Historic, archived document Do not assume content reflects current scientific knowledge, policies, or practices. Via E Dist AE ES: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUL T URE MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATION NO. 668 WASHINGTON, D. C. AUGUST 1948 FORESTS AND NATIONAL PROSPERITY A Reappraisal of the Forest Situation in the United States UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE - - - WASHINGTON, D. C. 1948 FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, WASHINGTON, D.C. PRICE 40 CENTS. Foreword ODAY, THE NEED for productive forests transcends that of any earlier period. The Nation faces the double task of creating a lasting prosperity at home, and of working to improve economic conditions for people all over the world. Clearly, we shall need abundant resources for this task. The war pointed toward the heights of national produc- tivity of which we are capable. It also cut deeply into our natural resources. We know now that the Nation can no longer be satisfied with the best achieved in the past. And it is equally clear that wise use of all our resources is vital if we are to reach the new, high goals ahead. During 1945 and 1946 the Forest Service made a reappraisal of the forest situation in the United States. Its purpose was to bring up to date and amplify basic information on our timber resources, to interpret this information in relation to the national economy, and to reexamine national policies and needs in forest conservation. Previous analyses of a similar nature were made in 1938 and 1932. Forests contribute to the welfare of the Nation in many ways. They are invaluable in the protection of watersheds; they afford recreation and sport for people in all walks of life; they are the habitat of many forms of wildlife; they provide range forage for millions of livestock. But this appraisal dealt mainly with the timber resource. Other aspects of the situation were considered primarily in relation to timber use. The reappraisal has made use of the large amount of information available from the Forest Survey and other activities of the Forest Service, and from other agencies. Such information has been brought up to date, checked, and supplemented. Much new resource information also was obtained to assure an authoritative summary of the quantity, quality, distribution, growth, and drain of the timber resources in the United States proper. Only incidental attention was given to the forests of Alaska and to the world timber situation. Estimates of potential requirements for forest products and of unavoidable losses through natural causes were supplemented by consideration of margins for new uses, export, and national security. Especially important new information on the character of forest practices and the degree of forest management by ownership classes was obtained by a field survey. The volume and character of wood waste and the possibilities of using more of it were explored. Problems of the timber industries in relation to raw-material supply were reviewed. The status and needs of forest protection were reexamined. Special attention was given to problems of ownership, because ownership so fundamen- tally influences the kind of action needed. This report brings together in concise form the over-all findings of the reappraisal and restates the principal Federal measures which I I believe are necessary to assure ample timber supplies for the future. Various aspects of the reappraisal are covered more fully in a series of separate reports, some of which have already been published. The report shows that the Nation’s saw-timber supply is declining and, of equal significance, its quality is deteriorating. Saw-timber cut plus losses from natural causes exceeds annual growth by 50 percent. Yet indications are that the intrinsic needs of the Nation for saw- timber products are considerably greater than present cut. Whether we are in for a permanent timber shortage or whether we shall have plenty of timber depends largely on what we do now. We have enough forest land. The challenge is to grow the timber. A crop of wood cannot be grown in a single year like a crop of corn. Tomorrow’s wood supply is in the trees growing in the forests today. Our forest growing stock, therefore, must be large enough so that as one year’s crop is harvested, enough trees will be coming of age to provide the next year’s crop. It is my hope that publication of this report will help spur the Nation to prompt, forceful, and comprehensive action to build up and maintain the forest resources so as to insure their maximum contribution to lasting prosperity for our country. So es Chief, Forest Service. Acknowledgments A eee REAPPRAISAL was a Service-wide undertaking. A large group of the best-qualified administrative and research personnel in the several regions and in Washington participated. The project was conducted and the several reports prepared under the general direction of Assistant Chief R. E. Marsh, assisted by V. L. Harper. Much of the preliminary planning was done by Associate Chief E. H. Clapp, who retired before work got under way. The writing of this report was largely the work of R. E. Marsh, C. Edward Behre, and H. Glenn Meginnis. ‘The list of those who took part in analyzing the Nation-wide data or in preparing reports also includes: REED W. BAILEY A. A. BROWN W. R. CHAPLINE GARDNER H. CHIDESTER ALBERT C. CLINE LakE F. CoMPTON RoBERT W. COWLIN GEORGE W. CRADDOCK RussELL N. CUNNINGHAM WILLIAM A. DUERR T. C. FEARNOW R. D. GARVER J. ALFRED HALL RoBERT T. HALL FRANK J. HALLAUER Percy D. HANSON Cary Hartley 1 W. R. HINE HowarbD HOPKINS S. BLaiR HUTCHISON FRANK A. INESON LEONARD F. KELLOGG L. F. Knee PAuL E. MALONE Ira J. Mason E. T. MERRICK WarrEN T. MurPHY LEsLiE W. Orr ? KENNETH W.. PARKER EArt S. PEIRCE JAY H. Price JAMEs C. RETTIE JouN H. SIEKER WILLIAM N. SPARHAWK Lioyp W. SwIFT CHARLES L. TEBBE H. Basti WALES RosBerT K. WINTERS STEPHEN N. WYCOFF In the compilation of basic statistics of land and timber stand, and in varying degree in other phases, the Forest Service had the cooperation of other Federal agencies, State foresters and other State officials, and the American Forestry Association, the latter having started an independent appraisal project in 1944. Many private organizations and individuals contributed in one way or another. +Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. ? Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. I © gRVESS aus VACNEDEEN ACI EOUN AUIS PRO SP lo Ril ay Contents Page Summary and recommendations... cesses 1 The setting for American forestry... 1 Highlights of the forest situation... 2 Action needed 6 I. Public aids and services to private owners_. 6 II. Public control of cutting and other forest practices on private forest lands. 10 III. Expansion and intensified management of the National forests=:2 =e. ee 11 Rorestilandyam disitss Sess sere cte cosets ensctvesseatececstesenreeteesenes 13 plbiremmtintbenveresOUTCeh a Ai 10. fuel Hernnee secessssecs ee wieteen 17 shim berg isijas COP sis cee eee aU hen Ss 17 The timber stand 17 Ownership of the timber 21 Growth classes not well balanced... ee. 22 Much of the forest land is poorly stocked... 23 Quality of timber is declining. 0000....... Rare oer 24 Some of the timber is not operable... 25 @Oursuse* of the timber resource, 2.5)....sccc.b.teeecsect econo 27 Shrinking supply limits timber use... 00... 27 pis ber CTO Whine tn, We Ie 2 meta te ecslicer tev sedeatre scenes 27 LUE Byes eee OE) eA ie ee ee ee ee Ta er 28 Comparison of growth and drain... 30 Wen 2OVeATe PYOl ection fou, Me Aen arr oe aetna sent 31 (Coallseforstim bei orOwt baci cits, 2 crete ee ict sal setestastcsoeneds 33 Sound policy calls for abundant growth... 33 MomesticwTequirem entsiy sis speeches tee ds aie cet ee 33 TE OSS ES Wetetnte se eeene Mae a tt ert Sre IN farms etic aretcseeastuedee 35 MMehE CHIVES PTOW CM cre eee Ne a eres eaten sca stecrscseehe sete 35 INC WaesUSCS peters er eerie Beer coesvies eter ena athe ena isesssuccettteomertiees 35 INa tional esecui ni typ cee toe vrs fue Seana res eee 36 Foreign markets and supplies... cece 37 Goal is to double saw-timber growth. 38 The problem of meeting timber needs... 40 What growing stock is needed to double saw-timber PLOW taser cer eee eee vas siscte sp tvveeblscath oon essetibislevrees 40 When could the growth goal be reached? ....0........... 41 Where shall we get timber products in the mean- CLIT ae oe rere AN tn esd crepe eee I Sa, 42 Page The: job) is'.a. big? ones... eee, vileeiasrieteeenness 45 How timberlands are being managed... ccccescececeseeeee 46 Timber-cutting practices are far from satisfactory 46 How much sustained-yield forestry? ooo. 49 The status of timber management... 50 Forest industries based on timber.ii.. 0000. 52 The: lumber: jindustry.,2) eee ee ee eee 52 The . pulp and: paper industryS28<0.2 ees e es 54 The veneer and plywood industry... 57 Other, “timber > industries ewan sree 58 Timber industries in general handicapped by waning timber, 4sup ply see eee onan te kee eee 59 Industries not geared to permanent timber supply.... 59 SWiOOdE SWAStes (isn cscree iat igs fate e i eeeret ones cree eee 62 Quantity, source, and location of waste... 62 Possible reduction and use of waste... 65 Relation of better use to the forest situation............ 67 Nontimber uses and services of forests _ 69 Watershed protection —a prime function of forests... 69 tbhe) forest, range’ ‘resources. ian noe og ae 71 Forest recreation —a large and growing use... 73 Eorests -and’= wildlife). ieee eee, Gre ets, ena 75 Forests need: better ‘protection see ass 2 eee 78 Protection of the national forests from fire............ 78 Fire protection on other Federal lands... 81 Fire protection on private and State lands.................. 82 Forest insects and diseases take a heavy toll................ 85 How forest ownership affects the outlook... 87 Public forests have an important role... 87 National forests—a big undertaking... 88 Other public forests are also important... 89 Extension of public ownership... 91 Private ownership is widely divided... 93 Larger owners have some advantages ooo... 94 Small forest owners: the heart of the problem............ 95 Some economic factors affecting private forestry............ 96 Public interest in private forests should be safe- UAL OM ee tea iecsseesaest eee ree Se 98 Key issues related to ownership ooo... cceeeceeeeee 99 vit Summary and Recommendations 377 The Setting for American Forestry America needs productive forests. The evidence is on every hand. Wood shortages, which plagued this country in wartime, have hampered efforts to build the millions of new homes so badly needed, and constitute one of the dangers that may throw our economy out of gear. In World War I, as never before, lavish use of all resources was the key to survival. ‘The war pro- foundly affected American forestry. It taught how essential forests are to self-preservation, to national strength. It focused the spotlight on the inade- quacy of timber supplies, long foreseen though masked by lagging consumption in the depression thirties, and put a premium on accessibility and quality. Ihe war also stimulated more efficient and diversified use of wood. Yet it further mort- gaged our future by impairing timber growing stock, and by piling up a huge volume of unsatisi- fied consumer needs to be levied against our forests in the coming years. Our people have always been prodigal users of wood. The United States consumes more wood than any other country—probably as much as all others combined. Wood is, indeed, a highly useful and adaptable material. It has literally thousands of commonplace uses which permeate and leaven our whole economy. Moreover, through the alche- my of science wood in a variety of amazing new forms—plastics, textiles, chemicals—is contributing increasingly to our way of life. Timber, like steel and coal, is a basic raw ma- terial, and the Nation needs a huge amount of it for industrial use. The timber-products industries are themselves an important segment of America’s great industrial strength. Each year they pour into trade channels several billions of dollars’ worth of lumber and other commodities. The timber busi- ness as a whole—including harvesting, manufacture, transportation, and use of wood products—is a << source of livelihood for millions of people. In 1946 it afforded work equivalent to 3.3 million full-time jobs and wages totaling 6.3 billion dollars. Rural America has perhaps the most direct stake in productive forests. Countless small towns and communities are supported wholly or in large part by forest-based enterprises. Millions of rural peo- ple, including farmers, look to the forests for regu- lar or part-time work and for simple. products essential to their mode of living. To them, and to many people everywhere, well-managed forests mean steady jobs and permanent communities. Productive forests are needed for much besides their timber. ‘Today, more than ever, the Nation needs to protect its priceless soils and watersheds— to guard against floods, erosion, and damage to water supplies. It needs the livestock products from forest range, and it needs to utilize fully the great recreational and wildlife values of forest lands. Yet our forests, for the most part, are not in good shape to meet these varied and compelling demands. Years of poor and destructive cutting, of fires, and lack of management have steadily reduced timber capital and impaired other products and services. Years of exploitation and a long concurrent history of rising prices to consumers spell timber scarcity, not abundance, today. The need for better forestry is heightened by economic circumstances and new concepts growing out of the war and the reconversion. Wartime ex- perience in production has given the Nation new and higher aims for peace. Foremost among these is the emphasis on achieving a stable, high-level economy and full employment as a matter of vital national policy. Maintenance of high national in- come, with jobs for all, is of the utmost importance if we are to avoid recurring cycles of “boom and bust.” A prosperous well-integrated economy implies, for one thing, productive forests capable of supply- ing a greater timber cut than heretofore visualized —and on a sustained basis. Indeed, it means full use of all basic resources, and concerted policies and action to conserve and keep them in good supply. America, in its bid for strength and prosperity, should face this issue squarely. Already we are a “have-not” nation with respect to certain minerals and are forced to compete increasingly for critical materials in the world market. We are using up our soils. We have made heavy inroads on the tim- ber. Yet forests, which lie all around us and occupy one-third of our land area, are a renewable re- source. ‘Though depleted, they can be built up to supply fully the needs of a strong, growing nation. Beyond the domestic situation, this country needs productive forests to meet new international obliga- tions and to help establish the peace. world requires a closer harmonizing of world sup- plies and needs of basic materials. The world is short of softwood timber and the forests of North America are of key importance in world supply. It is in the national interest to build up America’s forests so as to contribute in the long run to world timber trade just as it is to supply food and other necessities for rehabilitation now. One fact stands out clearly: this country needs to produce and to use in full measure the products and services of its forests as a part of the larger obligation to gain a stable, prosperous economy and hence a better hope for world security. This, in brief, is the broad economic and social setting in which American forestry finds itself today. Highlights of the Forest Situation 1. The Nation has plenty of forest land. Ex- cluding Alaska, there is 624 million acres—one-third of the total land and about two-thirds of the origi- nal forest area. About 461 million acres is com- mercial, suitable and available for growing merch- antable timber. The potential productivity of this vast domain is great—enough eventually to fill do- mestic needs generously, provide for national emer- gencies, and export to a world undersupplied with timber, as it is with food. 2. The supply of all-important saw timber is steadily shrinking... Originally there must have been 8,000 billion board feet or more. In 1945 there was about 1,601 billion. The difference plus what additional wood has grown in the meantime was used up or destroyed. ‘The quantity of saw timber is still declining. In the 15 timber States for which A smaller . comparable Forest Survey data are available, con- taining 60 percent of the Nation’s saw timber and accounting for almost three-fourths of the annual drain, the saw-timber stand declined 156 billion board feet (14 percent) in a period averaging 11 years prior to 1945. 3. Our forests are operating in the red. More timber is cut or destroyed each year than is replaced by growth. Saw timber is growing at an annual rate of about 35 billion board feet. But the 54- billion-board-foot annual drain by cutting and by natural losses in 1944—though well below the 60 billion board feet of the peak war years, 1941-43, and below that of 1946 and 1947—exceeded saw- timber growth by about 50 percent: 1944 Growth drain Drain (billion (billion ratio bd. ft.) bd. ft.) (percent) Section + North se ee ee ee 84 9.0 108 Souths: ei eee ah eee eee 19.9 24.9 125 WSU aah eae a rapes 7.0 20.0 285 United States 35.3 53.9 153 1 For boundaries of sections referred to, see fig. 2, p. 14. True, for all timber including that less than saw- timber size, there was a near balance between drain (13.7 billion cubic feet) and growth (13.4 billion). But there is little satisfaction in this because 80 percent of the drain is in saw timber, particularly the better softwoods, whereas much of the growth is in small low-grade trees and inferior hardwoods. Because of the backlog of virgin timber, the over- cut is not dangerous in the West, but continuation of the present rate and character of cutting in the East would sacrifice future productivity. Actually it is unlikely that the present drain in the East will continue, for obtaining suitable stumpage is in- creasingly difficult. But projecting 1944 drain 20 years ahead in all regions! (assuming no change in cutting practices) indicates a 27-percent reduction in our saw-timber stand by 1965. For the two lead- ing timber-products regions—the Southeast and the Pacific Northwest—the decline would be 60 and 39 percent, respectively. 4. Forest industries are feeling the pinch of tim- ber shortages and declining quality. Even in the West local timber shortages are already making themselves felt; in western Washington less than half the primary forest industries have enough pri- vate timber in sight to keep going more than a few years. In the South a horde of little sawmills are 1For boundaries of regions referred to, see fig. 2, p. 14. 2 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture subsisting mainly on small timber; in many in- stances sawlogs being cut average only one-third to one-half as large as formerly, and the average is getting smaller. Plants using high-grade hardwood logs for veneer and other specialty products are especially hard hit. The expanding fir-plywood industry of the Northwest faces major readjustment before it has really hit its stride. Pulp and paper companies, though they can use small material, often meet stiff competition for softwood timber, particularly in the South, and in the North some face actual shortage. Although much progress in achieving balance be- tween plant and woods operations is being made, particularly by some pulp and lumber companies, the forest industries as a whole are not well geared to a sustained timber supply. ‘They own little more than one-tenth of the commercial forest. ‘Their operations generally are not adapted to complete, integrated use of the available timber. Plant ca- pacity greater than tributary forests can sustain is still a threat to the growing stock in many localities. 5. A flexible long-range goal for timber growth is proposed. Careful study—looking beyond current limitations to long-range possibilities because for- estry, like the Nation’s growth, is a long-time affair —suggests a growth goal of 18 to 20 billion cubic feet annually, including 65 to 72 billion board feet of saw timber. This visualizes potential domestic requirements—the estimated quantity a fully em- ployed, prosperous people might use if the timber were readily available at reasonable prices—of 61 billion board feet, which is more than the annual saw-timber cut of 55 billion in the prosperous years 1925-29, or that in the peak war years. The goal also includes a margin for irreducible losses, in- effective growth, new uses, and exports, and a back- log for national security. Setting the goal slightly higher or lower would make little difference in the program required to reach it. But to aim for much less than 72 billion board feet of saw timber an- nually would not be sound public policy or con- sistent with the responsibilities and needs of a large, growing nation. 6. Attaining this goal means stepping up annual growth of all timber by one-half and doubling saw- timber growth. This is a big order. For the Na- tion as a whole, forest growing stock is below par in quantity, quality, and distribution. About 35 percent (164 million acres) of the commercial forest area is deforested or has less than 40 percent of full stocking. Nearly half the commercial forest Forests and National Prosperity With more land of the South is in this category. than three-fourths of the commercial forest land, the East has little more than half the saw-timber growing stock needed to sustain its reasonable share of the growth goal. Nationally, a 469-billion-board-foot deficit in the growing stock of the East is partially offset by the virgin timber of the West where two-fifths of the stands are as yet untouched. However, about one- fourth of the commercial forest area of the West has been reduced to seedling or sapling growth or is denuded, and the active growing stock of young timber is only about a third of that needed to reach the West’s share of the goal. 7. Clearly, the goals cannot be achieved for sev- eral decades. It would be unrealistic to assume that good cutting practices will be generally applied within a few years, that adequate protection can be promptly achieved, that planting will be under- taken on a large enough scale to bring the bulk of the idle lands into production within a generation, that the construction of access roads into new areas will keep sufficiently ahead of the demand to re- lieve the pressure for overcutting elsewhere, or that cutting operations will be so located as to assure continuous high-level output locality by locality. But even if all these things could be accomplished, it is estimated that saw-timber growth would not reach 64 billion board feeet (the level of potential domestic requirements and losses) in less than 45 years. Moreover, if there were to be a good mar- gin for national security, export, and the like, grow- ing stock would have to be further built up for another 25 or 30 years. ‘These calculations—in no sense forecasts—assume that for perhaps 30 years annual drain would be less than 50 billion board feet—some 4 billion below 1944, although output of major products since 1945 has actually been higher than in 1944. 8. Meanwhile, the Nation cannot rely on in- creased imports. ‘There is a world shortage of tim- ber, especially of softwoods for construction. Europe, largely self-sufficient in timber before the war, will need to import for years to come. The forests of Soviet Asia, the East Indies, and the Philippines are remote and mostly undeveloped; in the main they will go to supply the Orient. Central and South America and Africa can supply some hardwoods though little construction timber. Canada doubtless will continue to be our chief source of imports and possibly can furnish some- what more pulp and paper, especially newsprint, although her own supply of operable timber is diminishing. For 30 years or more the United States has imported more wood and wood products than it has exported. It can no longer rely as much on imports as in the past. ‘The Nation must look mainly to its own forests. 9. The forest situation, therefore, poses a dilem- ma. ‘The intrinsic needs of this country for saw- timber products are considerably greater than the present cut. Yet saw-timber drain already exceeds annual growth. To increase current output im- plies accelerating timber depletion and so hasten- ing the day when drastic reduction in the use of timber products would be inescapable. To cur- tail output now so as to facilitate building up growing stock and annual growth would leave urgent needs (such as that for more housing) un- filled and might weaken the foundation for a high- level national economy. ‘There is no wholly satis- factory way out. The Nation should adopt a broader and more positive forest conservation program than has ex- isted in the past. We need to stop forest destruc- tion and deterioration, to put idle forest land to work, and to obtain widespread adoption of sus- tained-yield forest management in order to assure ample supplies of timber products for future gen- erations. But to meet the pressing demands of the years just ahead, we should strive to keep na- tional output of timber products from falling much below present levels, if possible. 10. More efficient use of wood can help bridge the gap though it cannot decisively relieve the pressure on growing stock. Wood waste—material from the forest which is not used for marketable products other than fuel—was estimated at 109 mil- lion tons for 1944, or over half of all timber cut. This waste can be reduced through more efficient logging and manufacturing; and by improved chemical recovery such as the processes for making alcohol from sawmill and pulping wastes. How- ever, economic use cannot be made of all or even most of the wood now wasted. Opportunities are principally in the South and Pacific Northwest, where there are large primary plants and large usable concentrations of wood waste. Even though the use of wood waste will not greatly affect forest drain or alter requirements as visualized in the long-range growth goal, it can help meet current needs for wood and is important for other reasons. It strengthens the incentive for better and more diversified forestry. New uses for wood waste also serve to expand employment and industrializa- tion, and hence should help cushion the effects of forest depletion on dependent communities. 11. Increasing the cut of virgin timber in the West would relieve the pressure on the growing stocks of the East. Clearly, eastern forests are not in condition to go on bearing over 60 percent of the country’s saw-timber drain. Some reduction of output appears inevitable. Good forest prac- tices can hold this reduction to perhaps 15 or 20 percent, but even so, the growing stock would need to be built up for 20 or 30 years before output could be safely restored. To help maintain national output, the cut of virgin timber in the West could be increased for a number of years. But this should not be at the expense of good forest practice. Operations should be properly located and cutting practices adapted to maintain forest productivity in each locality. Because of such considerations an increase of west- ern output hinges largely on rapid construction of access roads into undeveloped country, particularly in the national forests. 