‘ eee ae ee ie uy a He oe 4 Nays an : Mr Aa iy . x iN Bi it ve uf ANG iH ye Re ala Boas iG Gia doy) A a a \ Peas aay ip! ay ea Wea it al os i OH My YN ts sy i , HN ) Ue ae Hi te ce ‘] heed wi ' nh ne Sea wey “nt mp ahha ae - i 7 Ht ni HM . tf ih HOR IKIN +4 » ts Ww is 1) 1 ne “| At aN a ees ein Cd Hany o His Uses Hi oy) ANE } AS iy ce as Soe os rr re eas eae . ae Ke i Yh es ay r ) fi) $ FON i; iy a) Ay 4 , ie hi Wa sie ths . Mae ‘ $s ih "} ie wank (iy ° « AN TURN AMA Oot Ne , Sake “Nt 4 seein AS bk ‘ ee tats - Ma: yy ius ney We Kine Abts ie ae ia Be page uel ‘ Ya ne (ee Ris ne RR a ‘ ey et 3 a} Y —s = aan > eu AYIA f v Hig x . yh ‘, oS i 4% Ors ai Rasy Hi} ee era} a4 J < THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN LuEsther T. Mertz Library Gift of The Estate of Henry Clay Frick, LE 2007 PLATE I. Trees of Pacific Slope, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. Agr, ‘HLYON NOIDSY LSVOO O1410Vd bel HOIMNGINO BE) MOMd ASEM zy) TONUENOY Ob) as! ‘gonad a \houw re) xa Y onv aL oie aed 1 Mviao . “2p ag a ott otal pat cl | . nr. rn -) es 2) 08S! 029! oF e041 Trees of Pacific Slope, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. Agr. PLATE II. \Y a y YA PRIEGT River = WASHINGTON as G umPouA ESS coquitce\Yagag MONTEREY NGS SS SS £ a “YO ad AsxPO yee nt \ SANTR BARBARA « ig SAT @QABRIEL ° Ss pil Top ; SANTA CRUZ x 5 Sd Benwanoino™ = . 2 SANTA ROSA |. c SANTA CATALINA! SS SAN CLEMENTS 1S PACIFIC COAST REGION SOUTH. ee , ce @ ee ee ee le lasned October 1, 1908. O25. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, POOREST SERVICE. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. BY GEORGE B. SUDWORTH, Dendrologist. ASSSSSS WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1908. > Ss ab. ning To lima Pilde es | al Rie i, fee el CONTENTS. Oo RD EE TE See ee ee es aes pee eta oh al Le ee ae ee SP MIGTINE ota TOe Le teen ee oe ee De Ss ee ee Deseriptions and illustration of species_—-—_ =-_-____-.-=2-=_----=-- Paincrote 1il-si Zed -IUStrarlOns: <6 Ses os es Oe mission of artificial keys for identification =—2-—--=—-2_-= 22-2. PROP METCATIAIIOS OL ITCOS - 2 toe plete mete ee een tee Ae SEOTERTIME TI IIHONT Of; UL GCS! * = nn een en ee ae re ee CLES VIE AEST a eek ee BS eee ERS mame Reis aes tains | Ee Ee Ee coed anes ee oe DUDE Ci Argh a ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee PREC R COM GE GLCOS sea Sei eae ee ees ee ee ee Le ene RTC OC VELEN ee te oe ee ee ee a ee Re Bee «2 PUEE SE COSTE Ey See i ea ae peels ale OL i pe ne ERTL: eee eee a ee ee See ee es ee ee PEPYS GES a aa i en oS iar ae ee nie Ree ee Fk ee BON Ea Tees POEMS hee a EN ee eet aa Western white pine; Silver pine (Pinus monticola GG ee ee Se ee Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana Dougl.)~--------------- Limber pine .Ceinus fleriis James) 2 2-2 eee SS White-bark pine (Pinus albicaulis Engelmann) ___----_~ Four-leaf pine; Parry pine (Pinus quadrifolia Parl. Sud- Ty OL LB) Se ae eT als Se SP ea Single-leaf pine (Pinus monophylla Torrey and Fremont) Bristle-cone pine (Pinus aristata Engelmann) --------~- Foxtail pine (Pinus balfouriana Murray) -~------------ Torrey pine; Soledad pine (Pinus torreyana Parry) —--- EllOws DINeNe eae te ae ete ee ee ee Western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa Lawson) —--~-~- Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi “Oreg. Com.”) ------------- Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta TROTICLO Ee eee Gray pine; Digger pine (Pinus sabiniana Douglas) ___~-- Coulter pine; Bigcone pine (Pinus coulteri Lambert) ~~ Monterey pine (Pinus radiata Don.)——---------______- = Knobcone pine (Pinus attenuata Lemmon) __~~--------- Pricklecone pine; Bishop’s pine (Pinus muricata Don.) - ees —— loa een eee sae ee ek ee eee re es See te ee ee Western larch (Larix occidentalis Nuttall) --_------------- Alpine lareh (arts lyalin Parlatore) —~-- ===" _—___..--- Tamarack (Larix laricina (Du Roi) Koch)--------------- PG Sat Come ete st Sey eee ee ae EE) ese Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmanni Engelmann) -__-~-~—~ Sitka spruce; Tideland spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) - ve Hel PANT AMOS = eee a ee ee ee en ek Weeping spruce (Picea breweriana Watson) --------------- 4 CONTENTS. | Gymnospermze—Continued. Coniferze—Continued. Picea—Spruces—Continued. Black'spruce (Picea manana (Mill.) B.S. & BP) 22-22-22 White spruce (Picea canadensis (Mill.) B., S. & P.)-----____ Tsuga=ELemlo¢ks' 2252.2 Se ae te = eee Sie a ee Western hemlock (V'suga heterophylla (Raf.) Sargent) _____ Mountain hemlock; Black hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana (Bong) Sargent) 22-22 sees S2ea as wae. 2 ee eee Pseudotsuga—Halse giemlocke= == ae ae Se eee Douglas fir; Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Poir.) ritto ny) 5S ee ss a ee ee ee ee Bigcone spruce (Pseudotsuga macrocarpa (Torr.) Mayr) __~ AD TGS== ig a ee Get ee a ee ee Alpine fir ; Balsam fir (Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nuttall)___ Grand fir; White fir (Abies grandis Lindley) ___--==___=__= Wihitedin (Abies concolor (Gords) searry) 222. Bristlecone fir (Abies venusta (Dougl.) Koch) —~-____-______ Amabilis fir (Abies amabilis (Loud.) Forbes) Noble stir: «CAbtes=nobilis lind ley) 222-5222 eee Redfin Abies magnijice Murray) 22222 = 2 eee Scequola— Redwoods aa Se a ee Bigtree (Sequoia washingtoniana (Winsl.) Sudworth)—~__—~ Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens (Lamb.) Endlicher)—_—_--~ iI DOCCETUS 2s 4es 3 Ae ee a eee oe See Incense cedar (Libocedrus decurrens Torrey )_~------------- Th Ja——AT DORVIES Sse ne ee Ee ee ee Western red cedar; Red cedar (Thuja plicata Don.) —~-~---~ Cupressus==CyDressesiz == he eee eee Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa Hartweg) —~------ Gowen cypress (Cupressus goveniana Gordon) —~~~~~~~--_~~ Dwarf cypress (Cupressus pygmea (Lemm.) Sargent) —-—--_ Macnab cypress (Cupressus macnabiana Murray ) —---------~- Chamscyparis=—Cedars:= 2: a ee Yellow cypress; Alaska cypress (Chamecyparis nootkatensis @Guamb: Spach) eee Sie LS eee eee Lawson cypress; Port Orford cedar (Chamecyparis lawso- nianda, (Murts) VParlatore)/ 2222-222. 2 ee aa Juniperus—Junipers\ = 2. 3 ee a Dwarf juniper (Juniperus communis Uinneeus) ------------- Rocky Mountain red cedar (Juniperus scopulorum Sargent) -- Western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis Hooker) —~--------~-~ Utah juniper (Juniperus utahensis (Engeln.) Lemmon) —__—_ California juniper (Juniperus californica Carriére) —------__ Maxacesd. 2 =o haa eS eee a ee ee Tumion—Stinkine cedars’ 2 ee ee California nutmeg (Twmion californicum (Torr.) Greene) --- Taxus-—YewS 2:83 = See os Se Western yew (Taxus brevifolia Nuttall) ___--_--=-_==______ Monocotyledones. 2222222222556. ee eee Wee Dan gh ee, Fa a a fly ae ee ae Neowashingtonia—Palms 222 Ses Sos eS ee Washington palm (Neowashingtonia filifera (Wendl.) Sud- Worth) coo Lee ee Se eee ee Page. CONTENTS. Monocotyledones—Continued. FAORT Le eae a meee 2 te SS ee ee ee ee Tayi Sees aa See ere sek ENO, Re ep ia Joshua tree (Yucca arborescens (Torr.) Trelease)—--~___-_- Mohave yucca (Yucca mohavensis Sargent) —~-------------- PE eOUICR eo 2s. eee re ee s------ eee hs Toe rao velar eS ee pe pe en ee eee SUS ans — VN ALT pees ee ee ee SN A eS eon a= == California walnut (Juglans californica Watson) —~-~~ ~~. — IMRT OR EE 2 SSS Sy ee eR ene ee ee patie IN Rar eS Wo can 6 Oa i SS i ea a el California myrtle (Myrica californica Chamisso)—~~~~-~~-~- Baligaices tts ts eu PEROT Dp eMNR Rene wala 2 ee LEE 8 ae SETI ATUL tse ee Ng ee Black willow (Salia2- nigra Marshall) ===—- -.--_-----------+-- Almond willew (Salix amygdaloides Andersson )—~~~~~~~~~ Smooth willow (Salix levigata Bebb) _—-______-__-___-___-___- E Western black willow (Salix lasiandra Bentham )——~~~—~~-~__ Longleaf willow (Salix fluviatilis Nuttall) --.-----________- Silverleaf willow (Salix sessilifolia Nuttall) _------------~~- MackenZie willow (Salix cordata mackenzicana Hooker) ~~~ White willow (Sailz lasiolepis Bentham) —— ~___~__-_______ Nuttall willow (Satie nuttallii Sargent) —--__---___-__-_-___ Broadleaf willow (Salix amplifolia Coville) -~—~~-__..---___ Hooker willow (Salix hookeriana Barratt) —------=--_-___- Silky willow (Salix sitchensis Sanson in Bongard)—~~-~--_~ Feltleaf willow (Salix alarensis (Anderss.) Coville) —~~~_~ Populus—Cottonwoods and poplars=-=--==ss--25 225222 see Aspen (Populus tremuloides Michaux) —~-_---_---_---_-+__ Balm-of-Gilead (Populus balsamifera Linnwus) ~~ ~~---_-___ Black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa Torrey and Gray) —_ Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontii Watson)_—~--____- Mees eae ee Sena S 4 SO So a ee Oe Se eet iByeir SS See wVers ee ae SSE ee ee Se ee eee ce ee eee ee Re Western birch (Betula occidentalis Hooker) —~~~-~-------__- ienai birch (Benila kenaica: bivans) =S) White birch (Betula alaskana Sargent) _——___-_____________ Mountain birch (Betula fontinalis Sargent) —-~_____________ PANEL — A 1G Tt pee ees Fee e et eR eet ee ee _ White alder (Alnus rhombifolia Nuttall) --_---__--_-_____- Mountain alder (Almus tenuifolia Nuttall) ---___----_______- med alder (CAlmisiomegona. Nuttall) Se 2s ee ee ee Sitka alder (Alnus sitchensis (Regel)* Sargent) -~__--______ SPernT i ioueay wertege: ee Se tee OES Beni tes ee Soe eee ete ok CORUSEHONS|S-—CHiMgua pins. oes te Fe es Se et Western chinquapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla (Hook.) A. MesCang Olle) bom ae ee ee oa ee CETUS 0 SES 0 FD eS i Rt eee es Ree ts Rr Walley onk (Ouercus iobuid INGe) == =a a te Brewer oak (Quercus brewerit Engelmann) —-_------------- Garry oak (Quercus garryana Douglas) -~-______-_-------- Sadler oak (Quercus sadleriana R. Brown Campst.)—~~--~-- Blue oak (Quercus douglasii Hooker and Arnott) —~~~------- Alvord oak (Quercus alvordiana Eastwood) ~-------------- 5 Page. 200 201 201 203 205 206 206 206 208 208 209 210 212 213 216 PAC ( 219 ae 223 225 226 228 229 92) ve 233 236 238 239 244 247 251 5 ~ bdo wh bt wm —_ 6 CONTENTS. Dicotyledones—Continued. Page. Cupuliferee—Continued. Quercus—Oaks—Continued. Engelmann oak (Quercus engelmanni Greene) _____________ 289 California scrub oak (Quercus dumosa Nuttall) ~--_-__-__ > 292 Canyon live oak (Quercus chrysolepis Liebmann)__________ 295 Quercus tomenteila Kngelmann= 222 =a see eee 300 California live oak (Quercus agrifolia Née)____-___-____ 303 Wislizenus oak (Quercus wislizeni A. de Candolle)______-___ 307 Price oak (Quercus pricei Sudworth)_____________ @ sro sal 309 Morehus oak (Quercus morehus Kellogg) 2s2esleno See 311 California black oak (Quercus californica (Torr.) Cooper) —_ 313 Tanbark oak (Quercus densiflora Hooker and Arnott) ______ 317 Wimacer == Sans ees See ee ee ee ee 322 Celtis—Hackberries =e Se ee ee 323 Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis Linnzeus) ——-________________ 393 Palo: blaneo, (Celtis, reticulata Dorrey) 2 eee 325 Woauiracere so ae he ea es ad i 2 Sh 327 Umbellularia—Laurel\ 3< = eG eae a Ae 827 California laurel (Umbellularia californica (Hook. and ASTID a) Se IN Gea) se a a ee I ee ee ee 327 Samiitaca cess ss oe nN et ee ae eee 331 yonothamnus 2. - == - oP. a ek Se ee ee 331 Western ironwood (Lyonothamnus floribundus Gray)_——_—~ 331 Platanacese 2-2 es a ee eee eee p34 Plataniis——Syca mores 22 222 ee es eee 334 California sycamore (Platanus racemosa Nuttall) ~~_~______ 835 Rosa Gese oo 2a 2 a a a ees Soe eS SR ae eae 836 Cercocarpus—Mountain mahoganies__________--__-_-________ 336 Trask mahogany (Cercocarpus traskie Eastwood) __~_______ 337 Curl-leaf mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius Nuttall)_—____ 338 Birch-leaf mahogany (Cercocarpus parvifolius Nuttall)____ 340 Malus=— Apples!” 22 = see Soy 5 ee oe oe Fo a ee ee 342 Oregon crab apple (Walus rivularis (Dougl. in* Hook.) 2 ROeMeT:) \— Ss see bane ot Sle ree SS ee 342 Amelanchier—Serviceberries —-.254.2 8 eae) Sa eee 345 Western serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia Nuttall) ~~ ___ 345 Grateous—Ha ws) sss seg a Bs A a 8347 Black haw (Crategus douglasii Lindley )_--_-____--___-* 2 = 347 Heteromeles, =. 2 Ses ee ee oe ES ee 349 Christmas berry (Heteromeles arbutifolia Roemer) _———-___ 349 Prunus—Cherries and plims4262. 3.260) 2 see eee 351 Western plum (Prunus subcordata Bentham)_—~____________ 352 Bitter cherry (Prunus emarginata (Dougl.) Walpers)_—___~ 354 Western choke cherry (Prunus demissa (Nutt.) Walpers__ 396 | Hollyleaf cherry (Prunus ilicifolia (Nutt.) Walpers)_——_--—_ 359 Leguminosae Ss ee ee 361 Prosopis—Mesquites 2.2 2. = ee Se eee 362 Screwpod mesquite (Prosopis odorata Torrey and Fremont)- 362 Mesquite (Prosopis julifiora glandulosa (Torr.) Sargent) _-_- 364 Cercis—Judas trees ss 2 pa ae gn a pe ee ea eae California redbud (Cercis occidentalis Torrey) _-__--------- 8367 ACAGS — 258 he ee a ee Se ee ee tent 3 ele as 369 Cat's claw. (AicaciazoregqiiiGray) ee Se SS ee 369 CONTENTS. Dicotyledones—Continued. Leguminose—Continued. | EATIPL Sg USCOTE Pipe pea se Oe ee eae ee ee Horse-bean; Ratama (Parkinsonia aculeata Linnzeus)_____ Little-leaf horse-bean (Parkinsonia microphylla Torrey )___~ COED) Dos PTD ae or Oe ee eee Se eee a re Palo verde; green-bark acacia (Cercidium torreyanum (Wat- Son} ssarecenut,) == st pL EE ETS eS ae See Mexican ironwood (Olmeya tesota Gray)__________-_______ TVS] Ben Cre a ae a a es a a ne ee CRIN) 5 Cee SS Oe es ee ee ee ee Canotia (Canotia holacantha Torrey) _—~___________________ REL T UIE Y Gets SS “ad a ea BENT ee ee ee ee Fremontia (Fremontodendron californicum (Torr.) Coville) — So UE Ten Na UVES SS Sas es Se aS I EES Cee ees, SE on ee ee VEU eS ae A es a So a eS a ee en EVSSVECETE ak a a a i ae fe a ase AVR ES es aes ate ae ta ee Ee de ee ee Ee Soe os ' Broadleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum Pursh)__~-___-__-__ _~ Vine snaple CA cer ercimatum., Pursn) 222228 Dwart maple (Ach glabra. Torrey) 23.2 = California boxelder (Acer negundo californicum (Torr. and (Guts) See (ee) fete Soa deed See SAP WR 2 Soe sate ee SO ee CHA STBCEUCTES IG UESY Cle oe SO Se A pe ae eae ere: tae ee ee Pee PSC UUUIN — PICK EVEN ne See eS 2 A California buckeye (4!sculus californica Nuttall) ~~ ~~--_ CEL PETE aa ea es i ee a ie ee ee ea eres de mee Rhamnus—Buckthorng — 2 2+--+-=-=_ = + ee ee ee Sey Se Evergreen buckthorn (Rhamnus crocea Nuttall) --__-_____- K Cascara sagrada (Rhamnus purshiana De Candolle)__~____ __ ROHS DNS ——“WEY PE LCS ie ees Se Blue myrtle (Ceanothus thyrsiflorus Eschscholtz) ~~ ~-____ Tree myrtle (Ceanothus arboreus Greene)___________-_ Lilac=(Ceanothus spinosus Nuttall) o. =. US PCs SE Ae Ee AS oS OE OE eee Goris —-OLWOOUS mind COMES. <2 =... so es es ek Western dogwood (Cornus nuttallii Audobon)___~____ ee ae Se ae oe ey P LMS he rn NS aE creel a eB ecg ee det ee Quinine bush (Garrya elliptica Douglas) _~.---__--_-_-_- eA Chee) = es aera eee R are eek = Fie ee esemnecorromen ee as ae hee tee caf Soe Site A ae ot ane Up DCT See GUS nc le Bh a pee ee eS 2 a Os Leatherleaf ash (Frazrinus coriacea Watson) ______________ Oregon ash (Frazinus oregona Nuttall) ---_---___-________ ww Ww w Wow ww Ww Ww w oo a) GO GO GO CO oO orl = 4+] =) BReENNNOSOCOMAWDN SD 386 8 CONTENTS. Dicotyledones—Continued. - Page. Oleaceze—Continued. Fraxinus—Ashes—Continued. Pravinus velwvingeorreys = 2 Se eae 426 Flowering ash (Fraxzinus dipetala’ Hooker and Arnott) _____ 428 (BigN ONIACE® eS a eee 429 CHU OPSTS eee ee ae Se ee ee 429 ’ Desert willow (Chilopsis linearis (Cav.) Sweet)—--_________ 499 Suulbiaeese + =< Ss 62s ae eee a a ee oo eas bee ee 431 Gephalanthus 2=25--.=) = SaRss ee 2a ee ea eee 431 Button bush (Cephalanthus occidentalis Linnzeus) ~~~ _____ 431 Caprifielacess = 225. Va eee eee Re oh eee 433 Sambucus—Bblderberries =--- =) == ===-=2-==+>2 52222 == eee 433 Biue elderberry (Sambucus glauca Nuttall) ------------__-__ 434 Mexican elder (Sambucus mexicana Presl.)—~--__-________ 435 Red-berried elder (Sambucus callicarpa Greene) —~-___----- 436 INTRODUCTION. This volume is the first of four which are to deal with all the native forest trees of North America north of the Mexican boundary. It contains an account of the tree species known to inhabit the Pacific region, 150 in all. Part IT will be devoted to the Rocky Mountain trees, Part III to the trees of the southern States, and Part IV to the trees of the northern States. The region covered by Part I includes Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California (see maps, frontispiece). Many trees described occur wholly within this region, but none are repre- sented throughout it. A few are found on its southern border and range into Mexico, while three or four trees stretch from within the Pacific region to the Atlantic. DEFINITION OF A TREE. The definition of a tree followed by the author includes woody plants having one well-defined stem and a. more or less definitely formed crown (but not excluding unbranched cactuses, yuccas, and palms), and attaining somewhere in their natural or planted range a height of at least 8 feet and a diameter of not less than 2 inches. It has been difficult to apply this definition in all cases, for there is no sharp line between some shrub-like trees and some tree-like shrubs. However, though wholly arbitrary, it has been serviceable. A considerable number of species included are, over much of their range, little more than chaparral shrubs, becoming tree-like only in exceptionally favorable places. Recent discoveries in this region have made it necessary to class as trees several species previously regarded as shrubs. Some species are shrubs within this territory, but are trees outside of it. There still remain for further careful consideration several species of Arctostaphylos, Ceanothus, and Styrax, which may prove to be trees. DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF SPECIES: Since this work was prepared solely for the layman, the use of technical terms has been avoided. In describing species the writer has endeavored to define essential and simple characters in’ plain 9 10 INTRODUCTION. terms. It is believed that the chief distinguishing characters of trees may be readily observed by laymen if clearly pointed out in ordinary language. The color of wood given refers to heartwood; sapwood is described only when it is materially different from the usual whitish color of such wood. The illustrations are relied upon chiefly to define the important dis- tinctive characters. Additional characters, difficult or impossible to show in drawings, such as the roughness, very minute hairiness, ete., of foliage or other parts, are briefly described. No attempt has been made to translate exactly the technical terms used by botanists to describe, for example, the different types of hair, wool, and other appendages which often mark the leaves and twigs of trees. Little attention has been given to defining or illustrating such transient characters as flowers and young or immature foliage. Mature foli- age, fruits, bark, form of trunk and crown, and some other features, always present, or at least persisting longer than the flowers, are these most readily observed, and for this reason have been singled out and emphasized. Some trees are very easily identified by the special shape of their leaves, the color and character of their bark, or the form of their crown, whereas the recognition of others requires all available evidence. It must be borne in mind also that some trees, especially conifers, have very dissimilar leaves, buds, and bark on different parts of the crown and trunk. A long experience has taught the author that it is difficult for lay students of trees to appreciate the variation in shape and size possi- ble in the leaves and fruits, and in the bark characters of a single species. It is hard for them to understand that such minor differences in the size and form of leaves and fruits as may characterize different individuals of the same species are really within the limits of one recognized species. They look for absolute uniformity in the char- acters of species presented in different individuals, when it really is not te be found. The student will, therefore, often find it exceedingly difficult to identify some forms of a species. Representative leaves, fruits, and other characters have been illustrated and described ac- cording to the best judgment of the author, who has tried to give the best of the knowledge he apples in making an identification. The student may find tree forms slightly or considerably different in details from those illustrated and described here, and will be in doubt. He will be able to settle doubtful points only by much care- ful field study and the observation of all that can be found distinctive in trees. In order to know even a few trees well, a multitude of de- tails must be learned and remembered, especially if the species are closely related. Much of the dendrologist’s knowledge of trees is gained through long study by a partly unconscious absorption of small, indescribable, but really appreciable, details. ; INTRODUCTION. tl To meet as many as possible of these difficulties, common and strik- ing differences in the leaf and fruit forms of a number of trees have been specially pointed out in illustrations or descriptions. VALUE OF FULL-SIZED ILLUSTRATIONS. Nearly all figures show leaves, etc., of natural size. In the writer’s experience, nothing is more helpful, particularly to untrained stu- dents, than illustrations practically the exact size of specimens they will find in the field. In reduced illustrations of the leaves, fruits, and seeds of some trees distinctive characters are lost, so that even specialists find them useless. Reduced figures are used only when the natural sizes of the object are too large for the pages of this book. It is believed, however, that in these cases distinctive characters have not been lost. OMISSION OF ARTIFICIAL KEYS FOR IDENTIFICATION. Keys leading up to the identification of families, genera, and species are omitted, chiefly to prevent further delay in publication. They appear to be little used, if at all, by lay students, who prefer to identify trees by elimination, 1. e., by comparing the specimen with the illustrations until a “ picture” is found that “ fits.” This method is wholly unscientific, but is nevertheless the one which busy, untrained lovers of trees are most likely to follow. TECHNICAL NAMES OF TREES. The technical nomenclature does not correspond wholly with that of any one author. Tree names adopted here are based upon the generally accepted law of priority, which demands that the earliest tenable name be retained. The period in which this law is here held to be operative is from 1753, when the general application of binom- inal names of plants began. This is in accordance with the usage of most dendrologists. Many changes of technical names have been necessary since the publication of the author’s “ Nomenclature of North American Trees ” and “ Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States,” upon which the nomenclature is based. It is regrettable, but inevitable, that authors should differ in judgment regarding the retention of certain tree names, even if they do accept as a working principle priority of publication for every name used. The intricacies of nomenclatural law are too great to be discussed here, but for the sake of illustrating one of the many points of disagreement among den- drologists, the two names Sequoia wellingtonia and Sequoia washing- toniana, now retained for the bigtree of the California Sierras, are 12 INTRODUCTION. cited. Each name.is held by its advocates to be correctly founded. Tn this case the difference of opinion does not involve priority, but the question of whether or not the earliest name (S. washingtoniana) was properly established by publication. The author of Tarodium wash- ingtonianum, on Which Sequoia washingtoniana is based, described it in untechnical language in a San Francisco newspaper, and not, as his opponents maintain he should have done, in technical terms and im a recognized plant journal. The point, in the case of publication in a newspaper, that the announcement of a new species is not made to technical readers but to the general public does not, in the writer’s judgment, affect the principle of publicity. In deciding questions of this kind the writer has felt that if a tree has been named and definitely enough described or figured in public print to enable a reader to recognize the tree designated, the author’s name of the tree is justly entitled to recognition, whether or not the description was technical or was printed in some appropriate journal of standing. This opinion does not, of course, question the entire propriety and desirability of describing new species in technical language and an- nouncing them either in botanical journals or at least in those devoted to biological subjects. COMMON NAMES OF TREES. The selection of common names given here is based upon the widest usage over most of the trees’ ranges. The ideal common name is one exclusively used for a tree throughout its range. Such names are rare, but every effort should nevertheless be made to estab- lish them. The stability of scientific names (which are never know- ingly duplicated), though yet imperfect, is what gives them their chief advantage over common names. Unfortunately common names of trees are not always appropriate or well chosen. They do not, as they should, refer to some striking characteristic of the tree or of its habitat. Inappropriate names, however, when once established, can not well be discarded, since usage, as in language, is really a law, and since if not duplicated for other trees they may serve as well as more appropriate ones the practical purpose of names—convenient handles. The deliberate and senseless application of the same name to two or more species is, however, something to be avoided and discouraged. It is both unnecessary and perplexing to have several very different pines called “ white pine.” Still more pernicious is the deliberate use of the same name for two or more trees belonging to entirely distinct genera; for ex- ample, “ larch ” applied to fir or balsam (a species of Abies), “ pine ” applied to spruce (a species of Picea) is inexcusable and misleading. This misuse of names is most to be deplored when it is intended, as it : INTRODUCTION. 13 has been in some cases, to overcome prejudices against a certain timber and, in effect, to deceive consumers. In this way “ white pine,” a wood of good reputation, is used for a wood of less excellent quality derived from pines in Arizona, although true timber white pine does not grow there; so also “satin walnut,” an invented name, has been commonly used for plain sweet or red gum. Many other examples might be cited. The locally accepted names of a few trees have been replaced or ‘modified, for the purpose of avoiding duplication. Thus “ red cedar” of the northwest (Zhuja plicata) is made into “ western red cedar ” in order to avoid confliction with the eastern red cedar (Juni- perus virginiana), which became well known long before the western tree was discovered. Another suggestion made in cases where it seemed proper is that of perpetuating the use of such patronymic common names as Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmanni), Brewer oak (Quercus brewer), etc., particularly for trees which have re- ceived no common distinctive names because they are still little known. It is exceedingly helpful to use such names for trees which do not readily suggest good common names. Salix nuttallii is a good example. Lay observers would see in this tree just a “ variety of willow,” and “ Nuttall willow ” is a convenient common name. Often the use of such names will emphasize what the original describer of the tree sought to perpetuate by naming it in honor of some worthy or distinguished person. SIZES OF TREES. For the most part, the heights and diameters given for trees are intended to be those ordinarily found. Extreme sizes,when given,are purposely guarded by some modifying statement, to show that they are exceptional. Lumber operations are rapidly changing the forests of nearly every region. The largest trees of certain species once common are now rare or even wanting. There appears to be a popular tendency to overestimate and to overstate the size of trees, particularly of large trees. The California Sierra bigtree (Sequoia washingtoniana) is often spoken of as being 400 or more feet high and 30 or more feet in diameter. Ac- cording to the writer’s experience it would be extremely difficult to find one of these trees now standing which is over 300 feet high or _ over 27 feet in diameter. Most of the large ones are under 275 feet in height and under 18 feet in diameter (6 feet above the swelled _ bases). RANGE OF TREES. ' In giving the range of trees, departure has been made from the usual practice of describing only the general region of occurrence. 15188—08——2 14 INTRODUCTION. This is briefly recorded for the benefit of those who desire just this information. But for the benefit of very many more it has seemed proper to include also a brief detailed description of the local range, vertical and horizontal, by States, Territory, and other geographical subdivisions in the region occupied by the species or subspecies. The fullest information possible has been given for commercial trees. A very much more definite knowledge is greatly and generally needed of the local distribution of our trees. Extreme extensions or outlying stations for each tree require to be recorded. No observers have done more along this line than authors of State and county floras, by whom actual limits of range have been carefully worked out for the trees and other plants of their special localities. There are too few of these painstaking workers, and their work can not be too highly praised. The writer wishes to emphasize the fact also that the numerous unpublished silvical, National Forest boundary, and other field reports by members of the Forest Service, as well as special field reports by members of the U. S. Geological Survey and the Biological Survey, have proved rich sources of new information on the local and general range of Pacific trees. Through these sources the distribution of some trees has been extended hundreds of miles beyond previously recorded limits. Finally, it is hoped that by giv- ing, in detail, what is now known the many observers and lovers of trees who are scattered throughout this region will be stimulated to make further contributions. Much is yet to be learned of where the trees of this region grow. OCCURRENCE OF TREES. Closely connected with a study of the areal and altitudinal range of trees is the equally important determination of where, in their respective ranges, this or that species lives—by necessity or by virtue of special fitness. Like animals, trees have what may be termed a more or less definite habitat, defined by such physical conditions as soil, moisture, topography, and, to a greater or less extent, tempera- ture. The likes and dislikes, as it were, of one species are, of course, shared by a number of others, so that several species may have their habitat in wet, in moist, or in dry situations; while different indi- viduals of the same species may accommodate themselves to all of these situations. It would lead too far, for present purposes, to discuss, even briefly, the factors upon which the adaptation of trees to environment appear to depend. The effects of mutual likes and dislikes upon species are to be seen in the occurrence of certain trees in pure stands only and the occurrence of others with different kinds of trees or with different species of the same kind. OO ee ee a i a i ee ee i teat INTRODUCTION. 15 The occurrence of trees is also influenced by their tolerance—that is, their ability to exist, for a part or the whole of their lives, in dense shade or their requirement of various degrees of shade or of full light. To what extent, however, tolerance—inherent or acquired—may be accounted for by the amount of soil moisture a given species requires can not be stated now. Finally, the characteristic habits and methods of reproduction, by seed or by sprouts, most important factors in the life history of a tree, have much to do with the occurrence of a species. It may be said here, in passing, that dendrology, the botany of trees, properly includes a study of the distinguishing characteristics of tree species for the purpose of identification and, naturally, of the affinities which determine their classification into orders and other _natural groups. The characteristics of a tree include the definition of both external and internal form characters—the morphology of its trunk, root, branches, twigs, buds, leaves, flowers, fruit, seed—as well as of the anatomical structure of the tissues, including characteristic secretions—gums, resins, etc.—of which these parts are composed. A study of the physiological processes which characterize the life of the tree organism are a part, too, of dendrology. It deals also with the natural range—horizontal and vertical and its peculiar climatic conditions, as well as with the habitat or occurrence—including the character of site and soil the tree chooses either in pure or mixed growths. What the forester has long called silvics, a study of the habits and life history of trees in the forest, therefore falls naturally under dendrology. Silvics, as the basis for all practical silvicultural operations, deals with the factors which influence the life and growth of trees in their natural or adopted habitat. In recent years the new science of ecology, a study of plant associations, has included, in so far as the life habits of trees are concerned, a part of dendrology as one of its natural subdivisions. It appears logical, however, to con- sider dendrology as still including the study of tree associations. This leaves forest ecology in its proper place as a department of general ecology, and at the same time preserves the identity of an essential part of dendrology, a distinct division of general botany. However this may be, the serious student of tree life—dendrology— can make no mistake in taking the broadest view of the field and in striving to familiarize himself with all that pertains to trees, from a study of their distinguishing characteristics to their modes of life and associations. - ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Grateful acknowledgment is here made to Dr. C. Hart Merriam, who placed at the writer’s disposal transcripts of his voluminous notes on the distribution and occurrence of California trees. The un- published data thus made available is the result of over twenty years 16 INTRODUCTION. of field observations made while studying life zones and during thou- sands of miles of travel, on foot and on horseback, especially in un- frequented and little-known sections of the State. Doctor Merriam’s rare and accurate knowledge of Pacific trees renders the information contributed exceptionally valuable. Special acknowledgment is due the American Museum of Natural History, New York, for diameter measurements and corresponding age determinations, taken from the Jesup Collection of North Ameri- can woods, through the cordial cooperation of the director, Dr. H. C. Bumpus. With these determinations, together with similar ones ob- tained through personal field studies and from unpublished records of the Forest Service, the author has been able to present statements of the ages attained by practically all of the Pacific trees. It is difficult to abandon wholly the terse and exact language of technical science and to convey in ordinary terms an accurate im- pression of a tree’s distinguishing characteristics. The writer has endeavored to make this work simple and at the same time thoroughly accurate. If it proves helpful at all in acquainting the uninitiated with the characters and habits of Pacific trees, he will be greatly encouraged in the preparation of the other regional floras designed to follow this part. Gerorce B. SupworrH. ~- FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE, a ee ee ee a ae ee ee! ee FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. GYMNOSPERMZE. The Gymnosperms are technically distinguished from other seed-bearing trees by having their ovules borne naked or without the usual covering provided in other trees. They have resinous wood formed in concentric rings, which are Jaid on each year, one outside of the preceding one, and just beneath the bark. As with other classes of our trees which grow in this manner, the age can be accurately told by counting the rings shown on a cross-section of the stem at the ground just above where the root is given off. Some of these trees bear male and female flowers separately on different branches of the same tree, and some bear male flowers on one tree and female flowers on a different tree. The male flowers produce pollen (resembling yellowish powder) in large quanti- ties and the wind conveys it to the female or fruit (‘seed’) bearing flowers for the purpose of fertilization. It is light and easily blown by wind for 50 or more yards. According to the character of their fruits, Gymnosperms are divided into two families, Coniferze (cone-bearers), and Taxacee (yew-like). Family CONIFERZ. This family includes the pines (Pinus), spruces (Picea), larches or true tamaracks (Larir), hemlocks (7'suga), false or bastard hemlocks (Pseudo- tsuga), firs or “balsam trees” (Abies), “bald” cypress (T'axodiwm), arbor- vites or “cedars” (Thuja), true cypresses (Cupressus and Chamecyparis), redwood and bigtree (Sequoia), and junipers or “cedars” (Juniperus). In all but the last group these trees bear a fruit which is a distinctly woody cone, with from two to several naked seeds under each of its overlapping or other- wise closed scales. The junipers produce a berry-like fruit, which, though not woody, is, however, morphologically a cone. The seeds of most conifers have a thin wing which helps them greatly to be scattered by the wind far from the parent tree, and so provides for their reproduction over a wide area. The seeds of some conifers have no wing, or merely a rudimentary one. The berry-like fruits of the junipers are largely dependent for their distribution upon birds which eat them and upon flood waters which distribute them. The hard seed loses only its pulpy coating by being eaten. The leaves of conifers are small and scale-like, or long and needle-like. In all but the bald cypresses (T7'aro- dium) and larches (Lariz), the leaves remain on the trees for several years, which has given them the names of ‘* evergreens.” The seed leaves (cotyledons) number from 2 to about 18. , PINUS. PINES. The pines are all evergreen trees. Their branches are more or less thickly clothed with clusters of needle-like leaves in bundles of two, three, four, or five. One species has solitary leaves. New leaves are formed each year on the young twigs which lengthen the previous year’s growth. The leaves produced in a Season may remain on the tree from two to six or eight years. They die and 19 20 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. ~ fall when a set of new leaves is being formed at the ends of the branches. The fruits of pines are woody, scaly cones, matured in from two to three years. The cones of some pines remain on the trees only a few weeks after ripening, while those of others persist for many years,-or even are so firmly attached as to be entirely enveloped by the annual diameter growth of the tree. At matu- rity most pine cones open under the heat of the sun and liberate their seeds; a few pines, however, rarely open their cones except under the heat of a forest fire. This fact explains how certain pines often reproduce themselves after the original forest has been killed by fire, since not all of the cones are burned enough to destroy their seeds, and the seeds are scattered after the fire. The flowers of the pines are of two sexes, male and female, borne usually on differ- ent branches of the same tree. Male flowers, which produce pollen, are short, oval, and bud-like, or long cylindrical bodies, clustered at the ends of mature leafy branches. They are bright red, yellow, or orange. The female flowers, which produce cones and seed, are small, greenish, scaly, cone-like bodies, pro- duced singly or in pairs or groups near the ends of young growing shoots of the spring. After fertilization of the two ovules (under each scale) these flowers develop into small cones during the first season, as a rule completing their growth and maturing their seeds at the end of the second summer. Ripe cones vary from an inch in length and three-fourths inch in diameter, to 2 feet in length and 6 or 8 inches in diameter. The seed of most pines bears a thin papery wing at one end. In a few species, however, the seed has only the rudiment of a wing, which remains attached to the cone scale when the seed is shed. The pinon or “nut” pines bear wingless seeds. Pine seeds vary from one-half the size of a kernel of wheat to nearly the size of a small hazel nut. Seeds of the “nut” pines are gathered by western Indians for food. The needle-like foliage of pines varies from an inch to 14 or 15 inches in length. Seed-leaves (cotyledons) of pines are needle-shaped and from 3 to 15 in number. Succeeding these, pine seedlings produce temporary or primary leaves, which are single; but later, commonly at the beginning of the second year, they begin to bear their leaves in clusters. Leaves are borne in clusters during the remainder of the tree’s life. ; The pines are among our most important commercial trees. Because they have straight, unbranched, cylindrical trunks, they furnish large amounts of excellent saw timber, without waste. Pine timber is widely used for all con- struction purposes on account of its straight grain, strength, and other qualities. The naval stores used in the United States, as well as the large quantities exported to other countries, are derived by distillation from the crude resin of the more resinous-wooded pines. Recently the wood of stumps and old logs is being distilled for turpentine. Some 70 species of pines are known in the world. Thirty-four pines inhabit the United States, 17 of which occur in the Pacifie region. Pines are of ancient origin, some of them having existed in the Cretaceous and Miocene periods in North America and Europe. WHITE PINES. Western White Pine; Silver Pine. Pinus monticola Doug]. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. This species is more commonly called “‘ white pine” where it is cut for lumber. The name western white pine is proposed for this tree in order to distinguish it from the eastern white pine (Pinus strobus). _" =o - —_ ~~ FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 21 In dense forests, in which its most characteristic form is found, this pine has a tall, slender shaft, with a peculiarly short-branched, narrow, symmetrical crown; the branches are usually slender and drooping and in early life extend over one-half or two-thirds the length of the trunk. Its height ranges from 90 to 100 feet, and its diameter from 24 to 34, or, exceptionally, 4 feet. In open forests, where the conditions are less favorable to its better development, it is a short-bodied tree, 50 or 60 feet in height, with one or several very long, stout, horizontal branches extending from 10 to 15 feet or more beyond the other slender branches. This striking character distinguishes the tree as far as it can be seen. The bark of trees a foot or more in diameter is distinctly broken into peculiar small, square blocks. No other tree associated with it has this bark character. Bark of mature trees is rarely over 14 inches thick. In dense stands the color of the bark is grayish-purple, while in open, wind- swept stands it is a distinct cinnamon color. The action of wind constantly tears off thin outer scales of bark and exposes the red-brown interior. Young trees have thin, smooth, bright gray bark, as do also the branches and upper stems of old trees. The foliage of this pine is bluish-green, with a whitish tinge. The leaves are from 2 to about 4 inches long, borne 5 in a bundle (fig. 1). The cones are matured at the end of the second summer, usually by the first of September. They shed their seed soon afterward and fall from the trees within a few months. The cones (fig. 2) vary in length from about 6 to 10 inches— occasionally slightly longer or shorter. In unweathered mature cones the tips of the scales are red-brown or yellow-brown, the inner portion of the scales being a deep red. The seeds (fig. 2, @) are reddish brown, with small blackish spots. Seed leaves, 6 to 8 or 9. Wood, very light and soft; heartwood, pale brown, of high commercial value. LonceEviry.—A long-lived tree, attaining an age of from 200 to 500 years. RANGE. Middle and upper slopes of northwestern mountains from west side of Continental Divide in northern Montana and southern British Columbia to Washington, Oregon, and California. BRITISH COLUMBIA.—Lateral valleys east of Columbia-Kootenai Valley, northward to Donald, on Gold and Selkirk ranges (in region of heavy rainfall), northward to Great Shuswap and Adams lakes; also on central ranges, in southwest to Coast Range, there extending 51 miles up Homathco River to 2,235 feet elevation. On interior mountains of Vancouver Island and southwest coast, but not yet found on Queen Charlotte Islands. WASHINGTON.—Mountains of Northeast, Blue Mountains, and westward to Cascade and Coast ranges, at elevations from 300 up to 6,000 feet. In northern Cascades, from near sea level on Puget Sound up to about 3,000 feet; farther south on west side, at from 2,000 to 6,000 feet, and on the east side, at from 1,150 to 4,700 feet; eastward 5 miles above Lake Chelan, and in Okanogan County to mountains west of Okanogan River (T. 36 N., R. 24 E.). Farther south, noted up to 6,000 feet, Tolt, Snoqualmie, Cedar, Green, White, Yakima, Wenache, and Entiat river basins. In Olympics, from near sea level up to 1,800 feet. OREGON.—On both sides of Cascades and on coast ranges, at from 3,000 to 6,000 feet in north and 5,000 to 7,500 feet in south, extending eastward to Blue and Warner moun- tains. On north side Mount Hood from 20 miles south of Hood River on the Columbia at 2,000 to 4,300 feet; on south side from Camas Prairie to Government Camp. Cascade National Forest (North) at 1,500 to 6,100 feet, throughout west slope north of McKenzie River, on east slope south of Mount Hood in White River Basin, and at headwaters of Warm Springs River and Beaver Creek. Eastward in Deschutes River Valley east of Cas- cades to upper Paulina Creek Canyon. Cascade National Forest (South) only on main divide southward (to T. 39, S., R. 5 E.), on west side at 5,000 to 7,500 feet, and not over 14 miles west of summit, except upper South Umpqua®iver Basin and on Siskiyous between Siskiyou and Sterling peaks. Frequent on east side of Cascades, but confined to declivities at 5,500 to 6,000 feet. Noted on Mount Mazama (Crater Lake) from 5,000 to above 99 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 6,000 feet. Also in coast ranges on Iron Mountain and Rusty Butte. Noted in Upper Klamath River basin on Gearhart Mountains, head of Sprague River. Farther east, in Goose Lake National Forest, noted on Cottonwood Creek, head of Deep Creek, and in north Warner Mountains (east of Goose Lake), at 7,500 to 8,500 feet. CALIFORNIA.—Northern cross ranges and southward in Sierras. On Siskiyous at 6,000 to 7,000 feet elevation, summit of Glass Mountain (border Siskiyou and Modoc counties) ; en Mount Shasta at 6,000 to 7,200 feet; south of Brewer Creek up to 7,200 feet, near Fic. 1.—Pinus monticola. Inconstance Creek, in Mud Creek Canyon, near top of Red Cone (east of Wagon Camp). Lassen Peak at 6,000 to 7,000 feet ;, down to 5,500 feet on south side, and on north side at upper Hat Creek; east Trinity Mountains on Canyon Creek at 4,500 feet to outlet of Twin Lakes (5,500 feet). Reported on high summits of Trinity and Klamath National Forests. In northern Sierras, generally at 6,000 to 7,500 feet, but at 8,400 feet on Pyramid Creek. Region of Donner Lake (Nevada and Placer counties), westward to Cisco and eastward to near Truckee; also east side of Sierras facing Reno, Nevada. Fic. 2:—Pinus montiéola: a, seed. 15188—O8. (To face page 22.) FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 23 Noted in mountains about Lake Tahoe, Glen Alpine Canyon, Grass Lake, from summit on west side Sierras at 7,500 feet to Echo at 5,500 feet. Alpine County: Silver Creek Canyon above 7,500 feet; on and near summit of Mokelumne Pass, at 8,800 feet, and divide between Mokelumne and Pacific valleys at 7,900 feet. Tuolumne County: West to just east of Eureka Valley and eastward nearly to Sonora Pass, at 9,000 feet; on White Mountain, Mount Conness, ridge between Dingley and Delaney creeks at 9,000 to 9,500 feet; north side Lambert Dome, Tuolumne River Canyon, Middle Fork Tuolumne westward nearly to White Wolf, between Tuolumne Meadows and Lake Tenaya, about Cathedral Lakes and southward. Mariposa County: Near Sunrise Ridge at 9,300 feet, and into Lit- tle Yosemite at 6,000 feet; ridge west of Lake Tenaya and westward to beyond White Wolf, from Porcupine Flat southward to 7,800 feet. Mono County: Bloody Canyon (east side Mono Pass), at about 9,300 feet. In southern Sierras, at 8,000 to 10,000 feet, while on divide between Middle and South forks of Kings River, and on divide between East and Middle forks of Kaweah River, it goes to 11,000 feet elevation; upper Kings River Canyon above Junction Meadow and below Vidette Meadow; Giant Forest and from Clover Creek Divide to Rowell Meadow; Alta Peak (between Marble and East Forks Kaweah River) ; south side North Fork of Kaweah; on Mount Silliman, at 8,900 to 10,200 feet, and above Mineral King, at 9,600 to 10,400 feet. On west slopes of Sierras, extends southward to head of Soda Creek (branch Little Kern River, in T. 19 S., R. 32 W.), and on divide between Kern River and its south fork, to a point about opposite lower end of Monache Valley (T. 19 to 21 S., R. 34 E., lat. 36° 10’). On east side of Sierras it extends from Truckee to head of Cottonwood Creek. In south, reported on Mount Wilson in San Gabriel Range, on San Bernardino Mountains, at 10,000 feet, at Round Valley in San Jacinto Mountains at 8,900 to 9,500 feet, and on Tahquitz Peak at 8,600 feet. . A _ The detailed range of this pine in Idaho and Montana will be dealt with in a subsequent publication. OCCURRENCE, F Not confined to any definite type of locality. At north, most abundant and largest in moist valleys, growing also in dry, exposed subalpine regions. Adapted to variety of - soils. Best growth occurs in deep, porous soils. Most common in poor, sandy situations. Greatest development in northern Idaho, on gentle north slopes and flats. Less fre- quent west of Continental Divide in Montana and of Cascades in Oregon. In northern California, on north slopes, and on south and west slopes in protected coves, broad valleys, and mountain benches; in southern: California rather abundant on high, west slope of Sierras. Occurs commonly as scattered trees or small groups with other species; very rarely in pure stands and only on exposed high slopes. In Cascades and Sierras occa- - sionally forming 50 to 70 per cent of stand on small areas, but throughout its range not exceeding 3 or 4 per cent. In Washington associated with western hemlock, amabilis fir, lowland fir, and Douglas fir; in Oregon, with Douglas fir, lowland fir, and amabilis fir; in California, with Douglas fir, lodgepole pine, red fir, and Shasta fir. CLimatTic ConpITIONS.—Throughout its range the approximate seasonal temperature _ yaries between —26° F. and 98° F. Mean annual rainfall in north, from 15 inches in _ parts of Montana and Idaho to about 60 inches near Puget Sound; in California, proba- _ bly between 20 and 30 inches. Humidity is great in western Washington, where over two-thirds of the days are cloudy or foggy, while it is smaller in east and south, where one-half of the days are overcast. Snow falls throughout its range, less near sea than in northern Rocky and California mountains, where it reaches a depth of several feet. . TOLERANCE.—Endures shade for a relatively long period in youth, later requiring an - abundance of light for its development. It prunes well. Does not recover well after suppression during pole stage. REePRODUCTION.—Reproduces itself only sparingly and at irregular intervals of about two years. Not a prolific seeder; bears seed only when of considerable age (40 to 60 years). Seed germinates poorly on heavy humus, unless the humus is moist during most of growing season; best on exposed moist mineral soil. Sugar Pine. Pinus lambertiana-Dougl. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. The largest and most magnificent of Pacific white pines, if not of all the tim- ber pines of the region, the western yellow pine being its only rival. Its massive trunk attains a height of from 160 to 180 feet, with a diameter of from 4 to 7 feet. Somewhat taller and larger trees are occasionally found. The trunk 24 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. of mature trees is very straight, and tapers but little until the few large, very long, horizontal limbs of its wide, flat crown are reached. These huge branches stand out so prominently at right angles from the upper trunk as to distinguish it from associated pines. Its long, cylindrical cones, suspended from the tips of the branches, also serve to distinguish the tree at a long distance. Trees from pole size to a foot in diameter bear distinct whorls of branches at long intervals down to the ground. Later in life the lower whorls are shaded out and two or more of the upper limbs develop enormously in the full light. This usually takes place as the tree attains its main height growth. Old bark Fic. 3.—Pinus lambertiana. is deeply furrowed longitudinally, the ridges being broken into long, irregular plates. It is from 14 to 24 inches or more in thickness and grayish brown in color. In exposed situations the force of high winds tears off the weathered flakes of bark, leaving the exposed surface a deep red-brown color. The smooth, thin bark of the young trunks and branches of old trees is a dull, dark gray. The foliage is a deep blue-green, with a whitish tinge. The leaves (fig. 3), in bundles of 5, are from 22 to about 4 inches long. Those of each year’s growth persist two or three years. The cones (fig. 4), which are unique among J Cone reduced; original 234 inches long. Fic. 4.—Pinus lambertiana: a, seed; b, c, upper and lower views of cone scales—all natural size. 15188—O8. (To face page 24.) ai he Pee ee ee FC mr? FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 25 all our pines in their huge size and form, are from 12 to 16 inches long and from 24 to 34 inches in diameter; occasionally, 18 to 28 inches in length. The tips of the scales are shiny and pale reddish brown, the inner part of the scale being a deep purple brown. Cones ripen during August of the second year and shed their seeds by October. Cones seldom fall until the third spring or sum- mer, and sometimes they remain on the trees until the autumn of that year, The seeds (fig. 4, @) are smooth, and vary from a dark chocolate to a blackish brown. Seed leaves, 12 to 15. The wood is light and soft, but somewhat less so than that of the western white pine; heartwood, pale reddish-brown; of great commercial value. LoNGEVity.—A very long-lived tree, reaching an age of from 300 to 500, and, in occasional instances, nearly 600 years. RANGE. Mountains from North Fork of Santiam River, Oregon, southward in Coast and Cas- cades ranges, Sierras, and southern California cross ranges, to Mount San Pedro Martir, Lower California. OREGON.—Mainly on west side of Cascades and northward to within a few miles north- west of Mount Jefferson; on Siskiyous and mountains of Klamath Basin and eastward to, Goose Lake, generally at 2,000 feet to 3,000 feet elevation, but near coast down to 1,000 feet, while on east side of Cascades it goes to 5,000 feet. In northern Cascade National Forest, only on North Fork of Santiam River, at 1,700 to 3,700 feet elevation, from Chimney Peak to Humbug Creek Basin (T. 9 S., R. 6 E., lat. 44° 47’, long. 122° 4’), the northern limit. South of this it occurs on headwaters of Willamette River (T. 22 S., Be ang 3 H., T. 23 S., R: 2 to 4 E., T. 24 S., R. 3 to 4 B.), south of Fish Lake on Main divide (T. 27 S., R. 64 BH.) ; in Rogue River Valley ; on Rogue-Umpqua river divide (T. 30 S., R. 1 to 5 E., T. 381 8., R. 1 to 6), and more abundantly southward on Cascades to Siskiyous. Crosses Cascades south of Fish Lake and occurs on headwaters of Des- chutes River between Sink Creeks, Walker Range, and Pengra, also on south and east basal slopes of Mount Mazama. Extends along east slopes at elevations of 4,500 to 6,500 feet to beyond the Klamath Marshes and Klamath Gap. Extends southeastward between these marshes and upper Klamath Lake, while farther east, in Yamsay Range, it occurs on Fuego Mountain, in Black Hills, and eastward to Klamath-Deschutes divide, where it ranges from head of Deschutes River to Gearhart Mountains and Drew Valley, west of Goose Lake. Ashland National Forest, up to about 5,400 feet. A few trees at about 1,700 feet in southern coast ranges of Curry County (S. 2, T. 38 S., R. 14 W., and §. 35, T. 37 S., R. 14 W.), about 5 miles from coast. CALIFORNIA.—In Siskiyous and southward over northern California abundant save on higher peaks and in Shasta Valley, at elevations of 3,000 to 6,000 feet throughout western two-thirds of State. Extends eastward to Mount Shasta and summits in Shasta National Forest north of Shasta, but unknown on Modoe and Warner mountains in northeastern California. Noted in Siskiyou County eastward to near Beswick (on Klamath River, just south of Oregon line) ; also on Shovel Creek Ridge (near Klamath Falls), Little Shasta Valley, and on Goosenest Mountain. Western limit, same as that of yellow pine, follows inland margin of fog belt 20 to 30 miles from coast. Klamath National Forest, at 3,000 to 5,000 feet elevation; reported also to extend nearly to sea-level on flats of Smith River (Del Norte County); western limits in Siskiyou County at least to west slope of Marble Mountain Divide and (west of it) Russian Creek’ basin; northward on Salmon River to junction with Klamath River, and to 5,500 feet on Salmon Summit (on west) and basin betwen Salmon Summit and Trinity Summit. Humboldt County; sparingly on west slope of Trinity Mountain, between about 3,700 and 5,000 feet; about 24 miles from Hoopa Valley at 1,600 feet, and a little farther west common at 1,800 to 2,100 feet; here up north side of Supply Canyon to 2,600 feet (westmost limit). Mount Shasta National Forest, at from 3,000 to 6,000 feet, sometimes up to 6,500 and down to 2,000 feet, and extending southward in Sacramento Canyon to the ‘ Loop,’ while on Mount Shasta it occurs only from a point 43 miles southeast of Edgewood, on northwest side, around west and south sides to Ash Creek, reaching about 6,000 feet, but on south slopes going to 7,500 feet. Farther south in Shasta County, east limits are Soldier Mountain (1 mile northwest of Dana), ridge east of Fall River Valley (Shasta-Lassen county boundary) ; noted westward to point 3 miles east of Montgomery, and on McCloud River south to Baird. In Trinity National Forest it goes eastward to Lewiston on west border of Sacramento Valley; Coast Range at 2,300 to 4,150 feet and southward to Bully Choop and Yola Buli ranges and westward to upper Mad River; on north slopes 26 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. and flats, generally at 3,000 to 6,000 feet, but on South Fork Mountain it grows at 5,000 feet elevation, on South Fork of Trinity River at 3,500 to 5,000 feet, on Hay Fork Mountain and Bear Wallow Creek at 5,500 feet, and in Rattlesnake Basin at 3,900 feet. In Stony Creek National Forest, north of Clear Lake, on slopes of north and south ranges between 2,000 and 5,000 feet; especially abundant on Pine and Sanhedrin Moun- tains, and headwaters of the South Fork of Eel River. On Mayacamas mountains, extending to Bartlett Mountain (northeast of Clear Lake), here on south side above 3,000 feet, and on west side above 3,800 feet—and to Glenbrook and Cobb Mountain, in Lake County; southward, it goes to Sutro Ranch, near Oakhill Mountain; also on north and northeast slopes of Mount St. Helena, and on south side above Tollhouse and eastward, also at intervals down ridge southeast of mountain (south limit in northern coast ranges). Once found on Pope and Howell mountains; also reported from many points in Mendocino County and from Galloway and Austin creeks, in Sonoma County. . Not detected in mountains about San Francisco Bay, but is found in westmost coast range at Palo Alto. In Santa Lucia Mountains, south of Monterey Bay, grows on north slopes of Santa Lucia and Cone Peaks in San Antonio and Arroyo Seco river basins at 4,000 to 5,900 feet. In northern Sierras, mainly on west slopes, at 3,500 to 6,500 feet ele- vation, occasionally extending down to 2,000 feet and up to 7,500 feet. Tehama County: Westward on Sierras to near Lyonsville and 10 miles east of Payne. Lassen County: northwest corner from point 5 miles west of Bieber westward; not east of Big Valley; in southern part of county, eastward to Susanville; general in Lassen Peak, Plumas, and Diamond Mountain National forests; in Plumas Forest two belts occur east and west of divide, mainly at 3,000 to 5,500 feet elevation, but some trees at 7,500 feet. West- ward in Butte County to Magalia, North Fork Feather River, and to point about 4 miles north of Bidwell Bar (1,300 feet). Yuba County: To North Fork Yuba River and Oregon Hills. Eastward in Plumas County to Mount Dyer, Greenville, Quincy, and ridge west of Sierra Valley. Sierra County: East slope of mountains west of Sierra Valley, reach- ing 6,000 feet on west side of Yuba Pass. Nevada County: To country north of Lake Tahoe. In Tahoe National Forest, eastern limits are main Sierra divide, except that it extends to east slopes of Sierras at head of North Fork of American River, and near shores of Lake Tahoe (at 6,250 feet elevation) ; thence descending Truckee River Canyon into Nevada to a point opposite Reno, where it is scattered above 6,000 feet. Westward in Placer County to Colfax (2,500 feet), Applegate, and 5 miles east of Forest Hill; westward in Eldorado County to Placerville, Pleasant Valley, 6 miles east of Nashville (at about 2,000 feet), and eastward on west slopes of Sierras to about 5,500 feet (Echo and elsewhere). Occurs generally in Stanislaus National Forest, but not throughout yellow pine belt, at 3,000 to 5,000 feet, and sometimes at 2,000 feet and 7,000 feet. Ama- dor County: Westward to Oleta and Pinegrove, and eastward on west slope Sierras to Vol- cano. Calaveras County: Westward to point (1,500 feet) 6 miles east of San Andreas, and 4 miles east of Murphys; eastward to West Point, Railroad Flat, Big Trees, and 10 miles west of Bloods at 6,600 feet. Tuolumne County: Westward to Soulsbyville and Bigoak Flat; eastward (at about 6,200 feet) to between Cold Spring and Eureka Valley, at Aspen Meadows (6,200 feet), North Crane Creek (about 6,000 feet). Mari- posa County: Westward to Ball Creek (east Coulterville), points (3,000 feet) 4 miles east of Mariposa, and 3 miles east of Wassama. Extends eastward to Yosemite Valley, occurring here as follows: Little Yosemite and eastward at 6,800 to 7,000 feet, and Sun- rise Ridge at 7,600 feet; Yosemite Falls trail (near top of fall) at about 7,000 feet, and Indian Canyon Basin; south of Yosemite from head of Nevada Fall (6,000 feet) to Glacier Point (7,300 feet), and southwestward to Yosemite, Wawona road (at Chin- quapin) ; Sentinel Dome at about 7,500 to 7,700 feet, or more. In southern Sierras it grows at elevations between 5,500 and 9,000 feet, or occasionally down to 4,500 feet. Fresno County: Eastward to Bubbs Creek (tributary of Kings River) ; Summit Meadow at 8,000 feet. Tulare County: In Sequoia National Park and adjacent parts of Kaweah watersheds ; in Buck Canyon, near Bear Paw Meadow, and between Cliff, Canyon, and Deer creeks (tributaries of Middle Fork Kaweah); Kern River Canyon (near Kern Lakes) ; part of Tule River Indian Reservation (South Fork of Tule River) and east- ward on Sierras. Occurs on Greenhorn and Piute ranges at 6,000 to 7,000 feet, Mount Breckenridge, on other mountains south of South Fork of Kern River, and on Tehachapi Mountains, where, as in Tejon Canyon, it grows at 6,000 to 7,500 feet. Quite general in southern California mountains at from about 5,000 to over 8,500 feet. In Santa Bar- bara National Forest, at 5,000 to 7,500 feet and sometimes up to 8,800 feet, on San Rafael to San Emigdio Mountains, Mount Pinos, and other mountains in basins of Piru- Sespe and Santa Maria rivers. In Sierra Madre Mountains, it grows between 5,500 and 8,500 feet at Strands, near Pasadena, on Waterman Mountain, Mount Gleason, Straw- berry Peak, Mount Wilson, Pine Flats, Mount Islip, Prairie Forks, and on Mount San Antonio; on San Bernardino Mountains between 4,500 to 8,000 feet, and occasionally from 4,000 to 10,500 feet, but mainly on top of range from T. 2 N, R. 5, W, eastward FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 27 to Bear Lake. In timbered portions of San Jacinto Mountains, ‘generally at elevations of 5,800 to 9,000 feet, sometimes descending to 5,000 and ascending to 9,800 feet; com- mon on westside trail at 6,000 feet, and also on southwest side of Tahquitz-Strawberry Divide. In Cuyamaca Mountains, at from 5,500 feet, on east side Cuyamaca Peak, to 6,500 feet on summit. Lower CALIFORNIA.—Frequent in forests of San Pedro Martir Plateau at elevations from 8,000 to 10,000 feet. OCCURRENCE, Chiefly on north slopes and benches and in ravines and canyons; occasionally on low mountain summits; found also en south and west slopes at higher altitudes. Grows on variety of soils from glacial drift and volcanic ash to deep, loose sands and clays; fresh, rich, well-drained, sandy loam or gravelly soils are most characteristic. Never in pure stands. At lower elevations, mainly with western yellow pine, incense cedar, Kellogg oak, and, in northern California, also with Douglas fir; occasionally with tanbark oak. At high elevations vellow pine and incense cedar decrease, and white fir, and occasionally red fir, together with the big tree, become chief associates, especially on east and north slopes. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Atmospheric moisture is essential; hence it prefers cool, moist sites on north and east slopes and in heads of gulches and canyons. Doubtless on account of this requirement its altitudinal range of 1,000 to 3,000 feet at the north increases, going southward, roughly at the rate of about 500 feet to every 200 miles, until, at its southern limit, 9,000 feet is reached. TOLERANCE.—In early youth requires partial shade, especially on dry, south slopes; when older it becomes very intolerant, even more intolerant than western yellow pine. REPRODUCTION.—Not a regular or prolific seeder. ) . Ne a \WZA Za t L (ia ME ER RWS 4{ FEW SSH << WX\ Tx = anes Ie< : : = \ ® aN \) Ww WW Ai =e i Mao —e | FE Go NN AIH i) 1 21 So 15188—08. (To face page 86.) FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 87 tinguishing this tree from its somewhat similar related species. The stems of the cones are very stout, firm, and curved downward or inward toward the branch. The open cone-scales are peculiarly stiff and resistant to pressure of the hand; but are easily broken if squeezed together. The seed is a deep chocolate brown. Seed-leaves, usually 6, about one-half inch long or shorter. Wood usually a clear, very light yellow. The common color of this wood, also of that of the white spruce and to some extent of the red spruce, with which it may be mingled sometimes as lumber, is not an entirely safe character to rely upon for identification. The color of wood from different individuals of the same species often differs greatly, so that it is easy to confuse it with the pale or yellowish white wood of the two other spruces. Black spruce wood is mainly very fine-grained. Of the other eastern spruces it is the least important commercially, mainly on account of its small size. LONGEviIty.—Doubtless a moderately long-lived tree; average observed sizes are from 125 to 200 years old. Stunted trees growing in very wet situations and scarcely 2 inches in diameter are often from 50 to nearly 80 years old, but appear to be thrifty, considering the unfavorable situation. Further records of longevity are desirable. RANGE. Newfoundland to Hudson Bay and northwestward to Alaksa; southward in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and in the eastern mountains to North Carolina and Tennessee. Northwestern range very imperfectly known. It is probably much the same as_ that of white spruce, but further accurate field observations are required to establish the coincidence of ranges. It seems likely that black spruce will prove to be far less abundant in Alaska than the white spruce. CANADA.—Abundant in Great Plains, especially north of Saskatchewan and on Beaver and Athabaska rivers, extending westward to eastern slopes of Rockies and southward to tributaries of Elbow River, 30 miles from Calgary. Northward, in Great Plains, through Peace and Mackenzie river valleys, to within 20 miles of Arctic Ocean and from mouth of Coppermine River (long. 116°) westward to Alaska. Crosses Conti- nental Divide into interior plateau of Rockies farther south than white spruce, being common on high plateaus of Upper Fraser and Blackwater rivers (lat. 53°) and north- ward on Stikine, Dease, Liard, Frances, and Pelly rivers. Abundant from Pelly River to McQuestion River (tributary Stewart River) at about 3,500 feet elevation; at Daw- son and westward on Yukon River and southward on White River to a point 212 miles from its mouth. ALASKA.—There are no definite records for Yukon Valley, over which this tree very probably extends, northward to south siopes of Endicott Range, westward to Bering Sea, and southward to inland slopes of Pacific coast ranges. Records are avail- able for its occurrence on Cook Inlet, an arm of the Gulf of Alaska. Here it occurs sparingly at about 2,000 feet elevation in swamps of the plateau on Kenai Peninsula, especially on Chicaloon Flats, and in peat bogs at Hope, Sunrise, and Tyonek, on Cook Inlet coast. OCCURRENCE, Essentially a swamp tree, characteristic of cold, wet bogs and margins of lakes; grows occasionally on high, well-drained hillsides, but is less abundant here than in wet sites, and is small or stunted. Best growth in constantly moist, alluvial, well-drained soils, but most abundant in wet soils. Depth of soil is not essential, owing to shallow root system. Grows on clay and heavy glacial drift, and sometimes even in sandy, hill soils, but of poor growth in such soils. In east, forms pure forests over limited and extensive areas, occurring also in mixed stands. In northwest, best growth in limited or small areas of pure stand in moist, well-drained alluvial bottoms of Athabaska River, and in river valleys in Saskatchewan and north Manitoba. Valley of Yukon River, grows in wet localities, usually over buried glaciers. Not common immediately on banks of the Yukon, but abundant in Pelly River drainage on swampy parts of bottoms, on moss-covered north slopes, and at heads of Streams on low, broad divides. In mixture, associated with tamarack, black cottonwood, balm-of-gilead, aspen, willows, and red alder. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—At north, climate extremely severe, with low atmospheric hu- midity, small precipitation (sometimes not over 15 inches), great seasonal range of tem- perature, and occasional strong, drying winds. Annual range of temperature, rarely less 88 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. than 130° F., not uncommonly falling to —60° F. in winter and sometimes above 100° F. during summer. Growing season for tender vegetation is from about four months, in western British Columbia and eastern Alaska, to three weeks on Bering Sea coast. Owing to bigh latitude, sunlight is less intense during growing season, but of longer daily duration than farther south. In winter, insolation is very weak. TOLERANCE.—Very tolerant of shade, and recovers from suppression up to advanced age. In dense stands it produces heavy crown cover, and frequently shades out tamarack. Most tolerant on wet soils, which it covers with dense stands of slow-growing trees, and least tolerant in dry, well-drained situations, where it grows in more open stands. Re- tains side branches for a long time, producing clear trunks only in very dense stands. REPRODUCTION.—Not a prolific seeder, although some seed is usually borne locally each year; abundant seed production only at rather long, irregular intervals. Seed of moder- ately high germination and with~ persistent vitality. Germination best on constantly moist mineral and humus soils; seed germinates well also in forest on decayed fallen trees, moss, and moist decomposed spruce leaf litter. Leaf litter in broadleaf forests not as a rule favorable to germination. Seedlings demand moderate shade for first one or two seasons. : $ White Spruce. Picea canadensis (Mill.), B., S., & P. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. : White spruce is considered here because of its range in the interior (at least) of Alaska. It is mainly a tree of the northeastern United States and of Canada, with a very wide distribution in the latter region. In Alaska white spruce varies, according to situation, from a stunted form from 8 to 20 feet high to a well-grown tree from 50 to 75 feet in height and from 12 to 20 inches in diam- eter; much larger trees occur on yery favorable sites. Elsewhere it reaches from 80 to 100 feet or more in height, and from 24 to 86 inches in diameter. Trees 3 or 4 feet in diameter and over 100 feet high are rather rare. The trunk is straight, smooth, and clear of branches for one-third to two-thirds of its length, with a somewhat open, irregular, and widely pyramidal crown, the top of which, especially in old trees, may be rounded or flattened; very often, how- ever, the crowns are sharply pointed. The branches are long and thick, and com- monly curve down and then upward. A striking character of branches is their numerous small, drooping side branchlets. The dense foliage is also character- istic in its light blue-green color, which in some individuals has a distinet whitish tinge. This character has doubtless given the tree its widely recognized common name, “ white spruce.” Bark of trunks is thin (one-half inch thick) and is early broken into small, thin, pale, ashy-brown scales; the color varies greatly with the density of the stand. The 4-angled leaves (fig. 33) stand out all around the twigs, except at and near their ends, where they are massed on the upper side; those on the lower side are curved toward the upper ones. Twigs of a season’s growth are dark yellow-brown; as a rule they are smooth, but on the far northwestern forms they are apt to be finely downy. A notable character of the young shoots and leaves is the fetid, polecat-like odor they emit when bruised; foliage a year old or older gives off a much less distinct odor. This peculiarity has given the tree its name of “ cat spruce.” The cones (fig. 33) ripe by the end of the summer, shed their small light clay-yellow-brown seeds (33, a) in September. The pendulous cones are lightly attached and usu- ally fall during autumn or by spring. After shedding their seeds the cones area light clay-brown, whereas just at maturity they may be light grass-green tinged with red or bright rose-red. They vary from about 1 to nearly 23 inches in length, but they are usually about 13 inches long. When open and dry the cone- scales are so thin and flexible that they can be squeezed together without break- ing them. Seed-leaves, about 6, very slender, and one-half to nearly three- fourths of an inch long. Wood, pale yellowish white, soft, very straight and FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 89 fine-grained. One of the two most important timber spruces of northeastern North America. Loncrviry.