, with the tree as the basis which is supplemental to the system developed by Mr. Goodman for tracking the production costs of grades and stocks. The mill and fisld data which are presented cover several types of operations and classes of timber. The initial data were collected for a Shortleaf pine operation in 1909 and a summary of the con- clusions therefrom has already been made.^ These results are supplemented with figures which have been obtained as occasion admitted in connection with other work. The field work for (a) felling and bucking and (b) skidding was carried on at both large and small operations of pine and hardwoods in Tennessee, Virginia and North Carolina. The data for (c) loading and hauling were obtained from a large hardwood operation in North Carolina and a hemlock operation in Virginia. The figures for (d) mill sawing were obtained from pine and hardwood operations both with circular and band saws in Tennessee and North Carolina. They cover both railroad and team operations. In a railroad operation there are four major stages in the progress of conversion in which the decrease in the size of the timber tends to increase the cost of the operation. These stages are : (a) felling and bucking; (b) skidding from the point where the tree is felled to the skid way or log pile; (c) loading logs on cars, hauling from the woods to the mill and unloading: (d) sawing at the mill. In addition to these major stages there are less important stages ' Small Timber and Logging Costs, Proceed. So. Log. Assn. Nov., 1914. North Carolina Pine, 127, 1915. In the appraisal of stumpage of small trees on cutover and heavily culled land and of small trees sold to the Government with the surface by vendors who reserved the rights to operate the larger timber on land being acquired under the Act of March 1, 1911, under which National Forests are being established in the Eastern States, the necessity for more complete data cover- ing the cost of operating small timber was soon apparent. Information bearing on this subject was consequently secured from time to time as occasion arose in connection with the appraisal of diJBFerent properties. Most of this was obtained according to a definite plan so that it is now possible to co- ordinate it and determine certain general relations applying to the costs of operating timber of different diameters. The data embrace field and mill work by Messrs. E. M. Bruner, W. J. Damtoft, H. M. Sears, Geo. E. Marshall, J. L. Cobbs, Jr., L. H. Steffens and others of the Forest Service, R. C. Staebner of the Little River Lumber Company, of Townsend, Tenn., and Andrew Gennett of the Gennett Lumber Company of Franklin, N. C. The work of Bruner and Damtoft on felling and skidding is particularly noteworthy. Cost of Logging Large and Small Timber 443 in the operation the costs of which are also adversely influenced by the decrease in the size of the log. These are notching, bump- ing, nosing, brushing and swamping ; grading and tallying at mill ; sorting and stacking; and regrading and loading for shipment. Other items entering into the cost of production such as the over- head and the construction, both for mill and for transportation, are proportionately over-large, and the costs of these items per unit of product decline with the inclusion of smaller timber until a com- paratively small diameter is reached. In a portable mill operation, the lumber being delivered by wagon, (b) skidding and (d) sawing are of increased moment; (c) haulage of logs on railroad or tram i? eliminated or subordinated while (a) felling and the minor stages retain their relative weights in so far as decrease in the size of the timber affects operating costs. On the other hand the low overhead charges and small investment in construction, though reduced by larger volimie, are never major elements of cost. Wagon haiilage of Itmiber enters as a fixed cost factor unaffected either by bulk of volume or grade of product, and consequently not influenced by a shifting of the diameter of the trees embraced in the felling. Felling and Bucking In securing felling and bucking data the crews were accompanied all day and the time taken from notching one tree to notching the next. Time spent in going from tree to tree was included in the cost figiu-e of each tree, but time spent in saw-filing, etc., and wasted time, such as that spent in resting, was segregated and dis- tributed equally among the total number of trees sawed each day. Such periods of idleness and saw-filing were found in one operation to exceed two hours daily or more than 20 per cent of the 10-hour work day. In another case these items, together with the time spent in going to work, for which the men were paid, amounted to nearly 30 per cent of the total time. The time for felling and bucking a M-board-feet mill-cut from trees of different diameters is shown by the curves in Fig. 1. Brushing, nosing, bumping and superintendence are not included. While, in case cost per hour is substituted for time in Fig. 1, the average cost of felling at a given operation is less than 50 cents per M board feet mill-cut for trees 20 inches and over in diameter breast high, the cost rises to 75 cents per M for trees 14 inches in diameter, and in excess of $1 444 Forestry Quarterly for trees 10 inches in diameter. Eighteen inches may be regarded as the diameter below which rapid rise in cost takes place. The cost seems to be lowest for trees between 30 and 38 inches in TMOUSA/^OS ./O '^ /e 22 26 30 3^ 38 Sreast Aiyh diamef'ef of tr&e^ in inches ^2 *tf '/(^ I ./^e/at/i/'e /-//Tre pe./- /OOO J>oa^ef feet m/// cut, of fe/i/no ancf huck/no ^r-ees of cfiffisr^nf ci/arne/-&rs cr/7cf ca/sctc/ff /oc /rtaf/ for- /O h/r day. LEGEAfD: Ojoer-aA/ort /. ^e.//tno and bucM/no. JC /^£S J ma/t -cretv, day /^/wct/T -cr-ery, confracif ZC/^&0 ^mmmmmmmmZ fTfan-CrVO*', CortfrXZCf. 0/>eraf/on Z. .Jman-crei^ fef//np. 3r Oaks — 3F f^/ne andpop/ar- 3frrct>yc'^yyfe.f//''ro. ZF Oaks 2nyi' fk.//tnp. Operetf/o/7^3. Zfi F^Z-B *Kn%n.Kx%H%itxZ fnan-c^et^ ft/Z/np/tAucfi/ny. ^f^F *-*-*-*^~ii'*-t~%2maJ7-cnetv fe//tnp. Z^O*"—*—* — K — » Z/Tfuck/y7o. AifCr-aye. of a// o o O o o o o o o Cost of Logging Large and Small Timber 445 diameter, increasing in the operations investigated for those of larger as well as for smaller diameters. With the same class of crew the cost of felling oak, with which are included birch, beech, maple, and other species of heavy wood, is shown to be about 20 per cent greater than the cost of felling the lighter and softer woods such as White pine. Yellow pine, poplar, and basswood. A three- man crew would seem to be a more efficient working unit in felling larger sized timber ; but with smaller trees felling was more economi- cally done by a two-man crew. This is shown in two different operations. This superior efficiency of the two-man crew for felling small timber is explained by an examination of the detailed field figures which show that the third man is not entirely busy in notching and bumping when small trees are felled and, moreover, the same absolute length of time is required to go from tree to tree when the trees are small as when large, adding in the case of a three-man crew to the relative time during which no actual work is being performed and increasing the proportional cost. Nosing and bimiping are not included in operation 1 , these being done by separate men who follow the felling crews. A comparison of the three curves showing time at operation 1 shows very clearly the superior efficiency of the three-man contract crew over the three- man day labor crew, which is also the least efficient of any crew which was timed. It is unfair, however, to make comparisons of such work at different operations \vithout explaining the condi- tions under which the work in each case is being done. In opera- tion 1 the trees were largely being felled on the slopes and were short bodied, a larger number of trees being required per M feet than in the other operations. This also affected the regularity of the three-man curves in this operation. This might be taken as representative of short bodied timber of comparatively poor quality. Of the trees felled, it was necessary to butt 70 per cent on accoimt of fire scarred butts, while 4 per cent of the trees feUed were abandoned on account of defect. There were 60 per cent of one-log trees. This also includes the full time of superinten- dence, and all time required for sharpening tools. In operations 2 and 3 the timber largely consisted of 2 and 3-log trees. These figures for time man-hours can readily be changed to costs by inserting the appropriate rate of pay per hour for men in either two- or three-men crews. 446 Forestry Quarterly Skidding The skidding data are represented in Fig. 2 on the basis of time required to skid M board feet mill cut in logs of different diameters but of a uniform length of 16 feet and cost of skidding; and are computed to a uniform linear distance of 1 ,000 feet. This embraces for the team skidding only the time of team and driver and includes no time allowance for road costs, brushing, swamping or superin- tendence. The sum of these items, usually amounting to about 1. o I' y^^ous^Nos \^ \ \ > o \< \ \ \ '°^ n\ \ > \ o \ 3 \ • ' \ \ o o c \ "•• •<- V 'o« — . — ^^ ■ • •- '••.., ■".*■-. ^^~ o O O 0 O 0 ( o *"^ ■ — ^" / O .8 6.0O ? 0 ^ => C ■^ ^ 3.3 a /eoO to s 1^ /o.^ so S /o /a /-* /e ss Z-4- 26 gg D/ameferof /off-/nc/ros /^tg.B /fe/afivefi'mc regu/red^sfricf /OOOAcf-e/r, mi'//cuf /'n /offs af^c/i^f^erenf- cf/ameiers a c//efar>ce of/OOO^f-.snc/fesm capac/fy perc/ay of /O /tours . ykamvforfron/y. Losf-hme omitf&cf. Vafa oStained /9/S- /9/e. C£Gervo Team Sfr/'dcZ/nc^ Virginia operations A — B — —'-— TkrtnesseeoperstJonsihardwoods) C-»--f--#--«-^ Tennessee operat/onsCtvhitepine) £.••• ''^■■•■i-^wi-^A Curve of average peam SMiddif>ipi oooooooooo Over/tea^ sft/dderCSpr-ucej^' oo 25 per cent of the total costs, should be added to the skidding costs as given by prorating on the basis of the number of logs per M board feet mill cut. Placing the price of a double team and driver at $6 per day, the cost of skidding by team 20-inch logs varied from 75 cents (White pine) on smooth surface to $2.75 for oak in a much rougher terrain. Cost of Logging Large and Small Timber 447 Each operation, however, shows the same rapid increase in cost of skidding logs smaller than 14 inches. The average of the data shows that under conditions where it costs less than $1 to skid timber when the diameter of the average log is 20 inches, the costs are doubled when the size of the log is 14 inches, and trebled when it is 10 inches. In skidding, it is customary to handle small logs in connection with logs of larger size, when it is possible to do so. When there are only a few small logs, such as are obtained from the tops of medium sized trees, they are handled practically at minimum cost by attaching them to trails of larger logs. However, when small trees constitute such a large part of the stand that they form a large proportion of the trails, or when they cannot be skidded entirely in connection with trails of larger logs and it becomes necessary to handle them in separate trails, there is a decided increase in the cost of skidding the smaller timber. In securing data on the relative cost of skidding large and small timber, it was necessary to consider the trails as they were actually made up and to obtain the average size of the logs in each trail. Most of the small-log trails contained at least one medium or large-sized log and the trails of large logs usually contained at least one small log. In stands which contain so large a proportion of small timber that it would be necessary to skid most of the small timber in trails without large logs, the relative cost of handling the small timber would be higher than is shown for any operation in the data presented. The data were obtained by timing individual teams, measuring the contents of each trail, and obtaining the size of the average log in each trail. The work of individual teams handling the same class of timber (heavy or light) and skidding on the same character of surface was then combined. The cost of skidding is most affected by loading teams below or beyond capacity. The absolute cost varies even for logs of the same size in different operations and camps according to the character of the surface and efficiency of the operation. Skidding with an overhead skidder is not comparable with team skidding. It shows, however, that the time required for handling 1 ,000 feet in logs which average 8 inches in diameter is practically three times that for handling 1,000 feet in logs averaging 24 inches in diameter. The following table shows in detail the spruce skidding figures. The logs were handled in bundles, the number of logs in each bundle averaging as shown. Actual length of logs varied from 8 to 24 feet. Actual skidding distance was 2,200 feet. Average No. of per Loads Reduced to 16' Basis^ Board Feet per Load Mill Cut 8 325 7.3 365 6.6 410 6 450 5.4 490 5 525 4.4 560 4 585 3.6 610 3.2 630 2.9 650 2.6 665 2.4 680 448 Forestry Quarterly Skidding Time with Logs of Different Sizes — (Overhead Skidder) Time Required to Average Diameter Skid M Bd. Ft. a at Small End of Distance of 1000 ft. 16' Logs Minutes 8 55 9 48 10 43 11 38 12 34 13 31 14 28 15 26 16 24 17 23 18 22 19 21 20 19 Loading and Hauling The cost of loading varied almost directly with the number of logs per M board feet mill cut. The cost of hauling varies with the weight of the logs, and consequently it varies somewhat more than the mill factor or the ratio of the number of board feet mill cut to the cubic feet of round timber. This amounts, as shown in the table, to doubling the cost of hauling between logs averaging 10 inches in diameter and 15 inches in diameter. In loading, as in skidding, large logs and small ones were mixed indiscriminately on cars and it was necessary to compute the average sized log from the cars as loaded. The following table gives, for logs of different diameter, the loading time per M board feet ; the nimiber of logs loaded per car, and the number of board feet per car of logs of different average sizes. It reqxiires nearly six times as long to load a car with logs which average 10 inches in diameter as to load a car with logs which average 24 inches. At the same time the car capacity in board feet is three and one half times as great when loaded with logs averaging 24 inches in diameter as when loaded with logs averaging 10 inches. Shortening the length of logs also adds to loading time and decreases carrying capacity per car. The weight of a loaded car is practically the same irrespective of the average size of the logs, consequently a locomotive can haul less than one third of the volume in board feet of logs averaging 10 inches in diameter as of * The fractional logs are due to logs not having a uniform length of 16 feet. Cost of Logging Large and Small Timber 449 logs averaging 24 inches. In a rough country this would have considerable bearing on supplying a large mill with logs. Loading Time for Logs of Different Sizes Average Diameter Loading Time per Small End of M Bd. Ft. Average No. of Board Feet 16' Logs Minutes Logs per Car per Car 10 29 23 1150 11 23 22 1360 12 19 21 1580 13 15 20 1760 14 13 19 2000 IS 11 18 2200 16 10 17 2420 17 9 16 2620 18 8.3 15 2820 19 7.6 14 3020 20 7.1 13 3220 21 6.6 12 3420 22 6.1 11 3600 23 5.5 10 3770 24 5.1 9 3940 The cost of piling and loading lumber varies almost directly with the number of pieces of lumber which must be handled per M board feet. The Ivimber from logs 16 inches and over when these costs are about 60 cents per M feet increases to 90 cents for lumber from logs 10 inches and under in diameter. There is, however, a proportional increase in handling extra wide limiber from very large logs and also in handling large sawed timber from large logs, but on the whole there is so small a proportion of lumber of these classes that it can be neglected as a factor in most eastern operations. Sawing at Mill In keeping the sawing time at the mill the logs have been sepa- rated into the heavier and harder woods such as oak, beech, birch, and maple, and the softer and lighter woods such as pine, chestnut, basswood and poplar; as well as into length classes. The curve (Fig. 3) showing the sawing time for the harder woods does not qmte parallel that for the softer woods, but rises appreciably as the diameter becomes smaller, indicating that a relatively longer time is required for sawing M feet. This is due to the fact that the harder woods of small diameter cut out absolutely less than the corresponding diameters of the softer woods and consequently more logs must be handled per M feet of limiber produced. Nearly all of the softer woods have smooth, round and straight logs even when they are of very small sized trees whereas the small sized logs 450 Forestry Quarterly of oak, beech and maple are prevailingly crooked and give a smaller mill cut. The characteristic feature of the data from all mills is the rapid increase in time for sawing which takes place when the logs become smaller than 16 inches in diameter. In band operations, and the same would undoubtedly hold true in circular operations of large capacity, there is a gradual but very slight decrease in sawing time for logs larger than 22 inches, the time practically being the same Af/z/c/rss TH0USj^fJO.S e 'O /2 /^ /6 /e 20 22 2 is probable that the best grazing land only would repay planting, 1 Timber Trade Commissioner for Canada, and Chief Forester, British Columbia Forest Branch. 461 462 Forestry Quarterly would seriously disturb the agricultural population. Such dis- turbance could only be accomplished by a gradual change in the habits of the population, and by demonstrating that the profit from forest planting is greater than the profit from grazing, and that the plantations are on the whole, by affording employment for labor, more of a source of support to the community than the animals they displace. A large proportion of the mountain land cannot be expected to profitably produce timber. Due chiefly to the prevailing South- west wind, which dries the trees out and checks growth, the upper limit of commercial forest in Ireland is about 1200 feet absolute elevation; the limit of the growth is in the neighborhood of 1500 feet. Towards the West coast, where the influence of the wind is more strongly felt, the limit of commercial forest is about 900 feet. As the upper limit of tillable land over the greater part of the island is aroimd 700 feet there is not a great area, even not allowing for the grazing, available for commercial forest. The woodlands which go to make up the 300,000 existing acres of tree growth are chiefly in bodies of 1 ,000 acres or less. Previous to 1899, none belonged to the state. Small areas were degenerated forest, the remnants of early royal forests and perhaps of the forest primeval of the island. The greater part were plantations made within the past century. Unfortunately, the productivity of these forests is not what it should be because of the lack of silvicultural knowledge amongst farmers and landowners, this lack leading to poorly planned, poorly thinned and poorly tended plantations. The slow progress of forestry under private initiative in the past was undoubtedly due to the lack of silvicultural knowledge. Owners who made plantations received such poor financial results that neither they nor their neighbors were tempted to proceed farther with forest plantations. The Department of Agriculture and Technical Education, there- fore, had a varied problem to face when it undertook the improve- ment of the forest situation. The first necessity was the building up of a competent technical staff. Soon after the passage of the Act, a Scotch forester, Mr. A. C. Forbes, entered the service of the Department as Chief Inspector of Forestry. The Department at that time was unable to devote money to forest work. The duties of the Chief Inspector were for a time confined to giving advice to private owners and making a forest survey of several Irish counties. Notes on State Forestry in Ireland 463 One of the most pressing needs for the improvement of existing woodlands was a higher standard of forestry knowledge. The Department, therefore, acquired in Wicklow, a well wooded county, the old homestead of Parnell, consisting of 300 acres of woodland and 200 acres of grassland upon which to conduct experimental planting work and establish a training school for foresters who might later enter the service of the state or of various owners of woodlands or plantations. Six working apprentices were taken in annually and given a course extending over three years. The number trained annually is not now so great owing to the supply having caught up to the demand. The chief attention at this, the leading forest station in Ireland, is now centered on conducting experiments in the planting of species prestunably adapted to Irish conditions. An Arboretimi has been established and over 100 acres of sample plots of various species planted. The average cost of planting with two-year-old plants at the rate of 3,000 per acre has been about $34.20 per acre. Many North American species have been tried and the results given during the first five years by the North American species, as compared with European and other species, are interesting. The plantations are on a light loamy soil. The rainfall averages 40 inches per annum. WhUe the winter temperature does not go below 10 to 20" F., there are frequent frosts in May and June which seriously affect many species. The climate is typical of that of the greater part of Ireland. The elevation varies from 200 to 450 feet. The plantations are in nearly all cases evenly mixed with nurse trees of European larch, and are spaced about 4 by 4 feet, the plots varjdng in size from one to three acres. North American species are evidently better adapted to Irish needs than many of the European species. Those species from the Pacific coast seem especially provided for Irish conditions. Nine of the eighteen conifers showing the best results up to date are North American and of these, eight are from the Pacific coast. The early success of the Pacific Coast species is borne out by what may be seen of older plantations. Douglas fir at 40 years old in pure plantation has reached an average height of 80 feet; the average annual product from Douglas fir plantations, totalling eight acres in extent, and averaging 40 years in age was 200 cubic feet per year per acre, quarter girth measurement. This is the highest yield given by any tree in Ireland. The wood is very 464 Forestry Quarterly well liked. Douglas fir has not done well except in pure stands as it is too fast growing for other species. It is not considered adapted for use on limestone soils. Thuya plicata has been given a fair trial. At 40 years it has reached 70 feet in height in a pure stand ; but rot starts early and diminishes its value. Picea sitchensis is now considered one of the most important trees for use in Ireland because of its ability to withstand the con- stant winds. It is doubtful if the seed of any of the Pacific coast species planted in Ireland has been secured from those districts where winds are most prevalent. It would be worth while experi- menting with specially selected seed from exposed localities such as the West coast of Vancouver Island to learn if strains might be developed particularly adapted to exposed hillsides in Ireland. A Land Act passed in 1903 had resulted in the purchase of estates by the government in order that the agricultural lands comprised within the estate might be distributed amongst the tenants in pursuance of the policy of breaking up the large estates. There frequently remained wooded areas for which no disposition was possible to the Government Estate Commissioners except the sale and clearing off of the timber. Under this policy the area of forest land was actually being decreased through Government action. Accordingly, in 1908, an annual grant of $28,000 was made for the acquisition and management of such tracts. The Department had up to 1914 acquired ten timbered areas varying in size from 240 to 1900 acres and totaling 7,000 acres. These are under permanent management by the Department as demonstra- tion areas and as local sources of timber. About 800 acres have been planted in these woodlots. A Departmental Committee on Forestrj^ in Ireland, of which the Chief Inspector of Forestry was a member, recommended that an area of 200,000 acres of mountain land should be piu-chased and planted for forest purposes. It was estimated that of the 2,000,000 acres of mountain land in the country this much at least might safely and profitably be used for timber production and that argument about the total area available might reasonably be left over until action had been taken on 200,000 acres as a start. Obstacles are numerous in the way of public purchase of land in the British Isles. A strong fear of the nationalization of land exists in certain quarters. The titles and usages existing over Notes on State Forestry in Ireland 465 the land are frequently complicated, making it difficult to secure the land required from the various parties interested at a reason- able valuation. The agricultural habits of each community have become so settled that the removal of a few hundred or a few thousand acres from the grazing resources of a valley inevitably involves difficult readjustment. The Irish Forest Department alone has overcome these difficulties in any measure by actually purchasing land for planting. An advance of $120,000 was made in 1910 by the Development Fund for acquisition and replanting of mountain land. Up to 1914, 7,000 acres, in three blocks, had been purchased, and further purchases were under considera- tion. The cost varied from $9.60 to $14.40 per acre. Planting is now started in these areas. The aim of management of these areas is to increase the block of public forest in each centre to an economical size for management of 2,000 to 5,000 acres, and produce timber for the needs of the surrounding population. Land Acts passed in 1903 and 1909 provided for advance of money by the government to tenants to enable them to purchase the land under their occupation. Nimierous purchases have been made in this manner, and it has been found that the tendency of the new owners has been to destroy the existing woodlands. The Forest Department has therefore been given power to re- quire the preservation and proper management of this timber, and is thus placed in the position of being able to fiirther influ- ence farm forestry. Important educational work is being carried on by the officers of the Department in making working plans for and giving advice to private owners. Powers, granted under the Agricultural and Technical Instruc- tion Act allow county councils to raise taxes for the acquisition and preservation of woodlands. Three counties have acquired forest land in this manner. Counties may also, guided by the advice of the Department, raise money by taxation for the pur- chase of trees for distribution to agricultural owners. Altogether, up to 1914, about 1,000,000 trees had been distributed to planters by counties. The forest work of Ireland is now carried on by an annual vote of $48,000, in addition to the $120,000 advance from the Develop- ment Fund. The superior staff consists of the Chief Inspector of Forestry and two foresters as Assistant Inspectors, in addition to a trained foreman in charge of the chief planting and forest stations. 466 Forestry Quarterly The work can only be increased when the funds are increased, which is unlikely at present. The start already made, in addition to breaking the ice for the British Isles, cannot help but be of great effect in influencing the standard of forestry practised by land owners and (by showing results) in leading to the further state purchase of land for forest planting. The propaganda work carried on in Great Britain has not been of the proper type. The schemes proposed have been too sweeping and have frightened governments, land owners and tax payers alike. The published details, by being interwoven with plans for the utilization of the unemployed and by providing for the planting of areas not likely to produce timber at a profit, and by sweeping away grazing rights and moor lands at a stroke have earned for forest planting more opponents than friends. The industrial side of the question does not appear to have been sufficiently treated. It has not been made sufficiently clear, in a local manner, how the existence of even small forest areas would benefit towns and industries. Though the utilization of home resources is a burning topic in Britain, but little has been said of the present wasted forest opportunity, bound to continue so long as the planted and managed forests of France supply pit props to the coal mines lying beneath the denuded hills and valleys of Wales. COUNTY OR COMMUNITY WORKING PLANS AS A BASIS FOR WOODLOT EXTENSION WORK By W. D. Sterrett^ The Forest Service has recently completed a number of State- wide woodlot-marketing studies, made as a general basis for woodlot extension work. The next step, which was taken up to a certain extent last simimer, is to follow up these general studies with studies of particular counties. I wish to suggest that it might now be desirable to have this county work centered on the prep- aration of detailed county working plans, based on thorough investigation of economic, silvicultural and agricultural conditions in given counties. This work might also well be taken up by any State forestry agency. Such a plan should consist in organization of a given coimty (or community) with reference to woodlot and forest problems, showing in detail for different classes of land the need for woodlots, and their possibilities and limitations as com- pared with other crops. Such a plan would require as a basis: (1) topographic and soil maps as a basis for land use maps; (2) economic data such as are being collected for representative coimties by the Forest Service in cooperation with the Office of Farm Management (see attached form) ; (3) all available Census statistics in regard to the county, including population, rural and urban; total county area; area in farms; number of farms in dif- ferent size classes; value per acre; per cent of farmland in woodlots; per cent in other unimproved land; and value of woodlot products cut on the farm, etc.; (4) complete market data, showing the market possibilities for all classes of woodlot material and trans- portation facilities; (5) silvicultural data, especially on the yield possibilities of the different important species on different classes of land. It is important to select a county which forms a natural com- mimity unit, with one main town for outlet and intake and dis- tribution o f produce and supplies. The advantage of taking a county lies in the large amotmt of necessary statistical data which is already available for this unit. In such plans an important thing is the recognition that the county or community, rather than the individual farm, is the * Research Dept., U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. 467 468 Forestry Quarterly proper unit to be used in the solution of woodlot and farm problems. It is a part of the general problem to secure organization and coop- eration of the farmers (who form the component parts of a county or community) in which the Forest Service finds the opportunity of assisting and pushing this most vital and progressive economic and social work. Permanent forestry development hinges on proper community organization and development all along the line. The forest problems should be outlined with reference to what the community should do rather than what it actually does — ^this is the progressive way. Both Federal and State forestry agencies may usefully join with other public agencies in this work of making plans for the rural communities as they should be. One result of commimity organization and cooperation might be in marketing of woodlot products . The present woodlot marketing bulletins of the Forest Service, based on the status quo of the indi- vidual farm as the unit, advise the farmer that he limit himself, for the most part, to marketing of logs, bolts and billets, by which method the bulk of the total volimie of material in his woodlot must usually remain unmarketable because of the expense of hauling. It is only by manufacture or partial manufacture in the wood-lot itself, through the agency of a portable mill set up in the woodlot, that the most can be got out of it, but the individual farmer, under present conditions, is usually not equal to producing and marketing manufactured material. It requires commimity organization and cooperation in manufacture, in finding markets, and in selling (in car lots) to attain this most profitable method of marketing. A central feature of the county working plan should consist in outlining a double-barreled woodlot and forestry policy: (1) the policy for the individual farmer to adopt on his own land, which would be determined, of course, in a particular case, by the char- acter of his land; and (2) the public forestry policy for the com- munity as a whole. Under the latter might be included some such features as these ■ location of shelterbelts, with reference to the community as a whole ; changing and broadening highways in places and planting trees along them for park piirposes or perhaps as a part of a shelterbelt plan; perhaps a plan for community forests, as in cases where needed to protect a community water supply system, or for recre- ation purposes. I doubt the advisability of community forests Community Working Plans 469 established mainly for wood and timber production, although this may come later. In regard to a woodlot policy for the individual farmer, he should be made to realize the advantages of a woodlot and why it is an essential part of his farm, so that he will adopt a definite line of treatment for it. The following is a general analysis of the economic reasons for woodlots on the individual farm; these may be classified as direct or indirect : 1. The one direct, economic reason for occupation of land by woodlot is because it forms the best money crop which can be grown on a particular area. This, of course, is possible, particu- larly for poor and rough classes of land, such as are found in the mountainous sections of the State. 2. Most frequently woodlot occupation of farm land can only be justified by indirect, economic considerations, as the land is usually intrinsically adaptable to more valuable crops and for this reason it should usually occupy but a small per cent of the total farm area. The important indirect reasons, a number of which are usually active in any particular case, are: (1) for convenience of home use, fuel, posts, and other; (2) as a windbreak for buildings or crops; (3) as a shelter for stock; (4) for protection of land from erosion; (5) as a temporary, soil-renewing crop on worn out land; (6) as furnishing work for man and teams during sparetime; (7) for purely esthetic reasons and for recreation purposes, for which reasons alone a farm with a well-located grove of trees, however small, will sell for more than one without; (8) as a temporary crop on intrinsically good agricultural land, which it is wished to hold for future clearing and development. The great reduction in woodlot area, which is continually going on, should be constantly held in check by the following considerations: (a) the possibility of holding timber crops for more favorable market conditions ; (6) the advisabihty of allowing thrifty, immature timber to mature, rather than removing it as a total loss ; (c) and the advisability of working up intensive agriculture on areas already cleared before clearing up additional areas which are in growing woodlot. In order to analyze the possible advantages of having a woodlot occupy a particular area or areas of a farm the farmer must be familiar with (1) the above economic reasons which justify woodlot occupation of land ; (2) the possible yields and returns from grow- ing different kinds of timber crops as compared with growing 470 Forestry Quarterly agrioiltural crops on the land under consideration; (3) knowledge of markets and methods of sale, which will insure the highest net returns from the sale of woodlot products. Woodlot UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Economics Office of the Secretary: Farm Management In Cooperation with the Forest Service No. State County Date Operator P. O. address Landlord P. O. address Township.. Miles to market Area of farm acres Value of farm $ Soils and topography of farm Topography and character of woodland How much of the woodland would be good farm land (if cleared)? Kinds of timber Age of timber Estimated value of total timber Value of the woodlot as a windbreak For shade If woodlot is pastured, state how many mature cows or steers it would support during the pas- ture season How many months in the pasture season? Classification of Land on the Farm Kinds of land Area a. Value per a. Kinds of land Area a. per a. Value Plow land' Woodland pastured Permanent meadow Woodland not pastured Permanent pasture not in woods Roads, streams, waste land, etc. 1 Including meadow and pasture in rotation with other crops. Woodlot Products Used on the Farm Annually (Averages) Firewood Fenceposts Sugar and Syrup Kinds Quantity Value Proportion l produced \ on farm J Woodlot Products Sold From the Farm Annually (Average) Kinds Firewood Fenceposts Sugar and Syrup Quantity Value Days work obtained annually in harvesting and marketing woodlot products on the farm — Man Horse Season at which this work is done Annual expense, if any, in keeping up the woodlot Character of these expenses How many acres of woodlot such as you have would be required to supply the needs of your farm for woodlot products? Per cent of stand of timber in woodlot Kinds of winter work available to you Do they serve to keep you occupied during the winter? . Would you prefer to have your present woodland in woods or cleared and in use for other purposes? How many acres now clear on your farm and in pasture or crops do you believe should be in woods? Record taken by MODEL OF A REGULATED FOREST By D. Y. Lin, M.F.* A mechanical model designed to show the growth of a forest imder regulation was built and has been used for lecture work by the Lecture Department of the National Committee of the Yoimg Men's Christian Association of China. The model is like the one described in Forestry Quarterly, Vol. XII, No. 4, very much modified and improved. Professor C. H. Robertson deserves all the credit for having improved the mechanism. Since the first lecture series on conservation of forests was given here, in Shanghai, some time during last June (1915) as many as 32,000 people have seen the model, and, as a part of the lecture equipment it has always formed the centre of attraction. The model shows a series of ten areas, each a different age class, ranging from one to ten. When in opeartion, the stand on each area will slowly grow taller until the end of the rotation when it will disappear and a new crop start on the depleted area. The starting of a new crop on the depleted area represents planting and this is to follow immediately after cutting in order to get the proper results. The incentive for making such a model was a desire to visualize to the people looking on a growing forest and convey the idea of how a forest under systematic management can be harvested at regular intervals and at the same time produce continuously. We have found that the model is a great help to us in our lectures. People who are interested in the model will always see the points we want to demonstrate. We mention this to show that the model is worth while and well worth having, especially in schools where forestry is taught. The model is V 27/' long, 19" wide, and 14" high. It has adjustable legs of 2V2' to 4' high and these can be removed when the model is not in use. Each of the ten areas or stands consists of a galvanized iron plate with "trees" fastened to it. The plate is 17" by 7" and the "trees" are arranged in seven rows, ten trees in four rows and nine trees in three rows, making sixty- seven trees in all for each area. The "trees" are made of hemp 1 Secretary, Conservation Division, Lecture Department Committee, Young Men's Christian Association of China, Shanghai. 471 472 Forestry Quarterly fiber brushes, 12" long, the brush part being 3" long and "'/»" in diameter at the bottom and V2" in diameter at the top. The brushes are stained green and the double wired part that gives them support is made brown. To make the forest floor look real, a special board is prepared through which 670 holes are made. The board is painted greyish brown and to anyone who looks at the model at close range the growth of these trees through this perforated board is most inter- esting. While the model is only 7' 2" x 19" x 14", resembling a long box, we have made it look very much bigger by building a little sawmill in the middle and a sort of scaffold all around the model. Covering this scaffold is a large piece of green cloth which after encircling the model box is allowed to come down to the floor. The green cloth gives the appearance of a meadow and on it we have put little wooden houses, pagodas, wheel-barrows with pas- sengers, bridges, etc., and painted roads, and canals, making the place look like a Chinese village. A description of the machinery which actuates the rise and fall of these ten areas might be of interest. Beneath each plate which holds the area of trees is an X-shaped frame composed of two V2-inch-wide strips of band iron with a rotating joint at the center. One of the lower ends of this X-shaped frame is fastened with a pin to the bottom of the box. The other leg is free to travel back and forth in a slide way under the pull of a small wire rope. When this rope is piilled, the two lower legs of the frame are drawn together and the plate is made to rise pushing up the trees through the holes in the top board. This wire rope winds around a grooved pulley. To secure portability the long 7-foot box is divided in two, connected with hinges so that it can be folded together with the trees inside. This division necessitates dividing the operating mechanism so that half the pulleys are permanently on one side of the model and half with their stands on the other side. On each side of the center, therefore, five grooved pulleys are mounted on a shaft and the two shafts are connected by 6-inch gear wheels. When the outside handle attached to one of these shafts is turned, it rotates its own shaft directly and the other through the gears and their pulleys with them, and thus the wire is pulled in and the plates with the forest sections made to rise. Showing X-Shaped Frame Supporting an Area ok Trees Ready for Operation The chart (in Cliinese characters) pinned in front of the of the model is oiuline showing tlie direct and indirect utility of forests. Model of a Regulated Forest 473 The drop is accomplished by a pall which engages a single ratchet up to the point where the drop occurs, when the outside end of the pall comes in contact with a dead shaft parallel to the one bearing the pulleys. The pall is lifted out of the ratchet and that pulley is free to turn back under the pull on the wire rope exerted by the weight of the forest area in dropping. As the handle continues to turn this pall again engages the ratchet and the area again rises at the proper time. The gear wheel in each half comes just to the edge of its box so that when the rwo halves are unfolded the two gear wheels mesh with one another. They are marked so that they are brought into contact at the proper point to make the sections rise and fall in their proper order. When the two halves are folded together the open ends thus exposed are covered by suitable boards. These are hinged to the halves and hang down under the model when not in use. The principal cost in the construction of such a model will be first in the "trees" which at 4V2 cents per "tree" will amount to about Mex. $30.00, and second, in the wages of two mechanics who may require two weeks for the work. Roughly speaking the total cost of both material and labor should not exceed Mex. $100.00 or $50.00 gold. CURRENT LITERATURE Seeding and Planting in the Practice of Forestry. A Manual for the Guidance of Forestry Students, Foresters, Nurserymen, Forest Owners and Farmers. By J. W. Tourney. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 1916. Pp. 455; figs. 140. The outstanding feature of this book is the thoroughness and completeness of treatment, the excellent illustrations and the clear- ness of presentation. The author has happily combined a com- prehensive discussion of the fundamental principles of artificial regeneration with the practical details of nursery and planting operations, derived from his own wide experience and that of others working along this line. The book is divided into Part I, Silvical Basis, and Part II, The Artificial Formation of Woods. Part I deals with general methods of reproduction, the choice of species in artificial reproduction, the principles which determine spacing and which govern composi- tion of the stand. The discussion of these is introductory to Part II, is well condensed, forming approximately one-sixth of the total number of pages in the book and is good in its treatment of the choice of species and the statements relative to the princi- ples determining spacing. Prof. Toumey has in the latter topic presented European practice and has brought out pertinent facts concerning the spacing of plantations in American practice. Part II has an excellent arrangement in its considera- tion, first, of forest tree seeds; second, protection and treatment of planting areas; third, direct seeding; fourth, nursery practice, and fifth, planting practice. Particularly striking throughout the whole of Part II are the painstaking details into which the author has gone in this treatise on forest planting. European literature has been freely drawn on, but almost invariably the application to American conditions has been pointed out, the best present practice cited and careful com- parisons and comments given. The information given concerning forest tree seeds is especially full comprising Prof. Tourney's experiments at the Yale Forestry School, where he is director and also Professor of Silviculture, and the results of experiments abroad and in this country. The chapters on seed collecting and care of seed will be of great value to foresters. 474 Current Literature 475 In the exposition of nursery and planting practice the author's endeavor seems to be to present clearly every pertinent fact of practice. The description of tools and equipment is given in great detail as well as their uses. This makes the book of great value as a textbook, especially since the relative importance of different practices is made clear. The usefulness of the book is further enhanced by its unusually good illustrations and diagrams. The chief criticism of the book is likely to be on the great amount included in it. The author himself has, however, recognized the possibility of criticism because he has included in his book many methods and tools not used in the United States, but has forearmed himself in the preface by two succinct statements: "No method should be blindly followed. The practitioner should have a broad knowledge of many methods," and "He must have a broad knowledge of methods and tools in order that he may attain successful regeneration at least cost." So complete an exposition, we feel, will undoubtedly be the means of improving many of our present methods of reforestation. This book is highly commended to the profession and is -deserving of careful study and use. S. N. S. Traite Pratique de Sylviculture. Par Antoine Jolyet, Professeur k L'Ecole Nationale des Eaux et Forets, 8°, 724 pages avec 130 Photogravures. Broche 18 Fr. J. B. Bailliere et Fils, Paris. Since a copy of this new French Silviculture has not been re- ceived by the reviewer, the gist of a review by Edouard Vivier in the Revue des Eaux et Forets, March 1, 1916, is reproduced. This book is really a complete second edition of the work entitled, Les Forets, by Boppe and Jolyet. The former publication, how- ever, has been largely augmented by much additional information ; the total nfumber of pages has been increased from 482 to 724 and instead of 94 figures there are now 130. The new volume differs from Les Forets not only in the additions and corrections, but in the arrangement of the material. It is now divided into two parts: The first concerns natural forest stands where natural regeneration exists; the second part is of technical forestry work pertaining to the "artificial" forest. In the first part, the form, reproduction, longevity, and character- istics of trees and stands are discussed. The author intentionally looks at the tree from the strictly forestry viewpoint, rather than 476 Forestry Quarterly from that of the botanist. Jolyet reviews the various types of forests formed by the different species and the methods by which each may be exploited and regenerated. These chapters include special notes on sub-alpine forests and special stands characteristic of the various regions of France. Due emphasis is placed upon cleanings and thinnings. The second part forms more than half the work and includes data on the forestation of forests and the restocking of denuded ground. Information is also given on the establishment of under- stories in oak high forests and in the pineries, as well as the intro- duction of coniferous species into coppice-under-standards. The results of practical experience of introducing exotics are given at some length. The collection and storage of seed and the estab- lishment of nurseries is described. Under protection, Jolyet describes at length the protection of forests against fires, rodents, insects, tree diseases, etc. According to Vivier, this book on silviculture has been written in a very clear style and is based on the result of professional practice. It is said to be a book that every forester should consult. T. S. W., Jr. Transpiration and the Ascent of Sap in Plants. By H. H. Dixon. MacMillan's Scientific Monographs. 1914. Pp. 213. Prof. Dixon and his associates at Trinity College, Dublin, have been studying the problem of the ascent of sap in plants for the past twenty years. The results of these researches have been published from time to time in various scientific journals. Now, we have them gathered together and presented in one voltmie of the above title. Not since the 1100-page voltune of Strasburger on this subject has anything as complete and conclusive appeared. The first chapter of the book is concerned with the nature of transpiration in plants. The two following chapters are criti- cisms of the physical theories and the vital theories, respectively, regarding the ascent of sap in stems. The subject matter of the remaining eight chapters bears directly or indirectly upon the elaboration of Dixon's own theory of the phenomenon. The first chapter presents an interesting possibility in regard to the nature of transpiration. We know from the brilliant investigations of Brown and Escombe that the flow of water vapor Current Literature 477 through an aperture is proportional to its radius and not to its area. The rate of diffusion at the margins is greater than over the middle of the apertures. Therefore, an aperture having the longest margin relatively to its area will be the most efficient. The slit-like form of the average stomatal opening tends to pro- duce this condition. The distances between the stomata are such that the diffusion currents from one do not interfere with those of another. Thus, the diffusion of gases through the stomata may be explained on simple physical principles. This applies as well to the diffusion of water vapor from the chambers, lying above the stomata, into the adjacent atmosphere. The next step is to consider how water from the contiguous cells is supplied to these chambers. The conducting tubes, containing the rising sap, are separated from the intercellular spaces by a layer of one or more thin, cellulose-walled cells, and these walls are permeable to water and its dissolved substances. Behind the wall of one of these cells is a layer of semi-permeable protoplasm, which encloses the cell sap of the vacuole. Cells like these impinge upon the conducting tubes whose walls are permeable to water, but do not enclose a layer of protoplasm. The imbibitional forces of the cells in contact with the intercellular spaces of the leaf will draw off water from their vacuoles through the protoplasmic layer until the vapor pressiire in the walls and in the vacuoles is equal. Now, if the vapor pressure of the water menisci in the minute interstices of the cell wall is greater than that obtaining in the intercellular space, the water will leave the cell wall and the menisci will retreat into it. This will cause their curvature to increase and will raise their capillary forces so that they will extract water from the solution in the vacuole. A concentration of the solution in the vacuole results and consequently the osmotic pull on the water in the adjacent conducting tubes is increased. Hence, it follows that a transference of water from the conducting tubes will take place so long as the vapor pressure of the water in the conducting tubes is greater than that in the intercellular spaces of the leaf. Based upon the above phenomena, the explanation of the pro- cess of transpiration in plants may be made entirely physical. None of the vital activities of living cells need to be called in to aid. There are certain conditions, however, where it would seem that the living cells do play a part in the process. For example. 478 Forestry Quarterly when the leaves of a branch are killed, not only is the flow of water greatly reduced, but finally the leaves dry up and ultimately fail entirely to raise water in the branch. It is true that in this case not only are the vital actions removed, but also one of the most important features of the mechanism, that is, the semi-permeable membrane is destroyed by coagulation of the protoplasm. It is evident, however, that after the death the capillary forces of the cell wall of the leaf cells alone are unable to raise the water under the new conditions, and this would suggest that unaided they may be insufficient in the living leaf. This line of reasoning would indicate that the protoplasm may not only act as a semi-permeable membrane by allowing water to pass through to a region of diminished presstu*e, but it may also actively secrete water on its outer surface. We know that such glandular action of protoplasm takes place on the exterior of the filaments of certain fungi, and on the leaf margins of certain higher plants. The author collected the drops exuded on the margins of a leaf and fotmd that they were practically pure water, their density being less than that of tap water. The author concluded that osmotically the exudation may be regarded as pure water, and consequently the process must be one of secretion involving the intervention of living protoplasm and the expenditure of stored energy. Now, the question arises as to how far the glandular function of certain leaf margins can be transferred to the mesophyll cells bordering the stomatal chambers of transpiring leaves. The author performed several experiments bearing upon this point. In one of these he fixed a leafy branch water-tight into the low opening of a glass receiver, so that its upper part and leaves projected into the interior, while its base extended into an aqueous solution of eosin. The receiver was then filled with water, so that the branch was completely submerged. The proper pre- cautions were taken before the experiment began to equalize the gas pressure in the branch with that of the atmosphere. Although the leaves were covered with water, and although they were sub- jected to hydrostatic pressure due to the depth of water, sufficient in some cases to drive the liquid back into the intercellular spaces of the leaves, the eosin mounted rapidly into the branch. The eosin rose most rapidly when the apparatus was in strong light and when bubbles of oxygen were being given off at the siirface of the leaves. When the apparatus was placed in the dark, there was Current Literature 479 Kttle or no ascent of eosin in the stem. Under these conditions, it would seem that the rise of eosin in the branch was due to secre- tory action of the protoplasm and not to evaporation from the leaf surfaces. In regard to the causes of the ascent of water in stems, the author dismisses the various gas-pressure theories with the statement that either the conditions postulated do not exist in the stems, or if they do exist, the proffered explanations of them will not stand the test of physical laws. He reinvestigated, with numerous care- ful experiments, Sachs' theory that the water of the transpiration stream travels in the walls of the conducting tubes, not in their cavities, and he confirmed the conclusions of earlier investigators, that, while some water did pass upward in this manner, the quan- tity was not sufficient to meet the requirements of leaf evaporation. The various theories based upon the assumption that living cells of the wood, either the wood parenchyma or the medullary rays or both, furnish the effective forces for lifting the water, become untenable as the result of experiments which demonstrate that when such cells are killed, the water continues to ascend. Such experiments have been performed at intervals for the past 100 years, yet the vitalistic theories cling to life with great tenacity. They have been rejuvenated with considerable vigor within the past decade by Ewart and Urspring. In killing the stems with steam, they found that the rapidity of leaf wilting above the killed portion was dependent upon the length of the killed portion: the longer, the quicker the leaves wilted. Therefore, they argued that living cells were necessary to supply the leaves with sufficient water. Dixon repeated these experiments and got similar results, but his interpretation of them was different. He found that as a result of the disorganization and decomposition of the cells subjected to steam, poisonous substances were produced and these carried to the living cells of the leaf produced their death, hence the leaves wilted and died. When a zone of a stem is killed without the disorganization of the cells, as for example, by a jacket of hot wax, the poisonous substances are not produced and such treat- ment does not interfere with the passage of water. Also when the contaminated steam-killed portions are flushed out by injecting water through them, the leaves did not wilt more readily than in the control experiment. Therefore, Dixon believes that living cells of the wood are not necessary for the ascent of water in stems. 480 Forestry Quarterly Dixon's theory of the ascent of sap, elaborated in great detail in the present volume, assttmes that the water in the conducting tubes of high trees hangs by virtue of its cohesion, re-enforced by its adhesion to the walls of the conduits. These surface tension forces are greater than that of gravity, so the water hangs sus- pended in the minute conducting tubes. When columns of water adhere completely to a rigid envelope, as is the case in the con- ducting tubes, it assumes a pseudo-rigidity, and it is capable of sustaining and transmitting tensile stresses. Experiments with tension tubes showed that air-free water can sustain a tension whose minor limit was equivalent to 50 atmospheres pressure. The author's experiments with cell sap from ilex and beech dem- onstrated that, under various conditions of temperature, it could withstand a tension varying from 47 to 207 atmospheres. The experiments were necessarily made with glass tubes. It was found, however, when pieces of wood were introduced into the tubes, that the rupture would always take place along the surface of the glass, not along the wood surface, thus indicating that water in wooden tubes, as in the plant, would stand a greater stress than experi- mentally determined in glass tubes. Resistance to a current of water moving through wood at the velocity of the transpiration stream is approximately equivalent to a head of water equal in length to the wood traversed. Hence the tension applied to the upper end of the water columns, which will be able to raise the transpiration stream in a tree must be equal to the pressure pro- duced by a head of water twice the height of the tree. In a tree 100 meters high, therefore, a tension of 20 atmospheres must be produced. If the evaporation from the outer surfaces of the mesophyll cell of the leaves is extracting water from the conducting tubes more rapidly than the lifting forces can supply it, then the water in the tubes must fall into a state of tension. The only effective lifting forces are those of atmospheric pressure and root pressure. The former cannot supply water higher than 33 feet, and the amount suppUed by the latter is insignificant compared with the losses due to evaporation. The water in the conducting tubes above this level is always in a condition of tension, and in times of vigorous transpiration, whenever the loss cannot be made good by the lifting pressure of the atmosphere, the water in the con- ducting tubes below 33 feet is doubtless also in a state of tension. Current Literature 481 Since the wall of the tubes is permeable to water, the water in one conducting tube is continuous with that in its neighbors, and consequently the tension in one is transmitted to the water in the adjacent conduits. Thus, when the leaves of a tree are trans- spiring, the cohesion of their sap explains fully the transmission of the tension downwards and consequently explains the rise of the sap. When evaporation from the transpiring cells removes water faster than it can be supplied, the menisci formed in the substance of their walls support the tensile colimms of water in the plant. Evaporation from these menisci provides the traction to raise the water. The entry of water at the root depends upon the gradient of pressure on passing from the outside of the root to the inside of the conducting tubes. The fall of pressure due to the tension of water is continuous all up the stem to the leaf. The flow of water up the highest tree is due, then, to the evaporation and condensa- tion produced by the difference between the vapor pressure in the soil spaces and that obtaining around the leaves. The ultimate source of energy for evaporation from the meso- phyll cells of the leaf is heat. Evaporation lowers the temperature because the less energetic molecules are left behind in the process. This causes the heat from the surroundings to flow inwards, which in turn stimulate the activity of the molecules, and so continues the process of evaporation. Thus an evaporating leaf acts as "a sink of energy." The transpiring mesophyll cells of the leaf nominally remain turgid during transpiration. Thus, in tall trees, the osmotic pressure keeping the cells distended must correspond in magnitude to the tensions necessary to raise the sap. The author found these pressures always sufficient to resist the transpiration tension. The author believes that water lost by evaporation through the stomata may be secreted on the outside walls of the cells lining the stomatal chamber by the vital activity of the protoplasm. By various calculations, he shows that the stored energy set free by respiration is quite sufficient to do the work of secretion against the resistance of the transpiration stream. It will be evident upon consideration of the above outline of Dixon's theory of the ascent of sap, that while he does not consider the living cells in the stems as active agents in the process, the activity of living cells in the leaves is quite necessary to uphold his theory. The author believes that the structure of the various 482 Forestry Quarterly wood elements is to be more logically explained from the require- ments of his theory than from those of any of the theories hereto- fore advanced. The presence of so many cross walls offering, as they do, enormous resistances to flow, is incomprehensible in any view which regards water as being forced through the stem. From the standpoint of his theory, however, they become neces- sary to confer stability on the tensilely stressed transpiration stream. The various thickenings on the walls of the conducting tubes seem suited to resist crushing forces, but no such forces are called for in the previous theories, and they seem needlessly strong. But for tensile stresses these thickenings are essential and the strength of the tubes may be severely tested in times of excessive evaporation when high tensions develop in the sap. This line of reasoning, however, might lead one into tangled paths. For example, suppose we had two trees of the same size and leaf area, but with great differences in the thickenings and reenforcements of the wood cells, as is the case in an oak compared with a poplar; shall we say that the tensile stresses developed by performing the same amount of work vary in magnitude, or shall we say that nature blundered and made the ceUs too strong in one case or too weak in the other. The principal objection brought against Dixon's theory in explanation of the ascent of water in trees, is that it would require continuous columns of water unbroken by gas bubbles to support and transmit the required stresses, and that such unbroken water columns do not exist in a tree. Dixon meets the objection with evidence that the conducting tubes in the leaves rarely, if ever, contain gas bubbles, and that probably the same condition exists in the conducting elements of the newer wood through which most of the transpiration stream passes. In addition, he holds that the presence of some gas bubbles in the columns would not militate against his theory. A gas bubble in a tube would spread until it met the side walls, then if the tension was sufficient, it would spread longitudinally until it occupied the entire tube, but owing to imbibitional forces the retreating water would be held with great tenacity by the walls of the tubes. The gas could pass only with extreme difficulty through the wet membrane. So the bubble would become practically rigid and the water would pass around it as it does in the case of an island in a river. One-half of the tracheal tubes, Dixon asserts, might thus be occupied by Current Literature 483 gas and yet sufficient channels remain for the transpiration stream to supply the needed water for evaporation from the leaves. Only when the gas bubbles extended continuously in a horizontal plane across the entire diameter of the stem could they make his theory inoperative. This condition undoubtedly never occurs in a living tree. When dealing with living organisms, it is, in the opinion of the reviewer, practically impossible to select a definite factor and say that it is the cause of a given phenomenon. It is probable, therefore, that several forces, such as osmotic pressure in the living wood elements, and surface tensions in the dead wood elements, contribute a portion of their energies to the rise of water in trees. It is probable also that some of the forces are more effective than others, and in reading the book under review one can hardly help being convinced by Dixon's masterly presentation of his theory. C. D. H. The Killing of Plant Tissues by Low Temperature. By W. H. Chandler. Research Btdletin 8, University of Missouri. Co- lumbia, Mo. 1913. Pp. 143-309. While the subject matter of the above bulletin is chiefly con- cerned with the conditions of freezing of fruit trees, yet it contains considerable data of general application in regard to the phenome- non of freezing. The resiilts of many investigations have shown that during freezing (which may or may not result in freezing to death), ice forms in the tissue, generally not in the cells, but in the intercellular spaces, the water moving out of the cells to form crystals in these spaces. The most commonly accepted theory is hat killing from cold results from the withdrawal of water from the protoplasm. The amount of water loss necessary to result in death varies with different plants and different tissues. Some interesting variations of this theory have recently been developed. For example, one investigator found that when plant sap is frozen, certain proteids may be precipitated out and apparently those plants most easily killed by freezing have their proteids precipi- tated out at the highest temperature. Thus begonia, which is very easily killed, had its proteids precipitated out at — 3° C, while the sap of pine needles, not easily frozen, required a tem- perature of — 40° C. to precipitate any proteids. He accounts 484 Forestry Quarterly for this precipitation by the greater concentration of the salts in the sap as water is removed to form ice crystals. Another investigator, working with wintergreen plants of Southern Sweden, has found that with most of them, at least during cold weather, the starch is almost entirely changed to sugar, though on the return of warm weather starch may again be deposited in the cells. He assumes that this sugar is formed during cold weather as a means of protecting the plant against freezing by lowering the freezing point of the sap due to its increased concen- tration. The author performed a long series of experiments to test these theories, using the leaves, twigs, flowers and fruits of fruit trees in various stages of development besides the leaves from a large number of cultivated herbaceous plants, and he found that the killing temperature of plant tissues that kills at relatively high temperature was reduced whenever the sap density of the tissue was increased. With one or two possible exceptions, there was no indication of the precipitation of the proteids in the cell sap at the killing temperatures. Other interesting conclusions may be gleaned from the author's summary. For example, with a few exceptions, there is no indica- tion that the rate of thawing has anything to do with the amount of killing at a given temperature. There seems to be no constant relation between the rate of growth of plant tissue and resistance to low temperature. Young leaves of fruit trees kill at higher temperature than do old, mature leaves, while young leaves of lettuce withstand a lower temperature than do the older leaves. The most important feature affecting the hardiness of plant tissue is maturity, that is, the condition of resistance that the plants reach during the winter dormant period. Maturity in case of the cambium may be intimately associated with the process of drying out. However, this cannot be true in case of the cortex of winter twigs. There is very little difference between the moisture con- tent of unfrozen cortex in seasons when it is very tender and in seasons when it is hardy. The wood at the base of the trunk and at the crotches of all rapidly growing branches seems to reach a condition of maturity more slowly than does most other tissue. C. D. H. Current Literature 485 Ground-Wood Pulp. By J. H. Thickens and G. C. McNaughton. Bulletin 343, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 151. This is a highly specialized and yet practical publication, which in the official monthly list of publications is listed as "none for free distribution and none for sale." Supposedly, those commercially interested can secure it by special correspondence. It is a supplement to Bulletin 127, on the grinding of spruce, recording experiments not only on spruce, but besides a few hard- woods on a nimiber (19) of other coniferous woods, eleven of which are found suitable for the production of news print, while such species as tamarack and Jack pine, owing to their dark color, do not lend themselves to this use. A price curve of news print paper from 1878 on shows strikingly the gradual substitution of the cheaper ground pulp for more expensive paper materials; the price per 100 pounds in 1878 of $7.25 having fallen in 1898 to less than $1.75. Other curves show the movement of exports and imports. The equipment and methods used in the experiments are described. The effects of steaming, boiling, pressure, temperature, and time of cooking, and other conditions in producing spruce pulp were investigated with a view to increasing efficiency, reducing power consumption and increasing yield per cord. Cooking prior to grinding produces stronger-fibered pulp, but requires more power than untreated wood. No difference in quality from steaming or cooking was observed. Under high pressure the yield per cord in spruce is greater than at low. Maps show the distribution of the various species investigated. In one appendix the results of tests are tabulated in detail, and in another appendix paper samples from the various woods treated in different ways are added, allowing the manufacturer or constmier to judge the quality. B. E. F. Year Book, 1915. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washing- ton, D. C. 1916. Pp. 616. Too often the Year Book of the Department of Agriculture immediately upon receipt is relegated to a top bookshelf. The 1915 volume has more of interest to the forester than usual. A 486 Forestry Quarterly total of forty-five pages out of the entire 616 is devoted to sub- jects of direct value to the forester, while forty-five additional pages are taken up with articles also of interest to the American forester. The tables showing the areas of the National Forests, and especially the tables showing the increase of 92,656 head of cattle being grazed on the National Forests in 1915 over 1914, and a decrease of 120,881 sheep, or a net equivalent increase of 32,435 head of cattle (on the ratio of four sheep equal to one head of cattle) are of value. To the National Forest officer in the West, Mr. Jardine's article on the " Improvement and Management of Native Pastures in the West," is of extreme interest and value. The part of the secretary's report devoted to the National Forests includes thirteen pages and is a very clear, concise simimary of accomplishments of the past year and future plans. Other articles of direct interest to the forester to be found in this book are : Pointers on Marketing Woodlot Products ; Improvement and Management of Native Pastures in the West; Osage Orange Waste as a Substitute for Fustic Dyewood ; and the tabulations by National Forests to be found in the appendix. Of the articles of indirect value, but of interest to the forest officer are the following: How Engineering May Help Farm Life; Unprofitable Acres; Animal Disease and Our Food Supply ; and Stories of the Atmos- phere. J. D. G. Glimpses of Our National Parks. By R. S. Yard. Depart- ment of the Interior. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 48. This is an attractively illustrated and popularly written pam- phlet on the eleven more popular and better known National Parks of the United States. There is given on the inside cover a chronological list of these parks, with the name, location, area in square miles and, what is of most value to the sight -seer and tourist, the distinctive characteristics of each of the eleven parks covered. There are foiirteen National Parks in the United States, as follows: Hot Springs, Yellowstone, Yosemite, Sequoia, General Grant, Mount Rainier, Crater Lake, Mesa Verde, Piatt, Glacier, Rocky Mountain, and three smaller and of less popular interest, Sully's Hill, Wind Cave, and Casa Grande Ruins. The Grand Canyon, although a national montmient, is included Current Literature 487 probably because it ranks with the most widely known of the National Parks in scenic grandetir, and also because it may eventu- ally become a National Park. What is too often confusing to the lay mind is made clear, namely, the difference between a national park and a national monimient, as well as the difference between a national forest and a national park. Persons wishing to secure more detailed information regarding traveHng and living facilities, expenses of trips, etc., are advised to write to the Secretary of the Interior for the General Informa- tion Bulletins of any particular National Park. The pamphlet contains nineteen illustrations of scenes from the different National Parks and a map showing roughly the location of the parks. The biilletin is plainly intended for popular dis- tribution and is admirably gotten up for such a purpose and will imdoubtedly prove of great value to the traveling public. J. D. G. Personnel and Employment Problems. The Annals of the Amer- ican Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. LXV (No. 154 complete). Philadelphia, Pa. May, 1916. Pp.310. The entire thirty-two articles in this volume, all from the minds of specialists in their line, have for their central theme what may be called the science of human engineering. The following is the keynote of this special voltmie : "Considerations affecting the interests of the personnel are more and more being accorded their proper place in industrial management. The correctness of this policy is accepted by the more progressive and thoughtful employing concerns, not only because social opinion requires that employers should squarely face the human problems in industry, but also because scientific study and attention to the selection and development of, and cooperation with, employees firrnish one of the most fruitful present sources of increasing business efficiency." In forest organization, whether Federal, State or private, the personnel problem is recognized as of supreme importance, and as the foimdation stone of all forest administration. Therefore, to the forester this voltime of the Annals has much of interest and more of value. However much we may become interested and involved in abstract silvicultural and range ecology problems, 488 Forestry Quarterly we can not wander far from the ever-present personnel question in forest work. It is an open question whether the American federal forester has availed himself of what scientific management and its allied study of the human machine can give towards increased efficiency in federal forest officers. To review in extenso the many good things in this volimie is tempting. Suffice it to merely mention some of the outstanding contributions: The Employment Manager, by Ernest F. Nichols, President of Dart- mouth College; The Employment Problem in Industry, by W. C. Redfield, Secretary of Commerce; Personal Relationship as a Basis of Scientific Management ; Hiring and Firing ; Written Speci- fications for Hiring ; Problems Arising and Methods Used in Inter- viewing and Selecting Employees; The Instruction of New Em- ployees in Methods of Service ; Records and Reports of Work ; The Relation of Home Conditions to Industrial Efficiency ; The Three Position Plan of Promotion. J. D. G. OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE Forest Service Investigative Program, 1916. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 52. State Forestry Laws: Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, Mary- land, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, North Carolina, Oregon, Texas, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, Wyoming. U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture. Contributions from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1915 and 1916. Pp. 5, 6, 5, 7, 6, 14, 2, 6, 5, 7, 3, 6, 8, 16, 3. Forest Conservation for States in the Southern Pine Region. By J. G. Peters. Bulletin 364, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 14. This bulletin points out the essential elements in the various forest problems that confront the States in the Southern pine region, shows how these problems are interrelated, forms a basis on which may be foiuided a plan for solving them, and discusses matters of great importance to lumbermen, farmers, and all others interested directly or indirectly in the conservation of the timber resources of that region. Measuring and Marketing Woodlot Products. By W. R. Mattoon and W. B. Barrows. Farmers' Bulletin 715, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washing- ton, D. C. 1916. Pp. 48. Quantity of Wood Preservatives Consumed and Amount oj Wood Treated in the United States in 1915. By R. K. Helphenstine, Jr., American Wood Preservers' Association in cooperation with the U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 18. Proposed Regulations for the Protection of Migratory Birds. Service and Regulatory Annoimcements. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Biu"eau of Biological Survey. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 4. 489 490 Forestry Quarterly Forest Pathology in Forest Regulation. By E. P. Meinecke. Bulletin 275, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 63. Mistletoe Injury to Conifers in the Northwest. By J. R. Weir. Bulletin 360, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. 1916 Pp. 39. Carrying Capacity of Grazing Ranges in Southern Arizona. By E. O. Wooton. Bulletin 367, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 40. The White-Pine Blister Rust. By Perley Spaulding. Farmers* Bulletin 742, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 15. Cooperative Shelter-Belt Development in the Northern Great Plains. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of Dry-Land Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 3. Cooperative Shelter -Belt Planting on the Northern Great Plains. U. S. Department of Agricultiire. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of Dry-Land Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 7. Egg and Manner of Oviposition of Lyctus planicollis. By T. E. Snyder. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Reprint from the Journal of Agricultural Research. Washington, D. C. May 15, 1916. Pp. 273-6; pis. 4. Lumber Markets of the East Coast of South America. By R. E. Simmons. Special Agents Series 112, U. S. Department of Com- merce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Washington, D. C. 1916. Other Current Literature 491 Central America as an Export Field. By G. Harris. Special Agents Series 113, U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 229. The Birds of North and Middle America. By Robert Ridgway. Bulletin of the U. S. National Museum, No. 50, Part 7. Washing- toh, D. C. 1916. Pp. 543; pis. 24. Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. Volume XI, Number 2. Washington, D. C. April, 1916. PP. 171-270. Contains: Suggestions as to Possibilities of Silviculture in America, by B . E. Fernow ; Utilization of Wood Waste by Chemical Means, by H. F. Weiss; Top Diameters as Affecting the Frustum Form Factor for Longleaf Pine, by H. H. Chapman; Water Re- quirements and Growth of Young Cypress, by W. R. Mattoon; The Woodlot: Its Present Problems and Probable Future Status in the United States, by C. R. Tillotson; A Forest Census of Ala- bama by Geographical Divisions, by R. M. Harper; Professional Ethics, by T. S. Woolsey, Jr. ; The Factor of Top Diameters in Construction and Application of Volume Tables Based on Log Lengths, by H. H. Chapman; The Biltmore Stick and the Point of Diameter Measurements, by D. Bruce; What is a Forester? by F. E. Ohnsted; The English Names of Some Trees, by W. W. Ashe; Scientific Notes and Comments; Reviews. Tree Planting, an Arbor Day Handbook for Use in Maine Schools. By J. M. Briscoe. Forestry Department, State of Maine. Water- ville, Me. 1916. Pp. 37. Handling the Farm Woodlot. By C. W. Eaton. Extension Bulletin 105, University of Maine Agricultural Extension Service. Orono, Me. 1916. Pp. 16. Third Annual Conference of the Woods Department of the Berlin Mills Company, Burgess Sulphite Fibre Company, Fitzgerald Land and Lumber Company, Brown Corporation. Berlin, N. H. 1915. Pp. 37. Contains, beside a record of attendance at the Conference, which was held at Berlin, November 23 and 24, the following articles: 492 Forestry Quarterly Kraft Paper and Its Uses, by W. R. Brown ; Forest Pathology, by E. R. Linn; Hardwood, by J. W. Keenan; Mechanical Log Haulers and Their Development, by S. Brown; Pulp wood Loading and Receiving, by P. McCrystle ; Cooperation, by F. W. Farrington. Annual Report of the Park Commissioners of the City of Fitchburg, Massachusetts, 1915. Fitchburg, Mass. 1916. Pp. 52. Fire Protection Map of the Adirondack Forest. Compiled by Karl Schmitt. New York Conservation Commission. Albany, N. Y. 1916. The Structure of the Common Woods of New York and the Wood Collection. By R. P. Prichard. Bulletin of the New York State College of Forestry. Syracuse, N. Y. 1915. Pp. 31. A Street Tree System for New York City, Borough of Manhattan. By L. D. Cox. Bulletin of the New York State College of Forestry, at Syracuse University, Vol. XVI, No. 8. Syracuse, N. Y. 1916. Pp. 89. Report to the Honorable Cabot Ward, Commissioner of Parks, Boroughs of Manhattan and Richmond, New York City. Some Insect Enemies of Shade Trees and Ornamental Shrubs. By M. W. Blackman and W. O. Ellis. Bulletin of the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University, Vol. XVI, No. 26. Syracuse, N. Y. 1916. Pp. 122. Annual Report for the Year Ending October 31, 1915, Department of Conservation and Development of New Jersey. Trenton, N. J. 1916. Pp. 77. Report of the State Forester, pp. 41-6. Report of the Chief Forest Fire Warden for Pennsylvania for the Year 1915. Bulletin 13, Department of Forestry. Harrisburg, Pa. 1915. Pp. 182. The Prevention and Control of Erosion in North Carolina, with Special Reference to Terracing. By F. R. Baker. Bulletin 236, North Carohna Agricultural Experiment Station. Raleigh, N. C. 1916. Other Current Literature 493 Potash. By T. E. Keitt and C. J. King. Bulletin 182, South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station. Clemson College, S. C. 1915. The Physiographic Ecology of the Cincinnati Region. By E. Lucy Braun. Bulletin 7 (Vol. II, No. 3), Ohio Biological Survey. The Ohio State University. Columbus, Ohio. 1916. Pp. 211. Mid-West Forestry Association. Columbus, Ohio. 1915. 2 leaves. The Freezing Point Method as a New Means of Measuring the Concentration of the Soil Solution Directly in the Soil. By G. J. Bouyoucos and M. M. McCool. Technical Bulletin No. 24, Michigan Agricultiiral College Experiment Station, Division of Soils. East Lansing, Mich. December, 1915. Pp. 44. Forest Planting in Wisconsin. By W. D. Barnard. Bulletin 1 of Conservation. Madison, Wis. 1916. Pp.34. Heavy Timber Mill Construction Buildings. By C. E. Paul. Engineering Bulletin No. 2 (General Series No. 25), National Limiber Manufacturers Association. Chicago, 111. May, 1916. Pp. 66. Wood Construction (as Applied to All Classes of Buildings) in Relation to Fire Losses in Europe and America, Being Authentic Data Here First Collated, with Supplement, Containing Graphic Chart and Complete Analytic Tabulations. Document No. 1, National Lumber Users' Educational Series on Wood (General Series No. 20). National Lumber Manufacturers' Association. Chicago, 111. 1915. Pp. 16. Renewing the Shelterbelt. By G. B. MacDonald. Circular 27, Iowa State College Agricultural Experiment Station. Ames, Iowa, 1916. Pp. 16. The Ames Forester, Volume IV. The Forestry Club of the Iowa State College. Ames, Iowa. 1916. Pp. 72. 494 Forestry Quarterly Trees for Kansas. By C. A. Scott. Circtilar 55, Kansas Agri- ctiltural Experiment Station. Manhattan, Kan. 1916. Pp. 19. Trees of Texas. By I. M. Lewis. Bulletin 22 of the University of Texas. Austin, Texas. 