12. More than 30 percent of the Nation’s saw timber is in the national forests. Because private lands have been generally more accessible, a large part of the virgin timber still awaiting development is in the western national forests. It is largely to these forests that the Nation must look to minimize a prospective decline elsewhere in the output of timber products. To bring the output of all the national forests up to their sustained-yield capacity calls for more intensive management as well as a large road-building program. ‘Timber sales need to be speeeded up; more of the output should be from thinnings and other improvement measures in growing forests. Denuded areas should be planted. Better protection and more adequate administrative facilities should be provided. But output, working circle by working circle, should not be allowed to exceed sustained-yield capacity. We can also turn to the national forests of Alaska, whose resources are as yet untapped on a large scale. Alaska’s timber will be chiefly valuable to supplement our pulpwood supply. When the pulp and paper industry becomes established in Alaska it should be able to supply about 7 percent of the Nation’s potential pulp and paper requirements— representing a cut of about 114 million cords of pulpwood annually. We should make the most of this opportunity. 13. But this country’s forest problem centers 4 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture | | mainly on the private land. ‘Three-fourths of the commercial forest land—345 million acres of it—is privately owned. ‘This includes by and large the best growing sites and the most accessible locations. Privately owned forests furnish some 90 percent of the timber cut. They will continue to be the main source of timber although the contribution of public forests should increase. 14. Private forests need much better protection. Fire continues to take a heavy toll despite the great progress in cooperative fire control begun in 1911. Organized protection was provided for 319 million acres in 1946, but much of this did not meet de- sirable standards. About one-fourth of the private land in need of organized protection, chiefly in the South and the Central region, is still without it. Moreover, comparatively little has been done to curb insect pests and diseases, which take an even heavier toll of timber. As in fire control, it will take organized, collective action on a much more ample scale as contemplated in the Forest Pest Con- trol Act of June 25, 1947, to cope adequately with these hazards. 15. Timber-cutting practices on private lands, with some notable exceptions, are far from satisfac- tory. Encouraging progress has been made in recent years, especially in the South, but about two-thirds of the cutting on private lands is still poor or destructive, and only 8 percent is up to really good forestry standards. The 51 million acres in some 400 properties of more than 50,000 acres each, chiefly lumber- and pulp-company hold- ings, receives the best treatment. About 39 per- cent of the cutting on these lands is on a sustained yield basis, and 29 percent is good or high order. But these large holdings comprise only 15 percent of the commercial forest land in private ownership. Three-fourths of it, about 261 million acres, is held by more than 4 million small owners in properties averaging only 62 acres each. About 71 percent of the cutting on this land, more than half of which is farm woodland, is poor or destructive. 16. The small private holding is the toughest problem. Many of the obstacles to better forestry stem from the huge number of these small prop- erties; their small, often uneconomic, size; the di- versity of aims and lack of skill with which they are handled; the instability of their ownership and management; the lack of capital and the pres- sure for current income. Yet the small holdings include much of the most accessible and potentially the most productive forest land. Practical means Forests and National Prosperity ‘unnecessary forest destruction. must be found to bring this large and important segment of private forests under good management. Herein is one of the knottiest problems in Ameri- can forestry. 17. Public action is needed to get good forestry on private forest lands. Although private owners have the main responsibility for putting their lands under good management, the public, too, has a big stake in this. The public role should be to help minimize the handicaps, to encourage and assist, and to apply appropriate restraints to stop Where handicaps are too great—particularly where forests are run- down and returns are small or long-deferred—or where benefits and services accrue mainly to the public at large, permanent public ownership and management is generally the answer. A large acreage now privately owned is in this category. But private forestry can succeed on the greater part of the land; there are examples now, in every region and among many classes of owners. 18. American forestry has made great strides but there is still a big job to do. We have the world’s greatest public forest system—the national forests— with a large backlog of timber and other important values under stable and sound management. Other Federal forest lands have also been placed under management. State forestry activities have been steadily expanded and strengthened. Much prog- ress has been made in protecting forests from fire. Research, on which the techniques and “know- how” of forestry depend, has made great head- way, especially in recent years. We have the be- ginnings of an effective program of aids to small owners. A substantial acreage of private forests— mostly in the larger holdings—is under management and a growing number of owners are practicing good forestry. Many are buying more land for timber growing. And, among the hopeful factors, there are today’s good markets and favorable eco- nomic climate which, if maintained and taken advantage of, can do much to advance the forestry movement. All these things augur well for the future. Nevertheless, little more than a beginning has been made toward achieving a sound, permanent forest economy in this country. Clearly much re- mains to be done to strengthen and equip public forests for a greater output and to get good forestry on the great bulk of the private lands. A _piece- meal attack, as at present, will not suffice. The Nation needs a comprehensive, unified forest policy 5 and concerted action going far beyond anything accomplished in the past. Action Needed A reappraisal of this kind logically includes con- sideration of what action is needed. As the pre- ceding pages have made apparent, the forest situation is extremely complex. It involves a great variety of physical and economic considera- tions. There is no panacea by which satisfactory forest conservation can be attained in this country. For considering what is needed, a point of de- parture is afforded by the comprehensive program recommended by the Department of Agriculture in 1940 to the Joint Congressional Committee on Forestry, which had been commissioned by the President to investigate and report on the Na- tion’s forest situation. “Those recommendations and other proposals have been carefully reexamined in the light of the reappraisal findings, progress in the intervening years, and the current economic outlook. For example, after careful study it was concluded that incentive payments for good forestry practices do not form a sound major approach to forest conservation. As another example, the status of State forest-regulatory measures and other relevant circumstances were carefully recon- sidered, and as a result the Forest Service continues its recommendation of a Federal-State plan of regulating cutting and other forest practices on forest land. In presenting its program of action now, the Forest Service reaffirms the philosophy that forest conservation requires Federal, State, and local gov- ernmentsy and private owners and agencies to act in effective cooperation. It takes into account the need for Federal leadership in many segments of the work. It further recognizes that although there is need for considerably more public owner- ship—Federal, State, and local—much the larger part of the forest land, and particularly of the pro- ductive capacity, will remain in private ownership. ' The recommendations that follow refer especi- ally to the Federal aspects of a long-range program, though cooperative action is often involved. Ad- mittedly, they do not fully compass all unsatisfac- tory features of the present situation; for example, the 75 million acres of forest land which is wholly deforested or has so little restocking as to justify the description “idle.’” Nor do they adequately reach the additional millions of acres of run-down forests in small properties that need considerable capital expenditure with long deferment of income. To spell out the Federal phases of a long-range program does not minimize the opportunity and need for private or State action. In fact, strength- ening of State forestry agencies is an important corollary of the Federal program. Much of this program aims to help private owners take care of their own lands; but private owners cannot reason- ably be expected to do alone a job for which they are as yet unprepared and unequipped. This program is aimed primarily at meeting American requirements for timber supply; but it should go far toward preventing soil erosion and safeguarding range forage, watershed, recreational, and other values which in some regions surpass that of the timber. If fully effective, it would provide a framework within which the short-range and many necessary detailed and supplemental measures could be worked out. It may be divided into three broad categories: First, a series of public aids to private forest landowners, especially the small owners. Some of these require new legislation. Others are already in effect but need strengthening. SECOND, public control of cutting and other forest practices on private land sufficient to stop forest de- struction and keep the land reasonably productive. THIRD, expansion and intensified management of national, State, and community forests. The principal measures embraced by the fore- going three categories follow. I. Public Aids and Services to Private Owners 1. Technical assistance to private owners in es- tablishing and tending forests, and in harvesting and marketing forest products, should be made available on a broader and much larger scale than at present. Corresponding assistance should also be made available to operators of processing plants. The emphasis here is on owners of small properties. and plants. The value of on-the-ground technical assistance and guidance to individual private owners of small properties has been impressively demonstrated by the present small program of the Forest Service in cooperation with State forestry agencies under the Norris-Doxey Act. Embracing some 650 counties in 40 States in the fiscal year 1948, 173 farm wood- land management projects, each with a resident forester, were reaching only a small part of the farm-forest owners who desire such aid, even within the counties served. The Federal contribution to 6 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture ucts, these projects was $439,341 and the States spent about 1 million dollars on this type of work. Simi- lar assistance, on a still smaller scale, is given by Soil Conservation Service foresters in cooperation with soil conservation districts and by other public foresters. The Norris-Doxey Act, authorizing aid in the growing, harvesting, and marketing of forest prod- is restricted to farms. The million small nonfarm owners, who own almost as much forest land as the farmers, are in equal need of such tech- nical aid, but are reached only in small measure under general authorization; and corresponding service is not available to processors. For example, the waste and inefficiency commonly associated with small mills, of which there are over 40,000, could be greatly reduced through technical assistance in selection of equipment, mill lay-out and arrange- ment, procurement of raw material, and operating and marketing methods. Technical advice would also lead to greater efficiency in the use of wood in building construction and in countless other types of use. Such public aid to small owners and operators is essential. They are seldom able to pay full com- mercial rates for needed services. Moreover, there are not enough private consultants to cover the field. Public aid, by demonstrating the values of technical advice, has been found to benefit rather than interfere with private consulting services. An adequate program of this kind would involve woodland management projects embracing some 2,000 counties, with a resident forester in charge of each project and, in addition, a corps of 200 to _ 300 utilization and other specialists. Generally speaking, this would be a cooperative program administered by the States with Federal expendi- ture in any State matched by State expenditure for the same purpose. In addition to broadening to include processing, the present scattered authority for this action pro- gram would be greatly strengthened and clarified by new legislation focusing directly on it. 2. Educational and demonstrational work in for- estry should be strengthened. As an essential complement to the preceding ac- tion or service type of work, Federal, State, and private agencies should carry out an aggressive campaign of education and demonstration through group meetings, pamphlets, radio and news re- — leases, feature articles, motion pictures, and other appropriate means to develop interest and appreci- Forests and National Prosperity ation by forest landowners and mill men as to the opportunities and advantages of sound forestry and processing methods. Forest extension is needed also to give the public, including farm youth, an understanding of the place of forest conservation in the economy of the Nation. The Federal and State agricultural extension services have a key position in this educational work. At present these agencies in 45 States and 2 territories employ only 65 extension foresters. The Federal appropriation for fiscal year 1948 of $106,343 for this work was more than matched by the States. Other agencies of the Department of Agriculture also participate in some aspects of such work. Much good work is being done by private agencies. ‘There is strong need for stepping up such activity by all agencies concerned. 3. Forest planting on private forest land should be greatly accelerated. This measure is directed mainly to the problem of the 62 million acres of private forest land either denuded or so poorly stocked as to be practically idle, and to the additional millions of acres that should be converted to forest use. With adequate protection some will stock naturally, but a very large proportion should be planted. Prior to 1947 only about 214 million acres of private land had been successfully planted. In 1947 about 114,000 acres were planted. Forest planting—the procurement of planting stock and its actual planting—is expensive. Except for some large owners and a few cooperative ven- tures, private forest planting has been almost wholly contingent upon getting planting stock from the States at a nominal price. Making stock available at, say, half of the actual cost to produce has proved a powerful stimulant, particularly as many small owners use their own labor in planting. The demand for planting stock under such terms far exceeds the supply. The Federal Government participates in a small way financially insofar as the program applies to farmer landowners under the authority of Section 4 of the Clarke-McNary Act and the Norris-Doxey Act. This program is supplemented by other pub- lic and private agencies and particularly by the Soil Conservation Service in erosion control and in shelter-belt planting in the Prairie-Plains States. The work of all agencies needs to be greatly ac- celerated. Forest planting can be especially stimulated by broadening the terms of Section 4 of the Clarke- McNary Act to include nonfarm owners, who ac- count for more than half of the private acreage, and by accelerating the Federal aid. 4. A federally sponsored forest credit system should be established to make long-term loans on terms and conditions suitable for forestry purposes. Such credit should be adapted to the needs of pri- vate forest operators and made contingent upon sound forest practices. Forestry is the only major form of land use for which suitable credit facilities are not available. Although currently the demand for forest credit seems rather limited, the Forest Service believes that in the long run a system of forest credit adapted to the long-term nature of forestry would be an important aid to forest conservation. Such forest credit is needed, for example, to enable owners to consolidate holdings for more efhcient management and protection; to facilitate stand improvement; to provide forest administrative, protection, and utilization facilities under sustained-yield manage- ment; to enable owners of young timber to pay carrying costs and thus prevent sacrifice of immature or economically unripe timber; and to refund un- duly burdensome loans. Most loans from private sources have been for fairly short terms and predicated on the liquidation of timber without regard to forestry considerations. By contrast, the capital required for the forestry purposes outlined above should be made available at relatively low cost and for sufficient periods to enable repayment in part from deferred timber yields. Only by Federal action can a forest credit system be established that will meet these require- ments. Such a system of forest credit should be estab- lished within the farm credit system through a forest credit bank or other arrangement to assure needed autonomy and responsibility for this field of credit. New legislation is needed to facilitate this measure. Further study should be given to the practi- cability of a system of more liberal credit in con- nection with the rehabilitation of small, badly run-down properties which require considerable capital expenditure with long deferment of income. 5. Provision should be made for a federally spon- sored insurance system to reduce the risks inherent in forestry enterprises. Insurance agreements should require that insured property be managed under good forestry principles. Losses from fire and other destructive agents ac- celerate timber liquidation and discourage the flow of capital into permanent forestry enterprises. To minimize the risks of such losses, low-cost forest insurance is needed. It is also needed in conjunc- tion with the proposed system of forest credit be- cause the hazard of loss, particularly by fire, is one of the most important factors which may prevent borrowers from meeting loan commitments. Forest fire insurance at practicable rates is not available through the commercial insurance com- panies. Studies by the Forest Service have indi- cated the feasibility of commercial insurance, but after several years private companies have not de- veloped the business. The need for very broad coverage, the nature of the risks, and uncertainty regarding suitable rates are doubtless partly ac- countable. It seems clear that Federal sponsorship of forest insurance is needed if it is to be made available within a reasonable time. Final determi- nation of the best Federal arrangement for pro- viding forest insurance needs further study. 6. Forest-cooperative associations should be en- couraged as a means of strengthening forest enter- prise and achieving good forest management, particularly on small holdings. The value of cooperative associations for mark- eting and processing farm products has been amply demonstrated. ‘This economic device should also be of benefit to farmers and other small owners in their forestry activities. In many situations col- lective action may not need to go beyond the marketing of the timber, and the large farm pur- chasing cooperatives might logically extend their activities into this field. But under certain condi- tions the opportunity for good forestry could be enhanced if the cooperatives also owned and oper- ated processing plants. Until forest cooperatives become more widely established, Federal leadership, with State coopera- tion, will be needed to make organization studies and demonstrations; to provide technical advice in business management, manufacture, and market- ing; to promote sound forest management; and to furnish loans on favorable terms. More attention might well be given through the existing facilities to the development of the most promising types of forest cooperatives. In addi- tion, the Secretary of Agriculture might well be authorized to stimulate and assist through their formative years a limited number of experimental associations of the processing type by new legisla- tion which would provide: (a) Liberal low-cost 8 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture loans to processing cooperatives with power to com- promise and adjust the terms as circumstances may require, and (b) under special conditions, as where a new process is involved, the erection or installa- tion of processing facilities and the leasing of these to the cooperatives. 7. Advisory service should be made available to State and local governments to aid in the improve- ment of forest tax laws and their administration. Although the adverse effects of the property tax, as well as other taxes upon forestry, are often exaggerated, there is still a strong need for im- provement in the forest tax situation through: (a) Reduction in the property tax where this does not curtail essential services; (b) improved tax admini- stration; and (c) special adjustment of the property tax to deferred-yield forestry. Forest taxation as a feature of the property tax is under the jurisdiction of the State and local gov- ernments, and the responsibility for improvement is theirs. Although more than half of the States have authorized some special form of tax treatment for certain classes of land, less than 5 percent of the private commercial forest land is covered by these special provisions. Further efforts are needed to improve forest tax laws, and to improve property tax assessment and administration on all lands. The Forest Service has in past years made signifi- ‘cant studies of forest taxation and has proposed needed improvements therein. It is important that the Forest Service continue to investigate problems of forest taxation and upon request to make avail- able advice and assistance to State and local gov- ernments as a means of aiding in the development of improved tax measures and tax administration. Also needed are certain investigations in the field of Federal taxation relating to forestry, such as the effects of an amendment to the Revenue Act of 1943 providing for the taxation as a capital gain of income from stumpage sold under certain condi- tions, and the bearing of State taxes on forest own- ership and management. 8. Cooperative fire protection on private and State-owned forest lands should be extended and intensified. Organized fire protection, a major public respon- sibility, is basic to successful long-range forest man- agement. On private and State-owned forest lands it is administered under the well-established co- operative pattern of the Clarke-McNary Act, where- by the State Forester administers the activity with Federal financial aid up to 50 percent of the total 806034°—49—2 Forests and National Prosperity cost. The program is deficient in two important respects: (a) Protection had not been established (in 1946) on 120 million acres.? It was in effect on 319 million acres. During that calendar year ap- proximately 15 percent of the unprotected area burned as compared with less than 1 percent of the area under protection. Seventy percent of the unprotected area was in the South, one of our most important forest regions. (b) With the exception of a few States, and por- tions of others, the protection needs to be intensi- fied where it is already established. The present annual Federal authorization of 9 million dollars is based on the estimate of 1834 million dollars as the 1938 cost of adequate protec- tion, For 1948 the corresponding cost would be more than double. This increase is due to the decreased purchasing power of the dollar, the higher cost of personal service attributable to other fac- tors, an increase in the acreage in need of protec- tion, and higher standards of adequate protection. 9. Cooperative protection against forest insects and diseases should be strengthened by providing for more prompt and adequate action to discover and suppress incipient epidemics and control those which “escape.” Chestnut, one of the most valuable hardwoods, was wiped out by blight. Blister rust, a foreign in- vader, threatens the valuable white and sugar pines. During the 20-year period ending in 1940, the west- ern pine beetle destroyed, in California, Oregon, and Washington, approximately 25 billion board feet of ponderosa pine, having a stumpage value of approximately $100,000,000. The 1943-47 out- break of the spruce bark beetle in Colorado killed more than 4 billion board feet of spruce, with a stumpage value of possibly $12,000,000. Many other illustrations could also be given which indi- cate that in the aggregate timber losses from forest pests exceed those from fire. The Forest Service carries out control measures within the national forests and against losses threat- ening them. Other Federal agencies carry out control work with respect to land under their juris- diction, largely on the basis of technical informa- tion assembled by the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. Direct cooperative action with- out respect to ownership has been taken by the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine under 2In 1947 this was reduced to 111 million acres. special authorization by Congress against three in- troduced pests. Sound silvicultural practice is of itself a means of control. However, as in the case of fire, there is a need and public responsibility for organized detection and for control. ‘The Forest Pest Con- trol Act affords a legislative foundation for the needed development of such protection. ‘This act declares the Federal responsibility in the control of forest insects and diseases on a Nation-wide basis and on lands in all classes of ownership; it gives the Secretary of Agriculture authority, as a condi- tion of Federal cooperation in forest pest control, to require cooperation from the States or other public or private agency as he deems appropriate; and to authorize the establishment of adequate services and facilities for the detection of incipient outbreaks and their prompt suppression. 