eset neains nde - “regi neh y er oe —— FORESTS ann FORESTRY. A 1g ihe Rs ne a ADDRESSED TO MERPLANCKI COLVIN ESoGe Superintendent of the Adirondack Surveys, ON EEE IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS, THEIR MANAGEMENT IN GERMANY, WITH A SHORT REVIEW OF THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY, BY, , oy PL) Ov Ree Bon New ¥oyk ; C, C. SHELLEY, PRINTER, 2 & 3 COLLEGE PLACE. 1879. New York, November 4, 1878. Dear Sir: When I had the pleasure of meeting you in the Adirondacks in the Autumn of 1877, our conversation turned to the importance of preserving the forests of those regions, and I promised then to give you some de- tails on the scientific management of forests in Germany. I gave this promise presuming that some book might have been recently published, which would convey ideas on the science of forestry in my native country in such a plain manner, that a layman even would readily com- prehend them. Endeavoring to obtain such a book, I found a great many excellent works written for professionals exclusively, but none adapted for my purpose. I was therefore compelled to rely principally on my knowledge and experience, gained during many years of practical study, which assisted me in making abstracts from the above-mentioned works and composing these into an essay, which I take great pleasure in transmitting to you. The delay in making good my promise, was caused by the time-absorbing task of modeling abstracts from scientific works into a shape suitable for non-professionals. I have divided this essay into three parts, of which The First treats on the latest experiments and their results respecting the influence of forests on the climate, The Second on the scientific treatment of forests, and The Third on the historical development of forestry. / CHAPTER TI. THE INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON THE CLIMATE. HE First Annual Report of the Commissioners of State Parks of the State of New York, submitted to the Legislature, May 15th, 1873, treats on the influence of forests on the climate, especially with regard to the abund- ance or lack of water, and reference is therein made to the researches of Humsotpt, BonrLanp, DE SAussurs, BovusinGavuut, and others. In relation thereto I will quote some portions of a work, written by Dr. Ernst Ebermayer, Professor of the Cen- tral Forest Academy at Ashaffenburg in Bavaria. For five years observations have been made in the kingdom of Bavaria, at seven different points, respecting the influence of forests on the temperature and moisture of the atmosphere, on the evaporation of water, and on the quantity of rainfall, &c. Most ali the facts stated in the above work, are based on 5,000 different observations, made during the years 1868 to 1872, with the help of instruments most ingen- iously constructed for that purpose. With these, twice every day, at fixed hours and at all seven points, the tem- perature of the soil was measured, for comparison in the forests as well as in the open fields, at the surface and at a depth respectively of one-half, one, two, three, and four feet. According to these the mean annual tempera- THE INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON THE CLIMATE. 5 ture of the “forest soil” is, on an average, 21% lower than that in the “open field,’ and the mean annual tem- perature of the “ atmosphere in the forest” is on an aver- age 10% lower than that in the “ open field.” They furthermore show the equalizing effect of forests in lowering the extreme summer’s heat, and in lessening the extreme winter’s cold. The quantity of moisture which the atmosphere may contain without a formation of clouds, etc., being depend- ent on the temperature, we see how important the above experimental observations are with regard to the enquiry, whether the abundance or lack of water of a district is influenced by forests, and if so, to what extent. The higher the temperature, the more moisture the atmosphere can absorb and retain without> discharging it in the form of dew, fog, rain, or snow. As a rule the atmosphere uever contains as much moisture as it could hold in accordance with the prevail- ing temperature. The proportion which the moisture actually in exist- ence bears, at the same temperature, to that which the atmosphere could hold, if fully saturated, is ‘called “ veda- tive moisture.’ Observations prove now, that the “ atmo. sphere of forests” has more relative moisture than “ chat of the open field,’ notwithstanding the equal degree of absolute moisture in both, and consequently a falling of the temperature will affect the condensation of moisture more, and produce a greater volume of water in the former (the forests), than in the latter (the open field). These observations give us the relative moisture on an average to be 6% greater “iz the forest” than “zn the open field; the difference being 9% in summer, and 6 THE INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON THE CLIMATE. about 5% in the other seasons. From the above we therefore arrive at the conclusion, that forests make a climate more humid, their influence being mostly felt during the summer season and greater in more elevated locations. In the higher mountain regions the difference between the relative moisture “of the forest” and “the open field” is considerably greater than in less elevated localities. Not less important is the influence of the forest and its surface soil on the water supply of a district, retain- ing as it does the humidity of the soil. Examinations made in relation hereto, have proved that if in the open field one hundred parts of water evap- orate, in a forest the uncovered soil exhales but 38 parts, and the covered soil (with leaves, moss, or humus, 2. ¢., vegetable earth), but 15 parts of water. No wonder then, as Professor Ebermayer justly remarks on this occasion, that the volume of water in rivers is greatly diminished, that springs and brooks dry up, or flow but periodically, in districts where large tracts of woodland have been cleared. In a forest the foliage resists successfully the violence of even the fiercest storms, and breaks the force of the heaviest rainfall, which gradually reaching the soil, pene- trates it but slowly, as the surface covering of leaves, moss and humus, acting like a sponge, absorbs and retains it. On the other hand, in an open country, much less water penetrates the soil, as the rain coming down with unbroken force, rushes from hills and mountain sides through valleys and fields, only feeding brooks and rivers, carrying off in its course quantities of fertile soil and THE INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON THE CLIMATE. 