—Long-lived, full-grown trees reach an age of 250 to 350 years. RANGE. Newfoundland to Hudson Bay and northwestwafd to Alaska; southward to northern New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, South Dakota, Montana, and British ‘OLA rsisuappund DI21d—EE "pees “D Columbia. Western range, throughout Canadian plains region from Saskatchewan River Valley northward nearly to the Arctic Ocean; extends southward, in a tongue, along east slope of Rockies, at 3,000 to 5,000 feet, through northern Montana (also in Cypress Hills, southwestern Assiniboia, and Black Hills, South Dakota) ; extending northwest- ward, at 500 to 3,000 or 4,000 feet elevation, it crosses the northern Rockies into the plateau of northern British Columbia and Yukon Territory, ranging throughout Alaska, at 2,000 to 4,000 feet, and to Bering Sea, except on the sea slope of Pacific coast ranges on the south and the Arctic watershed on the north, ‘90 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. WESTERN CANADA.—Crosses Continental Divide at Liard River, reaching interior plateau and extending westward to eastern slopes of Pacific coast ranges and northwest- ward into Alaska; southern limit now known is Stikine River, and seaward limits in Coast Ranges are Upper Stikine and Taku rivers, Shallow Lake (north of White Pass, at about 2,400 feet), point near Divide at head of Chilkat River (at about 2,600 feet), and point at timberline (about 4,500 feet) on north side of St. Elias Range. Common on rivers, islands, in sheltered valleys, hillsides, sometimes to tops of plateau (at 3,900 to 4,000 feet) ; in valleys of Dease Lake and River, and of Frances, Upper Liard, Yukon, tondiie, Me@nesnion, Pelly, and White rivers. and on north slopes up to 3,500 or 4,000 feet dicvationt put on south slopes, to 1,200 feet. Probably farther southward between Alaska Range and coast in valleys of Upper Sushitna and Copper rivers, reaching Pacific side of Coast Range only at Cook Inlet (long. 150°); thence extending from shores of Turnagain Arm up lower Sushitna River, on west side of Kenai Mountains, to Kenai Lake (alt. 2,000 feet) ; southward on west shore of Cook Inlet, about Lakes Clark and lliamna to southern limit of timber at base of Alaskan Peninsula (possibly Kukak Bay). Abundant westward on Kokhtul and Mulchatna rivers, extending to mouths of Nushagak and Aleknagik rivers at Bristol Bay. Western limit of range is on Kuskokwim and Yukon rivers, near head of their deltas (long. 162°). Sea is reached again on north- eastern shore of Norton Sound at mouth of Kovuk River, in Norton Bay, and at mouth of Niukluk River, in Golofnin Bay, but limit turns eastward in northern part of Seward Peninsula, including only head of Buckland River, and not entering Selawik River basin. Northward white spruce reappears throughout Kobuk River Basin, reaching sea on Kotzebue Sound, and reappearing still farther north on middle course of Noatuk River, here reaching its western and northern limit on- west coast of Alaska (in about lat. 68°, long. 163°). Extends eastward along southern slope of Endicott Range, between Yukon River Valley and Arctic Slope, on Koyukuk River and its tributaries, to about latitude 67°, toward the international boundary, and farther northward on Porcupine River and its tributaries, to about latitude 68°; reappears in Turner River Basin, on Arctic Slope, to about latitude 69°, the northern limit in Alaska: Northward on Alatna River (tributary Koyukuk River) to point 90 miles from mouth; northward on John River (tributary Koyukuk) at about 2,500 feet elevation, to point 25 miles south of pass at head, and in valley of Chandlar River to head. OCCURRENCE. On river banks, terraces, dryish margins of swamps and lakes, and up adjacent sides of ridges and hills. Most frequent on sandy loam soils with moderate moisture, but grows on very shallow soils from margins of swamps to tops of mountains. Largest in moist, well-drained, finely divided porous soil; soils too dry or too wet produce dwarfed, slow growth. Forms pure, dense forests of large and limited extent and occurs in mixed stands. The principal timber tree in Yukon drainage, occurring in dense groves and belts on alluvial flats and on islands, but in more open stands away from the river. Toward north limit in Alaska, more and more dwarfed, small clumps growing commonly in gulches. Dominant tree in Kenai Peninsula of Alaska on drier situations, but replaced by black spruce in swamps; in such localities always very scrubby. In north British Columbia generally forming extensive pure forests on rivers and lower valley slopes; it often gives way to black spruce, tamarack, or cottonwoods on flats and to lodgepole pine on dry terraces; at timberline, on inland mountains of north Canada, sometimes with alpine fir. Often in dense, pure groves and strips of forest; closely associated with birch, red alder, aspen, willows, and near streams with black cotton wood. On Kenai Peninsula, with black hemlock, balm-of-Gilead, aspen, and western birches. Toward north limit in Alaska, more and more subordinate to poplars, here single trees and small clumps being scattered among birch and poplar. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—With much the same range as black spruce, white spruce endures practically the same severe features of climate. TOLERANCH.—Tolerant of considerable shade, young trees maintaining a slow growth for many years under heavy crown cover. Marked in recovery from suppression, being surpassed in this only by black and red spruces. Retains side branches persistently ; long, clear stems occur only in close stands. Thriving under light shade of poplars and birches, it often replaces these after fire or lumbering. REPRODUCTION.—Moderately prolific seeder; considerable seed produced locally every year, while heavy seed production occurs at more or less regular, but long, intervals over parts of range. In New England, periods between seed years about eight years; seeding habits in Northwest not determined. Seed with only moderately high rate of germina- tion, but with persistent vitality, Moist, decomposed organic, or mineral soils necessary FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 91 for good germination. Natural reproduction usually abundant under mature spruce on damp moss over considerable organic soil. Reproduces poorly on thick leaf litter under broadleaf trees. Moss-covered decayed logs favor germination, as does moist mineral soil near streams. Tolerance of seedlings permits them to thrive under a crown cover which shades out most associates. TSUGA. HEMLOCKS. The hemlocks are evergreen trees with soft, flat or rounded triangular leaves. Their branches grow at irregular intervals from each other. The slender ter- minal sprays droop gracefully, and the slender leaders droop or nod conspic- uously from the tops of the crowns. ‘They are large trees with broad pyramidal crowns and long, only slightly tapering trunks, with the characteristically rough, hard bark narrowly ridged and furrowed. The bark contains tannin, which gives it an astringent taste, and when broken it displays a clear choco- late-red color. The leaves, which have small, thread-like stems, are spirally arranged around the branch, but by the twisting of their stems they appear to grow mainly from the two opposite and the upper sides of the branches; thus forming, in one western species, very flat sprays. The leaves of hemlocks are peculiar in having a single resin-duct, which is seen in a cross-section in the center near the lower surface. Leaves of a season’s growth remain on the trees for about 3 to 6 years. Male and female flowers are borne separately on different parts of the same tree on sprays formed the preceding season. The female flowers grow at the ends of the sprays, while the male flowers are borne singly from buds at the bases of the leaves near the ends of the branch- lets. Female flowers, producing cones and seed, are small, greenish, scaly bodies, while the male flowers, pollen-bearing only, are small yellowish bodies attached by thread-like stems. The cones of the hemlocks mature in one season, and are composed of thin overlapping scales, beneath each of which 2 winged seeds are borne; only the scales in about the central half of the cones, however, bear fertile seeds, those above and below this part being imperfect. The small seeds are easily wafted by the wind and thus may be widely disseminated. Seed-leaves of our species, 3 to 4, and very short. Hemlocks are important forest trees both for saw timber and tanbark. As yet their wood is of comparatively lower commercial value than that of the pines, firs, and spruces, often associated with hemlock. Unquestionably, however, the commercial importance of hemlock wood will be greatly increased as the supply of other timbers, abundant now, is reduced. The true value of western hemlock timber has not been appreciated on account of its name, since it has been con- fused with the eastern hemlock, which produces wood of inferior quality. Four species of hemlock are indigenous to the United States and portions of Canada. Two of these inhabit the eastern United States and the adjacent Canadian provinces, while two are found in the Pacific forests. Western Hemlock. Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sargent. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Western hemlock is a large forest tree. Its tall, clean, smooth-looking trunks, fine foliage, and drooping branchlets distinguish it readily from associates. The trunks taper very gradually. Forest-grown trees have small narrowly pyram- idal crowns of slender branches, and are from 125 to 160 feet high and from 2 to 5 feet in diameter. Occasionally, much larger trees are found. The bark of larger branches and young trees is thin, finely scaly, and russet-brown, while 92 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. that of old trunks is about 11 to 14 inches thick, hard, and deeply furrowed; the ridges are wide, flat, and irregularly connected with one another by nar- rower cross-ridges; it is dark russet-brown, tinged with red. The foliage is Fic. 34.—Tsuga heterophylla: a, seed. deep, glossy, and yellow-green, and clothes the branchlets thickly, but the small size of the leaves gives it a thin appearance. The leaves (fig. 34) appear to ezaw mainly from two opposite sides of the branchlets—a sort of comb-like ar- rangement. They are fiat, grooved above, have a rounded end, and a distinct Se rr rt‘ FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 93 thread-like stem, and are about one-fourth to seven-eighths of an inch long. The leaf-bearing branchlets, especially those of the season’s growth, are more or less minutely hairy. The small, few-scaled cones nod from the tips of branchlets, maturing from the middle to the end of August. They open rap- idly afterwards and usually shed their small, winged seeds during September. By spring most of the cones have fallen from the trees. The cones are from about three-fourths inch to sometimes nearly 14 inches long, and when open are reddish clay-brown (fig. 34). Cone-scales, peculiar in being sharply narrowed from about their middle, are faintly downy on their outer surfaces. The seeds (fig. 34, a) are light brown. Their comparatively large wings enable the wind to earry them to a considerable distance from the parent tree. Seed-leaves 5, pointed, and about one-fourth inch long. By the third year seedlings produce foliage like that of the adult tree. In the dense, moist forests in which this tree grows best its numerous seedlings grown on moss-covered stumps and logs—often high in the air, and even in the moss on living trunks—are a familiar sight. Not infrequently seedlings extend their roots through or over their host stumps and decaying logs into the soil and become firmly rooted; many others, unable to do this, die. The ability of this tree to grow throughout its life in the densest shade explains the often almost pure stands which have followed removal of the older forest in which hemlock was widely but only sparingly represented. The hemlocks had covered the shaded ground with seedlings which later excluded other species trying to come in after the old trees were removed. Wood, fine-grained, pale yellowish brown, with the slightest tinge of red. It is rather light, soft (works like soft pine), and very unlike the slivery wood of its eastern relative, which it otherwise resembles. The unfounded prejudice against western hemlock wood is exceedingly unfortunate, for in its best grades it is useful for many of the better commercial purposes, while its bark yields a much higher percentage of tannin than does that of the eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), so extensively used for tanning. Lonceviry.—Very long-lived, growing slowly in height and diameter. Trees 16 or 17 inches in diameter are 195 or 200 years old. Large trees are from 300 to 500 years old, and it is believed that very much older trees will be noted. RANGE. Pacific coast region from Alaska southward to northern California; inland to southern British Columbia, northern Idaho, and Montana, and into the Cascades in Oregon and Washington. ALASKA.—Islands and seaward slope of coast ranges westward to Cape Puget on west side of Prince William Sound; generally from sea level to timber line (3,000 feet on southeastern coast to 1,600 feet on Prince William Sound). Lynn Canal region, from elevations of 130 to 2,600 feet. South slope of St. Elias Range to 1,625 and 2,700 feet; Yakutat Bay, up to 2,200 feet on Mount Tebenkof (east end of bay), gradually dropping to sea level at Disenchantment Bay (head of Yakutat Bay). Coast from Dry Bay to Prince William Sound, up to 400 feet, and to 1,600 feet; on coastal plain, hillsides facing open water and valleys of streams, sometimes extending inland 38 to 5 miles, as at head of Cordova, Gravina, and Fidalgo bays. BritisH Co.umBiA.—Islands, Coast Range, and inland up river valleys to limit of abundant rainfall, from sea level to 2,000 or 3,000 feet clevation. Reappears eastward in Gold and Selkirk mountains, reaching 3,500 to 5,000 feet. Up Dean Inlet and Salmon River to point 18 miles from sea and to elevation of 600 feet; appears still farther in- land, in Coast Range, sparingly on lower part of Iltasyouco River (tributary Salmon River). Inland 53 miles on Homathco River (flows into Bute Inlet) to an elevation of 2,320 feet. In lower Fraser River Valley eastern limits are Uztlihoos River (north- eastern branch of Anderson River), at point 6 to 10 miles east of Fraser River, and sum- mit between Coquihalla River (eastern tributary Fraser River) and Coldwater River. Abundant on southwest coast of Vancouver Island, reaching elevation of 975 feet about Port Renfrew. Extends into Gold Range (from eastern Washington) and into Selkirk 15188—08——_7 94 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Mountains (from northern Idaho), stretching northward to Canadian Pacific Railway line (possibly farther), reaching 5,000 feet on west slope of Selkirk; while on east side, which it ascends to summit, its first abundant appearance is on Beaver Creek, at 3,500 feet. Eastern limit is Donald, on Columbia River, at 2,586 feet. WASHINGTON.—Throughout western part, except on high summits, and generally extend- ing from sea level to 4,000 or 5,000 feet elevation; westward to east slopes of Cascades; more abundant on west side middle slopes of Cascade and of coast ranges than on coast or in depression between these ranges. Mountains of northern Washington and east- ward to Idaho, but not in Blue Mountains (southeastern Washington). Washington National Forest, common over west slopes of Cascades on benches and mountain sides, up to 4,000 or 5,000 feet; on east slopes only in moist valleys, at 2,100 to 4,700 feet elevation on Stehekin River, Agnes, and Early Winter creeks, on headwaters of Entiat and Wenache rivers, throughout upper Yakima and Chealum valleys and eastward to Chealum Lake. Mount Rainier National Forest, abundant on west slopes up to 5,000 feet, but scarce on east slope on Tannum Lake and on head of Klickitat River. Abun- dant in Olympic Mountains up to 4,500 feet elevation. OrEGON.—Throughout western part, up to about 5,500 feet, and down to sea-level on coast, but not on borders of Columbia River where it crosses Cascades nor in Willam- ette River Valley below 1,500 feet ; extends southward in Cascades to Lake of the Woods (T. 38 §., R. 6 E.) and on Coast Range to California. Cascade National Forest (North), abundant west of range, at 1,600 to 4,800 feet, but on east side confined to headwaters of rivers and occurs only for a short distance south of Mount Hood to Bea- ver Creek and Warm Springs River (T. 6 S., R. 9 E.) ; south side of Mount Hood, up to Government Camp, at 3,600 feet, and north side from 3,500 feet northward to point 22 miles from Columbia River. Farther south in Cascades, scattered over west side only, south of Mount Thielson, occurring at elevations of 5,200 to 6,000 feet only on north and south slopes of Umpqua-Rogue River Divide, Huckleberry Mountain, headwaters of Rogue River and Big Butte Creek, Mount Pitt, about Lake of the Woods, and sparingly on mountain sides and flats eastward to east side of divide south of the lake. Not de- tected in the Siskiyous. CALIFORNIA.—In fog belt on west side of Coast Range, and southward to between Elk and Alder creeks (Mendocino County), reappearing farther south sparingly in Marin County ; approaches to within one-half mile of coast in Del Norte County, at Crescent City and other points; eastward in Humboldt County to ridge east of Redwood Creek, at 3,200 feet; but is farther from coast in Mendocino County, where it extends inland about 20 miles, and at Mendocino, about 10 miles inland; generally on steep slopes of canyons and tops of ridges up to about 2,000 feet. OCCURRENCE. A tree of the middle, moist forest zone, from sea level to 7,000 feet elevation. More abundant on west mountain slopes than on east slopes, and avoiding dry in- land basins of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, but reappearing on west slope of Rocky Mountains. Largest growth on lower slopes, flats, stream bottoms, etc., on west slope of Cascades and coast ranges of Washington and British Columbia. At higher eleya- tions at South in Washington, Oregon, and California than toward its north limit in Alaska; likewise, at lower elevations on coast mountains than in Cascades and on west slope of Rockies. With abundant atmospheric and soil moisture, it thrives on poor, thin soils and on: any exposure, but best on deep, porous, moist soils. Soil and exposure become much more important with decrease in moisture. Lack of soil and moisture pro- duce stunted growth, as do also high elevations, even with abundant moisture and good soils. In dryish poor soils, it seeks chiefly cooler, north situations. Usually subordinate in association with other trees, but often dominating, especially in Alaska, where occasional pure stands also occur. Generally scattered in patches, groups, or singly through the forest. In Alaska, with Sitka spruce, western red cedar, and black hemlock, and usually dominant. In Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Wash- ington, and Oregon, chiefly with western red cedar, yellow cedar, Sitka spruce, lowland fir, amabilis fir, yew, Douglas fir, western white pine, and lodgepole pine; while in north California it occurs with redwood. Its general and common associates are Douglas fir, western red cedar, and lowland fir, from the coast to the Rocky Mountains. Broadleaf and vine maples, black cottonwood, and red alder occur with it also at low elevations. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Climate of range, in general, favorable for tree growth, being comparatively mild and uniform, with gradual changes of temperature, which is not extreme. Precipitation generally heavy and humidity high. However, average annual precipitation, humidity, and range of temperature vary considerably from California to Alaska and from Pacific to Rocky Mountains, and from sea level to limit of eleva- tion (7,000 feet). Average annual precipitation, from about 20 inches in California and FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 95 Oregon to over 100 inches in British Columbia and Alaska. Temperature occasionally —35° F. on west slope of Rockies in north Idaho, Montana, and British Columbia, and also in parts of Alaska, but elsewhere, especially in coast regions south of Alaska, well above zero. This hemlock generally follows humidity and precipitation of the region. Precipitation and humidity decrease from the coast to the Rockies. Precipitation is much less on east side of coast ranges and Cascades than on the sea slopes; deficient in interior basins of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia between Rockies and Cascades; abundant on west slope of Rockies. TOLERANCE.—Very: tolerant of shade throughout life, especially in seedling stages. In later life vertical light necessary for best growth. Allowed overhead light, it recovers remarkably well from long suppression and renews rate of growth. Prolonged sup- pression in dense shade greatly checks growth. Thrives in .cool, open, humid places with abundant soil moisture. Maintains dense stands, alone, subordinate to others, or as dominating tree with equally tolerant or slow-growing species. REPRODUCTION.—Very prolific seeder, reproduces itself freely everywhere under favor- able conditions. Produces some seed every year, but heavy seed years occur at irregular intervals. Seed with moderate rate of germination and moderately persistent vitality. Germination excellent and growth of seedlings good on wet moss, humus, litter, decaying wood, muck, and mineral soils—the latter less favorable than moist vegetable seed bed. Reproduction abundant under dense shade of mature stands and also in the open on cut-over areas with favorable moist forest floor. Restocks burned over areas at first only sparingly, where light-demanding Douglas fir, pine, larch, fir, etc., come in first. Mountain Hemlock; Black Hemlock. Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Sargent. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Mountain or black hemlock, an alpine tree, has little general resemblance to the better-known western hemlock. Only the drooping slender branches and its bark suggest hemlock to the casual observer, by whom its foliage might be easily mistaken for that of spruce, or possibly of fir. Forest-grown trees have _ sharp-pointed, narrowly pyramidal crowns of slender, conspicuously drooping branches ; the upper third of the crown has very short drooping branches, while the exceedingly slender whip-like leaders are gracefully pendulous. Trees grown : in the open bear branches of the same habit down to the ground, rarely losing ; them for more than a few feet above ground, even in old age. Ordinarily, - mountain hemlock is short, from 25 to 60 feet high and from 10 to 20 inches in : - diameter ; the trunk is often rather sharply tapering; on bleak crests, it is only a few feet high or sprawling on the ground. Trees 75 or 80 feet high are not uncommon, while trees 100 or 125 feet high, with a diameter of 30 or 40 inches, are sometimes met with. On high, steep slopes the trunks are strongly bent down the slope at their bases, in the form of a sled-runner. Heavy snows annually bend or crush the slender seedlings and saplings to the ground without killing them and later growth rarely straightens the bent stems. The bark is early broken and rough on young trees. That of old trees is about 14 inches thick and dull purplish to dark reddish brown. It is deeply and narrowly fur- rowed ; the rough, hard, distantly connected ridges are narrow and rounded. At some distance the trunks have a blue-gray tinge. The dense foliage varies from a dark to a pale blue-green. Foliage of a season’s growth is shed about the fourth year. The blunt-pointed leaves (fig. 35) are rounded and plump looking, in this respect unlike the flat leaves of other hemlocks, but like them the leaves have small distinct stems. They clothe the branches all around, but appear thicker on their upper sides. The main branchlets are unique in having numer- ous short, erect side branches; both are minutely downy for several years. The cones are full grown in one season. They sre usually so abundant as to almost cover the branchlets and to bend them down with their weight. Usually they are pendulous; very rarely, and chiefly on stunted trees in exposed situations, the 96 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. cones, also stunted, are erect when mature. Cones (fig. 35, @) vary in length from about one-half inch to 3 inches; commonly they are about 2 inches long and three-fourths of an inch thick before opening. At maturity they are yellowish- green to a bluish purple. Great variation exists in the color of cones at matu- Tsuga mertensiana: a, branch with closed cones ; b, seeds. Fic. 35. Sv i NE ra a hl a’ we } rity. Different trees of the same forest may each have wholly different colored © mature cones: but the color is a transient character and there is no other dif- ference between such trees. When the cones open, and afterwards, they are dull to light brown, the scales spreading strongly at right angles to the cone FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 97 axis (fig. 35). After the seeds are shed, usually late in September or October, the cones begin falling from the trees, and by spring most of them are down. The seeds (fig. 35, b) are pale brown, with large wings which enable the wind to carry them for long distances. Seed-leaves, 4, and about one-fourth inch in length. Wood, very fine-grained, soft (considerably lighter than that of western hemlock), and pale reddish brown. It is without the silvery character of eastern hemlock wood. It is practically never used for commercial purposes, and locally only occasionally on the prospector’s alpine camp fire. LONGEviry.—Believed to be a very long-lived tree, but much more study of its age limits is required. Trees from 18 to 20 inches in diameter are from 180 to 260 years old, while trees of high, wind-swept ridges are from 60 to 80 years old when from 5 to 7 inches in diameter. RANGE. Timberline tree. From the Pacific coast mountains of Alaska southward through the high Sierras of California, and to northern Idaho and Montana. ALASKA.—Sea slope of Coast Range northward to neighborhood of Lynn Canal (in about lat. 60°), and westward to head of Yukla Creek on north of divide between Turn- again Arm and Knik Arm of Cook Inlet (lat. 61° 10’, long. 150°). Commonly at eleva- tions of 2,000 to 4,000 feet, except when occasionally inhabiting cold sea-coast bogs from Sitka northward, and when descending to sea level at west end of its range on shores of Prince William Sound and Kenai Peninsula. Timberline in southeastern Alaska is 1,800 to 2,400 feet on exposed seaward slopes, but is considerably higher in protected inland passes. About Lynn Canal dwarf trees reach 3,250 feet, or more; westward, its upper limit ranges from elevations of 400 feet to 1,600 feet, and about Prince William Sound, at from 300 feet, in gulches away from sea, to over 1,450 feet, on warm slopes facing the Sound. On Kenai Peninsula, generally up to elevations of 1,200 or 1,600 feet, but follows Resurrection Bay across divide to Turnagain Arm, reaching 2,500 feet on inland plateau. Occurs in following localities: Hot Springs (near Sitka), Baranof Island, and Yes Bay, at sea level; Kuiu Island; White Pass, at 2,888 feet, and from inland to Shallow Lake, Long Lake, Chilkoot and valley of Chilkoot, Fort Wrangell. BrivisH CoLtumMBia.—Higher sea slopes of Pacific Coast Range and islands, generally at from 2,500 to 5,000 feet; also abundant in interior of southern British Columbia on west slopes of Selkirk Mountains. All summits of Queen Charlotte Islands above 2,000 feet, and up to 4,500 or 5,000 feet, especially those at head of ‘Cumshewa Inlet. Fraser River Valley and inland on higher slopes above 2,700 feet to Silver Mountain (near Yale). Vancouver Island, at 3,000 to 5,500 feet elevation, especially on following sum- mits: Mount Benson (3,000 feet) ; Mount Mark (3,300 feet) ; Mount Arrowsmith (5,500 feet) ; Mount Edinburgh (3,250 feet) ; locally noted at Vancouver, Victoria, and Port Townsend. WASHINGTON.—Both slopes of Cascade and Olympic mountains at elevations of 5,000 to 7,000 feet, and on one peak of Blue Mountains, but not on Okanogan Highlands. Olympics, at 5,000 to 6,000 feet, and at following points: Hoh Divide; head of Bogachiel River, near pass to Jordan’s Lake; near Close Call Basin; sphagnum swamp 8 miles below Hot Springs; main head of South Fork of Skokomish River. Northern part of Washington National Forest (west side of Cascades), at from 4,000 to (timber- line) 6,000 feet ; east side of Cascades in moist valleys and passes at 3,100 to 6,400 feet— sometimes to 7,000 feet, as on slopes above Lake Chelan, and down to 2,200 feet, as in Stehekin River Valley and on east side of Stevens Pass (mouth of Great Northern Rail- road tunnel). Southern part of Washington National Forest, at 2,600 to 7,200 feet ; most abundant at 4,000 to 6,000 feet in Skykomish, Tolt, Snoqualmie, Cedar, Green, White, Yakima, Wenache, Entiat river basins and of Lake Chelan. Also at following points: Cascade Pass, at 5,421 feet; headwaters of Stehekin River, at about 7,000 feet ; pass between Montecristo and Index; trail to Columbia Peak; Skagit Pass; Bridge Creek. Mount Rainier National Forest, at 3,500 to 7,500 feet with best growth at 4,500 to 6,200 feet, in river basins on both sides Cascades. Locally noted as follows ; Mount Rainier, at 4,000 to 6,000 feet; Mount Adams, at 6,000 feet; Caseade Divide (3 miles north of Cowlitz Pass) at 4,800 feet; at point 2 miles west of divide at Cowlitz Pass, at 4,750 feet; head of Summit Creek; Cowlitz River, at 3,650 feet; Dewey Lake (head of- American River) at 5,300 feet; main divide on head of Cispus River, at 5,200 feet. Orpcon.—Both slopes of Cascades at elevations of 5,500 to 7,000 feet, and in Powder River Mountains (northeastern Oregon). Cascade National Forest (North), principal 98 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. tree at 5,500 to 7,000 feet—sometimes to 7,800 feet, and straggling down to 3,000 feet. Locally noted as follows: Mount Hood (timberline) on head of East Fork of Hood River at 6,400 feet, and of Clear Fork at 5,100 feet, down on southwest side to a little below Government Camp (3,600 feet); on north side to about 3,000 feet; Mount Jefferson ; headwaters of Clackamas River, at about 6,000 feet; Salt Creek; divide between Row River and Middle Fork of Willamette River. Cascade National Forest (South), abundant on both sides of Cascades and on Umpqua-Rogue River Divide; on east side, at 6,000 to 9,200 feet, and on west side, at 5,900 to 9,200 feet: best growth at 6,200 to 7.000 feet. High summits of Siskiyous—also on north slopes of Siskiyou Peak, but not detected east of Cascades, in Klamath ranges. Locally noted at Crater Lake (rim of Crater), down to near Pole Bridge Creek (6,100 feet), and on Mount Scott, up to 8,000 feet. CALIFORNIA.—Northern cross ranges and west side of Sierras southward to Bubbs Creek at head of South Fork of Kings River (lat. 36° 40’), probably also in San Jacinto Mountains,* generally at from 6,000 to 11,000 feet elevation. On northern mountains from Siskiyous and Trinity Mountains eastward to ranges north of Mount Shasta and west of Butte Creek, including Goose Nest Mountain, extending northward to the Oregon line, reappearing on Glass Mountain (boundary of Siskiyou and Modoc counties) at 7,500 to 9,000 feet, Siskiyous above 6,000 feet. Reported in mountains east of Cres- cent City (Del Norte County). Marble Mountain Divide (west of Scott Valley, Siskiyou County) on summit of pass (5,700 feet), and on higher parts of ridge. Trinity County: Canyon Creek, at point about 7 miles north of Dedrick, at 4,500 feet elevation, and northward to head of creek, here mingled with Shasta fir and weeping spruce. North part of Mount Shasta National Forest, at 7,000 to over 8,000 feet; throughout southern part at elevations from 6,500 feet to timberline (8,000 to 9,000 feet). Mount Shasta, at various points between 7,200 and 8,700 feet. Abundant on west side of northern Sierras, at 6,000 to 10,000 feet; less frequent in southern part, and at 8,000 to 11,000 feet. In Lassen Peak, Plumas, and Diamond Mountain National Forests at elevations above 6,000 feet and on such peaks as Lassen Peak, slopes near Drakes, Spanish Peak, and Mount Pleasant. Tahoe National Forest, Mount Fillmore and southward on all summits, at elevations from 7,500 to timberline (about 10,000 feet), except on main divide between south end of Sierra Valley and north line of Sierraville Quadrangle (Sierra County) ; locally noted on Pyramid Peak (13 miles above Fornis), near Ralston Peak, in Devils Basin (east of Pyramid Peak), and on high summits near Donner, at 7,500 to 8,500 feet. Stanislaus National Forest, on summits at 6,900 to 9,400 feet. Here locally noted on divide south of North Fork of Mokelumne River (9 miles north of Bloods) ; Mount Reba (north Fork of Mokelumne River); near Wood’s place (road to Kirk- wood). Placerville Pass and adjacent peaks southwest of Lake Tahoe, at 7,500 feet to timberline. Sierra National Forest, summits at elevations between 8,000 and 11,000 feet, and southward to Bubbs Creek (tributary, South Fork of Kings River, T. 14 S., R. 33 E.), reaching east slope of Sierras at head of Owens River; lower part Kearsarge Pass, at north base of West Vidette Mountain and canyon between Vidette and Junction Meadows. Locally noted as follows: Mokelumne Pass (headwaters of Silver Creek and upper Mokelumne River) ; Tuolumne Meadows, at 9,500 to little over 10,000 feet on White Mountain and Mount Conness, Lookout Knob, Lambert Dome, ridge between Dingley and Delaney creeks, old Tioga mine, upper Tuolumne Canyon, base of Unicorn Peak, Cathedral Lakes and Peak, head of Cathedral Creek, Lyell Fork of Tuo- lumne, at 10,500 feet; head Snow Creek (Mount Hoffman), about May Lake, and south- west flank of mountain down to 8,500 (near Tioga road); near Lake Tenaya; head of Mono Creek and Pass; Sunrise Peak (between Tuolumne Meadows and Yosemite), at 10,000 feet; Tuolumne Dome, at 8,000 feet; Snow Canyon (Yosemite Park); Kings Creek Mountain; head of North Fork of San Joaquin River, at 8,000 feet, and on its tributaries Silver and Fish creeks, at about 10,000 feet; Bubbs Creek. San Jacinto Mountains, on Wellman Flat, at 7,500 feet. The detailed range of mountain hemlock in Idaho and Montana will be dealt with in a later bulletin. OCCURRENCE. Mainly at timber line, but in far north at sea level. Southward, vertical range is determined by gradual ascent of favorable climatic and moisture conditions, until, at south, the tree is confined to high, cold, moist, mountain slopes and valleys. Thrives in most well-drained soils, not too dry; but best in loose, coarse, moist ones. @This remarkable extension of range is supported by a photograph of a large tree taken in 1899 (?) by T. P. Lukens. It is hoped that this record may be fully verified later. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 99 Best stands on flats, gentle slopes, heads of moist valleys, or in sheltered ravines (below Crater Lake in Cascades of southern Oregon). Decidedly prefers north exposures, doubtless on account of less heat and greater soil moisture there. Exposed high slopes least favorable to best growth; although often abundant there, it is usually stunted. - Commonly in limited pure stands and in mixture. At north, with Sitka spruce, western hemlock, and alpine fir. Southward, at high altitudes, with white-bark pine, alpine fir, Lyall larch, Engelmann spruce, while grand fir, lodgepole and western white pines are also occasional associates at lower elevations. Large pure stands are uncommon, but rather extensive forests with 85 per cent of hemlock are occasional. Pure patches are frequent on north slopes. In southern Alaska and British Columbia, with spruce, firs, poplars, and birches. At high altitudes in California, often in groups with patches of white-bark pine; lower, commonly with California red fir and lodgepole and western white pines. CLimMatic CONDITIONS.—Endures severe alpine climate. Daily and seasonal ranges of temperature great, owing to intense sunlight and rapid radiation of heat at night. Rarity of air, together with frequent high winds, cause rapid transpiration, which is modified somewhat by increased humidity due to low air temperature. Precipitation, large; chiefly snow, which often buries trees. Snow comes early and stays late; melting slowly, it supplies moisture throughout the short growing season. Rains are rather fre- quent in spring and fall, but summers are usually hot and dry, especially on south exposures. TOLERANCH.—Very tolerant; excepting western hemlock, surpassing all associates in shade endurance. Its dense shade, almost excluding light from ground, usually prevents growth of seedlings, even its own, which appear to require more light than the heavy shade of mother trees affords, but which thrive under lodgepole pine, fir, etc. - Seedlings and saplings bear long suppression, and rarely die under it. Trunks are not cleared readily, even in dense stands; dead branches usually persist or leave short stubs which form loose knots in timber. Repropucrion.—Prolific seeder, producing cones when about 20 years old; seed is borne annually, but not every year is a good seed year. Seed has only moderate rate of germination, and its vitality is rather transient. With sufficient moisture, seed ger- minates on both humus ané@ mineral soils, but apparently better on latter. Seedlings grow better in moderate shade and moist humous soil than in full light. PSEUDOTSUGA. FALSE HEMLOCKS. The generic name of the false hemlocks indicates a relationship to the hem- locks, which they resemble in the distinctly formed leaf ‘stems and in the habit and character of their cones. The resin vesicles of hemlock seeds are, how- eyer, absent from the seeds of Pseudotsugas. The latter have small resin- ' pockets, or “ blisters,” in the bark of young trunks and branches, in this respect being similar to the firs. Woodsmen and lumbermen know them as “ varieties ” of “ fir” or ‘‘ spruce,” and even as “ pines.” Properly they should not be called firs, from which they differ greatly in the character of their wood, foliage, and cones. The superficial resemblance of the wood of these trees to pine is a popular reason for calling them pines, but it is a perversion of the name, for in all respects the pines are totally different trees. False hemlocks are evergreen trees with dense, soft, flat leaves. Their branches, growing in irregular circles, form with their many side-branches wide, fan-like, densely foliaged sprays. The rough, very thick-barked trunks are tall and massive, and taper slowly. They have broadly py ramidal crowns, which in young trees extend to the ground. The flat, bluntish leaves, attached by dis- tinct stems, are spirally and singly arranged on the branches. They appear often to grow mainly from two opposite sides and from the top of the branch; but lower leaves bend upward toward each side of the branch by a twist in their stems. Leaves of a season’s growth remain on the tree about five or eight years. In cross-section the leaves of our species show two resin-ducts on the under margin near the edges of the leaves. Flowers of two sexes are borne singly on branchlets, formed the previous year, on different parts of the same tree. The female flowers are bristly, scaly bodies, developing into cones with 100 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. seed ; they are borne nearly or quite at the ends of twigs. The male flowers— scaly bodies bearing pollen only—grow from the bases of leaves farther back from the end of the twig. Most characteristic of the pendulous cones of these trees are their 3-pointed scale-like bracts, which protrude conspicuously from among the cone-scales (fig. 36). No other cones of native conifers, with per- sistent scales, have protruding bracts. The cones mature in one season, soon afterward falling from the trees. Two winged seeds are borne under each cone-scale. Their small size and large, light wings permit the wind to dis- tribute them easily. They are trees (mainly one species) of the greatest commercial importance, and furnish the finest and largest saw timber of any native trees, if not of any trees in the world. The slightly resinous, pine-like wood is most widely adapted for construction. Two native species of these trees are known. One is dis- tributed more or less from the Rocky Mountain States to the Pacifie coast, while the other inhabits the mountains of southern California. Douglas Fir; Douglas Spruce. Pseudotsuga taxifolia « (Poir.) Britt. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Excepting the great sequoias of California, Douglas fir is the most giganti¢ tree of the Pacific forests. Under the best conditions for growth it ordinarily reaches 180 or 190 feet in height and from 34 to 6 fe.t in diameter. Trees over 200 feet high and 8 or 10 feet in diameter are to be found, but they are exceed- ingly rare. Under less favorable conditions, such as prevail outside of the humid Pacific coast region, it commonly attains a height of from 75 to 110 feet and a diameter of from 18 to 80 inches; while in high, exposed situations it is greatly stunted, often under 5 feet in height. The typical crown form of young trees is a broad, sharp pyramid; the lower branches are straight or drooping and the middle and higher ones trend upward, forming on the whole a rather open head. All of the branches have numerous long, hanging side branchlets, which are sometimes very long. In dense stands one-half or two- thirds of the lower branches are shaded out by the time the trees are 10 or 15 inches in diameter. Under these conditions the crowns of middle-aged and old trees lose much of their pyramidal form, and become rounded or flattened. The massive trunks, clear of branches for 80 or 100 feet (in the Pacific region), are straight, and with only a slight taper. The ashy brown bark of young trees, often chalky in patches, is thin, smooth, and but little broken, except near the ground, until the trees are 12 to 14 inches in diameter. Later, and in old trees, the bark becomes from 5 to 10 inches thick at the base of the trunk, although higher up it remains much thinner. Sometimes very old trees have bark from 18 to 24 inches thick. It is dark brown on the outside and clear red- brown within. It is often very rough, with deep, wide furrows and great ridges, which are connected at intervals by narrower cross ridges. There is great variation in the character and markings of the bark in dry and humid — regions, and also in exposed and protected situations. Trees in exposed, dry “Several authors maintain for this tree the name Pseudotsuga mucronata (Raf.) Sudworth, which the writer has shown to be lawfully antedated by P. tazifolia (Poir.) Britt. For a full discussion of the basis of this decision, see Bull. 17, Diy. For. p. 23. 1898. ee ee ee eT 15188—08. (To face page Vic. 86.—Pseudo’suga tavifolia: a, seed. 15188—08. (To face page 100.) FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 101 situations appear to have rougher and harder bark than those in the moist, deep forest. Trees of the high, very dry interior mountain slopes, particularly young trees, may have soft, cork-like, gray-brown bark. (This may well be a result of the excessively dry atmosphere, for one or two firs of that region have Similar bark). Otherwise these trees are not different from those with the ordinary bark. Mature foliage is usually deep yellow-green. In the drier parts of its range Douglas fir sometimes has blue-green foliage of varying shades, especially in Rocky Mountain forms. This color is particularly pronounced during the early maturity of the leaves. Foliage of a season’s growth remains on the tree about eight years, when it is shed at irregular intervals. The leaves (fig. 36) are flat, slightly grooved above and commonly blunt, or very occa- sionally pointed. Cones ripen early in August and by September they begin to open and shed their seed. A few weeks later the cones drop from the trees. The cones (fig. 36), which are cinnamon or reddish-brown, furnish easy and reliable means of identifying this tree. Their simplest distinction is the 3- pointed, trident-like thin bracts protruding from among the cone-scales. Cones vary from 14 to 44 inches in length, but they are commonly about 24 to 3 inches. The seeds (fig. 36,a@) are dull russet-brown, with areas of white. Seed-leaves, about three-fourths of an inch long, are 6 to 7. Wood varies widely in character and grain, which may be very coarse, medium, or fine. Coarse-grained wood is usually distinctly reddish-brown, the “red fir’ of lum- bermen. Fine-grained wood is a clear yellowish brown, the “yellow fir’ and “Oregon pine” of lumbermen. The botanical characters of trees furnishing these dissimilar qualities of wood are the same, and there is no foundation for the popular belief that these woods come from two different “varieties” or “species” of trees; indeed the two grades of wood may sometimes be obtained from the same tree. ‘For the first stage of from 50 to 100 or more years diameter growth is rapid, giving coarse-grained wood, while the later stages of growth are, as a rule, slower and give fine-grained wood. The invariable difference in color between these two grades of wood is often attributed to the character of the soil, but this explanation ignores the fact that both grades may come from the same tree. The true explanation is yet to be found. Grades intermediate between these are also common, especially in trees grown outside of the humid northwestern range, from which the bulk of ‘‘red” and “yellow” timber is derived. Both grades are exceedingly important commercially, but the finer-grained, yellow wood is now being worked up for the finest grades of finishing lumber, for which it competes with high-class pine. LoncGeviry.—Long-lived. Trees from 3 to 4 feet in diameter are from 150 to 200 years old, while those from 4 to 8 feet in diameter are from 200 to 375 years old. One tree 9 feet through showed an age of 4385 years. The ages of rare trees larger than this are probably from 400 to 500 years. RANGE. Western North America from British Columbia southward to central California, to northwestern Texas, southern New Mexico, Arizona, and northern Mexico. British CoOLUMBIA.—From east side of Rocky Mountains westward to Pacific coast and northward to Tacla Lake (lat. 55° 10’) and Skeena River (lat. 54° 20’) ; in south- ern part, from sea-level to 6,000 feet; farther north, at general elevation of country, but absent from valleys of southern part of central plateau, as also from higher parts of Rocky, Gold, and Selkirk Mountains. From Rocky Mountains eastward to Calgary and Porcupine Hills; northward to head of Athabaska and Grand Fork Fraser rivers, but absent from Cariboo Range; northward in Fraser River Valley to McLeods, Tacla, Babine, and Francois lakes; absent from headwaters of Salmon River, but on coast range northward to Skeena River. Northward on Pacific coast only as far as north end of Vancouver Island, not on coast archipelago, and rare on west coast of Vancouver Island. 102 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. WASHINGTON.—Abundant everywhere, except in Columbia River plains. West of Cascades, generally from sea level to 5,000 feet; less frequent east of Cascades. Wash- ington National Forest (West) up to 4,000 feet, or occasionally to 6,000 feet; Washing- ten Forest (East) at 1,100 to 6,000 feet. In Cascades, south of this reserve, up to 5.400 feet. Mount Rainier National Forest, up to 5,600 feet; on Mount Rainier and Mount Adams. Olympic Mountains, up to about 3,500 feet; Blue Mountains, at 2,500 to 4,000 feet; on Kamiak Butte, head of Grande Coulée River, and in Nisqually River Valley. OrEGON.—Throughout western part, except in a few arid valleys; from sea level to 6,000 feet. Cascade National Forest (North), sometimes up to 7,200 feet; eastward on Columbia River to Hood River; east of Mount Hood to within about 6 miles of Wapinitia (west of Deschutes River) ; north side of Mount Hood up to 3,800 feet and to Government Camp on south side. Occurs from Mount Hood to latitude 45°, here disappearing from east side of range. In southern Cascades, on Umpquas, Siskiyous, and west side of Cascades, up to 6,200 feet; east side of Cascades, at 4,300 to 7,000 feet from Klamath Gap northward to Klamath Marsh Terrace; Mount Mazama at 4,500 to over 6,000 feet. On north end of Upper Klamath Lake and lava flows east of this lake, at elevations above 6,000 feet, and southward to Swan Lake Point, reappearing on divide at head of Lost River. Unknown on Klamath-Deschutes Divide and else- where in Klamath Basin. On both slopes of coast ranges, but commoner on western. CALIFORNIA.—In northern mountains, Sierras, and southward to San Joaquin River; also in coast ranges to Santa Lucia Mountains. Throughout northwestern California eastward to Mount Shasta, and westward to the coast; generally at 2,000 to 6,000 feet. Klamath National Forest, up to 4,000 feet. Eastward in Siskiyou County to east part of Siskiyou Mountains; Klamath River (few miles west of Hornbrook), near Klamath Hot Springs, ridge east of Shovel Creek, and eastward to near Picard (west of Klamath Lake), extreme eastern limit; farther south, eastward only to Goosenest Mountain (east of Shasta Valley and north of Mount Shasta), upper McCloud River (south of Mount Shasta) and southeastward to Fall River (Shasta County), where east limits farther south are Mount Lassen, while western limits are Sacramento River Canyon to or below Gregory, McCloud River to its junction with Pitt River, and 3 miles east of Montgomery, at 4,000 to 4,200 feet. Lassen County: Southern part eastward to Susanville. Mount Shasta, bottom slopes, except at north, up to 5,500 feet. Im Shasta, Plumas, Lassen Peak, and Diamond Mountain National forests, at 2,000 to 6,000 feet, on west slope of range. Northern Sierras, at 2,400 to 6,000 feet on west slope, or sometimes to 7,000 feet and down to 900 feet, as in Chico quadrangle area (including Butte County); not in Sierra Valley. Tehama County: East of Sacramento River from point 10 miles east of Paine Creek post-office eastward. Plumas County: Eastward to Grizzly Mountains (west of Sierra Valley). Butte County: Westward to Megalia and to 4 miles north of Bidwell Bar at 1,300 feet. Sierra County: Eastward to mountains west of Sierra Val- ley, thence westward to Yuba Pass (5,800 feet); west of Yuba Pass, westward into Yuba County, where west limit is on east foothills of Sacramento Valley at Campton- ville and Oregon Hills, and in Nevada County at Nevada City, Grass Valley, and Colfax on Bear River. Placer County: Westward to junction of Middle and North Forks of American River; eastward to beyond Blue Canyon and probably also above Emigrant Gap on main Sierra Divide, but not reported on east side of divide between Truckee and Lake Tahoe. Eldorado County: Westward to Placerville, Pleasant Valley, and canyon of North Fork Cosumnes River; eastward to Coloma in canyon of South Fork of American River, and to Echo (Tahoe Road), at 5,500 feet. Stanislaus National Forest, at 2,000 to 5,500 feet, and chiefly on and near Mutton Canyon, between Grizzly Flat and Indian Diggins, and on Mill Creek (tributary North Fork Mokelumne River). Amador County: Westward to point 3 miles east of Pine Grove and Sutter Creek Canyon (northeast of Voleano), and eastward to beyond Pioneer. Calaveras County: Only in central western part on branches of Mokelumne River westward nearly to Rich Gold, Esperanza Creek (near Railroad Flat) ; not detected between Murphys and Big Trees nor in Calaveras Big Tree groves, but it occurs on San Antonio Creek about 2 miles below Big Trees. Tuolumne County: Canyon of Middle Fork Stanislaus River from junction with Clark Fork at 5,500 feet eastward several miles; between Big Oak Flat and Crockers, and thence eastward to Aspen Meadows, at 6,200 feet: Hetch Hetchy Valley and Tuolumne Big Tree Grove at 5,700 feet. Mariposa County: Westward to near Bull Creek (10 miles east of Coulterville and a few miles east of Wassama) ; eastward to Yosemite Valley and Merced River (head of Nevada Fall), at 6,000 feet, Glacier Point at 7,300 feet, and nearty to Chinquapin, Bridal Veil Creek, at 7,100 feet. Southward occurs on head of Stevenson Creek (tributary San Joaquin River) at elevations of 3,000 to 5,500 feet (southern limit in Sierras) at 900 to 5,000 feet, or occasionally to 6,000 feet. In Stony Creek National Forest, at 2,000 to 5,000 feet, but mainly on west side of range. Tehama County: Eastward along Paskenta Road to about 3,300 feet on east side of Coast Range. — | nee.ClULh FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 103 Colusa County: Northwest corner on Snow Mountain. Lake County: East side of Coast Range to Long Valley, Upper Cache Creek, Clear Lake, and to point near Middleton. Common in Del Norte, Humboldt, Mendocino, Marin, and Sonoma counties (coast ranges) ; abundant westward to eastern margin of redwood belt, and sparingly through it, some- times to the sea. Del Norte County: Westward to Crescent City. Humboldt County: Sparingly among the redwoods north of Humboldt Bay’; westward south of bay to Fern- dale and Bear River valleys, Petrolia, Upper Mattole River, Briceland, and south slope of King Mountain. Mendocino County: Westward to Kenny, Westport, Mendocino Pine ‘Barrens, mouth of Big River, and seaward gulches from Fort Bragg to Gualala. Sonoma County: Westward in north part to east edge of lodgepole pine belt (on coast) to point 1 mile from beach at Fort Ross, near mouth of Russian River, nearly to Bodega Bay, Meeker, and Occidental. Marin County: Westward to southern part of Inverness Ridge (Point Reyes Peninsula), line of North Shore Railroad, and valleys of San Ger- onimo and Lagunitas. Napa County: Mount St. Helena, up to 4,350 feet, and south- ward on ridge east of Napa Valley at least to St. Helena (town), and on ridge west side of Napa Valley to point south of and to a point little beyond Oakville. Mountains about San Francisco Bay; but not in Vaca Mountains (inner Coast Range), Oakland Hills, and Mount Hamilton, nor Monte Diablo ranges. Frequent in Santa Cruz and Santa Lucia Mountains, at 2,500 to 3,000 feet, southward to Los Burros. Throughout Santa Cruz Mountains from hills south of San Francisco and southward around north part of Mon- terey Bay to within a few miles of Watsonville, reappearing southward in Santa Lucia Mountains. The detailed range of Douglas fir in Idaho, Montana, South Dakota, Colorado, Utah, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and Mexico will be dealt with in a later bulletin. OCCURRENCE. ' Except at high elevations and at north limit, prefers north to south exposures and sheltered slopes, canyons, benches, etc., to exposed situations. In north, and at high elevations, warmer south exposures are preferred, as heat, not moisture, becomes the con- trolling factor. Lower limit in drier regions determined by lack of moisture, and upper limit chiefly by lack of heat. At higher levels on east sides of ranges than on west sides, also higher on south slopes than on north exposures; but it is more abundant on west Slopes than on east slopes, and likewise more frequent on north than on south exposures— except at north, where heat is the controlling factor. Adapted to a great variety of soils, including nearly all with sufficient moisture, from border of brackish coast water to soils where only drought-enduring western yellow pine grows. Prefers fresh, well-drained, porous, deep, loamy soils, avoiding saturated, poorly drained, heavy soils. Good soil and abundant atmospheric and soil moisture are necessary for best growth, but with abundant moisture, quantity and quality of soil are less important, and vice versa. Grows faster and larger on poor gravels and sand in the humid Puget Sound country than on best soils of Rocky Mountains with dry air and deficient precipitation ; likewise, not so large on best soils of drier California mountains, even though the climate is mild and heat and sunshine are abundant for tree growth. Forms large pure forests and often nearly pure stands, but chiefly associated with numerous species of different habits. In California Sierras chiefly with yellow pine, Sugar pine, white fir, and incense cedar, as also in Cascades of southern Oregon; while in California coast ranges it grows with redwood and tanbark oak. In Oregon and Wasb- ington, mainly with western hemlock, western red cedar, lowland fir, western yellow pine, and on coast, with Sitka spruce, while in coast ranges and in Cascades it occurs with western white pine, western larch, and lodgepole pine. CLimMaTic CoNnpDITiONS.—Climate varies from moist one of Northwest to dry one in parts of interior and Southwest, and from the short growing seasen of high elevations to the long growing season of warm, humid coast region, and of the sunny Southwest. Winter varies from rainy season, as in parts of Pacific coast region, and an oceasional snow storm and short cold snap followed by summer’s heat, as in the southern Rocky Mountains, to more severe winter of the Rockies northward to interior British Columbia ; in northern Idaho and Montana winters are long and temperature drops frequently as low as —30° or —40° F. Average annual precipitation and relative humidity, extremely variable. Precipitation varies from over 100 inches (Puget Sound) to less than 15 inches (dry interior and Rockies). Amount of precipitation diminishes from coast to Rockies and from British Columbia to New Mexico; it increases with elevation and is less on east than on west side of coast ranges, Cascades, Sierras, and Rockies. Relative humidity of air is high where precipitation is great. To sum up, this tree grows best in greatest abundance where precipitation and relative humidity of the air are greatest. 104 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. ToLERANCE.—Moderately tolerant, becoming less so with age; endures more shade thah western yellow pine, sugar pine, western white pine, and lodgepole pine, but less than western hemlock, western red cedar, white and alpine fir, incense cedar, Engelmann, blue, and Sitka spruces. Tolerance varies with locality and region, being greatest under con- ditions of best growth. Partial shade and shelter more necessary in early life where conditions of growth are less favorable. At moist north it thrives in the open from early youth, while in drier regions it prefers shade of weeds, brush, etc. Dense pure or mixed stands of the Northwest have clean trunks for about two-thirds of the length, while trees of open forests and in the Rocky Mountains are clean-trunked for only one- third their length, or, in scattered stands, carry branches almost to the ground. Trunks clean themselves slowly even in dense stands, which indicates tolerance of side shade; while young trees in dense stands grow rapidly in height, showing their need of overhead light. REPRODUCTION.—Generally a prolific seeder, producing seed every year, with specially good local seed years at intervals of three or four years. Power of reproduction and seed formation nearly as great as that of yellow pine throughout its range of distribution. Seed with moderately high rate of germination at best, but often low, and with persistent vitality. Large quantities of seed destroyed by insects and eaten by birds and squirrels. Seed matured at about same time throughout range. Warm, moist, pure mineral soil, or a mixture of the latter and humus, best for germination and development of seedlings ; reproduction rare on thick duff or vegetable matter, but abundant in humid regions after layer has been burned off or broken up by logging ; unburned, logged areas are commonly restocked by its northern associates, western hemlock and red cedar. In drier eastern range burning over ground is usually unfavorable to reproduction, lodgepole pine, aspen, and others restocking burned areas. Under most favorable conditions, reproduction is extremely dense, an acre being said to carry over 30,000 trees about 3 feet high and 11 years old, while a stand of 26-year-old trees averaged 1,068 trees per acre, 45 feet high and 34 inches in diameter. Such reproduction is frequent in Oregon and Washington. Bigcone Spruce. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa (Torr.) Mayr. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Bigcone spruce, which is a little-known tree, is distinct in appearance and conspicuous among its usually lower growing associates. It has been long con- sidered a variety of the Douglas fir, owing mainly to the identical, but larger, form of its cones and its similar foliage. It is, however, distinct. It is generally rather stunted in appearance. The wide, pyramidal crown, extending to, or within a few feet of, the ground, is open and thin, owing to the fact that the branches grow from the trunk at very long intervals. Those of the lower part of the crown are exceedingly long, and horizontal, but somewhat drooping at their extremities, while the short top branches trend upward. Characteristic short side branchlets, sometimes erect, droop from all of the limbs. The trunk, clear of branches for only a few feet, tapers rapidly from a thick base, reaching a height of from 30 to 60 or, occasionally, 75 feet, and a diameter of from 14 to 20 inches. The bark is early roughened at the base of young trunks. It is black- ish or deep red-brown, and, in old trees, from 2 to 5 or more inches thick near the bottom of the trunk. Deep, wide furrows and ridges, irregularly connected, mark the bark characteristically. The thin-looking foliage is blue-green, with an ashy tinge. The somewhat curved leaves (fig. 87) grow on all sides of the branchlets, but by a strong twisting of their stems they appear to come out mainly from two opposite sides of the twigs. They are more or less pointed, but not prickly. Leaves of a season’s growth remain on the branches from 4 to 5 years—possibly longer. The cones (fig. 837), which are very distinctive, mature early in August, opening by the latter part of that month or early in September, and shedding their seeds. They vary from 3} to about 6 inches in length, and when open are rich dark brown. Some of the cones fall from the trees during the winter, but a good many remain for a year or longer on the branches. The Fic. 37.—Pseudotsuga macrocarpa: a, seed. 15188—O8. (To face page 104.) Ee a - | 4 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 105 large seeds (figs. 37, @) are dark chocolate brown and shiny on the upper side, which contrasts strongly with the dull, very slightly reddish-brown under sur- face. Seed-leaves, usually 6, but often 7, pointed, and about an inch long. Wood, reddish-brown, fine-grained, rather tough and hard; suitable for coarse lumber, but not used commercially. An exceedingly important tree for increas- ing the protective cover on dry mountain slopes of its range where few. other conifers are at home. LoNnGeEvity.—Little is now known of the longevity of this tree. Probably long-lived. A tree 21} inches in diameter showed an age of 109 years. Doubt- less larger trees occasionally. found would prove to be from 200 to 300 years old, RANGE. Southern California, from eastern Santa Barbara County and southwestern corner of Kern County to northern Lower California; range includes Santa Inez, Zaca, San Rafael, Pine, San Emigdio, Sierra, Liebre, Sierra Madre, San Bernardino, San Jacinto, Santa Ana, Palomar, Cuyamaca, and San Pedro Martir mountains. Chiefly on north and east slopes and in canyons nearly throughout these ranges, at elevations of 3,000 to 5,000 feet, but often to 6,000 or 7,000 feet, and down to 1,500 feet in canyon bottoms. Western limits are Mission Canyon (above Santa Barbara) in Santa Ynez Mountains, where one tree occurs at 1,500 feet, and Zaca Peak, in San Rafael Mountains. Northern limits are San Emigdio Mountains and south side of Tejon Canyon (west of Tehachipi Mountains). Most common in San Gabriel and San Bernardino Mountains. Not frequent in Santa Barbara National Forest, but most abundant in Matilija, Cuyama, Sespe, and Piru creek basins. Locally noted as follows: Mount Medulce, Big Pine Mountain, Pine Mountain, Piedro Blanco Peak, near Pine Mountain Lodge, south side of Sierra Liebre Range, and on mountain back of Fort Tejon. General in San Gabriel National Forest and between about 38,000 and 5,000 feet; locally noted on Mount Wilson, on Rubio Mountain, down to 2,200 feet, near Alpine Tavern, between 5,100 and 6,000 feet, and Mount Lowe, at from 2,000 feet to summits. Common in San Bernardino National Forest, on both sides of range; on north side down to 1,500 feet, and sparingly in pine belt and on plateau up to 6,000 or 7,000 feet, but up only to 3,000 feet on south side. Not detected in Santa Monica Mountains west of Los Angeles. Trabuco National Forest, at 2,000 to 3,000 feet, in bottoms at heads of canyons in Santa Ana Mountains. San Jacinto Mountains, northern and western slopes and canyon bottoms, at 3,000 to 5,500 feet; less frequent up to 6,000 or 7,000 feet. Forms 5 per cent of forest in Palomar Mountains (southwest of San Jacinto Mountains), and 10 per cent of forest in Balkan Mountains— few miles southeast, near Julian—while farther south it is very rare in Cuyumaca Moun- tains. LOWER CALIFORNIA.—Sparingly represented at 5,000 to 7,000 feet on Mount San Pedro Martir. f OCCURRENCE, Scattered in cool ravines, gulches, canyons, over north slopes; approximately inter- mediate in position between chaparral belt and western yellow and Jeffrey pine forest. This occurrence is often very irregular, owing to unfavorable local conditions of soil and moisture, and destructive forest fires. Generally on dry to fresh sandy or gravelly loam soils, or on rocky, shalloy7 ones, any of which are too dry for Jeffrey pine, western yel- low pine, sugar pine, white fir, and incense cedar, all common to the region. It avoids stream beds and other wet places preferred by incense cedar. Pure small groups and patches, or single trees interspersed through pine belt, chapar- ral, and oak growth. Probably once occurred in much larger, pure stands, which were doubtless reduced by frequent fires. In pine belt, associated with Coulter pine, western yellow pine, Jeffrey pine, sugar pine, incense cedar, and white fir; below this, common with canyon and California live oak, and scattered through chaparral; extends into latter to limit of moisture conditions, and into pine belt as far as severe climate there permits. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Precipitation insufficient now to support good forest cover. Average annual precipitation (chiefly rain in winter at low levels, and snow at high elevations) from less than 10 inches to 30 inches; snow melts while falling, or soon after, in range of this spruce; remains only above it. Relative humidity, likewise vari- able and correspondingly low. Precipitation greater at high levels than at low ones, and greater on west than on east side of coast ranges facing dry interior. Snow may come at upper limit as late as May and as early as October. Fog common during rainy season (winter), depositing considerable moisture, comparatively speaking, on cool, forested 106 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. slopes. Large part of precipitation and moisture from fogs never enters soil, but is quickly evaporated, only temporarily reducing general evaporation and transpiration. Summers long, hot, and dry; occasional thunderstorms, hailstorms, or cloudbursts on higher mountains. Dew generally unknown. July to October, inclusive, is dry or “danger ’’ season, when there is great risk of forest fires, which are there very destructive and hard to control unless they burn out or meet some barrier. Once destroyed, forest cover is hard to replace. TOLERANCE.—Intolerant of shade except in early seedling stage; throughout later life requires full overhead light for best growth; mature stands usually open, stems clear of branches for one-third or more of length, but occasionally limbed to ground in open and in chaparral. Seedlings come up and thrive in shade of live oaks and under seed trees, in open, moist, sheltered places. REPRODUCTION.—Moderately abundant seeder, but cones are produced at rather long and infrequent intervals, though small amounts of seed are borne locally about every year. Seed of low germination, owing to large number usually imperfect; vitality per- sistent; Much seed eaten by rodents and birds. Reproduction generally very scanty, due probably to poor seed, loss by animals, and destruction by repeated past fires. Mature trees are protected by thick bark, but young growth is easily killed by fire. Reproduc- tion commonly in leaf litter under shade and in vicinity of seed trees and under live oaks. Seedlings grow slowly at first, but, once well established, they increase rapidly in height, requiring more light. ABIES. FIRS. The firs are evergreen trees with peculiarly conical, often very spire-like, dense crowns of heavily foliaged branches, which by side branching form wide, flat sprays. The trunks are tall, very straight, evenly and gradually tapered to one or two slender, straight leaders. Whorls of comparatively small branches grow from the trunks at regular distant intervals, Their sharply defined heads of dense, often very dark foliage and arrow-like stems distinguish them among all other trees. The trunk bark, before it is broken or furrowed by age, is marked by many blister-like resin pockets, formed within and just beneath the smooth surface. These are often an inch or more long, and so numerous as to be very conspicuous. This character, which no other native trees possess so markedly, may have given them their popular name of “ balsams,” because of the liquid resin obtained from the pockets for medicinal purposes. The leaves, spirally arranged on the branches, persist for from five to ten years (usually nine), after which those of a season’s growth gradually disappear. Leaves on the lower branches of our native firs are mostly flat (in one species triangular), rounded, or blunt, not prickly at the end (in one species needle-pointed) ; they appear to grow more or less distinctly from two opposite sides, or from the top, of the branch. Those of the extreme upper branches, particularly on the stout leaders, are stouter, crowded and curved toward the upper side of the hori- zontal twigs, and often keenly pointed or somewhat sharp-pointed. It is exceed- ingly important to note the very dissimilar form, habit, and character of leaves from the two parts of the crown. Leaves from the middle branches of the erown are sometimes different in form from those of either the lower or upper branches. In cross section the leaves of firs show 2 resin ducts near the lower surface of the leaves and commonly close to the edges of the leaves, but in some of our firs these ducts are in the interior of the leaf’s tissue, about the same distance from the upper as from the lower surface. Flowers of two sexes, male and female, are borne on branchlets of the previous year’s growth in dif- ferent parts of the same tree. Female flowers, producing cones and seeds, are short, spherical, rounded or elongated scaly bodies standing erect and singly on branches of the uppermost part of the crown. Male flowers, pollen-bearing only, are elongated, cylindrical, scaly bodies hanging singly among the leaves from the lower side of branches below the female flowers. The cones, whose erect position is unique and distinctive of all firs, mature in one season, Dur- ee ee —_— oe we FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 107 ing autumn their thin, closely-packed, overlapping scales gradually become loosened from their central spike-like axis and fall away with their winged seeds, two of which are borne under each scale; no fertile or perfect seeds are borne under scales at the ends of the cones. The pointed woody axes of the cones remain attached to their branches for several years. The breaking up of mature cones on the trees is not a character of any other group of our cone- bearers, the deciduous Taxodiums of south Atlantic forests excepted. Seeds of firs are easily wafted by the wind several hundred feet from the parent trees, but they are rarely carried more than 50 or 100 feet away. The seeds have peculiar resin cells which may be seen by cutting into the seed coat. The vitality of fir seeds does not endure beyond a single season, and as a rule the percentage of germination is low (50 per cent or under). Seed-leaves, from 4 to 10, and flat. Commercially the firs are of great importance. Some of them form protec- tion forests on steep slopes at high elevations where few other conifers can live, while others supply excellent saw-timber of large size. They are moder- ately long-lived, and 350 years is probably the limit of their age, but much is yet to be learned concerning the longevity of our firs. Seven species inhabit the Pacific forests; two of them extend far northward into Canada, while one of these and another species range through the Rocky Mountains as well. ; 2 Alpine Fir; Balsam Fir. Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nuttall. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Alpine fir is one of the smallest of the Pacific firs and perhaps also one of the least known there, owing to the high altitude at which it grows. Among all of its associates the long, narrowly conical crown, terminating in a conspicuous spire-like point, at once distinguishes this fir from all species of its kind in the region. Its spear-like heads can be recognized at a long distance. Height, from 60 to 90 feet and diameter from 14 to 24 inches, but in exposed high situations it may be under 3 or 4 feet in height, with very long lower branches on the ground. Rare old trees attain heights of from 100 to 130 or, very occasionally, 160 feet and a diameter of 3 to 4 feet. Larger trees are reported, but they are exceedingly rare. The bark is thin, at most about 14 inches thick, hard, flinty, and but little broken on fairly large trees, except occa- sional shallow, narrow cracks near the base of the trunk. The unbroken smooth parts are ashy gray—often chalky-white. Even in old trunks, always irregu- larly and shallowly seamed, the flat ridges are whitish, but pale-brownish on the broken edges and red-brown on the inside. Trees on several mountain peaks in Arizona, and occasionally elsewhere in the tree’s range, have peculiarly thin, soft, corky @ bark, similar in color to the hard bark. The narrow crown usually extends to the ground, even on old trees. The dense branches, which are char- -acteristically tough, droop at the base of the crown; when dead, often curved or bent down upon the trunk. Its low branches make it particularly suscepti- -ble to crown fires, which invariably kill it in large numbers, as do severe ground fires, which easily injure its thin bark. In very close stands old trees are occa- sionally free from branches for from 20 to 40 feet or more. The foilage is deep @ Abies arizonica Merriam is founded partly on this character and partly on a form of cone-scale which Dr. Merriam found to differ materially from that of the ordinary type of A. lasiocarpa. The cones and foliage of the cork-barked trees can not be distinguished by the writer from those of hard-barked trees, 108 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. blue-green, that of the season with a silvery tinge. The twigs, sometimes smooth, © commonly have minute, rusty hairs for two to three years, and the buds are coy- ered with resin. The flat leaves (fig. 38), pointless and longer on lower crown branches and keenly or somewhat pointed and shorter on uppermost branches, Fic. 38.