UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN A0RIC'""™'0' S^S iS" Ubrary Ma,eri8,S' The — *• 'or The person charging this material is responsible for on ortUhnf f° tH.e "I5rary fr°m Wh'Ch » -s'withdrawn on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining ot books are renonn. #«, m nary action and may result in dLissaMrom'he Unjversl P To renew call Telephone Center, 333-8400 univers'»V • - L161— O-I096 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign http://wwW.archive.org/details/forestryresearch7084univ ■ FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry agricultural experiment station university of Illinois at urbana-champaign No. 70-1 CO a THE 1969 ILLINOIS FOREST INSECT SITUATION The Library ol j/\jAiiiustS"5970 University oi eX Urbana-Champa sects in Illi- i )ort summarizes r sst insects en- N0* 70-84* European pine sawfly larvae at work Major Destructive Insects Defoliators The European pine sawfly was more abundant than in any year since 1960. Although the total acreage infested is not known, heavy defoliation occurred over the entire range of this species in Illinois. The lack of any evidence of latent virus infection in a number of populations sampled suggests that an even more ser- ious situation is possible in 1970. c FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT agricultural experiment station department of forestry university of Illinois at urbana-champaign No. 70-1 THE 1969 ILLINOIS FOREST INSECT SITUATION The Library of the J/\[Ai6ust$75970 University 01 et Urban3-Cham::: R. G. Rennels Associate Professor of Forestry Organized observation and reporting of destructive forest insects in Illi- nois was continued in 1969 for the ninth consecutive year. This report summarizes information supplied by field cooperators on the status of the forest insects en- countered by field cooperators in the state. European pine sawfly larvae at work Major Destructive Insects Defoliators The European pine sou fly was more abundant than in any year since 1960. Although the total acreage infested is not known, heavy defoliation occurred over the entire range of this species in Illinois. The lack of any evidence of latent virus infection in a number of populations sampled suggests that an even more ser- ious situation is possible in 1970. / -2- The loblolly pine sawfly was not reported. This insect has been present in small numbers for several years in southern Illinois. The Virginia pine sawfly was reported from two plantations in central Illi- nois. In one plantation where this species has been present for a number of years, the larvae were virus-infested. Little incidence of the virus disease, however, was observed, suggesting that stress conditions did not favor the development of the di- sease. Little population change is anticipated in 1970. The white pine sawfly was reported from one plantation but was not detected in several others where it has occurred in small numbers over the past ten years. No change in the population status of this species is anticipated in 1970. It should oe emphasized, however, that increased planting of white pine for Christmas tree production may contribute to a greater prevalence of this insect in theyears ahead. Should oubreaks occur, the two possible generations a year in Illinois could result in heavy defoliation. The red-headed pine sawfly was reported from as far south as Marion County to the Wisconsin border. Infestations were controlled by spot spraying with mala- thion or sevin. Although this sawfly will probably continue to be widespread but at low population levels in 1970, it should be kept under close scrutiny because of its two-generation-a-year reproductive cycle and its ability to cause extensive de- foliation. Certainly infestations that might follow the European pine sawfly could be extremely damaging. Bagworms were more frequently observed and reported on pines in 1969 than in several earlier years. Of particular concern was bagworm damage of a nondefoli- ating character, especially on white pine in Christmas tree plantations and highway beautifi cation plantings. Heavy feeding of \/ery young bagworms on thin branch and leader bark of white pine resulted in resin accumulation and branch dessication. Such damage could easily result in branch flagging or in leader death. This type of feeding injury when combined with later needle feeding, can result in severely re- tarded trees or contribute to mortality of small trees. Growers are urged to spot damaging populations early so that control measures can be taken before appreciable damage occurs. Terminal Feeders European pine shoot moth and the Zimmerman pine moth continue to cause great concern. In Illinois red pine is the preferred host of the European pine shoot moth. Infestations of both of these insects were heavier in 1969 than in any year since 1962. Both will be of even greater concern in 1970 unless natural resis- tance factors materially reduce overwintering populations. The pales weevil continued to plague Christmas tree producers. Unless cut stumps are treated or natural control factors lower population levels, we can ex- pect this weevil to be more prevalent each year. Population levels and damage will bear a direct relationship to the number and size of stumps provided for breeding sites. Two large growers in the state are known to have treated stumps following the 1969 Christmas tree harvest. The Nantucket pine tip moth maintained its usual rather widespread and high population status In southern Illinois. One Christmas tree producer is considering spraying in 1970 in an effort to reduce damage by this species. -3- Forest Insects of Lesser Importance Under certain circumstances insects that generally are considered to be of relatively minor importance may assume roles of considerable importance. Occasion- ally some of these insects simply experience ideal conditions for multiplication and cause heavy localized damage. Furthermore, with more forest land being devoted to private and public recreation, scenic beautifi cation, wooded estates, and wooded subdivisions, many of these insects are becoming noticed. As human populations con- tinue to increase the nontimber values of forests will also increase. With increased use of forest land for nontimber purposes, many heretofore forest insect species will become of greater concern. It is important, therefore, that surveillance of these insects be intensified. Ips spp. continued to cause a problem in older pine stands where mortality is occurring and where Fomes annosus has been identified or suspected. Serious dam- age and tree mortality can result in Christmas tree plantations that are close to older stands with heavy Ips infestations. Ips and several other forest insect prob- lems can be minimized by establishing Christmas tree plantations and nurseries so that they are isolated from older coniferous stands and ornamentals. The pine tortoise scale was encountered in one Scotch pine plantation in northern Illinois. This is the first record of this insect in a Christmas tree plantation in the state. Vine needle scale infestations continued to cause some concern, especially in young white pine stands. Christmas tree growers are advised to destroy heavily infested single trees or to spot-spray pockets of scale-infested trees. This in- sect may seriously affect the merchantability of Christmas trees before major phy- siological damage is evident. The forest tent caterpillar , although present in southern Illinois for sev- eral years, was not reported outside the area kept under surveillance by the U. S. Forest Service. Some 9,000 acres were reported infested in 1969 on the Shawnee Na- tional Forest. Walnut caterpillars were reported frequently in 1969. Field observations, however, indicated that this species, as well as catalpa worms, eastern tent cater- pillars, fall web worms, and several other hardwood defoliators were present in their usual numbers. The sycamore tussock moth was observed at one isolated location in outbreak numbers. An acre of 25-year-old sycamore was completely defoliated by mid- September. An adjacent plantation of European larch was extensively defoliated. Red oak, black cherry, and multi flora rose in the understory of the sycamore stand were also heavily attacked. The larch sawfly , first reported in Illinois in 1964, continues to be en- countered in scattered plantations in northern Illinois. Larch is not produced by the state nurseries or extensively planted for timber purposes in Illinois. In view of this, the larch sawfly is largely of academic interest at the present time. The larch casebearer, for the first time on record in Illinois, caused heavy defoliation on 19-year-old European larch. The present relatively minor importance of both the larch casebearer and larch sawfly could change in the future. -4- The -pine tube moth has been present in the state, especially in northern Illinois, for many years. In 1969 heavy infestation was observed in a white pine plantation in central Illinois. A similar heavy infestation in a Christmas tree plantation would be cause for concern because it could affect the salability of trees. Although the pine tube moth is not expected to assume major importance, growers should become familiar with it. Extensive planting of pure white pine stands for Christmas trees could contribute to an increase in the prevalence of this insect. Persimmon and other twig girdlers , ordinarily a concern only when trees in landscape or recreational settings are attacked, were reported somewhat more fre- quently than in the past. Cooperators are encouraged to check seedling and sap- ling hardwood reproduction for the presence and activity of twig girdling and branch pruning forest insects, as they are in part responsible for some of the poorly formed trees that occur in older timber stands. The cypress needle gall as well as numerous other gall -producing insects were apparently highly favored by conditions in 1969. Inner bark and wood-boring insects attacking hardwoods are rarely reported. Often these insects are not seen, and if damage to trees, logs, or lumber is found, the damage may not be associated with the insect species responsible. It should be recognized that insects in this category cause a vast amount of damage and degrade annually in grazed, burned, and generally mismanaged or overmature hardwood forests of Illinois and other central states. Reducing damage by many of the insects in this category can only come about over time by correcting forest practices and thereby gradually converting over-age decadent stands into young and vigorously growing well -managed forests. RGR:dh 8-5-70 FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry J agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 70-2 August 1970 RECOMMENDED SPRAY FORMULATIONS FOR INSECT OUTBREAKS IN ILLINOIS CHRISTMAS TREE PLANTATIONS R. G. Rennels Associate Professor of Forestry The Library of JAK 6- 1975 unnwrany oi Ia at Urbana-Champaf-jn Chemica their use will age unless brou ally by applyin of a plantation strongly advise sects, merely vised. Needles environment, an 1 insecticides s reduce an insect ght under immedi g chemicals to i , instead of the d. The use of c as a preventive s spraying costs d may contribute hould be used in Christmas tree plantations only when population which is certain to cause excessive dam- ate control. When control can be achieved economic- ndividual infested trees or to the infested portions broadcast application of insecticides, this is hemical spray formulations against destructive in- practice in Christmas tree plantations, is not ad- money, unnecessarily adversely modifies the to more serious problems than those solved. Spray formulation Insect Amount/100 gals, water Amount/gal. water Recommendations Sawflies 4 lbs. 25% ma lath ion wettable powder 2 lbs. Carbaryl (sevin) 50% wettable powder 4 tablespoonfuls 2 tablespoonfuls Apply as soon as possible after eggs hatch; usually from early April to the first of May in Illinois. Bagworms 1 qt. 50% malathion emulsifiable concentrate or 4 lbs. 25% malathion wettable powder or 2 lbs. carbaryl (sevin) 50% wettable powder 2 teaspoonfuls 4 tablespoonfuls 2 tablespoonfuls Apply at time of egg hatch- ing— mid-April to mid-May depending upon latitude and local weather condi- tions. Delayed applica- tion delays effective- ness. European pine shoot moth* 1 qt. dimethoate 2E emulsion or 1/2 gal. (BHC), benzene hexachloride (emulsifi- able concentrate con- taining 2 lbs. chemical per gallon) 2 teaspoonfuls 2 teaspoonfuls Timing of application is extremely important. Ap- ply in mid-April or late June to coincide with the external or exposed feed- ing of larvae. -2- Insect Spray formulation Amount/100 gals, water Amount/gal, water Recommendations Pales weevil 16 tablespoonfuls of 48% aldrin Apply to the point of run- off on surface, sides, and root collar of stumps fol- lowing Christmas tree har- vest. In addition, treat soil 4 inches around each stump. Zimmerman pine moth* Use same spray formulations as for the European pine shoot moth. Spray in mid-April or in early August. Thorough coverage including branch and trunk surfaces is ex- tremely important. Nantucket pine moth* Use same spray formulations as for the European pine shoot moth. Apply in mid-April and mid- June. Additional spray applications may be nec- essary with heavy infesta- tions. Grass- hoppers 2 lbs. carbaryl (sevin) 50% wettable powder or 1 qt. 50% malathion emulsifiable concen- trate 2 tablespoonfuls Spray when grasshoppers arc first observed. Spray trees and grass or weeds adja- cent to and within planted areas. Aphids and scale insects 1 qt. 50% malathion emulsifiable concentrate 2 teaspoonfuls Spray aphids when first ob- served and scale insects when in the crawler stage. Spider mites 2 lbs. 15% Aramite wettable powder 1 teaspoonful Treatment is effective for several weeks. Thorough coverage of needles, buds, and branches is essential. *Please note that the insecticides recommended for the European pine shoot moth, Zimmerman pine moth, and the Nantucket pine moth have undergone limited testing. It is believed that they will be reasonably effective, although further testing is needed to establish the percentage of control that may reasonably be expected. Caution: All chemical insecticides are poisonous. You are warned to avoid inhaling dust or spray materials. Carefully read container labels and absolutely follow all safety instructions. Use according to directions and store out of the reach of children. -3- References Material presented in this paper has been adapted in part from the follow- ing publications: Butcher, J. W. , and Carlson, R. B. 1962. Zimmerman pine moth biology and control. Jour. Econ. Ent. 55(5) : 668-671 . Carlson, R. B., and L. F. Wilson. 1967. Zimmerman pine moth. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Forest Pest Leaflet 106, 6pp. Graham, S. A., and F. B. Knight. 1965. Principles of Forest Entomology. 4th ed. , McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. Janes, R. L, J. W. Butcher, and W. F. Morofsky. 1962. Christmas tree insect con- trol. Mich. State Univ. Ext. Bui. 353, 42pp. RGRrdh 8-6-70 AGRic<^Zm FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT agricultural experiment station department of forestry university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 70-3 October, 1970 PITCH PINE X LOBLOLLY HYBRID PINES- -MIXED RESULTS FROM 7 -YEAR- OLD MID1VESTERN PLANTATIONS Calvin F. Bey and Ralph W. Lorenz1 The Library o1 JAN 6 - 1975 University 01 ct Urbana-Charrr. . The superiority of pitch pine x loblolly pine {Pinus rigida Mill, x Pinus taeda L.) hybrid over either parent has been clearly demonstrated in Korea. There the hybrid has the fast growth and good quality of loblolly pine and the cold hardiness and high adaptability of pitch pine.- In 1962 a study was begun to compare the performance of pitch pine, loblolly pine, and the pitch x loblolly hybrid (hereafter referred to as the "hybrid") in several midwestern states. Loblolly pine is cies, but it is western states a ness of pitch pi on the Coastal Delaware south west to Texas, native to the mi curs primarily i from northern Ge a desirable timber spe- not native to the mid- nd lacks the cold hardi- ne. It grows primarily Plain and Piedmont from to central Florida and Neither is pitch pine dwestern states. It oc- n the Appalachian area-- orgia to central Maine. The hybrid seed used in this study came from crosses made at College Forest, Suwon, Korea. Trees in a pitch pine plantation (of unknown source) in Korea were used as the female parents. The pollen came from loblolly pine trees in the United States, also of unknown ori- gin. The pitch pine seed for this study came from open pollinated trees in the same Korean pitch pine plantation that pro- duced the hybrids. The loblolly pine seed came from Arkansas. Seedlings were grown at the Union State Tree Nursery and the 1-0 stock was lifted and out- planted in the spring of 1962. All conclusions and implications of re- sults from this study are limited by the minimal knowledge on the parentage of the seedlings. No attempt is made to call the seedlings representative of the parent populations. Plantings were made in nine abandoned fields in four states in the spring of 1962 (Table 1). Brush was removed from all sites before planting. In Iowa, the areas were plowed, disced, and sprayed with 4 lbs. (actual ingredient) of sima- zine per acre before planting. All plantings except those in Ogle and Piatt Counties, Illinois were on a S to W as- pect on a 0 to 13 percent slope. The trees were spaced 7x7 feet. There were 3 replications of 49-tree plots at each site. Only the 25 trees in the middle part of each plot were measured. :Plant Geneticist, U.S. Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station, Carbondale, Illinois (Field Office maintained in cooperation with Southern Illinois University); and Professor of Forestry, University of Illinois. • Hyun , S. K. Teil 2, Band 1962. 2 'pp. Improvement of pines through hybridization. IUFRO Proc. 13, -2- CO i- o3 <1J >- CU +-> 4- < Q- -o s- -Q c 03 -O O u +-> D_ 4- O O -a c 03 03 > > S- =5 C/1 o •I— +-> 03 CJ o _l I I CO i- JD. 03 •r— Q JO O 03 > > 03 Q O 03 > > •r- Q 03 > > 3 OJ -a z? 4-> 4-> to -I— cu en cu .sz -a +-> rs s_ +-> o -i- ^ +-> o •I— 4-> 03 +■> 03 to JZ 4-> CD O) cu u cu Q_ to CU O c +-> CU CU CU O s_ QJ to OJ JZ (_> +-> CU cu CU s- CU Q_ CO CU a; s_ CD CU Q to CU CU &- en CU CD CU +-> 03 +-> OO >1 s= Zi o o CO CO C\J OJ OO CTi «3- CXI r^ i — cr> cr> cm r-^ co cnj r— CO to co en en en co CD en CD CO co CNJ to O en CD CT. CO CO co to •r— o o to cu j*: a. u o 03 CM CO LD ro LD CD CM CM CD o CD CM -=3" CM CD CM ro CTl in co CD CD O CO o CO CO ro CO CO CO o o in CO CM CM CD o CD en co CD CT) co CTi CD CM co CT» CM in o o m co co CD CO CT. CO CM CO CD CO CO CTi co CO 03 03 CTl CO to o CT> CO o *3- to o o co CTi CO «5» r— r— "O r— O i- 03 * 03 i— O S- cu D_ CU CU 03 CD z u o 03 CU CU O to c _c o CD co CD CM CO CO i — r— CTi CT CTi CTi CTi CM m o LD LD CO CTiCOr^-cOcor^cDcDro l i— t— l— i— r— CM CM r— ^-COCTiCDCDCMCOCOO CTiCTiCOCTiCOCT.1— CDCO CO CO CTi CO CTi 5 to o c O r— CU CD o 03 CU +-> to S- 4- cu QJ O +J o o CU i- cu to -a cu cu -3- RESULTS After 7 years under a variety of climat- ic conditions, it appears that the hy- brid is as hardy as pitch pine. The survival of the hybrid and pitch pine was generally good to excellent in all outplantings except in Ogle County, Illinois. There survival was 21 percent for the hybrid and 37 percent for pitch pine. Most mortality occurred during the first 2 years. At about the same latitude in Johnson County, Iowa, both the hybrid and pitch pine had excellent survival --91 and 85 percent, respective- ly. The Johnson County, Iowa site had weed control the first year and growth is much better than the Ogle County, Illinois site. Survival of loblolly pine was good for all plantings south of the 39th parallel and generally poor for all plantings north of the 39th parallel. The one ex- ception was Lee County, Iowa (survival 76 percent), where weeds were controlled for one year. In the plantings south of the 39th par- allel, loblolly pine was tallest fol- lowed by the hybrid and then pitch pine (Fig. 1). In the plantings north of the 39th parallel, the hybrid was as tall or taller than loblolly and pitch, with the exception of Piatt County, Illinois, where loblolly pine was tallest. Growth of loblolly pine and the hybrid general- ly decreased from south to north. The height and diameter of pitch pine did not appear to vary with latitude. The hybrid is generally a stockier tree than loblolly or pitch pine. In all plantings except the one in Pope County, Illinois, the height/diameter ratio is greater for loblolly than for the hy- brid. In six of the plantings, the height/diameter ratio is greater for pitch than for the hybrid. In the southe County, Illinois brid trees were None of the lob damaged. Damag holes to almost 2) . All damage a during the 7th y damage becomes tions, the "val be very low. A watched for this future. rnmost planting, Pope , 85 percent of the hy- riddled by sapsuckers. lolly or pitch pine was e ranged from only a few complete girdling (Fig. ppeared to have occurred ear. If this type of typical in all planta- ue" of the hybrid might 11 plantations should be type of damage in the CONCLUSION This experiment suggests that loblolly pine from Arkansas is hardy enough to be planted as far north as the 39th paral- lel in the midwestern United States; yet some low temperature damage should be expected during periods of unseasonably low temperatures in the northern fringes of these areas. Loblolly pine outgrew the hybrid and pitch pine in height south of the 39th parallel; conversely, the hybrid generally outgrew loblolly and pitch north of the 39th parallel. The hybrid was as hardy as pitch pine north of the 39th parallel and was slightly stockier (lower height/diameter ratio) than loblolly pine. In general, the form of the hybrid was excellent. -4- Fig. 1. In plantings south of the 39th parallel, loblolly pine (A) was tallest, followed by the hybrid (B) and pitch pine (C) Fig. 2. Hybrid pine tree in Pope County, Illinois, severely riddled by sap- suckers . / f — r FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry u agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 70-4 October, 1970 BREAKING DORMANCY OF OAK SEEDLINGS R. L. Tortorelli and IV. R. Boggess1 ABSTRACT. --Pure glycerol applied to leaf scars was superior to a gibberellic acid spray (GA) in breaking dormancy of Querous rubra L. and Q. maorocarpa seedlings. GA produced abnormal height growth and spindly leaves as con- trasted with normal leaves from the glycerol treatment. Additional key words. Querous rubra, Querous maorocarpa, dormancy Dormancy frequently becomes a problem in research involving oak seedlings, as well as other species. Even under long day conditions, provided by supplemental lighting, oaks set permanent terminal buds during the fall (Downs, 1966). A quick method of breaking dormancy is highly desirable so that the long pre- treatment with low temperatures can be eliminated. Two methods were used with seedlings of red oak {Querous rubra L.) and bur oak (Q. maorooarpa Michx.) dur- ing January, 1968. Eight seedlings of each species were treated with (1) pure glycerol applied to the leaf scars with a camel hair brush as described by Schoenweiss (1963); and (2) a gibberel- lic acid (GA) spray of 2,500 ppm (as recommended by Dr. J. B. Gartner, Pro- fessor of Ornamental Horticulture, Uni- versity of Illinois). Gibberellin A3, GA was used as suggested by Bukovac and Wittwer (1961). Both treatments were successful , as 7 out of 8 seedlings for each species broke dormancy in 10 to 14 days. How- ever, the end results were quite differ- ent (Fig. 1). GA caused the terminal bud to break with abnormal elongated shoots and spindly leaves. In comparison glycerol caused the lateral buds to break and normal leaves were produced. Thus Schoenweiss1 glycerol treatment ap- pears superior to applications of GA. LITERATURE CITED Bukovac, M. J. and S. H. Wittwer. 1961. Biological evaluation of gibberellins Ai > A2s A3 , and A^ and some of their derivatives, pp. 505-520. In: R. M. Klein (ed.). Plant Growth Regulation. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames. Downs, R. J. 1962. Photocontrol of growth and dormancy in woody plants, pp. 133-148. In: T. T. Kozlowski (ed.). Tree Growth. Ronald Press, New York. Schoenweiss, D. F. 1963. Methods for breaking dormancy of oak seedlings in the greenhouse. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 83:819-824. l Research Assistant and Head, Department of Forestry, University of Illinois. Senior author is currently 2nd Lieutenant, U.S. Corps of Engineers, Tulsa, Oklahoma. -2- FIGURE 1. Results of two dormancy breaking treat- ments. The red oak on the left shows abnormal growth when treated with 2,500 p. p.m. gibberel- lic acid spray. The red oak on the right shows normal growth when treated with pure glycerol. FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT agricultural experiment station department of forestry university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 70-5 October, 1970 FORESTRY SCHOOL TRAINING - THE EMPLOYER'S VIEW Robert A. Young and Gilbert H. Fechner1 The Library of the JAN 6 - 1975 university ol Illinois at Urban3-Charrnc::n Recently, educators have written several articles in professional journals ex- pressing their opinions about the train- ing needs of forestry students and the ways forestry school curricula should be changed. But, there is a need for fac- tual data based on the observations of persons in the field as a guide to what some of the shortcomings (or merits) of our forestry training may be. This ar- ticle reports the results of a study designed to give information from the employer's point of view on the quality of college training foresters receive in preparation for their careers. Two recent studies have been made to determine what the employers of forest- ers think about the subjects being taught in forestry schools today. Bond and Mawson (1968) asked professional foresters and forestry students eight questions about what courses should be in forestry school curricula. The for- esters indicated a need for courses emphasizing the business aspects of for- estry and for courses enabling them to better understand the opinions and needs of the general public. An assessment of forest technician curricula was made by Blenis (1969) to learn the relative value of the various subjects taught at technical forestry schools. METHODS Table 1) was necessary in their organi- zation or region of the country. If they thought the skill or knowledge was necessary, we asked them to then con- sider the majority of new graduate for- esters in their organization, not the specialists or the exceptional individ- uals, and to rate the quality of college training these young men had apparently received in each of the 19 subjects by using the answers below. 1. Possible Answers Unnecessary - knowledge of this area (subject matter or skill) is not needed in your organization or part of the country. 2. 3. Definitely Weak - he edge in this area. has no knowl- 4. 5. Apparently Weak - he has some knowl- edge of the principles but cannot undertake projects in this area without considerable additional training. Apparently Strong - he needs only a brief review to be able to work a- lone in this area. Definitely Strong - he has an excel- lent background in this area--can start on his own without any review. In our study, we asked the employers if The 19 subjects were divided into three a knowledge of 19 subjects (listed in groupings of college training a forester forester, University of Illinois and Professor of Forest Genetics, Colorado State University. -2- TABLE 1. Quality of College Training as Rated by Employers Answers from Respondents1 Subject Total Training Quality Number PRACTICAL SKILLS Score: Ranking1 Use and care of tools 6 26 47 48 3 130 3.23 8 Horsemanship 89 30 10 1 -- 130 2.29 19 Mapping -- 2 23 98 7 130 3.85 2 Timber cruising (fixed plots) 2 1 37 77 13 130 3.80 3 Timber cruising (variable plots) 5 6 52 59 8 130 3.55 5 Log scaling 9 20 67 30 4 130 3.15 11 ADMINISTRATIVE KNOWLEDGE Letter writing _ _ 23 59 40 8 130 3.25 7 Job planning 2 21 71 34 2 130 3.13 13 Report writing 1 18 58 47 6 130 3.32 6 Public speaking 1 25 68 32 4 130 3.12 14 Supervisory ability 1 17 72 37 3 130 3.20 10 Ability to get along with people 5 3 21 88 13 130 3.89 1 Finance and business administration 4 38 66 22 -- 130 2.87 18 PROFESSIONAL TRAINING Silvicul tural systems in your area Forest policy Range management Recreation planning Wildlife management Watershed management -- 4 50 67 9 130 3.62 4 2 20 62 43 3 130 3.23 9 62 21 36 10 1 130 2.87 17 17 31 57 24 1 130 2.96 16 21 17 62 29 1 130 3.13 12 14 27 61 26 2 130 3.03 15 lSee text for explanation of numbers. 2Computed by multiplying answer number (2, 3, 4, or 5) by number choosing the answer and dividing the sum of these four products by total number of respondents selecting these 4 answers. 3A numerical ranking of the training quality score. One indicates the subject with the highest score, 19 indicates the lowest. -3- might need in his career - practical skills, administrative knowledge, and professional training. These subjects, along with questions about the respond- ent's present position and background, were listed on a questionnaire. The questionnaire was mailed in 1965 to 200 foresters selected at random from the membership directory of the Society of American Foresters. This sample gave a wide range of organizations, administra- tive levels, and backgrounds of employ- ers within the forestry profession. The questionnaire also included a section concerned with administrative problems in forestry (Young and Fechner, 1969) and consequently was mailed only to for- esters in administrative positions. This eliminated from the sample forestry school faculty, private consultants, re- search foresters, and students. Using a Chi-square test of independence it was possible to identify significant relationships between the backgrounds of the foresters answering the question- naire and the way they rated the quality of college training of their new employ- ees. A training quality score (Table 1, col. 7) was computed to give a quantitative ranking for each of the subjects. It was calculated by multiplying each pos- sible answer number (2, 3, 4, or 5; 1 - unnecessary was not included since it did not rate the quality of training) by the number of respondents choosing that answer. We then divided the sum of these four products by the total number of re- spondents selecting the four answers. A high training quality score would indi- cate better-than-average college train- ing in a given area, and a low score would conversely indicate poorer-than- average training. This study did not attempt to identify the causes of weak (or strong) college preparation, but only to determine the necessity and the quality of training of various subjects. RESULTS Of the 200 foresters to whom question- naires were sent, 130 completed the sec- tion on college training. This return of 65 percent resulted in a sample which was composed of approximately 23 percent foresters in private industry, 22 per- cent in state employ, and 55 percent working for federal agencies. Their ratings of the quality of college train- ing are shown in Table 1. Twenty-nine significant relationships (95 percent level of probability) were found to exist between the backgrounds of the respondents and their opinions of the quality of training (Table 2), as indicated by the Chi-square test. The subjects are listed by the number of employers who considered them to be un- necessary (answer 1) in Table 3. PRACTICAL SKILLS The group, practical skills, had the highest average training quality score of the three college training areas, in- dicating that employers regard their new foresters best trained in this overall area of the areas studied. Of the six practical skills in this study the foresters questioned listed mapping and timber cruising by both fixed and variable plots as being areas in which new foresters are well trained; these three practical skills ranked a- mong the top five in the training quali- ty score list (Table 1). Sixty-eight percent of the respondents said that horsemanship was unnecessary in their organization or part of the country (Table 2). A significantly higher proportion of these than expected were employed by private or state organ- izations in the northeastern or south- eastern regions of the country. Of the 41 who thought this skill to be neces- sary, 73 percent said the new foresters were definitely weak in their college training in this area. ADMINISTRATIVE KNOWLEDGE With an average training quality score of 3.25, administrative knowledge is the median group of the three general areas. -4- TABLE 2. Relationships Between Backgrounds of Respondents and Their Opinions of the Quality of Training of Their New Employees by Subjects1 Background of Respondent S- >> O Subject to O C i- -o -Q O E -Q s- 4-> CO O) S- o e U- O C CO ■I- to 0) c: - Q. >- o +-> c CD to S- D_ C O to to s- o >- Q. CD en as to en O) DC PRACTICAL SKILLS Use and care of tools Horsemanship Mapping Timber cruising (fixed plots) Timber cruising (variable plots) Log scaling ADMINISTRATIVE KNOWLEDGE Letter writing Job planning Report writing Public speaking Supervisory ability Abil ity to get along with people Finance and business administration ** PROFESSIONAL TRAINING Si Ivi cultural systems in your area - - Forest policy - - Range management •* - Recreation planning ** Wildlife management ** Watershed management ** - ** ** ** •• ** *• ** *• ** ** *• *• •• *As indicated by a Chi -square test. * = Significant at the 95 percent level of probability. ** = Significant at the 99 percent level. - = Not significant at the 95 percent level. -5- TABLE 3. Subjects Considered to be "Unnecessary"1 by Respondents Respondents Sel ecting Answer "Unnecessary1 1 Subjects Number Percent 89 68 Horsemanship 62 47 Range management 21 16 Wildlife management 17 13 Recreation planning 14 11 Watershed management 9 7 Log scaling 6 5 Use and care of tools 5 4 Timber cruising (variable plots) 5 4 Ability to get along with people 4 3 Finance and business administration 2 2 Timber crusising (fixed plots) 2 2 Forest policy 2 2 Job planning 1 1 Report writing 1 1 Public speaking 1 1 Supervisory ability 0 0 Mapping 0 0 Silvicultural systems in /our area 0 0 Letter writing knowledge of this area was not needed in respondent's organiza- tion or part of the country. -6- All seven subjects in this group were considered necessary by most of the re- spondents (96 percent or more). The lowest training quality scores of this group were in finance and business ad- ministration, public speaking, and job planning, indicating a lower level of college training. The ability to get along with people, report writing, and letter writing were thought to be areas where new foresters are well prepared. The ability to get along with people re- ceived the highest training quality score of the 19 subjects. More employers than expected, who be- lieved the new foresters to be definite- ly strong (answer 5) in the ability to get along with people were in the groups who earned $5,000-7,000 a year, had been in the forestry profession and their present organization less than five years and were under 30 years old (Table 2). The Chi -square test s to be highly signific of years in the fore the age of the res The respondents under over-represented in the new foresters to letter writing. The representation of tho age who think the definitely weak in le hows letter writing ant with the number stry profession and pondents (Table 2) . 31 years old are those who believe be well trained in re is also an over- se over 50 years of new foresters are tter writing. This trend continues in other areas of the administrative knowledge group. The younger men in the organization with lower salaries report the new foresters are well trained in letter writing, re- port writing, and the ability to get along with people, while the older men who probably are in positions of admini- strative responsibility said the new foresters are weak in their college preparation for these administrative skills. PROFESSIONAL TRAINING The respondents scored the professional training group the lowest in terms of quality of col legex training. Four of the six subjects in this group were con- sidered unnecessary by a considerable number of the employers (Table 1). In recreation management, wildlife manage- ment, and watershed management there is an over-representation of those who answered unnecessary in private organi- zations and an under-representation in federal organizations. Range management was under-represented in this answer by both private and state organizations. Fewer than expected of the respondents from the Far West and the Rocky Mountain West chose answer 1 (unnecessary) for range management and none from these two regions of the country believed water- shed management to be unnecessary. The Chi -square test showed watershed manage- ment also to be significantly related to years in the forestry profession, years in the present organization, and years in present position (Table 2), where the men who have been in the profession or with their present organization less than ten years or in their present posi- tion less than five years are under- represented in the unnecessary or defi- nitely weak categories and over-repre- sented in the groups who think the training to be good. Silvicultural systems was the only area of the professional skills in which the respondents felt the college training was good. While watershed management, recreation and range management ranked near the bottom of the quality training score list (Table 1 ) . CONCLUSION This study lends factual support to the recommendations of others (Bond and Maw- son, 1968; Bruns, 1967). We have found that training in finance and business administration is considered necessary by almost all employers pf forestry school graduates. Hbwever, the majority consider the quality of the present training in this area to be weak. Job planning and public speaking are two other administrative skills in which the respondents said the training was weak. Shields and Nelson (1968) believe that -7- if the need for training foresters in administration is not met, nonforesters will assume the administrative positions in our profession. The results of this study showed the employers' responses to agree with Gar- ratt (1968) about the need to improve training in the components of the multi- ple-use concept - wildlife, watershed, recreation, and range management. This is especially true for schools preparing a large number of students for federal employ in the western states. The practical skills, which for the most part are still considered a necessary segment of a forester's training, were thought to be well taught. The respond- ents believe the necessity for admini- strative knowledge is high. The need for practical skills (except horseman- ship) is intermediate, while the need for professional training is low (col. 1 of Table 1). This suggests a general edict from employers not to ignore ad- ministration and practical skills. LITERATURE CITED Blenis, H. W. 1969. Training forest technicians - curriculum assessment. Jour. Forestry 67:248-249. Bond, Robert S. and Joseph C. Mawson. 1968. Some attitudes of students and professional foresters about forest- ry. Jour. Forestry 66:181-186. Bruns, Paul E. 1967. Education for to- morrow's forest managers. Jour. For- estry 65:112-114. Garratt, George A. 1968. Education faces the challenge. Jour. Forestry 66:551-555. Shields, Chester A. and Thomas C. Nel- son. 1968. Management training for foresters. Jour. Forestry 66:606-609. Young, Robert A. and Gilbert H. Fechner. 