7 cutting deep ravines, which in time enlarge and become the beds of torrents. The above will prove to what an extent woods affect the humidity of a climate, and I have tried in particular to point out their importance in connection with the abundant water supply of a district. Some additional quotations from the same work of Professor Ebermayer, will also show the highly important bearing, the moisture of the atmosphere has on the climate in other respects. The principal distributor of warmth over the whole globe is the moisture of the atmosphere, without which it would be excessively hot in some countries and freezing in others. Should the atmosphere be perfectly dry, the earth would exhale in the course of the night all the warmth it had been receiving during the day, and even in summer nights the temperature would then sink to the freezing point. A striking illustration of the foregoing we find in the great desert ‘‘Sahara,’ where the dryness of the atmo- sphere causes a falling off in the temperature after sunset to such a degree as even to permit the formation of ice in some parts. Again, this moisture is the principal cause that the atmosphere can retain part of the warmth emanating from the sun. Remove the moisture from the atmosphere of England but for a single night, remarks Professor Tyndall on a similar occasion, and it will inevitably de- stroy all the plants which frost would kill. Having thus shown the importance of preserving the forests on account of their beneficial influence on the cli- mate, I shall now try to show how they, belonging either to a State or a great land-owner, may be preserved and eventually made profitable. CnhaPprTre®e Il. THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. T is the task of forest economy to use to the utmost advantage the land intended for the cultivation of woods, under full observation of all secondary considera- tions. Where there are no secondary considerations, the most profitable usage is identical with the highest possi- ble returns to be netted from the capital invested. The secondary considerations which may exist are: 1st. Where forests serve as protection to open districts or for similar purposes. 2d. Where they are to supply in certain sections the demand for different specialties of timber. 3d. Where they are only intended by their owner to beautify the natural scenery, and are solely used as plea- sure grounds and deer parks. It a forest contains the different kinds of trees best suited for climate and soil, standing so closely as to leave no waste space, being of various ages, in such quantities as tu permit every year or after certain pe- riods of years the felling of an equal quantity of timber, then we have before us a picture of a ‘‘ standard forest.” If we consider secondary motives as not existing, the creation of such a forest would be the highest perfection forestry may attain. THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 9 Explanations. Climate and soil must be well considered for the prosperous thriving of the different kinds of tim- ber, as each species has its own peculiar demand in that respect. To arrive then at the most profitable result, there should be timber suitable to both climate and soil. The trees should stand so near to each other as to leave no openings at all, not however so closely as to interfere with each other’s growth. In order to get from a forest every year, or at regular periods, an equal quantity of timber, there should be represented in like quantities different stages of growth of each species. Take for instance, as illustration of the above, a pine-wood extending over 1,000 acres of equally good soil, and presume, furthermore, that 100 years would be the most profitable age, in which to cut the trees, then 10 acres would have to be cleared every year in order to yield uniform profit. Each of these 10 acres should be covered with timber of a different stage of growth, from 1 to 100 years. The whole tract would then be divided into 100 sections, of which the one of the oldest growth (100 years) would have to be cut in the first year, and the youngest (one year’s growth), at the end of 100 years. Although it is almost certain that we shall never see a forest in so perfect a state, it is necessary to keep in our mind such a picture, in order to judge the existing con- 10 THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. ditions of a forest from a fixed base, upon which to attempt its utmost perfection. ; In the following I shall try to describe as briefly as possible the system which, with occasional deviations, is applied in the different parts of Germany for the purpose of forming the plan for the management of State or pri- vate forests. The system is termed “ Betriebs-Regulierung or “ Forstetnrichtung,’ “contrivance of plans for the ” management of forests’ —“ Forest-Regulation.” THE FIRST PREPARATORY WORK is, to ascertain by sur- veying the exact extent of the whole forest and of the different districts, which for the purposes of management have to be treated as separate parts; and furthermore, to attain the geometrical base for the drawing of the neces- sary maps. Explanatory Remarks. The confines of the property must be surveyed with the utmost care, and marked by easily dis- cernible signs. The variations of the ground, such as hills, ridges, valleys, waters, roads, as well as any other important objects or points of observa- tion should be included in the plan, and there should be measured all areas, distinguished by their diversity in the quality of the soil and by their variety of the timber as to kind and age of growth. All minor items which are not lasting and of no value to the future management, need not be considered. To facilitate the management of large tracts of forest lands, and to make supervision easy, it is often necessary to divide the forests into “ admzn- tstration districts.” THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 11 Where natural boundary lines do not exist, these are marked permanently by straight lines being cut through the woods. Previous to the surveying of the plan, or at the same time, a thorough examination into the “ zztertor conditions” of the forest should be made with regard to the quality of the soil, to the timber and its varieties of kind and age, in order to form a base for the subdivisions of the forests or their districts. All those portions of a forest of some extent, which distinguish themselves from their surround- ings by either soil, timber, growth, or age, and which form a homogenial entirety, are known by the technical term “ Bestaende,” “ sets of trees.” THE SECOND PREPARATORY WORK consists, if not already . completed in the foregoing, of a thorough examination of all those conditions of the forest, which influence the pro- duction in its present state or which may be of importance for the valuation of its future yields. These examinations are termed “ forest estimations,” and comprise the following three branches. I. The Capability of the Standing Place of the Trees. II. The Conditions of the Different ‘‘ Bestaende’’ Sets of Trees. Ill. The Product and Cost of the Forest up to the Present Time. Explanation to I. The capability of the standing place of the trees depends upon the locality, z. e.: on the climate, soil, country, whether it be level or undulating and upon the exposures toward N. and EK. or S. and W. 12 THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. The preceding furnishes the base for: (a) The proper selection of timber, its “kind of management” as well as the “ time of rotation.” (6) The calculation of the capacity of producing for every “class of management.” Nore to (z).—To make the proper selection of the timber, it is essential to be well acquainted with the locality, as has been explained before. We distinguish three different “kznds of manage- ment.” Ist. “ Hocuwatp.” “ 7zmber forests,” “ seed forests,” ““ forest of tall trees.” Forests which have reached their maturity and progenerate themselves from the seeds falling from the trees, or which are restocked by planting, are termed ‘‘ Hochwald” “ forest of tall trees.” 2d. “ NrepERWALD.” » “ Coppice.” “ Niederwald” “ Coppice” is a forest where the trees are cut down at such an age that reproduction may be obtained by shoots from the stumps and roots. 