10. All phases of forest research should be strengthened and expanded as a basic means of aiding forestry and improving wood utilization. Fundamental to the practice of forestry and to rapid progress in forest conservation is adequate knowledge of the techniques of forestry, and a thorough understanding of the benefits from proper use of timber, range, wildlife, recreation, and wa- tershed resources. Because forest conditions and their economic relations to society are highly varied and complex, well-organized comprehensive re- search is essential to attain quickly and economic- ally the goal of good forest management and use. The Federal Government, through the Depart- ment of Agriculture, has appropriately taken the lead in such research. The work, under authority of the McSweeney-McNary Act, is conducted mainly through the Forest Products Laboratory—a national institution—and 12 regional Forest and Range Ex- periment Stations, with a larger number of decen- tralized and strategically located experimental for- ests and ranges. In expanding forest research programs of the Department of Agriculture and of other public and private agencies, special, but not exclusive, attention should be given to: . (a) Research in wood utilization to find means of reducing the enormous current waste of timber in the woods and mills, to find ways of utilizing the low-grade trees that now occupy valuable forest growing space, to improve the use of wood, and to develop new wood products and markets, including pilot plants to encourage the commercial applica- tion of new processes. (b) Development of profitable methods for grow- ing, protecting, and harvesting forest crops so as to build up the Nation’s forest capital, increase yields of the more valuable tree species, and enable farmers and other owners to realize potential in- comes from timber crops. (c) Rapid completion and maintenance of the Forest Survey on standards that will provide basic resource data for sound public policies and private forest plans. Other economic studies are needed to remove some of the financial obstacles to im- proved forest management and utilization, to de- termine potential timber requirements, supplies, and markets, and to enable the United States to keep abreast of forest problems in other parts of the world which may affect the timber supply and forest-products industries of this country. (d) Critical problems of range depletion and inadequate forage production on millions of acres of western ranges. ‘Their solution requires research to find feasible methods for improving range man- agement and for correlating range, wildlife, and watershed uses. (e) Problems of water supply, erosion, and flood damage which require development of effective up- stream flood control measures and efficient methods of managing watershed forests and other vegeta- tion. II. Public Control of Cutting and Other Forest Practices on Private Forest Lands 1. A system of public regulation of cutting and other forest practices should be established that will stop forest destruction and keep forest lands reason- ably productive. The States should continue to have opportunity to enact and administer adequate regulatory laws. However, in order to assure a consistent pattern—Nation-wide and in a reasonable time—a basic Federal law is needed. This basic legislation should establish standards as a guide for local forest practices and authorize Federal financial assistance to States which enact and administer regulatory laws consistent with the_ Federal requirements. It should also provide for Federal administration in States which request it or which, after a reasonable period, fail to put such regulation into effect. The measures of public aid to private owners outlined in the preceding section are comprehen- sive and far-reaching. ‘They will require substan- tial Federal expenditure and are justified by the 10 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture great public interest in successful forest conserva- tion. It would be sound policy to safeguard these large Government investments by public regulation. But more fundamental are the benefits to society that will flow from keeping forest land productive. The Forest Service and cooperating agencies, public and private, have been emphasizing educa- tional measures for more than a generation. Edu- cational efforts, as previously stated, should be con- tinued and strengthened. But the time has come for more decisive complementary measures. The need for regulation has been widely discussed for more than a decade. Yet today only some 14 States have enacted legislation looking toward forest reg- ulation and none fully meet the requirements visualized in this proposal. This measure would not require sustained-yield management. So long as cutting practices attain the required standards, it would not regulate when, or how much, any owner might cut. But it should stop further forest destruction and deterioration and so help maintain a reasonable growing stock as the basis for future production. III, Expansion and Intensified Management of the National Forests * 1. The national forests should be substantially expanded by the addition of considerable acreages of badly depleted lands that are unlikely to be re- stored to productive condition by private owners, some private forest lands within established forests, and key areas for watershed protection and for other purposes. Public ownership is the only feasible way to as- sure stable and satisfactory management for a large acreage that is not suited to permanent private forestry. It has been estimated that roughly two- thirds of the needed expansion of public ownership should be in national forests and one-third in State and community forests. Of high priority is the acquisition of some 35 million acres within the ex- terior boundaries of existing national-forest and purchase units. An estimated one and a quarter million acres acquired and no longer needed for military purposes, but suitable for national forests, should also be given that status. The national forests, not counting those in Alaska and Puerto Rico, now comprise some 159 million *Only measures relating to national forests are presented here. Similar action is believed to be appropriate with Tespect to State and Community forests. Forests and National Prosperity acres, of which 73.5 million is commercial forest land. Commercial forest land in other Federal ownership amounts to 15.4 million acres and State and local governments have 27.1 million acres. Acquisition commenced in 1911 under the au- thority of the Weeks Law. About 18 million acres have been purchased—more than half during the emergency unemployment program between 1934 and 1937—and about 4 million acres have been acquired through exchange. Except for an ap- propriation of $3,000,000 for the fiscal year 1947, acquisition has been practically at a standstill since the outbreak of World War II. Related to acquisition is the need for legislation that will remove inequities that exist in certain lo- calities under the present system of financial con- tributions to local government on account of national forests, and also make these contributions more stable. ‘The Forest Service favors a plan that will provide for an annual payment of an equitable percentage of the fair value of the forest property, probably three-fourths of 1 percent. 2. Development and intensified management of the national forests should be vigorously pushed. These forests can contribute increasingly to our immediate and long-run needs for timber and other services. The following aspects are of high pri- ority. The first is more intensive timber management, to help meet the Nation’s need for lumber and other forest products and to sustain local industries and communities. The rate of cutting has more than doubled since 1940 and is now about 4 billion feet annually. ‘This can be increased considerably more. Many miles of new access-road construction are required. ‘There is need, through sales and otherwise, to step up thinnings and other timber- stand-improvement cutting. Some 314 million acres of partly or wholly denuded national-forest land should be planted within the next 15 years. Vigorous efforts to establish a pulp and paper in-_ dustry in Alaska, based on national-forest timber, should be continued. Second, certain unsatisfactory range situations should be cleared up. National-forest range, of vital importance in watershed protection, never fully recovered from its severe exploitation during World War I despite sizable reductions in livestock numbers and other remedial measures. This calls for further downward adjustments in stocking on some allotments, along with improved management, the construction of range facilities, a large amount 11 of range reseeding, and in some localities, a reduc- tion of big-game population. A third aspect is safeguarding and improving wa- tershed values. Closer attention to this in all phases of management, a vigorous amplification of upstream flood and erosion control measures, and acceleration of watershed surveys authorized in the 1944 Flood Control Act, will go far toward attain- ing this objective. Fourth is national-forest recreation. Recrea- tional use of the national forests has greatly in- creased, and this upward trend is likely to continue indefinitely. Facilities are inadequate. Needed is a large amount of too-long-delayed maintenance, together with expansion of existing improvements. Fifth is a considerably stepped-up program of wildlife management. ‘The aim, on the one hand, should be to increase and stabilize the yield of the wildlife resources in recognition of the great public demand for good hunting and fishing; on the other, to avoid overstocking. Especially important in the long run are measures to maintain and improve wildlife habitat. Sixth is intensified fire protection mainly through more effective fire prevention, establishment of a well-trained standby force, greater mechanization of fire fighting, and more use of aircraft. Similarly, protection against forest insects and diseases should be strengthened by better provision for detecting impending epidemics and for prompt control. The expansion of forest research covered earlier in this section would be of large benefit in the development and intensified management of the national forests. National-forest development and management are based on organic legislation which, generally speaking, is adequate. However, experience has revealed a number of points on which new legisla- tion is needed to facilitate good administration. These were embodied in H. R. 2028 (80th Cong.). The needed action outlined in the preceding pages is directed toward making the timber re- sources of the United States contribute their full. potential to a prosperous national economy. Com- mensurate with this country’s growing responsibility in world affairs, the Forest Service also recognizes the need to encourage international cooperation in forestry. For example, it aims to give all possible assistance in the forestry work of the United Na- tions Food and Agriculture Organization. It also will continue to work with the Pan American Union on inter-American forestry matters, and to supply information and advice to other countries seeking to improve their forests. The time is already late. If the action outlined, and the efforts of all public and private forest land- owners and agencies, were immediately effective in full, it would still require many years to achieve the proposed goals. The farther depletion and deterioration extend, the more difficult and costly the job of adequate forest restoration. ‘The situa- tion calls for broad-gage and farsighted action. 12 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture Forest Land Ss For three centuries the American people have been hewing an empire from a heavily wooded land. Both the amount of standing timber and the forest area have been reduced. But two-thirds of the original forest land remains, which is plenty, if properly used, eventually to furnish again all the forest wealth that a prosperous Nation needs. This remaining forest land—624 million acres— adds up to one-third of the continental United States, exclusive of Alaska. This is as big an area as all the States east of the Mississippi River with Kansas and Louisiana thrown in. Forest acreage exceeds the total farm cropland by nearly one-fifth (fig. 1). It is larger than that of the open lands used for pasturage and range. Mostly today’s forest land is that which has escaped the plow: forest land undeveloped for other uses because of roughness, stoniness, poor soils, aridity, short growing season, or other unfav- FOREST LAND di | \ and Its Uses Ke orable circumstances. It also includes worn-out or low-grade land that at one time or another has been farmed. The great shrinkage in forest land that began with early settlement is largely the result of clearing for crops and pasture. The major competitor of forestry for use of land has always been crop agri- culture, and therefore most of the reduction. in forest acreage has been in the humid agricultural territory east of the Plains. The total forest-land acreage probably will not change much from the present 624 million. It may even increase. Urban developments, and construc- tion of highways and other facilities, are not likely to make significant reductions. Some of the bet- ter-grade lands, particularly in the East and on the Pacific Coast, will be cleared for agriculture. On the other hand, many millions of acres of the poorer cropland doubtless will revert to forest use. CLASSES OF LAND Million acres FOREST LAND Gommercial== 2322 = $e s tee Seal Noncommercial OTHER: FARMSTEADS, ROADS URBAN, WASTE, ETC TOTAL LAND AREA FicureE 1.—Land area of continental United States (excluding Alaska) by major economic uses. Forests and National Prosperity 13 Both the contributions and the problems of for- estry are influenced by the close ties between forest and other agricultural land. Woodland is an in- tegral economic feature of 314 million farms. Hundreds of thousands of farms are intermingled with nonfarm forest land. Thousands of farmers depend in whole or in part upon forest range for feeding their stock, and on forests for water supplies and other services. Many farmers earn cash in woods work. Moreover, forests help sustain in- dustries and communities that provide the farmer with local markets for food, fiber, and livestock products. America’s forest lands are a vast domain of widely varying character and _productiveness. From tidewater to timber line they include a rich variety of forest types and conditions. They are an important factor in the economy of every region except the Plains (fig. 2). East of the Plains they represent nearly half of all the land—about one- fourth of the Central region, 45 percent of the Lake, and half or more of the Middle Atlantic, the South, and New England. In the West they bulk largest in the Pacific Northwest, with more than PLAINS half the area. The far-flung distribution and great variety of forest lands assure a wide sharing of their benefits and services. In studies of timber resources forest land is usually divided into two broad categories. About three-fourths, 461 million acres, is classed as com- mercial because it is suitable and available for growing merchantable timber (table 1). The bet- ter and more accessible forest sites are of course in this class. The less-favored one-fourth, 163 mil- lion acres, is called noncommercial. It includes, for example, the open-grown mesquite and pinyon- juniper of the Southwest, the chaparral woodland in southern California, high alpine forests, and the oak-cedar breaks of Texas and Oklahoma. It also includes 13 million acres of better sites set apart for parks and game preserves. Although forest land is chiefly thought of as a source of timber, both commercial and noncom- mercial forest land is valuable for watershed pro- tection, for forage crops, for wildlife habitat, and for recreation. ‘These values, essential to our eco- nomy and way of life, in some regions outweigh that of timber supply. Most of the forest land may be Y COMMERCIAL FOREST NONCOMMERCIAL FOREST FicuRE 2.—Distribution of the forest lands of the United States by regions. 14 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. 8. Department of Agriculture | { nn _ used effectively for more than one or for all of these purposes at the same time. In some areas, however, natural or economic conditions or critical situations call for restriction or exclusion of cer- tain uses. Everywhere some correlation and ad- justment are necessary to assure optimum benefits. This harmonizing of uses typifies forestry that ade- quately serves the public interest. TaBLeE 1.—Distribution of forest land of the United States, by section and region, 1945 Section Total Non- and forest Commer- commer- region land cial cial North: j Million acres Million acres Million acres New England... 31.1 0.2 Middle Atlantic. 44.2 41.6 2.6 Walkers tera 55.7 50.3 5.4 Central ... 44.9 44.2 af Plains ..... 35.8 3.3 32.5 a Otallisie. ei ee 211.7 170.3 41.4 South: South Atlantic... 43.8 42.9 9 Southeast |........... 91.9 89.4 2.5 West Gulf............ 51.1 50.9 oD Botalice eee, 186.8 183.2 3.6 West: Pacific North- WESC hei hunts 53.9 46.2 ded California .......... 45.5 16.4 29.1 North Rocky Mitrnias ee.) 53.2 29.1 24.1 South Rocky IMitmaapre see 72.7 15.8 56.9 sRotaleis oe: 225.3 107.5 117.8 United States.............. 623.8 461.0 162.8 The major aspects of multiple use may be briefly described as follows: 1. Watershed protection.—An essential function of forests is to safeguard watersheds and their de- pendent water supply, power, and navigation fa- cilities. Forest cover helps to regulate stream flow and minimize floods. It also keeps priceless soil in place and out of streams, reservoirs, and harbors. The forest lands of the United States are well situated for watershed protection. About three- fifths of them are in the humid area east of the Plains. Here they are widely distributed, although the heaviest concentrations are in hilly or moun- tainous sections embracing the headwaters of most of the major streams. In the West the wooded slopes of high mountains and plateaus receive sev- eral times more rain and snow than the inhabited valley lands. ‘These remote forest highlands there- fore supply virtually all the ground water which Forests and National Prosperity feeds perennial streams. Without them the valleys, and indeed most of the West, would be an arid waste. At least three-fourths of the forest acreage has a major or moderate watershed influence, although misuse has greatly lessened the protective value of much of it. The other one-fourth—of minor in- fluence—includes deep sands, swamps, and overflow areas, and other lands of mild topography such as occurs in the Lake States and coastal areas. 2. Grazing.—Forest lands furnish seasonal or year-round grazing for millions of domestic animals, which supply a substantial part of the Nation’s meat, wool, and leather. With proper management most of the forest range can be grazed profitably and in harmony with other uses. Unregulated grazing, on the other hand, destroys the forage and seriously impairs other forest values as well. More than half the forest land—about 350 million acres—is used for range. About 155 million acres of this is west of the Plains, where it represents nearly 70 percent of the forest land. An additional 142 million acres is in the South, chiefly in the piney woods and mountain sections. Some 53 million acres is in the North, mainly hardwood forests on farms, where grazing is undesirable. 3. Forest recreation.—Forest lands—widely used for camping, hunting, fishing, and other outdoor sports—afford a much-sought environment for en- joyment of nature and the esthetic. For many peo- ple, forests have inspirational and _ health-giving qualities that serve as antidote to the tensions of this fast-moving age. Many million people seek some form of forest recreation each year. The demand is strongly up- ward. This continues a long-time trend—only temporarily halted by the war—which modern trans- portation, increased leisure, and other factors have greatly accentuated. The forests are under great pressure to meet recreation needs. Most forest land has value for recreation. How- ever, the usable territory is limited to about 400 million acres. Reasons for this, among others, are that the land is not accessible or its use for recrea- tion is hampered by ownership or management policies. Except for hunting and fishing, most forest recreation is concentrated on the relatively small acreage that is reserved for scenic and recrea- tional purposes. 4. Wildlife production.—Much of our rich wild- life heritage—fish, furbearing animals, bird life, and big game—is closely identified with forest rec- 15 reation and with forests. Virtually all forest land supports some wildlife. It is one of the most valu- able products on a great deal of that classed as noncommercial. Properly managed, the wildlife resource seldom interferes with other forest uses; but in some in- stances grazing and timber-cutting practices require modification to assure wildlife food and habitats. Additional forest land should be reserved primarily as game refuges to provide sanctuary and to restock surrounding territory. However, in aggregate, these reserves would include only a very small part of the total forest land. 5. Timber supply.—It is to the 461 million acres of commercial forest land that America must look for timber products. ‘Three-fourths of this is in the populous North and the South (table 1). The West, with 40 percent of the total land area, has only 23 percent of the commercial forest land. Not all of it can yet be worked economically. In the three southern regions and the Douglas- fir subregion of the Pacific Northwest climate and other factors are especially favorable for renewal and rapid growth of forests. ‘These regions have 45 percent of the commercial forest land. Seventy-five percent of the commercial forest -land, generally including the more productive and accessible, is privately owned (table 2). ‘Thirty percent, 139 million acres, is in farms;* nonfarm ownership accounts for 206 million acres, of which about 51 million are held by the basic wood-using industries—lumber and pulp companies. TABLE 2.—Ownership of commercial forest land, 1945 Ownership class base North | South West Private: Million Million Million Million acres acres acres acres Farm sk 139.0 61.0 69.0 9.0 Industrial and other....... 206.0 78.6 98.0 29.4 pRotaliea: tees 345.0 139.6 167.0 38.4 Public: : National forest. 73.5 9.5 10.1 53.9 Other Federal... 15.4 1.8 3.9 9.7 State and local. 21 19.4 2.1 5.6 Totalijev. eo 116.0 30.7 16.1 69.2 All owners -fe.i028 461.0 170.3 183.1 107.6 ‘This estimate was derived from the 1935 census. The 1945 census was not available when reappraisal data were compiled. Estimates of farm woodland may vary widely depending upon how “farm” is defined. Only a small part of private land is in medium and large holdings of 5,000 acres or more; the greater part is in small holdings—261 million acres in some 414 million properties, which average only 62 acres. These small holdings predominate in all the major sections of the United States (table 3), and from them stem many of the problems in American forestry. Private holdings furnish about 90 percent of the timber cut. They will continue to be our main source of timber, although the relative contribution of public lands, particularly the national forests, is increasing. Publicly owned commercial land makes up only one-fourth of the total. Federal agencies adminis- ter 89 million acres of this land; State and local governments, 27 million (table 2). National for- ests are the major Federal category, with about 73 million acres, chiefly in the West. National-forest land, for the most part, is in rough, often remote back country. Much of it, bearing old-growth timber, still awaits development. The bulk of the other Federal lands are in Indian reservations, the public domain and grazing districts, and in Oregon and California revested lands.® Timber growing will always be a major function of commercial forest land. ‘Today, timber needs are in the spotlight. The Nation needs ample, dependable wood supplies in its bid for peacetime prosperity. ‘The outlook, now and in the years ahead, depend greatly on the condition of the tim- ber growing stock—how it is handled and improved. The forest land is ample—the challenge lies in its management. TaBLe 3.—Distribution of private commercial forest land, by size of holding, 1945 : All Small+ |Medium®*}| Large * Section holdings Million Million Million Million acres acres acres acres Norther 140 118 6 16 SOUL Ieee eee 167 122 22 23 Westatie b0 sauna 38 21 5 12 United States. 345 261 33 51 Less than 5,000 acres. 25,000 to 50,000 acres. 3 Over 50,000 acres. 5 The last-named, some 2 million acres of high-quality tim- berlands in western Oregon, are of more importance than their relatively small acreage would imply. 16 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture EEE The Timber Resource ee ee a aS Timber Is a Crop When white men began to settle this country the timber stand probably amounted to at least 8,000 billion board feet. ‘This enormous volume was very largely in virgin timber, centuries old. Now we have about 1,600 billion board feet, only about half virgin. In the course of 300 years, and chiefly during the last century, we have used or destroyed most of our original timber heritage plus much of what has grown in the meantime. The time is long past when timber could safely be viewed as a reserve to be drawn upon without re- gard for replacement. It must now be regarded as a crop. The timber crop must be harvested in trees of a size and quality suitable for commercial use;® and since about 80 percent of all timber products are cut from trees of saw-timber size, it is important to think of the timber crop primarily in terms of saw timber.* To maintain an annual crop of merchantable timber, there must be a succession of age classes from seedlings up to full-grown timber so that as merchantable trees are cut each year new ones will be ready to take their places. If the age classes were properly balanced and the amount cut each year were equal to the annual growth, the ® Viewing commercial requirements in the broadest sense, trees 5 inches in diameter breast high or larger may be considered merchantable. Even for fuel wood, distillation wood, and other bulk products, it is not profitable to cut trees smaller than that. But for lumber the trees must be larger. 7Saw timber refers to trees large enough for sawlogs in accordance with practice of the region, regardless of actual use. Throughout the East softwood saw timber does not commonly include trees under 9 inches in diameter breast high. For hardwoods the minimum size varies by species and regions but is usually greater than for softwoods. In the pine types of the West trees must be 11 inches in diameter _ to be called saw timber; in the Douglas-fir types 15 inches is the corresponding limit; in redwood, 23 inches. Forests and National Prosperity volume of standing timber would remain constant. It could then be viewed as growing stock or forest capital on which the annual crop accrues as in- terest. In this light, until the productive capacity of the land is reached, the more growing stock or standing timber there is, the greater the crop avail- able for cutting each year. This does not apply strictly to virgin forests, be- cause in them death and decay usually offset current growth. ‘They do not fully meet the growing-stock concept until they have been converted to a net growing condition by removal of overmature trees. The Timber Stand As of the beginning of 1945, the stand of saw timber was estimated at 1,601 billion board feet (table 4 and fig. 3). ‘The volume of all timber 5 inches or more in diameter breast high was 470 billion cubic feet. These are large figures. But critical examination shows that growing stock or forest capital is by no means satisfactory. For one thing, growing stock east of the Great Plains is badly,depleted. The land is generally understocked. Although three-fourths of the com- mercial forest land is in the East, the timber there —558 billion board feet—is little more than one- third of the national total (fig. 4). Largely second growth, it is generally of poorer quality than the virgin timber. Saw-timber stands in the North average only 3.8 thousand board feet per acre and in the South 3.3 thousand. On the other hand, two western regions—the Pa- cific Northwest and California—with less than one- seventh of the commercial forest land, have more than half the saw timber in the United States. In the Douglas-fir subregion the saw timber averages 38 thousand board feet per. acre. Such heavy stands are also characteristic of the redwood belt in California. Almost 80 percent of the 1,043 billion board feet J 17 New England Middle Atlantic__- Genital eae eee 3 Plains cae eee, “ South Atlantic____ 8 Southeasteaae ee BEES Pacific Northwest__ B&xxeee SSRN ~*~ 2 255 Galifornia?