1969. Administrative problems in forestry. Jour. Forestry 67:100-103. FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry / ^ agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign The Library of the No. 70-6 ^" " ^iecember, 1970 university 01 ii„„u,j, at Urbana- Champa CHARACTERISTICS DIFFER BETWEEN SELF -REGISTERING AND NONREGISTERING CAMPERS AT A CAMPGROUND IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS Robert A. Young, Forester It is becoming a common practice for campers to be met at the gates of their favorite camping spot by a mechanical fee collector. As user fees become more com- mon and labor costs soar, the land mana- ger often views the mechanical collector as a solution to his problem. The camp- ground attendant who previously sold permits and registered the campers is rapidly disappearing from the scene, and they are now asked to self-register on cards to be left at the campsite. This system of se has been far from perfec Forest Service pay campg ern Illinois (Lake Glen area, Pope County), ove the self-registration ca plete. About half of thes campers, staying for seve pleted the card the firs stay but not on any of days. The remaining hal pleted cards represented not register at all . lf-registration t. In a U. S. round in south- dale Recreation r 60 percent of rds were incom- e resulted when ral days , com- t day of their the following f of the incom- campers who did If this fairly large group of non- registering campers differs in socioeco- nomic characteristics, camping preferences, or opinions, the information secured from only those who registered would be mis- leading in making management decisions. Recreational land managers need to know about the campers who do not register to properly manage for the needs of all users. Also, if this group differs sig- nificantly from the campers who regis- tered, any further '^studies or surveys of the campers should include the nonregis- trants to produce valid results. The objectives of our study were to identify this nonregistering group of campers to see if they differed from the campers who had registered at least once, and to examine any bias in data from the registered campers only. Methods Upon entering the study campground, the campers are requested (by a sign) to purchase a camping permit from a coin- operated machine. The camper receives a small card with the date printed on one side and spaces for registration on the other. After selecting a campsite, the camper puts the card, with the date show- ing, in a ticket holder at his pad. An attendant checks the campground daily to see if every occupied pad has a current ticket showing. The campers are never verbally requested to complete the reg- istration on the ticket. The Forestry Department of the University of Illinois, in cooperation with the Shawnee National Forest, U. S.. Forest Service, also made a daily check of the campground. Every new camper was asked his name and mailing address. This resulted in a complete register of all campers at the campground for the sea- son. We were then able to identify the campers who had not registered by com- paring their blank card, kept by date and camping pad, with our master list. -2- At the end of the camping season, we randomly selected 150 campers who had reg- istered at least once and 100 campers who had not. A questionnaire was mailed to this sample asking questions about their general background, social and economic characteristics, present and past camping experiences, and camping preferences. The responses to these questions were compared for campers who registered and those who did not, using a Chi -square to test differences between the two sets of responses . Results Response was good from non registrants and registrants alike. Eighty-one percent (133) of the registrants completed and returned their survey, and 91 percent(91) of the nonregistrants returned theirs. The Chi -square test showed signifi- cant differences in the way the two study groups answered five questions in the sur- vey. The nonregistrants and registrants differed in (1 ) the number of children in their families; (2) number of days spent Number of children i nonregistering campe camping at the study campground in 1968, also in 1967, and 1966; (3) what they would like to see changed or improved at the campground; (4) the age the husband remembered his first camping experience; and (5) the age the wife remembered her first camping experience. Number of Children A significantly (5 percent level) greater number of campers who did not sign registration cards had no children. Eighty-nine percent of campers with no children were from the group that did not register while, in the total re- turns, the nonregistrants composed only 40 percent of the total (Fig. 1). Fewer nonregistering campers than expected in the Chi -square test had large families. Only 15 percent of the families with four children did not register as compared to the 40 percent expected. Families with one, two, or three child- ren were represented by approximately the same proportion of registrants and nonregistrants as the total proportion in the returns. n camping families and percent of rs selecting each answer. 2 3 Number of children in family | Percent of nonreg Expected percent istering camping families of nonregistering campers All campers answering question ■ -3- Al though there are significant re- lationships between camper registration and number of children in the family, there is no overrepresentation in the young married couples, the group that would most likely be childless. Nor did we find any statistically disproportion- ate number in the other variables that might be expected to infl uence motivation to register, such as educational level, occupation, family income, or most child- hood recreational experiences. Days Spent Camping There was a statistically signifi- cant (1 percent level) relationship be- tween registration and the number of days camped at the study campground during the previous three years. Among the campers who did not reg- ister, a disproportionately large number of them camped six or more days at Lake Glendale in 1968, 1967, and 1966. In 1968, 67.2 percent of the campers in the study who stayed six or more days did not register. The nonregistrants only composed 37.1 percent of the total study campers for that year. In 1966, 83.3 percent of the long period campers did not register, while this nonregistering group composed only 34.1 percent of the total campers in the study. This relationship between register- ing and days camped at Lake Glendale was not significant in the camping season the study was made--1969. Nor was there any statistically significant difference be- tween the two groups of campers in the total number of days spent camping at all other campgrounds during any of the last four years (1969-1966). Changes or Improvements There was a highly significant (1 percent level) relationship between camper . registration and what the campers would like to see changed or improved at the campground. A high percentage of the non- registering campers suggested firewood be provided (77 percent of those suggest- ing this did not register), more conve- niences such as a store, ice machine and laundry (60 percent were nonregistrants), and others--miscel laneous (63 percent were nonregistrants) (Fig. 2). Fewer of the nonregistering campers than expected suggested better mainte- nance (25 percent), electricity (29 per- cent), more activities (31 percent), or no change (32 percent). The nonregistrants represented 41 percent of the total campers who answered this question. Age of First Camping Experience Other significant relationships (5 percent levels) were between the age of the first camping experience of both the husband and wife and those who did not register. More wives among the group who did not register remembered having their first camping experience early in li fe- at age 6 or younger and in the late teens--ages 16-20 (Fig. 3). The husbands of nonregistering camping families were also overrepresented in the same two age classes. Fewer wives and husbands than expected were among those who said they remembered their first camping ex- perience from 7 to 10 or 11 to 15. Hus- bands were also overrepresented in the younger group. Discussion We have found the campers who did not register at the study campground dif- fer significantly in several character- istics from campers who registered. They tend to have fewer children; to have camped several days at the study camp- ground in previous years; to have differ- ent ideas about what improvements are -4- Fig. 2. What campers would like to see changed or improved at campground and percent of nonregistering campers selecting each answer. to s- -r- c +-> cd o u CD s- i — a; a> D_ to 100 - 75 - 50 25 0 Firewood Others Conveni- No Activi- Elec- Mainte- supply (misc.) ences change ties tricity nance What campers would like to see changed or improved | Nonregistering camping families Expected percent of nonregistering campers All campers answering question Fig. 3. Age of wife at first camping experience and percent of nonregistering campers selecting each answer. to s- CD oo 2 •i— to cn c. CD T3 s_ o o CD O CO c +-> -r- C 4-> CD <-) (J CD S- r— CD CD Cl. to 100 75 " 50 25 0 6 yo 16-20 or unger Age of wife at first camping experience ■ ■ Nonregistering camping families Expected percent of nonregistering campers 21 and older (years) All campers answering question -5- needed; and have had their first camping experience either at an early age or late in thei r teens . We found no differences between the two groups in: age of their children; ages of the husband or wife; educational levels; family income, size of town where campers were raised; their membership in conservation organizations; or frequency of outdoor recreation experiences in thei r chi ldhood. The percentage of questionnaire re- turns were slightly higher for campers who did not register at the campground indicating that this group is willing to cooperate in completing forms with the proper motivation. The differences found two groups indicate the da in using registration lis sampling to make administ sions and socio-economic st on the opinions of campers nonregistration rate is as our study. Information s tained from a sample of th does not register to reduce vol ved. between the nger involved ts alone for rative deci- udies based , when the high as in hould be ob- e group that the bias in- RAY:dh 11-18-70 FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 70-7 The Library of the THE 1970 FOREST INSECT SITUATION R, G, Rennels, Associate Professor JftK 6 - 1975 December, 1970 OHWBlSliy 01 llllHUtt at urbana-Champssn Cooperative observation and report- ing of destructive forest insects was continued in 1970 for the tenth conse- cutive year. Although most destructive species were kept in reasonable bounds by the checks and balances of nature, a few were more prevalent than in recent years and emphasize the need for contin- uing surveillance. This report summarizes the information furnished by field co- operators on the status of the forest insects encountered. Contrasting percentage of defoliation of lob- lolly pine by the loblolly pine sawfly near Effingham, Illinois. Major Destructive Insects Defoliators The European -pine sawfly was again abundant, although no more damaging than in 1969. One plantation was reportedly sprayed by air. Heavier populations occurred in some plantations in north- western Illinois than in previous years. Reports indicate that this insect con- tinues to spread into counties where it has not previously been found. It should be especially watched by Christmas tree producers and calls for April and May field surveillance. -2- The loblolly pine scad fly was found in seven widely scattered plantations in the southern half of the state. This, in contrast with no reports last year, sug- gests that this species is on the in- crease. The Virginia pine saw fly continued to be present in two known plantations in central Illinois. The population level in both remained low, suggesting that natural control factors, including a virus-caused disease, are keeping this insect in check. The white pine sawfly was not re- reported and obviously is at a very low population status. With increased plant- ing of eastern white pine for Christmas trees within the past few years, one might have expected this sawfly to have become more prevalent. The fact that this has not occurred raises some inter- esting as well as unanswered questions regarding the combination of resistance factors that are successfully keeping it extremely scarce. The red-headed pine sawfly was re- ported with about the same frequency as in 1969. It should be carefully watched in 1971, even though no major change in status is anticipated. Bagworms remained at high popula- tion levels in many areas in the southern half of the state. Extremely heavy para- site infestation of bagworms in some plantations suggests a possible decline in abundance in 1971. In regard to po- tential bagworm infestation of pines in Christmas tree plantations, growers should be aware that it is an extremely poor practice to have cypress, larch, or eastern red cedar (highly favored hosts for bagworms) adjacent to their planta- tions . Terminal Feeders The European pirn shoot moth con- tinues to be a major problem in red pine management. Christmas tree growers with this tree species in their plantations are especially concerned. At least two known growers used chemical control mea- sures in 1970. Observers are advised to carefully check for this insect each year, and any infestations in Scotch pine should be especially noted. The Zimmerman pine moth situation was unchanged in 1970. Aerial spraying was reported by one large Christmas tree producer. Major damage from the Zimmer- man pine moth consists either of leader or side branch flagging of Scotch pine due to larval activity at the point of their juncture with the trunk. Growers are advised on two points to minimize infestation and damage from this species. First, in establishing a plantation, avoid if at all possible, locations near old, heavily infested Scotch or other pines. These will afford a ready supply of moths , overwhichyou may have no control . Second, destroy all heavily infested trees in ex- isting plantations and avoid retaining Scotch, red, or other pines once they reach merchantable size. Large, old trees kept for sentimental or other reasons in a Christmas tree plantation are an invi- tation to trouble from the Zimmerman pine moth. The pales weevil is present in most plantations in the state where cuttings or thinnings are made. Reports of great prevalence from one year to another may be related to the amount of new stump wood left or to the action of unknown natural control factors. The chemical treatment of stumps to render them un- suitable for pales weevil brood develop- ment is practiced by a few large Christmas tree growers. The Nantucket pine tip moth, annual- ly present in the southern third of the state, was reported no more frequently than usual. It is expected to continue as a serious problem insect in Christ- mas tree plantations in that part of II linois . -3- Forest Insects of Lesser Importance Ips spp. were in many past years . from their action and associated wi old pine stands, newly cut stumps , e tations, harbor insects clearly do ous problem except conditions. sparingly reported as Young tree mortality continues to be rare th thinnings made in In that virtually all ven in isolated plan- Ips broods, these not represent a seri- under extremely ideal The larch sawfly was first obser- ved this year in a plantation in Cham- paign County. Evidence suggests that it was present at least in small numbers in 1969. This species is also present in an isolated plantation in Ogle County. The larch casebearer continued to cause some defoliation in the Champaign County larch stand. The population level, however, was low. In all probability, some of the defoliation attributed to the casebearer in 1969 was actually caused by the larch sawfly. Both of these insects are primarily of academic inter- est, as larch is not grown by the state forest tree nurseries or generally planted. The forest tent caterpillar in sou- thern Illinois was materially checked by a virus disease, according to survei 1 lance reports of U.S. Forest Service personnel. This should be reflected in population levels and damage in 1970. The spruce needle miner was reported this year for the first time. Although primarily a problem of ornamental spruce, it may concern some windbreak owners and some Christmas tree producers. Spruce grown for Christmas trees or for land- scape use should be carefully checked ! for this insect. In a rather short time in June or July, extensive interior crown needle damage can occur and render trees undesirable. RGR:dh 11-24-70 Twig girdlers continued to be ex- tremely prevalent. Most observers did not apear concerned with damage, but were curious as to what was taking place. Oak leaf miners were more numerous in some areas than in recent years. Dam- age was extensive enough to affect the late summer landscape color, as well as to adversely affect fall coloration in some of the heavily infested areas. The white pine aphid and the pine needle scale were reported by two co- operators. These species bear watching, especially in Christmas tree plantations, although at present populations appear to be at a low ebb. Reports were also received of walnut caterpillars 3 fall webworms, pine tube moths, cypress needle galls 3 yellow- necked caterpillars, and several other forest insects. These reports did not suggest that any of these insects were either more or less important than in the average year. Conclusion From our viewpoint, the year 1970 has not been a bad one from the forest insect standpoint. However, we have a number of potentially destructi\e species that are well distributed over the state. Several of these are sufficiently numer- ous to provide damaging populations with- in one year, should a combination of circumstances sufficiently reduce the environmental resistance factors operat- ing against them. Although no major in- creases in the abundance of any specific destructive forest insects appear eminent in 1971, our cooperative observation and reporting will continue. FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry 'S agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 71-1 EFFECT OF PINE PLANTATIONS ON NATURAL SUCCESSION IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS1 L. E. Arnold, Associate Forester W. R. Boggess, Professor of Forestry June 1971 The Librar JAN 6- 19 Univeibiiy ui et Urbana-Champt Poor land-use practices on the easily eroded soils of southern Illinois led to large-scale land abandonment, par- ticularly during the 1930's. Reforestation of these lands was initiated during the same period, but many sites had been degraded to the point where it was best to plant pine species with less demanding requirements than the native hardwoods [Chapman, 1937]. Shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) and loblolly pine (P. taeda L.) have been planted successfully, even though the planting sites are at the extreme limit of the natural range of shortleaf pine and about 150 to 200 miles north of that of loblolly pine. Essex and Ganser [1965] estimated that about 34,100 acres have been planted to these two species in the 16 southernmost counties of Illinois. Bazzaz [1963, 1968] presented a thorough treatment of succession on abandoned fields in southern Illinois and briefly considered the effects of pine plantations on hard- wood regeneration. He suggested that pines enhance the successional process by modifying these sites and allowing their invasion by hardwoods. Considerable work of this nature has been done in areas where shortleaf pine and loblolly pine are important components of the natural forest complex [Billings, 1938; Coile, 1940; Barrett and Downs, 1943; Borman, 1953] . Results of a study designed to further elucidate the effect of pine plantations on suc- cessional trends and to establish the ecological niche filled by pine in the forest ecosystem of southern Illinois are discussed in this paper. DESCRIPTION OF AREA The area covered in this study includes the southern one-third of Illinois and largely lies within the Till Plains Section of the Central Lowlands Province and the Shawnee Hills Section of the Interior Low Plateaus Pro- vince [Fenneman. 1938] . Topography varies from level to gently sloping in the Till Plains Section, while slopes may become quite steep as they grade into the broad, rolling ridge tops of the Shawnee Hills. Soils of the area have developed in shallow to moder- ately thick loess over Illinoisan till or bed rock, and largely under the influence of forest vegetation. Well-developed claypans are characteristic of many soils in the Till Plains Section, while fragipans (siltpans) are common in those of the Shawnee Hills. In both cases these hardpan horizons limit the moisture storage capacity of soil profiles and restrict both root penetration and the downward move- ment of water [Boggess, 1956]. Climate is continental in character, although the southern section is affected more by the warm flow of gulf air during the winter months than is the northern section. Thus average winter temperatures tend to be warmer in the south (but above freezing throughout), while there is little difference in average summer tempera- tures. Mean monthly temperature for the coldest month is 2.7° C. and for the warmest is 26.6° C. The length of the growing season, based on number of frost-free days, ranges from 180 to 200 days in a north-south direction and extends, on the average, from mid-April to late October [Bazzaz, 1968]. Average annual precipitation varies from about 40 to 46 inches, with relatively uniform distribution throughout the year. However, there is a well-defined soil moisture depletion trend during most growing seasons, and cessation of tree diameter growth due to drought is not uncommon [Boggess, 1956]. METHODS A total of 112 plots were sampled. Trees 0.5 inch in diameter and above were measured and tallied by species in one-inch diameter classes on one-tenth-acre circular plots, except in areas where current basic stand data were already available from established research plots. Care was taken to avoid plantations that had been burned or grazed. Topographic and soil conditions were kept as uniform as possible. The reproduction of all woody species was determined by establishing a sufficient number of circular, milacre quadrats to provide a 10 percent sample of the plot area. Quadrats were located by a random line-plot system and woody vegetation was tallied by species or species groups in two size classes: (1) those under one foot in height; and (2) those over one foot tall but less than 0.5 inch in diam- eter at AlA feet above the ground. Relative density and relative frequency of occurrence for each species were calculated. Importance Values (IV) This work was made possible through funds provided by the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station on Hatch Forestry Project 55-322. -2- were calculated as the sum of the relative density and the relative frequency for a species or species group with a maximum possible value of 200 [Mcintosh, 1957; Boggess andGeis, 1967]. The approximate age at which the hardwood under- story began to develop was estimated from ground-line ring counts made on 140 saplings taken from 14 randomly chosen loblolly and 10 shortleaf pine plots which were unthinned and compared favorably in age and stocking with the average for all plots. Due to the inherent difficulty in identifying many tree seedlings, they were identified to the genus level only, and a number of species-groups were devised to facilitate field work as well as the analysis and discussion of results. These are shown in Table 1 which includes a checklist of woody taxa encountered in the survey. Most all of the loblolly pine plantations examined are in the Till Plains Section, while the shortleaf pine planta- tions are largely located in the Shawnee Hills Section. Based on the natural ranges of the two species, this distri- bution appears somewhat illogical. However, most of the shortleaf plantations were established by the U.S. Forest Service on the Shawnee National Forest and their early policy did not include widespread planting of loblolly pine. A few loblolly plantations were established, and their early success encouraged farm foresters and Soil Conservation Service personnel to recommend this species for farm plantings. Shortleaf pine data are based on plots located in Alexander, Franklin, Gallatin, Jefferson, Johnson, Law- rence, Pope, Saline, Union, and Williamson counties. Plantation age varied from 21 to 32 years (average 25) and basal area from 125 to 230 square feet per acre. Loblolly pine data are based on plots in Clay, Edwards, Franklin, Hamilton, Jackson, Marion. Monroe, Pope, Ran- dolph, Richland, and Saline counties. These plantations average 20 years in age, with 910 trees per acre and an average basal area of 167 square feet. RESULTS Reproduction in Unthinned Plantations In shortleaf pjne plantations, seedlings of the red oak and cherry groups were the most abundant, and together comprise 44 percent of the total (Table 2). Although there were more cherries than red oaks, the latter had the greatest number of seedlings over one foot tall (Fig. 1 ). Red oaks averaged 582 stems per acre in this class as com- pared with 416 cherries. Frequency of occurrence was also greater for red oaks than for the cherry group (Table 2). Sassafras and persimmon, with 821 stems per acre, ranked third in importance and about one-third of these were over one foot tall. The elms and ashes ranked fourth and fifth, comprising 13.9 and 10.5 percent, respectively, of the total hardwood reproduction. In loblolly pine plantations, red oaks and cherries were the most important species groups (Fig. 2). Red oaks were first, with 1,980 stems per acre, a frequency of 65 per- cent, and constituted about one-third of all seedlings pres- ent. The cherry group totaled 1,391 stems per acre and had a frequency of 59 percent. The number of ashes ap- proached that of the cherries, but frequency was only 27 percent. In terms of seedlings over one foot tall, the red oaks increased in IV from 32.9 to 38.2, while that of the cherries did not change. Elms, hickories, and white oaks totaled 509, 36, and 27 stems per acre, respectively, and altogether made up 10 percent of all hardwood seedlings (Table 2). Only sassafras and persimmon represented the small-tree species group but made up 5.5 percent of the total hardwood reproduction. Seedlings of all other species amounted to 255 stems per acre and made up less than 5 percent of the total. Age of Understorv Average age of the hardwood saplings sampled was 8.4 years in the loblolly and 9.2 years in the shortleaf planta- 14 10 l±J cr <_) o - 8 z 3 6 Q LlI UJ (/) 0 CH SHORTLEAF PINE 4- RO SF PS EM AS OT DW IW W0SMRB E£ UJ O < O CO o UJ en 20 16 12 8 4 rr 5 w . LOBLOLLY PINE U^ LU Figure 1. Hardwood regeneration in unthinned shortleaf pine plantations. Shaded area represents seedlings over 1-foot tall. Figure 2. Hardwood regeneration in unthinned loblolly pine plantations. Shaded area represents seedlings over 1-foot tall. -3- TABLE 1. Checklist of Woody Taxa Identified According to Species Group Species group Symbol Ashes Cherries Dogwood- Ironwood- Redbud Elms Hickories AS CH DW-IW-RB EM HI Oaks, red RO Oaks, white Sassafras- Persimmon Others WO SF-PS OT Scientific name Fraxinus americana L. F. pennsylvanica Marsh. F. quadrangulata Michx. Prunus serotina Ehrh. P. spp. Cornus florida L. Ostn-a virginiana (Mill.) K.Koch Cercis canadensis L. Ulmus a lata Michx U. americana L. U. rubra Muhl. Carva cordiformis (Wang.) K. Koch C. tomentosa Nutt. C. glabra (Mill.) Sweet C. ovata (Mill.) K. Koch C. laciniosa (Michx. f.) Loud. Quercus rubra L. Q. velutina Lam. Q. palustris Muench. Q. maralandica Muench. Q. imbricaria Michx. Q. muehlenbergii Engelm. Q. alba L. Q. stellata Wang. Q. macrocarpa Michx. Sassafras albidwn (Nutt.)Nees Diospyros virginiana L. Acer negundo L. A. saccharinum L. A. saccharum Marsh. Aesculus octandra Marsh. Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal. Carpinus caroliniana Walt. Catalpa speciosa Warder Celtis occidentalis L. Crataegus spp. L. Fagus grand if alia Ehrh. Gleditsia triacanthos L. Juglans nigra L. Junipenis virginiana L. Liquidambar styraciflua L. Liriodendron tulipifera L. Moms spp. L. Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. Populus deltoides Marsh. Robinia pseudoacacia L. Rhus spp. L. Salix spp. L. Common name White ash Green ash Blue ash Black cherry Flowering dogwood Ironwood Redbud Winged elm American elm Slippery elm Bitternut hickory Mockernut hickory Pignut hickory Shagbark hickory Shellbark hickory Northern red oak Black oak Pin oak Blackjack oak Shingle oak Chinkapin oak White oak Post oak Bur oak Sassafras Persimmon Boxelder Silver maple Sugar maple Buckeye Pawpaw Bluebeech Northern catalpa Hackberry Crabapple American beech Honeylocust Black walnut Eastern redcedar Sweetgum Yellow poplar Mulberry Blackgum Eastern cottonwood Black locust Sumac Willow TABLE 2. Density. Frequency. IV, and IV Rank, by Height Class of Hardwood Reproduction in Unthinned Pine Plantations All stems 0.5" d.b.h. Stems > 1 'tall<0.5" d.b.h. Species or Number Percent Frequency, IV Number Percent Frequency, IV species group per acre total % IV rank per acre total % IV rank Shortleaf pine Cherries 1,213 24.2 46 42.73 1 416 17.1 22 31.71 3 Red oaks 1.020 20.4 50 40.87 2 582 24.0 35 47.05 1 Sassafras- persimmon 821 16.4 32 29.48 3 314 12.9 19 25.86 4 Elms 695 13.9 38 29.44 4 443 18.3 27 36.05 2 Ashes 527 10.5 26 21.10 5 263 10.8 16 21.69 5 Others 330 6.6 21 15.38 6 248 10.2 17 21.34 6 White oaks 100 2.0 8 5.30 7 57 2.4 3 4.50 7 Dogwood-ironwood- redbud 120 2.4 5 4.35 8 57 2.4 3 4.50 8 Hickories 57 1.1 5 3.28 9 13 0.5 1 1.24 9 All hardwoods 5,004 Loblolly pine 2,428 Red oaks 1,890 32.9 65 61.15 1 1.027 38.2 47 69.13 1 Cherries 1.391 24.2 59 49.70 o z 655 24.3 34 46.34 2 Ashes 1.391 23.9 27 34.70 3 300 11.1 21 24.84 4 Elms 509 8.9 34 23.36 4 355 13.2 24 28.66 3 Sassafras- persimmon 318 5.5 22 14.95 5 164 6.1 13 14.41 5 Other 255 4.4 18 12.28 6 145 5.4 10 11.96 6 Hickories 36 0.6 4 2.21 7 18 0.7 2 1.19 8 White oaks 27 0.5 3 1 .65 8 27 1.0 3 2.80 7 All hardwoods 5,744 2,691 tions. This indicates that the hardwood understory started to develop when the loblolly pine plantations were about 11 years old as compared with an age of 16 years for shortleaf pine. This five-year age difference reflects the more rapid growth of loblolly as compared with shortleaf pine, resulting in earlier crown closure and more rapid build-up of the forest floor in plantations of the former species than in those of the latter. There was not much variation in the average age of seedlings from the various species groups. Hickory showed the greatest departure, with an average age of only five years. This comparatively young age, coupled with the fact that there were very few hickories in the stands, sug- gests that hickory follows the same pattern in Illinois as found by Billings [1938] in North Carolina. Average age of the red oaks was eight and nine years, respectively, for loblolly and shortleaf pine. Thus oak species appear to invade the Illinois plantation at an earlier age of the overstory pine in Illinois than that reported for the Piedmont Plateau Region [Billings, 1938; Barrett and Downs, 1943]. Certainly by the time plantations in Illinois reach 20 years of age, the hardwood understory is quite evident, and oak species make up an important segment of this population. There is not enough spread in the age of existing plan- tations to determine whether hardwood regeneration increases with age of the pine overstory, along with an increase in the proportion of oaks to the total hardwood reproduction as suggested by Barrett and Downs [1943]. On the basis of the present data, these relationships appear to hold true in Illinois. Effects of Thinning Hardwood reproduction was determined on 32 plots of a thinning study established in 1952 and 1954 to investi- gate the optimum basal area for thinning shortleaf pine plantations. Treatments included thinning by a crown method to residual basal areas of 1 00, 80, and 60 square feet per acre, along with unthinned check plots [Boggess, Minckler, and Gilmore, 1963]. The treatments are re- ferred to as light thinning (L). medium thinning (M), heavy thinning (H), and check (C), respectively. Plots are located in Johnson, Pope, and Union counties, Illinois, and all have been thinned three times. The reduction of stand density and basal area by thin- ning had an adverse effect on the total amount of -5- hardwood reproduction (Fig. 3). Reductions were in the range of 13 to 22 percent, although they were not consist- ent with the degree of thinning. Sassafras-persimmon was the only single species group that did not follow this general pattern, as its combined total was 538, 756, 1,231, and 900 stems per acre, respectively, for the check, light, medium, and heavy thinning treatments. U=UNTHINNED T= THINNED RO EM ASH CH SF-PS WO OT Figure 3. Effect of thinning on hardwood regeneration in shortleaf pine plantations. Thinning had a favorable effect on the growth of hard- wood seedlings, since only 59.4 percent of the seedlings on the check plots were greater than one foot in height as compared with 82.5. 77.9, and 73.7 percent on the light, medium, and heavily thinned plots. In terms of actual numbers, however, there was little difference between thinning treatments in the total number of seedlings in the larger height class. The red oaks were the most important species group, ranking first in IV among all hardwoods except on the medium-thinned plots, where they were second to the sassafras-persimmon group. On the basis of total stems, red oaks accounted for nearly one-fourth of the hardwood reproduction. They are well distributed as shown by a mean frequency of better than 50 percent. The number of ' red oaks did not show any consistent relationship with thinning treatment. The red oaks were closely followed by the elms and ashes in seedling density. Frequency of occurrence was best for the red oaks (55 percent for all treatments) as compared with 43 percent and 33 percent for the elms and ashes, respectively. The cherries were fourth in importance in the thinning experiment, and seedling density was considerably less than on the unthinned plots previously discussed. Thin- ning also appeared to have a greater adverse effect on the cherries than on any other species group. DISCUSSION Hardwoods are reproducing well in plantations of loblolly pine and shortleaf pine throughout the entire area. Composition of the hardwood reproduction shows some degree of consistency, particularly in the older plantations where red oaks and cherries tend to be the predominant species groups. In general, the species or species groups that are important components of the native upland forests tended to increase in importance when seedlings over one toot tall were compared with all seedlings. Red oaks, for example, usually increased in importance, while the cherries de- creased. Although cherry (Prunus serotina) does occur in the native upland forest, it is not an abundant species. Other members of the cherry group, Prunus spp.. are strictly small trees and rarely get beyond the understory layer. The white oak group is very poorly represented in the total hardwood regeneration. Quercus alba is by far the most important member of the group, although post oak, Q. stellata, is a common species on the less well-drained soils of the claypan area. The red oak group has much greater representation with such species as black oak (Q. velutina), red oak (Q. rubra), shingle oak (Q. imbricaria) with black oak the most important of the three. Seed supply could be a factor limiting the reproduction of Q. alba. White oak acorns germinate in the fall, as contrasted with spring germination for the red oak group, and mois- ture conditions during the autumn months are not usually very favorable for germination and establishment of seed- lings. Furthermore, white oak acorns are more palatable to animals than those of red oak [Bourdeau. 1954]. All of these factors might possibly limit white oak reproduction. Hickories, which along with the oaks largely comprise the native upland forests, were not at all common, and their frequency of occurrence was sporadic at best. Planta- tion age may be the controlling factor for, as Billings pointed out, hickories were not usually found in native pine stands in North Carolina until several years after the oaks first appeared. Sassafras and persimmon are the first woody species to appear in old fields following their abandonment from agriculture [Bazzaz, 1968]. They usually originate from sprouts and become increasingly important with time. In 40-year-old fields, the oldest examined by Bazzaz, sassa- fras and persimmon were the dominant species. Delay in planting following land abandonment generally resulted in increased numbers of sassafras and persimmon as com- pared with fields that were planted promptly. For instance in a series of plots in 17-year-old shortleaf and loblolly pine, established about 10 years after cultivation ceased, the sassafras-persimmon group outnumbered other species or groups. Thus there was an ample seed source, both from the surrounding area, as well as from sprouts within the plantation itself. In most of the older plantations established prior to 1940. little time elapsed between land abandonment and tree planting. Sassafras is generally considered an intolerant species, and according to the U.S. Forest Service [1965], repro- duction is usually sparse and erratic except from sprouts. However, numerous sassafras seedlings were found on the plots, but just how long individuals from seed origin will persist is not known. In contrast, persimmon is considered tolerant and may live longer under the dense pine over- story than will sassafras. -6- The role of animals in the hardwood invasion of pine plantations cannot be overlooked. The destructive effect of small mammals in consuming seed such as those of oaks and hickories is well established [Korstian, 1927]. Even so, it is difficult to see how oaks and hickories could re- generate in pine plantations unless their relatively heavy seeds are transported by birds or small mammals. In one case, for instance, a 35-year-old shortleaf pine plantation was separated from the nearest hardwood stand by a 300- foot wide abandoned field of the same age. The field had a scattered overstory of ash, elm, sassafras, and persimmon saplings, but there were no oak seedlings present. In con- trast there were 1,700 oak seedlings per acre in the pine plantation. Animals have apparently carried acorns from the hardwood stand, across the field, and into the planta- tion. The complete cover provided by the pine overstory has created a more favorable environment for the animals, particularly during the winter months, than that found in abandoned fields and perhaps even native hardwood forests. In addition, the well-developed forest floor in pine plantations provides conditions favorable for seed germi- nation and seedling establishment. Most investigators have emphasized the importance of moisture in the germination of acorns and the role of litter in improving moisture rela- tionships [Korstian, 1927; Barrett, 1931; Billings, 1938] . Pine plantations in southern Illinois represent plant communities that have been interjected by man into the natural successional trend. The overall effect has been twofold. First the persistent broomsedge-shrub-small tree stage, described by Bazzaz [1968] as dominating aban- doned fields for more than 45 years, has been replaced by full stands of pine which greatly increase productivity. Second, the time required for the re-establishment of oak species has been considerably shortened. Again, Bazzaz [1968] found few oaks and hickories in 25- to 45-year-old fields and those present originated from sprouts rather than seed. Chapman [1937] emphasized the latter point by suggesting that the major reason for planting conifers in the Central Hardwood Region might well be to hasten the return of native hardwood forests. The "favorable" effect of pine on hardwood regenera- tion may or may not be desirable from a management standpoint. Most eroded sites will produce pine pulpwood in 20 to 25 years. Yet their potential productivity for native hardwoods has undoubtedly been greatly reduced by the loss of topsoil which adversely affects moisture storage capacity, nutrient availability, and the physical environment of roots. At this point in time, one can only conjecture as to the possible fate of hardwood regenera- tion on eroded sites. LITERATURE CITED Barrett, L. I. 1931. Influence of forest litter on the germination and early growth of chestnut oak, Quercus montana Willd. Ecology 12:476-484. Barrett, L. I. and A. A. Downs. 1943. Hardwood invasion in pine forest of the Piedmont Plateau. J. Agr. Res. 67:111-128. Bazzaz, Fakhri A. 1963. Secondary succession on abandoned fields in southern Illinois. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Illinois. 190 pp. Bazzaz, Fakhri. 1968. Succession on abandoned fields in the Shawnee Hills, southern Illinois. Ecology 49:924-936. Billings, W. D. 1938. The structure and development of old field shortleaf pine stands and certain associated physical properties of soil. Ecol. Monogr. 8:437-499. Boggess, W. R. 1956. Weekly diameter growth of shortleaf pine and white oak as related to soil moisture. Proc. Soc. of Amer. Foresters, Memphis, Tennessee, meeting, pp. 83-89. Boggess, W. R. and J. W. Geis. 1967. Composition of an upland streamside forest in Piatt County, Illinois. Amer. Midland Naturalist 78, 1:89-97. Boggess, W. R., L. S. Minckler, and A. R. Gilmore. 1963. Effect of site and thinning intensity on growth and yield of shortleaf pine plantations in southern Illinois. 111. Agr. Expt. Sta. Fores- try Note 105. 