3rd. “ Mirrrnwayp” “ MWiddle-wood,” a combination of Ist and 2nd. “ Mittelwald” ‘“Middle-wood” is a combina- tion of the above two systems of reproduction on the same tract, the fresh growth being ob- tained from both seeds and shoots. THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 13 Besides these three principal “ £zxds of manage- ment” we distinguish several others which, however, are only of importance in certain localities and under exceptional circumstances. Of these I shall only mention here one, namely: 4th. “ Plaenterbetrieb” or “ Femelwald” “ Felling by selection,’ a method according to which the timber will be cut whereever it is found, without considering reproduction or any other rule ob- served in regular systems. It is the most primitive “ kzud of management,” and, as will be easily understood, ruins a forest and produces only irregular and imperfect “ Bestaende” ** sets of trees.” This system has therefore been ex- cluded, for considerable time past, from the economy of State forests, and is only permitted in localities, which do not allow a clearing of large tracts tor the purpose of reproduction, as, for instance, in moun- tains where precaution against natural phenomena requires an uninterrupted growth of wood. Whereever the “ Plaenter system” is still found in a regulated administration of forests, certain rules are observed which diminish its disastrous consequences, UE. ¢ 1st. The forest is divided, if possible, into divisions in accordance with the different stages of growth. 14 THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 2nd. The wood to be used during the year is cut, as far as possible, in one and the same division. 3rd. The principles as to reproduction observed in forestry are, as much as possible, adhered to. Not all kinds of trees have the capacity of reproducing lost parts by shoots, as for instance Pine trees. A spe- cial “ kind of management” can therefore only be deter- mined upon after a selection of the species of trees, under full consideration of the “capability of the standing places.” “ Rotation.” The period which elapses between the planting of a “ Bestand” “set of trees,’ and its maturity combined with reproduction, is termed “ Umtrieb” “rotation.” The end of this period coincides with the age of the timber when cut down, and is termed “ Haubarkeitsalter”’ “ Age for felling, Felling Age.” The time for felling trees will come around sooner in less favored localities than in those where all conditions for the prosperous thriving of trees exist. Nore to (4).—(The calculation of the capacity of producing for every “class of management.”) It is very seldom that we find a large forest in such a condition, that the different species and quantities of timber, as well as the represented ‘classes of age,” allow a uniformity in “votation” “ Umtrieb” and management. As a rule, it will be necessary to divide the forests into different parts, each of THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 15 which, independent of each other, will require a Separate management. Those parts of a forest which in reference to management are treated as one, form what is termed a “ Betriebsclasse”’ “class of management.” For the formation of these classes an exact knowledge of the locality is absolutely necessary. Explanation to II. (The condition of the different “ Bestaende” “ sets of trees.”) Investigating into these conditions, we have: (2) To ascertain the “ Aind of management” hitherto in use. (6) To ascertain the species of trees on hand in each “ Bestand” “set of trees,’ whether it is pure or mixed. (c) To examine whether the trees stand crowded or scattered, or whether there exist any uncovered places. (dz) To examine the age of the trees in the differ- ent sets. The term of rotation is to be divided into 4, 5 or 6 periods. A rotation of 100 years, for in- stance, into five periods of 20 years each, namely: Ist period, 1-20, etc. However, the time of each period is not necessarily to be fixed at 20 years, but also at 5, 10, or 30 years, as it may suit the purpose. (e) To estimate the present stock of timber of the different “ Bestaende” “sets of trees.” 16 THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORKSTS. (7) To ealculate the yearly increment which may be expected up to felling time. Nore to (e) anp (f).—The different methods in use for determining the stock on hand and the year- ly increment of the forest, need not be mentioned here, as it would lead us into details rather foreign to the purpose of this essay. In examining the “czxzerzor conditions” of the forest, the forester must consider at each single “Bestand” “ set of trees,’ what would be the best “kind of management” for it, although the final decision in reference to the future working plan can only be given after finishing all preparatory work. Explanation to III. (To ascertain the product and cost of the forest up to the present time.) In forming an opinion as to what we may expect from the future, the experience of the past is of the greatest importance. The forester must there- fore inquire most minutely into the manner of the former management, produce and revenues of the forest. It is furthermore necessary to examine the so-termed “ general exterior conditions” of the forest, especially with regard to the neighboring property, inasmuch as it may bear great influence on the realization or sale of the forest’s products. THE THIRD PREPARATORY WORK CONSISTS OF THE DRAWING OF THE MAPS, which are to give a right view of the general conditions of a forest, as ascertained by surveys, calenlations, and examinations. THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 1% Their purpose is to show the entire work of the sur- veying, and to calculate thereby the size of the different areas. They consist of : I. The Special Map. These maps are drawn at a scale of 1 to 5000, and based upon the surveys mentioned above, using the notes taken during the examination of the “ zzterzor conditions” of the forest and contain: 1. The boundary lines of the entire forest. 2. The boundary lines of its administration-districts, 2. ¢.- districts into which it is divided to facilitate its adminis- tration. The dimensions of these districts, which are placed under the control of a scientifically educated officer, vary from 3,000 to 17,000 acres. According to their extent they are again sub-divided into several circuits, each of which is under the supervision of a practical forester, whose duty it is to protect his circuit from any possible damage, and to superintend the work that is to be done in conformity with the instructions of the administration office. These circuits vary in their dimensions from 1,000 to 4,000 acres. The supervision of a number of adminis- tration districts is generally concentrated into one depart- ment, at the head of which a scientifically educated officer, called the Forest-master, stands. 3. The boundary line of its divisions. To facilitate the management of a forest and all neces- sary operations, it is essential, in connection with the 18 THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. occasional division into districts, to divide it into certain parts, which are termed divisions, and are marked by using natural boundary lines such as roads and brooks, or by cutting straight lines through, which are to be kept clear of wood. Where there is danger of fire, such lines should be at least 30 feet wide. It is usual to make the divisions not larger than about 200 acres. 