1915. Creosoting Douglas Fir Bridge Stringers and Ties without Loss in Strength. By O. P. M. Goss. Published by Association of Creo- soting Companies of the Pacific Coast. Seattle, Wash. 1916. Pp. 27. The University of Washington Forest Club Annual. Vol. IV. Seattle, Wash. 1916. Pp. 71. This publication contains, besides matters of immediate interest to members of the Club, the following articles : Reforestation in the State of Washington, by G. S. Long; Efficiency in Lumber Manu- facturing, by J. S. Williams; A Growth and Volume Study of Lodgepole Pine in the Ochoco Mountains, by E. J. Hanzlik; A Modified System of Cruising,by H. G. Foran; Labor and Cost of Production, by J. B. Gibson; Grazing of Stock on the National Forest, by R. P. Huff; Trend of Stumpage Prices in Western Washington, by R. Brindley; Correcting Aneroid Elevations in Surveyed Country, by H. A. Durfee; Telephone Line Construction in the Forest, by H. A. Browning. Forestry Kaimin. Forestry Club, Forest School of the University of Montana. Missoula, Mont. 1916. Pp. 128. A Handbook of Forest Protection. California State Board of Forestry. Sacramento, Cal. 1915. Pp. 87. A handbook of information relative to the forest policy of Cali- fornia. It contains the forest laws of the State with interpretations of certain sections, together with a synopsis of the game laws of the State and the forest fire report for the year 1914. Citrus Canker. By F. A. Wolf. Bulletin 190, Alabama Agri- cultural Experiment Station. Auburn, Ala. 1916. Pp. 100. Other Current Literature 495 Palmyra Island nnth a Description of Its Flora. By J. F. Rock. Bulletin 4, College of Hawaii Publications. Honolulu, Hawaii. 1916. Pp. 53. Maple Sugar. Bulletin 324, Laboratory of the Inland Revenue Department. Ottawa, Canada. 1915. Pp. 25. Report of the Minister of Lands, Forests and Mines of the Province of Ontario, 1915. Toronto, Ont. 1916. Pp.89. The White Pine Blister Rust: A Dangerous Disease of White Pine. Forestry Branch of Ontario. Toronto, Ont. April, 1916. Pp. 2. Forest Products of British Columbia, 1913 and 1914. Markets Bulletin 9, Forest Branch, Department of Lands. Victoria, B. C. 1916. Pp. 85-99. Market for Timber in India. Markets Bulletin 16, Forest Branch, Department of Lands. Victoria, B. C. 1916. Pp. 177-88. Report from British Columbia Lumber Commissioner in Great Britain. Markets Bulletin 17, Forest Branch, Department of Lands. Victoria, B. C. 1916. Pp. 189-201. Annual Report of the Forest Administration in Ajmer-Merwara for the Year 1914-15. Mount Abu, India. 1916. Pp. 28. Report on Forest Administration in the Andamans for 1914-15. Calcutta, India. 1916. Pp. 38. Annual Progress Report on Forest Administration in the Presidency of Bengal for the Year 1914-15. By C. E. Muriel. Calcutta, India. 1915. Pp. 47. Note on Blackwood, Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. By E. Benskin. Forest Bulletin 27. Calcutta, India. 1915. Pp. 12. Note on Dhauri. Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. By E. Benskin. Forest Bulletin 28. Calcutta, India. 1915. Pp. 11. 496 Forestry Quarterly Note on Sundry Timber, Heritiera minor Lam. By R. S. Pearson. Forest Bulletin 29. Calcutta. India. 1915. Pp. 8. Compilation of Girth Increments from Sample Plot Measurements. By R. S. Troup. Forest Bulletin 30. Calcutta, India. 1915. Pp.8. ■ Pinus longifolia Roxb., a Sylvicultural Study. By R. S. Troup. The Indian Forest Memoirs, Vol. I, Pt. 1. Calcutta, India. 1916. Pp. 126; pis. 33. Note on the Economic Uses of Rosha Grass, Cymbopogon martini (Stapf). By R. S. Pearson. The Indian Forest Records, Vol. 5. Pt. 7. Calcutta, India. 1916. Pp. 50. The Tapping of the Para Rubber Tree — Some Physiological Ex- peritnents. ByE.Bateson. Departmentof Agriculture, Federated Malay States. Kuala Liimpur. 1914. Pp. 54. A Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus. Vol. Ill, Pts. 5 and 6 (Pts. XXV and XXVI of the complete work) . By J. H. Maiden. Sydney, N. S. W. 1915; 1916. Pp. 81-102; 103-24. Pis. 104-7: 108-11. Bulletin de la Station deRecherchesForestieresdu Nord de VAfrique. Gouvernement G6n6ral de I'Algerie, Service des Fordts. Algeria. 1916. Pp. 114. Indberetning om det Norske Skogvaesen . . . for Kalender-Aaret 1914. Kristiania. 1915. Analyses of Genuine Swedish Pine-Needle Oil . . . Manufac- tured by . . . Alfr. Carlssons ... By Coimt Carl Th. Morner. Jonkoping, Sweden. 1914. PERIODICAL LITERATURE FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION The prominence of the Balkans in the Bulgarian Great War lends special interest to the Forestry article by Weiss-Bartenstein based on his volumes on Bulgaria published in 1913. He starts with the surprising statement that in spite of low wood prices the extraordinarily low cost of exploitation of the virgin woods for a long time brought a greater net yield than farming. Hence there has, until lately, not been any danger of excessive clearing. But increase in labor cost and "land hunger" and difficulties in trans- portation from distances recently changed these conditions, and the forest area has diminished. In 1908, the forest per cent was somewhat below 30 per cent (about 8 million acres), but in the South it rises to 60 or 65 per cent. Oak and beech, with other hardwoods, are the most prominent species; of conifers pine, spruce and fir are found. Four forest zones can be differentiated: the warm zone occupying the lower valleys up to 1400 feet, with a vegetation typical of Southwest Europe, mostly deforested and turned to farm use; the mild zone with similar flora, still containing considerable old timber; the third zone on the slopes up to about 5500 feet, where beside extensive beech forest, inaccessible, the conifers become prominent; and the moimtain zone with Picea excelsa and pence, and Pinus mughus up to timber line. The ownership is in three classes, the State owning about one third, municipalities and communities holding the bulk, about one half, and private ownership or mostly church societies owning the balance, mainly in small woodlots; only about 5 per cent belongs to large landed proprietors, magnates being rare in Bulgaria. Ownership conditions appear, however, to be uncertain and the adjustment of titles and boundaries is still the order of the day. The population still considers the forest res nullius. Rough ex- ploitation is still the rule and much of the area is maltreated, except where lack of transportation makes it unprofitable. In spite of the forest wealth, imports exceed exports, even of fuelwood. In the first 10 years of the century, the import of building material exceeded the export sixfold. Lately, a few small furniture fac- 497 498 Forestry Quarterly tories, a Belgian match factory, and a few large sawmills have been established, but most of the mills and factories run only part of the year. The first attempt to bring order into the management at least of the municipality forests dates from 1869, when Bulgaria was still under Turkish rule. This law remained absolutely a dead letter. Soon after the autonomy was established, in 1879, legislation was had, but fared no better, because of lack of machinery. Finally, in 1884, a comprehensive law was passed and a start of an organization with forest inspectors, foresters and guards, to apply the law under the Ministry of Finance was made. But, with the inimical disposition of the people, the uncertainty of ownership conditions, and inadequate personnel not much of the excellent provisions on paper found application in the woods. New legislation was added from time to time, notably in 1889, 1897, 1904, and the personnel was increased until now in the State forests some 500, in the communal forests some 2,000 guards are employed. Nevertheless, theft and other "irregularities" are still the order of the day. The legislation concerns itself first with the settlement of property conditions; classification of forests, and, in communal forests, adjustment of the rights of user, especi- ally as regards pasture ; restrictions of exports ; enforced reforesta- tion; organization under working plans; forest police; a State nursery for distribution of plant material; forest schools which seemingly did not materialize. In the State forests and in communal forests, which are imder direct State control , the utilization takes place under a felling plan, usually under contract or timber license,, secured at an auction, or also in private sales. The State administration handles the business of the munici- palities and turns over to them what it considers the surplus, which is usually not large, the members of the community having all rights of user, exercised with a great deal of favoritism and graft. In 1911, the total income from these communal forests was less than $400,000; 90 per cent being fuelwood, while the State forests netted hardly $120,000; nearly 40 per cent being workwood. The price of the workwood averaged about 2.5 cents per cubic foot, that for fuelwood about half a cent. Periodical Literature 499 Selection forest, unregulated, is still largely the method of utili- zation and silviculture. Bulgarien's Forstwirtschaft. Tharandter Forstliches Jahrbuch, 1916, Bd. 67, Ht. 1, pp. 31-59. According to Long, Chairman of Agricul- Forestry tural Organization in Morocco, the Waters in and Forests Service, organized in 1914, has Morocco made excellent progress, even with a reduced personnel of two superior officers and 20 rangers and guards. The receipts for the first year almost covered the expenses. The best cork oak forest, that of Mamora, fast being ruined by the natives, was immediately placed under management and 120,000 trees were peeled in 1914 and 1915. Already 101 kilo- meters (62.8 miles) of fire lines 30 meters (32.81 yards) wide have been opened -up as a protection against fire. In addition, three groups of ranger houses were constructed in 1915 and 4 other groups contracted for in 1916. The cost of these houses was estimated at 10,000 francs ($1930) per guard or 20,000 francs ($3860) for a double house, but the actual cost proved to be 25,000 and 50,000 francs ($4825 and $9650). Each single house included three rooms for the guard's family, hallway, and room for the native assistants, a court-yard surroimded by high walls for pur- poses of defense, a stable, a cellar, a tool shop, and a forge. The water had to be secured from a 30 to 35 meter (32.81 to 38.27 yard) level, thus adding to the expense. The budget approved for a period of three years is as follows : Francs Dollars Regeneration and improvement of damaged stands 800,000 (154,400) Fire lines 600,000 (115,800) Construction of 20 to 25 ranger houses 1,000,000 (193,000) Nurseries and miscellaneous betterments . . . 100,000 ( 19,300) Peeling and exploitation (about .30 per tree) 2,000,000 (386,000) Total expense for three years 4,500,000 (868,500) It is estimated that the annual revenue will amount to more than 2,000,000 francs ($386,000) after five or six years of management. 500 Forestry Quarterly On account of the distiirbed political conditions, the splendid cedar forests south of Fez and Mekn^s cannot be exploited, T. S. W., Jr. V exploitation des Forets au Moroc. Revue des Eaux et For6ts, June 1, 1916, pp. 178-81. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY In a highly suggestive article Dr. Leon Causes discusses structures developed in both ani- oj mals and plants, developed to perform the Tree Form function for which they exist, starting from the idea that "the continuous use of an organ conditioni^ its progressive adaptation to the purpose for which it exists, and vice versa the non-use debilitates it." Tree forms may be explained in this way. The bast and woody tissue in the full-grown individual, the coUenchyma in its development period serve to strengthen the plant organs. Trees are frequently not circular, but have an oval croFS-section, the diameters in west-east direction being longer than in north- south direction, a result of the prevailing winds. Small trees fastened so that they can sway only in one direction increase their diameter mainly in this direction. Trees securely fastened to poles in all directions increase in diameter much less than those free to move, and if unfastened rapidly make up for delay, if they are still capable of standing up. On those parts of stem and branches which are continually or mainly required to withstand tensile stress a different wood structure is formed than in those under compression, hence one may speak of "tension wood" and "com- pression wood," or according to the color (when fresh) of "white wood" and "redwood." Woodchoppers correctly call the wind- ward side of the tree, the ' ' soft ' ' side, the opposite the "hard ' ' side. It is in tensile strength that the soft side excels, the hard side excels in resistance to indentation. A leaning tree develops red wood on the lower, tensile wood on the upper side ; similarly, a one-sided branch development produces red wood. With the change of the load a change in the character of the wood takes place. Owing to the response to tensions, the quality of the wood in the lower portion of the trunk is mostly superior to that of the upper portions ; at the insertion of branches Periodical Literature 501 a more solid, stronger wood is formed than in neighboring portions. Metzger and Schwarz claim that tree trunks are built as, or at least closely resemble, beams or columns of equal resistances. Such dynamic responses explain the greater taper of trees grown in the open, and other form development, hence this knowledge is of importance to the forester. The mathematical theory and law, after Metzger, under which the tree trunk assumes its general form is developed by the author. If we follow on the basis of this theory, the development of a tree in the open, i. e., a tree with a crown which remains at equal distance from the ground, the following relations will be found: In the branchless portion the ring width will increase towards the base; in the branched portion it will remain constant. In close stand, on the contrary, the reverse will hold as far as the branchless bole is concerned; the ring width decreases toward the base. By freeing such a tree (if the crown is still alive) the area exposed to wind pressiure is increased; an increased increment "due to light" takes place which can be approximately calculated. The stem becomes more tapering as corresponds to experience and theory. In some cases, with the increase of ring width toward the base a reduction in the upper portions of the stem takes place. Green pruning has the opposite effect; the crown is curtailed, the wind pressure reduced; dimensions are changed, and often the annual ring up to a certain height fails to form for some years. If the annual height growth rate is known, the point up to which this will occur can be approximately calculated. The stem thereby becomes less tapering. Theory and experience also support the rule that the form factor in close stand increases with age and height in trees with equal opportunity, but predominant stems have a more tapering form than the lower ones because they are more subjected to wind pressure. In the branchless portion relations do not change if cross-sections are compared which are equi-distant from the resultant of forces working on the cross-section. If the crown approaches conical shape in trees in the open, annual ring width increases from top to root collar ; in trees in close stand, on the other hand, the ring width experiences a maximum at the point where the crown starts. In trees with crowns of a shape narrower than a cone, theoreti- cally, if grown in the open the ring width at the base of the crown 502 Forestry Quarterly must experience a minimum ; in close stand the ring width must increase from root collar to tip. Guttenberg, however, denies the occurrence of a minimum in the practical field, and other authors, among them Jaccard, combat this mechanical explanation of tree form altogether, making a single mechanical factor responsible for the laws of growth. According to Jaccard, the trees in comparison to the beam of equal resistance are "over-dimensioned, " near the soil and near the crown base, and towards the crown the shaft would have to be relatively stouter than Metzger's formulae demand. This objec- tion is in part met by the experience that the quality of the wood with increasing height becomes poorer. Guttenberg has pointed out that in close stand the influence of wind is very small. Jaccard considers the tree trunk "a shaft of equal water con- ductivity." The unreliability of Metzger's formulae is increased by the fact that they are derived from sticks with constant cross section, while here we have to deal with bodies of constantly varying cross section. Where the roots of a tree change into stem, at the root collar, there is a place of sudden change in cross-section and a curvature ; here the formulae based on the simple beam are not applicable. In considering the static significance of the root collar, it is not any more the physiologically admissible use of the wood, but the admissible requirement of the soU that is at work. Tropical trees, rooted in soft morass (mangrove), are supported by stilts which transfer the pressure of the entire superior weight of the tree to the subsoil. Other static conditions of various forms of vegetation are also interestingly discussed. Technik und Naturwissenschaft. Centralblatt fur das gesammte Forst- wesen, Jtily-August, 1915, pp. 254-72. Bailey and Sinnot have investigated the Climate distribution of the various types of leaves and among the dicotyledonous plants in the Leaf principal plant-geographic regions of the Margins earth in the endeavor to throw some light upon the question of rigidity of leaf char- acters and their modification by environmental factors. From the floras of various regions, the authors tabulated the occurrence of Periodical Literature 503 leaves with entire margins and non-entire margins among the trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants. They found that leaves and leaflets with entire margins are overwhelmingly predominant in lowland tropical regions ; those with non-entire margins in the mesophytic cold-temperature areas. In tropical zones non-entire margins are favored by moist uplands, equable environments, and protected, comparatively cool habitats. In cold-temperate zones, entire margins are favored by arid environments and other physiologically dry habitats. Transitional forms reach their best development in the intermediate environments. In the case of those families which possess both types of leaf margins, it is very significant that their distribution corresponds to that outlined above. These facts are, however, best exhibited by trees and less so by small shrubs and herbaceous plants. This is to be expected when one considers the greater exposure of trees, their longer life cycle and their rela- tively smaller mobility in migration. The presence of a limited number of non-entire-leaved types in lowland-tropical environ- ments and the comparatively few entire-leaved species in meso- phytic cold-temperate regions may be explained by the fact that not all the species will have been subjected to the effects of the prevailing climatic conditions for equal lengths of time or an equal nimiber of generations; nor is it necessary to suppose that all species or groups of plants will respond with equal rapidity or in an exactly similar manner to the influences of environment. In view of these facts, the authors assert that it is highly probable that the present distribution of entire and non-entire dicotyledonous leaves and leaflets is largely due to factors of environment rather than to those of heredity. It does not necessarily follow, because a certain foliar character has remained unaltered through long periods of geological time, or has varied greatly among closely related forms, that the leaf is inherently "conservative" or "incon- stant." The authors believe that the character of the leaf margin of fossil plants may be legitimately used as a criterion for inter- preting the climatic conditions in the different periods of the Tertiary and Cretaceous dicotyledonous floras. The interpretation of the physiological significance of the entire and non-entire leaf margins is to be considered in a subsequent paper. C. D. H. The Climatic Distribution of Certain Angiosperm Leaves. American Journal of Botany, January, 1916, pp. 24-39. 504 Forestry Quarterly An interesting biological evolutionary Evolution history is observed in Norway in the fight of for supremacy between Norway spruce and Forest Scotch pine in Norway. Types The appearance of spruce (Picea excelsa) on leached deposits of sand and gravel, on soils with a general deep water table, on land covered with dense xerophytic moss and creepers among which is a species of Ground pine, and upon other typical pine sites, has of late occasioned con- siderable concern. It is, of course, true that such ground, which offers little of the nourishment requisite for healthy spruce develop- ment, cannot be the best sites upon which to grow this species; but by closer observation, we shall find that in most such cases spruce fills an important fimction for a longer or shorter period, especially as a stand-forming tree giving protection on lands where pine is foiind scattered and slow growing. This is, perhaps, more the case on the first three kinds of site mentioned. We often make a serious mistake when we, as the saying goes, want to polish up our stands, by clearing away all small undergrowth in order to clear the forest floor, without taking sufficient thought of the soil characteristics. On the poorer sites, and particularly where there is danger of drying out or an invasion of weeds, this treatment is imdesirable. Every bush and twig should be preserved until the forest is ready to be reproduced. On the moister pine lands one runs the risk that by allowing the spruce to continue within the stand it will reach up and mix in the upper crown space belonging to the pine, with the result that the latter grows unnecessarily tall at expense of diameter growth. Should the spruce be tolerated too long, it may drive the pine out entirely. On moist sites within the pine type, therefore, it is best to hold the spruce in check. Up toward timberline it becomes necessary to employ the greatest care in the treatment of spruce. Spike-topped trees with green limbs in open stands are omens pointing to conservatism and a certain minimum density. In fact, it is hardly ever good policy to cut in this upper belt. It is pretty axiomatic that where pine will grow it should be most zealously pre- served, and the same holds for spruce toward timberline. I feel quite certain that the general preference for pine on what is considered pine land is largely responsible for the desire to get rid of spruce there. It is justifiable to combat spruce at certain Periodical Literature 505 low areas, but mthin the protection forest the intruder spruce needs a great deal of attention, because the spruce is the timberline tree of the future. The upper line of tree growth has a tendency to recede. It retreats down the mountain from one century to another. Timber- line has previously been higher, which we deduce from the rem- nants of pine trees dug up from former lakes and ponds within the barrens above the present upper limits of tree growth, and over the denuded alpine regions. The pine is on the decrease, not only at lower elevations where it is being suppressed by the spruce and where it previously reigned supreme, but also on the slopes, and we must face this truth. How much of this can be laid to the spruce ? We know that spruce is a comparatively late immigrant in this covmtry (Norway). Slowly but surely, under cover, it has penetrated deep passes and valleys, always behind and under some other species, so that now in the east and south it is on a par with the original stands of pine. It has won out in Trondelagen, further north and throughout Helgeland. It is the same in the lowlands, up the principal water courses, both on sunny and shaded slopes, except that progressing up the vaUey spruce lags behind on sunny slopes, while in the shade its advance takes place more rapidly. Differently in different watersheds, and above these temporary limits the pine reigns still, and above the pine is the birch. The situation, therefore, is this: spruce crowds the pine from below and birch crowds it from above, and between these we find mixtures and transitions in all kinds of variation in ascending order. Below are the unbroken spruce columns, ahead and further up the ragged pine and spruce formations, on the field of battle; still farther ahead and up the stronger individuals in hand to hand conflicts with a host of the enemy. The pine will continue to decrease in area with a corresponding increase in the spruce type, and spruce will replace pine in the upper belts as well as in the valleys and on the general slopes. There is at present no sign that the reduction of the pine type will be halted, and spruce has already gained the summits and upper limits in several places on the shaded slopes farther south. The White birch gives help to the advance of the spruce. The conifers go higher when protected by birch, stand denser and bear seed at higher elevations. But where it is missing, which happens 506 Forestry Quarterly after careless cutting or because it has never been established, the conifer stands are open, more scraggy and decadent, discouraging seed production. In presence of birch, and especially where this has suflficient nourishment to stand close, we find ths spruce already considerably advanced toward the summit. Where the birch from above and the spruce from below have grasped each other's hand the pine is doomed. This union of spruce and birch takes place first on shaded slopes and better sites, and on the more friable formations ; slower on exposed slopes, shallow or rocky soil and where the rock formation weathers slowly. It does not follow that the pine yields as soon as the two competitors have effected a union, but it is only a question of time until it is reduced to scattered individuals tenaciously clinging to the drier knolls within a forest of spruce and birch. Their tall clear boles and spreading crowns telling of a subdued race ; subdued because conquerors are able to improve the soil conditions and turn it to their own benefit, and by dense thickets prevent pine reproduction. The natural tendency of the spruce to creep toward the birch and' timberline, crowding out the pine, is greatly accelerated by opening the stands in logging. Pine forests are being culled everywhere. These come up to birch and so close that they are difficult to penetrate; and where these thickets appear some dis- tance above the vanguard of the advancing spruce, the birch and spruce union is effected much sooner than it would be if the pine had remained. For the protection and nourishment furnished by the birch leaf and litter and the increased amounts of shade and moisture are factors greatly enhancing the stealthy progress of spruce toward the upper slopes. In this war against the pine the moose and other game animals assist, and even inorganic Nature, of which water plays an im- portant part, is limiting the exterior boundaries of the pine type both from above and below, partly by the formation of swamps made by a rising water table after logging, in which the pine flounders, while the spruce survives. In taking up the question of assistance to the pine, it must be decided which tree, spruce or pine, best performs the duties imposed upon a tree toward timberline. On these areas a coniferous forest with birch cannot be as productive in the same sense as a forest on the lower slopes. The great difference as far as productivity goes lies in that the upper forest is most productive when left uncut. Periodical Literature 507 It is of greatest use in situ. It is the office of the timber on the upper slopes to protect the lower in such a way that the latter will yield regularly. If man fails to grasp this important relation and reduces the higher and upper stands in the same manner that he would the lower, he will soon realize that when he comes to cut a second and third time the distance he can go up the slope for timber decreases with each cutting, unless the birch covers up his sins with a cloak of mercy. The office of the upper stands is therefore so to protect the lower that the latter may keep up a constant yield. The author then goes into detail inquiry as to what particular function trees in protection forests are called upon to perform and how the three species come up to these requirements. Trees within the protection forest must be able to resist storms. Spruce by its form and lower branching is superior to pine in preventing snow drift, and even in wind firmness spruce is given the preference: root systems of both species in these locations are alike, but pine has its center of gravity above the middle of the bole and is easily thrown, while spruce offers least resistance in the top and break.s only bit by bit. The ability of the spruce to form dense thickets in piu"e stands over extensive areas counts also in its favor. It also by its low crown protects the forest floor better and accumu- lates a copious litter. The ameHoration of site at higher elevations by spruce is not unlike that of birch, both of these species rehabilitating through long years the deterioration wrought by centuries of pine stands. The many enemies of pine hinder reproduction in a large measure, and this is one of the chief reasons for its yielding and recession on the higher slopes. Furthermore, the seed of pine requires a longer period for ripening — three years high up, and the seed years are infrequent. In addition, it is at best offered a very poor seed bed, so that what faw scattered pine seedlings do occur there can hardly be derived from the trees overhead ; but have come mostly from the trees lower on the slope. In contrast, we know that the seed of spruce germinates in much less time, and where pine seed ripens in three good seasons, that of spruce ripens in one less; if it be unusually warm it may ripen in one season. Aside from re- production from seed upon which the pine depends solely, spruce is able to regenerate by sprouts from buried limbs, and this process is more rapid than generally believed. It is an interesting thing to 508 Forestry Quarterly see an old spruce thus surrounded by a close thicket of descendants. And when to the superiority of spruce within the protection forest as compared with pine, we consider the greater tolerance of the former, which enables it to migrate upward under cover of birch or any other tree, and that it by virtue of tolerance finds room for five within a space required by one pine, increasing in a geometric ratio as compared with pine, we will have to acknowledge that a future predominance of spruce on the upper slopes and at timber- line may have its benefits. Spruce together with birch will bring the timberline higher. These two species will at least stay the receding tendency of pine. But where pine occurs alone the timberline will continue to recede. J. A. L. Tidskrift for Skogsbruk, January, 1913. A. H. Graves reports the appearance in Root the nursery of the Yale Forest School, during Rot the spring and simimer of 1914, of a serious of root rot. About 20 per cent of a bed of Seedlings one-year-old Red pines (Pinus resinosa) were destroyed while 5 per cent of a bed of one-year-old White pines (P. strobus), several thousand two-year- old Red pines, as well as a few seedlings of one-year-old hemlock {Tsuga canadensis) succumbed. The disease first became noticeable through a dark red or reddish-brown discoloration of the tips of the leaves. By slow degrees this color was extended and subsequently became brown or yellow brown. Diseased seedlings were examined and showed a root system entirely dead. Repeated efforts were made to isolate a fungus without success, but a study of the soil beds showed that the soil was stiff and clayey. This, together with the fact that the disease caused most destruction early in the season and disappeared when dried condi- tions prevailed, has led to the conclusion that it is due to the lack of oxygen in a soil which is saturated with water. Phytopathology, April, 1915, pp. 213-7. Periodical Literature 509 SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE A highly interesting series of detemiina- Muskeg tions of mineral constituents in an artificially Soil forested peat soil is reported by Ramann and and Niklas, of the Soils Division of the Bavarian Tree Growth Experiment Station, which gives an insight into the character of such soils and silvi- cultural possibilities of the same. At the Moor Culture Station Bernau, Dr. Ebermayer, in 1896 to 1898, planted or sowed, with application of various fertilizers, spruce, birch and other conifer and deciduous species. The sowed birch stand grew thriftily into a thicket, until 10 years, when the height growth ceased and the crowns rounded off. A thinning revived the height growth. Then, in order to find out the influence of thinnings on mineral constituents, the present investigation was inaugurated by laying in a severe thinning in half the area, leaving the other half untouched. Since moor soils are independent as to water, but relatively poorly supplied as to mineral constituents, they furnish good objects for such investigation of the relation of minerals to tree growth. In such soils, the minerals are either highly fixed, so that they cannot be taken up by the roots, or else, like the alkali easily soluble. By extracting the entire salt contents with a Kohlrausch apparatus and measuring the electric resistance of this extract, the presence of soluble salts can be readily determined. Thirty sample spots 5 to 10 w apart were analyzed in this way, besides 10 spots were investigated for the imderground. The samples were taken at 5 to 20 cm depth in the surface soil and 40 to 60 cm in the underground. The analyses were repeated in 1911 and 1912, and are tabulated. Ftuther details of the procedure are given. From the resvilts apparently one might conclude that the con- tents of soluble salts was higher on the thinned area, and only in the autumn after leaf fall somewhat lower than on the un- thinned. The authors, however, caution against this conclusion, since the variations in the single analyses lies within very wide limits. But the possibility of this highly important influence of thinning is indicated. Very close, however, is the relation between salt contents of the soil and the development phases of tree life, especially the leaf 510 Forestry Quarterly fall. In both years, in spite of great climatic difference, the change of salt contents proceeded alike, low in May, rising in July, again declining in August and September, highest in November. In May, the distribution of salts is dependent on relation of precipitation and evaporation. The latter brings water from the depths and enriches the upper layers with minerals. This goes on up to July, and in the dry year 19 11 in greater degree than in the moister year 1912. Here a difference between thinned and tmthinned area is noticeable. The thinned, open stand is strongly sunned, the temperature of the surface soil rises and with it evaporation and water conduction and movement of nutrients. *'It is very probable that in this relation an essential part of the influence of thinnings rests." In August and September, probably the birch mainly takes up nutrients which accounts for the lower figures, while in November, with the leaf fall, the concentration of soluble salts rises to double and four-fold the amount of previous months. Without any other assignable cause the litter alone must account for this great increase and accentuates its value. The authors in conclusion point out the advantage of these moor soils for investigations into plant nutrition, mineral requirements, etc., on account of their independence on water and relative poverty of mineral salts. Der Einfluss eines Baumbestandes auf den Gehalt an gelosten Salzen in einem Moorboden. Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Jagdwesen, January, 1916, pp. 3-12. The removal of litter by raking for stable Litter use, which in its effects is probably not much Influence different from its removal by fire has been studied by Ganter in 120-year beech stands, III and IV site, verifying former findings. The largest water contents and smallest evaporation are found in the undisturbed area (5 to .7 cm cover). The area raked every 5 years had the lowest water content and evaporated almost as much as the undisturbed area. The explanation seems to lie in the number of trees, 310 against 410 on the unraked area per hectare. The litter of the unraked soil prevents the washing out of the silt. The yearly raked soil experiences increased weathering and hence increase of silt. The greatest volimie of pores are foimd in the areas never raked or raked only every 5 years. Periodical Literature 511 The highest temperature is found on the yearly raked, the lowest on the unraked area. The largest humus and nitrogen contents are found in the latter, contrary to Ramann's finding, probably due to presence of mosses. The increment conditions are as one would expect, except that the average basal area increment per cent of the 5-year area was found .1 per cent higher than the unraked area; no reason being assigned. Bodenuntersuchungen iiber die Rotbuchenstreuversuchsfldchen im Forstbezirk Philippsburg in Baden. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung, February, 1916, pp. 41-2. SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION In Central France, the altitude of the M^zenc Mezenc region is between 1400 and 1750 Forestation meters (4593.16 to 5741.45 feet) with slopes Difficulties up to 50 per cent. The soil is quite easily eroded and the climate is severe, the snow remaining on the ground more than six months with dangerous spring and fall frosts. The winds are particularly violent, espe- cially at the higher altitudes and near the passes. The soil is rocky, gravelly, porous, and easily dried out. Paul Buffault gives an interesting account of the history of forestation in this region that is illustrative of the difficulties the French have had to contend with in their mountain forestation work. Historically, six periods of forestation activity are distinguished: 1. From 1863 to 1877, was an experimental period during which Avidely spaced plantations of fir and beech planted in the open without any cover except heather and bilberry were failures because the species planted were not sufficiently protected under such rigorous climatic conditions. Scotch pine (from Haguenau) , and Austrian pine sown at altitudes between 1500 and 1600 meters (4921.2 to 5249.3 feet) did not succeed. In 1882, there was hardly a trace of this work which had been executed on 460 hec- tares (1 136.6 acres). The lack of success in the sowing was attrib- uted chiefly to drying out of the soil, to frost and to weeds. 2. From 1878 to 1884, seed spots were tried and the bilberry and heather were left close to the plants as a protection. Cembra 512 Forestry Quarterly pine, Mountain pine and spruce, as well as larch, were the species used on an area of 250 hectares (617 acres). In addition, spruce was sown on 60 hectares (148.3 acres) in sheltered areas. The results were fairly complete stands on 220 hectares (543.6 acres) with the species distributed as follows : Cembra Pine 55 Hectares (135 . 90 Acres) Mountain Pine 95 " (234.7 " ) Spruce 70 " (173.00 " ) The percentage of success being respectively, 80, 50, and 76 per cent. 3. From 1885 to 1889, local Scotch pine seed (pin d'Auvergne) was sown at the rate of 8 kilograms (17.64 pounds) per hectare on 276 hectares (681.99 acres). On an area of 133 hectares (328.64 acres), spruce, larch, Scotch pine. Mountain pine and Cembra pine were planted in the proportion of 85, 23, 8, 13, and 3. The results obtained during this period were 96 hectares (237.22 acres) of forest, of which Scotch pine occupied 42 hectares (103.78 acres), spruce 38 (93.90 acres), and Mountain pine, larch, and Cembra pine together 16 hectares (39.54 acres). The Scotch pine showing was successful on 12 per cent of the area. The plantations were successful to the extent of 70 per cent for Mountain pine, 45 per cent for spruce, 62 per cent for Cembra pine, and 22 per cent for larch. The Scotch pine which apparently was doing well at the start did not continue successful, and plantations did not really succeed on more than 9 per cent of the total area planted. 4. From 1890 to 1896, sowing was completely abandoned. Foiu" hundred and ninety-one hectares (1213.26 acres) were planted with Scotch pine, spruce, larch, Mountain pine, fir, and beech in the proportion 347, 128, 11, 7, 7, and 1. The characteristic of this period was the extensive use of Scotch pine which was a costly error. The only results obtained were 63 hectares (155.67 acres) of spruce, larch and beech, and a cover of 85 hectares (210.03 acres) of spruce and fir under the shelter of Scotch pine and Mountain pine dating from 1880 to 1886. The use of beech and fir imder the shelter of existing stands proved an excellent innova- tion. During this period, the percentage of success was 60 per cent for the Mountain pine, 50 per cent for the spruce, 43 per cent for the fir, 30 per cent for the larch, and only 6 per cent for the Scotch pine. 5. From 1897 to 1903, there was a tendency to plant fir, beech Periodical Literature 513 and spruce. The last plantation of Scotch pine was made in 1897 without any better success than formerly. In addition, somng was resumed on 236 hectares (583.15 acres) with Cembra pine mixed with spruce. The success was about 50 per cent. The success for the plantations was 70 per cent for the beech, 60 per cent for the fir and spruce, and 46 per cent for the Cembra pine. 6. From 1903 to 1913, work of forestation was practically stopped except for 30 hectares (74.13 acres) of spruce planted in 1911 and 1912 of which 95 per cent succeeded on 17 hectares (42.01 acres) with rather poor results on the balance. The local force now favors the establishment of local temporary nurseries in order to acclimatize the plants to the rigorous climate and to avoid costly and dangerous transport. In 1907, experi- mental planting was made with Japanese larch, Douglas fir, and Tsuga canadensis with poor results. It appears that Scotch pine, larch, Cembra pine, and Austrian pine will be entirely discarded in favor of Mountain pine and spruce and fir under niirse trees. Beech will only be used tmder established stands. A detailed history of a reforestation project such as this shows the difficulties with which the French have had to contend. T. S. W., Jr. Revue des Eaux et For^ts, June 1, 1916, pp. 153-61. Those who wish to acqiiire silvicultural Application wisdom and especially to understand the oj essential features of Wagner's strip selection Strip Selection method, will do well to read the article by System Forstmeister Wessely, in which he discusses in an entirely objective attitude some of the objections to Wagner's system as raised by Dr. Hufnagl. The essential features of Wagner's method are the progress of fellings from north to south, and small felling areas; the prepara- tion and partial regeneration of a strip by selection method ; to be followed when young growth is established by a clear cutting of the strip and filling out of the yoimg stand by marginal seeding Incidentally, it appears that the progress of fellings from north to south in small strips has been practised for 40 years by Wachtel to overcome the May-beetle pest which followed clearing with artificial reforestation. While Wagner condemns artificial reproduction and advocates 514 Forestry Quarterly his system everywhere, Wessely points out that the conditions favorable to natural regeneration under Wagner's method are also favorable to artificial reproduction. The question as to whether regeneration or reforestation are applicable depends on condi- tions of precipitation. Where in this respect optimum conditions exist, there is no need of preparing favorable conditions and regen- eration comes readily and special measures of management are uncalled for. Where conditions of precipitation are entirely unsatisfactory, Wagner's method might be, but to only a small degree, an improvement, and only if it is not objectionable from economic points of view. The strip selection system, then, belongs into localities of mediimi precipitation and where weather condi- tions generally are such as to require an increase of safety. Here, where there is still to be foimd tendency to natural seeding, the beginning of cutting on the north side in strips favors the yovmg growth by protecting it against sun, wind and frost. An objection which is raised because of the age-class arrangement under the old system which is based upon the progress of the fellings from east to west, and which under the change would require cutting tmripe stands, is met by various propositions to overcome this. Incidentally, it is shown that the determination of financial ripeness of the same stand by various methods may differ by 30 years. Pas Blender sautnschlag-sy stem und seine Bekampfung. Centralblatt fur das gesammte Forstwesen, May-June, 1915, pp. 179-88. An extensive study by Forstassessor Nach- Height Growth tigall concerns itself with the progress of and of influences on height growth in young spruce Young Spruce stands in one season. The author refers to the great variation in form of spruce, citing a number of such variations, the cause of which has so far escaped discovery. There are at least seven classes of influences to be recognized: 1. Food materials of soil; 2. Carbonic acid of air, electric, magnetic forces and gravity; 3. Other conditions of air and soil (some seven are enimierated) ; 4. Age and individual tendencies, heritage; 5. Competition with neighbors; 6. Natural enemies, including frost, drouth, winds; 7. Influences of man. Periodical Literature 515 Reference is made to Prof. Klebs' observations in the tropics (see F. Q., vol. XIV, p. 83), and to measurements by Engler on four specimens of spruce through one season ; also to the volimie of forest-phaenological observations edited by Wimmenauer, 1897, and a few findings resulting from these observations are cited. The author's investigations were to prove that age, elevation and soil differences in one and the same revier determine variations in the height growth of young spruce in the same year, and that tem- perature and hiimidity are determinative to a large degree. The measurements were made in seven stands at 250 to 500 m elevation, on 25 to 50 spruces in each, from 4 up to 15 years old; each specimen being nimibered and a graduated rule being attached to it, so that every few days the growth of the leader could be read off. -From 1 to 3 parallel series were made in each stand. In two of the stands, maximum and minimum thermometers and hygrom- eters were suitably placed. Other temperature and barometer readings were also made and measurements of the previous per- formances of the trees under observation. The measurements were platted in curves with time (days) and lengths (mm) as co-ordinates. These curves permit close study of behavior. Without going into the details, we may record some of the more interesting findings. In a special series, it was shown that at first the basis of the shoot lengthens most prominently, but gradually the region of greatest increment progresses toward the tip. This can be also observed by the density of the needles which first are closely and evenly packed around the shoot, then show greater intervals at the base and further show the region of greatest growth. Also, the length of the needles show the same progress. In one series, the most rapid growth took place from May 30 to June 4 (curves steep), then a falling off interrupted by two rapid periods. This periodicity repeats itself in all series. No spruce, however, takes a rest of several days, the progress is uniform, day and night mostly alike. By middle July the growth is ended, only few con- tinue 10 days longer. The early sprouters continue ahead all stimmer and the late lag behind all the time. In the 4-year-old spruces, however, different from the 8 to 12-year-old, the height growth closes earlier. By Jime 7 half the specimens ceased growing; eleven, however, after a period of rest, between June 18 and 25, made a small addition. From the curves, 516 Forestry Quarterly it can be deduced that 25 specimens are enough to reveal the character of the growth. In the natural spruce undergrowth under oak the growth is still more uniform, its maximum occurs earlier (June 1), but, of course, the total is smaller. The end of growth was reached by July 16. Observations on 21 specimens of 65-year-old trees show that earliness and lateness of shooting are characteristics of individuals. This knowledge is of practical value in choosing plant material. Placing the average curves of the seven stands in comparison, it appears that 10 days after the buds burst suddenly an increased lengthening of the shoot takes place ; by middle of June again an increase takes place, and then for about 14 days a very considerable decrease of rate takes place, by middle of July to be again somewhat increased. Rest periods were observed only in certain spruces, especially poorer growing ones, while according to Engler roots experience a general rest. The decided increase of rate in Jtme and July is a characteristic of whole stands. In the four plantations the difference in total performance was only 2 V2 cm and the differences were in direct relation to the eleva- tion; this, while small, in 100 years would make 2V2 w, and prob- ably the difference will be greater, since probably the difference of annual performance in the polewood stage will be greater. Detailed measurements were made of the conditions of growth, soil differences, progress of temperatures, humidity and rain, soil moisture, light; account was made of physical condition, soil, elevation, aspect, etc., to secure an insight into their relations to growth. The conclusions are : During growth of the shoot in height the growth zone progresses from the base to the tip. The maximimi growth in the year 1913 fell in the beginning of June with all series, yet each series, each stand, each individual exhibits a special law of progress circimiscribed by interior (individual) and exterior condi- tions; age, temperature, humidity, nutrients and elevation exer- cising most prominent influence as regards earlier or later beginning, culmination and conclusion of growth, and rapidity of progress. To secure characteristic growi;h curves for a species, would appear from this a most difficult problem. Not all individuals grow without interruption, they may experience rest periods. The earlier sprouters remain ahead through the season. This earlier or later sprouting was found to be an individual peculiarity. Hence late sprouters can be recognized and be avoided in planting. Periodical Literature 517 The dtiration of growth on the average was from middle of May to middle July. Early cessation occurs in young (four-year-old) and with poor weather conditions. Total growth in young spruces increases from year to year, hence strictly even-aged stands are necessary for comparison. For securing an accurate average on a site, 25 spruces sufBce. The best time for comparative measure- ments is when the maximum growth occiirs, beginning of June, when differences are greatest. A dry site which warms up more quickly produces early beginning, rapid increase with increased temperatiire and early close of growth. With elevation, the shoots remain shorter, but the beginning of sprouting occurs at very nearly the same time. In undergrowth conditions only ^/s to ^/^ of the increment in the open stand was secured. For a continuation of such investigations, the author suggests as desirable still greater uniformity in age, height, growth, habit, measuring of the progress, temperature, etc., in aU stands on the same day, and more frequency, especially with weather changes. Der Gang des Hohenwachstums in jungen Fictenbestanden im Jahr 1913 und die begleitenden Bedingungen. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, March 1916, pp. 55-75, 131-50. Rusnov reports from the Austrian Experi- Fertilizers ment Station experiments in the use of ferti- in lizer in growing pine and spruce, especially Nurseries the effect of phosphoric acid additions. The first trials were made with deglutinized bone meal and Thomas slag, both of which are slowly soluble and should therefore, be of more persistent value. The result in general was very moderate, greatly varying quantities of fertilizer (from 100 to 800 kg. P2O2 per ha.), producing no demonstrable differences in the development of the plants. Evidently, the conifers cannot make use of phosphoric acid in not easily soluble form. Fertilizing in comparison with a combination of potash, ammonia sulphate and superphosphate showed very variable results, and it was learned that the character of the locality, the site, and weather had a great influence on the effectiveness of the fertilizer. The plants were left two years in seedbed and then transplanted for one year, being measured in height after two and three years from seed. The actual average and the percentic increment, the latter based on the results of the imfertilized plats, are given in tables. 518 Forestry Quarterly Out of the six parcels fertilized with superphosphate only four showed superior results, in two the effect was less than the parcels with bone meal. While at one station after three years the super- phosphate plants were 19 per cent taller than the unfertiUzed, they were only 1 per cent taller than the bone meal plants. The expla- nation was found in the washing of the soil combined with the greater solubility of the superphosphate, and hence leaching out. At the station Mariabrunn, with the lowest precipitation and no washing, the results were most favorable for the superphosphate, being in the two years 40 and 35 per cent greater than the bone meal plants. Tentatively, the conclusion is drawn that in the first year the vegetative efif jct of superphosphate on spruce seedlings is mostly greater than of bone meal, while in the next year the effect of both fertilizers in rainy localities is very nearly alike, and in very humid stations the effect of superphosphate is less. On dry soil superphosphate appears continually superior to bone meal. Ein Dilngungsversuch im forsUichen Pflanzgarten. Centralblatt fur das gesammte Forstwesen, May- June, 1915, pp. 173-9. Four coniferous species were introduced Behavior on a large scale in Denmark about 150 of years ago. They have shown varying Exotics behavior. Larix europaea has found a home in many places, but has also disappeared from localities where plantations had been made. Pinus silvestris wherever planted in original forest ground has done well, but plantations on the heath have disappeared during early or middle life. Picea excelsa has established itself thoroughly wherever planted, on the heath as well as elsewhere. Abies pectinata was introduced in 1764. It appears only in larger, isolated groups. Its best development is found on the island of Bornholm, where the absence of deer and elk is a factor in its favor. Several sample plots, the details of measurements having been taken every 5 years from 1872 to 1896 and tabulated, show that its growth compares well with I and II sites in the Black Forest. J. A. L. Edelgranens Voekst paa Bornholm. Det Forstlige Forsogsvaesen i Danmark, Vol. IV, No. 1, 1913. Periodical Literature 519 Oppermann reports from the Danish Assortments Experiment Station the percentage of assort- in ments graded into three principal classes in Beech beech 67 to 115 years old. The material taken to a 4-inch limit averaged 52.6 per cent of class I, suitable for manufacture; 30.6 per cent split fuel; 16.8 per cent round billets. Cut into 26-inch sections, the amount of clear material fit for manufacture was represented by the following volimie percents : Section.... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS Per cent... 100 96 88 85 79 71 57 47 42 34 27 15 9 7 2 0 0 0 The three classes of material are further divided into three grades each and their participation from section to section tabu- lated. Data in considerable detail are given to show what amounts of each class of material can be expected at different ages and different degrees of density. The resum^ is that young stands should be stocked sufficiently dense to prune very early; the first thinning to remove only defective and crooked trees until the bole is cleared for 25 to 40 feet, according to site. When this is attained, say at 45 to 60 years of age, the thinnings should be made so as to prevent further clearing. This severer thinning, however, must come gradually, especially if the earlier thinning practice was neglected. Under good management, class I material may be cut at 40 to 50 years of age and will increase to 60 or 70 per cent of total volume ; but in poorly managed stands may drop to 20 or even 30 per cent below this. J. A. L. Hoidelag i Bogebevokstinger . Det Forstlige Forsogsvaeseu, Vol. IV, No. 1, 1913. Apropos of the capture of Erzerimi by Picea the Russians, A. Jolyet reviews the char- orientalis acteristics of the Oriental spruce {Picea orientalis) . According to Jolyet , this species of the spruce genus is found below 40° north latitude "in a climate both hot and dry in siunmer." In the native habitat, the annual rainfall is said to be less than 520 Forestry Quarterly 50 centimeters (19.7 inches) and the average temperattire during the month of July about 19° Centigrade (66° F.) at an average altitude of 1300 (4265.1 feet) meters. Moreover, it is found for the most part at even lower altitudes commencing with 600 meters (1968.5 feet). Jolyet argues that, if this species can grow in a coimtry where, at 600 meters (1968.5 feet) altitude, the average temperature for the entire year is 15° Centigrade (59° F.) and 22.5° Centigrade (72.5° F.) for the month of July and the rainfall less than 50 centimeters (19.7 inches), it coiild certainly be introduced commencing with elevations of 200 meters (656.2 feet) in all parts of France, except in Corsica where it might be planted beginning with 600 meters (1968.5 feet). This speciefe commends itself because it is hardy and moisture resisting. It reaches a total height of more than 50 meters (164 feet) and at least 2 meters (6.6 feet) in diameter, breast-high. It makes excellent timber, being heavier than the Norway spruce which has been planted so extensively in Europe. Its sole weakness — slow growth up to 10 or 15 years of age — is probably due, in part, to the greater development of its root system. Five specimens, cut in 1913 at Bellefontaine, averaged 11.7 meters (38.4 feet) in height at 35 years of age. If grown in suitable mixture with broad-leaf trees, Jolyet recommends the oriental spruce for lower elevations where it might be desirable to propagate conifers on account of the greater proportion of timber which they yield. T. S. W., Jr. Revue des Eaux et Forlts, May 1, 1916, pp. 129-37. A few generally interesting biological data Fighting may be briefed from an article by Seitner on Insects and observations during a pine moth pest in the Parasites Great Forest near Vienna during 1913-4. The use of insect lime at the right time must be considered a thoroughly effective means of combat, in spite of some of the caterpillars wintering on the trunks of trees. The usual reconnaissance for the early discovery of the pest is, of course, essential. The experience made elsewhere of the Ichnevmionidae being the most prominent enemies of the pine moth must not be gener- alized. These, at the station mentioned, fell into third place, playing a subordinate rdle, tachinae and sarcophagus species being Periodical Literature 521 more important. This may, however, have been due to specially favorable development conditions for these in the particular year. It is pointed out that there is a difference in the relative frequency of occurrence of parasites in different localities. Of the 39 ichneumonidae parasitic on pine moth known to Ratzeburg, in the Great Forest almost 80 per cent were absent. The fungus infection of the caterpillars, which winter on the ground, is greatly increased by a goodly cover of litter — (a new argument for its preservation and the bane of forest fires!). In the end, besides liming, the parasites on the simimer caterpillars and cocoons beginning their work in June, were most effective, hence the investigation of health conditions must be extended to the summer caterpillars. Beobachtungen beim Kiefernspinnerjrass ini Grossen Fohrenwald. Central- blatt fur das gesammte Forstwesen, May-June, 1915, pp. 161-73. MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT Professor Zoltan Fekete, of the Hungarian Mensuration Mining and Forestry School, has investi- Meihods gated various sample area methods as regard Compared their accuracy, time requirement and costs; he has also investigated the value of the German volume tables for Hungary. The investigations were made in 57, mostly mixed, stands, beech, oak, fir, etc., the total area of the test plots being nearly 1500 acres, the stock being cali- pered and determined as around 7.5 million cubic feet. All were ripe stands, but greatly varying in other conditions. The three methods of selecting sample areas were used, the common square, the circular, and the strip. As regards accuracy, comparing with the total calipered results, the position was : Circle method +2 per cent Strip method +1.2 " " Common square +1.9 " " Dividing the trees into three diameter classes, with equal volumes, the errors in the single classes varied within the following limits: Circle method + . 4 per cent and — 5.1 per cent Strip method +4.0 " " " - 1.1 " " Common square +17.6 " " " -27.1 " " 522 Forestry Quarterly The more detailed the comparison is made, the wider become the hmits of error. If each species is differentiated into three size classes and within each the deviations from the true volume are ascertained, the following limits of error are found : Circle method +6.3 percent and —10.5 percent Strip method +11.1 " " " -10.1 " " Common square +30.9 " " " -42.2 " " These figures show that as regards accuracy there is not much difference between the circle and strip method; but the common square method is liable to great error. This fact is still more strongly brought out by comparing the figures not of the whole series, but of each stand separately. To secure a general measure of accuracy an error limit must be assumed below which the esti- mate will be considered still as sufficiently accurate. If, for in- stance, a deviation of 10 per cent is not to be acceptable, the relative accuracy of the three methods, calling the results of calipering 100, was 100 : 74 : 74 : 55, i. e., out of 100 estimates only 55 times will a satisfactory result be attained by the common square practice, the other two methods satisfying 74 times; or comparing only the three methods with each other, they stand as 100 : 100 : 74. The author adds that the stands due to the composition and conditions and great variation furnished a difficult basis for accu- rate estimates. In uniform stands there might not be found any difference with the different methods. It was observed that on gentle slopes all sample area methods work more accurately than on steep slopes. In denser stands, they furnish more accurate results than in opener stands. The circle and strip methods furnish better results than the square method even if the size of the square is considerably increased beyond the customary 1^ acre (1 hectar). As regards the time reqtiirement of the different methods, the nimiber of men employed makes a difference, also whether sample trees are felled or volume tables are used, and lastly what per cent of the total area is measured. A table attempts to give results under various assimiptions. The interesting conclusion is that the common method, which is the least accurate, is also the most time consuming, no matter whether volume tables are used or sample trees felled; the strip method being most favorable. This relation between the methods Periodical Literature 523 holds also as regards cost under given conditions, although the cost difference is not so great as the time difference. The common square method is, then, practically applicable only when not enough personnel is at disposal, for it can be worked with 3 as against 4 and 5 men, the latter for strip method. The strip method is recommended where saving of time and cost is desired, especially in pure stands where, therefore, no differentiation by species is needed. Here the circle method is only advantageous by giving closer knowledge of dimensions. In mixed stands, if the admixture is very tmeven or the species of very different value, the circle method is desirable. The strip method is applicable with special satisfaction in large areas, where it is a great time saver. In very open stands, with uneven distribution of trees, the circle method is preferred. The same on steep slopes, locating along contours, while the strips should here be laid across contours which is fatiguing. For good work and to sectue its advantages, the strip method requires 5 men. If these are not available, the circle method is preferable. As regards the use of the German volume tables in Hungary, some 184,000 trees were measured and compared with the voltmie tables. The difference in the total volume was only — .6 per cent, and the extreme deviations for the three species (beech, oak, fir) differentiated into three size classes lay between +6.5 per cent and — 6.1 per cent, but the total volumes without size differentiation differed only as follows: beech, — 1.1 per cent; oak +.5 per cent; fir — 1.9 per cent. AppHed to stands of varying stock density, for open stands (.4 to .7), the actual volume differed by +2.9 per cent from the volimie tables; in complete stands (.8 to 1), — 1.9 per cent. The conclusion is reached that the volume tables are applicable also to Hungarian conditions. The time saving in using the tables as against sample trees in the sample area methods was found from 40 to 50 per cent, and the saving in cost from 40 to 60 per cent. Versuche aus dem Bereiche der Holzmesskunde. Centralblatt fur das gesammte Forstwesen, July-August, 1915, pp. 241-54. 524 Forestry Quarterly Biolley in iconoclastic fashion declares the Heresies conception of "normal stock" absurd and Regarding ' ' abnormal , ' ' and objects to the whole theory Normal of the normal forest. Stock Normal stock is a fata morgana, unknown to the French. Our knowledge of the com- plex development of a forest is still too indefinite to permit us to ''force free nature into the corset of a narrow absolute theory." At length the author sneers at and ridicules the attempt to jibe nature and theory. If it is impossible to secure a practical com- parison between the normal and actual stock in pure forest, it is still more so in mixed forest, Flury's "variable constant" {see F. Q., XIII, p. 108) notwithstanding. Irregularities in mixed stands are too unending, normal condition cannot be conceived. The laudable desire of the formula methods to insure sustained yield is not accomplished by guarding the normal stock, for this is, after all, an unsafe, indeterminate quantity dependent on the arbi- trarily chosen rotation; for rotation is a personal determination of the manager. Again uncertainties arise from the practice of measuring the actual stock only in the oldest age classes estimat- ing the younger; moreover, from the data of the yield tables arbitrary deductions are to be made for losses in logging, etc. Hence normal stock in itself and as object of management is a delusion besides involving two special defects in silvicultural and in economic direction. The classical German conception of the normal stock ignores the biological function of the actual stock, which depends on its treatment, while the normal forest idea proposes (the author mis- takenly asserts) to force its development according to a mere hypo- thesis through its whole life: this formalism makes the normal stock itself the end instead of means to an end — ^production; the end product of management here is "determined by official pre- scription;" the silvicultural moment is powerless. In discussing the biological function of the stock, the author points out that while the tree has a limited life, the stand, the tree association, lives forever: the tree does not live any more as single individual but as part of a whole, each influencing the other. This idea is elaborated and the need of recognizing the mutuality and of working for increased increment is accentuated. "In not recog- nizing this mutual relation between condition of stand and incre- ment lies the silvicultural mistake of the normal stock theory." Periodical Literature 525 From a yield table of spruce I site, the author shows that after the 40th year the ringwidth decreases and asks, "Does this not prove a steady deterioration of the nutrition?" (Not at all!) Everything has remained the same excepting one thing — the volume or stock. To the accumulation of volume, therefore, we must ascribe it that the trees, the stand, are disturbed and impeded in their function of nutrition ; the stand suffers from overcrowding. The defenders of the normal stock idea in a way admit their mis- take by attempting to arrest the sinking of the increment by thin- ning and interlucation practices by which "to create more favorable conditions of nutrition" in the so-called "normally" stocked stands. "May one really talk of normal conditions, if by this normality the production is limited and can be lifted out of this limit (in the last age classes) only by giving up normality ? Or is it a normal condition, if stock exists in such insufficient amount (lower age classes) that it lacks the ability to utilize all actually present nutrients? How can a forest be called normal in which during its life of 80 to 120 years the increment conditions only for a very short time are what they should be, i. e. , normal ? Briefly, the silvicultural mistake consists in putting growing stock in place of increment and forcing the free functions of life into a rigid frame." The economic mistake in the conception of the normal stock, the author asserts, is illustrated by comparing the increment curve with the stock curve, which show a disproportion at the same time between interest and capital, espcially for the older age classes, i. €., for the time when the accimiulated stock reaches nearly a maximimi. " Undoubtedly," he asserts, "the normal forest suffers by an insufficiency of wood capital in the early stages and by a surplus of poorly paying wood capital at the end of its life." This defect injures the owner as well as the whole country, whose inte- rest is to secure the maximtmi production of volume per acre (?). If this maximum yield is once established, every single acre should be managed for this maximimi annual product. The normal stock methods cannot satisfy this demand because they do not pay attention to the current increment. Moreover, these methods cannot satisfy market fluctuations and changes in demand for different size, species, etc. The author, then, comes to the constructive part of his discussion. After all, he does not propose to abandon the normal stock idea, as the French do, but to change its name to "rational" stock, as 526 Forestry Quarterly basis of a rational increment management. "This stock would naturally have to be frequently revised as regards determining its productivity." Thus the normal stock is not any more a prede- termined wood volimie, but a variable quantity. In place of a dogma stands the experiment." He, then, discusses the application of the French mithode du controle (see F. Q., xiii, pp. 43, 260). "This does not know a normal stock which is supplanted by the more elastic principle called etale, a conception which may be translated into stand optimimi (rational stock)." This etale is that volume of stand which is necessary and sufficient to continually produce the best performance per acre. He conceives that the accumulation of increments which make the stock leads finally to overfilling, a con- dition impeding increment; hence when this occurs a felling is indicated. The exact time for such is expressed by the behavior of the current increment. The stand must also be so formed that without damage according to silvicultural principles wood can be taken out. This is done by selection until finally only the best individuals remain to make the stand. Revisions in short periods for every stand and the whole forest are necessary. This method allows the manager at any time when a detrimental accumulation has arrived to reduce every single stand to the desir- able amount of stock. No predetermined cycle, as in the normal stock methods, troubles him, nothing absolute in its condition, neither the stock per unit nor the percentic composition by diam- eter classes, nor a determined maximum diameter. In building up the "rational stock" regard must be had to silvicultural needs, suiToimding physical, labor, and economic conditions, wood prices, special needs, interest on capital, etc. How is sustained yield secured, he asks, when the sure foundation of the normal forest is abandoned? What is yield? Is it not increment ? As long as the basis for growth remains, yield is sus- tained. If every stand, every acre is so managed as to produce the maximtim increment, a careful and frequent determination of the increment and of the condition of stands asstires the sustained yield; more than that, an increased yield is secured through this "rational stock." See Comment! Das Abnortne im Begriff " Nortnalvorrat." Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen, March-April, 1916, pp. 53-67. Periodical Literature 527 In his usual lucid and authoritative style Increment Dr. Martin discusses the basis of a proper and regulation of the cut or budget with special Budget reference to the Prussian practice in the past Regulation and present. It will astonish most of our readers to learn, that the increment which would appear the natural, permanent basis for determining the possible cut or felling budget, and which should be cut unless there are reasons for deviation, is not in actual practice of Prussian and other State administrations used as such a basis; neither in the past practice nor in the new instructions of 1912, does the incre- ment appear as a prominent factor. An interesting historical account of the development of forest organization in Prussia shows that there were three prominent influences at work, namely Hartig, Pfeil, and Cotta. Hartig in his instruction of 1819 for the organization of Prussian State forests, based on voltmie methods, did require increment data to be ascertained and used as factors in budget determination, and gave correct methods of ascertaining it. Practically, however, this requirement was neglected, and altogether working plans which did not work were the result of the volume method, on accoimt of its ctmibersomeness. Pfeil's influence was inimical to the attempt of lajdng down rules of general application, and espcially to the ascertainment of and basing felling budgets on increment data, on account of the wide variations which would be encountered. He accentuated the localized and specialized conditions of increment as inimical to its use for felling practice. Cotta's influence was indirect, in that Reuss, successor to Hartig, in 1837, was his pupil and he it was who made the area the promi- nent regulator of the cut, which to this day and in the new instruc- tions remains so. While it is customary to point out differences in the Saxon and Prussian organization, they are alike in this use of the area allot- ment method, and now being satisfied with endowing the first period only with a normal area allotment and a mere age-class area statement for the rest of the rotation. Meanwhile, the experiment stations, in their normal yield tables, have demonstrated the lawfulness in the progress of increment (against Pfeil's contention) , and a satisfactory formula for its deter- mination has been furnished by Schneider. 528 Forestry Quarterly It should, however, be recognized that the yield data of the tables must be used with discretion. The tables cannot be generally- applied for the east and the west, for mountain and plain; the conception of normality is not fixed and remaining the same, being variable like all economic factors. Stands with varying stem nimibers, varying diameters and volumes may be considered normal. It must, also, be kept in mind that silvicultural problems influ- ence the method of organization. In the uniform, planted spruce or pine forest, imder a clearing system an area method may siifhce. On the other hand, natural regeneration, if correctly managed, is opposed to the schematic area allotment ; here nature rules and the cutting must take into consideration the condition of soil, the occurrence of seed years, the requirements of the young growth. Hence, in Baden, in the territory of the naturally regenerated fir the area method has long been abandoned, for natural regeneration cannot be forced into a fixed time scheme ; if the annual or period'c area is fixed, natural regeneration is hampered; larger areas than the so-called normal periodic area must be at the disposal of the manager. In such modern silvicultural methods as interlucation in pine and oak, which consist in a severe, but gradual opening up, the area is also not entirely cut; similarly, thinning practice in older stands and salvage fellings, which furnish considerable material in pine and spruce forest, are in antagonism to the determmation of yield by area, especially as it is difficult clearly to differentiate final yield and intermediate yield. The instructions, to be sure, require such differentiation, but in practice this is frequently not possible: whether, e. g., the resiilts of a preparatory regeneration cut or a severe thinning are to be cotmted one way or the other. The author insists that in a properly organized forest it must be shown that the sustained yield is being maintained, and this can be done only by increment determination. This is done in the southern State departments much more fully than in Prussia. In Baden, for instance, for every stand the average total increment, i. e., the total average production in final and intermediate yield for the rotation and given species and management is to be ascer- tained, as well as the current (periodic) total increment to be expected for the next decade. Not the voltmie of the stands, artificially ranged into the I period, is a proper measure of the cut ; Periodical Literature 529 nor the increment which accumulates until the final cut, but the total increment of the whole working group is the basis and aim of forest production. Only in this total increment, the possibility of producing a certain yield comes to expression: the current increment of all the stands. Normal yield tables may be used for this with discretion, for in the broad practice stands are far from normal. In the yield tables for oak, e. g., on II site at 140 years, the diameter is stated as 18 inch; in the actual forest diameters may be 12 or 24 inch. Similar variations will be found in pine, spruce, etc., from natiiral regeneration, or sowing or planting in different spacing, Der Nachweis der Ertragsfdhigkeit des Waldes. Tharandter Forstliches Jahrbuch, 1913, pp. 26. An important contribution to the discus- Value sion of this difficult problem is furnished by Production Dr. Martin. Not the production of large quantities, but of high values should be the aim of forest management, but, according to Dr. Martin, while theoretically this is admitted, in practical application there is con- siderable lack. Indeed, yield tables usually give only volumes, and little has been done to secure data which must underlie value production. This is due to the difficulties involved in establish- ing values and value increments. Stand cost values should be basic but for old stands especially are unknown; expectancy values are liable to great variation; hence, in spite of their use- lessness for young stands, use or sale values should be employed as much as possible ; and this is officially recognized in the various instructions for forest valuation and value increment calculations. There are two ways of ascertaining value increments, namely by a statistical inquiry into the sale value of the average imit of wood measure (Jestmeter) of stands of different age, or by investi- gating of sample trees. Such statistical data have been collected for some time in Bavaria and are being collected since 1912 in Prussia, by merely tabulating classified sale results in typical districts. Upon the basis of some of these data the influences on value production are briefly discussed: site conditions, location with reference to market, method of establishing and treatment of the crop. As regards site, on good soil not only is value production 530 Forestry Quarterly more rapid, but the difference between two age classes is found greater than on medium and poor sites. The relative progress of value increment does, however, not stand in direct relation to the site class, but special features of the site, e.g., looseness and depth, temperature and light, rather than the total productivity upon which site classes are based, are influential. A few examples of data collected in certain localities for pine have, of course, absolute values (mark per cubic meter) only for the locality and the time of collection, but, nevertheless, show the general tendency which would be of influence everywhere and at any time. Site II Age: 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Good Stands Favorable Market 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 Unfavorable Market . . A 1.4 2.4 3 .Z 5.4 7.4 10.4 Branchy Stands Favorable Market 2.5 6 9 11 12 Unfavorable Market . . .7 1.6 2.4 3 3.6 Site IV Good Stands Favorable 2 4 6 8 10 12 Unfavorable 7 1.3 1.9 2.9 4.4 6.4 Branchy Stands Favorable 1.5 6 8.5 9 Unfavorable 9 1.3 1.5 These are values for wood cut, lying in the forest. Good stands show on good as well as on poor soils a very steady continuous rise in value, while poorly managed branchy stands decline rapidly in old age. The difficulties in properly collecting and interpreting such data are then discussed. They lie in the facts, that imiform stands of great age variation are not often cut; that most stands which are cut have been subject to some influence which make them abnormal, Hke damage by rot; lack of satisfactory grading of logs. The author then develops a method of arriving at value incre- ment. In using sample trees for determining value increment either the mean tree of the stand may be used or preferably sample Periodical Literature 531 trees of three or of five stem classes. That the diameter is largely the maker of value has long been demonstrated. The problem resolves itself, then, to ascertain the time for the production of certain diameter or ring width on a certain cross section. In general, the period from thicket to middle pole age is the time of most vigorous growth and widest annual rings. Later, the ring width in close stand declines, but with good thinning practice the differences between different age classes become small. It is also to be noted that the mean stems of the stand from one age class to another grow in greater proportion than their annual rings predicate, because, due to the exclusion of suppressed mem- bers, they get into higher stem classes. Taking account of these two disturbing influences, we may assume that the differences of the average ring width of mean stems of stands are for a long time so little that they can be neglected. The steadiness of the increment of the mean stems appears from the ring width for different age classes figured from the yield tables. Age: 60 80 100 120 140 Beech (Grundner) 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.5 mm (Schwappach) 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2 " i< Spruce {Gnindner) 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.6 . (Schwappach) 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 . Ptnc (Grundner) 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.6 " (Schwappach) 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3 " The author then on the basis of Bavarian statistics brings data for showing the actual value increments determined for oak, beech, pine and spruce. In two oak districts, where trees are divided into five size classes, middle diameters differing by 4 inches, the following prices were obtained per cubic foot, without bark, cut in the woods: Class V IV III II I Diameter Average 10 14 18 22 26 Cents 18.4 35.4 51.6 64.4 83 Differences 17 16.2 12.8 18.6 Percent 64 37 24 24 To translate these price relations into time relations of their production in the forest certain assimiptions must be made. If the average height is taken as 100 feet, the clear boles under proper management will be about 30 feet, and if a height of 15 532 Forestry Quarterly feet is attained in 20 years the average ring width of the mean stem is kept at Ve cm., i.e., the diameter increases at Vs cm. (1 inch in 7 years), then to produce stems of the five classes requires the following time : Class . .V IV III II I Years Yearly Value Increment, Per cent . .95 125 155 2.1 1.2 185 .8 215 .8 On poorer soils, where the average ring width is only Vs cm. (1 inch diameter in 10 years), and where the 5 or 6 size classes are attained in the noted times, the annual value increment per cents in the two cases were : Class . .V IV III II I Age . . 120 160 200 240 280 Increment, Per cent. 1.6 .9 .6 .6 To show the method of presentation in full, we translate the tabulation for the second district in detail : Stem Class VI V IV III II I Diameter ii 40 47 53 58 65 cm. Age 152 180 208 232 252 280 Years Value 42. 3 63. 2 83. 9 104. 9 135. 3 217.4 Mark Differences 20.9 20.7 21 30.4 82.1 Per cent 39 28 22 23 47 Time 28 28 24 26 28 Years Annual value Increment 1.4 1 , 9 1. 