7 pp. Borman, F. H. 1953. Factors determining the role of loblolly pine and sweetgum in early old-field succession in the Piedmont of North Carolina. Ecol. Monogr. 24:297-320. Chapman, A. G. 1937. Ecological basis for reforestation of sub- marginal lands in the central hardwood region. Ecology 18:93-105. Coile, T. S. 1940. Soil changes associated with loblolly pine suc- cession on abandoned agricultural land on the Piedmont Plateau. Duke Univ. Forest. School Bull. 5. 85 pp. Essex. Burton L. and David A. Ganser. 1965. Illinois' Timber Resources. U.S. For. Serv. Res. Bull. LS-3. 56 pp. Fenneman, N. M. 1938. Physiography of Eastern United States McGraw-Hill. New York. 719 pp. Korstian, C. F. 1927. Factors controlling germination and early survival in oaks. Yale Univ. School of Forest. Bull. 19. 115 pp. Mcintosh, R. P. 1957. The York Woods. A case history of forest succession in southern Wisconsin. Ecology 9:349-353. U.S. Forest Service. 1965. Silvics of forest trees of the United States. Agr. Handbook No. 271. USDA. Washington. 762 pp. £^& FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 71-2 December, 1971 RESPONSE OF SWEETGUM TO FERTILIZATION IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS^ A. R. Gilmore, R. A. Young, and L. E. Arnold2 \iwtf* c _\91- oi Sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.) occurs naturally in stream bottoms throughout the lower Mississippi River Basin and has also been planted over a wade range of site conditions in this area. Since soil fertility is low on some planted sites, fertilizers should improve sweetgum growth on those sites. To test this hypothesis, the response of pole-size sweet- gum in southern Illinois to inorganic fertilizers was fol- lowed during a six-year period. STAND AND SITE DESCRIPTION The plantation was established in 1946 on the flood- plain of Bay Creek, at the Dixon Springs Agricultural Center located in Pope County, Illinois. A dense stand of alder (Alnus rugosa (Du Roi) Spreng) seeded in during 1948, and at the end of the 1950 growing season the sweetgum was only 1 to 2 feet taller than the alder. Low temperatures during the winter of 1950-51 damaged 98 percent of the sweetgum, killing trees back for an average of 4 feet. As a result of the cold damage, practically all of the sweetgum was overtopped by the alder during the 1951 growing season. The sweetgum recovered from this setback, and by 1965 alder had essentially disappeared, leaving mainly grasses and other herbaceous vegetation in the understory of the experimental area. In 1965 there were 600 trees per acre with an average diameter at breast height (dbh) of 6.16 inches and an average height of 57 feet. Live crown occupied about 40 percent of total tree height. The soils in the plantation consist of Sharon silt loam and Belknap silt loam. These soils formed in recent alluvium, and neither show much soil development. Sharon has a thicker surface than Belknap and has better drainage, being moderately well drained to well drained (Fluventic Dystrochrept). Belknap is an imper- fectly drained soil (Aerie Fluventic Haplaquept). Both soils are normally moderately acid and are low in phosphorus and potassium. Flood water usually covers the soil surface of the plantation two or three times each spring. Water depths may reach 3 feet and the flooding normally lasts about 12 hours. METHODS A nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) factorial experiment, replicated three times on 1/20-acre plots, was initiated in May, 1965, when the plantation was 19 years old. Treatments in addition to a control (no fertilizer) were (1) 200 pounds of ammonium nitrate per acre; (2) 100 pounds of 48 percent superphosphate per acre; (3) 100 pounds of muriate of potash per acre; and (4) combinations of the above. Annual applications of these fertilizers were broadcast during either May or June from 1965 through 1970. Flooding did not occur during the immediate grow- ing season after fertilizers were applied. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION One complete replication of the experiment was on the Sharon silt loam (535 trees per acre), and the other two replications were on the Belknap silt loam (651 trees per acre). At the beginning of the study, trees growing on the Sharon soil were larger in dbh than those on Belknap (6.8 inches vs. 6.5 inches) and total height (61 feet vs. 54 feet), but the basal area was almost identical (142 square feet per acre). Tree response to fertilization was similar on the two soils, and no statistical difference in tree growth between 1965 and 1971 could be attributed to soil or site. Nitrogen was the only single fertilizer element that caused a growth response in basal area, diameter, or height during the study period. The NPK treatment was the only combination of fertilizer elements producing a growth response, and this only for basal area (Table 1). Tree mortality during the six-year period was not related to fertilizer treatments. Agronomic plants growing on Sharon and Belknap soils usually respond to phosphorus and potassium fertilization as both soils are normally low in these elements. A possible explanation as to why sweetgum did not respond to P and K treatments is that silt and clay particles deposited by spring floods from fertilized agricultural lands above may have supplied sufficient amounts of P and K for maximum growth of the trees. *A portion of this research was supported by funds from Hatch Project 55-341. ^Professor, Forester, and Associate Forester. -2- Table 1. Average Size and Growth of Sweetgum From Spring, 1965, to Spring, 1971, According to Treatment Basal area, sq. ft. per acre Treatment 1965 Growth Control 145 28.5 N 147 45.5** P 139 36.3 K 132 32.3 NP 124 32.6 NK 131 44.8 PK 126 25.6 NPK 124 44.8* Diameter, in. 1965 Growth Height, ft. 1965 Growth 58 9 57 12** 56 11 58 8 55 11 55 10 57 9 55 11 6.46 6.80 6.43 .83 1.27* 1.18 6.67 1.11 6.15 1.26 5.77 1.22 6.44 .91 6.12 1.23 **Significantly different at 1 -percent level. * Significantly different at 5-percent level. 7 V FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry No. 71-3 THE 1971 FOREST INSECT SITUATION R. G. Rennels, Associate Professor (J agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign rf,e Library ■ J/l/V £ December, 1971 "111* ws,t> 0j at Urban-, Chan, . Organized observation and reporting of forest insects was continued in Illinois for the eleventh consecutive year. This report summarizes information on the forest insects encountered and reported during 1971. Figure 1. Tent of the eastern tent caterpillar. MAJOR DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS Defoliators The European pine sawfly, as for the past several years, continues to be the most frequently reported in- sect. Although populations were generally light, sevin or malathion sprays were applied in a few heavily infested Christmas tree plantations. The virus-caused disease of this sawfly continues to be present in many field populations and may be one of the principal resistance factors, if not the principal factor, operating to check outbreak num- bers. Personal contact and correspondence with U.S. For- est Service personnel indicate that research on this disease-causing virus is nearing the point where the virus may soon be cleared and approved for field use in a purified form. The wide distribution of the European pine sawfly in Illinois (Figure 2) and its continued spread will make careful surveillance again necessary in 1972. Observations should be made in late April through May as damage is usually done by the end of this period. Figure 2. Counties in which the European pine sawfly has been reported from 1961 through 1971. The loblolly pine sawfly was frequently reported. This species, like the European pine sawfly, causes early spring defoliation. It frequently causes concern in older plantations or in pine plantings associated with recreation areas. All evidence suggests that this species will be abun- dant in 1972. The Virginia pine sawfly was again reported from Edgar and Coles Counties, where it has been for a number of years. Population increases of this sawfly in Indiana within the last two years suggest that we will be wise to continue our watch for it, especially on jack, Scotch, and Virginia pines in southeastern Illinois. The white pine sawfly, a two-generations-a-year spe- cies in Illinois, was not reported. This sawfly attacks only Research was supported by funds from Hatch Project 55-373. eastern white pine and when abundant is capable of causing extensive defoliation. You are urged to keep on the alert for this scarce species in 1972. Scattered arid light infestations of insects offer great opportunities to assess the values of the resistance factors operating to produce those conditions. The red-headed pine sawfly was reported more fre- quently than in 1970. The heavy defoliation capability of this species and its rather widespread distribution over the state suggest that it be carefully watched during the spring and summer of 1972. Terminal Feeders The pales weevil continues to occur in increasing numbers each year. In Illinois it is primarily a concern of Christmas tree growers. Injury ordinarily consists of adult feeding damage that results in branch-flagging on trees near salable size. In a few instances heavy seedling girdling and death also has occurred. This species is expected to continue to be a problem in 1972 in the larger operating Christmas tree plantations in the state. The European pine shoot moth and the Zimmerman pine moth again caused considerable concern in parts of Illinois. The European pine shoot moth prefers red pine whereas the Zimmerman pine moth does best on Scotch but will attack other pines. All encounters with these two insects should be reported without fail in 1972. They are bad actors and extremely difficult to control. The Nantucket pine tip moth was prevalent through- out the southern third of Illinois. We may expect this species to continue at high population levels in 1972. The pine tube moth, ordinarly a minor defoliator of eastern white pine, was abundant in one plantation in central Illinois. This insect has been in northern Illinois for many years and probably occurs over the state wher- ever white pine is grown. Extensive feeding on current year's needles (in many years in Illinois only the current needles remain on eastern white pine by fall) could render white pines ugly and adversely affect their salability for Christmas trees. Although this insect is not expected to become a major problem, it should be watched. Ips spp. beetles were reported to have caused or to have contributed to red pine losses in plantations in Sangamon, Cass, Mason, and Champaign Counties. Mor- tality from Ips is not new in Illinois and should be considered as a possiblity especially in large Christmas tree plantations where annual stump production furnishes abundant breeding sites. Even then tree death is not likely to occur unless soil moisture or other factors contribute to poor tree vigor. We should be particularly on the alert for Ips problems where older pine stands are being logged adjacent to younger plantations. The pine bark aphid and the white pine aphid were observed both on ornamental and plantation pines. These together with the pine needle scale and the pine tortoise scale, although not ordinarily of major concern, warrant a continuous scrutiny. A number of sightings were made during the year of the eastern tent caterpillar (Figure 1), walnut caterpillar, fall webworm, catalpa worm, yellow-necked caterpillar, hackberry lace bug, and other insects of hardwoods. These observations did not suggest that any of the species are likely to pose serious problems in 1972. FOREST INSECTS OF LESSER IMPORTANCE The forest tent caterpillar continued to be reported (at reduced population levels) from extreme southwestern Illinois. Egg counts to be made between now and early spring will reveal areas where this insect may cause de- foliation in 1972. Bagworms were abundant throughout much of central and southern Illinois in spite of heavy parasitization in many populations in 1970. Past records of extensive de- foliation of Scotch and white pines grown for Christmas trees suggest the need for our continued annual surveil- lance of this insect. CONCLUSION In 1971 we have experienced another year with rela- tively few extremely serious insect problems in the forests and plantations of Illinois. This was good but it is not an occasion for complacency. There appear to be distinct possibilities that several major destructive forest insects may occur in damaging numbers in 1972. We will, there- fore, continue our observation and reporting in 1972. We will hope to report all minor and major occurrences of forest insects encountered. This will enable us to continue to improve our cooperative bird's-eye view of the status of the forest insects that are of concern to us. V FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT agricultural experiment station department of forestry university of illinois at urbana-champaign The ^aober, ig?2 m 6 - 1975 No. 72-1 EARLY GROWTH OF PLANTED COTTONWOOD ON UPLAND SOILS IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS7 A. R. Gilmorc, L. E. Arnold, and R. A. Young2 at Urbana- Champa Gilmore (1969) reported on the growth of cottonwood (Populus deltoides Bartr.) established in 1964 on an agro- nomic experimental field in southern Illinois that had been previously used for 50 years to test crop rotations with soils and fertilizer practices. He found that tree survival was not affected during the first four growing seasons by past soil treatments. Height growth after four years was best on plots that had received lime, but the addition of rock phos- phate to limed plots depressed height growth. This paper reports height growth of this plantation after eight years and diameter growth after nine years. Complete soil, site, and past treatments have been given earlier (Gilmore, 1969) and will be described but briefly in this report. The soils on the field are Hoyleton silt loam (Aquollic Hapludalfs) and Chauncey silt loam (Argiaquic Argialbolls). Permeability is slow, available moisture capac- ity is high, and natural fertility is low on both soils. The field arrangement consists of 20 plots one- twentieth acre in size. The following treatments were ap- plied singly and in combination to the plots used in the study: O = no treatment P = rock phosphate M = manure K = muriate of potash R = crop residue K(plus) = muriate of potash L = limestone Three basic treatments were systematically assigned in the following combinations to 10 of the plots: O, M, ML, MLP, O, R, RL, RLP, RLPK, and O. The other 10 plots were assigned the same treatments as the first 10 plots ex- cept for the addition of K(plus) to each plot. One-year-old cottonwood seedlings from a local seed source were planted during the spring of 1964 in 6-inch auger holes, 20 inches deep, and at a spacing of 11 x 11 feet. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Although survival of planted trees was high (averaging 95 percent) during the first four years, mortality increased during the next five years, and significant differences oc- curred between the treatments (Table 1). The delayed mor- tality of trees on the less fertile plots is not unusual, but the accelerated mortality on the RLPK treatment cannot be explained from data gathered in the study, as nutrient con- tent of this plot is greater than for some plots where sur- vival was 97 percent (Table 2; Gilmore, 1969). Height results after the eight years failed to show any significant effect from the additional potassium (K plus) applied. Therefore, data from plots receiving additional po- tassium and those that had received none were combined. Trees growing on limed plots are continuing to grow faster than those on nonlimed plots (Table 1). Growth rates on the higher fertility plots are continuing to accelerate but have slowed on the poorer plots (O and M) as shown in Figure 1. 45 r 40 LU UJ X o LU X 35 30 25 20 15 10 j_ 5 AGE 6 :years) 8 Figure 1. Average heights of trees surviving in 1971 by treatments and years. A portion of this research was supported by funds from Hatch Project 55-341. Professor, Associate Forester, and Forester \ -2- Height growth of trees on the RL plot averaged 6.45 feet each year for the last four years. The fact that trees on the better plots are continuing to grow at this rate is re- markable when one considers that the fertility of these plots is low when compared with a good cottonwood site (Minckler and Woerhiede, 1968). It would be only a conjec- ture to state how much longer this accelerated growth will continue, but one would guess that growth decline should set in within the next three to five years. Figure 1 also shows that the ranking of treatments according to tree height remained in the relative same order at the end of eight years as during the first four years of the study. After the first four growing seasons, height growth was depressed by the addition of phosphorus to the limed plots, but this condition did not continue through the eight grow- ing seasons. Trees on the plots that received only plant residue are growing as well as those that have received lime and phos- phorus. This growth is unexpected, as the fertility of this plot is lower than on the limed and phosphated plots. Trees growing on limed plots were almost a third larger in diameter than those without lime. The addition of phos- phorus or potassium had no beneficial effect on diameters on limed plots (Table 1). Plot density was not the deciding factor in stem size, as the smallest trees were growing on the least dense plots (O and M). In general, diameter ap- peared to be influenced by the same site factors that in- fluenced tree heights. These height measurements during the second four-year period and diameter measurements after the first nine grow- ing seasons substantiate the conclusions drawn from the earlier data that acceptable cottonwood growth can be obtained on upland soils if adequate soil fertility is main- tained. LITERATURE CITED Gilmore, A. R. 1969. Residual soil fertility and growth of planted cottonwood on upland soils in southern Illinois. Trans. 111. State Acad Sci. 62:124-127. Minckler, L. S., and J. D. Woerheide. 1968. Weekly height growth of cottonwood. For. Sci. 14:212-216. Table 1. Average Survival and Diameters of Cottonwoods After Nine Years and Total Heights After Eight Years Treat- Sur- Diarn- Stan. Stan. ment vival etei dev. Height dev. pcf.a m.b m.b ft.c ft? 0 74 3.8 0.4 27.1 2.9 M 72 4.0 0.8 31.1 4.5 ML 94 6.0 0.4 43.8 2.2 MLP 94 5.7 0.6 41.8 3.8 R 97 4.7 0.4 38.8 2.5 RL 97 6.0 0.6 44.0 2.0 RLP 99 5.7 0.7 42.3 3.0 RLPK 85 6.0 0.5 41.1 2.3 RLPK significantly different (5 percent level) from all other treat- ments. O and M significantly different (1 percent level) from all other treatments except RLPK. O significantly different (1 percent level) from all other treatments except M. M significantly different (1 percent level) from all other treatments except O and R. R significantly different (1 percent level) from all other treatments except M, MLP, and RLP. O and M significantly different (1 percent level) from all other treatments. R significantly different (1 percent level) from ML and RL. FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT agricultural experiment station department of forestry university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 72-2 EFFECT OF RESIDUAL SOIL FERTILITY ON WOOD SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF PLANTED SYCAMORE A. R. Gilmore, Professor ^ Member, 1972 R - \St* Jttf- 01 \\\V jpgSS-o^ The effect of site quality upon wood specific gravity of various hardwood species is not clearly documented. Ring- porous woods growing on good sites usually have a higher wood specific gravity than trees of the same species growing on low-quality sites, while site quality does not seem to influence wood specific gravity of low-density diffuse- porous woods (Gilmore, 1971). There is little information on wood specific gravity-site relationships for the high- density diffuse-porous woods, although Zahner (1970) spe- culated that differences up to 20 percent in wood specific gravity within species of this group may be attributable to site differences. Survival, growth, and chemical content of the foliage of sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.) planted on an agro- nomic experimental field in southern Illinois that has been used to test crop rotation with various soil and fertilizer practices have been reported (Gilmore and Boggess, 1963; Gilmore, 1965). Briefly, these results showed that survival and growth during the first six years of the plantation were greater on limed than on unlimed plots. Foliar nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium followed the same pattern as survival and growth, but foliar potassium was less on limed than on unlimed plots. There was no correlation between tree survival or height and chemical content of the leaves. The effects of past soil fertilization on wood specific gravity of the sycamore trees at 17 years of age are reported here. that diameters at breast height and tree heights were well represented. A 12-mm. increment core extending from the bark to the pith was extracted from the south side of each sample tree at breast height. Specific gravity of each core was determined by water displacement and oven-dry weight of the core. ROTATION AND SOIL TREATMENTS At the time the experiment field was established in 1915, the area was divided into eight plots that received the following basic treatments singly and in combination: O = no treatment M = manure — 1 ton of manure applied, preceding the corn crop, for each ton of crops grown during a crop rotation R = crop residues— stalks, chaff, and straw produced in rotation L = limestone— 4 tons per acre applied in the begin- ning and 4 additional applications of 2-1/2 tons each, applied as required from 191 7 to 1953 P = rock phosphate— 4 applications of 1 ton per acre from 1917 to 1953 These basic treatments were assigned in the following combinations to the eight plots: O, M, ML, MLP, O, R, RL, and RLP. METHODS All plots had been in a mixture of clover-alfalfa three years prior to planting sycamore. Fifty seedlings were hand-planted per plot in 1956 at a 6-by-6-foot spacing. In the fall of 1972, five trees were selected on each plot so Table 1. Average Dbh, Total Height, and Wood Specific Gravity of Sample Trees According to Fertility Treatment Treatment Dbh (inches) Height (feet) Specific gravity - 0 M ML MLP R RL RLP 5.0 44 .467 5.2 46 .452 4.8 47 .437 4.6 47 .471 4.4 42 .458 5.6 47 .470 4.9 43 .457 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Average specific gravity of sample trees by treatments is shown in Table 1. There was no significant difference in specific gravity between treatments and no correlations could be found between specific gravity and total tree heights or tree diameters. Average specific gravity for all trees was 0.460, total height averaged 45 feet, and diameter averaged 4.9 inches. The number of annual rings in cores ranged from 12 to 14. Results from this study do not agree with theories of- fered by Zahner (1970) but follow in part Hunter and Goggans' (1968) results with sweetgum (which is also in the high-density diffuse-porous wood group) in Alabama. They found that growth rate had little bearing on wood specific gravity of sweetgum. This result agrees with the present study of sycamore, as tree diameter is an indirect estimate of growth rate when age is almost constant (12-14 years). This study failed to demonstrate any relationship between wood specific gravity of sycamore and site quality. A portion of this research was supported by funds from Hatch Project 55-341. LITERATURE CITED Gilmore, A. R. 1965. Growth and survival of planted syca- mores as related to chemical content of the foliage. 111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Forestry Note No. 111. 3p. Gilmore, A. R. 1971. Specific gravity of plantation-grown yellow-poplar is not related to site. Wood and Fiber 3:182-183. Gilmore, A. R., and W. R. Boggess. 1963. Effects of past agricultural practices on the survival and growth of planted trees. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 27:98-101. Hunter, A. G., and J. F. Goggans. 1968. Variation in spe- cific gravity, diameter growth, and colored heartwood of sweetgum in Alabama. Tappi 51:76-79. Zahner, Robert. 1968. Site quality and wood quality in upland hardwoods: theoretical considerations of wood density. Pages 477-497 in C. T. Youngberg and C. B. Davey (eds.), Tree Growth and Forest Soils. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis. FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry ff agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 72-3 December, 1972 CAMPER PREFERENCES IN TWO SOUTHERN ILLINOIS CAMPGROUNDS7 R. A. Young2 Several studies (1, 2, 4, 6, 7) have shown a definite relationship between the socio-economic characteristics of campers and their camping preferences. A good opportu- nity to study this relationship and to learn more about the preferences of Illinois campers is available in the Shawnee Hills region of southern Illinois. There, within a few miles of each other, are two campgrounds offering essentially the same facilities but in different settings. They both provide for overnight camping, picnicking, and swimming. The Dixon Springs State Park provides these in a highly- developed setting with mowed lawns, little screening be- tween camping units, electrical outlets for trailers and campers, playgrounds, and swimming in a pool. This park is typical of the degree of development of the state parks in Illinois and much of the Midwest. The other campground is in the Lake Glendale Recre- ation Area. It is operated by the U.S. Forest Service and is similar in development to other campgrounds developed by that agency. The campground is more natural with native plants forming somewhat of a screen between camping units. It has no electrical hookups or playgrounds, and swimming is in an 80-acre artificial lake. The purpose of our study was to look at the socio- economic backgrounds of the campers at these two campgrounds— one highly developed, the other more "primitive"— and determine if there were any significant differences between the two groups. METHODS The names of 250 families who camped at each of the two campgrounds in 1969 were selected at random. A questionnaire was mailed to these families asking them about their general background, social and economic char- acteristics, present and past camping experiences, and camping preferences. Using a series of follow-up letters to nonrespondents, we obtained excellent returns (8). A Chi- square test was used to identify any significant differences between the two groups of campers. RESULTS Returns were good from both groups of respondents. We received 198 or 79.2 percent completed questionnaires from the campers at the highly developed campground (Dixon Springs) and 224 or 89.6 percent from campers at the natural campground (Lake Glendale). There were signif- icant (1— percent level) differences in the responses of the two groups to six of the questions. These are listed below: What is your total family income before taxes? Number of days spent camping at the study camp- ground during 1969? Type of camping equipment you use? What is the main reason (s) your family selected the campground in this study? What (if anything) would you like to see changed or improved at the campground? Would you enjoy the campground more if it were (less developed, more developed, or neither)? Few differences were found in the general backgrounds or socio-economic characteristics of the two groups. Most of the questions showing significant differences concerned camping experiences and preferences. Total family income was the only socio-economic fac- tor differing significantly between the two groups, but the differences did not follow a clear pattern (Table 1). Camp- ers from the less developed campground had fewer re- sponses than expected (in Chi-square test) in the low- income group (under $4,000), in the $8,000-1 0,000 group, and in the highest income group (over $12,000); but more than expected in the $6,000-8,000 and the $10,000-12,000 income groups. Several studies (1, 2,4, 7) have found no significant differences in total family income and their preference for types of camping areas. We found no significant differences between the two groups in size of family, ages, education, occupation, or place of residence as youth. Campers stayed at the Lake Glendale campground longer than at the more developed Dixon Springs camp- ground (Table 2). This may be related to the theory of Hendee and Campbell (3) that experienced campers tend to seek more primitive types of recreation, and new campers tend to utilize highly developed campgrounds. A study of camper characteristics at two Arizona campgrounds (6) reported that campers at one campground, who stayed a relatively long time tended to be on vacation, and campers at a second campground, where visits were shorter, were mostly weekend campers. We also found significant differences in the types <>l equipment used in the two campgrounds (Table 3). Camp- ers at the less developed campground used more tents and A portion of this research was supported by funds from Hatch Project 55-323. 2 Forester, Department of Forestry. The Library cf the JAN 6 - 1975 university or iimiuia at Urbana-Champeicn tent trailers than expected, and campers at the highly developed campground used more trailers and pickup camp- ers. This item, along with the shorter length of time camping, would suggest campers at the more developed campground are more mobile. LaPage (4) also found mobil- ity more characteristic of campers at highly developed private campgrounds in New England than at the less developed public campgrounds. These campers also had more sophisticated camping equipment and a preference for travel-type camping trips. Our findings agree with a study in Michigan (5), where more tent campers than trailer campers preferred the added privacy afforded by a less developed campground. The idea that the highly mobile camper prefers a more developed area was supported by the reasons that the campers gave for selecting a campground (Table 4). Al- though the campgrounds are only a few miles apart, significantly more of the campers at the highly developed campground were concerned with location. When asked what they would like to see changed or improved at the campground, more respondents than ex- pected from the better developed campground suggested expanded swimming facilities and more improvements. Users of the less developed campground wanted: no change, firewood, and more activities and facilities at the camp- ground. Thus campers at the more developed campground would like it even more developed, while those at the less developed campground wanted no change in the camp- ground itself, but rather more to do. We next asked the campers if they would like the campground: less developed (in a more natural state), more developed (more modern conveniences), or neither (as it is). The two groups differed significantly in their responses. More of the campers than expected from the more devel- oped campground wanted greater development, while more campers from the less developed campground wanted it "as it is," neither more nor less developed (Table 5). SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS We did not find that campers at the two campgrounds differed significantly in their general background or socio- economic characteristics, except for their incomes. Even the difference in incomes did not show any definite pattern or trend. The two groups did differ in their camping philosophy and style, as reflected in their choice of campground. Campers at the more developed campground camped fewer days at the study campground during the summer of the study, but did not necessarily spend less total time camp- ing. They used more trailers and pickup campers; were concerned about the location of their campgrounds; and wanted even more development than existed. In contrast, campers at the less developed area stayed longer, used more tents and tent trailers; and selected the campground be- cause they liked the type of campground and the activities, and not because of its location. They did not want to see the campground either improved or made more primitive. LITERATURE CITED 1. Bond, R. S., and G.J. Ouellette. 1968. Characteristics of campers in Massachusetts. Mass. Agr. Expt. Stat. Bull. No. 572. 23 pp. 2. Burch, W. R., Jr., and W. D. Wenger, Jr. 1967. The social characteristics of participants in three styles of family camping. U.S. Eorest Sen'. Res. Pop. PNW-48. 29 pp. 3. Hendee, J. C, and F. L. Campbell. 1969. Social aspects of outdoor recreation— the developed campground. Trends in Parks & Rec. Vol. 6. No. 4:13-16. 4. LaPage, W. F. 1967. Camper characteristics differ at public and commercial campgrounds in New England. U.S. Forest Serv. Res. Note NE-59. 8 pp. 5. Lucas, R. C. 1970. User evaluation of campgrounds on two Michigan National Forests. U.S. Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NC-44. 15 pp. 6. Malmberg, J. P., and A. J. Schultz. 1972. Investigating visitor characteristics and design preferences. No. Arizona Univ., School of Forestry, Ariz. Forestry Note No. 8. 3 pp. 7. Roenigk, W. P., and G. L. Cole. 1968. A profile of Delaware campers. Del. Agr. Expt. Stat. Bull. 3 70. 14 pp. 8. Young, R. A., Holland, I. I., and A. R. Gilmore. 1970. Getting better returns from mail questionnaires. Jour. Forestry Vol. 68(1 1 ):723-724. -3- Table 1. Number of campers by total family income More developed Less developed Total can ipground campground Total family Number Number Number Number Number Percent income observed expected1 observed expected1 observed observed Under $4,000 6 3 0 3 6 1.50 $4,000-$5,999 8 8 10 10 18 4.50 $6,000-$7,999 20 28 41 33 61 15.25 $8,000-$9,999 49 43 44 50 93 23.25 $10,000-$12,000 53 56 67 64 120 30.00 Over $12,000 49 47 53 55 102 25.50 Total responding 185 185 215 215 400 100.00 Not responding 13 9 ... 22 ... Total 198 ... 224 ... 422 ... 1 As indicated by Chi-square test. Table 2. Number of campers by days camping at study campground in 1969 More developed Less developed Days camping can pground campground Total at study area Number Number Number Number Number Percent in 1969 observed expected* observed expected1 observed observed None 1 1 1 1 2 0.5 1 42 24 9 27 51 12.3 2 42 32 26 36 68 16.4 3 47 41 40 46 87 21.0 4 22 21 24 25 46 11.1 5 11 15 22 18 33 8.0 6 or more 28 59 99 68 127 30.7 Total responding 193 193 221 221 414 100.0 Not responding 5 ... 3 8 ... Total 198 ... 224 422 ... 1 As indicated by Chi-square test. Table 3. Number of campers by type of camping equipment More developed Less developed campground campground Tota 1 Number Number Number Number Number Percent Type of equipment observed expected1 observed expected1 observed observed Tent 49 63 81 67 130 34.1 Tent-trailer 55 58 66 63 121 31.8 Trailer 52 44 40 48 92 24. 1 Pickup camper 21 15 9 15 30 7.9 Station wagon tent 3 1 0 2 3 0.8 Other 3 2 2 3 5 1.3 Total responding 183 183 198 198 381 100.0 Not responding 15 26 41 ... Total 198 '_"_>4 422 1 As indicated by Chi-square test. The Library cf the JAN 6 . 1975 uiiiveiMly ui iiiuiula st Urbana- Champa:^: -4- Table 4. Number of campers by reasons for selecting campground in study More developed Less developed Total can- ipground campground Total Number Number Number Number Number Percent Reasons for selection observed expected^ observed expected^ observed observed Convenient location 69 50 37 56 106 25.1 Swimming 31 36 46 41 77 18.2 Recommended 16 27 41 30 57 13.5 Fishing 2 8 16 10 18 4.3 Scenic area 13 13 14 14 27 6.4 Clean 6 7 9 8 15 3.6 Facilities available 8 7 7 8 15 3.6 Campground 5 15 28 18 33 7.8 Overflow 13 6 0 7 13 3.1 Other 35 29 26 32 61 14.4 Total responding 198 198 224 224 422 100.0 'Some campers indicated more than one reason. 2 As indicated by Chi-square test. Table 5. Number of campers by recommended changes More developed Less developed carr pground campground Total Number Number Number Number Number Percent Recommended change observed expected * observed expected^ observed observed Less development 17 15 15 17 32 7.8 More development 90 69 58 79 148 36.2 No change 83 106 146 123 229 56.0 Total responding 190 190 219 219 409 100.0 Not responding 8 5 *.. 13 ... Total 198 224 ... 422 'As indicated by Chi-square test. FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry c/ No. 72-4 agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign December, 1972 THE 1972 FOREST INSECT SITUATION The Library of the R.G. Cooperative observation and reporting of forest insects was carried on in Illinois for the twelfth consecutive year in 1972. This paper presents information on the forest insects encountered. MAJOR DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS Defoliators The European pine saw fly continued to be the most frequently reported forest insect. Although populations were generally light, heavy defoliation occurred in a few pole-size red pine plantations. The prevalence of last-instar virus-killed larvae in sampled plantations suggests that this insect will remain at about the same status in 1973. Christmas tree growers, however, should continue their usual vigilance. The loblolly pine saw fly ranked second in abundance in 1972. In addition to early-spring defoliation in older lob- lolly pine stands, heavy defoliation was reported in young plantings. Complete loss of old needles plus some injury to branch bark and the current year's needles can result in small-tree mortality, especially if heavy defoliation occurs in two successive years. Owners of loblolly pine plantations in the southern third of Illinois should watch for this sawfly in the early spring. As is true with the European and Virginia pine sawflies, the loblolly pine sawfly overwinters in the egg stage in the needles (Figure 1). Examination of the needles at the ends of branches for eggs during the winter will give the grower advance warning of a possible sawfly problem. JAM 6 - 1975 Uiuveiatty 01 ills The Virginia pine sawfly1 r/c7fi(rniu,eacTnptijncause minor concern and was reported only from Coles and Edgar Counties in east-central Illinois. Past records suggest that this species is still present in small numbers in the eastern border counties in the southern third of the state. Land- owners in those counties, therefore, should examine their plantations in late April and early May for larvae of this sawfly. The white pine sawfly was not reported, although there is every reason to expect that it continues to be present in the state in small numbers. It is highly capable of rapid population build-up from scattered and easily overlooked colonies. For this reason Christmas tree growers with white pine should be on guard for it in their plantations. The red-headed pine sawfly (Figure 2) was reported less frequently than in 1971. We should continue to monitor this two-generation-a-year sawfly, although nothing suggests any material change in its status in 1973. Figure 1. Needles containing pine sawfly eggs. Figure 2. Red-headed pine sawfly larvae at work. (Photo- graph courtesy Robert J. Blair) Terminal Feeders Few reports of the European pine shoot moth were received. Dimethoate was used on red pine in one twenty- acre plantation in an effort to reduce the level of infesta- tion of this shoot moth. Field examination of sample plantations over its range in the state suggested that populations were lower than for several years. No major status change is anticipated for 1973. 