= ==. = essesceereeneness North Rocky Mtn._ South Rocky Mtn.. Softwood <8 x eetenY SRS LEG Z 800 1,200 BILLION BOARD FEET 300 400 500 BILLION BOARD FEET Yt Hardwood FIGURE 3.—Saw-timber stand in the United States, by region, 1945. of saw timber in the West is in virgin stands. If these stands are cut so as to put them in good grow- ing condition, the average volume needed as grow- ing stock for future crops will generally be less than at present. Nevertheless, this backlog of for- est Capital is an extremely important part of our timber supply and should be carefully husbanded. The occurrence of different ‘species in different parts of the country is another basic element in the situation. ‘Timber in the West is almost all soft- wood, the kind that is in greatest demand for the major industrial uses. But in the North about three-fourths is hardwood. Maine is the only northern State with more softwood than hardwood. Even in the South 43 percent of the saw timber is hardwood. Half the saw timber in the United States is of three species (fig. 5): Species: Billion bd. ft. Douglas-fini< 728 ee a oe ee ie tee 430.0 Southern) ‘yellow,pines 33S ee 188.3 Ponderosa pine te eee ee ere eee ee 185.4 803.7 1All commercial southern pine species grouped together. 18 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture TaBLeE 4.—Timber volume, United States, 1945 Saw timber + All timber ? Section and region —— | -ro¢a] | Soft- | Hard-| Tota | Soft | Hard- wood | wood wood | wood Billion | Billron | Billion | Billion | Billion | Billion North: bd ft. bd ft. bd ft. CU ft. cust: cu. ft. New England 58 33 25 25 12 13 Middle ; Atlantic |... 62 14 48 27 5 22 Wake yy accesses: 50 15 35 23 7 16 Gentraly ....2 44 3 4] 21 1 20 pl ainsiee cer 6 ] 5 4 (°) 4 Total 220 66 154 100 25 75 South South Atlantic ..... 97 59 38 36 17 19 Southeast ...... 136 77 59 54 24 30 | West Gulf....... 105 58 47 4] 18 23 Motali a. 8 338 194 144 131 59 72 West: Pacific Northwest: Douglas- fir sub- region 505] 501 4). 117)|- 115 2 Pine sub- region 126 126 (°) 29 29 () Total | 631 627 4} 146 144 2 Califernia ...... 228 228K ees, 45 230) | eet North Rocky Mtn. oie 127 126 1 33 33 (°) South Rocky Mtn er: 57 56 1 15 14 1 Mota a. 1,043 | 1,037 6 239 236 3 United States... 1,601 | 1,297 304 470 320 150 *“Saw timber” includes merchantable trees large enough to yield logs for lumber, whether or not they are used for this purpose. Because the minimum size of logs acceptable for lumber varies, the minimum size of saw-timber trees ranges from 9 to 23 inches d.b.h., depending upon the species and region. ° “All timber” includes trees 5 inches and larger in diameter breast high. SLess than 0.5 billion. There is now only 15 billion board feet of white and red pine, species that once were foremost in our lumber markets. Oak is the leading hardwood, with 101 billion board feet, about equally divided between North and South. ‘This is one-third of all the hardwoods. Birch, beech, and maple, as a group, come next with 68 billion board feet, mostly in the North.8 A most disturbing fact is that the forest growing stock continues to decline. The 1945 estimate of § Additional details on species are given in: U. S. Forest Service. GAGING THE TIMBER RESOURCE OF THE UNITED STATES. (Reappraisal report 1.) Washington. 1946. Forests and National Prosperity NORTH 14% of timber 37% of orea SOUTH _ 21% of timber 40% of area WEST 65% of timber 23.% of area 100 150 AREA (MILLION ACRES) A = 110 billion board feet of sow timber Shaded symbols indicate virgin timber Ficure 4.—Distribution of the saw timber, United States, 1945. 1,601 billion board feet of saw timber is 43 percent less than reported by the Bureau of Corporations (Department of Commerce) for 1909, and 9 percent less than the Forest Service estimate for 1938.° Although the 1938 and 1945 figures are not en- tirely comparable,'® the fact of a major decline in saw-timber volume in recent years is clinched by figures for the regions where comparable data are available from the Forest Survey (table 5). The saw timber in 15 surveyed States dropped 156 bil-_ °The decline since 1909 has probably been greater than indicated. The 1909 estimate did not fully recognize the smaller properties, and many species which are now mer- chantable were disregarded. Furthermore, in contrast to the practice 35 or 40 years ago, lumbermen and foresters now count trees of much smaller size as saw timber, particularly in the East. 1°'The 1938 estimates were weak in regions which have not been adequately surveyed. For example, more saw tim- ber is now reported for the North than in 1938. The dif- ference is primarily in the Middle Atlantic and Central States where hardwoods are reported at almost double the 1938 estimate. Such differences are much greater than could have resulted from growth even if there had been no cutting. They are partly due to an increase in the estimate of commercial forest acreage. In California also, where the progress of depletion is common knowledge, better estimates in 1945 resulted in a larger figure than in 1938. On the other hand, the 1945 estimates for the two Rocky Mountain regions are lower than in 1938 because a more realistic ap- praisal of operating prospects led to a reduction of almost 16 million acres in the commercial forest area. 19 Douglas -fir_______ Ponderosa pine_ True firs Western hemlock__ Sugar and white pines______ Redwood_________ Sprucesew eaten Lodgepole pine___ Other softwood___ So. yellow pines __ Spruce and fir __ White and red pine Hemlock Beech, birch, _ and maple Sweetgum Blackgum ond water tupelo____ k Other hardwood___ Cottonwood, aspen. Yellow-poplar______ eet ee ee ee ee eer RX QQ AAAAAAAAAMAMAA-_A-_A-_AQA A AA{N Bane RMS Qa RRs Een MOE 8ix0.g XXX Xn Oy SECTIONAL GROUPS AND KEY Western Bee eee “2 | softwood. LSS KR Eastern softwood. LLY Eastern Ee hardwood. __Kxxes 200 400 600 800 1,000 BILLION BOARD FEET BILLION BOARD FEET FIGURE 5.—Saw-timber volume, by kind of wood, United States, 1945. Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture ge ee ee TABLE 5.—Decrease of saw-timber stand between original survey and 1945 Years of Region original Decrease survey Billion bd. ft. Percent ILEUS a re re Oe 1934-36 6.9 12 South Atlantic (N. C. and S. C. Only) etre 1936-38 1.6 2 Southeast? ............... 1932-36 22.0 15 Wrest:Gulf? 1934-36 : 13.0 12 Pacific Northwest °. 1933-36 112.3 15 15 States.......... 1932-38 4 155.8 14 \ 1’Tennessee not included. ? Northwestern Arkansas and northeastern Oklahoma not included. ‘Volumes in original survey adjusted for subsequent shifts between commercial and noncommercial status. “Median year, 1934. lion board feet or 14 percent between the time of original survey and 1945—an average period of 11 years. These States contain 60 percent of the saw timber in the United States and account for about three-fourths of the annual cut. Ownership of the Timber Ownership is an important aspect of the timber situation because rate of cutting and measures taken to insure desirable new growth are related to the intent of the timber owner, and the stability of his tenure. Up to the close of the last century the policy of this country was to turn the public domain over to private ownership in order to promote settle- ment and development. Not until practically all the land east of the Great Plains and much of the best and most accessible land of the West had passed into private ownership did concern for future tim- ber supply lead to the setting aside of the national forests. and a basic change in our policy of land disposal. As a result of rapid exploitation of private timber _ and of a conservative policy in opening up the national forests—both related to economic circum- stances—43 percent of the saw timber now stands on the 25 percent of the commercial forest land that is publicly owned (table 6. and fig. 6). The proportion differs greatly between East and West. In the West almost one-half is in the na- tional forests and 15 percent is in other public Forests and National Prosperity ownership; less than 40 percent is in private owner- ship. But the 397 billion board feet of western private timber, mostly in the Pacific Northwest and California, is generally more accessible and of better quality than the public timber. TABLE 6.—Ownership of saw timber, 1945 ane =a : United Ownership class North South West States Public: $ Billton Billion Billion Billion National bd. ft. bd. ft. bd. ft. bd. ft. forest 8 14 496 518 Other Federal 2 4 98 104 State and local 10 3 52 65 iEotale: ne P 20 21 646 687 Private: Farm thine 76 134 34 244 Other private. 124 183 363 670 otal. a 200 317 397 914 All owners......... 220 338 1,043 1,601 In the East, although the acreage in public owner- ship has been increased as a result of inability of private owners to hold and restore cut-over lands or of their willingness to sell, 93 percent of the saw-timber volume is privately owned. Clearly, public forests in the East are not able to make a very large contribution to national timber needs. More than one-fourth of the private timber is on the farms. In the Central, Plains, and South At- lantic regions, farms contain more timber than do other private holdings. But in the Douglas-fir subregion of the Pacific Northwest, farms have only 4 percent of the private timber because most of the forest land on the farms is cut-over. The farm timber resources, especially in the East, contribute a good deal to the national timber supply. Prop- erly managed, they can also be a more stable and better source of farm income. Private timber in other than farm holdings is the major source of raw material for the timber in- dustries at present. How much of the 670 billion board feet in this class of ownership is held by the industries themselves and how much is in the hands of other types of owners is not known. How- ever, the lumber and pulp companies own only 15 percent of the private commercial forest land. Quite plainly, good management of the industrial timber holdings, although essential, will not of itself provide an adequate supply of timber prod- ucts for the Nation. see (Ge ee ee 4 SLO g CLIT SLA AA AILIDILIL GLEE se CLEPTSELLIEILLCLILEGLILISLIL All public YAU AllSpriviatemesys |! esress| eae eee et a i 600 400 200 CLE “99 VMOLLLYSD MOA LEE QLELLILLLIEE GOLTUDA TA TALTLILLIDE, SOCLTI ISL ILEL er, ts445 Ws NORTH AND SOUTH WA o North RX South EN C«;W;&;&;&§;(,VV«v O 200 ; 400 600 CATET 7 CCIEELL LLL BILLION BOARD FEET FIGURE 6.—Ownership of saw timber in the United States, 1945. Growth Classes Not Well Balanced It is not enough to appraise forest growing stock in terms of its volume. ‘The distribution of age classes and the quality are also important. Al- though age or growth classes should be balanced locally, it is only possible here to bring out major features of the situation for the North, South, and West (table 7).12 In the North almost half the commercial forest land bears only seedlings and saplings !” or is de- nuded. Another one-fourth is in pole timber too small for sawlogs. Only 28 percent of the land bears stands of saw-timber size. A survey in New England showed that in 69 out of 118 mills, cutting primarily softwoods, the average log size was 10 inches or less. One may drive for miles through forest land in some parts of the North without see- ing any merchantable saw timber. é In the South more than half the commercial forest land has been classified as saw timber; how- ever, stands with only 600 board feet per acre qualified as saw timber, in contrast with 2,000 board feet in most other eastern regions. Large “Tor acreage by regions, see table 17 of reference given in footnote 8, p. 19. “Trees up to 4 inches in diameter breast high. no no saw timber is scarce in the South; stands with more than half the saw-timber trees over 18 inches in diameter occupy only 1 percent of the forest land. In the West Gulf and Southeast regions the average pine saw-timber tree is about 20 percent smaller than 10 years ago. An increasing number of mills are cutting 6-inch trees and it is not uncommon to see a logging truck carrying 50 or more logs. Obvi- ously, mills operate on such small logs only because the supply of larger timber is scarce. In the Missis- sippi Delta many hardwood mills are operating on logs one-half or one-third as large as formerly TABLE 7.—Distribution of growth classes, in percent of commercial forest acreage, 1945 Class of area North South West United States Saw-timber: Percent Percent Percent Percent Virginie tao 0.5 Second growth. 27.0 53.2 16.0 34.8 Total ewes 28.3 Ee 54.5 Aas Pole-timber .............. 24.3 16.0 22.6 20.6 Seedling and saplingyee cee ee 29.0 12.5 12.4 18.6 Poorly stocked seed- ling and sapling, and denuded........ 18.4 17.8 10.5 16.3 All areas....... 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture and most of the rest face a similar decline in the near future. In both North and South the keen demand for pulpwood, mine timbers, box-grade lumber, and other items which can be cut from small trees induces premature cutting of young trees which should be left to grow. This tends to perpetuate and aggravate the present shortage of larger timber. In the West as a whole, virgin stands now occupy less than two-fifths of the commercial forest land, and one-fourth has been reduced to seedling and sapling growth or is denuded. ‘Taking the Douglas- fir subregion of the Pacific Northwest alone, the latter proportion is even greater. _ The 44.6 million acres of virgin forest contain more than half our saw-timber volume. But only one-fourth of this acreage meets the high standards popularly associated with virgin timber: heavy stands of large, high-quality trees of good species with little defect (table 8). The best of the virgin timber is in the Pacific Northwest. In California and the Rocky Mountain regions, which have half the acreage, half of it is rated as poor quality. For the country as a whole, 37 percent of the virgin forest is of poor quality. These poor-quality stands, containing only 15 percent of the total volume of virgin timber, are often very defective and of doubtful value. Some are long past their prime. Others contain a high percentage of in- ferior species; and others, now merchantable, are on poor sites which, as a practical matter, may never again grow good timber. Tas_e 8.—Quality of virgin timber stands Stand quality Regi r section Area Se : ae Good Medium Poor Million acres Percent Percent Percent Pacific Northwest... 18.5 39 40 21 California and the Rocky Mountain MECIONS see eee ee 22.8 2: 36 52 INOL thi ae 2.3 19 54 27 Southage see 1.0 55 34 ll United States ....... 44.6 25 38 37 Much of the Forest Land Is Poorly Stocked Another indication that growing stock is below par is the prevalence of poor stocking—about 35 percent of all the commercial forest land is de- Forests and National Prosperity forested or has less than 40 percent of the number of trees required for full stocking: Poorly stocked and denuded forest land Percent of Million commercial Section: acres forest area INGE EEG feo ecole eit PRS ROR 59.4 35 SOU CISA RC patie markings, soe ne 85.2 46 WIGS Eig iri Meee Acacia, aA Tang Un nee 19.2 18 United\\States! 2.02.5. Stasis eee 163.8 35 This includes 58.0 million acres of second-growth saw timber; 30.5 million pole timber; and 75.3 million of seedlings, saplings, and denuded areas. Almost nine-tenths of the poorly stocked stands are in the North and South. ‘The southern forests are the most deficient, almost half being deforested or poorly stocked. In both North and South 35 to 40 percent of the second-growth saw timber and pole timber is poorly stocked and not over 25 per- cent is more than 70 percent stocked. Of special significance is the 75.3 million acres of poorly stocked seedlings and saplings and wholly denuded lands. ‘This idle forest land—representing about 1 acre in every 6—contributes little to the support of roads, schools, or other community serv- ices. It supports no jobs. Taxes, if paid, must come from other productive enterprise. By and large, the rehabilitation of denuded forest land is a job that must be done by the public or with public aid if it is to be done. Yet 61.8 million acres or 82 percent of this idle land is in private ownership, as shown in the accompanying tabula- tion. Almost nine-tenths of this is in the East. Forest land All Denuded 1 commercial (million Ownership: (million acres) acres) (percent) Med eral tiie et enes Sy a eee 89 7.1 8 State and local government........ 27 6.4 24 IEIV ALC tyeece see ee ere nee 345 61:8 18 IAIIFOW NETS is 8a ote eee oe 461 75.3 16 2Includes poorly stocked seedling and sapling areas. Only 8 percent of the commercial forest land in Federal ownership is denuded, or nearly so, in con- trast to 24 percent for the forests held by State and local governments and 18 percent for the private lands. ‘The Federal percent is low because these forests, largely in the West, have been protected for many years, and cutting on them has been gen- erally good. The high percent for State and local public forests reflects the denuded condition in which so much of this land in the East came into public ownership, often through tax delinquency. It is reasonable to assume that the acreage of. 23 poorly stocked land will shrink as a result of im- proved fire protection and better cutting practices. Indeed, surveys in the South indicate that stocking in that region is better now than it was a decade ago. Young growth is springing up on millions of acres now protected from fire. This is one of the hopeful signs. : Quality of Timber Is Declining Exploitation of the forests has lowered timber values in a number of ways. “High-grading’’— cutting the best trees and leaving the poor—destruc- tive cutting, and fire have all replaced valuable timber with inferior stands. Evidence from all regions makes it clear that the fine logs needed by many forest industries are no longer abundant. This is serious because only after a long period of purposeful management can second growth approach the high quality of the original timber. In the Northwest, the young and rapidly expand- ing Douglas-fir plywood industry faces major re- adjustment almost before it has hit its full stride. In the South, veneer manufacturers have difficulty maintaining an adequate flow of suitable hardwood logs. Some piece out their supply with logs from South America. White oak suitable for tight cooperage is playing out also. Some operators are going after as few as 10 trees per 40 acres. So it is with other items. The end of Port Or- ford cedar for battery separators is in sight. The cedar-pole industry faces radical curtailment. Hickory ski blanks are hard to get. Durable heart cypress in any quantity will soon be a thing of the past. High-grading, as to both species and quality, be- gan in Colonial days with the combing of the eastern seaboard for white pine masts and oak ship timbers. It went through another cycle as the country’s growing lumber industry took the virgin white pine in the Middle Atlantic and New Eng- land States, leaving spruce and hardwoods for a later generation. Before the pulp and paper industry became an important factor, lumbermen had again worked over the northeastern forests, selecting the big spruce that could be logged to the drivable streams. Pulp operations, in turn, have been concentrated on the remaining spruce and balsam fir, practically eliminating these species from some of the mixed stands and leaving much of the land in possession of hardwoods, which are often unmerchantapble and highly defective. Even where the northern hardwoods could be marketed, operators sought out the best yellow birch for veneers and sugar maple for flooring, furniture, etc. Beech, although an important species, has been largely neglected, not only be- cause the wood is more difficult to season, but also because the trees are so commonly defective. In southern New England the deterioration of the sprout hardwood forest by repeated cutting and fire (accentuated by the blight which killed all the chestnut some 25 to 30 years ago) has left little timber attractive to the timber industries. In fact, forest management here is handicapped by the dif- ficulty of disposing of the inferior growth that now preempts so much of the land. In the Middle Atlantic region between 5 and 6 million acres that once bore good commercial stands have been hit particularly hard. Destruc- tive logging and repeated burning have almost desolated much of the oak-pine land of New Jersey. Similar practices in eastern Pennsylvania converted a large acreage of good forest to scrub oak. Under organized protection some of this land is slowly recovering, but the composition and quality of the new forest are distinctly inferior to what might have been maintained, as is shown by isolated tracts that escape destruction. In the Lake region forest deterioration is an old story. It has perhaps been more complete and more extensive than in any other region and it is still con- tinuing. Farm woodlands in the oak-hickory sec- tions are mostly stocked with short, limby, and de- fective trees. Farther north, 5 million acres which once bore magnificent pines now grow scrubby aspen—scrubby because on that dry, sandy soil aspen grows slowly and deteriorates at an early age. This scrubby and often worthless timber greatly impedes the growth of conifer plantations. As for saw tim- ber, since 1936 the volume of white pine and red pine has dropped 29 percent; birch, beech, and maple together have declined 16 percent; but the volume of the much less desirable aspen increased 55 percent. During the war, Missouri produced only about 32 million board feet of softwood lumber a year. Yet in 1899 its softwood output was 273 million board feet. Although from 250 to 300 million board feet of hardwood lumber is still cut in the State, the forests of the Ozarks have largely degen- erated into a stand of small and inferior timber 24 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture that can support little industry. A recent study indicated that two-thirds of the trees 5 inches and larger in diameter were defective. Throughout the South from Virginia to Texas the story is much the same, though the details vary. In the Appalachian Mountains the lumber indus- try has concentrated on yellow-poplar and the better oaks. Removal of such timber from the coves in many instances reduced the remaining forest to an unmerchantable condition from which it has been slow to recover. Longleaf pine has been succeeded by scrub oak on over 2 million acres, mostly in Florida. The inferior hackberry- elm-ash type has replaced more valuable oak and sweetgum in from 10 to 15 percent of the delta and bottom land of the Mississippi. In mixed pine-hardwood stands of the South, heavy cutting, which took pine to a much smaller diameter than hardwood, has allowed hardwoods of increasingly inferior quality to take over. For example, entire counties in the Piedmont of North Carolina are now covered with small or low-grade hardwood, because the mills have virtually ex- hausted the pine timber and better hardwoods. The total cubic-foot volume of softwood timber in the Southeast and West Gulf regions decreased 4 percent from the early thirties until 1945, whereas the hardwood volume increased 5 percent (fig. 7). In this case the combined cubic-foot volume re- mained practically unchanged, yet the forest was by no means holding its own. Hardwood saw tim- ber declined almost as fast as the pine. In the North Rocky Mountain region, particu- larly in the panhandle of Idaho, western white pine has been the mainstay of the lumber industry. The western hemlock and white fir with which the pine is associated have been largely without a market. Commonly defective, these species left after high-grading for white pine often preclude the reestablishment of a satisfactory pine forest. In other Rocky Mountain types ponderosa pine has been cut, while Douglas-fir (of secondary value in the interior regions) has been left. Similarly the lumber industry in California has been built around redwood, sugar pine, and pon- derosa pine. These species make up less than half the stand, but supply more than 70 percent of the region’s cut. Removal of these species, especially in the mixed type of the west side of the Sierras, often leaves a forest in which the less desirable white fir and incense-cedar predominate. 806034°—49—3 Forests and National Prosperity = SOFTWOOD HARDWOOD 40 39 SEK Pas 2 &X b 38 = c] res w Ke o ¢] 0] = BS SA] 3 Bs 37 KS = et = ~N ‘ P~ D ag b> & Se 36 ss we AAA KX 1 Ree 0.00.00... <2 $5 ¢, RRR TIRES O04 eetete fo) d p Pd POOOS & ?, © re 1932-36 1945 FicureE 7.—Southern pine volume declines while hardwoods gain. Data refer to total volume of all trees 5 inches and larger in 32 survey units containing 82 percent of all timber in the West Gulf and Southeast regions. Some of the Timber Is Not Operable Although much timber not now merchantable may find a market as forest depletion and timber shortage become more acute, we cannot count on using all the timber included in the inventory. There will always be some timber beyond the economic pale. The volume may be less in periods of especially strong demand; and it may be more in periods of depression. It will not always be the same trees, or in the same stands. Some inoperable timber lies in localities that have already been reached by commercial opera- tions. This is inoperable in a more permanent sense than the timber in parts of the West that have not yet been opened up. Some of it is inop- erable because it is so defective, scattered, in such small blocks, or in such difficult locations that it may never be economically feasible to get it out. For instance, 100 billion board feet of saw timber occurs in stands too light to justify commercial operation. The poor quality of some of the virgin stands has already been mentioned. Small size and 25 limited utility of certain species may also keep some timber beyond economic access. In mixed stands, moreover, trees of inferior species or poor quality are often lost if they cannot be marketed along with the better trees. Although the aggregate effect of these factors cannot be dependably estimated, it is important to make allowance for economic unavailability in calculating allowable cut or establishing growth goals. Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture Our Use of the Timber Resource Shrinking Supply Limits Timber Use The continued shrinkage and deterioration of forest growing stock is the heart of the Nation’s forest problem. It means that we cannot use timber as generously as in the past. For example, the difficulty of getting lumber has driven lumber prices up more than those of other construction materials. Relief that may come from more rapid cutting of the present timber stand will at best be temporary or partial. The tide of depletion must be turned if the forests are to make their full contribution to the economic and social life of the Nation. To help turn the tide every effort should, of course, be made to reduce waste in logging, manu- facture, and use. Losses from fire, insects, disease, and other destructive agents should also be re- duced. But above all, more timber should be grown—the extent of denuded land and the wide- spread occurrence of poor stocking and inferior _ quality indicate that much of the productive ca- pacity of the land is going to waste. Good cutting practices in the virgin timber also offer opportunity for increasing timber growth. But saw timber can- not be grown overnight—and timber shortage is pressing us now. To bring the problem of timber use and depletion into focus, it is necessary to examine current growth and drain.1% Timber Growth | The forests of the United States are now grow- ing at a yearly rate of 13.4 billion cubic feet of all timber including 35.3 billion board feet of saw timber 14 (table 9). Over half of the saw-timber growth (56 percent) is in the South. Only one- fourth is in the North, although the North has _ almost as much commercial forest land as the _ South. The remaining one-fifth is in the West. 48 Timber drain measures the total volume removed from the forest by cutting (including waste and breakage in log- ging) and by losses from fire, wind, ice, epidemics of insects or disease, and other destructive agents. Endemic losses from insects and disease are accounted for in growth computations. “See footnote 7, p. 17, for definition. Forests and National Prosperity Ke In the eastern half of the country, where prac- tically all the forest land has been cut over one or more times, current growth really measures the extent to which present practices utilize the pro- ductive capacity of the land. In the West, on the other hand, timber growth may be expected to increase as cutting progresses, because two-fifths of the commercial forest land is still in virgin timber, making little or no net growth. Effective saw-timber growth can be obtained promptly in some virgin forest types by selective cutting, which would take the overmature and decadent trees and leave a vigorous growing stock. Clear-cutting of a whole area, however, usually postpones effective saw-timber growth 50 years or more. The current estimate of saw-timber growth is 3.3 billion board feet greater than the 1938 esti- mate. Most of the difference may be due to the nature of the estimates rather than to changes actually taking place. For example, earlier esti- mates were weaker and generally lower than cur- rent estimates in regions not reached by the Forest Survey, notably the New England, Middle At- lantic, Central, and California regions.1> Such increases were partly offset by a reduction in the area of commercial forest land in the Rocky Moun- tain regions. An improved method of calculating growth led to an increase over the earlier estimate for the Douglas-fir subregion. Only for the Lake region and the South are the estimates comparable. In the Lake region saw-timber growth dropped 24 percent in 10 years, with the decline more acute for softwoods than hardwoods. Total cubic-foot growth declined 17 percent. In the South!® saw-timber growth is 3 percent greater than it was 10 years ago. However, the net increase of 622 million board feet is the result of % See footnote 10, p. 19. 1° These figures are based on the South as defined in the 1938 appraisal. Kentucky and West Virginia are included in addition to the three regions comprising the South in this report. Even here estimates are not fully comparable. Four States (Va., W. Va., Tenn., and Ky.) were not covered by the Forest Survey in 1938, and in 1945. Survey data were avail- able for only one of these (Va.). Al. an increase of 886 million board feet (12 percent) of hardwoods and a decrease of 264 million board feet (2 percent) of softwoods. Similarly, two-thirds of a 9-percent increase in all-timber growth is in hardwood. ‘Thus break-down of the growth figures confirms evidence in the previous section on the replacement of the more desirable pine by hard- woods. The over-all figures, which superficially in- dicate an improvement, really reflect deterioration of the forest. TABLE 9.—Current annual timber growth 1 Saw-timber growth | All-timber growth Section | and region Soft- |Hard- Soft- |Hard- Total |wood | wood | Total | wood | wood Billion | Billion | Billion | Billion | Billion | Billion North: bd. ft. | bd. ft. | bd. ft. | cu. ft. | cu. ft. | cu. ft. New England| 1.80| 0.91 | 0.89| 0.90] 0.42) 0.48 Middie Atlantic QT “AGO! Ost | 1-40) eee OATS Lakes soeeees sila ol-40)Ile 94. | ol 06u|:ah-6balece 1 Sel pmcO3 Centralye oer 2.25 13) 2.12 | 1.44 10 1.34 Plainssc eos 19 02 L7 12 01 ll flotal” 2a 8.35 | 2.00] 6.35 | 4.67 98 3.69 South: South Atlantic ...... 6.11 | 4.02} 2.09 | 1.76} 1.01 75 Southeast ..... 8.22 | 5.28 | 2.94 2.71 1.48 1.23 West Gulf... 5.61 | 3.62] 1.99} 1.92] 1.03 89 (Lotalie ew: 19:94) 12.9215 7-02" |) 16:39) 73.52 2.87 West: Pacific Northwest: Douglas- fir sub- _region 3.74 | 3.67 .07 | 1.02 99 .03 Pine sub- region | .48 ASE FLERE ee 199) Pa es Total ..| 4.22 | 4.15 07 | 1.24] 1.21 03 California _..... VGH UG | fee ee 33 crite) ener mcr North. Rocky Mini, 22.8. =: 1.31 | 1.30 (?) 54 54 ?) South Rocky Minaee ee! 32 32 (6) 20 18 02 Wotalexeak 7.01 | 6.93 08 | 2.31 | 2.26 .05 35.30 | 21.85 | 13.45 |13.37 | 6.76 6.61 Data for 1944. * Less than 0.005. Timber Drain Forest drain, or the volume taken by cutting, and by fire and other destructive agents, was 13.7 billion cubic feet in 1944 (tabulation following). Of the all-timber drain, almost 80 percent, or the equivalent of 53.9 billion board feet, was saw timber. Hardwoods comprise 40 percent of the all- timber drain, but less than 30 percent of the saw- timber drain. Forest drain All timber 14 Saw timber * (billion cu. ft.) (billion bd. ft.) Abimbercut,7194 4 eee eee 12.18 49.66 Bi Te H]OSS es \sereeneeeset eee taet aes eee 46 86 Insect and disease losses*. 62 1.93 Windstorm and other losses? 40 1.44 Ota a. -5 Ns Bi bed 2655 BSN AS ease es 13.66 53.89 + Excluding bark. * Lumber tally. * Average volume destroyed yearly in period 1934-43. Although domestic use of wood was sharply re- duced because of the war, saw-timber drain in 1944 was over 6 billion board feet more than in 1936, the year of the last previous comprehensive estimate. During the peak years 1941-43, saw timber drain was close to 60 billion board feet annually. It was again close to this figure in 1947. About nine-tenths of the drain is due to cut- ting. The remainder is the work of fire, insects, diseases, and other natural causes. Not included in the drain figures is the loss by destructive agents of millions of small trees below 5 inches in diam- eter, which are no less important for future timber supply. Also serious are the deterioration of forest soil and the adverse watershed conditions result- ing from fire and destructive cutting. Nearly half the all-timber drain occurs in the South, which has only 28 percent of the Nation’s timber, while about one-fourth each occurs in the North and West, with 21 and 51 percent of the timber, respectively (table 10). . Saw-timber drain from the South (25 billion board feet) is 25 percent greater than that from the West (20 billion board feet), even though the timber in the South is now almost all second growth and the West still has a large volume of virgin timber. Because of the advanced stage of depletion in the North, only 17 percent of the saw-timber drain now comes from that section, despite its great consumption of lumber. The rate of drain in relation to saw-timber volume is greater for softwoods than for hardwoods in both North and South. Lumber is by far the largest item (table 11 and fig. 8), making up about 70 percent of the saw timber and 55 percent of the cubic-foot cutting drain. The lumber cut in 1944 was about 5 billion board feet more than in 1936 but 6 billion less than in 1929, and 5 billion less than in 1947. About three-fourths of the 34.4 billion board feet Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture of lumber drain in 1944 was softwood and one- fourth hardwood. Two-fifths came from the South and another two-fifths from the Northwest and California (table 12). Only 14 percent came from. the 37 percent of the commercial forest land that is in the North. TasB_eE 10.—Annual forest drain, by region} Saw timber All timber Section and Region Soft- | Hard- Soft- | Hard- Total | woods | woods | Total | woods| woods | Billion | Billion | Billion | Billion | Billion | Billion North: bd. ft. |bd. ft. | cu. ft. | cu. ft. | cu. ft. bd. ft. cats swaies New England| 2.20] 1.44] 0.76} 0.76] 0.37 0.39 Middle Atlantic ....... 2.30 58| 1.72 85 18 67 MAK OME er. cesses: 2.01 84] 1.17 74 32 42 Central ............ 2.34 EZ 222 20) 05 1.15 Plains 18 O01 ali 2 O01 bl fetes ~ 9.03| 2.99] 6.04/" 3.67) 93] 2.74 South: South Atlantic) 6.14 4.30 1.84 1.60} 1.06 54 Southeast ........ 11.93} 7.54] 4.39] 3.02] 1.79 1.23 West Gulf ........ 6.83] 3.80} 3.03] 1.84 85 99 ehotal Fe. .| 24.90] 15.64) 9.26) 646] 3.70] 2.76 West: Pacific North- west: Douglas- fir sub- region _| 12.00} 11.98 02) 2.15] 2.15 (°) Pine sub- region .| 2.53] 2.53] — ..... AT AT linet sliotall cain, 14.53] 14.51 02| 2.62] 2.62 ) California _.... 8. L6s S16). 3 AQ Uhlan ese North Rocky Mina 3.3, 1.79} 1.76 .03 32) 31 01 South Rocky Mtn. ............ ABI eT NO ee-LO)|") .10)| eda) Motal ne ist 19.96 | 19.90 06] 3.53) 3.52 01 United States... 53.89 | 38.53) 15.36] 13.66) 8.15} 5.51 +Drain for commodities is based on 1944 data; estimates for loss by destructive agents are based on 1934-43 averages. 2Less than 0.006. Fuel wood, which makes up 18 percent of the cutting drain, amounts to 2.2 billion cubic feet (table 11 and fig. 8). This drain item is relatively important in the South and in the North, and of little consequence in the West (table 12). Two- thirds is in hardwoods, one-third in softwoods. More than half of the 65 million cords of fuel wood used each year is obtained from tops and limbs of trees cut for sawlogs and other products, from dead and dying trees, from mill waste, etc., and so does not add to forest drain. Only 45 percent of the fuel wood used is shown as drain. Nevertheless, this is too much. Two-fifths of the Forests and National Prosperity SOFTWOOD HARDWOOD LUMBER WLLL FUEL WOOD Wed PULPWOOD MISC. COMMODITY USE WUMUMMMMMtbdbbdb Ee Sema 2 fe) BILLION CUBIC FEET Ficure 8.—Annual forest drain by cutting (1944) and destruc- tive agents (1934-43), United States. direct fuel-wood drain is from saw timber, and much of this is potentially more valuable for other products. It should not be necessary to cut much saw timber for fuel, or to clear-cut pole timber, if cutting for fuel were regarded as a tool of good forestry rather than the end point in timber har- vest. Farmers, especially, could improve their stands by getting more fuel wood from thinnings, from trees of undesirable form or species, and from more complete utilization of trees cut for other purposes. Tas_Le 11.—Forest drain, by commodities cut, 1944 Saw-timber drain All-timber drain Commodity Soft- |Hard- Soft- |Hard- Total |woods |woods | Total |woods | woods Billion | Billion | Billion | Billion | Billion | Billion bd. ft. | bd. ft. | bd. ft. | cu. ft. |cu. ft. | cu. ft. Joum bere £2) ae 34.39 |26.13 | 8.26 | 6.71 | 4.78 1.93 Fuel wood ................ 3.86 | 1.96 | 1.90 | 2.20 72 1.48 Pulpwood ................ 4.76 | 4.50 226) PS 7 14 Hewnities: . bre... 2: 1.64 78 86 36 15 21 Fence: posts: %7-!),--- 23 08 15 22 .06 16 Veneer logs ............ 1.97 94 | 1.03 39 16 .23 Mine timbers ........ 32 .O7 25 23 .04 19 Cooperages. fe 75 20 55 aly .04 13 Shingles 1.0.0.0... al Rasoo 33 Sel ae Od .07 See Others Sawiee 1.41 .60 81 52 16 36 otal ens e 49.66 | 35.59 |14.07 | 12.18 | 7.35 4.83 TABLE 12.—Major items of forest drain by region, 1944 Section Fuel Pulp- Other Insects, and region Lumber wood wood commodi- Fire? disease, ties? etc? e Million Million Million Million Million Million Million Million North: bd. ft. cu. ft. cu. ft. cu. ft. cu. ft. bd. ft cu. ft. cu. ft. New/England |e pe sun ese: 864 201 194 54 82 3 5 125 Middle Atlantic .” 1,361 313 224 52 204 23 18 35 Take) seis eee noes Viel cay wine en 1,170 333 96 179 90 8 6 43 Genitral ih sioee re Rises ie ee 1,479 395 380 32 291 102 57 46 Plains karen. oe eMac an aetre 36 9 79 i 10 1 1 19 SEO Call Sroee tir Sees ee eee nete erent 4,910 1,251 973 417 677 137 87 268 South: ae ee SouthPAtlanticie: ee = et cere 3,536 707 373 166 133 48 24 193 South easty este eee ee 6,867 1,356 498 257 473 229 149 289 WrestiGul fii ser sera tene neice 3,819 774 298 152 398 156 107 113 Totaly ctied0s 7 ii (oan pas 14,222 2,837 1,169 575 1,004 433 280 595 West: Pacific;North west) see 22-5 ee 10,877 1,934 36 309 232 131 44 63 Galiforniat pokes eee eee 2,496 372 2 22 91 29 65 North Rocky Mtn. oo 1,499 246 19 5 20 61 17 9 Souch@Rockyeiicny = nee 387 7 4 teen fs g z 2 STO ta pects seit nee wear ee 15,259 2,623 61 314 281 289 93 156 United'Statest 2ys= side Wen ees one 34,391 6,711 2,203 1,306 1,962 859 460 1,019 *Veneer logs, hewn ties, mine timbers, fence posts, cooperage stock, shingles, and other small items. ? Average volume destroyed annually, 1934-43. Pulpwood is a rapidly increasing element in drain (table 11] and fig. 8). In 1929 it totaled 4 percent of the commodity drain; in 1936, 6 per- cent; and in 1944, 11 percent. This increase has been largely due to the rapid expansion of the pulp and paper industry in the South. Remarkable advances in adapting the sulfate pulping process (using pine) to a wide variety of important com- mercial products, have led to the erection or enlargement of some 20 mills in the South since 1931 and additional units are under construction. Pulpwood drain in the South now exceeds that of the North by nearly 40 percent. It exceeds that of the West by over 80 percent (table 12). In the Pacific Northwest, however, is concentrated some 309 million cubic feet, which is almost one-fourth the total for the country. Nearly nine-tenths of the pulpwood cut in the South is pine. In the North, spruce, fir, hemlock, and pine make up three-fourths. Pulpwood in the West is chiefly spruce, true fir, and hemlock. Although the specifications are more exacting than for fuel wood, more of the pulpwood also could be obtained from thinnings, improvement cuttings, and waste. As it is, however, all but a small fraction of the pulpwood cut is taken from the forest in harvest cuttings. 30 Other products——Whereas lumber, fuel wood, and pulpwood make up 84 percent of the total commodity drain, the remaining 16 percent com- prises more than 25 items including, in order of cubic volume cut annually, veneer logs, hewn ties, round mine timbers, fence posts, cooperage stock, and shingles. Although small in volume, poles for rural electric lines are an important item. The South accounts for more than half the drain in these miscellaneous items, the North one-third, and the West only one-seventh. Comparison of Growth and Drain Comparison of growth and drain is an instruc- tive but often overworked criterion of the Nation’s forest situation. Because of the great difference between regions as to forest conditions and stage of depletion, over-all figures may be misleading; and for the same reason regional figures should not be uniformly interpreted. Furthermore, it — would be of little value to balance growth and drain by bringing timber use down to the present inadequate level of growth. To fully meet national needs and objectives, as will be shown in the next chapter, it will be necessary to balance growth against a level of consumption and drain higher than at present. Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture Cuan | | | | | The near balance between all-timber drain (13.7 billion cubic feet) and all-timber growth (13.4 bil- lion cubic feet) is deceptive (table 13). These figures mask the fact that for softwoods the drain is 21 percent more than growth, while for hard- woods it is 17 percent less. Furthermore, four- fifths of the drain is in saw timber. Saw-timber drain is more than 50 percent greater than saw- timber growth. The Nation should not be satis- fied with a balance based on poles and saplings when its forest industries depend so largely on saw timber. . TaBLe 13.—Comparison of timber growth and drain, 1944 Saw timber All timber Species group and section Drain Drain Growth ratio2 |Growth} Drain |} patio Billion | Billion Billion | Billion All species: bd. ft bd. ft. | Percent | cu.ft. | cu. ft. | Percent INOrth ae 8.4 9.0 108 4.7 SET, Southys cree 19.9 24.9 125 6.4 6.5 101 NWWies temieetie (an 7.0 | 20.0 285 2.3 3.5 152 United States} 35.3 | 53.9 153 | 13.4 | 13.7 102 Softwood: North ye s ik ce 2.0 3.0 150 1.0 1.0 96 South 20... 12.9 | 15.6 121 3.5 aby 105 IWIES bs whosta sone 6.9 | 19.9 287 2.3 3.5 155 United States] 21.8 38.5 176 6.8 8.2 120 Hardwood: North) ets 6.4 6.0 95 SET. 2], 74 Souths cs 7.0 9.3 132 2.9 2.8 96 Wiesttcn sane ay J Bl @i\o- @ 25 United States] 13.5 | 15.4 114 6.6 5.5 83 +Computed before rounding data to tenths of billions. *0.05 or less. In the West, drain is much greater than growth (fig. 9), but the virgin timber eases the situation there for the present. Nevertheless, hard times will come for dependent communities unless the virgin stands are cut at a rate and in a manner that will promote future growth. Without good forest prac- tice and farsighted planning for both private and public lands, waning of the virgin timber may usher in a long period when there will not be enough saw timber to fully sustain the timber in- dustries. This has already happened in some lo- calities, notably around Puget Sound in western Washington and Klamath Falls in central Oregon. In the North, saw-timber drain is only 7 percent more than saw-timber growth; drain. for all tim- ber is 21 percent less than growth. Yet the forest situation is more acute than in the other sections. Largely as a result of the advanced stage of forest Forests and National Prosperity depletion and deterioration, many of the older wood-using plants have been forced out of business and the shortage of good timber makes it difficult for new plants to start. The excess of all-timber growth over drain is a reflection of the inferior quality and small size of a large part of the timber. Growth on timber of this character is a doubtful asset. In fact, one of the major forest problems of the North is to find markets for the small low- grade timber which should be gotten out of the way to make room for more valuable growth. ia SOFTWOOD HARDWOOD North United States (See ene) PRE 40 30 20 10 ° 10 20 30 40 BILLION BOARD FEET Wl Growth a4 Drain aes Se ee FicurE 9.—Annual growth and drain of saw timber, United States, 1944. In the South all-timber drain is not far out of balance, but saw timber—both hardwood and soft- wood—is being cut much faster than it is growing. These trends, if continued, mean an increasing shortage of good timber and a serious handicap to the timber industries. A Twenty-Year Projection What has been happening to our saw-timber supply may be emphasized by theoretically pro- jecting 1944 drain and cutting practices ahead for, say, 20 years. Actually, of course, the increasing difficulty of obtaining timber, especially in the North and South, makes it unlikely that the forest industries could produce for long at the 1944 rate. 31 Furthermore, an increasing number of private owners are practicing better forestry; and fire pro- tection is becoming more effective. But if the 1944 cutting practices and rate of drain were continued regionally, the saw-timber stand would fall 27 percent in the next 20 years (table 14). In this theoretical projection the Southeast re- gion would suffer the biggest drop (60 percent), with the Pacific Northwest second (39 percent). Significantly, these are the Nation’s principal tim- ber-producing regions. 1,200 1,000 800 600 BILLION BOARD FEET 400 200 1945 1965 1945 1965 1945 1965 SOUTH Ficure 10.—How saw-timber volume would change in 20 years, if 1944 drain and cutting practices were continued. For the South as a whole, a continuation of the 1944 cut and prevailing forest practices for 20 years would mean a decline of 117 billion board feet, or one-third of the present saw-timber volume (fig. 10). Obviously such a decline in saw-timber volume would mean curtailment of the forest in- dustries and drastic readjustment in dependent communities. Such economic and _ social losses would be serious for the South, which needs addi- tional industrial development to offset the dis- placement of labor by reduction of the acreage in cotton and by mechanization of its cultivation and harvesting. In actual quantity, the greatest reduction of saw timber is taking place in the Douglas-fir subregion where 20 years more at the 1944 rate would bring the volume down 206 billion board feet. Such a reduction, while not alarming statistically, would be accompanied by the closing of many established mills and continued shift of industrial activity: from one locality to another. Twenty years more of the present drain would not materially reduce the saw-timber stands in the rest of the country. However, depletion of ponderosa pine, western white pine, sugar pine, and redwood would force western forest industries to adapt themselves to the production and mar- keting of a different class of products. If this 20-year projection were to become a reality, it would impair the chances for full em- ployment, increase the burden of taxation on other forms of property, and affect our national security. Though some adverse effects of timber deple- tion can hardly be avoided, the United States need not remain the victim of such circumstances. Our land resource is adequate; our people are making some progress in protecting and managing the forests for future timber crops. The time is ripe for more positive measures to make our forests more productive. TasLe 14.—Estimated effect of continuing 1944 drain and cutting practices for 20 years ~ i Prospective Section Present 5 h and region stand RS Cuanee stock North: pence one Percent New England.............. 58 49 —16 Middle Atlantic... 62 71 +14 50 35 —30 44 43 —2 6 (jail ewes ees 220 204 —7 South: South Atlantic... 97 93 —4 Southeast. 23.0.0. 136 55 —60 West. Gulf... 105 73 —30 otale eee ae 338 221 —35 West: Pacific Northwest: Douglas-fir subregion......... : 505 299 —4l Pine sub-. : Tesion eeuee 126 84 —33 ‘Rotali= susieet os 631 383 —39 Galifornialenesmesrest 228 187 —18 North Rocky Mtn oe et oe tapas 127 119 — 6 South Rocky Mitaiseseee near! 57 52 = @) Rotalar ernie 1,043 741 —29 United States... 16019 | el GOR =O 32 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U.S. Department of Agriculture Goals F Ae Timber Growth 77 < ~ 22 <5 52 °, as SSe89 o> KX 7% o, 2°, 0,9, 5250505 Om > <2 2: % $25 800 Ne 600 2 b <> ~ "e o 4 x 2, 400 NAN 0, OO wareteren 0 .0:0 o, X me °, o, 0 SERA AN SS vr oO 0.9, 5 Y's SLNAY ANY ANAM SS <> & NN SAN 200. —= ; Ws, NORTH SOUTH FicureE 11.—Present saw-timber stand, and growing stock needed to sustain the growth goals. 806034°—49—4 Forests and National Prosperity _ large scale. In any event, it is clear that the growing stock should be increased. However large the present stand looms in relation to current consumption, it is not enough to yield an annual crop of the size suggested in the goals. Indeed, with growing stock in the North and South so deficient it is doubly fortunate that there is some residue of virgin timber to supplement growth through the next few decades. When Could the Growth Goal Be Reached? A comprehensive program dealing adequately with all phases of a sustained timber supply would imply, for example, that all the forests would be well protected, that destructive cutting would be stopped, that at least 400 million acres would be managed so as to build up growing stock and out- put, that from 20 to 25 percent of the land would be under very intensive management, that planting of nonproductive lands would be undertaken on an unprecedented scale, and that access road con- struction in the West would be continued on a Assuming all these things, how much timber could be budgeted for harvesting each year, and how rapidly could the objectives in saw-timber growth be reached? No hard and fast answer can be given. But enough is known about the condition of the forests and their potential growth capacity to give the theoretical limits of accomplishment if the Nation were to embark on a course such as that suggested above. Calculations of saw-timber growing stock in each region have been carried forward for 75 years, balancing the growth that might be realized under such a comprehensive forestry program against an assumed saw-timber drain, decade by decade. A major consideration was to keep the annual output as high as possible without pre- cluding the possibility of reaching the regional growth goal in 75 years. ‘The story is told graph- ically in figure 12. For the first 30 years, drain might remain higher than annual growth chiefly because of the large contribution virgin timber could make to the total cut in the early decades. From the outset, however, growth would be increasing and before the end of the century it might be some 10 billion board feet above the assumed annual drain. Under a comprehensive forest program, timber 4] growth might advance to about 64 billion board feet in 45 years. This is the level of estimated potential requirements plus losses, with no margin for security, export, new uses, or ineffective growth. If that amount should prove sufficient for all our needs, annual drain could then be increased to 64 billion board feet and annual growth would level off, as indicated by the light lines in figure 12. However, to attain a 72-billion-board-foot goal annual drain would have to remain below annual growth for 25 to 30 years longer, in order to build up more growing stock. 80 60 Y 40 AND AAAAN ANAAAARAAARARA BILLION BOARD FEET 20 _NAAAAARAARRRARRARRRS RARERRAAAAR RRR » 1944 1960 1980 2000 2020 FicurE 12.—Theoretical course of annual saw-timber growth and drain in the United States under a comprehensive forestry program designed to achieve 72-billion-board-foot growth goal in 75 years with minimum reduction of output in the years immediately ahead. It is important to emphasize that the course of annual growth depicted here assumes wide- spread and prompt application of good forest practices. It is very improbable that this assump- tion will become a reality; hence the indicated course of annual growth is above what is likely to occur. These calculations, like the growth goals themselves, serve to give perspective but represent only one possible outcome. They vis- ualize achieving the growth goals in 75 years with minimum disruption of forest industries and mar- kets. Cutting more heavily than indicated, for any extended period, might delay or preclude the increase in annual growth envisioned for the North and South. It might lead to a protracted period of greatly reduced cut in the West, should the virgin timber be exhausted before new growth was ready to support the indicated sustained vol- ume of output. On the other hand, several years of greatly reduced output in a depression like that of the thirties might result in building up growing stocks, and hence annual growth, faster than shown in figure 12. Protracted reduction of output re- sulting from disproportionately high prices for timber products would have a similar effect. Where Shall We Get Timber Products in the Meantime? The preceding discussion reveals the dilemma that the Nation’s forest situation presents. The calculations of what can be safely cut if forest productivity is to be built up indicate that an- nual drain should be less than 50 billion board feet for perhaps 30 years (fig. 12). This is 4 billion feet below the 1944 drain. Yet there is an urgent need for greater output. To what extent will efforts to satisfy present needs further impair future productivity? If the Nation exercises suffi- cient restraint to avoid continued’ overcutting, would that mean permanent loss of markets for wood by forcing people to use other materials? The possible output of the different sections of the country under the comprehensive forestry pro- gram visualized in the preceding discussion throws some light on these questions (fig. 13). Eastern output cannot be maintained.