—Abies lasiocarpa. are distinctively massed and pointing upward on the top sides of the branches, those below ana on the sides of the branches being twisted so as to join those above. The dense crowding of the leaves on the upper sides of the branches is very characteristic. Mature cones, before swelling and beginning to break up FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 109 (fig. 39), are from 2} to about 4 inches in length by about 1} to 14 inches in diameter. They are deep purple, becoming lighter by the time the scales fall. The ivory-brown seeds (fig. 39, @) have large, shiny, purplish or violet-tinged wings. Seed-leaves, one-third to one-half inch long, usually 4. Wood, fine-grained, light, soft, and from pale straw color to light yellowish brown. Little clear timber is obtainable because the trunks so often retain branches down to the ground. It is fairly straight-grained and splits and works Fic. 39.—Abics lasiocarpa: Very ripe cones; a, seed. easily. Its dead, weathered shafts, so frequent where fires have swept, remain in sound condition for many years. LonGEvity.—Probably not a long-lived tree. Much more study of its age is required. Trees from 12 to 20 inches in diameter are from 140 to 210 years old. The considerably larger trees which occur are not likely to be more than 250 years old. 15188—O08——_8 110 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. RANGE. Subalpine valleys, slopes, and ridges from southeastern Alaska, British Columbia, and western Alberta southward through Washington, Oregon, Idaho, western Montana, and Wyoming to southern Arizona and New Mexico. ALASKA.—East slopes of coast range in southeastern part; crosses divide to west slopes at Lynn Canal, where at sea-level, on west shore, it occurs in groups and extends to Chilkoot and White passes, reaching timber line at about 3,000 feet. Possibly extends farther south, at timber line, on west slope, and on sea coast, but not yet detected. Ap- pears farther north in Copper River Valley at Mentasta Pass and Copper Center (lat. 62°, long, 145° 20’), northwestern limit. Paciric CAnApA.—Yukon Territory, British Columbia, and Alberta. Throughout south- ern British Columbia from east slopes of coast range and eastward to east side of Con- tinental Divide in Alberta, except in southern dry parts of interior plateau. Northward_ in Rockies to McLeod’s Lake (lat. 55°), but farther northward on interior plateau, and over eastern slopes of coast range to Lake Bennett (lat. 60°) at Lewes River (Yukon Terri- tory) ; reappears north of Yukon Riyer on North Fork McQuestion River (tributary Stew- art River), in lat. 64° 30’, long. 136°, northern limit. Occurs in northern interior plateau and coast ranges at about 4,000 feet; lower limits are in valleys of eastern coast ranges at Lake Bennett, descending to 2,150 feet; occurs on Middle Lake, Lake Dease, and Lake Schiitliichroa, upper limits varying from about 3,000 feet at White Pass to 5,000 and 5,500 feet on sheltered inland passes, such as Taku Pass and mountains about Lake Dease and Telegraph Creek (upper tributary Stikine River, about lat. 58°). Not on west slopes of southern British Columbia coast range nor on Vancouver Island. On Gold and Selkirk ranges and on both sides of Continental Divide, being abundant in Bow River Pass, at 5,000 to 7,000 feet elevation, and on east slopes extending eastward on line of Canadian Pacific Railroad to Castle Mountain; southward in Rockies, over high, cool valleys, to latitude 49° and up to timber line. Reported east of Continental Divide in Peace River region and also in that between Lesser Slave Lake and Athabaska River. WASHINGTON.—Both sides of Cascades, Olympic, northeastern, and Blue mountains, at elevations of 5,000 to 7,500 feet. Northern part of Washington National Forest, on west side Cascades, at elevations above 4,500 feet, but on east side, at 5,000 to 6,000 feet, or sometimes up to 7,000 feet, as at Slate and Windy Passes, and down to 2,150 feet, as on Stehekin River. Locally noted as follows: Crater Pass, at 6,000 feet on west side Cascades, and at 5,700 feet on east side; Twisp Pass Lake; North Fork Bridge Creek; Emerald Basin, above and south of Lake Chelan, at 5,700 feet; North Fork of Entiat River, at 6,000 to 7,000 feet; Entiat River, at 5,700 to 6,600 feet. Cascades in southern Washington National Forest, generally at 5,000 to 6,000 feet, but sometimes to 7,100 and down to 2,300 feet, growing on both sides of range in Skykomish, Tolt, Sno- qualmie, Cedar, Green, White, Yakima, and Wenache river watersheds; Wenache Moun- tains, at 4,500 to 5,200 feet. Mount Rainier National Forest, generally at from 5,500 feet to timber line, but sometimes down to 4,000 feet and up to 7,500 feet; on both sides Cascades in White, Puyallup, Nisqually, Cowlitz, Cispus, Lewis, Wind, Little White Sal- mon, White Salmon, Klickitat, Atanum, Tieton, Natches, and Yakima river basins. Locally noted in this region as follows: Mount Rainier, at 4,500 to 7,900 feet; Eagle Mountain; Cowlitz Pass, at 4,750 feet; head of Summit Creek (on Cowlitz River), at 3,650 feet; Cowlitz-American River Divide (near Dewey Lake), at 5,300 to 5,500 feet; Divide 3 miles north of Cowlitz Pass, at 4,800 feet; Mount Adams, at 6,000 to 6,500 feet; Upper Klickitat River, at 4,200 feet; Little Klickitat-Tieton River divide, at 5,900 feet; Cispus- Klickitat River divide, at 5,200 feet; Goat and Olympic mountains, at 5,000 to 6,500 feet (timber line). Colville National Ferest, along higher ridges. Washington addition to Priest River National Forest, common above 4,500 feet; Wenaha National Forest, on broader ridges in Blue Mountains, at 7,000 feet and at heads of streams. OrEGON.—Both sides of Cascades, Siskiyous, and Blue Mountains; generally at eleva- tions between 5,000 and 7,800 feet; southward to north side of Siskiyous, but absent from coast ranges. Northern part of Cascades at from 5,800 feet to timber line—some- times to 7,300 feet, and down to 3,400. Southern Cascades, at 5,800 to 7,800 feet; southward on east side to point 10 miles south of Crater Lake, and on west side, to Umpqua River Divide and north side of Siskiyous, where it is rare. Not on mountains east of Cascades, except those in eastern, north and south parts of Blue Mountains National Forest, and in Wallowa National Forest. Locally noted as follows: Southwest side Mount Hood from near timber line down to a few hundred feet below Government Camp; on north side from timber line down to 3,700 feet; Mount Mazama on Wizard Island and rim of lake down to 6,000 feet in Anna Creek Canyon; Hidaway Creek, Granite Creek (near Alamo) ; South Fork of Rock Creek, at 6,450 feet; head and south wall of Rock Creek; about Greenhorn City (Greenhorn Mountains); at point 8 miles northwest of Alba; head of North Fork of John Day River: Powder River Mountains ; mountains about Minam River, a a FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. EL The detailed range of alpine fir in the Rocky Mountain region will be dealt with in a later bulletin. OCCURRENCE. In cool, moist, and, in part, subalpine situations; commonly on slopes at timber line, and at its tower limits in protected valleys, at heads of streams, and about mountain’ lakes and meadows. Best growth on fairly deep, loose, moist soil; will grow also in wet and on poorest and driest thin soils. Main occurrence limited by requirement of soil moisture to elevations where snowfall is great. Requires less soil moisture in general than Engelmann spruce, but grows in places too wet for the spruce, as well as on Douglas fir soils, where spruce will not succeed. Does not thrive on heavy, clayey soils. Altitudinal occurrence in Alaska narrow, owing to low timber line; more abundant on east than on west slopes of Alaskan coast mountains. Throughout north coast ranges and the Rocky Mountains the vertical range is wide. Here on all slopes, but largest on high north aspects. At south, altitudinal extent is again narrow, because fayorable moisture occurs only at much higher elevations. In pure, small stands and in mixture. In Alaska, mainly with black hemlock; at higher levels in Washington, with black hemlock, occasionally yellow cedar and white- bark pine, and lower, with noble and amabilis firs; in Oregon, with black hemlock, Engelmann spruce, western white pine, lodgepole pine, and noble fir. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Endures rigorous climate, and therefore it goes farther north than any other coast fir. At far north, subject to blighting winter winds, weak insola- tion due to high latitude and extreme cloudiness, excessive precipitation, averaging over 60 inches of rain and from 2 to 5 feet of snow, and also to minimum temperature of about —40° F. At south, sunlight is more abundant, lower humidity and smaller precipitation—averaging about 25 inches and mainly snow. Maximum temperature, about 90° F. -TOLERANCH.—Only slightly less tolerant of shade than Engelmann spruce, and more so than other associated species (efcept black hemlock) ; maintains long-suppressed reproduction under heavy shade, and with admission of light recovery and growth are rapid. REPRODUCTION.—Moderately prolific seeder. Seed with rather high rate of germina- tion, but of transient vitality. It begins to bear cones as early as the twentieth year. Produces some seed locally every year, with heavy production at intervals of about three years. Over large areas, however, cones often fail to mature during some seasons. Reproduction usually abundant, both in open on exposed mineral soil, and on thin and heavy moist duff under light or heavy shade. Seedlings grow most thickly on north sides of groups or forests and under branches of mother trees; small shaded openings among seed trees nearly always show reproduction. Occasionally at high elevations branches lying on ground take root (layer), from which, however, reproduction is probably rare. Grand Fir; White Fir. Abies grandis Lindley. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Grand fir is commonly called “white” fir because of its conspicuously whitish, smooth bark. Other firs of the same region are known as “white” firs of a “different variety,’ especially Abies concolor, to which the name “ white fir” appears to belong more fitly than to any other. It is desirable, therefore, for the sake of a distinctive common name, to coin for Abies grandis the name of “ srand fir,’ which is appropriate, since it is a very stately and grand tree when fully matured. It grows to a height, in such favorable situations as bottomlands, of from 150 to 200 and, exceptionally, 250 to 275 feet, with a diameter of from 8 to 4 feet. On the less favorable hill lands its greatest height is from 80 to 125 feet, with a diameter of from 18 to 30 inches. Its trunks are remarkably straight and very gradually tapered. Standing alone or in an open forest, it carries its crown branches to within a few feet of the ground even when old, but in a close stand the crown covers only one-half or one-third of the stem. The crown is a narrow, rather open cone, pointed in young trees, but in old age is somewhat rounded at the top, and often, from the strong drooping of the lower branches, appears wider in the middle. The rounded top results from LLB FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. cessation of height growth in the leader and an elongation of the older, shorter top side branches. All of the branches, except the topmost, have a distinct downward and upward swing. The bark, peculiarly characteristic, is smooth and ashy brown, with chalky areas on young trunks, while on older trees it is regularly and shallowly furrowed, the long flat ridges still retaining splashes of gray-white. In old trees the bark is more deeply but narrowly furrowed, the ridges being sharper and less conspicuously flecked with white. The general Fic. 40.—Abies grandis, lower branch. tone becomes pale red-brown with an ashen tinge. The bark is very hard, close, and horny; rarely over 1} inches thick on old trunks, and searcely an inch thick on trees from 18 to 20 inches in diameter. The deep yellow-green shiny foliage is somewhat thin in appearance because of the characteristic spreading, especially of lower leaves. The leaves of the lower crown branches are flat, grooved, blunt, and distinctly notched at their ends (fig. 40); they appear to grow and to stand out distinctly from two FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 1 a 3 opposite sides only of the branches. Many of the leaves are brought into this position by a twisting of their bases (fig. 41). Leaves of the lower crown are from 14 to about 24 inches long. Leaves of the uppermost branches are often notched, also, but are usually all more or less crowded together, pointing up- ward, on the top of the sprays, while the scattered leaves of the leader are sharp or keenly pointed. Leaves of the upper part of the crown are about 1 —_. a a“ Fic. 41.—-Abies grandis, middle crown branch. inch or 1} inches long. All leaves are conspicuously white on their under sur- faces. Mature buds are covered with resin, and the twigs of the season are pale russet brown and minutely hairy. The cones mature in early fall, and weth their clear, light yellow-green color and slender, eylindrical form are very characteristic (fig. 42). They are about 24 to 4} inches long and about 1 to 14 inches in diameter. The bracts adhering to the backs of the cone-scales are 114 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. squarish at their upper ends (truncated) and with a small point extending from the center. The pale yellowish brown seeds (fig. 42,a@) have shiny, faintly yellowish wings. Seed leaves, very slender and pointed, usually 6, and about three-fourths of an inch long. Wood of this fir is little known com- mercially, but likely to become better known and of greater value. It is light, soft, but firm enough to be widely useful as lumber, moderately coarse-grained, and straight; varies in color from pale yellowish brown to pale brown. Its qualities deserve thorough investigation, which will probably show them to be superior to those of the softer fir woods. Wig. 42.—Abies grandis, very ripe cone: a, seed. LonGevity.—Little is known of the age limits of grand fir, concerning which further studies. are urgently needed. Probably only moderately long-lived. One tree, 342 inches in diameter, showed an age of 196 years. RANGE. Valleys and lower slopes from southern British Columbia to northern Idaho, western Montana, Oregon, and northern coast of California. BRITISH COLUMBIA.—Mainland near coast northward to upper end of Vancouver Island; locally noted at Stanley Park near Vancouver. WASHINGTON.—Stream bottoms and lower slopes of Cascade and coast mountains, in northeastern part and in Blue Mountains at from sea level to 5,000 feet. Both sides of Cascades (in Washington National Forest), up to 5,000 feet. Noted on Nooksak River, near Ferndale, at 30 feet elevation; East Sound at 50 feet; at Skagit and Rainey passes ; re ee a 4 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 115 on Sauk River near Monte Cristo; head of Early Winter Creek. Both sides of Cascades in southern Washington National Forest, in valleys of Skykomish, Tolt, Snoqualmie, Green, White, Yakima, Wenache, and Entiat rivers, up to an elevation of 5,400 feet. Noted in Wenache Mountains and range between Columbia River and Yakima River, at 5,000 feet. Mount Rainier National Forest, both sides of range generally to 4,200 feet, but sometimes to 5,300 feet. Noted in Upper Nisqually Valley; Upper Klickitat River, at 4,200 feet; mouth of Hellroaring Canyon, at 3,800 feet; about Mount Adams and Eagle Mountain; on Goose Prairie along Bumping River, at 3,520 feet; on Dewey Lake (head of American River), at 5,300 feet. In Olympic Mountains from sea level — to lower slopes. Locally noted at Tacoma, Port Ludlow, Lake Cushman, on shores of Puget Sound, and about Dryad, at 304 feet elevation. In Colville National Forest, Blue Mountains (Wenache National Forest), at 2,500 to 5,000 feet. OREGON.—Stream bottoms and lower slopes of Cascade and coast ranges, Blue and Powder River mountains. In northern Cascade National Forest, on both sides of range and generally up to 4,100 feet; lower slopes of Mount Hood. Farther south (R. 5 to 17 S.) it reaches 200 to 6,000 feet. In southern Cascades National Forest, extending south- ward, on west slopes of Cascades, to headwaters of Umpqua River, and on east slopes to Mount Jefferson. Exact southern limit imperfectly known. In Coast Range south- ward into California. Locally noted in vicinity of Portland; coast of Clatsop County ; from lower Clackamas River bottoms to point about 6 miles above ‘* Hot Springs” in this canyon; Blue Mountains, at 2,500 to 6,000 feet. CALIFORNIA.—In fog belt of northern coast, extending inland 10 to 30 miles, and southward to north of Fort Ross (Sonoma County). Locally noted in Del Norte County at Crescent City, and in bottoms of Smith River. Humboldt County: Inland to Hoopa Valley and ridge east of Hoopa Valley, at 3,700 to 5,500 feet; lower Mad River; Eureka; from Hydesville inland nearly to Bridgeville and Little Van Dusen River (10 miles cast of Bridgeville) ; Ferndale to Bear Valley; between Capetown and Petrolia and thence to Upper Mattole. Mendocino County: Along coast from Kenny to West- port and inland along Laytonville road to point 15 miles from Westport; gulches close to coast from Fort Bragg to Gualala; Mendocino inland, on road to Ukiah, nearly to Orris Hot Springs; Navarro River up to a point 12 miles from mouth; Elk Creek, near Greenwood (12 miles south of Navarro River). Sonoma County: Coast north of Fort Ross with Pinus muricata. The detailed range of this fir in Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming will be described in a later bulletin. OCCURRENCE. A tree of moist situations. On alluvial stream bottoms and their border valleys, lower gentle mountain slopes, depressions, and gulches. Best and most abundant growth in coast region on stream bottoms at low levels; small at high elevations. Its deep root system demands fairly deep, preferably moist, porous, well-drained soils. With favorable moisture and climatic conditions, it grows well on rather poor, thin soils, but better quality is necessary in soils deficient in moisture and subject to rapid evaporation. Rarely in pure stands; usually in mixture. Most commonly with Douglas fir, and dominant over western red cedar,western hemlock, Pacific yew, and vine maple. At low levels in Oregon and Washington, with latter trees and sparingly also with amabilis and noble firs, broadleaf maple, red and Sitka alders, and black cottonwood; in low coast region with Sitka spruce, and in California with redwood. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Climate of range favorable to tree growth. Summers com- paratively cool and humid; winters ordinarily mild, and changes of temperature rather gradual; in Bitterroot Mountains (Idaho) and northward, temperature falls occasionally to —30° F. Precipitation, well distributed, except in July and August, which are usually rainless over greater part of range. Forest floor is then dry, and destructive fires often occur. Annual precipitation, from less than 20 inches to over 100 inches in different parts of range. TOLERANCE.—For a fir only moderately tolerant of shade, being less so than amabilis fir, western red cedar, western hemlock, and California yew, but more tolerant than noble fir, Douglas fir, western white pine, western larch, and yellow pine. Seedlings endure considerable shade, but in later life full overhead light is needed for best growth. Young growth under ordinary shade remains dwarfed and dies within a few years, unless overhead light is admitted. With overhead light, but shaded from side, height growth is rapid, trunks are readily cleared of branches, and long, clean stems are formed. Shade endurance varies in general with age, moisture of soil and air, exposure, quality and quantity of soil, altitude, and latitude. With sufficient moisture, soil, and heat this fir thrives in full sunlight, and also endures considerable shade. On poor, dry soils in Warm exposed places, shelter and some shade are beneficial to reduce soil evaporation 116 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. and transpiration; therefore in regions with such conditions the tree confines itself mainly to cooler, sheltered sites. REPRODUCTION.—Moderately prolific seeder; best in open stands. Seed of rather low rate of germination and with only transient vitality. Seeding habits not fully deter- mined. Cones produced mainly at irregular intervals (two to three years). Occasionally few cones borne by trees about 20 years old (in open), production increasing to old age. Under favorable conditions some seed germinates soon after it is shed and seedlings may become established before cold weather. Moderately humous and shaded soils most favorable to germination, but with sufficient moisture and light, seeds sprout and seed- lings thrive in humus and in mineral soils. Seedlings come up both in open and in shade. White Fir. Abies concolor (Gord.) Parry. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. White fir, a massive tree, is fitly and widely called by this name from the ashy hue of its bark. All of its other common names refer to its silvery or whitish appearance. It grows to its largest size in the Pacific region, where it is fre- quently from 140 to 180 feet and, occasionally, over 200 feet high, with a diameter of from 40 to 60 inches, rare trees being from 5 to 6 feet through. In its Rocky Mountain range it is much smaller—from 80 to 100 feet high, or rarely more, and from 20 to 30 inches in diameter. The massive trunks are conspicu- ously rough, with great deep, wide furrows and ridges in the ash-gray bark, which is from 4 to 624 inches thick, and very hard and horny. The smooth, unbroken bark of the upper stem, and of young trees, is grayish, with a brown- ish tinge. The dense crown of heavily foliaged, short branches is an irregular, round-topped cone, extending to the ground on trees in open stands, and in dense stands covering only a third or a half of the upper stem. The trunks are straight and taper very gradually. Young trees have beautifully symmetrical, sharp crowns down to the ground, the lower limbs standing out horizontally and those above slanting upward. On old trees the lower crown branches droop conspicu- ously, as do also those of the middle crown; while branches above this remain upright. In old age the more rapid growth of upper side branches than of the leader forms a rounded top. Young foliage of the year is yellow-green, with a bluish cast, but later it turns to a pale yellow green, with a whitish tinge. The leaves are flat, straight, and full and plump on the upper side, Dlunt or pointed—usually not prickly, but sometimes prickly on the lower crown branches of old trees. They stand out distinctly from two sides of the lower branches by a twist in their base (fig. 48); but very commonly the lower branches of young trees have their leaves curved and standing erect, somewhat in two lines, from the upper sides of the twigs. Leaves of the upper crown, especially on the topmost branches, are strongly curved or sickle-shaped, and appear to grow from the upper sides of the branchlets (fig. 44). These leaves and those on leaders are sharp-pointed. Lower branch leaves are usually longer (14 to 3 inches long) than those of the upper branches, which are com- monly about 1 to 14 inches long. There is very great variation in the length form, and thickness of leaves of this fir in different parts of its wide range. The changes in form from horizontally flattened leaves to vertically flattened ones, or to those resembling a sickle-blade, are curious; they are unex- plained, except perhaps by the fact that the latter form is best adapted to the dry climate in which it most often occurs. Some authors hold that Rocky Mountain trees bear longer leaves, and more commonly pointed ones, than do trees of thé Pacific forests. The writer has seen trees in the latter region with quite as long leaves, while long blunt leaves are not infrequent on trees of the 3 4 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. EZ eastern range. The long-maintained Abies lowiana Murray (cultivated in England, where it was first described), the Abies concolor lowiana of American authors, is a form of the white fir distinguished mainly by the length of its Fic. 43.—Abies concolor, lower branch. leaves. It is exceedingly difficult, however, to longer maintain, even as a variety, a form based upon a character so clearly unstable. The cones (fig. 44) are mature early in September, when they are very pale olive green with an ashen 118 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. tinge, or clear chrome-yellow green; sometimes purple. They vary from about 31 to 44 (sometimes nearly 5) inches in length. The bracts attached to the backs of the cone-scales are rather narrow and oblong, broad and squarish at the free end, which has a small point extending from its center. The seeds (fig. 44, @) are a dingy yellow-brown with shiny, clear, rose-tinged wings. Seed-leaves, 6. Wood, light, soft, rather coarse-grained, whitish to light indistinct brown; straight-grained; works easily, is strong and hard enough to be useful for saw timber, for which it is used to some extent. Many large trees are affected with “punk rot” or are wind shaken. ; Lonceviry.—It grows rapidly in height and diameter for the first 50 to 100 years, after which it grows slowly to an age of about 850 years. The limits of its age are not fully known, but very probably the largest trees are not over 350 years old. A tree 80 inches in diameter showed an age of 285 years, and one 60 inches through was 307 years old. Wes \ i vl it i Fic, 44.—Abies concolor: a, seed. RANGE. Mountain slopes from southern Oregon through California into Lower California, and from Nevada, Utah, and southern Colorado through Arizona and New Mexico. OREGON.—West side of Cascades southward, from about Township 22 south (head- waters of Willamette River, where it is rare at approximately 2,000 feet, but reported north of this at Fish Lake, tributary of McKenzie River), to headwaters of Umpqua and Rogue rivers; farther south, occurring at 3,000 to 6,000 feet elevation. Northern limits on east side of Cascades not known, but occurs on Matoles Creek southeast of Mount Jefferson, at 4,000 to 7,500 feet (south of T. 12 S.). Reported from southeastern slopes of Mount Hood. On Mount Mazama (Crater Lake) down Anna Creek to 5,000 feet. Extends westward in Siskiyous to coast ranges; eastward, north of Upper Klamath Lake, throughout forested upper Klamath River basin, at elevations above 5,000 feet, to mountains on east side of Warner Lake, at 7,700 feet. Noted on upper Deschutes River, on Paulina Creek, near Paulina Lake; Warner Mountains, with and above yellow pine, FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 119 extending down east slopes to 6,000 feet, and to 8,100 feet or over on highest peaks ; also on west side in canyons; Kokeep Mountains (east side Warner Lake) only in De Garno Canyon. Reported in Blue and Powder River mountains, northeastern part of State. CALIFORNIA.—Northern coast ranges and southward on Sierras to southern cross ranges. Northern California eastward to Warner Mountains and westward to Siskiyous (west of railroad) ; westward in coast ranges to Russian Creek (west of Scott Valley), Salmon Summit southwest of forks of Salmon River, at 3,800 to 5,600 feet, Trinity Sum- mit near meeting point of Siskiyou, Humboldt, and Trinity counties, and valley of Mad River west of South Fork Mountain. Klamath National Forest, at 5,500 to 7,000 feet ; very common between Horse Creek and Klamath River (T. 47 and 48 N., R. 8 to 10 W.). Locally noted west of Scott Valley between Etna Mills and Sawyers Bar; on east slope of Marble Summit Divide, at 7,400 to 5,500 feet, and westward on Russian Creek; mountains north of Mount Shasta between Shasta Valley and Butte Creek, including Goosenest Mountain; northeast slope of Glass Mountain (12 to 15 miles south), southwest of Tule Lake, and eastward into Modoc County at Happy Camp. Warner Mountains, both sides, above 6,000 feet; head of Cedarville Canyon, from 6,000 feet up;-head of South Deep Creek, Sugar Hill, and south side Fandango Valley (T. 46 N., R. 14 and 15 E.), at 6,000 feet, Big Valley on East Creek, and Blue Lake. Trin- ity Mountains, at 4,500 to 6,000 feet, and sometimes down to 3,000 feet, occurring throughout Trinity National Forest and nearly to Trinity River north of Yolabuli; noted on east slope of South Fork Mountain, at 3,500 feet to summit, and on west side down into Mad River Valley, which it follows to below 3,000 feet; Yola Buli Ridge; Van Dusen Canyon; Canyon Creek canyon, from near Dedrick northward 12 or 13 miles to about 6.500 feet above Twin Lakes; Bully Choop Mountain and ridge. Stony Creek National Forest, at 4,500 to 6,500 feet southward on inner coast range to Clear Lake (southern limit in these ranges), and on Sanhedrin Range to Pine Mountain; locally noted on Sheetiron Mountain, Grindstone Creek, St. Johns and Hull mountains, and Black Buttes. Shasta National Forest, at 4,000 to 7,000 feet; here noted on Mount Shasta from base of Mount Eddy (3,400 feet)- to 5,700 feet (Wagon Camp), and on warm slopes to 6,700 or 7,000 feet; south of Mount Shasta, over greater part of Shasta County, and continu- ously from Mount Shasta to Lassens Peak; in northern Shasta County, going east- ward to Soldier Mountain (near Dana), and ridge between Dana in Fall River Valley ; also Big Valley in Lassen County, and from Fall River Valley westward in Pitt River region to point alfout 3 miles east of Montgomery. Occurs in northwestern corner of Lassen County from about 5 miles west of Bieber, and on east side of Big Valley along Willow Creek 10 miles south of Adin and a little farther south near Hayden Hill; in southern Lassen County, from Susanville westward into Shasta and Plumas counties. Tehama County, westward on Sierra foothills to about 10 miles east of Payne Creek post-office; in northern Sierras, on both slopes, and on west slope at 3,500 to 7,500 or §,700 feet. Plumas County, in northwest corner of Sierra Valley (near Beckwith) west- ward on Feather River to Cromberg, and thence generally distributed; sparingly around American Valley and westward into Butte County. Here common in yellow pine belt from 83 to 4 miles north of Bidwell Bar on Feather River at about 1,300 feet elevation north- westward along North Fork of Feather River, and northeastward along Quincy Road to and beyond Quincy, in Plumas County. Yuba County: Oregon Hills, and eastward to Bullards Bar, Camptonville, and into Sierra County; here common in western part from Camptonville to Downieville, especially from Mount House down Woodruff Canyon to canyon of North Yuba River; also along North Yuba to Sierra City and up North Fork of Yuba. Not in Yuba Pass, but begins again on east side at 5,800 feet, continuing to west border of Sierra Valley near Sattley post-oflice. In southeastern Sierra County, on east slope of main Sierra Divide, and common from point several miles north of Pros- ser Creek into Nevada County; here abundant near Hobart Mill and Prosser Creek, and northward into Sierra County; in Truckee Canyon, southward into Placer County, and westward to Donner Lake. General in yellow pine belt of Stanislaus National Forest at ~ 4,000 to 6,000 feet elevation, sometimes down to 3,800 feet and up to 7,500 feet. Placer County: About Lake Tahoe, northward into Nevada County, and southward into Eldo- rado County; mountains east of Glenbrook in Nevada; along railroad from near Don- ner (summit) westward below 6,500 feet, and on upper South Fork of Yuba River; Summit Meadows westward to Emigrant Gap; farther west in Devils Canyon between Colfax and Forest Hill, and from Iowa Hill eastward, southward, and southwestward to Forest Hill; along railroad between Dutch Flat and Towle Station. Zidorado County: Tallac; west and south sides of Lake Tahoe, into Glen Alpine Canyon, and southward beyond Grass Lake Valley; west slope Sierras (Placerville-Tahoe road), at 2,300 feet, to Echo, at 5,500 feet. Alpine County: Near Markleeville and westward to Silver Creek ; west Carson River canyon. Amador County: North side Mokelumne River above Defender ; Pioneer to 3 miles east of Pine Grove. Calaveras County: Bigtrees, Gardiners, and 120 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. thence throughout yellow pine forest northward and northeastward on road to Blood’s, up to 6,600 feet or more; west and southwest of Bigtrees to 4 or 5 miles east of Mur- phy’s. Tuolumne County: On road from Sonora to Sonora Pass, and from Confidence eastward beyond Eureka Valley, reaching 8,000 feet on warm slopes (Big Oak Flat to Crockers) ; occurs from South Fork of Tuolumne River eastward to Crockers, Aspen Meadows, and Middle Fork of Tuolumne, at 6,800 feet; Hetch-Hetchy Valley; road from Crockers to Yosemite Valley, but not at highest elevations. Mono County: Sonora Pass (east side) below 8,100 feet; Mono Pass in lower Bloody Canyon, Walker Lake; 3 miles east of Mammoth, and west up slopes. Mariposa County: (Yosemite road from Raymond to Wawona) occurs above Wassama; from Yosemite to Crockers as far as Cascade Creek, at 6,000 feet, and also on Tuolumne side of divide; Yosemite Valley, especially west end, going eastward above Little Yosemite on warm slopes, to 8,200 feet; on west slope of Sunrise Ridge to 8,000 feet; above top of Yosemite Fall to 7,000 feet; then northward to Porcupine Flat and Tioga Road, and eastward to ridge west of Lake Tenaya, at 8,300 feet. Fresno County: Horse Corral Meadows; Kings River canyon eastward to Junction Meadow in Bubbs Creek canyon. Tulare County: North Fork of Kaweah River canyon at Bearpaw Meadow, Buck Creek canyon, head basin and canyon of East Fork Kaweah, Farewell Gap; Kern River canyon up to 7,700 feet, and Kern Lakes, 1,500 feet up canyon sides; South Fork of Tule River in eastern part of Tule Indian Reservation. Kern County: Throughout Greenhorn Mountains and head of Poso Creek above 5,000 feet, on Piute Mountain, between head of Caliente Creek and Kern Valley, summit of Mount Breckenridge, and possibly on other mountains south of South Fork of Kern River and Walker Pass; south slopes of Tehachapi Mountain below 7,000 feet, and down Antelope Canyon. In eastern part of Santa Barbara National Forest (southern cross ranges) ; noted on San Rafael Range; Mount Pinos, at 4,900 to 8,000 feet; Pine and Frazier mountains. San Gabriel Mountains, on Strawberry Peak, Pine Flats, Prairie Forks, and San Antonio, at 5,000 to 10,000 feet. North slopes of San Bernardino Mountains, at 4,800 to 10,000 feet, occasionally down to 4,000 feet and up to 11,500 feet; occurs also between Skyland and Fredalba, westward to Sugar Pine Flat, and eastward to Baldwin Lake—possibly farther; Crafts Peak; Holcomb Valley, only on north slopes next desert, and down to Jeffrey Pine belt. San Jacinto Mountains, at 6,000 to 9,500 feet, or sometimes between 4,200 and.9,700 feet; noted in basin between Fullers Ridge and north spurs of Mount San Jacinto, on south walls of Round and Tah- quitz valleys, in Strawberry Valley to near summit of Mount San Jacinto. Abundant on Falomar or Smith Mountain and Balkan Mountains; also on Cuyamaca Mountains above 5,500 feet. LOWER CALIFORNIA.—Mount San Pedro Martir, at 8,000 to 11,000 feet. The detailed range of white fir in the Rocky Mountain region will be described in a later bulletin. OCCURRENCE. A tree of moderate altitudes and generally on north slopes. Less particular as regards aspect in North than in South. In southern Oregon, less abundant and at higher levels cn east than on west slopes. In northern California, best and in greatest density on north and east exposures, and cn heads of streams; southern California, rather confined to north slopes away from stream beds. Thrives on almost all moderately moist soils, except heavy clays. Best on fairly deep, rich, moist loam; frequent on dry, nearly pure, coarse, disintegrated granite, and eyen among bowlders. Requires less air and soil moisture than other firs, though its best growth is in cool, moist situations. Never in pure stands over large areas, but in Oregon and northern California often forms three-fourths of stand. In southern Cascades, scattered among yellow and sugar pines, Douglas fir, incense cedar, and sometimes with lodgepole pine; groups covering less than an acre of this and Douglas fir in nearly equal proportions are frequent throughout this forest. In California commonly with yellow, Jeffrey, and sugar pines, incense cedar, and less often with Douglas fir, in lower range; at higher levels with lodgepole pine, Jeffrey pine, and California red fir, usually forming a transition type between the former and last two types; stand toward upper limit of yellow and sugar pine, often of great density. A frequent associate also of the bigtree, together with sugar pine. At high levels in southern California, with sugar, Coulter, and lodgepole pines, and incense cedar. : CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Climate moderately humid with extreme temperatures of —88° F. in Colorado and 98° F. in southern California, a precipitation of from 19 inches in Colorado to 40 inches in Oregon, an average precipitation throughout its range of about 25 inches, and heavy winter snows melting late in spring. TOLERANCE.—Very tolerant throughout life. With favorable soil and moisture con- ditions, usually more shade enduring than any associated species, except Engelmann 4 7 . FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 121 spruce and alpine fir. Owing to great tolerance, it has a close branching habit, and the trunks clean poorly. Young growth survives long suppression under heayy shade (with slow progress) and recovers readily when overhead light is admitted. REPRODUCTION.—Fairly prolific seeder. Good seed years occur at irregular intervals (two to three years or more), but some seed is produced every year. Seed of only mod- erately high rate of germination, often under 40 per cent, and with only transient vitality. Seed production begins mainly at fairly advanced age; in dense stands pole- wood trees seed when leaders have reached full light. Seed production continues for many years, but is more abundant during rapid height growth than at maturity. Char- acter of seed bed apparently of little importance, germination taking place on heavy litter and humus, as well as in mineral soil; but fairly abundant soil moisture is essen- tial for establishing seedlings. Indifference to kind of seed bed renders it aggressive, for reproduction occurs over denuded lands as well as under its own shade. Bristlecone Fir. Abies venusta (Dougl.) Koch. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Bristlecone fir, which is rare and little known, is unique in all of its charac- ters, the most striking of which is, perhaps, its dense Indian-club-shaped crown, which very often extends to the ground, and ends in a long, exceedingly narrow, sharp point. The sharp spires and deep lustrous green foliage are so distinctive that the tree can be recognized among its associates several miles away. It is ordinarily from 60 to 100 feet high, or occasionally somewhat taller, and from 20 to 30 inches in diameter. The trunk, rarely clear of branches for more than a few feet, tapers rapidly to the slender, erect leader. All of the branches, which grow from the trunk in irregular circles, droop conspicuously, while their ex- tremely long, whip-like side branchlets hang like tasseled cords among the branches. The bark of young trees is thin, smooth, and a leaden gray. On older trees it is comparatively thin, at most seven-eighths inch thick, and is irregu- larly broken by shallow vertical seams into flat plates, which are hard and firm. The bark of old trunks is light russet brown on the outside and clear red-brown within. The dense bright foliage is deep yellow-green. The long flat leaves (fig. 45), white-lined underneath, with their keen points are very characteristic. By a twist in their stems, leaves of lower branches (which are less densely leaved than upper ones) appear to grow from two opposite sides of the branches, while leaves from the middle and upper crown branches are rather densely arranged, mainly on the tops of the branches. The thinly scattered leaves of leaders (fig. 46) stand out straight, in strong contrast to the much less spreading habit of the other leaves. Leaves vary in length from about 1} to 2 inches. Lower branch leaves are usually longer than those from the upper crown branches. The large conspicuously pointed winter leaf buds are bright light chestnut-color, and without resin. The cones (fig. 47), which ripen late in August and break up in September, are one of the remarkably distinct features of this fir, par- ticularly in the long needle-like points of their scale-bracts, which protrude from among the cone-scales. Cones are from 2? to 34 inches long, and have at ma- -turity a faint purplish brown color. Seeds are deep chestnut-brown with shiny, light, purplish tinged, brown wings (fig. 47, ¢c). Seed leaves, 7. Wood of this fir is heavier than that of any other of our firs. It is light yellowish brown, moderately soft, but very firm, and usually coarse-grained. It is Jeast like any of the soft, light fir woods. There is nothing to commend it for commercial uses, for which at present it is barred on account of the exceedingly small number of trees in existence. The tree is, however, of the greatest importance in form- ing much needed protective cover for the scantily wooded slopes and dry canyons which it naturally inhabits, For this reason, and on account of its extreme 1292 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. rarity, aS well as because it is the most curious fir tree in the world, it deserves every protection and encouragement. LoNGEviry.—Very little is known now of its longevity ; it is believed, however, to be only moderately long-lived.. A tree 22} inches in diameter showed an age of 128 years. Further records are required. Fic. 45.—A bies venusta: a, lower branch; b, leaf twice natural size. Lower crown foliage. RANGE. Central California coast region; mainly in Monterey County. Scattered in patches of several or a few hundred trees in heads of canyons on both slopes of seaward part of Santa Lucia Mountains (Monterey National Forest), and at elevations of 2,200 to 9,000 feet; probably once extended higher up on slopes and possibly covered summits of range. Extends from Uncle Sam Mountain southward to Mount Mars (corresponds to Point Sur and Punta Gorda on coast) in watersheds of Sur, Carmelo, Arroyo Seco, | FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 133 San Antonio, and Nacimiento rivers (T. 18 S., R. 3 E.; T. 19 S., R. 2-3 E.; southeast end of T-21 S., R. 4 B.; north part of T. 23 S., R..5 E.; T. 24 S.R. 5-6 B.). Locally noted in Sur Canyon above Sequoia sempervirens; east slope of Pine Canyon (tributary Carmelo River), and a few trees also along top of cliff on north side; upper part of Arroyo Seco Canyon above and on Willow Creek; north and east slopes near Cone Peak, at 3,500 to 4,000 feet; head of Nacimiento River, canyon north of San Miguel (tributary Nacimiento River), and in San Miguel Canyon just south of trail Fic. 46.—Abies venusta, leader. from Kings City to Los Burros Mines; 200 trees on north slope of Bear Basin on east side of range south of Los Burros Mines and near Punta Gorda. OCCURRENCE. In cool, often narrow, moist canyon bottoms and their lower slopes, usually on north _and west exposures; also in narrow gulches and at heads of ravines. Largest trees - Pe ee 124 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. on west slopes, in deep ravines opening toward the sea; smaller or stunted higher up in more exposed places. Porous, rocky, gravelly, and sandy soils; where best growth occurs, soil is moist, even in summer, from contiguous stream bed. Probably capable of forming, under favorable conditions, pure or nearly pure stands. As now known—doubtless greatly thinned and checked by fires—only small groups and straggling lines occur, associated more or less with canyon live oak, broadleaf maple, white alder, California laurel, madrona, and somewhat less often or remotely with tanbark oak, Douglas fir, and Coulter pine. : S— may ae S : ya Fic. 47.—Abies venusta: a,cone; b, cone scale; ce, seed. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Temperature in its habitat seldom goes to zero or above 100° F. On exposed contiguous slopes, crests of ridges, where possibly this tree once grew, seasonal range of temperature is somewhat greater. Moisture laden west winds maintain fairly high degree of atmospheric humidity during most of the year. Annual precipitation, almost entirely rain, varies between 20 and 50 inches. Snowfall of the region, light even at high altitudes. TOLERANCE.—Very little is known of its shade endurance. Appears to endure consid- erable shade throughout life, particularly in early growth. Bears dense side shade, as shown by retention by old trees of vigorous lower branches in deep shade; full overhead light is doubtless required for best growth. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 125 REPRODUCTION.—A moderately prolific seeder, but apparently cones are produced only at rather~long intervals (3 to 5 or more years) ; as yet, however, little exact knowledge is available of its seeding habit and reproduction. Seed of comparatively low germi- nation and of transient vitality. Exposed, moist, mineral soil appears to be most favorable seed bed, since most of young growth and seedlings occur on such ground. Reproduction exceedingly meager, probably, in part at least, on account of long intervals of seed production and low germination, the destruction of seed by rodents, and the falling of most of the seed in narrow canyon bottoms from which it is probably washed by flood waters. Amabilis Fir. Abies amabilis (Loud.) Forbes. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Amabilis fir is known by woodsmen as “ white” fir or ‘“‘silver”’ fir, from the white, smooth bark. Woodsmen distinguished it from the grand fir (Abies grandis), also called white fir, as ‘‘ another variety.” To avoid the confusion resulting from applying the same name to two or more distinct species, it is _ desirable to take the name of “amabilis fir,’ meaning lovely or beautiful fir. The name is deserved, since the tree is one of the handsomest of its kind. A most striking characteristic is its smooth, ashy-gray, unbroken bark, conspicu- ously marked with large chalky-white areas. Only the old large trees (over 2 or 3 feet in diameter) are seamed at all, and then mainly at the base of the trunk. It is a straight tree, clear of branches for from 50 to 100 feet in close, dense stands. Its height in favorable situations is from 150 to 180 feet, some- times 200 feet, and its diameter from 38 to 5 feet, or rarely 6 feet. In less favorable sites the height is from 75 to 100 feet and from 18 to 30 inches in diameter. Trees in the open, even when old, carry a wide, conical crown of dense, heavily foliaged branches down to the ground, the top of the cone being abruptly rounded. Forest-grown trees have a shorter crown of similar form. All of the branches, except the uppermost, droop strongly, those at the bottom of the crown most, and with a long curve downward and out from the trunk. The dense, deep, lustrous-green foliage is a marked feature. The leaves of lower crown branches (fig. 48) are flat and sharply grooved on the upper side, white-lined below, and usually with a notch at the end, but sometimes bluntly pointed. They are about 1; inches long, and, by a twist in the bases of those on the lower sides of the branches, they appear massed on the top sides. Branches of the uppermost part of the crown have shorter and stouter leaves, about three- fourths of an inch long, which are sharp-pointed and stand erect in dense masses on the tops of the sprays (fig. 49). The scattered leaves of the leader are very keenly pointed. The spherical resin-covered buds of this fir are char- acteristic, while twigs of the season are minutely hairy and pale yellowish brown. The dark purple cones (fig. 49), ripe in September, are about 4 to 54 inches in length by 24 to 24 inches in thickness. The bracts adhering to the backs of cone scales are rounded at their free ends, gradually narrowing into a long, thin point. The seeds (fig. 49, @), which fall from the trees in October, are dull yellowish brown, with shiny light brownish wings. Seed leaves bluntly pointed and three-fourths to seven-eighths of an inch long. Wood soft, light but considerably heavier than that of the white or grand firs. It is fine-grained and light yellowish brown. Rarely cut for lumber, but one of the best of the soft firs. LoNGEviry.—Age limits undetermined. It appears to grow slowly through- out life and to be only moderately long-lived. Trees from 16 to 24 inches in diameter are from 175 to 230 years old. 15188—08 9 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 126 RANGE. Southern Alaska and coast mountains and Cascades of British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon. i Sa i H] i] i f) Sz Fic. 48.—Abies amabilis, lower branch ALASKA.—-Extreme southeastern Alaska on sea side of Coast Range from sea level to 1,000 feet, on steep hillsides northward, on mainland, to entrance of Boca de Quadra Inlet and to Sandfly Bay, on Portland Canal. a ee ee ee FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 127 BritTisH COLUMBIA.—Sea side of Coast Range, probably from Alaska southward, but recorded only from Queen Charlotte Islands and a point opposite north end of Vancouver Island southward, at 4,000 to 5,000 feet, on Dean or Salmon River, mountains of Fraser River Valley (below Yale) ; also in Vancouver Island, on Mount Monk, Mount Benson, and Mount Arrowsmith, and on southwest side, from sea level to about 3,000 feet. - WASHINGTON.—Both sides of Cascades, generally at 1,090 to 6,000 feet; in Olympics. at 1,200 to 4,500 feet, and down nearly to sea level on the west side, but not in lowlands about Puget Sound. Locally noted®in Olympics on headwaters of Queniult River. Washington National Forest, west section, at 500 to 6,500 feet; east section, only along Stehekin River, Bridge, Early Winter, and Rattlesnake creeks, at 1,800 to 6,500 feet; southern section, at 900 to 6,300 in Skykomish, Tolt, Snoqualmie, Cedar, Green, White, Yakima, and Wenache river valleys. Mount Rainier National Forest, both sides of Fic. 49.—Abies amabilis, upper branch: a, seed. Cascades, at 800 to 5,500 feet ; Mount Rainier, at 2,500 to 5,000 feet; Eagle Mountain, between 5,000 and 6,000 feet; Mount Adams. OrEGON.—Both sides of Cascades and northern coast range. In Cascades, at 2,000 to 5,400 feet and mainly on west side, but at higher elevations on east side; south- ward to extreme southern headwaters of Willamette River and Old Bailey Mountain (west side of Crater Lake). North side of Mount Hood, at 3,700 feet to timber line; southwest side, from a little below Government Camp to timber line. Coast Range southward to Saddle Mountain (25 miles south of Columbia River). OCCURRENCE. On well-drained, lower slopes of canyons, benches, and flats. Shows some preference generally for north exposures, but in Olympics and Cascades more abundant and at lower 128 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. levels on west than on east slope. Grows in well-drained, shallow, gravelly sand to moist, sandy loam, or in porous rocky soils; best on sandy loam; good drainage nevessary, as is also abundant, freely flowing soil moisture. In pure, limited stands and small groups (Vancouver Island, Olympics, high levels in Cascades), but more commonly in mixture. In British Columbia, above Douglas fir with western and black hemlocks, and western white and white-bark pines; in Wash- ington and Oregon, at low altitudes with western hemlock, noble and lowland firs, west- ern red cedar, and Douglas fir; moderately high upgsparingly with lodgepole and western white pines and yellow cedar; near upper limit, with black hemlock, alpine fir, Engel- mann spruce, and white-bark pine. CLIMATIC CONDITICNS.—Climate equable, with abundant precipitation, moderate humidity, long growing season, and small seasonal and daily variation in temperature. Annual precipitation averages about 45 inches; 2 feet of snow, which soon disappears. Temperature rarely below zero or above 90° F. TOLERANCE.—Moderately tolerant of shade, in this ranking close to noble and lowland firs and Engeimann spruce. Endures more shade than Douglas fir, western white pine, and western larch, but less than Pacific yew, western red cedar, yellow cedar, and west- ern hemlock. Long suppressed young growth under dense shade eventually dies if overhead light is not admitted. REPRODUCTION.—Prolifie seeder. Some seed borne locally nearly every year, but heavy seeding occurs at rather irregular intervals of 2 to 3 years. Seed of rather low rate of germination, and vitality very transient. Considerable seed eaten by squirrels. Reproduction fairly abundant. Moist duff and moss-covered humous soil with moderate light favors best germination and growth of seedlings. Noble Fir. Abies nobilis Lindley. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. The woodsman’s and lumberman’s name for this tree is “larch,” or some- times “red fir.” Why either, especially “larch,” should be used it is difficult to understand. There is little, except possibly the thin foliage of this fir, to suggest likeness to any of the true larches or tamaracks, and little also about the tree to deserve the name “red fir.” It is said that “larch,” first applied in Oregon some twenty-five years ago, was used in order to avoid the prejudice against its admirable timber, which would have been aroused if the lumber had been offered as “fir.” Perpetuation of such a misnomer is confusing, even for so good a reason. It prevents lay people from acquiring a useful and correct knowledge of the natural relationships of these important forest trees. It is hoped therefore that “larch” will be replaced by the name “ noble fir,’ which serves to popularize the tree’s technical name. In the deep forests which this fir inhabits it is, when at its best, one of the most magnificently tall and symmetrically formed trees of its kind. The remarkably straight, evenly and only slightly tapering trunks are often clear of branches for 100 feet or more. Large trees are from 140 to 200 feet in height, or exceptionally somewhat taller, and from 30 to 60 inches in diameter; trees 6 to 7 feet in diameter occur, but they are rare. The crown of such closely grown forest trees is an open, short, narrow, round-topped cone; the short, stiff-looking branches stand out straight from the stem in distant whorls or groups, while the closely-leafed branchlets appear like stiff fingers against the sky. The heavy lower branches sometimes droop. Young trees 10 or 12 inches thick often bear their characteristically open, sharply conical crown down to the ground. The short branches stand out stiffly, almost straight, from the smooth grayish-brown trunks. Bark of old trees is rather thin—about 14 to 12? inches thick—and very characteristically divided by narrow seams into flat, narrow ridges. These are broken into long, irregular plates, which are soft and flake off easily, revealing a clear, dark reddish-brown beneath the ashy- ~ . a ee he FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 129 brown surface. The foliage varies from a pale to a deep bluish-green, generally with a silvery tinge. The leaves, straight to curved, are plainly channeled on their upper surfaces, and arranged so that they appear to grow all in a crowded mass from the top sides of the branches (fig. 50). Those of the ‘DIT ‘o¢ y ‘youRiqd Supieeq-auo0d Jaddn ‘sz2qou saiqy lower branches are flat and commonly with a notch at the end, while those of the uppermost branches (fig. 50) are conspicuously 4-angled, very densely massed, and usually sharp-pointed; those of the leaders are flattish and needle pointed. Lower branch Teaves are longer (about 1 inch to 1} inches) than 130 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. the upper branch leaves, which are five-eighths to three-fourths of an inch long. The short, curved, densely massed, stiff leaves of this tree are particu- larly distinctive, and wholly unlike in these features those of any other Ameri- a, seed. Fic. 51.—Abies nobilis, slightly reduced; original 7% inches long: can fir. Leaf buds are rounded, oblong, and resin coated. The large bract- covered cones (fig. 51) are most distinctive. None of our other firs have cones like these. They are about 43 to 6 inches long by 2} to nearly 3 inches in thick- " eee ee ee eyo _—— FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 131 ness. They ripen early in September and begin to break up and fall from the trees in October. The protruding, pointed bracts, which cover the cone scales as if they were shingled, give the mature cones a light yellow-green color, which later turns to light yellow-brown. The seeds (fig. 51, a), dull red-brown, have shiny pale brown wings. Seed-leaves, 6 to 7, of uniform thickness through- out, with a short abrupt point Wood, rather heavy, being one of the three Pacific firs with the heaviest wood of any of our species. It is moderately hard, firm, of medium fine grain, very light brown, irregularly marked with reddish-brown areas, which add much to the beauty of the wood. It works easily and well, deserving much wider recognition than it now enjoys for high-grade lumber. In quality it is entirely different from and superior to any of the light, very soft fir woods. ‘The magnificent, clean form of its trunks gives the finest of saw timber. LonceEvity.—Much is still to be learned concerning its longevity. From what is now known it is doubtless long-lived, probably excelling all of our other firs in this respect. Trees from 20 to 30 inches in diameter are from 290 to 865 years old. Very large trees have been observed, apparently perfectly thrifty, which would unquestionably show an age of from 600 to 700 years, if not more. RANGE. Coast ranges and Cascades of Washington and Oregon. Range still imperfectly known. WASHINGTON.—Northward to Mount Baker on both sides of Cascades, Olympic, and Coast mountains. Not detected on Vancouver Island. Northern part of Washington National Forest, at about 3,000 to 5,000 feet; locally noted in Horseshoe Basin, Mount Amos, pass between Index and Montecristo. Both sides of Cascades in southern part of Washington National Forest, at 2,200 to 4,800 feet in Cedar, Green, White, Yakima, Wenache, and Entiat river watersheds. Mount Rainier National Forest, at 3,000 to 5,000 feet—sometimes down to 1,800 feet and up to 5,200 feet; abundant on Mount Rainier, at 4,000 to 5,000 feet; noted near Ashford, at 3,500 feet. Not detected on Mount Adams. North side of Olympic Mountains on Soleduc River, at about 3,000 feet, and general at higher elevations. OrEGon.—Both sides of range in Cascade National Forest (North); west side, at 1,400 to 6,000 feet; east side, southward only to latitude 45°. Locally noted on south- west side of Mount Hood at point 3 miles below Government Camp and upward, on north side at 4,500 feet; at elevations between 5,000 and 6,000 feet between North Fork of Clackamas River and Roaring Fork; this is the fir abundant on “ Larch Mountain” in Clackamas watershed; Crater Lake on Wizard Island and from 4,600 feet on rim of lake to top; Browder Ridge (northernmost headwaters of McKenzie River, Lane County) ; north side of Siskiyous in Ashland National Forest. Reported extending southward in Coast Mountains nearly to Siskiyous. OCCURRENCE. Presenc2 throughout range determined chiefly by abundant soil moisture, uniform, mild climate, and abundance of species competing with it. On gentle mountain slopes (of any aspect), depressions, benches, low ridges, and rolling plateaus. Vertical range increases from north to south and from coast eastward within a more or less fixed zone of heat and moisture. Latitude of range more restricted on east side of Cascades than on west, owing to lack of moisture and a severer climate. Thrives on moist, thin, rocky soils in eool situations, but best on deep, rich soils. Not so fastidious regarding quality of soil if abundant moisture is present. Very rarely in pure stands of even small extent; usually with Douglas fir, western hemlock, western white pine, or less commonly with yellow cedar, amabilis and alpine firs, lodgepole pine, and black hemlock. With Douglas fir and western white pine, often growing over western hemlock, western red cedar, and other tolerant species. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Not fully determined. In general, climate of range is mild, and mainly without extreme daily or seasonal temperatures. Precipitation, heavy; con- siderable snow, which does not remain late. TOLERANCE.—Rather intolerant of shade for a fir, particularly in middle and late life, when rapid height growth forces crown above slower species and maintains it in full light. REPRODUCTION.—Moderately prolific seeder. Some seed borne locally nearly every year, but good seed years occur at rather long, infrequent intervals. Trees from 50 to 60 13 ; FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. years old often bear cones, but seed is produced mainly by older and mature trees. Seed production appears to increase with age and to be maintained to great age. Seed of low germination (40 to 50 per cent), and of very transient vitality; much of it destroyed by an insect and eaten by squirrels. Seed germinates freely and seedlings grow well on any moist humus or mineral soil in the open or in moderate shade; seedlings do not thrive in shade of mother trees. Openings made near seed trees are readily restocked. Red Fir. Abies magnifica Murray. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. The common name of red fir is appropriately chosen in reference to the deep red-brown bark which it almost invariably has throughout its range. It is a stately tree when fully grown, commonly from 125 to 175 feet high, very excep- tionally 200 feet or more, and from 30 to 50 inches in diameter; trees from 60 to 80 inches in diameter are rather rare. Much larger trees are said to have been found, but the writer has never seen them. At high elevations, much exposed to heavy winds, it is very often from 40 to 80 feet high and from 20 to 30 inches in diameter, or smaller. In close stands the straight, slightly tapering trunks are clear of branches for 60 or 80 feet or more. On high exposed slopes, smaller trees are often conspicuously bent down the slope at their base, as a result of heavy snows which yearly bend the seedlings to the ground. Their struggle to become upright with each year’s growth never wholly rids them of the mark of early vicissitudes. The crown of old forest grown trees is a short, very narrow, round-topped cone, sometimes almost cylindrical. The short branches droop except at the top of the crown, where they trend upward. It has an open head, due to the distances between the regular whorls of branches. Only in the densest stands are medium-sized trees clear of branches for half or more of their length. In the high, fairly dense slope forests many trees bear straggling branches nearly to the ground. Here, too, the brittle tops are often broken off by wind, when the lost member is replaced by the upward growth of one or two side branches, which soon assume the form and place of leaders. Broken and repaired crowns of this type are familiar sights on wind- swept slopes inhabited by this fir. Young trees (30 to 50 years old and as many feet high) have narrow, cylindrical, sharp-pointed crowns, touching the ground. All of the regular groups of branches, except the topmost, sweep down and upward at their ends in graceful curves, presenting a form which is unsur- passed in beauty and symmetry by any other of our conifers. The bark, smooth and conspicuously chalky white on young trees and on the upper stem and branches of old trees, is from 2 to 3 inches thick on large trees; its hard, rough, deep furrows and narrow, rounded ridges are very distinctive. The latter are irregularly divided by diagonal furrows, which give a peculiar diagonal and vertical or zig-zag trend to the ridges. No other tree in the habitat of this fir has bark in any way similar. The dense foliage is dark blue-green, with a whitish tinge; new leaves of the season are much lighter green and conspicuously whitened. The leaves are 4- angled with nearly equal sides, the angle cn the upper sides of the leaves being rounded. Leaves of the lower branches (fig. 52) are flatter than those from other parts of the crown. They are bent from the lower side of the branches so that they appear to grow from the top of the branch, mainly in two dense upright lines; all are more or less curyed. Lower leaves, from three-fourths inch to about 14 inches long, are blunt and wider at their ends than at their bases. Leaves of the upper crown branches (fig. 53), five-eighths inch to about 1# inches long, are most strongly 4-sided, stouter than those below, conspicu- — ~ FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 133 ously curved and very densely crowded toward and on the top of the branches; they are more or less distinctly pointed, those of the leader somewhat sharply so, and incurved to the stem. The leaf buds are sharp-pointed and light choco- late brown—not resinous. The cones (fig. 53) are mature by the middle or aN A 7 = Aa. ss =e = SS = = = = — ~~ W)C SN io = . AAI Z " \ Ni Fic. 52.—Abies magnifica, lower branch. end of August, and during September they break up and liberate the seeds. At maturity they are deep purple, often tinged with brown, varying in length usually from about 5 to 7 inches, or occasionally 8 to 9 inches long, by about 2$ to 33 inches in diameter. The large-winged seeds (fig. 53, a@)are dark brown, 134 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. with shiny, purplish rose-colored wings. Seed-leaves are 9 to 13, usually 12, about five-eighths of an inch long and bluntly pointed. Wood, one of the three heavy fir woods, is about a pound heavier per cubic foot (dry) than that of Fic. 53.—Abies magnifica: a, seed. noble fir. It is soft but firm, rather brittle, straight, and usually fine-grained. Considerably more durable in an unprotected state than wood of any of the other native firs. It is yellowish brown, with a reddish tinge. The commercial FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 135 value of this wood, in its better grades, is yet to be determined. Firmness and good working qualities must render it useful for a number of the purposes to which pine is put, while its clean trunks would yield saw timber of the best form. LonGEvity.—It appears to be rather long-lived, but much fuller investigations are required to establish age limits. Trees from 20 to 36 inches in diameter are from 225 to 370 years old. Very large trees would certainly show much greater ages. The differences to be brought out in the longevity of this fir as it grows on high exposed slopes and as it exists in heavier forests of lower and more protected locations are likely to be most interesting and profitable contri- butions. The so-called Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica shastensis Lemmon, fig. 54) is a form of the ordinary red fir discovered and described in 18904 by Prof. J. G. Lemmon. In every way, except in the form and protrusicn of its cone-scale bracts, and in the usually shorter full form of the cones, this tree is identical in appearance with the type species. Moreover, the habits of the two trees are the same; in fact, may be standing side by side. The exact range and occurrence of this tree has not been fully worked out. Following its first de- tection on Mount Shasta, California, it was found on the coast and cross ranges of northern California, and also on the Cascade Mountains, Oregon. Later it was observed by the writer on the divides of Kaweah River watersheds and elsewhere, far south of Shasta, in the southern Sierras. The distinction of these trees, possibly so far as is now known only by the cones, is of no importance from the forester’s standpoint. RANGE. High mountain slopes and ridges from southern Oregon and northern California south- ward over west side of Sierras. ; OREGON.—Southern Cascades northward to mountain south of Davis Lake (lat. 43° 35’) ; west slope, at 5,200 to 8,800 feet; east slope (here extending 2 to 6 miles down from summit), at 6,000 to 8,800 feet. On Umpqua-Rogue River Divide and Siskiyous from Siskiyou Peak westward, but absent from coast ranges, Klamath Gap, and ridges of upper Klamath River Basin. CALIFORNIA.—Northern part and southward in coast ranges to Lake County; also throughout Sierras, and chiefly on west side. In northern part of State eastward to mountains north of Mount Shasta between Shasta Valley and Butte Creek; here it occurs on Mount Pomeroy, at 7,000 to 7,500 feet, on summit of Goosenest Mountain, ridge east of Butte Creek, Glass Mountain, at point 14 miles south of Tule Lake at 6,700 to 7.500 feet, and probably into Modoc County. Mount Shasta National Forest, generally at 5,000 to 8,000 feet. Locally noted on Scott Mountains; Mount Eddy; Mount Shasta, at 5,500 to 7,500 feet—sometimes to 8,900 feet. Westward in Siskiyou County to Marble Mountain ridge (west of Scott Valley), where it occurs on east slope at 5,000 to 5,700 feet on Salmon Summit west of North Fork of Salmon, Trinity Summit _.on boundary between Siskiyou and Humboldt counties—here on west side above 4,800 feet. Klamath National Forest, above 6,000 feet. Highest summits in Trinity National Forest, between 5,000 and 8,000 feet; sometimes down to 4,000 feet, and common on Canyon Creek near lakes and on higher parts of Yola Buli Ridge. Throughout Stony Creek National Forest (Coast Range) on Sanhedrin range southward to Pine Mountain, at about 5,000 to 7,000 feet; abundant on St. Johns, Iron, and Hull mountains and headwaters of Grind- stone Creek, Black Buttes, and Snow Mountain, at 7,000 feet. Lassen Peak, Plumas, and Diamond Mountain National forests have scattered bodies above 6,000 feet; south side of Lassen’s Peak, above 5,500 feet. Northern Sierras, commonly on west slope at 4,800 to 7,000. feet; eastward to Grizzly Mountains and on east slope to Smithneck Creek and Sardine Valley. Locally noted in Plumas County at Bucks Valley; Grizzly Mountains and southward to Penman Peak; Spanish Creek Ridge; South side Frenchman's Hill and westward to Walker Plain. Sierra County, Yuba Pass and east- ward down to 5,800 feet (west of Sierra Valley) to Sardine Valley and Smithneck Can- “It is suspected that this tree was distinguished by Carriére as early as 1867, but it is impossible to be sure now that his description refers to this tree. 136 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. yon, and westward to Bassett Road House at 5,200 feet; Crystal Peak (east of Truckee River). Nevada and Placer counties: Both sides of Sierra range in Donner Lake region from Donner Lake (east slope) to Cisco (west slope) ; Mount Pluto, south of Truckee River: shores of Lake Tahoe down to 6,200 feet; high areas west of Summit City and westward nearly to Snow Point, and southward on divide between South and Middle forks of Yuba River to North Fork of American River, following divide between North Fic. 54.—Abies magnifica shastensis: a, seed. and middle forks of American River nearly to Red Point. Reported in Washoe Moun- tains near Reno, Nev. Eldorado County: From Tallac southward to Grass Lake Valley, chiefly above 7,000 feet, and from summit (7,500 feet, southwest of Tallac) down 10 miles to Echo (5,500 feet). Central Sierras (Stanislaus National Forest), at 6,000 to 8,500 feet. Calaveras County, North Fork of Stanislaus River to west of Bloods. Tuolumne County: From between Cold Spring and Hureka Valley, at =- FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 137 6,200 feet, eastward to summit; Tuolumne Meadows, up to 9,000 feet; Lambert Dome; White Mountain; Mount Conness; near Lookout Knob; ridge between Ding- ley and Delaney creeks; near Lake Tenaya and Cathedral Lakes; Tioga Road from 6,800 feet (in Long Gulch, 3 miles east of Aspen Meadows) to Tuolumne County. Southern Sierras southward to headwaters of Kings, Kaweah, Tule, and North Fork of Kern rivers. Mariposa County: North and northeast of Yosemite Valley, at 9,000 feet and up; Cathedral Lakes and southward nearly to Little Yosemite; north rim of Yosemite Val- ley (near top of Yosemite Falls) down to 7,000 feet, and thence northward to Tioga Road which it follows eastward fron’ Porcupine Flat (8,100 feet) to ridges west of Lake Tenaya tributaries; Belknap Mountain (head of East and Middle Tule rivers) ; Freeman Creek (tributary of Kern River) ; head of East Fork of Middle Fork of Tule River; throughout divide between lower Kern River and Deer Creek and White River (affluents of Tulare Lake) above 6,000 feet, reaching southern limits at about Fish Creek (tribu- tary South Fork Kern River), latitude 36° 10’, and head of Poso Creek (tributary Tulare Lake and in sec. 11 to 14, T. 26 S., R. 31 E., lat. 35° 40’). - The range of Abies magnifica shastensis is imperfectly known. At present this tree is known to inhabit the range given for the species from Mount Shasta northward, while it occurs with the species in Scott Mountains, on Mount Eddy, and in Trinity and Stony Creek National forests. South of this it is found at several points in Fresno, Tulare, and Kern counties. Locally noted in this region by the writer at Alta Meadow (near southeastern border of Sequoia National Park). Further careful observations of fruiting trees are expected toe yield a wider and more connected occurrence of this form. OCCURRENCE.% Tree of high elevations, often well up to timber line. Lower, protected, gentle moun- tain slopes about meadows, to steep, exposed, windswept ones near high divides and erests; also in cool, sheltered ravines, gulches, and high rolling mountain plateaus. Prefers north and east exposures to drier and warmer south exposures; in such regions confined mostly to available moist, cool sites. Usually, and of largest size, on moist, porous, sandy or gravelly loam soils; but grows in very rocky, poor situations with little soil; poverty of soil and moisture produces small or stunted trees. In large pure and nearly pure stands below timber line and above white fir belt; often in pure small stands at timber line. At upper limit, generally with black hemlock, lodgepole pine, and western white pine. In northern California and southern Oregon, with yellow pine, sugar pine, and Douglas fir at lower levels; in Sierras at lower limit, commonly with white fir, which it replaces often abruptly at white fir’s upper limit. Toward upper limit, where it mingles with western white pine, lodgepole pine, and black hemlock, the latter grows mainly in gulches and ravines, lodgepole pine on borders of meadows, lakes, and moraines, and western white pine (generally scattered), while inter- spersed among all are frequent groups and small areas of dense pure, or nearly pure, stands of this fir. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Climate of region with comparatively short, intensive growing season, and long cold period of rest and precipitation. Average annual precipitation, about 30 to 50 inches; considerable snow, which in some parts of Sierras is over 20 feet deep and covers ground from November to June. In many parts of its range snowfall is much less, or melts before becoming very deep. Winter temperature, rarely falls to zero; Summer temperature, not excessive (probably not over 80° F.) during day, with cool and generally humid nights. Frost liable to occur at any time during growing sea- son at higher levels in range; usually, however, not until late in August. TOLERANCE.—Only very moderately tolerant of shade at any period; much less tolerant than white fir, incense cedar, and Douglas fir; very similar to noble fir in light require- ment. Rarely to any extent in intermediate or subordinate positions; nearly dlways in stands of equal age, which favor overhead light. Endures but little side shade, as shown by long, clean trunks universal in close stands and common in rather open stands. Tol- erance appears to vary with soil, moisture, and climatic conditions; more tolerant under best conditions for growth. REPRODUCTION.—Prolific seeder ; good seed years occur about every two or three years, while some seed is borne in many localities every year. Seed production usually greatest in open stands, and by moderately old trees. Seed of fairly high germination, but of only transient vitality. _ Germination abundant on moist mineral soil in open or in light shade; less frequent or wanting on drier, thick duff. Seedlings grow rapidly in cool, moist, sandy soil, soon restocking high slopes and openings cleared by fire or storm. “Includes Abies magnifica shastensis. 138 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. SEQUOIA. REDWOODS. The trees composing the Sequoia group are of ancient origin. Remains of at least two sequoias, from which our species descended, have been found in the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods, during which time they lived in the Arctic Zone. Our representatives of the genus are now singularly isolated and are found almost entirely in the coast mountains and Sierras of California, far from their nearest relative on this continent—the bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) of the Southern States. They are the tallest and most massive of our forest trees. Indeed, one of them is easily the largest conifer in the world, widely and justly honored as the most. remarkable of trees. Unlike many of our other cone-bearers, their distinguishing features remain unvarying. On account of the restricted range of the Sierra species especially, much con- cern has been expressed regarding the probable extinction of these trees. Great and seemingly needless destruction has been wrought by fire and ax in these for- ests of incomparable grandeur. While it would be a calamity to permit the total destruction for commercial purposes of trees which number their age by thousands of years, fear need not be felt that these trees are in danger of actual extermination for want of natural reproduction. With protection against fires they perpetuate themselves indefinitely, notwithstanding the popular belief that at least the Sierra sequoia is not reproducing itself. ' Some of these magnificent forests should be preserved untouched as monuments of American respect and love for nature’s noblest legacy. The scientific and educational value of pre- serving them is unquestioned. The destruction, for whatever end, of all of the great trees which it has taken thousands of years to produce could never be justified in later years. Sequoias are evergreen trees. The leaves are narrow and _ lance-shaped, pointed, and arranged alternately opposite and spreading in two lines from opposite sides of the branches (fig. 57), or they are scale-like, sharp-pointed, and closely overlapping each other on the branches (fig. 56). Leaves of this type are longer, the points spreading on young shoots (fig. 55) and young trees, forming sprays somewhat similar to those of cedars. ‘The leaves of each sea- son’s growth remain on the branches for three or four years. Flowers of two sexes, male and female, are borne each on different branches of the same tree. Both are minute or small, rather inconspicuous, scaly bodies at the ends of branchlets formed the previous year, and opening very late in winter or in early spring. The cones are egg-shaped bodies composed of closely packed, woody, persistent, thick scales, and are from about an inch to 33 inches long (figs. 56, 57). They ripen in one and two seasons, remaining on the trees after opening (jate in autumn) and shedding their seeds. Five to seven seeds, minute, brown, stiff, wing-margined flat bodies, are borne closely packed beneath each scale. The seeds can not be wafted more than a short distance by the wind. Squirrels cut down and bury thousands of the seed-laden cones, from which, under favor- able conditions of light—an opening in the forest—many seedlings spring up. Seed-leaves, 4 to 6. The bark of old trees is enormously thick, red-brown, soft, and separable in very thin flakes. The purplish, red-brown wood of the sequoias is light, very soft, straight- grained, and, except that formed during the first one or two centuries, fine- grained, often exceedingly so. It is remarkably durable under all kinds of exposure, lasting for very many years without apparent sign of decay. Its great durability and straight grain and the ease with which it can be split and etherwise worked have long made it desirable for many commercial purposes. Its huge, long, clear trunks yield saw-timber so large that it often requires to ee oe oN eS FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 139 be split into quarter or half logs before it can be milled. Telling one of these monster trees requires several days’ labor of two or three expert men, and when the tree goes down its weight is so enormous that not infrequently it is so com- pletely demolished that not a foot of saw-timber is available. This is true mainly of the Sierra sequoia, the wood of which, in very old trees, is somewhat more brittle than that of the coast sequoia. The longevity of these trees is still unsettled. Claims are made that the Sierra species attains an age of from 4,000 to 5,000 years. Many of the largest trees have been wholly or partly destroyed, making it difficult to obtain con- vincing records. It is safe to assert, however, that some of the largest trees are at least 4,000 years old, while most of the average large trees now standing, like many that have been cut, are about 2,000 to 2,500 years old. Their height is from 275 to 350 feet, or in very rare instances calculated to be nearly 400 feet, “with diameters of from 10 to 18 feet, or unusually of from 25 to 27 feet. Two distinct species are known. One is confined practically to the coast mountains and the other to the Sierras of California. The coast species extends a few miles into Oregon. Bigtree. Sequoia washingtoniana (Winsl.) Sudworth. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS, What the technical name of this sequoia should be. is still a matter of disa- greement among authors. Sequoia wellingtonia Seeman (1855) was revived in 1896 by an eminent American tree botanist and again perpetuated in 1905. Ten years ago the writer proposed an older name, S. washingtoniana (Winsl., 1854), later discussing fully the basis of his decision.2 The argument given then has not since been overthrown, nor does it seem likely to be, if the evidence brought then is justly weighed. The unsupported assertion has, however, been made that Dr. C. F. Winslow’s Varodium washingtonianum, upon which Sequoia washingtoniana is based, was not technically published. But a careful examination of Doctor Winslow’s statement (loc. cit.) should certainly be con- vincing, fortunately, that Sequoia wellingtonia is not entitled to stand for this grandest of all American forest trees. Barring actual specific differences which abundantly distinguish the bigtree from the redwood, it seems in general appearance to be only a more massive and grander edition of the latter species. Its huge trunk, greatly buttressed at the .base and very deeply and widely furrowed, bears much the same, but lighter, cinnamon-red bark. Much larger ridges and deeper furrows mark these trunks than do those of the redwood. The bark is excessively thick at the base of old trunks, often from 12 to 18 inches or more. It is soft, almost spongy, and composed of fine fibers, which are constantly breaking away through various agencies—weather, wind, and, not the least, the incessant climbing of red squirrels. Except where it has been consumed by fire, the accumulation of ages of this wearing may be seen about the trunks, where it has fallen in the form of masses of fine red-brown bark. Outer, unbroken, filmy scales of the bark are a purplish or leaden gray. Young trees from 10 to 20 inches in diameter, probably through the protection of their limbs, retain this outer film of bark and are therefore of a much grayer tone, which is the color also of the smooth, unbroken bark of still younger trees. The bark of the branches of old trees is the same color and exceedingly thin. 2See Bulletin 14, Div. For., U. S. Dept. Agr., 61, 1897. >See Bulletin 17, Div. For., U. S. Dept. Agr., 28, 1898. 140 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. DimeENnsions.—The height and diameter of these trees is popularly much over- estimated. Ordinary large trees are about 250 or 280 feet high, while excep- tionally large ones are from 300 to 330 feet, with diameters of from 12 to 17 feet, or occasionally 20 to 27 feet through, measured 8 to 10 feet above the greatly swelled bases. Doubtless, exaggeration of actual dimensions is due to inaccurately measuring some of the largest trees so as to include the immense basal buttresses, which are properly no part of the trunk’s thickness. : In youth the conspicuously conical trunks are densely clothed to the ground with short, slender branches which curve and point upward sharply, forming a broad, sharp-pointed pyramid. In this form it is extremely handsome and graceful. It usually retains its long crown for from 200 to 300 years, except in very crowded stands ; afterwards the lower limbs gradually thin out and become drooping, with a greater weight of dense foliage, as do also the middle crown branches; only the uppermost ones trending upward. Later, and toward ma- turity, the great trunks are clear of branches, except for a straggling branch here and there, for from 80 to 125 feet or more. The crown has then lost all semblance to its youthful form, and is a short, narrow, round-topped dome, irregular in outline and somewhat open. The once straight leader has died and lost its top, or the side branches have overtaken it and together round off the crown. All of the branches have become enormously large, crooked, and bent, some drooping and others horizontal, and all bearing dense masses of deep blue-green foliage. The leaves (fig. 56), sharp pointed, longer, and more spread- ing at their points on stouter main stems (fig. 55), overlap each other, covering the slender, drooping sprays. The smaller twigs have shorter leaves, and the larger have longer leaves.” Longer, more spreading, but similarly arranged, keenly pointed leaves are borne by seedlings from one to several years old. The cones (fig. 56) are matured by the end of the second summer, when they are dark bluish to olive green. They open slowly during early autumn, the thick stiff cone scales parting only littie, but sufficiently to liberate the thin, pale brown, winged seed (fig. 56, @). About 4 to 6 seeds are borne under each cone seale. Purplish grains of rosin-like substance fall from among the dried-out cone scales, and impart a deep purple to water, as do also the cones themselves. This substance contains 70 per cent of tannin, and is in this and other respects the same as that frequently found exuded in hard masses in the burned hollows of the trunks of these trees. Upon drying, after which most of the cones fall, the cones are dull yellowish-brown, the inner portions of the scales, red-brown. The minute narrowly winged seeds are not borne far from the parent tree. Thousands of ripe cones are cut down, just before they open, by indefatigable little pine squirrels. These are buried for winter food, many at the base of the parent. When fire and storm or the ax lay the parent low, some of these seeds spring up and replace it. Seed leaves, 5, five-eighths inch long, slender, and pointed ; scattered, shorter but similar, leaves succeed these, topped the follow- ing year by sharp scale-like leaves one-fourth of an inch long. Succeeding growth has the longer sharp form of adult leaves. Wood of the bigtree is brilliant rose-purple red when first cut, later becom- ing more and more dull purplish red-brown. It is very light (redwood is much heavier), brittle, variable in grain from coarse (the growth of the first 400 or 500 years or more) to very fine-grained (the later growth). It contains, as does the bark, a large amount of tannin, which doubtless has much to do with its remarkable durability in an unprotected state. Prostrate trunks lie for centuries on the ground with no sign of decay, except in the perishable sapwood. The wood is widely useful for commercial purposes, passing in the market as “ redwood; ” though lighter and more brittle than the coast redwood, it is said to be not less valuable for lumber. As already stated (p, 139), so small a FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 141 a percentage of saw timber is actually obtained (25 to 30 per cent) in lumbering this tree that it seems wantonly wasteful to lumber it. Fic. 55.—Sequoia washingtoniana. LONGEVITy.—Estimates and ring counts have placed the age of this tree at from 4,000 to 5,000 years. It is doubtful whether the largest of the trees now 15188—08——10 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE: 142 bal 800 to 2,500 years, or in rare cases nearly 3,000. standing are over 4,000 years, while very many trees from 12 to 18 feet diameter show ages from 1, There are abundant Further studies of the longevity of this tree are required. opportunities in the heavily lumbered southern forests. RANGE. southern Placer CDNTRAL CALIFORNIA.—Scattered areas on west side of Sierras from ‘paas ‘vp Snupmozburyson vronbag—gg “OMT =— SS GEELZES y Seu) \ i ra. , 5900 feet; area pal groves and forests are as follows; but especially those south of Kings River or The princi County to Tulare County; generally at elevations of from 5,000 to 8 covering, about 50 square miles. straggling trees often connect larger areas, Converse Basin forest. eo Oe EE eeeEeEeeE—eEe——EeEeweee ee lll ert cl FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 143 (1) North Grove: Near southern boundary of Placer County on tributary of Middle Fork of American River and Forest Hill Divide, about 10 miles east of (town) Michigan Bluff and just inside of Tahoe National Forest; 6 trees, at 5,100 feet; private ownership (7). (2) Calaveras Grove: First discovered (1854) in Calaveras County, on divide at head of Moran and San Antonio creeks, just north of North Fork of Stanislaus River and west of Stanislaus National Forest, at Big Trees post-office; elevation, about 4,600 feet; 50 acres, with about, 102 trees; private ownership. (3) South Calaveras or Stanislaus Grove: Tuolumne County, 6 miles southeast of last grove and southeast of North Fork of Stanislaus River on divide between Beaver Creek (north) and Griswold Creek (south—both tributaries North Fork of Stanislaus River), at about 5,000 feet; about 1,000 acres, and about 1,380 trees; private ownership. (4) Tuolumne or Crane Flat Grove: Near south boundary of Tuolumne County in Yosemite National Park and 14 miles northwest of Crane Flat Station on Yosemite trail from Coulterville, between Tuolumne and Merced rivers; about 40 trees; also single tree southwest between this grove and Merced River—exact location unknown. (5) Merced Grove: Headwaters of Merced River near north line of Mariposa County and a few miles southwest of Tuolumne Grove; less than 100 trees; private ownership (7). (6) Mariposa Grove: Mariposa County, between Big Creek and South Fork of Merced River (Yosemite National Park), 16 miles directly south of Lower Hotel in Yosemite Valley, and in two bodies at 5,400 to 7,000 feet; northeastern one, with 365 trees, and southwestern one, with about 180 trees, one of which is the celebrated “ Grizzly Giant ;” Government ownership. (7) Fresno Grove: Near north line of Madera County at head of Redwood Creek (branch Fresno. River, in secs. 17 and 18, T. 6 S., R. 22 E.), about 14 miles southeast of Clarks ; 2 miles long by 1 to 2 wide, originally with about 2,000 (7?) trees, many of which have been cut; private ownership. (8) Dinky Grove: Fresno County, on branch of Dinky Creek (tributary North Fork Kings River, sec. 35, T. 10 S.,R. 26 E.), at 6,800 to 7,300 feet; 50 acres with about 170 trees; in Sierra National Forest. (9) Converse Basin Forest: Originally one of largest south of Kings River; between latter stream and Mill Creek (T. 13 S., R. 27 and 28 E.), 6 miles north of Millwood; about 10 square miles; private ownership and almost entirely lumbered. (10) General Grant Grove: In General Grant National Park; about 262 trees, and originally part of Converse Basin forest, partly Government and partly private owner- ship. (11) Redwood Mountain Forest: A few mile south of General Grant grove on Red- wood Creek (branch North Fork of Kaweah River). covering about 6 square miles, con- taining several thousands of trees and in parts constituting pure dense stands: consider- able part lumbered; private ownership; a little-known forest. Sequoia National Park contains following four groves, and one large forest. (12) Dorst Creek Groves (northmost ones in Park), comprising two small groves on Dorst Creek (tributary North Fork Kaweah River, in northwest part of T. 15 S., R. 29 E.), with about 766 trees; Government ownership. (18) Swanee River Grove: Small patch on Swanee River (branch Marble Fork Kaweah 'Piver), in southeast part of same township; contains about 191 trees; Government ownership. (14) Giant Forest: On Marble Fork of Kaweah River near its mouth (T. 15 and 16 S., R. 30 EB.) ; covers about 10 square miles, at 6,500 to 8,000 feet, and contains about 5,000 trees; the largest continuous forest intact of this species; its largest tree is ‘‘ General Sherman ;”’ Government and private ownership. (15) Redwood Meadow Groves: Two separate patches about 5 miles east of Giant Forest, on Middle Fork of Kaweah River just outside of Sequoia National Park boundary and near Granite and Cliff creeks (branches of latter river) ; larger grove covers about 50 acres around and below Redwood Meadow, with about 200 trees; smaller grove, one-fourth mile below Meadow, covers a few acres with about 80 trees; a single tree also stands 1 mile north of Meadow. Private ownership. (16) East Fork Forests: Two separate bodies on both sides of East Fork of Kaweah River at Redwood Creek, 3 miles west of Mineral King; northern one 3 miles long and half a mile wide, at 6,500 to 8,000 feet; large part lumbered; southern grove one-half mile wide by about one-half mile long; Government and private ownership. (17) A number of small groves, a few miles west of latter forests, are on tributaries of East Fork and main Kaweah River; they bear names of streams on which they stand and comprise groves on Squirrel Creek, Mule Creek, Squirrel and Lake creeks, Salt Creek, and in Coffee Pot Canyon (just west of Sequoia National Park) ; private ownership. (18) South Fork Forest: On south Fork of Kaweah River just within west border of Sequoia National Park (in T. 18 S8., R. 30 E.) and covers about one-fourth of a square mile, 144 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. (19) North Tule River Forest: Covers entire basin of this stream from second west- side tributary canyon to uppermost east-side one (in north part of T. 19 S., R. 30 E.), comprising about 6 square miles with north edge just within Sequoia National Park; elevation, 5,400 to 8,000 feet; large part lumbered and privately owned. (20) Middle Tule River Forest: One mile south of North Tule Forest on east head basin of Bear Creek, extending over high divide, also between this basin and Middle Tule River Canyon, and over east slope of latter stream (in T. 19 and 20 S., R. 30 and 31 E.); covers an area of about 6 miles long by 5 miles wide, at 6,000 to 8,000 feet; large part lumbered; a part of this forest, but separated from it, is the Silver Creek Grove of 200 to 250 trees, on south slope of Silver Creek (tributary Middle Tule River) ; private ownership. (21) Alder Creek Forest: One-half mile southeast of Middle Tule Forest, on Alder Creek (tributary Middle Tule River), 8 miles long by about one-half to 1 mile wide, extending from head of Ross Creek northward along summit of divide between Hassie Creek and Middle Tule Canyon to head of (south) Alder Creek, down slope to within about one-half to 1 mile of Middle Tule River; elevation, 5,700 to 7,000 feet; private ownership. (22) Hast Tule Forest: About 2 miles wide by 3 miles long, covering head basin of East Fork of Tule River (at junction between T. 20 and 21 S., R. 31 and 382 E.), at 5,550 to 7.500 feet elevation; main body begins 2 miles above Nelson's ranch, but seatiered trees occur along canyon bottom to within three-fourths mile of latter ranch ; also detached grove of 250 to 300 trees to southwest on divide between Bear and Marble creeks ; private ownership. (23) Freeman Creek Forest: On head basin of Freeman Creek (tributary East Fork of Tule River) about 3 miles long by one-half mile wide, separated by narrow divide from East ‘Tule Forest; private ownership. (24) South Tule Forest: Composed of two parts; one, in East Tule watershed, is connected with one in South Tule basin for about 14 miles on divide and also at heads of Coy and Slate creeks: East Tule part extends from’ head of Coy Creek westward to Deadmans Creek; the largest area, to west of Coy and Slate creeks, is about 3% miles long, and extends from top of divide down between East and South Tule and northward down north slope of East Tule for about 1 mile; general elevation, 6,000 to 7,600 feet; South Tule part extends from northeast corner of Tule River Indian Reserva- tion northeastward 4 or 5 miles, with a width of 2 to 24 miles; elevation, 5,600 to 7,500 feet ; private ownership. (25) Dry Meadow Grove.—Small patch east of Tule Indian Reservation, on head of Dry Meadow Creek (tributary Kern River, approximately in 8. 20, T. 22 8., R. 31 E.). Government ownership. (26) Deer Creek Grove.—About 30 large trees at head of South Fork of Deer Creek (tributary White River), few miles east of Deer River Hot Springs (S. 2, T. 24 S., R. 31 H:). OCCURRENCE. Between larger north groves there are breaks of from 40 to 60 miles. From the Kings River forest southward, groups are less widely separated; a broad belt, broken only by deep canyons, extends for 70 miles to its southern limit in the Tule River basins. Gaps between north groves correspond with glacier beds which flowed from main high crest of Sierras during the glacial epoch. Existing growth is on higher lands from which ice melted long before it did in the intervening canyons. Prefers slopes, low ridges, depressions, and draws near or on headwaters of streams, where soil moisture is present. Indifferent to exposure, growing on slopes of every aspect. Prefers conditions of dense forest, occurring only rarely and of much smaller size in exposed situations. Depth and quality of soil and abundant moisture are most favorable to best growth. Usually in deep, porous, sandy, or gravelly soils moistened by contiguous streams or slope run- off; also grows well on moist, rocky, shallow soils, but less commonly on dry gravelly or rocky soils. With moisture, the condition of soi! apparently has little or no effect on growth. Occasionaliy in pure stands, but usually in mixture. Mostly with sugar pine and white fir (with Douglas fir at north) ; western yellow pine is often mingled on drier borders of these forests and groves, as it is also at lower elevations, where also incense cedar is a very common associate. From a pure stand, big trees may form the prin- cipal part of the forest (as in larger areas), or they may (as in smaller groves) make up only a small percentage of stands. At higher levels white fir is often the only associate. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—The habitat of bigtree is cooler and drier than that of red- wood. At Summit, situated some distance north of its range, at an elevation of 7,000 feet, the temperature occasionally falls to —12° F. and never exceeds 100°. Throughout a —_ es” r”—~<~;7C 73S FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 145 its range the precipitation varies with increase in altitude and for dry and wet years from about 18 to over 60 inches. At high altitudes the snowfall is often very heavy. At Summit, an annual snowfall of nearly 700 inches, equivalent to 70 inches of rain, has been reported. The winters are long but mild, and the flowering and pollination of bigtree take place as early as February or March, although spring does not commence until considerably later. The climate varies little with latitude, because as bigtree ex- tends southward it grows at increasingly higher elevations. TOLERANCE.—Tolerant of but little shade at any stage; for vigorous growth, abundant overhead light required from the start. Endures more shade during early youth than in old age, when crowns are always in full light. Under dense shade young plants grow very slowly, and have sparse foilage, flat crowns, and a gnarly habit, showing need of light. Such trees, however, often survive for a number of years, recovering slowly with light. General absence of reproduction in all but openings in forest and in open ground adjacent to seed trees shows clearly that light is a most important factor in early life. Endures considerable side shade; close stands of trees, 20 to 30 years old, often retain- ing branches to ground, while in full light they are kept many more years. REPRODUCTION.—An abundant seeder at short intervals, with specially heayy seed years; some seed usually borne annually in parts of range. Seed of moderately high rate germination, with persistent vitality. Open-grown trees may bear seed sparingly when 18 or 20 years old. Seed production in forest, much later; mainly when from 150 to 200 years old. Seeds are scattered in late fall and early winter. Lightness of seed permits restocking of open ground for several hundred yards from mother trees. Germination mainly and best on exposed mineral soil; seedlings rare or wanting on heavy litter, which they can not penetrate. Reproduction generally best on burned areas, where fire has cleared off litter, and exposed mineral soil, or even after light ground fire has left a layer of ashes or charcoal. Heavy stocking, which occurs only under such condi- tions, often amounts to 2,500 seedlings per square rod. Dense snowbrush common on burns does not prevent growth of bigtree seedlings. Usually seeded before the brush comes in, seedlings grow slowly through it. Thrifty sapling stands are frequent over this brush. Seedlings grow rapidly in clearings, under full light, sometimes reaching 6 feet in as many years, the greater part of which is attained during the third and fourth years. Such open-grown seedlings begin to branch vigorously from the first year, and assume the characteristic pointed form of rapid growth. Redwood. Sequoia sempervirens (Lamb.) Endlicher. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. The dark cinnamon-brown, grayish tinged trunks of redwoods are more or less buttressed at their bases and, as a result, are often marked with corresponding rounded ridges and broad hollows. The trunk is full and round higher up, and has a gradual taper throughout. Average large trees are from 190 to 280, some- times 300, feet high, and from 8 to 12 feet or occasionally 12 or 15 feet in diam- eter. Exceptionally large trees are 325 or 350 feet high and 18 or 20 feet in diameter at a height of from 8 to 12 feet above the greatly swelled base. Old trunks are clear of branches for 50 or 60 feet in open stands and for 80 or 100 or more feet in dense forests. ‘The crowns of young trees from 10 to 15 inches in diameter are narrowly conical, and extend nearly or quite to the ground. The slender, short lower crown branches droop with a downward curve, while above the middle the branches gradually trend more and more upward. On larger trees in close stands the lower limbs are shaded out, leaving a very short, round- topped or sometimes a flat-topped crown. The few branches on such trees, now long and thick, stand out rigidly from the trunk, drooping slightly—at the top not at all—forming a very open head. Bark of old trunks is from 8 to 10 or even 12 inches thick at the base of the trees, and it is very deeply and widely furrowed and ridged. The leaves (fig. 57) are flat, sharp-pointed, stiff, of unequal lengths (one-third inch to about 1 inch) on the same twig. On side twigs of lower branches and on young saplings the leaves stand out in two 146 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. lines on opposite sides of the twigs, while on the main stem of these branches they vary in length down to short scale-like forms and occur in several lines, sometimes closely pressed to the branch. A conspicuous feature of these leaves is their habit of clinging to the branches for one or two years after they are dead, when they are pale dull brown. These leaves occur irregularly on branches, though they are most common on the top branches of mature trees, particularly in exposed sites. The foliage is a bright, deep yellow-green; that of each season’s growth remains on the tree about three or four years. Cones (fig..57), which mature in one year, are ripe early in September. They open and shed their seed slowly, and remain on the trees several months afterwards. The seeds (fig. 57, b), about 4 or 5 of which are borne under each cone scale, are pale russet-brown. Seed leaves, usually 5; very slender, pointed, and about seven-eighths of an inch long. Seedlings produce similar scattered spreading leaves for several years before assuming the adult foliage. Wood (about the weight of white pine), several pounds heavier per cubic foot than that of the bigtree. It is very soft, moderately fine-grained, but variable from fine to coarse, exceedingly brittle, and a purplish, clear red-brown in color. It is of the first commercial importance on account of its great durability without pro- tection, the ease with which it is worked, and the large sizes of clear lumber obtainable. LONGEVITy.—Very long-lived, but greatest age undetermined. On account of the extensive lumbering in the past, followed by fire, age records of very large trees have not been obtained. Probably not as long-lived as the bigtree. A tree 20 feet in diameter and 350 feet high showed an age of 1,000 years. Another tree 21 feet in diameter was 1,873 “years old. RANGE. From southwestern corner of Oregon southward, from 10 to 30 miles inland, through California coast region to Salmon Creek Canyon (12 miles south of Punta Gorda) in Monterey County. Generally from near sea-level to about 2,500 feet elevation, and mainly on seaward side of coast mountains within the fog belt. OrEGON.—Three groves in southern Curry County; two, aggregating 2,000 acres, on northwestern side of Chetco River, 6 and 12 miles from its mouth, a third grove, farther south, on Winchuck River only a few miles from sea and very near California line. CALIFORNIA.—Northmost large forest is on Smith River (Del Norte County) and its tributary Rowdy Creek, from which a nearly unbroken belt extends southward. Klamath National Forest only on Goose Creek (T. 14 N., R. 2 E.). At north end of Del Norte County belt is only 5 to 6 miles wide, between which and the sea there is a belt 3 miles wide, mainly of Sitka spruce and Douglas fir. But south of Crescent City, redwood comes within a mile of coast and the belt widens to 6 or 7 miles, continuing thus to Klamath River Valley, up which it goes for 20 miles; immediately south of this valley the belt becomes 10 to 12 miles wide and so continues until reaching Humboldt Bay, where it narrows to a width of about 7 miles, extending east to 3 miles east of Korbel, and recedes from the coast 2 or 3 miles. Southward from Humboldt Bay it continues receding from coast, until, at Eel River, the belt, here about 15 miles wide, is 15 miles er more from the sea. In southern Humboldt County (T. 3 S., R. 3 E., Humboldt meri- dian) the belt ends in a tapering point about 7 miles southwest of Eel River. For about 15 miles redwood is absent, but at north boundary of Mendocino County the belt begins again, close to sea, and continues about 8 miles wide to a point opposite Westport, where it extends eastward 10 miles from that town, and at a point 15 miles north of Mendocino widens to about 20 miles, reaching inland to Deep Creek (opposite Willits) on east slope of coast mountains. It continues thus, with gaps on the divide, until Sonoma County is reached, here contracting to 10 or 12 miles in width, on Russian River extend- ing east to Forestville, and, much broken, finally ceases about opposite Santa Rosa. Through Marin County redwood appears only in groves and in ravines, but extends eastward to Napa Valley and over Howell Mountain (toward Pope Valley), here reaching its most eastern limit, more than 30 miles from the sea. In Mount Diablo range, only on “See Forest Service Bull. 38, p. 12. 15188—O8. Fic. 57.—Sequoia sempervi: (To face page 146.) Fic. 57.—Sequoia sempervirens: a, branch with open cones; b, seed 15188—O08, (‘To face page 146.) FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 147 Redwood Peak in Oakland Hills; but south of San Francisco, on seaward coast range, covers crest and west slope, mixed with Douglas fir and other trees, extending southward through Santa Cruz Mountains. Ceases for a few miles around Monterey Bay, but in Santa Lucia Mountains (Monterey County) occurs in canyons chiefly on seaward side of range at altitudes from sea-level to 3,000 feet (the largest trees growing in Little Sur River Basin, near Pico Blanco), extending south to Salmon Creek Canyon (12 miles south of Punta Gorda, lat. 35° 50’), the southern limit. OCCURRENCE. Best stands and all pure stands on protected flats and benches along larger streams, sheltered, moist coastal plains, river deltas, moderate west slopes and valleys opening toward sea. At higher, more exposed levels, where it is drier, and on steeper slopes growth is smaller and gradually gives way in mixture to less exacting species. In north, often on east slopes, but in south restricted to west side of coast range. Very exacting in requirements as to soil moisture; prefers deep to shallow soils, and grows better in fresh, well-drained soils than in wet ones. Sandstone prevails in range, and soil is clayey to sandy (greasy when wet), yellowish, and capable of holding much water. Sandy to clayey loam soil, even on steep slopes, usually of fair depth and of good compo- sition. Boggy soils near mouths of streams are not suitable, such localities being mainly given over to an irregular forest of Sitka spruce, grand fir, Port Orford cedar, and hardwoods. Relatively small part (less than 50 square miles) of redwood forest is pure growth. This is dense, and with little undergrowth except moss and small herbaceous plants. Greater part (about 1,800 square miles) a mixture of redwood (50 to 75 per cent), Douglas fir (most abundant associate everywhere except on damp places), tanbark oak, grand fir, western red cedar, western hemlock, and madrona; Douglas fir and tanbark oak characteristic on upper slopes and hemlock on lower. Steep slope and uneven height of different species make this an open forest, and except where fires are frequent there is a dense undergrowth of huckleberry, salal, Oregon grape, thimbleberry, and ferns.* On rich river flats scattered Sitka spruce, Port Orford cedar, western hemlock, and grand fir are occasionally mingled. Pacific yew, California torreya, California laurel, cascara buckthorn, red alder, knobeone pine, and Gowen cypress are also more or less associated, but hold only occasional sites against the climatically more favored redwood, CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Closely confined to humid region subject to frequent and heavy sea fogs; trees outside this influence are scattered and small. Fogs conserye moisture in soil and in trees by checking evaporation and transpiration from trees. In the red- wood forest, therefore, soil and air are typically moist. Temperature, rarely below 15° or above 100°; annual average from 50° to 60° F. Annual precipitation, between 20 and 60 inches, mainly as winter rains. Snow lies on tops only of highest ridges. TOLERANCE.—Moderately tolerant of shade except in early youth; even then shade is not required, most rapid growth being in full light. Has marked characteristics of intolerant trees; a thin open crown, rapid loss_of side branches, and the eager bending of crowns toward openings in crown cover; seedlings not able to come up in shaded places. Yet, despite this, forms the densest of forests. Stump sprouts often exist under the densest shade for one hundred years, growing very ‘slowly in diameter during this time, but recovering completely and growing rapidly when released from suppression. This tolerance of sprouts is, however, peculiar to trees on moist bottoms, which endure so much shade that other species are usually driven out. On drier hills, with more light, redwood generally gives way to the less tolerant Douglas fir and other drought-enduring trees. Repropuction.—Fairly prolific seeder. Very small percentage (15 to 25 per cent) of seed perfect; hence exceedingly low rate of germination; vitality moderately persistent. Sparsely reproduced by seed, but very abundantly by sprouts from old or young stumps, root collar, and (suckers) roots.” Sprouts grow very rapidly, are long-lived, and pro- duce large trees of good form. Seedlings grow more slowly than sprouts and require more light. ; @Redwood forests yield 10,000 to 75,000 board feet per acre, or very exceptionally 400,000 feet, while over a million feet have been cut per acre. > Redwood is about the only conifer whose reproduction by sprouts is of commercial importance. The Sierra bigtree sprouts vigorously from tall broken stubs (not from stumps or roots) and thus repairs its broken crown. A number of pines produce ephem- eral stump sprouts, while some of the junipers produce persistent collar sprouts after cutting and fire. 148 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. LIBOCEDRUS. Trees of this group are characterized by their conical trunks, their thick bark, and the very strong but pleasant odor of their light, soft, straight- grained, durable wood. The small scale-like, pointed leaves (of adults) are evergreen ; those of each season’s growth remain on the tree four or five years. They overlap each other closely; much flattened on short side branchlets, but rounded on the larger main stems. The branchlets are arranged in one plane, forming a flat spray. Seedling leaves are scale-like, sharp-pointed, and spread- ing. All of the leaves are characteristically arranged in pairs, each pair placed on the branch at right angles to the preceding pair. The leaves are also distin- guished by their long bases, which extend down the branch. Male and female flowers at the end of branchlets formed the preceding year are borne either on different twigs of the same branch (native Libocedrus) or on different trees. The small cones, which mature in one season and hang down from the branches, are composed of 3 pairs of scales (practically of only 2)—one very short pair and one, the largest pair, forming most of the cone’s body and inclosing 1 or 2 winged seeds on each of its scales; the third pair is formed into a central flat, thick, woody wall, upon each face of which the seed-bearing scales clasp. The seeds are shed in early autumn, their light wings adapting them well for wide dissemination. After shedding their seeds the cones remain on the trees at least until the succeeding summer. All of the trees of this group are rather large, important forest trees, and their durable woods are commercially valuable. They are nearly all long-lived. One species only, confined to our Pacific region, inhab- its the United States. Two very important species grow in western South America. The group is further interesting from the fact that in geologic times species related to those now living existed in Greenland and portions of Europe. Incense Cedar. Libocedrus decurrens Torrey. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS, The striking characteristics of old incense cedar trees are their rapidly tapering trunks with widely buttressed bases and cinnamon-brown, deeply fur- rowed, and ridged bark.’ The bark is from 2 to 3 or more inches thick at the base of the trunks; higher up it is scarcely more than an inch thick. Young trees have thin, smooth, slightly scaly, clear, reddish cinnamon colored bark. Height, from 75 to 90 or sometimes 100 or 110 feet (very rarely more), and from 380 to 50 inches in diameter; exceptionally large trees are from 5 to 6 feet in diameter. The crowns of large trees are very open and irregular, con- sisting of a few scattered branches on the upper third of the stem, and several large, leader-like top branches, all with dense tufts of light yellow- green foliage. Young trees, up to about 12 inches in diameter, carry a narrow, open, columnar, pointed crown, reaching to the ground. At the bottom of the crown .the branches are slender and curye down and up at their ends; higher up they gradually swing upward more and more toward the narrow pointed top. Short, flat, drooping sprays of foliage terminate the branches. = » RES Sees fe Sy Sw, CAS TD a=: Sea oy WU SSSA SANs <4 = LT a ‘ * NSS eas cert As N ose: > ASSN eee ee S eS Raye a> Ss me oS — : tl Sasa SS a SAI -S Be RS PNR SS SNS Sap ‘Ky y et Sy SS Ni Southeastern coast of Alaska and southward to northern California ; eastward, through southeastern British Columbia, through northern Washington to northern Idaho aud Montana, and to Cascades of Washington and Oregon. le ie il ee i ae i el ae 156 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. ALASKA.—-Southeastern end, on sea side of Coast Range, from sea level to 3,000 feet, northward in small pumbers, to Wrangell, on mainland, and to Sitka on Alexander Archipelago; farther northward, sparingly represented on Douglas Island (opposite Juneau) and on Portage Bay, head of Lynn Canal (lat. 59° 20’), the northern limit. Locally noted as follows: South end of Mitkof Island (opposite Wrangell) ; entrance to BSS Sara a>. eS = i Pa Fic. 60.—Thuja plicata: a, branch with open cones; b, seed. Steamer Bay (Etolin Island); Yes Bay (Cleveland Peninsula) ; Ketchikan Valley (Re- villagigedo Island) ; Klowak (Prince of Wales Island) ; Kaigan (Bella Bella Island). BRITISH COLUMBIA.—Sea slopes of Coast Range and islands from sea level to about 2.400 feet; not in interior plateau, but on slopes of southern Gold and Selkirk mountains, and on west side of Continental Divide, Coast Range region of heayy rainfall, mostly on —- © FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 157 sea slopes; Salmon River, inland 45 miles from head of Dean Inlet, at 2,400 feet, and also on east slope of Coast Range in lower Iltasyouco Valley (tributary Salmon River) ; on Homathco River inland 63 miles to 2,720 feet elevation; lower Fraser River Valley inland to Uztlihoos River (branch Anderson River), 6 miles east of Boston Bar; also on Coquihalla River at point south of summit between this stream and Coldwater River ; farther south, sparingly on Skaist River (east branch of Skagit), and on the Similka- meen at point about 13 miles below Vermilion Forks. Valleys of Gold Range westward to within 8 miles of head of Okanogan Lake, northeastern part of Shuswap Lake, down north branch of Thompson River Valley to point about 20 miles below Clearwater River; northward to Quesnelle River, Fort George (on upper Fraser), and to headwaters of Parsnip River. Not in Columbia-Kootenai Valley, but in valleys of Selkirk Mountains and on west slopes of Rockies; eastern limit, Kicking Horse Lake, at 6,000 feet. WASHINGTON.—Throughout western part from sea level to about 4,000 feet in Olympic coast ranges, and west slope of Cascades; and more rarely, on east slope Cascades and northern ranges eastward to Idaho at elevations from about 1,500 to 4,500 feet. Abun- dant on Pacific coast and on east coast of Puget Sound, but rare in valley south of Sound, and on west coast of Puget Sound, except at northeastern corner of Olympic Peninsula. Washington National Forest, on west slope of Cascades sea level to 4,500 feet; east slope, at 1,000 to 4,700-feet, and only on Stehekin River, Bridge and Early Winter creeks, Twisp, Methow, Entiat, Wenache, and Yakima rivers. Locally noted as fol- lows: Mountain View (Whatcom County) one-eighth mile from Puget Sound; Orient, at 1,188 feet (Sauk River) ; Skagit Pass, Big Lake (Skagit County) ; Cascade Creek at point 11 miles above Mount Marble; North Fork of Skagit River; Stilaguamish River, below Silverton; South Fork, below Robe; Monte Cristo, at 2,763 feet; Buck Creek, near Mineral Park; Eagle Gorge (King County) ; vicinity of Seattle; about Lake Chelan and Stehekin (head of Lake Chelan), at 1,108 feet ; Peshastin, at 1,045 feet; Wenache River. Mount Rainier National Forest, up to 5,100 feet; on east side of range, only on two small head streams of Natches River, and on one of Klickitat River. Locally noted at Orting in Nisqually Valley, on Mount Adams, and in Falcon Valley (south of Mount Adams) ; Port Ludlow, at 1,800 feet; Soleduc River above Wineton, at 900 feet; Hot Springs. Both sides of Coast Range, but more abundant on west side. Locally noted in Queniult Indian Reservation, at Olympia, Black Walnut, and Elma (Chehalis County), Dryad (Lewis County). Mountains of eastern Washington southward to Kamiak Butte (9 miles north of Pullman). Locally noted in Washington addition to Priest River Na- tional Forest; Pierre division of Colville National Forest; about Colville (Stevens County), at 1,917 feet. Not in Blue Mountains. OreEGON.—Both sides of Coast Range, but mainly on west side of Cascades; not in Willamette River Valley. Coast Range, sea level to 3,500 feet, and southward into California. West side of Cascades at 1,600 to 5,000 feet, southward to head of North Fork of Umpqua River; and Crater Lake; east side, only on east and south slopes of Mount Hood and for a few miles south to latitude 45°. Locally noted on north side of Mount Hood from bridge across Hood River (1,700 feet) to Columbia River, and on south and southwest sides from Camas Prairie and Government camp west to Salmon post-office ; Portland; Astoria; on North Fork of Middle Fork of Willamette River ; Crater Lake to summit of rim, at 7,500 feet. CALIFORNIA.—Sea side of coast ranges southward to Mendocino County ; inland through fog belt, on south slopes of Siskiyous to northwest corner of Klamath National Forest; on Klamath River for 20 miles, and on Hel River to Dyerville. Locally noted on outer peninsula at Humboldt Bay; lower Mad River 17 miles north of Eureka; south of Fern- dale on road te Bear Valley (Humboldt County), Crescent City. The detailed range of western red cedar in Idaho and Montana will be de- seribed in a later bulletin. OCCURRENCE. Confined to region of abundant precipitation and humidity, chiefly to wet or constantly moist situations. Occasionally on moderately dry slopes and warm exposures, where, however, it is stunted. On moist flats, benches, gentle slopes, river bottoms, in and about Swamps and wet, springy places, and in cool, moist gulches and ravines. Abundant moisture more important than quantity or quality of soil, which, however, are important for best growth. Of gigantic size on deep, rich, moist bottoms in vicinity of the coast, particularly in Washington, on Vancouver Island, and in British Columbia, while at high elevations it is shrubby. Not in pure stands over extensive areas; usually in mixture and dominant or subor- dinate. Small pure patches and groups, too dense for intolerant rivals, are characteris- tic. Generally with redwood, Sitka spruce, western hemlock, Douglas fir, lowland fir, western white pine, western larch, lodgepole. pine, Engelmann spruce, yew, vine and 15188—08——11 158 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. broadleaf maples, black cottonwood, western birch, red and Sitka alders, and occasionally with yellow cedar; hemlock a common associate. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Climate, humid, mild, and uniform throughout commercial range and within constant influence of ocean fogs; but at high altitudes it endures (as a shrub) a severe climate with short summers, long winters, and low temperatures (some- times —35° F.). TOLERANCE.—Very tolerant ; tolerance varies with age, altitude, latitude, soil, moisture, and climatic conditions. Grows well in dense shade during earlier life, and even reaches maturity and old age in shade, but growth is retarded in proportion to density of shade, for although the shade is tolerated to high degree it is not required, Tolerance greatest under best conditions for growth and toward south and lower limits. Here the tree maintains a dense crown-cover throughout life and commonly forms an understory, mainly with western hemlock, alone or with redwood, Douglas fir, grand fir, western white pine, and other species. REPRODUCTION.—Prolifiec seeder, with specially heavy seed years. Seed has high rate of germination, but only transient vitality. Seed usually germinates the autumn it is shed, and seedlings establish themselves before winter. Germination abundant, and best on moist duff, litter, moss, decayed logs, stumps, ete., both in-open and in densest shade. Under dense shade seedlings hold their ground with remarkable power. Does not repro- duce itself readily where fires have destroyed ground cover and forest ‘cover to such an extent that soil moisture is materially reduced. CUPRESSUS. CYPRESSES. The trees of the cypress group, to which belongs the cypress tree (Cupressus sempervirens Linn.) of the Egyptians and Romans, are closely related to the species of Chamecyparis. They differ from the latter group essentially, how- ever, in having quadrangular branchlets instead of flat ones and in having them arranged not in one plane, but irregularly disposed. The overlapping minute, seale-like leaves of both groups are arranged in alternately opposite pairs, but those of Cupressus are minutely toothed on their margins, while in Chamcypa- ris the margins are entire or smooth. Leaves of each season’s growth remain on the trees from three to four years. Flowers are similarly arranged in both groups (see Chamecyparis). The cones of Cupressus mature at the end of the second season, instead of in one season, as in Chameecyparis, and bear about 15 to 20 seeds under each fertile cone scale, instead of only 4 or 5 seeds to one seale, as in Chamecyparis. The seeds of Cupressus (native species) have narrow, hard wings, in place of broad, gauzy wings, as in Chamecyparis. Seed leaves in Cupressus are 3 and only 2 in Chamecyparis. Wood of the cypresses, which is strongly aromatic, is remarkably durable, but on account of the usually small size and poor timber form of our native species the wood is of little or no commercial value. The cypresses are, however, of considerable importance to the forester in assisting to form protective cover on wind-swept, sandy coasts or dry, arid slopes and little-wooded canyons. Four species inhabit the Pacific region, all confined to California. Trees of this group are of ancient origin. Representatives once inhabited Greenland and western Europe, where, however, they are now extinct. Monterey Cypress. Cupressus macrocarpa Hartweg. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Monterey cypress owes its common name to its confined habitat near the Bay of Monterey, California. It has a form in youth entirely different from its mature habit. When young the trunk is sharply conical, and its crown of rigidly straight, slender branches trending upward is a wide, sharp-pointed pyramid which extends down to the ground, Such trees are from 40 to 50 feet _— =< > ; ¢ FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 159 high and 18 or 20 inches or more in diameter. Later, the height growth, rarely more than 60 feet, ceases, and if the trees have room the branches develop into long, massive limbs, finally reaching up to the height of the leader and spread- ing out into a very wide, flat-topped or umbrella-shaped crown. The trunks are then short, and the large limbs often near to the ground. The crown of crowded old trees is similar, but much less broad. Exposed to the sea winds, some trunks and their enormously developed limbs sprawl on the ground, and are grotesquely bent and gnarled. The violent swaying of branches in the wind produces, in some trees, most curious enlargements at the bases of the branches (obviously serving as braces) remotely resembling the palmated divisions in the horns of a moose. Bark of mature trunks is about seven-eighths of an inch thick. Outwardly it is weathered to an ashy white, but breaking it exposes a deep red-brown beneath, the same color as that of the protected bark of limbs and young trees. Old bark is firm, and narrowly seamed, with a network of narrow, vertical ridges and smaller diagonal ones. The bark is too thin to protect the tree from severe fires. The foliage is dark yellow-green. The minute leaves (fig. 61) are closely attached to the branchlets, their sharp points sometimes standing out slightly from the twigs. Leaves of a season’s growth persist about three years, usually dying the second year. They are commonly marked on the back with a minute pit and two shallow grooves. The cones (fig. 61) mature by August of the second season, when they are ashy brown. They open slowly, shedding their russet-brown seeds during autumn, after which they may remain on the trees for several or many seasons. From 18 to 20 angled seeds (fig. 61, @) are borne under each perfect cone-scale. They are rather heavy, and usually fall near the parent tree. Seed-leaves, 3; about three- eighths of an inch long, narrow and pointed. | Similar seedling leaves, about 4 of which stand out from the slender stem at regular intervals, succeed these. During the second season the spreading leaves are followed by shorter, pointed, less spreading leaves, from one-eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch long. Later branchlets (second and third seasons) begin to have adult foliage. Wood, very fine-grained, rather heavy (very much heavier than any of the other native cypress woods), and clear yellow-brown, with streaks of rose-red and dull yellow. It has a faint, aromatic, “ cedar-like’ odor. Great dura- bility without protection is a marked feature of this wood. The poor timber form of the tree and its very limited available supply prevent the wood from becoming commercially important. It is most important, however, as one of the rare forest trees capable of forming a cover on the wind-swept coast, even down to the water’s edge. In dry situations elsewhere it is most worthy of use for protective planting. Its vigorous, rather rapid height growth in early life makes it exceedingly useful for windbreaks, The full extent to which it can be used in forest planting for cover has not been determined. : ' Lonceviry.—Little is known of the longevity of this tree. It is believed to be long-lived. Trees from 14 to 19 inches in diameter are from 60 to 85 years old. Some of the larger trees are doubtless over 200 years old. RANGE. Central California coast, for a few miles on peninsula between Monterey Bay and Car- mel Bay from Point Cypress nearly to Carmel River, and on Point Lobos south of Car- mel Bay; mostly in a belt a few hundred feet wide along immediate coast, but also seattered farther inland on ridge of peninsula. Extensively cultivated elsewhere in Cali- fornia for windbreaks. OCCURRENCE, Rocky sea cliffs, on clay loam soil with dry leaf litter when shaded and with grass and other herbs in openings. Soils always fresh and porous in shade, but baked, cracked, 160 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. and much less moist in the open. Forms a transition zone between sea beach and Mon- terey pine belt. Mainly in pure, more or less dense stand, but mingled on east with Monterey pine and occasional Gowen cypress. —e SSS S So \))) WP } SS komm Se Seis JAS Fic. 61.—Cupressus macrocarpa: a, seed. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Climate mild; equable temperature, never at freezing point and rarely above 90° F. Annual rainfall about 17 inches. Strong, moist sea winds keep air humid during greater part of year, while cloudy or foggy days are frequent. Demands humid air for best growth; grows well in fresh soils away from immediate influence of FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 161 sea, but apparently much shorter lived outside its habitat. Capable of enduring wider variation -in temperature than that of its natural range. If planted in dry soils, for instance, where temperature falls below freezing, it grows well and matures young wood before frost, which commonly kills back immature growth in damp, low situations. TOLERANCE.—Decidedly tolerant of shade, but thrives in full light. Natural growth includes both widely distant, gnarled, twisted trees and extremely dense stands. In dense stands shade of crown cover is heavy, yet young growth persists under it for many years. REPRODUCTION.—Prolific annual seeder. Seed has moderately high rate of germination and persistent vitality. Usually germinates first season, under dense stands in compact, partly decompesed leaf litter. Seedlings grow very rapidly; in cultivation, often 8 feet in as many years. Grows from cuttings made from leading twigs of year, but trees thus raised are less vigorous, branch more, and are shorter lived than those grown from seed. Gowen Cypress. Cupressus goveniana Gordon. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Gowen cypress, usually a small tree, is mainly known simply as “ cypress,” but this name is confusing; the coined name, Gowen cypress, is preferable. Karl T. Hartweg discovered it in 1846, and later introduced it into England, where it received its technical name in honor of James R. Gowen. English writers call it “ Mr. Gowen’s California cypress.” It is a small, much branched, shrubby tree, about 10 to 20 feet high, and frequently much stunted and bearing cones when under 3 feet in height. Under conditions very favorable for growth, however, it is from 30 to 40 feet high, or a little more, and from 15 to 20 inches in diameter. Young trees are straight, with sharply conical stems and slender, straight branches which trend upward. ._ When the trees are older, the lower branches stand out straight. A wide, irregu- lar, open pyramidal crown is formed down to the ground. The crown is espe- cially open in older trees on account of the irregular lengthening of the main branches, which become very stout. There is rarely more than a few feet of | clear trunk. The bark, about one-half inch thick on old trees, is firm, and is cut by narrow seams into a network of narrow ridges connected by thinner diagonal ones. On the outside the bark is weathered to a dull reddish brown, but the interior shows a clear red-brown. The minute, closely pressed, pointed leaves (fig. 62) have a faintly marked pit (sometimes wanting) on the back, and are a dark grass-green. Those of a season’s growth persist from three to four years, but die at the end of their second or third year. The cones (fig. 62), one-half to seven-eighths of an inch in diameter, mature at the close of the second season, shed their shiny, pale brown seeds (fig. 62, a@) late in September or in October, but remain on the trees for a number of years thereafter. Mature cones are shiny and either light brown, tinged with red, or purplish brown. Nineteen or twenty angled seeds are produced under each perfect cone-scale. The seeds are not buoyant enough to be carried more than a few rods from the mother tree, even by strong winds. Seed leaves, 3, occasionally 4; about three- sixteenths of an inch long, narrow and pointed. Seedling leaves are similar, but slightly longer, and stand out from the slender stem at regular intervals in groups of 3 or 4. During the first or second season narrow scale-like leaves (about three-sixteenths of an inch long) appear on the tiny branches of seed- ‘lings. They stand slightly away from the stem, and those which succeed them, in the third and fourth years, become more and more like adult leaves in form and arrangement. Wood, pale yellowish brown, fine grained, rather heavy, and faintly aromatic. It appears to be durable when exposed to the weather. The wood is of no 162 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. commercial value, but the tree is very important in forming a cover for barren, sandy, and rocky slopes too much exposed for most other trees. Its low growth subjects it to destructive fires, but it persistently reconquers areas on which its ranks have been severely thinned. _ eR es Leer Fig. 62.—Cupressus goveniana: a, seed. LoNncEvITy.—Little is known of its age, but it is believed to be fairly long- lived. Trees from 8 to 14 inches in diameter are from 55 to 97 years old. The age of larger trunks is probably 150 or 200 years, or even more. —_— ee Te ee a ee a a FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 163 RANGE. California coast region in an interrupted belt from Mendocino County to San Diego County; sea-level to nearly 3,000 feet. Extends from Ukiah and plains of Mendocino County to mountains at southern boundary of the State. Ascends canyons in central California coast mountains to nearly 3,000 feet. Sonoma County: Noted in western part of Green Valley on road between Sebastopol and Camp Meeker (about 3 miles east of Meeker) ; Dutch Bill Gulch, a little below Camp Meeker, on road from Meeker to Monte ~Rio. Lake County: East side of Mount St. Helena, on road from Toll House to Middle- town, extending from an altitude of about 1,500 feet down to valley level for about 5 miles south of Middletown ; few miles northwest of Middletown on gulch slope north of road to Cobb Valley. Marin County: West end crest of Mount Tamalpais. Alameda County: Cedar Mountain. Monterey County: Small grove on north side of Huckleberry Hill (Monterey Peninsula, near Monterey), at 300 to 350 feet (probably type locality of species). Sandy barrens and rocky slopes of Santa Lucia Mountains, at 1,000 to 3,000 feet, only near Los Burros, and extending over summit. San Luis Obispo National Forest, from Cerro Alto southeastward, as well as in main canyons trending eastward, at 1,100 to 2,500 feet elevation. San Diego County: In Jamul Valley between El Nido and Dul- zura, near Mexican border (southern limit). OCCURRENCE. On sandy barrens or rocky slopes, canyons, and gulches, commonly in very dry solls of poorest kind. On summits and low mountain slopes of central California coast region, a shrub on dry, shallow soil overlying granitic or limestone rock; largest near mountain streams. ag Occurs scattered, as individuals, or in groves, and often in broken forest over extensive tracts; nowhere abundant. Associates on slopes with Coulter pine, and near streams with Douglas fir and western yellow pine. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Climate mild ; temperature, between 12° an 112° F., and annual rainfall from 53 inches in north to 5 inches at south. Proximity to sea insures frequent fogs and high humidity during most of year. TOLERANCE.—Tolerates considerable shade, often growing in rather dense stands. REPRODUCTION.—Prolifie seeder, bearing cones abundantly when only 2 or 3 feet high. Seed has moderately high rate of germination and persistent vitality. Reproduction abundant near seed trees, where seedlings are often established in great numbers. Dwarf Cypress. Cupressus pygmaea (Lemm.) Sargent. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Dwarf cypress, a small and unimportant species, was, until a dozen years ago, considered only a dwarfed form of Gowen cypress, which it resembles so closely, except in size and habit, that the casual or lay observer can not readily distin- guish it. Stunted on extremely poor soil, it is bushy and bears cones when under » feet in height. In situations more favorable for growth it is from 10 to 25 feet high—very rarely 30 feet—and from 6 to 12 inches in diameter. The trunk is conical, and the crown narrowly conical, with slender branches trend- ing upward. The shallowly seamed bark of large trunks is thin, clear red- brown, and differs from that of the Gowen cypress in having its flat ridges divided into long, shreddy scales. In general appearance the scale-like leaves (fig. 63) resemble those of the Gowen cypress, but they differ from them dis- tinctly in being entirely without the glandular pits on the back, which are always found on some of the leaves of the other species. The cones (fig. 63) mature by autumn of the second season and remain on the branches for a long time after their seeds are shed. They vary from five-eighths to seven-eighths of an inch in the longer diameter; otherwise they are similar to the smaller cones of Gowen cypress. Cone-scales range in number from 6 to 10 (instead of G to 8, as in the Gowen cypress), while the smaller,seeds (fig. 63, @) are black when mature, and only about 10 or fewer are borne under each perfect cone- 164 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. seale. Wood, coarse-grained; faint reddish brown (that of Gowen cypress is pale yellowish-brown). Nothing is known now of its other characteristics ; but good-sized sticks are so rare that it is not likely to be used except for local domestic purposes. The tree deserves the forester’s attention, however, par- x \ ee Ss y YY % "7, = a. Bs re 4 Fic. 63.—Cupressus pygmaea: a, seed. ticularly on account of its remarkable ability to thrive in much-exposed coastal situations and in dry, poor soils. LoNGEviTty.—Very little is known of its age. Most of the largest trees now known in the greatly confined range are probably not over 60 years old; recur- a ee Ne ee ee ae a FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 165 rept destructive fires haye killed older trees. The early diameter growth appears to be rather rapid in protected situations, where trees from 6 to 10 inches in diameter are from 18 to about 35 years old. Probably it would be fairly long-lived, if protected from fire. RANGE. California coast barrens of Mendocino County from Ten-Mile Run southward to Na- yarro River, extending from about three-fourths of a mile of the sea inland for 3 or 4 miles. OCCURRENCE. In. “peat swamps” in wet soil of poor, shallow sand overlying a stiff, yellow clay hardpan. The soil, wet by seepage from higher levels, supports low huckleberry and other shrubby plants, with some peat. In these situations its growth is stunted, but in better soil of borders of the barrens and of deep gullies in them, it reaches tree size. On poor barrens, forms dense thickets, interspersed with groups of swamp pine and, J occasionally, with lodgepole pine. Stunted growth of thickets is due partly to frequent fires and partly to the unfavorable soil; best growth is freer from fire. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Climate moderately equable, with temperature rarely up to 112° and never below 12° F. Annual rainfall, between 20 and 50 inches, with an aver- age of about 85 inches. Summers are hot and dry, but the other seasons are usually humid. TOLERANCE.—Similar to Gowen cypress; decided tolerence of shade is shown by reten- tion of branches in the dense, over-crowded stands. REPRODUCTION.—Prolific seeder. Seed similar in quality to Gowen cypress. Bears cones when but a foot or two high. Reproduction abundant near seed trees. Macnab Cypress. Cupressus macnabiana Murray. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Macnab cypress is a very rare and little known tree, though several new sta- tions for it have been recently discovered. It is a low, open-crowned, bushy tree, under 20 feet in height. Frequently it is only a many-stemmed, low, wide-spread- ing shrub. The largest trees have only a few feet of clear trunk and rarely have a diameter of more than from 6 to 12 inches. Their bark is deep chocolate- brown, tinged with red, and about one-fourth of an inch thick; firm and very distinctly cut by narrow seams into a network of rather regular, flat, connected ridges, and diamond-shaped interspaces. The thin, smooth bark of branchlets is dark-brown, or, where the scaly leaves have recently fallen and exposed it, clear purple-red. The foliage is a dark grass-green, sometimes with a whitish tinge. A minute blister-like gland distinctly marks the back of each leaf (fig. 64). Except in the case of young shoots, the leaves on all branchlets are sharply or bluntly pointed and closely pressed to the stems. On young shoots they are keenly pointed and stand slightly away from the stems. This makes the foliage prickly to the touch. Cones (fig. 64, @) mature at the end of the second summer, shed their light chocolate-brown, flat seeds late in autumn, and usually remain attached to the tree for several or many seasons.¢ At maturity the cones are reddish chocolate-brown, with a pale ashy coating. They vary from about three-fourths to nearly an inch in length. Sixteen to 18 seeds (fig. 64, 0) are borne under each perfect scale. The rather heavy, very narrowly winged @Cones recently examined were found to be full of seed after adhering to the branch for six years; moreover, the cone-scales were green and spongy, appearing to be a sub- stantial part of the living branch. 166 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. seeds are not carried more than a few rods away from the tree. Wood, exceed- ingly fine-grained, very light yellowish brown, and several pounds heavier per cubic foot than that of the Gowen cypress. It is of no commercial use. More- Fic. 64.—Oupressus macnabiana ; a, cones ; b, S@ed, natural size and enlarged. over, the tree is too rare to have great importance in forest management, but its ability to thrive on dry, thinly covered slopes makes it worthy of investigation for planting in barren situations. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 167 LonGEvity.—Very little is known of its age; fuller records are required. Trees from 5 to 8 inches in diameter are from 80 to 125 years old. Probably only moderately long-lived—not exceeding 200 to 250 years. RANGE. In widely separated groves in coast ranges of California from Siskiyous southward to Napa County; also Sierra foothills of Shasta to Yuba counties. Occasional groves on dry hills and low slopes of northern coast mountains, from near head of Hooker Canyon (Napa Mountains, Sonoma County) and Mount A®%tna (central Napa County) northward through Lake County to Red Mountain (east side of Ukiah Valley, Mendocino County). Lake County: Noted in gulch on Complexion Creek, begin- ning on stage road about 6 miles west of Leesville, and continuing thence westward down gulch for 3 miles to Indian Valley; road from Rumsey, at head of Capay Valley to Lower Lake; exceedingly abundant along rocky gulch 2 or 3 miles beyond (north of) Manhattan Mine, whence it extends northward for about 2 miles, but not quite to south end of Morgan Valley; west slope of Bartlett Mountain, a few trees at about 1,800 feet altitude on north road from Bartlett Springs to Upper Lake; west side of Clear Lake (road Highland Springs to Hopland), in gulch about 3 miles west of Highland Springs, continuing very abundant for some distance; farther south (road Cobb Valley to Middle- town), in gulch a few miles northwest of Middletown; on east base of Mount St. Helena on St. Helena Creek, from about 5 miles south of Middletown at edge of valley (altitude about 1,200 feet), southward up gulch for several miles, to about 1,500 feet; scattered on Bartlett Creek (Lake County). Common in gulch near Cook Springs (Colusa County). East Trinity Mountains, between Shasta (town) and Whiskeytown at 1,300 feet, amd reported elsewhere. Siskiyou County: Grove near Little Shasta River about 15 miles north of Mount Shasta (Sec. 14, T. 45 N., R. 4 W.); and also one (the northmost) on west end of Siskiyous, at point about 10 miles from mouth of Seiad Creek (tributary Klamath River). Noted in Sierras as follows: Shasta County: Just west of Lassen Feak National Forest on plateau west of Burney Creek at 5,500 feet (southwest quarter of Sec. 24, T. 34 N., R. 2 E.); near head of North Fork of South Fork of Cow Creek at 4,000 to 5,000 feet (southeast quarter of Sec. 5, T. 32 N., R. 2 E.); Lassen Peak National Forest, small grove at base of Lassen buttes. Tehama County: Near Payne post-office and on Payne Creek Hill, just west of Payne Creek; 160 acres on Upper Butte Creek (near north line of Sec. 25, T. 30 N., R. 1 W.); several trees few miles south- ward on Inskip Butte (T. 29 N., R. 1 W.). Butte County: Magalia, at 2,300 feet. Three groyes near Dobbin (Yuba County), on Dry and Indiana creeks. OCCURRENCE, On dry east and west slopes and ridges, in gravelly dry soils, which are often clayey and sometimes very shallow. In pure, dwarfed stands of limited area or in small groups. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Climate characterized by wide annual variations in precipita- tion, minimum being about 13 and maximum 62 inches. Temperature, rarely or never _ reaches zero, but often above 100° F. during the summer. TOLERANCH.—Not determined; appears to be similar to other related species. REPRODUCTION.