1 Research supported by funds from Hatch Project 55-373. Associate Professor of Forestry. -2- The Zimmerman pine moth continued to be a problem for a few Christmas tree growers in the northern third of Illinois. Adjacent infested areas are often the major source of annual reinfestation of plantations. The Zimmerman pine moth can be a particularly serious problem when infestations originate from land not owned or controlled by the Christmas tree grower. Build-up of populations of this moth may be minimized in some situations by removing all heavily infested and cull trees (especially heavily infested trees beyond Christmas tree size) in a plantation. Such trees often generate large numbers of adult moths. The 1973 status of this insect should be similar to that of 1972. The pales weevil, primarily a concern of large Christmas tree growers in the state, continued at high population levels. One large grower treated all stumps from the 1971 harvest in order to render them unsuitable as weevil breeding sites. The resulting fewer numbers of adult weevils should materially reduce flagging injury to trees of salable size. Growers are urged to learn to recognize the pales weevil and its damage. No change in status seems likely in the coming year. FOREST INSECTS OF LESSER IMPORTANCE The forest tent caterpillar remains at low population level. It is, however, present over a wide area in south- western Illinois. For this reason it should be carefully watched as it will probably be abundant over a wider area than before when the resistance factors now holding it in check cease to be effective. The eastern tent caterpillar was frequently reported. Although this species makes individual trees and stands look unsightly, it is of primary concern only when it attacks landscape trees or trees in recreation areas. No major change in abundance appears likely in 1973. In 1972 cooperators reported many more species of insects attacking hardwood trees than in any past year. Among those reported were: yellow-necked caterpillars, hickory borers, mimosa webworms, walnut caterpillars, linden loopers, walnut leaf rollers, periodical cicadas (Figure 3), black-headed ash sawflies, and ash borers. Even though the vast majority of the hardwood forest insects encountered are ordinarily present in small numbers and cause only minor damage, it is nevertheless important that an annual surveillance be maintained of as many species as is possible. Several species that rarely occasion more than passing concern can, under the right set of circumstances, become extremely abundant and cause extensive damage. Fortu- nately our observations do not indicate that any alarming changes in the population levels of any of these insects are likely in the coming year. Figure 3. Adult periodical cicada. (Photograph courtesy Glenn R. Campbell) CONCLUSION In 1972 serious insect problems in the forests and plantations of the state have been few. Sawflies and shoot- and bud-feeding insects continued to pose the greatest economic threat to Christmas tree growers. Our increasing observance and awareness of the many insect species attack- ing hardwoods is encouraging and commendable. Many of these insects will take on new levels of importance in the future as hardwood forests are more intensively managed, dedicated to increased recreational use, or converted to wooded subdivisions or home sites. In the future these new uses of forests will upset the normal checks and balances of nature, thereby creating new forest insect problems. FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT agricultural experiment station department of forestry university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 73-1 S&ptfettab9r)cafr7:3 A LOOK AT THE CONVERSION METHODS TWENTY YEARS LATER J^|w Q _ iq-^r In 1950 a study to evaluate methods of converting low-quality hardwood stands to more profitable pine plantations was established at Sinnissippi Forest (Ogle County). Although herbicides were being used experimentally in many areas at that time, their uses and methods of application were not well known. Since then, much research has been done and these factors have become well documented. It is interesting, however, to look at the results of this early study some 20 years later. METHODS The study was conducted in a stand of black oak (Quercus velutina Lam.) and white oak (Quercus alba L.) growing on sandy upland soils. Eleven half-acre plots were established in an effort to find the best and most economical system of conversion. Seven plots are summarized in this study; of the other four, one was not typical, one had faulty herbicide application, and plans on the other two were not completed. Table 1 lists the condition of the woody vegetation before conversion of the seven plots studied. The treatments given the seven plots are described below. Plot 1 October 30, 1950-All trees 1 inch or more in diameter were frilled with an axe and Ammate crystals were applied directly into the frills; 22.8 pounds of Ammate per acre were used. May, 1951— Hand-planted 3-0 red pine on 6' x 6' grid. April, 1 952— Replanted 2-2 red pine in failed spots. June 18, 1953— All sprouts were cut with an axe. Plot 5 (Check plot— no treatment of any kind) May, 1951— Hand-planted 3-0 red pine on 6' x 6' grid. April, 1 952— Replanted 2-2 red pine in failed spots. Plot 6 October 30, 1950— Ml trees 1 inch or more d.b.h. were girdled with an axe about 3^' above groundline; 240 trees per acre were girdled, requiring 6.7 man-hours. May, 1951 -Hand-planted 3-0 red pine on 6' x 6' grid. April, i952-Replanted 2-2 red pine in failed areas. June 25,1952— Oak reproduction was cut back with a brush scythe, requiring 3 man-hours per acre. One year after girdling, two-thirds of the trees were sprouting. All sprouts were cut back with a brush hook, which required 2 man-hours per acre. Very few woody shrubs were present on the area. Both plots 5 and 6 have a fairly heavy ground cover of Carex pennsylvanica. H.W. Fox1 university of mmuts at Urbana-Champ^n July 25, 1 952— Reproduction and sprouts from girdled trees were cut back by hand labor. Plot 7 May, 1 951— Hand-planted 3-0 red pine on a 6' x 6' grid. April, 1 952— Replanted 2-2 red pine in failed spots. Winter, 1952-53— The merchantable timber was harvested, leaving the tops on the area. Four inches of snow were on the area when it was logged. June 18, 1953— The remaining nonmerchantable timber was girdled with an axe, and the large woody shrubs and trees were cut back. Plot 9 October, 1950— The plot was clear-cut for usable sawlogs and cordwood May, 1951— Hand-planted 3-0 red pine on a 6' x 6' grid. September 27, 1951— The cut stumps were sprouting heavily. May, i°52-Replanted 2-2 red pine. June 25, 1952— All stump sprouts and brush were cut back by hand. Note: The logs and cordwood did not pay for the clear-cutting operation. Plot 10 October, 1 950— The plot was clear-cut for usable sawlogs and cordwood. The brush was sparse. Larger brush and woody vegetation were cut back with an axe. May, 1951— Hand-planted 3-0 red pine on a 6' x 6' grid. May, 1952— Replanted 2-2 red pine. Note: The logs and cordwood did not pay for the clear-cutting operation. Plot 11 This plot was added later in order to take advantage of the information learned from the establishment of the other ten plots. We now know that the removal or control of the overstory is not a difficult task in the process of converting the poor hardwoods to pines; it is the underbrush— Corylus, Rubus, Cornus, and hardwood seedlings and sprouts— that determines the success or failure of the pine planting. July 12, 1951— Merchantable trees were marked for cutting. The remaining trees were poisoned with a Cornell tool, using 2,4, 5-T (Esteron). All brush and woody vegetation were also hand-sprayed with 2,4, 5-T at a solution strength of 16 pounds of effective acid per 100 gallons of kerosene. Assistant Professor of Forestry Per acre statistics: Amount of 2,4,5-T to poison trees— 0.63 gallon; time required to poison trees— 3.66 man-hours; amount of 2,4,4-T to spray underbrush— 19.0 gallons; time required to spray brush— 6.66 man-hours; total 2,4,5-T solution used-19.63 gallons; total time to spray brush and poison trees— 10.32 man-hours. October, 1951— Merchantable trees were cut. April 25, i952-The plot was hand-planted with 2-2 red pine on a 6' x 6' spacing. June 26, i 952— Good survival; the seedlings grew 5 to 6 inches in the spring of 1952. This is one of the more promising conversion plots because good 2-2 red pine planting stock was used at the onset. Then, too, the ground cover, which is the limiting factor, was thoroughly sprayed with 2,4,5-T before the trees were planted. RESULTS AFTER 20 YEARS Nothing more was done to the plots after 1953. An analysis of success or failure was done in 1971. The results are shown in Table 2. The treatments given plots 1 and 1 1 were definitely the most successful methods of conversion. The treatments of plots 6, 7, and 9 were partially successful and perhaps would have been more so if another release had been made in 1954. The survival of planted pine on plot 5 is remarkably good after 21 years of suppression. The treatment of plot 10 was definitely unsuccessful as a method of conversion. CONCLUSION It is quite obvious, as has been reported many times in the literature, that successful conversion depends upon successful elimination of all woody growth on an area. It is not difficult to eliminate the overstory: this can be done by cutting, girdling, using herbicides, or dozing. The underbrush, seedlings, and sprouts are a far greater problem and must be eliminated in the conversion cycle or they will grow at prolific rates when the overstory is destroyed. Their surge can be circumvented, where the undergrowth is light to moderate, by underplanting and by removing the overstory five to ten years after the pines have become established. ^Wendel, G.W. 1971. Converting hardwoods on poor sites to white pine by planting and direct seeding. NE Forest Experiment Station, Upper Darby, Pennsylvania. Table 1 . Per Acre Plot Data Previous to Conversion Trees 1 " to Trees 9.6" d.b.h. Total no. Average Basal area Reproduction Plot 9.5" d.b.h. and larger of trees d.b.h. (in.) (sq. ft.) under 1" d.b.h. 1 294 16 310 6.5 72.4 2,174 5 70 76 146 9.7 74.8 2,322 6 200 42 242 7.6 75.2 4,744 7 148 82 230 8.5 91.0 4,316 9 168 68 236 8.4 90.3 2,520 10 130 68 198 8.9 86.3 5,146 11 164 64 228 8.0 75.9 7,848 Table 2. Condition of Plots After 20 and 21 Years Plot Treatment Growing seasons Pines surviving per acre Average height (ft.) Deciduous trees 1.6" d.b.h. or more per acre Average dia- meter decidu- ous trees (in.) Comments 1 A mm ate 21 784 28.8 128 2.1 Good stand, good growth, deciduous competition minor None Girdle 21 21 516 304 6.5 16.6 136 1,312 7 Harvest and girdle 21 222 9 Clear-cut, me- chanical release following year 21 372 10 Clear-cut, no release 21 286 11 Harvest, use 2,4,5-T on all nonmerchantable trees, brush, and seedlings 20 872 23.0 624 29.4 12.5 2.5 4.1 2.0 Could have been suc- cessful if released at 4 to 6 years Could have been suc- cessful if released at 4 to 6 years Results similar to Plot 6 Growth and survival spotty because of competition, needed further release Not successful Definitely successful AV FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry w agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 73-2 RESPONSE OF WHITE OAK TO OVERSTORY RELEASE H. W. Fox 1 September, 1973 The Library of the JAN 6 . m UfllV An exploratory study was done at Sinnissippi Forest, Oregon, Illinois, to determine whether suppressed or over- topped white oak (Quercus alba L.) could recover after being released from surrounding competition. Diameters of the 9 trees used in the study ranged from 6.3 to 11.2 inches. The stands included in the study were in the 71- to 90- year age class, and the timber types were white oak, good; mixed oak, good; mixed oak, medium; and mixed oak, poor. Even though this is a limited study of only a few trees, the information derived may be useful in managing oak stands in similar timber types. METHODS At the beginning of the study the following data were recorded for each tree: 1. D.b.h. of overtopped tree. 2. Rings per inch of overtopped tree. 3. Total height of overtopped tree. 4. Crown classification of overtopped tree. 5. Timber type. 6. D.b.h. of overtopping tree or trees. 7. Distance between overtopped tree and overtopping tree or trees. 8. Photograph of crown of overtopped tree, showing part of crown of overtopping tree. 9. Graphic description of the tree. The overtopping tree or trees were removed, and a photograph was again taken of the released trees from the same camera point Five growing seasons after release the following data were recorded for the released trees: 1. D.b.h. 2. Comparative growth before release and after release by increment borings. 3. Height 4. Crown classification . 5. Photograph of crown 6. Graphic description Crown classification was based on the Gevorikiantz^ method, in which crowns are classified from #1 to #9: #1 crown is short and narrow, #9 is long and wide, and #5 is considered a balanced crown with a length between 30 and 50 percent of the tree height and a diameter from 60 to 100 percent of die crown length. RESULTS at Urbana- Champs:^ Sixty-two percent of the trees were dead five years after release. Trees that did recover Were further classified under good, fair, or poor recovery. Three typical trees are de- scribed below. Tree No. 1; no recovery; dead after five years Initial data D.b.h.: 10.4" Height: 70' Rings per inch: 24 Crown classification: # 1 Crown size: 12' long x 6' wide Timber type: white oak— good site; 71-90 year age class Overtopping tree: white oak 14.8" d.b.h. at a dis- tance of 11.0' Graphic description Tree entirely overtopped. Eight 1' to 4' sucker branches on main stem. Three 2" to 3" dead stubs 4' to 6' long below crown. Only four crown branches, 3' long and 1 V2" to 2" in diameter. The main stem has a slight crook about 22' high. Five years later this tree was dead. Tree No. 4; poor recovery Initial data D.b.h.: 7.6" Height: 45' Rings per inch: 26 Crown classification: #5 Crown size: 22' long x 18' wide Timber type: mixed oak— poor site; 71-90 year age class Overtopping trees: 12.4" black oak at a distance of 14.3'; 9.6" white oak at a distance of 12.5' Graphic description Tree entirely overtopped. Numerous sucker branches on main stem from 10' to crown. Assistant Professor of Forestry Gevorikiantz, S.R. 1956. Managing hardwoods for quality increment. J. Forestry. 54:836-840. Crown forks at 22' with die-back at tip ends of both forks. Except for the two main fork branches, there are no live branches over 2" in diameter anywhere on the tree. There is a possibility of a merchantable height of only 22' if the tree recovers. Five years after release, tree No. 4 was only .1" larger in diameter and its total height increased by 3'. Other factors remained much the same. Growth rate had not increased. For all practical purposes this tree is again overtopped, even though there is nothing directly over the crown; it is much lower than the surrounding crowns and receives little direct sunlight. Sucker branches are still numerous from 10' to crown and the smallest fork at 22' has died back completely. The main fork in the crown has recovered to some extent and is growing beyond the original die-back. This tree is likely to recover only if further release is done. Tree No. 5; good recovery Initial data D.b.h.: 9.1" Height: 53' Rings per inch: 27 Crown classification: #3 Crown size: 45' long x 16' wide Timber type: mixed oak— poor site; 71-90 year age class Overtopping tree: black oak 11.3" d.b.h. at a dis- tance of 16.4' from sample tree Graphic description Tree open on west side. Side branches up to 2" in diameter start at 10' and continue up the main stem to the crown. No die-back, either in side branches or crown. Has possibilities of producing 24' to 26' of mer- chantable height, but of low quality because of numerous branches on main stem. Five years after release tree No. 5 was 1.3" larger in diameter and 10' higher. The growth ratio between the average diameter growth for the five years preceding release and for the five years after release is 3.41. At the end of the five years, the tree was still open on all sides and appeared to be a healthy, fast-growing speci- men. CONCLUSIONS This study gives an indication as to which trees may or may not respond to release, although it is not possible to draw a distinct line between the two groups. Results indicate that trees with short narrow crowns and consider- able die-back will not respond to release. However, trees with good crowns, even though they have grown slowly in past years, will respond to complete release. It is concluded that crown condition rather than past diameter growth must be considered in determining the probable release response of white oak. Apparently, trees of good crown and form will, if released, increase their annual growth rate to a point at which it will be desirable to retain the tree in the stand as future growing stock. FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry U agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 73-3 TWENTY-TWO YEARS UPLAND HARDWOODS OF MANAGEMENT OF . IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS September, 1973 The Library of the JAN 6 - 1975 R.E. Nelson, R.A. Young, and A.R. Gilmore1 univeibity or Illinois at Urbana-Champc:>n A study was initiated in 1950 to determine the effects of uneven-aged forest management on a stand of upland hardwoods located at the Dixon Springs Agricultural Cen- ter, Pope County, Illinois. The study areas of mixed oak and oak-hickory types had been first cut for sawlogs about 40 years before the study began. No records of the intensity of that cut are available. In the mid-thirties the land was acquired by the Federal Government and has not been burned or grazed since. This protection, along with a small amount of stand improvement in 1955 (4), resulted in a woodland better in stocking and composition than is average for the area. This paper reports changes in the growth, yield, and species composition of that stand result- ing from 22 years of this kind of management. The woodland consists of three tracts. Tract I, 19.15 acres, is on a middle southerly slope where rock outcrops are common. Tracts II and III occupy a southerly and southwesterly slope; Tract II is 12.15 acres on the lower slope and Tract III is 8.8 acres on the upper slope. Soil types are Grantsburg silt loam (Typic fragiudalfs), generally found on the ridge tops and moderate slopes, and a complex of Wellston and Muskingum soils (Ultic haplu- dalfs and Typic dystrochrepts) on steep side slopes. The moderately well-drained Grantsburg soils are of loessial origin and have a very slowly permeable fragipan at approx- imately 24 inches below the surface. The Wellston- Muskingum soils, which do not have fragipans, are moder- ate to well-drained and tend to be droughty. METHODS Complete inventories were made of the entire woodland in 1950, 1955, 1961, 1966, and 1972. All trees 3.6 inches diameter at breast height and over were tallied by one-inch diameter classes. Local volume tables were made for esti- mating board-foot volume, based on the international V4- inch kerf rule for trees to a 10-inch top (inside bark). During the first five years of the study, an annual cutting was made in Tracts I and II. These tracts were divided into compartments, and the entire annual growth for the tract was cut from one of the compartments each year on a rotation basis. This was done to concentrate the annual cut, simplify logging, and make openings large enough to encourage natural reproduction of oak species. Growth was estimated by stand-table projection based on increment borings from sample trees. In 1955 a change was made in the management plan. i Each compartment in Tract I and II was to be cut back to 5,000 board feet per acre. Since each tract contained five I compartments, a compartment would be cut once every I five years. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Harvest Cuttings Between 1950 and 1966, Tract I produced a harvest of 3,174 board feet of sawlogs per acre (Table 1). Between 1950 and 1960, Tract II produced 1,093 board feet of sawlogs per acre cut in the first 10 years of the study. Since the volume in Tract III never reached the 5,000 board feet per acre cutting level, no harvest cuts have been made; however, a salvage cut had been made in all three tracts during the first five years, following a severe drought. Olson and Boggess (3) reported on the growth and yield of this area for the first five years of the study. Growth Growth data were computed for each of the four periods, then combined for the full 22 years (Table 2). Growth calculations include harvest cutting, salvage made during the first period, mortality, and ingrowth. Board-foot growth, computed for the period for trees 11.5 inches d.b.h. and over, averaged 243 feet per year for Tract I, 186 feet for Tract II, and 176 for Tract in. Growth capabilities for hardwood forests on the Grantsburg soils have been estimated at 1 75-500 board feet per acre per year and on the Wellston-Muskingum complex at 100-300 board feet (5). Volume The total board foot volume increased during each of the four periods (Table 3). Tract I, which had a per acre volume of 5,629 board feet in 1950 and received the heaviest cuttings (Table 1), had a volume of 7,399 board feet in 1972. White oak volume increased steadily during this period, while the black oaks, hickory, and others generally decreased; during the last period, however, the volume of black oak and others increased. The earlier decrease in the volume of the species other than white oaks was due to the individual tree selection method of harvest- ing and timber stand improvement work, both favoring white oak. These two factors have been absent from the woodland in recent years, thereby allowing black oaks and others to increase. Tract II, which in 1950 was below the 5,000 board feet per acre cutting level, showed a per acre volume of 6,790 board feet in 1972. Again, white oak volume increased greatly— more than doubling from 1950 to 1972. Black oaks also increased in volume, while the hickories and others decreased. The volume in Tract III has increased from 1,883 board feet in 1950 to 5,265 in 1972; the increase was in all species. Assistant Professor, Forester, and Professor, Department of Forestry, University of Illinois. Species Composition SUMMARY Under uneven-aged management with selection cutting, one might expect an increase in shade-tolerant species such as maple and red oak. These species can reproduce and the seedlings can develop under the canopy conditions pro- duced by uneven-aged management. Typically, this trend would be accompanied by the reduction of the less shade- tolerant species such as yellow-poplar and white oak. These expectations were borne out by the record (Table 4). In 1950 white oaks in 4- to 11-inch trees in Tract I numbered 26 per acre; Tract II had 61; and Tract III had 65. In 1972 the number had decreased to 19, 1, and 52 respectively. The reduction of white oaks was offset by an increase in "Others"— mainly winged elm and hard maple. The total number of small sawlog trees (12- to 17-inch d.b.h.) decreased in Tract I from 33 per acre in 1950 to 19 in 1972. Trees of this size class increased in Tract III during this period from 22 per acre to 38 and decreased slightly in Tract II. The decrease in the number of small sawlogs in Tract I was spread over all species. Likewise, the increase in Tract III was over all species. The number of large sawlog-size trees (over 1 7-inch d.b.h.) increased in all tracts. The increase in Tract I was in white oak, while the number of black oak sawlogs de- creased during this period. In Tracts II and III, the number of black and white oaks both increased with black oaks contributing most to the total. Although not included in the inventory of the stand, the most common species in small sapling (under 4-inch d.b.h.) are hard maple, hickory, and elm. Diameter Distribution In uneven-aged management a balanced diameter distri- bution is important so that enough trees grow into the higher diameter classes to yield adequate volume at each harvest cut. Table 5 shows the diameter distribution for the three study tracts and lists a stocking guide recommended for upland uneven-aged hardwood forests in southern Illinois (i, p. 19). Tract I was overstocked in nearly all d.b.h. classes in 1950 when the first inventory was made. In 1972 it still contained more trees per acre in the sapling and sawlog classes than recommended and fewer in the pole sizes. Tract II was also overstocked in 1950 in the lower d.b.h. classes but had nearly the recommended numbers in the sawlog-sizes. After 22 years of management the num- bers of trees per acre were near the recommended levels except in the sawlog class, where the numbers were slightly higher than recommended. Tract III was overstocked compared to the suggested level in the sapling and pole classes in 1950. Since there have been no harvest cuts in Tract III since 1950, the overstocked condition has increased, with several db.h. classes having twice the recommended number of trees per acre. Tract I This tract was cut annually by compartments. The volume to be cut was determined by growth estimates made at the beginning of the first period and by a volume limit in the second and third periods. During the fourth period (1967-1972), which has not yet been harvested, Tract I had 2,399 board feet per acre available for harvest— that is, exceeding the 5,000 board feet per acre cutting limit- counting all species. The white oaks showed a decrease in the number of small and large poles and small sawlogs and showed an increase in the number of large sawlogs. White oak volume per acre increased at a uniform rate during the 22-year period while the board feet growth rate lessened. The numbers of black oaks in Tract I decreased in all size classes. There was also a corresponding decrease in volume per acre. Timber stand improvement cuttings have greatly reduced the numbers of hickory in Tract I in all size classes. The volume of hickory was reduced by approx- imately two-thirds, while growth was reduced by only one-third. Timber stand improvement also eliminated many of the "Others" from the stand. These, principally ash, elm, hard maple, and black gum, increased in number only in the small pole sizes. These species also account for the over- stocked condition in the small sapling class, a condition present in all d.b.h. classes at the beginning of the study but corrected in all classes but this. Tract II Cuttings in Tract II decreased the number of white oak poles and increased the numbers of small and large sawlogs. Total number of large sawlogs, however, is still small. White oak volume has more than doubled during the study period. Black oak volume is up and volume of hickory and others is down. Total volume increased over 50 percent. Board foot volume available for harvest was 1,790 per acre in 1972, counting all species. For black oak, the numbers of poles and small sawlogs decreased moderately. Large sawlogs increased greatly in number. Hickory decreased in numbers in the small poles, sizes, and along with others remained constant in the other classes. This reduction in this less desirable species im- proved the stocking level, moving the stand from an overstocked condition in 1950 to a better distribution of size classes (at a desirable stocking level) in 1972. Tract III As the volume in Tract III increased, the number of white oak poles decreased while the number of small sawlogs increased. At the same time the number of black oaks, hickories, and others increased. The tract still con- tains more trees per acre than recommended in the pole and small sawlog classes. Since the tract has just recently reached the 5,000 board foot per acre cutting level, it has not been cut except for a salvage cut made early in the study (4). In 1972 board foot volume available for harvest was only 265 per acre. -3- CONCLUDIIMG REMARKS Twenty-two years of managing this upland hardwood stand by an individual tree selection cutting method has greatly improved the quality of the sawlog-size trees in the stand. In the last five-year period nearly all the growth has been placed on the better crop trees; consequently, this volume was several times more valuable than that during the first five-year period when growth was placed on poor species and low-quality trees as well as better trees. The woodland has been quite acceptable from an aesthetic standpoint at all periods during the research, including during and immediately after harvesting opera- tions. This management has also provided excellent soil and water conservation and a good habitat for wildlife. The study area also illustrates a problem associated with this type of management, however. Species composition of the reproduction is moving in the direction of the less desirable, more tolerant species. Thus, although adequate reproduction has occurred, much of it is of undesirable timber species. Another study (2) in the upland hardwoods of southern Illinois demonstrated that the size of the openings created during harvest strongly affected the species composition of the reproduction but had little effect on the number of stems present. In this study, Minckler and Woerheide found that the diameter of openings should be about the height of the surrounding canopy. (Canopy openings should be meas- ured from the drip line on one side of the opening to the drip line on the other side.) This size produced the optimum combination of desired species and height growth of reproduction. Larger openings had little effect on improving either composition or height. In smaller open- ings, height growth was less, and species composition tended toward the more tolerant and less desirable species. The problem of species composition of the reproduc- tion on the study stand could most likely be improved by increasing the size of the openings to about the height of the canopy. This would not appreciably detract from the aesthetics or watershed qualities of this woodland but would most likely improve the wildlife habitat and con- tinue to yield high quality logs and growth considered adequate for the site. LITERATURE CITED 1. Illinois Technical Forestry Association. 1965. Recom- mended silviculture and management practices for Illi- nois hardwood forest types. Springfield. 46 pp. 2. Minckler, Leon S., and John D. Woerheide. 1965. Reproduction of hardwoods 10 years after cutting as affected by site and opening size. Jour. Forestry 63:103-197. 3. Olson, C.E., and W.R. Boggess. 1958. Observations on the growth and yield of managed upland hardwoods in southern Illinois. 111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Forestry Note 76. 5 pp. 4. Olson, C.E., and W.R. Boggess. 1960. Mortality fol- lowing mechanical girdling in a mixed hardwood stand in southern Illinois. 111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Forestry Note 90. 9 pp. 5. University of Illinois. 1964. Soil survey: Johnson Coun- ty, Illinois. 111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Soil Report 82. 72 pp. Table 1. Sawlog Harvest (board feet per acre); 1950-55 1955-60 1960-66 1967-72 Total (Cut and salvage) Tract I Tract II Tract IH 1,140 1271 891 711 301 1,057 131 870 3,174 1,093 301 ^International 'A-inch kerf rule for trees to 10-inch top inside bark. Salvage— the cuttings were heaviest during the first five years when the emphasis was on improving the stand. Cull trees were cut or girdled as the individual cutting areas were harvested. Table 2. Growth Rates (board feet per acre) 1950-55 1956-60 1961-66 1967-72 Average Tract I Periodic Mean annual 1,436 287 1,075 215 1,219 203 1,606 268 243 Tract II Periodic Mean annual 1,319 264 677 135 1,277 213 820 137 186 Tract III Periodic Mean annual 833 167 368 74 1,002 167 1,672 279 176 Table 3. Volume (board feet per acre) Year White oaks Black oaks Hickory Tract I 1950 3,516 1,658 252 1955 4,132 1,342 160 1961 4,491 1,041 168 1966 4,959 835 81 1972 6,021 1,097 64 Tract II 1950 1,489 2,216 199 1955 1,899 2,181 168 1961 2,312 2,296 164 1966 2,980 2,796 138 1972 3,62*2 3,102 4 Tract III 1950 450 1,227 161 1955 747 1,403 181 1961 1,000 1,442 239 1966 1,187 2,098 318 1972 2,372 2,346 439 Others 203 161 143 121 217 224 201 224 185 62 45 52 70 86 108 Total 5,629 5,795 5,833 5,996 7,399 4,128 4,450 4,996 6,099 6,790 1,883 2,383 2,751 3,689 5,265 -5- Table 4. Species Composition (trees per acre) by Size Classes Species 4- to 11 -inch trees 12- to 17-inch trees Trees over 1 7 inches 1950 1955 1960 1966 1972 1950 1955 1960 1966 1972 1950 1955 1960 1966 1972 White oaksa 26 33 Black oaks° 10 7 Hickories 49 32 Others0 59 70 Total 144 132 White oaks 61 55 Black oaks 22 14 Hickories 28 29 Others 31 38 Total 142 136 White oaks 65 64 Black oaks 26 16 Hickories 42 47 Others 13 27 Total 146 154 19 6 16 75 116 44 10 8 30 92 21 46 47 32 146 19 7 22 70 118 41 8 6 31 86 52 8 47 35 142 22 6 3 2 33 13 16 2 2 33 6 14 2 22 20 5 2 2 29 15 13 2 2 32 3 14 2 1 20 Tract I 18 4 1 1 24 Tract II 16 12 2 2 32 Tract III 11 13 3 1 28 15 3 1 1 20 19 11 2 1 33 11 18 4 1 34 15 3 1 19 20 10 1 31 17 14 6 1 38 3 4 5 3 1 2 1 1 3 4 9 12 2 2 11 14 3 4 6 7 11 1 4 ^Includes white, post, and chestnut oaks. "Includes black, red, scarlet, and blackjack oaks. cPrincipally ash, elm, hard maple, yellow-poplar, and black gum. Table 5. Diameter Distribution (trees per acre) D.b.h. Tract I Tract II Tract m Recommended Class 1950 1972 1950 1972 1950 1972 Mixed oak Hickory Inches 5-7 49 75 60 33 60 67 32 30 8-10 28 14 38 18 38 34 24 22 11-13 19 8 26 15 22 28 15 14 14-16 18 10 15 17 10 16 12 10 17-19 7 10 4 9 2 7 6 5 20-22 2 6 1 5 0 1 2 1 23-25 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 Total 123 125 144 98 132 153 91 82 e^r FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry u agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 73-4 EFFECT OF CONIFEROUS TREE SPECIES AND MICROBIAL ASSOCIATES ON NUTRIENT MOBILITY 1 G.L. Rolfe and W.D. Fadden September, 1973 The Library o1 JAN 6 - 1975 univcisiiy ul at Urbana- Champ - Much of the former forest land in Illinois that was cleared for agriculture was abandoned during the early 1900's because of low fertility and high rates of erosion. Attempts to reforest such lands with climax species has often met with failure. To help understand these failures, a large body of literature describing succession and soil conditions has accumulated (Oosting, 1942; Bazzaz, 1968; and Rolfe and Boggess, 1973). Data that describe the site changes occurring during succession are also available from widely scattered sources (Coile, 1940; Auten, 1945; Walli- han, 1949; Richards, 1962; Pisemskaya, 1963; Clark, 1964; Fisher and Stone, 1969; and Rolfe and Boggess, 1973). Coniferous species, which are more tolerant of poor soil physical and chemical conditions than hardwood species, were planted on many of these sites. Most of these plantings were successful, and hardwood climax species have begun to invade the sites (Minckler, 1952; Arnold and Boggess, 1971). Several studies have been conducted to determine why some tree species become established more easily and grow better in the presence of conifers (Richards, 1962; Richards and Bevenge, 1963; Clark, 1964; Richards and Voight, 1965; and Fisher and Stone, 1969). The presence of a large amount of fungal activity, closely associated with conifers, has been suggested as a major factor in this better growth (Fisher and Stone, 1969). The objectives of this preliminary study were to evalu- ate the possible role of the microbial population associated with conifers in nutrient mobility and to perfect techniques for studying these phenomena. METHODS One-year-old loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedlings were planted in soil obtained from a 20-year old loblolly pine plantation and grown under greenhouse conditions. For each potted seedling there was a duplicate pot contain- ing only soil in order to determine whether any changes in nutrient mobility were due to plant-microbial associations or to microbial associations only. Eighteen pairs of pots were established. All of the pots were watered daily with a constant volume (200 ml) of deionized water and the Filtrate was collected in 250 ml flasks connected to a funnel under each pot. Each week of the six-week study, three pairs of pots were removed from the study and the filtrate volume in the flasks recorded and normalized to 250 ml. To determine the effects on nutrient mobility of plant- microbial or microbial exudates contained in the filtrate, an extraction system, as described by Henin and Pedro (1965), was set up. This system allows the circulation of a solution through a soil column at repeated intervals. The solution moves through an evaporation-condensation process— from a boiling flask, through the soil column, and back to the boiling flask. The soil used in the soxhlet extractors was the same as used in the pots. After the soil was weighed and added to the extraction column, 50 ml of the filtrate was added to the soil column and 250 ml of deionized water was added to the boiling flask. Only enough heat was applied to the boiling flask to insure circulation of the extraction system. Through experimentation, it was deter- mined that 1 20 circulation hours were required for extrac- tion. After this time, the samples showed no appreciable increase in nutrients and the contents of the boiling flask were collected and refrigerated. Six check extractions with no filtrate addition were run. The samples (both the initial filtrate and the extract from the soxhlet) were filtered and analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry for calcium and potas- sium. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results of the study for calcium are shown in Table 1 and for potassium in Table 2. There were no significant differences between the amounts of calcium or potassium extracted by plant-microbial filtrate and by microbial fil- trate. Preliminary conclusions to be drawn from this indi- cate that plant exudates in addition to microbial exudates did not significantly improve nutrient availability in this study. However, both plant-microbial and microbial filtrate improve significantly (p^ 0.005) the extraction of calcium and potassium in relation to extraction with deionized water in the control samples. Based on this preliminary experiment, microbial exudates from coniferous soils did significantly improve nutrient mobility. However, the con- centration of nutrients in the extract in weeks 2 through 6 was significantly lower (p5^ 0.005) than in week 1 and did not significantly differ from the control. In this case it seems likely that, over longer periods of time, the filtrate was becoming diluted by the daily watering of the pots. In the filtrate from the first week, plant-microbial or microbial exudates were in higher concentrations and thus resulted in greater nutrient mobility. Much additional work should be done, including com- paring exudate studies of hardwood and abandoned field soils; a further expansion and validation of the study reported here; and analysis of the exudate to determine its chemical nature and specific role in mobilizing nutrients within a soil system. This research was sponsored by Mclntire-Stennis Project 55-308. 'Assistant Professor and Research Assistant in Forestry. -2- TABLE 1. Calcium Concentration in Extract (ppm)< LITERATURE CITED Extraction Extraction Filtrate with plant- with week microbial microbial Control number filtrate filtrate sample 1 156 152 57 2 52 65 43 3 40 53 51 4 52 52 43 5 33 36 39 6 40 36 50 ^Nutrient concentrations are the means of three extractions except for control extractions. TABLE 2. Potassium Concentration in Extract (ppm)a Extraction Extraction Filtrate with plant- with week microbial microbial Control number filtrate filtrate sample 1 98 106 43 2 42 42 33 3 32 21 36 4 36 33 18 5 30 29 30 6 33 31 23 ^-Nutrient concentrations are the means of three extractions except for control extractions. Arnold, L.E., and W.R. Boggess. 1971. Effect of pine plantations on natural succession in southern Illinois. For. Res. Rep. 71-1, 111. Agr. Exp. Sta., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 6 pp. Auten, J.T. 1945. Relative influence of sassafras, black locust, and pines upon old-field soils./. Forestry 43:441-446. Bazzaz, F.A. 1968. Succession on abandoned fields in the Shawnee Hills, southern Illinois. Ecology 49:924-936. Clark, F.B. 1964. Micro-organisms and soil structure affect yellow poplar growth. U.S. Forestry Service Central States For. Expt. Sta. Res. paper CS-9. 9 pp. Coile, T.S. 1940. Soil changes associated with loblolly pine succes- sion on abandoned agricultural land on the Piedmont Plateau. Duke University School of For. BulL 5:1-85. Fisher, R.F., and E.L. Stone. 1969. Increased availability of nitro- gen and phosphors in the root zone of conifers. Soil Set. Soc. Amer. Proc. 33:955-961. Henin, S., and G. Pedro. 1965. The laboratory weathering of rocks, pp. 29-39. In Experimental Pedology, E.G. Hallsworth and D.V. Crawford (eds.); Butterworths, London; 414 pp. Minckler, L.S. 1952. Comparative success of conifers and hard- woods planted on two old-field sites in southern Illinois. U.S. Forestry Service Central States For. Expt. Sta. Note 67. 2 pp. Oosting, HJ. 1942. An ecological analysis of the plant communities of Piedmont, North Carolina. A mer. Midi Nat. 28:1-126. Pisemskaya, V.A. 1963. Effects of shelterbelts on soil fertility. Agrobiologiya 63 (3): 44 2-446. Richards, B.N. 1962. Increased supply of soil nitrogen brought about by Pinus. Ecology 43:538-546. Richards, B.N., and D.I. Bevege. 1963. The productivity and nitrogen economy of artificial ecosystems comprising various combinations of perennial legumes and coniferous tree species. Aust.J. Bet. 32:467-480. Richards, B.N., and G.K. Voigt. 1965. Nitrogen accretion in conifer- ous ecosystems, pp. 104-116. In C.T. Youngberg (ed.), Forest Soil Relationships in North America; Oregon State University Press, Corvallis. Rolfe, G.L., and W.R. Boggess. 1973. Soil conditions under oil field and forest cover in southern Illinois. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Prov. 37:314-318. Wallihan, E.F. 1949. Plantations of northern hardwoods. Cornell Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 853. 