—Sixty- three percent of the saw-timber drain, and a still larger part of all-timber drain, takes place in the North and South. Under the impact of this drain the already inadequate growing stock is diminish- ing; yet in the allocation of the saw-timber growth goal it was suggested that the forests of the North should support twice the 1944 drain and those in the South 50 percent more. To accomplish this will require that growing stock be built up, and that in turn can be done only by cutting less than is cut now. Indeed, it seems likely, because of growing-stock shortages, that output from the North and South will be forced down in the decade ahead. With good forest practices this decline need not go more than 5 billion board feet below the 1944 level, but there is little pros- pect that output could safely be boosted again for 20 or 30 years. Still, with economic activity continuing at a high level the depleted growing stock is going to be under constant pressure for overcutting, and it is very doubtful that as favor- able a course as that suggested can be achieved. 42 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture 7 | ny 1 a ef mite | | | ber last just as long as possible. | J on ty w : S a = g ~ ~ a 1944 1960 1980 2000 2020 ~ Pacific Northwest 1944 1960 1980 2000 2020 BILLION BOARD FEET (eo) 1944 1960 1980 2000 2020 | Ficure 13.—Theoretical course of saw-timber drain in various parts of the United States under a comprehensive forestry pro- diately ahead. _ Western development could help bridge the _ gap.—Obviously the West, which has 65 percent of the present saw-timber stand but accounts for only ,27 percent of the drain, must supply a larger _ part of our national needs during the next few decades. But it should be recognized that the special values inherent in the high-quality virgin timber will never be replaced. The need to Maintain output should be balanced against the _ desirability of making this high-quality virgin tim- Dependent west- ern communities should also be protected from excessive timber depletion that would rob them _ of the means of existence. Fortunately a large part of the timber still awaiting access to market is on the national forests | Forests and National Prosperity gram designed to achieve 72-billion-board-foot growth in 75 years with minimum reduction of output in the years imme- and other public land. With private timber play- ing out, the public forests are becoming more im- portant in the current timber supply. For example, saw timber in public ownership in the Pacific Northwest rose from 54 percent of the total during the middle thirties to 63 percent in 1945. The increasing importance of public tim- ber in the West places a new responsibility on public forest managers. Between World Wars I and II the lumber indus- try was often in difficulty because its plant capacity exceeded the market for its products. With pri- vate timber under pressure to be cut and the industry in a generally shaky position, the sale of national-forest timber and the opening up of new units proceeded slowly. Furthermore, among pri- 43 vate owners there was widespread opposition to the sale of public timber. But as timber shortage came to be widely felt, the Forest Service adopted a policy of obtaining from each forest the maxi- mum possible output consistent with sustained- yield management. ‘This involves a great expan- sion in timber survey and management plan work. It means taking every opportunity to cull decadent timber from otherwise vigorous stands and to make desirable thinnings in young stands. It calls for a far-flung road-building program to gain access to undeveloped areas. Financing of access-road construction, given im- petus during the war and assumed in part by the National Housing Agency in 1947, has sub- sequently fallen far below what is needed. Ex- tending roads rapidly into undeveloped localities helps spin out the old growth by making it possible to spread the cut over a wider area. It permits salvaging of bug-killed timber before it rots. It enables marketing of a large volume of inferior species hitherto untouched. It facilitates selective cutting in types adapted to it, thus adding to the effective annual growth. Although the volume of virgin timber in the West is substantial, the opportunities for greater output are limited. The national-forest cut is already more than double what it was before the war and may eventually be doubled again. The cut from other public lands may also be in- creased. But this is sure to be offset, in part, by a decline in the cut from private lands. The situation in most of the older lumber-producing localities is precarious. Lack of stumpage has caused many mills to shut down in recent years and this process is likely to be accelerated. In the Pacific Northwest, depletion has already progressed so far that there is little hope of sub- stantial increase in saw-timber cut (fig. 13). New opportunities for large-scale operation, generally dependent upon construction of access roads, are confined largely to southwestern Oregon, where sawmill capacity has already reached the sustained- yield capacity of the forest. It is doubtful whether increased output from southwestern Oregon can offset the inevitable decline in the older localities farther north. Indeed, considering the region as a whole, operation for a few decades at the present rate would so reduce the timber supply that out- put would need to taper off, perhaps, to some 3 billion feet below the 1944 level. This would bring it down to the level suggested in the alloca- tion of the growth goals. In the North Rocky Mountains, more. access roads and utilization of the less-favored species may increase the cut almost 1 billion board feet annually for 30 to 40 years. But after that, output might taper off again to somewhere near the 1944 levels. Similarly, if economic conditions permit, the output of the South Rocky Mountain region could be doubled. But that would represent a gain of only 0.5 billion board feet. Increasing the cut in these regions is not simple. Much of of the timber is of little-used species and in light stands. A good part of it is on rough, rocky ground where logging will involve more expense than is usual at present. California—in spite of prospective shortages in several of its producing centers, and operating conditions often as difficult as in the Rocky Moun- tain regionsseems to have the timber to permit, with good forestry, increased output in the years ahead. If access roads were built to open up the remaining virgin areas in the course of 30 to 40 years, and if partial cutting were generally ap- plied, the effective annual growth would soon assume large proportions. Drain, reported at 3.1 billion board feet in 1944, could increase to 5 bil- lion board feet 20 years hence. However, after the virgin stands had all been worked over, output would need to drop again, probably to somewhat below the 1944 figure. Summing up the situation nationally, the cal- culations indicate that for the next 30 years the largest feasible output from the West under a constructive program of forestry will not fully offset the necessary reduction of output in the East. The indicated drain of about 50 billion board feet would ordinarily include a lumber output of 30 to 31 billion board feet, which is less than current consumption, to say nothing of the goal. Alaska can contribute pulpwood.—Alaskan tim- ber resources have not yet been tapped on a large scale. The accessible timber occurs in a narrow fringe of the national forests along the tidewater of southeastern Alaska. It is chiefly valuable as pulpwood. The bulk of it is western hemlock, intermixed on the better sites with Sitka spruce— often of large size and high quality—and some cedar. Forest Service policy calls for the establishment of pulp mills in Alaska as the foundation for in- 44 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. 8. Department of Agriculture {| tegrated industries making effective use of all the timber. Such an undertaking would entail a heavy investment. The pulp plants would have to be large and self-contained, and transportation costs might present some obstacles in getting the output of the supplementary industries to markets in the States. Output of the territory may well be the equivalent of 1.5 million cords of wood annually or about 7 percent of the potential pulp- wood requirements. Import prospects are limited.—As indicated in a previous section, there is less opportunity to increase imports than might be supposed. All in all, there is a world shortage as well as a do- mestic shortage of timber. So it will be wise to adopt a program that would eventually enable this country to be self-sufficient and also to con- tribute to the needs of other nations. The Job Is a Big One Although the preceding calculations are hypo- thetical, they make it clear that if the goals are to be achieved, the Nation has a tremendous job to do. It will take decades of good forestry, going far Forests and National Prosperity beyond what has been accomplished in the past, to develop a well-balanced growing stock that © - will meet future timber needs. Adequate protection against fire, insects, and disease will reduce the losses of merchantable tim- ber and save for future timber production millions of seedlings and saplings now destroyed each year. Planting a substantial part of the 75 million acres now denuded or only poorly stocked with seed- lings and saplings would lay the foundation for ad- ditional timber growth in the future. But im- proved forest practices applied to the timber now standing are the surest and quickest means of increasing annual growth. To provide the security of an adequate timber supply, the Nation must have a more dynamic national policy which will prevent unsatisfactory forest practices and obtain a much wider application of sustained-. yield management. Some of the land now in pri- vate ownership will need to be shifted to public ownership. All of these things take time to get under way; and once under way, they require more time to achieve their purpose. There is no easy way out. 45 How 3 The United States has been slow in facing up to the hard fact that to produce timber in ample, sustained quantities requires purposeful manage- ment—real forestry. The job to be done is not so much one of establishing new forests (although this, too, has its place) as it is of properly treating and utilizing those we have. A great deal depends on timber- cutting practices; on whether the amount of cut is adjusted to the rate of growth; on the quality of protection; on the aims and policies of the forest owner. Many people take it for granted that a reason- ably satisfactory brand of forestry is practiced on much of our timber-producing land. A Nation- wide survey, made by the Forest Service in co- operation with other Federal, State, and private agencies as part of the Reappraisal,?° shows that actually there is good forestry on only a small part of it. Limited to commercial forest lands, this survey considered publicly owned land and private holdings of 50,000 acres or more on a 100-percent basis. ‘The remaining private land was covered by sampling methods; in all, some 42,000 small and medium-sized holdings, distrib- uted to give fair representation by size of property and region, were examined. The survey dealt with: (1) The character of recent timber-cutting practices, (2) the extent to which the larger hold- ings are being managed for sustained yield, and (3) the quality of fire protection. Timber-Cutting Practices Are Far From Satisfactory The following criteria were used in rating cut- ting practice: 1. High-order cutting requires the best types * Results of this survey are more fully covered in Re- appraisal Report 3. The Management Status of Forest Lands in the United States. U.S. Forest Service. 1946. Timberlands Are Being Managed Ke of harvest cutting which will maintain quality and quantity yields consistent with the full pro- ductive capacity of the land. Wherever needed, it requires cultural practices such as planting, timber-stand-improvement cuttings, thinnings, and control of grazing. 2. Good cutting requires good silviculture that leaves the land in possession of desirable species in condition for vigorous growth in the immediate future. It is substantially better than fair cut- ting. 3. Fair cutting marks the beginning of cutting practices which will maintain on the land any reasonable stock of growing timber in species that are desirable and marketable. 4. Poor cutting leaves the land with a limited means for natural reproduction, often in the form of remnant seed trees. It often causes deteriora- tion of species with consequent reduction in both quality and quantity of forest growth. Tas_e 17.—Character of timber cutting on com- mercial forest land by ownership class, 1945 Patios, Character of cutting+ orest area Ownership class De- Total Ope EUeh: Good | Fair | Poor | struc- ating | order i ive Million | Million acres acres \ Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent All lands...... 461 403 3 20 25 Private ....... 345 302 1 7 28 56 8 Publica =. 116 101 8 59 19 13 1 National ; forest ._ 74 65 ll 69 19 1 0 Other Federal 15 12 6 37 32 24 1 State and localni 27 24 5) 44 10 4] 2 1Percents shown refer to the operating acreage in each class now being managed under cutting practices that rate high-order, good, etc. 46 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. 8. Department of Agriculture 5. Destructive cutting leaves the land without timber values and without means for natural re- production. Ratings were applied to the entire acreage of “operating” forest properties, taking national forests and other very large properties by working circles. In the aggregate this included about nine- tenths of all commercial forest land in the North and South and eight-tenths in the West. “Non- operating” included tracts not operated for tim- ber, those where fire or other agents had obscured evidences of cutting, and some remote national- forest lands that await access roads to ogen them for logging. More than half of all recent cutting was rated | “poor” or “destructive” (table 17). Less than one- fourth of the cutting measures up to good forestry standards. Character of cutting practices varies greatly by AREA Million acres CHARACTER OF CUTTING Good and better Good and zx better NATIONAL FORESTS ownership class. On the public lands cutting is notably better than that on private lands. Two- thirds of the cutting is rated good or better, only 14 percent poor or destructive. But only about one-fourth of the commercial acreage and a much smaller fraction of potential timber growing ca- pacity is publicly owned. Moreover, on some public land there is much room for improvement. Good to high-order prac- tices have yet to be attained in 25 percent of the cutting on western national forests, and on much of the 15 million acres of other Federal lands, where one-fourth of the cutting is poor and de- structive. For the 27 million acres of State and local government lands, 43 percent of the cutting is in the latter categories (fig. 14). The practices on the 345 million acres of private timberlands carry most weight since these forests will remain our principal source of timber. Gen- AREA Million acres CHARACTER OF CUTTING Good and better ~ STATE AND LOCAL Ficure 14.—Operating area and character of cutting by ownership class, 1945. Forests and National Prosperity 47 erally speaking, they are the accessible, potentially more productive lands and until recently some 90 percent or more of our timber cut has come from them. It is largely the poor practices on most private lands that make the national showing unfavorable. About two-thirds of the cutting in private forests rates poor and destructive, hence will not keep the land reasonably productive. Although the other one-third will probably maintain a reason- ably acceptable growing stock, only 8 percent is good or better. Large private owners, on the average, treat their lands better than the small owners (table 18). Only 32 percent of the cutting on the large prop- erties is poor or destructive while 29 percent rates good or better. These properties, however, in- clude only about one-seventh of the private lands; AREA ut CHARACTER OF CUTTING Million acres LUMBER COMPANY Ficure 15.—Private operating area and character of cutting by type of owner, 1945. they are held by about 400 of the 4,226,000 forest owners. TABLE 18.--Character of timber cutting on private lands by size of holding, 1945 Commercial ; FERS Character of cutting Size of feds Mp Ne eeae OER Ors fy ene Ma) Pape e sees ere EE holding ; De- Total |OP&™ shoe Good | Fair | Poor | struc- ating | order tide Million | Million acres acres |Percent | Percent| Percent | Percent | Percent Small’ = 728" 261 224 0 4 25 Medium ..... 33 29 1 7 31 50 1] Tarcelen cam 51 49 5 24 39 28 4 +Small=less than 5,000 acres (4,222,000 owners); medium= 5,000 and up to~50,000 acres (3,200 owners); large=50,000 acres and more (400 owners). AREA Million acres CHARACTER OF CUTTING Good and OTHER 48 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture Three-fourths of the private land is in small holdings of less than 5,000 acres, averaging 62 acres. On these but 4 percent of the cutting is good or high-order. ‘Twenty-five percent rates fair and the remaining 71 percent is poor or destruc- tive. ‘This ownership class represents the more for- midable of private forest-management problems. Cutting practices also vary by type of owner. They are better on pulp- and lumber-company holdings than on farm and other private prop- erties (fig. 15). About 40 percent of the privately owned forest is on some 314 million farms. Here only 27 per- cent of the cutting rates fair and better, and of this only 4 is good; none is high-order. The re- maining 73 percent is poor or destructive. On the lands of lumber and pulp companies— in the aggregate about 15 percent of those in pri- vate ownership—27 percent of the cutting is good or better. About 40 percent rates poor or destruc- tive; the remaining one-third is fair. By and large, pulp-company lands get distinctly better treatment than those of lumber companies. The other nonfarm lands, 45 percent of the total in private ownership, get little better treat- ment than the farm woodlands. Most of these holdings are small. They are in about | million properties held by a variety of individuals and companies, the majority being absentee owners. The practices on farm woodlands and other small holdings differ little regionally. But for medium and large holdings the South leads the North and West in cutting practices by a wide margin. For example, about 52 percent of the cutting on large holdings in the South is good or better as compared with only 9 percent in the other two sections. How Much Sustained-Yield Forestry? Sustained-yield management—operating a forest property for continuous production—is an impor- tant criterion of good forestry. ‘Timber supplies can run low, even with good cutting practices, if the rate of cutting is too fast. Under sustained- yield management, the volume of cutting is planned so that, barring catastrophe, there will be annual harvests commensurate with the pro- ductive capacity of the land. If the growing stock is deficient for such annual harvests, the plan of cutting should provide for building it up while maintaining a steady flow of merchantable products at substantial though lower rates. For Forests and National Prosperity properties or working circles that still have a back- log of virgin timber, the cutting should be so planned that when the virgin timber is gone, an- nual harvests commensurate with the inherent productivity of the land may be obtained from second growth, without drastic readjustment of output. Sustained-yield ratings were applied only to public forest lands and to about 25 percent of the private holdings—those of 5,000 acres or more. These lands have the greater part of the good and high-order cutting. The small holdings were not rated because the evidences of sustained- yield were not recognizable, in most cases. Some doubtless are being managed on a sustained-yield basis. Lands were classified in the yield category when there was recognizable evi- dence of a planned, continuous flow of products in substantially regular or increasing quantities— provided the cutting practice was at least fair. The data show that about two-fifths of the operating acreage in public ownership and nearly three-fourths of that in the medium and _ large private holdings is not on a sustained-yield basis. sustained Percent of cutting on sustained-yield, Ownership class: basis, 1945 1 Publictors yc auth obins nee SOR Aner e ea Wk ee hpae 57 National\forestyie- oie a eae eu eerie 72 Others Rederalligye sx csiec an eeeap ete eee meets 44 Statesand \locala2 aise nal 23 Private (holdings of 5,000 acres and more) ........ 28 Meech irri s)5 2 eee NE ales en ethene Dee 9 Wane ens: 2h rieahih Set Nee Weuetie, cies eee ate a ee 39 * Weighted in accordance with the number of acres in each operating property or working circle. National forests make the best showing with 72 percent. About one-fourth of the cutting on State and local government lands is rated on a sus- tained-yield basis. Most national-forest land not on sustained yield is in remote localities in the West. Actually, these lands are under management which assures future output of forest products and services. ‘They are well protected. Cutting policies are well estab- lished. But the lack of access roads and other economic factors have held cutting below sustained- yield capacity. These limitations likewise apply to some extent on other public and some private lands. Sustained-yield management has made _ consid- erable progress on the large private holdings, with 39 percent in this category. But the owners of medium-sized holdings as a group have hardly 49 begun sustained-yield cutting; it is practiced on only 9 percent of their holdings. The proportion of sustained-yield practice varies considerably in different parts of the country. In the South all the cutting on national-forest lands is on a sustained-yield basis; in the North, 75 percent; and in the West, 65. For the large private holdings the corresponding break-down is: South 61 percent, North 32, and West 3. Although significant progress has been made in the Douglas-fir subregion, these figures indicate that for the West as a whole private owners have attained little sustained-yield management. ‘The progress in management made by industry in the West as a whole appears to have been largely in the field of fire protection and to a lesser extent in planning for new crops on cut-over lands rather than in adjusting current cutting to sustained- yield capacity. The Status of Timber Management To measure quality of timber management, three factors should be taken into consideration: (1) Cutting practice, (2) sustained yield, and (3) fire protection. Since it is was impracticable to apply the sustained-yield test to the 76 percent of private land in small holdings, a combination of cutting practice and fire protection ratings must suffice as the yardstick for this appraisal. In the field survey, protection was Classified in four categories —good, fair, poor, and none—good protection being comparable to that on the better-protected public and private lands. Combining the protection ratings with character of timber cutting, management grades were defined as follows: 1. Intensive management requires high-order cutting and good fire protection. 2. Extensive management requires at least fair cutting and fair fire protection. a. Good extensive requires good cutting as a minimum. b. Fair extensive requires fair cutting as a minimum. 3. Without management means that either the cutting practices or the fire protection, or both, rate poor or worse. 4. Nonoperating area means that the area is not being operated for timber products. Only a little over one-third of the land is under timber management as thus defined (fig. 16). This includes only 2 percent intensively managed, 16 ’ percent under good extensive management, and 17 percent under fair extensive management. More than half is without management; 13 percent is non-operating. Only 14 percent of the publicly owned com- mercial forest land is without timber management, in contrast to 65 percent of the private land (table 19). Of the public lands, those in State and local government ownership rank below Federal forests in extent of management. 2% INTENSIVE (10 million acres) Ji \T%s FAIR EXTENSIVE yyy jy Za KA 4 eek Most of the unsatisfactory watershed conditions center here. Bettering them is closely linked with getting good private timber manage- ment, though it is inherently more difficult. There are no pat solutions, but basic remedies generally lie in fostering good cutting practices and con- 70 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture The rest is in a variety of holdings. servative grazing; in affording Nation-wide pro- tection against fire and other hazards; and in edu- cating both the general public and private owners as to watershed-protection needs. The Forest Range Resource Forage is a valuable product of many forest lands, in some regions second only to timber as a source of direct revenue. To use it efficiently and in harmony with other uses requires good management; for unwise or too heavy grazing not only reduces the successive forage crops, but also may impair the land—its timber crops and useful- ness for watershed protection, recreation, and other purposes. About 350 million acres—more than half the forest land—is used as range. In the West there is roughly 155 million acreas, of which about two- thirds is in Federal ownership or control, as follows: Western forest range, 1945 million acres percent Ownership or control: National torestse irae ee reels 64.1 4] Indianolamdsie ws; yen eS ees ee a 12.2 8 Grazing districts and other Federal... 21.7 14 Total Federal 98.0 63 State and county 4.9 3 Brivale mec islian ONC emo arc cohen Mle ey: 52.1 34 All ownershipss 23) 20 cosscsenscrecks 155.0 100 Many of these are small livestock enterprises that are largely dependent on adjacent public lands for grazing. Forest range furnishes an important source of income for thousands of western stockmen. About 99 million acres of the western forest ‘range is open forest types like ponderosa pine and aspen. ‘These afford much of the spring, summer, and fall range for cattle and sheep and support most of the big game. They are low-cost produc- ing areas for feeder livestock and for the bulk of the fat lambs marketed in summer. Another 43 million acres is pinyon-juniper lands, chiefly in the Southwest. The rest is mainly scrubby woodland chaparral in the foothill country, much used for winter and spring grazing. East of the Plains, there is 195 million acres of forest range, mostly in farm woodlands and other small private holdings. About 142 million acres is in the South, where more than three-fourths of the forest land, including most of the piney woods, is grazed. Here forests furnish reasonably good low-cost forage in spring and summer—although of indifferent quality later—for millions of farm Forests and National Prosperity animals. This has great economic value to rural people, and provides. opportunity for badly needed diversification of agriculture. Forest range is currently in strong demand in all parts of the country. Indicative of this de- mand are the numbers of livestock, exclusive of ‘dairy cows, in the 11 Western States—11.2 million cattle and 13.9 million stock sheep?