4. The boundary lines of the different “ Bestaende”’ msees of trees.” 5. Unwooded areas, such as roads, meadows, waters, etc. 6. Notes of the surrounding districts to the extent of about 300 feet, including villages, roads, meadows, waters, etc. 7. The name and extent of the different districts, year of survey, names of the roads, waters, etc. Roman figures are to be used for the designation of the divisions, and arabic figures to designate the sub-divisions. II. Bestandskarte. (Map or THE Dirrerent ‘Srrs or TREzEs.”) The purpose of these maps is to give a right view of the present form and condition of the forest, and furthermore to show the existing kinds of timber, the “ £zxd of manage- ment,’ as well as the different “classes of age.” For these a scale of 1 to 20,000 is sufficient. In drawing a map of a “ Hochwald” “ timber forest” the different kinds of trees are to be marked by different colors. THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 19 For instance: Oak trees, carmine; Beech trees, green; Birch, yellow; Spruce, blue-black; and Pine trees, black. In forests stocked with mixed timber, the intermingled wood is designated by marking small trees of a peculiar shape in the space showing the respective color of the pre- dominating kind of wood. The difference in age is designated by different shades of the same color, the darkest shade representing the old- est, the lightest shade the youngest class. The “¢eme of rotation” ‘ Umtriebszett,’ as already mentioned, being divided into several periods of age, we can have only as many shades as there are periods in a “ yotation”’ “ Untriebszert.”’ “ Niederwald” “ Coppice”’ is designated by one color, for instance, purple; and “ Mzttlelwald” “ Middle-wood” by the same color, distinguished only by adding the form of small trees. “ Plaenterwald”’ is to be designated by the respective colors of its principal growth of trees, and is to be dis- tinguished from the other classes by small white triangles of different size. Parts not covered by wood remain uncolored. The roads, lakes, brooks etc. should be marked by opaque lines of a red or blue color. As on the special maps, the names, etc., have to be written in, together with an explanation of the respective colors. III. Maps Showing the Character of Ground and Soil as to their Inclinations and Fertility. ‘These maps are intended : 1st. To show the variations of the ground, such as val- leys, ridges, ravines, mountains, and the degree of the latter’s declivities. 20 THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 2nd. To show the different classes of the soil’s capability and the different species of rock composing the mountains. 3rd. To give the administration and division lines as well as roads and waters. A scale of 1 to 20,000 would also prove sufficient for these maps. THE PREPARATORY WORK may now be considered as finished, every basis having been gained for determining on a future plan of the forest’s administration. Examining the various notes that have been made dur- ing the investigation of a forest’s “ zztertor condtttons,” we proceed with the help of these items to form a sys- tematic working plan; and keeping in mind that it is neither our intention to live at present at the cost of the future, nor to suffer want when we have in reserve, we strive to equalize the yields in stated periods on areas of, if possible, equal extent. The motives we have been acting upon in determining the respective management for each separate ‘“ Bestand” “ set of trees,” must be mentioned. Furthermore the gen- eral principles, by which the future administration is to be guided, have to be defined so clearly that even in cases, where the adopted rules have to be deviated from, they can still as a whole be adhered to. The notes which have to be made respecting the working plan of the fu- ture administration, include of course the manner of repro- duction, the re-stocking of cleared tracts, as well as the necessary drainage and the periodical thinnings of the woods ‘“ Durchforstung.” It will often suit the purpose to make a special supple- ment under the title “ Genera Directions ror Manaaes- MENT,” in which the leading motives for the method of a “A THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 21 administration respecting the founding, culture, and yield- ing of the “Bestaende” “ sets of trees,” are laid down. ExpLanations.—It is a well-known fact that an old tree occupies a larger space than a young plant ; consequently the same area will be found to contain of old trees a smaller number than of a younger growth, the trees standing in both periods as thickly as possible. The wood which in every systematic manage- ment is to be removed from a forest during the time between its stocking and felling age, is taken away by periodically repeated thinnings, termed “ Durchforstung,’ “ Interlucation.” It may be mentioned here that the working plan, being destined for a number of years, has to be considered with particular care, and laid down in a clear and concise form. Having proceeded so far, we have to draw now: IIII. The Hauungsplan-Karte “felling plan map.” They purpose to show the intended future condition of the forest, and to serve as a guide for the felling and cultivation. By comparing this map with the “ Aestands- karte” “map of sets of trees,’ we understand at once the object the forest regulator had in view, when deciding upon the working plan. These maps comprise: 1st. The boundary lines of the forest’s districts and its respective divisions. 2nd. The roads, brooks, lakes, etc. 22 THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 3rd. The different working periods which, as already mentioned, are indicated by the various shades of the re- spective colors. The plans for cultivating and felling the different “ Bestaende” “sets of trees” are made every year, some- times for a number of years, and are based on the work- ing plan; in accordance with those the forest is managed. It is the custom in Germany to review these plans every ten ycars for the purpose of comparing the pro- ceeds of that period with the working plan, and, in accord- ance with the result, to decide whether modifications are proper or not. For the work incidental to the regulation of a forest, it is not only necessary to possess a particular ability for taking geometrical measurement, but it is also very essential to have a thorough knowledge how to appraise and caleulate the stock, etc. For that reason only expe- rienced and able foresters are endowed with such offices, and they, in their turn, are again assisted by one or more well-informed juniors, as circumstances may require it. It is apparent, however, that these rules can only be adhered to in countries, where the science of forestry has already attained a high degree of perfection, and where a number of well-educated foresters can always be found, to carry out the plans of regulation and ad- ministration. ‘As will be shown in Chapter III. the present advanced state of forestry in Germany has only been attained gradually during a long period of practical experience and study; and although the people here may have the benefit of the experience gained by others else- where, it will be at first attended with great difficulties ae ro owe ea THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 23 to produce a systematic working plan. However I