53 pp. If is? FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry U agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 73-5 LEAD DISTRIBUTION IN A CENTRAL ILLINOIS WOODLAND Gary L. Rolfe oJte^:3TO73 Ml 6 - 1975 at Urbana-Champe:^'! The combustion of leaded gasoline contributes nearly 250 kilograms of lead a year to the environment. Because the lead emitted is particulate, much of it settles out of the air rapidly or lands on various environmental surfaces such as vegetation, and most of the lead is probably removed from the atmosphere within 20 to 50 meters of a roadway. Consequently, roadside soil and vegetation lead levels are on the increase. As a general rule, soil and vegetation lead levels increase with increasing traffic density and decrease with increasing distance from the highway (Cannon and Bowles, 1962; Daines et al., 1970; Motto et al., 1970; Schuck and Locke, 1970; and Singer and Hanson, 1969). The objectives of this study are to evaluate the effec- tiveness of woodlands as barriers to lead dispersal and to describe the distribution of lead in a woodland in terms of soil and plant lead concentrations. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA The location chosen for the study is a 60- acre woodland in Champaign County, Illinois. The area known as Brown- field Woods is maintained by the University of Illinois as a natural area. The woodland is bordered on the south and east edges by paved county roads with traffic volumes of approximately 2,000 vehicles per 24 hours. The woodland lies approximately 10 meters from the edge of the pave- ment. Agricultural fields border the woodland on the north and west edges. The stand is mixed mesophytic in composi- tion with a basal area of 1 14 square feet per acre (Boggess and Bailey, 1964). The leading dominant tree is sugar maple (Acer sac charum Marsh). METHODS Soil samples were collected at 10-meter intervals from the edge of the roads on the south and east edges to the center of the woodland. At 50 meters, the distance between sampling points was increased to 50 meters. Samples were collected with a bucket auger at 0 to 10, 10 to 20, and 20 to 50 centimeter depths. A composite of three samples was taken at each sampling point. Vegetation sampling included foliage, current and pre- vious years' twigs, bark, wood, Utter, and herbaceous vegetation. All samples were collected in duplicate and taken from the tree nearest the soil sampling point. Foliage samples were composites of leaves taken from the upper and lower canopy. Samples of foliage were collected from the side of the tree nearest the road and the side opposite the road. Current and previous years' twigs, bark, and wood were collected in a similar manner. Wood samples were taken with a 5-millimeter increment borer and were com- posite samples of the last 40 years' growth. Herbaceous vegetation and litter were collected in duplicate under the sampled tree. Foliage samples were divided before oven drying; one- half of the sample was washed in deionized water for 30 minutes and the other half remained unwashed. All other vegetation samples were analyzed in the unwashed condi- tion. Soil samples were air-dried, ground, and sieved; only the fraction that passed through a 2-millimeter sieve was analyzed. Analysis of all samples was by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The concentration of lead in soils at the three depths studied decreases with increasing distance from the south road between 0 and 20 meters (Figure 1). Sample results from the east road are similar and therefore not reported. Beyond 20 meters (moving well into the woodland) soil lead concentrations are fairly uniform at all depths distance from the road. In the 0- to 10-centimeter samples, at distances of 0, 10, and 20 meters, concentrations are significantly higher (P< 0.005) than in the samples taken at greater depths or at greater distances. The sharp decrease in lead concentration with increasing distance from the road is typical since much of the larger lead particulates are deposited immediately because of gravitational settling. Soil lead concentrations in the woodland interior are charac- teristic of background soil lead levels in the area. Decreasing lead concentrations with increasing depth in the soil profile indicate little movement of lead in the soil system. Lead concentrations in foliage, twigs, bark, and wood are shown in Table 1 for the 10- , 20- , and 100-meter locations from the south road. Sample results from the east road are similar and therefore not reported. Again, samples collected beyond 20 meters showed no significant differ- ence in lead concentrations, but vegetation samples collect- ed at 10 meters were significantly higher (P^ 0.005) than those collected at greater distances. Only those foliage, twig, and bark samples collected at the 10-meter point showed significant variation between samples taken on the side of the tree near the road as compared to the opposite side of the tree. These high foliage, twig, and bark lead concentrations on the side of the tree nearest the road indicate considerable impaction of lead particulates on vegetation surfaces adjoining roadways. Washed foliage samples from the 10-meter sample point showed a lead Partially supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation RANN Program. Assistant Professor of Forest Ecology and Environmental Studies. -2- content 30 percent lower than the unwashed samples collected at the same location. Samples collected at the remaining sample points at greater distances from the road were reduced only 4 to 12 percent by washing. The results of the washing experiment allow speculation that much of the lead associated with the 10-meter foliage samples is surface contamination rather than internal. This is support- ed in part by the generally low lead concentrations in the bole of the trees as compared to components exposed directly to the air. The general decrease in vegetation lead concentrations with increasing distance from the road and the steep concentration gradient near the road also support the contention that much of the lead emitted through the combustion of leaded gasoline settles out or is impacted on environmental surfaces close to the road. Lead concentrations in litter and herbaceous vegetation follow the same general pattern as described for the tree vegetation and are shown in Figures 2 and 3, respectively. No litter sample was collected at the initial 0 meter sampling point. CONCLUSIONS As many authors have reported in the literature, lead concentrations in soils and plants decrease with increasing distance from highways. In this woodland study, a very steep lead concentration gradient existed between 0 and 20 meters. In comparing these data to lead concentration data for agricultural soils and plants of the same general area as reported by Haney et al., 1973, it is apparent that a lesser gradient exists in the agricultural area. Lead concentrations in soils and crop plants show a more gradual decline. This supports the hypotheses that woodland border strips are effective barriers to lead dispersal from highways. Similar types of vegetatiori such as tall shrubs may be equally effective. The concentrations of lead in soils and plants of the woodland give little cause for concern in terms of plant effects. However, potential food chain magnification, espe- cially in those organisms feeding in the margins of the woodland, may result in damage to other components of the ecosystem. Table 1. Lead Content (ppm) of Various Tree Components in Relation to Distance From the South Road and Sampling Location on the Tree. Distance (meters) Vegetation 10 20 100 component FS NS FS NS FS Unwashed foliage 29.6 17.9 8.2 7.6 6.4 7.3 Current twigs 19.3 12.2 7.0 5.7 6.3 5.9 Previous years' twigs 14.6 10.2 6.4 6.4 3.9 5.3 bark 33.7 21.9 8.2 9.6 7.3 6.2 Wood 9.3 7.2 2.9 1.7 2.3 1.9 *Ncar side of tree in relation to road. lFar side of tree in relation to road. LITERATURE CITED Boggess, W.R., and L.W. Bailey. 1964. Brownfield Woods, Illinois: Woody vegetation and changes since 1925. Amer. Midi. Nat. 71:392-401. Cannon, H.L., andJ.M. Bowles. 1962. Contamination of vegetation by tetraethyl lead. Science 137:765-766. Daines, R.H., H.L. Motto, and D.M. Chilko. 1970. Atmospheric lead: Its relationship to traffic volume and proximity to highways. Environ. Sci. Tech. 4:318-322. Haney, A., J. A. Carlson, and G.L. Rolfe. 1973. Lead contaminations of soils and plants along highway gradients in east-central Illinois. (submitted for publication). Motto, H.L., R.H. Daines, D.M. Chilko, and C.K. Motto. 1 970. Lead in soils and plants. Its relationship to traffic volume and proximity to highways. Environ. Sci. Tech. 4:231-237. Schuck, E.A., and J.K. Locke. 1970. Relationship of automotive lead particulates to certain consumer crops. Environ. Sci. Tech. 4:324-330. Singer, M.J., and L. Hanson. 1969. Lead accumulation in soils near highways in the twin cities metropolitan area. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 33:152-153. 45 z o 40 1- < 35 cc 30 CEN PPM) 25 ?0 ^ — O 1 5 u Q 10 < LU 5 -I 0 (0-10 CM) W/J (20 -50 CM) •(10-20 CM) 0 10 20 30 40 50 100 200 DISTANCE (M) 3C0 Figure 1. Soil lead concentrations at three depths and various distances from the south road. Z o < CC o o o < UJ 20 10 5 - J Ly/J J L 300 0 10 20 30 40 50 100 200 DISTANCE (M) Figure 2. Lead concentration of litter samples collected at intervals from the south road. z o < CC UJ jf 21 o u o < UJ W^- J L J » 300 0 10 20 30 40 50 100 200 DISTANCE (M) Figure 3. Lead concentration of herbaceous sam- ples collected at intervals from the south road. FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 74-1 The Lipan THE 1973 FOREST INSECT SITUATION R.G. Rennels JAN anuary, 1974 I 6 - 1975 university oi rt Urbana-Chatnpa Cooperative surveillance and reporting of forest insects continued in Illinois for the thirteenth consecutive year in 1973. This report presents information on the status of the forest insects encountered. MAJOR DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS Defoliators The European pine sawfly remained about as abundant as in 1972. Two Christmas tree plantations were sprayed with sevin or malathion by air. We may expect that this insect will continue to be a recurring problem for Christmas tree growers. As far as is known, chemical insecticides have not been used against this sawfly in older pine plantations, and those stands will continue to supply adults to spread into noninfested or lightly infested younger plantations. The polyhedral virus disease is widespread in European pine sawfly populations in Illinois, and under conditions that permit the disease to assert itself, may be expected to continue to operate as the most important environmental resistance factor affecting European pine sawfly abundance. The loblolly pine sawfly, which had been increasing in the last two years, was encountered less frequently in 1973. Although the precise cause of the population decline is not known, it appears more likely to be a pathogenic disease than climatic extremes or parasitic action. No major problem with this species is anticipated in 1974, although it should be continuously monitored. The Virginia pine sawfly continues to be confined to a very few localities in the state. Parasites, predators, and a polyhedral virus disease appear to have this species under control. Isolation of the infestations from most Christmas tree and other pine plantings in the state is a major factor in preventing spread and economic damage. The white pine sawfly has not been reported in Illinois for several years. It is, however, most unlikely that it has been eliminated from the state. We should be on constant guard against it, especially in Christmas tree plantations where white pine is being grown in pure stands. It is reproductively capable and potentially a very destructive defoliator. The relatively few reports of the red-headed pine sawfly suggest that it will not be a serious problem in 1974. This year, bagworms were more abundant in some areas of the state and were reported more frequently by Christmas tree growers than in previous years. For control, we recommend spot spraying of heavily infested trees rather than broadcast application of insecticides. Terminal Feeders The Zimmerman pine moth, European pine shoot moth, and the pales weevil continue to trouble Christmas tree growers in the northern two-thirds of Illinois. In an ef- fort to control the European pine shoot moth and the Zim- merman pine moth, dimethoate has been used by some growers, with variable success. Once a plantation is heavily infested with these species, damage will quickly cause many trees to become unsalable. Removal of heavily infested trees and trees that will never be merchantable is considered a good sanitation practice for both the Zimmerman pine moth and the European pine shoot moth. Pales weevils were encountered by several Christmas tree growers. Damage consists almost exclusively of adult branch feeding, which results in resin accumulation or branch flagging. Especially in the large Christmas tree plantations, we can expect the pales weevil to continue as a serious problem in 1974. Where large populations of adult weevils are already present, stump treatment following harvest is recommended. INSECTS NOT USUALLY OF MAJOR IMPORTANCE The larch sawfly continued to cause moderate defolia- tion in one small plantation in central Illinois. Bird and rodent predators of the cocoons appear to be the principal natural control factors. The gypsy moth was trapped in Illinois for the first time in 1973— two males in Cook County and one near Springfield. No egg masses or larvae have been reported in the state. A wider variety of forest insects was reported in 1973 than in any year since the beginning of annual surveillance and reporting in Illinois in 1961. This does not particularly indicate that many of these insects, several of which attack hardwood species, are necessarily any more prevalent now than in previous years; rather, these reports reflect a growing concern with insects of hardwood forests. Because much information is needed about many hardwood insects operating under forest conditions, we are pleased to see this change over past observation and reporting. Pine webworms, pine needle scales, pine tube moths, walnut caterpillars, Catalpa worms, forest tent caterpillars, eastern tent caterpillars (see Fig. 1), fall webworms, tulip poplar weevils, black-headed ash sawflies, elm leaf beetles, white marked tussock moths, dogwood sawflies, cotton- wood leaf beetles, and a number of others were reported. There was no indication, however, either from the number Associate Professor of Forestry. of reports regarding these insects or from my observations in the field, that any of them are likely to be more abundant in 1974. CONCLUSION In 1973 most forest insects have not been serious. The exceptions have been the European pine sawfly, the Euro- pean pine shoot moth, the Zimmerman pine moth, and the pales weevil. These insects were of major importance to some Christmas tree growers and required control measures. The increased reporting of hardwood insects was en- couraging. A continuation of reporting of all destructive insects, as well as beneficial agents such as parasitic and predaceous insects (see Fig. 2), should enable us to better understand forest insect problems and improve manage- ment practices on forest lands in Illinois. Figure 1. Tent of the eastern tent caterpillar. Figure 2. Dew-covered webs of predaceous spiders on a Scotch pine in a Christmas tree plantation. The Agricultural Experiment Station provides equal opportunities in programs and employment. FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry u No. 74-2 agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign AN INEXPENSIVE SAMPLER FOR MONITORING WATER QUALITY j^, Q _ iqyr J.M. Edgington and G.L. RolfeJ University oi um, et Urbana-Chamocicn With greater emphasis being placed on water quality from forested watersheds, there is a need for an efficient monitoring system to determine the extent of nutrient losses. Traditional silvicultural practices create changes in the water quality of a watershed (Bormann, 1968). In addition, new techniques are being used to stimulate tree growth and stand productivity. One such technique is the use of sewage sludge as a fertilizer on forested lands (Sopper and Kardos, 1973). Monitoring the water quality of forest drainage and small upland streams presents many problems. The runoff must be sampled continuously, especially during storm periods when dissolved and suspended loads are the great- est. Sampling such runoff by hand would require personnel at each sampling location virtually around the clock. The purpose of this report is to describe an efficient, inexpensive water sampler that can be used to sample the runoff from a watershed continuously. This sampler auto- matically removes a constant volume of water at a rate proportional to that of the stream discharge. The samples are composited and a sub-sample is collected daily. The sub-samples are analyzed to give an estimate of the mean ionic concentration in the stream over the collection peri- od. Thus, a daily yield of nutrients or contaminants is determined as the product of the mean concentration, the stream volume discharge, and a conversion factor to equal- ize units of measure. SAMPLER DESIGN The sampler has four main components: a continuously running pump; a timing control; a stream-level sensing unit; and a pair of three-way, solenoid-operated flow diverters available from Valcor Engineering, Kenilworth, New Jersey. The sampler is housed in a box 2' x 2' x 4', constructed of 3/4-inch, exterior-grade plywood. The outside of the box is covered with 24 gage galvanized sheet metal for addition- al protection. Attached to the inside wall of the box is a double-pole-single-throw fused, safety disconnect and a surface mount receptacle. All electrical components operate on a 115 VAC 60 hz power supply, but could easily be converted to battery operation. The pump, timers, and diverters are mounted on a removable shelf inside the sampler box. The stream-level sensor unit was mounted inside a stream-level recorder stilling well of the type used by the U.S. Geological Survey. The function of the sensor unit is to change the sampling rate as the stream volume discharge increases or decreases. The unit consists of a float-operated, three-pole, sump pump switch that is connected to the timing controls (Figure 1). The control unit contains two synchronous timer mo- tors with cam-operated repeat cycle switches. The timers have a repeatability of ±2 percent. The low stream flow timer has a 1 rph (revolution per hour) motor, allowing a sample to be taken once every hour during the low sampling mode. The high stream flow timer has a 5 rph motor, allowing a sample to be removed five times every hour during the high sampling mode. Both timer motors operate continuously. The cam switches in the timing control unit control the three-way, solenoid-operated diverters. Depending on which sampling mode is activated by the sensor unit, the respec- tive diverter is activated thereby diverting the water flow into the sample container. The last major component is the pump. The one used in this sampler is a peristoltic-action tubing pump capable of a flow rate of 48 to 960 milliliters per minute at 0 ft. head (1.6 ml/revolution). The tubing used in the pumps will depend on the height of the head. The higher the head, the greater the vacuum in the tubing; thus, a thicker-walled tubing must be used. This sampler normally pumped a 20-foot head and required a tubing with a wall thickness of 1/8 of an inch. Tubing fatigue time depends on the formulation of the tubing, but is generally from 60 to 80 hours. The pumps are designed so that the tubing can be rotated to a new contacting surface without interrupting the water flow. SAMPLER OPERATION Basically, the sampler operates on two separate circuits: the low mode circuit and the high mode circuit. Each circuit has two switches and one diverter (Figure 1). One switch is controlled by the stream height (the sensor switch); the other switch, by the timer motor (the cam switch). Both switches in each circuit must be closed to activate the diverter and take a sample. At low stream levels, the sensor switch is in the low mode. In that mode, only the low-flow timer controls the sampling rate. When the low-flow timer switch closes, this activates the low-flow diverter and a sample is removed by diverting the flow into a 24-liter carboy (polyethylene bottle) placed beneath the shelf. As the stream level increases, the sensor deactivates the low-mode circuit and simultaneously activates the high- mode circuit. In the high mode, only the high-flow timer switch controls the sampling rate. Thus, when the high-flow timer switch closes, the high-flow diverter is activated and a sample is removed. The sample, too, is composited into a second, 24-liter carboy that is also placed beneath the shelf. The pump runs continuously, bringing water from the stream into the sampler and passing through both flow diverters (Figure 2). When no samples are being removed, the flow is discharged back into the stream. The intake line has a funnel attached to the end. The funnel opening is covered with a screen of 1/16-inch mesh fiberglass that prevents clogging by large debris. At the end of every 24-hour period, a sub-sample is removed from each carboy. The remainder of the compos- ite water samples is dumped. The carboys are rinsed with deionized water, and then replaced in the sampler unit. DISCUSSION The sampler just described was designed for use in determining water-quality data and lead outputs in an east-central Illinois watershed. In order to analyze the samples for lead, the water samples would have to pass through without coming in contact with any metallic parts. 1 Research Biologist and Assistant Professor of Forest Ecology and Environmental Studies, Department of Forestry. -2- 120 VAC . >, it? SENSOR NC C NO 120 VAC -Is) ' 60 hz ~V I ~2> FLOAT '20 VAC 60 hz , OW FLOW l :© TIMER B HIGH FLOW DIVERTER B Figure 1. Schematic Diagram I 20 VAC eo m I PUMP] DISCHARGE A ?« L A 24 L CARBOY Figure 2. Flow Diagram ■ The uniqueness of this sampler lies in the fact that it does not contaminate the samples, thus allowing sample analysis for trace elements. The maintenance of the sampler is relatively simple. One unit has operated satisfactorily for 21 months. The intake lines are replaced three times a year to avoid contamination. During the winter months, freezing was kept to a minimum by the continual movement of water through the lines. Freezing did not occur until the tempera- ture dropped to -10 C. Heat from the pump motor pre- vented the composite samples from freezing at even lower temperatures. This sampler does not use sophisticated electronic circuitry. Therefore, it can be built for under $300 fr0m readily available parts. The sampler lends itself readily to modifications accord- ing to the needs of the researcher. Sample volumes can be increased or decreased by adjusting the timer cams to change the duration of the sample time. In addition, a wide variety of timer motors are available from several manufac- turers. By installing an integrated sensor switch and additional circuits, samples from all flow-rate classes can be obtained. However, the capacity of the analytical laboratory will be an important factor in determining the number of samples to be taken for analysis. REFERENCES Bormann, F.H., G.E. Likens, D.W. Fisher, and R.S. Pierce. 1968. Nutrient loss accelerated by clear-cutting of a forest ecosystem. Science 159:882-884. Doty, R.D. 1970. A portable, automatic water sampler. Water Resources Research 6(6): 1,787-1,788. Fredriksen, R.L. 1969. A battery powered proportional stream water sampler. Water Resources Research 5(6): 1,410- 1,413. Johnson, W.F., and W.R. Miller. 1970. Proportional water sampler. Walker Branch Watershed Project. Oak Ridge Nat. Lab. TM-2839. 21 pp. Robbins, J.W.D., and G.J. Kriz. 1970. For pollution studies: an automatic liquid sampler. Agricultural Engineering, Dec, 1970:708-709. Sopper, W.E., and L.T. Kardos. 1973. Recycling Treated Municipal Waste-Water and Sludge Through Forest and Cropland. Penn. State Univ. Coll. of Agr. 479 pp. The Agriculture Experiment Station provides equal opportunities in programs and employment. FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT agricultural experiment station department of forestry university of illinois at urbana-champaign The Library JAN 6 - 1975 university 01 imnoia No. 74-3 * "■"-"■"Sa 1974 INJECTOR HATCHET A SUCCESFUL TOOL IN PLANTATION MANAGEMENT Howard W. Fox1 Initial thinnings in young plantations often result in a net cost to the owners because the material removed is not merchantable. However, future profits come in part from added growth on residual trees after thinning. Many studies have shown that these initial thinnings eventually do pay out. A relatively new tool to accomplish thinning with a minimum of cost is the injector hatchet, which forces a predetermined amount of herbicide into the tree with each hack. A Hypo-Hatchet Injector using Silvisar 510^ was tested in 1972 in a 4-acre 26-year-old red pine plantation at Sinnissippi Forest, containing about 5,000 trees spaced 6 feet by 6 feet; most trees were less than 10 inches D.B.H. (diameter at breast height, 4-1/2 feet above ground). According to the manufacturer, each hack with the tool released approximately 1 milliliter of herbicide into the tree. Each tree to be thinned was hacked a given number of times at a point 3-1/2 to 4 feet above ground, depending upon its diameter. Trees with 4-inch D.B.H. were hacked twice; 5-inch trees were hacked three times, and all larger ones were hacked four times. One year after treatment the kill was considered to be extremely effective, with 79 percent of all treated trees completely dead. Of those remaining trees that were not completely killed, the top part of the crown was killed, leaving only weakened green branches below the general crown canopy. These will not be able to compete for light and will eventually die. No untreated trees were damaged in any way. Eleven percent of the red pine trees had 80 percent of the crown killed, 3 percent had 60 percent killed, 3 percent had 50 percent, 2 percent had 40 percent, and 2 percent had 20 percent. A few cherry and hickory trees scattered within and along the edges of the pine plantation were also treated. None of the hickory trees were affected, but about 80 percent of the cherry trees 2 inches to 6 inches in diameter were killed. Figure 1. Hypo-Hatchet Injector in use. Assistant Professor of Forestry., o Silvisar 510 contains active ingredients as follows: Dime thy larsinic Acid, 46 percent, and Triethanolaminc Cacodylate, 8.3 percent. The Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station provides equal opportunities in programs and employment. ■— f\& C V FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry OF ILLINOIS agricultural experiment station university of Illinois at urbana-champaign No. 74-4 October, 1974 MORE ON LIMING AND GROWTH OF SHORTLEAF PINKS' . l.R. Gihnorc- In a previous paper (Gilmore, 1972), the author report- ed that liming a silt loam soil in southern Illinois reduced the height of shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) during the five years after planting. He concluded that potassium was more than likely the element that limited growth under these conditions. This paper reports the heights of the same trees at the end of the eleventh growing season, when the crowns were beginning to close. The plantation studied was established in 1964 on two areas of land that had been in agronomic experimentation since 1912. In one area, only crop residue produced in a rotation had been returned to the land between 1912 and 1962. A second area had received crop residue, plus a total of 33 metric tons of limestone per hectare (9 tons in 1913 and 2 tons each four years thereafter through 1961). Both areas were subdivided in 1962 and three replicated treatments of 0, 2.2, 4.4, and 8.8 metric tons of hydrated lime per hectare were applied to each area. In addition to the limestone, 134 kilograms of nitrogen, 25 kilograms of phosphorus, and 111 kilograms of potassium per hectare were uniformly applied in the spring of 1962 and disced into the soil on both areas. Finally, in 1970 a top dressing of muriate of potash at the rate of 108 kilograms per hectare of potassium was broadcast on the most heavily limed plots (Treatments 7 and 8, Table 1) to learn whether this fertilizer would correct the suspected potassium deficiency. Results and Discussion In 1974, as in 1964-1968, growth continued to be greater on plots that had received no lime before 1962 than on plots that had been limed (Table 1, Figure 1). It is difficult to determine whether the potassium added in 1970 has influenced growth on those plots. In 1968, before this fertilizer was added, trees growing on the unlimed plots were 44 percent taller than trees growing on plots that received the largest applications of lime, while in 1974 trees on the unlimed plots were only 16 percent taller. However, differences in growth between most treat- ments were not as great in 1974 as they were in 1968. The 1974 data indicate that liming these soils will more than likely have a long term effect on the height growth of shortleaf pine. Liming of various species of pine seedlings has been reported to affect their growth (Lund, 1938; Plass, 1969) but this study presents the first documented evi- dence that liming has a deleterious effect on height growth of trees over an extended period. Literature Cited Gilmore, A.R. 1972. Liming retards height growth of young short- leaf pine. Soil Science 1 13:448-452. Lunt, H.A. 1938. The use of fertilizer in the coniferous nursery. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 416:723-766. Plass, W.T. 1969. Pine seedlings respond to liming of acid strip-mine spoil. USDA Forest Service Res. Note NE-103. 8 p.p. Table 1. Heights of Shortleaf Pine in 1968 and 19 74 according to Treatment. Lime applied Heights Treatment Before 1962 In 1962 number 1968 1974 Metric tuns/ha Meters 1 None 0.0 2.59 5.39 2 None 2.2 2.56 5.45 3 None 4.4 2.36 5.06 4 None 8.8 2.33 5.09 5 33 0.0 2.03 4.94 6 33 2.2 2.03 4.94 7 33 4.4 1.82 4.72 8 33 8.8 1.79 4.63 1968 2 3 4 5 6 7 TREATMENT NUMBER Figure 1 . Height of shortleaf pine by treatments and years. A portion of this research was supported by funds from the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Mclntire-Stennis Project 55-311. ^Professor, Department of Forestry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801. The Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station provides equal opportunities in programs and employment. I f FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT agricultural experiment station department of forestry university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 74-5 UNIVERSITY OF ItUfKJfS ULTURE LIBRARY GRADIENT ANALYSIS OF THE STREAMSIDE FOREST IN THE HART MEMORIAL WOODS, CHAMPAIGN COUNTY, ILLINOIS7 David T. Bell and Stanley K. Sipp2 November, 1974 The Hart Memorial Woods, located along the east bank of the Sangamon River near Mahomet in Champaign Coun- ty, Illinois, is one of the natural areas owned and adminis- tered by the University of Illinois. Hart Woods, located in Sec. 36,T21N,R7E, 3rd P.M. (40°14'N;88°21'W) occupies 36 acres, most of it upland area. The upland areas provide one of the more xeric (deficient in plant-available mois- ture) examples of upland streamside forest in the Sangamon River basin. The natural area does, however, provide a continuously wooded gradient from the stream edge across approximately 30 meters of flood plain to a steeply sloping transition to the upland. The gradient of elevation associ- ated with the stream edge provides an excellent opportuni- ty to compare a steep environmental gradient with the more gradual elevational transition sampled at Robert Allerton Park (Bell, 1974a) and the Oldweiler Forest (Bell, 1974b). A recent vegetation survey (Root et al., 1971) characterizes the upland forest as a mixed stand of Quercus alba (white oak), Q. velutina (black oak), and Q. rubra (red oak) and the flood-plain forest as dominated by Acer saccharinum (silver maple) with Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash) and Ulmus americana (American elm) as associ- ates. The major objectives of the present study of the forest have been to document the relationship of tree species distribution to natural river flood regime and to provide a permanently marked study site for continuing biological research. METHODS Field Site Sample A complete study area map was established along the east bank of the Sangamon within the area maintained by the University of Illinois. Two transects, each with two 30-m-radius sampling plots, were located perpendicular to the river. Within the study area every tree with a DBH of 4.0 cm or more was tagged with a numbered aluminum tag and located as to distance, direction, and elevational differ- ence from the plot center points. Information on diameter at 1.5 m, crown class, vigor, and condition was recorded for each tree. Elevations of the plot center points were deter- mined from a U.S. Geological Survey bench mark, and the elevation of each tree was then determined from these data. Calculations Structural aspects of the forest were determined from data of each transect plot for specific increments of elevation. The use ol the data from each sample plot as a unit allowed a comparison with the previously existing information for the entire forest (Root et al., 1971). Determination of elements of the structure of the forest in the vertical dimension by one-foot increments provided a vegetational gradient for comparison with the gradient of hydrological events in the Sangamon River and with the combined vegetational and environmental gradient devel- oped for the sites in the Robert Allerton Park (Bell, 1974a) and the Oldweiler Forest (Bell, 1974b). The characteristics of forest composition and structure determined included species diversity, distribution, density, dominance, and importance value (sum of relative density and relative dominance). RESULTS A total of 20 tree species were tallied in the study plots. This total agrees favorably with the study of the entire forest (Root et al., 1971), despite sampling only a relatively small portion of the forest. Basal area values for the predominantly upland plots averaged 118.80 square feet per acre, while the predominantly bottomland areas averaged 149.04 square feet per acre. These values also conform well to the previous work done in the forest. Basal area of the flood-plain plots is dominated by Acer saccharinum with Populus deltoides, Platanus occidentalis, Fraxinus pennsyl- vanica, and Celtis occidentalis making up most of the remaining portion of the total basal area (Table 1). Basal area dominance in the upland plots was shared by the three upland oaks (Quercus velutina, Q. alba, and Q. rubra) with Ulmus rubra and Carya cordiformis totaling lesser amounts. Development of a tree community gradient, determined by the distribution of structural characteristics of the forest at increments of elevation of one foot, established that the distribution of community characters was in gradient fash- ion; however, the transition was relatively steep compared with the community gradients established for other sites (Bell, 1974a; 1974b). Community structure values for the elevational distribution of the Hart Woods streamside forest are shown in Table 2. Acer saccharinum dominated each elevational increment below 681 feet with the only other species being Salix nigra (black willow) and Fraxinus pennsylvanica. Acer saccharinum importance values re- mained high through an elevation of 682 feet, at which elevation it was beginning to be replaced by Celtis occiden- talis. Celtis occidentalis dominance occurs in a narrow band and is rapidly replaced by a forest of Quercus species in the canopy and an understory component of Ulmus rubra. The Shannon diversity index (H') points out the pauci- ty of species in the lower reaches of the transect. Low Research supported by funds from the Illinois State Division auspices of the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. ^Forester and Assistant Forester. of Waterways and U.S. Army DACW 23-73-C-0020 under the values throughout the elevational gradient are common in the forests of central Illinois. The highest species diversity was observed in the intermediate elevations between the areas dominated by Acer saccharinum and the Quercus species. The distribution of community characters on the elevational gradient shows a turnover of species similar to that developed in the Allerton Park (Bell, 1974a) and Oldweiler Forest (Bell, 1974b) sites. Correlation of a coenocline of vegetational characteris- tics with the environmental gradient of flood frequencies is not possible for the Hart Woods section of the Sangamon, as the nearest recording river level gauge is in Mahomet downstream from the site and extrapolation of values could only be accomplished with a rating curve for the stream channel. The assumption drawn from the distribution of species, however, would be that the magnitude of floods at Hart Woods would be somewhat similar to the Allerton Section of the Sangamon (Bell, 1974a) and of somewhat greater magnitude than the floods near the Oakley Bridge (Bell, 1974b). A gradient of species distribution, despite the rather steep elevational gradient, lends credence to the individualistic response of species to the gradient distribu- tion of the physical factors of the environment. LITERATURE CITED Bell, D.T. (1974a). Tree stratum composition and distribution in the streamside forest. Amer. Midland Natur. 92:35-46. Bell, D.T. (1974b). Structural aspects of the John M. Oldweiler Forest Site of the Springer-Sangamon Environmental Research Program. 111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Forestry Research Report 74-8:1-3. Root, T.W., J.W. Geis, and W.R. Boggess (1971). Woody vegetation of Hart Memorial Woods, Champaign County, Illinois. Trans. III. State Acad. Sci. 64:27-37. Table 1. Basal Area Totals for the 10 Leading Dominants in the Gradient Study Area of Hart Memorial Woods Common Basal area Species name (ft2/acre) Predominantly bottomland plots Acer saccharinum Silver maple 117.66 Platanus occidentalis Sycamore 10.22 Populus deltoides Cottonwood 8.40 Celt is occidentalis Hackberry 5.56 Fraxinus pennsylvanica Green ash 4.08 Predominantly upland plots Quercus alba White oak 35.66 Quercus velutina Black oak 32.80 Quercus rubra Red oak 26.30 Ulmus rubra Red elm 11.82 Carya cordiformis Bitternut hickory 3.35 r C3 M 4J — • - 2. u u ■&■§ S - 8 I O - s ° - s aj 5 i g z - w .2 Q. > U 3 u "^ - (4 £ J? M 2 U t« (4 "2 > 0 0 - E u u s — '- 0 a = J u - o U U u a &> - t, c •a « s s -1 a rt . u « S c — — « .2 ,* or w •** u «° _ u u g u SgH S •- o +■• ^ . 