2 1.7 Per ce The figures are significant in showing the impropriety of gen- eralizing, if economic resiilts are considered. While normal yield tables have their value, and are theoretically correct, in practice for organization purposes the special site, stand and market conditions must modify the judgment based on them. The figures also support the contentions of soil rent theory, that a low interest rate is in part compensated by a value increment, as well as by price increment. To exhibit the latter, an interesting table is given showing the change in price for the celebrated 400-year-old Rothenbuch oaks, which from 1860 to 1910 for the largest sized logs rose six-fold, 4 per cent per annum (from 25 cents to $1.54 per cubic foot), although the lower sizes increased less in price, II and III class at 3 per cent; the lowest from 13 cents to 20 cents. From the discussion on the value increment of beech, which is Periodical Literature 533 historically interesting in showing the ups and downs of the beech wood market, we quote only the last sentences, showing that the value increment of clear boles rises more rapidly and continuously than that of branchy wood absolutely and relatively to the value of the stand. However the rotation is determined, the felling age for clear timber arrives later than for branchy timber, calling therefore for a proper care of stands. The following discussion for pine and spruce is also based on Bavarian data for 1912. The assortment is made on the basis of top diameters at any height varying by 2 meters, when the time involved is that required for making the length (as determined by yield tables) and diameter (as found in each case by ring countings) . For spruce the tabulation is made for II site on the basis of an average diameter increment of the mean sample tree of ^/s cm (6 to 7 years per inch) and the annual value increments are for : Age 63-77 77-90 90-107 107-127 Per cent 1.5 1.2 .5 .2 This shows that even on good sites the production of the stoutest class cannot be the aim of management. Even the II class can only in a limited way be considered as one financially to be worked for. The rotation based on value production under the economic condi- tions where the data were gathered will on best soils be placed aroimd 90 years, on middle class sites around 80, and on poor soils aroimd 70 years. Similar results follow from Saxon data : Age 60-80 80-100 100-120 120-140 Value Increment, Per cent 1.2 1 .6 .2 The increment of 1 per cent up to the 100th year brings the index per cent up and defers the felling age somewhat, but the value increment then falls so rapidly that this delay can only be short, especially as the volume increment also declines. All considera- tions in Saxony have led to an 85-year rotation for spruce in general. A similar calculation for pine is made upon the basis of Wimme- nauer's tables based on a thinning practice which gives a constant basal area of 130 square feet to the acre (30 qm per ha.), when the average annual diameter increment from 60 to 140 years approxi- mates Vs <^w (6 to 7 years per inch). The result is as follows: Age 55-70 70-85 85-103 103-123 Value Increment, Per cent 1.7 1.7 1.1 1.3 534 Forestry Quarterly The great difference as compared with spruce is apparent. In pine the value of I class stems exceeds that of V class by 157 per cent, in spruce only 66 per cent. At 100 years, when value incre- ment in spruce has ceased, the pine shows considerable increment, absolute and percentically. Similar results have been secured from Baden and Hesse data, where under favorable growth conditions the value differences of different sizes is even greater. Here the price for I class, pine logs is 125 per cent greater than for I class spruce, and in Anhalt the difference is even near 240 per cent. Yet the relation of values for spruce and pine wood depends greatly on site conditions. In the average for the whole State of Prussia the superiority of the pine over the spruce is also illustrated, the price of II class logs for pine being 14 cents as against 12 for spruce; but in the western provinces where good spruce sites prevail the reverse relation is found, namely 17 cents for spruce as against 15.5 cents for pine. Taking these value increment conditions together with the volume increments of the yield tables, there is no doubt, that on mountain soils with satisfactory himiidity the spruce produces best and should be grown in pure stands. Only where considera- tions of soil conditions and safety exist is the admixture of other species indicated, but the pine has for these purposes no value, hence it is properly cut out. On pronounced pine soils, however, pine must be predominant and spruce added only as soil cover. Where both species find equally good growth conditions, especially in rolling country where soil conditions vary, a mixture is indicated and then besides local soil differences the question of value incre- ment should influence the character of the mixture. Uneven-aged form of stands is here indicated. The pine produces best with 120 years, while spruce is mature at 60 to 80 years, hence pine should be planted ahead of spruce or the latter should be utilized earlier. The consideration re-estabUshes the value of the formerly much used, lately abandoned over holder management. Also underplanting with spruce, which invigorates pine stands remark- ably and leads to best forms of pine, is recommended. The rest of the article criticizes the method proposed in Prussia of arriving at value increment data. Der Nachweis der Erzeugung von Werlen. Tharandter forstliches Jahrbuch, 1913, pp. 126-324. Periodical Literature 535 STATISTICS AND HISTORY The budget of the Prussian forest depart- Prussia's ment for 1916 does not appear to be affected Budget by the war to any extent; indeed, a net return of around $400,000 above 1915 is expected. Area of forest (productive) 7,390,000 acres Regular income $38,600,000 Extraordinary income (sale of forest) 500,000 Regular expenditures 16,200,000 Extraordinary expenditures (occurring only once) 730,000 Surplus 22,200,000 The expenditures are provided with the same amounts as 1915, in salaries more, in general expenses less, and the income slightly less than the average of 1912 and 1913. Fcrstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, March, 1916, pp. 150-55. 536 Forestry Quarterly OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE. American Forestry, XXII, 1916, — The National Forests. Pp. 153-7. A resume of the part the National Forests are taking in the economic and social life of the nation. Our Forests in Time of War. Pp. 341-4. Extracts from the report of the Forestry Committee of the National Conservation Congress, which met in Washington in May. Journal of Agricultural Research, VI, 1916, — Hypoderma deformans, an Undescribed Needle Fungus of Western Yellow Pine. Pp. 277ff. Yale Forest School News, IV, 1916,— The Place of Silviculture in the Utilizntion of Our Forests. Pp. 19-21. Journal Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 1915, — What Chemistry Has Done to Aid the Utilization of Wood. Pp. 913-5. A popular discussion of the r61e of chemistry in the con- version of waste wood into profitable by-products. Sierra Club Bulletin, X, 1916,— Nimiber 1 is a Memorial Number to John Muir. Canadian Forestry Journal, XII, 1916, — Ravages of Insects in Canadian Forests. Pp. 563-6. Forests of the District of Patricia. Pp. 375-80. Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, XIV, 1916, — Canadian Pulpwood Consumption in 1915. Pp. 243-9. Western Lumberman, XIII, 1916, — A Day in a Dutch Forest. Pp. 28-31. Rod and Gun, XVII, 1916,— "One Hundred Game Protective Associations for Ontario by January 1, 1917" is the object advocated in an article on pp. 1135-7. Other Periodical Literature 537 Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, XXX, 1916,— Two Forest Arboretums near Brussels. Pp. 1-14. Largely notes on growth rates. The Forests of Australia. Pp. 34-43. A very readable account of the forestry situation in the different provinces. The author, who was for many years connected with the South African Forest Service, states that the forestry move- ment in Australia is a quarter of a century behind that in South Africa. Mr. MacMillan, Special Trade Commissioner to foreign countries for Canada, in a recent letter, written after his visit to Australia, writes: "Forestry in Australia is in an interest- ing state. A wave of revival similar to religious enthusiasm is passing over the land — foresters being appointed; Governor- General exhorting on every occasion; schools being started (two of the ranger type already imder way and one of univer- sity standing being debated); great discussion of study of forest utilization; bills being brought in creating in various States several million acres of inaUenable forest reservations ; planting policy being speeded up; federal forest department being created. . . . They are getting pretty good legislation, but are in terrible danger through lack of foresters." Durability of Timbers. Pp. 44-6. A discussion as regards the truth of the general dictimi that "the more intense the color of the heartwood the more durable it is." Indian Forester, XLII, 1916, — Recent Progress in Cellulose Textiles. Pp. 85-90. Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, XXVII, 1916,— Two Timber-destroying Fungi. Pp. 201-2. Pleurotus nidiformis and Pholiota adiposa Fries. Bol. Min. Agr., Indus, e. Com., Ser. B., 13, 1914, — Crypto gamic Review for 1913. Pp. 146-57. Besides brief notes of diseases observed in connection with forest, garden, orchard, field and other plants, about 25 crypto- gamic diseases of conifers are listed and given a somewhat more extended discussion. 538 Forestry Quarterly Allgemeine Forst und Jagd-Zeitung, 1915, — Ahsteckung von einseitigen Weg-kurven. Pp. 105-9. Describes a new, simple method of laying out road curves without the use of formulae. Centralblatt fur das gesammte Forstwesen, 1915,— Etwas liber die Wildschafe und die EinfUhrung derselben als Gegenstand der hohen Jagd. Pp. 280-95. Discusses in great detail the varieties of wild sheep, with illustrations. NEWS AND NOTES On August 29th and 30th, following an almost unprecedented spell of hot dry weather, a conflagration broke out in the Clay Belt of Northern Ontario, covering probably several hundred thous- and acres, destroying a number of towns and settlements and par- tially destroying others, and causing the death of more than 400 people and the injury of many others. The greatest destruction was in the vicinity of Matheson on the Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway. Settlers' fires are reported as the agency re- sponsible. This is the greatest catastrophe of the kind, from the point of view of lives lost, that has ever taken place in Canada. It ranks at least equal in loss of life with the Hinckley fire, Minnesota, of 1894, and has apparently covered a considerably larger area. Apparently, the Clay Belt fire of 1916 is second, in its disastrous consequences, to no forest fire which has occurred on the continent save only the great Peshtigo fire in Wisconsin, in 1871, where 1500 persons lost their lives. It is, of course, a far greater disaster than the Porcupine fire, of 1911, in the same region of the Clay Belt as the 1916 fire, in which 164 lives were lost. The present fire is, to some extent, a secondary one, burning over territory on which the timber was killed in 19 1 1 . This illustrates the well-recognized fact that the first fire does not consume the standing timber altogether but generally only kills it, leaving the scene ready for a still worse fire a few years later. A strong campaign is being waged by the Commission of Con- servation and the Canadian Forestry Association in favor of the enactment of a law in the Province of Ontario, providing for the regulation of settlers' clearing fires, under the permit system, which is already in effect in a number of the other provinces. A thorough reorganization of the whole fire-ranging system of the Province is also considered essential. Twenty-two of the leading Boards of Trade of Ontario have made representations to the Ontario Government for a reorgani- zation of its forest protection system. The Boards have specified two reforms: the reorganization of the rangers so as to provide for supervision and inspection, both in the head office and the field; secondly, that the Government 539 540 Forestry Quarterly should make some effort to keep down the timber damage resulting from settlers' clearing fires. When it is considered that the limit holders' mutual associations in Quebec Province have built up efficient systems of forest pro- tection at a cost of about one third of a cent per acre for fire pro- tection, an efficient system in Ontario would involve little, if any, additional cost. A third of a cent an acre for protection makes a very minute showing beside a magnificent pine forest reduced to charcoal for lack of decent care. It has been estimated that forest fires in Canada destroy more wealth than would pay the annual interest on the last Dominion loan of 100 million dollars. This summer's forest fires in northern Ontario reported to have been started by settlers' fires, which, as noted above, were terribly destructive of life and property, in some cases wiping out whole towns, should arouse the Provincial Government to their responsi- bility in the matter of prevention of fires. We hope the Ontario Boards of Trade and many other organizations also will seize this opportimity to press home the urgent need of reform in the existing legislation and its enforcement. During the last session of the Quebec legislature several amend- ments were made to the fire act, calculated to add materially to its strength and efficiency. One of these provisions requires that settlers engaged in clearing operations must, between April 1 and November 15 of each year, secure a burning permit from an authorized forest officer before setting out clearing fires. A similar provision is urgently needed in northern Ontario, where there is practically no control oj settlers' clearing operations. Another amendment to the Quebec act provides that the debris from settlers' clearing operations must, before burning, be piled in heaps or rows at a distance of at least fifty feet from the forest. Holders of timber licenses on Crown lands are required to clear away the debris on a depth of one hundred feet from railway rights of way. This is an excellent provision, but should be made applicable to privately owned lands as well. In many cases, the efforts of railway companies in the direction of fire protection are largely neutralized through the presence of large quantities of the most inflammable debris on lands immediately adjacent to railway rights of way. News and Notes 541 Another excellent provision of the new Quebec act is that any fire ranger or other forest officer may stimmon any male citizen between 18 and 55 years of age to assist in extinguishing any forest fire, the rate of pay being specified, and penalty being provided for failure to obey the summons. The fire laws of the province of Quebec are among the most progressive in Canada, but larger appropriations are needed to make them fully effective. In particular, provision should be made for a larger staff of inspectors. Satisfactory progress was made during 1915 in the railway fire protection work, which has been handled during the past four seasons under the regulations of the Board of Railway Commis- sioners. The co-operation of the various federal and provincial fire-protective organizations has been given freely, and, with very few exceptions, the railways have also co-operated heartily and effectively. A total of 686 fires in forest sections is reported as having orig- inated within 300 feet of the lines of railways subject to the Railway Commission's jiu-isdiction. Of these, 43.4 per cent are definitely attributed to railway agencies, 27.8 per cent to known causes other than railways, and 28.8 per cent to tmknown causes. Of the total area burned over, amoimting to about 37,263 acres, 33.1 per cent is chargeable against the railways, 20.9 per cent to known causes other than railways, and 46 per cent to unknown causes. The total damage done is estimated at $74,256. Of this, the railways are definitely charged with only 11.2 per cent, while 24.2 per cent of the damage is due to known causes other than railways, and 64.4 per cent to unknown causes. Thus the railways, exclusive of Government lines and a few railways having provincial charters, are directly charged with less than half of the total number of fires reported as having originated within 300 feet of the track; these burned over less than one third of the total area reported, and did only one tenth of the total estimated damage. This showing is distinctly favorable to the railways, especially when it is considered that this 10 per cent of damage totals less than $8,400. These figures show that the railways have been remark- ably efficient in extinguishing their own fires, as well as those due to outside causes. Of all fires reported, the causes are as follows: locomotives, 33.9 per cent; railway employees, 9.5 per cent; tramps, etc., 11.4 per cent; settlers, 12.5 per cent; other known causes, 3.9 per cent; 542 Forestry Quarterly unknown causes, 28.8 per cent. It will thus be seen that the carelessness of tramps and settlers constitutes a very serious source of fire danger along railways, these two elements combined accounting for nearly one fourth of the total nimiber of fires reported. The Federal Trade Commission, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, and Forest Service propose to cooperate in studying eventual markets for lumber in Europe after the war, following in this the example of Canada, whose Timber Trade Commissioner, Mr. H. R. McMillan, is shortly expected home from China, having made the circuit of the world. Just to give an idea of how Mr. MacMillan, as Commissioner of the Dominion Department of Commerce, handles his work, and to show what is involved in estabhshing markets, we print verbatim the summary of his report on African trade as given in Markets Bulletin No. 11, of the British Colvmibia Forest Branch: There is a constant market in South Africa for three of the important forest products of Eastern Canada, red deals, box-shooks and doors. The raw material for these manufactiu*es is cheaper in Canada than in either the United States or Sweden, the two cotm- tries at present doing the biilk of the trade. It is only a question of organizing the manufacture on a competitive basis and seeking the business. That there is any Douglas fir sold in South Africa is due entirely to the initiative of the South African merchants in seeking it, not to any selling efforts on the part of the producers of Douglas fir, who have committed here, as elsewhere, the fatal error of con- sidering that their selling responsibilities have ended when they have finished competing with one another for the privilege of sup- plying limiber to a commission house. South Africa is a country importing $6,000,000 worth of timber a year. Douglas fir came into this market a new commodity a quarter of a century ago, unknown to purchasers, builders, architects, engineers, or mer- chants. As with all new commodities, there were prejudices against it. No one, not even the dealers were interested in it. Douglas fir maniifacturers, the only persons interested, were 13,000 miles away and had no direct representatives. The result was just as might be expected. Instances have been quoted showing the unreasonable, almost incredible, prejudices existing against the timber. These prejudices which differ in every part of the country have risen through ignorance of the timber. A cargo of flooring is affected by dry-rot. No one is in the country to take the question up at once and Douglas fir flooring is tabooed. News and Notes 543 Merchantable is used for car-sills where select should be used; it is not satisfactory and the railroad goes back to Pitch pine or teak at twice the price. On the other hand, one mine of one hundred on the Rand uses Douglas fir and finds it satisfactory; no one finds it out and conducts a systematic campaign to educate the other mine managers. No one does these things because there is no one in South Africa whose business it is to do so. So long as timber is used, the timber merchants are secure. The money which might have gone to removing these prejudices and developing the market has gone to the merchants who charge four times as much profit on Douglas fir in South Africa as on Swedish timber. The profit on wholesaling Douglas fir in South Africa is greater than the total f. o. b. price in British Columbia. The establishing of regular sailings, even of small vessels, once in two months between British Colimibia and South African ports wotdd greatly increase the exports of Douglas fir. The purchase of cargoes, with accompanying heavy investment, the holding of cargoes in stock, with interest charges accumulating and stock deteriorating, one year or more, would no longer be necessary. The importations would no longer be restricted to five or six merchants for the whole of South Africa. All persons engaged in the trade would import and more energy would be shown in pushing the sale of the timber. The elements of a great and successful market campaign exist in South Africa. Douglas fir is delivered to South Africa cheaper than any other timber. About $5,000,000 worth of timber is now imported yearly for general building and construction purposes alone. The country is yet undeveloped. Even greater quantities of building and con- struction timber will be required in the future. Every producer Douglas fir knows it is a construction timber, then why does Douglas fir represent only 7 per cent of the imports of building timber to South Africa? Because no one in South Africa is selling Douglas fir, and the moment it a. -ives in the country it is robbed of its one greatest advantage, its cheapness. It is only necessary that the problem be treated on broad lines. The timber industry, if organized, is wealthy enough and strong enough to market limiber in the same manner as gasoline, tobacco, or steel products are marketed. The cost of doing this in South Africa will be very small, and when it is done the exports will leap from insignificance to importance. The lumber cut of the nation by species, with the values of the woods per thousand at 1915 prices is shown by a Forest Service report just announced. The table gives the incomplete reported cut of each principal species and the probable total cut of each included in the computed total production of lumber of all kinds, 37,013,294,000 board feet, which was announced the last of April. ^ 544 Forestry Quarterly The reported cut of lath in 1915 was 2,745,134,000 and is estimated that the total cut was 3,250,000,000. The reported cut of shingles was 8,459,378,000 and the estimated total cut 9,500,000,000. The average 1915 value of each principal kind of lumber re- ported by the mills is also given. The figures are preliminary rounded values, but are based on the data reported by mills in the principal States producing each kind of lumber, and are there- fore close to the final averages. LT- J r iir J M ft. M ft. PerM Kind of Wood. Probable Total Reported Value Yellow pine 14,700,000 12,177,335 $12.50 Douglas fir 4,431,249 4,121,897 10.50 Oak 2,970,000 2,070,444 19.00 White pine 2,700,000 2,291,480 18.00 Hemlock 2,275,000 2,026,460 13.00 Spruce 1,400,000 1,193,985 16.50 Western pine 1,293,985 1,252,244 14.50 Cypress 1,100,000 926,758 20.00 Maple 900,000 771,223 15.00 Red gum 655,000 478,099 12.50 Chestnut 490,000 399,473 16.00 Yellow poplar 464,000 377,386 22.50 Redwood 420.294 418,824 13.50 Cedar 420,000 352,482 15.50 Birch 415,000 355,328 16.50 Larch 375,000 348,428 11.00 Beech 360,000 303,835 14.00 Basswood 260,000 207,607 19.00 Elm 210,000 177,748 17.00 Ash 190,000 159,910 22.50 Cottonwood 180,000 138,282 17.50 Tupelo 170,000 153,001 12.00 White fir 125,048 121,653 11.00 Sugar pine 117,701 115,109 Hickory 100,000 86,015 23.50 Balsam fir 100,000 71,358 14.00 Walnut 90,000 €5,144 Lodgepole pine 26,486 22,672 13.00 Sycamore 25,000 19,729 14.00 All other kinds 49,531 37,826 Total 37,013,294 31,241,734 A tree-planting machine was patented by Mr. Femow in 1887. It never was manufactured because nobody wanted to plant 20,000 trees in a day on plow ground. Last fall, Mr. T, A. Hoverstad, Agricultural Commissioner of the Minneapolis, St. Patil and Sault Sainte Marie Railway Company, having a large number of trees to plant along the right of way, constructed such a machine (as it described in the Report of Chief of the Forestry Division of she News and Notes 545 United States for 1888) and this spring used it. He writes: "We planted about 100,000 trees with the machine this year, and have planted more than 10,000 per day, including movements from cuts to cuts on the road. In straight planting we could doubtless plant 20,000 to 25,000 per day. When the machine was running, we planted 100 trees every three minutes. We are planning to build two more for our next year's work, making a few minor changes in them. ... It seems to be very practical. The trees we planted with the machine seem to be coming along as well as the trees planted by hand a year ago. Last year, we planted 2,000 trees per day, with 12 men. This year, we planted 10,000 trees per day with 7 men and 3 teams. We had two teams pulling the machine and one team hauling trees. The trees planted were all broadleaf, boxelder, Green ash, poplars, and willows, the latter being in pre- ponderance, 3 to 5 feet in height." The machines to be built will be used to plant the 300 miles of protective belt along the road. The railways of Canada are taking an increasing interest in the planting of trees and shrubs to secure better control of drifting snow and drifting sand, both of which interfere seriously with the operation of trains. East of Montreal near Vaucluse, in Quebec, light drifting sand has given trouble to the Canadian Pacific railway since the very thin sod was plowed up. The ordinary right of way fence was covered by the sand, and cattle could stray out on the track. Snow fences were used to some advantage, but in a bad season these would be almost covered up. In 1915 a number of grasses, including Brome, were planted but perished from the excessive heat of these exposed sand beds. This spring 3500 cuttings of cottonwood {Populus deltoides) and 1,000 one-year transplanted Jack pines were planted. An examination made after the trees and cuttings were in the ground a month showed that approj^imately 95 per cent were making good progress, and the unusual amount of rain during this spring and early stimmer has contributed very materially to the prospects of success. If later results prove satisfactory, other situations along the company's line will be planted in the near future. For a permanent snow fence which would grow rapidly and have sufficient foliage, 6,000 Norway spruce and 15,000 caragana 546 Forestry Quarterly were planted. The former were five-year transplants, of from 20 to 24 inches height, of heavy sturdy crown and well-developed root system. The caragana were from 30 to 48 inches in height and about three years of age. The caragana, as well as 1500 lilacs used in mixture for snow breaks, are from the nursery of the company at Wolseley, Saskatchewan. The following methods of planting were carried out : Where the distance from the track to the right of way fence is over 50 feet, a "standard" break was put in, viz., one row of spruce was planted 8 feet apart, and in front of this, caragana were placed two and one half feet apart. The distance between the rows is 6 feet. If there was only 50 feet between the track and the fence, one row of Norway spruce was planted 6 feet apart, or two rows of caragana four to six feet apart. On several situations one row of caragana was planted. At some of the company's stations, spruce, caragana and lilac were used for wind break and for improving the grounds. The provincial forest nursery at Berthierville, Quebec, has this year shipped out 400,000 forest tree seedlings, in addition to those utilized by the forest service on Crown lands. Of these, 250,000 were sold to the Laiu-entide Company, for planting on their property near Grand Mere, Quebec. This shipment supplements the large supply available from the company's own nursery at Grand Mere, the capacity of which has been increased materially. Another progressive concern which is undertaking forest planting is the Riordan Pulp and Paper Company, which, like the Lauren- tide Company, employs a forester, and which has purchased 20,000 tree seedlings for planting on their property in the vicinity of St. Jovite, Quebec. The third large shipment from the Berthierville nursery was to the Perthius seignory. which pur- chased 50,000 young trees. This is the sixth year during which plant material has been secured from the Berthierville nursery for planting on this seignory. The balance of the 400,000 total was disposed of to colleges and private individuals. Gradually, the necessity for planting is becoming recognized, to secure the re-establishment of the forest where sufficient seed trees are no longer available for natural reproduction. Since Confederation, in 1867, Quebec has derived a total direct revenue to the provincial treasury of more than $40,000,000 from News and Notes 547 the sale of cutting privileges on Crown timber lands. The revenue from this one source now averages well over $1,500,000 annually. The area of Crown land under license to cut timber is approxi- mately 44,500,000 acres, while 78,000,000 acres remain unlicensed. About 6,000,000 acres of timber land in the province are in private ownership. The following resolution, introduced by Professor P. S. Lovejoy, of the University of Michigan, was adopted by imanimous vote at the spring meeting of the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry, held at Kalamazoo, Michigan, and the secretary was instructed to send copies of it to the various State forestry associations, the Governors of States, and the press generally: Since wood is an essential raw material of the pulp and paper industry, and Since the supply of timber suitable for pulp manufacture is rapidly decreasing and its cost is rapidly increasing, and Since there are great areas of non-agricultural lands in the Lake States, which lands once produced splendid timber, but are now practically barren as the result of lumbering and repeated fires, We, therefore, urge that the pulp-producing States take immediate action, 1. Looking toward the better protection of these non-agricul- tural lands from fire; 2. Looking toward the restocking of such lands where necessary by planting. Three field parties are now at work in New Brunswick, in con- nection with the forest survey and classification of Crown lands. The project is under the supervision of P. Z. Caverhill, Provincial Forester, subject to the general direction of the Minister of Lands and Forests. The size and importance of the undertaking is indi- cated by the fact that the Crown lands in this province comprise 10,000 square miles and return a direct revenue to the provincial treasury averaging more than $500,000 annually from timber alone, in addition to large revenues from the sale of hunting and fishing privileges. There is considerable pressure upon the provincial government for the opening up of new lands, to provide for immigration and for the surplus native population. An important feature of the Act of 1913 was the provision for a classification of soils, with the object 548 Forestry Quarterly of directing settlement to lands really suitable for farming purposes. This wise provision is now being carried out, and the result will no doubt be to reduce to a minimtim settlement upon non-agri- cultural lands. The evil effects of such settlement may be seen in every province of Canada. The province of New Brunswick has undertaken to avoid the recurrence of such tragedies as were discovered by the Commission of Conservation to have been enacted in certain portions of the Trent watershed of Ontario, where settlers were allowed to locate on poor, sandy soils, then chiefly valuable only for their timber, the result being that with the removal of the timber and the exodus of the lumbering industry, the settlers were left stranded, with no opportunity to make a comfortable living, and faced with the necessity of constantly lowering their standards. The work of land classification in New Brunswick is being carried on in connection with the timber estimate and mapping of Crown lands. The country is covered systematically and examinations of the soil are made at regular intervals. Beyond any doubt, the result will be the opening up of new lands for settlement and the establishment of new communities under conditions which will ensure comfort and a reasonable standard of living. This, in turn, will mean a permanent increase in the population of the province, by providing for the native surplus as well as for immigrants. The Commission of Conservation has co-operated with the pro- vincial government in laying the foundation for the land classifica- tion work. Mr. J. F. Preston sends the following news notes from U. S. Forest Service, Missoula, Montana : District 1, of the Forest Service, shows for the fiscal year end- ing June 30, 1916, a total net receipt for timber sales of $440,000, which is an increase of $37,000 over the same period last year. On the other hand, the actual cut decreased from 182,000 M feet to 162,000 M feet. The increase in receipts is due to the sale of an unusually large quantity of timber during the last few months of the fiscal year. During the period from April to June 30, something over 300,000 M feet were sold. The prices received were rather surprising. Timber advertised at $3 per M feet for White pine, was bid in at prices varying from $3.50 to $5.90 per M feet. This is, of course, a direct result of the upward curve in lumber prices during the last six months. The total re- News and Notes 549 ceipts for the district from all sources amounted to $577,284.64. The tentative draft of the report on the lumber industry study- was completed some time ago. A final conference will be held in vSpokane between Mr. Mason, Mr. Greeley, and interested lum- bermen sometime during August or September, at which time all of the points will be considered. On account of the large increase in timber sales in the Idaho region, the problem of the proper marking of White pine in order to secure reproduction has been very carefully considered. New rules are contemplated in their near future in which will be em- phasized several new principles. A recent important development is the assignment of Joseph Kittredge to work involving almost exclusively the supervision of marking. It has been demonstrated that no set of general marking rules, however carefully prepared, can be applied to specific areas without, in some cases, consider- able modification. Kittredge is engaged in formulating specific rules which will apply to specific areas, guided by the general priniciples which have been established for the species. In other words, his function is to put into practice the scientific facts es- tablished by the Experiment Station force. The State of Pennsylvania has started a new attack on the chestnut blight, the White pine blister rust, and other tree dis- eases by going to Wisconsin to engage J. G. Sanders, Wisconsin State Entomologist, whose first step for the eradication of the White pine rust in Wisconsin was to destroy all the trees and berry bushes on the island where the disease was found. His in- sistence that the pine disease must be vigorously fought, if the pines of the nation were not to be destroyed forever, called at- tention of the Pennsylvania authorities to his work. Another Philadelphian, S. B. Detwiler, is now engaged in special work for the government, aiding in fighting this plague in New England. An outbreak of the White Pine blister rust has been discovered in the Niagara peninsula of Ontario. The Dominican Botanist and the Provincial Department of Lands and Forests are co-operat- ing in the work of detecting and eradicating this pest. E. J. Zavitz, Provincial Forester, is in charge of the field work, assisted by several inspectors. A serious problem confronting foresters in many regions of the Northwest is that of the mistletoe pest. Trees most affected are 550 Forestry Quarterly Western larch, Western Yellow pine, Lodgepole pine and Douglas fir. Reduction of the leaf surface of a tree causes reduction in both height and diameter growth. Severe infection throughout the crown of a tree often results in its death. Mistletoe infection, by weakening trees, makes them much more susceptible to fungi and insect attack. Young seedlings usually die shortly after re- ceiving the infection. Suggestions for control of the pest offered by the United States Forest Service, in a recent bulletin setting forth results of studies made along this line, are: (1) in logging operations infected trees should be marked for cutting; (2) pure stands of susceptible trees should not be established in regions where the pest is prevalent; (3) the mistletoe is a light-loving plant; also mistletoe seed may be carried great distances — one quarter of a mile was reported in one case; therefore close stands minimize the danger of infection; (4) all infected, isolated seed trees should be destroyed. C. J. Himiphrey, Pathologist in the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Departm^ent of Agriciiltiu*e, has prepared a useful bulletin (typewritten) on Sanitary Handling of Timber, calling special attention to the need of preventing infection with root- producing fungi during storage of timber, which are the cause of rot in buildings. The cause and conditions of rot are set forth with reference to usual conditions in practical handling. The means for prevention of infection are discussed with regard to location of yards, cleaning of yards, care in handling sticks and stacking limiber, construction of pile foundations, treatment with preservatives, and use in buildings. Mr. G. N. Lamb has prepared an important chart, or calendar, which shows, for the common trees of the eastern United States, the dates of leafing, flowering, "in foliage," seed ripening, seed falling, and leaf falling. The chart is the result of a compilation of data obtained by observers of the Forest Service and also by individuals working alone. The major activities of plants indicate clearly the advance of the season, for these activities depend upon the interaction of a nimiber of weather elements, e. g., temperature, precipitation, himiidity, and evaporation. Trees, being the most conspicuous plants and Uving for many years, lend themselves to phenological observations. There is thus a large body of available material for study along these lines. The tree News and Notes 551 calendar will be useful to botanists, especially foresters, and to meteorologists, and will also have interest for intelligent observers of plant growth. The botanical range of the various trees is given, and a bibliography is included. A Canadian Research Bureau has been established, the object of which is to investigate, organize and systematize our resources. It will carry on a scientific investigation of the mineral, metal, hydro-electrical and chemical resources of the nation and formulate plans for the lessening of the waste in forests, factories, mines and mills. The results of the Bureau's investigations will be sent out to manufacturers, merchants and others interested, in the form of bulletins. The Engineering Bureau of the National Lumber Manufac- turers' Association sent out its first technical letter in May. It is a discussion on creosoted wood block paving by Walter Buehler. On four letter size pages the details of size, species of wood and treatment with creosote are given, and the advantages of wood pavement elaborated. It appears that Minneapolis alone has over 70 miles of block street, some 14 years old. The Bureau of Forestry of the government of the Philippine Islands has learned already the lesson which lumbermen of the States are trying to drive home to every person interested in the lumber industry, the necessity for accurate grading of lumber, so that the consumer may secure the kind of wood exactly that he orders, and not something cheaper. The Philippine government proposes in the development of the industry in the forests of the islands, to start right, and grade lumber carefully at the very beginning of the operations, so that a fixed market may be secured, and the purchaser know definitely just what he will get when he orders a special kind of lumber. To assure this sort of results the Forestry Department is planning to import two well known lumber inspectors from the United States, men whose reputations will be a guarantee of the quality of lumber they in- spect wherever it may be shipped. The Canadian Forestry Association, through its Secretary, Mr. Robson Black, has been most active in its propaganda during 552 Forestry Quarterly this year of war, plying newspapers with articles, editorials and cartoons ; giving public lectures ; enlisting 300 new members since February 1 ; having interested 22 Boards of Trade of Ontario to petition the Minister of Lands and Forests for a reform of the fire ranging; circulating 15,000 copies of Boy Scouts Forest Book, and as many "A Matter of Opinion" booklets, and 6,000 School Stories, to settlers, railroaders, campers, teachers, some 2,000 of the latter co-operating; and distributing 4500 copies of the monthly journal. To meet Canadian conditions, the Dominion Council of the Boy Scouts' Association has authorized a Forestry badge, in lieu of the Woodman badge. The conditions under which this badge may be secured by the boys are very comprehensive and will do much to interest Canadian boys in the Canadian forests and the wild life found therein. The conditions for passing the test are: The scout must — 1. Identify the principal native tree species in own locality, and explain their principal distinguishing characteristics. 2. Identify five kinds of shrubs. 3. Describe the principal uses of ten species of Canadian woods. Visit a wood-using factory, if practicable. 4. Explain the aim of forestry, and compare with agriculture and imregulated lumbering. 5. Tell what are the effects of fires on soil, young forest growth and mature timber; principal causes of forest fires and how best to overcome them; three general classes of forest fires, and how to fight each. 6. Describe how the forest lands are protected and administered in own province. 7. Describe the general features of a limibering or pulpwood operation; how the cutting is done in the woods; method of trans- portation to the mill, and of manufacture there. Visit some por- tion of woods operation, or sawmill, or pulp or paper mill, if practicable. 8. (Optional.) Discuss one or more of the enemies of trees, such as insects (leaf -eaters, bark-borers, wood-borers), or decay (fungus diseases), and tell something of how damage from these sources may be lessened or overcome. The Forest Service has compiled a list of the institutions at which instruction in forestry may be obtained in the United States. News and Notes 553 There are altogether 52 institutions listed, 23 with courses leading to a degree, 40 with elementary or short courses, 11 of which at colleges giving degree courses. At 8 of the degree-conferring institutions ranger courses are given, varying in length, lasting from 6, 8, 12 weeks to three sessions of five months. In six States two degree-conferring institutions exist, namely Colorado, Georgia, Michigan, New York, Pennsylvania, Washington. The courses at the degree-conferring institutions run from two years for graduates to 3, 4 and 5 years for imdergraduates. The Forest School of the Philippines has recently been separated from the College of Agriculture, making it a distinct school under the University of the Philippines. The Director of Forestry is thereby appointed ex-officio dean of the School. When the Forest School was first organized, it was thought advisable, on account of the use of the Agricultural College buildings and grounds, to place it imder this College, but now that it has justified its existence and is considered an important adjunct to the University, it has been separated so as to work independently. Arrangements for the new course in Forest or Logging Engineer- ing at the University of California have been completed and instruction commenced at the opening of the college year in August. The coiu"se will require ionr years for completion. The object of the course is to train men along lines somewhat parallel to civil, mechanical and electrical engineering, but special- izing in work of the limiber industr3\ The training will be thor- ough, but will not specialize too closely, since conditions in liim- bering vary w'idely. It will have the same foundations of mathe- matics, physics, etc., as the other engineering courses of the University. It will be broadened by the addition of courses in accounting and cost-keeping and scientific management, business organization, etc. The course by years is as follows : First Year — ^Algebra, anal>i;ical geometry, physics, siu-veying, chemistry. Summer following First Year — Surveying field work, four weeks in camp. Second Year — Differential and integral calculus, physics, de- scriptive geometry, shop work in wood, elements of steam engineer- ing, elements of electrical engineering, accounting, first aid and camp sanitation, forest protection (from fire and insects). 554 Forestry Quarterly Summer following Second and Third Years — Student is to be advised to drop out of college for one year and rustle a job with some lumber company unless he has had previous equivalent experience. Fourth Year — Engineering mechanics, railroad surveying, forest mensuration (scaling, cruising, etc.), shop work in metal, cost- keeping, economics (factors of industrial efficiency and business organization), silviculture, strength of materials, wood technology. Summer following Fourth Year — Field work in forest mensura- tion, etc. ; in camp, eleven weeks. Fifth Year — Forest improvement construction, logging, busi- ness law, scientific management, engineering contracts, forest administration, forest finance, timber trees of the United States, geology, tree planting, testing laboratory, forest utilization (timber preservation, destructive distillation, etc.) The State College of Washington, at Pullman, is the third college we note to offer through its extension department and ths department of forestry a correspondence course in Lumber and Its Uses. The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse and the University of Minnesota also offer a course on this subject. These courses are specially designed to be of value to lumber dealers, contractors, carpenters, and others connected with the wood-working industries. The Forest Service of the United States is conducting a compara- tive study with the Forest School of the University of Georgia, the object being to ascertain methods of marketing farm woodlot products and suggest improvements. The data will be placed before the farmers of the State in publications of the University. With the idea that the many people who go into the Adirondacks each summer shoiild know more of the forests and their wild life. The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse as a part of its extension work, interested Mr. Melvil Dewey, President of the Lake Placid Club, in setting aside the last week of July as a Forest Week for the Club. The many people who come to the Club and to other resorts about Lake Placid had the privilege this year of hearing addresses by some of the best known foresters in the country. The program consisted of a round table discussion each morning in the week at 10:00 o'clock, at which the development of the forest, how it may be protected and the part the wild life News and Noies 555 of the forest plays in its development, was taken up and discussed; in the evening general addresses, in most instances illustrated, were given and each afternoon, small groups were taken out under the guidance of experts for the study of trees and shrubs and the wild life in the forest. During the winter semester, 1915-16, there were enrolled in the University of Munich 6021 students, of whom 469 were women and 193 foresters, but 4450 of the male students were absent in the army. The Forestry Club, Faculty and students, of the Montana Forest School at Missoula publishes an Annual under the title Forestry Kaimin, this Indian word meaning "something in black and white." The second volimie, of 128 pages, is an unpretentious, bona fide student publication, fun, himior, poetry and information of various character being held at equal value. A spirit of all-round human- ness and practical life pervades the volimie. Perhaps the existence of a ranger school, attended last session (14 weeks) by 40 members, in addition to the two higher grade courses in forestry and forestry engineering, and a correspondence course, account in part for the practical spirit. A short editorial on Training, Education and Cultiu-e, lays the stress insistently on training and makes the bold, but untenable assertion that "most of the permanent progress which has been made in the world . . . has been by virtue of the training . . . rather than by grace of education." Of the worth-while pieces of information, we may mention an article by Prof. J. H. Bonner and F. E. Bonner on "New Methods of Making Topographic Surveys," which we reprint in this issue, together with a description of methods pursued in the United States Forest Service Office of Geography, and two pages of illustration of defects in wood and the allowance for them in scaling. At the sixth annual convention of the North Carolina Forestry Association, Mr. C. I. Millard, President of the John L. Roper Lxmiber Company of Norfolk, brought out strongly the need for experimental and demonstration forests and ofifered to give the necessary land for such an area in the Loblolly pine region. The gift was accepted by the State Geologist on behalf of the Geological board which has recently been empowered by the legislature to receive gifts of land for this purpose. 556 Forestry Quarterly The example of the progressive Laurentide Company of Grand Mere is to be followed by the Riordan Paper Company, of Mon- treal, who have decided to commence planting operations on their limits. Doubtless, other companies will follow in their steps before very long, for such a policy will prove profitable in the long run. The Laurentide Company have at present about 2100 acres devoted to planting and experimental operations. The experiments include thinning, natural regeneration, timber growth studies, draining swamps, etc. After cutting operations all slash is piled and burned. Another noteworthy featiire of these plantations is the system of dirt roads and fire lines which is being developed. On October 24-27 a joint session of the Western Forestry and Conservation Association and the Pacific Logging Congress will be held at Portland, Oregon, where timber problems, lumber problems and logging problems are to be discussed by experts, with participation of the Department of Commerce, the Federal Trade Commission and the Forest Service. The 1916 midsummer meeting of the Pennsylvania Forestry Association, held at Reading, June 27-29, had a splendid attend- ance of enthusiastic people: members of the American Forestry Association, instructors in a mmiber of forestry schools, forestry students from the Pennsylvania State College and from the State Forest Academy at Mont Alto, members of the Berk County Con- servation Association, organized two years ago. The meeting took the usual form of addresses, papers on forestry subjects and an outing to view the municipal tree nursery at Antietam Lake, which is a city reservoir, and contains 30,000 coniferous seedlings for future planting on city property. On the watersheds of Antietam Lake there have been planted 100,000 coniferous and broadleaf trees, the work of planting having been done mostly by pupils of the Girls' High School of Reading, all the coniferous seedlings having been furnished by the State Department of Forestry. A new flagstaff has just been erected at Kew Gardens, London, to replace one which had been presented in 1861, but which when attention was directed to it for repairs was found to be rotting at the base, so that it would have been necessary to remove as much as 40 feet from the length. The new flagpole is a gift of the British News and Notes 557 Columbia Government and was chosen as a representative of the giant fir trees of the Province. It measures 214 feet, 3V2 inches in length, the widest diameter at the base being 2 feet, 9V4 inches and at the small end 12 inches. It is interesting to note the many articles necessary to civiliza- tion which have as their primary element wood. Two recent uses for kraft paper, which is manufactured from sulphate pulp, are paper pipe and furniture. The Berlin Mills Company is now pro- ducing paper pipe wound over cores of various diameters and made in various thicknesses, which is thoroughly permeated with a tar compound, forming a strong compact pipe capable of taking a thread and lighter and less expensive and more durable than iron pipe. These pipes are used for underground conduits, for electric wires for resisting action and corrosive acids, especially in coal mines. Paper suits which are said to be equal, if not superior, to cloth or fur garments in keeping out cold are now being manufactured to be worn beneath outer garments by airmen. Paper being a non-conductor, furnishes an excellent protection from the cold experienced in ascending to high altitudes. The use of artificial silk made directly from wood is increasing by leaps and bounds, reports American Forestry. Originally, its use was common in the manufacture of braids and trimmings, but recently the manufacture of hose from it has become an industry of vast importance. Other uses for artificial silk are woven goods of all kinds, linings, tapestries, etc., neckties, ribbons, sweater coats, etc. About 5V2 million pounds of artificial silk are used annually in the United States. The Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin, is investigating the artificial silk problem as a possibility for utilizing wood waste, and has on hand a variety of articles made from this material. Philip T. Coolidge, M. F. (Yale, 1906), has opened an office for the practice of forestry at 217 Stetson Building, 31 Central Street, Bangor, Maine. He is prepared to make timber estimates and stimipage sales, and to do forest planting. 558 Forestry Quarterly The American Academy of Arborists at its first annual conven- tion, in Newark, N. J., chose American Forestry as its official organ. The planting of 90,000 olive trees is the monimient chosen by- friends to commemorate Herzl, a prominent Zionist, and his work. Such a memorial would probably be more pleasing to all whose work is deemed worthy of conursmoration than stone or bronze statues. Dr. Richard Hess, the well-known professor of forestry at the University of Giessen, died on January 18, 1916, 81 years old. His volumes on forest protection, forest utilization, silvics, and the latest edition of Heyer's Silviculture, which he supervised, are well known as standard works to American students. PERSONALITIES 1. Northeastern United States and Eastern Canada Dr. H, N. Whitford has been appointed as Assistant Professor of Tropical Forestry at Yale and is to begin work next September. R. B. Miller, of 315 Church Street, Fredericton, N. B., was married on June 8 to Miss Burchell of Sydney, N. S. G. Harris CoUingwood has been appointed as Assistant Professor of Forestry at Cornell University. He began his work — which will be as Extension Professor, succeeding Frank B. Moody — on July 1. Dr. Charles C. Adams has been promoted to the professorship of Forest Zoology in the newly formed department of Forest Zoology in the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University. Reginald D. Forbes has been appointed Assistant Forester of New Jersey, to succeed P. T. Coolidge, resigned. He began his work on July 1. A. Oakley Smith has resigned as City Forester of Mount Vernon, N. Y., and re-entered the service of F. Vitale, Landscape architect. Philip T. Coolidge, who has been Assistant State Forester of New Jersey since the beginning of 1915, has opened an office for timber estimating and forestry work in the Stetson Building, 31 Central Street, Bangor, Me. D. N. Trapnell, assistant in the Forest Products Laboratories at McGill, was killed at the battle of Ypres. G. H. Gutches, head of the New York State Ranger School, has resigned and will return to the Canadian Forest Service. Lieut. Arnold M. Thurston, student at the University of Toronto Forest School, was killed in action in June. His commanding officer writes of his bravery and "that it was my intention to promote him to the rank of Captain, if he survived the present fighting." Messrs. D. A. Macdonald and C. H. Morse, of the Dominion Forestry Branch, have been elected Associate members of the Canadian Society of Forest Engineers. Mr. Morse went overseas in the spring with the 234th, Forestry Battalion. Sub-Flight Lieut. J. R. Chamberlin, who had enlisted in the British Air Service, was killed in an aeroplane accident in England early in June. Mr. Chamberlin was a graduate of the University of Toronto Forest School, and a member of the British Columbia Forest Branch staff. 2. Southern United States W. B. Greeley has been elected chairman of the executive committee of the Society of American Foresters for the current year. Elwood Bushnell of Johnson City, Tenn., was married on June 21 to Miss Lucy Sitton of that city. Walter G. Schwab has been appointed Assistant State Forester of Virginia. He assumed his new duties about May 15. Ernest Bruncken, early patron of forestry and author of an elementary textbook on the subject, was dismissed from the position of Assistant Register of Patents in the Library of Congress because of alleged indiscretions in his utterances. 559 560 Forestry Quarterly 3. Central United States Dorr Skeels, dean of the forest school of the University of Montana, has been appointed manager of the Western Pacific Lumber Company, Riordan, Ariz., of which Henry A. Porter, of Chicago, is president. 4. Northern Rockies William M. Mace, of Ephraim, Utah, was married to Miss Pauline Olson of Salt Lake City, on May 17. Miles B. Haman, who graduated from Cornell as Master in Forestry in June, 1916, has been assigned as assistant to A. W. Sampson on the Mauti Experiment Station. 5. Southwest, Including Mexico Joseph C. Kircher has been appointed Forest Supervisor of the Sante Fa National Forest. Thomas E. McCuUough, for some time Forest Examiner on the Coconino National Forest, resigned on April 24 to go into private business at Flagstaff, Ariz. Robert Stephenson, of the Forest Service, was married on February 18 to Miss Alice Helen Chapman of Tucson, Ariz. Don P. Johnston, heretofore Supervisor of the Santa Fe National Forest, has gone to Tucson, Ariz., to assume charge of the Coronado-Chiricahua Forest. Paul P. Pitchlynn has been appointed Forest Supervisor of the Sitgreaves National Forest, succeeding Chas. H. Jennings who has been transferred to the Supervisorship of the Alamo-Lincoln in New Mexico. Supervisor C. C. Hall (known to fame as "Six-shooter Charlie"), of the Tonto National Forest has been transferred to the Santiam Forest in Oregon. He is succeeded by W. H. Goddard, hitherto Supervisor of the Datil. The new Supervisor of the Datil National Forest is A. H. Douglas, heretofore Deputy Supervisor of the Gila Forest. Clifford W. McKibbin, formerly Deputy Supervisor of the Coronado National Forest, has been transferred to the District Forester's ofiice as Assistant in the office of Silvicultiure. P. P. Porcher and Wyman have been assigned to the Fort Valley Experiment Station. 6. Pacific Coast, Including Western Canada Professor M. B. Pratt, of the University of California, spent the summer vacation in the East, his trip including a three weeks' stay at the Madison Forest Products Laboratory. M. L. Erickson, Supervisor of the Crater National Forest, at Milford, Ore., was married to Miss Gertrude Turner Hanna, of San Francisco, on April 29. H. R. MacMillan, head of the British Columbia Forest Service, is now in China on his globe-encircling tour for the Canadian Government. He has already been in the United Kingdom, Holland, France, South and East Africa, Australia and India. He will visit New Zealand also John D. CoflFman has been promoted from Deputy Forest Supervisor of the Personalities 561 Trinity National Forest to Forest Supervisor of the California National Forest, with headquarters at Willows, Cal. E. H. MacDaniels has been promoted from Deputy Forest Supervisor of the Crater National Forest to Forest Supervisor of the Chelan National Forest, with headquarters at Chelan, Wash. Mr. Asa S. Williams, who some time ago was seriously injured in an accident on a log slide, has entirely recovered, and is now connected with the Empire Manufacturing Company, at Vancouver, B. C, as manager of their Logging Machinery Department sales. Douglas K. Noyes has been transferred to the office of Silviculture at San Francisco. Eric G. MacDougall, graduate of the Toronto University Forest School, 1911, of the British Columbia Forest Branch, has been wounded in battle. It is reported that R. A. R. Campbell, student at University of Toronto Forest School, 1912-14, also of the British Columbia Forest Branch has been killed in action. Mr. Campbell enlisted with the Canadian forces in Septem- ber, 1914, but later obtained the commission of Lieutenant with the West Yorkshire, a British Regiment. 7. Hawaii, the Philippines and the Orient L. R. Stadtmiller of the Philippine Service will leave there in September for several months at home in Bridgeport, Conn. Shoitsu Hotta, Assistant Professor of Forestry in the Tokyo Imperial Institute of Japan, has entered the Yale Forest School, having been sent there by the Japanese Government. Arthur F. Fischer has been appointed Acting Chief of the Philippine Forest Service in the absence of W. F. Sherfesee in China. He succeeds Wilhelm Klemme who has resigned from the Service. COMMENT On p. 524 we have given a very full abstract of a highly inter- esting article by Biolley on normal stock which is certainly novel and thought compelling, although we are not at all convinced of the soundness of his argimients and, indeed, find it desirable to point out briefly a number of fundamental misconceptions. The author has singularly failed to secure a proper conception of normal stock and its application as current among German foresters; he misunderstands the meaning and value of yield tables. Even the biology of the forest on which he lays so much stress in the interesting expose is, we believe, not quite clear in his mind ; nor is the object of thinnings. We may also find some flaws in his conception of the business of forestry in general. The gist of the whole discussion is to make prominent the need of silviculture and to substitute for a regulated organization free will and judgment of the manager. It is an organic mistake of the French in general, at least in their literature, to mix up silviculture and organization. The laudable endeavor to join the two in practice leads to unclearness, especially as to the function of organization. There is hardly a German forester who would not admit that silviculture — production — ^is the important branch of forestry, and that it can be practised only through recognition of biological laws of development. There is no sane German forester, on the other hand, who considers, as the author asserts, that normal stock is the object and not a means to an end — sustained production. Least of all can any one admit that the normal stock is "determined by official prescription." Yield tables from which normal stock may be figured are not constructions of the brain, but are records of actual occurrences and accomplishments in nature and vinder certain treatment. They are not mathematics to which the management must conform, but attempts to measure what silviculture under given conditions can accomplish, a standard measure of ovir silvicultural endeavor. The concededly best formula method was elaborated by Karl Heyer who took great pains to warn against an attempt to rely upon a normal forest formula or to consider the formula anything but an assistant guide. Biolley overlooks that the normal forest and normal stock idea contains a normal increment, i. e., a best, 562 Comment 563 attainable increment, and that the attainment .of this admittedly can only be accomplished by silviculture. The conception of the biology of the forest, according to which apparently every stand experiences regularly a natural deteriora- tion of its producing capacity in early life, which condition can be corrected by fellings, is, to say the least, novel. A singular misconception is that of the object of thinnings "to create more favorable conditions of nutrition." This may, under certain conditions, be one of the objects, but the main object is to shift the increment from the large number of components to a select few; to improve the increment in quality. That a tree, a stand, an animal, a man shows in its growth and development the periodicity which gives rise to the growth curve exhibiting rises of rates and declines, is a phenomenon which the best silvi- cvilturist cannot overcome, although to a small extent he may dis- turb the periods to his advantage, as German silviculturists have shown, most beautifully in Wimmenauer's demonstrations of keeping the annual ring width approximately equal for several decades. (See F. Q., vi, p. 432.) The charge of arbitrariness in determining the normal stock on the basis of yield tables becomes ludicrous in comparison with the arbitrariness in the determination of his own "rational" stock or etale. The former relies upon measurements of actual, care- fully chosen standards, the conditions of which are known; the latter on nothing but personal opinions. He charges against the normal stock methods what is chargeable against the lack of busi- ness judgment on the part of the manager in applying the method, or what is chargeable to the fluctuations of business in general. The ideal manager who can do what Biolley wishes him to do is, indeed, a rara avis, and the intensity of application which he provides is in large State properties hardly anywhere practicable. We may add that the mithode du controle was designed for selec- tion forest and since there is no other satisfactory practical method of organization for this character of forest, this silvicultural prescription may be applied with advantage. For other than selection forest the conception of the normal forest and its use for measiiring silvicultural success on the very ground which Biolley correctly demands — ^maximum increment, quantitative and quali- tative— ^is still useftil and practicable, even to the man who desires freedom from formalism. Yale University Forest School NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT A two-year course is offered, leading to the degree of Master of Forestry. Graduates of collegiate institutions of high standing are ad- mitted upon presentation of their college diploma, provided they have taken certain pre- scribed undergraduate courses. For further information, address JAMES W. TOUMEY, Director, New Haven, Conn. The University of Toronto and University College With Which Are Federated ST. MICHAEL'S, TRINITY AND VICTORIA COLLEGES Faculties of Arts, Medicine, Education, Applied Science, Forestry Departments of Household Science, Social Service The Faculty of Forestry offers a four-year course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Forestry. For information apply to the REGISTRAR OF THE UNIVERSITY^ or to the Secretaries of the respective Faculties. THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY Sjn'acuse, New York Under-graduate courses in General Forestry, Paper and Pulp Making, Logging and Lumbering, City Forestry and Forest Engineering, all leading to degree of Bachelor of Science. Special opportunities offered for post-graduate work leading to degrees of Master of Forestry, Master of City Forestry, and Doctor of Economics. A one-year course of practical training at the State Ranger School on the College Forest of 1,800 acres at Wanakena in the Adirondacks. State Forest Camp of three months open to any man over 16 held each summer on Cran- berry Lake. Men may attend this Camp for from two weeks to the entire summer. The State Forest Experiment Station of 90 acres at Syracuse and an excellent Forest Library offer unusual opportunities for research work. HARVARD UNIVERSITY Department of Forestry Bussey Institution Offers specialized graduate training leading to the degree of Master of Forestry in the following fields: — Silviculture and Management, Wood Technology, Forest Entomology, Dendrology, and (in cooperation with the Graduate School of Business Adminis- tration) the Lumber Business. For further particulars address RICHARD T. FISHER, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts D. E. LAUDERBURN Forest Engineer Timber estimates, forest surveys and maps, inspection of logging operations, management of private holdings, fire prevention, appraisal of damage by fire, gases or trespass, tree planting Metropolitan Life Building New York, N. Y. WOULD YOU LIKE to receive regularljr the Bulletins and Circulars pertaining to the actual practice of preventing the decay of wood? While these frankly advocate the use of Avenarius Carbolineum for the brush or open tank treatment of timber they are none the less interesting on that account but rather MORE so, for Avenarius Carbolineum is, without doubt, the one preservative that has demonstrated its decay-preventing qualities during thirty-five years. The Bulletins and Circulars are sent free. Circ. 56 contains a Bibliography of Technical References. Circ. 58 covers Treating Tanks for Fence Posts, Shingles, etc. Address CARBOLINEUM WOOD PRESERVING COMPANY 185 Franklin St., New York, N. Y. The Care of Trees in Lawn, Street and Park By B. E. Fernow American Nature Series Working with Nature Published by Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1910 392 pp. 8° Illustrated Price, $2.00 Net For Sale by Henry Holt & Co., New York Economics of Forestry A Reference Book for Students of Political Economy and Professional and Lay Students By B. E. FERNOW 12mo, $1.50 net. By mail, $1.65 "It is by far the best and most important work on forestry which deals with American conditions." EDWARD M. SHEPARD, New York. "I find it as I expected meaty and complete. It fills the place it is written for." PROF. F. ROTH, University of Michizan. "I have read few books on forestry with as much enjoyment." PROF. DR. SCHWAPPACH, Eberswalde, Germany. A NEW MUCH REVISED EDITION NOW IN PRESS For Sale by T. Y. CROWELL & CO., New York Nursery Stock for Forest Planting Seedlings TREE SEEDS Transplants $2.25 per 1000 ^Write for prices on large quantities *6.00 per 1000 THE NORTH-EASTERN FORESTRY CO., Cheshire, Conn. LIDGERWOOD SKIDDERS CONTKNTS 375 The Relation of Forestry to Science By Barrington Moore. A Historical Study of Forest Ecology; Its Develop- ment in the Fields of Botany and Forestry 380 By Dr. R. H. Boerker. New Topographic Survey Methods - 433 By J. H. Bonner and F. R. Bonner. Cost of Logging Large and Small Timber - 441 By W. W. Ashe. Notes on a Method of Studying Current Growth Percent _ _ _ _ - 453 By B. A. Chandler. Notes on State Forestry in Ireland - 461 By H. R. MacMillan. County or Community Working Plans as a Basis for Woodlot Extension Work - 467 By W. D. Sterrett. Model of a Regulated Forest - 471 By D. Y. Lin, M. F. •Current Literature _ . _ _ - 474 Other Current Literature - 489 Periodical Literature _ _ _ _ - 497 Other Periodical Literature - 536 News and Notes . _ _ _ _ - 539 Personalities _ . _ _ _ - 559 Comment - - - - 563 VOLUMK XIV NUMBER 4 FORESTRY QUARTERLY A PROFESSIONAL JOURiNAL DECEMBER, 1916 Subscription Two Dollars Per Anniiin 1410 H STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C. Entered as second class mail matter February 1, 1915, at the post office at Washington, D. C, under the Act of March 3, 1879 FORESTRY QUARTERLY BOARD OF EDITORS B. E. Fernow, LL. D., Editor-in-Chiej Henry S. Graves. M.A.. Forester, U. S. Forest Service Raphael Zon, F. E., U. S. Forest Service Frederick Dunlap, F. E., University of Missouri T. S. Woolsey, Jr., M.F., Consulting Forest Engineer Albuquerque, AL M. Ernest A. Sterling, F. E., Consulting Forest Engineer, Chicago, III. Clyde Leavitt, M.S. F., Commission of Conservation, Ottavua, Canada Filibert Roth, B.S., University of Michigan Hugh P. Baker, D. Oec., Syracuse University R. C. Bryant, F.E., Yale University Samuel J. Record, M. F., Yale University Richard T. Fisher, A.B., Harvard University Walter Mulford, F.E., University of California A. B. Recknagel, M.F., Cornell University C. D. Howe, Ph. D., University of Toronto J. H.White, M. A., B.Sc.F.. University of Toronto Asa S. Williams, F. E. P. S. Ridsdale, Business Manager ' Washington, D. C. the objects for which this journal is published are: To aid in the establishment of rational forest management. To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of interest to professional foresters of America. To keep the profession in touch with the current technical literature, and with the forestry movement in the United States and Canada. Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at the Uni- versity of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of editors Subscriptions and other business matters may be addressed to Forestry Quarterly, 1410 H Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC. WASHINGTON. r> C Mistletoe Damage on Jack Pine. On Nisbet Reserve near Prince Albert, Saskatchewan. [See Article, p. 567.) ANNOUNCEMENT With this issue, the Forestry Quarterly completes its four- teenth volume, and with it, concludes its existence. With the year 1917, it will begin a new life in amalgamation with the Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters, under the title "Journal of Forestry." The new magazine is to be published in eight monthly issues, containing approximately as many pages as the two original publications together, at a sub- scription price of $3 per annimi. Since it is expected that for some time at least the chief editors of the former two publications will have charge of the new maga- zine, ,the character of the new journal will essentially remain the same as the present publications, with an attempt at improving, as opportunity is afforded, the good features of either. The departments of the Quarterly will be kept up with little change. The Editor of the Quarterly wishes to take this opportunity of extending heartfelt thanks to his co-editors for the generous cooperation which they have shown in the fourteen years of existence of the journal, giving unpaid service year after year — a labor of love — ^without which it would hardly have been possible to maintain the publication. From a modest student publication in 1903, of 176 pages, the Quarterly has grown, until now a volimie of 700 pages can hardly cover the ground adequately. The fourteen volumes form a reference work of rare character recording the advance of forestry science in all lands and the development, from all points of view, of the profession in the United States and all other cotmtries. To make it as useful as possible as a reference work, it becomes necessary to have a complete Index to all volumes. Such an index had been promised before to cover the first twelve volumes, but since the amalgamation was then begun to be considered, it appeared desirable to wait with its publication until the matter was decided and the index could include the whole set of volumes. We hope to be able within the coming year to issue such an index. The Editor bespeaks for the new Journal of Forestry the generous support of the profession. 565 ERRATA In the article of Dr. Boerker in this volume, on pp. 375-432, the proofreader has overlooked a number of errors. The follow- ing, which do not correct themselves, the reader is asked to correct. Page Line Errata Meyon should be Meyen 200 should be 20 industrial should be individual production should be protection initiative should be initiated insert why should not after Also 388 9 391 31 416 5 418 24 421 19 428 34 FORESTRY QUARTERLY Vol. XIV December, 1916 No. 4 SOME SUGGESTIONS ON THE CONTROL OF MISTLETOE IN THE NATIONAL FORESTS OF THE NORTHWEST By James R. Weir* Recent field studies have shown the need of some action being t^. taken in the control of mistletoe in many of the Western National > "' Forests.^ Although anyone familiar with the present difficulties entailed in obtaining both a successful silvicultural and financial restilt on the average sales area recognizes the futility of attempt- ing many things known to be good forestry; still, some things can be done. Very frequently conditions are such that no very elaborate plans can be sustained, but it is the duty of the practi- cal forester to seek out opportunities for applying the principles which underlie the building up of a better forest, better in the sense of less waste resulting from unchecked ravages of disease- producing agents. It is a mistaken idea that all the forester has to do is to continue harvesting mature timber, great as this neces- sity may be, and plant denuded areas without some thought of the future health of the forest. The present condition of mistle- toe infection in many regions is far from what it should be to in- sure the realization of the best and largest amoimt of merchantable material. This is the result of long years of unchecked growth of these parasites. It is an injury that will increase in intensity not only because of the absence of any organized plan in forest manage- ^ Forest Pathologist, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry. 2 Weir, James R. Larch Mistletoe: Some Economic Considerations of Its Injurious Effects. U. S. Dept. of Agri. Bui. 317. January 20, 1916. Weir, James R. Mistletoe Injury to Conifers in the Northwest. U. S. Dept. of Agri. Bui. 360. June 17, 1916. See other publications by the same author. Meinecke, E. P. Forest Tree Diseases Common in California and Nevada. Misc. Pub. U. S. Forest Service, pp. 54-58. 1914. Hedgcock, G. G. Notes on Some Diseases of Trees in Our National Forests. Phytopathology 5:3, pp. 175-181. 1915. 567 568 Forestry Quarterly ment to check it in many regions where the parasites most aboimd , but very often the method of cutting is such as to directly insure the propagation of the parasites. I refer in the main to the leaving of heavily infected trees on sales areas. Very often such trees, although of merchantable size and which otherwise would come under the cutting clause, are so seriously burled and infiltrated with pitch that very little merchantable material can be obtained from them and they are allowed to remain stand- ing. This in itself is in direct opposition to the most fundamental principles of forest sanitation which has for its object the preven- tion of permanent injury to reproduction or to more mature forest growth. The leaving of broomed, burled, and spike-topped mistle- toe-infected trees would not in itself be so serious a matter, although in many regions it involves the loss of large simis, but the ease with which the reproduction is permanently infected from such trees shows the necessity of their destruction. The fact that the older infected trees introduce other factors of prime importance in the deterioration of the stand is of additional concern. A tree that can not eventually yield the best and largest amotmt of material when growing on its normal site should not be allowed to exist among its healthy neighbors. This is the principle of htmian hygiene applied to forestry. Mistletoe-infected trees during the years preceding and in the last stages of suppression are apt to be carriers and distributors of serious wood-destroying fungi, result- ing not only in the decay of the trees themselves, but transmitting or maintaining these agents in the forest. Since in many cases the groimd is extensively shaded by low, sprawling, mistletoe- infected trees, air and light are excluded from an otherwise fertile soil for young growth. The space occupied by such trees is wholly wasted and the opportimity for the maximum yield for the type is entirely lost. A more direct influence on the future of the oncoming forest is the small size and poor quality of the seed pro- duced by trees seriously suppressed by mistletoe. Considering the trying conditions under which forest tree seed must at times ger- minate and tmder which the young seedling must become estab- lished, the best quality of seed is none too good. Add to this the fact that mistletoe brooms and eventually the uninfected parts of the tree cease altogether to produce seed, the practice of leav- ing trees of this kind for seeding purposes is not good forestry. This is all the more important when it is considered that such Mistletoe Control 569 trees when isolated or left in seed plots may exhibit this deficiency in seed production before the allotted time for an adequate reseed- ing has expired. No one questions the expenditure of large sums for the control of fire. The effect of a heavy infection by mistletoe over large areas results in a great loss in increment which, when coupled with other defects caused by the parasite, is analogous in some respects to the immediate destructiveness of fire. It is well known that fire when not causing death directly precedes serious injury by fimgi and insects due to a weakening of resistance to these agents. Mistletoe in regions where it is in great abundance may be considered quite as great a factor in initiating the ravages of ftmgi and insects as fire. Many forest fires resiilt from light- ning, striking trees which have a large amount of dry wood either of the lower branches or at the top. One of the most common effects of mistletoe is to cause the top of the tree to die. We have here another direct relation of mistletoe to forest fires. The accumulation of fallen mistletoe brooms about the bases of larches often insures the death of the tree in case of ground fires even if the fire does not extend to the dry dead brooms still attached to the tree. The formation of burls and "cat faces" by mistletoe on the main trunk may cause extensive windfalls in times of high winds, thus littering the forest floor with a highly inflammable material, At certain stages in their formation, these burls exude large quan- tities of pitch which is a factor in holding the fire at one point on the trunk, resulting in deep wounds. The false mistletoes (Razoumofskya) are of much greater im- portance in the West than in the East. Only one species is known to occur on Eastern conifers and is of importance in but few regions. This species so far as known does not occur in the West. In great contrast to this, practically every Western conifer is attacked by some one of these parasites. Space will not allow of going into detail, but the timber trees most seriously affected are the Lodgepole pine. Yellow pine, Douglas fir, larch, and hem- lock. The reason why these parasites have not received greater attention from the practical forester is probably due to the fact that the work of wood-destroying fungi is more directly associated with the destruction of the merchantable parts of the tree, their great abundance, and also because of the conspicuous nature of their fructification. Some species of the false mistletoes are very 570 Forestry Quarterly inconspicuous and their presence is chiefly recognized by the accompanying hypertrophy of trunk or branch. These mistletoes are propagated by means of seeds which are expelled with suffi- cient force from the seed capsule to carry them several feet. The thin layer of mucilage on the seed causes it to adhere to what- ever it strikes. When a lodgment is found on tender imsuber- ized parts of seedlings or of more mattire growth, the young ger- minating plant penetrates the cortex and bast, and infection re- sults. An elaborate perennial cortical root system results from this infection and from it springs the leafless mistletoe plant. All species of the genus are normally dioecious but staminate and pistillate plants may occur in juxtaposition on the same twig, in fact they often appear to spring from the same cortical stroma. The first primary root (sinker) will penetrate as far into the cam- biimi and cells of the newly formed wood as the tenderness of these tissues will allow, this depending upon the age of the branch infected. The depth to which this primary sinker penetrates at its first elongation is as far as it ever goes. On the other hand, there is in that part of the sinker coinciding with the cambium of the host a zone of meristematic tissue which enables the sinker to elongate at this point, keeping pace with the increasing diameter of the branch. After a time the lateral roots are developed from the primary sinker and may extend for several feet in either direction from the point of original infection. In some species this lateral root system elongates with the branch, keeping pace with the last third or fourth internode. Additional sinkers penetrate the deeper tissues of the bast, springing from the transverse and longitudinal root system, so that eventually a thorough infection of the entire circimiference of the branch results. In very young stems the primary sinker follows those sets of cells offering the least resis- tance. Hence a cross section usually shows the medullary rays occupied by these haustoria. The degree of parasitism attained by these parasites is far greater than that of the Phoradendrons, or the true mistletoes, which with one or two exceptions have large leafy branches and rarely occur on conifers in America. The total reduction of the leaves to mere bracts, together with a greatly reduced chlorophyll content of the stems, is a first evidence of the class relation of the false mistletoes with their hosts. A recent study made by the writer of the more minute details of the anatomy of the sinkers and Mistletoe Control 571 horizontal root system of the parasite in relation to the tissues of the host shows quite positively a close union between the two. The phloem of the host is fotmd to be in some species in direct imion with the absorbing cells of the parasite. The gradual weak- ening of yoting trees imder the drain of a heavy infection of mis- tletoe can hardly be brought about unless a certain part of the organic food materials prepared by the host were not utilized by the parasite. In older growth, suppression may be brought about by the lopping of branches due to the formation of heavy brooms on them and the destruction of the living circvimference by the formation of burls on the main trunk. The fact that a great mass of cortical roots often girdling the entire circumference of large forest trees may remain living indefinitely without aerial parts is additional evidence of the parasitic nature of these mistletoes. Usually the different species of the genus Razoumofskya are con- fined to particular forest trees or to those closely related. Unless the mistletoe seed falls on a host on which it can live, the seed will exhaust its energy in producing a long hypocotyl, but can not pene- trate the substratimi. This indicates a special adaptation to the particular types of cell structm"e or chemical constitution of the different hosts. This in itself is significant in the light of the fore- going statements. These are also important points to remember in planning the management of some mixed forests. Our knowledge of the injurious effects of mistletoes is quite sufficient to show the need of adopting some policy of forest man- agement aimed at reducing the damage caused by those parasites and attendant diseases. It will first be found necessary before any organized attempt is made in this direction to arrange for very effective stirvey work. The first step then would be to conduct careful surveys of all forests wherever mistletoes are a serious factor in the deterioration of timber. Since it will be found that these parasites follow very distinct predilections as to type of stand, topography, and to a certain extent, climate, the zones of greatest mistletoe infection may be quite readily deter- mined. It will hardly be possible for one or two men to do effective work of this kind by merely going over the forest. The survey should consist of a detailed statement of types, age classes affected, and relation to topography. More effective results could be obtained by carrying the record of mistletoe infec- tion along with the regular yearly reconnaissance as it now being 572 Forestry Quarterly done for certain other classes of defect. Since detailed estimates by types and stands at all elevations are made, it will be possible to indicate very definitely on the field map in colors, shadings, or lines the most severely infected areas. These pathological maps,* as they may be termed, would be immediately available when the infected areas came under sale. Of coiirse, this part of the work would have to be done by men who have had instruction and experience in recognizing mistletoe and judging injury. This information is being rapidly gained by the men* on the forest. Some mapping of this kind has already been done under the writer's direction by E. E. Hubert of this Laboratory, enough, in fact, to show the value of it. It is planned to carry on the work from year to year until all the great areas of mistletoe infection in District 1 have been mapped. After the zones of greatest mistletoe infection have been deter- mined, the next step is to devise some means by which a begin- ning may be made to eradicate them. Unfortunately at the pres- ent time conditions are such that no more extensive meastires can be adopted than those afforded by free use permits, activities of rangers, and timber sales. It seems that it is entirely possible on some National Forests where mistletoe is abundant to desig- nate only mistletoe-infected trees in free-use privileges. These privileges in the case of mistletoe-infected trees could be made very liberal. The trees could be marked by the ranger during the course of his yearly duties and to a certain extent he could cut such trees for his own use. However, at the present time, it is not possible to man even the more accessible forests with a force of rangers to make a very appreciable headway. The ranger should also be encouraged to make a study of the mistletoe situation, if found necessary, in the region over which he may have control.