feel confident that whoever takes the first practical step in that direction and undertakes to organize a systematic plan for the management of our forests here, will ingratiate himself into the hearts of his fellow-citizens and connect his name forever with the history of this country ; for the Americans of the future will then recognize the import- ance of a thorough system of forestry just as much as the necessity of preserving the forests is felt and acknowl- edged by them at present.” To aid the understanding of the foregoing chapter, I have prepared two maps of a certain wood district and a summary description of the different “ Bestaende” “ sets of trees”? with disposition regarding the future manage- ment, both of which you will please find affixed below. I believe I may close with this, the chapter on forest regulation, trusting that from the foregoing you may be able to form an idea of the methods observed in Ger- many in the administration of forests. In conclusion I shall try to show, as briefly as possible, the historical development of German forest economy in giving quotations and abstracts from a work by August Bernhardt, Royal Prussian Forest-Master and Director of a division for experimental forest matters at Neustadt- Eberswalde. CmaPpvégr III. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY. S early as the 13th century we find certain regulations, laid down by owners of extensive forests in regard to the management of their woodlands. They are, how- ever, very simple, and relate mostly to the cultivation of such parts as had been cleared. Some of them contain also records of the rules, established in the course of time, with reference to the use and preservation of the common “ Mark,” especially of the “ Mark-forests.” The term “ M/ark-forests” is applied to woods whereon the owners of farms, which are within the limits of the mark, have certain rights of usage, though the right of possession remains with the liege lord. Beginning with the 15th century, we find forest ordi- nances proper, z. ¢. laws of forest economy for every one given by a person having authority by Right of State, or dispositions over his own and other estates, made by him who is the bearer of the public power and who represents the economical interests of all, as for in- stance, the forest laws for the Rhinegau of 1487, and the Nassau provincial laws of 1465 and 1472. Among the oldest forest ordinances, regulating the economy of State and other forests, we find one given by the Elector Joachim of Brandenburg in 1547, also one re- specting the forests owned by the Count of Mansfield, given in 1585 by the Elector August of Saxony by vir- HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY. 25 tue of his right of sovereignty. In both cases, the forest ordinances emanated from Germany, and were not, as many contend, of French origin. The earliest French for- est laws date from the 16th century, and are consequent- ly of more recent date than the first German ordinances. Note :—Civilization at the time of the Reformation (1550) was yet depending upon the mental productions of the Romans. In Roman literature, however, we find no works on forestry; very little attention has been paid by Roman writers to the science of forest economy, while they wrote freely on the nursery of trees. The key to this we find in the climatic conditions of Italy. The mildness of its seasons did not require a large supply of fuel, the necessary demand being eusily supplied from gardens and parks, and the Alps and Appenines furnished all the necessary timber for building purposes. But the cultivation of trees was of far greater importance, as they furnished not only shade alike to man and beast, but also those juicy and delicious fruits of all kinds, which were the pride and boast of Italy. Everything pertaining to the nursery and cultivation of fruit and shade trees had even at that remote period attained a high per- fection. Varro (116-27 B. C.) already discriminates distinctly be- tween sowing, planting, ingrafting, and propagation by layers. Cato, the experienced statesman, called the Wise, gives very good in- structions for the laying out of Arbustus (tree-gardens). His directions for the cultivation of Olive trees, Elm trees, Vines, Fig trees, Pines and Cypresses, as well as his advice for the treatment of nurseries, loosening the soil, etc., may even to-day be called perfectly correct. Columella, who lived in the first century of our era, also teaches in quite a rational manner the laying out of nursery gardens (arbustus), giving full directions as to spading in the fall, sowing, weeding. transplanting, and lopping of the young seedlings when three feet high. He considers the fall after the equinoctial storms the best time for planting. Reflecting upon the state of forestry in Germany about the year 1700, we may assert that everywhere, excepting perhaps the northeastern portion, the science of forest economy was caused and promoted by sheer necessity. About that time there appeared the first symptoms to secure a lasting use of the forest, either by dividing the woods into sections of equal extent, or by regulating the yearly revenues according to the total stock of the forest, 26 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY. and to change thereby the “ Plaenter system” hitherto in use, to a more regulated productive management. Then also efforts were made to replace the consumed timber by the cultivation of waste lands. Yet, notwithstanding all these efforts, the science of forest econemy still fell short of the requirements of the time, and it is not till more than a century later that we meet with well-instructed foresters. Game and forest keepers with a more than usual knowledge of forest matters became the first real foresters. Principally among these we count J. G. von Langen, a native of Brunswick, who in the year 1740 introduced the first systematic working plan in the Harz Mountains. About the same time we find in Prussia the transition from the irregular “ Plaenter system” to sys- tematic management of the forests. Frederick the Great, of Prussia, soon after his accession to the throne (1740), made it a law to divide the forests into equal sections and to fell the timber accordingly. Forest Academies were established in the years 1788, 1785 and 1790, at Berlin, Hohenheim, Kiel and Munich, and from this time dates the scientific knowledge of forest matters. But its full importance was only recog- nized at a much later period, when it was deemed advis- able to consider the laws of nature and to apply the rules of general economy to the administration of forests ; when political economy favored commercial industry to such a degree as to break the absolute sovereignty over Ttorests ; when the fast progress of natural science beeame in a high degree beneficial to technical experience; aud when men like G. L. Hartig and Heinrich Cotta began to lay down certain rules for the scientific management of HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY. 27 forests; then indeed the knowledge of forestry was entitled to be called a science. In Germany, laws which regulate the relation of the state to the forest property have sustained, since the beginning of the nineteenth century, alterations of the highest importance, influenced by new theories rapidly gaining ground. By representatives of the doctrine on the Freedom of Possession (Adam Smith and his followers,) all interference on the part of the government with the economical administration of property belonging to subjects, was looked upon as impracticable and exposed to the stigma of clinging to an old-fashioned and absolute government. Liberating private property from all restrictions caused frequent devastation of entire forests, whereas, according to Smith’s principles, it ought to have led to the highest state of prosperity. However, those devastations of forests are not to be attributed to Adam Smith’s doctrines only, but they appeared at that epoch rather like a general disease spreading throughout Europe, hastened on by the then prevailing ideas and theories respecting the absolute free- dom of private property. Even state forests were not spared at that period of revolution. Sales took place, _ fortunately in a small degree only, principally in Prussia and Bavaria. Great financial distress may have been the motive power for this, although Baron von Stein, who recom- mended the sale of state forests at that time most energetically, was a strict follower of Adam Smith’s principles. 