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Zimmerman, G.L. Rolfe, and L.E. Arnold^ The Department of Agricultural Economic Resources Service (ERS) has stated that "about 49,000 fed-beef operations in 1 8 major beef feeding states have point-source surface water control problems"; 10,000 of these opera- tions exceed 100-head capacity (1). Each individual animal in these feedlots can be expected to produce, on the average, 70 pounds of waste daily; approximately one-third of this is liquid (2). These wastes contain high levels of such nutrients as nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, and calcium (3). Rainfall runoff from feedlots may contain pollution concentrations 10 to 100 times that of raw municipal sewage: in terms of BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand), a feedlot of 10,000 cattle has the pollution potential of a city of about 150,000 people (4). Even considering that only 5 to 10 percent of the runoff from a feedlot will ever reach surface water, this is enough to present some environmental problems. Many fish kills, incidences of oxygen depletion, and eutrophication have been attributed to poor waste- management practices (2). The most widely accepted solutions to date have cen- tered on the construction of holding ponds or lagoons to contain runoff until it can be applied to crop land. However, holding ponds must be emptied frequently in order to maintain adequate reserve capacities. To utilize the ponded runoff, it is necessary to have expensive pumping and spreading equipment. Another drawback inherent in this approach is the potential danger of a major storm that would fill a lagoon beyond its capacity. It is the purpose of this study to examine the possibility of utilizing a forested or agricultural watershed to inexpen- sively dispose of runoff by means of a simple gravity-flow system. Two types of watersheds will be studied: an agricultural grassland and a dry-site, oak-hickory forested watershed. To determine the efficiency of various types of vegetative cover in filtering and utilizing the added nu- trients, emphasis will be placed on long-term changes within the watersheds and changes in the water quality of drainage water. The benefits of this form of waste disposal may be twofold: it should be environmentally safe and allow maintenance of high water quality, and the watershed's increased nutrient and moisture status should lead to increased growth and productivity within the watershed. THE STUDY AREA The study area is located near the Dixon Springs Agricultural Center (DSAC) in southern Illinois. A concrete feedlot with a maximum capacity of 200 beef cattle has been constructed near a meadow and a forest watershed. A diagram of the experimental design is shown in Figure 1. The area per watershed is 1.5 acres. The meadow has been planted with fescue; dry-site oak-hickory domi- nates the forest vegetation. Two ponds (.8 acres each) have FEEDLOT LThE LIBRARY OF THE TOR 13 1975 B fe^TVOF.aiNO.S Figure 1. (A) baffling system for even distribution of run- off; (B) water sampling station 1, samples feedlot runoff; (C) water sampling station 2, samples flow from watershed; (D) water sampling station 3, samples pond; (E) diversion channel and reservoir; (F) soil-moisture and temperature stations; (G) catch baffle for surface and subsurface flow from watershed. *This research is supported by Mclntire-Stennis Project 55-345 and Hatch 55-344. ^Research Assistant, Assistant Professor, and Forester. -2- been constructed, one at the base of each watershed to intercept all runoff from each watershed. To define sampling points on the study area, a 50-foot grid system has been established. SAMPLING AND MEASUREMENTS Soil samples, taken at depths of 0 to 3 inches and 3 to 6 inches, will be chemically analyzed for nitrogen, phos- phorus, calcium, potassium, and magnesium. Each water- shed will have eight soil-moisture and temperature stations and three water-sampling stations; one water-sampling sta- tion will be at the top of each watershed to measure and sample runoff flow from the feedlot to the watershed, a second will sample and measure surface and subsurface flow from the watershed before the flow enters the pond, and the third will sample the pond at fixed time intervals. Each sampling unit consists of a compound V-notch weir, a catch basin from which samples are taken, and a sampling unit that takes samples at a rate proportional to input flow. The soils on these watersheds are either shallow to bedrock or contain fragipans so that accurate subsurface flow measure- ments are possible with a minimum of water loss before measurement. The forest watershed has been inventoried and 72 trees representing a cross section of the stand have been system- itically selected to be used for weekly microdendrometer readings. Leaf, twig, wood, and bark samples have been taken for chemical analysis. Twenty-four permament mil- acre plots have been established to monitor changes in herbaceous vegetation. Two post oaks and two hickories were fitted with recording dendrographs so an overall growth pattern of the stand could be determined. Moni- toring forest growth will determine vegetational response to the added nutrients and moisture from the feedlot. To determine if species changes will occur because of any inhibitory effects of the feedlot runoff on the germinative capacity or seedling growth of certain specie supplemental greenhouse studies will be conducted. Tli studies will include germination, growth, and surviv; studies of major tree species found in southern Illinoi under varied concentrations of liquid waste application. CONCLUSION The EPA has tentatively proposed that there be zei discharge into waterways from feedlot operations by ti mid-1970's (1). Unfortunately, our study will be reachir only a few conclusions about short-term effects by th time, since long-term ramifications may require sever years to become evident. During the initial year (1975) th study will be conducted without runoff applications so th: relatively complete baseline information on normal growtl soil-moisture levels, and nutrient status of soil and veg tation can be obtained and allow future comparisons. It anticipated that the approach used in this study will allow critical evaluation of at least one possible solution to tl waste disposal problem. LITERATURE CITED 1. Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee c Government Operations, House of Representatives. No 29-30, 1973. Control of Pollution from Animal Feedlot Pp. 2-3, 63. 2. Texas Tech University, Water Resources Center. 197 Characteristics of Wastes from Southwestern Cattle Fee lots. P. 9. 3. Loehr, R.C. 1969. Animal Wastes-A National Probler Amer. Soc. Civil Eng. J. Sanitary Eng. Div. 95:189-22 4. Butchbaler, A.F., J.E. Garton, G.W.A. Mahoney, ar M.D. Paine. 1971. Evaluation of Beef Cattle Was Management Alternatives. P. 7. The Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station provides equal opportunities in programs and employment. b FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry agricultural experiment station university of Illinois at urbana-champaign No. 75-1 March, 1975 PRODUCTIVITY AND ORGANIC MATTER DISTRIBUTION IN A PINE PLANTATION AND AN ADJACENT, OLD FIELD^ R.F. Fisher2, G.L. Rolfe3, and R.P. Eastburn4 ABSTRACT An old field in southern Illinois contained more soil organic matter than an adjacent pine plantation, despite the fact that the plantation annually returned more organic material to the forest floor. The higher decomposition rates for organic matter in the forest appear to be due to higher micro-floral and meso- and micro-faunal populations, plus a more favorable moisture regime in the forest for the activity of these organisms. This activity may also account for the forest soil having a bulk density lower than that of the soil in the old field. INTRODUCTION Differences in the quantity of organic matter in soils developed under different vegetation types have long in- terested soil scientists [Jenny, 1941], Although several authors [Coile, 1940; Ovington, 1956] have reported that coniferous plantations increase the quantity of organic matter in depleted agricultural soils, we have observed that the soil from an old field in southern Illinois contained more organic matter than the soil from an adjacent pine plantation established on an old field. This is further supported by the work of Rolfe and Boggess [1972]. In order to investigate this phenomenon, we measured the productivity, organic matter distribution, and microbial and meso- and micro-faunal populations in a twenty-year-old, loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) plantation and an adjacent, old field of a similar age that is dominated by Andropogon virginicus L. and Solidago altissima L. The study was conducted at the University of Illinois Dixon Springs Agricultural Center in the Shawnee National Forest in southern Illinois. Loblolly (Pinus taeda L.) and shortleaf pine (Pinus echniata Mill.) were planted in 1949 at 8- by 8-foot spacing, as part of an experiment to determine the effect of spacing on tree growth. The soil underlying both the plantation and the field is of the Grantsburg series (ochreptic typic fragiudalf), which has a moderately de- veloped fragipan at approximately 30 inches. The amount of surface erosion was similar on both sites. The area involved in the study was abandoned in the early 1940's, and can be assumed to have had similar treatment since that time, with the obvious exception of the pine planting on approximately 70 percent of the total area in 1949. METHODS Nine trees with diameters approximately the same as the tree of the mean basal area were felled, and their dry weights were determined to obtain an estimate of the above-ground biomass (A.G.B.). For two consecutive years, the weight of the Utter layer in the forest and the weight of all above-ground organic material in the old field was sampled on 0.5-m square plots. Twelve plots were sampled in each vegetation type in April and again in October. On the same dates, root mass was sampled randomly on 12, adjacent plots in each type, 0.5-m square by 46-cm deep. The entire soil volume was removed from the field and the roots separated, dried and weighed. Soil samples were taken within each horizon throughout the 46-cm depth on each plot on the same dates. These samples were analyzed for organic matter by wet combustion. Studies were also undertaken in other pine and old-field locations with similar results. In the field, annual productivity was measured by direct sampling of the above- and below-ground biomass in the spring and fall of two consecutive years. In the forest, root and litter production were sampled in a similar manner. The average, annual wood production was determined by di- viding the total tree biomass, minus current foliage, by the stand age. Litter decomposition was measured on screened plots, and root decomposition was estimated from periodic root samples (as described previously). The micro-floral and micro-faunal populations in the two areas were sampled in May and again in July. Earth- worms were screened from three plots 0.5-m square by 20-cm deep in each type. Soil samples were collected on two plots 0.25-m square by 5-cm deep in each type, and were divided into two equal portions. Arthropods were extracted from one portion of soil in Berlese funnels, while nematodes were extracted from the remaining portion using an aqueous extraction method [Kevan, 1962]. The nema- todes and arthropods were counted, and the arthropods were classified to orders or families when possible. Bacteria, Research supported by the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. Portions of this paper were presented before Div. S-7, Soil Science Society of America, Tucson, Arizona, Aug. 25, 1970, and New York City, Nov. 17, 1971. Associate Professor, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. ^Assistant Professor, Department of Forestry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Research Assistant, Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station, Newark, Delaware. -2- actinomycetes, and fungi were determined by using soil- dilution and plate-counting techniques. Dilutions were run in duplicate on three composite samples from each vegeta- tion type. Each composite was made up of 10 cores, 3 cm by 5 cm, randomly selected. To estimate the degree of decomposition and humifica- tion, soluble carbon was determined by the method of Hu, Youngberg, and Gilmour [1972] . This analysis was carried out on 25 samples of each of L, F, and Ap horizon taken from the forest and 25 samples of the Ap horizon from the old field during the early summer of the first year of the study. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The above-ground biomass (A.G.B.), Utter, root mass, and soil organic matter (O.M.) in the forest and old field are shown in Figure 1. The dashed line in that figure shows the average, annual above-ground production in the pine. The amount of organic material above ground, in roots, and in the litter layer in the forest is nearly ten times that in the old field, but the field has significantly (p<0.05) more soil organic matter than the forest. Since the biomass of the forest represents more than one year's growth, the average annual biomass production both above and below ground was determined. This is shown in Table 1 . Table 1. Average, Annual Productivity and Decomposition in a Loblolly Pine Plantation and an Adjacent, Old Field Average annual amount (kg/ha)* Source Forest Field Above-ground biomass 11,300* 3,400 Root biomass 7,500 2,300 Total biomass 18,800 5,700 Litter fall 4,500 3,400 Litter decomposition 3,700 3,400 Root decomposition 3,500 2,200 Total decomposition 7,200 5,600 Net organic accumulation 11,600 100 *A11 differences between forest and field are significant at the 5% level. These data indicate that the average, annual production in the forest is more than three times that in the old field, while the average decomposition of organic matter in the forest is only 1.3 times that in the old field. This difference leads to the large standing crop in the plantation, and has often obscured the fact that more organic decomposition takes place in the forest than in the field. It is true that the forest builds a more humus layer, but more than 80 percent of the annual litter fall decomposes each year. 250,000r 200,000 I50.0OO- - 100,000- 50000 ABOVE GROUND BIOMASS LITTER ROOTS O.M. ROOTS PINE FIELD Figure 1. Above-ground biomass, litter, root mass, and soil organic matter in an adjacent, loblolly pine plantation and an old field. We have often thought of forests as losing little root biomass to the soil; but in our pine stand, 47 percent of the annual root production, or 3,500 kg/ha, was estimated as decomposing annually. This represents 1.6 times as much organic matter as was added to the soil in the old field roots. So we see that there is a great deal of organic material decomposed in the forest, but little is added to the upper mineral layers of the soil. In order to ascertain if this difference in the fate of organic material was due to the type of biologic activity, the micro-floral and meso- and micro-faunal populations were sampled. The nematode population was insignificant in both vegetation types. However, the earthworm population in the two types averaged 128 g/m^ in the spring. In the summer, however, there were 80 g/m^ of earthworms in the forest and no worms at all in the upper 46 cm of the old-field soil. The decrease in the earthworm population in the old field during the summer may be due to moisture condi- tions. The surface of the soil in the old field became very dry by late June, but the soil immediately below the litter layer in the forest stayed reasonably moist until late July. The soil arthropod population data are shown in Table 2. There was no significant difference between the spring -3- and summer sample of arthropods (p<0.05). The total number of arthropods is greater in the forest (p<0.05). In addition, the proportion of the population that is her- biverous (collembola, protura, herbiverous mites, and insect larvae) is much higher in the forest (p<0.05). This, coupled with the prolonged period of suitable moisture at the mineral soil-litter interface, could easily lead to greater decomposition of organic matter in the forest. Table 2. Soil Arthropods in a Loblolly Pine Plantation and an Adjacent, Old Field Organisms/m2 in the upper 5 cm of soil Arthropod group Forest Collembola 5,830* Protura 1,610* Predatious mites 6,690 Herbiverous mites 6,450* Insect larvae 600* Field 2,850 124 6,690 2,850 250 * Significantly larger at the 5% level. Estimates of the populations of bacteria and actinomy- cetes varied little from spring to summer, or from forest to field. The bacteria and actinomycetes numbered approxi- mately 1.5 x 106 and 0.9 x 10^ per gram of dry soil, respectively. The fungal population also showed little sea- sonal change; however, there was a large difference between forest and field. The field soil produced dilution series counts of approximately 5 x 10^ colonies per gram of dry soil, while the forest soil contained approximately 5 x 10^ colonies per gram of dry soil. Consequently, there is a much larger potential for microbial degradation of organic matter in the forest. Coupled with the probability of a longer period of activity at the litter-soil interface in the forest, this could lead to the greater consumption of organic matter there. The data from the soluble, or readily oxidizable, carbon analysis confirm that we are dealing with a system in which rapid decomposition takes place (Table 3). The levels of soluble carbon in the Ap horizons closely parallel the amounts of total organic carbon. Comparing the values for the L and F layers in the forest with those of Hu, Youngberg, and Gilmour [1972] indicates that by June, a great deal of the previous season's organic input has already been decomposed. It is interesting to speculate that the decreased bulk density of the soil under pine plantations on old fields may be due to the activity of decomposers, rather than to a direct incorporation of organic matter [Rolfe and Boggess, 1972]. We observed a bulk density of 1.13 g/cc in the forest versus 1.37 g/cc in the field, while the field soil showed a significantly higher organic-matter content [Rolfe and Boggess, 1972]. The number of floral and faunal organisms coupled with the possibility that these organisms may remain active longer under the moisture regime in the forest indicate clearly why more organic matter is decomposed annually in the forest than in the field. This, however, does not help much in explaining the different organic-matter levels in the soil. One can only suppose that the decomposition carried out in the forest predominantly by micro-arthropods and fungi leads to organic compounds that are more mobile than those produced by the largely bacterial decomposition in the field; or perhaps the forest system simply reduces more of the substrate to C02, which is lost as a gas. Only further research can answer this question, but it is clear that the pine plantation ecosystem produces a greater energy flow, which leads directly and indirectly to many beneficial changes in the abiotic as well as the biotic components of the system. LITERATURE CITED Coile, T.S. 1940. Soil changes associated with loblolly pine succession on abandoned agricultural land on the Pied- mont Plateau. Duke Univ. School of Forestry Bull. 5:1-85. Hu, L., C.T. Youngberg, and CM. Gilmour. 1972. Readily oxidizable carbon: an index of decomposition and humification of forest litter. Soil Sci. Amer. Proc. 36:959-961. Jenny, H. 1941. Factors of Soil Formation. New York City. McGraw-Hill. 281 pp. Kevan, D. 1962. Soil Animals. London. H.F. & G. Witherby. 237 pp. Ovington, J.D. 1956. Studies on the Development of Woodland Conditions under Different Trees. IV. The ignition loss, water, carbon and nitrogen content of the mineral soil./. Ecol. 42:71-80. Rolfe, G.L., and W.R. Boggess. 1972. Soil conditions under old field and forest cover in southern Illinois. Soil Sci. Amer. Proc. 37:314-318. Table 3. Readily Oxidizable, or Soluble, Carbon in a Lob- lolly Pine Plantation and an Adjacent, Old Field Site Layer Field Ap Forest L F Ap Mean Standard deviation MgC/g 5.1* 0.9 19.1 3.9 12.3 2.1 4.6 1.8 *Each value is the mean of 25 observations. The Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station provides equal opportunities in programs and employment. FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry agricultural experiment station university of Illinois at urbana-champaign No. 75-2 March, 1975 GERMINATION OF Quercus alba L. FOLLOWING FLOOD CONDITIONS7 David T The inherent ability of a plant species to tolerate the stresses of the physical and biotic environment is reflected in the geographic and topographic distribution of the species. Through the life history, each individual of the species must survive a varying complex of environmental factors. If representatives of a species are not found in an area, disseminules may not have reached that habitat. It is more probable that conditions within the habitat were not suitable for the survival of the individual during some period in the life history of the plant. To find the habitat factors that restrict the distribution of a species, it is appropriate to explore the factors of the environment at the edge of the natural range of the species. Insights gained about the natural limits of tolerance can serve to direct the design of a laboratory study to help determine the physiological limits of the species. Correlat- ing the laboratory-study limits with those in the natural environmental would further elucidate the causes of the limited distributions of plant species. Geographically, Quercus alba L. (white oak) is one of the most widely distributed of the tree species in the eastern deciduous forest [Little, 1971]. It is a dominant member of the Oak-Hickory Forest Region of the East- Central United States [Braun, 1967]. Although widely represented geographically, white oak is found only in the upland, well-drained areas of the forest. In the streamside forests of Illinois, white oak is restricted to the portion of the forest coenocline that receives very little or no flooding [Bell, 1974a and 1974b; Bell and Sipp, 1974] . Of interest is the physiological reason why Q. alba is restricted in its natural range to areas free of flooding. Acorn dispersal in Q. alba occurs in the early fall, and germination usually follows almost immediately [USDA, 1948] . Germinated seeds that successfully overwinter com- plete seedling establishment the following spring. Rapid growth occurs under the moist, warm condition of the deciduous forest in summer. A high light regime appears to be beneficial to Q. alba seedling growth. White oak is a relatively long-lived species in the streamside forest, reach- ing several hundred years of age and occasionally growing to a height of 150 feet [USDA, 1948] . Bell2 The response of Q. allxi seedlings to drought stress has been the subject of previous physiological experimentation [Wuenscher and Kozlowski, 1971]. Few articles, however, have been directed to the response of Q. allxi to flooding. Under artificially flooded conditions around impound- ments, mature individuals of Q. alba have been observed to survive at least 70 days of continuous flood in central and southern Illinois [Bell and Johnson, 1974]. The effects of saturated growing conditions on the earlier stages of the life cycle, however, have not been observed under experimental conditions. The objective of the current study is to document the response of Q. alba germination to inundation. This study is part of the Springer-Sangamon Environmental Research Program, a multi-disciplinary research effort concerned with the total ecosystem of the Sangamon River Basin in east-central Illinois and the effects of flooding regimes under natural conditions prior to construction of the proposed William L. Springer Lake Project [Bell, 1972] . METHODS Quercus alba acorns were collected from an upland site in Robert Allerton Park [Boggess and Geis, 1967] on September 19, 1974. Flats of loam soil and pearlite were used as seed beds. Groups of thirty acorns were planted in triplicate for each treatment. Each germination flat was maintained at field capacity in the dark under greenhouse- maintained temperatures of approximately 21° C. Control aliquots were planted directly into the seed beds on September 20, 1974. The treatment lots were placed in No. 10 steel cans, filled with tap water, and covered with cheese cloth. The water in each lot was changed daily until sowing. The flood treatment included 0 (control), 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 13, 15, 17, 20, 25, and 30 days. After 10 days under seed-bed conditions, the acorns were carefully unearthed and washed. Germination was determined as the protrusion of the radicle from the split pericarp. Root and shoot growth was measured for each germinating acorn. The total weight of the excised root and shoot tissue was measured for each sample, and dry weights were determined after air drying. Research supported by funds from the Illinois State Division of Waterways and U.S. Army DACW 23-73-C-0020, under the auspices of the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. 'Forester. RESULTS With increasing flood-treatment length, a decrease in the magnitude of each physiological response measured was recorded. Germination percentages for the planted control acorns were extremely high, with only 1 acorn out of 90 failing to germinate. From the 99-percent germination achieved for the control plantings, a reduction in germina- tion percentage was observed with increasing flood treat- ment lengths (Figure 1A). The total growth exhibited by the samples of Q. alba was also reduced as the flood- treatments length increased. When the growth values for total dry -weight production (Figure IB), total sample shoot (Figure 1C), and root (Figure ID) were compared to control data, a similar trend was observed. Root growth and dry-weight production decreased rapidly, with the values dropping to less than 50 percent of those for the control plants after only 3 days of submergence. After 15 days of submergence, all growth responses were severely limited. The data for decreasing physiological responses with 100# o Z o • GERMINATION \ • Y- 85.49 -3.44X 75- \ r*=0.89 #\- 50- • \ \» 25- \ 0 A • • V DRY WEIGHT Y=61.10-2.64X r2= 0. 74 10 Of* SHOOT GROWTH Y=84.04-3.63X ROOT GROWTH Y -64.06-2. 82X r2=0.73 DAYS OF FLOOD Figure 1. Effect of flooding on (A) germination, (B) dry weight, (C) shoot growth, and (D) root growth. Data are pre>ennd as the percentage of the values measured in the control sample. -3- increasing flood lengths statistically fit linear regression lines at the 1-percent level of significance. Growth parameters determined on a total-sample basis reflect the effect of the reduced germination percentages more than the effect on individual germules. When the growth parameters of the dry -weight production, shoot growth, and root growth were determined per germinating seed and compared to control values, less-severe reductions are apparent (Figure 2). The linear-regression coefficients for dry weight and root growth versus flood treatment were 0.09 and 0.04, respectively, and were not statistically different at the 5-percent level of confidence. Shoot growth versus flood conditioning showed a linear-regression fit that was significant at the 1-percent level of confidence, when compared on a per-germule basis. Growth is affected by the flood treatment on the acorns. If an acorn germinates, though, a seedling could develop under subsequent, favor- able growing conditions. The single acorn germinating after 25 days of flood treatment grew a radicle 98 percent as long as the control mean, and weighing 60 percent as much as the control mean. The effect of the flood treatment most strongly influences germination; however, subsequent growth of the flooded acorns that do germinate is also significantly reduced. DISCUSSION The distribution of Quercus alba under natural condi- tions is restricted to areas of the streamside forest receiving less than 4 days of potential flood a year. Mature trees have been previously observed to survive 70 days of growing- season inundation, however, and the germination of at least 1 percent of white oak acorns occurred after 25 days of flood conditions in the present study. It is apparent, therefore, that the restricted range of Q. alba is induced by unfavorable growing conditions during seedling establish- ment or during the seedling or sapling stage. No other members of the white oak group have been the subject of flood-affected germination experiments, al- though two black oaks have received some attention. Briscoe [1961] observed that acorns of Q. nuttalli Palmer (Nuttall oak) and Q. falcata var. pagodae folia Ell. (cherry- bark oak) could tolerate submergence. After 34 days of inundation, cherrybark oak, a species inhabiting only well- drained flats or low ridges, still germinated at 60 percent of the control levels. The acorns of Nuttall oak, a species found in wet flats, germinated as well after flood treatment as under germination regimes without flood. The germina- tion percentage of Q. alba in the present study was reduced by 40 percent after only 4 days of submergence. Germina- tion was severely affected after 15 days. Q. alba germina- tion apparently is much more resistant to the effects of flood conditions than either Q. nuttalli or Q. falcata var. pagodae folia. Germination responses to environmental factors can elucidate distributional abnormalities in some cases. In Q. alba, the restriction of the natural range to unflooded areas is probably not entirely due to the influence of flood o o u u on 100 75 50 25 DRY WEIGHT ■ ■ v 100 75 50 25 SHOOT GROWTH • • B 100< 75 ROOT GROWTH •*• • • 50^ • 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 DAYS OF FLOOD Figure 2. Response of germinating acorns following inun- dation. Data are presented as the percentage of control values per germule. conditions on seed germination. Experimentation on seed- ling establishment and on the seedling and sapling stages of growth would be required in order to establish the stage in the life history of Q. alba at which the distribution restriction occurs. LITERATURE CITED Bell, D.T. (1972). How a dam may affect the environment. Illinois Res. 14(3): 10-11. Bell, D.T. (1974a). Tree stratum composition and distribu- tion in the streamside forest. Amer. Midland Natur. 92:35-26. Bell, D.T. (1974b). Structural aspects of the John M. Oldweiler Forest Site of the Springer-Sangamon Envi- ronmental Research Program. 111. Agr. Exp. Sta. for- estry Res. Rpt. 74-6:1-3. Bell, D.T., and F.L. Johnson. (1974). Flood-caused tree mortality around Illinois reservoirs. Trans. III. State Acad. Sci. 67:28-37. Bell, D.T., and S.K. Sipp. (1974). Gradient analysis of the streamside forest in the Hart Memorial Woods, Cham- paign County, Illinois. 111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Forestry Res. Rpt. 74-5:1-3. Boggess, W.R., and J.W. Geis. (1967). Composition of an upland, streamside forest in Piatt County, Illinois. Amer. Midland Natur. 78:89-97. Braun, E.L. (1967). Deciduous Forests of Eastern North America. Hafner. New York City. 596 pp. Briscoe, C.B. (1961). Germination of cherrybark and Nut- tall oak acorns following flooding. Ecology 42:430-431. Little, E.L., Jr. (1971). Atlas of United States Trees. Vol. 1. Conifers and Important Hardwoods. USDA Forest Serv- ice, Misc. Pub. No. 1146. USDA (1948). Woody-Plant Seed Manual. USDA Forest Service, Misc. Pub. No. 654. 416 pp. Wuenscher, J.E., and T.T. Kozlowski. (1971). Relationship of gas-exchange resistance to tree-seedling ecology. Ecology 52:1,016-1,023. The Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station provides equal opportunities in programs and employment. FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 75-3 March, 1975 WHITE OAK ACORN PRODUCTION IN THE UPLAND STREAMSIDE FOREST OF CENTRAL ILLINOIS 1 Forrest L. Johnson The forested areas in central Illinois are generally confined to flood plains and uplands near stream courses. However, much of the remaining wildlife habitat in the area is in the forests, since most of the nonforested land is devoted to intensive agriculture. The upland streamside forest in central Illinois is of the oak-hickory type [Braun, 1967], and is heavily dominated by white oak (Quercus alba). Acorns have long been recognized as an important food resource for many species [Cypert and Webster, 1948; Goodrum, et al., 1971], but very little is known about acorn yields in central Illinois. This report provides quantitative data for the first two years of a study of white oak acorn production in the upland streamside forest. The two years reported here may represent the extremes of acorn production in this forest type, since one of the years (1973) had a very poor mast crop and the other (1974) had an excellent one. STUDY AREA AND METHODS Acorn production was observed qualitatively through- out the upper Sangamon River Basin in east -central Illinois (approximately 40°N, 88° W) during 1973 and 1974. A site for quantitative measurements was established at the Springer-Sangamon Environmental Research Program in- tensive site in Robert Allerton Park near Monticello. The vegetation of the study site has been described by Bell [1974] . White oak is the dominant tree species in the upland portion of the study site, with a density of 132 trees/ha and basal area of 2 1.9m" /ha. Subdominants in- clude red elm (Ulmus rubra), black oak (Quercus velutina), and several hickories (Carya ovata, C. cordiformis, and C. tomentosa). Field sampling consisted of weekly collections of all the material from a set of 30 litter traps located throughout the study site according to a stratified random design. The litter traps are open, screen-bottom wooden boxes with sides 15 cm high and 100 cm long. The litter was brought into the laboratory, air-dried to constant weight, sorted into various components, and weighed. The acorn data reported here are from the 15 traps located in the upland, white oak- dominated portion of the site. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The mean weight of an apparently sound, well- developed white oak acorn was found to be 4.3 gm, which compares well with the weight of 4.4 gm/acorn calculated from data reported by Goodrum, et al. [1971] . Yields for the two years were 700 acorns/ha (3.2 kg/ha) in 1973 and 378,000 acorns/ha (1,620 kg/ha) in 1974. Data from a study by Downs and McQuilkin [1944] indicate a possible range of zero to 500,000 acorns/ha for white oak in the Southern Appalachians. In both years, the poorly developed acorns fell during August. In 1973, when very few white oak acorns were produced, well-developed acorns began to fall in early September, reaching a peak about September 25. All had fallen by October 10. In 1974, when a heavy crop was produced, well-developed acorns began to fall about Sep- tember 1, reaching a peak about September 25, and continuing to fall until late October (Figure 1). 70T Figure 1. Phenology of mature white oak acorn drop, 1974. In a study of white oak acorn production in Pennsyl- vania, Sharp and Sprague [1967] found that variations in precipitation, wind movement, and relative humidity had no apparent effect. They found that a high acorn produc- tion occurred in years with a relatively cool period follow- ing a warm period early in the flowering season, while few acorns were produced in years that had steadily rising temperatures through the flowering period. Sharp and Sprague concluded that the early warm period advanced the development of staminate flowers, while the following cool period delayed pollen dispersal to coincide with pistillate flower development. Research supported by funds from the Illinois State Division of Waterways and U. S. Army DACW 23-73-C-0020. 'Research forester. -2- The observations of Sharp and Sprague [1967] are supported by the results reported here. In 1973, tempera- tures measured at a standard weather station located at the study site were consistently warm throughout the flowering period of white oak (Figure 2). In 1974, warm tempera- tures early in the flowering period were followed by a Figure 2. Ten-day mean temperatures in the study site, April-May, 1973 and 1974 (dashed line, 1973; solid line, 1974). ten-day interval when temperatures averaged 3°C. cooler than in the previous ten-day period. Two years of data are inadequate for estimating the average acorn yield and the dependability of mast crops. However, the first two years of the study probably rep- resent the extremes in white oak acorn production and indicate a high variability in mast crops within central Illinois. Continued investigation of the environmental fac- tors controlling mast crops would be a valuable contribu- tion to the knowledge needed for forest and wildlife management in the Midwest. LITERATURE CITED Bell, D.T. 1974. Tree stratum composition and distribution in the streamside forest. Amer. Midi. Nat. 92:35-46. Braun, E.L. 1967. Deciduous Forests of Eastern North America. Hafner. New York City. 596 p. Cypert, E., and B.S. Webster. 1948. Yield and use by wildlife of acorns of water and willow oaks. /. U'il/ll. Mangt. 12:227-231. Downs, A.A., and W.E. McQuilkin. 1944. Seed production of Southern Appalachian oaks./. For. 42:913-920. Goodrum, P.D., V.H. Reid, and C.E. Boyd. 1971. Acorn yields, characteristics, and management criteria of oaks for wildlife./. Wildl. Mangt. 35:520-532. Sharp, W.M., and V.G. Sprague. 1967. Flowering and fruiting in the white oaks: Pistillate flowering, acorn development, weather, and yields. Ecology 48:243-251. The Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station proindes equal opportunities in programs and employment. FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 75-4 April, 1975 CULL PERCENTAGES FOR MANAGED OAK STANDS IN NORTHERN ILLINOIS Howard W. Fox1 Cull in trees or logs can be defined as the volume of material that is unmerchantable under prevailing utilization practices. It is caused by crook, rot, shake, frost cracks, or other defects. The percentage of cull occurring in the various species on various sites must be known to inten- sively manage forest properties. Little information is avail- able on the amount of cull to deduct from inventory data for standing timber in well-managed forest stands. Con- sequently, many foresters continue to use cull factors developed for unmanaged stands, or they assume that cull is negligible in well-managed stands and use no cull deduc- tions. This report is based on measurements made on trees growing in upland, even-aged oak stands 90 to 100 years old. The stands are located in Ogle County on Sinnissippi Forest, a privately owned forest intensively managed since 1948 by the University of Illinois. PROCEDURE Height and diameter measurements were taken on 15 7 randomly selected trees (1). The trees were felled and remeasured. The logs were scaled, sawn into lumber, and again measured. The values shown in the accompanying table are total cull volumes expressed as a percentage of gross volumes calculated from felled-tree measurements. The site where each sample tree was growing was classified as "good," "medium," or "poor," following Mesavage and Girard (2) from class 79, 78, and 77 respec- tively. The "good" timber types usually were found in coves or on soils with clay accumulations. "Medium" types often were found on sandy soils containing clay lenses. "Poor" types were usually on sandy soils, thin soils, or rocky soil that was deficient in soil moisture. RECOMMENDATIONS The cull percentages presented in the table are rec- ommended for use in the northern half of the Central States region for well-managed, upland oak forests. LITERATURE CITED 1. Fox, Howard W. 1973. Transactions Illinois Academy of Science. Vol. 66: No. 3-4. 2. Mesavage, Clement, and James W. Girard. 1946. Tables for estimating boardfoot volume of timber. U.S. Govern- ment Printing Office. Cull Factors for Managed Upland Oak Timber in Northern Illinois Site Good Medi um Poor Sites Combined Species No. trees in sample Percent cull No. trees in sample Percent cull No. trees in sample Percent cull No. trees in sample Percent cull White oak Black oak Red oak 25 0 25 6.0 7.3 23 23 11 7.5 10.8 11.3 25 25 0 12.9 11.5 73 48 36 8.4 11.1 8.5 Species combined 50 6.9 57 9.9 50 12.3 157 9.0 Assistant Professor of Forestry and Manager, Sinnissippi Forest, Oregon, Illinois. 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Al Ecological relationships a Al :a :3 : ■ 3 3 3 -■ : ■ 3 :3 ^3 3; 33 33 3 3 :a 33 33 33 Xi Al 3 3 A. Terrestrial ecosystems Al Al :■ C3 13 3 3 3: 13 3 3 C3 3 3 C 3 3 3 3 3 :a 33 3 3 .: :a 3 3 \- Al .. 1. Change :r. eco. structure U Al "■- C33C3 ;• 3 3: 3 3 3 C3 3 3 "": 3 • 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 :a 3 3 :. Al 33 2. Trophic structure -:. Al ; C3 ir- 3 3 3 : i : :- 3 3 .: 3 .': 3: 3 3 :a 3 . 3 • .3 :. Al 3. 3. Pollution cf land 3 3 33 •*, Rare or unique ecos. tyges Cl :i 33 5. Diversity of eco. types :i Zl 33. 3. 6. Biogeochemcal cycles • - a: 3; '- es '3 3 3 3 3 : 3 33 :a :■ 3 .3 :a .- 3 : 3; 3 3 u 31 3. Aquatic ecosystems u Fauna Al , ; . : 23 - J r~ |yi A^ 3. A. Terrestrial animals 1 3. 3 3 3 3 - : - J - 1 1 M Bl 1 Mammals 1 :. ;- 3. 2 Birds Al ■ ! fl U 3. 3 Other verteorates : - Al ■- - Mosquitoes Z 3 _ : I ~3 : 3 3 3 Bl Bl 5 Other invertebrates - 1 - Al 33 6 Rare and endangered spp. i Mil ! :i 33 St. diversity, etc. .... -•- Al 3. 8 Nuisance species 3. B. Aquatic animals Al Flora AJ -. 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Silt deposition 3. 5- 5: 53 53 33 33 B3 :,:: 1 , F. Wave movement of soil :i :i G. Wind movement of soil :: :: ::• : ? ::■ :s ::•::• XI Outdoor recreation 1 A. Land-based .1 3. Water-based i i i Y1^ Preservation of nat. res. 'Al A2 A3 A3 33 A3'C3|A3|A3 A3 33 -.3 A3 A3 ! 1 1 XI Al -3 A. Fauna U |/ A3 3|A3 -3 A3 A3 A3 |C3 |A3 |A3 ;A3 \ XI Al Cl B. F lora Si A ; A3 - : - C3 ; • \3 " 3 -. • - 3 1 C. Natural ecosystem types Al .-.: A3 A: 33 A3 C 3 A 3 A3 A3 _ : A 3 .- 3 ~ 3 «. 