^ ' It is a good plan to use this method to graphically show the vertical and horizontal distribution of all serious forest diseases in their relation to type of stand, soil, climate, and topography. * During the past two years over 200 specimens of mistletoe (Razoumofskya), representing all the species of economic importance in the West, have been sent to the Laboratory at Missoula, Mont., for identification. ^ To facilitate these studies the Laboratory of Forest Pathology, Missoula, Mont., will furnish forms especially prepared for assembling field data on mistletoe. These forms have already been extensively used on several Na- tional Forests. Mistletoe Control 573 The possibilities of making a beginning in the eradication of mistletoe from which much is to be expected lies in timber sales. In some respects the problems which usually arise in requiring the pur- chaser to cut every marked tree would not come up in the same way as is often the case when wood-destroying fungi alone are in question. In trees with a portion of the merchantable length de- cayed by fungi, it is always a question whether or not the tree contains enough merchantable material to bring it under the cutting regulations. To decide this point it is often difficult for the marker, even though with wide experience, to escape complica- tions with the fallers and also with the purchaser. In the case of mistletoe-infected trees, with little or no decay, no such difficulty may exist due to the fact that the amount of damage by the para- site in most cases can be instantly determined by the hypertrophy of branch or trunk. A knowledge of the average or maximum size of the species of tree for the region when growing under normal conditions, together with the fact that mistletoe injury may be safely judged from external appearance, eliminates the danger of leaving undesirable trees of the specified diameter classes on the area. In some regions of heavy mistletoe infection, those species most seriously injured which do not quite attain the regula- tion tnmk diameter designated in the contract, or if they do fall under the diameter class, are so badly bm-led and broken as to be wholly cidled, present a most grotesque and unsightly appearance when left standing on the sales area. This not only may repre- sent a present financial loss, but throwing such trees into the open usually invigorates the parasites to greater activity and the young growth soon to appear is open to widespread infection. The standard of health for the forest in mistletoe-infected regions can never be raised so long as this is practised. A far better plan would be to mark every mistletoe-infected tree above a given diameter and to have these trees cut whether or not they contain merchantable material. The resultant litter, it is true, may be sometimes great, but if the extra cost of lopping and piling the brush is prohibitive, then a clean burn, which will often be neces- sary when the reproduction is infected, will rid the forest of this trash. The mistletoe, however, wiU be killed with the cutting of the tree. Frequently it may be quite impossible to impose such restriction on the purchaser because of the large amount of cull material. On the other hand, there may be so few mistletoe- 574 Forestry Quarterly infected trees in a merchantable stand as to cause no incon- venience or loss to the purchaser if he is required to cut all trees marked, whether merchantable or not. A number of regions visited by the writer would fall in this class, but still woiild repre- sent a serious condition for the futiu-e health of the forest if not governed by some such procedure. Management of sales on the basis of requiring the purchaser to cut every marked mistletoe- infected tree, whether merchantable or not, in most regions could only be successfully negotiated where some form of reimbursement was allowed. To determine the most practicable form of reim- bursement for both the govermnent and the purchaser is a prob- lem the practical forester has before him. As a first suggestion, cash payment for the time required to fall undesirable mistletoe- infected trees having little or no merchantable content may be considered. The practicability of this would, of course, be deter- mined by the time required to fall trees of varying diameter, which again would be influenced by the ease with which different species could be cut and by the number of mistletoe-infected trees per acre. In regions where serious infection is principally confined to a single species, as in the White pine belt of northern Idaho, a reduction of stumpage price on the basis of all affected species, would be worthy of consideration. The value of this over an equal reduction of stumpage for all species, whether bearing mistletoe or not, is to the effect that the price for White pine, Douglas fir, spruce, cedar, and, in most cases, Yellow pine, would hardly be reduced at all. The only tree affected would be larch, which is in most localities seriously infected by mistletoe. Conditions would, of course, vary as to the number of species affected in the different National Forests. In most cases, however, some one of the more valuable species woidd escape the reduction. This plan would probably work well enough in regions where the most valuable species is not already carrying, both for itself and its neighbors, the cost of a certain amount of protective work. In some regions where this is being done in the interest of the removal of one or more of the so-called "weed trees" (fir and hemlock), the plan may be varied so as to place mistletoe-infected trees first. It seems that in some cases it may be of more importance to try to reduce the activities of mistletoe on a really valuable species than of the wood-destroying fungus of the weed species. Since the fungus {Echinodontium tinctorium) of the firs and hemlocks is not Mistletoe Control 575 of importance on any of the more valuable species, this may be worthy of consideration. In regions where the firs and hemlocks are both seriously infected with mistletoes and fungi, with no other species carrying mistletoe, the plan would be simple. Such conditions for these species, however, are not common. In regions where all species are so severely infected as to entail a great loss in the quality and quantity of material, the loss in receipts due to the sanitary regulation affecting all the merchantable species could be considered justifiable in view of the needs of the case. There is something to be gained by negotiating sales wherever possible under the foregoing conditions from the standpoint of the salutary effect it will have on purchasers of government timber. In other words, it is educative. It took some time for the Service to get the purchaser to see the value of, and to practise without murmur, the much needed reforms in the disposal of the debris of a sales area. Now, these conditions are accepted in most cases without protest as a matter of course. This gradual edu- cation of timber owners who go into the open market will no doubt cause them to exercise similar precaution in the management of their own holdings. Mistletoe-infected trees unless infected during late periods of growth, are very often otherwise diseased. Very frequently trees approaching the regvdation cutting percentage are left standing when in reality there is considerable merchantable mate- rial obtainable. A very large percentage of infected trees in a severely infected region falls far below the amount of material demanded by the cutting regulations. The unfortunate part of it all is these infected trees are left on the area to spread disease through the fimgi which they very often carry, to say nothing of the infection of yoimg growth by mistletoe. There can be nothing gained by leaving these near-merchantable trees with the ex- pectation that by the time the next crop is cut something wiU be realized on them. Those trees infected by fungi will never be any better and, in fact, will be a total loss, while the mistletoe will be stimulated to greater vigor. The immediate felling of all such trees may result, as before stated, in some cases, in obtaining a certain amount of merchantable material heretofore wasted. This would tend to reduce the expense of falling trees having no merchantable content whatever. The most important result 576 Forestry Quarterly would be found in the opportunity given young trees to grow up under better conditions than ever before known for the region. It has been sufficiently indicated elsewhere that trees severely suppressed by mistletoe are not fit for reseeding the area. In leaving uninfected trees a big advantage is gained in building up the health of the forest. In many cases it will be foimd that nothing less than clean cutting will be sufficient to eliminate the mistletoe. This also opens up the problem of what to do with the young infected forest growth. Mistletoe attacks all age classes from seedlings to mature trees. A large amount of young stuff when infected, in so far as being a menace to the future health of the forest, is just as serious as the larger diameter classes. When the younger age classes are infected on the main stem, the increment is very early affected and they seldom, if ever, attain a merchantable size. Since the relative cost of handling a tree rapidly increases with decrease in diameter, it is an open question what procedure to follow in ridding the sale areas of this infected material. Clean cutting followed by clean bviming may be a drastic method in most cases, but this, however, will be better than taking chances with infected young growth and misshapen and stagheaded trees for reseeding. Furthermore, artificial forestation could be employed. Naturally a great deal of this work must be considered in the light of an experiment. That it will prove successful under some conditions is shown by what has already been accomplished in some regions. It will mean, of course, that the marker must become thoroughly familiar with the appearance of mistletoe injury and be able to act with judgment under all conditions. In a work as new as the control of forest tree diseases in the National Forests, it is expected that mistakes will be made. It is often said, however, that he who makes no mistakes never ac- complishes anything and it is as true when applied to the further- ance of the principles of forest sanitation as for anything else. Improving the health of the forest is business first and last. It is not a matter of sentiment. When the practical forester and the purchaser get together on forest protection, whether it is pro- tection from fire or protection from fungi and mistletoe, then we may expect a fuller realization of the value of strict sanitary measures. Mistletoe Control 577 (It may be of interest to add that the mistletoe trouble extends into Canada as far north as the 54° of latitude at least. In the Pines, Nesbit, Fort k la Come, Sturgeon and Big River Forest Reserves, the Jack pine is often heavily- infested. In the frontispiece we bring examples from the Nesbit Reserve near Prince Albert. The Acting District Inspector, Mr. E. H. Roberts, finds the infection mostly occurring in the pure Jack pine stands, on both young and old trees alike, most noticeable on older trees from 25 years up, and most in open stands. A relation to any particular physical condition of environment was not noted, but fire scars and exposure of tissues by rabbits seem to favor the infection. These sand areas have been kept depleted by fire of any humus cover. — Editor.) SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF SLASH PINE By Wilbur R. Mattoon^ The silviculttiral and economic importance of Slash pine (Pinus caribaea Morelet) in second-growth Southern forests, although clearly indicated nearly a quarter of a century ago,^ has somehow quite escaped general recognition among foresters. This is the species formerly called "Cuban" pine {Pinus heierophylla (Ell) Sudworth), but now officially designated as above by the United States Forest Service. Its natural range, occurring within the great Southern pine belt, where the supply of virgin timber has been looked upon as al- most unlimited, accoimts quite largely for the general lack of information regarding the merits of Slash pine for forest manage- ment. Intensive silvicultural studies, starting years ago in the North with White pine, Balsam fir, spruce, and Northern hard- woods, have progressed southward successively to include cotton- wood. Yellow poplar, White ash, Shortleaf and Loblolly pines. Recently studies of second growth and yield have been started in the Southern pineries of Longleaf and Slash pines. The above-mentioned species, it will be noted, undoubtedly include the majority of those which, owing to favorable qualities, will furnish the bulk of the future timber supply of Eastern United States. Another reason for the failure of the species to gain general recognition is the difficulty experienced in distinguishing young^ Slash from young Loblolly and older-aged Slash from Longleaf pine. The first of these is known to be very common among all classes of persons, including those of technical training. Charac- teristically the yoimg Slash pine of the "old field " is very generally known by that name throughout its range, whether on abandoned fields or cut-over forest lands. Unfortunately the species has passed through a series of many changes in nomenclature which even now is not complete, since botanists differ as to the existence of one or more distinct species of Slash pine.^ 1 Research Department, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. 2 Dr. Charles Mohr. Forest Service Bulletin 13, "Timber Pines of the Southern United States." 3 Sargent, Britton, Sudworth and Shaw recognize but one species, while Harper and Small believe there are two distinct species of Slash pine. The case is similar to that of Bald cypress {Taxodium distichum). 578 Slash Pine Characteristics 579 Rapid Spread in Second-Growth Forests Briefly, Slash pine is the predominating tree in the young forest growth over large areas formerly occupied by Longleaf pine. The region extends from southern South Carolina over the lower third of Georgia, extreme southern Alabama and Mississippi, southeast Louisiana, and extensively over Florida. It consists chiefly of poorly drained, sandy flatlands, but continues into the rolling hills of southern Georgia for a distance of 125 miles from salt water. Localities of high, relatively dry hill land, especially a portion of Florida about Tallahassee and the Florida National Forest, form well marked exceptions in the general spread of Slash pine. Because of the uneven distribution of seed trees and the occurrence of annual fires, the stand of young Slash pine is by no means regular or continuous. Loblolly, present chiefly only in botanical importance, is generally confined closely to alluvial soils along stream courses. The Suwanee River is perhaps its locality of greatest abundance in northern Florida. Commercially, Slash and Loblolly meet in a comparatively well defined line. Botanists^ have at various times called attention to the widespread advance of Slash pine, yet the fact has remained generally unknown, Silvicultural Qualities The silvicultiu*al characteristics of Slash pine which make it a species of high value for forest production under management have been well stated by Dr. Mohr } "In its dependence on light it is less exacting than either the Longleaf pine or the Loblolly pine. It appears to thrive, from the earliest stage of its development, as well when partially shaded in the open, in this respect resembling the Southern Spruce pine. It is due to these facts, combined with the rapid progress of its growth from the earliest stage, that the Cuban (Slash) pine is gaining the upper hand over the offspring of the light-requiring Longleaf pine, which, on the damp soil of the coast plain, is soon outstripped and * Engelmann, George, "Revision of the Genus Pinus and Description of Pinus Eliottii," Transactions of the St. Louis Academy of Science, Vol. IV, 1880. Sargent, C. A. "Manual of Trees of North America," under Pinus cart- baea, p. 19. * Forest Division, Bulletin No. 13, "Timber Pines of Southern United States." 580 Forestry Quarterly finally almost completely suppressed by the seedlings of this tree. "In the inherent capacity for natural reproduction, or in the advantages for the renewal of its forests by man, the Cuban pine is not surpassed by any other of the species with which it is found associated. This tree commends itself strongly to the tree planter in the coast plain of the lower South. Producing seeds in abundance regularly and with certainty, being less exacting in its demands for direct sunlight, and hence successfully resisting the encroachment of competing species, being less liable to succumb to the destructive agencies of fire on account of its more rapid development in early life, it has greater promise of success than the others. If to this is added the rapid rate of growth, the great value of its timber, being equal to the Longleaf, if not superior, and the abundant yield of its valuable resinous product, it be- comes evident that in the reforestation of the low pine lands of the Southern coast regions the Cuban pine is to be preferred to any other, not only within its original boundaries, but as far beyond its range of natural distribution as the climatic requirements of the tree will permit." The curves of growth. Figure 1, and the derived Tables 1 and 2, although based upon totally inadequate data, are presented here for the purpose of calling attention to the marked difference in growth between Longleaf and Slash pine, with a view of showing the superiority of the latter, and in general the need of further investigation. In respect to height, for example. Slash is seen to make very rapid development for the first 25 years as com- pared with Longleaf; at 30 to 35 years, on sites poorer than site II, it averages about the same in height as Longleaf on site I and II. Longleaf, however, appears to be more persistent and at 50 years bids fair in a few decades to equal its rival. The average height growth for all trees of the dominant classes of Slash is shown to be greater than that of the predominant trees in Loblolly stands in the central Atlantic States.^ In diameter growth, Figure 1 clearly indicates that Slash early gets a big lead and retains it quite uniformly throughout the period of years shown. Longleaf evidently has a rather narrow range in rate of growth on different sites, while Slash, in accordance with its wide adapta- bility to different soils and environment, consistently shows an increasing range in diameter growth with advancing age. •Department of Agrictdture Bulletin No. 11, "Forest Management of Loblolly Pine in Delaware, Maryland and Virginia." £0 es -JO A CC or STA NO IN YfTAffS (a) Diameter growth S/TT QUALITY /s ^o es 30 js AGE or STAND IN YCARS ^O' ■*'S (b) Height growth Pig. 1. Comparative growth of average trees in well-stocked Slash and Longleaf pine stands. 582 Forestry Quarterly Table 1. — Height Growth of Slash and Longleaf Pines in Well-Stocked, Second-Growth Stands Slash pine'' Longleaf pine^ Age Site: I II III I II III Years Feet Feet 5 14 10 6 3 2 1 10 33 23 13 13 9 5 15 51 36 21 27 18 9 20 61 46 31 41 28 15 25 68 54 40 52 37 22 30 73 60 46 60 44 28 35 77 64 51 67 51 34 40 80 68 55 72 56 40 45 83 71 58 76 61 45 50 86 74 61 80 65 50 Table 2. — Diameter Growth of Slash and Longleaf Pines in Well-Stocked, Second-Growth Stands Slash pine'' Longleaf pine^° Age Site: I II III I II III Years Inches Inches 5 2.3 1.5 .8 . • • • • • 10 5.2 3.7 2.4 2.6 1.3 • • • 15 7.5 5.1 3.5 4.6 2.9 .9 20 9.4 6.5 4.4 6.2 4.2 2.0 25 11.0 7.8 5.2 7.5 5.4 3.2 30 12.3 8.8 5.8 8.6 6.4 4.3 35 13.4 9.7 6.4 9.4 7.4 5.3 40 14.4 10.5 7.0 10.1 8.2 6.1 45 15.2 11.3 7.6 10.7 8.8 6.9 50 16.0 12.0 8.1 11.2 9.4 7.4 As compared to Loblolly," the diameters shown for Slash on site I rvin higher by 40 per cent at 20 years decreasing to 24 per cent at 50 years ; they are only little higher for site II, and lower for site III. ' Based on sectional age counts of 18 trees, also average height of 19 sample plots (71 trees), and total height average of 9 trees. 8 Based on sectional age counts of 12 trees, also average height of 19 sample plots (141 trees), and total height average of 5 trees. » Decade measurements on 14 0.3-5.0 foot stumps of average sample trees 1 1 to 1 19 years old. 10 Decade measurements on 12 0.2-2.4 foot stumps of sample trees 17 to 56 years old. 11 Department of Agriculture Bulletin 11. Fig. 2. — Breasthigh section of Slash pine (about the average tree in 17-year-old stand), showing character of wide bands of dense, resinous, summer wood even in fast-growing trees. (D.b.h. 10.7 inches, height 61.5 feet.) Slash Pine Characteristics 583 This is doubtless due to the ability of Slash to tolerate very poor, sandy soils, and also highly acid swamp conditions. The general view concerning the rate of gro-^th of Southern pine forests is based mostly upon that of its most abundant tree, the slow-growing Longleaf pine. While in early life Long- leaf grows fairly rapidly in open second-growth stands, it falls markedly below Slash pine in stock density and in both diam- eter and height growth during a period of 50 years, the probable maximvmi rotation of future stands imder management. The Wood The structure of the wood, shown in cross section herewith is such as to give it very high commercial value. Even when yotmg and fast growing, the tree produces a proportionately wide band of stimmer wood, very dense and resinous, and sharply demarcated from the spring wood of the same season's growth. The disk here shown — the breasthigh section of a 17-year-old tree, 10.7 inches d. b. h. and 61.5 feet high, is composed of 63 per cent of summer wood — a striking amoimt for a tree of such rapid 584 Forestry Quarterly growth. Fast-growing Loblolly, in comparison, has relatively much narrower summer wood, grading very gradually into the wider band of spring wood.^^ Table 3 gives the relative physical and mechanical properties of the io\xr important commercial Southern pines, as determined by the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin. The superiority of Slash over Longleaf in nearly every test will be noted. This gives Slash pine the distinction of producing the heaviest, hardest, and strongest coniferous wood in the United States. ^^ Table 3. — Physical and Mechanical Properties of Slash Pine Compared with the Other Important Commercial Southern Pines Long- Short- Lob- Quality Slash^* leap^ leaf^^ lolly" Specific gravity based on volume when oven-dry 68 .64 .58 .59 Density — weight of wood per cubic foot: Kiln dry, pounds 43 40 35 37 Air dry (12 to 15 per cent moisture), pounds 45 42 36 39 Green, pounds 53 48 45 54 Shrinkage in volume from green to oven- dry. Per cent of diameter when green 12.7 12.3 12.6 12.6 Strength in bending. Modulus of rup- ture. Pounds per sq. in 8,800 8,700 8,000 7,500 Stiffness in bending. Modulus of elas- ticity. 1,000 lbs. per sq. in 1,630 1,630 1,450 1,380 Toughness. Work to maximum load in bending. Inch-pounds per cu. in. . . 7.9 8.0 8.7 8.0 Crushing strength. Compression paral- lel to grain. Pounds per sq. in 4,470 4,390 3,810 3,580 Hardness (side) load required to imbed a 0.444 inch ball to one half its diameter. Pounds 630 590 560 450 " Based upon detailed studies of the Forest Service in connection with the grading of Southern pine lumber by density rules. " Possibly this may be equally true of all exotic species of conifers. " Figtu-es, except for density, from tests of 5 trees from Florida. '* Figures, except for density, from tests of 24 trees from Florida, Mississippi, and Ix)uisiana. " Figures, except for density, from tests of 6 trees from Arkansas and Louisiana. " Figures, except for density, from tests of 10 trees from North and South Carolina and Florida. H m w o a ■ 0) 0- .^ M u C^ TO o.S Zm K "^ — a. oi H 0. < WW z 00 M O a c K Z D < m o o < to O SCO . lO lO t^ On O I CN ro ■* NO 00 r*) NO "^ to l^ • NO NO to t~» tS to to to NO t~ NO CO NO «* "-I NO '-c Tf S S S S S xn NATIONAL FOREST ORGANIZATION By S. W. WynneI During the past few years very radical and far-reaching changes have taken place in the organization of the working forces of many large industrial concerns. It is natural that these changes should be reflected in the thought of men in the Forest Service who are interested in business management and keep track of progress outside the Service. Mr. Woolsey's excellent article in this volume of the Quarterly puts the matter forth in a definite form, and no doubt his several propositions will bring out the thorough discus- sion which has been pending for some time. That different men will reach different conclusions with about the same data is just as certain in the Service as it has been with industrial concerns. The extreme difference between District 2 and District 3, at present, indicates how divergent lines of management can proceed from very similar conditions. Which one is right can be determined only by measuring the work accomplished by each and balancing it against the total cost. No common reducing factor has been found to measure the work, and until it is, some other method of determina- tion must be used. If we turn to industry and study the trend of changing methods, it will be seen that large imits are displacing small ones. For a time it was held by some organizers that a large operating unit was the first step to low costs. Further experience showed that this did not always work out, in fact, the increase in size sometimes resulted in an increase of cost due to a lessening in the intensity of supervision as against a mmiber of small units with closer attention by the boss. When this condition was studied, it was found that the increase in size was simply a con- solidation of similar units without material change in Junction. Increased effectiveness of a single large organization over several small ones resulted only when there was a greatly increased divi- sion of labor, or specialization. Conversely, the Taylor type of ' ' functional management ' ' is possible only in a large imit . It would seem that the intense grazing business in District 4 would fur- nish an excellent chance for larger imits, with a grazing specialist to relieve the supervisor of this class of work. The great trouble usually with having a specialist is that the cases requiring his ' Forest Supervisor, Sequoia National Forest. 589 590 Forestry Quarterly attention are scattered over too much country. In District 4, the concentration of extensive grazing questions should be sufficient to occupy one man's time on a Forest about the size of two of the present ones, without excessive travel. There might be a ques- tion of poHcy here, however, requiring that the grazing work be handled in person by the supervisor. In order to get the main management systems clearly defined it might be well here to outHne them, even at the expense of re- peating old material. Different men separate the systems in dif- ferent manner according to what they conceive to be the principal lines of cleavage. One of the first divisions into management types was the separation into traditional, transitory and functional systems. The first is simply the old system gradually evolved since men first began working together. As the particular industry enlarged and one man had more than he could do, another man was placed with him to take over half of that line. As more space, tools, etc. , were needed, they were added without any definite planning or separa- tion of activitias. The transitory type was brought about by the first efforts toward more efficiency. A separation of activities was made, workers were made specialists, and responsibility for each step placed definitely. With the separation of the work of planning from the work of execution, and instruction of the worker how to do his work as weU as what to do, came the fimc- tional system. Scientific selection and training of workers, a planning department, and the various bonus systems are parts of the functional type. A later division of types, resembling the above, is unsystematized, systematized and efficiency. The difference between the first two is largely one of records, with an attempt to correct high costs in the systematized type by periodic paper comparisons. With the setting of standards came the efficiency type. Costs were based not on comparisons with what had been done, but on comparison with a standard of accomplishment. A type division often used is that into military and staff sys- tems. This division does not seem especially clear, as the staff system in the army is very highly developed. In the words of Prof. Galloway: "The contrast when comparing the staff and military types seems to be the method of exercising control of the business, or execution of orders and commands. The military type is National Forest Organization 591 usually a one-man power. The staff type is just the reverse of this. Here the manager is supreme in command, but he is advised by experts at every step." The action in the military type is like throwing a stone in a pool of water. The initial disturbance radiates out in suc- ceeding waves, the last one gently lapping the shore. It is the military type that has been advocated in some parts of the Govern- ment work. The system has sometimes been called "pass-the- buck." One serious drawback to the staff system is the chance for conflict of authority, which is not possible in the military scheme. However, the military type has so many obvious faults that more than balance the definite authority that it is becoming less used all the time. In many respects, railroad problems resemble those of the Forest Service, in the great distances involved especially. There have been two radically different systems developed by different roads, the divisional type and the departmental type. The Divi- sion Superintendent, in the words of Mr. Ray Morris in "Railroad Administration," is: "a little king over his domain. He does not solicit traffic nor does he collect or disburse funds, nor is he a lawyer, nor primarily an engineer, but everybody actually em- ployed on the division reports to him on questions of current operation." Under the department scheme, there is also a separation into divisions, but the division superintendent is not in absolute con- trol over all activities. He must take up various questions first with the chief engineer, the superintendent of motive power, the master mechanic, and various other experts. Department, in rail- road parlance, refers to a certain group of functional operations gathered together under one office. The division superintendent simply operates the trains, and the departments look after track maintenance, bridges, engine repairs, etc. Responsibility is divided and not always clearly defined. Concerning responsibility, the following is quoted from Mr. Arthur Hale: "They (the men not directly under the division superintendent, as mechanics, division engineers, etc.) should re- port to the division superintendent everything excepting matters relating to standard designs and methods. It has always been re- cognized that standard designs must come under the members 592 Forestry Quarterly of the general manager's staff. Where there has been difficulty it can be traced to misunderstanding as to methods of doing work, and the recognition of standard methods should give the staff officers sufficient power as well as plenty to do, for these indepen- dent superintendents are sometimes hard to handle. The depart- mental type will make you splendid trainmasters and engineers in the civil and mechanical branches. The divisional type will give you all round railroad men." Mr. Woolsey's proposed organization is similar to the divi- sional type of the railroads, as against the present resemblance to the departmental type. Both systems are represented by prominent and well managed roads and each has its ardent group of supporters. Quoting again from Mr. Hale: "Strength and weakness are best shown in emergencies. On a certain occa- sion it became necessary to rebuild certain trestles near each other on parallel roads organized differently. The superintendent on the road with the division organization got his carpenters together at once, with all the timber and equipment and simply reported what was done. The superintendent on the road with the department organization could do nothing but report the case to the general manager. He had no control of the carpenters and being Sunday he did not know even where they were. The general manager organized a force composed of his general superintendent, his superintendent of floating equipment and his engineer of bridges and made very good time." What would the case have been in the department system if trestles had been needed on three or four divisions at once? Quoting Mr. Ray Morris: "The departmental view is that it is economy to have and use the best in all branches of the Service, and that if the mechanical forces do all their work under the super- vision of a $10,000 superintendent of motive power, the results will be better than if they do half of it under the supervision of a $2,500 superintendent." The trouble in the Forest Service is lack of $10,000 places. It might be better to have several $1,500 men doing $2,000 work than to have one $2,500 man in a place requiring $10,000 brain power. A study of railroad management should be more profitable to the Forest Service than a study of shop or factory methods. The experience of the Sequoia National Forest would tend to show an economy in large units. The Forest area, in 1908, was National Forest Organization 593 3,199,000 acres. This held until July 1, 1910, when it was split into the Kern Forest with 1,938,000 acres and the Sequoia Forest with 1,261,000 acres. On July 1, 1915, after some eliminations, the two were again consolidated, with an area of 2,468,000 acres and a 725-mile boundary line. The Forest cost for the fiscal year 1910, just prior to the split, was $50,191.00. After the split, costs were as follows for the two units: 1911, $60,852.00; 1912, $60,072.00; 1913, $61,592.00; 1914, $65,869.00. Following the consolidation, costs became $48,576.00 for 1915, and $43,545.00 for 1916, with an estimate of about $40,- 000.00 for 1917. Part of this decrease is due to smaller area and a general rise in efficiency as in all District 5. The saving amounts to from $7,000 to $10,000 by dispensing with one set of head- quarters. Accomplishment under the two forms of organization is probably fairly comparable, considering some of the former difficulties and the present tendency toward standardization. The regular administrative and executive force of the Sequoia Forest consists now of Supervisor, Deputy Supervisor, Forest Examiner, and nine district rangers. Protection, improvement, and lands (engineering) are handled by the Supervisor, grazing by the Deputy, and silviculture by the Forest Examiner. This division is the same as that suggested by Woolsey. The differ- ence is that each one of the three men acts in a dual capacity, namely as line and staff. The adviser is expected to transform his advice into action. This entails a lack of clear distinction be- tween departmental manager and staff specialist . There is another difference, due to having fewer men than in the Woolsey system. District rangers are not relieved of the major executive work, but are given more of it. It is the intention to relieve them still fur- ther of minor executive work, especially bossing ordinary improve- ment work and similar lines of "physical effort." Labor and con- struction speciaHsts (line) are easy to get outside the Service, and are often better at this type of work than the ranger. A more effective division of labor is possible also with these minor special- ists working along one particular line. The District ranger is expected not only to "assist the staff executives in the performance of major activities," but also to relieve them of the performance where possible. They are given more important work rather than less important. It is also likely 594 Forestry Quarterly that as fire protection becomes better developed, it will be more fully separated from regular executive lines. Where one branch of the work becomes too heavy, as in timber sales for instance, it is perfectly possible to assign another man to the organization from the present District organization. This man might be called a staff specialist, but that term is misleading. Staff indicates advice, while in reality he is an executive or line officer. The true staff officer would seem to have his proper place in the District office, as an adviser. Going back to o\ir railroad type, he is an originator of standard methods and design. Our local forest specialist then becomes a line specialist. He is responsible to the Supervisor for the execution of the work, but carries it out in accordance with the standards and methods of the District staff specialist. Success with this system lies very largely with the ability of the staff specialist to assemble proper methods, uncolored by any strictly local ideas he may have absorbed. It also rests with his complete willingness to change or revise methods as soon as they are shown to be tmsatis- factory. The line men must show a similar willingness to stay by the methods until they are so shown. The Service is handicapped in specializing, owing to the fact that it has very few ready-made specialists, but must develop them as it goes. The idea that most of the specialists are potential should be clearly recognized and allowances made in both directions. The question of more inspection is very important, and prob- ably not satisfactorily solved at present. Before it can be solved, a decision must be reached as to just what should be inspected and how closely. Possibly chiefs of branches can turn more routine matters over to the specialists in their departments and give more attention to field inspection in their own and the other branches. Obviously, silviculture would require different inspection methods from grazing. Mr. Woolsey's proposition of abolishing the District Offices may possibly work out as a temporary measure of economy, but its chance of as great success as a final economy are not so apparent. His other proposition of making a close study of the organization by a well-balanced committee seems perfectly good business and should be done. FIRE-SEASON FORECASTS ON A CALIFORNIA FOREST By R. W. Ayres^ One of the chief reasons why each fire season is looked upon without pleasiu-e and with more or less fear is because of the uncertainty of what the summer months have in store. It is true that for certain matters, such as the peak of the fire season, the nimiber of men needed on the suppression force and their length of employment, and the areas of the greatest hazard, we have made long strides towards foretelUng what will happen. But still there is left the one all important question: "What kind of a fire season is it going to be?" The nimiber of fires, the acreage burned and the length of the season belong to the prophet, rather than the forecaster, but there are other questions which have a prospect of being solved by the study of meteorological data. For instance, it is reasonable to suppose that a very wet winter and spring would mean a fire sea- son that would begin late and would not be so intense as a dry one. The summer temperature should be some indication of the char- acter of the fire season. And perhaps the danger from lightning could be determined by weather conditions. Of course, there are only a few years — ^much too few — to work with, and there may be factors overlooked which contain the key to the problem. To begin with, it will be assumed that the season which fol- lowed the largest precipitation would be the best from a fire pro- tection point of view, and will coimt the precipitation as beginning with the end of the previous fire season, so none will be lost. That is, for 1911 we will count the rainfall from October, 1910, to June, 1911. Listing the seasons in this way, and leaving out all years previous to 1911, they run as follows: Year No. 1 1911 42.3 inches No. 2 1914 38.4 " No. 3 1915 37.8 " No. 4 1912 19.6 " No. 5 1913 17.5 " This rainfall is taken in Sonora, elevation 1,875 feet, which corresponds to the most dangerous part of the Forest. These ^Forest Supervisor, Stanislaus National Forest. 595 596 Forestry Quarterly years in the order of their excellence as to precipitation compared to the number of fires are as follows : Year Best rating as to fires No. 1 1911 39 fires No. 4 No. 2 1914 65 " No. 3 No. 3 1915 30 " No. 1 No. 4 1912 23 " No. 2 No. 5 1913 101 " No. 5 The only year that acted consistently is 1913; on the other hand, 1912, which has the fewest fires had next to the least rain, and 1914, with next to most rain, had next to most fires. About lightning, and still using precipitation as a criterion, compare them as to Hghtning trouble : No. Relative Year Lightning Fires Position No. 1 1911 11 No. 4 No. 2 1914 12 No. 3 No. 3 1915 4 No. 1 No. 4 1912 3 No. 2 No. 5 1913 49 No. 5 Their relative positions here agree exactly with the relative nimi- ber of fires. So it seems that the niimber of fires from lightning is in direct proportion to the total fires. The mean maximimi temperature for the same period as the precipitation should affect the season, so they will be Hsted: Relative Year Mean Max. Temp. Position No. 1 1911 65.3 No. 4 No. 2 1914 66.0 No. 5 No. 3 1915 64.0 No. 3 No. 4 1912 63.7 No. 1 No. 5 1913 63.9 No. 2 Here it is found that the two years which have the smallest precipitation have the coolest weather, and the two with most rain are the warmest. This is the most logical arrangement found so far; but the trouble is that of these two cool years, one had the most fires and the other the least. Continuing with temperature, if the probable heat of the fire season by the record of the previous nine months could be fore- told, it woiild help; so the average maximimi from the previous October to Jime, with that of the following July to September, Fire-Season Forecasts 597 inclusive, will be compared. It might be stated here that only maximum temperatiires are used, as it is considered that these have a greater effect on the probable hazard by drying out the cover. Mean Max. Mean Max. Temp, far Temp. Jot Previous Fire Year 9 Months Season No. 1 1912... 63.7 85.0 No. 2 1913... 63.9... 98.0 No. 3 1915... 64.0.... No. 4 1911... 65.3. ... 90.3 No. 5 1914... 66.0.... 88.9 There is not enough difference in the mean maximum tempera- tiu*es of the simimer months to have any effect, and about all there is to say is that dry winters are Hable to be the coolest. If precipitation has no real relation to the number of fires, and if the temperature has no effect, at least a wet winter should mean a fire season that wovild be late in beginning, or at least late in be- coming dangerous. So a table is given showing precipitation for the previous nine months, the nimiber of fires in May, June and July, the acreage burned, and in what ten-day period the sea- son began. A wet winter ought to be a safe basis for making a prophecy, for the condition of the groimd in the early season has a marked effect on fires, and to make the table stronger the precipi- tation in March, April and May, and also the number of clear days in April, May and June will be given to show how much chance the sun had to dry out the ground. Clear Days Period No. Fires Acreage Precip. April, May Fires June and in June in April Year Precip. and June Began July and July and May 1911 42.3 59 June 1 15 1,264 1171 1914 38.4 53 June 20 28 114 6 20 1915 37.8 43 July 1 6 6 1007 1912 19.6 56 May 10 16 2,953 1065 1913 17.5 61 July 1 8 409 6.43 The two wettest seasons have the smallest acreage in June and July, as compared with the two dryest, which is right. But the number of fires for the two wettest was greater than for the two dryest. The season that had the fewest clear days began late and had the best fire record, but the one which had the most clear days began just as late, and only had two more fires. The year which had the^most rain in March, April and May began its sea- 598 Forestry Quarterly son June 1, and burned over 1264 acres, while the year with the next to least rain began a month later and had less fires and one third the acreage. The amount of snowfall for the various years seems to have an inverse effect on the acreage burned in June and July from what would be expected. The records taken at Lake Eleanor (eleva- tion 4700 feet) show that the largest burned over acreage follows the most snowfall in the late winter and spring, and that years with late snows begin their fire seasons just as early, and in one case earlier than those without them. Particular stress has been laid upon the value of lots of snow and late snows upon the fire season, but this does not seem warranted by the records so far. The three years which have had the greatest snowfall have had the greatest acreage biurned over. There does not seem to be any correlation between any of the known meteorological factors and a fire season, as far as can be ascertained from our present available data. The factors which one woiild naturally think to be of great influence apparently have none at all, neither late rains or snows, nor precipitation or tem- perature ; and each fire season is an individual which works out its own destiny as it progresses. The one very important factor of wind cannot be correlated on account of lack of data, and this may turn out to be the key to the results of each season. Wind, however, cannot be predicted far enough in advance to give a line on the coming season ; on the other hand, there is no doubt that if wind is the deciding factor in each season, we will very soon be in a much better position to deter- mine the danger by means of the rapidly increasing effectiveness of our cooperation with the weather bureau. This should be extended until each Forest has at least one lookout station fully equipped with aU necessary instruments, and with a wireless re- ceiving outfit for getting danger signals from San Francisco. About the only thing that has been found out by this study is that we cannot tell what the coming year fire season will be like from our present data. There is a chance that a similar study for a large area, such as northern or central California, will show a correlation of meteorological factors from which the main char- acteristics of a future season can be predicted. But in any case it is probable that we must wait a few years for more detailed data before any very definite conclusions can be drawn. comrERsiON methods— a visit to the forests of CHAUX AND FAYE DE LA MONTROND, FRANCE By H. R. MacMillan^ The period of the war is obviously an unsuitable time to visit French forests. All the staff coming within the very elastic limits of military age went on duty at the front at the first outbreak of war. Even many of those too old for active military service were withdrawn from the forest administration to look after transport^ supplies and other military necessities. The forests are now in charge of the few men unfit for military service, strengthened by the old guard who have returned from the enjoyment of their pensions. The staff in one conservancy, which consisted in peace times of 20 inspectors had been reduced to 2 inspectors, both well over military age, the guards and subordinate employees had also been reduced by over 90 per cent. Work in the forests is at an absolute standstill; working plans are postponed, except- ing where fuel, the work of old men, women and boys, is taken for domestic or industrial purposes, or where the needs of war, which are varied and vast beyond conception, are concentrated on certain forests. The forest of Chaux is an area of 49,400 acres on the plains east of the Jura mountains. So far as history shows, it has never been otherwise than forest, owned by the royal family or by the State. The name even has remained imchanged for over 700 years. The coppice stand consists of 50 per cent oak, 20 per cent Blue beech, 10 per cent beech, 10 per cent birch, and 10 per cent alder and poplar. The standards are oak 90 per cent, beech 10 per cent. This forest, an island of inferior soil situated in an agricul- tural commimity, though far from being one of the show forests of France, is an excellent example of what forest care should accom- plish on similar small, non-agricultural tracts in the more densely settled and industrial regions of Ontario or Quebec. The task was, however, rendered more easy in France than it will be in Canada, by the fact that such non-agricultural areas as Chaux, though they might pass from crown to abbey or noble family, were never broken into small holdings under many ownerships. ^Lately Chief, Forest Branch, British Columbia. 599 600 Forestry Quarterly Chaux is one of the French forests in which the old rights of user have been settled by awarding to each of the communities bor- dering the forest, an area in which they carry on their own cutting operations, without payment to the State for the timber, but under supervision of state-appointed, communal-paid officers. There are 29 such communal forests sliced out of the borders of Chaux, averaging in area 600 acres each, and divided into felling series, cut over regularly imder a simple coppice system by the villagers and farmers sharing in its ownership. It is easy to see that a population which thus shares both in the administration and profits of a forest will imderstand and sup- port a wise and business-like administration of public forest lands in general. The people by using a forest wisely have acquired a forest imagination. The reverse is the case in Canada, where, especially in Eastern Canada, the population is concentrated in deforested area. It seems hopeless to expect people so situated, without any living demonstrations of the profits of wise forest administration before their eyes, to insist upon the proper care and protection for vast public forest areas they have never seen. The establishment and management of forest or well situated tracts of now waste land in the popiilated portions of Eastern Canada will serve a two-fold purpose in the production of revenue, the supply of timber for domestic and industrial needs, and the teaching of forestry to a population living in a coxmtry four fifths of which is fit for forest or nothing. The staff employed in this small forest must astonish one ac- customed to the other end of the forest scale in British Columbia. The central body of State forest and the communal forests, bor- dering roughly 50,000 acres in all, are administered by the one staff consisting of 5 brigadiers (corresponding to rangers), 6 guards employed solely in the State forest, 12 guards engaged on beats divided between State and communal forest and 2 guards whose beats are entirely within communal forests. All are ap- pointed by the State forest service. Ten of the employees of this small area are furnished with houses and grovmd for gardens and cattle. Forest management in France supports as many families per square mile as agriculture in many parts of Canada. The long and slow progress of the Forest of Chaux to the present system of management is an encouragement to those who may Conversion Methods 601 consider progress to be too slow in Canada or the United States. Prior to 1724 this forest was under no regular system of manage- ment, except that it was protected against destruction by over- cutting. It was then divided into 20 cutting series and managed as coppice under standards on a rotation of 30 years. The necessity for a greater quantity of large timber becoming ap- parent, and the belief gaining ground that the State should aim to produce high forest rather than coppice, it was decided, in 1766, that 5 felHng series would be treated as high forest on a rotation of 100 years. This was not done, however, and the 30-year rotation was maintained. A further attempt was made in 1824 to increase the proportion of high forest by reserving portions of four felling series to stand over through four rotations. It was believed then and for many years after that high forest could be satisfactorily created by clear-cutting the coppice and leaving the standards. The resultant high forest consisted of the stand- ards, seedlings produced from them, and coppice shoots which came up with the seedlings, and in many cases where thinning operations were not carried out, crowded out the seedlings. The experiment carried out in this manner 100 years ago in the forest of Chaux is not considered to have produced satisfactory results. The seedling growth was not so plentiful as was expected, the coppice growth was particularly vigorous and suppressed many of the seedlings. The resultant forest lost both in produc- tivity and in regenerating power by containing too large a propor- tion of standards of coppice origin. French foresters have in recent years devoted much study to the most profitable manner of converting coppice to standards. The system now adopted in such a forest as Chaux, where coppice is being converted to high forest of the same species, is to allow the coppice to grow untouched for the period of one rotation. The effect of this is to weaken the coppice stools and prevent as far as possible the production of another crop of vigorous shoots which would interfere with or suppress the seedlings. Strong coppice shoots are also produced which may be held over as seed bearers. At the end of the first period of 30 years the coppice is opened up for a regeneration felling as may be necessary tmder the local conditions to secure the desired seedling growth. In the beech and oak forests the regeneration fellings are confined chiefly 602 Forestry Quarterly to freeing advance growth or removing the inferior coppice shoots in such a manner as to encourage seed production from either standards or the more advanced coppice shoots. Planting may be undertaken to secure the necessary stock. The usual plan is to complete the establishing of the new stand in this second period of 30 years. The stand then established is thinned and tended for three subsequent periods of 30 years each, by which time the usual rotation of 120 years has been established. In order that the annual yield of the forest may be kept as nearly constant as possible, the area is usually divided into four series before conversion operations are begun, the conversion of the forest is undertaken one series at a time, series II being started when the regeneration period in series I is completed, the coppice manage- ment being kept up in each series until its turn comes for con- version operations. There are certain forests where it is considered more profitable, not only to convert the forest from coppice to standard, but also to convert the standards from broad-leaf to conifers. An example of this was seen at the small forest of Faye de Montrond on the Jura plateau. This forest was coppice on a 25-year rotation with standards on 120-year rotation, the species being oak, beech, ash, maple. This is being changed to Silver fir high forest for the sake of the greater profits expected. The broad-leaf forest yielded $1.50 per acre per annum; the Silver fir forest is expected to yield $12 per acre per annimi. The Silver fir forest is to be managed on a rotation of 120 years. The forest is divided into four felling series, each to be worked over in 30 years. Operations for con- version were begim in 1860. During the following 25 years the coppice was allowed to grow in three of the felling series, but was cut as usual on the other. The first felling series was taken in hand in 1886, at which date it was covered with coppice 25 years old. The treatment fore- cast for it at that date provided that it should be gone over three times at 10-year intervals during the period 1886 to 1915, this be- ing accomplished by dividing the block into 10 annual coupes and working over each coupe three times. The treatment given the block between 1886 and 1895 consisted of cleaning up the area, removing the undergrowth, the poorer coppice shoots and standards, amounting to about 10 per cent of Conversion Methods 603 the total. The follo\\ing year fir and spruce were sown or planted in the openings. The fir was sown several seeds in a spot one or two feet square. Spruce, which is planted, was used only for large openings. The many firs coming up in the seed spots were transplanted during later operations. Diu-ing the period 1896 to 1905, thinning operations, both to free the spruce and fir already estabhshed and to create further openings for sowing and planting were conducted. At this time any failures in the sowing of previous decades were corrected. During the final treatment during the period 1906 to 1915, practically the whole of the remain- ing broad-leaf stand, excepting vigorous seedlings of valuable species, were removed and the establishment of the coniferous forest completed by final sowing and planting. While block I, amounting to one quarter of the area of the forest, has been receiving this treatment, blocks II and III have re- mained in growing coppice which in 1915 will be 55 to 80 years old. During the period 1886 to 1915 improvement fellings were carried out over block II three times, with the intention of leav- ing in the block at the end of the period only the best of the standards, coppice and seedlings. Enough fir and spruce was introduced after the fellings to form about one quarter of the final stand. Block III was treated in the same manner as block II, at the same time, with the exception that thinnings in block III were lighter and very little sowing or planting of conifers has yet been done. Block IV was worked as coppice until 8 or 10 years ago. Coppicing was then stopped, and it will be allowed to stand in reserve imtil ready for the same treatment as has been given blocks II and III. The forest when visited in 1915 was at the end of the first 30- year period of conversion. The situation in each of the four blocks was : I. Establishment of coniferous forest completed now in groups, 1 to 30 years old. Broad-leaf trees disappeared except for thrifty seedlings left. Coppice shoots kept cut down and coppice stools dying out. II. Coppice, 55 to 80 years old. Three improvement fellings have cleared away large proportion of coppice shoots and many stand- ards. Fair number of yoimg fir, spruce present. III. Coppice, 55 to 80 years old. Small proportion of coppice 604 Forestry Quarterly and standards removed by light improvement fellings and few conifers sown and planted. IV. Coppice, 8 to 33 years. The mistake was made in conversion of this forest, of allow- ing coppice to grow up over too large a proportion of the forest at one time. As a result of this initial error the coppice on block III, and to a certain extent on block II, began to lose its vitality and to thin out before it was reached in the scheme of felling and sowing operations. This was not foreseen in the forest of Faye de Montrond until too late and was then corrected by. thinning and planting in blocks II and III some years in advance of the original plan. The consequence will be seen in the final coni- ferous forest where the age classes will be abnormally distributed, the older trees predominating. A short visit to a few French forests convinces me that there are now certain regions in Canada where economic conditions are quite as favorable to intensive forest management as in many of the profitable French forests. The real obstacle in Canada is to be found in the public, not in the forests. PASSING VIEWS OF FORESTRY IN BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA By H. R. MacMillanI South Africa, of all British dominions, and one might say, of all English-speaking coimtries, lost least time after the first important settlement, in considering forestry. The Dutch, who were the pioneers over large areas, seem always to have desired to see trees about them. The towns and cities of South Africa, ranging from Cape Town and its oak avenues over 200 years old to the newest crossroads in the veld are clothed with trees in a way that puts to nude disgrace the unblushing blocks on the plains of Canada and the United States. Many of the older South African towns have parks containing an astonishing range of exotic forest species and others have established municipal forest plantations. These parks, arboreta and plantations, even if of no great commercial value, have been of certain assistance during the development of the present progress of forestry in South Africa both by convinc- ing the public of the results possible from forest plantations and by serving as experimental grounds from which foresters may draw valuable deductions regarding the use of various exotic species. The lesson of the annual timber imports which is kept well be- fore the South African public has induced strong and widespread support for planting trees. The owners of gold, coal and diamond mines, who pay high prices for props, the fruit industry, always in the market for large quantities of cheap box material, the railroads forced to pay about $1.75 each for imported sleepers, the farmers and urban population paying $40 to $50 per thousand feet at the chief centers for common Itimber, all support the Gov- ernment in its forest planting policy. The annual timber impor- tations of South Africa reached, in 1914, over $3,500,000, an aver- age of $3.50 per capita for the white population. The difficulty of the Forest Department has not been so much to secure funds for the carrying out of necessary work as to accomplish the rate of progress demanded by the public without committing errors either in planting or administration of remaining indigenous forest, such as might later lead to hasty condemnation of forest work. The forester in South Africa must break virgin ground to an ^ Lately Chief, Forest Branch, British Columbia. 605 606 Forestry Quarterly extent unknown to other forest services. The indigenous forests covering now only half a million acres in a country of 430,000 square miles, are poorly stocked and contain only hardwood species of slow growth, belonging to genera which have never yet been under forest management, and concerning which it has already been learned that natural reproduction is slow of growth and difficult to obtain. The most important forests of the future must be established by the introduction of timber trees from other continents. Rule of thumb methods, carried bodily from other lands, have helped foresters in many new regions — they are of little use in Africa, the country where the forester must rely upon science alone, largely meteorological as well as silvical, in developing his plan of campaign. Physiography and Climate The progress and present situation of forestry in South Africa may be more readily understood if a slight digression is made here to outline the climatic and physiographic conditions. A gen- eral outline map would show the six broad regions into which South Africa has been divided by the important influences con- trolling plant growth. The salient feattues of these types are as follows : 1. South-west coast. A desert-like strip, 40 to 60 miles wide, reaching from sea level to the 3,000 foot contour, extending through late German South-west Africa southward along the South Atlantic coast to the Oliphants River. The soil, sandy near the ocean, becomes a mixture of sand and clay inland toward the mountains; the only break in the topography is furnished by low rolling hills. The average annual rainfall over a period of 10 years varied at two stations from 23^ to 4J^ inches, 80 per cent falling in the winter six months. The temperature ranges from a minimum of 32° F. to a maximum of 108° F. Vegetation is sparse and trees few, the latter confined to scattered Tamarix, Acacia, Combretvun and Euclea, of no economic value, 2. South coast. This is another littoral strip, extending about 50 miles wide from the Oliphants River eastward to near Port Elizabeth, a distance of 500 miles. This coastal belt rises in steps by a series of escarpments, to a height of about 3,000 feet. This is a region of winter rains, varying from 40 inches annually near the coast to 20 inches inland. The temperature varies from a South African Forestry 607 minimum of 26° F. to a maximum of 112° F, Here are fovmd thousands of square miles of brushwood 2 to 8 feet high. Forests occur chiefly, nearly always in small areas, in the moist deep ravines and valleys facing the sea. The most important areas, now under permanent administra- tion run to a few thousand acres each, grouped chiefly in a dis- trict 110 miles long and 10 miles wide. Wild elephants are still found in these forests. The extremely mixed character of the stand and the prob- lems it presents to the forester are indicated by the genera enter- ing the forest composition in this type : The first and most impor- tant is Podocarpus, others are Scolopia, Doryalis, Kiggelaria, Vepris, Ekebergia, Apodytes, Ilex, Gymnosporia, Cassine, Pteroc- elastrus, Elaeodendron, Scutia, Ptaeroxylon, Rhus, Virgilia, Cunonia, Olivia, Cussonia, Canthium, Curtisia, BurchelUa, Rap- anea, Sideroxylon, Olea, Nuxia, Chilianthus, Ocotea and Celtis. 3. South-east. This coastal belt, marked by simimer rains ex- tends, 50 to 100 miles wide northward from Port Elizabeth to Portuguese territory, widening as it goes northward, and reaching from the Indian ocean inland to an elevation of about 3500 feet. The inland westerly boundary of this region is marked by a north and south mountain range, behind which Hes the great continen- tal plateau. The drop from this range to the sea, comprising the type under discussion is neither even nor gradual; the country is very rolling, broken by ridges paralleling the main mountain sjTstem, greatly diversified and deeply cut into valleys. The rain- fall averages 40 inches near the coast, 20 inches inland. Two- thirds of the precipation falls in the summer months. The tem- peratiu*e varies from a minimtmi of 21° F. inland, where frost occurs only above 1300 feet elevation, and a minimimi of 40° F, at the coast, to a maximimi of 1 10° F. The whole type consists of grassland, savannah and woodland intermingled. The small for- est areas, which were originally much larger, amounting now to a total of about 300,000 acres, are found near the coast and include the following genera: Podocarpus, Vepris, Olea, Apodytes, Olivia, Scolopia, Mimusops, Sideroxylon, Ekebergia and Ocotea. 4. Karroo. This is the desert bed of an ancient lake, 50 to 75 miles wide from south to north, extending east and west 300 miles, lying 1800 to 2500 feet above sea level, and surrounded by moun- tain barriers which reach in the north a height of 4.000 to 8,000 feet. 608 Forestry Quarterly The soil is fertile but water is scarce and the scanty rainfall is carried away rapidly by the many torrential beds which cut the surface. The rainfall has averaged at different points 8 to 14 inches annually, 60 to 75 per cent of which falls in the summer. The temperature varies from a minimum of 20° F. to a maximum of 110" F. There are no trees except scattered Acacia horrida along the few river banks . 5. Upper Region. Lying directly north of the Karroo is a great region, almost 300 miles square, 3500 to 4,000 feet in elevation, a vast monotonous plain broken only by isolated, flat-topped moun- tains or rugged hills. The rainfall here has averaged annually at different points 6 to 27 inches, of which 65 to 75 per cent comes in the simimer. Coupled with the absence of rainfall, the range of temperature, together with the sudden changes, is very severe for plant growth. The minimum is 14° F. to 20° F. at different stations and the maximum 97° F. to 112° F. There are a few stunted bushes on sheltered slopes and in the valleys, but absolutely no trees, excepting an occasional Salix capensis along the Orange River, which is the chief drainage coiirse for the region. 6. Kalahari. There remains the great continental plateau, 3500 to 4,000 feet high, an area of 700,000 square miles comprising almost the whole of Orange River Province, the Transvaal and Bechuanaland, a large portion of the North-western Cape Pro- vince, and much territory outside the Union of South Africa. The general slope is westward to the Orange River ; a few streams break through eastward to the Indian Ocean. Many mountains rise from the plateau, reaching 6,000 to 10,500 feet. The rainfall varies from almost nothing in the sandy western boundary districts to 20 inches along the east and southwest and 40 inches on some of the moimtain ranges, particularly in the northern Transvaal. Eighty per cent of the precipitation occurs in the summer. The temperature drops to a minimimi of 16° F. to 20° F. and rises to 96° F. to 11 2° F. The changes are very sud- den and frosts are dangerous to vegetation in many districts. The mountains are grass topped. Westward extend hundreds of miles of high veld or grass, which merges into scrubby bush veld and savannah forest. The only important forests are in the limited regions of greater rainfall, covering only a few thousand acres in the ravines and on the slopes lying to the east and south- east of the mountains. Scmth African Forestry 609 Forest Distribution and Composition It is not surprising that native forests did not cover large areas in South Africa. By far the greater part of the country, as may be gathered from the descriptions given of the climatic regions, is absolutely treeless. Such forests as do occur are chiefly open, dry-land scrub types, known locally as bush veld or thorn veld. Here acacias predominate. Of the many species occurring, of which only a few, and these only in scattered specimens, possess quahties or reach sizes to give them value for timber may be mentioned as amongst the most useftd the wild olive (Olea ver- rucosa), the Karree-boom {Rhus lancea and viminalis) the Camel thorn {Acacia giraffae), Knoppies-doom {Acacia pollens), Aapies- doom {Acacia burkei), African teak {Adina galpini) and Kaja- tenhout {Pterocarpus angolensis). These scrub forests, occtu-ring as they do in an otherwise bare country, were used extensively from the earliest pioneer days for fencing, fuel, mining timbers, buildings and material for vehicles and implements. The original area could not have exceeded a few milHon acres. The land on which scrub forests occurred has passed chiefly into private hands or native reservations. The species are slow growing, not virile in reproduction, and so scat- tered that large areas must be run over to produce sufficient timber even for local uses. The inevitable result has been the destruction of the most important areas of scrub forest in spite of its value to the settlers for shelter, soil protection in a coimtry where erosion is very rapid and destructive, and as a source of small serviceable poles. About 120,000 acres of scrub forest have been preserved by the Government in forest reservations. The timber forests were from the earHest days even more limited in area than the scrub forests. The original area was probably between 500,000 and 1,000,000 acres. These patches, rich in species as has been stated, occurred in small areas favored with rainfall, scattered on the slopes and in the ravines of the moimtain escarpment which rises 100 miles wide along the north- ern and eastern African coast. Though the pioneers first pene- trated this belt and destroyed much of the forest, they were always looking for more accessible plains where cattle would flourish. The bulk of the population has drifted past the forest 610 Forestry Quarterly areas, otherwise nothing would be left. As it is, few tracts re- main which have not been heavily cut over in the past century, almost to the extinction of the principal species. Such small areas of virgin forest as remain owe their salvation to the ex- tremely high cost of moving the comparatively small quantities of valuable timber either to the seaboard or to centers of popula- tion. The original African timber forests contained 108 species, of which a few were very valuable, nearly all slow growing hard- woods, admirably adapted for vehicle construction. Chief among them are Yellow wood (Podocarpus thunhergii and elongata), constituting three quarters of the stand. Assegai (Curtisia faginea) , Stinkwood {Ocotea bullata) Black ironwood {Olea laurijolia), White ironwood {Toddalia lanceolata), White pear {Apodytes dimidiata) , Kamassi-wood {Gonioma kamassi), Clanwilliam cedar {Callitris arborea), occurring scattered over 200 square miles, Sneezewood {Ptaeroxylon utile), and Cape Box {Buxus macowanii). Wherever forests existed wheel-wright and vehicle works were established to supply the wagons so extensively used in South Africa. It is doubtful if any American vehicle woods possessed the strength or toughness of some of the African woods. The selection of the forest for this use, the cutting of mining timbers and railway sleepers, together with repeated fires, and constantly encroaching clearings made by shifting ciiltivators have sadly reduced the indigenous African forests. About 450,000 acres remain, nearly all cut over and in a state of regeneration, of which about 400,000 acres is in Goverimient forest reservations. Development oj Forestry An extensive forestry program was under way in Cape Colony and much was actually accompHshed long before the Union. Forestry in the other provinces before the Union, and over the whole of the coimtry imder the present Union Government, is a direct offshoot of the pioneering days of the old Cape Colony Forest Department. The problem of forest administration first engaged the attention of Cape Colony in 1819 when a Superin- tendent of Lands and Woods was appointed. This appears to have been similar to what has been so common in Canada, chiefly an office administration, until 1876, when forestry received further recognition by the creation of a Forests and Plantations De- South African Forestry 611 partment, responsible direct to the Minister. The head office of this department was located at a comparatively inaccessible spot in the midst of the most important Cape Forest area. The pressing need for definite action led in 1881 to the creation of a special separate Forest Department, under charge of a French- man, Comte de Vasselot, a student of Nancy who had extensive experience in reforestation in Gascony. His report recommended the passing of a forest law, the establishment of a technical forest department, the demarcation of the indigenous forests to be managed under working plans as permanent forests, and the forma- tion of extensive forest plantations to meet future needs. D. E. Hutchins, the pioneer of South African forest planting, a man who has done more than any other living forester in the transfer of forest species to new lands and in fighting the cause of forest planting in a treeless country, was transferred from India to the Cape Forest Department in 1883. The native forests were demarcated and set aside under a forest act passed in 1888, modelled upon the 1882 Madras Act. In 1891, following the Indian practice, administration of the Forest Department was divided among four conservators, each reporting directly to the Government on matters affecting his district. This arrange- ment continued until 1903, when a Chief Conservator was ap- pointed whose responsibilities extended over the whole colony. The Cape Service grew rapidly; in 1905 the staff included 26 conservators and assistant conservators and 84 European foresters, the latter corresponding somewhat to rangers and guards in North American practice. Several men had been sent to Cooper's Hill for training and a primary forest school had been established in the heart of the Tokai plantations, near Cape Town. Over $3,500,000 had been expended in forest plantations, and the continents of the world had been searched for forest species likely to succeed under Cape conditions. The other crown colony. Natal, did not make such progress. Rich YeUowwood forest areas, limited in extent, existed in the cen- tral part of the Province. As early as 1886, a Cape forester re- ported; another report was made by a German forester a few years later, but nothing was done. A modification of the Cape Forest Act was put into effect by government regulation, the office of Conservator of Forests was twice created and twice abolished, and very little was accomplished. From 1908 to Union in 1910, 612 Forestry Quarterly forest work was in the hands of the Director of Agriculture. Up to that time a little work had been done in establishing arboreta and plantations. The natives had been given forest rights and had destroyed a large proportion of the valuable indigenous forests. Forest Departments were established in Orange Free State and the Transvaal under the Agricultural Departments of the Crown Colony Governments in 1903. These departments were staffed with trained men selected from the Cape Service and from Europe. An active start was made in setting aside the few thousand acres of indigenous forest in Transvaal and in establishing arboreta and nttrseries preliminary to carrying on an aggressive planting policy. Planting in Orange Free State is extremely difficult. The ele- vated treeless plains suffer severely from drought, frost and dry- ing winds. The most promising districts are restricted to the Basutoland border where moisture conditions are better. There is no indigenous forest. The forest prospects in the Transvaal are better. There are large areas of land along the east slopes forming the eastern boundary that are fit for forest planting. In the north, too, on the mountain ranges, are also areas where conditions are such that forest planting wiU be successful and profitable. The indigenous forests are not extensive; they are found on the south and east slopes of the mountains and on the northern es- carpment at a height of 4,000 to 6,000 feet where the indigenous Yellow-wood forest reaches its northern limit. Across the Lim- popo River from this escarpment begins the low veld with the open, dry, deciduous scrub forest of sub-tropical Rhodesia. The Union of the four provinces in 1910, carried out on a broader scale than the Union in Canada or Australia, brought under the scope of one Forest Act and one administration the whole of the indigenous and planted forests of South Africa. Forestry thus became the distinctly national question that its importance merits. Present Organization The Forest Act, passed in 1913, while consolidating the ordi- nances of the four provinces follows the previous Cape Act. The chief provisions of the Act are for the reservation and protection, unalienably except by vote of the two Houses of Parliament, of all forest reservations ; the acquisition by the Government of land for forest purposes; and the increasing of the timber production SoiUh African Forestry 613 of the country by the establishing of plantations. Private planta- tions may be placed under the Act for purposes of protection, and all trees growing on road sides, if not private or mtinicipal property are placed under the control of the Forest Department. Forest reservations are, after the Indian system divided into demarcated and un demarcated. No great difference is apparent, except that the demarcated include the more valuable and acces- sible areas, the boundaries of which are more plainly established, and offences in which are more severely punished. A sound organization has already been established for carrying on the work. The Forest Service is under the Department of State, and the Chief Conservator is responsible directly to the Minister of Agriculture. The Union is divided into seven con- servancies, each in charge of a trained Conservator of fairly long experience, responsible to the Chief Conservator. The Conser- vancies are divided into districts, each in charge of a District Forest Officer. There are altogether 27 District and Assistant District Forest Officers. The forest planting stations, or small forest areas in each district, are each in charge of Foresters, of whom there are 123. There has lately been added to the organization an office of Re- search, the staff consisting at present of one Research officer. The duties of this office are, of course, multifarious, including silvical studies of indigenous forests, recording of the innumerable experiments carried on in planting, finding uses for indigenous and planted woods, coping with insects and diseases, organizing the investigative forces of the whole service and introducing syste- matic plans of working indigenous forests and plantations. The whole of forestry in South Africa, even more than elsewhere, is experimental, policies and principles must change rapidly according to newly discovered facts. The Research office should soon be largely increased. Every effort is being made to recruit from properly trained men. A training school established under the Cape Government is car- ried on by the Union Government. Here men who have passed preliminary examinations and served apprenticeships are given a nine months course, which increases their value for the grade known as "Junior Foresters," to which they are appointed on plantations and forest tracts under administration. The Assistant District Foresters are now appointed only from men trained at accepted forest schools in Europe or America. 