—Moderately abundant seeder, usually producing cones every year. Seed similar in quality to that of Gowen cypress, but reproduction less abundant than latter, CHAMACYPARIS. CEDARS. The cedars are a little known, small group of evergreen trees, usually called “eypresses,” and somewhat resembling the Thujas. They differ greatly from the Thujas, however, in having very much heavier and harder wood, without the characteristic ‘“ cedar odor,’ but with a peculiarly sweet or rather faintly aromatic odor. They differ from Thujas also very distinctly in their habit, and particularly in having small spherical cones instead of small, narrow, elongated cones. The seeds of Chamecyparis, which are without aromatic resin cells, differ from the seeds of Thujas in form and character. The small, scale- like leaves, which fall from the branches in the third year, are arranged like those of Thujas. The delicate twigs or branchlets are distinctly flat, like those of Thujas, but are noticeably narrower (finer) ; they are arranged in one plane, 168 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. forming conspicuously flat sprays (figs. 65-67). The leaves of seedlings are, like those of Thuja, long, slender, sharp-pointed, and spreading in regularly distant groups of 3 to 4; becoming shorter, more scale-like, and much less spreading on some branchlets of second and third year plants, and later assuming form of adult foliage. As a rule, the 2 seed leaves of western native Chamecyparis are nearly one-third longer (three-eighths of an inch) than seed leaves of the west- ern Thujas, with which the former are often associated. The flowers, which appear early in the spring, are minute and otherwise inconspicuous bodies at the ends of the twigs. The male flowers, pollen bearing only, and female flowers, which produce cones and seed, are borne on different branches of the same tree. The very small, spherical cones, which stand erect on the branchlets, are mature at the end of the first summer or in early autumn, when they open slowly to shed their seeds, after which some of them often remain on the tree for another season. From 1 to 4 or 5 minute seeds (figs. 65, 67) are borne under each cone scale. They are provided with light wings on two sides, but are less buoyant than seeds of Thuja, and usually fall near the parent trees. Seed leaves 2 and opposite. The cedars are important forest trees. With other species, they supply much needed cover on high, exposed crests and slopes, as well as most durable and excellent commercial timber. Two species inhabit forests of the Pacific region, one of which extends far northward on this coast. Yellow Cypress; Alaska Cypress. Chamecyparis nootkatensis (Lamb.) Spach. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Chamecyparis nootkatensis is little known except within its range, where it is commonly called ‘ yellow cypress” and ‘Alaska cypress.” It is known also as “Sitka cypress” and occasionally as “Alaska cedar” and “yellow cedar.” Although distinct in habit and in foliage, it may be mistaken for the western red cedar, from which, however, its clear sulphur-yellow wood plainly distin- guishes it. Yellow cypress is characterized by an open, narrowly conical crown, which in the dense forest has drooping branches, few and distant from each other, and with weeping flat sprays, and by an exceedingly slender, whip-like leader, which is too weak at its tip to stand erect and which bends over grace- fully. All of the branches (slender on young trees and thicker on old trees) droop more or less, and the few flat side and terminal branchlets hang down, so that the crown as a whole has a weeping habit. It is from 75 to SO feet . high (sometimes 90 or 100 feet), and from 2 to 3 feet or not uncommonly 4 or 5 feet in diameter. Forest-grown trees are clear of branches for from 30 to 50 feet, but in the open or on the border of a forest old trees may have branches nearly to the ground. On high, exposed slopes and crests it is very much smaller, often only 10 feet or even less in height, and assumes a sprawling form. The trunk is usually conical, sharply tapering from a wide base, but in very dense stands the base is little swelled. Trunks are seldom perfectly straight, and in most old trees they have one or two slight bends. They are always more or less fluted or infolded at the base, and are rarely full and round. Bark is thin on old trunks (about five-eighths of an inch thick), affording but little protection against fire, which the trees rarely survive; ashy brown on the outside, and clear, reddish cinnamon brown when broken. The surface is irregularly and rather finely broken by shallow seams; the thin, flat ridges have frequent diagonal cross connections, and flake off in long, ——— ee ee a ee ee ee ee FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 169 narrow strips. The flat, blue-green sprays are noticeably harsh and prickly to the touch, in this respect unlike the smooth foliage of the associated western red cedar. The scale-like leaves (fig. 65), especially on thrifty leading branch- lets, have very distinctive, sharp, spreading points. The cones (fig. 65), ripe C. ie oe, lee Zon CLA LE AREAS? ALLE LEE Say “og — > oy “4 = os 7 RL us} | a n — s uo) a op — a a ° n o a =] uo} uo) =| 3 na ~ n $ eS q 9 174 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Not exacting In mountains, best in narrow, damp, sunny ravines. in soil requirements, yet best in moist, well-drained soils, neither dry nor swampy. of streams and lakes. In Oregon it thrives on sandy soils, growing even in dry soils of high ridges, while in north LP Zap: ey re ED %; ‘a D> seed natural size and : Cc; b, branch ; fruiting enlarged. a, lawsoniana: Fig. 67.—Chamecyparis ~ In cultiva- Near Port Orford (southwest Oregon) abundant in mixture with west- In pure stands of limited extent only; commonly scattered through forest singly or west coast region of California it grows well in swampy places near the sea. tion it does well in almost any porous soil, except cold peat. in small groups. 3 ea ae ee ee eT ek 3 kt oi Me - FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 175 ern red cedar, Sitka spruce, grand fir, western hemlock, and Douglas fir. With same species, but less abundant, in northwest California (swampy places near sea) and some- times with redwood and California laurel. Near coast, often gives way to Sitka spruce and grand fir, growing on higher sites with Douglas fir and western hemlock. Occa- sionally in sugar and western yellow pine forests on rather dry, sunny slopes. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Climate characterized by moderate temperatures, heavy pre- cipitation with slight snowfall, high humidity, and many cloudy days. Temperature on coast between 10° and 95° F., and precipitation between 30 and 100 inches, with an aver- age of about 56 inches; higher altitudes have greater seasonal and daily ranges of tem- perature and proportionately larger snowfall. However, the generally low range keeps this tree within modifying influence of the sea. Successfully cultivated in Europe and in northeastern United States under more severe climatic conditions than those of its native range. But it is sensitive to sudden changes in temperature and humidity, and suffers from prolonged drought, especially after rapid growth. Frost hardy except in early youth, and resists late frosts better than early ones, because it starts to grow late in spring. TOLERANCH.—Moderately tolerant of shade throughout life, but especially tolerant of heavy shade in early stages; thrives also in open, provided the humidity of air is con- stant. Responds readily to side shading, so that forest-grown trees produce straight stems of considerable clear length. REPRODUCTION.—Very prolific annual seeder, beginning when about 12 years old and continuing to an advanced age. Seed generally has a fairly high rate of germination, but often a low one; vitality transient. Germinates abundantly in shaded moderately open places, and considerably, also, in logged and burned-over areas. JUNIPERUS. JUNIPERS. The junipers, some of which must, unfortunately, be called ‘‘ cedars,” are evergreen trees, either with branchlets closely covered by short, minute, scale- like, sharp-pointed leaves, arranged in opposite pairs, alternating around the stem (sometimes 3 in place of a pair), or with branchlets bearing much longer, needle-like leaves which bristle, or, at least, stand out loosely in groups of 3 at regular intervals. Close, scale-like leaves are very often marked with a pit on the back (figs. 65 to 74.) When crushed the foliage emits a pungently aromatic odor. Junipers are further characterized by their fine-grained, aromatic, durable wood, which is dull yellow brown in some species and a clear rose-purple red in others. The bark is rather soft and distinctly stringy—one species only having brittle, check- ered, hard bark. The fruits of junipers, popularly called “berries,” clearly distinguish them from the cypresses, which in the general appearance of their foliage they resem- ble. The flowers are minute and inconspicuous. Male flowers (pollen bearing only) and female (developing into fruit) are borne on different trees, some- times, but rarely, both sexes occurring on the same tree. The “berries” are morphologically cones; the fleshy or berry-like covering made up of fleshy flower scales (similar at first to those of conifers, which develop into woody cones) which unite in growth so as to envelop the hard seeds (1 to 12 in number; 1 to 4 in Pacific junipers). Points of the united flower scales, or tip of the ovules, can usually be seen more or less prominently on the surface of the mature fruit (figs. 68 to 74). The berries ripén in one or in two seasons. Ripe berries are dark blue, red brown, or copper-colored, the surface covered (one Texan juniper excepted) with a whitish bloom, which may be rubbed off easily, showing the ground color. The pulpy flesh of the berries is juicy or mealy, sweetish, and strongly aromatic (due to the presence of resin cells). Birds eat the fruit of junipers, but the hard, bony seeds are entirely unaffected by digestion, which, indeed, is believed to facilitate in some degree their germination. Both birds and mammals play a most important part in the dissemination of these seeds. Without their aid dissemination would be exceedingly slow on level ground, where the heavy berries lie as they fall beneath the mother tree. On slopes, 176 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. however, they may be carried far by water washing the surface soil and débris. The seed-leaves, 2 to 6, are usually needle-like, and the seedling leaves which follow these are similar in form; but as the tree grows older these are replaced by the short, close, scale-like leaves or by the lance-needle-shaped leaves of adults. Junipers are small or, at most, only medium-sized trees. Their trunks are too short, small and poorly formed for saw-timber, though the wood possesses qualities which would otherwise adapt it for this use. They are largely used for post timber, fuel, and minor manufactures. Some of them are of the great- est value for fuel in localities where no other trees grow. Forestally junipers are highly important. Their adaptability to dry, barren slopes and exposed situations renders them exceedingly useful in maintaining and extending tree growth where few if any other trees will thrive. Five tree junipers inhabit the Pacific region. One extends from eastern North America across the continent to the Pacific northwest. The ranges of the others lie wholly or in part within the Pacific States. Junipers are of ancient origin. Remains of them in Tertiary rocks show that they inhabited Europe ages ago. Dwarf ' Juniper. Juniperus communis Linnzeus. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Dwarf juniper is more widely distributed than any other tree inhabiting the northern half of the globe. It is one of the most singular of our trees in that throughout its world-wide range it attains tree size only in a few counties of southern Illinois, where it is from 15 to nearly 25 feet high and from 6 te 8 inches in diameter. Elsewhere on this continent it is a shrub under 5 feet in height, with numerous slender, half-prostrate stems forming continuous tangled masses from 5 to 10 yards across. It is said to sometimes become a tree from 30 to 40 feet high in north Germany, where it grows extensively also as a low shrub. As a tree it has a very unsymmetrical trunk with conspicuous rounded ridges and intervening grooves at and near the ground. It is clear of branches for only a few feet, and the crown, narrow and very open, has short, slender branches trending upward. The bark is less than one-eighth of an inch thick, deep choco- late brown, tinged with red, and composed of loosely attached, extremely thin seales. : The dark, lustrous green, keenly pointed, needle-like, or narrow, lance-shaped leaves (fig. 68), chalky white above, clearly distinguish this juniper from all of the other native species. The leaves spread widely from the triangular branchlets in groups of 3 at rather regular intervals, those of each season’s growth persisting for five or six years. Sharp-pointed leaves, similarly ar- ranged but much shorter and more slender, are found on young junipers of other -~ species. A careful examination, however, will at once distinguish such leaves from the wider, more spreading leaves of dwarf juniper. The “berries” (fig. 68) are mature at the end of the second summer, when they are very dark blue—almost black, coated with a whitish bloom. The top of the “berry” is conspicuously marked by three blunt projections (points of the ovules). The soft flesh of the fruit is dry, resinous-aromatic, and sweet, containing from 2 to 3 (sometimes 1) hard, bony seeds. The “berries”? are greedily eaten by birds and by some mammals, otherwise they may remain on the branches until the following winter or spring. Wood, pale, yellowish brown; heavy, rather tough, very fine-grained, and ex- ceedingly durable. The tree is too small to be of any commercial value. It has a ere ee eee ee oe ee FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Baae oe some importance for the forester, because it forms a low, matted ground cover on the highest and most exposed slopes and crests, and so retains much débris and effectively holds masses of snow. LonGEviry.—Very little is known of its length of life. It probably lives for several centuries. Trees from 2 to 4 inches in diameter are from 25 to 33 years old. Fic. 68.—Juniperus communis. RANGE. From Greenland to Alaska and in the east south along the Appalachians to northern Georgia, to Ohio, Michigan, and northern Nebraska; in Rocky Mountains to Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona; in Pacific region south to northern California, in Alaska at sea level to 3,000, in California at 8,300 to 9,800 feet; also in Old World. ' ALASKA.—North at least to Yukon Valley and west to Kenai Peninsula on the Pacific Coast. Noted about Arctic Circle at Walker Lake source of Kobuk River (lat. 178 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 67° 10’, long. 154° 30’), Klondike River near Dawson at about 1,500 feet (Yukon), Lewes River below Lake Lebarge at base Semenow Hills (Yukon), Kenai Peninsula (west of Prince William Sound), White Pass at summit (2,880 feet), Lake Lindeman just inland from White~Pass (Yukon), shores Lynn Canal, from sea level to timberline 3,330 feet, Chilkat River at Vanderbilt Point and elsewhere, Sitka. BRITISH COLUMBIA.—Rocky Mountains of eastern British Columbia and through inte- rior and coast ranges north to Alaska. Noted near west coast on Vancouver Island on summits of Mounts Benson (3,300 feet), Mark (3,000 feet), and Arrowsmith (5,900 feet), and at Spence’s Bridge (776 feet) on Thompson River just above its junction with Fraser River. WASHINGTON.—Mountain summits of whole State at 2,900 to 6,800 feet. Noted on northern Cascades (but not on Mount Stuart), Stevens Pass (4,050 feet at crossing of Great Northern Railroad), Olympic Mountains, Mount Rainier National Forest above 5,500 feet, Mount Rainier on Nisqually River near Longmire Springs and up to 7,500 feet, Mount Adams, Mount St. Helens, Loomis (1,200 feet, Okanogan County), but on Blue Mountains. OREGON.—Summits of Cascades; not in Blue Mountains. Noted on Mount Hood on north side at about 6,500 feet and on Mount Mazama. CALIFORNIA.—South in Sierra Nevadas to Tuolumne County, in coast ranges to Trinity County. Noted in Del Norte County, on Mount Shasta, encircling the peak near timber- line at 8,300 to 9,800 feet, above alpine lakes at head of Canyon Creek (Trinity County), west side Mokelumne Pass (Alpine County), and Mono Pass (Tuolumne County}. OCCURRENCE. On dry knolls, sandy flats, rocky slopes and ridges, interspersed among spruce and aspen, and enduring same climatic conditions. TOLERANCE.—Very tolerant. ReEePRODUCTION.—Fairly abundant seeder. Little known of seeding habits and repro- duction in wild state. Rocky Mountain Red Cedar. Juniperus scopulorum Sargent. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Rocky Mountain red cedar was long supposed to be a western form of the well- known “red cedar” (J. virginiana) of northeastern United States. It differs from this tree in maturing its “ berries” in two seasons instead of in one sea- son. The two trees are similar in general appearance, and the heartwood of both is of a similar dull red color; but so far as now known, the western tree has a distinctly more western range. In open situations it is somewhat bushy, from 15 to 20 feet high, with a short trunk, from 6 to 10 inches through, and a rather narrow, rounded crown of large, long limbs, which trend upward; often chere are several stems together. In sheltered canyons, on the other hand, it has a single, straight trunk from 25 to 30 or more feet high and from 12 to 18 inches through, with a slender, branched crown, and the ends of the branches and twigs are often so decidedly drooping or even pendent that in some sections the tree is known as a ‘“ weeping juniper.” The somewhat stringy bark, shallowly cut into a network of narrow seams and ridges, is red brown in color or, on the outside, grayish. Much more is to be learned regarding the characteristics of this really little known tree. The minute scale-like, pointed, often long-pointed, leaves (fig. 69) cover the slender 4-sided twigs in 4 rows of alternately opposite pairs; the back of each leaf usually has a long, indistinct pit (gland). The foliage varies from a dark green to a light green—the latter shade emphasized by a whitish bloom. Mature berries (figs. 69, 70) are smooth, are clear blue in color (from a whitish bloom which covers the thin blackish skin), and usually contain 2 seeds (sometimes 1) in a sweet, resinous pulp. Seeds (fig. 69, @) are pointed at the top end, > ae i i i al ri le FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 179 conspicuously grooved, and marked at the base with a short, 2-parted scar (hilum). Number and character of seed leaves unknown. Wood, dull red, or, more often, rather bright, rose-red; fine-grained, durable, with a thick layer of white sapwood. It is suitable for the commercial uses to which the eastern red cedar is put, but since the occurrence of the tree is some- what rare and scattered, it is not likely to be of much economic importance. Locally prized for posts on account of its durability. The tree deserves the for- ester’s attention for planting, since it thrives on dry soils and, especially, since Soe eS IID) Fic. 69.—Juniperus scopulorum: a, seeds. the red wood is valuable for pencils, for which the eastern supply of cedar is practically exhausted. LoNGEViry.—IFew records of its age are available. It appears to grow very slowly and to be rather long-lived. Trees from 6 to 8 inches in diameter are from 130 to 175 years old. ; RANGE. Eastern foothills of Rocky Mountains in Alberta southward to western Texas, and westward to coast of British Columbia and Washington, to eastern Oregon, Nevada, and 180 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. northern Arizona; probably also in Black Hills (South Dakota) and Oklahoma; gen- erally above 5,000 feet elevation, except near coast. Limits of range still imperfectly known. BRITISH COLUMBIA AND ALBERTA.—Eastern foothills of Rocky Mountains westward through southern British Columbia (here in Columbia River Valley, near Donald, shores of Kamloops, Francois, and other lakes), to Pacific Ocean; here on heights near Van- couver (British Columbia), and at Esquinalt and Departure Bay on Vancouver Island, and on small islands in Georgia Strait. A tree juniper found as far north as Stikine River, on Telegraph Creek, just east of coast range, is probably this species. Fic. 70. Juniperus scopulorum. WASHINGTON.—Throughout eastern part below 5,000 feet; reappears west of Cascades in arid localities, as San Juan, Oreas, Sucia, and Fidalgo islands (Puget Sound), Olympic Mountains, and Everett (Snohomish County). Locally noted, east of Cascades, at Sentinel Bluffs (on Columbia River), Peshastin and Wenache (on Wenache River), near Lake Chelan from Lake level (1,108 feet) to 1,800 feet, at Ione (Stevens County), and at Spokane. OrEGON.—Eastern part, probably including Wenaha, Blue, and Powder River and southeastern mountains. Locally noted in Wallula Gorge of Columbia River, below Juniper Canyon (Umatilla County), at 327 feet; southwestern Blue Mountains, be- tween Ontario and Harney, above 3,600 feet; western slope of Steins Mountains, at 4,800 to 6,500 feet. The detailed range of this tree in the Rockies and eastward will be dealt with in a later bulletin. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 181 OCCURRENCE. On dry exposed mesas, low, dry mountain slopes, and rather moist canyon bottoms (where best tree form occurs), in dry, rocky, sandy, or gravelly soil, but often very scanty in the latter sort. Nothing is known now of its silvical habits in Pacific region, where it is compara- tively rare; but single trees or small groups are commonly scattered among pifon pine, ene-seed juniper, mountain mahogany, and narrow-leaf cottonwood, in Rocky Mountain range. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS, TOLERANCE, AND REPRODUCTION.—Not determined. In pro- tected canyons and other sheltered sites, it appears to endure (in most soils) considerable shade of broadleaf trees, closely resembling Juniperus virginiana in this respect. Usually a prolific seeder. Western Juniper. Juniperus occidentalis Hooker. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS, Western juniper, a high mountain tree, is chiefly known simply as “juniper.” Because of its uniformly higher range it is not likely to be confounded with the California juniper of a much lower zone, which it resembles in general appear- ance. Western juniper has a round-topped, open crown, extending to within a few feet of the ground, and a short, thick, conical trunk. Height, from 15 to 20 or, less commonly, 30 feet; only rarely 60 feet or over; taller trees occur in pro- tected situations; diameter from 16 to 30 inches, exceptionally from 40 to 60 inches. The trunks, chunky and conical in general form, and with ridges and grooves, are usually straight, even in the most exposed sites, but are sometimes bent and twisted. With its stocky form this tree develops enormously long and large roots which enable it to withstand unharmed the fierce winds common to its habitat. There is rarely more than from 4 to 8 feet of clear trunk, while huge lower branches often rise from the base and middle of the trunk like smaller trunks. Of the other branches, some are large and stiff, standing out straight or trending upward from the trunk, while many are short ones. Some- times the top is divided into two or three thick forks, giving the tree a broader crown than usual. In such cases, when the trees are growing in flats with deep soil, the crowns are dense, symmetrical, round-topped, and conical, and extend down to within 6 feet of the ground. Young trees have straight, sharply taper- ing stems and a narrow, open crown of distant, slender, but stiff-looking, long, upturned branches. Often in old age the branches are less vigorously developed and droop at the bottom and middle of the crown, but their tips continue to turn upward. The bark is a clear, light cinnamon-brown, one-half to 14 inches thick, distinctly cut by wide, shallow furrows, the long flat ridges being con- nected at long intervals by narrower diagonal ridges. It is firm and stringy. Branchlets which have recently shed their leaves are smooth, and a clear red- dish brown. The bark on them is then very thin, but later on it is divided into loosely attached, thin scales of lighter red-brown. The short, pale ashy-green, scale-like leaves (figs. 71, 72) clasp the stiff twigs closely, the longer, sharper leaves of young, thrifty shoots spreading slightly only at their points. All leaves are prominently marked on the back by a glan- dular pit, whitish with resin. Groups of three leaves clasp the twigs succes- sively, forming a rounded stem with 6 longitudinal rows of leaves. The leaves produced each season die in about their second season, after which they are gradually forced off by the growth of the branchlets. The “berries” (figs. 71, 72), one-fourth to one-third of an inch long, mature about the first of September of the second year, when they are bluish black, covered with a whitish bloom; 182 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. their skin is tough. and only slighly marked at the top by the tips of the female flower scales. The flesh is scanty, dry, and contains from 2 to 3 bony, pitted and grooved seeds, about which are large resin-cells (fig. 71, @). These impart a sweetish pungent-aromatic taste to the berries. Seed-leaves 2, needle-like, sharp-pointed, and about an inch long. Seedling leaves which follow o . i) _ a =e ’ — ee Fic. 71.—Juniperus occidentalis: a, seed. these are similar in form, but much shorter, spreading in groups of three at close intervals. These leaves grow gradually shorter and closer in their arrangement until about the third or fourth year, when a few twigs bear short leaves of adult form. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 183 Wood, pale brown, tinged with red. Very fine-grained, with a slight aromatic odor, and, like all of the brown-wooded junipers, remarkably durable when exposed to weather or earth. It is soft and brittle, and splits easily. In the latter two qualities it is so similar to the wood of the eastern red-wooded “GL SIA ‘spy uapio00 snaadvune pencil “cedars” (J. virginiana and J. barbadensis) that it would serve excel- lently for lead-pencil wood; but few consumers of pencil wood are familiar with it. The short, often very knotty trunks, much used for posts and fuel, fur- 184 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. “nish poor saw timber, but would give good blocks for pencils and other minor commercial uses. As a forest tree, western juniper deserves special attention on account of its unusual ability to thrive at high elevations, on dry wind-swept situations. Few other trees can so persistently withstand such exposure. LoNGEvity.—While the age limit of this tree has not been fully determined, it is known to be exceedingly long-lived. Its height growth is always slow, ~ as is also its diameter growth when it is exposed, as it usually is, to fierce winds and grows rooted in crevices of rock. But even in such situations it grows per- sistently, producing thick trunks out of all proportion to its height. The wood of such trees is very fine-grained, indicating very great age. In protected moun- tain coves and on flats with deep washes of loose earth, large trunks show their more rapid diameter growth in their coarser grain. Trees of this type, from 20 to 48 inches in diameter, are from 125 to 300 years old. s tke ap, mete ad ae woe Fic. 73.—Juniperus utahensis: a, seed. crown of numerous, upright, crumpled limbs. The usually short trunk is apt to be one-sided, with conspicuous hollows (or folds) and ridges. Its thin, whitish bark is cut into long, thinnish seales. Minute, sharp, scale-like, pale yellowish-green leaves (fig. 73), generally without a pit (gland) on the back, are mostly in alternately opposite pairs, and SSS RT FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 187 closely overlap each other in 4 rows on the slender, stiff-looking twigs; some- times arranged in 6 rows with three leaves at a joint. Leaves of vigorous leading shoots are much larger and keenly pointed, while those of seedlings are needle-like. The twigs appear round. Leaves of each season’s growth persist ten or twelve years or more. Bark of larger twigs which have shed their leaves is pale reddish brown and scaly. Ripe berries (fig. 75), matured in the fall of the second year, are covered with a whitish bloom which, when rubbed off, exposes a smooth red-brown, tough skin. They usually contain one seed (occa- sionally 2), which is pointed at the top end, prominently and sharply angled (fig. 73, a), and marked nearly to the top by what appears to be scale-like basal covering (the seed scar), to which the thin, sweet pulp is attached. The surface of the berries shows projecting points (ends of minute flower scales). Seed- leaves, usually 5, but ranging from 4 to 6; pointed. Wood (commonly called “ cedar” or “ juniper’’), light yellowish brown, with a very thick, white sapwood; the durable heartwood has a less pungent “ cedar” odor than that of other junipers. The tree is too small and ill-shaped for com- mercial use, though it finds important domestic use for fuel and posts wherever it is sufficiently abundant. Lonceviry.—Few records of its age are available. Probably rather long-lived. Trees from 6 to 10 inches in diameter are from 145 to 250 years old. RANGE. Southwestern Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, and western Colorado to southeastern Cali- fornia and northwestern Arizona; common throughout desert parts of this region, and generally at from 5,000 to 8,000 feet elevation. CALIFORNIA.—Desert ranges east of Sierras. Abundant along summit of White and Inyo mountains, except highest peaks, descending on east slope of White Mountains to 6,700 feet. Common in Panamint Range on northwest slope of Telescope Peak, extend- ing from 6,300 to 8,000 feet and sometimes higher. On Grapevine Mountains, on Provi- dence Mountains above 5,000 feet. Less abundant in range westward, as in that part of Panamint Mountains near Jackass Spring, and on Coso and Inyo mountains; absent from Argus Mountains and not yet detected on east slope of Sierras. The detailed range of this juniper in the Rocky Mountain region will be dealt with in a future bulletin. OCCURRENCE. a On desert foothills and mountain slopes, in dry, rocky, gravelly, and sandy soils. In extensive, rather open and scattered pure growths, or mixed with one-leaf pine and desert shrubs. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Characterized by great aridity, high temperature, and small precipitation. TOLERANCE AND RePRODUCTION.—Little known; probably similar to California juniper. California Juniper. Juniperus californica Carriére. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. ” California juniper is commonly known as “ juniper” or “ cedar.” Its much lower altitudinal range serves, however, to distinguish it roughly from the western juniper. The exact lines where the two trees (similar in appearance) approach each other have not been fully determined. Casual observation might confuse One tree with the other, particularly young trees without fruit. California juniper may be distinguished by several fairly prominent characters, which should be carefully noted. Among these, and most conspicuous, is the deeply infolded or fluted trunk, which is straight and less tapering than the fuller, more rounded, and only slightly grooved trunk of the western juniper. 188 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. The crown form varies from a low, open, bushy, broad, round-topped tree under 10 feet in height to one with a conical crown 20 or 25 or, sometimes, 30 feet high. The short, clear part of the trunk is rarely more than from 10 to 20 inches in diameter. The branches often become large and greatly distorted in old trees, much as in the western juniper. The bark, outwardly weathered to a gray color and red-brown beneath, is in contrast with the clear, light as WN) ‘ u dh ATER Sg pes paeaner z iF SY SSE yy ree. S =) Fic. 74.—Juniperus californica: a, seed, twice natural size. cinnamon-brown bark of its relative. Branchlets, after losing their leaves, have thin, scaly bark of pale ashy-brown color; those of the western juniper are reddish brown. The pale yellowish green color of the foliage is fairly distinct from the pale ashy-green foliage of western juniper. The light, red-brown “berries ” (fig. 74), one-fourth to nearly one-half inch in length, and maturing by about FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 189 the first of September of the second year, are in sharp contrast with the bluish black, white-coated fruit of western juniper. The loose, exceedingly thin, pa- pery skin of the fruit, though covered with a white bloom like that of the western juniper, is readily distinguished from the tough, thick covering of the “berries” of the latter tree. The berries are smooth except at the top end, where the tips of the female flower scales project slightly. The dry, mealy pulp, sweet and somewhat fibrous, is without resin-cells, which are a promi- nent feature of the other juniper’s fruit. Seeds, from 1 to 2, are more or less angular and often irregularly grooved and ridged (fig. 74, a@), but lacking the minute pits of western juniper. The minute, scale-like leaves have a glandular pit on their back and are arranged 3 in a group on the roundish stout twigs (fig. 74). The leaves of young, thrifty shoots and young seedlings, very keenly pointed and spreading, are distinctly whitened on their top side. The 4, 5, or 6 seed-leaves common to this juniper distinguish it from western juniper, which has only 2 seed-leaves. They are bristle-like, sharp-pointed, and rather rigid. The later growth of the seedling and the form and arrangement of its leaves are as described for the western juniper. Wood, hardly to be distin- guished from that of western juniper. Economically, its field of usefulness is practically the same, while as a forest tree it merits special attention for its remarkable ability to thrive on low, desert slopes and plains, where, with little else but yuccas, pinon, and Sabine pines, it helps to form the only tree growth. Lonceviry.—No records of its age are available. It is believed, however, that it attains an age of about 200 or 250 years. A thorough study of its longevity is required. RANGE. Central California to northern Lower California. Inner California coast ranges south® ward from lower Sacramento River Valley to Tehachapi Mountains; thence up western foothills of Sierras a short distance northward to Kern River Valley, and eastward through southern coast mountains to their desert slopes; southward to Cuyamaca Moun- tains, and into northern Lower California; generally at 2,000 to 4,000 feet elevation. CALIFORNIA.—North limit in Sacramento Valley unknown, but reported in Glenn County (Stony Creek National Forest) on east slope of inner Coast Range along foothills up to 4,000 feet; probably extends into Lake County. Locally noted on St. Johns and Snow mountains and Copper Buttes, at 4,000 feet; Elk Creek foothills (northwest Colusa County) from Sites to Stony Ford, and west of Fout Springs (base of Snow Mountain) northward into Glenn County. Much more abundant south of San Francisco Bay throughout coast ranges from Moraga Pass and Monte Diablo southward. Locally noted as follows: San Benito County: On divide between Topa Valley and San Benito, at Her- nandez southward and eastward to New Idria Mine; Fresno County: Mountains of south- western boundary between Coalinga and Priest Valley; hills about Priest Valley (Mon- terey County). San Luis Obispo County: On hills west of Carrizo Plain and along San Juan Creek; Santa Barbara National Forest, in Santa Maria, Santa Ynez, Santa Bar- bara, Matilija, Piru-Sespe, Newhall, and Elizabeth river basins; most abundant on desert (north) slopes, where, with pifion pine, it forms a belt around base and lower ridges of mountains up to 5,000 feet. Occurs similarly in canyons of Tehachapi Moun- tains, as in Tejon Canyon. Northward sparingly in chaparral and oak belts of Sierras to Kern River Valley, where its northern limit is the vicinity of Kernville, or possibly Trout Meadow, just south of Kern Lakes, on Kern River; southward on South Fork of Kern River from point 7 miles south of Monache Meadow down to region of Walker Pass, at elevations between 2,500 and about 5,100 feet. Reported in the Sabine pine belt of western Sierras foothills in Mariposa County, at point about 3 miles north of Coulter- ville at top of Merced River Canyon along road from Coulterville to Mariposa, and near mouth of Colton Creek. Locally noted on west slope of Piute Mountain just south of Kern River gap, at 3,000 to 4,000 feet; at Havilah on Clear Creek (6 miles south of Palmer Ranch); Caliente Creek to Piute post-office, at 2,000 to 5,000 feet; Walker Basin. More abundant on desert slopes of San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountains, here, with pifon pine, forming a belt around base of mountains at 3,500 to 4,000 feet elevation, extending down among tree yuccas of Mohave Desert, and southward. to San Gorgonio Pass (south of San Bernardino Mountains), On north slope of Sierra Liebre 15188S—O08 13 190 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Range opposite west part of Antelope Valley, Cajon Pass up to 4,000 feet; Soledad Pass, at 2,700 feet; also occasionally in interior and on southern slopes of these ranges, as Cajon Pass, San Fernando Valley, San Gabriel Wash near Los Angeles, vicinity of Pasa- dena, and Mill Creek (San Bernardino Mountains). Southward, it follows coast moun- tains, occurring on both east and west slopes; at Mexican line from near Mountain Spring, at 2,700 feet; across Wagon Pass, at 3,117 feet, and down west side to Jacumba Hot Springs, at 2,822 feet, and possibly farther west. LOWER CALIFORNIA.—Reported from both east and west sides of lower slopes of Mount San Pedro Martir as far south as Trinidad Valley and Las Encinas (near San Tomas). OCCURRENCE. ° On very dry mountain slopes and barrens, on canyon sides in rocky, gravelly, or sandy soils. Frequent and most typical on seaward slopes of Coast Range. Sometimes in pure open stands, or predominating in nearly pure, very open stands of limited extent or in groups, but often mingled with one-leaf pinon pine, Sabine pine, mountain mahogany, and bigcone spruce, and occasionally with straggling western yellow pine, Douglas oak, and tree yucca; in Lower California, with pifion pine, mesquite, manzanita, and yucca. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Climate characterized by long, very dry summers, often lim- ited or deficient precipitation, except for desert plants (mostly winter rain). Seasonal temperature, about 15° to 100° F. TOLERANCH.—Little known of its tolerance, but apparently requires abundant light throughout life. REPRODUCTION.—Prolific seeder. Actual seeding habits undetermined. Seed germi- nates on exposed mineral soil, but only when sufficiently buried by washing, or other favorable accident, to be moist. Reproduction rather scanty. Family TAXACEZ. Trees (and shrubs) which belong to this family—yews or yew-like-trees— differ from the cone-bearers in producing male flowers on one tree and female flowers on another (very rarely both kinds of flowers on different parts of the same tree). Conifers have flowers of both sexes on different parts or branches of the same tree.” There are fewer seed-bearing trees, therefore, since only trees bearing female flowers have seed. Moreover, in thinning a stand of Taxaceous trees care should be taken to preserve both male and female trees as near to each other as possible if reseeding is expected to take place. Pollen of the male flowers must be carried by the wind to the female flowers. If male trees are distant more than 25 or 30 yards from the female tree, only the strongest wind, blowing at the right time, will effect fertilization. The leaves are evergreen, flat, and narrowly lance-shaped, and appear to grow (native species) in spreading lines on two opposite sides of the branches. The fruit (seed) is different from that of conifers in being almost or entirely enveloped in a pulpy covering. In the yews of this group it is a minute, berry- like cup, bright colored, juicy and sticky when broken, while in other members of the family the covering is firm, practically complete, and similar to an olive. TUMION. STINKING CEDARS. Stinking cedars are little-known trees which for many years were erroneously classified under the generic name TJorreya. Only a few years ago it was found that this name had previously been applied to an entirely different plant.¢ “ Torreya, nutmeg,” and “stinking cedar” are the common names for them. They are characterized by their stiff, flat, lance-shaped, needle-pointed leaves (fig. 75), which grow in two rows from opposite sides of the branches and are somewhat spirally arranged, and by the pungently aromatic or ill-smelling (fetid) odor of the leaves and of the green bark, the odor being most pro- 39 66 «Dr. Edward L. Greene, Pittonia, II, 195, 1891. we ee oe ee FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 191 nounced when they are crushed or bruised. They form pyramidal crowns in ‘youth, while in old age the crown becomes round-topped. The crown is some- what open, and the branchlets droop rather conspicuously. Male and female flowers are each borne on different trees. Male flowers (pollen bearing only) are small, bud-like, and numerous on the under sides of the branches at the bases of the leaves produced the previous season. Female flowers, which develop into a greenish or purple, thin-fleshed fruit resembling an olive or a nutmeg, are also small, but much Jess numerous, and grow on the lower sides of the branches from the bases of new leaves of the season or of the previous season. The thin, tough skin of the fruit is resinous, and the seed has a smooth, hard shell. Seed-kernels are characteristically wrinkled, the surface appearing to be infolded, as in a nutmeg. Seed-leaves, 2. The bark is thin, and is distinctly and narrowly seamed and ridged. The trunk, rarely full and round, tapers slowly, and is usually slightly bent. A notable characteristic is the production of thrifty permanent sprouts from cut stumps. Wood, moderately light, hard, and fine-grained, clear lemon-yellow color, exceedingly durable under all kinds of exposure. Our species are so rare or are so limited in occurrence as to be of very little commercial use, for which, however, the extreme durability and good working qualities of their wood fit them. They are trees of only second- ary importance to the forester, and are mainly useful for maintaining a pro- tective cover on the borders of narrow mountain streams, in rocky coves and gulches. Two species only are indigenous to the United States. One is confined to Florida and the other to California. Trees of this group are of ancient origin. Species of them inhabited the Arctic Zone in the Tertiary period, and later inhab- ited portions of Europe, where they became extinct. California Nutmeg. Tumion californicum (Torr.) Greene. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. California nutmeg is a rare tree of small size. It is called nutmeg from the fancied resemblance of its seed-kernel to the nutmeg of commerce, which belongs to a different and unrelated family of broadleaf plants. It is locally known as “stinking cedar’ and “stinking yew,’ on account of the disagreeable odor emitted by its green parts and, to some extent, by its green wood when bruised. In youth and middle age it has an open, wide, pyramidal crown which in the open extends to the ground. The slender branches stand out rather straight from the trunk in formal circles, and are somewhat drooping at their extremi- ties. Crowded in a dense stand, it bears a short, conical crown on a clear trunk, while old trees under such conditions have rounded, dome-like tops. The trunks, which are rarely straight, are clear of branches for two-thirds of their length, and are from 35 to 50 feet high and from 8 to 20 inches in diameter. Under conditions especially favorable for growth it is 75 or 80 feet high and from 2 to 3 feet in diameter; but such dimensions are exceedingly rare. The trunk is uneven, almost never full and cylindrical. Bark, one-third to five- eighths of an inch thick, is finely checked with narrow seams and short, narrow, loosely scaly ridges, with frequent side connections; rather soft, outer layers easily scaled off; outwardly weathered to an ashy yellowish brown. The flat, glossy, deep, yellow-green, lance-shaped, keenly pointed leaves (fig. 75), and particularly their sharp aromatic odor when bruised. distinguish the tree; green bark and branchlets also emit, when bruised, the same disagree- ~192 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. able odor. The fruit (fig. 75) matures by early autumn of the first season, when it is pale yellowish green with irregular dull purple areas or streaks. It is about 1 inch to 1% inches in length, with thin leathery covering. The seed las a thin, hard, brittle shell, while the surface of the seed kernel is deeply Fic. 75.—Tumion californicum. wrinkled. Seed-leaves, regularly 2. Nothing can now be said of the growth and other characteristics of seedlings, which have not been studied beyond the stage of germination. Wood, bright lemon-yellow; other characteristics of the wood and importance of the tree are given under the genus. lies i ee FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 193 LONGEVITY.—Very little is known of the age, but it is believed to be a long- lived tree. It appears to grow persistently, but very slowly, in height and diam- eter, as shown by its small size. Trunks from 4 to 8 inches in diameter are from 60 to 110 years old, and those from 12 to 18 inches through are from 170 to 265 years old. Further study of its growth and age is required. RANGE. Central California, on coast ranges and west slope of Sierras. Coast ranges, from Big River (Mendocino County) to Marin and Napa counties and south of San Francisco Bay region to Santa Cruz Mountains (Santa Clara County). Noted as follows: Mendocino County: West slope Coast Range north to Big River near Mendocino; on hills east of Russian River Valley bordering road from Hopland to High- land Springs, growing on both sides of Mendocino-Lake county boundary, especially on south side of gulch leading to Russian River Valley; western part Stony Creek National Forest, in lower forest belt. Lake County: Bartlett Springs (east Lake County) ; west of Clear Lake from point about 5 miles west of Highland Springs to Hopland, continuing over summit into east Mendocino County; east side of Mount St. Helena (large trees in canyon below Tollhouse) ; canyon of Putah Creek (road from Middletown to Cobb Valley). Napa County: South slope of Mount St. Helena between 2,500 and 3,600 feet, and probably higher; Goat Rock (about a mile south of Tollhouse), on ridge forming east boundary of Napa Valley. Sonoma County: Big Sulphur (or Pluton) Creek Canyon (vicinity of Geysers) ; Dutch Bill Canyon (near Meeker). Marin County: Mount Tamal- pais, in many gulches, canyons, basins, and chaparral main ridge; Cataract Canyon, notably near lower fall, at about 1,000 feet. Santa Cruz County: Near La Honda and sparingly in other localities (Santa Cruz Mountains). Sierras, west side from north- eastern Tehama County, on southwest slope (Mill Creek) of Lassens Butte, at about 4,800 feet, to Tulare County (T. 21 S., R. 30 E.), occurring sparsely in gulches and eanyons, at from 2,000 to 4,500 feet. Next stations southward from Lassens Butte are Deer Creek Canyon (south Tehama County) and canyons of Chico and Butte creeks (northwest Butte County); 30 miles southward, on upper Yuba and Feather rivers; noted near Dobbins (just west of Oregon Hills, Yuba County). Stanislaus National Forest, very rare in Eldorado and Calaveras counties; here noted on Empire Creek (tributary South Fork of American River), at 2,500 feet elevation; on north slopes of South Fork of Mokelumne River, at 2,000 to 2,500 feet; San Antonio Creek (tributary South Fork of Calaveras River), at 2,000 feet, and on South Fork of Webber Creek, at 3,000 feet. Southward, in Tuolumne County near mouth of South Fork at Colfax Springs; in Mariposa County, found at Mariposa and on Merced River in lower Yosemite Valley ; near Dinkey Bigtree Grove (T. 10 S., R. 26 E.) and on Mill Creek (tributary of Kings River, T. 14 S., R. 27 E.) in Fresno County; in canyons along stage road to Giant Forest; in Sequoia National Park on road to Mineral King; East Fork, and other branches of Kaweah River, at 3,950 to 6,000 feet; locally noted in Coffeepot Canyon (tributary Bast Fork Kaweah River), on stream near Comstock Mill, and on Kaweah River between Kane Flat and Bigtree Canyon. Lower courses of 'Tule River branches and southward (to T. 21 S., R. 30 E.). Detailed range not fully determined. OCCURRENCE. In moist gravelly or sandy gulches, springy coves, and narrow watered canyons. De- pendent upon soil moisture. Forms dense thickets alone or occurs in mixture with eanyon live oak, white alder, western sycamore, broadleaf maple. TOLERANCE.—Very tolerant of shade throughout life, its own dense shade often. ex- cluding other growth. REPRODUCTION.—Seeding habits not determined. Reproduction confined to moist ex- posed soil or litter where seeds are fully covered by floodwaters; usually rather scanty. TAXUS. YEWS. The yews, very distinct as a group, are not strikingly distinct as species. There is great similarity in the appearance, structure, and qualities of the wood. of different species, and also in the general appearance and form of the foliage and fruit. The shape and habit of growth, and minor differences in the form and color of the leaves, are mainly relied upon to distinguish the different species. They are world-renowned trees. The wood of one species inhabiting Europe, 194 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Asia, and Africa was long used by ancient tribes for bows, their most important implements of war. The leaves, which remain on the trees for many years, are flat, narrowly lance-shaped, and sharp pointed; by a twist at their bases they appear to grow in comb-like lines on two opposite sides of the branches, but as a matter of fact they are arranged somewhat spirally on the branches. Male and female flowers are each borne on different trees. (Exceptionally flowers of both sexes occur on different branches of the same tree.) Male or pollen bearing flowers are small, yellowish, bud-like, borne singly and rather abundantly on the under sides of the branches; female flowers, small and greenish, occur similarly on the branches, but are much less numerous. The latter develop into a fruit which ripens in one season and usually falls from the tree shortly after maturity. The fruit is berry-like, the single hard seed appearing to be embedded nearly to its point in sweetish, mucilaginous, bright coral-red (but not poisonous) pulp. Seed-leaves, regularly 2. The purple or brown bark is very thin. Wood, exceedingly fine- grained, and ranging in color from clear rose-red to dark reddish brown. It is extremely durable under all kinds of exposure. Yews are small trees which live to a great age. A marked characteristic is their ability to produce permanent sprouts from cut stumps, and to grow from cuttings. Four species are indigenous to North America. Three inhabit the United States and adjacent portions of Canada, while a fourth appears to be confined to Mexico. One of our species, limited to Florida, is a small tree; another, a shrub, grows in the North Atlantic region; while one, a tree, inhabits the Pacific forests, extending northward into adjacent Canadian territory. Western Yew. Taxus brevifolia Nuttall. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Western yew is little known except to woodsmen in its habitat, where it is called simply “ yew.’ The more distinctive name suggested is desirable in view of the fact that two other yews occur in the United States. A small tree, from 20 to 20 feet high and from 6 to 12 inches in diameter; much less commonly from 35 to 50 feet in height, and very rarely from 60 to 75 feet, with a diameter of from 18 to 30 inches. Trunks are straight and coni- eal, but conspicuously ridged and fluted by an apparent infolding of the sur- face. The diameter growth is often excentric (larger on one side of the pith than on the other). Except in larger old trees, an open conical crown extends nearly or quite to the ground; the slender branches stand out straight, often somewhat drooping, while from their sides and extremities very slender branch- lets hang down, so as to give a weeping appearance. This habit is strongly marked in trees growing partly or wholly in the open, where the leafy branch- lets are very much more numerous and dense than in deep shade. The bark is conspicuously thin, rarely over one-fourth of an inch thick, and composed of thin, papery, purple, easily detached scales, beneath which the newer bark is a clear rose- or purple-red. The deep yellow-green leaves (fig. 76) are soft to the touch, and much paler on their under sides than above. Those produced in a season perish in about five years; occasionally a few green leaves are found on portions of 6 to 9 year old branches. The bright coral-red fruit (fig. 76), ripe in September, begins to fall during October. It is often eaten by birds for the sweetish mucilaginous covering, but the hard shell of the seed is unaffected by digestion. The attractiveness of the fruit to birds serves as an important a FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Sh os : o Cie Bt Go. & Can poop Aas = eo 8 = 5 aH Hq WZ ~ v Y 2) 2 v Ag Q °s AH PL oS 66 Aaa i Din ellie, lg 5 ae es @® =| ow ON ra ae ee SSSSa) Sega Uf — DO iDiak L}} ers eo Fes So We Dn ue Agad IN 196 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. cabinet work. As a forest tree, it is only of secondary importance, on acedunt of its rarity and the fact that larger and more generally useful timber trees. grow abundantly in the same range. Through its remarkable tolerance of dense shade it can assist in forming low protective cover in moist coves and eanyons and at the heads of streams. LoNnGEvity.—Age limits of this yew have not been fully investigated. Growth in height and diameter are very slow, especially under deep shade, where, how- ever, it maintains itself most persistently, indicating that it is long-lived. Few representative sizes have been studied. Trees 6 inches in diameter are from 75 to 90 years, while those from 12 to 20 inches in diameter are from 140 to 245 years old. The largest trees are believed to be about 3850 or 375 years old. RANGE. Pacific coast region south from the southern tip of Alaska (Annette and Gravina Islands) and east to Selkirk Mountains; through western Oregon and Washington to California (coast ranges south to southern Lake County and western slopes of Sierra Nevada to Tulare County) ; mountains of eastern Washington and Oregon and Montana (east to western slope of Continental Divide, south at least to south end Bitterroot Mountains, Idaho, and Swan Lake, Montana). ALASKA.—Noted only on Annette and Gravina islands at southeastern end, but prob- ably also on neighboring islands and mainland. BRITISH CoOLUMBIA.—Islands and sea side of Coast Range, extending some ‘aincewee up Fraser River and reappearing farther east in Selkirk range. Queen Charlotte islands, confined to borders of inlets; noted on Cumshewa Inlet from Clew to head of West Arm, on shores of Prevost Island and south end of Moresby island, Skidegate Inlet, and near Massett. On mainland noted on lower Skeena River, on Fraser River up to Chapmans Bar near Suspension Bridge, and Coquihalla River up 20 miles above Hope. Vancouver Island common near coast, noted from sea level to 900 feet on southwest end in Renfrew district and near Victoria. Farther east on both sides of Selkirk Range north to Beaver Creek at 3,500 to 4,000 feet; noted on Kootenai Lake and west of it between Sproats Landing and Nelson. WASHINGTON.—Douglas fir forests west of Cascades and moister parts of yellow pine forests east of Cascades, extending higher on both sides of the range into western white pine forest (at sea level to 5,000 feet). Eastward through mountains of northern and eastern parts of State. (West) Washington National Forest generally below 3,000 feet. (East) Washington National Forest only detected on Stehekin River, in Horse- shoe Basin, at Nason City (Chelan County), and in some mountain passes at 3,300 to 5,000 feet. Yakima division Washington National Forest up to 6,000 feet, noted in © Kittitas County. Mount Rainier National Forest generally below 4,200 feet; locally noted on upper Nisqually River, Mount Rainier between Longmire Springs and Paradise Park, and on a summit 8 miles southeast of Mount Rainier at 6,000 feet. Olympic Peninsula common; noted at Arbutus Point, in Queniult Indian Reservation and on Admiralty Inlet at Port Townsend and at Port Ludlow. Blue Mountains and infre- quently along streams near Pullman (Whitman County). OrREGON.—West side of Cascades.and Blue Mountains up to 6,000 feet. Not detected in Coast Range. Cascade (North) National Forest, west side below 2,100 feet in Doug- las fir forest, but occasionally reaching 5,900 feet; noted locally at Portland, Clackamas River Canyon, between Portland and Mount Hood, and south of Mount Hood on Camas Prairie. Cascade (South) National Forest west side of Cascades and north side of Siskiyous; locally noted near Sawtooth Mountain (T. 25 S., R. 6 E.) above 6,000 feet, road from Rogue River to Crater Lake at 3,500 feet, headwaters of Rogue River in Cascades and of Bear Creek in Siskiyous, especially T. 388 8., R. 4 E. CALIFORNIA.—Northern coast ranges from western Siskiyou and Humboldt counties southward to Mendocino, Mendocino County, and Mount St. Helena, Lake County. Not detected in Del Norte County and in general not extending west quite to coast; east to Marble Mountain and upper McCloud River (Siskiyou County); occurs in ravines from a little above sea level to 6,000 feet. Siskiyou County, noted in Klamath National Forest, on west slope Marble Mountain on Russian Creek, and on east slope Salmon River Mountains at 1,800 to 3,200 feet. Humboldt County, noted on west slope Trinity Mountains above Hoopa Valley as low as 4,000 feet, west of Hoopa Valley on trail to Redwood Creek, between Redwood Creek and Blue Lake, canyon South Fork Van Dusen River, Little Van Dusen, and a few miles from Briceland. Mendocino County, seaward side of Coast Range in redwood forest for 10 miles east of Westport and at a point | Ea ee ee ee — a FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 197 10 or 12 miles east of Mendocino (western limits) ; also near Cahto and Laytonville and near Willets and a few miles north of Ridgewood Summit (between Willets and Ukiah). Trinity County, noted east to canyon between Lewiston and Whiskeytown at 2,000 feet, Canyon Creek from Dedrick to Alpine lakes (5,600 feet), in gulches of Carl, Salt, and Dutch Creeks between Junction and Hay Fork and in gulches between Post; Ranch and South Fork of Trinity River. Colusa County: On Snow Mountain and in deep canyons on Elk Mountain. Lake County: Noted on Sanhedrin Mountain, and east side of Mount St. Helena in canyon between Tollhouse and Middletown. Mount Shasta National Forest only detected east to headwaters of Sacramento River (Siskiyou County) and McCloud River (Shasta County) at 15 miles above Baird, at 3,000 to 6,000 feet. Not known on Mount Shasta. Lassen Peak, Plumas and Lake Tahoe National Forests infre- quent in yellow pine belt of central plateau region and wet canyons of west side of main range; noted in Placer County just south of North Fork American River east of Iowa Hill, a few miles east of Forest Hill, and in Devil’s Canyon between Forest Hill and Colfax. Stanislaus National Forest, infrequent in red fir belt; noted in vicinity of Mutton Canyon and Deep Canyon (branches of Pilot Creek, a tributary of Rubicon River) at 4,000 feet; Big Iowa Canyon (tributary South Fork American River) at 3,000 feet, headwaters of Sly Park Creek (tributary of North Fork of Cosumnes River), and North Fork of Webber Creek at 4,000 feet, at 2,500 to 3,000 feet on the headwaters of Cedar Creek (tributary same river), at 3,500 feet on Clear Creek (tributary Webber Creek), headwaters of Mill Creek (tributary North Fork of Mokelumne River) at 3,500 to 4,000 feet. South on west side Sierras at 5,000 to 8,000 feet to Tulare County. Also reported in coast ranges south of San Francisco Bay south to Santa Cruz Mountains. OCCURRENCE. Near margins of low mountain streams, moist flats and benches, deep ravines and coves, in rich rocky or gravelly soils. Largest in western Oregon, Washington, -and British Columbia; much smaller in eastern range, especially in drier situations. Groves in small groups and singly, scattered sparingly with Douglas fir, grand fir, redwood, tan- bark oak, vine, and broad-leafed maples. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of Douglas fir (in Pacific range). TOLERANCE.—Exceedingly tolerant of dense shade throughout life; crown foliage thin and branches low to ground under deep shade; grows well in partial or full light, but crown and foliage then much more dense. ReEPRODUCTION.—Fairly prolific seeder. Vitality of seeds persistent and germination moderately high. Seedlings only occasional—often rare and mostly in deep shade on wet moss and decaying wood. . Imperfectly known. MONOCOTYLEDONES. The trees which belong to the great class of monocotyledones differ from ordinary trees in not having their woody tissue arranged in annual concentric rings. Instead, the woody, thread-like fibers are scattered apparently irregu- larly throughout the trunk, on a cross-section of which the ends of these fibers appear like numerous dots. Another important characteristic is the single cotyledon or seed-leaf produced by the newly germinated seed. Other tree seed- lings have 2 or more seed-Ieaves. The veins of monocotyledonous tree leaves are usually parallel to each other, just as in the leaves of grasses and Indian corn, also members of this class, in contrast with the feather and net like vein- ing of ordinary tree leaves. To this group belong the palms and yuccas, which are essentially subtropical or tropical plants. The tree palms grow throughout their life with a single unbranched, column-like trunk, at the top of which the leaves are clustered. Tree yuccas are sparingly branched, much as in other trees, but their manner of producing leaves from the ends of the few branches is similar to that of the palms. Family PALM. The trees of this family, known as palms, have single, straight, unbranched, cylindrical trunks, crowned by a cluster of spreading, fan-like leaves. The fruit, porne in branched clusters, is berry-like and usually one-seeded—seldom 2 to 3 seeded. 198 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. NEOWASHINGTONIA. PALMS. This small group of palms, named in honor of George Washington, is com- posed of trees with big, column-like trunks, almost uniform in diameter Fic. 77.—Neowashingtonia filifera; original 48 feet high. throughout their length. The top of the trunk has a dense crown of very broad, fan-like, long-stemmed, circular leaves, deeply slashed into ribbon-like a. 4 , } , 8. ee i Fic. 78.—Neowashingtonia filifera: a, leaf stem one-] part of 15188—O8. (To face page 198.) Fic. 78.—Neowashingtonta filifera: a, leaf stem one-half natural size; UJ, leaf one-sixth natural size; c, fruit— part of cluster—natural size. 15188—O8. (To face page 198.) FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 199 strips, and the tips of the strips are split in two. The stems of the leaves are armed on their two edges with irregular, straight or curved, sharp teeth. New leaves appear each year from the summit of the trunk. As those of the previous year die, they bend down, forming a dense thatch-like mass about the trunk (fig. 77). This adheres to the trunk for many years, finally falling and leaving the torn, wide overlapping bases of the leaves covering the trunk. Later diameter growth loosens these, and the trunk then becomes smooth, its rind (bark-like) being seamed and ridged somewhat as ordinary trees are. The minute white flowers are perfect (male and female organs present in each) and borne in large branched clusters. The small, berry-like, elliptical fruit is black, with one russet-brown seed. Only two species of these palms are known, and but one is found within the United States. This inhabits desert parts of southern California and extends into Lower California. The other species grows in Mexico and in the southern part of Lower California. Commercially, these trees are of little importance (the trunks do not afford stable wood), except for ornamental purposes, for which they are much planted. They deserve protection and extension, however, since they are capable of forming true forest cover in desert localities where very few other trees grow naturally. Washington Palm. Neowashingtonia filifera® (Wendl.) Sudworth. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Washington palm is known also as “desert palm” and “fan palm.” It is the largest of our indigenous palms, growing to a height of from 35 to 50 or sometimes 60 to 70 feet, with a diameter of from 20 to 30 inches. The trunks taper very gradually, and sometimes appear to be of almost the same diameter throughout. As a rule they are more or less bent. The bark-like rind, marked by narrow seams, is pale cinnamon to dull reddish brown. A broad open crown of about 50 huge, fan-like, pale green leaves caps the trunk (fig. 77). If fire has not destroyed them, the drooping dead leaves of many years’ growth form a dense thatch-like shroud about the trunk down to within a few feet of the ground. When the lower dead leaves have been burned off there is a mass of dead leaves just beneath the green head (fig. 77). Very many of these curious trunks are marked by fire, to which they are particularly subject until their covering of dry leaves is consumed. A remarkable resistant power ap- parently enables most of the trees to endure such burnings without injury, for they grow on thriftily afterwards. The great leaves (fig. 78, b), about 44 feet broad and somewhat longer, have stems 5 or 6 feet long, armed on their two edges with irregular, sharp, straight or hooked teeth (fig. 78, @). They are deeply slashed into stiff ribbon-like divi- sions (2-cleft at the ends), the edges of which are frayed into many long, thread-like fibers (fig. 78, b). The minute white flowers, produced every year when a tree begins to bloom, are borne in large branched clusters from 8 to 10 feet long in the crown of green leaves. At the base the flower stems and branches are noticeably flattened, forming two edges; elsewhere they are rounded. , es RS eo Ne “Since this bulletin went to press Dr. S. B. Parish has published (Bot. Gaz. 44: 408- 434, 1907) a most valuable contribution to our meager knowledge of the Washington . palm. He points out that there is grave doubt as to what the plant originally described (by Wendland) as our Washington palm really is, and distinguishes the following species and varieties: Washingtonia filifera, W. filifera robusta, W. filifera microsperma, W. gracilis, W. sonore. Dr, Parish’s W. filifera robusta corresponds with the palm described here as N. /ilifera. 200 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Large quantities of the berry-like, spherical or elongated fruit (fig. 78, ¢), about three-eighths of an inch long, are borne every year after a tree begins to fruit. The fruit is black when ripe, in early autumn. The pale chestnut-col- ered seed is about one-fourth of an inch long by one-eighth of an inch thick. The single seed leaf is narrow and lance-shaped. Wood, soft, very spongy and fibrous, and yellowish; the tough fibers dull yellow-brown. The possible commercial use of this wood is yet to be deter- mined ; if of any considerable importance it is likely to be for paper pulp. LonGceviry.—There is no wity of determining the age of palms, since there are no annual rings to count as in other trees. The age this species attains can therefore be given only approximately. Two very large Washington palms in San Pedro street, Los Angeles, Cal., supposed to have been planted there by Jesuits, are possibly 200 years old. They are about 3 feet in diameter and said to be 90 or 100 feet high. No arborescent plant is more popular than this for ornamental planting in the dry Southwest, and none better able to thrive and to grow rapidly where few other trees succeed without irrigation. Its many long, very strong roots descend to great depths. As a tree for clothing desert canyons and contiguous slopes, even if only an open forest can be secured, it is likely to be of no small importance. RANGE. Colorado Desert in southern California in central Riverside and San Diego counties and in canyons of south side of San Bernardino and east side of San Jacinto Mountains and of coast ranges farther south. South, in eastern part of Lower California, at least as far as southern end of Mount San Pedro Martir (lat. 30° 30’). In general from sea level to 2,000 feet. CALIFORNIA.—Confined to northern and western borders of Salton Sink and its northwestern extension. At base of foothills of south side of eastern range of San Bernardino Mountains east to Indio (T. 1 to 5 S., R. 5 to 8 E). Locally noted a few miles north of Southern Pacific Railroad between Indio and Seven Palms. Northwestern limit Whitewater Canyon, in San Bernardino Mountains (lat. 34°, long. 116° 40’), which it ascends to 1,126 feet. San Jacinto Mountains locally noted Palm Canyon near Agua Caliente 10 miles south of Southern Pacific Railroad at Seven Palms at 500 feet and up, one tree in Andreas Canyon nearly at 800 feet, Dos Palmos Spring (T. 6 S., R. 5 E.), Thousand Palms Canyon (T. 9 S., R. 5 E.), Seventeen Palms (T. 10 8., R. 18 E.), and Palm Canyon north of San Ysidro Mountains (T. 10 S., R.°5 E.). Farther south, extending well up into most canyons of east side of Coast Mountains; not in canyon through which San Diego wagon road passes 5 miles north of Mexican boundary. Eastward a few trees follow line of old outlets of Salton Sea south into Lower California. OCCURRENCE. Margins of the inland Colorado Desert sea bed and low desert mountain cinyons, in wet, sandy, alkali soil (border of sea bed), and moist, rocky, sandy ground (canyons). Forms open, extensive pure stands, with frequent rather dense groups, or is widely scattered: sometimes interspersed with occasional cottonwood, and in southern range with mesquite, yuccas, cacti, mescal, and creosote bushes. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of Joshua tree. TOLERANCE.—Appears capable of enduring much shade in youth, but later grows in full, strong light. REPRODUCTION.—Very abundant seeder. Reproduction plentiful, yet less frequent in some places, probably because large quantities of seed are eollected by Indians. Family LILIACEZA. The trees belonging to this family differ from the palm included here in hay- ing large lily-like flowers and a capsule-like many-seeded fruit, instead of a berry-like one-seeded fruit. They differ from tree palms also in being branched to some extent when mature. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 201 YUCCA. YUCCAS. The tree yuceas are characterized by their bristling, stiff, upright, bayonet-like, sharp-pointed leaves, which are thickly clustered at the top of the unbranched young trunk or at the ends of the few large club-like branches of old trees. The edges of the leaves of different species are either smooth (unbroken), rough with minute teeth, or with a few thread-like fibers. Toward their ends the edges of the leaves are often conspicuously rolled or turned toward each other (on the upper side), giving the top end of the leaf a trough-like form. The leaves of each season’s growth remain green for several years; later they begin slowly to bend down, close to the trunk or branch, and finally they die and within a few years fall from the tree. Bark of the tree yuccas is rather thick and cork-like, and furrowed and checked as in ordinary trees. The large wax- like showy flowers are perfect (male and female organs in same flower), and appear in big branched clusters from among the topmost leaves. With one ex- ception (Y. aloifolia, which is self-fertilized), they are so constituted that they can be cross-fertilized only through the visits of insects (moths). The fruit (of Pacific species), matured in one season, resembles a small cucumber in form (about 8 to 4 inches long; fig. 81), or in some species a large butternut of the same dimensions (fig. 79). In some species it stands erect on the flowering branches; in others, it hangs down. It is indistinctly 6-sided with 6 separate eells, each containing numerous thin, flat, black seeds. The fruit may have a thin, fleshy, outer covering, which dries upon the shell when the seed chambers do not open of their own accord, or it may consist of a stiff, brittle shell, some- times tending to split open at the top, but usually remaining closed. Such fruits fall from the tree ina dry and brittle condition and are carried some dis- tance from the parent tree by wind or water. Finally they are broken open and the seeds seattered. Large quantities of yucca seeds are eaten by rodents. Birds, which feed on the fleshy fruit covering, also assist in distributing the seed. Many seeds are blighted by insects (moths), to the attacks of which flowers and fruits of yuccas are especially subject, but upon which the flowers depend entirely for fertilization. The tough, fiber-like wood of yucecas is of little commercial value at present, but should be useful for paper pulp. The tree merits the forester’s attention as a means of helping to maintain much-needed tree growth in arid southwestern plains and foothills. Two tree species occur within the Pacific region, and here only in southern California; elsewhere they range eastward into the southern Rocky Mountain region and northward, one extending into Lower California. The yuceas are of ancient origin, remains of them having been found in the Tertiary period. Joshua Tree. Yucca arborescens (Torr.) Trelease. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Of the two tree yuccas indigenous in the Pacific region the Joshua tree, also _ called “ yucca cactus,” is much the larger and more tree-like (fig. 79). From 18 to 25 feet, or occasionally 30 or 35 feet, is the usual height, with a diameter of from 1 to 2 feet. It is easily the most wild-looking denizen of desert hills and plains. The keenly pointed bayonet-like leaves, bristling at the ends of big clumsy branches, defy every intrusion and compel respect from many natural enemies. Young trees are unbranched (fig. 80, @) until they have produced flow- 202 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. ers, which is commonly at a height of from 8 to 12 feet. Usually two branches are then formed at the top of the single stem and, in succession, each of these forms two or more, until a broad, low-branched crown results at maturity. When from 3 to 6 feet high the trunks are often set with bristling leaves down to the \\ N\\\ A WS ju \ y fin , \y if ! if \\ VR | ll | Hel ! iP i 13 TF A) ) hi) Wi i | | q iT v eat ‘ i Par \\ a(t \ \ \\y \ \ aw ‘< td \ hw \ 11] Ue Ys R\\ \ a HiN ie oy 3) qi My Qe, jt BNF! NY . «a fir Mf, Wo malt fd | Vuh Fic. 79.—Yucca arborescens: a, leaves; b, fruit; c, sections of fruit; d, seed. ground (fig. 80, a). No living thing intrudes upon the ground they occupy. The topmost leaves are upright in position, but as the stem increases in height the first leaves grown begin, during about their second year, to droop, finally dying and becoming closely pressed down upon the trunk in a thatch-like cover. 15188—O8. (To face Fic. 80.