1 A 1 Z Z. D. Open and greer. space Zi 3^ ZZ E. Water supply | F. Agricultural land 1 1 Iai :i Special interest areas 31 31 3^ 33 31 31 .1 31 33 :i :i 3 . C1I Aesthetics -. Al |Cl|ci |C1 1 33 31 3- 31 iCl Al |A1 Al j (Cl jCI ' \ 3 \ "° \ *J \ V \ w \ w \ 4) >v •** Affecting attribute \^ Air quality Microclimate A. Air movement x o / Air quality p o / Microclimate o / o A. Air movement / xo B. Air temperature xxo C. Relative humidity o ID. Incident radiation o d o Soil conditions X o A . Tempe rat ure xxo B. Soil moisture C. Soil structure D. Soil flora E. Soil fauna O 1. Change in ecos. structure 2. Trophic structure 3. Pollution of land o 4. Rare or unique ecos. types O 5. Diversity of ecos. types o 6. Biogeochemlcal cycles o B. Aquatic ecosystems ooo Fauna ooo A. Terrestrial animals x x o 1 . Mammals xxo 2. Birds xxo i- Uther vertebrates x x a 4. Mosquitoes xxo b. Uther invertebrates xxo 6. "Rare & endangered species B 4) u 41 a. s CO -* s 1 c c n « n — u 3 -i 3 tx. < (t u 0 0 0 0 B 41 u 41 a x B t> o a ^ > H 41 W H U W. H U to n 4> to u U ku 0C U 3 B c 4< c 4i a a> r; 0C (0 > O H -1 41 O rl 1- U » o. > c o a. 4t u 4> a CD C — t- co >. ta 3 it K fl s M G. U 3 41 U B C * *jU-»^4i««k» s ■ 3 X u QC h II a u C. Relative humidity D. Incident radiation Soil conditions A. Temoerature B. Soil moisture a \ XLL_1_) 1 x ^iXX 0. T_\ oooooo X o\x XX o x^ xxo 1 X 0 0 X X iX X X X > 3,0 o ooo oo o ooc 0 0 x XX) DXX XXX 00 X xx> oo x x ; l_ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 X X X X 0 X X X X 0 X X X X 0 X X X X 0 K X '■: 0 X X 0 0 X X C. Soil structure 0 X X X\ X 0 3 01 X 0 0 X X X > 0 0 X X X X X X E. Soil fauna Ecological relationships A. Terrestrial ecosystems 0^ X x^o 1 0 0 \ 0 0* 3 x^ x oo x X^X,) j 0 1 QjO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c oo 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c 0 . ° o cT 0 0 0 X 0 0 X X 0 0 v 0 0 X X 0 0 X X 0 0 V ... 0 0 V 0 1. Change in eco. structure 2. Trophic structure 3. Pollution of land U. Rare or unique ecos. types 0 0 X X X X o 0 0 0 six's,, XX00XXXXXX) dxx\xxxxooxxxxxx> - \ ° 4= : V 00XXX XX 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X et. Diversity of ecos. types 01 xxo 0 X X X X\ X 0 0 0 I X X X X X X X 0 \ 0 XX X Oj X 0 000 00 S000000 ( 0 0 0 u 0 u 1 0 ' ) 0 0 0 0 0 v 0 0 0 0 0 ( 0 0 1' u u u u 0 0 X X i X 0 0 v X X X ( 0 0 X X X X ■ 2. Birds 0 0,X X X OOXvXXX 0 0 X X X X 3. Other vertebrates 0 X X X 0 0XX XX ooxx^xx < 0 X X ... X 4 . Mosquitoes 0 0 x x x\ X X X 5. Other Invertebrates c n;x xj (1 xlololxlx A X XX X-0. X x ;■; B. Flow pattern X,0 0 ,X X ,XtX X x t j x|o,o X,X X Ji. X X _A C. Stream discharge 0 X X X X 0 X X X X X 0 o x x x x x x xjo olx X ,X,X X X, ( i X [ 0 1 0 . X 1 X JLX X ;■; i (1 x.x X D. Velocity | 1 X 0 0 ]X X X,X X X (1 X,o o xjx X ,x X n Jt Land forms & processes lo olo o|o 0 0 ooo 00 o lo p A .o 0 0 0 ololo (1 fl I l! A. Compaction of soil b xlx xix x o OXX X ,0,0 X X ii X X I ■; B . Topography ; K .A X 1' < C. Stability of land forms 0 0 K X ' D. Water erosion of soil 0 xxo 0 X ,x , x x ;x X lo.o ,x x ,x [x y K JL E . Silt de pos i t i on 0 X jX x |o ox.xjxxxx'xo XXX i_^X40_.0.X XXX X v i F. Wave movement of soil p -X 0 x Jo v _A G. Wind movement of soil x p 0 ,X IX x Ix IX j 1 i° iLX v x ,x X Outdoor recreat icn 1 I .' p 10 ,0 n n C, 0 n fl A. Land-based 1 1 0 1 10 0 K X , ,o ;o X X XXX B. Water-based i p x o K i _A Preservation of natural resources OOOODpopOjOOO oo'p pppooopppopo 1 o o.o lo lo 0_ o in fl A. Fauna p 0 ,x x |x |X ] X p ,0 X IX X ,X |X ,x < [x olo Ix! rT1 B. Flora oxxxxpxixx'xpcp o pc jx p ,. > X « > > G. Water quality o X 0 x;o X H. Noise x ~^d ± Surface-water quality 0 0 0 0 fit : A. Physical attributes o 0 0 0 c 1. Color 2. Discharge 0 X 0 X 0 X 3. Redox potential 0 X X X A. Turbidity o X 0 X 0 x 5. Water temperature i ° X|0 X X 0 X B. Chemical attributes 1 0 00 0 0 : 1. Carbon dioxide 0 H° X 0 X 2. COD 0 M° X 0 ■< 3. DO 0 xo X 0 X 4. Nitrate 0 x o X 0 X 5 . Phosphorus 0 X 0 X 0 X 6. Sulfur 0 Ix 0 X 0 > Figure 2. Interaction matrix. X = interaction between two attributes O = interaction between groups of attributes Blank = no impact X 4J X 3 X "° ^\ u X. *-* x q X "3 \ *• Affecting attribute X. a z - - > -- > - - - ■J- c : -j > - < - % c 3 - - — U 1 — E -- - - — > z i - ■ -- — .- — 1 Z , -.- 0 k. — z, : — z - '- ■1 - s - '- z. - e -: c -: - < i z = -: — o — - - - u -J X] - Q ^ =- - : - - - — .: -- — = Z ■ - - — = z o - z -- > ; z -= e ~ > - z - it Z ~z = 1 > z £ — 3 — - - - u z c -= r — - 1 •c 1 — c — < - - -• - — - - r : - - z ■-■ - - - 3 - — - = - > - ■- .- - - - < -: - C. Natural ecosystem types i>. (ijii-n uici uniMi ,,..1. .■ >]'«•. Ill ln!«- rr-.I ii i-.r. - - .- B >^ z — — — - - z 3 u - z < ': < s - - - ■- - -z £ 1 z z? u • 3 = zz E. Landscape diversity V ■ V|.Jj|.| il 1 mi G. Water quality Sill 1 1. .--w.i! .-i i|U.i 1 1 1 v A 1'hysl il il 1 i U.iHi". 1. Color 2. Discharge 3. Redox potential 4. Turbidity 5. Water temperature H. i Iniiil i ,i 1 it I r i lull i-u 1. Carbon dioxide 2. COD 3. DO : -J < - : '. X ^ X B. Air temperature XXX X 1 C. Relative humidity ox.xjx ( X J D. Incident radiation : x x x , X X Sol 1 conditions : : - C . 0 A. Temperature , , - xx XX x B. Soil ooisture o: x X X ;x,xi ] ; xi x 1 1 x C. Soil structure oj_x ; X X X X 1 |o X X X X 1 1 ! 1 x X D. Soil flora OX 1 3d 3d 1 X" X X E. Soil fauna : x xx xx. x Ecological relationships - " " : A. Terrestrial ecosystems o- 1 1. Change in eco. structure xx x : x oj xj xi x x* >: x x x" • 2. Trophic structure i ' ' 0 K \ < T I I X 3. Pollution of land ! o x > X :'- * * - >: 0 x ■: x x X 4. Rare or uniqae ecos. types - X, o < Xj X ■. 1 5. Diversity of ecos. types : \ . c X! Xj xj ■: 6 . Biogeochemi cal cycles - < >; ■, c .\ -: B. Aquatic ecosystems ^: ] 1 x; x > V OX XX OXXXXXX rajr.a [ 0 3 • . 0 0 . A. Terrestrial animals • ) > 1 . Mammals ' X 1 ■; xj xj ■ 1 2. Birds \ x 1 1 ■: ■. J X 3. Other vertebrates >: < ■ xi XI ■ 4. Mosquitoes ' X \ 5. Other invertebrates 1 0 < ! 1 i ■: :■; 6. Rare & endangered species ■- -r -*- 7. Sp. diversity, etc. :•: X! X K 8. Nuisance species t K ' B. Aquatic animals ' < V K 0 X X X Flora : - 0 0 " ] : 0 0 0 0 0 0 A. Terrestrial plants 0 0 ' ^t i 1. Natural vegetation ^ X X X :■: ■' X :■■ X? X X •: •; • 2. Rare & endangered sp. X 3. Species diversity ■ V X X ■ X 4. Primary productivity a ■ X X •■: ■ 5. Weedy species X X ■ • - X 1 6. Detritus TT x ± ' '■ X :• ...... B. Aquatic plants 0 1 ! < 1 -T ( '- ' :■ X 0 OX XXXOXXXXXX Ground-water hydrology " " o , 0 ' ' ' A. Depth .■ X ' X X ■: -: X X B. Movement X X C . Recharge rates * r^__ A Surface-water hydrology X TT o;o o ooo o o oiojo; 0 " 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 A. Elevation O'X X X 0 X X X X • X ■ X X X 0 0 X B. Flow pattern JO X': X X X 0 X X X X X v K X 'o o x; x- x C. Stream discharge XX1 Vx;° XX 0 X 0 X X X X X X 0 .'. X X X 0 0 X!X X D. Velocity 'o X X x\o X X ' ~ 0 X 0 X X X X X 0 X X X 0 0 X X X Land forms & processes *0 0 0 o;o\ oj : • o!o 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 JOO'OO'OO 0000 A. Compaction of soil . 0 X x o\ X X' x 0 X X X X Y ' 0 0 X X B. Topography [0; X X X X X X 0 X 0 X X X X \* xxx 0 ■ C. Stability of land forms s X 0 X X; X X X ' ' xxlx ■ D- Water erosion of soil °; X X X 0 X 0 xxx X X 0 X X X X 0 < X X X X E. Silt deposition ! 0 X X X X X X X X X 0 XjX X F. Wave movement of soil X \ X 0 X X X X 0 0 X 0 X X X G. Wind movement of soil X x° X 0 XXX ,X X 0 >: xxx Outdoor rec reat ion ' ' 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 0 °! 0 ~z " ~~~ : A. Land-based X' ! '0 X 0 X X X xoj X B. Water-based 0 X 0 \o XXX X Preservation ot natural resources O'O 0 0 0 0 \ : o o o o!o o o' 1 0 0. 0 0|0' 0 0000 000 A . Fauna 0 x x -X X X XO' B. Mora ' 0 X x ■■' X'O x x ■ xX X X X 0 X X X X X ! ' C. Natural ecosystem types XO X|X|o|x xX x x o1 X X X X X u. Open and green space ! i 1 1 | I x|x|fl X X 0 X X X X X E. Water supply I |o| Vx . , . F. Agricultural land 'ox X X1 ] ! X X '° x' X X X X 0 OX X 0 XX Special interest areas 0 X" x : xxx, x y X1 xl X Aesthetics o 0 0 0 0 0 0 oXi , 0 0 0: 0 0 0 0 A. Air quality ■ ' °x x : ! B. Construction scars 0 x o1 xxx X 0 \ X X X X ■ C . Man-made features 0 XXX X 0 I\UJ D. Scenic views — p 0 X ' X U Xxi ' E. Landscape diversity 0 X jxlo 1 x\ F. Vegetation 0 \ X X 0 X 0 X X X \ X x X ^"v \ G. Water quality 0 X x a \ o OX XXXOXXXXXX H. Noise 0 X x, 0 Surface-water quality c 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 \j 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 _0-«^0 0 A. Physical attributes 0 0 0 0 00 [0 0:0 0 0r \! 0 00,00 0100 0 1. Color 0 X 0 X X X| IX X 0 x 0 °X° x x ■ ■ ■ 2. Discharge 0 X 0 X X X X X ' x 0 0 0\ X X 3- Redox potential X 0 X X X X X x 0 0 X 0 XXX X 4. Turbidity X 0 X o xjx X x x, ; i x 0 0 x x|\ XOXXXXXX) 5 . Water temperature 0 X 0 XXX o i X 0 0 X,^0 ; X X X X Xi X B. Chemical attributes 0 0 0 0 o o : 0 0 0 0 oo'o X 0 0 0 0 I. Carbon dioxide ox XX XX X 0 0\X X 2. COD 0 X 0 xi X X XX X 0 .1 xl o x\ X X X. X 3- DO 0 X 0 X X X XX X 0 x : x x\ x x; x 4. Nitrate 0 XOXXX.XX XO 0 X 0 x x^ 5. Phosphorus 0 X 0 X;X X Xp X : X 0 XX X 6. Sulfur i 0 xoxxxlx X XO X |0 xl X \ Figure 2. Continued. interactions of rows with columns contain information about the interactions between envi- ronmental attributes. No attempt was made to indicate intensity or duration of effects, since this information is not known for many of the interactions. ATTRIBUTES OF THE BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AIR QUALITY Definition. The environmental attribute affected by the presence of substances which are not normally present in the air and which may create a nuisance or health hazard. Impact. Construction activities may have an adverse impact on air quality, largely through — dust created by excavation, stockpiling, loading and hauling of materials, placement of materials, grading, compaction, removal of materials, blasting, and the operation of batch and aggregate plants. If waste materials and the dead trees from clearing opera- tions are burned, the resulting smoke would have an adverse impact on air quality. Interactions with other attributes. Air quality in the vicinity of a project may also be adversely affected by other human activities, such as the operation of nearby indus- trial plants. The air quality attribute has direct impacts on aesthetics and public health. Functional relationships. Since the generation of dust depends to a very large extent on local weather and soil conditions, it is probably impossible at this time to give any quantitative predictor of impacts. Mitigation. The amount of dust generated by construction operations can be greatly reduced by spraying the source of dust (roads, stockpiles, etc.) with water. Smoke pollution can be eliminated by disposing of wastes by methods other than burning. References. ASTM (1962)', EPA (1970), Rossano (1971). MICROCLIMATE Definition. The interrelated complex of meterological conditions near the ground (below 2 m in open areas or under the tree canopy in forests) which have a direct effect on living organisms. Microclimate conditions are affected by the regional climate, topo- graphy, and vegetation cover. Air Movement Definition. Horizontal and vertical flow of air near the ground. It is affected mainly by large-scale air flow, topography, and vegetation cover. Impact . Any alteration of topography or vegetation cover will have an effect on air move- ment. Operations most likely to affect air movement are clearing of land and flooding of the reservoir site, both of which will increase wind velocity near the surface by removing impediments to air movement. Interactions with other attributes. The rate of air movement has an effect on air tempera- ture, relative humidity, evapotranspiration, and sometimes soil temperature. Functional relationships. In general, wind velocities in open areas are 5 to 20 times great- er than wind velocities in nearby forests (Geiger, 1966), but the difference may be even greater (Johnson, Bell, and Sipp, 1975). Mitigation. Increased wind velocity is largely unavoidable in the vicinity of a reservoir project. Mitigation procedures are limited to the reforestation of adjacent areas. Air Temperature Definition. A quantification of the mean molecular kinetic energy of the air. Impact . Clearing of vegetation increases diurnal variation in air temperature by changing the radiation balance. Flooding of the reservoir site reduces both diurnal and seasonal variation because of the high heat capacity of water. Interactions with other attributes. Air temperature is affected by solar radiation reaching the ground, air movement, and soil temperature and has an effect on relative humidity. Functional relationships. Forested areas have less daily and yearly temperature variation than prairies (Morgan and Old, 1972) or cities (Johnson, Bell, and Sipp, 1975). The effect of large bodies of water on local temperature depends on the regional climate and the size of the body of water. Some quantitative relationships between water bodies and air temperatures can be found in Geiger (1966). Mitigation. Changes in local air temperature patterns are unavoidable in a reservoir proj- ect. However, any change is likely to be moderate and the two major impacts act in opposite directions. Restoration of vegetation in the reservoir area will tend to miti- gate effects around the shoreline of the reservoir. Relative Humidity Definition. The amount of water vapor actually present in the air compared with the maximum amount that could be contained under conditions of saturation at a given temperature. Impact . Clearing of vegetation reduces relative humidity by increasing air temperatures and reducing evapotranspiration (summer). Filling the reservoir with water increases rela- tive humidity in the area by increasing evaporation from the surface. Interaction with other parameters. Relative humidity is affected by air temperature, pre- cipitation, evapotranspiration, air movement, and the presence of open-water surfaces nearby. Functional relationships. Morgan and Old (1972) found that relative humidity was always greater in a forest than in a nearby prairie. See also Geiger (1966). Mitigation. Some change in local patterns of relative humidity is unavoidable in a reser- voir project. Any changes are likely to be moderate and the two major impacts will tend to cancel each other out. Incident Solar Radiation Definition. The amount of solar radiation reaching ground level. Impact . Clearing of vegetation, especially trees, increases the amount of solar radiation reaching the ground. Interaction with other attributes. The amount of solar radiation reaching the ground has a direct effect on soil temperatures and air temperatures, which in turn have an effect on many of the biological attributes of the ecosystem. Functional relationships. A well -developed tree canopy intercepts 75 to 90 percent of the solar radiation (Geiger, 1966), thereby causing the mean annual temperature of both air and soil in the forest to be as much as 5°F lower than in a nearby city (Johnson, Bell, and Sipp, 1975) . Mit igat ion. Changes in the local pattern of incident radiation are unavoidable in a reser- voir project because of the necessity for clearing vegetation. Restoration of vegeta- tion to any remaining areas of bare ground after completion of the project is probably the only mitigation procedure available. SOIL CONDITIONS Temperature Definition. A quantification of the mean molecular kinetic energy at a given point in the soil . Impact. Clearing vegetation increases diurnal variation in soil temperature through altera- tion of the radiation balance. Other activities which would have a relatively minor effect are stripping, grading, and compaction. Interaction with other attributes. Soil temperature is affected by the amount of solar radiation reaching the ground. It has a strong influence on air temperature, soil moisture, soil flora, and soil fauna. Functional relationships. Quantitative prediction of soil temperature is difficult because of the large number of modifying factors. Some of these are vegetative cover, soil moisture, soil color, compaction, and topography (Geiger, 1966). Mitigation. Restoration of vegetation on areas of bare soil left after construction activ- it ies . Soil Moisture Definition. The amount of water present at a given point in the soil above the water table. Impact . Clearing of vegetation results in lower soil moisture because of increased evapora- tion resulting from higher temperatures and more air movement. Any operation resulting in compaction of soil lowers soil moisture because the altered structure allows less infiltration and retention of precipitation. Interaction with other attributes. Soil moisture is influenced by air movement, air tem- perature, detritus, relative humidity, and soil structure. It affects soil flora, soil fauna, and most of the terrestrial ecological relationships. Functional relationships. No quantitative relationships for soil moisture can be given at present because of complex interactions between soil type, vegetation, regional climate, topography, and anthropogenic factors. Mitigation. Restoration of vegetation on bare areas will have a beneficial effect on soil moisture conditions in these areas. References. Buckman and Brady (1969), Donahue (1965), Geiger (1966), and Millar, Turk, and Foth (1965). Soil Structure Definition. The aggregation of primary soil particles into compound particles. Impact. Any activity which causes the soil to be moved, stirred up, or compacted changes ~~ soil structure. The operations which are most destructive of normal soil structure are grubbing, stripping, excavation, stockpiling, loading-hauling, grading, and compaction. Interaction with other attributes. Soil structure is influenced by soil flora, soil fauna, and vegetation cover. It also exerts a strong influence over these three attributes as well as soil moisture, soil temperature, and recharge of ground water. Functional relationships. Since soil structure is dependent on a large number of factors, no quantitative relationships can be given at this time. Mitigation. Revegetation of disturbed areas will eventually bring about regeneration of favorable soil structure. References. Buckman and Brady (1969), Donahue (1965). Soil Mora Definition. Plants which grow entirely within or under the soil. Most are non-photosynthetic plants (bacteria and fungi) which depend on detritus and soil organic material for en- ergy, but some green and blue-green algae are also present. Impact . Any operation which affects soil temperature, soil structure, soil moisture, vege- tation cover, or detritus also affects the soil flora. Principal impactors are clear- ing, grubbing, stripping, excavation, stockpiling, loading-haul ing, grading , compaction, and flood-control operation. Interactions with other attributes. The soil flora both influences and is influenced by soil temperature, soil moisture, soil structure, soil fauna, vegetation cover, and detritus. Biogeochemical cycles and the utilization of detritus are almost completely dependent on the soil flora and soil fauna. Functional relationships. Interactions between soil flora and other biophysical attributes are very complex and at present have been only qualitatively determined. Mitigation. Revegetation of disturbed areas wil 1 eventually restore the soil flora to normal. Reference. Odum (1971). Soil Fauna Definition. Animals which spend all or most of their life cycle within the soil. Most of these animals are very small (micro-arthropods, nematodes, insect larvae, earthworms, etc.). These animals feed mostly on soil organic matter and detritus, and are very important in utilization of detritus and in the biogeochemical cycles. Impact. Change in flooding regimes will change soil moisture conditions, resulting in a physical habitat that may be unsuitable for naturally occurring soil animals. Standing water and increased siltation may create physiological problems, particularly in regard to respiration by some of the soil animals. Construction activities which have adverse impacts are clearing, grubbing, stripping, excavation, stockpiling, loading-hauling, grading, and compaction. Interactions with other attributes. Changes in the soil fauna may affect the biogeochemical cycles; such changes may in turn affect ecosystem and trophic structure. Functional relationships. Research is currently being conducted to determine the response of key flood-plain species to varying flooding regimes (Bell and Johnson, 1974a). Pre- dictions of response of the species to changing flooding regimes will permit estimation of the effect of a reservoir proj ect upon the soil fauna in areas affected by its flood- control pool Mitigation. Careful regulation of flow from the conservation pool will minimize the change in the flooding regime of the flood plain. 8 ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS Definition. The functional interactions between the component species of the fauna and flora of a given site. Stable ecological relationships depend upon the presence of natural interaction systems. Impact. Construction activities may have an adverse effect on the ecological relationships of the terrestrial flora and fauna in the immediate vicinity of the construction site and in the conservation pool itself. Removal or disturbance of the vegetation of the site will upset the trophic structure of the ecosystem. The most significant impact upon the terrestrial ecosystem in regard to total area affected may be from changes in the flooding regime in the flood-plain ecosystem above the conservation pool. Changes in depth, frequency, and duration of flooding will create a serious perturbation of the natural ecological relationships of the flood-plain ecosystem. Interactions with other attributes. Changes in the terrestrial flood-plain ecosystem re- sulting from disruption of ecological relationships will have an effect on the micro- climate and the terrestrial fauna and flora, as well as ecosystem and trophic structure of the flood plain. Functional relationships. Research is currently being conducted to determine the response of key flood-plain species to varying flooding regimes (Bell, 1974a, 1974b; Bell and Johnson, 1974a). Predictions of responses of the species to changing flooding regimes will permit estimation of the effect of the project upon the ecological relationships in the flood plain. Mitigation. Regulation of flow of water from the conservation pool to reduce deviation of flooding regime from the natural pattern. Reference. Watt (1973). Terrestrial Ecosystems Ecosystem Structure Definition. The physical structure (i.e., stratification complexity) of vegetation and the complexity of interactions between the component species of the ecosystem. Impact. Almost any activity in construction or operation of a reservoir has some impact on ecosystem structure, since the ecosystem includes all the attributes of the biophysical environment. Clearing of vegetation has a major impact on ecosystem structure since the vegetation is the major portion of the biotic environment. Filling the reservoir with water has a major impact since it completely changes the ecosystem from terrestrial to aquatic. Interactions with other attributes. A change in physical structure will have an effect on the microclimate and the fauna and flora of the flood plain (especially species di- versity) . Functional relationships. See ecological relationships. Mit igat ion. See ecological relationships. References. Odum (1971), Watt (1973). Trophic Structure Definition. The way in which energy is absorbed, utilized, and transferred within an eco- system. The trophic structure consists of the organisms divided into three functional groups: producers, which use light energy to convert inorganic materials into food; consumers (herbivores and carnivores) , which obtain energy by eating other living or- ganisms; and decomposers, which obtain energy by eating dead organisms or the waste products of living organisms. Impact. Most construction operations have some effect on trophic structure. Clearing of vegetation has a major effect on trophic structure because it removes the producer com- ponent. Filling the reservoir has a major impact because it changes the ecosystem type. Change in flooding regime may result in a change in species composition of each trophic level. The most important impact may be a shift in the decomposer compartment from invertebrates to bacteria and fungi , which could drastically change trophic structure. Interaction with other attributes. Trophic structure is influenced by ecosystem structure, vegetation cover, primary productivity, and detritus. It has an influence on biogeo- chemical cycles, detritus, and ecosystem structure. Upland animal species (herbivores and predators) which feed in the flood plain may be affected by change in species com- position in the flood-plain ecosystem. This may change species composition of trophic compartments of adjacent upland ecosystems. Functional relationships. Only qualitative estimates of functional relationships are possi- ble at present. Research currently in progress will produce valuable data about trophic structure in streamside forests (Bell and Johnson, 1974a). Mitigation. Disturbance of trophic structure is unavoidable in reservoir projects because of the necessity for clearing and flooding. Mitigation procedures are probably limited to revegetation of disturbed areas around the reservoir. References. Odum (1971), Watt (1973). Pollution of Land Definition. Dumping or spilling of harmful materials on the ground. Impact . Vehicle and equipment maintenance has a potential for minor pollution of land by the accidental spillage of petroleum products or the dumping of used lubricants. In some systems, the primary pollution factor may be siltation and deposition of nutrients from fertilization runoff from upstream agricultural land. Increased frequency and duration of flooding may increase the amount of siltation appearing in the flood-plain ecosystem. The silt will cover the vegetation as well as the surface. Increased amounts of nutrients will be added to the flood-plain ecosystem, which may change the species composition of the vegatation and associated fauna. Interactions with other attributes. Land pollution affects the major categories of terres- trial ecological relationships, terrestrial flora and fauna, and soil conditions. Under some conditions, it may affect the aquatic system. Increased siltation may affect species composition of the flood-plain ecosystem. This will in turn affect the ecosystem struc- ture. Increased nutrient deposition will affect biogeochemical cycles in the flood-plain ecosystem. Functional relationships. Land pollution affects the terrestrial ecosystem by creating un- favorable conditions for soil flora, soil fauna, and larger plants. Mitigation. Land pollution can be eliminated by prevention of spillage of harmful chemicals and by disposal of waste materials by some other method than dumping. There is probably no method for mitigation of siltation and nutrient deposition in the flood plain. Rare or Unique Ecosystem Types Definition. An ecosystem which differs markedly from other ecosystems of the general region or sites which contain the last remnants of what was a more prevalent natural ecosystem type in the general region. Impact . Construction of a reservoir completely changes the ecosystem in the area covered by the conservation pool. Changes in flooding regimes in the flood-control pool will result in changes in the physical parameters of the habitat of the flood plain. This will cause changes in the species composition and functional interactions of the flood-plain eco- system. Such species and functional changes will result in the replacement of the ex- isting flood-plain ecosystem with a modified ecosystem. Interactions with other attributes. Since this category concerns an ecosystem, it interacts with all the attributes of the biophysical environment. Functional relationships. All the functional relationships of other attributes of the bio- physical environment apply. Mitigation. If a reservoir project is found to seriously affect a rare or unique ecosystem type, the only method of mitigation is to either abandon the project or move it to another location. Reference. Odum (1971). Diversity of Ecosystem Types Definition. Ecosystem diversity depends on the number of different ecosystem types within an area. A mosaic of relatively small patches of differing ecosystem types is considered to be more esthetically pleasing and more biologically stable than a large area con- sisting of only one type. In an agricultural region, the diversity of natural ecosystems depends on the types of sites left undisturbed by man. In most agricultural regions, there are relatively few of these undisturbed sites; thus, the diversity of ecosystems is usually low. Impact . Impact of a reservoir project on ecosystem diversity depends on the amount of di- versity previously existing. If the area has low diversity before the project, there will be little reduction in diversity. The only situation in which a serious impact would occur is where construction of a reservoir would destroy the only local example 10 of a particular ecosystem type. In a situation where there are no previously existing lakes within an area, construction of a reservoir would increase ecosystem diversity. Interaction, functional relationships, mitigation, and references. Same as for rare and unique ecosystem types. (See page 10.) Biogeochemical Cycles Definition. The circulation of a biologically active chemical element from environment to organisms and back to the environment. Approximately 40 of the chemical elements are required by living organisms and therefore are involved in biogeochemical cycles. Impact. Any operation, such as clearing of vegetation or permanent flooding, which causes major changes in an ecosystem will have a serious impact on biogeochemical cycles. Most biogeochemical cycles in natural ecosystems are nearly "closed"; that is, most of the material is recycled with very little loss. If the system is disturbed, biogeochemical cycles may be degraded to the "open" type with large losses of material. Interactions with other attributes. Since biogeochemical cycles are part of the ecosystem structure, they have interactions with most of the biological attributes. Functional relationships. Much information on biogeochemical cycles in various ecosystem types has been collected. See Odum (1971), Rodin and Bazilevich (1967). Mitigation. Some disturbance of biogeochemical cycles is unavoidable in a reservoir project. Mitigation procedures are limited to avoidance of unnecessary disturbance to the eco- system during construction and restoration of vegetation to disturbed areas after con- struction . Aquatic Ecosystems Definition. The organisms which live in permanent bodies of water such as lakes, rivers, and ponds, and all aspects of the physicochemical environment which affect these organisms. Impact . Construction of a reservoir on a stream causes a complete change in the aquatic ecosystem within the reservoir's conservation pool, from a stream ecosystem to a lake ecosystem. Inundation of a portion of a stream obviously changes many of the character- istics of the physical environment such as depth, surface area, and flow rates of water. An impoundment also generally causes changes in turbidity, water temperature, and dis- solved oxygen. Consequently, large changes can be expected in the biotic portion of the aquatic ecosystem. Downstream from the reservoir, turbidity is generally reduced. Also, changes may occur in water temperature, flow rate, flow pattern, dissolved oxygen, etc., resulting in changes in the aquatic flora and fauna. Interaction with other attributes. By definition, an ecosystem is an interacting assemblage of biotic and physicochemical factors. Therefore, interactions are likely to occur with all of the attributes of the aquatic biophysical environment. Functional relationships. Specific effects of impounding a stream are strongly dependent on local climatic, geologic, and anthropogenic factors. Therefore, knowledge of local con- ditions is essential for prediction of results. Mit igat ion. Prevention or mitigation of adverse effects is usually not possible. FAUNA Definition. The animal life of a region or specific site within a region. Terrestrial Animals Definition. Animals who spend most of their life on land. Mammals Impact . An increased frequency, duration, and depth of flooding may require behavioral or distributional changes by the mammals utilizing the flood-plain ecosystem. Small mam- mals resident within the flood plain may become arboreal during floods. If the flood is long-lasting, such species may move from the flood plain to the adjacent uplands. Larger species which routinely move from upland areas into the flood plain to feed will be prevented from doing so during periods of flooding. Changes in the ecosystem structure and species composition resulting from a changed flooding regime may cause a loss of preferred food plants of given mammalian species. Such species of mammals will not be able to make use of the flood-plain ecosystem if these changes occur. Interaction, functional relationships, and mitigation. See section on trophic structure, page 9. 11 Birds Impact. Changing flooding regimes may affect ground-nesting birds. If flood increases during "The nesting period, such species, may not be able to utilize the flood-plain ecosystem and will be eliminated. Changes in plant species composition of the flood-plain eco- system may alter the food availability for birds which routinely use the flood plain for feeding purposes. Interaction, functional relationships, and mitigation. See section on trophic structure, page 9. Other Vertebrates Definition. Amphibians and reptiles. Impact . Changes in the flooding regime will adversely affect reptiles; amphibians will be — only slightly affected. Most terrestrial reptiles will have to move from the flood plain to the adjacent uplands during the periods of inundation. An increase in the duration, frequency, and height of flooding will decrease the amount of time the flood-plain eco- system is a suitable habitat for reptiles. Interactions, functional relationships, and mitigation. See section on trophic structure, page 9. Mosquitoes Definition. Biting midges (Diptera; Culicidae) . Impact. Filling the reservoir and flood control operations will produce major impacts on species composition and numbers of individuals in mosquito populations. Activities such as clearing, grubbing, stripping, excavat ion, grading, stockpiling, and building erec- tion may have minor impacts on populations. Interactions with other attributes. Changes in vegetational composition and cover may affect mosquito populations. Numbers of mosquitoes in an area have an effect on the area's recreational potential and may have an effect on public health. Functional relationships. Mosquito populations can be expected to increase temporarily as the reservoir is being filled, since there will usually be temporary shallow-water areas with emergent vegetation. After the reservoir is filled, flood water mosquitoes will be displaced into areas which are periodically inundated. Permanent -water mosqui- toes will increase, particularly in areas where water is shallow and emergent vegeta- tion is present such as at the deltas of lateral streams. Permanent-water mosquitoes will continue to increase as the lake gets older and more shallow-water areas with emergent vegetation develop. Mitigation. Permanent -water mosquito populations can be reduced by removal of emergent vegetation and floating dead material which becomes stranded on mud banks or in shal- low water and by eliminating shallow-water areas. Flood-water mosquito populations can be reduced by either removal of floatage or management of water levels during winter to strand floatage above the summer egg-laying sites, and by the elimination of re- sidual pools within the flood-control zone. Other Invertebrates Definition . Other insects, arthropods, snails, earthworms, nematodes, and protozoans. Impact . Changing flooding regimes, increased siltation, and changing microclimate will all adversely affect the distribution, abundance, and species diversity of the present in- vertebrate fauna. An increase in the duration, frequency, and height of flooding will decrease the amount of time the flood-plain ecosystem is a suitable habitat for most invertebrates and the number of species that can live there. Interactions with other attributes. Changes in the composition and abundance of the other invertebrate species of the flood-plain ecosystem will affect ecosystem structure, trophic structure, and biogeochemical cycles. Functional relationships and mitigation. See section on trophic structure, page 9. Rare and Endangered Species Definition. A species which occurs in very low numbers throughout the range or one which is on the verge of extinction. Impact. The project may have an adverse impact (through habitat destruction) on a rare or endangered species, depending on local conditions. 12 Interactions with other attributes. A project which is likely to have an adverse impact on a rare or endangered species is likely to be highly controversial and will usually en- counter considerable resistance from environmental groups. Mitigation. Special precautions should be taken to avoid any adverse impact on rare and endangered species within a project area. If such impacts are unavoidable, the project should be abandoned or moved to another location. References. No comprehensive list of rare and endangered species exists at present. However, state conservation departments and the biology departments of colleges and universities usually have information on rare and endangered species for limited areas. Species Diversity, Density, and Recruitment Definition. Species diversity: (1) the number of species of terrestrial animals present in a given site, (2) an index incorporating both the number of species and the number of individuals of each species present. Density: the number of individuals of a given species per unit area. Recruitment: addition of new individuals of a species to the resident population of a given site; can occur from young born into the population or individuals dispersing into the site from adjacent populations. Impact. Change in flooding regime will adversely affect normal birth rate and survival of young in flood-plain species. Increased frequency and duration of floods may reduce recruitment of animals from adjacent uplands. Interactions with other attributes. Species diversity, density, and recruitment are basic attributes of an ecosystem and therefore interact with most of the other biophysical attributes. Mitigation. See sections on ecosystem structure and trophic structure, page 9. Functional relationships. Methods for quantitative determination of diversity and density are given by Odum (1971) and Cox (1967). Nuisance Species Definition. Animal species which injure or annoy humans or their domestic animals or which destroy crops. Impact . Other than mosquitoes, the only nuisance species in the Midwest likely to be af- fected by a reservoir project is the chigger (Trombiculid mites). Chiggers inhabit river flood plains and are likely to increase with an increase in moisture and silted nutrients. There is a possibility that chiggers will move into adjacent upland areas if flooding frequency and height are increased. Interactions with other attributes. Chiggers are annoying to humans and other vertebrates but are not dangerous. Functional relationships. Not known. Mitigation. Probably none. Aquatic Animals Definition. Animal species which live within or along the shoreline of permanent bodies of water. Impact . Impoundment of a stream will have a strong impact (not necessarily adverse) on aquatic fauna, since many of the species of animals which inhabit streams do not do well in lakes and vice versa. Changes may also occur downstream from the dam, since many aquatic animals have rather narrow ranges of tolerance for certain environmental factors such as turbidity and water temperature, which may be changed downstream from the dam. Interactions with other attributes. Changes in aquatic fauna often have beneficial impacts on recreation (sport fishing) and sometimes have beneficial impacts on economic fac- tors, since commercial fishing is feasible in some large reservoirs. Functional relationships. Specific effects depend largely on local conditions. Species com- position and abundance depend to a large extent on the species composition and produc- tivity of the aquatic flora. Mitigation. Usually none. FLORA Definition. Plants. 