614 Forestry Quarterly Several South African Rhodes scholars have specialized in forestry at Oxford and later joined the Department. The Union Govern- ment has also established two scholarships tenable for three years, each worth £200 annually, to permit two men to study abroad. The regular programme calls for the appointment of two Assistant District Foresters yearly. One of the chief weaknesses of forest administration, par- ticularly in Canada, is the uncertain future of the trained and other men employed. The lack of a defined salary policy on the part of many governments, and the utter absence of a pension system, is certain to render difficiilt the holding of the best men. Canadian governments do not attempt to safeguard their interests by pro- viding safe careers for, or offering inducements to, their expert employees. Chiefly as a result of the Crown colony administra- tion in the various African provinces before Union, a definite salary and pension scale has been adopted by law which, by its certain provision for the future, serves as an inducement for the forester to allow his future to rest with the State. What the Gov- ernment of South Africa has considered it wise to do may be of interest in North America. It shoiild be noted weU that in South Africa, a million white people, possessing virtually no forests are engaged in forest planting. Foresters in South Africa on the face of things, can hardly have a high market value outside their present employment. The government desires to attract good men and keep them, therefore offers fair pay and a pension. The permanent field men, known as foresters, chiefly rangers on the reservations or skilled men in charge of nurseries and planta- tions, are divided into four grades, receiving the following pay per year: First grade £ 84 to £120 Second " £120 " £150 Third " £150 " £180 Fourth " £180 " £240 The Assistant District foresters receive £180 to £255 annually, and, when they reach the grade of District Forest Officers, rise from £280 to £360. Conservators of whom there are seven, are divided into three classes : £400 to £500 3 conservators £500 " £600 3 £600 " £700 1 South African Forestry 615 The Chief Conservator for the Union is, of course, more highly- paid. Throughout the organization a regular annual salary in- crement is provided. The salaries in many cases are augmented by the use of Government residences or allowances in lieu thereof. Every permanent employee on reaching the retiring age receives a pension. South Africa, with only a fraction of the population and re- sources, and a very much less interest at stake, has faced the prob- lem of forest organization in a more statesman-like manner than has any part of Canada, and as a result is building in a more perma- nent manner and on a sounder basis. The total area of forest reserves in South Africa is about 2,000,000 acres. Only about 400,000 acres of this area is forested. There are 280,000 acres of moimtain groimd unfit for tree growth, held under forest reserva- tion as a convenient means of retaining imder public control areas which might be over-grazed and become crowded if allowed to pass into private hands. Fifty thousand acres of drift sands are included in the forest reserves, as also 200,000 acres of mountain lands producing "buchu," a shrub-producing leaf of medicinal value. The remainder of the area under reserve is made up of waste land, only a small proportion of which is expected to be of ultimate value for afforestation. Working Plans and Market The indigenous forests are located chiefly in Cape Province. Ambitious attempts were made in the early days of forest ad- ministration to put them under systematic management on a sustained yield basis. Working plans were drawn up and sanc- tioned which did not work, chiefly because of lack of silvicultural knowledge of the various species, of financial pressure which forced over-cutting in spite of the working plan — a condition not yet remedied — lack of demand for any but the best species in the forest, too few trained officers, and too great a pressure of wood- cutting population seeking the best woods. There was thus created a management system of inverse selection which has gone far to ruin some areas. Under the present administration a determined effort is being made to overcome these handicaps. Much yet needs to be done before the indigenous forests, which are nearly all very much over- worked, can be said to be on the up-grade. A shortage of trained 616 Forestry Quarterly staff still presents an obstacle in the way of learning the silvical habits and reqtdrements of the many species unknown to foresters anywhere. The poor natural reproduction and slow growth of nearly all valuable species intensifies the problem. The existence near some of the most important forests of a population dependent upon timber cutting, whose necessities can only be met by over- cutting has been a sore problem, the solution of which is only now under way. The poUcy of the Forest Department is, however, to bring all indigenous forest reservations under permanent management. To this end a systematic study of habits and growth of the differ- ent species has been inaugurated and cutting restricted to selec- tion by forest officers. A close supervision is maintained over all cutting operations, and an effort is made to reduce waste in the woods and to encoiirage natural reproduction. Cutting as well as being restricted to marked trees is kept within assigned areas of each forest each year. Cutting, though regulated, is still proba- bly in excess of the proper quantity. Improvement cuttings have been undertaken in some areas. The indigenous forests at pres- ent produce over 900,000 cubic feet of timber annually, chiefly Yellow-wood, Black ironwood and Assegai. The average size of the trees may be judged from the fact that 60,708 trees were cut to produce this quantity of timber. The timber is sold standing, the prices reaUzed being extraordinarily high, having averaged in 1914 to 1915, 93^ cents per cubic foot for Assegai, 15^ cents per cubic foot for ClanwiUiam cedar, and 17 cents per cubic foot for Sneezewood. These prices, which are 5 to 10 cents per cubic foot below the previous average, are especially high when it is considered that they represent the average paid for scattered individual trees standing in the forest, and that the logs must be removed miles to a mill or market with crude appHances. As much as 25 cents per cubic foot has been paid for Stinkwood trees 60 miles from a rail- road and 6 cents a cubic foot for Yellow-wood 20 to 30 miles from a railroad. Sneezewood fence posts sell for 25 cents per Hneal foot standing in the forest. If all the species were marketable, forest management in Africa would be much simplified. Unfortunately only the species fit for sleepers (in a coimtry where sleeper specifi- cations are unduly high), cabinet and vehicle work are used. The The other hardwoods cannot compete, under present methods of logging and utilization, with imported Scandinavian and North South African Forestry 617 American softwoods and are therefore left to impede the forest. The small area of the forests and the small quantities of the various unused species render the question of extracting them from comparatively inaccessible situations and using them very diffi- cult indeed. Silvicultural Management The native tree species of South Africa are strikingly slower in growth than the successful exotics. This fact alone will tend to give the indigenous forests less importance in management than will soon be asstimed by the plantations. It has been estimated that no more than 10 to 20 cubic feet per acre per year is the best to be expected from the most promising indigenous forests. Fire is not a great enemy, the chief trouble in this direction has been from shiftless cultivation encroaching on and causing fires within the reservations. Fire protection, in addition to the patrol of the permanent staff, nearly all of whom have comparatively small areas, has been by planting fire breaks of wattle and by clearing and biu-ning fire lines. The latter policy is considered the more successful. The total area burned over in 1914 to 1915 including plantations, was 212 acres. An effort has been made to improve the indigenous forests by interplanting with exotic species. Altogether 1,300,000 trees have been so planted on 6600 acres. This work is considered to be experimental, as the results to be obtained from planting rapidly- growing, moisture-demanding species in the indigenous forests are uncertain. The destruction of forests by the nimierous natives cutting sap- Hngs for hut poles has been stopped by estabHshing plantations of exotics to meet this demand. The area of indigenous forest in South Africa is so small that planting must be relied upon for a large proportion of future re- quirements. The fact that indigenous species are very hard and dense, being in general unsuitable for common building piu-poses, are also slow growing, and are in the main only adapted for growth in the more hiimid portions of the country, has led the foresters in charge of planting work to depend upon exotic species. Planting was first undertaken in Cape Province. An extensive arbor etimi was formed, in which trees from all similar regions of the earth were tried, special attention being paid to Mediterranean 618 Forestry Quarterly countries, Australia, Himalayas, Persia, Pacific Coast of North America, Mexico and the Andes. Over 140 species of eucalyptus have been tried and probably well up to 300 species in all from different regions. The trials are by no means complete, the different combina- tions of species, soil, climate and exposure have been by no means exhausted. The sketchy manner in which early records were kept reduces the value of many of the experiments. Only re- cently have systematic studies of past work been undertaken in such a manner as to contribute the maximum of experience. Sufficient has been learned, however, to confirm the Forest Service in the belief, that, although failures may yet be expected, the commercial success of many species has been established. There are in existence now about 64,000 acres of forest plantations, a large area of these consists of plantations of 100 acres to 200 or 300 acres each, containing a large nimiber of plots of different species. These small nuclei, while they have been of great experimental value in demonstrating to the public that trees will grow, and in determining the useful limits of exotic species, cannot be accounted of much commercial value. Many of these plots are also so situated that the stumpage value will be depreciated by transportation costs. The aim of the Forest Service now is to plant about 10,000 acres per year. Experimental work will still be necessary but planting will in the main be confined to the species already proved satis- factory. The location of the plantations is a serious problem, so as to secure rainfall, productive soil and accessibility. Planta- tions will chiefly be upon agricultural land near railroads, within 200 miles from the Coast. Each plantation up to the present has contained a great number of species, sometimes 100 or more, each in a small, pure block. Hereafter, plantations are likely to con- sist of few species. The area for economical administration will be about 5,000 acres at each planting station. Records furnished by early plantations, as well as the excellent start made by the more recent Forest Department plantations, show that extremely rapid growth may be expected from many of the exotic species in South Africa. Several of the pines thrive exceedingly well in the winter rainfall region of the Cape. P. insignis in this district reproduces naturally in profusion and is spreading beyond its original areas. P. pinaster and canariensis South African Forestry 619 also have been very successftil. Forty years ago there were no trees near Grahamstown, one of South Africa's educational cen- ters, since that time P. insignis plantations have been established which at 30 years produced 9,000 cubic feet of timber per acre. Shipping timber to the mines from Grahamstown is now an im- portant, and is evidently a permanent, industry. A plantation of eucalyptus begun after 1876 at Worcester, cover- ing 70 acres, sold at about 32 years for $20,000. E. diversicolor at 6 years had produced an average yearly increment of 533 cubic feet per acre, at 13 years this average had risen to 625 cubic feet per acre. E. saligna at 18 years had reached a height of 100 feet and averaged an annual growth of 527 cubic feet per acre. English oak {Q. pedunculata) thrives in the heavier rainfall regions of some of the Cape Mountain Ranges, and the growth is much more rapid than in Europe. At 21 years one plantation had reached a height of 54 feet, a minimum diameter breast high of 6 inches and had produced 231 cubic feet per acre. The eucalyptus, nearly 150 species of which have been tried in the inconceivably numerous combinations of climatic, altitude and soil factors in South Africa, have in some instances made marvellous growth. E. maideni, in the Transvaal, at 9}/^ years old (It is significant that in discussing these upstarts the forester in Africa considers half years) was 70 feet in height. A 24-acre plot, 10 years old, yielded from thinnings a gross revenue of $500 and a net revenue of $350. Extensive drift sand planting has been carried out. One area, covering 5100 acres of sea-coast dunes, was planted over a period of 16 years with convict labor at a cost of $325,000. A railroad was built and the sands fixed by distributing over the surface the refuse from the nearby city of Port Elizabeth. The grasses used were Ehrharta gigantea, Psamma arenaria and Eragrostis. Acacia cyclopia and saligna were planted as soon as the grass established a stable surface, and on the lee slopes Eucalyptus gomphocephala and diversicolor. The trees have after 14 years grown to a height of 70 feet. Several thousand acres of drifting sand have been reclaimed by forest planting with wattles and pines near Cape Town. As in India, amongst the earliest commercial forest planta- tions established in South Africa were those for railway fuel. These were begun in 1876, when all the fuel was being brought from the United Kingdom. When coal was discovered at the 620 Forestry Quarterly Cape, planting was stopped. Later, in 1902, it was taken up again, this time for sleeper production. South Africa is de- pendent on outside sources for sleepers for over 11,000 miles of Government line. The railroads, practically all of which are owned and managed by the Union Government, began with a vote for railway sleeper plantations of $50,000. The work was car- ried on as a separate Railway Forest department for some years. By March, 1915, 20,343 acres had been planted at a cost of $750,385. The average cost of establishing plantations has been about $50 per acre. The whole work of establishing and managing railway sleeper plantations has been turned over to the Forest Department which receives a specific vote from the Railway Department for this piu-pose. The annual vote for this purpose before the war was $125,000. The composition of the plantations for railway sleepers is, eucalyptus 58 per cent, P. pinaster 25 per cent, the remainder con- sists chiefly of acacia, cupressus and Quercus. The eucalyptus planted are chiefly pilularis, resinifera, panicul- ata, saligna and sideroxylon. The eucalyptus grew sufficiently rapidly to make sleepers in a very few years. It is doubtful if when the trees reach sleeper size the wood, in view of the very rapid growth in South Africa, will be sufficiently mature to pro- duce non-splitting durable sleepers. A great deal remains to be learned concerning both the rotation at which eucalyptus should be cut for sleepers, and the best means of producing serviceable sleepers from the many species under trial. Though the South African Forest Department has succeeded admirably in securing a volume of timber production on many different sites at widely scattered and violently differing regions throughout the Union, an immense variety of technical questions yet await solution. The selection of various species to be grown for special purposes in different parts of the country is fairly well in hand. The experimental work of the past 40 years, during which time over $6,000,000 has been spent by the government on forest planting, has been chiefly directed towards selection of species that tmder the different combinations of site factors will produce a satisfactory volimie of timber. Much attention needs yet to be given to the utilization of many of the species, par- ticularly of eucalyptus. With this problem, is involved that of South African Forestry 621 fixing on the most economic size and situation for the plantation, a rather difficult question when the most profitable ultimate use of the timber is not known. Where so many species are brought together in a new environ- ment, many of them for the first time under forest management, in a land which does not permit of studying their habits in natural forest, innumerable silvicultural problems arise. An earnest at- tempt is being made to meet the situation, but the staff is yet too small. Experimental thinnings are carried on in many plantations, the keen demand for wood enables nearly all thinnings to be made at a profit. Thinnings from E. polyanthema at 10 years of age sold at 84 cents per cubic foot on the stump for the manufacture of handles. Generally speaking, the field of forest management, containing as many posers as could well be brought together under one sky, of selection of species to be grown pure or mixed on temperate to tropic sites, utilization of some 300 species, settlement of policies to be followed in thinnings, fixing cultural regulations and finan- cial rotations, still remains to be conquered by the South African Forest Department. Nursery practice is excellent. A large number of nurseries have been developed, there being eleven nurseries and nine arboreta in the Transvaal alone. The Forest Department nur- series in addition to supplying plantations (a nursery is estab- lished in connection with any plantation of consequence) supply trees for other departments and grow large quantities for cheap sale to the public. Three to four million young trees are sold annually at prices averaging one cent each. The nursery life of a seedling is very short in South Africa, P. insignis is sown in August and planted out permanently in December. In three years from date of seeding the tree is over 20 feet high. Gasoline tins are used extensively instead of seed beds. The tins are cut in two to make two trays, the seeds are sown in the trays, kept watered, and when planting time comes the trays are carted to the field. The most extensive forest enterprise in Africa is the growing of Australian wattles for tanbark production. About 300,000 acres of plantations are devoted to this purpose. The species used are 622 Forestry Quarterly chiefly -A. decurrens, var. mollis and A. decurrens, var. normalis, the Black and Green wattles. The plantations are in Natal and the Transvaal. Agricultural land is used. The plantations, formed at a cost of $10 to $20 per acre, are left until about 7 years old before cutting. At this age the trees are 6 to 8 inches diameter, 40 feet high, and produce one half ton of bark to the acre. The wood also is sold in the frmt growing regions of Natal for $3 per ton, chiefly for crate material and fuel. The market for the wood is leading to an extension of the rotation to 10 years. The annual wood production in a wattle plantation is about 90 cubic feet. The earliest wattle plantations were started solely for the pro- duction of wood, but the bark production has become so important that, in spite of a duty, African wattle bark is being exported to Australia, the home of the species, in quantities exceeding the annual Australian production. The exports of bark in 1914 reached 180,000,000 pounds, valued at $1,430,000. The management of the plantations is simple. The rubbish is burned after the clear-cutting is complete, a dense crop of seed- lings springs up, the land is cultivated to reduce the number of seedlings and the plantation is then left alone for another rotation. Conclusion Forestry in South Africa is definitely recognized to be an invest- ment for the future. Nevertheless, although the administra- tion has only something less than half a million acres of heavily culled indigenous forests to work on, and the plantations are only recently formed, many of them being extended arboreta rather than commercial plantations the balance of expenditure over rev- enue and the stimipage value of free use permits issued is not great. The statement for the past three years runs : 1912-13 1913-14 1914-15 Revenue £72,718 £55,733 £47,192 Value of free use £37,976 £26,371 £14,146 Total £110,694 £82,104 £61,338 Expenditure £157, 833 £149, 139 £119, 475 Such a favorable financial statement diu-ing a period when the Department is undertaking the improvement of indigenous forests and the formation of plantations is possible only, by the working South African Forestry 623 of the indigenous forests (which supplied in 1914 to 1915 about £20,000 of the revenue) at a little higher pressxire than can be sus- tained, by the quick returns from plantations (which supplied in 1914 to 1915 about £24,000 of revenue), and by the very keen de- mand for timber throughout South Africa even at high prices. Nearly all timber must be imported. The chief supplies, aside from a certain amount of eucalyptus from Australia for sleepers, railroad and harbor works, are Baltic timbers (P. excelsa and P. syhestris) and Douglas fir. The high sea freight and high inland rail freights in Africa raise a permanent protective barrier about the Southern sub-continent that promises well for plantations. The chief market on the Rand pays wholesale for Douglas fir $38 per M feet in periods of lowest prices, and sHghtly less for Baltic deals. All the smaller timbers smtable for handles, mine lagging, fuel are correspondingly expensive. The prospects for profitable plantations are excellent. The South African pubHc exhibit an intention to grow within the country a large proportion of the timber necessities, amounting in 1914 to 9,000,000 cubic feet, valued at £518,000, which is now imported. FORESTRY IN INDIA FROM A CANADIAN POINT OF VIEW By H. R. MacMillan^ The first shock to a Canadian traveling in India is the wooded state of the country. One expects that hundreds of millions of people warring through thousands of years and finally under a cen- tury of peace crowding agriciilturally 300 to 600 to the square mile would have produced a denuded land. Such is not the case — except in the arid Indus vaUey — ^the whole land, viewed from a railway carriage, appears forested, and even the Ganges plain with its agricultural half thousand to the square mile is so dotted with trees as to appear at a distance of less than a mUe an un- broken wall of forest. The temperament which leaves trees to grow, in groves, rows and scattered throughout the most valuable fields without even the protection of the fence row, which saves a few trees in America, must have been an important factor in leav- ing any forests for the British to administer in India. The forest area of British India now stands at about 336,000 square miles, or 31.1 per cent of the total land area. Though the forest cannot all be considered as productive timber land, or even as wooded land, as will be explained later, the proportion of actual forest must to a Westerner appear very large, especially when the age, history and population of the coimtry are con- sidered. The large proportionate area of forest is explained by three or four conditions wherein India differs fundamentally from Ameri- can conditions, which act as brakes on forest destruction in India. Recent Canadian experience to the contrary, the Indian is not an emigrant. The strongest human tendency in Canada and the United States has been to move west along the parallels of lati- tude and destroy forest. The native North American has not waited either for pressure of population upon the land or for a market for the timber in the virgin Western forests to fiirnish the stimulus for the Western movement of population. The Indian, the direct antithesis of this man, even when the agricultural popu- lation has reached 600 to the square mile ; has not felt impelled to leave his ancestral paddy field and move a few hundred miles to 1 Lately Chief, Forest Branch, British Columbia. 624 Forestry in India 625 another part of his native province or to another province of India, even though bountiful paddy fields have already been proved there, settled government established and railroads laid down for easy transport. The Indian will assuredly cut down the forest bordering his field and village if allowed, but he will not migrate to attack a new forest area. Nearly every province contains a fair proportion of forest, some of it seemingly on good agricultural land and only a hundred miles or so from districts so densely populated that to use Kipling's description of Canton you feel that if you knocked a comer off a house it would bleed. Other provinces, rich beyond dreams, in the capacity for growth of myriad crops, such as Assam and Burma, lying in the direct Hne between the hordes of China and the swarms of India to this day cry aloud for population and all through the past have suffered little or no forest destruction. A large proportion of the forest wealth of India is in these two provinces. If they are omitted the forest in India sinks to 21 per cent of the land area. One should be permitted to dream a moment what would be the situation in North America today if we had possessed only a little of the Indian's characteristic of paus- ing to make each acre fertile before passing on to denude another. We should have been still somewhere East of the Appalachians and the beaver would not yet have been driven out of Canadian rivers to take refuge in the folds of the flag. Forest Distribution and Ownership The proportion of forest area in various provinces is given below: Area of Per cent Population Area of State of Forest in per Square Province Province Forest Land Area Mile, 1911 Burma 224,854 141,443 62.9 44 Assam 48,915 22,782 46.6 139 Central Province 99,876 19,684 19 . 7 139 Madras 142,402 19,665 13.8 291 Bombay 123,316 12,242 9.9 159 Bengal 78,875 10,612 13.5 577 Punjab 96,650 8,314 8.6 207 United Provinces 106,773 4,193 3.9 440 Behar and Orissa 83,673 2,785 3.4 415 Andamans 3,143 2,209 70.3 8 Baluchistan 54,228 785 1.4 8 Coorg 1,582 520 32.9 111 Northwest Frontiers 13,184 236 1.8 166 Ajmer 2,767 142 5.1 181 British India 1,079,638 245,612 22.7% 226 626 Forestry Quarterly This table includes only the State forests. The proportion of forest to land area would be slightly increased by the inclusion of privately owned forests. The population had risen to about 150 to the square mile before a forest service or any forest protection beyond arbitrary reserva- tion of royal trees for reserve purposes was established. Another reason for the proportion of forest remaining in India lies in the extremely persistent character of plant and tree growth. Except for the coniferous forests of the Himalayas, which con- stitute a very small proportion of Indian forests, the species are not readily inflammable and though injured by fire are not wiped out as is so frequently the case in Canada. Forests near villages hacked over from time immemorial for village and industrial use still persist because of the tenacious character of tree life in India, due partly to coppice and partly to a general ability common to many tree species in India, of preserving a little life imder an un- limited amount of persecution and springing up again the moment persecution is relieved. These devastated areas, though bearing only a little scrub and not recognizable to the Westerner as forests, were because of the high price of timbers and the low earning power of the Indian worth more per square mile than many a heavy virgin Cana- dian forest. They were gathered up everywhere by the early administrators, even down to scattered blocks of a square mile or so, constituted State forests, and go to swell the total area. The natiu"e of the land ownership made simple the assembling by the State of all non-agricultural or wooded tracts large and small. The Mogul emperors and their predecessors had estab- lished and maintained that all land belonged to the emperor. The user paid as annual rent one-third of the crop. Royal trees,, teak, sal and sandal wood were reserved to the emperor and might not be cut, thus forest lands did not pass out of the hands of the central authority. All land remained the property of the emperor. The British, on establishing government after the faU of Mogul and other lesser kingdoms, gave to each man the land to which he could show title established by use. So few were the private estates extending over woodland, even in a country where timber is very valuable, that to the present time only 77,000 square miles of forest are in private ownership. Even small areas of a few acres of scrub or rocky ridges belong to the State, there being no private individual who can show title to it. Forestry in India 627 The Forest Service in India is spared one of the most difficult problems in Eastern America, the bringing of non-agricultural lands, now divided amongst hundreds or thousands of small owners, vmder one control for forest management. There is no doubt, however, that if the Indian Forest Service had been faced with this problem in such a country, say, as Southern Ontario, they would have solved it quickly. Though the average Indian forester will not admit it, being progressive in spirit, ambitious for his profession, and having much larger schemes yet in hand, which he maintains will pay the State 10 or 20 per cent on the investment, the various Indian governments have in 50 years been trained by the foresters to consider their forests as estates, and to vote money for expenditiu-e on improvements where it is shown by the Forest Service that such expenditure will be returned with interest. It is possible that there is a tendency, under the growing influence of democracy in India, to assent to forest investments a little more readily when they are sugared by being hitched to schemes of development than when they are purely for forest improvement, but the fact remains that the forests are to the Indian governments assets upon which each year the finan- cial powers are being educated, by business arguments only, to spend an increasing proportion of the revenue. Further reference will be made to this point. Organization The public forests in India are in nearly all provinces divided into three classes, reserved, protected and unclassed. The division, which in some ways gives confusion to outsiders, arises from the system of civil government. Throughout British India the country is divided into administrative units, known as civil divisions. Each division is in charge of a member of the famous Indian Civil Service, who as Commissioner or Collector governs the district and is head of the local organization. The Commis- sioners, who in early days were active heads of forest work in their districts as well as of aU other work, now occupy themselves chiefly with magistrative duties and are concerned only with forest administration when the latter affects the rights or daily life of the population. The administration of the country may now be said to be divided, the land in use is administered by the Collector ; the land not used, or not capable of being used at the 628 Forestry Quarterly present time, is public forest land and is administered by the Forest Service. It is this public forest land which is represented by the 245,612 square miles under the administration of the Forest Service. As we tmderstand the term, it is all reserved land, in that it can- not be withdrawn and put to any other use without the consent of the Forest Service. The Indian term "reserved" applies, however, only to the forest areas which have been brought under definite, and, from our standpoint, intensive management. The reserved forests cover only 96,297 square miles, a small propor- tion of the total State forest. The rights of user, which are in- evitable in a country like India, have been clearly recorded, have been kept to a minimimi and in many instances have been com- muted by cash payment. The increase in area of reserved forests is very slow, only 1736 square miles since 1909. The additions to reserved forest are chiefly in Burma, where more future addi- tions may be expected. The great contrast in conditions in various provinces in India is borne out by the deforestation since 1909 of 2237 square miles of forest in the Central Provinces where timber is in great demand, and on the other hand, the existence of so much forest land in Burma, a thousand miles away, that even a paternal government thinks it hardly worth while yet to reserve it. The policy in India with respect to deforesting reserved forests may be stated thus: "that application of the soil must generally be preferred which will support the largest numbers in proportion to the area," therefore, as population increases these few forests upon which permanent cultivation can be established without harm to neighboring lands must disappear. Working plans are in effect in reserved forests only. "Protected" forests rank after reserved forests. These are the forests in which certain valuable trees only are under care and protection by the Forest Service and in which villagers and others may cut other species under permit from local forest officers. Protected forests are not recognized in all provinces and cover only 8390 square miles in the whole of India. They are usually merely halted on the way to reservation until local rights of user can be defined and settled or commuted or until arrangements can be made to survey and care for them as reserved forests. The most important class from the standpoint of area are the unclassed forests covering 140,925 square miles. Forestry in India 629 These forests include the whole area in British India, which not being in use by the population for agriculture, does not come under the direct administration of the Revenue Department (as administration by the Commissioner is known), and, therefore, must be xmder the administration of the Forest Service. Much of this land is not forest and may never be — it includes river estuaries, grass lands and various waste tracts, for which no use is foimd at present, but which may sometime be planted to forest or reclaimed for agriculture. Much of it, on the other hand, particularly in Assam and Burma, which between them contain 133,000 square miles of the unclassed forests, consists of heavy, mixed hardwood forests which will be moved up to the reserved class by the time a demand is felt for the timber. The creation of reserved forests has been largely governed by the utter absence of timber in the region, or, in districts where forest lands are plentiful, by the presence of teak, sal or deodar. Areas of heavy forest not containing these species are still un- classed and may be cut, almost destructively one might say, \mder permit or trader's license from the Forest Service and with very little supervision from the Forest Service. The opinion may be hazarded that there are now fairly large areas which should be made "reserved" in Assam and Burma, but which are not, be- cause a large enough staff cannot be seciu-ed to bring their manage- ment up to "reserved" forest standards, and because, partly due to shortage in staff, Indian silviculture stiU revolves around teak, sal and deodar. A cvuious policy exists when fixing the boimdary of a reserved forest, of leaving on the outside a strip of forest for the use of the local public. Forest thus left remains imclassed or protected, usually the former, and is rapidly destroyed by vmregulated use. Just why such unclassed forests are left, and what will be done when their destruction is complete, is not evident. Standards are higher in India than in Canada. Reserved forests seem to be created in India only when the government is com- mitted to supporting an adequate staff and scheme of improvement and management. The great differences in the problems of government arising in the various provinces of India, evident in other questions as well as in the administration of the forests, together with the growth of local legislative coimcils, has resulted in the rapid development of a policy of decentralization in forest affairs. 630 Forestry Quarterly The only forest organization common to the whole of India now is the Inspector General of Forests, the Imperial Forest Service staff, the Forest Board, and the Forest Research Institute and College at Dehra Dun. The Imperial Government, while re- taining a certain directing control over forest policy in India and to a certain extent serving as a means of maintaining an organ- ization for correlating work in the various provinces, does not ad- minister in any way any forest lands. All the executive work of forest administration is in the hands of the various provinces. The broad path of duty for the province is laid out in the Im- perial Forest code, the staff to be used is selected by the Imperial Government, the form of organization and nimibers of staff are decided by the Imperial Government, and imtil recently, all the higher promotions have been made upon the advice of the Imperial Government. The work carried on by the province is subject to inspection and criticism by the Imperial Government, which also fiurnishes in the Forest Board, Research Institute, and School a body of advice and control serving to maintain forest work in the different provinces at a common level. There seems to have been little left for the provinces to do but execute Imperial Govern- ment policies with Imperial Government tools, but there is an indication now that the powers of the provincial officers are being increased. The foimdation of forestry in India is the Forest code, the first edition of which was issued in 1877 and the seventh and latest in 1913. This code will well repay reading by any forester. It establishes the basis upon which the staff is recruited and pro- moted, defines the forest policy for India and lays down the general rules for the management and working of the forests. The making of reports and keeping of accounts are also standardized by the code. It follows, since the code must be accepted as issued by all provincial governments excepting the Presidencies of Bombay and Madras, that forest administration, while varying in execu- tion, energy and initiative in the various provinces, must through- out India proceed along the same lines. The Presidencies of Bombay and Madras being of earlier origin than the Supreme Government of India, maintain a certain independence; they, therefore, do not accept the code as an order as it comes from the Imperial Government, but with very few changes re-enact it for themselves. Forestry in India 631 The powers of the central government, which thus fixes a uni- form forest policy and a uniform organization for its administra- tion throughout India, while leaving the executive work to the provinces, are naturally much greater than the central powers of government in Canada or the United States. Personnel The personnel of the Forest Service in India is divided into three watertight compartments, the Imperial Forest Service, the Pro- vincial Forest Service and the Subordinate Forest Service. The driving power, initiative, supervision and inspiration of forest work depend ahnost wholly upon the Imperial Service, now num- bering 237. The Imperial Service is recrmted from the United Kingdom where probationers, 19 to 22 years of age, are taken in at the rate of about 20 yearly, after having taken prescribed degrees in Natural Sciences. The probationers during two years' study under the direction of an officer detailed in England as the Director of Indian Forest Studies, are required to take forest degrees at the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Dublin or Edinburgh, and to pursue assigned field studies on the continent. Only two or three men are now left in the Forest Service in India who prepared at Nancy. The probationers receive $600 yearly during their two years of preparation. The period of training completed, the men are appointed to the position of assistant conservators at $126 per month. Salary increases are fixed and dependable at the rate of $160 per year for 8 years, $200 per year for 12 years, bringing the pay to $5,000 per year in the twentieth year of service. Thereafter salary increments depend upon promotion to various grades of the service. The full strength of the Imperial Service, or cadre as it is known in India, in 1915 stood at: 1 Inspector General $10,600 1 Assistant Inspector General Variable 2 Chief Conservators of Provinces 8,600 22 Conservators (in three grades) 1st 7,600 2nd 6,800 3rd 6,000 187 Deputy and Assistant Conservators, whose pay, as stated above, depends upon the length of service. The staff of the. 632 Forestry Quarterly Research Institute is included in the statement above. The rates of pay given are in many cases further supplemented by small local allowances. Foresters in North America will be rendered still more envious by the knowledge that the members of the Indian Forest Service receive after 20 years' service pensions roughly equivalent to one- sixtieth of the average pay for each year served. A man entering the Indian Forest Service expects to spend his life in the service and does so. It remains to be seen whether it will be possible for a man to do so in North America on the scale of reward and imder the condition of uncertainty of the future now existing. One restilt of the crystalization of the Indian Forest Service is that promotions from grade to grade are determined chiefly by seniority. A man expects to be made a Conservator when about twenty-two years in the service. Naturally where seniority is one of the guiding principles in promotion, the effect is to a great extent to dull initiative. The only members of the Imperial Forest staff paid by the Government of India are the Inspector General, Assistant Inspector General, Officers of the Research Institute, Chief Con- servators and Conservators. The remainder are paid by the provinces in which they serve. The Indian government pays all pensions, however, and for this reason must sanction the staff employed in each province. The effect of this arrangement is an inevitable understaffing of the organization; the head of the Forest Service in any province must persuade first his provincial government, then the Indian government to sanction an increase of staff. The chances are against him. Promotions to the grades of conservator and chief conservator have always been made by the Inspector General who has felt himself free to draw upon the whole service to fill a vacancy in any province. This power of the Inspector General has, however, apparently been somewhat reduced in recent years. The pro- vincial governments have exhibited a tendency to override the recommendations of the Inspector General and promote one of the men already serving in the province. The Provincial Service consists chiefly of men bom in India, selected from the subordinate services of the various provinces and given a two years' training at the Imperial Government Forest School at Dehra Dun. Forestry in India 633 The appointment and promotion of men in the Provincial services rests with the Provincial Governments, except that the number and the scale of pay is fixed by the Imperial Government. Men of the Provincial Service when appointed usually act as assistants to Imperial Service men, but later may be promoted to take charge of districts. Their pay rises from $1,000 per year at entrance to $2200 after 16 years' service and may reach $3400, with pensions. The Provincial Service now numbers 227, the Subordinate service includes the rangers, deputy rangers, foresters, guards and various other classes of employees. The nvimber exceeds 20,000. Schools exist in nearly every province now for giving forest training to rangers and guards, either in vernacular or in both English and vernacular. It may be very difficult to teach forestry to natives who not only know nothing about it, but whose language contains no eqmvalent either for scientific or forest terms. This, however, is one of the many Httle jobs taken on by the Indian Forest Service. The training given the subordinate staff gives them a general idea of the principles underlying their work, but cannot give them energy, ambition or initiative, or make them dependable. One of the greatest diffictdties of forest administra- tion in India is the supervision of the subordinate staff to prevent an utter break down of the machine. That the few men in the Imperial Forest Service, with the materials at hand, have accom- plished so much in the way of forest administration in India is nothing short of a marvel. The unit of forest administration in India is the Division. The forest Divisions, for convenience in administration, usually coincide in boundaries with the civil districts. There are over 250 civil districts in India, and 166 forest Divisions. Divisions are very large in provinces like Burma where the population is comparatively sparse. Burma divisions reach a maximum area of over 16,000 square miles of forest and 141,108 square miles of forest is divided amongst 31 Divisions. Where population is densest, and the forests more intensely worked, as in the United Provinces, 13,258 square miles of forest is divided into fifteen Divisions. The officer in charge of a Division may be an Imperial Officer, in which case he will grade as Assistant or Deputy Conservator, or he may be a Provincial Service man, in which case he will 634 Forestry Quarterly grade as an Extra Assistant or Extra Deputy Conservator, ac" cording to his length of service. In any case he is the executive officer in charge of all forests under the Forest Service in his Divi- sion, whether reserved, protected or unclassed. Many Divisions contain no reserved forest. The Divisional Forest Officer, as the various grades of men in charge of Divisions are known for con- venience, rarely have trained assistants. The Imperial Forest Service man goes in charge of a Division almost as soon as ap- pointed, and the staff available, of a grade to be useful as trained assistants, is too smaU to supply assistants excepting in a few very busy or very important districts. The small Divisions, as compared with administrative units in Canada or the United States, the lack of trained assistants, and the necessity of giving an incredible amount of close constant personal supervision to the native staff result in the Divisional Forest Officer in India spending fully half his time actually in his forest. Although there appear to be reports, forms and accoimts without nimiber, covering every little transaction, these do not tie the forester to his office. Mail carriers only cost about eight cents a day and the office follows the forester to the field. The result is that Indian foresters retain their keenness for field work and maintain their forest eyes. On the other hand, in North America the size of the administrative units, the impossibility of having even urgent office work sent to the field tends too rapidly to make office men of foresters. Either a man is kept continually on field work involving a great amount of hardship and sickens on the profession, or is transferred to executive work at an early stage and thenceforth sees too many papers and too few trees. Canadian foresters have no monopoly of hardships. The men in India who go cheerfully to their annual spell of fever, who feed an iniquitous variety of insects, and in a shade temperature of 115° do their field work in a forest that offers no shade, aU the while furnishing energy not only for themselves but for the whole subordinate staff, must rank as the heroes of forestry. This is not for a few years only in the beginning. In India, the whole- some tradition prevails, that while a man is in service, which is for 25 years if he survives the climate, he must do his annual three to six months " to-or " of the forest or forests under his charge. They all look forward to it. Divisions are grouped for administrative purposes into working Forestry in India 635 circles, comprising (except in isolated instances) three to eleven Divisions each. There are in India 28 working circles, of which five, consisting of provinces containing but little forest, include only one Division each. Working circles never cross provincial boundaries. Each working circle, excepting the five noted, is in charge of a Conservator. The Conservator, while paid and to a great extent selected by the Government of India, is directly responsible to the Provincial Government in carrying out the Forest Code. Originally there was but one Conservator in each province. As the work intensi- fied and the staff increased, the supervision necessary became too much for one Conservator. The principle, which appears un- natural, was then followed of dividing the province into two, and finally into as many as four Working Circles, each in charge of a Conservator directly responsible to the local government, and entirely independent of the other Conservators in his province. There was no controlling correlating influence governing the different working circles, and the local government soon found itself with as many separate forest departments on its hands as there were Circles in the province. The policy was then inaugu- rated in Burma, followed in United Provinces and Central Provinces and now recently sanctioned for Bombay and recommended for Madras, of appointing a Chief Conservator for the Province, who would be in full charge of the work in the Province and with whom alone the Provincial Government would take up questions of forest administration. The Chief Conservator is hampered by being without assist- ance other than native office staff. The influence of his office is measured by the amount of work he can personally accomplish. He does not reach the position imtil late in life, and can only occupy it on an average of 6 or 8 years before the 55-year limit retires him from India. It being a one-man office, there must be a violent break in ideas and policy each time a new man enters the position. It seems that a stronger organization, that would make for more continuity of policy, would have been developed if a form of specialist organization had been built up when the work in the province became too great for one unaided Conservator. The work could have been classified into three or four broad divisions and an Assistant Conservator appointed for each class of vrork who would supervise this work over the whole Province. 636 Forestry Quarterly It comes as a shock to a forester accustomed only to the type of organization common in the developing Forest Services of the United States and Canada, to find how small a headquarters staff exists in India. There is no headquarters staff in India, and there are no specialists. The areas, both of the Divisions and the Working Circles, are small compared to corresponding areas in America. The Service is much older than any in America, has worn deep channels of procedure, developed fixed ideas and contains a large proportion of experienced men. The fact re- mains, however, that the time of the men, from Assistant Con- servators to Chief Conservators, is so taken up with routine office duties and routine field inspection, that, though they are on the average keener and better trained foresters than we have on the whole in America, they have not the time to develop as rapidly as should be the necessary knowledge of the silviculture and utilization of their forests. The growth of Provincial autonomy in forest administration was accompanied by discussion of the abolition of the office of Inspector General of Forests. It was wisely decided to retain the office as general adviser to the Government of India on forest policy. The Inspector General has direct charge of the Imperial Forest Research Institute and College and performs a valuable service in advising with the Chief Conservators and Conservators regarding Provincial forest policy. Reference has been made to his decreasing power over appointments. The appointment of Chief Conservators has theoretically limited the power of the Inspector General in its most important field, the supervision of working plans. Formerly all preliminary reports on working plans were sent by the Conservator of the Circle in which the plan was being made, for the Inspector General's opinion and instructions before the plan was proceeded with, and the plan itself was sent up for acceptance by the Inspector General before it was adopted by the local government. Now this pro- cedure follows only where the office of Chief Conservator does not exist, and there is evident a tendency to still further limit the actual power of the Inspector General in this direction. The regular and constant inspection trips made by the Inspector General, by arrangement with or at the invitation of the local government, are of great influence in stimulating improvements, particularly in the extension and revision of working plans. The Forestry in India 637 reports made by the Inspector General as a result of such trips are submitted by the Government of India, to whom they are addressed, to the local government concerned, and though the latter is in no way bound to act upon the recommendation of the Inspector General such a course usually follows. Research The work of forest research, which in the diversified forests of India involves many more problems than in America, is imder the direction of the Inspector General. The administrative and executive organization of the Forest Service not providing for any silviciilture or other research work, this also remains exclusively with the central organization. The Forest Research Institute at Dehra Dim embraces therefore a wider range of subjects than is attempted either at Madison or McGill. The work of the in- stitute is grouped under five heads, Silvictdture, Zoology, Botany, Economy, and Chemistry. The staff in each department con- sists of one man only, excepting for one assistant in Economy. The staff in the two most important departments, Silviculture and Economy, are recruited from Divisional Forest officers who possess only the ordinary forest training. Men are assigned to the Research Institute for short terms rather than appointed to it for sufficient periods to enable them to plan and carry out effective work. The field for forest research work in India is probably the greatest in the world. There are already hundreds of products and by-products profitably extracted from the Indian forests; there remain many thousands of square miles of accessible forest awaiting development when problems of utilization and seasoning have been settled. Grasses and bamboos also exist in vast volume over wide tracts of land under forest administration. Silvicviltiu-e is yet confined to three or four species, and every- thing is yet to learn concerning the silviculture of scores of valu- able species. The Silviculturist and Economist at Dehra Dun, facing these problems without assistance, are attempting ropes of sea sand. Much valuable work has been done, buildings have been erected, now devoted to museimi space which would house both the Madison and McGiU Laboratories, but of the facilities and staff for doing original work on the problems awaiting solution in Indian forests there are none. 638 Forestry Quarterly The most important duty of the Economist is to find markets for Indian forest produce, and to find in Indian forests substitutes for imported articles. An effort is made to co-operate with firms in India or the United Kingdom in conducting all tests on a com- mercial scale. There is a bold disregard of trifles about the work which is inspiring. Typical instances are the departmental working of the turpentine forests, and the building of distillation plants to put the refined article on the market, or the taking of a departmental contract for the creosoting of 1,000,000 sleepers. This broad conception and freedom combined with the labora- tories and staff, which sooner or later will come, will put the Research Institute in an enviable position. A Forest Board exists, consisting of the Inspector General of Forests, President of the Research Institute, Chief Conservators, and one Conservator from each Province where there is no Chief Conservator. The Board meets once in three years at Dehra Dun, outlines the three-year program of research work, and dis- cusses questions affecting administration throughout India. The resolutions of the Board are submitted to the various Governments concerned and are frequently made effective by Government orders. The inability of the Research Institute to overtake the urgent problems demanding solution has led to talk of establishing Provincial Research Institutes. As such Provincial Institutes would almost certainly be understaffed, no great improvement could be expected. The true solution lies in increasing the personnel of the central Institute, by appointing men, not trained in general forestry, but specialists in the various branches of the work. Administration The Indian Forest Service, not having to woo the ear of a variable democracy, has not maintained a propaganda, therefore they do not confuse works written about with works accomplished, therefore if you wish to see what they have accomplished you look, not into their reports and speeches, but into their forests. The best answer to the pessimist, who feels discouraged about the situation in Canada, is found in the result now to be seen in Indian forests of half a centiiry's work on the part of a small band of foresters whose nimibers have only recently passed the 200 mark. Forestry in India 639 Before discussing the work, the financial poUcy of the Indian Governments, which make the work possible, must be noted. Twenty-five years ago the annual revenue from Indian forests was $5,101,000 and the government sanctioned the expenditure for forest purposes of $2,430,000 or 47 per cent of the total revenue. Under wise administration and an absolute veto of methods of spoliation, revenue has constantly risen. It was $11,100,000 in 1914 and the actual expenditiu-e for that year was $5,252,000 or 48 per cent of the total. Indian governments differ in two respects from Canadian governments in their attitude towards forest finance, they do not push their yearly financial demands upon the forest beyond the true forest yield, and they devote practically half of each year's revenue to the improvement of the forest. Further, half the forest revenue under non-political administra- tion in India and on a wage scale of 15 to 30 cents per day for labor goes much further than it would in Canada in forest protection and improvement. Nevertheless the economic outlook would be different in Canada today if one-half the forest revenue had been expended on the important forest areas during the last half century, as has been the case in India. The development of a reserved forest area in India proceeds uninterruptedly through the stages of settlement of rights, survey, boundary demarcation, roads, trails and buildings, protection and working plans. So far as these phases of administration go, the reserved forests only need be considered, the other forests, while stirveyed, are only to a limited extent provided with buildings and communications and defined boundaries. Fire protection is not usually extended reserved forests and practically no working plans exist outside reserved forests. The settlement of rights acquired by neighboring villagers over public forest land was the price paid by the Indian Forest Service for the acquisition of the land. The settlement of these rights, usually accomplished by cash payments, or, as in France, by grants of lands upon which holders of rights are concentrated, is con- fined chiefly to reserved forests. The general policy is to under- take only the extinction of rights interfering with the working of the forest. The area upon which such rights are settled now aver- ages about 800 square miles per year, and the average cost has been diu-ing five years $4.13 per square mile. Forest surveys have not presented the same difficulties in India 640 Forestry Quarterly as will be met in many parts of Canada. The Survey of India has done magnificent work in the survey of the whole of India. There was a period, however, when surveys in forest regions were not proceeding sufficiently rapidly and a survey branch was main- tained by the Forest Service under direct supervision of the In- spector General. The branch was later transferred to the Survey of India and now forms the Forest Surveys Branch in that de- partment, charged with all forest surveys and map publications Indian forests, according to their value and the intensity of working are surveyed on three scales, one two and four inches to the mile. During the past five years the annual area surveyed has been 184 square miles on the one-inch scale, 872 on the two- inch, and five on the four-inch. The extremely low labor rates in India enable survey costs to be kept down even in very difficult country. Nearly all the work connected with surveying and mapping is done by trained Indians. The cost in 1913 to 1914 varied from $5.30 to $18.70 per square mile for one-inch and two- inch-scale work. There are still small areas imder working plans which are not surveyed. The establishment of plainly marked boimdaries is an important point in a country where the inhabitants believe only what they see and see only what they can't overlook. It also fits in with the official British passion in India for permanent structures. Bound- aries are extremely well defined by broad, cleared lines, moiuids and stone pillars. The total length of boimdaries of reserved forests is now 165,051 miles of which only 3185 yet require de- marcation. The cost per mile of new boundary is about $10. The work could not be done in America for $100. The responsibilities of the Indian Forest Service with respect to communications and buildings are rendered distinctive both by the climate and the system of exploitation. European officers could not spend half the year, as they do in India, camping in the jimgle supervising field work were no rest houses provided. As it is, only a sound man can live through 20 years of heat, wet, fever and bad water. Excepting in some districts where the natural conditions make tent life reasonable during the working seasons, btmgalows or shelters are built at convenient halting points. An excellent building can be put up for $400 to $700. The total expenditure in new buildings varies between $150,000 to $190,000 annually. Forestry in India 641 The yearly repair bill is half the cost of new construction. The Indian will not biiild a road to take timber out ; he would rather go without the timber. The Forest Service, if it is to sell the timber, excepting in the isolated instances where large companies are working, must first build the road. Roads built for extraction, inspection paths and trails, which are very numerous and the travel routes of the native tribes living in many of the forests render Indian forests very accessible indeed, at least as judged by Cana- dian standards. The yearly expenditure on roads is from $145,000 to $263,000, of which about two-thirds is for new construction. Forest engineering is an important part of the training for both the rangers and men of the Provincial Service. It is doubtful if, as at present trained, the average forester in North America could produce as creditable an engineering showing as results from the daily work of the Indian Forest Service. It is also doubt- ful if the foresters now trained in the forest schools of Great Britain will do as well in this respect as those who came from Cooper's Hill. There are few if any points of resemblance between forest protection in India and America. Protection against trespass is more of a problem in India than fire protection. The total number of breaches of forest regulations in India in 1913 to 1914 was 94,390, classified as follows: Timber trespass 50,899 Grazing trespass 33,938 Injury by fire 4,012 Others 5,541 The density and lack of morality of the poptilation, the difficulty of detection, and to a certain extent the fact that protection against trespass is largely in the hands of Indian members of the service renders the preservation of the forest against the popula- tion exceedingly difficult. Not even the settlement of rights by grants of forest land in which villagers are free to cut, the leaving of strips of forest outside the reserved boundaries, the granting of free use of forest produce and grazing valued at $2,500,000 yearly serves to stem the tide of trespassers. The convictions secured against offenders, 174,084 persons convicted in the 83,064 convictions secured out of the 84,170 cases settled in 1914 to 1915, should discourage offenders, but evidently does not. It is easy to see that when almost 100,000 trespass cases yearly, all 642 Forestry Quarterly involving the untangling of the marvellous trail of the expert Indian witness, come before 200 odd forest officers, a discouraging proportion of their time must be spent in contemplation of files. Fire protection, on the other hand, is a simpler matter than in America. The area for which fire protection was provided has never been great in India, as areas go either in Canada or the United States. At the most, protection extends over about 50,000 square miles, all or nearly all reserved forest. Except in grass areas, which so far as possible are burned in a safe season by forest officers as a measure of protection, Indian forests do not burn readily. Large fires are rare, record fires being those of Madras, covering 16,000 and 7,000 acres each respectively. Such fires as occur in Canada, would if in India, call for special in- vestigation by a Committee of the British House of Commons. The measures of fire protection are chiefly wide fire lines both around and through the forests. These fire lines are regiilarly swept. Patrols are also maintained at a cost each of about 10 cents per day. Villages near the forest are in a measure made re- sponsible for the fire protection of the forest in their neighborhood by being made to fight fire without pay or by threats of with- drawal of their rights if destructive fires occur. The causes of fires in India were in 1913 to 1914: Area Square Number Miles Unknown 2,038 724 Originating outside forest 431 426 Malice 690 359 Carelessness of outsiders 1,278 333 Department fire protection measures (back firing) 319 148 Total 4,756 1,990 The organization of telephone systems and lookouts, if adopted in India as now developed in the Pacific Northwest, should reduce the average area per fire. The small areas under protection and the low labor costs in India wotild render such improvement feasible. Perhaps, however, a telephone with a native at the far end of it would prove no convenience. The loss by fire each year is 3.5 to 5.7 per cent of the area pro- tected. Considering the small area under protection this propor- tion is high. It is explained by the dense population and the subordinate staff. The cost of fire protection, in spite of the low Forestry in India 643 labor rates, is high, varying as it does from $1.30 per square mile in the Punjab to $15.00 per square mile in Burma. An interesting statement of the fire protection situation in India is given in the following table : Province Madras Central Provinces. . . Bombay Burma United Provinces. . . Behar and Orissa. . . Assam Punjab Bengal Coorg Ajmer Northwest Frontier. Area under Protection Square Miles 15,481 11,409 10,032 4,548 3,210 1,689 1,440 1,060 719 157 141 85 Per cent Reserves under Protection 82.1 58. 84.6 16.6 77.9 97.8 32.9 49. 14.8 30. 99.3 36. Per cent Protected Area Burned 7.1 1.5 3.9 3.3 2.6 .5 4. .9 1.3 1.9 Cost of Protection per Square Mile 7.10 3.00 2.10 15.00 1.36 The controversy which has raged in India concerning the advisability of preventing fires on certain forest types is settling into the generally accepted decision that fire must be used as a silvicultural agent both in the moist teak forest of Biuma and the pure sal forest of Eastern Bengal and Assam. These types if protected form fire are overrim, the teak with bamboos and the sal with evergreen species to such an extent that natural reproduc- tion is impeded or extinguished and the valuable type is superseded by an almost valueless type which has benefited too much by freedom from fire. Working Plans The Indian forest code provides that for every reserved forest an annual plan of operations must be drawn fixing the quantity of timber to be cut within limits which will secure the maintenance and improvement of the forest. This plan of operation which is a temporary measure to prevent spoliation of the forest before a working plan is completed outlines all works of any nature to be undertaken in the forest. The policy is that a working plan should be in existence before a reserved forest is exploited. This policy, chiefly through the lack of the officers necessary to put it into effect, has not received universal observance. The responsibility for working plans has varied from time to time, and at present no particular office is charged with working plans. In 1872, a separate 644 Forestry Quarterly Working Plans office, consisting of one Conservator and two as- sistant Conservators, was constituted as a branch of the Inspector General's office, the Inspector General arranged with the various local Governments for work to be undertaken in the provinces. Surveys were so necessary before plans could be undertaken that working plans were held in abeyance and the office became a forest surveys office. Working plans remained largely a matter of the personal accom- plishment of the Inspector General who drew up rough schemes as he toured various forests. Special working plans officers were appointed in 1880 in the United Provinces, Burma and Punjab. Another change was made in 1882 before these officers had an opportunity to accomplish anything, when an Imperial Work- ing Plans Office was constituted, presided over by a special officer working under the direction of the Inspector General. The idea was that the plans would be made in the various provinces by local officers and would be supervised and checked by the Imperial office. In 1884, they introduced another change, the working plans officer became the Assistant Inspector General, all working plans were sent to the Inspector General's office for checking and approval. This arrangement continued until 1906. A Superintendent of Working Plans was then appointed at Dehra Dun, who was made responsible for the maintenance of the required standard in working plans. This officer, however, was soon made Silviculturist, charged single-handed with the investiga- tion of Indian silvictiltural problems. Obviously working plans suffered. The pendulimi then swung back to the Inspector General, who with the abolition of the Working Plans Superintendent in 1911 was made examiner of working plans in provinces where there were no Chief Conservators. The Inspector General may also bring to the notice of Local Government defects in existing working plans, but may not issue instructions. Under the regime of the present Inspector General who has selected as his assistant the previous Silviculttirist at Dehra Dun there has been a renewed concentration on working plans. A difficulty which still exists is the lack of officers to prepare the plans, even where the necessity of plans is recognized by the local governments. As has already been pointed out there are abso- lutely no forest officers in the provinces excepting the number Forestry in India 645 necessary to actually fill the positions of Chief Conservators, Conservators and Divisional Forest Officers, with a very few green assistants. Only rarely can an experienced man be spared from his executive duties to prepare working plans. Too often the working plan falls to the inexperienced assistant. Certain pro- vinces are now seeking authority from the Imperial Government for the creation of a special post of Working Plans Officer in order that more time and care may be given to plans in the future. Altogether, plans are in effect over 53,926 square miles in India. Plans are already needed for an additional 33,000 square miles, but cannot be prepared for lack of staff. Silvicultural Operations Plans have first been made for the wrecked forests of Central India, for the teak of Southern India, the deodar of the Himalayas, the sal of northern India and Assam, and the teak of Burma. Other areas which the poor development of forest transport renders inaccessible must within a few years be opened up by railroad and will then require working plans. The methods of treatment provided by the working plans in force is shown by the following table which gives the area of forest under each system, excluding Bombay Presidency : Area Method Square Miles Selection with improvement fellings 16,664 Improvement fellings 9,487 Coppice with standards 5,269 Simple coppice 377 Clear fellings by compartments 204 Uniform system 150 Group system 95 32,246 The selection system as practised in India is not the selection system of Etirope. It is a method of working the high forests, particvilarly of deodar and teak, which prevents clear-cutting and the immediate extinction of the valiiable species by limiting operations to matiire trees. The forest is worked over periodically, usually every 30 years for teak. The improvement of the forest is sought by periodic improvement fellings the aim of which is to destroy creepers, free young teak, and, if possible, encom-age teak regeneration. The impracticability of covering the whole forest 646 Forestry Quarterly sufficiently often with improvement fellings to effectively increase teak reproduction and thus increase the proportion of teak, has lead to a search for some system which would make possible concentrated regeneration fellings. The importance of settling upon some such system is obvious as teak occurs only in two or three mature trees per acre in a forest which is probably composed of 80 per cent other species, not removed at the time of the cutting of the teak. Working teak under the present selection method is therefore attended by two disadvan- tages, the proportion of teak is not increased and may possibly be decreased by the continuance of what is really inverse selection, and the forest is only being one fifth worked, the other four fifths of the capital standing idle. No wood less valuable than teak, would permit such a costly system of management. The present method of selection working with teak really represents a triiimph for forestry. By means of the regulation it provided, the teak forests of india have been saved. Timber worth $50 to $60 per M in the log, and nearly all of it accessible at logging costs not exceeding $30 to $40 per M would not have been left long standing in a territory as new as Burma if the selection system had not been courageously applied to all lands. As it is, the proportion of teak has not suffered greatly, if at all in half a century of operations, and the Forest Service in control of the situation is now on the groimd vv^ith increased experience to study possible improvements. Two systems under trial are the Shelter- wood Compartment system, known in India as the Uniform system and the French Quartier Bleu system. The introduction of the Shelterwood Compartment system will probably be facilitated when conditions make it possible to utilize several of the species occurring with teak. A small area of forest is now being worked on this system in Burma where all species excepting teak must be cut and left to rot. The conditions under which forests are worked by improvement fellings are much the same as described for the selection system. The one is applied to a forest in comparatively good natural condition containing mature trees, the other is applied to forests hacked and burned over in the past and now being brought to a natural state. Here again the Forest Service did all that probably could be done at the time, restricted to the inferior trees, the cut- ting of timber which the population demanded, worked the forest Forestry in India 647 over regularly and directed the improvement cuttings in such a manner that the volume in the forest increased and the young trees of valuable species benefited. The time has probably come in places where the working of these forests could be elaborated so as to concentrate the workings in order to increase the regeneration of valuable species. The method now practiced will produce a natural forest, the demand is now that an attempt be made to produce a normal forest. Very large areas of wrecked forests were taken over by the Forest Service in districts where the demand for small wood was great, which coiild only be regenerated and managed by the cop- pice system. Where the population is dense, it is the policy of the Forest Service to seek to produce the small wood best suited to the needs of the Indian. This object is well met by the coppice system. The improvement of forest management in India will require much study of the silvicultrual needs of the important species. It is difficult to see how this can be accomplished without extensive additions to staff. The policy of the Indian Forest Service with regard to control of working in the forest contains many lessons for Canada. In areas where it was evident that a continuance of existing working methods would resiilt in forest destruction they courageously imposed at once practicable measures, which prevented the extermination either of the forest area or of any particularly valuable species in it. They did this even where great loss of present revenue resulted, as in the case of teak, the cost of logging of which has undoubtedly been greatly increased to the companies by the abolition of clear cutting and the substitu- tion of a system of selection cutting which restricts the amount taken from a square mile to one quarter or one fifth of the stand. They have fortunately not had to face a situation now existing over large areas of the Pacific Northwest where the financial condition of the timber industry seemingly permits of no increase in logging costs. The costs of making working plans in India varies enormously in different Divisions and Provinces, the annual reports for 1913 to 1914 show it to have ranged from $5.00 to $1.24 per square mile. There are without doubt areas in Canada now, particularly on prairies and possibly in Eastern Canada where economic conditions make the introduction of regular methods of forest working quite as possible as it was in India. 648 Forestry Quarterly Considering the other problems in hand, the Indian Forest Service has by adding a little each year developed a very large area of forest plantations. Altogether there are now about 200,000 acres of planted forest, of which 56,000 are ordinary plantations made by the department and 144,000 acres are "taimg- yas" made in temporary clearings by forest tribes. The expendi- tiires on plantations is $60,000 to $125,000 yearly. There is a tendency to do less planting now, excepting in the Punjab, even though plantations have proved financially successful, because of the impossibility of securing staff and appropriations enough to guarantee the necessary care. The species chiefly planted are teak, sissu, babul, deodar, eucalpytus and casuarina. Over one half the plantations are in Burma, almost one quarter in Madras. Financial Aspects The outturn of Indian forests is constantly increasing. The total outturn of wood in 1913 to 1914 was 294,643,000 cubic feet, in addition to minor produce valued at $3,600,000. The average outturn per mile on the various classes of forest is : Cubic Feet Minor Wood Produce Reserved forests 1,931 $28. 30 Protected forests 3,174 $53.65 Unclassed forests 582 $ 3 . 00 The possibilities of forest production in India have been by no means reached, the stock in the reserved forests is constantly in- creasing, there are large areas at present commercially inaccessible which will eventually add greatly to the annual production. In this, India, with its 320,000,000 people the home of a dense population for thousands of years, presents a strange contrast to Canada. That this should be so, is very greatly due to the happy arrival of foresters in India, slightly in advance of what we in America understand as "the development of the country." Very little idea of the character of the outturn of the forests may be gained by a comparison of the quantities of lumber and fuel. Utilization is such in India that very small stuff is classified as timber, such as is used for native house poles mending carts or making ploughs. The relative quantities of each for 1913 to 1914 were: Timber 97,225,170 cubic feet Fuel 197,418,153 " " Forestry in India 649 The densely populated areas practise as intense forest utiliza- tion as is possible any\\'here in the world, taking the grass as well as the twigs. Departmental working of the forests though gradually decreas- ing is still important. Contractors in the employ of the Forest Service or laborers working on the piece work system took out in 1913 to 1914 over 7,500,000 cubic feet of timber, 13,500,000 cubic feet of fuel, and $240,000 worth of bamboos and minor produce. The system of departmental working involves a great burden on the staff, coming between them and their other duties, and for this reason it is gradually being discontinued except in new dis- tricts where because of the lack of initiative in India private individuals would be slow to act, or where departmental logging is advisable to operate as a check both on the cost of taking out tim- ber and, in the case of teak in Burma, as a controlling influence on the market price. The teak logging operations of the Forest Service in Burma must rank amongst the mos-t profitable in the world. The average net profits were in 1914 $40 per M feet board measvue on logs de- livered in Rangoon. Though Indian stumpage rates appear high as a rule, consider- ing the earning power of the population, the stumpage on teak is low compared to the profit of taking it out. If Government operations may be taken as a criterion, the private company log- ging teak makes a profit on the logs alone of about $22 per M after pa>ing stimipage of about $16.50 per M. There is a large profit to be added from the sawmills run by the logging companies. The grazing problems have been continuously difficult. India is densely popiilated with cattle, buffaloes, goats and sheep, for which grazing must be foimd, and which in many instances interferes with natural regeneration. Altogether 14,500,000 animals grazed in the forests in 1913 to 1914. The grazing is regulated so as to close forests against injurious cattle during the regenerative period. CHINA'S FOREST LAWS By Forsythe Sherfesee' On January 15, 1916, the Chinese Forest Service was for- mally inaugurated as an annex to the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce. In the history of forestry this date will be taken as marking the first real beginning of modern forestry in China. It is true that, as wiU be shown, there had been for several years certain efforts in the cause of reforestation; some of them instigated by private indi- viduals, some by educational organizations or institutions, some by the provinces and some by the Central Govern- ment at Peking, and the cimiulative effect of these projects was of undoubted importance; but the significance of the move- ment which was launched in January of this year lies in the fact that it marks the decision of the Central Chinese Government definitely to adopt an active, extensive policy of reforestation and of forest protection and management, and at least its inten- tion to proceed along the line of a definite scientific policy in accomplishing certain clearly defined ends. It means that here- after it is intended that all efforts and individual projects shall be shaped in accordance with a uniform policy so far as it is within the power or influence of the Central Government to do ; and, best of all, that an effort is being made to gather together a personnel and to establish an organization which will put accomplishment within the realm of practicability. Soon after the Republic of China was organized there was created a Ministry called "The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry" and at the same time there was brought into existence a so-called Department of Forestry in the Ministry. This was in August of 1912. The Department lasted two years, but it seems to have merely existed without a definite, clearly defined policy, a driving force or correlation of efforts. A nursery had been established in a portion of the spacious grounds of the Temple of Heaven in the southern city of Peking; also an office called the "Bureau of Forestry for ICirin Province" (Kirin being one of the three Manchurian provinces) had been established with head- quarters at the City of Kirin, the chief of the bureau reporting to 1 Adviser in Forestry, Chinese Government. 650 China's Forest Laws 651 the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Peking. It appears that the Department of Forestry in the Ministry was supposed to exercise some sort of supervision over the acts of the branch bureau (although it was not designated as a "branch") in Kirin, but it is very probable that such supervision was far more nominal than real. Also, during these early years of the RepubHc there was some forestry work carried on in, or by a few of, the provinces. In 1914, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry was combined with the Ministry of Industry and Commerce to form the present Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce. At the same time the Department of Forestry was combined with the Department of Agriciilture under the name of the Department of Agriculture and Forestry, and this nominal organization (nominal at least so far as an active forest policy was concerned) lasted for about two years, or until January, 1916, when as stated above, the Forest Ser\ice was inaugurated as a separate entity in the Ministry. Even earlier, under the Manchus, there was a so-called "Board of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce" which had issued a simple set of rules encouraging people to plant trees, but the practical result was so small as to be negligible. Under the early Manchu emperors (Tsing dynasty) and under the immediately preceding Chinese dynasties there may have been some official recognition of the harmful effects of deforestation and some efforts to curb its extension, but all that there is to judge by are a few occasional and indefinite references scattered in books of the differ- ent periods, and such references seem to be more concerned with literary effect than with historical accuracy. With this short and possibly inacciurate introduction, I propose to give a free translation of the Forest Laws or Mandates (which have the force of law) issued since the inauguration of the Repub- lic, together with a translation of the memorial from Chow- Tzi-chi, then Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, requesting authority to establish a Chinese National Forest Service, the reply of Yuan-Shi-kai (at that time Emperor-Elect) and certain regu- lations issued thereunder. It is necessary to state, however, that up to the present time the laws appear to have remained quiet upon the statute books, and that little effort has been made to take advantage of their provisions or to comply with the restric- tions they impose. The first legal docimient I have been able to find is dated August 8, 1914, and is entitled: 652 Forestry Quarterly '^Regulations Governing the Granting of Concessions in the National Forests in Manchuria."^ Art. 1. With the exception of those portions reserved by the Government, concessions in the national forests in Manchuria may be granted in accordance with the following niles, such grants to be limited to the timber contained therein. Art. 2. The right to request such concessions is limited to Chinese indi- viduals or to corporations organized under Chinese law. International agree- ments previously made under special ndes or conditions shall be effective up to their time of expiration. Art. 3. In case any forest tract previously granted may be considered by the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce to be necessary for reservation as either a protection forest or for public use, the concession may be cancelled, but the cancellation must not in any way injure the interests of the conces- sionaire. The rules governing the details of such cancellation shall be drawn up by the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce in a separate form. Art. 4. The applicant for a concession shall first present to the Bureau of Forestry a formal request for the investigation and survey (of the tract in question) and the said Bureau shall recommend such request to the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce for consideration and approval; or else the applicant may present such a request for investigation and survey to any Magistrate or to any forest office, whereupon the official of the office in question shall submit recommendations to the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce through the corresponding Tao-yin' and the Governor of the Province. Art. 5. Such request shall contain the following information: 1. The name, native province, residence and age of the applicant. 2. The amount of capital he proposes to invest. 3. A statement of the boundaries and area of the forest tract, together with a map and description. 4. A list of the species, number, lengths and sizes of trees (or logs) he pro- poses to cut. 5. A plan for cutting. 6. Logging equipment. 7. Sawing equipment. Art. 6. If the application is made by a corporation, it shall contain, in addition to the items specified in Article 5, the following additional information: 1. The names, native places, residence, occupations and ages of the origi- nators and managers of the corporation. 2. Regulations and rules of the corporation. Art. 7. At the time of presenting the application, the applicant shall pay the following amounts to cover the expenses of investigation and survey; to wit, for every 10 square li (a li is slightly more than one-third of an English mile) $100.00, Chinese Currency,* and one dollar for every additional square li. If the Bureau of Forestry or the Magistrate after investigation and survey should report to the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce that it is inadvisable to grant the forest tract requested, one half of the sum paid for investigation and survey shall be refunded to the applicant. * The author is fully aware of the ambiguity of the phrasing in many of the passages which follow. He has considered it safer, however, to content himself with as close a translation as it has been possible to secure, rather than to try to increase its intelligibility by coloring it with his own opinion of its real meaning. ' A Tao-yin is an official of intermediate rank and authority between the Governor of the Province and the Magistrates of the various districts or Hsien. Thus a Tao-yin has supervision over several magistrates, but is subject to the authority of the Governor of the Province. Author. _ * The exchange value of the Chinese dollar varies within fairly wide limits; but for convenience it may be considered about equal to or slightly less than fifty cents, United States currency. China's Forest Laws 653 Art. 8. If the concession is granted by the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce, a certificate shall be given to the applicant by the Ministry, upon receipt of which the applicant shall pay to the Ministry the sum of $50.00. The maximum term for such concession shall be twenty (20) years, but a yearly inspection shall be made, for which a charge of $10.00 shall be paid by the concessionaire. Art. 9. At the time of receiving the certificate of concession, the conces- sionaire shall deposit $200.00 for each 10 square li embraced within his concession. Art. 10. Upon taking any logs from the forest to their destination, the concessionaire shall render a report to the local Government office for inspec- tion, showing a list of the number, species, sizes and lengths of the logs. Art. 11. When the logs are sold, the concessionaire shall, in addition to the payment of regular taxes, pay stumpage charges at the rate of 8% of the selling price. Art. 12. The area applied for under a single concession shall not exceed 200 square li. Art. 13. If the concessionaire should wish to transfer his concession to a third party, such application shall, in accordance with provisions of Article 4, be referred to the Minist ry of Agriculture and Commerce, for consideration and approval, and a charge of $50.00 shall be paid to the Ministry for such transfer. At the time that such transfer becomes eflfective the guaranty deposit shall also be transferred. The concession thus transferred shall be effective only during the period remaining under the original grant. Art. 14. If after logging, the concessionaire should wish to apply for the land itself for agriculture, in accordance with the law governing the granting of government lands for agriculture, he may do so by making application to the Government, provided that the local Government office does not consider that the land in question is un suited for agricultural purposes. Art. 15. At the time of cutting two or three trees shall be left on each mo' of land. Such trees left shall be more than one foot in diameter and shall be of good quality. Art. 16. The concessionaire shall be held responsible for the proper pres- ervation of boundary marks, and of any ancient works or monuments within the limits of his concession. Art. 17. Within six months from the date of the promulgation of these regulations, the certificates previously issued by other Government offices shall be presented to the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce to be ex- changed for certificates of the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce. After the expiration of this six month period, all such certificates issued by other Government offices shall be void. Art. 18. The above regulations shall become eflfective from the date of their promiUgation (August 8, 1914). THE FOREST LAW (Promulgated November 3, 1914) CHAPTER I General Art. 1. The management and control of the forests owned by the Govern- ment, by the public^ or by private individuals shall be in accordance with this Art. 2. Forests which have not yet passed into private ownership, and which should legally be considered the property of the Government, shall be classified as Government owned forests. * A mo is equal to about one sixth of an English acre. • For example, local associations, monasteries and other public institutions. law, unless otherwise provided for by other laws or mandates. 