28 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY. It appears that the first impulse for the sale of state forests was given by France, at least it was recommended in an essay written at Paris by a Mr. M. Mustel in 1784. Fortunately the financial calamity did not last long, the selling of the state property was no longer a neces- sity, and quieter considerations checked in a _ great measure the innovations begun so hastily and recklessly. The extent of forest area was also lessened by the redeeming of liens on forests. In order to be relieved of privileges the people had on state forests, parts of these were transferred to them and almost always converted into farming lands, meadows and pasture grounds. In Prussia the extent of state forests was diminished about 875,000 acres during the period from 1820 to 1865 ; but from that time to 1873 it was increased about 75,000 acres. Since 1820 Germany has shown a lively interest in the cultivation of forests. Frederick William IIL, King of Prussia, paid great attention to the propa- gation of oak and beech trees in Brandenburg. The Agricultural Society of Bavaria offered premiums for forest cultivation, and on the banks of the Rhine atone- ment was made for former sins by re-wooding the Eifel Mountains. At that time the sowing and planting of trees grew to a high perfection; pine woods, particularly, were cultivated in Holstein, and during the past few years the government has been purchasing large areas of heath-lands in Schleswig and Hanover for conversion into forests. | The great importance of state forests, in a financial view, is clearly shown, for instance, by Prussia’s budget for the year 1863, wherein the net income of the state forests amounts to 6,100,000 thalers ($4,500,000). HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY. 29 Although these few quotations from the copious work of A. Bernhardt may not be of practical value for the object in view, they may still be of some interest to a country where the science of forestry is as yet almost unknown—a ¢ferra incognita. The advanced state of the science of forestry in Europe, is best illustrated by the fact, that there are at present 19 High Schools of Forestry, vzz. : In Germany 9, in the following cities: Aschaffenburg- Tharandt, Eisenach, Neustadt-Ebers- walde, Miinden, Hohenheim, Bruns- wick, Karlsruhe and Giessen. The four last-named are connected with other High Schools. In Austria 9, one in Mariabrun near Vienna, and one in Schemnitz in Hungary, the latter being connected with a Mining Academy. In Swirzertanp 1, in Zurich, connected with a Polytechnic. In FRANcE 1, in Nancy. In Iraty 1, in Volombrosa. In Rossra 2, in St. Petersburg and Moscow. The latter is in connection with an Agri- cultural School. In SwEDEN 1, in Stockholm. In Spain 1, in Esecurial, near Madrid. In Denmark 1, in Copenhagen, connected with a Vet- erinary and Agricultural School. Total 19 30 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY. Besides these 19 High Schools there are, in some countries, institutes called ‘ Forester Schools,’ which have similar final attainments in view, but which can hardly be classed as belonging to the High Schools. In Germany, a Forest School ought to have, in accord- ance with the requirements of the present day, at least 10 Chairs, viz. : 3 Chairs for Forest Science. Chair for Jurisprudence. Chair for Public Economy and Finance. Chair for Mineralogy and Geognosy. it 1 1 Chair for Mathematics and Geodesy. 1 1 Chair for Forest Botany, and 1 Chair for Forest Zoology. 1 Chair for Physics and Chemistry. | Herewith I close my letter, hoping that it may be of some use to those who take an interest in the preserva- tion of forests, and that it may assist in promoting the science of forestry in this great republic. Very respectfully, S. v. Dorrten.: VeERPLANCK Cotvin, Esq., Supr. Aptronpack Surveys, Aupany, N. Y. BXCLANATIONS ~ TO THE ANNEXED MAP AND TABLES. The wood district “Suchholz” is supposed to have been formerly managed in connection with other forests in several ‘classes of management,’ but shall now be admin- istered by itself. ibe: soil of the divisions. 1,1F, IV. VII, VIE, Dx oe and III sub-division 2, V sub-division 1, and VI sub-divi- sion 1, consists of clay, more or less mixed with sand, and is well suited for the cultivation of beech trees. A large extent of this land being already stocked with this kind of trees, and there being a good market for it, it was determined to combine these divisions into one “ class of management” ot beech trees. Experience showing that it was profitable to fell the beech tree in this locality at an age of 120 years, a rotation of 120 years was decided upon, it being divided into six periods of 20 years each. The remaining sub-divisions having a sandy svil, partially mixed with clay in small proportions, and well suited for the growth of pine wood, it was concluded to form these parts into one “class of management” of pine trees, deeming it advisable to fix the rotation at 80 years, divided into four periods of 20 years each. The map of the “sets of trees” shows the condition of the forest in 1878. The map of the “felling plan” shows: how the forester has to operate in accordance with the newly-made working plan. 32 EXPLANATIONS, &O. On the last named map, for instance, the snb-divisions I 1, and X 1 and 2, are colored of the darkest shade of green, which indicates that in this part of the forest the timber has to be felled within the next 20 years and has to be managed so, that within this period it is to be re- stocked with a fresh growth of beech trees. Sub-divisions I 2, and II 2, are marked with the next lighter shade of green, by which is indicated that the operations have to be carried on therein for the next fol- lowing 20 years and so on. Thus the various shades of the same color show the successive order in which the re- spective divisions and sub-divisions have to be managed. The sub-division 5 in division VI shows the darkest shade in the pine wood color, which indicates that the timber on this area has to be felled within the next 20 years, counting from 1875, and that at the expiration of this period in 1898 the whole area has to be stocked with a fresh growth of pine trees and so on. Here it may be appropriate to add, that for a more con- cise description of the quality of the soil, the standing and growth of the trees, it is often customary to in- dicate by numbers the various degrees of perfection. No. 1, for instance, representing the highest, and 4, 5, 6, ete., respectively the lowest class of perfection. The foregoing remarks, annexed maps and summary are not complete in themselves, but are only intended to serve as an illustration to chapter II. ’ en. Patty y 5 mek dh J > oh ‘ 34 Division. Sub-Division. Extent No. Tons a 260 []R No. Extent Tons a 260 []R SUMMARY OF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE “SETS OF TREES” Brief Description of the ‘“‘Sets of Trees.”’ I Period 1-20 Years. Tons. Designed for II Period 21-40 Years. Tons. rr 57.0 TT 0 Ill. | 84.8 Forw’d| 232.5 27.0 30.0 75.7 15.0 5.4 79 4 vo Ce wo ot |Beeches, 40 to 60 years; inter- Beeches, over 100 years. Growth: good. Standing: close. Soil: clayish sand, covered) with vegetable earth (Humus). do. 70 to 90 years. Growth: good. Standing: pretty close. Soil : clayish sand, covered with a thin layer of Humus. do. 80 to 100 years. Growth | intermixed with Standing } oaks from 100 to 200 years. Soil : a sandy clay, with a thick layer of Humus. do. 60 to 80 years. Growth : tolerably good. Standing: rather thin, es- pecially at the border) of the forest. Soil: sandy clay, slightly covered with Humus. Ground sloped towards East. Pines, 6 years old. Soil: sand; pretty well stocked; sloped to-: wards Hast. mixed with Spruce, single and in groups, from 30 to 40 years. | Growth | Standing f euod. Soil : sandy clay, except at the border of the forest where it is pure sand. | very good; often: AND DIRECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE MANAGEMENT. the “class of management ’’ of BEECH Trees. 35 Designed for the ‘‘ class of management’? of PINE Trees. : ° - 4 z . . = . . Yield to IU Period | IV Period | V Period | VI Period || +514 t5 pe || 1 Period | I Period IIT Period IV Period | - expect: 41-60 | 61-80 | 81-100 | 101-120 || expected || 1-29 | 21-40 | 41-60 | 61-80 ed at the Years. | Years. | Years. | Years. ||& ie felling|| Years. Years. | Years. | Years. | folie Tons. | Tons. k Tons. | Tons. Cubic feet. Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Qypic ft. 27.0 270,000 | | | 5.0 35,000 25.0 175,000 | | 75.7 B. 636,300 O. 52,000 | | Ke 15.0 | 400,500 | 5.4 13,500 | | ; 79 4 | B. 611,800 S. 60,000 / / | s a pf se ee SY aS ey 32.0 |) 1,940,600 0.4 ) 13,500 36 SUMMARY OF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE “SETS OF TREES”’ | | Division. Sub-Division. | re aes | eet Description hi the “Tporied | 1 Period | xten xtent || ’ ——— No. | Tons | wo, | ‘Tons Sets of Trees. 20) ato a 260 [] R) a 260[]R Years. Years. | Tons. Tons. Designed for Bro’ght 232.5 232.5 || IV. | 80.8; 1] 41.4 | Spruce, 5 to 10 years old. | Standing: close. Soil: sandy clay. | To be felled in the IIl.. Period, and to be replant-, ed with beech trees for the cultivation of which the locality is very well suited. 2 39.4)Hard and Soft Wood, 30 to | | 40 years old. Growth: good. Standing: very close. | Soil: a stiff clay, partly sandy. There are besides the predominating Maple and Beech trees, Birches and Alder, the latter growing on the swampy parts of the forest which has to be | drained by ditches. | The timber has to be felled in the LV. Period and the area is to be re- stocked with Beech trees. V. 669 > 1. 37.0 |\Oaks, 50 to 60 years old. 37.0 | Growth: middling. Standing: rather thin. Birches, Hazel and other kinds of soft wood as undergrowth. Soil: clayish sand. To be felled in the II. Period and the area to be restocked with Beech trees. Single oaks which may show a prosperous growth at the time of fell- ing are to be reserved for the next rotation. ) bes i op een eS . ad area Forw’d, 380.2 | 350.3 37.0 AND DIRECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE MANAGEMENT. 37 the “class of management ’’ of BEECH Trees. Designed for the ‘‘class of management ’? of PINE Trees. | III Period | IV Period | V Period | VI Period 2 I Period | eee ‘Yield to bes |e 41-60 | 61-80 | 81-100 | 101-120 || expected || 1-20 | Years. | Years. | Years. | Years. at rs felling) Years. _ Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. Guhic fet. Tons. | 79) 4 | 116.7 32.0 || 1,940,600 5.4 41.4 " $.124,200 39.4 295,500 259,000 41.4 | 118.8 | 115.7 32.0 || 2,619,300 5.4 II Period |III Period\IV Period|, Yield to be expect- 21-40 | 41-60 | 61-80 ed at the Years. | Years.| Years. ae Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Qybic ft. 13,500 | 138,500 ee | Fes Division. = Sub-Division. SUMMARY OF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE “SETS OF TREES” Extent No. Tons a 260 [] R Bro’ght 380.2 | VI. | 139.9 Forw’d| 520.1 || | 396.2 | i. No. : 1 2 Brief Description of the Extent ““Sets of Trees.” | Tons a 260[] R 350.3 20.9 Spruce, 15 to 20 years old. | Growth: middling. Standing: pretty close. Soil: sandy, slightly mixed) | with clay, well suited | | for the cultivation of, | Pine trees. After fell- | | ing to be planted with | pinewood. Ground) sloping towards East and South. 9.0 Uncovered Place. Hill slop-) ing towards South. Soil is sand, covered with | grass. To be stocked | immediately with, pinewood by seeds. 4.0 Beech Trees, 40 to 60 years old. Growth: thriving. Standing: close. Soil: fine clay. | Valley extending into division VII. to which it is to be assigned with ref- | erence to its ‘class of management.” | 12.0 Birches, 20 to 40 years, mixed with Pine trees of same age. ) Growth : Standing { pr pity, good, Soil: sandy. This sub-division is ac-) cording to its location as- signed respectively to the) I., IL., II. and IV. Period)! of the pine ‘‘ class of man-| agement.” 'To be restock-. ed with Pine trees. Designed for 1 Perind II Period 1-20 21-40 Years. | -Years. | Tons. | Tons. 37.0 . | | F 37.0 AND DIRECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE MANAGEMENT. 39 the ‘class of management ’’ of BEECH Trees. || | Yield to be | Designed for the “class of management ’* of PINE Trees, | III Period | IV Period | V Period | VI Period || I Period | II Period |III Period |IV Period beeuee : 4-60 | 6t-80 | 81-100 | 101-120 || expected | yoy | a1 41-60 | 61-80 | ed atthe | Years. | Years. | Years. | Years. “at ee ieune Yours. me Font Years. folnne / Tons. | Tons. Tons. | Tons. | | Cubic feet. Tons. Tons. | Tons. | Tons. Cube tt. 44.4 | 118.8 | 115.7 | 32.0 || 2,619,300 || 5.4 | 13,500 / 20.9 | 52,250 9.0 18,000 | | | 4.0 || 43,200 | | | | Ht | | (|| 1.0 1,800 J | 5.0 9,000 )| 3.0 5,400 | 30 4,800 \| | 1} | 45 4 | 118.8 115.7 32.0 2,662,500 || 86.3 |. 5.0 3.0 3.0 | 104,750 40 SUMMARY OF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE “SETS OF TREES ” Division. Sub-Division. | Extent . Tons a 260 [] R | | Extent No. | | Tons’ | a 260 [] R | | Designed for Brief Description of the I Period ‘““Sets of Trees.” Spo | Years. II Period 21-40 Tons. Bro’ght 520.1 VII. fio a ~ Forw’d! 593.8 nai 14.5 593.8 | | | | Pine Trees, mixed with Spruce, | 20 to 40 years. | Growth: flourishing. Standing: close, especially | at the western border of this sub-division. | | | || Pine Trees, 60 to 80 years. Growth Standing § oad. Soil: sand, with a good layer of Humus. 28.5 tons of this sub-di- vision is to be cut off from the westerly border and) assigned to the LY. Period, and the remainder to IIT. Period. jake Trees, 20 to 40 years old. Growth: mostly stunted. Soil: clayish sand. | Some good specimens. are to be reserved for the second rotation, the bulk is to be felled in III. Period of the ‘‘ pine class of man- agement”’ and the area is) to be restocked with pine trees. Beech Trees, 40 to 60 years old. Growth: prosperous. Standing: close. | Soil: sandy clay, with a good layer of Humus. In the lower portions very moist; drainage. necessary. 