13 Terrestrial Plants , . veal Veg< 'tat u m Definition. Natural vegetation is the complex assemblage of plants which occurs on an area in the absence of cultivation or other recent severe disturbance. This includes the various successional stages. Impact. Major impacts on natural vegetation are caused by clearing and by filling the res- ervoir with water. Other operations which may have adverse effects on natural vegeta- tion are grubbing, stripping, excavation, stockpiling, loading-hauling, grading, com- paction, concrete placement, surfacing, and building erection. Operation of the res- ervoir for flood control may have adverse effects on vegetation in the flood-control pool . Interactions with other attributes. The condition of the natural vegetation interacts with ecosystem structure, trophic structure, microclimate, soil conditions, b iogeochemical cycles, primary productivity, and detritus. l-'unct iona 1 relationships. Since the natura I vegetation varies with local conditions, quantita- tive relationships developed for one region may not apply to other regions. The natural vegetation is destroyed or degraded to a lower successional stage by disturbance and is reestablished in the absence of disturbance. The time scale for complete regeneration is sometimes quite long, amounting to several hundred years in the case of certain up- land forests (Johnson and Bell, 1975). Bell and Johnson (1975) found that upland oak- hickory forest in central Illinois could withstand up to 30 days of continuous flood- ing. Inundation for periods longer than 30 days in the growing season causes death of some black oak {Quevcus velutina) , and inundation for more than 45 days causes consid- erable mortality in white oak {Q. alba). Flood-plain trees can survive considerably longer periods of flooding. Common Midwestern flood-plain species such as silver maple {Acer' saooharrnum) , cottonwood (Populus deltoides) and bur oak (Q. rnacvocarpa) remain alive after continuous inundation for 100 to 180 days. Mitigation. Some disturbance and destruction of natural vegetation is necessary in a res- ervoir project, but any unnecessary disturbance should be avoided. After construction is completed, regeneration of vegetation in disturbed areas can be facilitated by re- planting. In order to avoid heavy mortality of trees in the flood-control pool areas around a reservoir, flood-control operations should be adjusted so that upland-type forest will be inundated for no more than .30 days in any particular growing season. Flood-plain forests probably should not be inundated for more than 100 days during the growing season. Both forest types are able to survive considerably longer periods of inundation in the non-growing season. However, yearly inundation could severely weaken living trees to the point where a relatively short flood period could cause mortality. References. Odum (1971), Oosting (1956). ire n>i\ throughfall and stemflow from two species on the same site. The second. u\ goals were to determine (1) the amounts of precipitation retained bv tree crowns and lost through evaporation, sublimation, and absorption; .md (2) the water-holding capacity of the a< ( umulated litter layer. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA The study was conducted in a loblolly and shortleaf pine plantation at the University of Illinois Dixon Springs Agricultural Center, in the Shawnee National Forest in southern Illinois. Loblolly (Pinus tarda L.) and shortleai pines (Pinus echinata Mill.) were planted in 1949 at various spacings as part of an experiment to determine the effect of spacing on tree growth. The plots chosen for this study had an 8- by 8-foot spacing, and were half an acre in size. The soil underlying the plantation is of the Grantsburg series (ochreptic typic fragidualf), which has a moderately well- developed fragipan at approximately thirty inches. MATERIALS AND METHODS Two plots, one for each species, were sampled in this study. The arrangement of equipment in a plot is shown in Figure I. Total precipitation was measured by two gages ^Research supported by Mclntire-Stennis Proji i t 5 ''-JOS. ^Research .Assistant. Assistant Professor. Forester, and Professor Emeritus, respectively. \ -2- ® 1 N ® Figure 1. Plot iayout. One 8- by 8-foot spacing, showing placement of collection devices: (R) total rainfall collection gages, (T) throughfall collection gages, (I.) litter teachate collection pans, and (S) stem flow "gutters." placed in open fields adjacent to the study site. Samples were collected after every significant rainfall and analyzed for K, Ca, Mg, P, NO3, and NH4. Throughfall was measured by three standard rain gages per plot. One gage was placed adjacent to the stem, one halfway to the center of the plot, and one at the center of the plot. This arrangement reduces the error from variability in throughfall due to the grada- tion of crown thickness from stem to periphery. Collections were made at the same time as rainfall, and samples were pooled for each plot for analysis. Stemflow was collected by sealing a three-inch wide aluminum "gutter" in a descending spiral around each of two trees per plot. A pipe was fixed to the base of each spiral gutter. The pipe carried the stemflow to an under- ground plastic-lined tank, where the flow was stored until it was measured and sampled. Litter leachate was measured in each plot by carefully lifting four, 1-foot square, precut sections of the natural litter layer and placing each in a separate hardware cloth basket, L-foot square by 1/4-inch deep. The basket and duff layer were then placed on a shallow leachate collection pan of the same size as the basket and returned to the same location from which the section of duff had been removed. After each precipitation period the leachate collected in the pan was measured and sampled. The study period extended from October 20, 1970, to October 29, 1971, and included 35 collection periods. Rainfall accumulations ranged from 0.32 inch to 4.23 inches (a result of several closely spaced storms). Total inputs were determined by multiplying the con- centration of each nutrient in each component of water flow by the amount of water accumulated in that compo- nent per year. An analysis of the samples was made by atomic absorption spectrophotometry for Ca, Mg, and K. Phosphorus was measured by colorimetric and nitrogen by the Phenoldisulfonic Acid method for nitrate and the Phenate method for ammonia [American Public Health Association, 1971 | . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Because both species arc the same age, on the same site, and subject to the same rainfall, any differences noted are primarily due to characteristics of the species. Loblolly has longer needles and a more clustered medic arrangement, which should enhance interception dnd the storage of precipitation. Throughfall. Loblolly allowed 70 percent of the rainfall to drop to the forest floor as throughfall; shortleaf, 84 percent. This interception has a definite effect on the nutrient movement through each system, which is a func- tion of the amount of water and the nutrient content of the water. While significant (P<0.05) and comparable increases in concentration of K, Ca, Mg, and P were found in the throughfall under each species (Table 1), the differences in water volume were more important in determining nutrient flow by this method. However, the throughfall and the nutrients it contains must still pass through the litter layer before reaching mineral soil. Stemflow. This is the second mode of nutrient transfer to the forest floor in precipitation. The nutrient concentra- tions in stemflow were also significantly higher (P<0.025) than those found in rainfall (Table 1). This is understand- able because all stemflow originates as intercepted water. Stemflow volumes are relatively low, thus that contribution to the water and nutrient budgets of an ecosystem is small; however, this contribution is probably significant because of its localized distribution. The absorption area for stem- flow is limited to a rather small area closely adjoining the fable 1. Mean Concentrations of Nutrients in Various Components of Precipitation Concentrations (mg./l)a Rainfall Throughfall Stem flow Litter Lob. leachate Lob. Short. Lob. Short. Lob. Short. Short. K <1.86 <1.86 2.77 2.90 4.18 4.50 5.43 5.17 Ca <1.40 <1.40 3.20 3.06 3.40 4.59 3.66 4.58 Mg <0.30 <0.30 0.61 0.61 0.80 0.86 1.46 1.27 P <1.03 <1.03 <1.26 <1.18 <1.23 <1.66 <2.93 <2.20 NO3 <0.76 <0.76 <0.76 <0.75 <0.74 <0.71 <1.00 < 1.01 NH4 <0.76 <0.76 <0.75 <0.76 <0.75 <0.69 <0.95 <0.88 "Less than" concentrations used in computing such means were regarded as "equal to"; therefore, those values represent maximums. -3- RAINFALL RAINFALL LOBLOLLY (ALL ME«SUREVENTS ORE '. Figure 2. Yearly distribution of water in the various components of precipitation. ' <*$*■ <:^^ STEMF- 4 12 3 \:> \~. <074 _|TTER-LEACHATE H :o V ; P '. K Co Mq P NOx NH^ 31 7 28 I < 3 5 <520 • 540 e ? 28 5 08 • : 2 <348 = 3 31 SHCB" Loei : i vl^.»EWE\-? fi^E is KILOGRAMS Figure 3. Distribution of nutrients in the various compo- nents of precipitation on a yearly basis. stem of the tree [Voight, 1960] . The water seems to follow the stem down through the litter layer and spread for a short distance along the interface between the lowest layer of litter and mineral soil. This concentration of water in a relatively small area around each tree probably increases its ability to efficiently utilize each rainfall, especially the ones that produce little throughfall. While nutrient enhancement in stemflow was about the same in both species (Table 1), great differences were noted in the volume of stemflow. This probably reflects the higher rate of rainfall interception by loblolly pines. There is a considerable difference in the ability of the bark of red and white pines to absorb stemflow [Voight and Zwolinski, 1964]. However, this phenomenon probably is not as significant in the case of shortleaf and loblolly pines. Loblolly foliage retained 3 million liters per hectare of water per year; shortleaf, only 1.6 million liters per hectare per year (Figure 2). Both species channel approximately the same portion of this interception to stemflow, about 33 percent in loblolly and 35 percent in shortleaf. Because of the distribution of this water and its relatively high nutrient concentrations, stemflow contributions to the nutrient cycle are probably more important than the figures indi- cate. Interception by litter. While the biomass of the litter under loblolly was slightly higher than that of shortleaf, 36,7 7") and 33,590 kilograms per hectare, respectively, the loblolh littei was about twice as thick, about 4 inches compared to 2 inches for shortleaf. This mainly reflects a difference in the packing of the needles. The shorter needles of shortleaf tend to pack tighter, forming a thinner and denser layer. More water was retained by loblolly litter because more was required to wet the deeper layer. This results in a potentially greater loss of water through evaporation. Al- though a thin litter layer allows more water to pass through, in ponderosa pine during dry summer periods when moisture can be critical, a deeper litter can help protect soil water from evaporation [Rowe, 1955]. Thus, loblolly litter may give better soil protection. This can be especially critical in the soil under the study plots because of its relatively impermeable fragipan that restricts water movement. The storage capacity of each litter layer is reflected in the difference between the volumes of throughfall and litter leachate. Loblolh litter lost 52 percent of the incoming throughfall to evaporation, while shortleaf litter lost only 30 percent. Coupled with the difference in throughfall entering the litter of each species, this resulted in great differences in the amounts of water entering the soil under each species. Under loblolly 3.5 million liters per hectare entered the soil, while 6.1 million liters per hectare passed through the shortleaf litter. These differences, resulting from species characteristics, largely determined the amount of nutrient transfer by precipitation through each species. However, the actual gain in soil moisture levels may be minimal in many instances because of the soil profile being saturated above the fragipan. The concentrations of nutrients in the litter leachate ot both species were- very similar. By the evaporation of water retained in the litter and leaching of nutrients from the litter, the concentrations of all nutrients analyzed, includ- ing NO3 and NH4, were significantly greater than through- fall (P<0.025). The total amount of nutrients added to the soil is, therefore, directly related to the amount of water that enters the soil (Figure 3). This seems to indicate that more nutrients are probably transferred into the soil by precipitation under shortleaf pine than under loblolly pine. CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY The amount of nutrients cycled through an ecosystem by leaching pro< esses depends on the movement of water through the system. This flow is largely regulated by species characteristics. The water that reaches the foresl soil is enriched by nutrients absorbed from the atmosphere, leached or washed from the aerial portions of the trees in the form of throughfall and stem flow, and added from the duff or litter layer on the forest floor. The enrichment of the water is very similar foi the two species studied. The main differences are in the water retention and channeling abilities of each species. Loblolly pine showed a greater capacity for aerial interception, which resulted in less water and fewer nutrients reaching the floor as throughfall and more being channeled to the soil as stemflow. The contribu- tions of stemflow may be more important in terms of effects on tree growth than the figures indicate because of its concentrated distribution in the vicinity of the tree roots. The storage capacity of the litter under loblolly pine was much greater than that of shortlcaf. primarily due to the thickness of the loblolly litter. This factor, as well as greater interception and retention, resulted in smaller amounts of water and associated nutrients being returned to the soil under loblolly pine than under shortleaf. The results of this preliminary study indicate differ- ences in the effect of the loblolly and shortleaf pine species on water movement and the cycling of nutrients in precipi- tation, which, in turn, are likely to affect the growth pattern of these species. LITERATURE CITED American Public Health Association. 1971. Standard Meth- ods for the Examination of Water and Waste \\'at<>: New York City. The association. Attinwell, P. M. 1966. Chemical composition of rainwater in relation to cycling of nutrients in mature Eucalyptus forest. Plant and So,! 24:390-406 Kittredge, J. 194S. Interception and stemflow. Forest fnfhwin , v. New York City. McGraw-Hill. Pp.99-114. Madgwick, H.A.. and J.D. Ovington. 1959. The chemical composition of precipitation in adjacent forest and open plots. Forestry 32:14-22. Mes, M.G. 1954. Excretion of phosphorus and other min- er-1 elements b\ leaves under the influence of rain. S. African J. Set. 50:167-172. Ovington, J.D. 1962. Quantitative ecology and the wood- land ecosystem concept. A dv. Ecol. Res. 1:103-192. Rowe, P. P. 1955. Effects of the forest floor on disposition of rainfall in pine stands. Jour. For. 53:342-355. Voight, G.K. 196(1. Distribution of rainfall under forest stands. For. Sci. 6:2-10. Voight, G.K., and M.J. Zwolinski. 1964. Absorption of stemflow by bark of young red and white pines. For. Sci. 10:277-282. Zinke, P.J. 1967. Forest interception studies in the United States. In International Symposium >>, Forest Hydrol- ogy. Oxford/New York. Pcrgamon Press. Pp. 137-159. The III inois . \grieultural Experiment Station provides equal opportunities in programs and employment. (FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry agricultural experiment station university of Illinois at urbana-champaign No. 75-7 December, 1975 NUTRIENT FLUXES IN LITTER FALL IN A CENTRAL ILLINOIS WOODLAND7 Gary L. Rolfe2 This study was designed to increase our understanding of nutrient cycling processes in central Illinois woodlands. The specific objective was to evaluate the role of litter fall in nutrient return to mineral soil. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA Brownfield Woods, a 24.3-hectare woodland in Cham- paign County, Illinois, maintained by the University of Illinois as a natural area, was the studv area. This stand is dominated by sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh) and is mixed mesophytic in composition (Boggess and Bailey, 1964) with a basal area of 114 square feet per acre (26.18 square meters per hectare). Other important species are red oak (Quercus rubra L.), bur oak [Quercus macrocarpa Michx.), and basswood (Tilia americana L.) METHODS For two years litter was collected at monthly intervals (except during peak litter fall) from 48 one-meter-square (m-) litter traps randomly located within the woodland. The litter collected was separated into three categories: leaves, reproductive parts, and branches and twigs. The samples were ovendried at 105 C, weighed, and analyzed for Ca, Mg, K, Na, P, and N. Cation analyses were by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Phosphorus analysis was done using colorimetric techniques as described in Methods of Analysis (1945). Total nitrogen was done using the Kjeldahl method (Methods of Analysis, 1945). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Total mean annual litter fall (ovendried weight), includ- ing leaves, branches and twigs, and reproductive parts, was 520 grams per square meter (standard deviation = - 62.7 g). Leaves were by far the major litter component (73 percent of the total litter) and showed autumn maximum. Reproductive parts, mostly acorns, made up 14 percent of the total also with an autumn maximum. The branch and twig fraction of the litter showed no seasonal trend and made up the remaining 13 percent. Most of the annual leaf litter fall is rapidly decomposed by the following growing season in this woodland. The 48 2.0 ANNUAL 3.0 40 NUTRIENT g/m2 50 RETURN Figure 1. Total annual nutrient return for all litter components. plots sampled in early July for leaf litter accumulation showed a mean leaf litter accumulation of 190.3 r) , g/m-( - 36.2 g). A major portion of this was current leaves, branches, and acorns, indicating that most of the previous year's leaf litter had been decomposed and incorporated into mineral soil. The total annual nutrient return for all litter compo- nents is shown in Figure 1. The major nutrient returns were calcium (6.11 g/mz) and total nitrogen (4.67 g/m-). The nutrients were primarily associated with the leaf litter, even though some nutrient concentrations (Ca) were higher in twigs and branches and in reproductive parts (X). Total nutrient inputs to the soil system came primarily from the leaf litter because of the large amount and ease of decom- position of leaf material. Nutrient return per hectare ranged from approximately 61 kg for Ca to 2 kg for N'a with much of these nutrients being rapidly incorporated into the mineral soil. 1 Supported by Mclntire-Stennis Project 55-308, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. Assistant Professor of Forest Ecology and Environmental Studies. CONCLUSIONS Large amounts of nutrients are annually returned to the soil system in this central Illinois woodland, primarily in the form of easily decomposed leaf litter. Because of rapid decomposition, these nutrients are involved in a relatively rapid nutrient cycle in this woodland ecosystem. LITERATURE CITED Boggess, W.R., and L.W. Bailey. 1964. Brownfield Woods, Illinois: Woody vegetation and changes since 1925. Amer. Midi. Nat. 71:392-401. Methods of Analysis (6th ed.). 1945. Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. Washington, D.C. The Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station provides equal opportunities in programs and employment. FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AGRICULTURE LIBRARY agricultural experiment station university of illinois at urbana-champaign No. 75-8 December, 1975 FERTILIZER AND DISCING ALONE WILL NOT IMPROVE COTTONWOOD SURVIVAL AND GROWTH ON DEGRADED SOILS7 A.R. Gilmore, L.E. Arnold, and R.A. Young* Growth and survival of cottonwood (Populus deltoides Bartr.) on a field that had been used for 50 years to test crop rotations with various soil and fertilizer practices have been reported (Gilmore, 1969; Gilmore et al., 1972). It was found that tree survival was not affected by past soil treatments during the earlier growing years but tree mor- tality did increase during the later years on the less fertile plots. Growth rates on the more fertile plots are still increasing after 10 years but have slowed on the poorer plots. A number of researchers (Gilmore et al., 1972) have reported that for good cottonwood growth nitrogen must be added to the soil. The present study attempts to determine whether cottonwood growing on the less fertile plots in the above studies will respond to applications of a complete (N, P, K) fertilizer so that survival and growth may equal that on the better plots. DESCRIPTION OF AREA AND PAST TREATMENTS The test area is located in extreme southern Illinois on the same experimental field used previously for similar studies (Gilmore, 1969). The soil type is a Cisne silt loam (Mollic Albaqualfs), a nearly level, poorly drained soil that developed in 50 to 127 cm (20 to 50 inches) of loess over weathered glacial drift. This soil is characterized b\ a well-developed clay pan, about 80 cm (32 inches) below the surface in one experimental section (Block I) and 90 cm (35 inches) below the surface in the second section (Block II); the clay pan impedes both root penetration and the downward movement of water. The soil's available moisture capacity is high, and natural fertility is low. The native vegetation was prairie grasses. Previous treatments to the area, which was operated as part of a livestock system and utilized barnyard manure, were reported by Gilmore (1969). Plots were treated with manure (M), limestone (L), and rock phosphate (P), applied singly or in combination. In the present study, Block I and Block II were each divided into four 0.02-hectare (0.05-acre) plots, and each plot was treated as follows: O (no treatment), M, ML, or MLP. METHODS That part of the plantation that had been used previously to test the effects of various root and stem pruning treatments, season of planting, and methods of planting (Gilmore, 1975) was used in this study. The same number of seedlings was used in each residual soil treatment plot (described above). The 1-0 seedlings from a local seed source were planted 30 per plot, spaced 3.35 m by 3.35 m (11' by 11'). Block I was planted in the fall of 1964 and Block II in the spring of 1965. Fertilizers were uniformly broadcast on all plots at the rate of 84 kg/ha X, 28 kg/ha P, and 69 kg/ha K (75, 25. and 62 pounds/acre) during each of the first seven growing seasons for a total of 588, 196, and 483 kg/ha (525, 175, and 431 pounds/acre) of N, P, and K, respectively. The plantation was disced to a depth of 15 cm (6 inches) four times during the first growing season and twice during each of the second and third growing seasons. Seedling mortality was checked at the end of each growing season through the 1974 season except for the 19 73 season. Total height was measured at the end of each growing season except for the 1965 and 1973 seasons. As previously stated, all plots in the study were fer- tilized. Because a true check plot did not exist, therefore, data from this study were statistically analyzed onlv to determine differences between blocks. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS The results are limited, as there was no true control in the study, but it is obvious that the fertilizers applied (luting the first seven years did not improve survival on the O, ML, and MLP residual plots (Table 1). Mortality, which continues to increase on the O and M plots, apparently reached a plateau on the limed plots within four years after the seedlings were planted. Visual observations indicate that some trees in the nonlimed plots will die within the next five years; in the limed plots, however, trees appear to be healthy and mortality has peaked. The high mortality following the first growing season can be explained by the fact that the tops of some cottonwood seedlings often die back the first year after the seedlings are planted and are tallied as dead. But a large number of the seedlings thought to be dead will send out new shoots the following spring and grow vigorously. The high mortality in Block I and the difference in mortality between Blocks I and II arc attributed to black stem disease (Cytostora sp.). The trees in Block I, planted Supported in pari by funds from Hatch Project :J;~>-3$3. Professor, Associate Forester, and Forester. Table 1. Average percent mortality of trees according to block, year, and past treatment' Treatment 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1974 Bloc k I O 23 13 23 27 30 43 47 47 47 M 26 17 30 27 30 33 33 33 33 ML 17 23 23 27 30 30 30 27 27 MLP 40 33 37 40 Bloc :k I 40 40 40 40 43 O 20 17 17 17 17 27 33 33 33 M 13 3 10 10 10 17 17 17 17 ML 17 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 MLP 13 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 Significant differences between blocks at 1 percent level. in the fall from freshly dug seedlings from the nursery bed, undoubtedly had the disease organism present, though not visible, in the stem or roots of some seedlings. The fungus overwintered in the seedling and killed it if the affected area was below ground level, with the result that sprouting could not take place. The disease was not prevalent in the seedlings in Block II for, even though seedlings were lifted from the nursery bed at the same time as those planted in Block I, the seedlings planted in Block II were kept over the winter in cold storage; during that period most seedlings with black stem infections developed the conspicuous symptoms and were culled before the seedlings were planted the following spring. Fertilizers may have reduced Cottonwood mortalitv in the M plots, but it is doubtful that they affected mortality in the other plots. This is substantiated by results from an earlier study (Gilmore et al., 1972) conducted on an adjacent block in the same experimental field. In the earlier study, which used the same past soil treatments as the present study, survival average was 74, 72, 94, and 94 percent for the O, M, ML, and MLP plots, respectively, at the end of eight years. These trends compare favorably with survival data from the present study, which averaged 67, 83, 90, and 93 percent for the (), M, ML. and MLP plots, respectively, at age eight. There was no statistical difference in average height ol trees between the two blocks; therefore, height data from both were combined (Fig. 1). When heights at the end of eight years are compared to heights in the earlier study (Gilmore et al., 1972), it appears that fertilizer improved growth on the M plot but not on the other plots. Also, if growth at the end of eight years is expressed as a percent of the maximum growth plot (ML treatment plot at the same age) for each study, growth in the O treatment plot is 62 percent of the maximum in the early study and 60 percent in this study; for the M treatment plot, 71 percent in the early study and 8 1 percent in this study: and almost 100 percent for the MLP treatment in both studies. The () and M plots have been degraded over a 50-year period and will require more than discing and fertilization to return the area to its former productive capacity. As shown by other studies (Clark. 1964), soil structure degen- erates in old field soils so that adequate hardwood growth cannot be obtained. The soil structure below the plow layer in the O and M plots in the study must have degraded to the stage where cottonwood could not absorb sufficient nutrients, water, or oxygen for good tree growth. The remedv for this condition in the degraded plots is to plant less demanding species such as pines, place organic matter and fertilizers deep in the soil, or let the area go through the natural ecological succession, which might take 50 to 100 vears. IS I — 1 1 CO ex. UJ 5 X UJ I I 1 2 4 6 8 10 AGE (YEARS) Figure I. Average total tree height per plot, according to age and treatment. LITERATURE CITED Clark, KB. 1964. Microorganisms and soil structure affect yellow poplar growth, L'.S. For. Ser. Res. Paper CS-9. Gilmore, A.R. 1969. Residual soil fertility and growth of planted cottonwood on upland soils in southern Illinois. Trans. III. State Acad. Sci. 62: 124-127. Gilmore. A.R. 1973. The effects of planting methods on survival of cottonwood seedlings. Tree Planters' Notes Vol. 2 7 I in press) . Gilmore, A.R., L.L. Arnold, and R.A. Young. 1972. Early growth of planted cottonwood on upland soils in southern Illinois. 111. Agr. Exp. Sta. I or. Res. Rpt. 72-1. The Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station provides equal opportunities in programs and employment. FORESTRY RESEARCH REPORT department of forestry agricultural experiment station university of Illinois at urbana-champaign No. 76-1 January, 1976 IFSAS-THE ILLINOIS FOREST SAMPLING SIMULATOR Dieter R. Pelz1 A study of sampling methods is an important part in the training of foresters. Students should learn the basic sampling methods and how alternative sampling unit defini- tions and alternative sample sizes affect the precision of the results. Furthermore, they should become familiar with statistical inference: the interpretation of sampling results. One of the main difficulties in teaching sampling methods is to relate abstract statistical procedures to real forest situations, without time-consuming and expensive field work. The testing of alternative forest sampling methods requires a large amount of data, which usually must be collected in the field at high cost— a procedure of little educational value. If a model of forest sampling can be formulated, computer simulation may be used to compare alternative sampling methods without need for extensive field work and tedious calculations. Forest simulation models developed for teaching have been primarily in the field of forest management, as described by Bare (19 70) and Brodie (1972). Simulation models applied to sampling, as described by Arvantis and O'Regan (1967), Kulow (1968), and Schbpfer (1969), were developed mainly for research purposes. The Illinois Forest Sampling Simulator was designed for use by students in a sampling methods course. Students can conduct experiments and examine the results of alternative sampling designs without having to spend a large amount of time collecting data and calculating sample values. In this way they can add to their educational experience a dimen- sion not readily available through literature study or actual experimentation. Sampling methods that can be compared by means of IFSAS are simple random sampling, systematic plot sam- pling, systematic strip sampling, stratified random sampling, and two-stage sampling. These sampling methods may be performed with seven different plot sizes (from 0.025 to 1.600 acres), although not all sampling methods may be performed for all plot sizes. In all, 28 combinations of sampling methods and plot sizes can be compared. In the following sections the sampling methods, the use of IFSAS, input data, and output are described briefly. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING Simple random sampling (SRS) can be performed for all seven plot sizes. IFSAS selects a simple random sample without replacement of the size specified. The plots are selected randomly with a pseudorandom number. As sam- pling is done without replacement, each plot is considered only once in a sample. For each sampling occasion, the following character- istics are calculated: mean, x n 2 X i= 1 standard error, S^ = S /N-n Vn\ N ;x* - (2X.)2/n n(n-l) N — + 95-percent confidence interval, x _ S_ t x where N = population size n = sample size t = t-value for (n — 1) degrees of freedom If the sample size equals 1, only the mean is calculated, as no degrees of freedom exist for estimating the variance. If the sample size equals the population size, the standard error and the confidence interval are zero. The sample size may not be larger than the population size, as sampling is performed without replacement. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING If auxiliary information about the population is avail- able, methods more efficient than SRS can be employed. IFSAS permits stratified random sampling for 0.025- and 0.100-acre plots in two strata. Sample selection within each stratum is random, as described for simple random sam- pling. For the population with 0.025-acre plots, stratum 0 contains 713 plots and stratum 1 contains 887 plots. For 0.100-acre plots, stratum 0 has 179 plots and stratum 1 has 221 plots. At each sampling occasion, the population characteristics— the strata sizes and the mean and variance for each stratum— are displayed. Population elements are listed the first time stratified random sampling is performed in each run. OCT 2 7 1976 UNlVtKiiinr 01- ILUIHOIS Assistant Professor of Forest Biometrics, Department of Forestry. For each sampling occasion, the following character- istics are calculated: the mean for each stratum n. 2 X. il 1 i = 1 "1 n2 2 X i = 1 n„ i2 The populations, therefore, are redefined in the following manner: Plot size Number Strip size Number of in acres of plots in acres strip strips .025 1,600 Systematic sampling not allowed .050 800 .5 80 .100 400 1.0 40 .200 200 2.0 20 .400 100 4.0 10 .800 50 8.0 5 1.600 25 8.0 5 an estimate of the population mean Nlxl + N2X2 N1+ N2 where N = size of stratum 1 where N_ = size of stratum 2 the standard error of the mean (Husch et al., 1972, p. 217) 2 2 N1S1 2 2 -n1\+N2S2 n 1 N 1 N2 -ng where N = total population size N.= size of stratum i n.= sample size in stratum i S.= variance in stratum i 1 The sample size in each stratum has to be between 1 and the respective stratum size, as sampling is done without replacement. If the sample size in any stratum is less than 1 or larger than the stratum size, IFSAS will print the appropriate error messages and continue to the next problem. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING Two forms of systematic sampling can be performed: systematic plot sampling and strip sampling. Systematic plot sampling can be performed for all seven plot sizes, systematic strip sampling for plot sizes from 0.050 to 1.600 acres. For systematic sampling IFSAS will randomly select the first sampling unit and every k\h unit thereafter. For strip sampling the sampling unit is an entire row of sample plots. For systematic plot and strip sampling the actual sample size may differ from the specified sample size. For example, if the sample size is larger than one-half the population size, the entire population will be the sample. The program calculates for both methods only the sample mean, as the variance cannot be readily estimated from a single systematic sample. The specified sample, the actual sample size, the mean and the value of k are printed for each sampling occasion. TWO -STAGE SAMPLING Sampling may be performed in two stages. In stage 1 a random sample of primary units is taken, and in stage 2 a random subsample of secondary units is taken in each of the selected primary units. IFSAS defines columns as primary units and plots as secondary units. This sampling method can be applied to six plot sizes, 0.050 to 1.600 acres. The mean of the population is estimated by Husch et al. (1972, p. 221) as follows: m n - = 1_ 2 2 X: mn j - 1 i = 1 'I where m = number of primary units in the sample n = number of secondary units per primary in the sample The standard error of the mean is calculated as 2 / \ 2 Sx =v"m/Sb +(1_mn)' w m mn where M = number of primary units N = number of secondary units per primary m = number of primary units in the sample n = number of secondary units per primary S2 = B variance between S^y= variance within For two-stage sampling the populations are defined as follows: Plot size Number of N urn iher of secondaries in acres primaries two-stage per primary .025 sampling not allowed .050 10 80 .100 10 40 .200 10 20 .400 10 10 .800 10 5 1.600 5 5 Sampling is performed without replacement: therefore, the sample size mux not be larger than the number of primary or secondary units. If the sample size equals 1, only the mean is calculated, as no degrees of freedom exist for estimating the variance. If the sample size is larger than the number of primary or secondary units, IFSAS will print the appropriate error message and continue to the next problem. DATA The data on which the sampling simulator is based were collected from a jack pine (Finns banksiana) stand in northern Minnesota. Basal area was measured for 1,600 contiguous triangular plots of 0.025 acres each (Appendix 2). In addition, strata identifications were recorded for all plots. This basic population can be redefined by combining adjacent plots. The computer program allows the specification of seven different populations that can be sampled with plot sizes of 0.025, 0.050, 0.100, 0.200. 0.400, 0.800, and 1.600 acres. The parameters of the alternative populations are shown in Table 1. Tablet. Population Parameters Plot size No. of Data Mean Variance in acres plots matrix ft. /acre ft.2 /acre .025 1,600 120x(10or20) 78.74 1,642.56 .050 800 80x10 78.74 1,048.84 .100 400 40x10 78.74 788.18 .200 200 20x10 78.74 548.65 .400 100 10x10 78.74 384.91 .800 50 5x10 78.74 177.08 1.600 25 5x5 78.74 119.82 The variance of the population will differ for alternative population definitions. The variance decreases with increasing plot size, as also shown in previous studies (Arvantis and O'Regan, 1967). The variance equation derived by regression analysis is of the following form: 1 V = 5.13752 n 0.79550 1 P n 0.05304(1 P)' n where variance in ft. /acre plot size in acres denotes the natural logarithm The multiple regression coefficient R*" equals 0.9909, and the standard error of the equation is 0.1104. The computer program, written in Fortran IV for an IBM 360-75, identifies the population parameters for the selected plot size — the population mean and its variance. Sampling units are selected from this population according to the specified sampling method. For each sampling occasion the sample mean, and if appropriate its standard error and the 95-percent confidence interval are calculated. A logical flow chart of IFSAS is shown in Figure 1. and a listing of the program is in Appendix 1. INPUT VARIABLES The input variables are sampling unit definition, sampling method, and sample size. The input medium is cards. The variables are read with the format 211. 14, 13. IFSAS screens all input data and prints the appropriate error messages, if necessary. For example, if the sample size specified equals zero, or if a method is chosen in con- junction with a population size that is not defined. IFSAS prints an error message and continues to the next problem. Appendix .3 shows some of the error messages resulting from incorrect input. The following gives the input variables and their values: Variable name Column ISIZ 1 0 Plot = 0.025 acres 1 0.050 acres 2 0.100 acres 3 0.200 acres 4 0.400 acres 5 0.800 acres 6 1 .600 acres 9 Stop IND NSAM MS NRP NST0, NST1 NPRIM, NSFC 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6, 7-9 3-6, 7-9 0 Simple random sampling 1 Systematic plot sampling 2 Systematic strip sampling 3 Stratified random sampling 4 Two-stage sampling Sample size for simple random sampling Sample size for systematic sampling Number of rows to be sampled (strip sample) Sample size in stratum 0 and sample size in stratum 1 Sample size of primary units, number of secondary units to be selected per primary The author wishes to express his appreciation to Dr. J.J '. Jokela of the Department of Forestry for making the data available. In the following, some examples for the use of IFSAS are given: 1. Select a simple random sample of size 20 from the population with 0.025 acres. Column 12 3 4 5 6 0 0 2 0 2. Select a stratified random sample of size 10 from stratum 0 and size 12 from stratum 1, from the population with 0.100-acre plots. Column 1234 5 6789 2 3 10 12 3. Select a systematic plot sample of size 30 from the population with 0.100-acre plots. Column 12 3 4 5 6 2 1 30 4. Select a systematic strip sample of size 3 from the population with 0.100-acre plots. Column 12 3 4 5 6 2 2 3 5. Select a two-stage sample from the population with 0.100-acre plots. Sample size for the primary units equals 3 and for the secondary unit 5. Column 123456789 2 4 3 5 6. Select a simple random sample of size 4 from the population with 1.600-acre plots. Column 12 3 4 5 6 60 4 The corresponding output and some error messages resulting from incorrect input are shown in Appendix 3. Any number of combinations may be defined for one run. A card with a 9 in column 1 will terminate a run. The first time a specific population is sampled in each run, all population elements are listed. LITERATURE CITED Arvantis, Loukas G., and William G. O' Regan. 1967. Computer simulation and economic efficiency in forest sampling. Hilgardia 38(2): 133-164. Bare, B. Bruce. 1970. Purdue's forest management game. /. Forestry 68:554-55 7. Brodie, J.D. 1973. Resource management games used in forestry education at the University of Wisconsin. For- estry Res. Note No. 179. Univ. of Wise. Husch, Betram, Charles I. Miller, and Thomas W. Beers. 1972. Forest Mensuration. The Ronald Press Co., New York. Kulow, D.L. 1966. Comparison of forest sampling designs. /. Forestry 64:469-474. Schdpfer, W. 1967. Fin Stichprobensimulator fur For- schung und Lehre. Allgemeine Forst unci Jagdzeitung 138(12):267-273. The Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station provides equal opportunities in programs and employment. FIGURE 1. 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