—Yucea arborescens: Original 15 feet high; a, young tree. 15188S—O8. (To face page 202.) FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 203 Trunks 10 feet high may be entirely covered. Gradually these dead, but always stiff and prickly, leaves are forced off at the base of the trunk by the growth of the trunk and by wind, uncovering an ashy, gray, cross-checked and ridged bark. Except on old trees, the greater part of the tree is covered with dead, closely thatched leaves. This covering of formidable living and dead leaves suggests a wise protective measure through which alone the tree is able to maintain and extend itself, with little check from its enemies, in a region often lacking in other vegetation. The bluish-green leaves (fig. 80, a) are from 6 to about 10 inches long and about five-eighths of an inch wide; longer leaves occur on young trees. Leaves taper gradually from just above the base (14 inches wide) to the point. The upper half is concave, tapering to a long, keen, red- dish or blackish brown point; the lower half of the leaf is flat or only slightly concave, while the two edges have minute teeth throughout. A single stiff, branched cluster (about 15 inches long) of rather fetid flowers grows from the end of the crown branches. The fruit (fig. 79, 6), usually matured early in June, is borne on short stems, at first standing more or less erect, but after maturity somewhat drooping or bent down. The fruit covering is dry and soft. It rarely opens of its own accord, but when very dry and brittle it is blown or falls from the tree, and later is blown about and broken open by the wind and its seed scattered. The six chambers of the fruit are filled with flat, jet-black seeds (fig. 79, c, d). Wood rather soft and light (when dry), but tough on account of its strong fibers; pale yellowish white. Further investigation may estab- lish its permanent usefulness for paper pulp, for which it is suitable.¢ LONGEviTy.—Nothing can be said definitely of the age to which this tree attains. It is very probable that an individual lives at least 100 to 200 years, and there seems little doubt that these trees may live 200 to 300 years. The growth appears to be very slow in both height and diameter, but very persistent. Its big, strong roots descend to great depths, giving the trees firm anchorage. It is frequently bent and bowed, but few trees succumb to storm, and not often to fire, which does not burn their stiff, hard leaves as readily as in the case of the thinner and more inflammable leaves or “ thatch” palm trunks. RANGE. Southwestern Utah to the western and northern rim of the Mohave Desert in California. OCCURRENCE. Arid, desert plains and valleys, lower mountain slopes, benches, and plateaus, in dry, sandy and gravelly soils. Forms large pure, open or rather close stands; sometimes much scattered singly and in groups and with California juniper and single-leaf and Sabine pines. Low, scanty growths of cactus and other desert shrubs occur with the yucca. ‘ CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of California juniper (with probably higher temperature). TOLERANCE AND REPRODUCTION.—Undetermined. Mohave Yucca. Yucca mohavensis Sargent. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. The Mohave yucea has been known for about fifty years, but until about eleven years ago it had been confounded with two other species, from which it is now known to be distinct. Since its most extensive and characteristic growth is found on the Mohave Desert, the common name here coined for it seems more “Considerable local use of the wood has recently been made for physician's splints. The logs are pared into thin sheets. 204 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. appropriate and distinctive than the usual name of “Spanish dagger,” which is used for several other yuccas, some of which occur in the same range. It is a low species, chiefly under 10 or 12 feet in height, not often branched, and then with only a few stout limbs. The trunk is seldom over 10 inches in diame- ter, and where freed from dead leaves the cross-checked and furrowed bark we \ ul ti \ ES = Seen f NY ) \\ Pyaar ||) wot ATT \\\ ees WL ne gins AN yi \K Ny KN MN i nh \ 1 | \ \ \ \ \n Tes ey B07 a auc A WHE | | | \ it HRB F1G. 81.—Yucca mohavensis: a, base of leaf; b, point of leaf; ¢, fruit; d, seed. a) is dark umber brown. The general aspect of the tree and the habit of its green and dead leaves are somewhat similar to those of the Joshua tree. Dis- tinctive characters are found in the length and form of the dagger-like leaves and of the fruit. The yellowish green leaves, from 16 to 24 inches long, have bases (fig. 81, a) about 3 inches wide, from which the blade is suddenly nar- FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 205 rowed to about three-fourths of an inch, gradually increasing in width, toward and above the middle, to about 1 or 1% inches; then tapering to a stiff sharp point (fig. 81, 6). The blade is thin and the edges are strongly curled or rolled from above the middle to the point. The edges are, moreover, conspicuously marked with thread-like fibers, which are frayed from the borders as the leaf grows older. A single branched cluster (about 14 to 16 inches long) of flowers is borne from among the uppermost green leaves. The pulpy, sweetish fruit (fig. 81, c), ripened late in August or early in September, is on a slender droop- ing stem. It is 32 or 4 inches long, blunt at the ends, the top end having a short thick point. The flat seeds, packed in 6 chambers of the fruit, are black (fig. 81, d). Wood: Nothing can now be said of the wood of this yucca, except that it is lighter and somewhat softer than that of the Joshua tree. LoNGEVity.—No definite statement can be made concerning the age limit of this yucca, which, however, can hardly be less long-lived than the Joshua tree. Messrs. C. R. Orcutt and S. B. Parish, who know the tree yuccas from long observation, both inform the writer that the Mohave yucca is an exceedingly persistent but very slow grower in its native habitat, scarcely any change having been perceived in trees under observation for the last twenty-five years. RANGE, From northeastern Arizona and southern Nevada across the Mohave Desert into Call- fornia, and from the southern base of the San Bernardino Mountains to the coast end northward to Monterey, sometimes ascending mountain slopes to 4,000 feet OCCURRENCE. Similar to Joshua tree. DICOTYLEDONES. The trees of the great dicotyledonous class are so called because the germi- nating seeds produce two seed-leaves, or cotyledons. They have broad leaves, with a central vein and a network of smaller connected veins. They are further characterized by having the non-resinous wood of their trunks in annual layers, which appear as concentric rings on a cross-section of the trunk. Each layer is formed just beneath the living bark and over the layer produced the previous year. This mode of diameter growth gave rise in earlier days to the class name “exogens,” or outside growers, in contradistinction to “‘ endogens,”’ or inside growers, a class name then given to the trees we now more generally call ‘‘ mono- cotyledones.” The two terms, “endogens” and ‘ exogens,” originated when knowledge of how members of the two classes grow was incomplete. Later studies show that the term “ exogens”’ is still correctly applicable to all dico- tyledonous trees, but that the term “ endogens”’ does not express the manner in which monocotyledones actually make their diameter growth. Monocotyle- dones were once thought to increase in diameter by the addition, each year, of scattered woody fibers at the center or pith of the tree, thus gradually crowding the woody tissue previously formed to the outside of the trunk. In other words, the outside of the trunk was believed to have once occupied the center of the stem. We now know, however, that these trees grow in diameter by laying on tissue outside of that formed the previous year, but not in a distinguishable layer as in dicotyledonous trees. Diameter growth of the gymnosperms (pines, spruces, firs, etc.) is produced in exactly the same way as in dicotyledonous trees, but the oleo-resinous woods of the former distinguish them from the latter class. It is true, indeed, that the wood of some of our broadleaf trees contains resinous matter, but it is not in any high degree oleo-resinous, as in gymno- 15188—08——14 206 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. sperms. Examples of broadleaf trees with resin in their wood are the cherries, plums, acacias, mesquite, red gum (Liquidambar), ete., in which the character of the resin is distinctly mucilaginous. \ . Family JUGLANDACES. The distinctive characters of Juglandacere are that male and female flowers are each borne on different parts of the same tree and that the fruit is a nut (1) with a firm pulpy covering which does not break open of its own accord (walnuts), or (2) with a firm woody covering which separates at maturity- into 4 nearly distinct or partly connected, rind-like divisions (hickories). The single hard-shelled nut is usually soon liberated from the latter type of covering, but the undivided pulpy covering of the. former type dries and adheres to its nut until rotted away by contact with the ground. The leaves of the trees representing this family occur singly and more or less distant from each other—neyver growing in pairs, one leaf exactly opposite its fellow, as in trees of some other families. A very important group of timber trees. JUGLANS. WALNUTS. The walnuts are a small group of trees very sparingly represented in the Pacific region. They are important forest trees, some of them producing very handsome and exceedingly valuable lumber. Pungent aromatic odor is charac- teristic of leaves and other green parts when bruised, while the heartwood is a rich dark brown. Distinctive characters of the branches are the leaf-scars with 38 groups of minute dots, and the partition-like structure of the pith (best seen by slicing a twig longitudinally). -The leaves, called compound because they dif- fer from the ordinary simple leaf (an apple leaf) in being made up of a single central stem from which grow from 5 to 11 pairs of pointed leaflets (each appearing like an ordinary leaf). By the suppression of one leaflet of the terminal pair, the number of leaflets may be odd. The flowers appear after the leaves. Male flowers (pollen bearing) are long, flexible, cord-like, pendent bodies, borne singly or in pairs from buds of branches grown the previous sea- son; female flowers, which develop into fruit, are bud-like bodies borne in small clusters at the ends of the new green shoots of the season, usually on the same branch as contains the male flowers. The fruit, a spherical nut (in Pacifie representatives), is matured in the autumn of the first season. Its firm, pulpy husk breaks up after maturity, but with no regular divisions. The heavy nuts are dependent for their distribution upon the agency of rodents, which bury many of them for their winter food, and upon floods, which often carry them long distances. One only of the four species indigenous. to the United States occurs in the Pacific region and it is confined to western California. Other representatives of the genus are world-wide in their distribution. The walnuts are of ancient origin. Remains of numerous ancient species, once common in Europe but now extinct, have been found in the Cretaceous and Ter- tiary formations, while in the northern Pacific coast region signs of ancient walnuts have been obtained from the Eocene formation, as well as from gold- bearing gravel beds of the California Sierras. No living representatives are found in these regions now. California Walnut. Juglans californica Watson. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Though it ranges in size from a shrub to a tree 50 feet high and from Satore 15 inches in diameter, California walnut is usually a low, wide-crowned tree FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 207 from 12 to 20 feet high. The clear trunk is short, giving off big branches which curve upward, then down, often drooping nearly to the ground and forming a handsome dome-like crown. The bark of young trees and portions of the large branches is smooth and ashy white, while that of older trunks is blackish Fic. 82.—Juglans californica: a, nut without hull. brown and rather deeply and sharply furrowed and ridged. The California Species resembles the eastern black walnut sufficiently to suggest that tree to one familiar with it. The leaves (fig. 82), with from 9 to 17 leaflets, are light yellow-green and are smooth throughout when full grown; occasionally, how- 208 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE, ever, the leaflets may have minute clusters of tawny hairs underneath in the angles formed-by the veins. The spherical fruit (fig. 82) is a thinly covered put, with a very finely but perceptibly velvety surface. Divested of its thin husk, the hard-shelled nut, its two ends appearing to be pressed together, is indistinctly and irregularly grooved (fig. 82, a). Wood, rather heavy, dark brown, somewhat lighter-colored than that of the eastern tree, but similarly rich in color and grain. It is usually moderately coarse-grained, owing to the fact that it is mainly grown in the open. The tree is too poorly formed and usually too small to furnish wood of much com- mercial value except for local needs. When large enough for tumber it is useful as, a cabinet wood on account of its handsome color and good working qualities, : As a forest tree it can be of only secondary importance, serving with a num- ber of other riparian species in maintaining needful protective tree growth along streams. : Loncevyiry.—Few records of its age are available. It is a very rapid-growing tree in youth and gives evidence of being short-lived, probably not exceeding 150 years. Trees from 12 to 15 inches in diameter are 13 to 17 years old, while one tree 154 inches through showed an age of 15 years. RANGE. CALIFORNIA.—River courses of foothills and valleys of coast region usually 20 or 30 miles from the sea, from Lower Sacramento River (noted 2 miles north of Shingle Springs, Eldorado County, at about 1,500 feet), Mount St. Helena (southern Lake County), vicinity of San Francisco and Monte Diablo (northwest base), south in coast ranges to south side of the Santa Ana (Orange County) and San Bernardino Mountains. Santa Barbara National Forest common at 800 to 4,000 feet; in watersheds of Santa Maria, Santa Ynez, Santa Barbara, Matilija, Piru-Sespe, and Newhall rivers. Santa Monica Mountains and Puente Hills, near Los Angeles; frequent in foothills below 3,000 feet; less so on south slopes of San Gabriel and Santa Ana Mountains; noted locally near Arroyo Seco west of Pasadena. San Bernardino Mountains south and west slopes up to 3,000 feet and occasionally at some distance from foot of mountains; locally noted in Waterman Canyon at 2,000 feet. OCCURRENCE. On margins of perpetual and intermittent streams and bottoms, usually in rather moist gravelly or sandy soil; sometimes in dry situations. Much scattered or in small, straggling groups. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of California sycamore. TOLERANCE.—Intolerant of shade. REPRODUCTION.—Seeding habits undetermined. Seedlings scarce. Much of seed eaten by rodents, and carried by flood waters to places unfavorable for germination. Family MYRICACEZ. The family characters of the trees of this group are thick, narrow, minutely resinous-dotted leaves, which grow from the branches in alternate positions (never in pairs, one leaf opposite the other), and the small berry-like fruit, coated with minute grains of white waxy matter. The male and female flowers are each borne either on different branches of the same tree or upon different trees. ' MYRICA. WAX MYRTLES. Wax myrtles are small trees (or shrub-like) with willow-like leathery leaves, the season’s growth of which persists for about one year, when they begin to fall a few at a time. The crushed foliage and twigs exhale a resinous aromatic odor, somewhat perceptible even without bruising. The bud-like clusters of male and female flowers (of Pacific species) are each borne singly on different a FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 209 parts of the same tree and usually of the same branch, each at the base of a previous year’s leaf, the female clusters above the larger, longer male clusters. The small, berry-like spherical fruit is ripened in autumn; several close clusters of fruit may appear on leafless parts of the branch, the leaves of the previous year, present when the flowers open, having fallen. The surface of the berries is thickly coated with round grains of whitish waxy matter, which is _ an exudation. Though of no economic value on account of their small size, these shrubby trees are of some importance in forming with other species a protective cover. The western representative is likely to be especially useful for extension on exposed coast sands and low hills, situations to which all of the species are particularly adapted. The sole present importance of the genus is the production of the vegetable wax of commerce, which is obtained from the berries of two eastern species. Three tree species occur within the United States; two in the south Atlantic States, adjacent islands, and Gulf coast regions, and one in the Pacific coast country. A group of ancient origin, members of which once existed on this continent in the Cretaceous period. California Myrtle. Myrica californica Chamisso. . DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. California myrtle, also called “bayberry”” and ‘‘ wax myrtle,” is mainly a bushy tree, from 8 to 20 feet high, sometimes under 5 feet, and from 3 to 6 inches in diameter; only very rarely from 25 to 30 feet high and from 8 to 12 inches in diameter. Slender upright branches form a dense, narrow crown with rounded top, exposing a short, smooth, thin-barked trunk, the bark grayish brown externally and deep reddish brown within. The very dark green glossy leaves (figs. 88, 84), light yellowish green beneath and with numerous minute black specks, are thin but tough in texture. The extreme edges of the leaves are slightly curled toward the under surface. A slight aromatic odor is perceptible from the leaves. As a rule, the female flowers appear on the upper part of a branch, below which the larger, longer clusters of male flowers are borne on a separate portion of the branch. Occasionally anomalous flower clusters, with both male and female flowers, occur between the upper and lower regular single- sex flowers, and some trees bear only, or mainly, male flowers. The clusters of berry-like nuts (fig. 84), maturing in September, are ashy white, the wax cover- ing of the berries, however, concealing the dull purple color beneath. The shells of the nuts are very thick and hard. Commonly some of the berries remain on the branches until spring, but most of them fall during winter. Wood, pale rose-red, heavy, hard, and stiff, the whitish sapwood being com- paratively thick. Of no economic value, but deserving protection and extension as a cover in the vicinity of the sea. LonGevity.—Little is known concerning the longevity of this tree, which may possibly reach an age of 100 years. Trees from 6 to 10 inches in diameter are from 25 to 40 years old. RANGE. Pacific Coast region from Puget Sound, Washington, to near Santa Monica, Cal., never far from the sea, 210 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. OCCURRENCE. Sea coast dunes and low hill slopes and on streams in moist, pure or humous sand and in dryish, poor, gravelly soil. Occurs in clumps and dense patches of pure growth in open and in shade of swamp pine and live oak. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of swamp pine. TOLERANCE.—Very tolerant of shade. REPRODUCTION.—Abundant seeder; young plants frequent both in shade and open moist ground, Fic. 83.—Myrica californica, young shoot. Family SALICACEZ. A large group of trees (and shrubs) comprising the well-known willows and poplars or aspens. The bark is characteristically bitter—especially so in the willows. The leaves, shed in early autumn, are borne alternately on the branches (never in pairs on opposite sides of the branch). Male and female flowers are each produced on different trees; seed is therefore borne only by ee FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 911 female trees, the flowers of which are fertilized by insects (largely bees). The fruits, ripe in late spring as the leaves reach full size, are thin capsule- like bodies, many of which are produced in long tassel-like clusters; the cap- sules split open soon after maturity, liberating the minute seeds. The seeds ~ Fic. 84.—Myrica californica. are provided with long, exceedingly fine, silky hairs, which permit the wind to carry them for very long distances. With some exceptions, they are moisture-loving trees and shrubs, which ac- counts for their prevalence along streams and bottoms. A remarkable charac 212 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. teristic is their ability to grow readily from root or branch cuttings and to sprout vigorously and persistently from cut stumps of almost any age. SALIX. WILLOWS. The many trees (and shrubs) of the willow group are at once distinguished by the quinine-like bitter taste of their bark, which is harmless. Their decidu- ous leaves, variable in form, are most frequently long and narrowly pointed, smooth throughout, or coated with fine silky hairs on their under surfaces; their margins may be entire (uncut) or variously toothed. They grow singly on the branches at points alternating with each other on different sides of the branches (never in pairs, one opposite the other on two sides of the branch). Willow leaves are peculiar in having a pair of ear-shaped, minute or large, leaf- like growths at the base of their stems. These are larger and therefore more conspicuous on vigorous annual shoots, on which they may remain until they fall with the leaves, while on other stems they are present only during the early growth of the leaves. The leaves may fall in the autumn without much change of color, or they may first turn a lemon yellow. Leaf-scars (left by the falling leaves) are marked by three minute dots (fibro-vascular bundles severed by the parting of the leaf stem). The fruit and seed are sufficiently described under the family (Salicacez). Annual sprouts of willows are exceedingly strong and withy, while older branches from the crown are often peculiarly frangible; twigs are notably frangible where they join a larger branch or fork. A frequent habit of growth among willows is to produce several trunks from a single greatly extended root- stock, while some species regularly have single, isolated trunks. Species of the latter form have been readily admitted to be trees. Those forming clusters of very large trunks have, on the other hand, been denied this rank for some time, even though the trunks were otherwise tree-like. For practical purposes, how- ever, they certainly are trees. A striking and valuable cultural feature of the willows is their remarkable vitality, which enables them to grow persistently from cut stumps and easily from pieces of branches or roots. Through this qual- ity some of the foreign willow trees have been pollarded for centuries, the shoots being used for coarse baskets and other economic purposes. The willows are swamp or moist-ground species, finding their habitat from sea level to an elevation of 10,000 or more feet. Willow wood is soft, light, usually brittle but firm, commonly pale brown, tinged with red; the heartwood of some species is very durable when exposed to water or earth. It has various minor economic uses, especially for cricket and ball bats and for gunpowder and charcoal. The greatest commercial use- fulness of willows appears to have come mainly through the manufacture of baskets and furniture from shoots or rods produced in one season. Some of the tree willows produce moderately large, clear trunks, which would yield lumber, but as a rule their boles are of poor form for saw timber. Except in generally forestless regions, where willows and their allies, the cottonwoods, become useful because no other trees are available, these trees have little to commend them in comparison with many other trees of demonstrated value. They are, however, distinctly important to the forester for binding shifting sands and for holding banks of streams in soft bottoms where serious ruin of agricultural lands may result from the erosion of unprotected banks. Tree willows attain their mature growth in comparatively few years—50 to 150 years—after which the trunks become hollow, may gradually show signs of decay, and are easily broken by storm. Their tenacious vitality, however, permits them to grow for centuries, repairing or replacing broken trunks by new stem or root sprouts. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 213 Approximately 75 species occur on this continent, while about 20 are trees, 13 of which inhabit the Pacific region, into which one extends from the Atlan- tic States. The willows are of very ancient origin. Remains of them exist in the Cretaceous formations of our Middle West, while willows appear to have flourished extensively on this continent and in Europe during the Miocene period. With few exceptions the various species of willows, which, as a class, are nearly always distinguished as willows from other trees and shrubs by laymen, are exceedingly difficult to identify, especially before they become trees. When they have attained tree size most of the important ones can be distinguished by a careful study of their mature leaves, bark, twigs, and habit of growth. But individual trees are likely to be found which will baffle attempts at identi- fication without a close examination of the minute characters of the male and female flowers and the tiny seed capsules, all consideration of which is here omitted. Such an examination requires a strong magnifying lens and a good knowledge of plant morphology: Black Willow. Salix nigra Marshall. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Black willow is the largest and most widely known of our tree willows, but much less abundantly represented in the Pacific country than in its eastern range. It is more distinctly a tree throughout its range than almost any of our other tree willows, and for this reason it is probably the most commonly recog- nized. Several trunks grow close together. Its usual size is from 25 to 50 feet in height and-from 10 to 20 inches in diameter. Trees from 60 to 80 feet high and from 2 to 3 feet in diameter are of rather rare occurrence. The trunks (rarely straight) are usually somewhat bowed and leaning, but are clear of branches for a third or a half of their length in the open, and for two-thirds of it in close stands. The branches trend somewhat upward, forming a wide, round-topped, open crown. Rough, furrowed, blackish-brown bark, with wide, thick-scaled ridges and narrower connecting ridges, is a marked character. The slender, drooping branchlets are very easily snapped off at their bases. The leaves—very variable in size and form—from straight to scythe-like (figs. 85, 86), are from 23 to 5 or sometimes 6 inches long, and pale yellow-green. They may be somewhat shiny above and smooth beneath, or minutely hairy on the veins of the under surface. Wood, pale red-brown, light and soft, rather fine-grained, but firm. It has little or no actual or possible economic value, except for fuel and charcoal. LonGeEviry.—Not much is known of its age limits, which in trees from 12 to 18 inches in diameter are from 35 to 60 years. Occasional large trees are esti- mated to be from 125 te 150 years old. Further study of its longevity is required. RANGE. New Brunswick to southern Florida and west to eastern Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, ‘Indian Territory, southern Arizona, southern and central California, and south into Mexico. CALIFORNIA.—Western foothills of Sierras, San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys, north to eastern foothills of coast ranges in Colusa County, and south through southern cross ranges. 214 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. The detailed range of this species east of the Pacific region will be given in a future publication. Fic. 85.—Saliz nigra, seed-bearing branch. OCCURRENCE. On borders of streams, and on low flats, in humus-covered wet or moist gravelly and sandy soils. Forms strips and small patches of pure growth, and grows with other FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 215 willows; rather uncommon in Pacific region. Climatic conditions marked by moderate temperature, which probably accounts for its rarity in this region. Decidedly intolerant Fic. 86.—Saliz nigra: a, male flowers. throughout life. Abundant seeder (over greater part of range); reproduction best on wet humus or sand. 216 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Almond Willow. Salix amygdaloides Andersson. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. This willow, also called “ peach willow” (from a resemblance of its leaves to those of the peach), produces one straight, or sometimes leaning, trunk. Fic. 87.—Saliz amygdaloides: a, male flowers; b, seed-bearing branch. (Very rarely several clustered stems.) Its upright branches are peculiarly straight forming a rather compact, round head. Ordinarily it is from 20 to 30 Oe FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 217 feet ‘high and from 8 to 12 inches in diameter; occasionally from 40 to 50 feet high, and from 16 to 18 inches in diameter. Bark, very pale reddish brown, about half an inch thick, rather deeply furrowed, the wide ridges thick-scaled and connected by narrower ones. The straight, slender, shiny, red to orange- brown twigs are tough and can not readily be broken off where they join a branch. On their upper sides the thin leaves (fig. 87) are shiny, light yellow- green; on their under surfaces, very pale or whitish, but smooth; the minute teeth on the borders have gland-like points. The prominent mid-veins and their branches are conspicuously light to dark yellow. Wood, pale yellow- brown, light in weight, soft, brittle, and fine-grained. It has no economic value or commercial uses. Very probably this species, not yet tested under cultiva- tion, will prove to be a good basket willow. The straight, slender annual shoots are tough and resemble in character and appearance the true almond willow — (Salix amygdalina), which furnishes a standard basket rod. Loncevity.—Little is known of the age limits. The tree grows rapidly in diameter during 25 to 30 years. “Trees from 7 to 10 inches in diameter are from 20 to 35 years old. Probably attains maturity in from 40 to 50 years. RANGE. Quebec (near Montreal) and New York (Cayuga County) to the upper Saskatchewan; southward to Ohio and Missouri, and westward in the Plains region to the Rocky Moun- tains, where it ranges from southwestern Texas to Oregon, Washington, British Columbia. OCCURRENCE, Borders of perpetual and intermittent streams, in rocky or gravelly soil. Climatic con- ditions, silvical characteristics, etc., undetermined. . Smooth Willow. Salix laevigata Bebb. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS, For want of a distinctive current common name ‘smooth willow” is here coined from the technical name. Smooth willow is known in its range only as “black willow,” from the roughly furrowed, very dark reddish brown bark, the ridges of which are firm, narrow and connected by still narrower lateral ones; bark of the large dark brown limbs is also seamed. Commonly with one straight stem from 15 to 25 feet high (the clear portion short) and from 6 to 10 inches in diameter ; sometimes 30 or 35 feet high and a foot in diameter—rarely larger. ‘The slim branches form a somewhat irregular, broad, round-topped crown. Full grown twigs are very slender, smooth, and clear reddish yellow to reddish brown. The distinctly deep bluish green leaves (fig. 88)% are smooth through- out, shiny on their upper surface and whitish beneath, about 33 to 63 inches long (sometimes 13 inches wide) and with conspicuous yellow mid-veins, branches of which are clearly seen on the top side of the leaf—less evident beneath. Leaf stems, wide, channeled, very minutely and sparingly hairy. Wood, pale reddish brown. Not used for commercial purposes. @Variety Salix levigata augustifolia Bebb is a form with narrow scythe-shaped leaves with rounded bases; while the variety S. levigata congesta was distinguished by the Same author by its short dense flower clusters and the spherical, cone-shaped, very short- stemmed seed capsules. 918 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. LoNeeEviry.—Age limit undetermined. Grows rapidly in height and diameter during first 25 years and appears to be short-lived. Trees from 10 to 14 inches in diameter are from 28 to 40 years old. ARTY SOW Fic 88.—Saliz levigata: a, seed-bearing branch. RANGE, California ‘(Siskiyou County to the southern boundary of the State). At middle ele vations in coast mountains and Sierras. ——— FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 219 OCCURRENCE. Confined to wet borders of mountain and lower Streams, in gravel and sand. Forms clumps and patches, often mixed with Bigelow willow and white alder. Climatic and other requirements undetermined. Western Black Willow. Salix lasiandra Bentham. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Western black willow, like the preceding species, is known throughout its range simply as “black willow,” on account of the color of its bark. The bark is distinctly cut by cross-seams into flat plates longer than they are wide. The form of its leaves and twigs affords the principal means of distinction. Ordinarily it is 25 or 30 feet high and from 14 to 20 inches in diameter; some- times from 40 to 50 feet high and from 24 to 30 inches through; in some parts of its range, often a bushy tree under 10 feet high. The clear trunk, rarely straight, is short, and the long, straight limbs grow upright, producing an open, _ unsymmetrical crown. The mature twigs are rather large, and clear reddish yellow to brown. The leaves (fig. 89), deep yellow green at maturity and about 43 to 5 inches long, are shiny on their upper surface, whitish beneath, the large mid-veins reddish yellow and the leaf stems, with two or more black- ish spots (glands) at their juncture with the leaf blade, smooth or slightly and minutely hairy. As a rule the largest leaves are produced at the ends of the branches, apparently on account of the more vigorous growth there. RANGE, California (west of the Sierra Nevada) ; western Oregon, Washington, and southern * British Columbia (Selkirk Mountains) at middle elevations. OCCURRENCE. Borders of streams, water-holes, and lakes, in damp, gravelly, and sandy soil. Scat- tered in small groups and singly; sometimes with red and white alders, black and Fremont cottonwoods, and California sycamore. Climatic and other requirements unde- termined. A well-marked variety of this willow is the Lyall willow (Salix lasiandra lyallii? Sargent), often from 20 to 30 inches in diameter; common on streams of western Oregon and Washington. Its leaves (fig. 90) are sometimes 10 or 12 inches long, and distinctly white beneath, while the leaf stems have more glands than those of the Western black willow. Another less distinct form is Salix lasiandra caudata (Nutt.) Sudworth, which has smaller, more leathery leaves than the species; they are also often scythe-shaped, tapering at the base, and green throughout. Saliz lasiandra lyallii occurs in western Oregon, Washington, and southern British Columbia at middle elevations. It grows on borders and bottoms of lowland streams and of those on lower mountain slopes, in moist, loamy sand and gravel or humous, rocky, and gravelly soils of higher sites. Forms clusters in open pure stretches and patches, or is scattered singly at higher levels among other inhabitants of stream banks. Appears indifferent to altitude, but abundant soil moisture is a requisite. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS similar to those of red alder. TOLERANCE.—Endures considerable shade—probably one of the most tolerant of willows. RePRODUCTION.—Abundant seeder ; seedlings rather scattered, but frequent. “Described in 1842 by Nuttall as Salix speciosa, from its large handsome leaves; a hame which, nnknown to that author, was unfortunately already assigned to another willow. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 220 TO o om Fic. 89.—Saliz lasiandra. Trees from ‘ n = 3 ® w& ° 10 _— 5g a6 ag es et ae £8 tH =) Em g Es nN on a0 Oo a sf ets ag bb O a (ge os e se 48 ae ie a) o Se 32 nN qn 1 7 ee ee ae ee a sp suit suse Tash. ie We a Alt i i le a ali, ah ee i ae : a ’ ’ 221 222 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Longleaf Willow. Salix fluviatilis Nuttall. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Longleaf willow is one of the most distinct of our tree willows; it can readily be recognized by its long, very narrow leaves. Because it forms dense thickets Fic. 91.—Saliz fluviatilis. on river sand-bars, usually long before any other willow secures a footing there, it is widely known as “ sand-bar willow.’ The more appropriate common name FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 993 chosen here is derived from the technical name Salix longifolia, which was used for it until it was found to be antedated by S. fluviatilis. A slender tree under 25 feet in height, with a narrow, compact crown of short, slim, nearly upright branches ; sometimes from 40 to 50 feet high and from 18 to 20 inches in diameter. A large part of the trunk is clear of branches. Over much of its range it is only a reed-like shrub growing in very dense thickets 6 or 8 feet high. The closely scaly bark is very thin (usually less than one-fourth of an inch thick), and dark grayish brown, with a faint reddish tinge; smooth on small stems. Mature leaves (fig. 91) are pale yellowish-green, the under surface lighter than the upper, smooth on both surfaces, and from about 8 to 5 inches long. A variety of this species, Salix fluviatilis argyrophylla (Nutt.) Sargent, is distinguished by the dense coating of silky hairs on its leaves and seed capsules; while another form, S. fluviatilis erigua (Nutt.) Sarg., is characterized by its very narrow leaves, 1} to 2? inches long by one-fourth to one-third of an inch broad. Both of these varieties range from northern California through the Southwest to Texas. ' Wood, pale reddish brown, light, firm, and rather elastic. It is of no economic value. The longleaf willow is one of the most useful of its kind for retaining moist sand bars and the erodable banks of streams which flow through rich bottoms. It forms the densest of pure thickets, and propagates itself largely by shoots from a mass of running roots, as well as by its seed, quickly occupying every available strip of moist sand. LONGEVITy.—Not fully determined. Stems from 2 to 3 inches in diameter are from 9 to 14 years old. RANGE. Quebec (Lake St. John and Island of Orleans) and southward through. western New England to the Potomac River; northwestward to the Arctic Circle (valley of Mackenzie River) and British Columbia and California; southward in the Mississippi River basin to northern Mexico and Lower California. ; OCCURRENCE. Sand bars bordering lowland streams, ponds, and lakes, in moist or wet sand and gravel, overlaid with silt, which this willow’s dense reed-like stems retain. Forms exten- sive pure thickets and patches, in which cottonwood is sometimes mingled. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of aspen at lower levels. TOLERANCE.—Very intolerant of shade. REPRODUCTION.—Exceedingly prolific seeder. Crowded masses of seedlings the first tree growth to hold wet bars and muddy shores. Strikingly even-aged stands character- istic of reproduction. Silverleaf Willow. Salia sessilifolia Nuttall. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Silverleaf willow is generally known only by the name of “ willow.’ In gen- eral appearance, and in the form of its leaves, it closely resembles longleaf wil- low, particularly the variety argyrophylla. It is sometimes 20 or 25 feet high and from 8 to 10 inches through, but usually it is a slender shrub from 6 to 10 feet high. The grayish-brown bark of larger trunks is from one-third to one- half an inch thick, with irregular shallow seams. Mature leaves (fig. 92), about 2 to 43 inches long by about one-fourth to one-third of an inch wide, sometimes narrower, are light pea-green, smooth or minutely hairy on the upper side, and with white, silky hairs beneath. Midveins of the leaves, lemon yellow, and the short thick stems minutely hairy. The distinctive characters of this willow are not fully worked out. Many forms of it so closely resemble S. fluviatilis argyrophylla, with which it may occur, that they can be distinguished only with great difficulty. Further careful field study is required for both. 294 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Wood, pale reddish brown. Not used commercially. LoNnGEviry.—Not fully determined. Stems from 6 to 9 inches in diameter are 24 to 37 years old. Fic. 92.—Salixr sessilifolia: a, seed-bearing branch. RANGE. From mouth of Columbia River, Washington, to southwestern California, ranging through western Oregon and western slopes of Sierras and coast ranges. OCCURRENCE. Borders of streams and moist depressions. Lr ee ene = - =e ool. ~~. ee err See ee ui nuaaeiall See es eee aS eee ee FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Mackenzie Willow. Salix cordata mackenzieana Hooker. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Mackenzie willow is a little-known species, probably not now laymen. Slender, straight, from 15 to 18 feet high and from \ = z a) N ‘A H) ) 225 distinguished by 3 to 5 inches in = — = S— : SSS i “al Cy ) Yes Lie SS bth hs Fic. 93.—Salig cordata mackenzieana: a, fruiting branch; b, seed pod, enlarged. diameter, with thin. smooth, unbroken bark of an ashy gray color, and a narrow, rather compact crown of thin branches which grow upward. + Mature twigs of 226 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. the year are rather slender, but stiff in appearance, shiny yellow, later becoming greenish. Mature leaves (fig. 93), from 1$¢ to 3} inches long, are deep yellow- green (paler beneath), smooth on both surfaces; the somewhat scythe-shaped form of the leaves is a notable character. Midveins and stems of the leaves are yellow. Wood, reddish brown, light, soft, and brittle. LonceEvity.—Not fully determined. Stems from 3 to 5 inches through are from 13 to 22 years old. RANGE. Great Slave Lake and southward (through region along eastern base of Rocky Moun- tains) to northern Idaho and California (Lake County). OCCURRENCE. Borders of mountain streams in rocky and gravelly soil. Climatic and’ other require- ments undetermined. White Willow. Salix lasiolepis © Bentham, DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. The white willow, so called on account of the smooth ashy gray bark (with brownish tinge) of young trunks and limbs of older trees, varies in size from a cluster of low shoots (at high elevations) to a tree from 15 to 25 feet in height (at low elevations) with a diameter of from 6 to 10 inches. Very exceptionally it is from 30 to 40 feet high and a foot or more in diameter. The slim branches trend upward strongly in a rather narrow, irregular open crown. Bark of larger trunks is less than one-half an inch thick, shallowly seamed, the wide ridges connected here and there by. smaller lateral ridges; indistinctly dark brown or blackish with occasional grayish areas on the flat ridges. Mature twigs of the season, rather thick, bear numerous leaves and are deep red-brown, tinged with yellow toward their extremities, where they are very minutely downy, but smooth lower down. Mature leaves (fig. 94), from 23 to about 53 inches long, are somewhat thick and leathery, with yellow stems and midveins, dark yellow-green and smooth on their top sides, conspicuously silver-white beneath, where the midveins and terminal leaves are minutely hairy. Wood: Very little of the pale brown heartwood is formed, the main bulk of the trunk being sapwood. Not used commercially, but in the southern range at a low altitude, where fuel timber is scarce, it is locally used for fuel. Lonceviry.—Not fully determined. Stems from 5 to 9 inches in diameter are from 12 to 22 years old. RANGE. Northern California (Klamath River) and southward through the western part of the State to Lower California and southern Arizona (Tanners Canyon on Huachuca Moun- tains, and White River Canyon on Chiricahua Mountains). 2There is doubt, which can not be cleared up at present, as to whether this name is older than Salix bigelovii Torrey, supposed to have been published in 1856 or January, 1857, while S. lasiolepis Bentham appeared in February, 1857. Torrey, however, cites other species of Salix described and published by Bentham with his 8S. lasiolepis, and this seems to show conclusively that the latter’s name was actually published before Torrey’s S. bigelovii, notwithstanding the printed earlier date of the document containing ~ Torrey’s name of this willow. - we roe = FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. yl | OCCURRENCE. Borders of lowland streams and adjacent bottoms (as a tree), and lower mountain slopes in springy places and on streams (shrubby), in moist sandy and gravelly soil. Scattered and in small groups with California sycamore and white alder. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of white alder. Fic. 94.—Salir lasiolepis. 228 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Nuttall Willow. Salix nuttallii Sargent. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Nuttall willow, so called here for the sake of a distinctive common name, is mainly known as “ black willow,” and to some extent, because of its high moun- Fic. 95.—Saliz nuttallii. tain habitat, as “mountain willow.” It has a single straight trunk, and when grown in the open its long, slim branches droop in a somewhat close, long, FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 229 dome-like crown; the clear trunk is very short, even in dense stands. Its usual height is from 20 to 25 feet, and its smooth, thin-barked, dark ashy brown trunks are from 6 to 8 inches in diameter. Bark on the bases of large trunks is irregu- larly broken into wide ridges and is blackish brown, with a faint tinge of red. The red tinge is evident also on smoother parts of the trunk. Twigs of one or two season’s growth are thick, clear reddish yellow, becoming a deep mahogany brown with age. The form and texture of the mature leaves (fig. 95) serve generally to distinguish this willow from others associated with it. They are thin, somewhat shiny, smooth, and deep yellow-green on the top sides, pale or whitish beneath (sometimes very minutely hairy), about 2 to 5 inches long, margins slightly curled toward the under surface, and the prominent yellow midveins, as well as the stems, finely hairy. The Pacific coast form of this willow distinguished as Salix nuttallii brachystachys (Benth.) Sargent, is gener- ally a larger tree than that occurring farther eastward, being from 40 to 50 feet in height and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter. It has a longer clear trunk, which is more commonly ashy gray, with whitish areas, and irregularly seamed ; the bark when broken shows clear red-brown. The general appearance of the trees and their foliage is, however, essentially the same; the female flower clusters only are shorter in the variety and frequently strongly curved. The coast tree is here considered only as a geographic form, inseparable, for the forester’s purposes, from the type growing farther inland. Wood (of the inland tree), pale reddish brown and of somewhat lighter weight than that of the coast tree, which is of a slightly more reddish color. The wood has no com- mercial or domestic value, for it grows where there are many other superior woods. LonGeEviry.—Not fully determined. Trees from 8 to 14 inches in diameter are from 25 to 48 years old. RANGE. From southern Assiniboia and British Columbia (Columbia River near Donald), Wash- ington, and Oregon southward in the Rockies to northern New Mexico and Arizona (San Francisco Mountain); California (Sierras and coast ranges to the San Bernardino Mountains). OCCURRENCE, Headwaters and upper courses of high mountain streams; moist benches, depressions, and gentle slopes with damp, humous, rocky or gravelly soil; abundant soil moisture and well-drained. situation essential. Occurs singly and in small groups, often with red alder and broadleaf maple. ; CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of red and mountain alders. TOLERANCE.—Endures considerable shade. REPRODUCTION.—Moderately abundant seeder. Seedlings frequent, but usually much seattered, Broadleaf Willow. Salix amplifolia Coville. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Broadleaf willow is a new and as yet little known willow discovered in 1899. The common name is coined from the technical name, which refers to a conspic- uous characteristic. Locally, the species is called “willow” only. As now known it is a shrubby tree from 20 to 25 feet high and from 8 to 12 inches in 230 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. diameter. Nothing is known now of the trunk form, crown, bark, and wood, which need to be studied. Young twigs (fig. 96) are densely white-woolly, but in two or three years this covering goes off, and the dark red-purple bark is exposed. Mature leaves (fig. 97) are light yellowish-green, nearly or quite S Fic. 96.—Salir amplifolia: a, male flowers; b, female flowers; c, seed-bearing branch. smooth on their top sides (sometimes slightly woolly) and whitish beneath; young and immature leaves are more or less densely white-woolly on both sur- faces, the wool gradually disappearing with age later in the season. ¢ FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 231 RANGE, ALASKA.—West shore of Yakutat Bay, near Hubbard Glacier in Disenchantment Bay and on Haenke Island and Egg Island and on the east shore at the head of Yakutat Bay. Fic. 97.—Salix amplifolia. OCCURRENCE, Near sea beaches on sand dunes. Scattered and with Alaska willow. CLIMATIC CoNDITIONS.—Probably similar to those of black cottonwood; little known now of requirements. 939 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Hooker Willow. Salix hookeriana Barratt in Hooker.% DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. The Hooker willow is not known by this name in its native habitat, but simply Fic. 98.—WSalix hookeriana. b] as “willow.” It varies from a sprawling shrub to a cluster of trunks from 12 «This name is commonly credited to Hooker, who published it thus: ‘Salix hookeriana Barratt mst.’’—Barratt having described and named the tree. Hooker obviously intended or FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 233 to 18 feet high and from 6 to 10 inches in diameter; rarely single trees are 25 or 30 feet high. The thin, scaly bark is pale reddish-brown, and indistinctly and irregularly seamed. Mature twigs of the season are densely coated with whit- ish woolly hairs, a thinner covering of which remains during another year, showing the clear red-brown bark beneath. Mature leaves (fig. 98), 3 to 6 inches long, clear, rather shiny, yellowish green and usually smooth on their top sides, except along the midveins, which are hairy; sometimes entirely coy- ered with a hairy coat, which is always present on young leaves. The under sur- face of the leaves has whitish, dense wool or minute, close hairs, particularly on the large midveins and their branches. Wood: A large proportion of the stem is heartwood, which is pale reddish- brown. Not used commercially. LoNGEvITy.—Not fully determined. Stems from 4 to 7 inches in diameter are from 18 to 35 years old. RANGE. Vancouver Island to southern Oregon—coast region. OCCURRENCE, Commonly near tide-water streams, sloughs, ponds, and salt marshes, but also about other wet places, in sandy, gravelly, or mucky soil; sometimes in dryish situations. Scat- tered singly and in groups. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of Sitka spruce. TOLERANCE.—Undetermined, but appears little tolerant of shade. REPRODUCTION.—Abundant seeder. Young plants are frequent, especially in sand and muck. Silky Willow. Salix sitchensis Sanson in Bongard. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Silky willow ordinarily has slender shrubby stems from 8 to 12 feet high. As a tree (rarely over 20 or 25 feet in height), it is greatly branched, with a erooked or variously bowed or leaning trunk from 8 to 10 inches in diameter. The thin, scaly bark is faintly reddish-brown. Mature twigs of the year are deep reddish-yellow to reddish-brown, minutely hairy; a season later they become nearly or quite smooth, but occasionally with a whitish coating. The leaves (figs. 99, 100), from 3 to 5 inches long, are clearly distinguished by their dense covering of shiny, white, silky hairs on their under surfaces, while on their top sides they are very deep grass-green, smooth, and shiny. The mid- veins, as well as the thick leaf-stems, are hairy. Wood: The heartwood, pale cherry red, forms only a small proportion of the stem. Not used commercially. Loneeviry.—Not fully determined. Trees from 5 to 9 inches in diameter are from 16 to 30 years old. RANGE. Alaska (Cook Inlet and Kodiak Island) to southern California (Santa Barbara—coast region—and up to higher timber Lelt in mountains) and east to Blue Mountains, Oregon. OCCURRENCE, Borders of streams, meadows, and moist depressions; often in rich, mucky soil. it to be cited as Barratt’s species, since no author would deliberately name a species in honor of himself, necessitating the citation of a patronymic from his name, and his name also as its author, side by side. 234 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Fic. 99.—Salix sitchensis. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 235 Fie. 100.—Salix sitchensis. 236 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Feltleaf Willow. Salix alarensis (Anderss.) Coville. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Feltleaf willow, so called on account of the felt-like, woolly covering of its leaves, was known for over thirty years as a low shrub. It was only about Fic. 101.—Saliz alazensis: a, male flowers; b, seed-bearing branch. eight years ago that it was found to become a tree from 20 to 25 feet high and ; from 4 to 5 inches in diameter in protected situations. Little is yet known of FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. . 937 its habit when of tree size, and nothing of the character and appearance of the bark and wood, concerning which further study is required. The yearling twigs are thick and densely covered with white hairs (fig. 101); later the twigs - Fie. 102.—NSalir alarensis. lose this covering, and the somewhat shiny, dark purple bark beneath is exposed. Mature leaves (fig. 102), yellowish-green, are rendered unique by _ being densely coated with pure white, shiny hairs on their under surfaces, but 15188—08——16 938 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. smooth, and slightly wrinkled by the depression of the veins on their upper sides. The wide midvein is yellow. They vary in length from about 23 to 4 inches, and in width from 1 to 13 inches. The hairy seed capsules are borne in a pecu- liarly dense, cylindrical cluster, from 4 to 5 inches long, while the top of the capsules ends in a minutely double-forked, thread-like tip (fig. 101). RANGE. Coast of Alaska, from Alexander Archipelago to Cape Lisbourne, and eastward to the valley of the Mackenzie River and to the shores of Coronation Gulf. OCCURRENCE, Little is known of its occurrence. Bay shores in newly deposited gravel (low shrub), and in gravel of older deposit (as a tree) among shrubs. Scattered, and sometimes with broadleaf willow. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Probably similar to those of black cottonwood. POPULUS. COTTONWOODS AND POPLARS. This large group includes the trees popularly known as aspens, poplars” or “popples,” and cottonwoods. Several of them are very large forest trees, with rough, deeply furrowed, grayish bark (‘ cottonwoods ’’), or with smooth bark, little broken, and whitish or ashy (aspens). In their habits, their reproduction, and, to some extent, their foliage, they are closely related to the willows, with which they are most often associated. The leaves grow singly at alternate points on the branches, as in the willows. In outline, many of them are remotely triangular or egg-shaped, sometimes lance-shaped—very closely resembling the pointed-leafed willows; the borders of the leaves either have small, hooked, blunt teeth or are entire (uncut)... When mature, they are most often smooth on both surfaces, but occasional species have hairy or woolly leaves. The leaf stems of many species are flattened at right angles to the leaf blade, and this causes the leaves to tremble in the slighest breeze. The leaves, after turning yellow, fall from the trees in autumn, leaving prominent leaf scars which give the twigs a knotty appearance. The scaly buds of many species are character- ized by a covering of pungent, sticky resin,? which appears to have a protective use. Male and female flowers are each borne on separate © trees; only the female trees produce seed. Trees of the two sexes are unevenly distributed—fre- quently only one seed tree to many male or sterile trees; sometimes they are very widely separated. The flowers are fertilized by insects. With one or two exceptions (in female flowers), the flowers of each kind appear in long cylin- drical clusters, which hang down conspicuously from the bases of buds on twigs of the previous year’s growth. The seed-bearing flowers develop bud-like cap- sules (arranged on a pendent, thread-like stem) which are usually mature in early spring, before or by the time the leaves are full grown. Soon afterwards the capsules split open by from 2 to 4 divisions and liberate their minute, cot- tony seeds. These are provided with exceedingly fine, silky, white hairs, which render them very buoyant, so that the wind may bear them many miles from the parent trees. Of all trees, this group, together with the willows, is best « Liriodendron tulipifera L., native of the East, more properly called tulip-tree, is often known as “poplar” or ‘‘ yellow poplar.” It is a member of the magnolia family and in no way related to the true poplars. +The so-called ‘‘ bee glue,’’ with which honey bees fasten their honey combs in hives or in the hollows of trees, is gathered by bees from the buds of the cottonwoods. When hard, it is very strong. ¢ Sometimes one tree may produce clusters of male and of female flowers, or even elusters combining both male and female flowers, but this is exceptional. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 239 equipped for effecting a wide distribution of its representatives by seeding. The lightness and abundance of poplar seed doubtless accounts for the ubiqui- tous presence of poplars wherever moist ground is available in all situations from sea level to nearly 10,000 feet elevation, but especially in cold, far northern regions. The wood of the poplars is light, soft, and straight-grained. The grain is commonly fine, but is often coarse as a result of the rapid diameter growth eharacteristic of these trees. Its color is from whitish to a light, sometimes yellowish, brown. The wood of most species is brittle, unstable, and indurable, but that of a number of them is nevertheless of great commercial value for lumber and paper pulp. Formerly poplar wood had no economic importance, but is now rapidly coming into wider and wider use, both for pulpwood and to take the place of other woods, the supply of which is decreasing. ‘‘ Yellow pop- lar” (tulip-tree), which some of the poplars resemble in grain and in the ease with which they can be worked, is one of the woods for which the poplars supply substitutes. The poplars are important to the forester especially for maintaining tree growth on stream bottoms where few other trees naturally grow. They produce a forest cover and nseful timber in from twenty-five to fifty years, while, like the willows, the ease and convenience with which they can be grown from root and branch cuttings and from cut stumps—even from stakes set in damp soil— renders artificial propagation particularly simple. They attain maturity in from 100 to 200 years, most of them within a century, and then begin to show signs of arrested growth, but on account of their great vitality and recuperative power some species may continue to grow for a much longer time, repairing | broken trunks and other injuries to which their brittle stems are subject. Ten poplars occur within the United States and adjacent Canadian territory, and 4 of these inhabit the Pacific region; but 3 of the latter also extend far out- side the Pacific region, to the north and east. The poplars are of very ancient origin. Remains show that they existed among the earliest tree forms of the Lower Cretaceous period in Greenland, and that many different species inhabited the central portion of this continent in the same epoch, and existed also in the Tertiary and Miocene periods in this country and in Europe. Aspen. Populus tremuloides Michaux. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Aspen is the best known and most extensively distributed of our trees. Its conspicuously whitish, smooth, straight trunks and small, trembling leaves dis- tinguish it from its associates. It is from 60 to 80 feet high and from 14 to 20 inches in diameter, more commonly from 30 to 40 feet high and from 8 to 12 inches through. In high exposed places it is small, with bent or almost pros- trate stems; elsewhere the trunks are straight, unbranched, except near the sunmmit, and of an apparently uniform diameter for one-half or two-thirds of their length. The short, slender, irregularly bent limbs stand out straight from the stem in a narrow dome-like crown, which is long in open stands and short in dense growths, in which two-thirds of the stem may be clear of branches. The hard, firm bark is little broken except near the ground. Near the ground it is broken and blackish, and, on large trunks, is nearly 2 inches thick; higher up it is thinner. Frequent black, rounded protuberances and curved, sear-like marks characterize the trunks. 240 | FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE, The color of the bark, which is prevailingly whitish, is sometimes varied with very pale green or yellowish areas. The leaves (figs. 103 to 105) are smooth on both surfaces at maturity, somewhat shiny, and deep yellow-green above and much paler beneath. Leaf stems, yellow and flattened near the leaf blade, vary in length from about 1; to nearly 38 inches. In autumn the leaves become a clear lemon-yellow. Mature twigs are smooth, shiny, clear reddish brown, with similarly colored thinly resinous buds. Wood: Silvery white sapwood forms a large proportion of the stem; the small core of heartwood is pale brown. The wood, rather fine-grained, is light, exceed- ingly soft, brittle, not durable in contact with the ground. Owing to its phys- or we oe, Hy XS ¥ ‘a ne a SER PS.) Fic. 103.—Populus tremuloides, eastern form. feal fitness and the white color of its wood it is much in demand in the East for paper pulp, while its freedom from odor has made it very useful in its west- ern range for fruit-box boards, into which large quantities of fire-killed trees are cut. Green timber is not used for the latter purpose because it warps and checks. LonGrEviry.—Not fully determined. Evidently a short-lived tree. Trees from 10 to 14 inches in diameter are from 21 to 36 years old. RANGE, Southern Labrador to Hudson Bay (southern shores) and northwest to Mackenzie River (near mouth) and Alaska (Yukon Valley); south to New Jersey, Tennessee, a i i ae rl at a ll a FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 241 northeastern Missouri, northwestern Nebraska, and throughout western mountains to northern New Mexico and Arizona and central California; Lower California (Mount San Pedro Martir) and Mexico (mountains of Chihuahua). ALASKA.—North in Yukon Valley to latitude of Arctic Circle on south slopes of - Endicott Mountains, west probably nearly to Bering Sea and south to inland side Pacifie Coast Range, and to its seaward side at Cook Inlet, and possibly at head of Lynn Canal. Noted near International boundary in Yukon Valley, north side Yukon basin from Fort Yukon to Deering (Bering Sea), Chandler River, Koyukuk River, Endicott Mountains up to 2,000 feet, 10 miles below Walker Lake at head of Kobuk River, Dall River to 2,500 feet, Allen, upper Kuskokwim, Matanuska, Sushitna rivers, and Copper, Tanana, TS 2 Fic. 104.—Populus tremuloides, Colorado form. and White rivers up to about 3,500 feet; Lake Clark and near Nogheling River at base of Alaska peninsula, on Cook Inlet at Tyonek, and on west slope and plateau of Kenai Mountains; also reported at head Lynn Canal from Skagway to Glacier. YUKON AND BRITISH COLUMBIA.—West to inland slopes Pacific Coast Range. Noted on Klondike, Stewart, McQuestion, and upper Pelly rivers, about Dease Lake, Liard River between Dease and Francis rivers, eastern side Cassiar Range, upper Stikine River and Skeena River above 100 miles from mouth. WASHINGTON.—Whole State but not common; west of Cascades from sea level to 4,000 feet, and east of Cascades from 1,500 to 4,500 feet. Noted West Washington National Forest generally above 3,000 feet; locally on Slate Creek and other tributaries of Skagit River, 10 miles below Ventura, above Newby’s; in East Washington National 949 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Forest generally 1,100 to 5,000 feet; Yakima division Washington National Forest gen- erally at 1,600 to 3,500 feet; Mount Rainier National Forest generally at 2,500 to 5,800 feet; noted locally on Natches River near mouth Nile Creek, Mount Adams, canyons Yakima River, Umptanum Creek, and Columbia River between Priest Rapids and Sen- = ow RRR Les are, \\ of chaparral at 8,500 to 10,000 feet elevation, while in San Jacinto National Forest it grows at from 8,000 to 10,800 feet. OCCURRENCE. Mountain slopes, sheltered ravines and valleys, slopes of canyons and gulches; in rather dry or extremely dry rocky and gravelly soils. Largest in valleys of northwest California ; small or shrubby at high levels elsewhere. In dense pure-growth thickets over large areas in latter regions, interspersed with low forms of canyon liye oak, western juniper, scrubby Jeffrey pine, scrub oak and cha- parral; but often scattered among redwood and Douglas fir. 4 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Combine those of white fir and Jeffrey pine (at high levels) and of Douglas fir and redwood (at lower levels). TOLERANCE.—Very tolerant of shade; in later life endures side shade but requires overhead light for best height growth, clearing its long trunks well in close stands. REPRODUCTION.—Abundant seeder, but less so in mixed stands, where seedlings are only fairly frequent; more plentiful at higher levels, where washing covers seed in crevices and pockets in shade of seedlings and other plants. Much seed eaten by rodents. QUERCUS. OAKS. The oaks form a large group, composed almost entirely of trees, some of which are the most important timber trees of North America. They are world- famous trees, which through their powerfully built trunks, branches, and roots, have earned the reputation of the greatest physical sturdiness. The great strength and other useful commercial qualities of their woods, together with the fact that many of the species occur over large areas in nearly pure forests, render these trees of the highest economic value. Most of them are long-lived and very aggressive in their persistent efforts to maintain themselves, through seed and sprout reproduction, against fire and the ax, and against other forest trees and to extend their domain. With some exceptions they grow rather slowly and require several centuries to produce the high-class saw timber which our virgin oak forests once furnished in great quantities, but which now is rapidly disappearing. They are cosmopolitan, and adapt themselves to dry, sterile soils, as well as to moist, fertile ones, and to cold as well as to temperate and tropical climates. They prefer, however, temperate regions, in which the number of species is greatest. In altitudinal range they are equally unre- stricted, for they push their sturdy ranks from near the sea far up mountain slopes and canyons to nearly 10,000 feet elevation. The two broad classes of our oaks—the white oaks and the black oaks—are popularly distinguished by the color of the wood and bark. Technically they are based upon different habits of producing fruit (acorns). The white oaks produce their acorns in one season; the black oaks produce theirs in two seasons. There are four exceptions which do not fit these classifications, namely, two Pacific oaks, which have wood resembling that of white oaks but which require two seasons to mature their acorns, and one Atlantic and one Pacific oak which have the darker wood and bark of black oaks but which mature their acorns in one season. Many oaks have massive and straight trunks; most of them have furrowed and scaly bark and particularly large, powerful branches which often form im- FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. OTT mensely wide but storm-firm crowns. The hard, characteristically porous wood (pores occupying mainly one portion of the annual layer) is exceedingly strong in some oaks, and, with the bark, is astringent, due to the presence of large amounts of tannin. The leaves of oaks occur singly on the branches—never in pairs, one opposite another. The winter buds, rounded, angled, or pointed, are formed of overlap- ping scales. Some oaks shed their leaves in autumn of each year; others, have evergreen leaves, which are shed the second or third year. Male flowers, minute, arranged singly on thread-like stems, hang down in loose, tassel-like clusters from buds on twigs of the previous year’s growth. Female flowers, minute, very inconspicuous, bid-like bodies, are produced singly or several in a stemmed cluster, from the bases of young growing leaves of the spring; they develop into a nut-like fruit (acorn) in one or two seasons. A notable exception to this arrangement of flowers is found in a section of the genus Quercus Pasania (treated by some authors as a distinct genus). In these oaks, from 3 to 5 male flowers occur together, the groups are scattered along up- right stems and grow singly from the bases of young leaves of the season (some- times from the bases of the leaves of the previous year). Single female flowers are also borne at some of these leaf-bases, usually at the uppermost ones. Flowers of all oaks are fertilized by the wind. The acorns which mature in a single season grow steadily to full size during that period, while those which mature in two seasons develop only very slightly the first summer (appearing ’as miniature acorns), and begin to increase perceptibly in size only at the open- ing of the second season. Mature acorns of annual-fruiting oaks are therefore found on twigs of the year, while those of biennial-fruiting oaks are attached to 2-year-old twigs. By inspecting the biennial oaks in autumn or winter it may always be determined whether or not they are to bear seed the following season. Seed production is more or less periodic, at intervals ranging from one to three years; but occasional trees bear fruit for several consecutive seasons. The fruits, called acorns, are distinctive in having a separable, scaly—some- times bristly—cup partly or almost wholly inclosing the smooth, thin-shelled nut. Seed of the white-oak acorns is usually whitish, sweetish, and palatable, while that of black-oak acorns is yellowish and bitter with tannin. In autumn, when the nuts are mature, either the nuts fall from the cups or, in the less easily separable fruits, both nuts and cups fall together. Under favorable conditions acorns may germinate in autumn, but they com- monly do not germinate until spring. The seed, or firm, inner body of the acorn, consists of two seed-leaves, separated down the center, and from between these, as germination proceeds, grow both the root, or radicle, and the main stem of the little oak. Unlike those of some other trees, the seed-leaves of the oaks do not form the first green, leaf-like organs, but remain in the split shell and furnish nutriment to the growing stem and root until their supply is exhausted, when they become black and later fall from the stem. Ta Se IE VAISS aay, aN es Oa é, ‘ F} ite oe nS ere r) TEN SE: Sb) irs SS SF, ‘ SU a SEO SRD Z e Pete SS eee yS fs JS vesouseee: TS Roh a LZ, oT} 7 Baan ge seas eS R pase, 50a reset AS: Es : PE POPAS SEATS SISA val S na % SS ‘@) RSS Sy | pe Bde. ANY eatoy eye) Sty aks OSE So NE SORES QS VRS CS Fic. 125.—Quercus garryana. E., and T. 21 S., R. 3 E.) ; throughout Rogue River Basin, north slopes of Siskiyous, and at Waldo in western Siskiyous. CALIFORNIA.—Northwest part, generally up to lower edge of yellow pine growth at 3,000 or 4,000 feet; westward to inland slope of seaward range, and probably not as far east- ward as Mount Shasta (but reported in Lassen Peak National Forest) ; in Trinity National Forest, eastward to point between Lewiston and Weaverville, just west of Sac- ramento Valley ; extends southward in coast ranges sparingly to Sonoma County—possibly FOREST TREES OF TUE PACIFIC SLOPE. 285 to Marin County, and south of San Francisco to Santa Cruz Mountains. Locally noted on most south slopes and valleys of Trinity National Forest, such as Grouse Creek, on Humboldt Trail, near South Fork Mountain, at 2,500 feet, Rattlesnake Basin, at 3,800 feet, and creek bottom near Friends Ranch, at 3,700. OCCURRENCE. In alluvial high bottoms, valleys, prairies; less commonly on dry hill and (north) mountain slopes. In deep, fresh, humous soils (largest in west Washington and Oregon), and also in dry, gravelly or rocky soils (small or scrubby). Occurs only in open mixture; usually with Kellogg oak and Douglas fir, but also with madrofta, western yellow pine, and Oregon ash. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of Douglas fir. TOLERANCE.—Endures slight shade in youth. REPRODUCTION.—Prolific periodic seeder (about every two years). Seedlings rather searce, most frequent on moist humous soil and litter; unbroken, grassy surfaces where seed trees often grow are unfavorable for reproduction. Sadler Oak. Quercus sadleriana R. Brown Campst. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Sadler oak—named in honor of a Scottish botanist—has no common name ex- cept “scrub oak.” Though it is only a shrub under 6 feet in height, it is included here because of its value as a slope cover. It produces extensive dense thickets on high, dry slopes between about 4,000 and 9,000 feet elevation. The very dis- tinct form of its leaves (fig. 126), which are thick, deep yellow-green, smooth, and shiny on their upper surfaces, and white, smooth, or slightly hairy beneath, readily distinguish it from any other associated oaks. The leaves, though not strictly evergreen, remain on the branches until the next season’s foliage is produced. Acorns are matured in one season. RANGE. Coast and Siskiyou mountains of southwestern Oregon and northwestern California. OREGON.—On top of coast mountains along old Wimer road; top of Siskiyous near Happy Camp Trail. CALIFORNIA.