37.0 37.0 41 AND DIRECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE MANAGEMENT. | the “class of management? of —===|==Ssesigned for the ** class of - BEECH Trees. | management ’’ of PINE Trees. . lll Period | IV Period | V Period VI Period | Vielato be i I Period | II Period |III Pericd IV Poriod oe jh 41-60 | 61-80 | 81-100 | 101-120 || expected | y 99 | 91-49 | 41-60 61-80 | ed at the Years. Years. | Years. | Years. {at ye felling|| years.| Years.| Years. Years. penta Tons. ‘Tons. | Tons. | Tons. / Gable fact. Tons. | Tons. | Tons. Tons. | Cubic ft. ' | || esse ec aa | 45.4 | 118.8 | 115.7 | 32.0 || 2,662,500 || 36.3 | 5.0] 3.0| 3.0 ee | | J] 97 | 55.5 96,250 | ae 15,400 | 18.0. 44,000 | | | 38.5 115,500 | | 14.5 29,000 73.7 795,960. | | | Fi9-1 | 118.8 115.7 32.0 | 3,458,460 43.0 | 43.5 | 43.2 41.5 425,000 42 tae: OF st ites OF THE “‘SETS OF TREES” | Brief Description of the | “Sets of Trees.” Oak Trees, 60 to 80 years. Growth: flourishing. Standing: pretty close. Soil: clay. Assigned to the II. Pe-|' riod of the “ class of man- agement” for Beech trees;|| but, according to circum-) stances at the end of the If. Period, either to be) thinned and reserved as an), oak “ set of trees” or to be replanted with beech trees)| keeping only the best specimens of oaks. Beech eles: 20 to 40 years, rowt Standing t good. Soil: sandy clay. At the easterly part of) this sub-division mixed with spruce, which, when) impeding the growth of) the beeches have to be felled at the thinnings. Oaks, 40 to y years. Growt Standing t tolerably well. Soil: a sandy clay, well suited for the growth of beech trees. Un- dergrowth of birches and bazel. To be felled in the II. Period of the Beech “ class of management.” Oaks Designed for I Period | II Period . 1-20 Years. Tons. which show a prosperous thriving are to be reserved.) The area is to be cepiantes with Beeches. Dison | sub Divs, (| | Extent Extent | No. Tons No.| Tons | a 260 [] R a 260[] R Bro’ght) 593.8 | 593.8 Vile {P7844} 01 8.0 1 2 36.0 3\. 344 } Forw’d| 672.2 |, | 672.2 || It 1] 21-40 | Years, | Tons. 37.0 8.0 34.4 | 115.4 | 43 AND DIRECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE MANAGEMENT. the *‘ class of management’? of | Designed for the class of BEECH Trees. } management’? of PINE Trees. }| | Period | I Period 117 Period 1V Period | Mes Bon | jod | i i i Lay | III Period | IV Period V Period | Vi Period ya to be 41-60 | 61-80 | 81-100 | 101-120 expected 99 | a1-40 41-60 61-80 | Cd at the Years. | Years. | Years. | Years. at the felling years, Years. Years. Years. felling Tons. time. time. Tons. | Tons. | Tons. Cubic feet. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. | Cubic ft. 119.1 | 118.8 | 115.7 | 32.0 | 8,458,460 1430 | 48.5 | 48.2 41.5 | 425,000 000 > 360,000 | | 292,400 | | } | | | | | | 1} ioe | | | | Wid-1 i188 | 115.7 | 32.0 | 4,158,860 | 43.0 | 43.5 | 48.2 41.5 | 425,000 44 SUMMARY OF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE “SETS OF TREES” Division. = Sub-Division | |__| Brief Deseription of the } Extent Extent | ““Sets of Trees.” ) No. Tons | No,| Tons | || a 260 [] R| a 260[] R | / | I Period | II Period 1-20 Years. | Tons. | Designed for 21-40 Years. Tons. Bro’ght) 672.2 672.2 || | IX. | 115.5 | 1] 18.0 ||Beech Trees, 1 to 20 years old. || / | Growth nod Standing g Soil: strong clay, often mixed with sand. 2 | 97.5 | Oaks, 40 to 60 years old. Growth ) sameasin VIII. Standing +3, with excep- Soil tion of the west- ern part near the bor- | der where the standing is not as good. X. 966 1, 87.2 |Oak and Beech, shoots from stumps, 20 to 25 years old; thickly mixed with oak and beech trees from 80 to 180 years old. Soil: a strong clay. To be felled in the VI. Period, and to be restocked by planting beeches, as far as there is no natural fresh growth of this class of timber or of oaks. Any oaks showing a prosperous thriving are to be reserved. | 2 9.4 Pine Trees, 70 to 80 years old, | | mixed with single oaks and beech trees at the border of sub-division 1 | Growth ! Standing | 8°04: | Soil: a sandy clay. This sub-division forms a hill sloping gradually into sub division 1, and is assigned to the Beech ‘‘class of management” VI. Period. It is therefore to be replanted with beech 18.0 97.5 | trees after the clearing. Total, 884.3 ||| 684.3 | | 115.4 45 e class of management ’’ of 1 Designed for the ‘ class of BEECH Trees. management’? of PINE Trees. ee Yield t er : : E = wane . vie oO pxeriod IV Period | V Period VI Period ‘Yield to be I Period | II Period |III Period IV Perit be expect- 41-60 | 61-80 | 81-100 | 101-120 | ,, expecte 1-20 | 21-40 | 41-60 | 61-go | edatthe | Years. | Years. | Years. | Years. Vege das! Years.| Years.| Years. Years. pean | Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. | Cubic feet. I Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | | Tons. | Cubic ft. i139.) 118.8 | 115.7 32.0 || 4,158,860 || 43.0 | 43.5 | 48.2 | 41.5 | 425,000 180,000 || | | | \| 780,000 | 87.2 | B.280,000 | | 0.300,200 | | | | 9.4 37,600 | | | | | 43.0 | 43.5. 43.2 | 41.5 _ 425,000 119.1 118.8 | 115.7 | 128.6 | 5,736,660 010‘690‘T. 009'280'T ogeeL0'L 8° 291 OOT‘EF0‘T/T' SLT $°806| ‘SUOL [BIOL 0°22 ‘soansopouR, ® souly ‘MOISIAI(] ‘SPBOL ULV] f @' SLT ‘poom ould ,, T' StL ‘S001, Woovogq 10.7 “suo, “SSBID x “wory “qr O1qNQ "SUOT, le 8) To) so _— =) ~~ ie 2) oO oo — ‘8861 0} SI6I ‘STGT OF 868T *s1vo oy} sung “STRIOL, 0969018 "SF 2" eh | ‘pouog Yow 10j ofesoay | OTL'9S6 |8°SIT\|poueg yous Joy oSbsaAy 000‘GeF/6' 221, | 099'ge2'¢ 1 eTL | | 000096 |S°STT 000'08L = "46 000°08T = OST ‘I | ] ] 00696 F STT 00F'S6S =F FE ! 1 | 000098 + ~=—-0'98 | 000'8F 08 | et 000686 = O48 || “IT 0c9'cor o'er OOT0e 9 {098896 |I°6TE 096'96L LBL 008°T (0°T | 008 SF 0°F 000‘8T 06 008 'F3T PtH || “III OSS'so 6°08, | | | | 00st |S | “Il —jloog‘'z96 |s'stT|00g's6e =F 68 || [ee ee ae 008129 = |h'GL |) “AT OSs"COL G'eh 086'96 o°8s | eee | |000'6 [0°S || IL foos'eo6 [zeit |00s"ouT (0ST ae ae all 000‘6¢ Ohio 008°86 seh 000°6S SFT | 008'989'a J 000'FF 0°8T | | 080 SLT 0. $B | A | 00F ST jad | | | | OOPS 0°€ || TH} o0s'ee6 9°82 009'48 “S |F'6 | peed | 008‘008'0 t le"29 008 ‘OST\e Eh | 00S"STT.¢ ge) | 000 088 "a | |008'7 jos || “AI (000 ¢¢ 0g | 000°046 = 048 | “TA ‘WA “qu ‘SuoT, | L OFANO | ‘suoT, | | ‘pare Sen | ud oIquy sae ee ““poreg Surmp — qooa7 OIQNO | ‘suOy, |/Ported S[RIOL || \| | S[BIOL \| Seema yo denial 000g NOILVINLIGVOaN GS VOL y ter Lod (Rite the fi: pitty fers ab oy ae % rey v aS al Rahs St Ap yrgebicet 5 lo Wood. district” BUCHHOLZ Wood_ district BUCHHOLZ ” : Total Area: 908.3 tons (a 200 Drods/ MAP a aes NEA EXPLANATION OF COLORS. of sets of trees. of felling plan (Bestands- Karte) 1878. (Haaungsplan Karte) Qucreus Fagus sylvatica Belula alba | | | | | a Abies py . PINUS Te Divisions are marked by red roman, Hard and Soft woods Sub-divisrons by black arabian figures. Copp ice LEE Signs tordifferent hind of trees appearing single Uncovered places or in groups tt complexes of other wood. ; Quercis Fagus sylvatica Periods of Age, = = et 2 al Q : 1-20 years ? “a 8 hd 8 | — : ° 2 " A Ad | 2@ 4 4 4 4 r 2-40» e 9 4% \ 4 41-60» Abies and PINUS O1-SO0 » * ae tats SI -W0 ” i kG a i a 2% 7 4 ee A + Ls : 101-120» Ay ke re ok a a A ’ , Solt wood 1-20 years <= = . . oD» 2s gs: erat, 2/ -40 ” = OR. ' E