® in January, 1947. Even though there has been a moderate decline in cattle numbers and a material decline in sheep since the peak during World War II, the western range livestock population expressed in animal units is 10 percent above the average of the four prosperous years 1926-29 and 5 percent above the 4-year period preceding World War II (fig. 19). Recent declines in numbers, while favorable, are not sufficient to relieve western forest ranges of rather general heavy grazing. In seven Southern States cattle numbers have increased about 25 per- cent in the last 10 years. Elsewhere, there has been a similar upsurge followed by a moderate de- cline. Looking ahead, demand for livestock prod- ucts is likely to continue high. This means that forest ranges will probably be under continuing pressure to carry as many livestock as possible. Throughout much of the West there is wide- spread depletion of forest ranges. Most of the western ranges were fully stocked before 1900, and in many instances they were overgrazed and dete- riorating. ‘They deteriorated further as a result of too heavy stocking during World War I and again in the early and mid-thirties. Many have failed to recover. However, some in the national forests and well-managed private ranches have improved considerably over the years. Although current data are meager, rough esti- mates indicate that about two-thirds of the west- ern forest range is in unsatisfactory condition. The worst is the pinyon-juniper range, mostly in the arid Southwest; the least depleted is that of the open forest types, chiefly within national forests. The hardwood forests east of the Plains have also been badly damaged by grazing; here, how- ever, impairment of timber and watershed values is the main consideration. In many instances live- stock should be excluded or greatly reduced in numbers. On the other hand, few of the pine forest ranges of the South are overgrazed. Putting the Nation’s forest ranges in good con- dition is an important aspect of the forestry job. First of all, deterioration of forage and other values *° Sheep other than those being fed for market. 71 ANIMAL UNITS (MILLIONS) O I910 I9I5 I920 I925 1930 YEARS 1935 I940 1945 1950 Ficure 19.—Cattle (dairy cows excluded) and stock sheep in 11 Western States, expressed in animal units (1 unit =1 cow or 5 sheep), 1910-47. should be halted through elimination of over- grazing and other unsound practices. ‘This is difficult because of the strong economic pressures to put more animals on a range than it will sup- port. Secondly, millions of acres of badly depleted forest range that are producing only meager for- age should be rehabilitated. In a larger sense grazing should be harmonized more effectively with other forest uses; and use of range and croplands should be better integrated for more efficient utili- zation of available forage. Basically, this means that a better job of range management needs to be done on both public and private forest lands. More attention should be given to conservative grazing use that will build up and maintain the forage. This would include better seasonal use, more efficient control and dis- tribution of livestock, adjustments in kinds and classes of animals using the range, and improved practices such as deferred and rotation grazing for speedier range recovery. It would call for large investments in water developments, fences, and other range improvements. But research has clear- ly shown that a reduction of livestock numbers and better management on overgrazed range will result'in greater output of meat and larger calf crops because of better conditions for the animals that remain. operations. On the western national forests, progress in range improvement and adjusting livestock num- bers to grazing capacity has been made since World War I. Range reseeding has been undertaken on a commercial scale in recent years. Yet about half of the range allotments still need adjustments, ranging from minor changes in management up to 50 percent reduction in numbers or even, in a few cases, total exclusion. In many instances small reductions made from time to time were insufficient to offset the range deterioration. And in some lo- calities the reduction in livestock use has been partly or wholly offset by increases in big game. Other Federal forest ranges in the West are in a similar although generally less satisfactory status. This usually means more profitable Constructive efforts to correct the severe over- © grazing on public domain lands date mainly trom 1935, when large areas in the West, including some 17 million acres of forest range, were placed under administration as grazing districts. Serious over- grazing prevails on many unreserved public do- main lands, which are leased for grazing with few if any restrictions as to use. Some of these are forest range. On Indian lands, which include 12 million acres of forest range, there has been prog- Te Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture ress in recent years toward eliminating over- grazing; nevertheless, some of these are still de- teriorating. Keeping livestock in proper balance with forage and feed supplies is fundamental in range man- agement. Without it, reseeding and other restora- tive measures accomplish little. Experience has shown that economic inducements to lower the rate of stocking often are not effective. Education and other publicly sponsored programs will help, but the solution to this basic problem rests very largely with range users and owners, who must gain greater understanding of the range and how to manage and use it properly. Another important need is to unscramble the complicated ownership pattern which in many parts of the West seriously hampers management of forest ranges. Largely the result of earlier Government land-disposal policies, it typically pre- sents a confusing array of small private holdings, State lands, alternate railroad grant sections, and speculative holdings, often interspersed with blocks of Federal land. Many ranchers make part-time use of public range, some of them grazing lands administered by several agencies under differing policies and regulations. ‘There is need for consolidation of ownership, where practicable, and for better co- ordination of public procedures and policies. On national forests and grazing districts, administra- tion has been facilitated by transfer, leasing, and exchange of land. Much wider application of these procedures is needed. Land is frequently a limiting factor in sound private ranch ownership. Ranching often requires 6,000 acres or more to provide a satisfactory living. The amount of land needed depends on such fac- tors as its location and physical character, its ca- pability for forage production, the development of improvements, and the kind of management it gets. Many western ranches are of an uneconomic size or poorly developed, and afford poor prospect for range conservation and betterment. Public aids, such as technical assistance, grants for range bet- terment, and sound credit on liberal terms, ’ will help small ranchers meet this problem. But in some instances the only practical solution is out- right public purchase. Public forest ranges should serve as models of conservation and good husbandry. Yet range management on many public lands is still in its developmental stages, handicapped by limited fa- \ Forests and National Prosperity cilities. Even on the national-forest ranges, under administration and protection for several decades, there is need for intensified management to im- prove forage and livestock production. Generally this involves more men and money to do the man- agement job. It also requires capital improve- ments on a large scale—reseeding depleted ranges, improving stock water supplies, eliminating nox- ious plants, and providing facilities such as fences and driveways. More research is also needed. Only in the last 10 years has range research been extended, even on a limited scale, to all western regions and to the South. It has already done much and can do more in fostering range improvement and_profit- able livestock production. Forest Recreation A Large and Growing Use Much of our outdoor recreation seeks a forest environment. People by the millions go to the forest to picnic or camp; to hunt, fish, or pursue other interests; or simply to enjoy the spacious- ness, solitude, or scenic qualities of wooded country. Most forest lands have potential recreation value. Perhaps two-thirds of the total acreage is actually available, in some degree, for recreation use. ‘Recreation in the last few decades has become a major forest use and a big business. At least half a million people earn all or part of their living supplying services, accommodations, or equipment to those who seek forest recreation. Forest recreation especially benefits the count- less small, back-country communities which derive much of their income from tourist business at- tracted, in large part, by the forest setting. For example, in Flathead County, Mont.—a_ typical forest county—recreation during its season affords more employment than logging and supports about one-tenth of the trade and service employment. Large investments indicate the importance of forest recreation. On national forests about 27.5 million dollars of Federal funds has been spent on recreation improvements and some 37.5 million of private capital is invested in resorts, ski lifts, summer homes, and other facilities. “Chrough- out the West, hundreds of dude ranches cater to forest visitors. In the East, particularly the moun- tain forests of the New England States, millions of dollars are invested in hotels, resorts, and other 73 accommodations. Many commercial and civic or- ganizations spend large sums to attract forest rec- reationists to their communities. These expendi- tures spell jobs for many rural people. Recreation values on private forest lands are as yet far from fully utilized. Some of the private forests’ in New England, the Lake States, the Ap- palachians, and other sections include superb scenic resources and support flourishing recreation indus- tries. But a limiting factor is that recreational uses are mostly confined to those yielding the owner a money return. Most people look to public forests for recreation. Of these, the national, State, and municipal parks are dedicated exclusively to recreation use. ‘The national forests—of major importance by virtue of their size, distribution, and character—as well as most State and community forests, are administered under multiple-use policies that give due weight to recreation. In large part, management prob- lems on all public lands are similar, but this dis- cussion focuses on national-forest recreation, for which detailed information is at hand. People enjoy many kinds of recreation on na- tional forests (fig. 20).27 In 1941, the peak year before the war, recreational areas received 10.75 million visits, and the other national-forest lands 7.5 million. Recreation uses, which fell off during the war, are now sharply on the upswing. They should about double in volume in the next 10 years (fig. 21). National-forest. recreation has generally devel- oped without serious conflicts with other uses. Mainly this is because many forms of forest recrea- tion—camping and picnicking, swimming, winter sports, and the like—though they involve exclusive use of the land, do not require a large acreage. In the aggregate these uses, present and potential, will require only about 300,000 acres—less than 1 percent of national-forest lands: National forest lands re- served or needed for recreational use (1,000 acres) Class of area: Camp and picnic 44 WAN LEYS POLES aha wait ey an: pete na nln Aee 77 Special GUSesp erect chines fy eae ehe | Noro ane ob son 26 A OtalsMO4 bits aden ele | IEEE a nies Se ob 147 Additional area needed, 1946-55 o.oo. 150 ROCA yp rch RNS OOS ct oA SIE OT RRS, 3 ace A 297 **Charted data based on visitor’s expressed reasons for visiting national forests; these data are not comparable with those in figure 21, which shows actual use of recreational areas. 74 Wilderness travel____ Canoeing-_ _-_-------- Scientific study and hobbies --~---~ Gathering forest products for pleasure- Organization camping] Hiking and riding ----. Swimming____--------- Camping === Fluntings22 sees Winter sports _-____. Fishings=2teesee es Picnicking===<--=---=2 Sightseeing________-- Other activities.____- VISITS (MILLIONS) FIGURE 20.—Primary purpose of national-forest visits, 1941. An additional 14 million acres is set aside as wilderness areas, but only about one-third is com- mercial forest, most of it remote and economically inoperable; and 1.5 million is reserved in road- side strips. National-forest recreation facilities include some 4,200 camp and picnic grounds, 254 winter-sports areas, 201 swimming areas, and 54 organization camps. Before the war, these facilities were nearly meeting the demand and were in reasonably good shape, as a result of Civilian Conservation Corps work. They deteriorated greatly during the war for lack of maintenance. Even when fully restored, they probably will not match the growing de- mands which now tax available facilities to the utmost. If the demand of the next 10 years on national forests is adequately met, the capacity of winter- sports areas and organization camps will need to be doubled, according to Forest Service estimates; ‘and the area devoted to swimming, camping, and picnicking increased more than twofold.?§ * Private facilities, which supplement and increase na- tional-forest recreational use, include some 500 resorts, 300 organization camps, and about 13,000 summer homes con- structed under special-use permit. Capacity of the resorts will perhaps have to be increased about two-thirds in the next 10 years to meet the demand. Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture Good recreation plans are an important corollary need. ‘They are essential to the sound develop- ment and proper distribution of facilities and- will enable better integration of national-forest recrea- tion with that on nearby private lands. There is also growing need for better correla- tion of recreation with other forest uses. This stems from intensified and often competing forest uses. Pressures to open up wilderness and other recreation areas on national forests for timber cutting illustrates the potential conflicts which WORLD WAR I already loom. Moreover, some. recreation uses compete with each other. These conflicts, al- though not now serious, will assume greater im- portance as the demand for forest recreation in- creases. Forests and Wildlife Wildlife, closely identified with recreation, is as much a part of the forest as the trees. About 95 percent of America’s big-game animals—deer, WORLD WAR II VISITS (MILLIONS) em ees §=Picnicking » So , , 2 woe O 1I910 I9I5 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 YEARS FIGURE 22.—Trends in frequency and extent of fires on national forests, 1910-45. Forests and National Prosperity 79 60, and exceeded 75 in 1936 and 1940. Although the fact is partly masked by the growing size of the job itself, fire control on national forests has become much more effective. The downward trend in acreage burned shows this (fig. 22). The average size’ of all fires 1937-46 was held below 25 acres, whereas for the decade 1921-30 it was 94 acres and for 1911-20, 174 acres. Between 1933 and 1945 the Civilian Conserva- tion Corps made available, for the first time, ample manpower and facilities for fire control. Termi- nation of the CCC in 1941 left a gap which sub- stantial military assistance and increased appro- priations during the war did not wholly overcome. It will be difficult to maintain the good record of the past 13 years. Equipment, badly depreci- ated during the war, is still below par. Costs have outrun appropriations. And rebuilding an ade- quate fire-control organization poses many prob- lems. Partly offsetting the less favorable factors, however, are technological advances such as planes, parachutes, and other facilities which enable men to get quickly into remote mountain country and hit fires while they are small. But how adequate is national-forest fire protec- tion? Roughly indicative is the ratio of the aver- age annual burn to protected area for a recent 5-year period (table 25). Of 184 million acres protected, an average of 317 thousand acres burned annually—a little over 0.17 percent. This is 29 percent more than in the prewar period, 1937-41, when abundant CCC assistance was at hand. TABLE 25.—Average annual burn on national forests, 1941-45, by major sections Acreage Section under Acreage burned annually protection Thousand Thousand acres acres Percent North): <2 eet 19,252 33 17 South Svea 17,717 146 82 Westar ina on tesucel 146,978 138 09 United States... 183,947 317 LT The area burned ranges from a negligible per- cent in New England to more than 1 percent in the South Atlantic and Southeast regions (fig. 23). Undoubtedly, an over-all average annual burn of 0.20 percent or less is a good showing. It should not appreciably reduce timber yield, pro- vided the damage is evenly distributed. However, New England___... Middle Atlantic___ Central. MMMM South atlontic... WY. southeast... V/A west cut. WY Pacific Northwest 4 California_________ WYUUJtéc:M:;¢: No. Rocky Mtn._ So. Rocky Mtn.__ United States____| Wf Poe ° 10” 1.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 PERCENT OF PROTECTED AREA FicurE 23.—Average annual burn on national forests by regions, 1941-45. a low national rate of burn often obscures high rates of regional and local damage. Even locally, a small average annual burn does not necessarily mean satisfactory fire protection. A large fire once in 25 years may not be tolerable even though the average burn remains small. And small fires may cause intolerable damage in critical high-value areas, such as the watershed lands ad- joining Los Angeles and other California cities. In such situations adequate protection means vir- tual exclusion of fire. Much the same applies to key timber-growing lands. Where recurring fires have converted much commercial forest to worthless chaparral—as in the California Sierras and the white pine type in northern Idaho—virtual elimination of fires may be required to conserve enough productive grow- ~ ing stock to sustain the local economy. These and other variables make it difficult to generalize as to adequacy of national-forest fire protection. However, nearly all the commercial acreage is receiving good protection which, in every region, compares favorably with the best of that attained on forest lands in other ownerships. On the debit side, there are many localities where a great deal of improvement is needed. 80 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture j 4 | | Rather generally in the South, the percent of burn is too high. In the North Rocky Mountain re- gion, drought, lightning, and other factors combine about once every 5 years to set the stage for dis- astrous fires; here major effort will be required to keep the annual burn below one-tenth of 1 percent, the maximum amount consistent with satisfactory forest management for this region. Protection will need to be stepped up in many key areas in the Pacific Northwest. And in California, where timber, watershed, and recreation values are high and fires are unusually destructive, protection is clearly inadequate. National-forest protection, then, should aim at: (1) Holding the annual burn on every working circle of commercial forest land to 0.20 percent of the area or less; (2) complete exclusion of fire from certain high-value areas, including critical watershed lands; (3) elimination of incendiary fires and reduction of man-caused fires to the acci- dental minimum; and (4) prevention of disaster fires—the big ones that get away. Finally, forest-fire control effort and expendi- tures should be commensurate with national-forest values and the public benefits that accrue. New circumstances—such as the increased air travel into wild country, the opening up of remote areas. to timber cutting, and the constantly changing public attitudes and demands—may profoundly affect forest-fire control on the national forests. We look increasingly to national forests for timber and other benefits. Their values are growing. Re- flecting this is the trend in revenues from them, which have more than tripled since 1940. Wise public policy therefore calls for rising standards of fire protection, particularly for those key tracts that produce high income or ather essential services. Fire Protection on Other Federal Lands Other Federal forest lands totaling about 54 million acres, of which 15 million is commercial, have a fire problem paralleling that of the national forests. ‘They are administered by agencies of the Department of the Interior and are intermingled with some 121 million acres of wild nonforest lands also in need of protection. About 54 percent of the forest land is in grazing districts, public domain, and Oregon and Cali- fornia revested grant lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management. Other categories include 16 million acres in Indian reservations; Forests and National Prosperity 7 million acres of national-park lands; and slightly less than 1 million acres held by the Bureau of Reclamation and the Fish and Wildlife Service. Progress in fire control has been variable. Most forests in Indian reservations and national parks have been under protection for many years. ‘The others have been brought under protection more recently. Fire protection on grazing-district lands dates from 1935, when they were placed under ad- ministration. For most of the lands the greatest progress has been since 1933 as a result of the Civilian Conservation Corps program. Except for the Indian and the O&C holdings, these forest lands are administered primarily for purposes other than timber production. In the main, protection criteria have not been formulated by which to measure results. Data for the several categories of land, 1941—45, are roughly indicative of protection accomplish- ments, although they apply to all lands under protection—predominantly nonforest lands (table 26). They show an average yearly burn of less than a million acres or about three-fifths of 1 per- cent of the 152 million acres under protection. TABLE 26.—Average annual burn on lands protected by the Department of the Interior, 1941-45 1 ei fe ‘ 5 Area Administering Service protected Area burned Million acres \Thousand acres Percent Grazing Service... 99.4 758 0.76 Office of Indian Affairs 36.4 134 37 National Park Service ...... 9.6 12 12 Fish and Wildlife SERVI Cevna cement eulee 4.0 26 65 O&C Administration... 2.5 3 a2 otal eRe tires 151.9 2933 61 1Exclusive of unreserved public domain lands for which data are incomplete; these lands are scattered and only partly under protection. ° Of the 776,000 acres burned annually from 1942 to 1945, only about 5 percent was forest land. National-park and Oregon and California re- vested lands make the best showing, with an average annual burn of only a little more than one-tenth of 1 percent of the protected area. Grazing-district lands apparently receive the poor- est protection, the average annual burn being about three-fourths of 1 percent for the 5-year period.%2 Fire-control needs here aline closely with those on national forests. ‘The objective for the Oregon “The actual burn on forest lands may have been some- what less in view of the greater fire hazard and lower stand- ards of protection on the nonforest lands. 81 MILLION ACRES Million dollars MILLION DOLLARS I94; 7-22 2119:60 /9/1-15, calendar; all others fiscal 1911 ISI5 1920 1925 LAND UNDER ORGANIZED PROTECTION [-] State and private funds WEBB Federal funds W 1930 1935 1940 1945 1947 Ficurr 24.—Area protected and expenditures, cooperative fire protection on private and State forest lands, 1911-47. and California revested lands and national-park lands—now receiving reasonably adequate protec- tion—should be to maintain this good record and to intensify protection where needed for particu- larly critical areas. Both standards and accomplish- ments need to be raised substantially for the other four-fifths of these Federal forest lands. Fire Protection on Private and State Lands Organized fire protection on State and private forests got its first substantial impetus in 1911 through Federal support authorized by the Weeks Law. ‘This Federal aid, restricted to forest water- sheds of navigable streams, was broadened by the Clarke-McNary law in 1924 to apply to all timber- lands as well as to critical nonforested watershed lands. ‘These acts were milestones in cooperative fire control. The area under protection increased steadily from 61 million acres in 1911 to 328 million acres in 1947 (fig. 24). Annual expenditures have risen from a quarter million dollars to more than 22 million dollars in 1947, when they amounted to 6.7 cents per acre protected. Federal appropriations for cooperative protec- tion, consistently less than State and private ex- 82 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. 8. Department of Agriculture penditures although visualized on a 50-50 sharing basis, have been stepped up in recent years. ‘They did not exceed 26 percent of the total before Con- gress raised the annual authorization from 2.5 to 9 million dollars in 1944. In the fiscal year 1948, with the full 9-million-dollar authorization available they were only about 40 percent because of the increases in State expenditures. In addition much Federal aid in fire protection was given through the Civilian Conservation Corps from 1933 to 1941 and under the special wartime measures for protection of strategic areas from 1942 to 1946. All States except Arizona, Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, and Wyoming participated in co- operative fire protection in 1947. Wyoming and North Dakota may eventually participate. In Arizona, the only remaining State with great nat- ural forests, nearly all the commercial forest land is federally owned. In spite of all that has been accomplished in cooperative protection, much still remains to be done. According to a survey completed in April 1946, more than one-fourth of the 439 million acres of private and State lands needing organized protection did not have it. ‘These neglected lands are virtually all privately owned. Bringing them under effective protection is the No. | task in forest-fire control. The bulk of the land in need of protection in 1946 but lacking it was in the Southeast, West Gulf, Central, and southern Plains regions (table 27). In the Southeast and West Gulf regions, where half of the private and State forest land lacks organized protection, fires burned over 17.6 percent of the unprotected area in 1946 in contrast to 1.6 percent of the protected territory. Some light is thrown upon the adequacy of fire control for the 319 million acres under or- ganized protection by comparing the average an- nual burn with the “allowable” burn (fig. 25). This protection goal, established in 1946 for each of the cooperating States, represents the maximum percent of the land that can burn over annually consistent with satisfactory forest management. The allowable burn ranges from 0.13 percent in the North Rocky Mountain and Lake regions to 1.7 in the Southeast; the country-wide average is 0.6. In the period 1941—45, the Lake region was the only one with satisfactory protection, although several individual States in other regions held fires within the allowable burn. Nation-wide, after 35 years, an average of | percent of the protected Forests and National Prosperity area still burned over annually. And it must. be kept in mind that protection has not yet been started on 27 percent of the State and private lands in need of it. TABLE 27.