654 Forestry Quarterly Art. 3. The Government owned forests, in addition to those which have been under the direct control of the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce, may be entrusted to the local oflficial organs for management. Art. 4. All Government owned forests falling under any of the following classes must be under the direct control of the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce. 1. Forests affecting the sources of rivers and streams. 2. Forests situated within two or more provinces. 3. Those which are connected with diplomatic cases. Art. 5. Should the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce deem it abso- lutely necessary for the development of Government owned forests, it may purchase forests owned by the public or by individuals at an adequate price. CHAPTER II Reserved Forests Art. 6. Under any of the following conditions the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce or the local high administrative official may convert any forests, whether owned by the Government, by the public or by an individual, into a reserved forest : 1. For protection against floods. 2. For the maintenance of the source of streams. 3. For public sanitation. 4. For use as a landmark for navigation. 5. For the convenience of fishing enterprises. 6. As wind and sand breaks. Art. 7. When any public or private forest is converted into a reserved forest, a petition may be sent to the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce, claiming any proper indemnity for the loss incurred. Art. 8. The procedure for the management and control of the reserved forests, which have been entrusted by the Ministry of Agriculture and Com- merce to local officials, shall be fixed by Instructional Mandates of the President. Art. 9. Orders of reservation may be cancelled when the Ministry of Agri- culture and Commerce or the local high administrative official no longer think such reservation necessary. Art. 10. Without the permission of the local officials, no one shall be per- mitted to fell trees in reserved forests and no combustible material may be brought into such forests. Art. 11. The provisions of Articles 7, 8 and 10 shall also apply to forests hallowed by ancient traditions or containing renowned scenery. CHAPTER III Encouragement Art. 12. Should any individual or individuals wish to apply for any idle Government-owned hill-land for the purposes of growing forests, the land applied for shall be granted without charge. Such applicant must be a citizen of the Chinese Republic. Art. 13. The idle Government hill-land applied for for reforestation shall not exceed an area of 100 square li. When the applicant's operations have extended over this entire area, he may apply for an additional area. Art. 14. The applicant for such idle Government-owned hill-land shall deposit as cash security an amount between $20.00 and $100.00 for every ten square li, the exact amount being fixed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce, or the local chief administrative official. For this purpose an area of less than 10 square li shall be reckoned as equal to 10 square li. If, after a period of five years has elapsed, the local controlling official should find that the enterprise has succeeded, the cash security may be returned to the appli- cant, together with interest com.puted at between 3 and 5 per cent. China's Forest Laws 655 Art. IS. If within the period of one year, no attempt has been made to work the portion of the idle Government-owned hill-land granted as above provided, the land shall revert to the Government and the cash security shall be forfeited; but this shall not apply in case such failure is due to natural calamities or to any other causes over which the applicant has no control, provided that the sanction of the local official for the delay has been obtained. Art. 16. When such idle Government-owned hill-land is applied for for reclamation, such land shall be exempt from taxes for a period between 5 and 30 years, the length of the period being fixed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce or the chief local administrative official. Art. 17. The details of the regulations for rewarding and encouraging per- sons who shall have achieved success in reforestation shall be fixed by Instruc- tional Mandates of the President. CHAPTER IV Supervision Art. 18. If desirable for public benefit, the local officials may forbid or restrict cultivation in forested areas owned by the public or by individuals. Art. 19. Should the owner of public or private land begin to fell trees in other than the usual manner or in case he should overcut or abuse the same, the local official may restrict or warn him. Art. 20. The controlling local official is authorized to fix a date before which the public or individual owners of idle hill-land may be compelled to plant trees thereon. CHAPTER V Punishment Art. 21. Any one who steals any produce of the forest shall be considered a thief, and shall be punished with a limited imprisonment of the fifth grade with hard labor or by a fine not exceeding double the value of the products stolen. _ Art. 22. Any forest thief who commits theft under any of the following circumstances shall be liable to punishment with limited imprisonment of the fourth grade or lower, together with a fine not exceeding double the value of the products stolen: 1. Theft committed in a reserved forest. 2. Theft committed by a person who has been entrusted by officials or by contracts with any responsibility for protecting the forest. Art. 23. Any person who accepts as gift, transports, stores, purchases, or sells on commission goods which he knows to have been stolen by forest thieves shall be liable to punishment in accordance with the provisions set forth in Articles 21 and 22. Art. 24. Any one who sets fire to forest not his own property shall be liable to punishment in accordance with provisions of Article 188 of the Criminal Code. Art. 25. Any one who sets fire to his own forest shall be liable to punish- ment with limited imprisonment of the fifth grade, with hard labor or with a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars. Should such fires set on his own forest injure the property of others, he shall be liable to punishment in accord- ance with the provisions set forth in Article 189 of the Criminal Code. Art. 26. Should any person use another's forest as pasture for his cattle or horses, without previously obtaining the approval of the owner, he shall be fined not less than one dollar nor more than thirty dollars. Art. 27. Should any person damage or remove boundary or other forest marks, he shall be fined an amount not less than two dollars nor more than fifty dollars. Art. 28. Should any person injure the young trees in another's forest, he shall be fined not less than two dollars nor more than one hundred dollars. 656 Forestry Quarterly Art. 29. Should any person violate the provisions contained in Art. 10 by- felling timber or by bringing combustible material into the forest, he shall be fined not less than one dollar nor more than thirty dollars. Art. 30. Should any person violate the provisions contained in Art. 18 by cultivating in a reserved forest, he shall be fined not less than two dollars nor more than fifty dollars. CHAPTER VI A dditionals Art. 31. The detailed regulations for the enforcement of this law shall be fixed by Instructional Mandate of the President. Art. 32. This law shall become effective from the date of its promulgation (November 3, 1914). In accordance with the provisions of Art. 31 of the above Forest Law, the President promulgated on June 30, 1915, the follovnng regulations for its enforcement, DETAILED REGULATIONS ENFORCING THE FOREST LAW Promulgated June 30, 1915 Art. 1. Within six months after these Detailed Regulations became effec- tive, every owner of public or private forests shall report to the District Magistrate, the details concerning the locations, dimensions and descriptions of the forest he owns. The District Magistrate shall transmit the same through the Tao-yin and the highest local administrative official to the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce for registration. If a single forest is situated in two or three districts (hsien) reports should be submitted separ- ately. Art. 2. Within three months after these regulations become effective, all changes in ownership of public or private forests and the suspension or exten- sion of enterprises conducted therein shall be reported according to the pro- visions in the article immediately preceding. Art. 3. When it is desired to entrust the management of a government owned forest to a local official as provided for in Art. 3 of the Forest Law, the area shall be first inspected by the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce. Art. 4. When the management of a forest has been entrusted by the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce to the highest local administrative official, the corresponding District Magistrate shall, during the first month of each year, submit to the highest local official a detailed report for the past year. This shall be forwarded through the Tao-yin to the Ministry of Agri- culture and Commerce. Separate reports should be submitted in the case of any special occurrence. Art. 5. The Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce may order such changes in management as it considers desirable. Art. 6. The District Magistrate shall be held responsible for the protection of all government owned forests within his jurisdiction, and in case of his transfer all such property shall be included in his accounts. Each Magistrate shall report on the condition of the government owned forests, which report shall be sent through the Tao-yin to the highest local official, who in his turn, shall report to the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce. Art. 7. When ownership of public or private forests is transferred to the Government, the compensation paid shall be in accordance with the current market rate of the land and forest concerned. Art. 8. In case there is any loss or damage when a forest is sold, according to the provisions in the preceding article, the former owner must submit a petition to the District Magistrate, who shall transmit it to the highest local administrative official to be forwarded to the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce. China's Forest Laws 657 Art. 9. If after the ownership of a portion of a public or private forest is transferred to the Government, the original owner should consider it necessary for the Government to take the rest, he may submit a peiition setting forth his reasons to the District Magistrate who shall transmit it to the highest local administrative official to be forwarded to the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce, for investigation and corresponding action. Art. 10. In addition to the notification sent to the owner, the transfer of ownership of such forest shall be published for general information, after which the former owner shall lose all claims to ownership. Art. 11. Should any complication arise in connection with the forest trans- ferred to the Government, the original owner shall be responsible for proper settlement: and if he fails to do so before the expiration of a fixed period, the District Magistrate shall settle the case for him, all expenses to be deducted from the proceeds of the sale of the forest. Art. 12. When a declaration of "reserved" forest is made or cancelled as provided for in Arts. 6 and 9 of the Forest Law the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce or the highest local administrative official shall inform the owner of the reasons therefor, and shall notify the public in due form. If such a decision is made by the highest local administrative official, it shall be trans- mitted to the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce for registration. Art. 13. In case a portion of a forest is declared to be reserved, or the former declaration is cancelled, a map indicating the location of the forest shall accom- pany such report or proclamation. Art. 14. When a petition is lodged for compensation as provided for in Alt. 7 of these regulations, the petitioner shall give a detailed estimate of the loss incurred, which shall be reckoned up to the date of publication of a public notice, prohibiting all free cutting within the forest. Art. 15. If the ownership of a reserved forest is transferred or if such forest suffers any change in appearance or condition, a report shall be made to the District Magistrate who shall transmit it through the Tao-yin to the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce for registration. Art. 16. When a person applies for public owned forest land for purposes of reforestation, as provided for in Art. 12 of the Forest Law, he shall prepare an application containing the following particulars and send it to the District Magistrate who shall transmit it through the Tao-yin to the highest local administrative official to be forwarded to the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce for approval: 1. The name, age, native home, present address and occupation of the applicant. If the applicant is a corporation there shall be given the name and address of the corporation and the name, age, native province, present address and profession of its manager or representative. 2. The amount of money he expects to invest in reforestation. 3. The location and dimension of the land applied for. 4. The four boundaries of the tract. If only a portion of the tract is applied for, the specific location within the tract shall be noted. In addition to such application, the applicant shall submit a statement of his plans, together with a map of the area applied for. Art. 17. In the case of an application for extension of area according to the provisions made in part 2 of Art. 13 of the Forest Law, such extension shall not exceed 100 square li. Art. 18. If after an order has been received to plant trees as provided for in Art. 20 of the Forest Law, the person concerned fails to comply with the same, the District Magistrate shall proceed in accordance with clause 1 of Article 2 of the Law Enforcing Administrative Measures. Art. 19. The local high administrative officials referred to in these regula- tions are the Governors of the Provinces, Lieutenant Generals of the Special Administrative areas and the Governor of the Metropolitan Prefecture. Art. 20. These detailed regulations shall become effective from the date of their promulgation (June 30, 1915). 658 Forestry Quarterly REGULATIONS ENCOURAGING REFORESTATION Promulgated, June 30, 1915 Art. 1. Those who have achieved success in planting forests shall be rewarded according to the following regulations: Art. 2. When a petition is submitted for encouragement, it shall contain the following particulars and be forwarded to the highest local administrative official to be submitted to the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce for consideration : 1. The name and address of the person or company deserving of encourage- ment. 2. Location of the forest. 3. Dimension and area of the forest. 4. Description and number of the trees. 5. Important plans of the enterprise. 6. The number of years which have elapsed since planting. Art. 3. When a petition is made in accordance with the preceding article, it shall be accompanied by photographs of the forest and by specimens of the timber produced. Art. 4. When an area of more than 200 mo of land has been reforested for a period of more than five years, a fourth class medal shall be awarded. Art. 5. When an area of more than 400 mo has been reforested for a period of more than five years, a third class medal shall be awarded. Art. 6. When an area of more than 700 mo has been reforested for a period of more than five years, a second class medal shall be awarded. Art. 7. When an area of more than 1,000 mo has been reforested for a period of more than five years, a first class medal shall be awarded. Art. 8. When an area of more than 3,000 mo has been reforested for a period of more than five years, the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce shall request the President to give a special reward. Art. 9. When reforestation work is conducted which affects international trade or furnishes material for the construction of ships, railroads and other important purposes, subsidies may be granted according to the dimension of the forest and the number of trees planted, if the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce considers such a cotuse necessary. Art. 10. The Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce shall publish in the Official Gazette awards made in accordance with the provisions contained in these regulations. Art. 11. These regulations shall come into force from the date of their promulgation (June 30, 1915). On December 22, 1915, Mr. Chow-Tzi-chi, Minister of Agri- culture and Commerce, presented the following petition to Yuan- shi-kai, at that time Emperor-Elect : "As the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce intends to organize a "National Forest Service," it begs leave respectfully to submit the following regulations and estimates to His Imperial Majesty for His Holy Perusal: "Three thousand years ago during the Yii Dynasty, an officer named Pe Yi was sent out by the Emperor to take charge of herbaceous and woody plants throughout the country. In the office of Sz Tie (an official administrative organ) there was also in existence a department of forestry and hunting. These two facts clearly indicate that in order to develop the forests of the country there must be a special organ to take charge of them. Inasmuch as all countries both in the East and in the West realize the importance of forest conservation, they have taken progressive steps towards its maintenance and upkeep because reforestation betters the economic condition of the people and increases the wealth of the nation, and the annual revenue from forestry is so large that it forms a considerable percentage of the national income. When China's Forest Laws 659 we consider the wide extent of our territory and the rich forests in our border provinces, it will be seen that an early establishment of a Forest Service cannot fail to benefit the country. It is also a great pity to see mountains and hills lying idle and not utilized: therefore it is necessary to take immediate steps to devise means and regulations to develop these natural resources. It is the duty of this Ministry to conserve the forests. In the former Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry there was in existence a separate Department of Forestry until the Ministry was merged with the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, at which time the Department of Forestry was also merged into the Department of Agriculture under the name of Department of Agriculture and Forestry. Since then the duties of the Department have increased as the work has multiplied, and it is, therefore, diflficult for it to render efficient service and to produce good results. Furthermore, forestry work in different provinces is under the charge of the Division of Industry in which there is no man who devotes his complete attention to forestry; and there are also no technically trained foresters. Upon careful consideration the Ministry has reached the conviction that unless a special organ is established in the Ministry and unless districts are marked out with special commissioners to take charge of them, it is impossible to lay responsibility anywhere and to expect progress of any kind. Therefore, taking everything into consideration, this Ministry has definitely decided to organize a Forest Service to carry out forestry work throughout China, appointing the Vice-Minister to act as Director-General, and two technical foresters being proposed as co-directors. For the remaining staff of the Forest Service, there are other members in the Ministry who have graduated from eastern and western universities where they received technical training in forestry. These will be placed in accord- ance with their ability and qualifications: and for the present each province wiU be made a forest district, to each of which a Provincial Forest Commis- sioner will be appointed. Provincial Forest Commissioners will be recom- mended to His Majesty jointly by the Minister and the Governors of the provinces concerned. The Central Government will bear the administrative expenses of the Forest Service, but the expenses of the Provincial Forest Commissioners and of their reforestation work in the districts (hsien) must be borne by each province and district and charged to the provincial annual administrative expenditure. By so doing responsibilities are clearly placed. Technical men at different places will be working jointly and abundant results will be achieved. The expenses will be borne separately and this will make them lighter to bear. The Ministry believes that such an arrangement cannot fail of good results. The Ministry has carefully drawn up regulations in 16 articles governing the organization of the Forest Service and also its budget for the coming year, and hereby respectfully submits them to His Majesty for His Holy Perusal. If the plan is approved, the Ministry will humbly follow it out, and will notify the Ministry of Finance and the Governor of each province that they should act accordingly. As soon as the Central Government shall have rectified and graded the official system, the Ministry will immediately submit a petition for the necessary change of the present Department of Agriculture and Forestry. Respectfully submitted, Chow-Tsz-chi, Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce." The sixteen regulations referred to above were submitted in a separate but accompanying document which reads as follows : "The Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce hereby respectfully submits the following 'Regulations' to His Majesty for His Holy Perusal : "Art. 1. The Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce intends to organize a 'National Forest Service' as an annex to the said Ministry. Said Service 660 Forestry Quarterly shall administer the forestry affairs of the whole country according to the Forest Law and its Detailed Regulations. "Art. 2. The staff of the National Forest Service shall be composed of one Director-General and two Co-Directors. The Vice-Minister of the Ministry shall be ex-officio Director-General. Other officers shall be appointed by the Central Government. The three directors shall manage the affairs of the Service in accordance with instructions from the Minister. The Forest Service shall also maintain technical foresters who are to be appointed from among those who have obtained the required knowledge and experience in forestry. "Art. 3. The provincial administrative centers shall temporarily serve as forest stations. When necessary to meet the demands of the work, the Forest Service may, with the approval of the Minister, establish additional forest stations. "Art. 4. A technical forester shall be appointed and assigned to every large forest station. It shall be the duty of such an official to carry out the instructions of the Ministry and of the Civil Governor of the Province, "Art. 5. When no forest stations have been designated the Forest Service may, after due investigation of local conditions and with the approval of the Ministry, draw up a working plan and put it into execution. "Art. 6. A candidate for the position of Provincial Forest Commissioner shall be one who has knowledge of forestry and who is well versed in adminis- trative work. The Ministry and the Governor of the Province shall jointly submit a petition (to his Majesty) for appointment. "Art. 7. The Forest Service shall enumerate the duties of the Forest Commissioners and draw up regulations for their work, which shall be put into execution after approval by the Ministry. "Art. 8. The expenses of the Provincial Forest Commissioners shall be included in the budgets of the respective provinces. "Art. 9. Each district (hsien) shall annually provide a sum of more than $200.00 to be expended for encouraging reforestation. "Art. 10. The Forest Service shall cooperate in and increase the collection of forest taxes, and shall recommend regiilations looking to the improvement of the law governing forest taxation and the administration thereof. "Art. 11. The Ministry shall decide upon the number of divisions to be created in the Forest Service and shall fix the duties of each. The number of officers shall be governed and limited by the annual budget. "Art. 12. The Forest Service may increase the niunber of temporary employees whenever necessary. "Art. 13. The Ministry shall draw up rules for the guidance and govern- ment of the officers and employees of the Forest Service. "Art. 14. The Forest Service shall formulate rules and regulations for the various divisions for the approval of the Ministry. "Art. 15. If it should be found that these regulations are incomplete the Ministry may rectify them from time to time and memorialize for approval. "Art. 16. The above regulations shall become effective when sanctioned." On January 3, 1916, the Council of State promulgated the fol- lowing reply to the petition quoted above. The reply in full reads as follows : "The Council of State has received the following Imperial Mandate, which is hereby promulgated: (January 3, 1916). "The Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce has requested permission to create a National Forest Service in the said Ministry to have special control over the woods and forests of the whole country. This suggestion is in line with the practice of the Ancients when special officers were appointed to supervise the work of the woodsmen in felling trees in order to protect such as were useful for working materials. In both Eastern and Western countries, China's Forest Laws 661 there are departments of forestry which supervise the timber resources. The benefits accruing therefrom are very extensive. "China is a large country rich in natural products. The border provinces contain abundant woods and forests and in the interior provinces there are many places which produce timber, the only trouble being that no pains have been taken to protect them, nor has the Government done anything towards that end. The consequence is that lands once forested have through neglect become bare and barren. A knowledge of the disasters due thereto was not, however, obtained in a day or a night. It was not until the science of forestry was taken up in addition to the study of agriculture that the conditions became popularly understood and that merchants began forming companies for obtaining and transporting lumber. It is, however, necessary that the Govern- ment should make a beginning by taking steps properly to organize the work ; to appoint officers to take charge of the various districts — to appoint rangers or forest police; and to investigate and map the areas suitable for reforestation. In a word there should be a spirit of earnestness in drawing up plans and regulations in order to direct the common people towards the path of progress along such lines. "The proposal of the Ministry, therefore, that a National Forest Service should be created in the said Ministry is hereby approved, such Forest Service to have control over the woods and forests of the whole country. Each province shall be considered a forest district which shall be placed under an officer to be appointed by the Central Government at the joint recommenda- tion of the Ministry and the Civil Governor of the Province. The expenses of this tentative plan shall be defrayed in accordance with the temporary regulations. The aim of the work shall be the encouragement of the study of forestry and the protection of whatever may tend to benefit the people. "The said Ministry is ordered to submit reports from time to time upon progress made in order that it may be put upon record." With the promulgation of this Mandate the Forest Service was definitely established and the formal opening took place as stated above, on January 15, 1916. Subsequent developments, in par- ticular the organization of the Forest Service into divisions, will be dealt with separately in a later paper. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CERTAIN VARIATIONS IN THE ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF WOOD By R. p. Prichard^ and I. W. Bailey^ In the following pages are siinimarized the restilts of one of a series of investigations that have been undertaken at the Bussey Institution in the study of plant tissues and cells, their compara- tive structure, relative conservatism, and behavior under the influences of various modifying factors. The investigation deals with the variation in size of the principal woody elements (fibers and vessel-segments) in various parts of the stem of a single species, the common Shagbark hickory, Carya ovata (Mill) K. Koch. Tables and Other Data Specimens of wood were secured from three different trees, a mature virgin-forest tree from West Virginia, a second-growth tree of seedling origin from eastern Massachusetts, and a sprout- hardwood from near Syracuse, New York. Sections of the selected trees were cut at various heights from the groimd. Blocks were cut radially from each section, and chips were taken from every fifth ring. These chips were macerated by treating with a 5 per cent solution of equal parts of chromic and nitric acid, and the cells were separated by shaking with water and glass beads. Measurements were made with a micrometer eyepiece, 50 of fiber lengths and 20 of vessel-segment lengths. To obtain the diameters of the vessels microscopic sHdes were made from different portions of each section, and measurements were taken from these sHdes with a micrometer eyepiece. The results are shown in the following tables and diagram : Length of Fibers at Different Ages of a Tree Table I. — Carya ovata (sprout), Table II. — Carya ovata (seedling), 60 annual rings, cross section 1 foot 65 annual rings, cross section 2 feet from the ground. Specimen from from the ground. Specimen from near Syracuse, New York. near Boston, Massachusetts. Fiber Lengths Fiber Lengths Annual Millimeters Annual Millimeters Rings Max. Min. Ave. Rings Max. Min. Ave. 5 1 34 .62 .89 1 .98 .54 .73 10 1 60 .80 1.11 5 1.10 .66 .90 15 1 66 .56 1.21 10 1.30 .66 1.Q2 1 Assistant Professor of Forest Products, Syracuse University. ' Assistant Professor of Forestry, Bussey Institution for Research in Ap- plied Biology. 662 Variations in Anatomical Structure 663 20 1.64 .70 1.28 15 1.48 .78 1.10 25 1.70 .74 1.32 20 1.40 .78 1.12 30 1.70 .72 1.23 25 1.42 .90 1.12 35 1.64 .72 1.32 30 1.48 96 1.21 40 1.62 .62 1.27 35 1.60 1.04 1.29 45 1.88 .56 1.33 40 1.64 .96 1.24 50 1.80 .86 1.39 45 1.48 .86 1.20 55 1.92 .96 1.48 50 1.50 .94 1.18 60 1.80 .96 1.34 55 1.52 .94 1.18 60 1.60 .96 1.22 65 1.52 1.04 1.26 Table III. — Carya ovata (seedling), 255 annual rings, cross section 2 feet from the ground. Specimen from West Virginia Fiber Lengths Millimeters Mill. Ave. .49 .82 .67 .96 .97 1.03 .77 1.05 .98 1.17 .96 1.12 .51 1.03 .86 1.12 .70 1.14 .74 1.11 .60 1.07 .66 1.06 .69 1 . 13 .82 1 . 08 .89 1.18 .89 1.11 .62 1.12 .96 1.17 .60 1 . 19 .80 1.19 .73 1.10 .87 1.19 1.01 1.22 .94 1.19 .86 1.02 .89 1.06 .98 1.20 .73 1.15 .78 1.22 .88 1.18 1.05 1.24 1.10 1.28 1.09 1.32 1 . 06 1 . 28 1.00 1.19 .82 1.22 .85 1.30 .85 1.12 .83 1.17 .90 1.06 .98 1.15 .83 1.05 Annual Rings Max. 5 1.28 10 1.25 15 1.23 20 1.24 25 1.48 30 1.41 35 1.45 40 1.33 45 1.35 50 1.35 55 1.38 60 1.42 65 1.44 70 1.41 75 1.48 80 1.76 85 1.44 90 1.54 95 1.42 100 1.55 105 1.54 110 1.48 115 1.45 120 1.57 125 1.18 130 1.46 135 1.53 140 1.57 145 1.58 150 1.44 155 1.50 160 1.52 165 1.59 170 1.54 175 1.48 180 1.59 185 1.50 190 1.86 195 1.44 200 1.44 205 1.52 210 1.33 664 Forestry Quarterly Fib er Len sths Mi llimeters Annual Rings Max. Min. Ave, 215 1.56 1.03 1.19 220 1.36 .75 1.01 225 1.56 1.04 1.28 230 1.42 1.01 1.23 235 1.65 .90 1.19 240 1.37 .76 1.10 245 1.48 1.02 1.13 250 1.51 .90 1.17 255 1.45 .95 1.16 Length of Vessel-Segments at Different Ages of a Tree Table IV. — Carya ovata (seedling) 65 annual rings, cross section 2 feet from the ground. Specimen from Boston, Massachusetts. Table V. — Carya ovata (seedling), 255 annual rings, cross section 2 feet from the ground. Specimen from West Virginia. Vessel-Segment Vessel-Segment Lengths Lengths innual M illimeters Annual Millimeters Rings Max. Min. A ve. Rings Ave. 1 .30 .24 .27 1 0.12 S .42 .28 .36 10 0.33 10 .54 .32 .39 20 0.37 15 .46 .28 .38 35 0.38 20 .42 .36 .40 60 0.40 25 .48 .42 .43 85 0.39 30 .44 .36 .40 110 0.44 35 .48 .38 .42 135 0.41 40 .52 .42 .44 160 0.40 45 .60 .30 .44 185 0.42 50 .54 .36 .45 210 0.41 55 .62 .40 .45 235 0.42 60 .56 .44 .52 255 0.44 65 .58 .40 .49 Effect of Age and Position in Vertical Axis on the Length OF Fibers and Vessel-Segments Table VI. — Carya ovata, same specimen as table II. in millimeters Average length of fibers Annual Rings 1 o Sec. 1 yr. 5 yr- 10 yr. 15 yr- 20 yr. 25 yr- 30 yr. 35 yr- 40 yr. 45 yr- 50 yr- 55 yr- 60 yr- 65 yr. U 2 ft. 10 ft. 19 ft. 29 ft. 38 ft. 46 ft. .73 .90 .68 1.02 .96 .70 1.10 .99 .78 1.12 1.06 .87 74 1.12 1.11 .96 .88 .69 1.21 1.06 1.00 .96 .90 1.29 1.08 1.09 .98 .93 .95 1.24 1.07 1.09 1.01 .97 .95 1.20 1.05 1.00 1.07 1.05 .94 1.18 1.06 1.05 1.04 1.10 .88 1.18 1.16 1.03 1.06 1.03 .91 1.22 1.10 1.06 1.08 1.03 .89 1.26 1.06 1.09 S 1.09 ts 1.06 « .97 Variations in Anatomical Structure 665 Table VII. — Carya ovata, same specimen as table IV. Average length of vessel-segments in millimeters Annual Rings i 9 1 s Sec. 1 yr. 5 yr- 10 yr- 15 yr. 20 yr- 25 yr. 30 yr. 35 yr. 40 yr. 45 yr. 50 yr. 55 yr. 60 yr. 65 yr. 2 ft. 10 ft. 19 ft. 29 ft. 38 ft. 46 ft. .27 .36 .35 .39 .43 .38 .42 .40 .40 .45 .39 .36 .43 .46 .45 .41 .39 .40 .48 .48 .41 .41 .42 .44 .48 .43 .41 .44 .44 .49 .44 .47 .42 .44 .50 .47 .48 .44 .42 .45 .48 .48 .48 .47 .46 .45 .48 .51 .47 .47 .44 .52 .55 .51 .50 .47 .44 .49 .53 s 48 (A 41 u 4^ Diameter of Vessels at Different Ages of a Tree Table VIII. — Carya ovata, same specimen as table IV. Large ves- sels. Diameter Vessels, A nnual Millimeters Rings Max. Min. Ave. Section 2 feet from ground 2-5 0.24 0.20 0.21 29-37 0.41 0.29 0.33 57-65 0.41 0.31 0.37 Section 19 feet from ground 19-27 0.38 0.28 0.33 47-55 0.42 0.36 0.38 Section 46 feet from ground 0-8 0.24 0.14 0.18 28-36 0.38 0.27 0.33 T.A.BLE IX. — Carya ovata, same speci- men as table III. Large vessels. Section 2 feet from ground. Diameter Annual Millimeters Rings Ave. 1-2 0.06 10 0.18 20-85 0.22 85-160 0.26 160-260 0.33 Discussion and Conclusions A. Size of tracheary elements in different parts of a tree. In 1872 Sanio^ published the restilts of a detailed study of the variations in size of the tracheids in Scotch pine. From his ob- servations upon the conditions in this plant, he deduced a number of conclusions in regard to the variation in size of the tracheary elements in conifers. The first of these says: In the stem and branches the tracheids everyw^here increase from within outwards, throughout a number of annual rings, until they have attained a definite size, which then remains constant for the following anntial rings. ' Sanio, Karl, Ueber die Grosse der Holzzellen bei der gemeinen Kiefer {Pinus silvestris L.). Jahrb. Wiss. Bot., Vol. VIII, pp. 401^20, 1872. c4 3 •5 o (i> [10 > C o O (U o d tig o C (A Ci o i4 is § p. « ir r j-w« i^^r . >ai r,ii. H ■■■■»■■■■■«■■■■■■■■■■•■■■>■■■■■■■■■•• dBBiaBd---.^^^ !SSS^"SSSSS5SS*■■■■■■■■ SSS '*"'""**!!!?. r^ /i' ''-/ '■v/./'.r..'.j'.' ..- j . i'ji«^->r:.^B«i ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■ Fig. 3. — Annual Ring Designation. Douglas fir. Ship. 2, tree 1. Curves showing average rate of growth in radius and fiber length, by rings. The broken line is made from measurements excluding fiber under 50 years from pith. From Figure 2 there appears to be a relation between growth in height and length of fiber. The curve of height growth is plotted by taking the difference in age between successive discs of 8 feet apart, beginning with disc A. This, of course, means that a greater difference indicates slower growth in height. At the butt the average difference up to 34 feet from the ground is almost 4; from 34 feet up to 98 feet the difference averages 2.7; while from 98 feet to the top disc the average difference is more than 7. Up to 34 feet, therefore, it seems that the tree was growing in Douglas Fir Fiber 683 height at a medium rate, from 34 to 98 feet at a rapid rate, and from 98 to 154 feet it was growing more and more slowly in height. The dot-dash line in the curve indicates the reciprocal of the rate of growth in height. Comparing this condition with the average fiber length at various heights, it will be seen (Fig. 2), that the fiber length is short at the butt end, but increases to a maximum at 42 feet from the ground ; from 42 feet to the top there is a steady decrease which is, apparently, more rapid after about 90 feet from the ground. While it appears from this that the more rapid the growiih in height the longer will be the fiber, it must be taken into account that the fiber measured at any particular height from the ground may have been formed long after the growth in height had passed this point. Here again further determinations must be made before the relation between fiber length and growth in height can be positively established, although the indication is that the greater the latter the greater will be the former. In the tree as a whole the fibers in the first year's growth, i. e., in the annual ring surrounding the pith, show the shortest figures for length. From the first year to about 50 years (see Figs. 4, 5 and 6 as average examples), the increase in the length of fiber is very rapid each year, but after the fiftieth ring from the pith the length in any given cross-section seems to be comparatively con- stant. In some cases the rings nearer the bark show a slight increase of decrease. Comparing the average of all measure- ments made in each annual ring, as stated in Table I and as illus- trated in Figure 3, it is found that there is apparently a very rapid increase up to about 100 years from the pith, and then a constant slight increase in the length of the fibers to the periphery. The true condition is shown better in the curve which includes only mature wood, i. e., over about 50 years from the pith, than in the general curve of all figures, since the data from which this general curve was obtained when averaged gives too much weight on the short fibers in the disc containing the lesser number of annual rings. The method of choosing points for measurement as shown in Figtue 1 explains the reason for this. In the curve of mature wood it is seen that the fiber reached very nearly its full length at 50 years, rather than 100 years from the pith, and the increase to the periphery is constant but small and growing smaller till in the very outermost rings it is practically nil. The final average of all fibers measured is 4.46 mm, the average 684 Forestry Quarterly aaai ■ aaa aaaa aaaa aaaa •aaa aaaa :::: aaaa BBBfl 'BBB . -aa a 'a aa*. 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SaiiiiSaS aaB.aBaBaBrBBS aa' aa.aaBBaaaaaBaaaaaaaaaBBBa8BaaaaaaBBBaaBaaiB'«'. a laa aBBaaaaaaa a aBBBBaaai aaaaaaaaaa bbbbb aaaa :;;3 1 \\ ... . ::-: ':'■. :; ■.': 1 1 ':': 11 1 ... J ' 4 't"i : : : : : : ; i; 1:: : : : ; ^Uii :; : i :::: :::; ■BBBaa 1 aaaaaaa 1 '■'■ :::::: . . .. aaa a aaaa aaaa mm aa aa ■ BBB ■ BBS IBBB ; -^ '■': '■m : : :■ ^S t UJiJ IB .su \u dUL. 4Ul uu] 94 LHU •iUM UUJ •d c rt H U IS bl .2 00 >. m XI i .n > rf, w H fe ^ JD Z to O 4) H ^ <■ i* z 4) o > (/) at u Q bo C o •| m o 9 •s 1 s tN c 6 o h CO s O Q ninj OS V3 vo in h^ cu m o m Douglas Fir Fiber 685 maximum is 7.26 mm, and average minimum (always in the first annual ring), 0.51 mm. Table 1 gives concisely the averages for each 50 measurements taken throughout the tree as well as the averages by discs and by rings. Since the rings were cut out every 20 annual rings from the periphery toward the pith, the first annual ring varies from one to 19 years from the next ring measured . As a resiilt in two cases (discs X and B') there is a measurement in an annual ring very close to the pith as well as the first annual ring and the former figures are omitted in making the higher average in those cases where two are stated. The average omit- ting this extra short measurement is probably more nearly the actual average to be compared with the averages of other rings. Table II shows the maximum and minimum fibers as found in the discs at different heights from the groiind; also as found in the various annual rings and the averages for the latter. The maxi- mum, 8.60 wm, for the tree, was in the twentieth annual ring from the bark, or 145 years from the pith, at a height of 26 feet from the ground. As is shown by X in Figure 1, the maximimi fiber of the respective discs occurred in the annual ring nearest the bark in 11 cases in the twentieth ring from the bark in 4 cases, the fortieth ring from the bark in 4 cases, in the sixtieth from the bark in 2 cases, and in the eightieth in 2 cases, the other rings no cases. In disc J' at 146 feet from the ground a maximum was found in both the fortieth and sixtieth rings from the periphery, in disc V at 90 feet from ground in the last and sixtieth rings, and in disc T in the last and the fortieth rings. It will readily be seen that the annual rings last formed have the longest fibers. The curve of average maximimi fibers (Fig. 7) , is much like the curve for the average of all fibers or the curve for any one annual ring, i. e., showing a sharp increase nearer the pith and then a more gradual increase practi- cally to the last annual ring. The increase in this case is, how- ever, much more marked than is the case in Figures 3, 4, 5 and 6, showing average for all fibers and typical curves at various heights. The minimtmi fiber always occiirs in the annual ring first formed and the curve for minimum fiber lengths in the different rings is much the same as the maximum, except that there appears to be a distinct, though small, decrease in the average minimum in the annual rings after about 100 from the pith. As has already been stated, the fiber in the first annual ring formed at any height is extremely short, averaging 1.12 mm. 686 Forestry Quarterly Table III Width of each 20 successive rings with average radial increment in mm. Ship. 2, tree 1 Annual Ring Designation Disc Total Radius Average Designation Increment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 V 29 29 36 42 20 156 1.4 1.4 1.8 2.1 2.5 1.8 J' 33 32 38 49 48 200 1.6 1.6 1.9 2.4 2.8 2.0 H' 22 26 33 48 59 18 206 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.4 2.9 3.6 2.0 F' 23 24 32 43 49 32 203 1.1 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.4 2.6 1.8 D' 18 20 27 36 59 46 206 0.9 1.0 1.3 1.8 2.9 2.3 1.8 B' 1.7 19 29 38 57 67 16 243 0.8 0.9 1.4 1.9 2.8 3.3 3.2 1.9 Z 17 19 24 27 45 50 28 210 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.3 2.2 2.5 2.0 1.5 X 20 21 28 28 39 48 68 3 255 1.0 1.0 1.4 1.4 1.9 2.4 3.4 3.0 1.8 V 22 24 30 2>2> 35 46 73 14 Til 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.6 1.7 2.3 3.6 4.6 1.9 T 19 22 32 28 34 46 70 36 287 0.9 1.1 1.6 1.4 1.7 2.3 3.5 5.1 2.0 R 20 21 33 29 37 47 61 58 306 1.0 1.0 1.6 1.4 1.8 2.3 3.0 5.2 2.0 P 18 19 26 22 33 42 70 83 313 0.9 0.9 1.3 1.1 1.6 2.1 3.5 6.3 2.0 N 22 20 30 28 31 41 46 80 298 1.1 1.0 1.5 1.4 1.5 2.0 2.3 5.7 1.9 L 21 21 30 29 31 45 49 97 323 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.4 1.5 2.2 2.4 5.4 2.0 J 21 21 30 30 30 43 47 115 337 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.1 2.3 5.7 2.1 H 18 21 23 24 27 26 36 82 24 281 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.8 4.1 12.0 1.7 F 22 20 23 27 31 31 42 78 35 309 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.5 2.1 3.9 7.0 1.9 D 22 21 28 30 2,2, 32 41 73 51 331 1.1 1.0 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6 2.0 3.6 6.3 2.0 B 32 27 34 30 40 43 44 75 70 395 1.6 1.3 1.7 1.5 2.0 2.1 2.2 3.7 5.8 2.3 A 47 35 56 31 49 55 63 93 79 508 2.3 1.7 2.8 1.5 2.4 2.7 3.1 4.6 4.6 2.9 Average Increment 1.1 1.1 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 4.7 5.8 Douglas Fir Fiber 687 k ■■■■■■■■■• ■■■■■■■ ■«■■■ ■»■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ i aai BBBI iBBBBBaaa lai BBBB IBBBB ■ BBI BBBI BBaaaaaaaia iBBBBBaaa isiaaaa laaaa iiBBi BBBBBBBBBia laaaaaaaa isiaaaa IBBSaj * aai ■ BBI •BBBBBaaaaa IBIBBBBi a BBI BBBI ■■aaaBBBBBa IBBBBBaaa !•«■■■■••■ ■■■■■■■ IBiaSBB' . ■ ■■■ {■■■a ■■■■■■■■■9 ■■■■■■■ IS! 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Fig. 4. — Annual Ring Designation. Douglas fir. Ship. 2, tree 1, disc L'. Curve show- ing average fiber length by rings, at 154 feet from ground. Periphery. Douglas fir. Fig. 5. — Annual Ring Designation. Ship 2, tree 1, disc T. Curve showing average fiber length by rings, at 82 feet from ground. Pith. 688 Forestry Quarterly .5 11 PI u " 1 1 II I it iiiiiiiiiiiiii:i'i ""i "" ^i " -fi I — — 0 1 Periphery 5 Fig. 6. — Anxual Ring Designation. Pith. Douglas fir. Ship. 2, tree 1, disc B. Curve showing average fiber length by rings, at 10 feet from ground. Fig. 7. — Ann-ual Ring Designation, Douglas fir. Ship. 2, tree 1. Curve showing average maximum and average minimum fiber length, by rings. Douglas Fir Fiber 689 The length rapidly increases to about 4 mm until about 50 rings are added and thereafter increases very slowly, if at all. Con- trary to the conclusions of Bailey and Shepard referred to above, we find no marked decrease after about 50 years from the pith, although this condition does sometimes occur. Considering only that wood over 50 years from the pith, both the individual rings measured and the average of all, show, in general, the fiber length to be longest at 42 feet from the ground and gradually decreasing from that point toward the top and the butt. {See Fig. 2.) Thus it would appear that the fibers in the top and butt logs would be shorter than those of the main trunk between these two. Except- ing for the wood up to 40 feet from the ground, it appears that the older the wood the longer will be the fiber, and it might almost be stated that as a general rule a log having a great mmiber of annual rings could be expected to show longer fibers than a similar log having few annual rings. Table IV shows the location in siimmer or springwood of each annual ring of the maximtun, minimum and of the average longer fiber. Of the 112 rings in which these were determined, as is shown at the end of the table, the maximum fiber was in the sum- merwood in 96 rings, in the springwood in 16 rings; the minimum fiber was in the summerwood in 35 rings and in the springwood in 77 rings ; the average of all fibers was longer in the summerwood in 62 rings, longer in the springwood in 8 rings, and equal in both spring and summerwood in 42 rings. It would, therefore, appear that the fiber of the simimerwood is longer than that of the spring- wood in this particular tree, but it would not be safe to state this as being the general condition, especially as contrary results, as mentioned above, have been found by other investigators. The average longer fiber in the respective discs occurs, as is shown by + in Figure 1, in the last annual ring in ten instances, in the twentieth ring from the periphery in one instance, in the fortieth ring in three cases, in the sixtieth ring in five cases, and in the eightieth ring in two cases. In disc J at 42 feet from the ground the average fiber at 80 rings from the periphery was the same as in the last annual ring. Beyond the fact that the average longest fiber occiu's most frequently near the periphery, but that this condition does not occur constantly, there seems to be no chance for any general conclusions in regard to the location of the average longer fiber in the discs at different heights from the 690 Forestry Quarterly •§ e 8 8 e 8 Vg J? to CO *«. to 8 8 00 s IS a s \o S C^ s 8 a 8 fo m vo tn O a. O 00 a m l-l o o a 00 u m G, O t-i a in in 03 t-. o a 02 ■O 03 a oo 03 a 03 O 03 a 03 O 03 o II a 03 03 u 03 a, 03 3 X rt a 03 00 u 03 03 0\ a 03 S \o 03 U 03 00 c3 & 73 O O & i-i (L> B S 03 73 a ci3 13 O O & C • •-H a 03 rt feet from ground. Douglas Fir Fiber 693 Periphery Pith. Douglas fir. Ship. 3, tree 8. Curves showing average fiber length by rings, at 19 feet from ground. -+> 60 C O f^ 2 1 Periphery. - :"""::;:""": x ::::: : :::::::::::::::::::: :::::::" "i :■■::■ i i s ; : i :::;:::;:;:::::::: : / :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::;: ± ::::: L ::;::::±: :::::;::±:::;;;±::r::::::::: ::::::;::: :::::::::: :■■; :::: Fig. U. — Annual Ring Designation. s Pith. Douglas fir. Ship. 3, tree 10. Curve showing average fiber length by rings, at 19 feet from ground. 694 Forestry Quarterly Resiilts of examination of one disc each of 4 trees, two being typical coast Douglas fir and two being the mountain form, are recorded in Table V and Figures 8, 9, 10, 11. A disc of tree 5 of shipment 2 taken at 19 feet from the ground gave 3.49 mm, as an average fiber length of 500 measurements made from ten annual rings. Comparing this with the average for tree 1 of the same shipment, i. e., from the coastal region, at 18 feet from the ground, we find this latter tree gives an average of 4.43 mm for the same number of measurements. The indication from this is that the fiber length as stated for shipment 2, tree 1 is possibly above the general average for all trees of the coastal region of British Colum- bia. Both trees at the height from the ground given show a marked increase in fiber length up to 60 years from the pith fol- lowed by increases and decreases within comparatively narrow limits until near the periphery, when a marked decrease occurs. As is shown above, this decrease near the periphery does not hold throughout a complete tree. The discs of shipment 3 from the mountain region of British Columbia taken from trees 8 and 10 at 19 feet from the ground give average measurements of 3.06 mm and 4.18 mm respectively. The disc from tree 8 (Fig. 8), con- tained only 140 annual rings and fiber, shows an increase in length practically up to the periphery, but tree 10 (Fig. 9) with 169 annual rings shows a decrease near the periphery. In both, as is the case in all discs measured, the increase up to about 50 years is very rapid but is followed by irregular, small increases or de- creases. Comparing the coastal forms with both the mountain forms it appears that the former produces a somewhat longer fiber. Summary 1. Measurements of 8550 tracheids at 171 points in a single Douglas fir tree showed the average fiber length to be 4.46 mm, the maximiun fiber 8.60 mm, and the minimtmi 0.34 mm. 2. The length of the tracheids increases rapidly up to about 50 years from the pith, after which there are comparatively small and irregular increases or decreases, with an average slight increase toward the periphery. o. The most marked decrease near the periphery occurs near the butt. 3. The average fiber length increases up to somewhat less than one third the height measured and then gradually decreases. Douglas Fir Fiber 695 4. The tracheids in a given annual ring increase in size from the ground upwards until a maximum is reached and then decrease to the top. a. The maximum length occurs higher from the ground in the rings nearer the bark. b. The annual rings last formed give the longest average fiber. 5. Measurements indicate that a greater growth in diameter may be correlated with a shorter tracheid. 6. A greater growth in height appears to be correlated with a. longer tracheid. 7. The tracheids in "rotholz" are shorter than those in "zug- holz" of the same annual ring. 8. Fiber length appears, in tree measured, to be somewhat longer in the summerwood than in the springwood. 9. Both fiber length and strength increase rapidly from the pith outwards to a certain point, after which comparatively small increases and decreases occiu" irregularly. No definite relation at various height in tree could be established. 10. Douglas fir from the coast region of British Columbia appears to produce a fiber averaging slightly longer than that growing in the mountains. Further studies are being conducted on spruce and pine and it is hoped that comparisons with the data herein given will lead to more definite establishment of certain of the conclusions stated above. Literature Cited (1) Variation in length of coniferous fibers. Shepard, H. B., and Bailey I. W. Proc. Soc. Amer. For. P:4, Oct., 1914. (2) Sanio's laws for variation in size of coniferous tracheids. Bailey, I. W., and Shepard, Bot. Gaz. 60, 1, July, 1915. (3) Gerry, E. Fiber measurement studies: length variations, where they occur and their relation to the strength and uses of wood. Science Vol. 61, No. 1048, page 179, 1915. (4) Mell, C. D. The length of tracheids in the wood of cone-bearing trees. Paper Trade Journal, 15 June, 1911, p. 52. (5) Penhallow, D. P. Anatomy of Gymnosperms, Boston, 1907. (6) Sanio, K. Jahrbucher d. Wiss. Botanik, Vol. VIII, p. 401, 1867. THE ECONOMIC WOODS OF HAWAII By Vaughan MacCaughey^ The Hawaiian Archipelago is remarkable in its geographic and biologic isolation, and in the highly endemic character of its fauna and flora. Thereis no other land mass, of equal area, on the planet , so remote from continental regions as is Hawaii. The islands lie in the North Pacific Ocean, 2100 miles west of San Francisco, and just within the tropics. The archipelago consists of over twenty islands, extending from the great volcanic island of Hawaii in the south-east, for a distance of two thousand miles to tiny Ocean Island in the north-west. Only eight of these are inhabited; the remainder are minute coral rings, sand islands, and barren vol- canic rocks, with a combined area of less than twelve square miles. The eight large islands — Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, Kauai, Molokai, Lanai, Niihau, and Kahoolawe, in order of size — ^have a combined area of 6,454 square miles. Hawaii, the largest island of the group, has an area as great as that of all the others combined. These eight islands are, or were, all heavily forested in their interior, mountainous districts. Within historic time there has been extensive deforestation, and two of the smaller islands, Lanai and Kahoolawe, have been stripped by goats and cattle of practi- cally all their forest mantle. The forest is composed largely of peculiar, endemic species, and presents many striking contrasts to the familiar mainland forests. There is no other region in the world with so large a percentage of endemic plant species as Hawaii, and the great majority of these are perennial, woody, and arborescent. A lumberman from Georgia, from Michigan, or from the Puget Sound country would find in our Hawaiian forests not a single familiar tree, not a single conifer, and but few species that even faintly resemble those of the continental forests of the United States.* The lowland climate of Hawaii is mild and equable throughout the year, with an average of about 75° F. and extremes of 60" and 85**. There is a drop of about fom- degrees for every thousand feet ascent; the high mountains of Maui and Hawaii (8,000-13,825 1 Professor of Botany, College of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii. * MacCaughey, V. The Forests of the Hawaiian Islands. Plant World, vol. 20, 1916, pp. 162-166; 2 figs. Teaching dendrology in the Hawaiian Islands. F. Q., vol. XIV, pp. 46-9. 696 Economic Woods of Hawaii 697 feet), have snow and ice, which occtirs nowhere else in the archi- pelago. The trade winds from the northeast blow almost con- tinuously throughout the year, and create marked windward and leeward regions, as the main axis of the islands lies athwart these winds. The trade winds are heavily water-laden, and the pre- cipitation resulting from their contact with the motmtains is extremely large, in some regions amounting to 400-500 inches. The native forest reaches its finest development in the rainy zone, although there are some tall species that inhabit the barren lava- flows and other zerophytic regions. The chief ecologic zones are as follows : 1. Littoral, a. Humid Littoral; windward. b. Arid Littoral; leeward. 2. Lowlands, up to 1,000-1500 feet. Htmiid and Arid Sections, depending upon relation of topography to trade winds, and distance from interior mountains. 3. The Forest Zone. a. The Lower Forest; 1,000-2.000 feet; Htmiid and Arid Sections. b. The Middle Forest; 1800-5,000 feet; variable, with Himiid and Arid Sec- tions. c. The Upper Forest; 5,000-9,000 feet; restricted to the high mountains of Maui and Hawaii. 4. The Summit Regions, a. Summit Deserts; 9,000-14,000 feet; high moimtains of Maui and Hawaii. b. Summit Bogs ; peaks rising into the cloud belt ; 4,000-6,000 feet. The tree of first rank as a commercial asset in Hawaii is the ohia lehua, {Metrosideros polymorpha Gaud.). This is the most abundant tree in our forests , and forms the largest pure stands. It , and other closely related species, also occur in the island of the South Pacific. It grows at all elevations from sea-level up to 9,000 feet, and in every ecologic habitat, from raw new arid lava, flows to the perpetually water-saturated summit bogs. The ohia is exceedingly variable in growth form and foliar characters, and the botanic status of its nimierous sub-species and varieties is still unsettled. Many of the South Sea forms that have been described as species are probably only varieties of polymorpha. This species 698 Forestry Quarterly has been divided into a number of sections, or sub-divisions, which are as intricate and baffling as those of Craetagus or Quercus. This species is evidently in a condition of organic inequilibrium and incipient evolution. Many of the New Zealand forms are climbing or decumbent lianas. In the Hawaiian summit bogs the ohia is a stunted creeper, scarcely rising above the mosses and sedges of the swamp. In the great jungle-forests of puna and Olaa, Hawaii, it is a stately tree, rising to over a hundred feet in height. In the latter regions it is straight-trunked and high-crowned, an excellent form for lumber- ing. In recent years several local companies have undertaken the commercial exploitation of these great ohia forests, and large quan- tities of the lumber have been exported, as well as utilized locally. The wood is strong, tough, fine grained, dark red, and very durable. Its one defect is that it requires very careful drying in order to prevent warping and checking, to which it is very sus- ceptible. In laying ohia flooring great care must be exercised in fastening the boards properly in place, otherwise they twist and check. The ohia wood has come into prominence for flooring, paving blocks, railroad ties, bridge timbers, and other uses in which dura- bility is of especial importance. In its mechanical and structural properties ohia rivals the best oak, although it cannot be obtained in as large sizes, as its trunk is relatively slender. Occasionally boles of three to four feet in diameter are obtained, but these are uncommon, and the average diameter of the trunk is about two feet. The engineering testing laboratories of the College of Hawaii were used, a few years ago, for a thorough examination of the ohia, and the results of an extensive series of tests were very satisfac- tory. It is to be noted that the ohia lehua is a slow-growing tree, and upon the consummation of the present epoch of exploita- tion, unless conservative principles of forestry soon be rigorously applied, the supply will be practically exhausted for a considerable period. Second only to the lehua in abundance and importance is the koa {Acacia koa Gray). It is the finest tree in the Hawaiian forests, and is endemic.^ In the lower forest the koa usually grows as a large spreading tree, with a thick, stocky trunk, sometimes » MacCaughey, V. The Woods of Hawaii. Scientific American Supple- ment, vol. 81, 1916, No. 2098, pp. 184-85, 5 figs. Economic Woods of Hawaii 699 seven or eight feet in diameter, and long horizontal branches. Under these conditions the crown is a beautiful symmetrical dome, rising from the ground to a height of forty feet. In the dense rain- forest, particularly in the island of Hawaii, the koa has an entirely different growth-form. The trunk is very tall, straight, and un- branched to a height of forty feet above the forest floor. A relatively small crown is developed at the summit of this beautiful gray colimin. The bark may be either smooth or very scaly. In early times the "big koa" was abundant, and many trees at- tained heights of eighty or ninety feet. These largest trees were used by the natives for their war-canoes and huge carved idols, and later by the whites for structural timber and cabinet wood so that today there are few of these veterans standing. The koa foliage is thin and diffuse, and crowded at the ends of the branches. The interior of the tree is bare, and one can readily see the entire framework through the spotty and diaphanous super- ficial drapery of foliage. The juvenile foliage, both in the seed- lings and in the young twigs of old trees, is the typical bipinnate mimosoid leaf, with twelve to fifteen pairs of crowded leaflets. The true leaves, however, rapidly pass into the phyllodia; the petioles become expanded, flattened, and sickle-shaped. The mature phyllodium is four to six inches long and half an inch wide, thin coriaceous, very smooth, and longitudinally striate with fine parallel veins. The floral peduncles are solitary or clustered in the axils; each bears a globular head of minute, closely packed white florets. The pod is flat, brown, four inches long, with about a dozen dark brown seeds. The range of the koa is considerable — from near sea-level up to 5,500 feet — and from hydrophytic to semi-arid habitats. It pos- sesses marked adaptability, but reaches its finest development and largest stands in mesophytic-hydrophytic districts. Although its thin canopy of phyllodia indicates zerophytic adaptations, it is not a tree of the strictly arid lands, and grows with evidence reluc- tance under desert conditions. The koa timber is undoubtedly the most valuable wood which the islands now possess. It is typically a rich golden brown, vary- ing through a series of tints and grains, from a straight-grained, rather commonplace "piney" yellow, through to a very hand- some, distinctive, dark mahogany-red, curly-grained type. This latter is the rarest and most highly prized, and is the kind used 700 Forestry Quarterly in the manufacture of ukuleles, (Hawaiian gmtars), and fine cabinet work and furniture. The wood is of about the same hardness as oak, and is not difficult to work. In the early days it was used for common structural purposes, and for interior finish, but is now too scarce for such uses. Several local companies have from time to time exploited the koa, under the name of Hawaiian " Ma- hogany," particularly on the island of Hawaii, where the choicest timber occurs. In the vicinity of the crater Kilauea are the remains of the old camps and lumber mills. Of much greater seriousness than htmian exploitation have been the ravages of wild goats, cattle, and insect pests. The goats, cattle, and other wild live stock have done irreparable and in- calculable damage to all the forests, and the magnificent koa groves have suffered with the rest. Hawaii's carelessness and ig- norance in allowing wild live stock to roam and multiply un- checked in all her forests for over a hundred years, has heaped up for her a heavy penalty of ruined woodlands. Moreover, when the Hawaiian forest has once been ravaged and despoiled, it is exceedingly difficult to restore the primitive conditions, as foreign undergrowth has taken possession of the land, and inhibits natural reforestation. In many places where formerly existed splendid groves of big koa, there is today nothing but a dreary tangle of naked dead and decaying timber. The goats and cattle devour the seedlings, and kill the young trees. There are a number of lepidopterous larvae, mostly Scotorythra, which feed upon the leaves and often defoliate the tree. Several coleopterous borers — ex. Aegosomus — ^riddle the wood with their tunnels. When decay has once set in, the tree is attacked by a variety of bracket and wood-destroying fungi, which complete the ruin and destroy the tree. The tree of third rank in our woodlands is the cosmopoUtan kukui, (Aleurttes moluccana L. Willd.), popiilarly known as the candle-nut tree.* It inhabits the lowlands and lower forest zone, up to 2,200 feet elevation in moist and mesophytic districts. It will not stand prolonged drought, and the groves which at present occur in semi-arid regions are the vanishing remnants of what was once a humid forest. The kukui is abundant in the South Pacific and in many tropical countries. * MacCaughey, V. The Kukui Forests of Hawaii. Paradise of the Pacific Magazine, 1911, pp. 19-24, 6 figs. Economic Woods of Hawaii 701 Like the koa, with which it is often associated, the kukui has several growth forms. When not crowded for room it has a short thick tnmk, with many large, horizontal crooked branches, sup- porting a beautiful dome of silvery-green foliage, that begins al- most at the ground and rises to a height of thirty or forty feet. The lower branches are often prostrate on the ground, supported by curious elbow-like angles. This is the common form in the lower forest and the shallow ravines. In the narrow gorges and vaUey- heads the tree is frequently fifty to eighty feet tall, with a smooth straight bole, and a high, compact crown. The leaves of young trees and branches are large, dark green, and digitately five to seven-lobed, somewhat like those of our mainland Planatus. The matiu-e foliage is small, ovate, and clad with silvery-gray woolly tomentimi. This gives the kukui crown a characteristic silvery aspect, recognizable at a great dis- tance, and readily distinguishing it from any other Hawaiian tree. The flowers are dioecious, in loose, terminal, cymose corymbs. The fruit is globular, fleshy coriaceous, 13^-2 inches in diameter, with one or two large, hard-shelled, oily nuts. These nuts constitute the commercial value of the tree. The ancient Hawaiians, and other native peoples, used the nuts for illimiination, either stringing the oily kernels on fiber and burning them like a candle — hence the name candle-nut — or expressing the oil by pounding the kernels, and burning it in open stone saucer-like lamps, with a bit of fiber for a wick. The kukui oil is very similar to the "wood oil" of China and other parts of Asia, which is obtained from another species of Aleiirites. It possesses certain drying properties which make it excellent for fine paints, lacquers, and varnishes. It is also used in soap-making, as a wood preservative, and in medicine. At various times in the history of Hawaii there have been com- mercial attempts to establish a local kukui oil industry. In monarchical days the annual exports amounted to ten thousand gallons, but the industry lapsed with shifting political and eco- nomic conditions. In 1915, a new corporation, the Hawaiian Kukui Oil Company, was organized with a capitalization of $25,000. The machinery for separating the kernels from the shells and husks, and for expressing the oH, is comparatively simple and inexpensive. The company estimates a total available kukui acreage of about 702 Forestry Quarterly fifteen thousand acres. Conservatively assuming eighty trees to the acre, and two hundred pounds of nuts per tree, this gives an annual yield of eight tons per acre. Reducing this estimate to five tons per acre the annual crop is 75,000 tons. Considering 50,000 tons as the available crop, the extracted oil would amount to 2,375,000 gallons, having a conservative wholesale value of at least $1,187,500. Inasmuch as the importation of Chinese wood-oil into the United States in a single year amounts to nearly six million gallons, and as a single New York firm could have placed orders for an additional 500,000 gallons, had it been avail- able, the market prospects for the Hawaiian kukui oil seem very auspicious. The wood is white, soft, coarse-grained, brittle, and lacking in durability. It has no commercial value save as firewood, and as fuel is of low grade. The wood decays easily, and the trees are attacked by various boring insects, notably the longicorn beetle Aegosoma. Another important oil-yielding tree is the kamani, (Calophyllum inophyllum L.). It is widely distributed throughout tropical Asia and Polynesia, and is everywhere valued for its oil and wood. It is distinctly a littoral species, like the milo, and was also brought by the first Hawaiians from the South Pacific. It is often fifty or sixty feet high, with a trunk of two to three feet in diameter, and a domed crown of heavy, dark green, glossy foliage. The fragrant, creamy-white flowers are in showy axillary racemes. The fruit is lH-2 inches in diameter, with a hard rind and a very oily nut. In India, Fiji, and other regions the oil is of considerable commercial importance, and like the kukui oil, is used for a variety of purposes. The wood is as hard as oak, close grained, and red- dish brown in color. In ancient Hawaii it was used chiefly for the carved wooden bowls or umeke; in other countries it is utilized for timber, in shipbuilding, and for fine cabinet work. The day will undoubtedly come when this valuable oil tree will be handled as a forest crop, under scientific management. The leguminous mesquite, Prosopis julijlora, an introduced tree, has become the dominant lowland tree in many regions, and has proven to be of great economic importance. It thrives in semi- arid regions where other trees are scarce, and ameliorates the poor soil upon which it grows. Its height is twenty to forty feet, with a wide-spreading crown, gnarled, fluted trunk, and small. Econcnnic Woods of Hawaii 703 pinnate foliage. The first seed was brought from Mexico in 1837 by Father Bachelot, founder of the Roman Catholic Mission. The nutritious pods are relished by live stock, and cattle have been largely responsible for the wide dissemination of the tree on the ranchlands and lowland plains. There are now over 60,000 acres of mesquite or algaroba forest in the islands. Land formerly considered worthless has been transformed by this valuable tree into useful pasture land. The tree — called kiawe by the natives — bears profuse crops of yellow, nutritious pods. These mature during the summer months, and are harvested as a regular crop. The pods are picked up from beneath the trees, and placed in gunny sacks for transportation and storage. The pod is filled with a sweet gummy pulp, which surrounds the small, exceedingly hard seeds. The seeds, like those of all legumes, contain a high per- centage of valuable food materials, but are so hard-walled that cattle cannot crack them. A milling device was perfected in Honolxilu a few years ago, by means of which the pods and seeds are thoroughly crushed and macerated, and reduced to a readily digestible condition. This is sold as "algaroba bean meal" and is mixed with other less concentrated feeding stuffs. It is an im- portant local product. The flowers are fragrant and very nectiferous, and constitute an important honey supply. The kiawe bee pasturage is reckoned as of the finest quality, and due to the prolonged flowering period, yields unusually large quantities of honey. Apiaries have been established throughout the kiawe belt on all the islands, but notably on Oahu and Molokai. The latter island is reputed to be one of the greatest honey-exporting districts in the world. Kiawe honey is very sweet, and of excellent keeping qualities. The wood is dark reddish brown, with yellow sapwood; rather coarse grained, and very crooked and irregular. It is never sawn into boards, because of these distinctive irregularities, but is used for fence posts, and chiefly for firewood. It is the common fuel wood of Honolulu, and commands high prices. Owing to the ravages of an exotic locust borer, the kiawe' s usefulness for fence posts has been seriously impaired. The kiawe is commonly used as a shade tree, in Honolulu as well as in the country districts. When botmtifully irrigated it assumes stately proportions, ascends to a height of sixty or eighty feet, and rivals in beauty and dignity the elms of England and the Eastern States. 704 Forestry Quarterly At this point may be mentioned a number of other foreign trees, which have been introduced and are now well established, and whose woods are used in various ways. The monkey-pod, Pithe- colobium samang, is valued locally for ship timbers in the con- struction of the Japanese sampans, and for cabinet work. The ironwood, Casuarina equisetifolia, the beef -wood, Grevillea robusta, and the gums, Eucalyptus spp., all from the South Pacific, are extensively planted along plantation roadways, and are used for posts, flume timbers, etc. The wood of two fruit trees, the mango, Mangijera indie a, and the bread-fruit, Artocarpus incisa, is often used for poi-boavds, house timbers, firewood, etc. The Orientals make large quantities of charcoal from the guava, Psidium guayava, which in many lowland regions forms extensive * ' chaparral ' ' thickets . A very hardy endemic tree, with a wide range of adaptability a to elevation and habitat, and of considerable economic value, is the ntamane, (Sophora chrysophylla Seem.). This is a legume, fifteen to forty feet tail, -vvdth a trunk of ten to twenty-four inches in diameter. The pinnate leaves are five or six inches long, with six to ten pairs of leaflets. At high altitude these, and other parts of the plant, are covered with silvery or golden pubescence. The bright yellow flowers are clustered in pendulous axillary and ter- minal racemes ; the pods are four to five inches long, quadrangular, and deeply constricted between the seeds. The mamani occurs on all the islands save Oahu and Molokai. There is no explanation for this remarkable hiatus in its range. It grows from sea-level to ten thousand feet elevation; on the low- lands it is always a shrub, and attains its best development at an elevation of about 5,000 feet, on the slopes of Mauna Loa. The most extensive belts of mamani occur on this and on the other high mountains of Hawaii — Mauna Kea and Hu-ala-lai. According to Rock the very numerous wild cattle and horses of Mauna Kea "Uve almost exclusively on the young leafy shoots of the mamani during the dry season, when there is no grass available." The mamani wood is very hard, and unusually durable in con- tact with the soil. It makes excellent fence posts, and is gen- erally used by the ranclimen of Hawaii for that purpose. The high altitudes of the best groves has prevented the commercial exploitation of the mamani, but there is little question as to the valuable properties of the wood. There is considerable evidence Economic Woods of Hawaii 705 to show that many fine groves at the lower levels — 5,000-6,000 feet — have been destroyed by lava flows in relatively recent geologic time. "The sandalwood {Santalus freycinetianum Gaud.) is a name to conjiire with in Hawaii. In old monarchical days the sandal- wood forests were the treasury houses of the kings. Sandalwood was ready money, and was recklessly squandered, so that there is now very Uttle sandalwood of commercial size."^ There are four species of native sandalwood in Hawaii — 5. freycinetianum, characteristic of xerophytic regions on all the islands ; S. ellipticum, Gaud., confined to Oahu and Kauai, at elevations of 600-1,500 feet; 5. pyrularium Gray, restricted to Kauai, at elevations of 3,000-4,000 feet; and 5. Haleakalae Hillebd. , occurring only on the slopes of Hale-a-ka-la, at elevations of 2,600-9,000 feet. In olden times the sandalwood — native name ili-ahi — often attained heights of sixty to eighty feet, with trunks two to three feet in diameter. The secretions of the fragrant oil increase with age, so that the older trees are very much more valuable than the young ones. Today it is difficult to find a sandalwood over thirty-five feet high, and in most places they are small trees or shrubs. The sandalwood is semi-parasitic in its feeding habits, and in its seedling stages seems to be very dependent upon its haustorial connections with the roots of other trees. No one has as yet successfully germinated the seeds of the Hawaiian sandalwoods, and this difficulty is apparently connected with the semi-parasitic habit. One of its chief associates in the lower forest is the koa, (Acacia koa), and it is likely that the young sandalwood tree derives a portion of its sustenance from the koa. In the "sandalwood days" — 1790 to 1820 — ^the tree was shamelessly exploited. The cargoes were sent to China, and the Chinese designation for the Hawaiian Islands was Tan-Shan, literally "the fragrant mountains." Although the prices received by the Hawaiian chiefs for the wood were ridiculously small as compared with the actual value of the product, in the height of the period the income amounted to several hundred thousand dollars annually. This extravagant exploitation came to a speedy termination, the supply was exhausted, and today there is little ' See The Woods of Hawaii, MacCaughey, Scientific American Supplement, loc. cit. 706 Forestry Quarterly commercial sandalwood in the islands. Under the present excel- lent system of forest conservation by the Territorial government, this valuable tree shoiild again become an economic asset. With the decline of the true sandalwood the false sandalwood, Myoporum Sandwicense (DC.) Gray, was cut and shipped in its stead. This tree, called naio by the natives, is very common, growing at all elevations from sea-level up to ten thousand feet. It prefers arid leeward regions, and the high mountains of Maui and Hawaii. The finest stands occur on East Maui, at an eleva- tion of about 2,500 feet; here trees of fifty to sixty feet, with trunks of 30 to 36 inches, are still fairly common. The glossy leaves are crowded at the ends of the branches; the small, fragrant white or pink flowers are borne in axillary clusters. The wood is rather soft, fine grained, and dark yellowish green in color; upon drying it becomes fragrant, like the true sandalwood. Just as the Chinese prized the sandalwood for its fragrance, so was the mokihana beloved of the Hawaiians. This is a small, slender tree, {Pelea anisata Mann) , endemic to the island of Kauai. The trunk is eight to ten inches in diameter ; the tree is fifteen to twenty feet in height. The wood and all parts of the tree possesses a strong aromatic anise odor, very pleasant and fragrant, and one of the favorite perfumes of the old-time Hawaiians. The pretty little brown capsules, half an inch in diameter, were strung into odorous leis or garlands; the crushed twigs were laid amongst the tapas stored in the calabashes, like the sweet lavender of our grandmothers, to impart its delightful odor to the clothing. The moki-hana is plentiful in the Kauai rain-forests, at eleva- tions between three- and four-thousand feet. Another species — Pelea pseudo-anisata Rock — is plentiful in the rain-forests of the Kohala Mountains, Hawaii, at elevations of four- to five-thousand feet. This species is more odoriferous than anisata, and has larger capsules, some two inches in diameter. There are twenty- two other species of pelea in the Hawaiian forests, but only the two specified are of economic interest. A technical study of the moki-hana oil is being conducted in the chemical laboratories of the College of Hawaii, Honululu, in order to determine its com- mercial possibilities. The "mountain apple" tree, or ohia ai, was introduced by the primitive Hawaiians, and now is abundant in the humid valleys and ravines. It forms pure stands, some of which cover areas of Economic Woods of Hawaii 707 several hundred acres. This tree (Jambosa malaccensis (L.), P. DC.) is cosmopolitan, and occurs throughout the Pacific. It is thirty to sixty feet in height, with a straight, smooth-barked trunk, and handsome, dark green, glossy foliage. The flowers are pompons of showy magenta stamens, and produce juicy, crimson, obovate fruit, the size of a small pear. During the fruiting season, generally in mid-summer, the fruit is common in the Honolulu markets. The wood was used by the natives for their house and temple timbers, and for idols; it has not been used to any extent by foreigners. A highly laticiferous tree of possible commercial value is the koko, {Euphorbia lorifolia Gray, Hillebd.). The native name koko means "blood" and refers to the latex. This is a small endemic tree of twenty or twenty-five feet, with a trunk of eight or ten inches, which on old trees is encrusted with fissured protuber- ances. It occurs on Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii, at elevations of two- to four-thousand feet, in zerophytic habitats. A variety, gracilis, is restricted to the semi-arid waste-lands on the slopes of Mount Hu-ala-lai, on Hawaii, at an elevation of three thousand feet. This variety, which is estimated to occupy about five thousand acres, has a very copious flow of latex, and has been investigated by the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station as a possible soiirce of rubber and chicle. The favorable reports and the considerable acreage involved may lead to the commercial utilization of this tree. Among the comparatively few Hawaiian trees which attain large stature is the aV, Sapindus saponaria L. It rises to a height of sixty or eighty feet, with a straight, buttressed trunk, often six feet in diameter. In no other part of the world does this tree reach such a large size as in Hawaii. The bark flakes off in large thick irregular plates or scales, exposing the smooth young bark be- neath. The wood is white and soft ; it is not utilized by the natives, nor is the tree of sufficient abundance to be of special commercial importance. The leaves are pinnate, and deciduous ; the small, yel- lowish flowers are in hairy terminal panicles, and produce round black berries. The saponaceous qualities of the fruit are well known, and utilized by natives in all lands where the tree occurs. In Hawaii the a'e occupies the middle forest zone, at an elevation of about four thousand feet. A second species, 5. oahuensis Hillebd., is a small endemic tree, twenty to thirty feet, distributed throughout the leeward lower forests of Kauai and Oahu. 708 Forestry Quarterly The •mli-imli, (Erythrina monosperma Gaud.), is a soft-wooded legtiminous tree of the lowlands. It has a short, stocky trunk, and a squat spreading crown of stiff, gnarled branches. The bark is smooth, thin, and of a peculiar leathery yellow-brown color, with scattering conical prickles. The foliage is sparse, three-foliate, and crowded at the ends of the branches. This is one of our few deciduous trees. The flowers are dull red or creamy-yellow, in showy axillary racemes ; these appear after the spring rains, before or with the new leaves. The pod is two to three inches long, with one or several bright scarlet beans. The wili-wili is strongly zerophytic, and inhabits the arid lowlands up to an elevation of 1500 feet. The tree is fairly common, although it is solitary and scattered, and does not form groves or piu"e stands. The wood is white, very soft and grainless, and of remarkable buoyancy. The natives formerly used it for the outrigger of their canoes, for which purpose its lightness, which is equal to that of cork, admirably fitted it. The trees are easily grown, and the buoyant wood should come to be of some economic value. A very soft-wooded liliaceous tree, that is also plentiful in the arid and semi-arid lowlands, is the hala-pepe, Dracaena aurea Mann. It is twenty to thirty-five feet high, with a profusion of erect, stiff, naked branches, each of which, like the hala, is crowned with a large rosette of long pointed, ribbon-like leaves. The bark is light gray and smooth; the wood is exceedingly soft and brittle, white with reddish brown streakings. The tree is common on the barren leeward stretches of the various islands. On Kauai, near Waimea, it forms extensive, almost pure, stands. It is also plentiful in the vicinity of Honolulu. In the days of ancient Hawaii the wood was used commonly for idols, because of the ease with which it could be carved. Another tree of interest because of the remarkable lightness and softness of its wood, although not of economic importance, is the papala, Charpentiera obovata Gaud. This small tree is fifteen to thirty-five feet in height, with thick, glossy, dark green foHage and smooth thin, light-brown bark. The tree lives in the lower forest zone, and up to four thousand feet, on all the islands, in both humid and semi-arid regions. The natives formerly used the wood for torches, as it burned with great briUiancy. One of the note- worthy ancient nocturnal sports consisted in throwing great num- bers of these buoyant, flaming firebrands from high precipices Economic Woods of Hawaii 709 overlooking the sea. These exhibitions were very spectacular in character and, before the introduction of gun powder, were the Hawaiian's nearest approach to fireworks. The nene-leau or Hawaiian sumach, is a small, tough-wooded tree, formerly much used by the planters in the construction of their primitive ox-plows. In later years these have been almost wholly supplanted by imported implements. The wood is soft, coarse grained, and of grayish yellow color. The trunk is eight to twelve inches in diameter, and ten to fifteen feet high. The leaves are pinnate, and bright green; the flowers small, yellowish, in showy dense terminal panicles, which are clad with rusty tomen- tvmi. This svunach (Rhus semi-alata Murray var. sandwicensis Engler) is endemic; it grows in the lowlands and lower forests, up to two thousand feet elevation, in isolated clumps. Its numerous root-sprouts sometimes form very dense clumps. A soft, white wood, occasionally used by the natives for making saddle frames, is obtained from the kawau, Ilex sandwicensis (Endl.) Loes. This is a beautiful tree of twenty to forty feet, with a bole of ten to twelve inches. It chiefly inhabits the rain- forests. The dark green coriaceous foliage is quite handsome; the small white flowers occur in axillary cymose panicles. There are a ntmiber of other tree species, some of them attaining con- siderable size, that are all characterized by soft, weak, white or yellowish wood, which have not been used by the natives or for- eigners. Among these may be specified the poola, Claoxylon sandwicense Mull.