—Crescent City Trail, Del Norte County, near Oregon line. OCCURRENCE. Mountain slopes in dry, rocky and gravelly soil. In extensive thickets of pure growth. Blue Oak. Quercus douglasii Hooker and Arnott. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Appropriately called blue oak on account of the blue-green color of its foliage, but known locally also as “ white oak,” from its light, ashy-gray bark. Trunks exposed to the sun are especially light colored, sometimes even whitish, but are considerably darker gray in sheltered situations. Usually small or medium sized, from.30 to 40 feet high and from 10 to 15 inches in diameter; exceptionally, from 60 to 75 feet in height and 2 feet in diameter ; larger trees occur, but very rarely. The rather thin, narrowly ridged bark flakes off easily. The smooth-looking trunks are short and clear of branches 15188—O8 19 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 286 for about 10 to 20 feet; they are invariably leaning or bent, and give off short, thick, horizontal, contorted limbs, which form a compact, flattish, dome-like Year-old twigs are exceedingly brittle, dull gray to reddish brown, and crown. Quercus sadleriana. Fic. 126. Mature leaves (figs. 127, 128), extremely variable in size and form; their upper sides conspicuously tinged light blue, with minute, _ Sparse, star-shaped hairs; beneath pale bluish or yellowish green, with very more or less minutely hairy. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 287 fine soft hairs; midveins and their branches also with very fine soft hairs. They are shed gradually late in autumn. Acorns (fig. 128), deep chestnut brown when ripe and exceedingly variable in form, are matured in one season. Fic. 127.—Quercus douglasii. Wood, dark mottled brown, very dense, heavy, stiff, and brittle, very cross- grained and difficult to split; sapwood, uncommonly thick. Large trunks are often unsound. It is unfit for any ordinary commercial use, but is good for fuel, for which it is extensively used. 288 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. LoNGEvITy.—Very little is known of the age attained. Believed to be long- lived. Trees from 14 to 20 inches in diameter are from 175 to 280 years old. Owing to the decayed heart of large trees it is exceedingly difficult to determine their age. Fic. 128.— Quercus douglasii. RANGE. CALIPORNIA.—Foothills of coast ranges and west slope of Sierras from Mendocino County and mountains south of Mount Shasta southward to Santa Ynez and Tehachapi mountains and to borders of Mohave Desert. In coast ranges, common on lower foot- hills of inner mountains and rare in valleys; extends westward and northward to east FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 289 slopes of seaward range at Ukiah on Russian River, becoming very abundant south of San Francisco Bay. Common in Trinity and Shasta National Forests at 500 to 2,000 feet elevation, on foothills south of Pitt River, on lower Sacramento, McCloud, and Trinity rivers, extending eastward in Trinity National Forest from beyond Shasta.(town) to point just west of Redding, occurring also at point 18 miles northeast of Redding. Abundant in Stony Creek National Forest in coast ranges on lowest hills of east slope. In Santa Lucia Mountains, mainly on east slopes in Carmelo, Arroyo Seco, San Antonio, and Nacimiento river basins at 250 to 3,000 feet. San Luis Obispo National Forest, generally distributed in Carriso, Salinas, Santa Margarita, San Luis, Arroyo Grande, and Huasna river watersheds at 1,000 to 2,500 feet. Santa Barbara National Forest, only in northwestern part; in Santa Maria and Santa Ynez river basins, where it grows at elevations of 550 to 4,000 feet. Elsewhere in southern coast ranges, limited to borders of Mohave desert on north slopes of northern Sierra Liebre Mountains and in San Fernando Valley at Encino (southern part of San Gabriel National Forest), the southern limit. On west slope of Sierras it occurs very generally and abundantly in foothills at 500 to 8,000 feet, southward throughout that side into valleys of Tehachapi Mountains ; common, at north, in Lassen Peak and Plumas National Forests up to 2,000 feet. Abundant in Stanislaus National Forest on lowest hills between 300 and 1,500 feet, as it is also, up to about 1,000 feet, in the Sierra National .Forest. OCCURRENCE. On low foothills and their valleys; in dry, loamy, gravelly, and rocky soils. Forms extensive, peculiarly open, pure stands, and grows with Wislizenus oak, California - white and live oaks, and Sabine pine. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of Sabine pine. TOLERANCE.—Very intolerant of shade. REPRODUCTION.—Prolific periodic seeder. Seedlings scarce in ground usually grazed or cultivated, where much seed is destroyed or has little chance of germination; rather abundant elsewhere. Alvord Oak. 2 Quercus alvordiana® Eastwood. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. So little is known now of the newly found Alvord oak that it is impossible to give an adequate account of its characters.” Said to be a “small tree or shrub” with “small, brittle, and easily falling dentate [toothed] leaves,” from the texture of which it is assigned to the white- oak group. The acorn is smooth, except the minutely scaly cup, which has very fine, close, whitish down. Nothing is known of the height, the form of trunk or crown, the wood, or other characters. It appears to be closely related to Q. dumosa, one form of which it resembles in its leaves and acorns. Careful field study of this oak is required to establish its characters. RANGE. Southern California. Described as occurring on “hills near the desert,’ and further as an “oak in the mountains connecting the Coast Range with the Sierra Nevada at the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley bordering the desert.” Engelmann Oak. Quercus engelmanni Greene. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Engelmann oak is a little-known tree, called “‘ evergreen white oak” on account of its partly evergreen leaves, which remain on the trees from one spring to the “Named in honor of William Alvord, former president of the California Academy of Sciences. >Herbarinm specimens, kindly sent by Miss Eastwood from a meager supply, are insufficient for an illustration. 290 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. next and begin to fall when the new leaves are being formed. It is not strictly evergreen. Its general aspect is that of a white oak with deeply furrowed, widely ridged, pale grayish-brown bark, and a big, irregular, dense, rounded ee Baan ex AB Vie 2 Ryaee C} \\2 a we hi iP Oe es (es es Fic. 129.—Quercus engelmanni; young shoot leaves. crown. It is from 40 to 50 feet high (occasionally somewhat taller), and from 20 to 30 inches in diameter. The large limbs stand out almost horizontally above a short, clear trunk. Twigs of the first season are reddish-brown and FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 291 coated with very minute, short hairs, which later disappear. Mature leaves (fig. 130), very distinctive, are thick, very deep blue-green, and either smooth or with a few star-shaped hairs on their top sides; under surfaces and leaf 3 Fic. 130.—Quercus engelmanni. stems light yellowish-green, and more or less coated with tawny minute hairs (which are sometimes practically absent, however) ; exceedingly variable in form and size, larger leaves occurring on vigorous shoots (fig. 129). Acorns 292 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. are matured in one season, and when ripe are dark to light chestnut-brown ; cups externally clear red-brown and minutely hairy; their scales, especially those at the bottom, having a thick, ridge-like projection on the back and sharp, hairy points. Wood very dark brown, exceedingly heavy, dense, stiff, and brittle; green wood checks and warps badly when exposed. It has nothing to recommend it for commercial purposes, but locally it is likely to be of some importance for fuel, of which it furnishes a good quality. It is a useful desert species, and owing to the limited number of trees and their restricted range, attention should be given to its reproduction and extension. LonceEvity.—Not fully determined. Judged to be moderately long-lived. One tree 144 inches (inside of bark) showed an age of only 58 years. This indicates rapid growth for a desert oak. RANGE. Southern California and northern Lower California. : CALIFORNIA.—Low hills in coast regions of southern part from Sierra Madre, where it extends from Altadena to Glendora, southward in a belt about 50 miles wide, beginning 15 to 20 miles from sea, to mesa east of San Diego. Forms about one-third of the stand in Palomar Mountains and is second in abundance to Quercus californica. Rare in Cuyamaca Mountains. At Mexican line extends from Campo to Tecate Mountain, 27 miles from coast. LoweER CALIFORNIA.—Extends only a short distance from north boundary. OCCURRENCE. Low hill slopes and dry, rolling mesas, in loamy sand and gravel soils. Forms small groups and open pure patches, but usually in mixture with California live oak. Climatic conditions, silvical characteristics, and reproduction undetermined. California Scrub Oak. Quercus dumosa Nuttall. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. With the possible exception of the polymorphous Quercus undulata, of Rocky Mountain range, California scrub oak unquestionably varies more than all other oaks in the form and size of its leaves and acorns. No sort of satisfactory harmony can be established between the perplexing phases of its development, and one is likely to be hopelessly confused without a most comprehensive field study of the bushes and small trees belonging to this species. At least 38 species and as many varieties have been singled out, but the distinctions between them _are hopelessly confused by the occasional occurrence of their various types of leaf and fruit on the branches of a single individual. Unless the observer has a comprehensive view of all the points that seem to compel the uniting of these diverging forms into one variable species, and one fairly constant sub- species, this reduction may seem hardly proper. It is known as “scrub oak,” for it occurs in the main, singly or massed in low thickets, with the fine, exceedingly stiff twigs and branches closely mingled. The California coast island representatives grown in sheltered places are from 20 to 25 feet high and from 8 to 12 or more inches in diameter, with scaly brown bark: while the bark of the scrub forms is scaly and light ashy-gray. The twigs, so rigid as to seem thorny to one penetrating a thicket, are branched at very abrupt angles. No adequate statement can be made of the size or form characters of the leaves and acorns, types of which are figured as fully as pos sible in fig. 131. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 293 The best marked variety is Quercus dumosa revoluta Sargent, to be looked for especially in the northern and southern range of the species. It is distin- guished by its strongly rolled or curled leaves, more or less coated with whitish hairs, and with prickly borders; the curled edges are turned toward the under surface of the leaf. Leaves of a season’s growth adhere to the branches until Fig. 1381.—Quercus dumosa. the succeeding spring, and begin to fall as the new leaves are formed. Acorns are matured in one season, Wood light brown, hard, brittle; of no commercial use. The species useful only in assisting, with other desert hill shrubs and small trees, in forming a protective cover on the too scantily clothed dry slopes. Its strong roots go deep into rocky 294 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. crevices and send up sprouts year after year, provided that the thin stems are not too severely burned. LoncEviry.—Not fully determined. A single stem 43 inches through shows an age of 20 years. RANGE. Central California to Lower California. Chaparral belt of foothills from central Sierras and of coast ranges in Mendocino County and Trinity Mountains, southward to northern Lower California; also on islands off southern California, here, only, becoming a tree of any considerable size. CALIFORNIA.—Common scrub oak of southern coast ranges, the type definitely known northward on seaward mountains only to San Mateo County, and on Mount Hamilton range to southern Alameda County; eastward in southern California to desert slopes of San Gabriel, San Bernardino, San Jacinto, and Cuyamaca mountains. Common in Santa Lucia and San Luis Obispo mountains between 1,000 and 4,000 feet elevation, in Sur, Carmelo, Arroyo Seco, San Antonio, Nacimiento, Carriso, Salinas, Santa Margarita, San Luis, Arroyo Grande, and Huasna river basins. In central Sierras the species is often more common than its variety revoluta. Locally noted in Butte County on foot- hills along Chico-Sterling Road; foothills on Sweetwater Creek (Eldorado County) ; in Stanislaus National Forest, forming small thickets near bottoms of canyons at 2,500 to 3,000 feet, on headwaters of Esperanza Creek (tributary North Fork Calaveras River), and on San Antonio and Indian Creek (tributaries of South Fork of latter river) ; also at Sherlock and West Point. In Sierra National Forest, reported on canyon sides of East Fork of Tule River, below Nelson’s ranch, at about 5,500 feet elevation and on Greenhorn Mountains up to 5,000 feet. Very abundant in southern mountains. Its lowest altitude in Santa Barbara National Forest is 1,400 feet, while it goes up to 5,000 and sometimes 7,000 feet; in watersheds of Santa Maria, Santa Ynez, Santa Barbara, Matilija, Piru-Sespe, Newhall, and Elizabeth rivers. In San Gabriel Mountains, on south and north slopes facing desert, growing on foothills south of Antelope Valley (western extremity of Mojave Desert), and on Liebre ranch; abundant on both sides of Cajon Pass, and farther west, at west end of Antelope Valley, common on hillsides facing desert; thence southward through Canada de las Uvas. In San Bernardino Mountains east- ward to canyons facing desert. Abundant in chaparral belt of San Jacinto National Forest up to 5,000 feet on mountain sides, and often among pines at higher elevations on south side. On Santa Ana Mountains, nearer coast, in scrub growth on tops of range at 1,600 feet. Occurs in San Diego County on mountains from near sea (Temecula Canyon, near San Diego, and near mouth of Tia Juana River, on Mexican boundary) eastward to Coast Range; here, in Palomar, Balkan, and Cuyamaca mountains, reaching east slopes; on Mexican boundary, down to about 2,543 feet on east slope, at Wagon Pass, going to about 4,000 feet, and at Jucumba Hot Springs down to 2,822 feet elevation. The form? in Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa islands, off the southern mainland coast, usually with rather large lobed leaves, is exceptional in representing the principal tree growth of this species. Its size and larger foliage are believed, however, to result from its protected habitat in these island canyons. LOWER CALIFORNIA.—Southward on foothills of Mount San Pedro Martir to Telmo, about latitude’ 31°. : The range of Quereus dumosa revoluta, which is within that of the species, is imper- fectly known. Foothills of central Sierras and of coast ranges chiefly north of San Francisco Bay. In Sierras recorded only from~ Stanislaus National Forest, where it forms occasional dense thickets; locally noted near Volcanoville and Georgetown. Occurs rarely in Coast Mountains southward to Santa Lucia Mountains, but replaces species apparently only north of San I’rancisco Bay; abundant to Mendocino County and Napa Valley, and probably with species in: Stony Creek National Forest, north of Clear Lake, and in Trinity Mountains (Shasta National Forest); locally noted in Lake County, Knoxville Grade, Napa River Basin, and in Upper Conn Valley. OCCURRENCE. Low mountain and foothill slopes and sides of desert hill canyons, in the poorest and driest gravelly soils, often so sterile as to support little else. In scattered, thick clumps and patches of pure growth, more or less interspersed with Christmas berry, mountain mahogany, ceanothus brush, manzanitas and other chaparral, of which it is essentially a part. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of gray pine. a — ns 2 Quercus macdonaldi Greene. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 295 TOLERANCE.—Appears to be tolerant of but little shade. REpRopUCTION.—Abundant seeder; apparently seeds nearly every year. Seedlings moderately abundant in exposed mineral soil of pockets where seed is well covered by washing or other accidents. Canyon Live Oak. Quercus chrysolepis Liebmann. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Canyon live oak is an evergreen oak, with the soft, scaly trunk bark of a white oak. Very variable in size, from low, dense chaparral brush to a wide-spreading tree 30 or 40 feet high, with huge horizontal limbs and a short, thick, clear trunk from 30 to 60 or more inches in diameter. It develops the latter form as single individuals in open situations, but on narrow, sheltered canyon bottoms and sides it grows tall (rarely straight) and slender, with 15 or 20 feet of clear trunk and a small crown; the stems have very little taper. Year-old twigs are dark reddish brown, more or less densely covered with fine woolly hairs, sometimes nearly or quite smooth; very woolly when young. Mature leaves (figs. 132 to 134) of one season’s growth are thick, leathery, light yellowish-green in color, and smooth on the top sides; beneath they are covered by a yellowish down., Later they lose nearly all their woolliness and become very pale bluish green beneath. Leaves of each season’s growth persist from 3 to 4 years. Various forms and sizes of leaves are produced by trees of different ages. Leaves of large trees usually have very few or no mar- ginal teeth (fig. 133), while young trees, and especially vigorous shoots, have very spiny-bordered leaves (fig. 134). Acorns are matured at the end of the second season—a notable exception to the rule among oaks which, like this species, have the sort of wood characteristic of white oak. Acorns (figs. 132, 133), with- out visible stems or with very short ones, vary exceedingly in the size and form of their nuts and cups, but agree more or less in haying nuts of a pale chestnut color (downy at the point). The cups, rather thin (figs, 132, 133) or very thick, are densely covered with a whitish or yellowish short wool, which is so dense in some instances as to obscure the cup scales. This yellow coating has given the tree the name of “ golden-cup oak” in parts of its range. A well-marked variety is Quercus chrysolepis palmeri Engelmann, of the southern boundary of California. This has very thick, stiff, wide leaves, circu- lar in outline (fig. 135, a@), with prominent, large, spine-pointed teeth; acorns usually sharply conical, often rather long stemmed, and with very shallow, thin, sometimes thickish cups (fig. 135, @). Commonly it is shrub-like, from 10 to 20 feet high, and forms dense thickets. The remarkably distinct form of this variety’s acorns, together with the fact that the female flowers are often borne on a long stem, indicate that this tree should be considered a distinct species. Another distinct variety is Quercus chrysolepis vaccinifolia (Kellogg) Engelm., a low-massed shrub of very high altitudes, commonly called “ huckle- berry oak,” from the resemblance of its small (three-fourths of an inch to 1 inch long), sparingly or indistinctly toothed, usually smooth leaves (fig. 135, b). Acorns are from five-eighths to seyen-eighths of an inch long, pointed, and with very thin, shallow cups. This variety is exceedingly important for the effective low chaparral cover it produces on the highest slopes and ridges of the Sierras. Wood of canyon live oak is of better commercial quality than that of any other species of oak in its range. It is of a light brown color, variable in grain from fine to coarse, very heavy, stiff, and exceedingly tough and strong. Its strength is well known to mountain freight teamsters, who prize wagon tongues and whiffle-trees made from it very highly. The wood is suitable for wheel stock and the woodwork of farm implements. ~ 996 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. LoNGEviry.—Not fully determined. Undoubtedly a long-lived tree, probably reaching an age of at least 250 to 300 years. Trees from 10 to 18 inches in diameter (canyon growth) are from 98 to 156 years old. Fie. 132.—Quercus chrysolepis. RANGE, Southwest corner of Oregon and southward throughout mountains of California, except east side of Sierras and southeastern desert, to northern Lower California ; eastward through mountains of central and southern Arizona, northern Sonora, and southwestern New FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 297 Mexico; in north, at elevations of about 1,000 to 5,000 feet, and in south, at 2,500 to 9,000 feet. Reported from southern Utah and Nevada, but authentic records of its exist- ence there are lacking. OrEGoN.—Coast mountains south of Cow Creek Valley (tributary Umpqua River, lat. 42° 50’), and only as a shrub on streams and in canyons. Fic. 133.—Quercus chrysolepis. CALIFORNIA.—Throughout upper foothills, canyons, and summits of coast ranges and west side of Sierras, at elevations: of 2,000 to 6,000 feet, altitudes at which it occurs generally throughout northern part of State, going westward probably to upper sea slope 298 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. of Coast Range and eastward to about longitude of Mount Shasta, but not on that mountain. In Klamath National Forest, reaching yellow pine belt; in Trinity Mountains, extending eastward nearly to Redding; in Shasta National Forest, chiefly on canyon slopes at 2,000 to 3,000 feet and in lower part of yellow pine belt up to about 5,000 feet ; common among foothill trees in Lassen Peak and Plumas National forests. Abundant in Sierras throughout higher foothills, generally to 6,000 feet, but very often ascending to Fic. 134.—Quercus chrysolepis. 8,000 or 9,000 feet. In west border canyons of Tahoe National Forest; in all principal canyons of Stanislaus National Forest, at 1,500 to 6,000 feet, occasionally spreading over high broad valleys, where large trees grow between about 3,000 to 8,000 feet elevation. Abundant in valley bottoms of Sequoia and Yosemite National parks. In Sierra National Forest it grows in canyons and gulches far below pine belt as well as up into it. Locally noted in this region as follows: Merced River, south of Wawona; Fresno River, FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 299 north of Cold Springs; Middle Fork Kings River, near Tehipiti Dome, and at mouth of Crown Creek; on the South Fork, also in head basin of this and on Bubbs Creek: Middle Tule River, at Soda Springs; East and South Forks of Kaweah River; South Fork of Kern River (opposite Weldon) in region of Cottonwood Creek, at 6,200 feet elevation, Fig. 135.—Quercus chrysolepie palmeri (a). Quercus chrysolepis vaccin ifolia (b). Tehachapi Mountains (south end of Sierras), in such eanyons as Canada de las Uvas. Common in northern coast ranges; throughout Stony Creek National Forest, but most abundant in canyons and brushy slopes of Eel River tributaries, shrubby forms often ascending highest summits to 6,000 or 7,000 feet, as on St. Johns, Black Buttes, San- 300 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. hedrin, and Bald mountains, but a tree in west side canyons. Rare in San Francisco Bay region, and of small size on higher mountains, such as Monte Diablo, Mount Tamal- pais, and in Coast Range canyons. South of Monterey, in Santa Lucia Mountains of Monterey National Forest, one of commonest trees at 1,500 to 5,000 feet elevation, in Sur, Carmelo, Arroyo Seco, San Antonio, and Nacimiento river watersheds. Farther south, in San Luis Obispo National Forest, an unimportant tree, in Arroyo Grande water- shed, at 1,250 to 3,500 feet. Very common in Santa Barbara, San Gabriel, San Bernar- dino, and San Jacinto National forests, often associated with Pseudotsuga macrocarpa up to about 6,000 feet. In Santa Barbara National Forest, on watersheds of Santa Maria, Santa Ynez, Santa Barbara, Matilija, Piru-Sespe, and Newhall rivers, at elevations of 1,000 to 6,700 feet. Abundant in all canyons of San Gabriel National Forest, above 2.500 feet, as it is also in San Bernardino National Forest, occurring here on Santa Ana River (a mile below Seven Oaks) at 5,000 feet, and farther upstream, at 5,200 feet. Frequent in San Jacinto National Forest, throughout mountains, up to 6,000 feet, but as a shrub, at head of Strawberry Valley, and on Tahquitz Ridge, at 7,000 feet elevation. Abundant also in Santa Ana range (Orange County), near coast, where it grows in can- yons, and as a shrub on summits; while farther south it is a frequent tree in seaward basins of San Diego County, such as of Palomar, Balkan, and Cuyamaca mountains. Reported on Providence Mountains (eastern San Bernardino County) near the Colorado River. LoweER CALIFORNIA.—Commonest oak on Mount San Pedro Martir, above 4,000 feet elevation, and as a small tree above 6,000 feet on both sides of Hanson Laguna range (to north). : . The detailed range of this oak east of the Pacific region will be described in a later publication. 4 Quercus chrysolepis palmeri on foothills and plateaus near southern boundary of California, forming large thickets. Noted locally in this region at point 80 miles east of San Diego, at Larkens Station, and at Las Juantas. In Lower California, from north boundary southward a short distance. Quercus chrysolepis vaccinifolia occupies Hieher range of Quercus chrysolepis, forming extensive low thickets in Trinity Mountains and Sierras of California; probably also in other parts of the latter tree’s range. OCCURRENCE. Commonly in narrow canyon bottoms and their steep slopes and in coves. sheltered depressions, in dry sandy and gravelly soils; or on exposed slopes, in broken rock and crevices. Largest in richer humous soils of sheltered canyon bottoms. Sometimes in small pure clumps or patches, but usually in mixture with California black and live oaks, highland live oak, bigcone spruce; occasionally with western yellow pine and incense cedar. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of California black oak. TOLERANCE.—Endures considerable heavy shade, especially in youth, but later seeks top light, in dense stands producing tall, slender stems with narrow crowns, either in partial or full light. Great tolerance is shown by open-grown trees in their heavy, deep, leafy crowns. REPRODUCTION.—Prolifie seeder at irregular intervals, but reproduction scanty, appar- ently as frequent in open as in sheltered sites, thick leaves preventing seedlings from suffering in latter places. Silvical requirements not fully determined. Quercus tomentella Engelmann. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. No field name appears ever to have been applied to Quercus tomentella, a little-known evergreen oak. It is from 30 to 40 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter. Somewhat larger trees are reported, and it is likely that still larger trees once grew in the sheltered canyons of the coast islands, to which it is confined. Nothing is known of its trunk and crown form. The trunk bark is thin, with broad, closely attached scales, which are brown, tinged with red, Mature leaves are thick, leathery, deep green, smooth and shiny on their top sides, and beneath coated with star-shaped and jointed hairs, as are the stems; 301 Acorns, matured in SMe pe PRELIM Ne eRe ey SENSES FA TARR yee See a YALA ALON WIRY RY ss My hs * Lecwativ's; aa KE ae athe cae ae FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. .they remain on the branches about two years before falling (figs. 136, 137)- Margins of the leaves curled toward the under surface. esl Fic. 136.—Quercus tomentella. autumn of the second year, are about 14 inches long and three-fourths of an inch thick, the shallow chestnut-colored cups covered with a tawny or whitish 15188—08——20 302 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. wool (fig. 137). Wood hard, fine-grained, and light yellowish brown. So little, is known of this oak now that nothing can be said of its economic qualities. Probably too rare and of too limited supply to be of any importance commer- cially. Fic. 137.—Quercus tomentella. LoNGEviry.—Probably moderately long-lived. One tree 43 inches in diameter (inside bark) showed an age of 44 years FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 3038 RANGE. Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz (south of Santa Barbara), Santa Catalina, and San Clemente Islands, south of Cape Vincent, off coast of California ; Guadalupe Islands, off coast of Lower California. OCCURRENCE. In narrow canyon bottoms and on exposed slopes, in rocky or gravelly soils. Climatic, silvical, and other requirements undetermined. California Live Oak. Quercus agrifolia Née. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. California live oak is one of the commonest, best known of southern Cali- fornia oaks, as well as one of the first to attract the attention of early explorers, who called it “ holly-leaved oak,” from the resemblance of its leaves to the large American or European evergreen holly. It has a short, clear trunk and a narrow or very broad, dome-shaped, dense crown, according to whether it is crowded or in the open. It usually grows in the open. Occasionally it is only a low, shrubby tree. It is ordinarily from 25 to 50 feet in height and from 1 to 2 feet in diameter. Very old trees in the open are from 60 to 75 feet high and from 3 to 33 feet through. Very long, thick, crooked limbs are given off from the short, clear trunk (which is often only from 4 to 8 feet long), forming with numerous fine twigs a dense, exceed- ingly broad crown, sometimes reaching the ground; trees in crowded stands have rather slender branches. Small trees and the large limbs of big trees have smooth, light grayish-brown bark, with frequent ashy-white areas, while large trees have very thick, hard, blackish or very dark brown, roughly furrowed bark, with wide ridges. Season’s twigs, dull gray to reddish brown, with pale chestnut-colored buds, are somewhat downy, with very short, whitish hairs. Mature leaves (figs. 158 to 140) are more or less conspicuously curled on their prickly-toothed or entire edges and are usually dark (but often light) shiny green on their convex upper sides—sometimes coated with light-colored minute, star-shaped hairs, while beneath they are paler green, smooth, some- what shiny, and with brownish hairs in the angles of the veins, or, again, the entire under surface is downy with minute, dense hairs. The leaves are thinnish. but peculiarly stiff and brittle. The foliage appears to be evergreen, but remains on the trees only until the succeeding spring, usually beginning to fall before or a short time after the new leaves are formed. Flowers appear mainly in early spring, the acorns (fig. 140) maturing in the autumn of that season; occasional trees produce flowers in the fall and small immature acorns which drop from the trees by spring. The cups of acorns are peculiar in having their scaly edges turned in. Wood, brittle, hard, heavy, exceedingly fine-grained, reddish brown; sapwood very thick and darker than heart. It has economic value only for fuel, since the tree has a very poor timber form and the wood checks and warps badly in seasoning. Bark of this species is extensively used to adulterate the similar but much more valuable tanbark obtained from the California tanbark oak. LoNGEvity.—Few records of the age attained are available. It is judged to be exceedingly long-lived. Trees from 12 to 25 inches through are from ?6 to about 65 years old. / |» ee « 304 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. RANGE. California and Lower California. Valleys and lower foothills of California coast ranges, inland through fog belt and southward from Mendocino, Mendocino County, to Mount San Pedro Martir, Lower Californfa. Not in great interior valleys of California. yun A A ype Act ‘ Al it N\A Airs iyo, 4 Mm piu Quercus agrifolia, iT ‘ / . He AMY - Matin aS ffi itl i re f Ht ~ fl. Fig, 138. WM nn, l TH Li} CALIFORNIA.—Not common north of San Francisco Bay, but very abundant in valleys about and south of the bay. Plentiful also in southern California between mountains and sea, and also on coast islands. Going southward, it extends inland from sea to , ee FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 305 Monte Diablo, Oakland hills, Santa Clara Valley, to valleys east of Santa Lucia and San Luis Obispo Mountains, to southern slopes of Santa Barbara, San Gabriel, eastern slopes of San Bernardino to San Gorgonio Pass, at 2,800 feet elevation, and to ranges in San Diego County. Locally noted about Inverness and Nicasio (Marin County) and at Berkeley ; Santa Clara Valley and up western foothills; Big Basin (Santa Cruz County), on Flea Protrero, at Monterey, Del Monte, Point Pinyos, and Carmel Bay. In Santa Lucia Mountains of Monterey National Forest, an important tree in Sur, Carmelo, Arroyo Seco, San Antonio, and Nacimiento river watersheds, ranging throughout this Forest from sea level to 3,000 feet on hillsides and in canyons. Locally noted in this region from Fic. 139.—Quercus agrifolia. near King City to Jolon, and at a point 5 miles north of Danis Ranch (Monterey County). Widely distributed in San Luis Obispo National Forest from sea level to 2,500 feet in watersheds of Carriso, Salinas, Santa Margarita, San Luis, Arroyo Grande, and Huasna river basins. Common in valleys and foothills of Santa Barbara National Forest from sea level to 4,500 feet, in watersheds of Santa Maria, Santa Ynez, Santa Barbara, Ma- tilija, Piru-Sespe, Newhall, and Elizabeth rivers. Locally noted at Nordhoff (750 feet), Piedro Blanco Creek, Coopers Canyon at 200 feet (14 miles west of Santa Barbara). Abundant in San Gabriel National Forest from Oak Knoll into Sierra Madre Range; here locally noted from lower hills to 1,000 and 3,200 feet at Pasadena (1,000 feet), 4 306 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. miles northwest of Pasadena, Long Canyon, and at point 14 miles southwest of Straw- berry Peak, at 3,200 feet. Frequent in Trabuco Canyon National Forest (Orange County), in nearly all canyons, except at highest elevations. Occurs on a number of coast islands, probably on all except San Clemente. Southward it grows in a belt about 50 miles wide, extending westward to within 15 or 20 miles of coast, and eastward to west slope of mountains, but probably not reaching San Jacinto Mountains, though ov curring in Palomar and Balkan mountains, and widely over Cuyamaca Mountains; here going eastward to Jacumba Hot Springs (2,822 feet elevation.) Locally noted near Mexican boundary in San Diego County at Alpine, 2,275 feet elevation, and Pine Valley, at 4,200 feet. Lowbr CaALIFORNIA.—More or less common in low canyons on west side of Mount San Pedro Martir; occurs here in Encinas Canyon (near San Tomas) and at San Antonio, at 3,000 feet, and on Santa Cruz Creek. Fic. 140.—Quercus agrifolia. OCCURRENCE. Characteristic on low hills and open valleys, slopes of higher foothills, shallow canyons, in dry loamy or gravelly soils; also (but stunted) on exposed seashore. . Forms extensive, pure, open forests, and is also mixed with valley oaks, blue oak, Wislizenus oak, and big-cone spruce, and occasionally with canyon live oak, California sycamore, and white alder. : CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of Monterey pine. TOLERANCE.—Very tolerant of shade throughout life. REPRODUCTION.—Prolific periodic seeder, but reproduction generally scanty. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 307 Wislizenus Oak. Quercus wislizeni A. de Candolle. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Wislizenus oak is not known by this name. It is hoped, however, that this name may be used in preference to “live oak,” the present field name, which is applied to several other oaks with evergreen foliage. Fic. 141.—Quercus wislizeni. Very similar in size, general form, and appearance of the bark to the pre- ceding species, with which it is often associated and with which, when young, 308 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. it may be easily confounded. It does not have such broad crowns nor such enormous limbs as the California live oak. Its similar, but very much thicker, leathery, shiny, perfectly smooth leaves (figs. 141, 142) are flat (never curled), deep green on their top sides and light yellow-green beneath. The leaf stems Fig. 142.—Quercus wislizeni. are generally very minutely and plentifully (sometimes sparsely) hairy. Unlike those of the California live oak, the leaves of this tree remain on the branches for about two seasons and begin to fall during the second summer or autumn. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 809 Acorns (fig. 142) mature in two seasons and are ripe in late fall. The cup scales are long and reddish brown. : Wood similar in color and character to that of the preceding, but its thick sapwood is whitish. It is of no economic use, except for local supplies of fuel, for which it is very highly esteemed and extensively used in some parts of the tree’s range. LonGEviTy.—Not fully determined. It grows slowly and persistently and is exceedingly tenacious, even where storm-beaten or pounded in the sandy and gravelly washes of streams. Trees from 8 to 15 inches in diameter are from 40 to 75 years old. RANGE. Northern California to northern Lower California. Foothills and valleys from near lower southern slopes of Mount Shasta (Sacramento River Valley) southward in Cali- fornia coast ranges and Sierras to Mount San Pedro Martir, northern Lower California. Shrubby on high summits at south. CALIFORNIA.—Valleys and foothills in coast mountains, particularly away from coast, northward and westward to Ukiah (on Russian River), Mendocino County; northward, in great central valley of State, to foothills of southern Shasta National Forest; thence southward on lower foothills, usually at somewhat higher elevations than Quercus douglasii, but not in chaparral belt to any extent. In chaparral and lower canyons of Stony Creek National Forest on west side of ranges, especially on Eel River. Sierra Nevada: Common in foothills of Lassen Peak and Plumas National forests, at 2,000 to 2,800 feet. In Stanislaus National Forest, up to 2,000 feet elevation; confined to west_ border, in ravines, gulches, and canyons, and is most abundant in region of Bear Mountains, Gopher Ridge, and Bald Mountain; grows sparingly in creek canyons from Garden Valley southward to canyon of South Fork of American River, near Coloma and Lotus; also on Hangtown and Webber creeks (west of Placerville), but ceasing about 1 mile east of latter place; in Pleasant Valley southward, and in canyons from Indian Diggins westward to Coyoteville and Oleta. Common in southern Sierras on foothills and southward to Fort Tejon, in Tehachapi Mountains. In coast mountains abundant around San Francisco Bay and southward. Frequent in Santa Lucia Mountains of Monterey National Forest, in Sur, Carmelo, Arroyo Seco, San Antonio, and Nacimiento river basins, at 1,250 to 5,000 feet elevations, but shrubby above 2,700. In chaparral between 1,500 and 3,000 feet, in San Luis Obispo National Forest (T. 29 S., R. 16 B.). Generally distributed in Santa Barbara National Forest, at 1,750 to 6,200 feet, being espe- cially common along north border on northern slopes of Cuyama River. Not in Santa Monica Mountains, but abundant on coast side of Sierra Madre Range on Mount Lowe, Mount Wilson, both slopes of Sierra Liebre Range northward to Gormans Station; in chaparral on summits of Santa Ana Range, at 1,600 feet. San Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains, here occurring in Spencer Valley at head of San Diego River, and elsewhere. Cuyamaca Mountains, near Jamacha, and at Mexican boundary, only on Hanson Laguna range. On Santa Rosa and Santa Cruz Islands. LOWER CALIFORNIA.—North end of Mount San Pedro Martir. OCCURRENCE. On foothill slopes and their open valleys, in dry river bottoms and washes, and desert mountain canyons, in moderately rich, dry, loamy soils, or in poor, dry, gravelly, or rocky soils. Largest in sheltered sites, with somewhat fresh, good soil; stunted and shrubby on hot, gravelly slopes or stream bottoms. In small, pure groups or patches, but more often mixed with scrub oak and chaparral ; less frequently with blue oak and California live oak. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of California live oak, as is also its repro- duction. TOLPRANCH.—Very tolerant of shade. Price Oak. Quercus pricei® Sudworth. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Very little is known of the Price oak, and that only from a hurried exami- nation of a few trees found by the writer in October, 1904, on the banks of a “Named in honor of Mr. Overton Westfeldt Price, Associate Forester, Forest Service; Forestry and Irrigation, vol. 13, p. 157. : 310 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. small stream in Monterey County, Cal., on a property known as “ Dani’s Ranch.” The trees were closely mingled with Quercus agrifolia, for which they were mistaken at a distance. In general form they resemble that tree, especially the small branched trees of the latter grown in close stands. They were from 25 to 30 feet high and from 8 to 12 inches in diameter. At the base of the trunk Fig. 143.—Quercus pricei. the bark is blackish, very hard, and roughly and irregularly broken; 3 or 4 feet higher up it is dark ashy-gray and smooth. Mature leaves (fig. 145), which probably remain on the trees two summers, are flat, smooth throughout, and a deep shiny yellow-green on their upper surfaces and paler yellow-green beneath. The flowers are not known. The acorns mature in the autumn of FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. SEL the second year, for in addition to ripe acorns, immature ones were found on the season’s smooth, reddish-brown twigs. Mature acorns (fig. 143), regarded as the most distinctive character, were invariably of the same form on all of the trees seen. The sharply pointed nut is smooth, somewhat lustrous, and a * dull light brown, while the uniformly very shallow cups—on short stems—have very close, smooth, pale brown scales. Wood, not examined, but judged to be essentially like that of Quercus wisli- zgeni. Nothing is now known of the age attained. The affinities of this oak place it between Quercus agrifolia and Q. wislizeni, and nearer to the latter. The writer has not seen the bushy trees Prof. C. S. Sargent has described and figured (Silva, VIII, Pl. CCCCVI, f. 6), occurring in Snow Creek Canyon at the base of Mount San Jacinto, which, as nearly as can be judged from the note and figure, is Quercus pricei. Professor Sargent considers this shallow-cupped oak (not seen elsewhere) a form of Quercus wislizeni. The trees found at Dani’s Ranch gave every promise of later becom- ing very much larger. OCCURRENCE. Dry, gravelly banks of streams, within reach of deep soil moisture. Forms small, pure groups. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to Wislizenus oak. TOLERANCE.—Very tolerant of shade. REPRODUCTION.—At least an abundant periodic seeder, but fruiting habits and repro- duction undetermined. Morehus Oak. Quercus morehus Wellogg. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Morehus oak is a rare and little known California tree of the black oak group. It was first found about 1863, and since then many new stations for it have been and are still being discovered. It is held by some authors to be a hybrid from Quercus wislizeni and Q. californica. Its acorns bear a strong resemblance to those of the first oak, while its leaves (fig. 144) are similar in texture to those of the latter oak. The remarkably uniform shape (within rea- sonable limits) of the leaves borne by widely separated individuals, and the fact that the parents suggested are by no means always within the same locality—one or the other, sometimes both, often very far distant from the sup- posed offspring—has led the writer to treat this oak as a species. Generally from 10 to 35 feet high and 3 to 8 inches in diameter, with smooth, dark ashy- gray bark. The branches of small, shrubby trees often trend upward, while those of the larger trees stand out horizontally from the trunk, which is free of limbs for about one-third of its length. The leaves, which are shed from midwinter to spring, are dark yellow-green and smooth on the upper sides and light yellow-green and smooth or more or less covered with fine star-shaped hairs beneath. The acorns, maturing in the autumn of the second year, are usually from 1} to 14 inches long. The light reddish-brown cups inclose from about one-third to two-thirds of the nut, which is somewhat thicker than that of Q. wislizeni. Wood similar in general appearance to that of Q. californica, but the thicker, whitish sapwood is considerably tougher; not fully investigated. Of no economic importance and of slight interest to the forester, because of the tree’s rare occurrence. LONGEVITY.—Not fully determined. Believed to be rather long-lived. A single tree, 124 inches in diameter, showed an age of 64 years. 312 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. RANGE. CALIFORNIA.—Occurs as scattered individuals and detached thickets in northern coast ranges and Sierra foothills. Coast ranges: A single tree at Clear Lake, and several at Sulphur Bank (Lake County) ; group at north base of Mount Tamalpais (Marin County) ; thicket on crest of Coast Range back of Berkeley, and a single tree farther north in Berkeley Hills near upper San Pablo Creek; canyon of Big Sulphur Creek between Geysers and Cloverdale (Sonoma County) at point about 3 miles below bridge; also at point 2 miles south of Ridgewood Summit (north of Ukiah, Mendocino County). Reported in Santa Lucia Mountains in Sur, Carmelo, and Arroyo Seco river basins. Sierra foothills: In a belt north of Yuba River (Yuba County), running northwest from j 93 . “. ri y, MULE! WW ee Wim Prem Se N aU Wpfeiy ad é een . * . a“ ae Saha A \ BK ) , x s~ ™- — ) PE pers NN \ 7s “S Fie. 144.—Quercus morehus. Red Bluff and lower part of Dry Creek into Butte County; west foot of Stanfield Hill grade (about 21 miles northeast of Marysville); near Newcastle (Placer County) ; Eldorado County, on a head branch of Canyon Creek (tributary Middle Fork American River) 2 miles northeast of Georgetown; North Fork of Cosumnes River (near Nash- ville), Middle Fork of Cosumnes (between Pleasant Valley and Oleta) ridge between North and Middle Forks Cosumnes (about 6 miles east of Nashville, elevation about 2,000 feet) ; Sacramento County; near Folsom; Amador County, near Plymouth, on head of Indian Creek (branch Cosumnes River), near Oleta (Sutter Creek road), and at FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. ota several points on Rancheria Creek—lowest station about 3 miles from Sutter Creek, 3 miles north of Ione on low hill near Clay pit (leaves much toothed), with blue oaks, Mokelumne River west of West Point; Calaveras County, several thickets in Bear Creek Canyon (branch Calaveras River on west side of Bear Mountains), on head of Murray Creek (tributary Calaveras River) 2 miles north of Mountain Ranch, on San Domingo Creek (branch South Fork of Calaveras River) 2 to 3 miles north of Murphy, road be- tween Mountain ranch and Railroad Flat (elevation 2,450 feet) at two points on South Fork of Mokelumne River between Railroad Flat and West Point; Tuolumne County, between Sonora and Tuolumne River, at two points (little north of Tuolumne Canyon) on road from Carters to Big Oak Flat, near head of Deer Creek—south side of Tuolumne on same road. At several places in gulch few miles north of Coulterville (Mariposa County) on road between Coulterville and Priest, with Kellogg oak and highland live oak; frequent from Cold Springs Station (Mariposa County) to Fresno Flats and North Fork (Madera County), especially in Crane Valley. Abundant also near Badger (Tulare County); very abundant on road from Raymond to Yosemite, especially within 6 or 7 miles of Raymond and eastward in edge of western yellow’ pine belt beyond Wassama ; 2 miles west of latter is large tree at Potts’s house, also one few rods north of ' Ahwahnee road house, and many others in vicinity among Kellogg oaks. At point 2 miles west of Eshom Valley, near east end of Burrough Valley (Fresno County). Range still imperfectly known. OCCURRENCE. Foothill slopes and ridges, in dry gravelly soils. In groups and patches of pure growth interspersed with California black oak, Wisli- zerus oak, Fremontia, and occasional blue and valley oaks. Nowhere abundant. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of gray pine. ToLERANCE.—Evidently very tolerant, its evergreen leaves being retained in dense shade. REPRODUCTION.—Imperfectly known. Appears to seed at irregular intervals at rather early age, and but sparingly. Owing to the tree’s supposed hybrid origin, the fertility of acorns requires testing. California Black Oak. Quercus californica (Torr.) Cooper. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. California black oak is very distinct in appearance from all other Pacific oaks. It more nearly resembles the eastern black oak (Quercus velutina) than it does any other species. Commonly from 50 to 75 feet high and from 15 to 30 inches in diameter, but at high elevations it is shrubby and often under 15 feet in height. Old trees are sometimes 80 or 85 feet high and from 36 to 40 inches through; such trees, as shown by their decayed, hollow trunks, often broken at the top, have long since passed maturity. The trunks are rarely straight and are often bent or leaning. They are clear of branches for from 10 to 20 feet, and then give off large limbs which form irregularly open, broad, rounded crowns. Except on young trees and large limbs (where it is smooth and dull grayish brown), the bark is blackish brown, sometimes with a reddish tint or, superficially, a weathered gray brown; it is very hard and is roughly and rather deeply furrowed on the low part of the trunk, while higher up the shallower seams fade into the smooth bark of large limbs. Year-old twigs are clear red to red-brown and usually smooth, but often minutely hairy or with a whitish tint; the prominent, scaly, light chestnut-colored buds are hairy, especially on their ends. Mature leaves (figs. 145 to 147), variable in form and size (about 4 to 64 inches long), are thickish, a shiny deep yellow-green, and smooth on their upper sides (sometimes with star-shaped hairs) ; paler green beneath, smooth or minutely hairy. Small trees at high altitudes (and elsewhere also) -very frequently have leaves and stems (fig. 147) conspicuously coated with minute, whitish, star-shaped hairs. Leaves are shed in autumn. Acorns (fig. 145), mature at the end of the second season, are borne on thick, short stems FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 314 The nut is pale chestnut colored, downy near and at the top end, and often indistinctly striped; the tawny brown cup has shiny scales which are thin, but often much thickened at the bases of the cup. + inches long. and are about 1} to 1 NN Leds , INN EXE x ena EPS exten RSA Waa EXE, SENS EE DON YUN CSAS = SOS AEE T RIOR OSE E are RT ZO SNS 5 SR EA EA Be PESO Pref PORTIA HSA) : Ser ale SE TOR TST TSA Lg ee : Te SEAL WS LOTTA AAT 5 pci eoe ai conesa SESH SOR EMEA > : ae wey c ee PEARL AS fox Air 7) oe al WEY Se be ake HK BER CR TI CLR ME Co” ED a A Gs SIE CT ORT RAT LL GS pr ey x LS MP S- | Ly ALA tiers EEN AULON <0) ae i? ‘ey oP, LIS | DAN) De eo LN aoe SAN USAR RA 2 V7 Fig. 145 se A eb : is Wood, fine-grained, very porous, pale but distinct red, exceedingly brittle, firm, rather heavy, with large pith-rays, and having a strong odor of tannin, with which both the wood and bark are heavily charged. Large trunks are rarely sound and afford but little clear timber, and even this is inferior on FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 315 account of its very porous, brittle structure. In some sections of its range the tree is important and much used for fuel. Its rather frequent occurrence in continuous patches renders it worthy of attention for this purpose. LoneeEviry.—Age limits are not fully known. Probably moderately long- lived. Trees from 16 to 25 inches in diameter are from 176 to 275 years old. It is doubtful if this oak attains a greater age than 350 years, and it probably reaches maturity in about 175 years. 44 gn AH ar (Xi) "5 a / A Fr 2 4 hy Py £ a £} goes 0 by a small cylindrical case, are stemless (fig. 158). Wood, very dense, fine- grained, exceedingly heavy, checking and warping badly in drying, after which it is very hard; freshly cut wood is a distinct mahogany red, browning with exposure. The poor timber form of even the largest trunks renders the wood of little commercial use, for which its rich, attractive color makes it suitable. Exceedingly important for fuel in some localities, usually where there is little or no other wood supply obtainable. It deserves the forester’s attention on account of useful though open cover it forms on arid, wind-swept mountain slopes. Few other species possess its wonderful adaptability to such unfayor- able conditions. Lonceviry.—Not fully determined. Gives evidence of being long-lived, but of very slow growth. Trees from 8 to 10 inches in diameter are from 68 to 95 vears old. Further study of their age limits is required. ¢{Unfortunately no more distinctive common name is available for this and the suc- ceeding species than ‘mountain mahogany,’’ by which both are known in the field. They are probably not distinguished by laymen. To avoid confusion, it is desirable ‘to call Cercocarpus ledifolius curl-leaf mahogany and Cercocarpus parvifolius birch-leaf mahogany. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 339 The high mountain form of this species found mainly in the southern Rocky Mountains, but to be looked for elsewhere at high elevations in the range of the species, is a small, finely branched shrub with very small, exceedingly nar- row, curled leaves, and smaller fruit than is produced by tree forms of lower Fic. 158.—Cercocarpus ledifolius. elevations. This shrub has been described as Cercocarpus ledifolius intricetus (Watson) Jones, on account of its densely branched habit, but it is here con- sidered a naturally depauperate form of higher elevations, and is otherwise essentially like the larger-leafed tree. 340 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. RANGE. From western Wyoming to Montana (western slopes Rocky Mountains), Idaho (Ceur d'Alene Mountains), Oregon (eastern Blue Mountains), and southward (through Wasatch Mountains and ranges of the Great Basin) to California (eastern slopes Sierra Nevada and northern slopes of San Bernardino Mountains), and to northern New Mexico and Arizona. OCCURRENCE. Arid mountain slopes; in poor, dry, gravelly and rocky soils, or less often in moist, richer soils, where it is of largest size (hills of central Nevada). In pure open, or rather dense stands, or mingled with chaparral; commonly with one-leaf pifion. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Undetermined, as are also its silvical characteristics. Appears to be decidedly intolerant of shade throughout life. Birch-leaf Mahogany; Mountain Mahogany.? Cercocarpus parvifolius Nuttall. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Birch-leaf mahogany is usually shrubby, with several long, sparingly branched stems, and under 10 feet in height; occasionally a tree 15 to 25 feet high, with a rounded crown of straight, upright, stiff, slim branches and a short trunk 4 to 8 inches in diameter. ‘The bark of large limbs and small trunks is smooth and dull gray to brownish; that of large trunks is thin, flaky, and reddish-brown. The more eastern form appears to have much firmer bark with shallow seams, and its scales are much less easily detached. Mature leaves (fig. 159), with prominent straight veins, are thickish, smooth, sometimes minutely hairy, deep yellowish-green on their top sides and whitish, occasionally brownish, beneath. Leaves of a season’s growth persist as a rule for about two seasons; very com- monly, however, they persist only for one summer and winter, falling as the new ones appear the succeeding spring. The long-tailed, hairy fruits are inclosed in a tubular case which has a distinct slender stem, instead of being stemless like the preceding species. The silky young twigs have a pleasant slightly aromatic flavor. Twigs of the low shrubby forms of this species are often extensively eaten by cattle, in some sections furnishing a considerable part of the mountain browse on which range animals depend for food. Wood, of somewhat lighter weight, is otherwise very similar to that of the preceding tree; rarely used except locally for firewood. LONGEvITy.—Very slow-growing tree. Stems from 5 to 6 inches thick are from 50 to 60 years old. Further study of its growth and age limits is desirable. Three varieties of this species have been described. These are distinguished on the basis of characters which the writer believes to be only such natural modifications in leaves and fruit as are to be expected in individuals growing under varying soil and climatic conditions. Through all of the forms it seems possible to trace the marks of one variable species; no essential differences can be found in the wood of the different trees. Cercocarpus parvifolius betuloides (Nuttall) Sargent, the California coast and Sierra foothill form, has wider leaves, smooth above, and larger fruit than are produced elsewhere. Cercocar- pus parvifolius breviflorus © (Gray) Jones is distinguished by very small flowers and small, narrow leaves with entire slightly curved or very finely toothed «See footnote under preceding species. >This is Dr. Gray’s Cercocarpus breviflorus, which, by inadvertence or otherwise, is frequently writfen C. brevifolius. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 341 borders. This form occurs in the Southwest. Cercocarpus parvifolius pauci- dentatus, a form of the same region, is characterized by leaves with few or no marginal teeth. » -i = Yr AA : ‘ Fig. 159.—Cercocarpus parvifolius. RANGE. From western Nebraska to Oregon (Siskiyou Mountains), south to western Texas and northern Mexico; California (west of Sierra Nevada and south to San Jacinto Moun- tains ; Santa Cruz Islands) ; Lower California (mountains). OCCURRENCE. Habitat and silvical characteristics similar to those of mountain mahogany. 342 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. MALUS. APPLES. The apples form a group of small trees. They are of little forest importance, but are of very great economic value on account of their edible fruits, which include the many varieties and races of cultivated apples. They are hard, dense-wooded trees, with small leaves arranged singly on the twigs (never in pairs, one opposite another), and shed every autumn. Their principal distine- tive characteristic is the more or less globe-like form of the fruits, which are sunken at the stem*end, as in the common crab or other cultivated apple, and which have a homogeneous flesh. The chestnut-colored, smooth, shiny seeds of apples are inclosed (1 to 2) in each of the 8 to 5 cells. Their near relatives, the true pears (Pyrus), have fruits which taper at the stem end (pyriform), and have flesh with minute or large stony grains, though these are less pro- nounced in highly cultivated pear fruits than in those of wild trees. Three tree species occur in the United States and adjacent Canadian provinces, one of which inhabits the Pacific region, to which it is confined. Oregon Crab Apple. Malus rivularis (Dougl. in Hook) Roemer. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. The Oregon crab apple is a small tree, with thin, scaly, reddish—often grayish brown—bark and slender, spreading branches. At best it is rarely more than 25 or 30 feet high and from 8 to 12 inches in diameter; very frequently a slender-stemmed shrub from 6 to 10 feet high, forming dense thickets. Year-old twigs are clear shiny red. Mature leaves (figs. 160, 161) are veiny, thickish, smooth, and deep green on their top sides, and very light green and minutely hairy—sometimes whitish—beneath; leaf stems hairy. Fruit (figs. 160, 161), maturing late in autumn and having a slightly acid, palatable taste, is variable in color from greenish to clear lemon yellow splashed with bright red on one side or red all over; edible. Wood exceedingly fine-grained, dull, light reddish brown; sapwood yery thick. Suitable for tool stock and small turnery, but unimportant. LoncGEviry.—Appears to grow very slowly in diameter and height. Age limits not fully determined. One tree 11 inches in diameter showed an age of 102 years; while one 6 inches through was 57 years old. RANGE. From the Aleutian Islands south along the coast and islands of Alaska and British Columbia through western Washington and Oregon to California (Sonoma and Plumas counties). OCCURRENCE. Low river bottoms and adjacent low slopes, on borders and in vicinity of smaller low- land streams, in moist or rather wet sandy or mucky soil. Grows in large, dense, pure ~ thickets and also seattered among red alder, willows, cascara sagrada, occasionally broadleaf maple and western dogwood, and lowland shrubs. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of Sitka spruce and red alder. TOLHRANCH.—Not fully determined. Endures moderate shade throughout life, and rather dense shade in youth. REPRODUCTION.—Fairly abundant seeder in central and southern range and in less exposed situations; appears less prolific northward. Seed germinates tardily. Seedlings frequent in moist mucky soil. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 3438 Fic. 160.—Malus rivularis. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 344 Fic. 161.—Malus rivularis. a ee FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 345 AMELANCHIER. SERVICEBERRIES. The serviceberries are small, slender, scaly-barked trees and shrubs of world- wide range, but nowhere of forest cr economic importance. The heartwood is brown or reddish brown, very fine-grained, hard, firm, and heavy; there is a large proportion of whitish sapwood. Twigs are very small. The showy, nod- ding, or erect clusters of white flowers, which usually appear in early spring before the leaves, make the trees conspicuous in the leafless forest. Flowers (male and female reproductive organs in each), with five white divisions, are visited by insects, which aid in their cross-fertilization. The small, symmet- rieally formed leaves, shed in autumn, are arranged singly on the twigs (never in pairs, one opposite another). Fruit, deep red or dull purple, and borne in small branched clusters, ripens early or late in summer and resembles a huckle- berry; it has a somewhat juicy, sweetish, edible pulp, with from 5 to 10 very minute, dark brown seeds. For their distribution the seeds depend almost entirely upon birds and mammals, which eat the berries, but with little injury to the seeds. Trees of the group are confined to North America, where 3 or 4 species occur, one of which ranges from the Rocky Mountains into the Pacific region. Western Serviceberry. Amelanchier alnifolia Nuttall. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Western serviceberry is a tall, slender-stemmed shrub from 8 to 10 feet high ‘and about an inch thick; very commonly under 3 feet in height, forming vast thickets ; it seldom becomes a tree as much as 25 or 30 feet high and from 4 to 8 inches through, and then has a slender, straight, clean trunk and a narrow, open crown. The‘bark is dull grayish or slightly reddish brown and indis- tinctly seamed near the ground—usually quite smooth. Season’s twigs are clear red, smooth (though with white hairs when young), with sharp-pointed, russet-brown buds. Mature leaves (fig. 162), thin in shady places but thickish in the open, are deep or pale green and smooth on their upper surface, and smooth and grayish, sometimes minutely and sparsely hairy, beneath. The blue-black, sweetish fruit, with a whitish bloom, matures (according to the locality) from about July to August, and is about one-half to five-eighths of an inch through (fig. 162). When not overripe the edible fruit is agreeable to the taste, and where abundant is often gathered by settlers (who eall the tree “sarvice’’), as well as by Indians, for food. Birds and mammals, especially bears, consume large quantities of the fruit. Wood, pale yellowish brown; of no economic use. The only value of the tree to the forester lies in the fact that it forms dense thickets, with other brush, at high elevations, where its rigid, often closely browsed stems, help to prevent run-off. Its tree forms, which are rare, are of no commercial value. Shrubby forms, quickly killed by ground fires, sprout from the roots, and otherwise endure with persistent growth the constant browsing of range cattle, its stems only becoming more and more intricately and densely branched. LonGEvity.—Not fully determined. Stems from 2 to 4 inches in diameter are from 9 to 20 years old. RANGE. From Alaska (Yukon River, latitude 62° 45’) to California (southern boundary) ; eastward through British Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba to Lake Superior (western shores), northern Michigan, Nebraska, Colorado, and New Mexico (Rocky Mountains). 346 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. OCCURRENCE. Alluvial bottoms and prairies, moist valleys, dry mountain slopes, benches, borders of streams, water holes, and mountain meadows in variety of soils from rich to poor; - largest in fresh rich soil (lower Columbia River region) and shrubby in dry, gravelly, poor ones (mountain slopes). Forms small growps and extensive pure thickets, inter- spersed with aspen, western choke-cherry, bitter cherry, Oregon crab, and ceanothus, manzanita, and other chaparral brush. Fic. 162.—Amelanchier alnifolia. CLIMATIC CoNDITIONS.—Similar to those of western chinquapin; mild, long, warm growing season appears to determine range of largest growth. TOLERANCE.—Endures considerable dense shade when young, but needs abundant over- head light for best growth. RepropucTion.—Abundant seeder nearly every year. Seedlings often numerous in moist, humous soil in partial shade; much scattered and infrequent on dry slopes. _ > oe oe ld “— += a ea ale FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOFE. 347 CRATZGUS. HAWS. The haws are a very large group of small, thorny trees and shrubs, widely dis- tributed in this and the Old World. From the abundance of their keen, often very long, woody thorns, they are everywhere known, and generally distinguished from other woody plants, as “ hawthorns,”’ “haws,” or “thorns.” Excepting the few western species, which form useful chaparral cover, the other represent- atives are of little forest value and of no commercial importance. They pro- duce dense, heavy, sappy, exceedingly tough wood, which warps and checks badly in drying. Excepting occasional use for small tool-handles and other turned articles, the wood is of no economic yalue. In eastern North America, where a vast number of species are known, they are aggressive in taking possession of abandoned farm or cleared lands. Their sharp thorns protect them from grazing animals. Later these impenetrable thickets are gradually invaded by commercial species through the agency of wind and animals, and finally, under denser shade, the thorns succumb. Their usually small leaves, shed every autumn, are arranged like those of the apples, while the small apple-like fruits, bright red, yellow, or black, in branched clusters, have dryish, unpalatable—but occasionally tart and palatable—fiesh with from 1 to 5 joined (but separable), very hard, bony seeds, which, on account of their thick shells, germinate tardily, often “lying over” for a season. The white to rosy flowers (similar in appearance and structure to pear and apple blossoms) are produced in flattish, branched, erect clusters at the ends of new shoots, after the leaves are grown. Myriads of insects visit the flowers and assist in their cross-fertilization ; birds and mammals, which devour the fruits, assist in disseminating the seeds of many species. Exclusive of shrubby thorns, there are about 100 species now known to occur in the United’ States and adjacent territory. These include a number of little- known forms which may be separated as distinct species upon later study. Only one species is known to inhabit the Pacific region. No other group of North American trees presents such almost insurmountable difficulties in point of distinctive characters. It is impossible, and, fortunately, unnecessary for the practical forester to know them all, and exceedingly diffi- cult even for the specialist. The points relied upon to distinguish the species are, unfortunately, too often found mainly in the organs of the flowers and in the ripening and falling of the fruit—characters which are observable only at special times. A number of thorns can be distinguished by their mature leaves, but a very large number of them can not. Students of western forests have a comparable problem in the polymorphous oaks, but nature has luckily spared them such perplexities as those offered by the haws. Black Haw. Crategus douglasii Lindley. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Black haw is mainly a low, much-branched shrub, or else a shrub with taller, slender stems, forming dense thickets. In rich, moist soil it becomes a tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 10 to 20 inches in diameter, and then has a straight, slightly seamed, reddish brown trunk and a densely branched, dome- like crown. Mature twigs of the season are a clear, shiny red. Mature leaves (fig. 168) are thick, somewhat leathery, smooth (sometimes shiny) ; deep green on their upper sides and paler green beneath. The very characteristically 848 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. black or black-purple, shiny fruit (fig. 163), sweet and edible, matures in early autumn, when it is rapidly shed. Wood, fine-grained, brownish rose-red, with a large proportion of sapwood. No commercial use is made of it. $ 07 Fic. 163.—Crategus douglasit. As a chaparral cover along washable banks of streams the brushy form of this haw is of considerable use. The firm, spreading roots of closely grown stools hold fast and resist tendencies to erosion. Its tree form is unimportant in a region where other useful trees abound. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 349 Lonceviry.—Not fully determined. Like many other large tree thorns it appears to be long-lived, as shown by its exceedingly fine-grained wood and persistent growth. A tree 13% inches in diameter showed an age of 83 years. A well-marked yariety of this thorn, Crataegus douglasii rivularis (Nutt.) Sargent, is commonly a low shrub, sometimes nearly without thorns; it is fre- quent in western Washington and Oregon and southward to Sierra and Plumas counties, Cal., where it is less common. It is distinguished from the species mainly by its narrow leaves, which are finely toothed, not deeply lobed and slashed as in the species. It was described long ago as a species (C. rivularis Nuttall) ane is by some authors still maintained as such; but since intermediate leaf forms are not hard to find, connecting the species over its entire range, the writer believes that this form should be treated as a variety only. RANGE. From British Columbia (Parsnip River) through Washington and Oregon to California (Pitt River), and through Idaho and Montana (Flathead River at western base of Rocky Mountains). OCCURRENCE. Borders and bottoms in vicinity of lower mountain streams; in moist, gravelly and sandy soils, or in deep, rich soils (where, in Oregon, it is large). Grows in very dense, large, pure thickets, patches, and small clumps, mingled with choke cherry, black cotton- wood, longleaf willow, red alder, etc. CLIMATIC CoNDITIONS.—Similar to those of choke cherry ; adapted to very wide range of conditions. TOLERANCH.—Shows signs of great tolerance; not fully determined. REPRODUCTION.—Very abundant seeder, and young plants numerous in shade and open on borders of thickets. HETEROMELES. A genus containing but a single evergreen species which is confined to Cali- fornia and adjacent islands. In general appearance it is very unlike any of the other related generic groups of the family (Rosacez), as indicated by its name (Heteromeles). The characters of this genus are given under the species, which follows. Christmas Berry. Heteromeles arbutifolia Roemer. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Christmas berry, also called “ California holly,” “ tollen,” and “ toyon,” is best known as a low shrub throughout most of its range on the mainland. In the coast islands, however, especially on Santa Catalina Island, it becomes a small tree from 15 to 25 feet high, but with a very short trunk from 10 to 15 inches thick at the ground. The crown form of the shrub is peculiarly similar to that of the tree, in which many upright branches are given off at the end of the short, thick trunk. The smooth-looking, pale, ashy gray bark is indistinctly seamed, and the ridges are connected. Mature leaves (fig. 164) thick, leathery, smooth throughout, deep shiny green on their upper surfaces, lighter beneath, and usually with two minute glandular teeth on the stem at the base of the blade. Leaves of a season’s growth remain on the twigs until the end of the second winter. The smooth, bright red berries (fig. 164), which have a dry, tart flesh, ripen from October to February ; they are borne in large clusters which are very attractive among the glossy green leaves. One or two ridged, brown, dotted seeds occur in each of the two cells of the berries. Wood, deep reddish brown, 15188—08 23 350 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. with thin sapwood; exceedingly heavy, dense, and fine-grained. Very suitable for small ornamental turnery and other woodwork, but not used for any purpose. Fic. 164.—Heteromeles arbutifolia. As a part of the chaparral cover of low, dry slopes and rocky gulches, or in the groves formed by its larger growth, this species is of considerable service in a region too scantily protected against erosion. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 351 LoncGevity.—Not fully determined. It grows very persistently and appears to be long-lived. A single stem 53 inches in diameter was 48 years old. RANGE. California coast ranges and Sierras (chaparral belt) southward from Mendocino and Shasta counties to northern Lower California; also on southern California coast islands. CALIFORNIA.—Coast ranges northward on coast to Mendocino County, and to Trinity Mountains on inland ranges, where it has been noted as far north as between Redding and Whiskeytown (Shasta County). In Sierras, on foothills in Lassen Peak, Diamond Mountain, Plumas, Tahoe, and Stanislaus National forests. Southward in coast ranges to San Francisco Bay, and in southern coast ranges eastward to San Bernardino; also in islands off southern coast. South of Monterey Bay, noted on Point Pinos, in Pescadero and a few other canyons, and in Santa Lucia Mountains in chaparral of Sur, Carmelo, Arroyo Seco, San Antonio, and Nacimiento river basins from sea-level to 4,250 feet. San Luis Obispo National Forest (to southeast), from 250 to 2,250 feet elevation in watersheds of Carriso, Salinas, Santa Margarita, San Luis, Arroyo Grande, and Huasna rivers. Santa Barbara National Forest, below 38,000 feet in watersheds of Santa Maria, Santa Ynez, Santa Barbara, Matilija, Piru-Sespe, Newhall, and Elizabeth rivers. Santa Ana range. All coast islands except San Clemente. General in San Gabriel National Forest; noted on south slope Sierra Liebre Range, near Pasadena, Arroyo Seco. San Bernardino Moun- tains. San Jacinto Mountains and Palomar, Balkan, and Cuyamaca Mountains (San Diego County). Mexican boundary, noted on west slope of coast range up to 4,500 feet. LOWbR CALIFORNIA.