—Private and State forest lands without’ organized fire protection, and annual burn Without organized Region fire protec- tion? Annual burn ? Million acres Percent 52 6 14 8 4 1 2h), 5 Plains (W. Okla. and W. Tex.) 13 19 North Rocky Mtn. 4 (°) South Rocky Mtn. 6 () United States 120 17 1Estimate for 1946. ? Average, 1941_45. 3No reliable data. New England_.. fy LLL LLL LLL LLL Southeast.._._--- LLL West Gulf. LLL Pacific Northwest_ VZZA California_________ CAMALLLLZZ) No. Rocky Mtn. __? So. Rocky Mtn. __ United States ____ 0 0.5 1.0 15 2.0 25 PERCENT OF TOTAL PROTECTED AREA GER Average annual burn EZZA Allowable burn goal Figure 25.—Relation of average annual burn, 1941-45, to the allowable burn, private and State forest lands under or- ganized protection. 83 The twofold job ahead, clearly, is to (1) bring unprotected areas under effective control, and (2) build up protection to reasonable adequacy where now spread too thin. Unless progress is accelerated, it will take about 20 years to bring under protection the 120 million acres remaining in 1946. This is too slow. A reasonable aim would be to do it within the next decade. To many States, especially in the South, this is a major challenge. For lands now under protection the allowable burn objective should be attained in all States as soon as possible. Except for critical watershed lands, these standards appear adequate for timber growing and the other uses of forest lands. Topping the obstacles to satisfactory fire control is the man-caused fire. Ninety-seven percent of the forest fires are in this category and hence, in theory, preventable. Of the 68,000 which occurred annually, 1941-45, on protected private and State lands, more than half were caused by campers, debris burners, and the like, and 9 percent by railroads and lumbering (fig. 26). percent were purposely set. ‘Twenty-eight 9% RAILROADS 3% LIGHTNING AND LUMBERING ON BY 60% SMOKERS, CAMPERS, DEBRIS BURNERS, AND UNKNOWN Ficure 26.—Causes of forest fires, private and state lands, Incendiarism is most prevalent in the South, where it accounts for 43 percent of all fires. Here firing the woods is a long-established practice. When employed judiciously in certain types and under controlled conditions, fire can help estab- lish a new crop of pine, improve grazing, reduce the hazard from inflammable debris, and serve other purposes. But most of the woods-burning through- out the South is indiscriminate and seriously im- pairs forest values. It is also a troublesome local problem in some western forests. Prevention of man-caused fires is a knotty prob- lem. Fundamentally it depends on an aroused public opinion. Effective educational work is being done by the Cooperative Forest Fire Preven- tion Campaign, and by the “Keep Green” and similar programs. Education on-a much more ample scale is needed. Paralleling the educational problem is that of obtaining satisfactory fire laws. In about one-third of the States, the laws are inadequate. Most of the States where protection is poorest—in the South, the Central region, and the South Rocky Mountain region—do not require brush-burning permits. Many lack other safeguards relating to slash dis- posal, campfires, and restricted use of forest areas during hazardous periods. Better enforcement of fire laws is another wide- spread need. The quality of enforcement reflects the attitudes of the people and local courts. En- forcement has been weak in the Southeast and West Gulf regions. Still another problem is finances. Costs have markedly increased, better information is avail- able on what adequate protection requires, and the area needing protection has been increased some 16 million acres. By recent estimates, adequate protection will cost about 40 million dollars a year, or more than double the estimate made in 1939. Total expenditures in 1947 were 22 million dollars. Obviously a dollar job cannot be done for 55 cents. Both Federal and State funds are short of the mark. There is also need for more efficient adminis- tration—a responsibility of the States, primarily. There is wide variation in the efficiency of State forestry departments. ‘This is related in one way or another to variations in value and extent of forest resources, in per capita wealth, in adequacy of fire laws, in civil service standards and salary levels, and many other factors. No uniform pat- tern or standards can be prescribed. Nevertheless, to achieve effective Nation-wide fire control, many State forestry departments must be further strength- ened so as to assure continuity of programs, able leadership, competent, well-trained staffs, and ample authority and money to do the job. 84 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. 8. Department of Agriculture All in all, we are a long way from eliminating the fire menace on private and State forests—on the whole the most accessible and potentially the most productive of our forest holdings. Fire pro- tection alone will not assure good forestry, but obviously it is a first order of business on these lands. Forest Insects and Diseases Take a Heavy Toll” Insect and disease depredations are far less spec- tacular than forest fires and seldom attract much public attention. The destruction is of two main kinds: (1) The “endemic” losses resulting from normal activities of established insect and disease pests; and (2) the more evident “epidemic” losses from outbreaks that rapidly and markedly affect forests.34 » A great variety of pests that cause endemic losses are constantly at work in the forest. Examples are the heart rots, blister rusts, and most of the insects and diseases that attack tree leaves and stems. These seldom kill trees outright, but gradually reduce growth and timber quality. Endemic losses may be of minor importance in young, fully stocked forests. But in mature stands they often accumulate to destroy timber faster than it is re- placed by current growth. They flourish especially in unmanaged forests. There is no satisfactory measure of endemic losses. ‘They are, however, very large and offset a sizable portion of gross annual timber growth.*> Except in parts of the West, the losses from disease are generally greater than from insects. ‘There are as yet few examples of private timber growing where long waiting is in- volved. A waxing private interest in forest conser- vation where market and growth conditions are favorable should not obscure the unmet challenge of many millions of other acres whose output is needed to help fill the Nation’s wood box but whose depleted condition or small return is unattractive to private enterprise unless heavy public support is forthcoming. “See section How Timberlands Are Being Managed, pp. 46-51. Forests and National Prosperity Small Forest Owners: The Heart of the Problem The more formidable obstacles in private for- estry center, however, on the more than 4 million small properties which total about three-fourths of the private land. Their large number and small size, the variable aims and skill with which they are handled, and the unstable ownership and man- agement of many—these are knotty factors which long have blocked efforts to get forest conservation into more general practice. The 139 million acres of farm woods are held largely in conjunction with property managed for other purposes. To the individual farmer, his woodland is usually a minor resource. Yet farm woodland is the largest category of forest land, and hence is of great national importance. Farm ownership generally affords a favorable set- ting for forestry. It is comparatively stable and enables a maximum of on-the-ground managerial attention. Farm forestry requires little cash out- lay. Mostly it utilizes time not fully employed on other farm jobs. | Public policy has long sought to make woodland management an integral part of the farm business. However, such management is not yet extensively practiced. With the greatest opportunities for in- tensive forestry, farmers still lack, as a class, the knowledge and incentives to practice it. Even with the advances that have been made in aiding farm forestry—in education, technical assistance, and in- centive payments—most farm woodlands are still the back yard of the farm, subjected to thoughtless cutting, pasturing, and burning. The 125 million acres of other small holdings are in many respects a more difficult problem. They have received little if any attention in aid programs, yet are an inseparable part of the agri- cultural problem of rural people and of rural land. Furthermore, forestry on both nonfarm and farm properties is beset by similar handicaps which call for much the same remedial program. The small nonfarm woodlands, like the larger properties, are held by people and companies of the widest diversity of purposes as owners. Many become owners by default, by inheritance, or in some other fortuitous manner. Some have put money into timber. Some are sawmill operators. Many are investors in minerals or in potential farming sites, and the forest to them is secondary. Still others hold the land for a variety of purposes, 95 some for reasons of sentiment. are absentee owners. A major handicap, as with the farmer owner, is lack of forestry know-how—of how to grow, harvest, and market timber to best advantage. Most small owners and operators lack the experience to per- form or supervise these tasks expertly. They need much technical information and_ on-the-ground assistance in forest management. Here there is constructive opportunity for public aid on a greatly enlarged scale. Small size, of itself, also entails handicaps. Small holdings, particularly if badly depleted, may be commensurate neither with the income needs of the owner nor with the labor and other investments he might put into them. Small size usually means that the operator grows, harvests, and markets timber as a side line. As a seller, he often is un- able to reach good markets. With small output and returns, there is little incentive to practice good timber management. The great majority The cooperative association long used by farmers in overcoming the handicaps of smallness has appli- cation to forestry. Since the first “forest coopera- tive” was organized in this country, more than 40 years ago, the movement has shown sporadic growth. Many associations have failed. A few have had long and successful histories. During the past 10 years or so there appear to have been some 57 forest-cooperative associations of different types, but engaged chiefly in marketing farm timber. Most are in the Lake and other northern States where farm cooperatives have prospered. Some handle timber only; some, as a side line to farm commo- dities. At least one processes the timber of mem- bers before selling the products. Some also provide timber-management service and require adherence to good cutting practices.*6 Forest cooperatives, given needed encouragement by public agencies, should help to meet the prob- lems of the small forest owner. Closely associated with small size is low income. ’ There is many a small property, farm and nonfarm, whose owner or operator is hard-pressed financially and which has been picked over for every bit of income it will yield. In most of these cases the forest is shorn of merchantable timber and will not produce much for many years. Meanwhile the poverty of the owner perpetuates the poverty of “Fuller discussion is given in Reappraisal Report 6, For- est Cooperatives in the United States. U. S. Dept. Agr., Forest Service. 1947. his forest; he cannot afford to postpone what little income there is while growing stock is being built up. Such very low-income forest properties, it is roughly estimated, total about 65 million acres or one-fourth of the commercial land in small hold- These are concentrated in the more depressed rural areas, where natural and industrial resources are limited: the Piedmont and Coastal Plain of the South, the southern and central highlands from the Appalachians to the Ozarks, and the northern Lake States. There are no simple solutions to the tough prob- lem of rehabilitating these small, low-income prop- erties in the face of the economic pressures which keep them depleted. Rehabilitation in any event will be slow and will involve recreating the people’s whole resource base so as to raise their total income. In the more depressed areas, it is improbable that growing stock can be restored while there is still a heavy population on the land and the forests remain in private ownership. Absentee ownership is another serious obstacle.47 When an owner leaves his property unoccupied or turns it over to a tenant, good forest management is doubly difficult to attain. Despite the poor showing by small holdings as a class, there is opportunity for forestry on a large proportion of them. But the present picture is largely one of mismanagement, of exploitation on millions of small properties adding up to exploita- tion on a grand scale. ‘The picture reveals serious handicaps, economic and physical, to satisfactory forestry. It reveals the heavy handicap of sheer lack of knowledge of forestry and its possibilities. Yet if private forestry is to do the job it needs to do, it must prove itself on these small holdings as well as on the larger ones—for in these is three- fourths of the private commercial forest. The small property is indeed the crux of our forest prob- lem. ings. Some Economic Factors Affecting Private Forestry The job in private forestry is one of getting perm- anent sustained-yield management that will not only profit the owner but also serve the public interest. The public’s part of the job is largely a “In the 26 States east of the Mississippi River, where nearly three-fourths of all farm woodland is concentrated, 36 percent of the farms are operated by tenants. 96 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. S. Department of Agriculture | \ I j matter of minimizing the handicaps—of making private forestry more attractive, and helping private owners see and make the most of their opportuni- ties. It also involves protecting the heavy invest- ments which the public should shoulder in helping to spread good private forestry. Some of the more obvious needs such as better forest protection, more technical assistance in for- estry, and the like, are implicit in the difficulties confronting private owners—especially those re- lating to small properties. But there are several other things that affect ownership and management of private forests: First, there is need for adequate financing. For- estry is a long-time enterprise. It involves long- term investments—not merely the capital for year- to-year operation but that required to build up a satisfactory growing stock. The problem of waiting—of financial forbearance —is no small one. For example, the lumber com- pany with high-interest-rate loans on mature forest may have to choose between liquidation or default. The timber operator who gets capital at high cost from the buyers of his product may find himself forced into exploitive practices. The private tim- ber owner, especially the small one, usually must put his need for current income ahead of long-run considerations. To all these, waiting is expensive —often too expensive to afford. The problem of financing private forests also in- cludes making needed adjustments—enlarging tim- ber holdings to economical operating size; planting, stand improvement, and other measures; revamp- ing of road or mill layout; and the like. All this calls for financing at reasonable cost. The chief need is low-interest-rate credit for periods ranging up to 40 or even 60 years while growing stock is being built up. Some loans are needed to finance operations or improvements that will pay off more quickly. Forest owners and operators generally lack sources of satisfactory credit—long-term or intermediate— adapted to their special needs. ‘Today, when spe- cialized credit facilities for farming and for industry have been developed to a high state of efficiency by both public and private agencies, forestry is the outstanding category where credit needs remain neglected. Second, there is need for forest insurance. Risks from fire, insects, disease, and other destructive agents are not only reducible but also insurable. Forest insurance is well established in several Euro- Forests and National Prosperity ‘ pean countries. But in this country, although com- mercial companies have given considerable atten- tion to the possibilities and have written some policies at high rates, forest insurance has been slow to catch on. Studies in the Pacific Northwest and the Northeast 48 indicate that commercial insurance is practicable at reasonable rates if it avoids poor risks and is based on good protection, reasonably good forest practices, and broad coverage. Third, property taxes have long been regarded as a major obstacle to private forestry. Annual taxes, to be sure, may encourage premature cutting or abandonment of young or cut-over forests. Fur; thermore, the fact that taxes are considered an obstacle tends to make them so. However, the effect of property taxes as a deter- rent to forestry has generally been exaggerated. Management of farm woods, for example, is little affected because they are seldom taxed separately from the rest of the farm and the costs chargeable to them are rarely segregated. Less than half the private land is likely to be influenced in its man- agement by property taxes, and only a fraction of this probably is appreciably affected. An important factor in the tax burden is poor administration. Inequities in assessment as_be- tween forest and other land, as well as unpredicta- ble fluctuations in the tax, create special burdens on forest owners. High costs of local government complicate the problem, especially where forests are the main tax base and depletion is widespread. Some of these burdens are being lightened. Many States are giving increasing help to local gov- ernments in making more uniform and equitable assessments. Some States are assuming the support of roads, schools, and other services formerly borne by counties and districts, and some have limited the local tax rates by statute. Between 1932 and 1941, costs of State and local government rose from 8.5 to 12.8 billion dollars, but property taxes re- mained at about 4.5 billion dollars. Meanwhile tax delinquency, a sensitive barometer, has fallen to a long-time low. Even so, forest taxation remains much in the public eye as indicated by the continuing stream of legislation. As of 1946 twenty-six States had special forest-tax laws on the books. Mostly this is ex- 48 SHEPARD, H. B. FOREST FIRE INSURANCE IN .THE PACIFIC coasT sTaTEs. U.S. Dept. Agri. Tech. Bul. 551, 168 pp., illus. 1937. FOREST FIRE INSURANCE IN THE NORTHEASTERN STATES. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bul. 651, 46 pp., illus. 1939. of emption and yield-tax legislation of the optional variety 49 which has proved largely ineffective. In no State is more than 8 percent of the private com- mercial forest land classified under such laws, and in more than half less than 1 percent. Only two States, Ohio and Washington, have differential or deferred forest taxation °° of the type recommended by the Forest Service more than 10 years ago.*? That Federal and State income taxes seriously hamper good forest practice is doubtful because they do not reach the great mass of owners, nor those who are making no net income. Indeed, the high tax rates of recent years may have encouraged concerns with high income to spend more for for- estry. State and Federal estate taxes occasionally have some adverse influence, but most forest prop- erties, including those of corporations, are not sub- ject to them and few are subject to upper-bracket rates. Public Interest in Private Forests Should Be Safeguarded To keep all forest land reasonably productive, there is need for some public restraints upon cutting and other practices on lands in private ownership. The public should set up common-sense rules that will prevent clear-cutting without provision for restocking, stop unnecessary destruction of young growth, and require reasonable safeguards with respect to fire, grazing, and logging. This is an essential step to assure sound private forestry. Owners, large and small, have a vital stake in the kind of forestry practiced on each other’s land since “‘cut-out-and-get-out” practices have a direct bearing on the stability and strength of local markets which are so advantageous to profitable private forestry. Indeed, good cutting practices, such as are already being attained on many private holdings, are in the long run one of the best guarantees of vigor and permanence of “Provides for exclusion of immature timber from the property-tax base or for substitution of a severance tax; optional in. the sense that the taxpayer takes the initiative in enrolling his timber under provisions of the law, but is not required to do so. In differential taxation, a flat percentage reduction is ap- plied to the assessed value or tax rate of forest lands. In deferred taxation, the tax bill is postponed (and usually accumulates at interest). 51 FALL, R. C. THE FOREST-TAX PROBLEM AND ITS SOLUTION SUMMARIZED. U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 358, 17 pp. 1935. Pp. 14-17. . action. industries and communities, as well as of the for- estry enterprises that sustain them. Basically, the need for regulation stems from the large responsibility to safeguard forest values in the interests of society as a whole. The authority of government to impose reasonable restrictions on personal and property rights of individuals to pre- vent injury to the public welfare is a widely ac- cepted principle of law. This is reflected by a large and growing body of regulatory laws—Federal, State, and local—of which there are many common- place examples: Speed laws, zoning ordinances, sanitation and building codes; and regulations affecting such broad fields as commerce, transporta- tion, public health, and conservation and use of national resources. The public, to whom private forestry looks increasingly for financial aid and other services, needs some minimum guarantee, such as regulation affords, that forest lands will be kept productive and that its large investment will be protected. Regulation of private forest practices has in re- cent years won considerable acceptance in principle, although there is also much opposition to it and much controversy about whether it should be State or Federal. Nowhere as yet, in this country, is it on a satisfactory basis. Some 14 States now have regulatory laws on their books, 3 of them enacted prior to 1925 and 10 in or since 1940. Since 1940, unsuccessful efforts have been made in 10 other States to pass regulatory laws.. Some of the laws specify definite rules of prac- tice: usually that seed trees be kept or that the cutting be limited by diameter. A majority place responsibility on a single State agency, which is a requisite of good administration. Less than half, however, provide for the needed advice and assis- tance to forest owners and operators. Only a few are believed to provide adequately for enforcement. In most, the silvicultural standards require little or no improvement in the prevalent cutting prac- tices. In some States the law is to all intents and purposes a dead letter. There are many obstacles to getting effective regu- lation; Nation-wide, based solely on State-by-State Progress would be exceedingly slow. Some States might not act at all. And results doubtless would be spotty. They would probably vary from very little in some States to a good job in some financially strong States with good laws and effec- tivé enforcenient: Regulation probably would be poorest in extensively forested States where it ought 98 Miscellaneous Publication 668, U. 8. Department of Agriculture to be best. States with good standards of practice would be under continual pressure to lower them if competitive States observed lower ones. Federal leadership and participation are needed to assure satisfactory regulation, Nation-wide. This was recognized as long ago as 1920, when the first Federal bill for forest regulation was introduced in the Congress. Several regulatory bills have been introduced in Congresses during recent years; none has been enacted. Some have proposed outright Federal regulation. One would give the States reasonable opportunity to enact, and with Federal financial assistance administer, regulatory laws con- sistent with basic Federal standards; and would provide for Federal administration under the Fed- eral law in States which after a reasonable time failed to do so. Key Issues Related to Ownership This discussion has focused on some of the dif- ficulties confronting forest owners—private and public—and has also shown that, on every hand, the outcome in forestry is bound up with getting stable, purposeful ownership of forest land. In- deed, it also points up three fundamental and in- terrelated problems which, in large measure, high- light the job to be done in bettering our forest situation: 1. How to achieve good forestry under private ownership. 2. How to protect the public interest in poor- Forests and National Prosperity chance forests that are not readily susceptible of good management under private ownership. 3. How to equip public forests so that they may contribute more, as they must, to our national supply of timber and other forest products and to other services. Clearly, much remains to be done in formulating and implementing national policies with respect to the public’s stake and responsibilities in private forestry; in providing effective protection against fire and other hazards; in making readily available the technical know-how and essential on-the-ground management services; in helping private owners to overcome the handicaps of small-scale operation, unfamiliarity with technical forestry methods, and difficulty in financing forest enterprises; and in strengthening and enlarging public forests. These are the issues to be met. For the Nation needs productive forests. Timber is a basic and indispensable natural resource—an important part of America’s great industrial strength. But our timber supply is running dangerously low. We are overdrawing our forest bank account and new growth is falling far short of prospective require- ments. A much stronger program of forestry is needed to assure timber for the future and to care for the expanding needs of watershed protection, forest recreation, and other forest uses. If the United States is to maintain a place of economic leadership in the world of tomorrow, it can ill af- ford to temporize with its forests. WU. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1948— 806034 99 f a. Saal % E y Nae ; ~ } i | 5 4 i j ‘ f (| | i j } | . 1 a Sach 1 i ewok ae! 4 H t j : is ‘ .) j ¥ ay Soa es Bia B eee 3: bles = a a Hp Seah NN TIT . cat i if Pte Ss oe ahs eres ee = “s a Ren aoe Es x. Satay se et i, ee : Mie rods Ma a ant, gtd | 3 SS take i See eos Stes ee A a ee a Lads heated ee TEES rr iGzztecigerys 3 Pear SI: atrae corset cs 4 4 . S . i rise s- As ibebe i€ Spite dy Sar mue