-Arg. ; T^/ra^/a^anJra w^'aM^mHillebd. Harms.; ohe, Reynoldsia sandwicensis Gray ; ohe-ohe, Pterotropia, three spec- ies; Cheirodendron, two species; aiea, Nothocestrum breviflorum Gray, and N. latifolium Gray. This list is sufficient to indicate that the tropical and subtropical forests contain many soft-wooded trees, in addition to the more commonly known hardwood species. Two Hawaiian trees were known as kauila, and their exceedingly hard, heavy wood was extensively used by the natives for their spears, war clubs, beaters, and similar implements. One, Colu- brina oppositifolia Brongn., is endemic, and confined to the Kona district of Hawaii. Its height is twenty-five to thirty-five feet, with a trunk of ten to fourteen inches. The wood is fine grained, tough, and dark red. The other species, with somewhat softer wood, Alphitonia excelsa Reiss, is a taU tree, often eighty feet in height, and with a trunk of eighteen to twenty-four inches dia- 710 Forestry Quarterly meter. It occurs in the arid leeward districts of all the islands, to an elevation of 3,200 feet. The wood is like that of Colubrina, but is marked with conspicuous black streaks. This species is not endemic, but is plentitiful in the islands of the South Pacific. A common hardwood tree is the lama, Maba sandwicensis A. DC, or Hawaiian ebony. The wood is dense, fine-grained, and rich reddish brown. It was formerly used for idols, temples, and house timbers. The tree is twenty to forty feet in height, and occurs in the humid and semi-arid lower forests on all the islands. The Hawaiian olive, pua (Osmanthus sandwicensis Gray, Knobl.), is also common, but is restricted chiefly to the arid lee- ward districts. It is a dominant tree on many of the Hawaiian lava-flows. Its height is thirty to sixty feet, in old trees the tnmk is frequently thirty to thirty-six inches in diameter. The wood is exceedingly hard and heavy, fine textured and durable; it is dark brown with blackish streaks, and takes an excellent poHsh. The Hawaiians formerly used the wood for their implements. A comparatively scarce endemic tree, of economic value, is the uhi-uhi, Mezoneurum Kauaiense Mann, Hillebd. It is a legume, sub-family Caesalpinioideae, and grows to a height of twenty- five or thirty feet, with a trunk of ten or twelve inches. The smooth leaves are abruptly pinnate with one to five pairs of pinnae, each with four to eight pairs of leaflets; the leaflets are about 1 finches long. The dark purple red flowers are arranged in showy ter- minal racemes, which appear in early spring. The thin flat pod is 33/2 X 2 inches, with a broad wing along one margin ; the young pods are pink and showy. Uhi-uhi wood is very heavy, fine grained, hard, and durable; in color dark chocolate brown, almost black. It was used by the natives for fishing sinkers, as it is much heavier than water, and easier to drill than stone. This tree occurs in restricted localities on Kauia, Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii, and is too scarce to be of present commercial value. We have several species of the endemic genus Bobea which be- come large trees — thirty to thirty-five feet — and were formerly valued by the natives for their yellow wood. The Bobeas are widely scattered on the various islands, chiefly in the rain-forests, although also inhabiting the zerophytic districts. The bright yellow wood was used for the gunwales of the outrigger canoes, and afforded a pleasing contrast with the dark body of the vessel. One of the very tough, close-grained woods of Hawaii is the Economic Woods of Hawaii 711 ai-ai Pseudoniorus Brunoniana Endl. Bureau. The tree is twenty- five to thirty-five feet high, with a trunk of twelve to eighteen inches, laticiferous, and with mulberry-like foliage. It is semi- zerophytic in habitat, and occurs on all the large islands of the group. The ai-ai is Australian in origin, and was there used ex- tensively by the natives for their boomerangs, owing to the re- markable toughness and hardness of the wood. The endemic ke-ahi, Chrysophylliim Polynesicum Hillebd., is common in the zerophytic leeward districts. Considerable mixed stands occur on East Maui, Molokai, and Lanai. The wood is very hard and durable, but does not appear to have been used by the natives. The tree is twenty-five to forty feet high; the young leaves and inflorescence are covered with a golden-brown tomentmi. The Hawaiian ironwood, hao, (Rauwolfia sandwicensis A. DC), is a fairly common laticiferous tree, occupying arid leeward low- lands on aU the islands, at about two thousand feet elevation. It is often a mere shrub, but under favorable conditions becomes a tree of twenty feet, with a trunk of six to twelve inches. The wood is dark yellow, fairly strong, close grained, and very durable. Its native name, hao or iron, refers to the latter property. The hold Ochrosia sandwicensis Gray, resembles the hao in color and other properties. From the bark and roots the natives formerly ex- tracted a bright yellow dye-stuff. A very beautiful native wood, extensively used for turned wooden bowls, umeke, is the milo, Thespesia populnea L. Corr. The rich golden-brown color and variegated grain of the milo wood, and its beautiful polish, give it high value as a cabinet wood. The tree was brought by the ancient Hawaiians from their South Pacific home, and was abundantly planted around their beach settlements. It grows to a height of twenty-five to forty feet, with a trunk of eighteen to twenty-six inches. It seeds freely and is now thoroughly established along the strand. The kou, Cordia subcordata Lam., was another easily carved, beautifully grained wood which the natives prized for bowls and other vessels. It was brought from the South Seas, where it is plentiful. It was formerly common along Hawaiian shores, but is now quite rare. The beautiful orange flowers are arranged in showy panicles. The kolea (Suttonia lessertiana A. DC. Mez) yields a beautiful cabinet wood. It is of mediimi hardness, easily worked, of a rich pink color mottled with darker, with a showy grain, and taking a 712 Forestry Quarterly high polish. The sap is brilliant red. The kolea is quite variable in stature and habitat ; the finest trees occur in the three- to four- thousand-foot zone, and here they reach a height of fifty to sixty feet, with a trunk of twelve to twenty-five inches. It grows both in the rain-forest and in semi-arid regions. There are eleven endemic Suttonias in the Hawaiian Arcliipelago ; most of these are shrubs or small trees. The genus Xanthoxylum has seven Hawaiian representatives; three of these, Kauaiense Gray Mauiense Mann, and dipetalum Mann, attain sufficient stature, (twenty to forty feet), to rank as trees of economic importance; the others are small trees and shrubs. The bark is acid aromatic; the leaves three- to seven- foliate, and dotted with pellucid oil-glands. When crushed, the leaves emit an aromatic, soapy odor. The species enumerated above show preference for zerophytic leeward regions, usually at elevations of 2,500 to 4,000 feet. In these districts, on ancient lava-flows and waste-lands, the trees develop smooth boles twenty- five to thirty feet high and eighteen to thirty inches through. The wood is hard, close grained, yellow, and bitter to the taste. The ancient Hawaiians used the wood for making the tapa "anvils," upon which the strips of macerated mamake or wauke bark were poimded together, forming the bark cloth or tapa. The wood of the hame tree (Antidesma platyphyllum Mann) is fine grained, dark reddish brown, and of considerable hardness. It can be beautifully polished, and were it sufficiently abundant would make an excellent cabinet wood. It was used by the natives for their olona "anvils," which were similar in structure and function to the tapa anvils. The olona, a tall straggHng shrub, was a very important fiber plant, from which material for the best fish-lines and nets was derived. The macerated bark was beaten on a hame log, to soften and separate the fiber. The hame occurs on all the islands, at elevations of from 1,500 to 3,000 feet, on both wet and dry habitats. The tree attains a height of twenty to thirty feet, with a trunk of twelve to fifteen inches. The scant, sparsely-branching crown is covered with shining, bright green foliage, and in mid-summer is loaded with axillary panicles of dark red, juicy berries. The red jtiice was used by the natives for dyeing tapa. The mamaki tree, Pipturus ahlidus Gray, has very hardy durable wood that darkens from light reddish to dark brown upon cutting. Economic Woods of Hawaii 713 The tree is exceedingly variable in stature and foliar characters; it is commonly a small shrub, but in favorable localities becomes a tree of twenty-five feet. It is found on all the islands at eleva- tions of 1,500 to 4,000 feet, in regions of moderate rainfall. The light brown bark is richly provided with strong fibers, and this part of the tree was of great value to the primitive Hawaiians. From it the finest tapa or bark cloth was produced. The modern tapa of Samoa is made from a species of Pipturus. The hau, Hibiscus tileaceus L., a cosmopolitan littoral species, abounds on Hawaiian beaches and lowlands. The long curved branches were used in conjunction with the wili-wili, in the con- struction of the outrigger for the Polynesian canoe. The plentiful tough bast of the bark was commonly utilized for certain kinds of rough cordage and heavy tapas. Nowadays the Oriental farmers pollard the trees, and use the bark from the long, wand-like branches for tjdng up rice bags, bunches of bananas, and other produce. Along the beaches the tree is frequently pruned to form a wide spreading arbor or lanai. Another native cordage plant, the akia {Wikstroemia oahiiensis (Gray) Rock), is a shrub or small tree, growing on the lowlands and in the rain-forest. The bark is very fibrous, tough, and black in color. The fiber was prepared and used in the same way as the hau and the olond. Hawaii has seven or eight endemic spe- cies of akia, which were used both for their fiber, and also for their narcotic property, by means of which fish were stupefied and caught. One of the most valuable trees of the Pacific Ocean is the kala, Pandanus odoratissimus L. It is widely distributed throughout southern Asia, the Indian Archipelago, and the islands of the Pacific, and was doubtless brought to Hawaii by the early human migrants from their southern home. The tree is easily recog- nized by its abundant large prop- or stilt-roots, which form a cluster four to six feet high around its base. The naked trunk and branches are densely covered with conspicuous leaf-scars and prickly lenticels; the glossy, spiny-margined, ribband-like foliage is crowded to the ends of the branches in wind-tossed rosettes. The trees are unisexual; the male trees bear very fragrant com- pound spadices pendtilous from the center of leaf -whorls ; the female trees bear spadices erect and solitary in the leaf-whorls, and sur- rounded by showy white bracts. When mature, the fruit reaches 714 Forestry Quarterly a diameter of six to eight inches, orange-red, and somewhat re- sembling a pineapple. The hala is abundant in many parts of the Hawaiian lowlands. It rarely occurs at an elevation exceeding two thousand feet, and is commonly associated with the koa and kukui. Occasionally, as along the Nahiku coast of Maui, and the Puna coast of Hawaii, it forms pure stands of considerable area. The great majority of the trees are female; male trees are rare. This is probably due to persistent selection by the ancient Hawai- ians, as the fruit -producing trees were the most valuable. The situation is analogous to that of the date palm and the papaia tree. The long fibrous leaves were the most valuable part of the plant, and from them, when properly dried and prepared, were woven the house mattings, sails for the double sailing canoes, and a variety of other woven products. The drupes contain nutritious starchy material, and constitute an important item of diet on many of the low coral islands of the Pacific. The hard, glossy, orange colored ends of the drupes are cut and cleaned by the Hawaiians and strung into beautifiil fragrant garlands. The drupes become fibrous upon drying, and were formerly used as little brushes for applying the various dyes to the tapa cloth. The female trees have a soft, fibrous interior, although the outer shell is hard; the stems of the male trees are solid throughout. The closely packed and intertwined fibro-vascular bundles give the wood a distinctive and beautiful grain, and hala wood is used for a variety of ornamental purposes in fine cabinet work. Occa- sionally the pithy stems of the female trees are cleanied and used for water-pipes. Of the great palm family, so intimately associated with tropical life and industries, but two genera are native to Hawaii. Prit- chardia, with perhaps a dozen species of fan palms — the botanic status of these is still a matter of question — ^is endemic. Cocos nucifera, the well-known coco-palm, was probably introduced by the first Hawaiians, and is now thoroughly established on the lowlands and beaches. The multitudinous economic uses of the coco palm are so well known that they require no cataloging here. The Pritchardias occur mainly in the rain-forest and along ex- posed humid summit ridges. They are scattered, are usually solitary or in small clumps, and constitute a very minor element in the forest. They occasionally attain considerable height, Economic Woods of Hawaii 715 forty or fifty feet, but are customarily of short or even dwarf stature. The Hawaiians sometimes used the fleshy fruits as food, and wove fans and hats from the delicate fibrous, young leaves, which they collected before the leaf -blade had expanded. No economic uses are known for the wood or trunk, which is like that of other palms in structure. The tree-ferns constitute a beautiful and important element in many of our Hawaiian forests. There are two species — Cibotium Menziesii, the hapu i' i' i or larger tree-fern, and C. Chamissoi, the hapu or lesser tree-fern. Chamisso's tree-fern is abundant on all the islands in the lower and middle forest zones. Its trunk is twelve to fifteen feet high, at its maximtmi growth; ordinarily it is not more than five or six feet. Menzies' tree-fern becomes much larger than the other, and often attains truly magnificent proportions, the trunk of twenty to twenty-five feet, and the beautiful crown of wide-spreading fronds carrying the total height up to nearly forty feet. This species occurs on all the islands at elevations of from two- to six-thousand feet, but reaches its finest development, both as to stature and area, on the island of Hawaii. In the dense humid jungle-forests, which lie along the entire wind- ward side of Hawaii, from the Kohala Mountains in the north along the middle slopes of Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, and south into the districts of Hiloa and Puna, the hapu i'i'i is abimdant. It luxuriates in the humid shade of the lehua, and forms extensive pure stands of undercover. The tall slender lehuas rise to eighty or one hundred feet, the tree-ferns form an unbroken canopy below them, at an elevation of thirty or forty feet. The tree-ferns are not valuable as timber, for their soft, spongy trunks are weak and easily crushed. However, the trunks are often cut into lengths, like cordwood, and used in the construc- tion of corduroy roads and trails through the soggy jungle country. Frequently these fern billets are piled into fences — the buds sprout and the fence is draped with its own greenery. Although the outer rind of the tree-fern trunk is hard and fibrous, owing to the abundance of old leaf -bases, and extremely plentiful, appressed aerial roots, the large central interior portion is starchy. This was formerly used by the natives, in times of scarcity, for food. They thoroughly baked or roasted the stems, to prepare the starch for eating. Nowadays this material is used chiefly as food for swine, in the vicinity of the crater Kilauea, where the numerous steam cracks furnish free fuel for the baking of the fern stems. 716 Forestry Quarterly The greatest value of the tree-ferns is their aesthetic value. They are among the crowning glories of Hawaii's beautiful jungle forests. Although seriously decimated and threatened with extinction in recent years, owing to the encroachments of wild goats, cattle, woodchoppers, etc. upon the native forest, there is at present a strong pubHc sentiment demanding the adequate pro- tection of these unique and spectaciilar plants. A bUl has recent passed Congress which provides for the establishment of a national park on the slopes of Mauna Loa and Elilauea, and including a large area in which these magnificent ferns are abundant. In conclusion, it should be emphasized that the great value of the Hawaiian forests is as watershed, and their usefulness as conservors of rainfall vastly outweighs the value of their timber. CURRENT LITERATURE Studies in Tolerance of New England Forest Trees. III. Dis- continuous Light in Forests. By G. P. Burns. Bvilletin 193, Uni- versity of Vermont and State Agricultural College. Burlington, Vt. 1915. Pp. 23. This interesting bulletin exhibits the hopelessness of the at- tempts to investigate the scientific basis of tolerance and in- tolerance by the methods hitherto piu-sued, namely of measuring the light intensities in the forest with its discontinuous shade and bringing them into relation with seedling development, and it describes a new departure in method, namely by growing seedlings under a devised habitat with continuous shade. Like many inventions, the idea is not entirely new, for many years ago Borggreve in the garden of the Academy at Miinden in- stituted such experiment, to disprove his predecessor, Heyer's philosopy of tolerance, albeit in a much cruder and unscientific form. At the outset we must take issue with the author's statement in the introduction, repeated in the conclusion, that "the word 'tolerance* should be stricken from the vocabulary of forestry students imless to it can be accorded a more comprehensive defini- tion. It is taken generally to express a light relationship, but really it expresses not a light relationship, but the total relation- ship of a tree to all factors of the habitat." Nor is it true that "if the trees are developing slowly, they are 'intolerant;' if they are developing rapidly, they are 'tolerant.' " If the reviewer may presume to speak for the profession, fores- ters mean only a Ught relationship and nothing more when they speak of intolerant or Hght-needing species and tolerant or shade- enduring species, expressing thereby dijQEerences in the amount or intensity of light required for satisfactory development. That the development, and even the light requirement itself, is influenced by other factors of the habitat or site is perfectly recognized and does not by any means exclude the influence of light tmtil this is disproved. Nor is the slow or rapid development (of the seedling?) the only criterion by which the forester recognizes relative light require- ments. The character of the foliage, the inability of foliage 717 718 Forestry Quarterly to survive in the interior of the crown, the ready loss of lower branches, etc., are signs of intolerance. For more detail we would advise the author, as he is interested in the subject, to refer to Gustav Heyer's classical little volume, Das Verhalten der Waldbdume zu Licht und Schatten, which for the first time systema- matically developed the theory, and on which is built up the whole philosophy of our silvicultural methods. Until disproved, foresters will be well advised not to give up their notions of light influence. The only notable attempt to disprove it was made by a forester, Fricke, who believed to have demonstrated root competition to be responsible for what was charged to light influence. {See F. Q., vol. II, pp. 226-30, where also our comment is to be found.) The author cites the work of various investigators to determine, with more precision than general observation can ever expect to attain, the question of light required. He details his own work on the same lines and comes to the conclusion that "a study of the foregoing tables soon convinces one that the present methods of determining light values in the forest are unsatisfactory. Too little attention has been paid to the fact that the so-called shade is a discontinuous shade and a constantly changing factor. The variations in light intensity due to clouds, the impossibility of making equal exposures in repeated readings, the variability of the forest cover thus requiring the operator to choose a 'typical station for the forest under consideration, ' and the habit of read- ing only on bright days about noon ; all these make for inaccuracy and emphasize the difficulty, if not impossibility, of determining the relation of forest trees to light by a ' study in the forests. ' " The method the author has started on, to secure a controllable shade condition consists (if we understand it correctly — ^it is not very clearly described) of a series of nested frames covered with cheese cloth, and some dyed black, a smaller or larger number being superimposed to vary light intensities, which latter are standard- ized for various combinations by means of a photometer. Under these frames seedlings are grown. The only trouble is, which the author recognizes in a footnote, that these frames have a decided influence upon all other factors of this habitat, and it looks doubtful to us whether it will be possible to control or even measure them. The first two bulletins of the series by the author were reviewed in F. Q.. XIII, p. 525. B. E. F. Current Literature 719 Forest Pathology in Forest Regulation. By E. P. Meinecke. Bulletin 275, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 63. In this highly interesting, although somewhat diffuse, study the author attempts to place on a high plane the importance of forest pathology in influencing forest management, and especially in- fluencing the determination of a rotation and felling cycle. The study can be divided into four sections: an introduction which points out the difficulties still besetting the attempts at introducing forestry methods and the lack of definite basis for such methods; an elaboration in detail of methods of investigation in forest pathological direction; an actual study of the pathology of Abies concolor as a sample rather than with the expectation of securing final results ; the application of the knowledge secured in this particular study to the problems of forest management. We consider this an important and thoughtful attempt to link practical issues with scientific investigation, even if we do not feel inclined to go the whole way with the author. Much as we be- lieve in the need of a thoroughly reliable basis for our forestry practice, if the sectioning and careful study of 160 trees of one species in one locality cannot be considered a sufficient basis for determining even for that locality proper action, we must despair of ever coming to conclusions. "The amount of work to be done is enormous," the author says; we fear it is too enormous, and mean- while, the practical world does not want to wait, and will preferably rely on rough judgment in solving its problems. We cannot get away from the thought, at which the author hints in some place, that forest pathology in the virgin forest progresses differently from forest pathology in the cut and reproduced forest, hence what the study of the first develops may not repeat itself in the managed forest. Just the same experience applies to the study of increment under the two conditions. In the introduction the author points out the difference between our virgin forest and the managed European forest as an argimient for the impracticability of applying European methods. But the forest conditions there were not so very different from ours, when these methods were being first developed. The author is right, that even in scientific Germany forest management practically is 720 Forestry Quarterly still based on empiricism and judgment — even in determining rotation and felling cycle — instead of applying the theories which scientific inquiry has shown to be superior. The explanation is simple; forestry in the last analysis is business, and practical business considerations often bar the use of better methods — the same considerations which prevent the Forest Service from practising "sound silviculture!" There is much more in this bulletin that we would like to dis- cuss controversially, but we have perhaps said enough to stimulate every forester to read the pamphlet itself, and reaUze that the atti- tude of the author at least is the correct one. The proper sanita- tion of otu* forests is as important as their regeneration. B. E. F. Second Biennial Report, The State Forester of Kentucky, 1915. Published by Direction of the State Board of Forestry. Frank- fort, Ky. Pp. 140. This report deserves more than the mere listing under Other Current Literature, which was given it on its appearance. The report is also particularly interesting as coming from a hardwood State, especially for two longer articles which form the bulk of the volimie. The State Forester's (J. E. Barton) portion consists of a well stated, matter of fact report of his doings and recommendations for further action on the part of the State Board of Forestry and the Legislature. Education by addresses, bulletins and other pub- licity agencies, forest fire protection by wardens. State nurseries, growing mainly hardwood trees for free distribution, a small experimental forest, and action to enable the Weeks Law, to pur- chase National Forests in the State, are discussed in a businesslike manner. From a short article by M. H. Foerster, the forester of the Consolidation Coal Company, we learn that this company "be- came the pioneer in the practice of forestry in this part of the State (Eastern Kentucky)" on its 24,000 acres of timberland, which is to furnish increasing requirements of mine timber. "The ideal type of forest for mining purposes, the author states, is a full, even-aged stand of yotmg pole timber which will reproduce itself naturally after the end of each rotation." So far, the activities Current Literature 721 have been confined to secure protection against fire and the running of hogs and cattle, with less wasteful use. A long, carefully prepared and fully illustrated article on the locust borer, by H. Garman, acquaints us, incidentally, with the existence of a number of commercial plantations of Black locust in the State, aggregating some 300 acres, all more or less attacked by the borer. The close relation between the damage by the larvae in the trees and the abundance of goldenrod, on which the beetles feed, was established. Destruction of the goldenrod or spraying with arsenate of lead, also spraying of the trees in September, when the beetle emerges from them, is sug- gested as remedy. The article on marketing of woodlot products in Kentucky, by W. D. Sterrett, which occupies half the volume, is particularly praiseworthy for the thoroughness and comprehensiveness of pro- cediire. As regards woodlot conditions, the State is divided into five regions in which economic usefulness of the woodlot, sizes, kinds, qualities of trees, and markets differ. The distribution of cut among the various species in these different sections is given in table 1 ; the consumption of wood-using industries and propor- tion of supply from woodlots in table 2; a full directory of con- cerns, with addresses of wood-using firms, classified into 13 uses, covers 15 pages (part of this erroneously referred in the index to Tennessee!). The use of different species (17 kinds) by different industries is discussed in detail with prices for different assort- ments, species by species, with reasons of favoring this or that assortment ; price being given for various grades of limiber as well as logs. In a chapter on "How to increase profits from woodlot sales," there are discussed methods of sale; scaling and grading logs and bolts; estimating standing timber; knowledge of markets; costs and profits; contracts and supervision; and cooperation. In the tabulations accompanying this chapter, tables 8 to 11 are of special interest and, as far as we know, novel. Tables 8 and 9 are volume tables in board feet, the first lumped for any hardwood trees over 75 years old, the second for any coniferous trees over 75 years old, in each case with correction factors for different species and diameters. Apparently the basic hardwood table is that for Yellow poplar, the basic conifer table that for White pine. This is a bold innovation and seemingly based on slim data, but 722 Forestry Quarterly we believe for the purpose in hand — a rough estimate — ^perhaps satisfactory. Table 10 gives the contents in cubic feet and number of cubic feet per cord of any hardwood trees of different diameter and height; also bark per cents for given species. Table 11 is also of novel character, giving contents in cubic feet and niunber of cubic feet per cord in the tops (above mer- chantable log contents) of hardwood trees. A series of tabulations of costs — ^low, high, and average — ^in ex- ploitation for logs, for limiber, for ties, for poles and piles, and a half dozen other uses is most useful for calciilating profits, as well as the tabulation of freight rates on limiber and green logs, cord- wood, piling, of various species and sizes. Ten rules are given for procedure by farmers to seciu-e the best return from his woodlot sales, which are all self-evident, simple and practical. A brief discussion of how to prevent the deteriora- tion of cut woodlot products finishes this highly interesting work. We consider this a most valuable contribution to the practical literature of forestry, and only regret that we are without the means to critically analyze the novel features mentioned. The total absence of any silvicultural discussion or advice is perhaps reprehensible ; but this was clearly outside the field of the inquiry B. E. F. Structural Timber Hand Book on Pacific Coast Woods. By O. P. M. Goss, assisted by C. Heinmiller. The West Coast Limi- bermen's Association. Seattle, Wash. 1916. Pp. 289. "The purpose of this book is to present information relative to structural timber which will be useful to engineers, architects, and contractors. Particular attention has been given to Pacific Coast species. "There have been published from time to time by the U. S. Forest Service and other organizations data showing the strength and durability of Pacific Coast timber. In writing this book, an effort has been made to collect such of these data as are up to date and to present them in a concise form for general use. " Most of the tabular matter refers to Douglas fir. Tables show the safe total loads and corresponding deflections for rectangular beams of various sizes, ranging from 2 by 4 to 20 by 30 feet. The Current Literature 723 number of pounds per board foot of lumber, supported by beams, is also shown, which will assist in effecting economical designs. Tables have been computed which show the safe loads on beams limited by the horizontal shearing stress. Other tables show safe total loads on columns of various sizes and still other tables give the maximum spans for mill and laminated floors, board measure for various dimensions and lengths, and board measure and weight for unit lengths of Douglas fir dimension timber. "Data and figures are given on timber frame-brick mill build- ings, showing costs, insurance rates, and details of construction. Standard formulas for computing stresses covering the usual prac- tical conditions are given. A grading rule for securing structural timbers of high strength is also included. "A considerable amount of data is presented on the creosoting of Douglas fir lumber in various forms, such as bridge stringers, mine timbers, piling, ties, bridge caps, paving blocks, silo staves, and other forms. Space is devoted to wooden silos and Red cedar shingles. Kiln drying lumber is briefly discussed as well as other subjects of interest to the consumer of wood." Instructions for the Scaling and Measurement of National Forest Timber. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. Revised July, 1916. Pp.94. The revised scaling instructions are of wide interest because they set a standard of excellence towards which all scalers should work, whether in public or private employ. The exact scaling enforced by the Forest Service under the Scribner Decimal C rule is a step towards decreasing inaccuracy in local scaling methods and towards narrowing the number of log rules in current use. The revised edition has been rearranged and is more logically classified. For example on pages 9-10 under "Defects in the log which reduce the scale" the duplication found in the first edition has been corrected. Due emphasis is made that scaling is for quantity rather than quality of material and "not in relation to any particular grades of lumber it will produce" because the unit wUl be more stable, and the basis less subject to individual judgment. The definition of merchantable logs (p. 11-12) will be of value in standardizing the use of volume tables in government estimating. Under "The Log Rule" (p. 13) it would be interesting if the manual had ex- 724 Forestry Quarterly plained how the Scribner Decimal C Rule as originally published was extended to secure board foot contents on larger logs. Espe- cial emphasis is placed on throwing the one half inch diameters to the lowest inch when scahng. "If . . . the average diam- eter is 353^ inches — the log is scaled as a 35-inch log." It has never been clear to the reviewer why a 353^-inch log should not be scaled as a 36-inch log with just as much reason as a 35, or better still, why it should not be scaled 35 one time and 36 the next on a give and take principle. The rules for interior defects are excellent (p. 18), and should be of value even to experienced scalers now that empirical methods are giving way to exact practice. Possibly it might have been well to emphasize the difference be- tween curve allowance in a butt log, as compared with the other logs in the tree, on the grotmd that curves in butt logs (while rare) cannot be allowed for in varying log lengths. Under "check scaling" a summary of the scale by the original scaler and by the check scaler is still required, as it should be. But even more emphasis might have been made that a difference between the two scales is not a basis for changing the original scale. There is some question as to whether the original scaler should even be informed of the difference percent. On accoimt of the peculiar psychology of scaling better resiilts may be secured by merely correcting errors in scaling with reference to single logs rather than on the basis whether the scaler averages higher or lower than the check scaler. On p. 66 a very complete converting factor table is given which will be of value for statistical purposes, even if individual JBgures may be questioned. The log grading rules (pp. 92-93) are worthy of study, although the reviewer, prefers names for different log classes rather than nimibers. Is not the classification clear, shop, rough, preferable to Number 1, 2, 3? This naming of log grades is followed in the example given on p. 94. It is understood that the original manual was written by E. H. Clapp, who should be complimented on the excellence of the presentation of the data. According to the Forest Service : "The 1916 edition contains no radical changes from that of 1915. It was found, however, that the text could be considerably clarified by reconstruction and rearrangement, and the pro- cedtire in some respects was changed. The more important Current Literature 725 changes made are given below, reference being made to the 1915 text: Scaling Logs "The present policy of scaling quantity of sound material rather than quality of material in the log is more strongly emphasized; also that overrim is considered a factor in appraisals and not in scaling. In making deductions for defects in the log, provision is made that the sound material must be of at least the minimtmi length of product manufactured from the species in standard milling prac- tice in the region and at least four inches wide. An exception to the requirement that all logs over 16 feet will be scaled as two or more logs was extended to 17 and 18 foot mining timbers on the Black Hills Forest. Some changes relating to procedure were made in the instruc- tions for measuring, numbering, and stamping logs. A change was foimd necessary in the rule of thumb given for center or circular rot on p. 19. Also, in applying the cull tables for defect, a slight allowance in excess of the dimensions bounding the actual defect is provided for. No deduction was made previously for curve or sweep in logs over 16 feet long. The revised instructions provide that deduc- tions will be made for curve or sweep in logs of any length to the extent that material in them cannot be used for boards of the minimum length utilized in the milling practice of the region. A uniform percentage allowance of difference between check scale and original scale was changed to a graduated standard depending upon the percentage of defect in the log." T. S. W.Jr. The Naval Stores Industry. By A. W. Schorger and H. S. Betts. Bulletin 229, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contri- bution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 58. One hears a great deal nowadays about the progressiveness of American business men ; but when one considers the increased yield from the use of cups in lieu of the old-fashioned boxes, it is sur- prising that less than a third of the operators have adopted the more modern, and less destructive, cup system. To obtain a keener insight into the relative advantages of cups and boxes, it would have been more conclusive, to be sure, if Schorger and 726 Forestry Quarterly Betts had given the relative cost of the box and cup systems, in addition to the data presented in Tables 9 to 13. Granting the reputed financial advantage of using the cups, why is it that the turpentine operators in Alabama use cups on but 8 per cent of the trees, while, even in Texas, but 49 per cent of the resin is secured by cupping? They show, unquestionably, a better yield from the use of cups, but what is the relative expense in working, and for installation — and the resiilting net profits ? It is unfortunate that Bulletin 229 does not answer this question. The bulletin is re- markable in its excellent description of methods, machinery, and in its accumulation of data which must prove of value to the tur- pentine operator. It appears, however, somewhat weak in the presentation and description of French tapping methods, and in the results of the experiments undertaken by the Forest Service during the past 10 years. As the authors admit, there is much to be answered; some of the most important questions cover problems which the operator must know and understand before he will make the effort to revolutionize the antiquated methods of the past half century. For example, in Table 14, page 25, the results of different methods of chipping are given. These figures, however, are disappointing, since the results are not based on a fixed factor, or unit of comparison (as, for example, per square inch of face for trees of different sizes, soils, and varying producing capacities). The results are of interest, but by no means conclusive, simply because the experiments were not scientifically planned and elaborated. (See footnote p. 35 of bulletin.) Beginning on p. 32, the authors review the French methods of collecting gum. A French forester might question the exactness of some of the data presented. For example, take the statement: "The forest rotation varies from 60 to 75 years." The authors should have stated that rotations higher than 75 years, however, are frequently met in the Landes; e. g., in the Forest of Mimizan it is 80 years; it is also 80 years in the Forest of Saint-Julien-en- Born. It is hardly correct to say that the French " lop " the lower branches, since they are more properly described as pruned. "The wood resin rights are sold for a period of 5 years," to be sure, but also for periods of 4 years, as is indicated in the translation given on p. 34, fourth paragraph, where the official instructions state: ". . ,. if the tapping period is for four years." As a Current Literature 727 matter of fact the French have (officially) abandoned the fifth year of tapping because of the following objections: (1) Difficulty of chipping the face when it is over 3 meters (9.8 feet) in height. (2) This high face (which is often too deep because of the diffi- culty of accurate chipping) heals poorly or very slowly. (3) An important part of the bole is damaged by a high face. For these reasons the French have reduced the tapping period from 5 to 4 years. This fact was evidently not known to Betts and Schorger; however, the oversight is a natural one because it is a recent change, although it has been under consideration for some time. The modern dimensions for the faces are as follows : Width Height Year {Centimeters) (Inches) (Centimeters) (Inches) 1 9 3.5 60 23.6 2 9 3.5 60 23.6 3 8 3.1 75 29.5 (2.75) 4 7 to 6 (2.36) 95 37.4 2.90 meters. 9.5 feet. With the former fifth year system in vogue, the total height was 3.70 metres (12.1 feet) before 1904; 3.40 metres (11.1 feet) from 1904 to 1909 ; and 3.20 metres (10.4 feet) since 1910. The authors failed to bring this information out. Such a tendency to a shorter face is of vital interest. This reduction of the length of the tapping period will mean the revision of working plans after the war. The regeneration by clear cutting will be every 4 years instead of 5 years as formerly. The cycle for thinnings will also be reduced from 5 to 4 years. In the future the cleanings will be made earlier after regeneration, since experience has shown the inconvenience of waiting for 5, 6, or 7 years as was formerly the case. Such points as these are of keen interest, yet they do not appear in the bulletin. Plate IX would have been much clearer if, besides nimibering the tools alluded to in the text, the French names had also been given, secured from an exact source. The correct French names for this plate are cited in the paragraph which follows. Ap- parently the text does not allude to the instrimient labelled num- ber " 2 " in this plate. The correct explanation of Plate IX, figures 1 to 5 inclusive (furnished me personally by Conservateur De. Lapasee of Bordeaux), is as follows: 728 Forestry Quarterly 1. {Barrasquit d'espourga.) Used by the tappers to bark the pine that is to be tapped. This preUminary operation is made at the beginning of each working year by scraping the bark from the top down in order to get rid of the hard dry pieces of outer bark. This enables the chipping of the soft inner bark and sapwood with- out dulling the instruments. This area barked is 30 to 35 centi- meters (11.8 to 13.7 inches) wider and 10 to 15 centimeters (3.9 to 5.9 inches) higher than the proposed face. Usually the first year's barking is made with an ordinary chopping ax. The second year they use either the ax or the "barrasquit " with a short handle. The third and fourth year the "barrasqmt d'espourga" is used; the length of the handle is governed by the height of the face. A very similar local instrument is called the "barrasquit de barrasque," only it is used for removing the scrape. 2. {Palette or palinette.) A sort of flat trowel used for removing the soft gtmi from the pots. The handle is about the length of an ordinary gardener's trowel. The gum is collected in an "es- couarte," a wooden pail or box, holding about 20 litres (5.2 gallons) and is used for carrying the gum to the collection tanks or barrels. These hold 230 to 350 litres (60.7 to 92.4 gallons), and are sunk in the ground and protected by a wooden cover to prevent evapora- tion. 3. (Hapchot, new model called "bridon"). This is the chipping axe, and is used for cutting thin slivers of wood from the face (when it is freshened). It is swung from right to left with a downward motion. The left hand is placed uppermost against the iron of the instrument. The length of the handle varies with the height of the face the first, second, and third years, but for the fourth and fifth year (fifth year now generally abandoned) the operative must use a crude sort of ladder formed of a notched pole with the "rasclet" described under "4." 4. (Rasclet.) The curved end of the instrument (the right side of figure 4, plate IX) is for chipping high faces during the fourth and fifth years of working the trees. The straight end (left of figure) is used for cutting into inclined faces (because of leaning trees) where it is necessary to insert a piece of wood to prevent the resin from dripping to the ground. 5. (Pousse-crampon or place-crampon.) This is for inserting the gutter above the cup. The gutter is embedded about 1 centimetre (.4 inch) into the wood by two or three blows of a Current Literature 729 wooden mallet applied to the "place-crampon" which holds the gutter (crampon). On p. 34, the authors give what purports to be the latest tur- pentine specifications issued by the French Government. As a matter of fact, the Government has issued a more recent circular than that of 1909, namely, one approved by the Secretary of Agriculture, May 17, 1912. Essentially they are the same, but it would have been more exact to quote from the latest "Cahier des Charges." As already explained, an important change has been made in the national methods in the Landes which is not alluded to by the authors. As a footnote to p. 35, the authors give a "Comparison of Yields of Crude Gtmi per Inch of Width of Face, French and American Methods." This data might have been of especial in- terest if it had been presented in clearer fashion; to the reviewer the tables in the footnotes are far from clear. It is well known that trees of different sizes will yield different amounts of gum per inch of face; therefore, without this measurement known, the value of these tables, even if they had been clearly presented, is more or less minimized. The experiments of tapping Western Yellow pine in Arizona within the Coconino Forest are specially interesting, but it would have made the data of greater value if the local climatic and topo- graphic conditions of the stand tapped had been fully described. What was the altitude? What is the length of growing season? Are the conditions average for the Western Yellow pine belt? As a matter of fact, the writer happens to know personally that the experiments were conducted at the Fort Valley Experiment Station, where climatic conditions are unusually rigorous, much more so than obtains in the average Western Yellow pine stand in Arizona. What would have been the result of these experiments (especially as regards yield and length of season) if timber had been tapped at a slightly lower elevation where the climate was not so severe, on a general southerly exposure. An important point, however, which should have been emphasized in analyzing the advisability of tapping a Western Yellow pine stand is the pos- sible danger of wholesale tapping operations on a species which has to make such a fight for existence. This would apply par- ticularly if trees were tapped on the lower, warmer situations, and, of course, must be considered silviculturally before the ad- 730 Forestry Quarterly visability of tapping such stands can be granted. The tapping of Corsican {Pinus laricio) pine in Corsica was not a success silvi- culturally. What would the danger from insect or fungus at- tacks amount to in Arizona or New Mexico? The writers seem to be somewhat in doubt as to the future success of Western tur- pentine operations, for, on p. 46, they state: "The commercial success of turpentine operations in the Southwest will be doubtful until tried on a commercial scale," but, a few lines farther on, they say: ". . . make it reasonable to suppose that turpentine operations in the large tracts of virgin pine timber in the West will in time be justified." The data on evaporation from cups (p. 47), comparison of yields from north and south faces, effect of temperature on weekly yield of gum, rate of flow during week, are of great interest and value. A careful study of this bulletin, as well as of French works on turpentining, shows that there is much scientific investigation to be done before the best methods of turpentining operations are definitely known. To be conclusive, these experiments must be upon a scientific basis instead of being based on the hit-or-miss methods used in the past. Such investigations are urgently needed. The main difference between tapping methods in France and America seems to be in the width and annual increase in height of the face. In the United States, the first streak cannot begin higher than 10 inches above the ground. In France, it can be anywhere above the root swelling. In America, the maximum depth of streak is .5 inch ; in France it is approximately .4 inch. In America, in Federal tapping operations no tree less than 10 inches can be tapped and trees 16 inches and over can have two faces, while trees 10 to 16 inches can have but one face. In France, the minimimi diameter of tree tapped on State forests (unless to be removed in thinnings) is 13 inches and the number of faces is specially designated by the Waters and Forests Agent. In the United States, the face can be 12 to 14 inches wide with no specified decrease in width as the face proceeds up the tree. In France (according to the former system as described by authors) , the width is 3.5 to 2.4 inches, decreasing each year as the distance above the ground increases. The maximum height increase per year in the United States is 16 inches, while in France the face can be lengthened 24 to 26 inches, and even up to 39 inches in case of four-year tappings. (See table of revised dimensions in this re- Current Literature 731 view.) Such marked differences need scientific investigation before the American forester will be satisfied that he is recommend- ing the proper system. T. S. W. Jr. Carrying Capacity of Grazing Ranges in Southern Arizona. By E. O. Wooton. Bulletin 367, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 40. The Bureau of Plant Industry has been carrying on for some eleven years a study of range conditions on a fenced range in southern Arizona, on an area known as the Santa Rita Range Reserve, located near Tucson, Arizona, having altitudes ranging from 2800 to 5500 feet. This publication has for its object the presentation of the results of this study. The study of carrying capacity is of unusual interest to federal forest officers, since it represents a method diametrically op- posed to that used in National Forest administration. So far as understood, this experiment was based on the premise that in order to get a stock range to come back it was necessary to fence it, thereby absolutely controlling at all seasons the number of stock using it; whereas the plan followed on the National Forests is based on the idea that a range can be brought back by a system of rotation and deferred grazing. This latter method is the only one considered practicable for the range conditions as they exist on the National Forests. Com- plete fencing of stock ranges and allowing complete rest for con- siderable periods has not yet been shown to be feasible on the extensive areas within the National Forests. As stated by the author, the objects of the experiments carried on on the Santa Rita Range Reserve were: 1. To demonstrate that under proper treatment rundown and overstocked ranges will recover. A statement of fact that was very much doubted by stockmen when the experiments were begun. 2. To ascertain how long a time is necessary to get appreciable and complete recovery, and what methods of management will produce such resxilts. 3. To carry on reseeding and introduction experiments in the hope of increasing the total quantity of feed. 732 Forestry Quarterly 4. To measure as accurately as possible the carrying capacity of a known representative area. The results of the first three of the above studies have already appeared in Bulletins 67, 117 and 177 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and this publication, therefore, deals only with the last query, although the results of the other three studies are sum- marized in this volimie. The method followed in the capacity study was : 1. To cut everything growing on small areas (quadrats), and from the weights of the dry material collected to calculate the total productivity in terms of pounds of forage per acre. These were collected for a period of 9 years, from which a figure of 1160 pounds per acre was obtained as the approximate value of the average total annual productivity. This method was supplemented by data from hay cuttings on an area of 4923^^ acres, which gave an average amount of hay per acre of 640 pounds. The results are summarized as follows: A map was prepared showing the approximate distribution of the different forage plant associations of the area. Four main plant associations are found, the six- weeks grass, the black grama, the crowfoot grama, and the needlegrass associations. "From the quadrat measurements the approximate productivity of each association is obtained. From these figures and the areas of each association, a weighted average expression representing the average productivity of the whole Reserve is derived. This number, 1100 pounds per acre, is closely comparable with that obtained as the average of the quadrat measurements alone (1160 pounds). Assuming the value of 1100 pounds per acre as an average total productivity and 50 per cent of that amount as maintenance capacity for the range, then, if the average animal eats the equiva- lent of 30 pounds of dry feed per day he will need 11,000 pounds in a year, and it will take 10 acres of land to furnish that amoimt at full productivity, and will take 20 acres of land at maintenance capacity. Thus we have an average value for carrying capacity equal to 20 acres per head per year, or 32 head per section" (640 acres). The above figures are of interest, since they show a much higher carrying capacity for this fenced area of semi-desert range than is figured on the average unfenced National Forest range having Current Literature 733 practically similar plant associations, which is about 35 acres per head, according to forest officers. In this connection it may be noted that this range reserve has, within the past year, been turned over by the Bureau of Plant Industry to the Forest Service, which is conducting further graz- ing and range studies on it, which should produce additional valuable data. J. D. G. Forest Products of Canada, 1914, 1915: Pulpwood; Poles and Cross-Ties; Lumber, Lath and Shingles. Bulletins 54, 55, 56, 58B. Dominion Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1915 and 1916. Pp. 18, 15, 62, 12. The improvement in methods of collecting statistics has one serious drawback in their use ; it prevents useful direct comparison with former years, which is the main object of statistical inquiry. In the present report on lumber, the completeness of the figures for Quebec and British Colimibia — and the report accentuates it — is inimical to comparison with former years. No attempt is made in any year to ascertain the degree of completeness of the data, and no attempt to discuss with that knowledge present and past con- ditions; they are simply set in juxtaposition. Since no statement as regards the actual completeness is made, it may be assumed that the totals are understatements. The total cut of lumber for Canada remains slightly below 4 billion feet b. m., at a value of 60 million dollars, to which a little over 5 million is to be added for lath and shingles. Over 93 per cent is coniferous limiber, 84 per cent of which is furnished by five species, spruce (without species distinction) furnishing by far the largest cut (36.5%), White pine (16.9%) and Douglas fir (15.3%) sharing almost equally second rank, hemlock (8.5%) and fir (6.5%), the last two together representing nearly the same as the Douglas fir. In the small cut of hardwoods (6.8%), birch and maple play the largest rdle, with basswood, elm and poplar together making a second. In enumerating the species cut into lumber, the office still suggests the presence of Betula lenta and populifolia. The oc- currence of the former in Canada is altogether doubtful, and neither it nor the latter, we venture to say, would be lumber trees. 734 Forestry Quarterly As regards provinces, Ontario is still the largest producer in value, its large White pine cut accounting for the difference in average value per M feet ($18.89) as against Quebec with a some- what larger cut, mostly spruce, but average value of only $15.60. British Columbia comes a close third in quantity, but, with an average price of only $11.45, comes in value to only a little over one half of what Ontario produces and about the same as New Brunswick and Nova Scotia together produce. Comparisons with the previous year are vitiated for the reason above stated, except perhaps in prices, which have decreased from $17.24 to $15.30, as an average over the whole Dominion. Only in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia is a slight increase noticeable in cut as well as price. . As regards prices for different species, the greatest slump was experienced by White pine, a drop from $27.28 to $20.29. This slump occurred, however, mainly in Ontario. No explanation is given. Perhaps a larger cut of poor grades may explain this, or else competition in the market with American importations. For the pulpwood situation we have the data for an additional year, 1915. The growth of this industry during the last 8 years is phenomenal, the pulpwood production for home use rising from nearly 500,000 cords to almost three times that amount in 1915, and in value to more than three times or aroimd 9.5 million dollars, the average price (at what place not stated, probably at mill) having risen from $6 to $6.71. In addition, nearly one million cords was exported to the United States, making the total cut 2,355,550 cords value at $15,590,330. Quebec furnishes half, and Ontario a little over one third this output, the latter at a considerably higher value, namely $7.92 as against $6.06 for Quebec supplies. Spruce is, of course, the largest contributor, with 71 per cent, but fir at only a slightly reduced price in 1914 ($6.58 as against $6.70) and a more reduced price in 1915 ($5.84 as against $7.07 for spruce) furnishes nearly 22 per cent, hemlock. Jack pine and poplar, and other species contributing negligible quantities. Jack pine, however, of which large areas exist, is found suitable for sul- phate or Kraft pulp. Details are given by provinces, species and processes, with diagrams, the mechanical process producing over three times the tonnage that sulphite produced. Current Literature 735 A map indicates the location and a list gives in part the names of the 56 mills operating and the 12 not operating. The export of pulpwood declined somewhat below the previous year, but was still 40.3 per cent of the total production; altogether the total rise in exports of pulpwood for the last 8 years was not great, but while the wood pulp export also decreased under the previous year in amount, in value it increased due to considerably higher price ($25.48 as against $20.87). The United States take, of course, the largest proportion of these exports, the proportion in export of wood pulp having grown to over 87 per cent. The bulletin on poles and cross-ties is based on data from 381 purchasing firms. The total of poles for all uses in 1914 had fallen considerably, nearly to one half the purchases for 1913, showing differently from the pulp situation the influence of the war. Continuous reduction in pole purchases are, however, notice- able since 1910, when over 780,000 poles figures, as against 283,184 in 1914, the price being slightly advanced over the previous year to $2.33, or $660,262 altogether. Cedar forms 85 per cent of the output. The purchase of cross-ties was practically the same in the last three years, and considerably larger than in 1910 and 1911, not quite 20 million at an average value of 45 cents. Jack pine and cedar furnishing the bulk (over one half) ; tamarack, Douglas fir, hemlock, Western larch and spruce in almost equal quantities, one third of the consumption. B. E. F. Hypoderma deformans, an Undescrihed Needle Fungus of Western Yellow Pine. By J. R. Weir. Reprint from Journal of Agricul- tural Research, U. S. Department of Agriculture, vol. vi, no. 8. Washington, D. C. May 22, 1916. Pp. 277-88. Dr. Weir names and describes this new, and apparently wide- spread, disease and its results. It is distributed throughout the northwestern United States and Western Canada; its distribution southward is still unknown. It is readily recognized by the foliage, first yellowing, then browning in patches, beginning at the tips, or by the formation of witches' brooms. It attacks all age classes and kills seedlings. In mature trees it probably influences incre- ment, but does not otherwise prove detrimental and affected trees 736 Forestry Quarterly should be marked for removal in cuttings, to reduce the infection, burning the infected brush, and if need be lopping and burning infected parts of younger trees. B. E. F. Third Annual Conference of the Woods Department, Berlin Mills Company. Berlin, N. H. November, 1915. Pp. 37. Contains a short paper with illustrations on the use of kraft paper ; a paper on rot fungi ; one on hardwood estimating, logging, manufacture, grading, concluding with five points to be observed in a successful hardwood operation ; a short paper on the develop- ment of mechanical log haulers ; and one on pulpwood loading and receiving. We are still hoping for an account of results in the woods from the application of forestry methods. Annual Report of the Director of Forestry of the Philippine Islands for the Fiscal Year Ended December 31, 1915. By W. F. Sherfesee. Department of the Interior. Manila, P. I. 1916. Pp. 91. This report chronicles several changes in Bureau affairs during the year. Among these is an amendment to the forest law, effective July 29, 1915, requiring the manifesting of all timber in the round, due allowance being made for defects. The custom for some years previous was to measure the sawed product and add a recharge of 15 per cent for loss in sawing. This practice was not satisfactory because lumbermen were wasteful and used only the best part of the log. Some opposition developed to the change due both to the added cost per thousand and to an increase in the sum charged for stimipage. Coming at a time of depression in the lumber market, it caused considerable opposition. Another law of interest relates to the separation of the Forest School from the College of Agriculture, making the former a sepa- rate institution. The year was marked by the formation of the Philippine Manu- factiu-ers' Association, the object of which is to bring the lumber interests into closer touch. Provision was made during 1915 for the employment of two gov- Current Literature 737 ernment lumber inspectors. Because of the lack of grading rules and poor inspection, many export cargoes of lumber were unsatis- factory to buyers. It is proposed that the government inspectors shall not only inspect outgoing shipments and certify the grades, but also will train natives for inspection work. The relative importance of the various activities of the Bureau are well shown in the distribution of expense in field work. Cost Per cent Licenses 41.16 Public Land Examination imder Homestead Law 21.61 Caingins 6.44 Commercial forests 3.25 Botanical Collection 1.51 Sundays and Holidays 10.51 Leave 2.65 Reconnaissance 2.06 Administrative activities, especially hcense (timber sale) work was paramount, followed by homestead examinations. The Bureau showed a slight loss in revenue over the year 1914, due to unfavorable market conditions. However, the ex- penditures of the Bureau were only 64 per cent of the receipts. The Bureau from the first year of administration has been self- supporting, the expenses during this period averaging 57.3 per cent of the receipts. R. C. B. Fames Officinalis — A timber-destroying fungus. (Simimary of a paper to be published in the Transactions of the Canadian Institute, 1917.) By J. H. Faull. 1. Historically, Fomes officinalis occupied an important place in medicine, dating back to Dioscorides, and is still officially recognized in Austria and France. It was also used for various purposes, including the preparation of yeast for breadmaking by the early settlers in Ontario and Quebec, and known to them as the 738 Forestry Quarterly "Pineapple Fungus,"^ though this is the first botanical record of its occurrence in those areas. The first record in America appears to have been not earlier than 1886.^ There is some evidence that the Indians knew it and made use of it medicinally. 2. The active principle is a resinous substance, Agaricin; this, with other resins, constitutes up to 70 per cent of the dry weight of the fruiting body. 3. The resins are secreted in the form of amorphous granules, to some extent on the mycelium, but in much greater abundance on the hyphae of the sporophore. 4. Chlamydospores appear in cultures. They also occur on the sporophore, but in both cases are different from those produced by Polyporus sulphur eus. 5. Quelet and certain other European systematists have as- sirnied that Pontes officinalis is a variety of Polyporus sulphureus, or specifically very close to it. They are very distinct species, however, differing in many respects: (1) Size and branching of hyphae; (2) Form, longevity and content of sporophore; (3) Structure of sporophore; (4) Size of spores; (5) Distinct dif- ferences in cultural characters. 6. Fames officinalis is the cause of a red heart rot of conifers, characterized by a removal of the cellulose, by a fracturing of the wood into rectangular masses, and the formation of mycelial sheets in the crevices. Histologically, the effects are similar to those caused by Polyporus Schweinitzii. It occurs on living and dead timber, and belongs to the group commonly regarded as wound parasites. The losses occasioned by it in some areas are extensive. It occurs throughout Ontario and Quebec on Pinus strobus, and has been reported from Michigan on the same host. 7. Fames officinalis is known to occur on the following hosts: Europe and Asia : Larix europaea, L. sihirica. America : Abies concolor, A. magnifica, A. grandis. Larix occidentalis , L. laricina. Picea Engelmanni, P. sitchensis. 1 Pineapple tree — ^An old English name, now obsolete, for a pine tree or a coniferous tree; pineapple originally meant a pine cone. ^Specimens in the Museum of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, were collected by Dr. D. Lyall in British Columbia about 1860. Current Literature 739 Pinus lambertiana, P. murrayana, P. ponderosa, P. Jeffreyi, P. strobus, P. monticola. Pseudotsuga taxifolia. Tsuga heterophylla, T. mertensiana. 8. In America Fames officinalis is reported from: Canada : British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec. United States : Arizona, California, Oregon, Washington, Montana, Nevada, Idaho, Wisconsin, Michigan. OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE Forests of Porto Rico. By L. S. Murphy. Bulletin 354, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 99. The Preservative Treatment of Farm Timbers. By G. M. Hunt. Farmers' Bulletin 744, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Con- tribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 32. Dixie National Forest (Nevada, Utah, Arizona). A Proclamation by the President of the United States Restoring Certain Areas to the Public Lands. Washington, D. C. May 10, 1916. Pp. 2; map. Bridger National Forest (Wyoming). A Proclamation by the President of the United States, Transferring Certain Lands from the Washakie National Forest to the Bridger National Forest. Washington, D. C. June 30, 1916. P. 1 ; map. Washakie National Forest (Wyoming). A Proclamation by the President of the United States, Transferring Certain Lands from the Bonneville National Forest to the Washakie National Forest. Washington, D. C. June 30, 1916. P. 1 ; map. Contents and Index to Bulletin 94, Bureau of Entomology. Insects Injurious to Forests and Forest Products. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. ix, 87-95. How to Attract Birds in Northwestern United States. By W. L. McAtee. Farmers' Bulletin 760, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 11. Game Laws for 1916. By T. S. Palmer, W. F. Bancroft, and F. L. Earnshaw. Farmers' Bulletin 774, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 64. Laws Relating to Fur-Bearing Animals, 1916. By D. E. Lantz. Farmers' Bulletin 783, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Wash- ington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 28. 740 Other Current Literature 741 Second Annual Report of Bird Counts in the United States, with Discussion of Results. By W. W. Cooke. Bulletin 396, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 20. National Parks Portfolio. Department of the Interior. Wash- ington, D. C. 1916. Contains the following pamphlets: Introduction; the Yellow- stone National Park; Yosemite; the Sequoia National Park; the Grand Canyon; Mount Rainier National Park; Crater Lake National Park; the Rocky Mountain National Park; the Mesa Verde National Park; Glacier National Park. The Grazing Industry of the Bluegrass Region. By L. Carrier. Bulletin 397, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 18. Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. Volume XI, Number 3. Washington, D. C. July, 1916. Pp. 271-368. Contains: Recreational Use of Public Forests in New England, by A. Chamberlain; The Use of the New York State Forests for Public Recreation, by G. D. Pratt; Use of the Southern Appala- chian Forests for Recreation, by J. S. Holmes; Use of the National Forests of the West for Public Recreation, by E. A. Sherman; Hylobius Pales as a Factor in the Reproduction of Conifers in New England, by E. E. Carter; The Growing Stock as a Criterion of Normality, by A. B. Recknagel; Hewn-Tie Versus Saw-Timber Rotations, by C. F. Korstian; Forest Taxation as a Factor in Forest Management, by G. W. Hutton and E. E. Harpham; Scientific Notes and Comments ; Reviews. Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. Volimie XI, Number 4. Washington, D. C. October, 1916. Pp. 369-497. Contains: South American Forests, by H. M. Curran; Forest Problems and Economic Development in South America, by R. Zon; Utilization and Round-Edge Lumber, by R. T. Fisher; The Natural Root Grafting of Conifers, by H. S. Newins; Slash Pine — An Important Second-Growth Tree, by W. R. Mattoon; Com- parative Test of the Klaussner and Forest Service Standard 742 Forestry Quarterly Hypsometers, by D. K. Noyes; Dollars and Sense, by D. Bruce; Comment, by F. E. Olmsted; Evaporation and Soil Moisture in Relation to Plant Succession, by C. F. Korstian; Silvical Notes on Western Larch, by J. A. Larsen; Silvical Notes and Comments: What about Sites, by A. B. Recknagel; The Effect of Wind, by C. G. Bates; Silvicidtiire and Grazing Combined; Comparative Value of Burlap and Pine Needles as a Mulch; A Russian National Conservation Commission; Reviews. Metric System in Export Trade. Report to International High Commission. By S. W. Stratton. Senate Docimient 241, 64th Congress, 1st Session. Washington, D. C. 1916. Pp. 78. A Catalogue of the Flora of Isle Royale, Lake Superior. By W. S. Cooper. Reprinted from Sixteenth Report Michigan Academy of Science. Pp. 109-31. Forestry and the Farm Woodlot. By J. E. Barton. Circular 5, Frankfort, Ky. Pp. 4. The Forests of the Future — Second Growth. By W. W. Ashe. Address DeUvered at the Southern Forestry Congress, Held at Asheville, N. C, Jiily 11-15, 1916. Reprinted from Southern Lumberman. Nashville, Tenn. August 5, 1916. Pp. 12. Creosoted Wood Block Paving. By W. Buehler. Technical Letter No. 1, National Lumber Manufacturers' Association. Chicago, 111. May, 1916. Pp. 4. The Extent of the Woodlot in the New England States. By W. P. Wharton. Society for Protection of New Hampshire Forests. 1916. Pp. 7. Plantae Wilsoneanae, an Enumeration of the Woody Plants Collected in Western China for the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University during the Years 1907, 1908, and 1910 by E. H. Wilson. Edited by C. P. Sargent. Vol. iii, pt. 1, issued May 8, 1916; pt. 2 issued August 31, 1916. The University Press, Cambridge, Mass. Pp. 419. Other Current Literature 743 Report of the Station Botanist, 1915. By G. P. Clinton. Being Part VI of the Annual Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. New Haven, Conn. 1916. Pp. 421-539. The Keene Forest. Prepared by J. W. Tourney and R.C. Hawley. Bulletin 4, Yale Forest School. Yale University. New Haven, Conn. 1916. Pp. 25. Lumbermen's Safety First, First Aid Manual. By J. E. Sparks and E. H. T. Foster. Associated Press, New York. Pp. 69. Robert Hartig {1830-1901). By E. P. Meinecke. Reprinted from Phytopathology, vol. 5, no. 1, February, 1915, pp. 3. Baltimore, Md. Peridermium Harknessii and Cronartium Quercuum, By E. P. Meinecke. Reprinted from Phytopathology, vol. 6, no. 3, June^ 1916, pp. 225-40. Baltimore, Md. Plant Successions in the Mount Robson Region, British Columbia. By W. S. Cooper. Reprinted from the Plant World, vol. 19, no. 8, August, 1916, pp. 211-38. Baltimore, Md. Report of the Dominion Entomologist for the Year Ending March 31, 1915. By C. G. Hewitt. Department of Agriculture. Ottawa, Canada. 1915. Pp. 40. Seventh Annual Report of the Commission of Conservation of Canada, 1916. Ottawa, Canada. 1916. Pp. 283. Contains the following addresses of interest to foresters: Fire Protection and Fire Prevention, by F. H. Wentworth; Fire Pro- tection from the Private Timber Owner's Viewpoint, by Ell wood Wilson; Report of the Committee on Forests, by Clyde Leavitt; Silvicultural Problems on Forest Reserves, by B. E. Fernow; Museums as Aids to Forestry, by H. I. Smith; Fire Protection in Dominion Parks, by J. B. Harkin; Report of the Committee on Lands, by F. C. Nuhnick; Water and Water-power Problems by A. V, White; Fire Prevention, by J. G. Smith; Report of the Coinmittee on Waters and Water-powers, by L. G. Denis; Ap- pendix HI; Fire Waste Facts and Figiu-es. 744 Forestry Quarterly Travelling Exhibit at Prairie Fairs. Markets Bulletin 22, Forest Branch, Department of Lands. Victoria, B. C. 1916. Pp. 281-90. A Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus. By J. H. Maiden. Vol. iii, pt. 7 (pt. xxvii of the Complete Work). Government of the State of New South Wales. Sydney, N. S. W. 1916. Pp. 125-55; pis. 112-5. I. Timbers of British North Borneo. II. Minor Forest Products and Jungle Produce. By F. W. Foxworthy. Bulletin 1, Depart- ment of Forestry of British North Borneo. Sandakan, B. N. B. 1916. Pp. 67. Administration Report of the Forest Circles in the Bombay Presi- dency for the Year 1914-15. Bombay, India. 1916. Pp. 180-^4 Notes on the Burma Myrobolans or "Panga" Fruits as a Tanning Material. By Puran Singh. Forestry Bulletin 32. Calcutta, India. 1916. Pp. 5. Notes on the Economic Uses of Rosha Grass, Cymbopogon Martini, by R. S. Pearson, and Note on the Constants of Geranium Oil, by Puran Singh. The Indian Forest Records, vol. v, pt. vii. Calcutta, India. April, 1916. Pp. 50. Rapport Department Suisse de rintSrieur sur sa Gestion en 1915. Pp. 18. Date and place of pubUcation not given. PERIODICAL LITERATURE [The slimness of this department is due to the absence of all German forestry literature, owing to interference with mails by Great Britain.] FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION In a paper, read before the Pan-American South Scientific Congress in January, Mr. R. Zon American has brought together from various sources Forest information regarding forest conditions in Conditions South America. This article confirms what we have known all along, albeit with more detail and certainty, that in spite of the extensive woodland cover, estimated at 38 per cent, varying from State to State between 15 and 80 per cent, desirable wood supplies of the continent are scanty and unavailable for variotis reasons, among them the nature and distribution of the species, a matter which can not be helped, and inaccessibility, which may in time be overcome. The total forest area is stated as 1924 million acres, but taking Chili alone with 38 million acres only about 5 million are com- mercial forest, 6 million may furnish poles and stakes, 9 million are pasture forest and 18.5 million fuel wood. The species are mostly very heavy and hard woods, mostly of value only as finishing wood and distributed in a manner that, if any one species were to be logged, a very large acreage would have to be hunted over to secure volume, making logging cost prohibi- tory except for most valuable material. It is stated that to secure the one million tons of quebracho wood consumed or exported annually from Argentina, 500,000 acres must be logged over. The importations from the United States, Canada and Europe, chiefly pine and spruce, softwoods, into Argentina amount to 80 per cent of her wood consimiption, into Brazil 40 per cent, into Chili 55 per cent. So far only two conifers (Araucaria brasiliensis, the Parana pine, and A. imbricata, the Chilian pine); Spanish cedar (Cedrela odorata and several other species, cedro); quebracho, noted for its tannin contents, and greenheart (Nectandria rodioei), associated with. moTa (Dimorphandr a mora), noted for its teredo-proof quality, 745 746 Forestry Quarterly hence useful in ship and dock building, are commercially exploited. The distribution of these species leads to the recognition of seven forest types and the construction of a map, locating the same, about one third of the total forest area being occupied by types containing the above species. The Parana pine forest region, which is being exploited, is lo- cated in the southeastern portion of Brazil, cutting sometimes as much as 20 M feet to the acre. The Antarctic beech region, which contains the Chilian pine, also some larch and cedar, is located along water courses in Western Patagonia, on the slopes of the Andes. The hardwoods, in which quebracho forms the commercially important species, are found chiefly in northern Argentina with an estimated area of 84 million acres and a stand of 168 million tons. Greenheart, with mora, is located in the river forests of British Guina over a range of 154 million acres. The mahogany region is located, with 54 million acres, along the northwest coast, and finally the tropical and subtropical hard- woods, with 1200 biUion acres, occupying the largest area, are occupying the Amazon watershed, the balance being non-forested or brush areas. In 1912, the export of forest products, including copaiva, tolu and quillaya bark, amounted to $9,282,625, while the importation of wood and manufacture amotmted to aroimd 32 million dollars. In spite of the vast extent of the forest area the author says: "not only quebracho, but many other valuable species of trees with which the forests abound are in danger of extinction (when their use has been found out?) in the not very distant future as the result of inadequate forestry laws." To find out the character and uses of the many hardwood species with a view to export is a primary task; the softwoods are so limited as to reqmre reservation for home consimiption. South American Timber Resources and Their Relation to the World's Timber Supply. The Geographical Review, October, 1916, pp. 256-66. Additional information on forest condi- Souih tions of South America may be gleaned American from the report of R. E. Simmons, special Lumber agent of the Department of Commerce, Markets which is mainly devoted to a discussion of market conditions. Periodical Literature 747 The distinguishing feature of the lumber trade of the Pacific Coast countries is the supremacy of the North American product ; only in the Chilian port of Puntas Arenas is European lumber in demand; 99 per cent of the importation into Chili and over 80 per cent of that into Peru are from the United States, a very large proportion of the consumption being imported. Much of the more accessible forest, it appears, has already been cut for limiber or cleared for farming. The roble, the so-called Chilian oak, the cheapest and most abundant native wood, besides its weight, is most troublesome to season in the rainy latitudes of Southern Chili. The Chilian pine (Araucaria) seems to be mainly esteemed for the seed, like our Pinion pine; otherwise fit mainly for pulpwood. Ecuador seems the only State without regular importation of foreign timber, the home industry being highly protected. The lumber industry based on the Parana pine in Brazil was rendered possible by the building of the Parana railroad and by the fact that these araucaria forests occur in extensive pure stands. It is carried on largely by North American lumbermen. Venezuela, in spite of its extensive forest area, imports 45 per cent of the liimber consumption, mostly Southern Yellow pine, which in the La Plata district goes by the name of Riga pine, from its resemblance to the Russian Scotch pine, which it has replaced. Special Agents Series 112 and 117, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- merce, Washington, D. C. 1916. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY As bearing on the important theory of Incompatibility toxic effects of one species of trees on others of Oak and in mixture, Petri's investigation of the com- Olive Trees mon knowledge that olive trees are generally stunted in their growth when in the vicinity of oakwoods may be cited. In a series of pot cultures, in which olive and oak seedlings were grown at 10 cm intervals, the one-year-old oak roots in contact with olive roots showed the existence of small brown zones in correspondence with which the primary cortex was in an advanced 748 Forestry Quarterly state of decay, and vesicles originating in the deep strata of the cortical parenchyma were discovered. Character of mycelium and vesicles correspond exactly to those of the endotrophic mycorrhizae of the olive — a weak parasitism occiirring on a dying tissue. The one-year-old olive roots showed no trace of the infection. The author concludes, that the failure of the olive trees in the neighborhood of oaks is probably caused merely by the oaks having impoverished the soil or by the eventual decay of the root due to development of Dematrophora in the soil remains. "The theory of any injurious action due to the mycelium of the diseased oak roots may be totally discarded." Atti della Reale Academia dei Lincei, vol. xxiv, Rome, 1915, pp. 536-9. According to F. Doe, an excellent oppor- Asphyxiating tunity to study the effect of asphyxiating Gas gas on French forests is offered in the and Canton of Verzy, to the east of Rheims Vegetation and to the north of Chalons. According to Doe, the gas was launched October 19 and 20, 1915. Blown by a high wind the heavy gas extended quickly over an area exceeding 10 miles from the place where it was started. The vineyards were not permanently injured, nor was cauliflower or turnips, but lettuce and most ornamental plants suffered severely. In the forests, the oak, beech, birch and hornbeam were not damaged, but the leaves of Scotch pine turned yellow, exactly as if the forest had been burned over. Apparently, the damage reported by Doe was very much the same as if there had been a large smelter in the neighborhood. T. S. W., Jr. Revue des Eaux et Forets, July 1, 1916, pp. 192-5. Continuing his discussion on the processes Causes of diameter development (the first part oj briefed on pp. 325-7 of this volume), Tree Form Dr. Jaccard, of the Swiss Plant-Physio- logical Institute, discusses the physiological reasons for winter rest. He refers to Klebs' experiments, who could artificially produce in a given plant either continuous growth or Periodical Literature 749 growth interrupted by periods of rest, by varying the supply of mineral salts and light intensity at the disposal of the plant. The functions of various mineral salts as determined by Hansteen and others are explained, from which it appears that calcium, to which certain amounts of potash and magnesium salts are added, is the most important factor in forming cell walls and also in enabling roots to take up minerals by chemical reactions (not simply by osmosis). Hence the importance of Ume in soils. The necessity of an active water circulation to carry away chemical products so as to permit further chemical production is accentuated. Water circulation is reduced not only by dryness of soil, but by decrease in temperature and reduction of light intensity and light duration. The fall of leaves and final rest of vegetative functions is simply explained by the change in exterior conditions. The species with leathery, thick-skinned leaves (conifers) can inhibit their functions or resiune them at any time without change in form, because a small water supply suffices for them. The water-needing species, on the other hand, respond to a longer withdrawal of water by loss of the assimilating organs and only a decided change of exterior conditions, especially a lengthening of light influence, causes new formation of foliage. By influencing these exterior conditions within narrow limits at any season without any period of rest a continuation of growth can be secured. There is no "need of rest" where assimilating organs are renewed, and not as in the animal used up. Plants die from hunger and thirst, animals from age, being used up. Under the caption, "The specific form of the tree as product of diameter growth," the author combats Metzger's theory of the wind as determining factor of the form and structure, namely such as offers the greatest resistance with the smallest amoimt of material. Elsewhere, the author believes to have proved that "the stem of an old spruce in timber forest, in which the dying of the crown basis takes place as the tip grows, corresponds to a shaft of equal conductivity for water, and not to one of equal resistance (to bending) for its whole length." Every stem shows varying resistance to bending at different heights, as shown by calculations. The big trees, if soimd, show in proportion to their crown develop- ment a much greater resistance than younger, thinner stems. Trees work with surpluses and use much more material for the building up of their stems than resistance to the ordinary wind 750 Forestry Quarterly pressure requires ; and in extraordinary storms they, too, succumb, so that their claimed inherited structure through selection is of no advantage to them. The author then adds arguments demolishing Metzger's theory. He believes to have proved that a bending force according to its intensity produces quite varying reactions; even where no bending due to exterior pressure exists, increased increment takes place, as on the concave places of a branch or root ; if the shaft were the product of wind pressure, then the tree form would have to vary from locality to locality, like the local winds ; trees woiild rarely have concentric form and regular struc- ture; either the form is the mechanical product of the present wind direction, when there would be no inheritance effect; or the present form is the result of natural selection and inheritance, when there would not be reaction to present winds. The author, then, brings forward his theory that the form is a result of condi- tions of nutrition and especially of water conduction. Since air and light (diffuse, which is the important part in assimilation) surround the crown symmetrically, hence the shaft must assume a symmetrical radial structure (just as in sea anem- ones, corals, etc., which live surrounded by equal feeding chances on all sides) . In the horizontal branches gravity produces eccen- tricity. To secure uninterrupted water conduction a conduction layer is required which is in proportion to the transpiring organs, such a layer is represented by the area of the vessels and tracheids of the last three or four annual rings at any cross section. To preserve equality of conducting area, it would be necessary to have an increasing ring width towards the crown on account of the decreasing circimiference. Asstiming that this conducting area will be proportional to the ring area, the author calculated the form which a spruce would have to assimie to become a shaft of equal water conductivity, and found very satisfactory agreement with actual forms. A figure illustrates the method of calculating and the resulting form, also showing that Metzger's theory will not hold. Microscopic investigations of the last rings of several spruces and firs show a minimum of ring area at a height several meters above ground, and from this point an increase of ring areas toward base and crown. A relative thickening of the shaft above the lowest dry branches was also found a common occurrence, evi- Periodical Literature 751 dently to compensate the reduction of the conducting area due to the dead branch knots. An experiment with inserted glass rods, interrupting the Hving wood area produced the same result. The mechanical theory of the root collar is denied and a physio- logical explanation substituted, namely the retardation of the transpiration stream due to change of direction which requires an increased conducting area. The author does not claim that water conduction is the only influence on stem form and admits that mechanical influences may cooperate, but much more complicated ones, than have hitherto been assumed. For instance, the author could differentiate com- pression and tension influences on diameter growth at night from those in the day time, and show that the reaction to bending is different in different trees. The anatomy is always different on the pressure side from that on the tension side, sometimes suppressing formation of vessels, and of wood fibers, the cambiiun making only parenchymatic cells. The author concludes that many of the phenomena of life which hitherto have been supposed to be adaptations are mostly direct reactions to present influences ; especially the structtu-e and anatomy of vegetative organs are directly depending on conditions of nutrition. Was wissen wir vom Dickenwachstum der Bdume? Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen, May -June, 1916, pp. 104-17. SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE In a most painstaking analysis of the Forest problems which confront the water works Influences engineer by the variations in precipitation, replete with a mass of detail, tabulations, maps, curves, and all the means of making for sound argimient, Mr. Carl Peter Birkinbine, son of the well known, late, lamented John Birkinbine, also incidentally alludes to the relation of forest cover to precipitation and run-off, and in the subsequent discussion was induced to use the following language: "As to the matter of precipitation and run-off being affected by deforestation and agriciilttual development, the point brought out in regard to precipitation includes two separate ideas. One that the different 752 Forestry Quarterly temperature conditions between forest and open land may alter the character of the precipitation, that is from rain to snow or vice versa. In this connection there has recently been published a paper claiming a different depth of snow fall for forested areas from that for open ground; although as the effects of ground temperature, ground moisture and wind are to be considered, the conclusions of the paper are not yet definite. It has also been claimed that land under cultivation permits higher evaporation from the soil, thus extending the area of condensation, although this would need to cover a large area to be appreciable. "It is true that a former high official of the Weather Bureau strongly stated that deforestation did not affect the run-off, but I do not accept this as a general statement. Records of stream flow both maximum and minimum, the visible signs of erosion on bare ground, the slow melting of snow in shaded areas, the reduc- tion of intensity offered by leaves and branches during severe downpours, the greater porosity of forest hirnius and the fact that it does not freeze deep, and the more uneven and obstructed floor of the forest as compared to bare hill or field, cannot fail to have the effect of stabilizing run-off, and this view is generally shared by those who have studied the records and conditions, especially in this country where deforestation generally clears the ground of aU growth." Variations in Precipitation as Affecting Water Works Engineering. Reprint from the Journal of the American Water Works Association, vol. 3, no. 1. March, 1916, pp. 103. MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT The most extensive and important in- Assorttmnt vestigation by Flury on the assortments or Tables grade relations in spurce, fir and beech is of special interest for the methods of investiga- tion. A discussion of the principles and systems of grading in vogue in Switzerland, Germany and France is followed by an analysis of grade or size relations in the single stem, then of whole stands in general, and finally of pure, even-aged, normally stocked stands. Twenty tables and three graphic illustrations are the result of the measurements and bring the basis for this discussion. The object of assortment, or graded yield tables, is two-fold, Periodical Literature 753 namely to enable the estimate and division of the volume of a stand into its main assortments, saw logs, building material, poles, fuelwood, as a basis for value calculations, and second, for single stems or groups of stems, to determine the available assortments in volume and length of stem in the annual yield. For entire stands so far only one assortment table of limited character exists (Dr. Wimmer's on the beech; see F.Q., xiii, 555), and a few dealing with single stems ; these are based not on general, but specific, local grades. For workwood, length and diameter (or, in France, circumference) either at top, or at middle, and for sawlogs in South Germany and Austria, or the contents of the piece, as in North Germany, furnish the basis for classification; the greatest variety of assortments is found in Switzerland. To meet the widest number of requirements the author bases his assortments on top diameters (with bark) of 42 (17 inch), 32, 24, 18, 15, 12 and 7 cm (3-inch). The tables consider only timber- wood (over 7 cm) and do not attempt grading of fuelwood or brushwood. The author at the outset accentuates that such tables are only aids to estimate the assortments in actual stands, giving maximum average values, which in actuality in single individuals are often not attained, due to crookedness, unsound- ness, etc. The basis of the tables is furnished by the sectioning in 2-meter lengths of trees selected after the Urich method in pure, more or less even-aged stands in medium density, also some selection forest material. Some 3125 spruce, 1307 fir, and 2284 beech were in- volved, in 5 to 7 height classes differing by 5w, and in 2-cm dia- meter classes. The contents of each piece was expressed in per cent of the total tree volume (timberwood), and it was soon found that while, of course, the absolute contents of the same diameter class showed great variation with varying height, they always showed the same percentic relation to the timberwood volume, which discovery facilitates greatly the construction and use of the tables. E.g., in a group of spruce trees of 40 cm (16 inch) d.b.h. the piece with top diameter of 24 cm for all heights of trees represents 82 per cent of the total volume, and so for the top diameters : 32, 24, 18, 15, 12 cm. 47, 82, 94, 96.8 98.4 per cent. By miiltiplying these percents with the timberwood volume, the absolute voltune of the assortment is found. 754 Forestry Quarterly Practically the same relation, with different figures, to be sure, is found in fir and beech; thus in fir for a 50 cm tree the pieces with top diameters 42 32 24 18 15 12 7 cm represent 28.9 81.8 94.7 97.9 98.9 99.7 100 per cent of the timberwood volume of the tree, no matter what height. In other words, with the same d.b.h. the shorter stem gives percentic- ally as much of certain sizes as the longer stem. This is true within an error of 1 to 2 per cent, rarely over 2 per cent. Only in the first (largest) class are the differences somewhat greater. The author explains this peculiar relation by reference to the behavior of form factors and by the fact that in proportion as the shorter stem is less in volimie than the longer, the assortment con- tents decrease, but the percentic relation remains the same. The tables, of course, represent average values, and hence in the single case considerable differences may occur. Spruces of the hill country and of the mountains did not show enough difference to make different tables necessary, nor did mixed forest show an influence on this percentic relation. But the influence of specific shaft form differences may make itself felt in very tapering and very cylindrical stems. Schiffel's form quotient is declared of no value in this connection because the diameter at half the height is practically too cumbersome to ascertain, and practical use of the tables is their object. The author, to aid in judging the form, gives in the tables the average diameter at 5m, which in the given case can be either judged or measured by caHpers on poles or otherwise, furnishing judgment whether the tree is more or less deviating from the normal form. There is also given a correction table which, to make allowance for the form, reduces the d.b.h. by given amounts for different diameter classes, when the corres- ponding assortments are found under the reduced diameters. Since, however, these tables like any other volume tables are not to be used for estimating of individual trees, but only of groups, errors of 8 to 12 per cent, which might occur in individual cases, do not vitiate the use of the table without making allowance for form differences. A special, extended investigation into the difference of ascer- taining the volimie by 2-meter sections and by use of the middle diameter and full length showed that the latter measurement gave, as a rule, too small results, except with a top diameter of 7 cm, in which case it may sometimes be too low. With increasing Periodical Literature 755 stem diameter the error becomes larger, and with increasing top diameter also. Differences in spruce vary fromO to— 2.5 per cent for a 20 cm b.h.d. and 12 cm top diameter, and down to — 8.5 per cent for a 60 cw b.h.d. and 42 cm top diameter. The butt section with its root collar influences especially the higher result of the sectioning method. The different species show differences in this comparison: the ftdl-bodied fir compared with the spruce shows a more rapid increase of volume based on middle diameter, still more so the beech, so that, e.g., for the 18 cm top diameter the latter volume may be even larger than that obtained by sectioning. To avoid practical difficulties in the use of the tables, these, instead of giving the volumes determined by sectioning, bring the assortment volimies determined by middle diameter and length percentically to the timberwood volimie; but the basic timber- wood volimies are those derived from sectioning. To gain an insight into results when a long piece is cut into shorter pieces and measiu^ed by middle diameters, a table shows the percentic relation between the measurements by 2 w section- ing and by 6 w sections for the various top diameters and breast high diameters. This shows differences of 1.5 to 8.5 per cent for spruce (6 m measurement below 2 m sectioning), for fir between 1 and 8 per cent; for beech between +1.3 and —4.5 per cent. The complete tables for single stems then are constructed, with the following headings, in columns: colvmin 1 gives b.h.d. and diameters at 5 m corresponding to different height classes in column 2; column 3 gives timberwood contents of stem for each height class; columns 4 to 9 give in bold face type, in single line, the assortment per cents for different top diameters and under- neath in ordinary type their actual voliunes for each height class ; columns 10 to 16 give lengths and middle diameters of assortments related to top diameters and corresponding to height classes; the middle diameters are given only for the highest and lowest height class, the differences being so small that the intermediate figures can be readily interpolated; the last column gives the length of timberwood, the useful portion, or merchantable length as a per cent of total height. Certain portions of the stem, varying from 4 to 8 m in length for various top diameters, had to be neg- lected, e.g., in the 34 cm class of spruce no entry is made for the 32 cm top assortment, because it is too short. An example of the use of the table may make the arrangement 756 Forestry Quarterly clearer: A spruce of 48 cm (19 inch) b.d.h. and 28-30 m (100 feet) height is to be estimated. In the appropriate column the timber- wood content is found to be 2.23 /m. If 32 cm (13 inch) is assumed as the proper sawlog diameter, the content of the log is foimd to be 1.56 fm and the length 13.3 m; the balance may be cut for building timber or pole at 15 cm top diameter; by inspecting proper colimms the contents are found to be .62 fm and the length 23.8— 13.3= 10.5 m. If, however, it is determined that it is more advantageous to hold out the whole stem to a 18 cm top diameter, it will be found to have a length of 22.4 m and furnish 2.14 fm. Test measurements in clear-cutting areas, in selection forest fellings, and in areas thinned in different degrees are tabulated, showing divergences between the tables and actual measurements. In the first case, for the grades of 12 to 32 cm results were satisfactory, only the 42 cm assortment (butt log) showed more frequent and greater differences. By using, however, the allow- ances for unusual taper conditions errors could be reduced to -.6 to 4-1. No influence of thinnings could be determined, but the author admits the basic material to be insufficient. The somewhat scanty data from selection forest shows that the trees in the selec- tion forest are stouter in their lower section. The assortment per cents of the trees over 60 cm d.b.h. correspond to stems 2-4 cm less in diameter of the tables; the 30-60 cm trees are more full- bodied than the trees of the tables. The determination of assortment relations of entire stands, also based on even-aged timber forest, reqmres the knowledge of the total volume of the stand and the stem numbers in diameter and height classes. It is well known that two or more stands of the same total volume may differ considerably in assortments, due to the distribution of stem classes or individual composition, es- pecially as regards sawlog contents. For convenience the author divides the stem ntimbers into larger (b.h.d.) size classes, each of which furnishes a main assortment, thus: over 50 cm, stout wood; 37-50 cm, ordinary saw logs; 27-36 cm, building timber; 19-26 cm, telegraph poles; 13-18 cm, scaffolding, telephone poles; 7-12 cm, smaller poles of all kinds. Usually a stand furnishes only three, sometimes only two, rarely four of these dimensions. The volume of each size class and height class being known, the question is what assortment volumes does a certain number of stems of each of the size classes furnish. Periodical Literature 757 In investigating the material collected for the single tree tables the interesting discovery was made, that just as there is a per- centic relation between timberwood volume and assortment, so there is a percentic relation between total basal area and the volume of each size class, and similarly the assortment contents, at least in the timber forest. In selection forest the basal area per cent in the lower stem classes is 2-4 per cent higher in the upper classes, 2-4 per cent lower than the volume per cent ; in the middle classes, however, the percentages are alike. Thus for the size class 37-50 cm of spruce the percentages of dif- ferent assortments based on top diameters 32 24 18 15 12 7 cm are for all height classes 57 84 93 96 98 100 % For incomplete size classes the percentages will, of course, have to be reduced, guided by the single tree assortment tables. The completed stand assortment tables requiring properly less accuracy, are simpler than the single tree tables. There are only five size classes ; the height classification is based on 5 m differences and only the percentage of the assortments, with their length for different height classes, is given. The following example shows the procedure : A stand of spruce, with few firs intermixed, gave a content of 5210/m. From experi- ence of a neighboring felling the amoimt of fuelwood is ascertained as 25 per cent =1303 fm, requiring, therefore, 3907 fm to be as- sorted or graded. The following tabulation taken from the tables can be made use of to show possibilities : Assortment Volumes Top Diameters: 32 Percentages: 57 24 84 18 93 15 96 12 98 Site Class cm Timber Wood fm Vol. Length Vol. Length Vol. Length Vol. Length Vol. Length 38-50 28-36 890 1821 1063 133 507 11 748 1093 19 11 828 1602 648 23 17 11 854 1712 872 24 20 15 872 1766 978 90 26 22 20-26 17 16-18 11 From this we can choose according to local usage, say, Saw timber, top diameter 32 cm, from 38-50 cm class .... 507 fm Building material, top diameter 18 cm, from 38-50 cm class 828-507 321 758 Forestry Quarterly Building material, top diameter 18 cm, from 28-36 cm class 828-507 1602 1923 Poles, top diameter 15 cw 872 top diameter 12 cm, from 16-18 cm class 90 962 Workwood 3392 Piilpwood (balance) 515 3907 Test measurements prove satisfactory for the top diameters 12-32 cm; only again for the 42 cm class errors, in spruce at least, are con- siderable, but, the author states, such an assortment would rarely be made for a whole stand, only for a few stem groups. Finally, the author constructs normal assortment jdeld tables for pure, even-aged, normally stocked stands, with the aid of the percentic basal area relation; one set of tables showing the per- centic distribution from period to period (20 years) for 5 site classes in the 6 size classes as made above, and another set showing the distribution in detail from 4 to 4 cm, b.h.d. Diagrams also are used to exhibit this percentic distribution of size classes at different ages. While the common stand assortment tables are to be used for estimating contents of stands in practical work, these normal assortment tables are to be used for static and financial calcula- tions. The author expresses the hope that the ready adaptability of these tables will lead to their use not only in the practice of utiHza- tion, but on the field of organization. "The exhibit and valuation of the stock capital of a management class, in size and assortment classes ; the determination of an economic rotation based on calcula- tions ; the influence of thinning practice on volume and value yield are questions which can be convincingly and clearly answered only by paying attention to assortment volimies and assortment values." We call special attention to this fruitful investigation! Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Centralanstalt fur das forstliche Ver- suchswesen, xi Volume, 2 Heft, pp. 153-272. Periodical Literature 759 Professor B. P. Kirkland discusses in Cost detail the elements of forest finance calcula- of tion with special reference to conditions and Growing values of the Pacific Northwest, more Timber especially the cost of growing timber to different forest owners, the object being to show that the required interest rate rules the possibilities of profit, or of engaging in forestry business. As regards land values, he claims that the optimism of the West will insist on high land values. Leaving out the real farm lands at $10 to $50 as unavailable, he gives values of $10, $5 and $2 for three site qualities. Planting cost, he thinks can be kept down to $5 per acre if advantage is taken of existing volunteer growth. Cost of administration and protection, which Kellogg and Ziegler in a similar discussion placed at 5 cents, the author raises to 20 cents as more reasonable. The matter of taxes is somewhat com- plicated, as values of a growing crop change. For site I up to the 20th year the soil alone may be taxed at 1 per cent, or 10 cents an acre, the next decade, owing to increased value of the crop, this is doubled, the next decade trebled. From the 41st to 50th year a volume of 20,000 feet b. m. at $3 and the land at $10 brings the tax up to 70 cents per acre, and the following decade the value is figured at $290, the annual tax at 1 per cent being $2.90. For II site, two thirds, and for III site, one third of these values are prescribed. Difference in ownership affects taxes ; public ownership, federal, State, municipal, though not directly paying taxes, is charged in lieu of taxes with 25 per cent of the gross income, after the prece- dent of the National Forests handing over to the States this amount. Interest charges vary even more widely than taxes. Without argiiment, except that these are rates at which owners can borrow or lend, the author proposes the following interest charges : Per cent Federal Government 3 State " 4 Municipalities 4 , 5 Large Corporations 4.5-5 Moderate-sized Corporations 6 Small Corporations and Individuals 7 760 Forestry Quarterly As regards rotation, or length of time for calculations, the author claims to have found that 60 years give "the highest profits from the use of the soil for private forestry, while 80 to 100 years is more profitable for government forestry, working with lower interest rates." The product of different sites varies more than is usually realized. An extensive study by the Forest Service, unpublished, brings out the fact that in Western Washington and Oregon, for a 60-year rotation in Douglas fir, site I may be credited with 44 M, site II with 32 M (75%), and site III with 16.5 M feet (nearly 40% of site I). In six tables, the costs for various conditions and ownerships properly calculated are given, item by item, and in three tables the possible reductions from costs due to thinnings are figtu^ed for the three sites. All calculations are for Douglas fir. We can give only the totals, which for the six ownership classes, as above, run per M feet : Site I 3.37 5.92 7.85 9.91 16.17 26.80 Site II 3.61 6.16 8.05 9.87 16.0 26.31 Site III 5.80 9.64 12.45 14.01 22.77 37.50 The strange phenomenon that the cost on II site differs only slightly from that on I site, and with high interest rates is even less, is explained by the much lessened interest charge on the lower soil value, so that costs are more reduced than yield, while on III site, in spite of reduced cost on low soil values, the great decrease in yield brings the cost far above the other sites. Natural regenera- tion is here suggested as a way out (on sites on which natural regeneration is probably difficult to manage? Rev.) Thinnings — and there is "very little doubt that all thinnings from young stands originated now or hereafter may be utilized because even now demands for pulp wood, ties, and mine timbers are capable of using all this type of timber within easy reach of transportation" — figure in quantity in the same proportionate re- lation as the main yields (11:8:4), but the values, owing to smaller sizes on the lower sites, will be less ; the total amounts on site II being assumed as one half, on site III as one third of that on site I. But the saving on cost due to thinnings per M feet figures: Site I 62 75 79 87 102 123 cents " II 42 50 55 59 71 85 " " III 55 65 70 77 91 109 " Periodical Literature 761 All the figures used are believed to be fair averages, but in specific cases may be enormously modified. Probably much land already stocked with young growth could be bought at the rates specified for the empty acre, saving the cost of stocking; and as every dollar saved in the start means from $5 to $50 at the end, according to the interest rate, the possibilities of profit are greatly increased. Other conditions modifying costs are cited. The position of different owners with reference to forestry busi- ness are then discussed, the advantage of large corporations being specially accentuated, and the small owner, except possibly for the small woodlot, is properly discouraged. In discussing taxes as an element in cost of production, the author shows by an example that they do not play the important r61e which many foresters ascribe to them misled to it by a false averaging of the general property tax over the entire time of pro- duction instead of the gradually increasing tax rate on value, when they appear as rather a minor charge. A deferred yield tax might be substituted, but that yield tax must be less than the 25 per cent of the gross yield paid by the National Forests, which is much larger than the accumulating tax as figured in the tables. Since, however, a yield tax is based upon the conception of inter- mittent management, the author will none of it. The fallacy that the State can practice forestry without paying taxes, at least indirectly, is exposed. The author comes to the conclusion that "owners who must pay or can get high interest rates for the use of capital cannot wisely tmdertake the production of timber as an investment," hence mainly Nation, State, possibly municipalities, or possibly under certain conditions, large corporations must be relied upon. State and federal responsibility is argued and even additions to National Forests by purchase. A special section brings the comparative cost of growing new as compared with hoarding old timber under a financial test. Under the assimiption that with a 5 per cent interest rate, the cost of growing timber on site II is $9.87, and allowing 3 cents for taxes and protection of old timber, the cost of holding old timber is calculated at 57 cents, while the present value of the cost of growing is 53 cents, so that "even if the timber were given to a corporation to be held 60 years, it would be cheaper to grow it than to take the old timber as a present." 762 Forestry Quarterly There are on the National Forests large areas of mature and over-mature timber which could be sold for $1 per M feet or more, tending rather to decrease in volimie from the 40 to 50 M they contain. Figuring soil at $10, protection and administration at 20 cents, stumpage at $1, the cost of holding for 60 years would be $7.93 per M, to compare with $3.36 {see table above) for producing the same amount of timber. The summary of the very interesting expose is given in the following six paragraphs : 1. The chief cost of producing timber is the interest on the capital involved. 2. It follows from (1) that the interest rate under which the forest owner works, to a large extent determines the cost of producing timber to the owner concerned. 3. Taxes, though important, are a minor cost as compared with interest charges. 4. The costs of production under high interest rates are so great as to bar forest production to those owners who cannot secure money at a rate not much, if any, higher than 5 per cent. 5. This makes forest production at a profit possible only to the federal government, the State, the municipality and the larger corporation, and those owners exceptionally situated as to the ownership of land for other purposes, such as mining, in connection with farming, etc. 6. Since the federal government is already practising forestry so far as its resources make practical at present, the large cor- poration is not likely to become interested under present condi- tions, and the municipality can engage only to a limited extent; there is little hope of introducing forest practice in adequate manner except through the State. The Cost of Growing Timber in the Pacific Northwest, as Related to the Interest Rates Available to Various Forest Owners. Forest Club Annual, University of Washington. Seattle, Wash., 1915. Pp. 23. For more than 150 years the practice in Errors the European wood trade has been to in Using meastu-e contents of logs by the use of the Middle middle diameter, and Ruber's formula, Diameters (^ ^ JL.^2/) ^as since 1822 been accepted to express the voltune. The accuracy of the formula has been again and again tested, with varying results, due probably to failtire in Periodical Literature 763 classifying diameter classes or to confining the investigation to certain stands and overlooking that shaft form varies from stand to stand. Comparing with voltime determinations by 2 w sections, Flury found the following deviations by employing the Huber formula. Sawlogs Building Timber Timber-wood Average of Top Dia. 12 Inch Top Dia. 10 Inch Top Dia. 3 Inch 576 Spruces —3.6% —2.4% — .5% 158 Firs —2.3 — .6% —3.1% 479 Beech —1.6 —3.2% The errors are still greater, if as Flury has done (in Mitteilungen der schweizerischen forstlichen Versuchsanstalt, vol. XI, 1916) reference is made to tree diameter classes. Thus in spruce of 24 inch d.b.h. with a top diameter of 17 inch, the error percent is as high as — 8.5, scaling down with a 3 inch top diameter to — 1.8 per cent. Burger adds a less extensive series of measurements, relating it to varying log lengths, and formulates the results of these various investigations as follows : 1. The cubing of middle diameter and length almost always furnishes too small (negative) results ; 2. The error percent decreases with increasing length; 3. Positive differences can occur ; 4. The deviations from the true volume are greatest (in spruce) with a log length of 6 to 8 m from the stimip ; 5. A remarkable fact is that the maximum of the error curve (not the maximum deviation) occurs not with the timberwood diameter (3 inch), but a few meters lower. The explanation of this last point is to be found in the fact that the influence of the diameter, especially in long pieces, is of more import than the lengths, especially when the diameter falls into the portion of the tree, where there is a rapid diameter decrease, when one centimeter decrease offsets 2-3 m in length. The author modifies two statements in Udo MuUer's Holzmess- kunde. Muller states that "the accuracy of Ruber's formula increases, the smaller the length of the log compared with the length of the whole tree, so that 3-5 m logs are measured very accurately, the more so the more they belong to the middle of the tree." This does not hold good when the region of the root collar is included. 764 Forestry Quarterly The statement of Muller, that "trees of all species which have continuously grown in dense stand are full-bodied, and hence wiU invariably be cubed too high," is not so generally correct, if sawlogs (not whole trees) and material up to 9 inch top diameter is involved. Ueber Kuhierung der Stdmme aus Ldnge und Mittenstdrke. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen, July- August, 1916, pp. 151-7. UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY Just to nail down information of price Wood Prices conditions before the war, for comparison in with conditions after the war, we abstract Prussia from Silva figures published in March, 1914. The year was not a boom year, but an improvement over the preceding years, 10 per cent and more over the year 1913 resulting in many wood auctions. The results of some 20 auctions in February and March in different parts of the Kingdom and detailed for coniferous workwood are given. These prices refer to logs and building timber, cut, lying in the woods — ^they are therefore log prices — and there are usually four grades involved which rely on size or contents of the piece for classification. In translating mark per festmeter into cents per cubic foot, the approximate reduction factor of 2/30 has been used. Assortment 1 II III IV Pine 20.6-21.8 15.4-18.7 10.6-15.0 8.8-12.4 cents per Spruce and Fir 17.6-19.5 16.5-17.6 13.5-16.0 11.0-15.0 cu.ft. Some lower sizes of spruce sold for less than 11 cents. In trans- lating these figures into price per M feet, each assortment would have to be debited with a different loss per cent. Assitming this per cent as 25 for the largest to 40 for the smallest sizes, woiild make the average about 33 per cent which is about a usual asstunption. That is to say 110, 120, 128, 140 cubic feet of the respective as- sortments wotdd be required to make 1 M feet. We would find then that the highest log prices were for pine just about $24 and the lowest a little over $12, for spruce and fir the figures are $21.50 and a little over $15. Attempting to secure a translation into prices of stumpage, we must deduct first logging expense which we may assume to ap- Periodical Literature 765 proximate 2.5 cents per cubic foot in the average, and a proportion of different assortments in the cut, which for lack of more definite information we may assume to be 10, 20, 30, 40 per cent respec- tively for the four grades. In this way we come to an average stimipage value of $14 per M feet for pine and about $21 for spruce; prices which in some sections we have reached and exceeded in our country, at least for White pine. It is interesting to note that all grades of spruce except the largest bring higher prices than pine, the competition for ptdpwood of the smaller sizes being probably the explanation. Silva, March, 1914. POLITICS, EDUCATION AND LEGISLATION In a longer article, based upon official Early sources. Dr. Diekel, in great detail, gives Forestry insight into the beginnings of forestry edu- Education cation in Prussia. It is of interest not only historically in showing how crude even organization still was in the middle of the eighteenth centiuy, but also in the similarity to our own development in the United States. The first specifically and separate forest department was organized as a branch of the General Direction in 1770. The first educational venture was a detail by the Prussian Government of a single man in 1767 to Hans Dietrich von Zan- thier, who was the manager of the forests of the Count von Stolberg- Wemigerode in the Harz Mountains, and had evidently secured a wide reputation for his successful silviculture. This detail of the Referendar Koch curiously enough was only for a few weeks, but on Zanthier's representation that a half year was necessary to secure a thorough knowledge of forestry, his detail was extended to nine months and finally to a year. Two other such details were made, apparently without any payment to v. Zanthier. The result of his work, however, was so satisfactory and became so well known, that Zanthier's became a "celebrated forest school, from which issued many, later grown great foresters, of whom Prussia could boast." We find the counterpart of this movement in Dr. Schenck's master-school at Biltmore. About the same time another phase in educational lines de- 766 Forestry Quarterly veloped, when J. G. Gleditsch, a botanist of note, in 1770, at the Academy of Science in Berlin (later University of Berlin) was installed as professor of forestry, and especially of forest botany, in connection with the mining school. The students, as is evi- denced from several lists extant, consisted in part of officials in the forest department and other departmental clerks. A number of reports on his work exist, which show that the number of students remained small, partly because the young men had learned "that without knowledge of forestry and without examinations they could secure positions in the royal camera service." His lecture covirse consisted of three lectiu-es a week for a year, covering the "theoretical and practical part of forestry science and forest management." For this he received 100 Thaler ($73). App- parently the number of students became less and less, the list of 1779 showing only five. So poverty stricken was the poor pro- fessor and poorly treated that he had to petition the King for "three heaps of pine fuelwood" to warm his auditorium. For a volume on the "Systematic Introduction into the Newer Forest Science Derived from Its Peculiar Physico-Economic Causes," he received a gratuity of 100 Thaler. After his death in 1786, a physician, Prof. Mayer, or Meier was appointed as successor. His "short" plan of the courses on forest science, or curriculum, covers six closely printed pages, classified under 10 main headings, in which utilization occupies the lion's share. Die Anfange des forstwissenschaftlichen Unterrichts in Preussen. Zeitschrift fur Forst-und Jagdwesen, January, February, pp. 12-30, 49-72. STATISTICS AND HISTORY Conditions of British forestry appear British from a review of a book on the subject by Forestry E. P. Stebbing not so roseate as the enthusi- astic author is inclined to consider them. We quote the reviewer verbatim: "It will be with some surprise that foresters will read of the "powerful help" rendered to British Forestry by the Development Commission. "During the six years of its existence," we are informed, "It has enthusiastically taken up the forestry question." Those six years of enthusiasm have not, however, produced very much unless it be some assistance Periodical Literature 767 to forestry education. Mr. Stebbing can only point to some f otir areas in England as embodying the results of the Commission's activity, and even these do not bear close investigation. There is Liverpool, whose afforestation scheme at Lake Vyrnwy was commenced many years before the Commission came into exist- ence; the Manchester watershed, where the funds were provided by the Corporation, and where planting has been in progress for fully 20 years; there is Birmingham, which, we are told, has a "magnificent unplanted area;" Leeds is "contemplating" action; while Scotland, in spite of frequent demands, has only been given some 600 acres on the Talla catchment area. It is hinted, however, that the outbreak of war interfered with several schemes which were hatching." Quarterly Journal of Forestry. October, 1916, pp. 288-92. OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE Science, XLIV, 1916,— The Interdependence of Forest Conservation and Forestry Education. Pp. 327-37. American-Lumberinaii, 1916, — War -Time Uses of Forest Products. P. 1. Canadian Forestry Journal, XII, 1916, — The Forests of Serbia. Pp. 608-10. Forest Fire Damage from Coast to Coast. Pp. 732-3. Fire Situation on the Prairies. P. 733. Fire Season in British Columbia. Pp. 734-5. Fire Situation on Railway Lines. Pp. 736-7. These four short articles taken together give a simimary of the fire situation in the Dominion of Canada for the season 1916. Nipigon Forest Reserve — Ontario's Oasis of Real Protection. Pp. 756-8. An account of work which might well be emulated in other districts throughout the Province. 768 Forestry Quarterly Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, XFV, 1916, — The Use of Bark for Paper Specialties. Pp. 333-5. An account of experimental work carried on at the Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis. Canada Lumberman and Woodworker, 36, 1916, — Steam Logging by the Aerial Method. Pp. 30-2, Canadian Engineer, 31, 1916, — Proposed Specifications for Douglas Fir Bridge and Trestle Timbers. Pp. 57-60. Gives definitions, general requirements, and requirements for various individual parts of a bridge. This paper was presented to the American Society for Testing Materials for discussion, amendment and possible adoption at the next annual meeting. The Treatment of Wood Paving Blocks. Pp. 335-9. The author brings forward the contention, in contrast to the belief previously held, that the treatment of the blocks is a more vital consideration than the properties of the pre- servative. The Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, XXVII, 1916,— Forest Longicorn Beetles and their Parasites. Pp. 561-7. Gives information regarding the genus Phoracantha beetles, which work great destruction to the eucalyptus, the most typical tree of the Australian flora. Skogsvards Foreningens Tidskrift, XIV, September-Octo- ber, 1916,— Contains on 384 pages the detail reports of the work of the various provincial conservation boards (Lans Landstingsom- rade) for the year 1915, there being 23 such Boards. Boletin de Bosques, Pesca i Caza, III, 1915 — Contains observations on the behavior of various species of trees planted in Chile. NEWS AND NOTES Mr. Theodore S. Woolsey, Jr., writes us: "Quite a few professional foresters have mistaken my meaning in an article published in American Lumberman in 1916, entitled "Can National Forests be made Self Supporting ?" This misunderstanding was due to a number of poorly worded sentences from which it might be inferred that I thought the Forest Service was not increasing the grazing fees simply because it was playing politics. The meaning which I intended to express was that the National Administration and Congress would not permit the Department of Agriculture or the Forest Service to raise these fees because of the difficulty of convincing Western stock men and voters that it was a fair increase. The "politics" referred to was outside the Forest Service rather than within; at the same time I felt the Service, itself, had not been aggressive enough in fighting for an increase in the past. I do not impugn the motives of the Forester. It is well known that the Forester is in favor of in- creasing the grazing fees, but that he has not hit, as yet, upon the proper ways and means for accomplishing this purpose. Some of his subordinates in grazing may, on the other hand, doubt the advisability of an increase — however, this is beside the point that leads me to make this statement." Every publisher is in a quandary about the sudden rise of prices for newsprint paper, and Trade Commissions on both sides of the line are investigating the reason. And there does not seem to be a limit to paper prices reached, for according to the Secretary of the Newsprint Manufacturing Association, the indications are that after January 1, 1917, the price of wood pulp will be practi- cally double, and of chemical even three to four times what it was a year before. In answer to a circular letter from the Commission at Wash- ington, some startling statements regarding pulpwood supplies are made in a letter by Mr. Frank J. D. Barnjum, President of a ntmiber of timberland, lumber and pulpwood companies, to the Federal Trade Commission. We have been privileged to see, and have permission to divulge, its important contents. Mr. Barnjum, having for years dealt in New England timber- lands and having lately made a close canvass from township to 769 770 Forestry Quarterly township through parts of Maine, and having canvassed the situation in New York, comes to the conclusion that the exhaustion of pulpwood supplies in the two chief pulp and paper-producing States is responsible for the high price of paper. The following statements lend color to this assertion. Of the 976,200 cords of pulpwood used last year in New York, 60 per cent was imported from Canada; the cost at mill being $14 per cord for peeled and $16 for rossed wood. Forty-one mills in that State, using 367,000 cords, are without their own stumpage, and 27 mills, using 350,000 cords, will be in that condition in one to three years, depending then on the open market. On the Androscoggin River in Maine there is claimed to be only sufficient standing wood to last the mills on that river, unless drawing supplies from elsewhere, for only about two and one half years. On the Kennebec River, which is credited with a stand of 8,400,000 cords, last season's cut was 600,000 cords, indicating 14 years' supply for such a cut. On the Penobscot River, of 1,200,000 acres on the west branch nearly 90 per cent is owned by one company; the east branch is credited with an average of 5 cords or total of 3,500,000 cords to be divided up among a ntmiber of smaller mills. Taking the report of the Forest Commissioner of Maine for 1902, which claimed for Maine a little over 21 billion feet of standing supplies, and deducting what has been cut since, namely 10 billion feet, there is only about 15 years' supply left for such a cut. In a private letter Mr. Bamjum adds: "Regarding the predic- tions made by the Washington forestry authorities (Senate Document No. 40, Fifty-fifth Congress, 1898), that the timber in the East would be exhausted in fifteen to twenty years, if you deduct the amount of importations from Canada, these predictions were absolutely correct, as there has been sufficient imported from that source to just extend our supply a matter of about fifteen years, which is just about the supply that we have left. ... I marvel at the accuracy of Dr. Femow's figures!" As regards importations from Canada, Mr. Bamjum is not hopeful, for "Canada has no more timber than she needs for her own development," and it is likely that export duties will be enacted; besides, much of the pulpwood is unfavorably located. News and Notes 771 "One of the best mills in Canada today is obtaining a wood supply on a two-years' drive" and others are not certain of a sufficient supply for many years. The Dominion of Canada is out on the same inquiry : the cause of high price for newsprint paper. The question of growth is also gone into, and quite properly dismissed as having hardly any bearing on the question of present prices, net growth being a negligible quantity if occurring at all. Altogether the situation of pulpwood supplies appears decidedly appalling. In connection with the above we note that at a hearing before the Dominions Royal Commission lately Mr. Ellwood Wilson, Forester of the Laurentide Paper Company working in Quebec, is reported as having made a statement that unless more vigorous efforts are made to protect pulpwood lands from fire, the supply in the St. Lawrence Valley will be exhausted within 15 years, at present rate of consumption. In this connection also we may quote from a paper read by Prof. P. S. Lovejoy, of the University of Michigan, on pulpwood supplies before the Paper and Ptdp Association. He asserted that we did not know now within 25 per cent what our stand of saw timber is for any given region or State. [This would be, indeed, close enough !] Mr. Lovejoy urged the need of systematically growing pulpwood material which for an annual consumption of 5 million cords (we are already using 6 million) in a 50-year rotation may be secured from 100,000 to 200,000 acres each year, or, say, a reserve of only 5,000,000 acres, if the 100,000 acres to be cut can be made to produce at the rate of one cord per acre per year. There are, of cotirse, other conditions besides the waning wood- pulp supplies that tend to increase paper prices, increased demand and the disturbed market conditions and increased prices of com- modities going into paper making, as well as lack of labor and transportation due to the war. According to the Swedish Chamber of Commerce, the rise in prices may be estimated for the year : 772 Forestry Quarterly Per cent Pulpwood 30 to 60 Dyestuffs 400 Chloride of lime 1,000 Coal 400 to 500 Resin and other chemicals 300 All countries suffer in a similar manner. In connection with the rise of paper prices, the value of timber limits in Canada has also improved 100 per cent. In Quebec due to scarcity of labor the pulpwood cut is said to be reduced 50 per cent. The Germans have learned to make a textile fabric from paper with 20 per cent cotton, made into clothes. In ordinary times this would be too expensive to allow competition with the real woolen and cotton articles. It is estimated that there is enough waste from the sawmills of the Southern States alone to produce 20,000 tons of paper a day. The Canadian Northern Railway is reported to have completed a survey of the pulpwood and other resources along its line between Ottawa and Port Arthur, Ontario. The survey estimates that there are over 8,000,000 cords of pulpwood, and 25,000,000 ties available mainly within the area from which it can select the land grant given by the Province of Ontario in aid of the building of the line. What extent of area is involved in this estimate is not divulged, but from private information it would appear that the total acreage will not yield more than three cords on the average, and five cords per acre if the Jack pine lands are excluded; but under fire conditions and transportation development, as they exist today, and due to inaccessibility, on account of topography, two fifths of the apparent supply may remain unavailable, leaving an average cut on the ptdp lands of only three cords per acre. The Riordan Pulp and Paper Company are making plans for beginning forest planting on cut-over portions of their timber limits in the Province of Quebec. Arrangements have already been made for planting out about 400,000 seedlings of forest species News and Notes 773 during the season of 19 1 7 . A forest nursery is also to be developed, the capacity of which will be one million small trees each year for planting on the holdings of the company. A. C. Volkmar is the forester in charge of this work, with headquarters at St. Jovite, Quebec. In addition to the nursery and planting work, informa- tion is being collected systematically with regard to the amount of growth which is taking place on the Company's property. It is obvious that this information is very important in connection with the preparation of plans for the permanent handling of a large area of forest land, on the basis of perpetual operation. The investment involved in the erection of a pulp and paper mill is so great that a company of this kind must look far into the futiu-e, in figuring on its sources of timber supplies. The Laurentide Company and the Pejepscot Paper Company have already made a considerable showing in the direction of forest planting on their lands in Quebec, with a view to the future production of timber for the manufacture of pulp and paper. The Laurentide Company is the pioneer in this direction in Canada, its forestry work having for years been handled by Ellwood Wilson. The forestry and planting work for the Pejepscot Company are being handled under the direction of J. E. Rothery. The St. Maurice Forest Protective Association, representing some 12,000 square miles of forest property in the St. Maurice watershed, Quebec, reports only four fires set by human agency, the balance having been set by lightning, This result is ascribed to a vigorous campaign of education among settlers, river drivers, and other careless users of fires, together with a permit system for settlers and ranger work. The use of tank cars in fighting fires along railways is becom- ing more general in Canada. The Grand Trunk, Timiskaming and Northern Ontario, Canadian Government roads, and the Canadian Pacific use them. Two tank cars were installed lately by the Canadian Pacific Railway in the Muskoka district, after satisfactory experience in Maine. These comprise a single imit. On one of them is a pump, on the other the hose rack and water tanks, holding 7,000 gallons of water on each. The pump has a capacity of 400 gallons per minute. A total of 4,000 feet of 2.5- inch hose permits fires to be reached a considerable distance from the track. 774 Forestry Quarterly Canada has lost through forest fires in 1916 over nine million dollars worth of timber, more than six times the amount spent on forest protection. The big fire in Ontario's clay belt alone called for the sacrifice of 262 lives and a destruction of property estimated at six million dollars. Protection against forest fires from railroads has been effec- tually secured in Canadian chartered roads due to superior organi- zation and good will on the part of the companies in carrying out instructions from the Board of Railway Commissioners and main- taining speeder patrols. All fires discovered, some coming from outside the right of way, this year were extinguished before material damage was done. Settlers' clearing fires are now the greatest hazard. The reasonable success of the forest fire-weather warnings of the U. S. Weather Bureau forecasters of the West in 1913 and 1914, has led to an extension of the service with increased appropria- tions. Warnings of the probable occurrence of winds of sufficient velocity to be dangerous make it possible to increase fire crews, stop burning permits and take other precautionary measiu-es. As the article in this issue on fire season forecasts shows, a seasonal prediction is as yet impractical. The Bell Telephone system of New Jersey exhibits the coop- rative spirit for the protection of forests. The operators in each central office have listed among the emergency calls the names of one or more rangers who can be readily reached. Upon the report of a fire being called in, the fire warden can be communicated with without delay. In British Columbia also the telephone companies report forest fires, operators being instructed to give precedence to reports of fires. The Massachusetts Forestry Association is sending out a sensible bulletin on the White pine blister rust scare intended to alleviate the fears that White pine is doomed, that no more White pine will be planted, that the whole forestry movement will be discoiu-aged by this scare. Besides a vigorous campaign to control the disease, the proposition is made to do henceforth planting in mixture with Red pine, so that in 15 to 20 years by thinning either the White pine if infected, or the Red pine may be taken out. News and Notes 775 Recent appointments to the Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology, Bureau of Plant Industry, are as follows: Samuel B. Detwiler, formerly field superintendent of the Pennsylvania Chestnut Tree Blight Commission, to be forest inspector in charge of field work on the White pine blister rust; Reginald H. Colley, lately assistant professor of Botany in Dartmouth College, and Minnie W. Taylor, lately assistant in Botany in Brown Uni- versity, to be agents to assist Dr. Perley Spaulding in research work on the White pine blister rust. Mr. Detwiler is to have four assistants. Also about 40 field agents have been appointed for temporary periods of work on the blister rust. The field work east of Ohio is organized under the general direction of Mr. Det- wiler; west of, and including Ohio, under Mr. R. G. Pierce. Mr. S. O. Huckins,^ of Mountain View, New Hampshire, who for many years has successfully operated small woodlots under conservative methods until now his operations extend to around 10,000 acres with three mills and 100 men, participated in the Forest Conference of the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests, and has kindly furnished the following statement regarding his work : "At the recent forestry meeting held at Crawford House, ^ the writer was impressed by a group of comparatively young men who were present and taking an active part in the sessions. They were filled with sufficient enthusiasm, ability, and energy to solve any problem. I was also disappointed by the entire absence at that meeting of the many strong men who direct the harvesting of New Hampshire's forest products, for without their coopera- tion improved methods will come slowly. I feel like saying to those gentlemen, let us join hands with those men who are doing pioneer work in forest conservation, and do our work by rule and line. By so doing, you can erect a montmient, studding each hill, mountain, and valley, and every sparkling brook and crystal lake, that will challenge the approval of the present generation and receive a fervent blessing from those to follow. The papers read, lectures delivered, and rapid fire catechisms simply serve * Mr. Huckins has shown his public spirit by donating for demonstration purposes a 100-acre tract of cut-over sand-plain land to the State of New Hamshire, on which plantations of White, Red and Scotch pine have been, started in various ways. ^Conference of Soc. for Prot, of N. H. Forests. 776 Forestry Quarterly as blazed paths for us to follow. If by our careless indifference we allow those paths to become obscure, chaos will continue in our forests. Last, but not least, please remember that a free, intelligent and progressive people govern this good old Granite State. If we fail to make good, we shall lose our job. We should demand of those people reasonable taxation laws. Laws that will encourage the retention and propagation of undersized trees, those that really possess little stumpage value but if allowed to stand will soon develop a second gleaning, for in the end the bread line rather than sentiment will be the deciding factor. In 1872, the writer acquired title to 100 acres of forest land from which had been removed every tree possessing a stumpage value. There were in large numbers scattered unevenly over the lot rejected trees with short gnarled trunks and long widespreading branches, occupying small space on the groimd, but shading (which discourages the growth of small trees) a large part of it. I recall taking measurements of a section shaded by one straggling, obnoxious looking tree, and found the dimensions to be 60 by 80 feet, 4800 square feet. Think of allowing this scavenger of the forest to control sufficient, almost ideal, forest land for upwards of forty years to grow, according to approved methods of forest estimates, 4,000 feet of box grade lumber, whose stumpage value in that location is $32. I succeeded in marketing those trees for cordwood for a small margin above cost of operating. For ten years I did not cruise the lot. After that period nearly every five years I did so, removing poplar trees that mature early and a stand of matured softwood growth. This lot is now covered, without an acre of waste land, with a mixed growth of hard- and soft-wood trees in various stages of development, from which trees can be taken in large numbers and of almost ideal formation. Around this lot, although not always contiguous, I have acquired title, and applied similar treatment to 10,000 acres of forest land, removing timber in large quantities from the same. This land is in all stages of development from the entirely denuded to per- fect stands of matiu-ed growth. With approved methods of forestry there can be continuous operations on these lands without reducing the quantity of stumpage with the organization now perfected of about 60 horses and 100 men. I also note a marked change in my sentiment toward forest growth. At first, my methods were almost brutal, no matter News and Notes 777 whether it was a tree of promise or of matured growth, if there was a dollar in it I wanted it quick regardless of the damage to small trees. I now note if they are needlessly injured or destroyed I experience a feeling of pity and compassion. I have never practised tree planting, but feel certain from observing the results of others it will pay if an opportune time is taken when there is a surplus of labor. I expect to work along this line soon." Professor Retan furnishes the following data on an improve- ment cutting on the Mont Alto Forest (Pennsylvania) : In the summer of 1908 an improvement cutting was made over the Oak Knob Compartment, comprising 30 acres of a mixed coppice stand of chestnut. Rock, oak. Red maple, locust, and inferior hardwoods. A careful calipering of the entire stand before cutting gave the following as the composition and volume of the stand : Chestnut Rock Oak. . . . Other species. Number Number Volume per acre per cent per cent 148 22.5 31 133 20 14 377 57.5 55 The stand was 62 years old, 70 to 80 feet high, and had a sec- tional area of 87.5 square feet per acre. The improvement cutting was carried out under the direction of L. E, Staley, For- ester, the marking being done by the Mensuration class of the Pennsylvania State Forest Academy. All crooked, diseased, and poor trees of valuable species were marked, and as many stems of other species as was possible without too great interruption of the canopy. The cutting yielded : 264.5 cords of wood valued at $506.74 68 telephone poles " " 137.50 137 locust posts at 10-30 cents " " 42.91 Total $687.15 or $22.90 per acre gross; net about $10 per acre. In 1915, the stand was again measured by the Mensuration class of the Academy and showed the following composition: 778 Forestry Quarterly Number per acre Chestnut , 56 Rock oak 50 Other species 54 Per Av. Diam cent inches 35 11 31.2 8.5 33.8 4 + 160 The sectional area in 1915 was 87.54 square feet; practically identical with that of 1908, before the thinning was made. In eight growing seasons 160 trees had added a sectional area equal to that of the 598 trees taken out. The following note on "Cutleqf" Chestnut is furnished by Prof. Retan : In 1908, a thinning was made near "Orebank Eight" on the Mont Alto Forest in Pennsylvania. In 1913 to 1914a permanent sample plot was laid off in this area and underplanted. While collecting growth data in 1915, one of the students called my attention to the peculiar leaves of a chestnut sprout. Two or three of the sprouts of one stool bore leaves very deeply cleft. The leaves resembled those of such varieties as the cut leaf maples and birches. The sprouts were about four or five feet high, and rather dense around the stool. At the time, it seemed possible that it was only a freak and no especial attention was paid to it. But on returning to the plot this simimer (1916), it was found that the sprouts again bore the same peculiar type of leaf. The other sprouts of the stool were cut away and the sprout showing the most marked variation will be favored to ascertain if the variation be permanent, or if it be only a result of the limited food supply. The advocacy of municipal forests is bearing results, some ten cities can now be named in the United States having mimicipal forests, aggregating aroimd 150,000 acres, and it is probable that altogether 250,000 acres are under such ownership; the largest perhaps is that of Newark, New Jersey, with 22,000 acres. Hart- ford, Connecticut, owns 4,000 acres; Fall River, Massachusetts, around 4800, of which 1550 acres is fit for planting, while the Metropolitan Water Board of Boston has planted about 1800 acres of its reservations. News and Notes 779 A very readable and well illustrated article in Logging for October describes the operations in securing chicle in Mexico; the import of which material into the United States being in the neighborhood of five million pounds. The Mexican trees which are bled for the milky juice of chicle are Diospyrus ohtusijolia and Achras sapota, of the Sapodilla family, both occurring in the river forests of Mexico, especially Yucatan. Lately a new field for chicle has been found in Brazil in Mimusopa glohosa, the Bully tree. In the record of the Investigative Program of the Forest Ser- vice for 1916, there are listed 162 problems, classified under 13 main headings, which are under investigation. It is interesting to note that the lion's share (70) is still occupied by investigations of products (which at one time were considered not within the sphere of a forestry bureau). The next largest number of prob- lems concerns itself with grazing (28). Real forestry problems, to which we would count those in protection and mensuration, occupy about the same number. The problems in dendrology, tree studies (dendrology with a view to practical application) and forest types, altogether 13, belong to the forest botanical field, while the fire studies, forest influence, and other special studies nvmiber 14. It is an enormous amount of work that is here undertaken, and from the appearance of the record thoroughly organized. Such work naturally leads to specialization, which some of the forest schools should particularly be fitted to take care of. From a Bulletin of the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison it would appear that the manufactiure of ethyl alcohol from saw- dust can be accomplished profitably. If this can be done, as claimed, at 20 cents per gallon, it would be a most welcome method of using waste. Hitherto all attempts at commercial manufacture seem to have failed. For success, it is claimed large plants are needed, consiuning larger quantities than can be cheaply enough brought to the distillery. At the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin, the Forest Service is carrying on a series of tests, in cooperation with the American Society for Testing Materials and the National 780 Forestry Quarterly Association of Box Manufacturers, to show the strength of boxes of various woods and of different construction. The results of these tests show a decided need for standard classification of box woods. The demonstration machine for testing consists of a horizontal drum with 33^-foot sides, which is lined with thin steel sheets. Pieces of scantling belted to the bottom form what are known as "hazards." The boxes, filled with cans containing water, are placed in the drum, which is then rotated, the hazards causing the boxes to be carried part way around and then dropped back to the lower level in imitation of the probable treatment that would be received in shipment. Receipts from the National Forests for the fiscal year 1916 reached the highwater mark of approximately $2,820,000, being $341,000 more than for 1915, which exceeded any previous year. There seems to be an increase from all sources of revenue from these Forests, but the largest was $203,000 from timber sales. Grazing fees show a gain of $77,000 and water power development, $12,000, over 1915. Apropos of the appropriation of $3,000,000 for continuing land purchases for forestry purposes under the Weeks law, Congress was recently furnished with information to show that various States are cooperating with the government in the expenditure of money for forestry, fire protection, and watershed benefit purposes, with appropriations as follows: Maine, annual, $71,400; New Hampshire, annual, $38,800; Vermont, annual, $19,500; Massachusetts, annual, $83,000; Connecticut, total, $7,500; Rhode Island, $3,000; New York, total, $177,840; New Jersey, total, $43,000; Pennsylvania, total, $315,375; Maryland, total. $10,000; Virginia, total, $5,000; West Virginia, total, $10,000; North Carolina, total, $23,000; Tennessee, total, $3,000; Kentucky, total, $15,000; Alabama, total, $500. The Hawaii National Park, just created by Congress, is the first National Park lying outside the continental boimdaries of the United States. Located within its bounds are three Hawaiian volcanoes said to be "truly a national asset, wholly imique of their kind, the most famous in the world of science, and the most con- tinuously, variously and harmlessly active volcanoes of the earth." News and Notes 781 The recent conference of Federal and States representatives in Melbourne imanimously carried a resolution approving the es- tablishment of a central school of forestry by the Commonwealth and the States, and also that a special training school of tropical forestry should be instituted. The subject of forestry is one that is attracting increasing attention throughout Australia, and all the States are giving it serious attention, though so far small practical resvilts have been achieved. The Minister for Lands of New South Wales has annoimced his intention of submitting to his Cabinet definite forestry proposals, and he states that very shortly three million acres of State forests will be allocated. The usual annual Forest Conference imder the auspices of the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests was held September 5 to 7, at Crawford House in the White Mountains and was well attended by foresters. The main subjects discussed were the woodlot problems by Professors Roth and Toimiey, and questions of taxation. White pine blister rust. State aid in forestry, national parks, ptu-chases and policy in regard to purchases under the Weeks Law. Dr. Femow, reviewing past and forecasting future aims of the forestry movement, suggested the need of a broader, national policy, which would take the form of cooperation between federal and State governments in the acquisition and management of State forests. The Western Forestry and Conservation Association held a two-day session in Portland, Oregon, October 24 and 25, followed by a two-day session of the Pacific Logging Congress. Mr. W. B. Greeley gave the leading address, discussing the assistance which the Forest Service is giving the Itunber industry and re- citing statistical information. Post-bellum possibilities were discussed by Dr. Pratt, of the United States Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, arguing for a great boom to fill a deficit of the European countries of $800,000,000 worth of Itmiber. In a bulletin of the United States Geological Survey on "The Flora of the Fox Hills Sandstone in Northeastern Colorado," Mr. F. H. Knowlton concludes from floral remains that in early geological times this region was forested, the remains showing two species of Sequoia, two yew-like trees, a fig, a tree related to 782 Forestry Quarterly the wax myrtle, a tree like the buckthorn, a relative of black haw, and some other land plants. It is evident from these species that in those times, before the Rocky Mountains came into existence, the climate of this comer was totally different. Another bulletin from the Survey, by Watson and Berry, brings floral evidence that the climate of certain parts of Mississippi at one time was tropical in character, date palms, tropical myrtle and fig having been found in the remains, as well as bones of camels. The Executive Committee of The New York State Forestry Association at a meeting held at the Hotel Ten Eyck, Albany, New York, October 4, issued the following statement. "The Executive Committee of The New York State Forestry Association urges every public spirited citizen of New York State to approve the Meier $10,000,000 referendum providing funds for the purchase of land in the Adirondack, Catskill and Palisade Parks at the November election." The following facts were cited in favor of its adoption by the people : 1. The purchase of Mountain land in the Adirondack and Catskill Parks has proved to be one of the few profitable invest- ments ever made by the Empire State since the present holdings coiild be sold for some five times the original purchase price. 2. The use of these mountain lands is of increasing value to the State not only from the standpoint of recreation value, but also from their importance in conserving the run-off of mountain streams. 3. By properly and systematically locating the purchase areas, present holdings could be consolidated to a large degree. In addition, lands in danger of denudation or partially burned lands could be brought under State control and so handled as to make them an asset to the State. Members of the Executive Committee, however, expressed it as their firm conviction that in view of the possibilities of extensive land purchases in the Adirondack and Catskills, the Conservation Commission should enunciate a clear cut policy for the manage- ment of forest land both public and privately owned with the idea of avoiding any possible hardships to present owners. They also stated it to be their belief that a thorough boundary survey and stock-taking of the present holdings were extremely important, since such surveys in the past have been largely ocular estimates News and Notes 783 owing to the lack of funds, and which are likely to be only approximate. Mr. Victor A. Beede, Assistant State Forester of New Hampshire, has been elected Executive Secretary of the Associa- tion, with headquarters at the Chamber of Co nmerce Building, Syracuse, New York. Mr. Beede is a graduate of Yale University, the Yale Forest School. Following his graduation he visited France, Germany and Switzerland and observed the forest practice in those countries. He has served as Forester and Assistant Secretary of the Massachusetts Forestry Association, and as Forest Assistant on the Pike National Forest in Colorado. Mr. Beede will take up his new position on November 1. During the past summer the forestry department of Iowa State College took its sophomore students on a three months' study excursion of several thousand miles through the Western forests under guidance of the faculty. For the most time the party camped with its own outfit; the longest camp, of three weeks' duration, being made at Columbia National Forest in Washington* Lvimber manufacturers* associations and lumbermen have cooperated cordially with the New York State College of Forestry in supplying wood panels for the rotimda of the College. Panels of the native hard- and softwoods of the home State occupy the central place, the more important commercial woods from the Western States and from foreign countries, for example, such woods as African gaboon. East Indian koa, rosewood, satinwood, camphor wood, teak, Circassian walnut and different kinds of mahogany, being grouped along the walls. Labels with common and scientific names of the woods have not been forgotten. The farm woodlots in the United States are said to contain about 10 per cent of the standing timber in the coimtry, and the annual value of the products to be over 195 million dollars. The selling of lumber in short lengths for odd jobs is gradually becoming established. A company is reported as having been formed at Portland, imder the name of the Miniature Lumber Company, to supply departmental stores with cabinets for the display of such lumber. 784 Forestry Quarterly Balsa (Ochroma logopus) is a tropical American tree having a very soft wood that the Missouri Botanical Garden has shown is only about half as heavy as cork. This wood is being used in life-rafts, life-belts and for buoys of various kinds, and is claimed to be preferable to cork in other respects as well as in lightness. The manufacture of dyes from the waste of osage orange wood is becoming a commercial success as a result of investigations carried on by the Forest Products Laboratory, at Madison, Wisconsin. Carloads of the wood are now being shipped to Eastern extract plants from Oklahoma, and the dye is being produced at the rate of about $750,000 per year. Before the estabhshment of this industry the waste of oSage orange wood had no market value and the extract plants were importing dyewood from Mexico and Central America. The St. Paul and Tacoma Ltunber Company recently purchased from the General Vehicle Company a second and improved electric lumber tractor. The first machine has been in constant use for about one year and has given excellent results. The tractors, being operated by storage batteries, do not constitute a fire menace to the lumber plant, and the charging current being taken from the mill's Hghting plant, the cost of power is almost nil. It is said the two tractors will displace 13 or 14 horses, effecting within a short time a saving that will pay for the entire investment. According to the factory records, the average length of life of electric tractors is 10 years. A correspondent in the Gardeners* Chronicle states that "Perhaps the largest, certainly the most remarkable, Catalpa in London is that known as Bacon's Catalpa. It is growing near the center of Gray's Inn gardens, and has a tablet attached which bears the following words: 'Catalpa tree said to have been planted by Francis Bacon when Master of the Walks, Anno Domini 1598.' The tree is of unusual appearance owing to having been partly uprooted many years ago. The stem, which is 18 inches in diam- eter, rests on the groimd for about 9 feet of its length, and has, fortunately, been well preserved by filling up the diseased and hollow portions with cement, while the far-spreading, heavy branches have been supported by props and thus prevented from News and Notes 785 breaking away from the main stem. Though there are some dead and dying branches on the tree, yet its general heahh is good, and, shovild no accident befall it, will live for many years to perpetuate the memory of the great writer. It produced flowers abimdantly in 1909. "On the opposite side of the gardens is a seedling from Bacon's tree, which has far surpassed the parent both in size and beauty of appearance. This noble specimen has a branch spread of 60 feet in diameter. From the main trunk, which is about 2 feet across, three great limbs have been sent out, and altogether the tree is in a healthy, thriving condition." We regret to state that Mr. H. R. MacMillan, who was re- sponsible for the excellent organization of the British Columbia Forest Branch, has resigned to accept the position as Assistant Manager of the Victoria Lumber and Manufacturing Company, at Chemainus, B. C, one of the largest lumber concerns on the Pacific Coast. The provincial government and the cause of forestry are losers, although we dare say Mr. MacMillan will not forget his forestry training and will eventually be again a power for good. We record that the old, and favorably known, firm of Thomas Meehan and Son, nurserymen, have discontinued the seed busi- ness which department has been taken over by Thomas J. Lane, of Dresher, Pennsylvania, who in his first fall price list promises to continue "the same honorable policies of my past employers." We note that White pine seed at $L50 is now cheaper than Scotch pine ($1.75), but that Red pine is still quoted at $6.25. The following announcement by Secretary H. A. Reynolds, of the Massachusetts Forestry Association, whose headquarters are at 4 Joy Street, Boston, Massachusetts, may be of interest to our readers : Owing to lack of space in our offices, it has become necessary to dispose of scores of duplicate bulletins, booklets, etc., on prac- tically every subject relating to trees and forestry. Some of these are valuable and we should be glad to have you call and look them over, or write for bulletins on any particular subject. They are yours for the taking. We shall hold them 30 days for you, after which time they will be disposed of. 786 Forestry Quarterly Representative Albert Johnson, of Washington, in the last session of Congress introduced a bill (H. R. 528) to discontinue the use of the Fahrenheit thermometer scale in government publi- cations, substituting the centigrade scale. It is, of course, ex- pected that if the government changes, all the people would change; the change is proposed to take place after January 1, 1920. It is strange that the irrational Fahrenheit scale, which was discredited in the country of its inventor, should have been adopted by the English-speaking nations. But for the momentum of established usage, we would expect Great Britain to follow this example, especially now since hatred of everything German is the order of the day. PERSONALITIES 1. Northeastern United States and Eastern Canada Howard B. Waha was married on September 30 to Miss Henrietta Alcorn, of Ravenna, Ohio. G. Harris CoUingwood was married on September 1 to Miss Jean Cummings, of Centerville, Mich. Seward Smith has succeeded G. H. Gutches as head of the New York State Ranger School, who has re-entered the service of the Dominion Forestry Branch. R. R. Chaffee has resigned his position as Professor of Lumbering at Penn State to enter the employ of the Wheeler and Dusenberry Lumber Company , Endeavor, Pa., as forest engineer. WiUiam A. McDonald, for three years Assistant Professor of Extension in the New York State College of Forestry, has resigned to engage in business at Owasso, Mich. Theodore Salisbury Woolsey, Jr., is substituting for Chapman at the Yale Forest School during the latter's absence on Sabbatical leave. John A. Sweigert has left the D. & H. and is with the B. P. I. on blister rust work in Massachusetts. On November 1, Victor A. Beede, hitherto Assistant State Forester of New Hampshire, became permanent Executive Secretary of the New York State Forestry Association, with headquarters at the Syracuse Chamber of Com- merce, Syracuse, N. Y. Ralph C. Bryant spent the summer in the West, getting in touch with the lumber situation. H. H. Chapman is taking his Sabbatical leave this winter, resuming work with the senior class at Urania, La., in March. He is spending part of the time in Miimesota and the remainder in the Southwest, where Mrs. Chapman will go for her health. H. M. Curran is helping Whitford of Yale in getting the tropical forestry work started at the School of Forestry. Lansing T. Shumway (Biltmore, 1912) and Miss Lucile Adelia Neilson, of Stillwater, N. Y., were married on June 24. Carl H. Nye (Biltmore, 1911) and Miss Madeline Marie Neal, of Waterbury, Conn., were married on August 5. Donald P. White (Biltmore, 1911) and Miss Marjorie Crane Sisson, of Potsdam, N. Y., were married on August 19. The name of G. E. Bothwell, graduate (1913) of the Toronto Forest School, appeared in the Canadian casualty lists as "missing so long, believed killed," but is now known as killed. K. B. Downie and F. G. Stupart, undergraduates in the Toronto Forest School, have been killed in action with the Canadian troops in France. Capt. Alan Edward Parlow (B. Sc. F., Toronto, 1913), of the 11th Sherwood Foresters, B. E. F., France, was married to Grace Lee Ryan, of Victoria, B. C, in London in September, on leave of absence from the front. Capt. Parlow before enlistment at the outbreak of the war was employed in forestry work in British Columbia for the Dominion Forestry Branch. 787 788 Personalities Word has been received just as we go to press that Lieut. J. D. Aiken has been killed in action with the British Forces in France. Lieut. Aiken was a graduate of last year's class at the Forest School of the University of Toronto, Ellwood Wilson, Jr., who studied forestry and engineering at Cornell and McGill Universities, has enlisted with the 242nd Forestry Battalion, C. E. P., and has been given a commission as lieutenant. Dr. J. S. Bates, Superintendent of the Forest Products Laboratories, at Montreal, Quebec, has left for Shawinigan Falls to assist the Imperial Govern- ment in the production of chemical products needed in munitions manufacture. Dr. Bates is "loaned" to the Imperial Government by the Dominion Govern- ment for the period of the war. W. B. Campbell, Assistant Superintendent, who has been to the front for the past twelve months, has returned to take up the duties of Dr. Bates until his return. 2. Southern United States Samuel B. Detwiler is in charge of the field work of the Bureau of Plant Industry in detection of the White pine blister rust, Lincoln Crowell has resigned from the Indian office, where he was in charge of the work on the Cherokee Indian Reservation, N. C, and, with his brother, has purchased a farm at Sandwich, Mass. James O. Hazard has sold his farm at Tuckahoe to the Dupont Powder Company and has purchased another at Uhlerstown, Pa., opposite French- town on the Delaware. H. J. Kaestner, Forester for the Department of Forestry, Game and Fish, of West Virginia, has resigned to enter the employ of the William M. Lloyd Lumber Company of Philadelphia. 3. Central United States William G. Baxter resigned from the Forest Service on September 1. He is farming in Iowa. Stephen Klem has resigned from the faculty of the Michigan Agricultural College and is now agent for the Provident Life and Trust Company, with an ofi&ce at East Lansing, Mich. 4. Northern Rockies. Bartle T. Harvey has opened an oflSce at Missoula, Mont., as consulting forest entomologist. William M. Mace has been promoted from Deputy Supervisor to Supervisor of the Dixie National Forest, with headquarters at St. George, Utah. 5. Southwest, Including Mexico Thomas McCullough has resigned from the Forest Service and is now with Babbett Bros, of Flagstaff, Ariz. Emanuel Fritz has been transferred from Missoula to the Fort Valley Experiment Station at Flagstaff, Ariz. John D. Guthrie has been elected as a member of the executive committee of the Northern Arizona Game Protective Association. Clifford W. McIGbbin has resigned from the Forest Service. He was forest examiner in the District office of Silviculture. Forestry Quarterly 789 Athol A. Wynne, long-time lumberman in the District office, has resigned from the Forest Service. 6. Pacific Coast, including Western Canada. R. M. Evans has been promoted from Deputy Supervisor to Supervisor of the Whitman National Forest, succeeding the late Henry Ireland. Richard M. Brown (Biltmore, 1912) and Miss Dorothy Davies, of Seattle, Wash., were married on Jvdy 29. Geo. T. McCaskie, Jr. (Biltmore, 1911), and Miss Jane Heilman, of Portland, were married May 10. John P. Van Orsdel has been appointed to the position of Professor of Logging Engineering in the School of Forestry at the Oregon State College. C. H. Morse, Assistant Inspector in the Forestry Branch at Alberta, has enhsted with the 224th Forestry Battalion. C. P. Willis, forest examiner in the District office, has resigned from the Forest Service. COMMENT We do not apologize for publishing in one number, the last of this journal, three articles by the same author, which were received during the summer and bear testimony not only to the assiduity, but to various other virtues of the author. Mr. H. R. MacMillan, until recently the efficient Chief of the Forest Branch of British Columbia, as Special Commissioner of the Dominion Department of Trade, spent a year in making a tour of the world to investigate market conditions and possibilities of extending Itunber exports from the Dominion, While on this mission, Mr. MacMillan found time not only to inform himself on the general forestry situation in the various countries he visited, but to record his facts and findings in a series of articles for the readers of the Quarterly, giving insight into forestry conditions in Ireland, India, South Africa, and certain phases in France. Written while still under the fresh impression of personal visit, with a singularly comprehensive grasp and rare critical judgment of the situations inspected, these articles are classics, and models of live reporting. Our readers will find them not only full of interest in the account of what other people are doing, but suggestive and helpful in shaping our own policies. It is with great regret we have to record that, since his return, Mr. MacMillan has left the Forest Branch which he had so effi- ciently organized, to accept the position of Assistant Manager of one of the largest companies in British Columbia, the Victoria Limiber and Manufacturing Company. He thus in his own person illustrates his remark, speaking of the liberality of the British government, that "the lack of a defined salary policy on the part of many governments ... is certain to render difficult the holding of the best men. ' ' Such men are gobbled up by private employers when they are recognized. The English governments in their dependencies certainly compensate their officials on a scale, including a pension, which binds them permanently to their work and gives them a certainty of their future, entirely lacking in American public service on either side of the line. It appears that our forecast made on page 358, regarding ups and downs in the forestry movement in China, was to be realized sooner than expected. It appears that the friendly Minister 790 Comment 791 Chow-Tsz-chi resigned about the time we made reference to him, and has been succeeded by various ministers who have shown less ardor in advancing the forestry movement; indeed, attempts to discontinue the small beginnings of a forest service were made by more than one of them, and this may have been accompHshed by this time. Meanwhile, we bring in translation the very wording of the Chinese forestry laws, kindly prepared for us by Mr. Sherfesee. LIDGERWOOD SKIDDERS CONTENTS Amiouncement --------- 565 Errata ----------- 566 Some Suggestions on the Control of Mistletoe in the National Forests of the Northwest - - 567 By James R. Weir. Some Characteristics of Slash Pine ----- 578 By Wilbur R. Mattoon. National Forest Organization ------ 589 By .S. W. Wynne. Fire-Season Forecasts on a California Forest - - 595 By R. W. Ayres. Conversion Methods — ^A Visit to the Forests of Chaiix and Faye de la Montrond, France - - 599 By H. R. MacMillan. Passing Views of Forestry in British South Afric>^ -\ ri^^:..^. ^,f*»-«^-:•^■^J•^f'■< .. , litf f^- i,**- ' ■■ i'^- - ^'^'' ^^ --'^i " ^ "^ ^ .."^ ^. *''-^%^'^--^ -f^^ '^'^^'^'fv^^^ - z^^-^^J^ *^' ■ %J '*« ? ■< . ♦' ^\:. m^. ^e ^tl^ :**J^.**» .3%<¥?^<^: i.-*^ -^^'%.t 4 ;/--*%: V