—Northern part, in Hanson, Laguna, and San Pedro Martir ranges. OCCURRENCE. Frequent on north slopes of low mountains and foothills in vicinity of watercourses, in gulches, or on exposed sea cliffs; in dry, rocky, and gravelly soils. Grows in scattered, pure clumps and patches on mainland slopes (shrubby), and in small pure stands, as a tree, in its island range. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to holly-leaf cherry. Tolerance and other silvical characteristics undetermined. REPRODUCTION.—Very prolific seeder. Young plants abundant in soil-filled crevices, pockets, and in other places of lodgment. PRUNUS. CHERRIES AND PLUMS. As here constituted, a large group containing such well-known and widely distributed trees and shrubs as the plums, peaches, almonds, apricots, and cherries, most of which do not produce useful timber, but are among the most valuable fruit trees. The plums and cherries are the only native trees of the group to be considered here. For the sake of reducing the number of generic names, the latter-day practice of subdividing this long-maintained composite group into Prunus (including the plums only) and Cerasus (including only the cherries) will not be followed. It is thought best to treat these trees under Prunus, as has been done for a long time. The cherries differ from plums principally in having a rounded fruit seed or “stone” in place of more or less flat seeds; plum fruits are, moreover, usually covered with an easily removed, whitish bloom, which is absent from cherry fruits. Prunus contains but one tree species (black cherry) of commercial impor- tance; the remaining representatives are small trees or shrubs of little economic use. Some of the western plums and cherries, however, are useful in helping to form protective covers on otherwise thinly clad mountain slopes. Wood of the plums and cherries is fine-grained, dense, evenly and _ finely porous, rather heavy, and rich light or dark brown. Green twigs and bark are characteristically bitter, and have, when crushed, a more or less strong peach- pit odor possessed by no other group of plants. 352 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Flowers of Prunus, appearing from buds on twigs of the previous year, either with the leaves, or before or after them, are similar in general appearance to those of the hawthorns, apples, and pears, but different in structural details. They depend for cross-fertilization entirely upon insects. The fruits, more or less juicy and sweet, acid, or very bitter, are matured in one season, either in early or late summer. Luscious in flavor or attractive in appearance, plum and cherry fruits are eaten extensively by birds and mammals (without injury to the seeds) and thus widely disseminated; otherwise these trees depend for dis- tribution of their seeds upon fiood waters. The leaves are arranged on the twigs as in the apples and haws, and are either shed every autumn or, in some species, are evergreen. Sixteen species of Prunus occur in the United States and adjacent territory, 4 of which inhabit the Pacific region. Western Plum. Prunus subcordata Bentham. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. The name “ western plum,” suggested here, is not the field name of this tree, which is “plum” or “ wild plum,” indefinite names which are applied also to several eastern wild plum-trees. To avoid confusion, it is hoped “ western plum ”’ will be used. Generally a stocky, crooked-stemmed shrub from 2 to 10 feet high in dry situations, but in moist, rich soils a tree from 15 to 20 feet high and from 4 to 6 inches (sometimes more) in diameter. The short, clear trunk, ashy brown, seamed, and scaly, gives off thick limbs, which stand out nearly at right angles to.the stem, and have many short, stubby twigs, some of which are spine-like. Season’s twigs are clear red to deep purple-red, usually smooth (sometimes minutely hairy), with sharp-pointed red buds. Mature leaves (fig. 165), shed in autumn, are commonly smooth on their top sides but very often minutely hairy, as they always are beneath; about 1} to nearly 3 inches in length; in dying they become bright red and yellow. ‘The white flowers appear before the leaves in early spring. Mature fruit (fig. 165), ripe in early autumn, is deep purple- red, three-fourths inch to about 1 inch long, with a pointed flat stone, which has a conspicuous, thin, keel-like edge om one side only, the opposite side being grooved. The flesh of the fruit is edible and much used locally, is juicy and somewhat tart; variable in quality. Wood, fine-grained, very dull light brown, with thin sapwood; of no eco- nomic use. With other chaparral the tree sometimes forms good protective slope cover on dry slopes. LonGEvity.—Not fully determined. A tree 6% inches in diameter showed an age of 48 years. Probably short-lived. A variety of this plum, Prunus subcordata kelloggii Lemmon, is distinguished by its yellow sweet fruit and in its nearly smooth foliage; especially abundant in Shasta and Sierra counties. Yellow fruited forms of other wild plums and of cherries are known. RANGE. Southern Oregon to central California (west of the Cascades and Sierra Madre Moun- tains). FOREST. TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 353 OCCURRENCE. Borders and vicinity of low mountain and higher foothill streams and valleys; in sandy, fertile, fresh soils (here largest), or in dry, gravelly ones (shrubby). Grows in extensive pure thickets and clumps, interspersed with black haw, Oregon crab, Garry oak, western choke cherry, and occasional gray pine. Fig. 165.—Prunus subcordata. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of choke cherry. TOLERANCH.—Endures light shade, which is helpful in seedling stage. REPRODUCTION.—Prolific periodic seeder in better soils, but fruits sparingly and irregu- larly in poor, dry soils. Seedlings fairly abundant in fresher soils; very searce in dry places. 854 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Bitter Cherry. ca Prunus emarginata (Dougl.) Walpers. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Bitter cherry varies greatly in size; from a slender-stemmed, much-branched, tall or low shrub, much bent in high rocky, exposed sites, to a straight clean- stemmed tree from 35 to 40 feet high and from 6 to 12 inches, or more, through. Fic. 166.—Prunus emarginata. The thin bark is smooth, very dark brown on large trunks, but grayish brown on small stems. Season’s twigs are deep red, which fades into reddish brown lower down. Mature leaves (fig. 166) very variable in size and texture, are FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 355 smooth throughout and smaller in most of the shrubby high mountain forms with gray-brown stems, larger and finely hairy beneath on the larger darker- barked trees which are usually grown in moist, rich places; 2 glandular, minute projections mark the leaf-stem where it joins the blade. The leaves of both forms agree in their distinctly minute, rounded, marginal teeth.¢ Mature fruit (fig. 166), one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch in diameter, clear coral red; ripe from about July to September, according to the locality and elevation; extremely bitter, as are the green twigs, leaves and inner bark; with a pointed stone, sharp-ridged on one side only and round or minutely grooved on the opposite side. Wood, dull brown, with very thick sapwood, of ' very light weight, and exceedingly brittle; it rots quickly in contact with the earth. Large trees, which often occur abundantly, useful chiefly for firewood. The greatest value of this species is probably the dense chaparral cover which it forms on dry, rocky and springy slopes at high elevations, where its persistent stems, often bent low by heavy snows, form. effective barriers to rapid run-off. — LonGEvity.—Not fully determined. Apparently short-lived. A tree 9% inches in diameter showed an age of 42 years. RANGE. From Montana (upper Jocko River), through mountains of Idaho and Washington and southern British Columbia (Vancouver Island) ; south through western Washington and Oregon to southern California, western Nevada (vicinity of Carson City and Washoe Mountains), and northern Arizona (San Francisco Mountains). In north at sea level to 3,000 feet and in south at 5,000 to 9,000 feet. BRITISH COLUMBIA.—South coast Vancouver Island, and Rocky Mountains at source of Columbia. Noted at Victoria (Vancouver Island), at Yale on Fraser River, and at Nel- son on Columbia River between Kootenai and Lower Arrow lakes. WASHINGTON.—Whole wooded portion of State east of Cascades, in yellow pine and bunch grass regions, at 1,600 to 4,200 feet and west of Cascades in Douglas fir region up to 3,800 feet. Noted in Washington National Forest at 49° latitude and farther south on west side of Cascades on lower slopes and on east side at 1,100 to 3,500 feet, in Clallam County on north side of Olympic Peninsula, at Montesano (Chehalis County, south of Olympic Peninsula), on west side of Puget Sound at Port Ludlow (Jefferson County), Tacoma, and Admiralty Head (east of entrance to Admiralty Inlet), at Lilliwaup on Hood Canal of Puget Sound, in Mount Rainier National Forest on Upper Nisqually River, and elsewhere; on Mount Adams, Klickitat River (Klickitat County), canyons of Yakima River, and Umptanum Creek, and at Ellensburg (altitude 1,550 feet) (Kittitas County) ; on Snake River east of Pasco (500 feet) (Franklin County), Wenache Mountains, Peshas- tin (Chelan County), White Bluff (on Columbia River, below Lake Chelan), Lake Chelan (1,100 feet), Stehekin River, 3 miles above Lake Chelan; Kettle Falls of Columbia (Stevens County), Mount Carlton (Spokane County), and Blue Mountains on streams. OrEGON.—Whole wooded portion of State at lower elevations. Noted at Astoria, in Cas- cade (North) National Forest, on Columbia River in northeast Wasco, and Northern Sher- man, Gilliam, and Morrow counties, and in Wallula Gorge below mouth of Walla Walla River at 327 feet; John Day River (Gilliam County), Blue Mountains at Union and else- where, Silvies and Steins mountains (Harney County), ard Goose Lake National Forest. “It is believed that the true status of this cherry has not yet been satisfactorily determined. Further field study is necessary to determine the exact relationship be- tween the gray-barked, smooth, and smaller tree or shrub common on the western high Slopes of the Sierras and in Oregon and Washington, and the larger, dark-barked tree of lower, moist situations. The two forms are strikingly unlike in habit and general appearance, and the large downy leaves of the bigger tree are difficult to reconcile with the smooth, brighter green leaves of the smaller one. I have not seen specimens from the type locality (Columbia River Valley, where Douglas discovered this tree in 1825), but most probably they are of the downy-leafed, larger tree form, so that the name Prunus emarginata should include this common form, On the other hand, it is probable that Prunus emarginata californica (Greene) (—Cerasus californica Greene) should be taken up for the smaller smooth form now included in the species, 356 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. CALIFORNIA.—Water courses and chaparral of middle elevations, south on Sierra Nevada to head of Kern River, on north coast ranges to San Francisco Bay, artd on south coast ranges from Santa Cruz Mountains to San Jacinto Mountains, at the north at 3,500 to 5,500 feet and at the south at 5,000 to 9,000 feet. Noted in Mount Shasta National Forest, base of Mount Shasta at 3,500 to 5,500 feet and south to the “Loop” on Sacra- mento River; Wagon Camp (5,750 feet on Mount Shasta), Sissons (3,500 feet), and Upper Soda Springs (Siskiyou County) ; coast ranges, rare in Humboldt County and southward. Trinity and Stony Creek National Forests’ highest ridges such as Canyon Creek lakes, and Black Buttes, Mount Tamalpais, and Oakland Hills around San Francisco Bay; Sierra Nevadas frequent, Plumas, Diamond Mountain and Lassen Teak National Forests ; near Quincy (Plumas County), mountains east of Chico and Oroville (Butte County), Yuba River at 4,500 to 5,500 feet, Donner Lake, Lake Tahoe National Forest. Emigrant Gap (Placer County), Lake Tahoe, Placerville (Eldorado County), Stanislaus National Forest, frequent at 6,500 to 8,500 feet; Mud Springs (Amador County), Yosemite Valley, mountains of Fresno County at 8,000 feet, South Fork King’s River, Middle Fork Kaweah River at 8.000 feet, Kaweah River road below Mineral King and between Kern River lakes and Trout Meadows; southern California coast ranges, hills of Santa Clara County up to 1,000 feet, ridges west of Los Gatos, Santa Lucia Mountains at 3,000 to 4,000 feet, San Rafael Mountains, San Bernardino Mountains at Bear Valley and elsewhere, San Jacinto Mountains, abundant at 5,000 to 9,000 feet in Tahquitz Valley and elsewhere. The variety villosa Sudworth occurs with the type, especially on the headwaters of the Colum- bia in British Columbia, Montana, and Idaho; in Washington and Oregon chiefly west of the Cascades and in the southern California coast ranges. The distribution in Montana and Idaho will be described in a later publica- tion. OCCURRENCE. Near streams on low and‘ high mountain slopes and on moist benches; in dryish to moist gravelly soils at high levels, and in rich, sandy, or gravelly soils at lower ele- vations, where it is largest. Forms large, dense, pure shrubby thicket in higher range within upper white fir and red fir belt, and nearly pure stands on limited areas lower down, where it often occurs with scattered Douglas fir and western dogwood; some- times especially abundant on cutover and burned Douglas fir lands. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—In lower range, similar to those of Douglas fir, but in higher range it endures a climate like that of California red fir. TOLERANCE.—Intolerant of shade. : REepRODUCTION.—Abundant seeder ard scattered seedlings frequent in moist mineral soil and humus, Western Choke Cherry. Prunus demissa (Nutt.) Walpers. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. It is desirable to establish for Prunus demissa the more distinctive name of “ western choke cherry,” in place of “ choke cherry,” its ordinary field name, since the latter is also applied to the closely related eastern Prunus virginiana Linneus, of which it is held by some to be a geographical form or a variety. Very commonly a short or tall tree-like shrub (in dense thickets), from 4 to 10 feet high, or, in rich, moist situations, a slender, crooked-stemmed tree from 20 to 25 feet high and from 6 to 8 inches through. Bruised twigs, leaves, and green bark have a strong scent, similar to that of peach-pits. Season’s twigs (greenish, smooth or minutely hairy at first) are smooth and light reddish brown, with pointed, light brown buds. Bark, smooth and gray on old trunks and brown on young ones, is irregularly seamed and rough, with hard, deep reddish-brown scales. Mature leaves (fig. 167) are thick, somewhat leathery, deep, dull green; smooth and shiny on their upper sides; usually more or less minutely hairy and pale beneath (occasionally smooth) ; the borders have straight, sharp teeth. The white flowers are borne in dense cylindrical clusters, as are also the shiny blackish cherries, which ’ ss. ewer, ee ee FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 357 are one-third to one-half an inch in diameter (fig. 167); the fruit@ ripens in late summer or early autumn, when it is sweet, with an astringent after- taste, from which comes the name “ choke cherry.” The fruit is greedily eaten by birds, to which, it is believed, the wide general distribution of the species Fic. 167.—Prunus demissa. is due. Wood, pale yellowish brown, fine-grained, firm, but brittle, with a when cooked, but with slight astringent taste. 358 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Useful with other shrubby trees in forming thick, retentive cover on the sides of mountain streams and on moist slopes otherwise devoid of woody growth. LoNGEvity.—Not fully determined. Probably short-lived. Two trees, respec- tively 3 and 6 inches in diameter, were 10 to 22 years cld. RANGE. Rocky Mountains to Pacific States and British Columbia, at the north from sea level to 4,000 feet, at the south from 5,000 to 7,000 feet. BrITISH COLUMBIA.—To northern part on coast and in interior as far as Cache Creek. On Vancouver Island in isolated patches. WASHINGTON.—Common east of Cascades below 4,000 feet, and west of Cascades only occasional on arid prairies, such as Whidby Island and Yelm Prairie. Noted in Washing- ton National Forest at 1,100 to 3,500 feet, east of Cascades locally at Wenache (Chelan County), on west bank of Columbia from Priest Rapids to Sentinel Bluffs in Saddle Mountains, in gorge of Umptanum Creek (Kittitas County), on west slope of Divide be- tween Columbia and Yakima rivers, in Yakima Canyon, at North Yakima, and Sunnyside, on Upper Columbia, in Spokane Valley, at Rock Lake (head of Palouse River), Pullman and Wawawai (Whitman County), along Snake River east of Pasco (Franklin County), and in Blue Mountains. OrEGON.—Chiefly to the east of Cascades, but also in arid parts west of Cascades. Noted on Columbia River from northeastern Wasco to Umatilla County, on John Day River in Gilliam County, in Cascade (North) National Forest, in Goose Lake National Forest, and in Blue Mountains. CALIFORNIA.—Whole State, except on seaboard, chiefly in foothills, at the north up to about 3,500 feet, and at the south at 5,000 to 7,000 feet. Noted in chaparral of Klamath, Modoc, and Warner mountains National Forests; at Yreka (2,635 feet) (Siskiyou County), Mount Shasta on its south slope above McCloud Mill, near Sisson (8,500 feet) and at south end of Shasta Valley (3,500 feet) (Siskiyou County), Sacramento Canyon at Shasta Springs (2,538 feet) (Siskiyou County), southern Trinity Mountains east as far as hill between Whiskeytown and town of Shasta (Shasta County), and also locally noted near Lewiston and on Canyon Creek (Trinity County) ; in Sierras in Plumas, Diamond Mountain, Lassen Peak, Yuba, Tahoe National Forests, in Stanislaus National Forest in general at 2,500 to 4,000 feet, locally noted in canyon of South Fork of American River at 4,000 feet and on north slope of Mokelumne River at 2,500 feet, Lake Tahoe National Forest in T. 17 N., R. 13 E., and in Yosemite Valley ; west border of Sierra National For- est on dry pine hills, locally noted near Havilah (Kern County) at 3,150 feet. In coast ranges noted in Napa Mountains, in San Francisco County, on Oakland Hills, Mount Hamilton, in chaparral of Monterey National Forest in watershed of Nacimiento River, in Santa Barbara National Forest in watersheds of Santa Maria, Santa Ynez, and Piru- Sespe rivers, and in San Rafael Mountains, also in San Antonio and San Bernardino moun- tains in upper portion of chaparral belt and in pine belt, in San Jacinto Mountains, at 5,000 to 7,000 feet on Fuller’s Ridge and in Onstatt Valley, and in Laguna Mountains at Campbell’s ranch (5,500 feet), about 15 miles north of Mexican boundary. The distribution in the Rocky Mountain region will be described in a future publication. OCCURRENCE. Lowest mountain slopes, ridges, benches, and borders of streams (most common), can- yon bottoms; less frequent on dry hill slopes. Usually in fresh or moist, rich gravelly or rocky soils where it is largest; shrubby in dry, poor soils. Forms dense thickets of pure growth; often more or less scattered, singly or in clumps, with Douglas fir, red and mountain alders, aspen, black cottonwood, mountain maple, western serviceberry, bitter cherry, chinquapin brush, and occasionally yellow pine. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of red alder and aspen. TOLERANCE.—Undetermined, but apparently intolerant of shade at any time, as shown by its slender stems and small crown in dense stands, where it struggles for top light. REPRODUCTION.—Very abundant seeder nearly every year. Seedlings plentiful in moist litter, and advancing rapidly in old burns among willow-weed and low herbage. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 359 Hollyleaf Cherry. Prunus ilicifolia (Nutt.) Walpers. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Hollyleaf cherry is the most distinct of Pacific cherries on account of its evergreen holly-like foliage (fig. 168). Locally known as “ islay,”’ ‘ Spanish wild cherry,” and “‘ Mountain evergreen cherry.” 4 Vi Fira. 168.—Prunus ilicifolia. Most often a dense, prickly shrub from 2 to 4 feet high on dry, rocky slopes, but in sheltered canyons sometimes from 20 to 25 feet high and from 10 to 12 inches through; as a tree, more often about 10 feet high, with a very thickly 860 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. branched crown and only a short trunk. The deep reddish-brown bark of large trunks is deeply furrowed and cut into little squarish divisions. The small twigs are smooth, reddish yellow to red brown. Mature leaves (fig. 168), thick, leathery, glossy deep green on their top sides, and much lighter green beneath; marginal teeth prickly. Leaves of a season’s growth remain on the Fic. 169.—Prunus ilicifolia integrifolia. trees about two summers. The fruit (fig. 168), ripe from October to Novem- ber, is a clear deep red, becoming red-purple and very dark with age; pulp exceedingly thin, tart, and palatable. The large, thin-shelled, pale yellowish stone prominently veiny. Ripe fruit is carried away by birds, which thus assist in disseminating the seed, and extensively eaten by mountain rodents, FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPR. 361 which cut the cherries from the branches and store them, thus also effecting considerable distribution and unintentional planting. Wood, exceedingly heavy, dense, fine-grained, tough, pale brown tinged with red, has only a very thin layer of sapwood. The heartwood is handsome and suitable for small orna- mental woodwork, but not known to be used. A useful chaparral on steep, dry slopes. Lonceviry.—Not fully determined. From records, however, of trees planted in southern California nearly a century ago, and now 10 to 12 inches in diameter, it is estimated that this cherry may attain at least 100 years and still be growing. Its early growth in height in moist, rich soils is surprisingly rapid. A forest-grown tree 63 inches in diameter showed an age of 56 years. A very distinct variety of this species, Prunus ilicifolia integrifoliae Sud- worth, inhabits California mainland and coast islands (off Santa Barbara), especially Santa Catalina, and also San Julio Canyon, Lower California. It dif- fers from the species in having entire or, rarely, spiny margined leaves (fig. 169), longer flower clusters, and larger, more fleshy fruit. It becomes a small tree also, but its wood appears to be of considerably lighter weight than that of the species. It may possibly prove to be a distinct species. RANGE. California (from San Francisco Bay through the coast ranges, also on western slopes of San Bernardino Mountains and on Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa islands) te Lower California (San Julio Canyon). OCCURRENCE. Low mountain and high foothill slopes and plains, canyon sides and bottoms; in dry, rocky or gravelly soils (shrubby), but preferring moist sandy soil (largest). Forms clumps and small patches mingled with chaparral brush (species of Ceanothus, Rhus laurina, R. ovata, Quercus dumosa, Arctostaphylos, Adenostoma, Yucca). CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of big-cone spruce. TOLERANCE.—Very tolerant of shade. REPRODUCTION.—Abundant periodic seeder. Seedlings most frequent in moist bottoms of gulches and canyons where seed is covered by litter and washed soil. Less abundant and scattered on dry slopes, where seed lodged in pockets or buried by rodents affords reproduction. OCCURRENCE. Prunus ilicifolia integrifolia.—Similar to hollyleaf cherry. Silvical and climatic requirements undetermined; probably very like those of latter tree, but notably less aggressive. Requires further study. Family LEGUMINOSZ2. A very large family, containing such well-known trees and shrubs as locusts, acacias or ‘‘ mimosa-trees,” as well as a vast number of herbaceous plants, such as beans, peas, and clovers, which comprise some of the most important food and forage plants in the world. The trees supply heavy, strong, durable woods of excellent commercial qualities, while a number of them are notable because they produce mature timber in a remarkably few years. They are. therefore, important forest trees, particularly for artificial planting. According to the structure of their flowers and fruits they are technically divided into several subfamilies. As popularly characterized here, however, they can usually be recognized by the compound form of their leaves (simple “Miss Alice Eastwood has proposed for this variety, which she holds to be a species, the name “ Prunus Lyoni n. nom” (Handbook of the Trees of California, 54 1905), citing as a synonym “ Prunus integrifolia Sargent,’ a name which, by the common law of priority, must stand in place of Miss Eastwood’s Prunus lyoni, should this variety be raised to the rank of a species. Lyon originally referred specimens of this tree to P. occidentalis Swartz, which was later shown to be a different species, leaving the Califor- nia tree without a name. The writer regrets exceedingly now that in naming this eherry (Gard & For., IV, 51, 1891) he did not dedicate it to Mr. Lyon, who first brought the tree to light. 362 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. in only one genus of our trees). These consist of a prominent central stem which either directly gives off a number of pairs of rounded or pointed leaves (leaflets) along its two opposite sides or gives off branches and subbranches which in turn bear their leaves in this way. The central stem corresponds morphologically with the midveins of simple leaves, such as those of maples and oaks, and when shed in autumn parts from the twigs just as in these latter trees. Leguminous trees are further and most distinctly characterized by their beans, or bean-like fruit pods, all matured in one season, some of which resem- ble ordinary garden peas and beans and some of which have jointed or twisted pods in which each seed is separated from its fellows by intervening constric- tions: while in some members the fruit is structurally a bean-pod, but unlike ordinary ones in containing but a single seed, this, however, bean-like in shape. Flowers of many members of this family are pea-like or bean-like and combine male (pollen bearing) and female (seed bearing) organs, or the organs of one sex are suppressed and the flowers are male or female only. They are borne on different parts of the same tree or branch or on different trees. In one sec- tion of Leguminose the flowers (bisexual in each blossom) bear no resem- blance to pea or bean flowers, but appear like bristling, stiff, yellow, white, red, or pink threads, arranged in ball-like or cylindrical bodies. PROSOPIS. MESQUITES. The mesquites form a group of small or medium-sized trees and shrubs, all of which inhabit subtropical or tropical countries, with few representatives in the United States. Their wood is heavy, very hard, strong, durable, and of considerable local economic use; but on account of the small size and poor tim- ber form of the trees it is of only secondary and limited commercial importance. They are characterized usually by their 2-forked, sometimes 4-forked leaf stems, with from 5 to 20 or more pairs of small leaflets and often a pair of slender keen spines at the base of the bud from which the leaf stems grow. At the base of the main leaf stem and of its forks minute glands (dots) are usually found. The leaves are shed every autumn. Flowers (bisexual), minute and densely arranged in long cylindrical clusters (in our species), with slender stems from buds on twigs of the previous year’s growth. Fruit, a long slender, and flat bean-like pod (fig. 171), or a cylindrical, spirally marked pod (fig. 170), neither of which opens of its own accord to liberate its smooth, small hard beans, each of which lies in a separate cell of the pod. The seeds depend for their distribution upon flood-waters and upon cattle and other animals which feed upon them and thus assist in disseminating and sometimes in planting them. Seeds do not, however, germinate except when covered by or placed in contact with continuously moist soil. The ripe, dried pods, made into coarse flour, have long been used for food by southwestern Indians and Mexicans. Two species and two well-marked varieties occur in southwestern United States and adjacent territory on the south. Screwpod Mesquite. Prosopis odorata «© Torrey and Fremont. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Sometimes a short-trunked tree from 15 to 20 feet high, and from 38 to 8 (rarely 10 to 12) inches in diameter, but usually shrubby, with numerous stems; bark of large trunks pale reddish brown, shaggy with loose strips. Year-old twigs «The technical name maintained by other writers is Prosopis pubescens Bentham (1846) ; Prosopis odorata T. and F. was published in 1845 and is clearly entitled to recognition on the ground of being the first name applied to this tree, except for the FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 363 are hoary with more or less dense, minute hairs. i) Ce y Fic. 170.—Prosopis odorata. inodorous flowers bloom from spring to late summer, producing successive crops of pods. Mature pods, pale yellow, cylindrical, spirally twisted (fig. unfortunate fact that the authors of it give in their description and plate characters of both Prosopis juliflora DC. and of the screwpod mesquite. It is probable that a foliage and flowering branch of the former was used, with fruit of the latter species. There is 364 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 170)—a most distinctive character—and containing from about 10 to 20 small, smooth, hard seeds (fig. 170). Wood, pale yellowish brown and otherwise similar in its qualities, including weight, to that of the succeeding species. Loncrviry.—Age limits not determined. Trees from 6 to 8 inches in diameter are approximately from 50 to 75 years old, while the larger trees found occa- sionally are estimated to be from 100 to 150 years old. RANGE. Western Texas (valley of Rio Grande, from Devils River to El Paso) ; west through New Mexico, Arizona, southern borders of Utah and Nevada to California (arid region of Colorado basin to San Diego County) ; northern Mexico. OCCURRENCE. Desert river bottoms, waterholes, and canyons; in dry sandy, loamy, or gravelly soils. Forms close and open, often nearly pure stands, but frequently with mesquite. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of hackberry (Celtis reticulata)- TOLERANCE.—Endures very little shade at any stage. REPRODUCTION,—Very abundant seeder. Large quantities of pods infested by grubs. Seedlings sparse in exposed places, but frequent in sheltered canyon bottoms and valleys where seeds have been well covered by washed soil. Mesquite. -Prosopis juliflora glandulosa (Torr.) Sargent. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. The shrub and tree commonly called “‘ mesquite,’ which ranges from eastern Texas to Utah and Colorado and-southwestward into southern California, Lower ee ee enough in the description to unmistakably point to the screwpod mesquite as the plant for which the name Prosopis odorata was intended, and there is absolutely no doubt that the fruit figured is of this tree. By all past and present usages among just authors there is every reason for and great justice to Torrey and Fremont in taking up their name and only the most trivial pretext for preceding it by a later name. Prosopis juliflora DC., with which it was confounded, in part, by these authors, had long pre- viously (1825) been published, so that whatever of Torrey and Fremont’s description applies to that tree is synonymous. ‘There still remains the incontrovertible fact that these authors’ plate, at least, contains separate and distinct figures belonging unmis- takably, the fruit to the screwpod mesquite, and the flower and foliage to the common mesquite. The very common and unassailable practice of all taxonomists, in dealing with composite species of this type, is to maintain the name given for the plant which was new when the author dealt with the plants; while in a case where one name has been applied to two plants new at the time, the usage is to apply the name given to one of these plants and to rename the other. One recent case of this kind is of interest here. Betula occidentalis Hooker includes, in part, a birch native of northwestern Washington and southwestern British Columbia, and the red barked birch of a more eastern range. Only lately it was discovered that these two species were really included. Betula occidentalis Hooker was, therefore, at once taken for the northwestern tree, because the first part of Hooker’s description applied to that tree, the latter part to the red barked birch, to which a new name, Betula fontinalis Sargent, was very prop- erly given. The fact that the description was divided gives no more support for this procedure than is afforded in the case of the plate of Prosopis odorata T. and F., the figures of which are distinctly separated, and in reality present a simpler case, because the plant of one figure has already been named Prosopis juliflora DC. The possible argument against maintaining P. odorata T. and I’. because it must be cited as a synonym, in part, of P. juliflora DC., applies equally well, if need be, against maintaining Betula occidentalis Hooker, which must also be cited as a synonym, in part, of B. fontinalis Sargent. The writer's act in thus disposing of composite species is believed to rest firmly upon the universal law of priority which does full justice to every discoverer. «This variety is Torrey’s Prosopis glandulosa (1828) supposed by him to be a distinct species, one of the characters of which given being the minute glands (dots) at the base of the main leaf stem and its forks: characters now known to be present on the leaves of all species of Prosopis. In relating this tree as a variety to Prosopis juliflora DC., Torrey’s specific name must of course be retained, although it refers to an indistine- tive character. " i ae FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 365 California, and Mexico, is most perplexing in its characters. What may be ealled Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC., inhabiting western and eastern Texas and commonly a shrub with many stocky stems from a very large rootstock, or sometimes a short-trunked low tree, may be distinguished fairly well by its 15 er 20 pairs of much-crowded, very narrow, smooth leaflets, one-third to about one-half inch long, and by the smooth outer parts (calyx) of its flowers. Diverging from this plant are two varieties which appear distinct in their extreme forms, but which are more or less directly connected with the species through intervening transitional forms. While taxonomically it is important, for the sake of exactness, to trace and define these varieties, the main excuse for doing so here is in the possible forest value one or both of these varieties may possess. One variety, Prosopis juliflora velutina. (Woot.) Sargent, is a tree from 39 to 40 feet high and from 12 to 20 inches through, inhabiting dry valleys of southern Arizona and the State of Sonora, Mexico. It is the largest of our species. The leaf stems, their branches, and the 12 to 24 pairs of small, narrow, crowded leafiets are gray-hairy; outer parts (calyx) of the flowers minutely hairy. The other variety, Prosopis juliflora glandulosa (Torr.) Sargent, the mesquite with which this manual is directly concerned, inhabits southern California, extending into Lower California and Mexico, thence eastward to eastern Texas and northward into southern Kansas. This is a shrub or small short-trunked tree from 15 to 20 feet high, and from 6 to 10 inches or more through, with a rounded crown of arched or drooping branches. The leaf stems, their branches, and the 6 to 60 pairs of narrow leaflets are generally smooth, the leaflets usually being distant from each other (but not infrequently crowded) and one-fourth inch to nearly 2 inches long (fig. 171). Outer parts (calyx) of the flowers smooth.. This is the most reliable distinctive character, but it is not invariable, since these parts are sometimes minutely hairy. The fragrant yellow-green flowers are produced from about May to July. Mature pods (fig. 171) yellowish, 8 to 9 inches long (usually 4 to 6 inches) by one-fourth to about one-half an inch wide, somewhat flat but plump; very flat and thin at first, narrowed between the 6 to 20 seeds; pulp about seeds, which are pale brown, shiny and hard, is sweet and edible. Woods of the two varieties and species are indis- tinguishable; usually a deep red-brown, dense, close-grained, very hard and heavy, but somewhat brittle; exceedingly durable under all sorts of exposure; sapwood very thin and lemon yellow. It has many important local economic uses for building, cabinet work, and fuel in regions where it is practically the only available hardwood, while the wood of the enormously developed roots also supplies fuel. Only its small size and poor timber form prevent the wood from being of wider commercial importance. For the forester mesquite is the most interesting and important tree of the arid Southwest, where through the phenomenal growth of its huge deep roots it defies drought conditions which kill other trees. Development of its enormous roots appears to be out of all proportion to the often insignificant stems above ground, and is a subject for most profitable and interesting investigation. As a rule, however, the larger the stem above ground, the smaller the root develop- ment; low, shrubby stems commonly have huge taproots descending to water at a depth of 50 or 60 feet or more. A remarkable fact concerning the root wood is that it is heavier than wood from the trunk. The wood of both roots and trunk contains nearly as much tannin as ordinary tanbarks. A clear, yellowish gum exudes from the trunks 15188—08 24 366 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. when they are wounded. This hardens with exposure, and has the mucilagi- nous qualities of gum arabic, as a substitute for which it is sometimes used. Lonceviry.—The life limits of mesquite, below and above ground, have not been worked out fully, but the tree is unquestionably long-lived, though of Fic. 171.—Prosopis julifiora glandulosa. exceedingly slow growth. Trunks from 10 to 12 inches in diameter are from 100 to 125 years old, while the larger trunks occasionally found are likely to be yery much older. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 367 RANGE, Eastern Texas to southern Kansas and southward into northern Mexico. Reappearing in Arizona, southern California, and Lower California. OCCURRENCE. Desert plains, valleys, mesas, and canyons, under soil and climatic conditions like those of screwpod, to which it is also similar in silvical characteristics. CERCIS. JUDAS TREES. Cercis forms a group of small trees and shrubs popularly known as red- buds or Judas trees. It contains about 7 species, which occur in parts of Asia, Hurope, and North America. All of the 3 species of this continent are trees, one inhabiting eastern United States, one Texas and Mexico, and one Cali- fornia. The eastern and southwestern species are the largest of our representa- tives. They have dense, hard, brown, heavy woods, but are commercially unim- portant trees, chiefly because of their small size and rather rare occurrence. Several are highly prized, and are much planted as ornamental trees on account of their bright rose-colored, pea-like flowers, which cover the branches with a brilliant flame of color in early spring, before the leaves appear. The eastern species grows ‘in moist, rich forests, while the western ones often inhabit dry, poor, rocky, and exposed situations. The thickish, single-bladed, heart-shaped leaves have from 8 to 5 prominent veins, and are shed in autumn. The fruit, ripe in autumn, is a very thin and flat bean-like pod with small, brown, hard, bean-like seeds, California Red-bud. Cercis occidentalis Torrey. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS, California red-bud is not generally regarded as a tree, but it occasionally grows to tree size in sheltered places, and then has a single, smooth, grayish trunk from 10 to 12 feet high and from 2 to 3 inches through. Much more frequently, however, it grows in dense clumps with slender stems from 2 to 4 feet high. The small, pea-shaped flowers (fig. 172) are a clear magenta color. Mature leaves (fig. 172), smooth throughout (as are the twigs and branches). In autumn the twigs and branches often bear many clusters of pointed, flat, very thin, russet-brown pods (fig. 172) ; in ripening, the pods are first purple. Wood, fine-grained, dark yellowish brown, with a rather thin layer of whitish sapwood. Of no economic or domestic use. It is worthy of the forester’s notice only for its aid, with other foothill brush, in forming a scanty cover along dry, rocky borders of streams. Lonceviry.—Undetermined. RANGE. CALIFORNIA.—Along streams from Mendocino County and the region about Mount Shasta southward to San Diego County. OCCURRENCE. Borders of foothill streams, low mountain slopes and*canyons, in dry, or rather dry, gravelly and rocky soils. Grows singly and in shrubby clumps interspersed with Cali- fornia buckeye, ceanothus, manzanita, and other chaparral brush in gray pine . belt; _tree forms occur in sheltered situations, CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of gray pine. TOLERANCE.—Endures a good deal of shade in early life and light shade when older ; tolerance appears greater with increased soil moisture. 868 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. | Fic. 172.—Cercis occidentalis: a, seed. REPRODUCTION.—Plentiful seeder. Seed of high rate of germination (60 to 70 per cent), but tardy; vitality persistent. Young plants frequent in crevices, pockets, and little benches where seed has been well covered with mineral soil. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 369 ACACIA, Acacia is a very large group of widely distributed, world-famous trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. Over 400 species are known in different parts of the Old and New World, three-fourths of them in Australia. About a dozen trees and shrubs occur in the southwestern United States and adjacent territory. The group now contains fewer representatives than formerly, a num- ber of acacia-like members having been classed under related genera. Several leguminous trees, such as the locusts (Gleditsia) and others, are popularly called acacias, but technically they are not true acacias. It is exceedingly difficult to find characters by which acacias may be popularly distinguished from other closely related groups, which are technically separated mainly by such inconspic- uous characters as the structure of their flowers. True acacias have astringent bark, which in some cases is very valuable for tanning. When punctured, the trunk exudes a mucilaginous gum. The gum of some foreign species is known in commerce as gum arabic. The true leaf is compound, comprising one main stem with 2 to 3 pairs of small side branches which bear several or many pairs of opposite tiny leaflets.¢ Leaves of our acacias are shed every year. Their twigs have one or two keen spines (sometimes long and straight, and sometimes short and curved), commonly at points where leaves or flower stems grow (fig. 173). When there are two spines they form a pair. Flowers minute, often arranged in bright colored, slender, single-stemmed balls, or in long, single-stemmed cylindrical clusters. An impor- tant technical distinction is that the flowers, each of which usually combines both male (pollen bearing) and female (fruit bearing) organs, have more than 50 of the bristly, usually bright yellow, thread-like organs (stamens) protrud- ing from the flower body ; each stamen is entirely or practically separate from its fellows. Divisions of the inner flower cup (petals) are united into a cup or divided above and united at their bases (rarely, entirely separated). The fruit pods, bean-like, are flat or full and rounded when mature, straight, but in our species commonly twisted or crumpled, and their hard, smooth seeds usually bear an oval or circular depression on each of their broad surfaces, an impor- tant distinctive mark. They are all peculiarly adapted to growth, usually very rapid, in poor dry soils and in hot or warm climates. As a rule, our native acacias are little more than chaparral brush; they are too rarely trees to be of economic importance. ; Acacias are of ancient origin, many species having existed in an early geologic period. Only two of the dozen species indigenous in our Southwest, together with one naturalized species, are trees, and only one of these occurs within the Pacific region. Cats Claw. Acacia greggii Gray. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Cats claw receives its name from the keen hooked spines on its twigs (fig. 173). Very often it is only a low shrub, but usually it is a short-trunked, much- branched tree from 10 to 20 feet high and from 6 to 8 inches through; occasion- ally it is somewhat taller and thicker. The angled twigs are minutely hairy and “Some exotic acacias produce simple, leaf-like organs (phyllodia) which are morpho- logically only leaf stems dilated into the form of a simple leaf blade. : 370 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. light reddish brown. Mature leaves (fig. 173) grow singly and alternately from the young twigs, but one or two issue at a point on older twigs; the 3-nerved leaflets (fig. 175) are more or less hoary with minute hiirs. The pods (fig. 173) ripen in August, when they are pale brown, containing flat, shiny, deep brown, almost circular seeds—a most important character. The pods usually remain LED, N Ke Na Swe = SA \a aN = N) le KF sk ert A NG TS i WY] SS SRY A ‘ A - a Lf: Fe 8 f \ee : \ { 7 \ d \ ¥ \ : _B 07 J Fie. 189,— Bsculus californica? The chief usefulness is in forming considerable open but helpful cover on exposed dry, rocky foothill slopes, in gulches, and along hill streams where few other trees grow. 400 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. LoNGEVITY.—Not fully determined, but undoubtedly short-lived. One tree 73 inches in diameter showed an age of 43 years. Maturity is doubtless reached in about 100 years. . . RANGE. California (from Sacramento River in Mendocino County along coast ranges to San Luis Obispo County; western foothills of Sierras to northern slopes of Tejon Pass in Kern County; Antelope Valley north of San Gabriel Mountains in Los Angeles County). North Coast Ranges: Lower foothills (500 to 2,000 feet) northward into Mendocino County, Shasta County, at least to Redding in Sacramento River Valley. Locally noted on Russian River (Mendocino County) ; in canyons and on hills near Ukiah; at Lewiston and on Canyon Creek (Trinity County); hill between Shasta (town) and Whiskeytown (Shasta County); lower hills of Stony Creek National Forest; valleys south of Clear Lake (Lake County) ; Mount Tamalpais (Marin County). South Coast Ranges: Probably throughout lower foothills to San Luis Obispo Mountains, but noted only on seaward range west of Santa Clara Valley (500 to 1,500 feet), where it is common; near Santa Cruz; foothills of Santa Cruz Mountains; near Monterey on foothills just above Carmel Mission; Monterey National Forest (Santa Lucia Mountains), at 600 to 4,000 feet, but not common, in basins of Sur, Carmelo, and Arroyo Seco rivers; San Luis Obispo National Forest, only in basin of Salinas River. Sierra Foothills: Common from Shasta County to Tehachapi Mountains; in the north, at 500 to 2,000 feet, and in the south, at 1,000 to 3,000 feet. Locally noted in Shasta County; near Chico (Butte County); near Ione (Amador County) at 200 to 5,000 feet; Stanislaus National Forest, throughout lower belt ; Northfork and vicinity (Madera County) ; South Fork of King’s River, below Mill- wood; Kaweah River, foothills; Kern River basin, below oaks; at Havilah; Kernville to Walker Basin. Southern Cross Ranges: Abundant in Tehachapi Mountains in canyons and nearly up to summits; extends eastward and southward to the north slopes of Santa Barbara Mountains above Antelope Valley, where it occurs in basin of Elizabeth Lake at 2,400 to 4,500 feet, reaching the foot of Sawmill Mountain. Locally noted from Havilah to Fort Tejon and in Canada de las Uvas, and reported on south slope of Santa Barbara Mountains in Matilija Creek basin. OCCURRENCE, Foothill and lower mountain slopes; frequent on borders of streams and canyon sides, in dry gravelly soils. Forms spreading clumps interspersed with scrub oak, redbud, occasional live oak, blue oak, and gray pine, manzanita, and other chaparral brush; largest in sheltered coves and gulches. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of blue oak and gray pine. TOLERANCH.—Seedlings endure slight shade for several years, but later growth demands full light. REPRODUCTION.—Fairly abundant seeder. Young plants moderately frequent. Seed germinates only when it is well covered in soil. Family RHAMNACES. Rhamnacere is popularly known as the buckthorn family, which is widely known chiefly from its representative genus Rhamnus, an exotic species which is particularly famous as a medicinal plant. They are all small trees or shrubs, some of them generally distributed throughout the world. They are character- ized by their bitter bark, their often scaleless (naked) buds, their single-bladed leaves, evergreen or shed every autumn, and their small, greenish, usually bisexual flowers and berry-like fruits. Six genera, containing trees, occur in the United States, and two of them, Ceanothus and Rhamnus, are represented by eastern and Pacific species. RHAMNUS. BUCKTHORNS. The buckthorns form a large group containing trees and shrubs characterized by their intensely bitter, pungent bark and twigs. The twigs do not have strictly terminal or end buds, the last bud being a side one at the base of the last leaf-stem, The leaves, evergreen or shed each autumn, occur singly on the FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 401 twigs or seemingly in pairs, the two leaves nearly but rarely exactly opposite each other. Minute flowers, bisexual, or some of them male and others female, and each kind borne on different trees, occur in small branched or unbranched clusters at the bases of leaf-stems, coming after the latter are grown. Fruits matured in one season (usually in late summer) resemble berries and have a thick, juicy pulp covering from 2 to 4 very hard seeds, somewhat like a coffee grain. The succulent, often attractive fruits are greedily eaten by birds and mammals (without injury to the seeds). They are widely disseminated, chiefly in this way. Wood of the buckthorns is fine to coarse grained, moderately heavy and firm, of ordinary quality, and of no economic value, principally because the trees are small. The best known species of the group is the Euro- pean Buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica 1..), popular for hedges and as a small ornamental tree. Several of our native species are planted for ornament, but one only, a tree of the Pacific region, is of commercial importance on account of its medicinal bark. Three tree species and one variety occur in the United States, and two of these inhabit the Pacific region. Evergreen Buckthorn. Rhamnus crocea Nuttall. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Evergreen buckthorn has glossy, prickly, evergreen leaves, and is very com- monly only a straggling or massed shrub from 2 to 4 feet high, but in protected situations it is sometimes a slim tree from 12 to 15 feet high, with a smoothish, dull ashy gray trunk from 3 to 6 inches through; crown branches few and distant. The smooth, red-brown twigs are straight, stiff, some of them spine- like. Mature leaves smooth throughout (fig. 190), thinnish but leathery, shiny yellowish green ou their top sides, and much lighter, sometimes reddish green beneath; occasionally very minutely hairy on the veins and leaf stems. Fruit (fig. 190), ripe in late summer, dull red, and smooth; the very thin pulp covers from 1 to 38 little nuts, which split open and liberate a hard, grooved seed pointed at one end (fig. 191, @). Wood, light yellowish-brown, fine-grained, and brittle. Of no economic use. Z _ LonGeEvity.—Not fully determined. One tree 3 inches in diameter showed an age of 29 years. ; ; A distinct variety of this species which possibly deserves to rank as a species is Rhamnus crocea insularis (Greene) Sargent, which occurs on Cedros and Santa Barbara islands and the adjacent mainland of California. It differs from the species in its longer and less distinctly toothed leaves (fig. 191), sometimes with entire borders; in its somewhat larger flowers and bright red fruit; and particularly in the uniformly grooved, rounded, and abruptly short-pointed top end of the seed. Said to be 25 or 30 feet high and to flower six weeks later than Rhamnus crocea. Specimens of this variety have not been compared with those upon which Rhamnus pirifolia Greene, found on Santa Cruz Island, is based. The latter appears to be a form of this variety. What is probably another, but less well known, variety is Rhamnus crocea pilosa Curran, found in Santa Maria Valley near San Diego, Cal. It has nar- rower leaves with curled borders, and the twigs and leaves are covered with dense, minute, soft hairs, Nothing is known of its size. RANGE. California ; upper Sacramento River, west of Sierra Nevada Mountains (to latitude 29°) to Lower California (Guadalupe Islands). 402 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. OCCURRENCE. Prefers north mountain slopes, in shelter of forest borders, gulches, ravines, but occurs elsewhere on warm exposures; in dry, or moderately moist, gravelly soils. In groups or scattered among chaparral and shrubby trees. Fie. 190.—Rhannus crocea. CLimMatic ConpITIONS.—Climate hot and dry in part, but in part influenced by prox- imity of sea. TOLERANCE.—Very tolerant of shade, as shown by its growth for years under dense shade of tolerant. trees. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 403 REePRODUCTION.—Usually a prolific seeder, beginning at young age. Seed of high pos- sible germination (under favorable conditions) and of very persistent vitality. Germina- apOei: ve . LESTE: SSO OS — aS EDR Fic. 191.—Rhamnus crocea insularis: a, seed. tion rather scanty, owing probably to rare accident of seed being sufficiently buried to permit sprouting. Best conditions for-reproduction imperfectly determined. 404 é FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Cascara Sagrada. Rhamnus purshiana De Candolle. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Cascara sagrada varies in size and form in different parts of its wide range, where it occurs in dry or moist soils, in the open or crowded in a shady forest of other large trees. In moist rich soils of the north coast region, forest-grown trees are from 20 to 30 feet high, with a straight, smoothish, ashy gray, or sometimes brownish, trunk from 6 to 15 inches through, and a narrow open crown which has only a few branches standing out straight from the undivided bole; occasionally somewhat taller; in open places, with a very short trunk from 20 to 30 inches in diameter, giving off very large, upright limbs. Farther south, in poor, dry soils of open situations, usually a slender-stemmed ¥ shrub in-dense clumps from 38 to 6 feet high; sometimes bent to the ground. Mature twigs of the season are smooth or slightly and minutely downy, and usually dull reddish brown. Mature leaves (fig. 192) in its northern and moister range are commonly thin, large, prominently veiny, with sparse, very minute hairs above and beneath on the larger veins and on the leaf stems; they are shed regularly in autumn. In its drier, southern distribution to and through central California, mature leaves (fig. 193) are smaller, thicker, and somewhat leathery; the hairiness is decidedly more pronounced, and the veins are smaller but con- spicuously connected in a network; foliage of this type often persists more or less during late autumn or winter. Seen separately, the two extreme forms almost appear to be distinct species, but shade, soil, and atmospheric moisture seem to account for distinctive characters of the northern form, while exposure, dry soils, and dryness of atmosphere seem to account for the smaller, hairier, thicker-leafed southern form, which, moreover, is connected with the northern one by intermediate forms. Flowers, fruits, and seeds of both forms are essentially alike. There is good reason, however, for separating from the thicker-leafed form one which inhabits southern California (sometimes the central part) and extends into Arizona and New Mexico. It is Rhamnus purshiana tomentella (Gray) Brandegee, distinguished by the dense coating of whitish down on the twigs and lower sides of the usually narrow leaves; a wide-leafed form of this variety has been found,¢ however, in Lake and Colusa counties, Cal. Mature fruit (figs. 192, 193) smooth and black (previously red) with juicy, rather thin, sweetish pulp, which contains 2 or 3 hard, smooth, olive-green seeds. When there are two seeds they are fiat on one side like a coffee grain, and when three they are triangular; bottom end of seeds notched and top “end rounded.@¢ Wood, pale yellowish brown, with faint tinge of red; moderately heavy and soft; firm but brittle, rather coarse-grained: layer of whitish sap- wood thin in forest-grown trees, but thick in those grown in the open. Of no economic use. ¢Also called bearberry, bearwood, coffeeberry, coffee-tree, bitter-bark, wahoo, and shittimwood. >In the northern part, especially of the lower west slope of the Sierras, occurs what is here considered a form of this species, with very slender, wand-like stems, clear red twigs, and thinnish, narrow, sharply pointed leaves. It has been described as a distinct species (Rhamnus rubra Greene, Pittonia, I, 68, 160) and deserves further careful study in the field. ¢ Discovered first by Prof. T. S. Brandegee. 4 See dissemination of seeds under Rhamnus, p. 401. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 405 On account of its medicinal (tonic and laxative) properties the bark is col- lected extensively from trees in its northern range, to the amount, annually, of at least half a million pounds. In Oregon and Washington especially, collect- ing the bark has become an important local industry, to meet the increasing Fig. 192.—Rhamnus purshiana, northern form. demand for bark both in this country and in Europe. Large numbers of trees are destroyed annually by peeling. The cut stumps sprout vigorously, so that, with conservative management the supply can be maintained.” *An investigation looking to such management is now under way. 406 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. LoNGEViTy.—Not fully determined for large trees. Those from 6 to 12 inches in diameter are from 18 to 40 years old, when grown in dense stands, but not overtopped. Fic. 193.—Rhamnus purshiana, southern form. RANGE. From Puget Sound southward into Lower California; eastward through northern Washington to Idaho (Bitter Root Mountains), Montana (Flathead Lake) ; eastern slopes Sierra Nevada Mountains; mountains of Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas. pe FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 407 OCCURRENCE. Low river bottoms, flats, valleys, borders of slow streams (at north), and high foothill slopes (southward) ; in former Habitat in rich, rocky, or humous soils (best growth) and in dry gravelly or sandy soils throughout southern range (here shrubby); abundant moisture and rich soil required for largest growth. Mixed (usually as an undergrowth) with Douglas fir, red alder, western red cedar, hemlock, broadleaf and vine maples, Oregon crab, in alluvial bottoms, but often with manzanitas, live oaks, chaparral brush elsewhere on open hill slopes. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of badd alder and Douglas fir. TOLERANCE.—Exceedingly tolerant of dense shade in humid air and moist soil; ap- parently much less so in drier and exposed situations; the two habitats, different in cli- matic and soil conditions, producing two very unlike forms. REPRODUCTION.—Prolific seeder. Seed of medium high germination (often tardy) and of very persistent vitality. Scattered seedlings fairly abundant in moist forest lit- ter and mucky soils; scanty in drier habitat except in depressions where seed has been deeply covered by accident. Growth slender in dense shade; branched and bushy in open; shrubby in dry places. CEANOTHUS. MYRTLES. The myrtles are a small group of low, slender trees and shrubs confined to North America. One eastern shrubby species is called ‘“‘New Jersey tea,” while most of the western species are known as “lilacs” and ‘‘myrtles.” As trees they are unimportant, but as shrubs they often form a large and conspicu- ous part of the useful chaparral cover on dry mountain slopes throughout the western United States, where, in addition to assisting much in preventing rapid run-off, a number of them furnish the principal browse in summer for range eattle and sheep. The greater number of them grow in the open, but some mingle with forest trees. They grow near sea level or ascend high mountain slopes, frequently becoming conspicuous features in burned areas among moun- tain pines, spruces, and firs. The twigs are smooth and unarmed (sometimes with spines or spine-pointed) and frequently angled. The leaves are simple (with one blade) and borne singly. Prominently characteristic of the leaves, annually deciduous or ever- green, are their 3 veins, consisting of the main central vein, on both sides of which a vein extends from near the base of the leaf nearly or quite to its top end (figs. 194 to 196). The minute, blue or white, perfectly bisexual flowers, often fragrant, occur in small, dense, branched clusters. The colored divisions (petals) of the flowers resemble minute tobacco pipes. The fruits are small, dry, berry-like bodies, with three rounded, bulging lobes, which are three little nuts. These are joined together, but are separable when ripe; the thin, dry, brittle covering of each splits open and liberates a thin, hard-shelled seed. A curious fact concerning the dissemination of the seeds is that, in a number of species, the seeds are quite forcefully thrown @ from their outer shells. This pro- vision insures their being cast upon the ground, often a little way from the parent tree. Flood waters and browsing animals further assist in distributing the seeds. Six or seven species, all found in the Pacific region, have been classed as trees, but so far as can be satisfactorily determined only three of these are true trees. This number is likely, however, to be increased by careful field studies of some of the large, shrub-like species. Species of this genus are often difficult to identify in all of their variably shrubby or tree forms, particularly such closely related species as C. arboreus and the shrubby C. velutinus. Moreover, it is now known that several species hybridize and so produce very perplexing forms. _— *Parry, Proc. Davenport (Iowa) Acad., v. 164. 408 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Fie. 194.—Ceanothus thyrsiflorus: a, fruit enlarged. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 409 Blue Myrtle.” Ceanothus thyrsiflorus FEschscholtz. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Variable in size, from a fruiting shrub from 2 to 4 feet high to a very short, thick-trunked, bushy tree from 12 to 25 feet high and from 4 to 12 inches in diam- eter; occasionally somewhat taller. Thin trunk bark, clear reddish brown, with thin scales. The branches, and especially the twigs, are prominently angled. Mature leaves (fig. 194) are evergreen, smooth and shiny on their top sides, lighter green beneath, and minutely hairy, particularly on the midveins. Fragrant flowers, usually light blue, sometimes white. Mature fruit (fig. 194), ripening from mid-summer to early autumn, is dead black and smooth. \ Wood pale yellowish brown and usually with a very thin layer of sapwood ; moderately heavy, fine-grained. Of no economic use. ~ Lonceviry.—Not fully determined. One tree 5 inches in diameter showed an age of 12 years. RANGE. Western California (from Mendocino County to San Luis Rey River). OCCURRENCE. On protected slopes, edges of forests, and near streams; at south, on exposed border of sea, here only a shrub. Largest on hills above Noyo River swamps (Mendocino County), and in redwoods on Santa Cruz Mountains. In moist or dryish gravelly and sandy soils, scattered with Douglas fir, redwood, oaks, western dogwood, vine maple, and willows. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Not determined. TOLERANCE.—Fairly tolerant of shade, which it prefers especially\in youth, but with greater soil moisture exists in open. Seeding habits and reproduction not fully known. Appears to seed plentifully about every year. Tree Myrtle. Ceanothus arboreus Greene. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Tree myrtle, an island species, has no common field name. The one here given, for want of a better one, is derived from the technical name. As a rule, a low, short-trunked, bushy tree from 10 to 20 feet high, with a deep brownish, scaly trunk from 3 to 8 inches thick; the small bark scales are rather thick, and squarish. Young twigs, faintly angled, grayish with minute down, and later becoming reddish. Mature leaves (fig. 195) thickish, deep green, with exceedingly fine, soft hairs on the top sides, and thickly woolly beneath; leaf stems also more or less hairy; margins of leaves with blackish, gland-tipped teeth. Pale blue flowers in rather large, dense clusters from early to late summer. Mature fruit (fig. 195) is wrinkled and black. Wood, pale brown, tinged with red; very thin, whitish sapwood; fine-grained, dense, hard and heavy. Of no economic use. LONGEVITY.—Not fully determined. Very persistent slow grower, giving evi- dence of being rather long-lived. One tree 22 inches in diameter showed an age of twenty-seven years. “Also called ‘‘ blue blossoms,” ‘‘ California lilac,”’ and ‘‘ tick-tree.”’ 410 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. RANGE. ~ Off coast of southern California (Santa Catalina, Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa Islands). . om on . Fic. 195.—Ceanothus arboreus. OCCURRENCE. High north slopes (Santa Cruz Island) in dry, gravelly or rocky soil, where it is largest and most frequent as a tree; smaller on other islands. Silvical habits undeter- mined, as are its requirements of climate, light, its seeding habits, and reproduction. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 411 Lilac. Ceanothus spinosus Nuttall. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Lilac has long been known as a shrub only, but recently it has been found to reach a tree size of from 12 to 15 feet in height and from 3 to 5 inches in aw BS ¥ ~My NS S Ss > NS TS) a; SESS Cok. i hd > IO aa a a , iN, ; Re AS: * a A ua Fic. 196.—Ceanothus spinosus. diameter. It has a short, clear trunk with deep reddish-brown, scaly bark, and a narrow scanty-leafed, open crown of upright limbs. Mature twigs of the 412 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. season, somewhat angled, reddish brown, usually spine-tipped; often growing horizontally from the branches. Mature leaves (fig. 196) usually without mar- ginal teeth, thickish, somewhat leathery, smooth, and partly evergreen; leaf- stems either slightly and minutely hairy or quite smooth. Leaves on young, vig- orous twigs are often toothed, with the 3-veined character at the base more prominent than in the other entire-margined leaves. Fragrant, pale to deep blue fiowers are borne in long (5 to 6 inches), wide btnches, the small clusters of blossoms densely crowded. Mature fruit (fig. 196) smooth and black. Wood of the arborescent form has not been examined. Not likely to be of any economic use on account of the rarely large size of trees. LoNGEViry.—Not fully determined. Record of one stem 34 inches in diameter showed it to be 20 years old. RANGE. California. Canyons near the coast of Santa Barbara, Ventura, and Los Angeles counties. OCCURRENCE. Low mountain canyons; in gravelly and rocky soils. Forms patches and groups mainly under and interspersed with California live oak and walnut, white alder, pale elder, California sycamore, and laurel. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of California sycamore. TOLERANCE.—Not fully determined, but species endures a good deal of shade. REPRODUCTION.—Abundant seeder and young plants frequent. Family CORNACEZ. Cornacee is commonly known as the cornel family, members of which are widely distributed throughout the world, but most abundantly in temperate regions. It contains shrubs and trees, some of the latter large and valuable for their timber. The family is represented in the United States by two groups, Cornus, the cornels and so-called dogwoods, and by Nyssa, the pepperidge or tupelo gum trees. Only Cornus is represented in the Pacific region, while mem- . bers of Nyssa belong wholly to the Atlantic region. They have simple single- bladed leaves which are borne in pairs (one opposite another), or singly, and are shed every autumn. Their small, inconspicuous flowers are either perfectly bisexual or of separate sexes, each kind borne on different trees (only the female trees producing seed). Some of the fruits resemble small berries, others cherries, and contain a one or two seeded stone. CORNUS. DOGWOODS AND CORNELS. The dogwoods and cornels area group of shrubs and small, rather unimportant hardwooded trees, with more representatives in North America than in any other country. The most popular and widely known members of the group are the English cornel tree (Cornus mas L.) so much cultivated for its acid, cherry-like fruit, and the so-called flowering dogwood of our eastern woodlands, prized and planted for its showy, white-scaled flowers. The bark of cornels is bitter and tonic. Cornel wood is very suitable and useful for small turnery requiring hardness, strength, and wearing qualities; special care in seasoning (slow drying) is needed to prevent checking. The pointed leaves occur mostly in pairs, rarely one at a point, while twigs and branches are given off in pairs at every joint (except in one eastern species). The leaves have prominent, deeply impressed, straight veins, and characteristic wavy margins, and are always clustered at or near the ends of the twigs. Flowers, perfectly bisexual, very small, greenish, closely crowded, and stemless, aa FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 413 in small flat bunches at the ends of twigs, each cluster appearing to be the center of a large white flower, the showy 4 to 6 divisions of which are not parts of a true flower, but large petal-like® scales (fig. 197). In other members (native trees) the small, white flowers appear loosely and without showy scales, in broad, minutely branched (2-forked), flattish-topped clusters. Fruits produced by the first type of flowers appear in crowded clusters at the ends of the twigs (fig. 198), while the larger, broad, flat clusters of flowers produce similarly arranged clusters of berry-like fruit. Cornel fruits, often bright colored, are eaten by birds and mammals (with little or no injury to the seed), and thus the seeds are widely distributed; otherwise, they are distributed -only by flood waters. They are chiefly moisture-loving plants, growing either in naturally wet or moist soils, or in forests where shade and ground cover conserve soil water. Species of Cornus existed in early geologic periods. Of the three tree cornels native to the United States, only one inhabits the Pacific region. Western Dogwood. Cornus nuttallii Audubon. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Western dogwood, the only tree of its genus in the Pacific forests, is easily recognized in spring when in flower by the large, conspicuous, petal-like® scales, or in late summer and early autumn by its clusters of bright red fruit and bril- liant red and orange foliage. From its general appearance it might easily be mistaken for its eastern relative, Cornus florida L., from which, however, it dif- fers widely in details. The western dogwood is a smooth-looking tree ordinarily from 20 to 30 feet high, and from 6 to 8 inches through, but not uncommonly from 30 to 50 feet high, with a fairly straight trunk from 10 to 20 inches in diameter. Much of the thin, duil, ashy brown or reddish bark is smooth; only the bark of large old trunks is broken into very small, thin scales. Crown branchi#s are short. Young trees in the open have rather short trunks and long, narrow crowns, which in older trees become rounded, while in close stands the crowns are short and narrow, and the trunks long and clean. Twigs of a season’s growth, minutely hairy when young, are mostly smooth and dull red-purple, often with greenish areas; the small, pointed, leaf-buds are clasped by two opposite, long-pointed, narrow scales (fig. 198). Mature leaves (fig. 198) are thin, with minute, very close hairs on their top sides, and beneath lighter with fine, soft hairs, as also have the leaf stems. Leaves are from 34 to 5 inches long; midveins and their side branches conspicuously impressed on the upper sides of the leaves. The button-like clusters of very small, greenish- yellow flowers, which bloom in early spring, are surrounded by from 4 to 6 showy white or, sometimes, faintly pinkish scales (fig. 197), which are popu- larly taken to be parts of a real flower. They are, however, flower-bud scales which, with the flower cluster, are partly formed during the previous summer, and are situated just beneath the immature flower cluster; they_remain in this undeveloped state until the following spring, when they grow with the a Showy like one of the inner parts of a flower which, in ordinary blossoms, are colored as in the rose. +In the eastern “ flowering dogwood” (C. florida L.) these scales completely cover the cluster of immature flowers. When full grown, scales of this species differ greatly from those of western dogwood in palates Geeuty indented at their ends (somewhat heart-shaped). 15188—08 27 z 414 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. flowers, becoming large and showy when the latter open. Autumnal flowers” are not uncommon. From 25 to 40 shiny red berries are matured in a dense cluster (fig. 198) at the ends of the twigs; the thin, dryish pulp of the berry contains one hard-shelled, 1 or 2 seeded stone. Wood, very pale reddish-brown, with thick sapwood; moderately heavy, dense, and very hard, fine-grained, Fic. 197.—Cornus nutallii. checking badly (if seasoned rapidly in the open air). Considerably lighter and. less dense than wood of the eastern dogwood; suitable for turnery and small cabinet work, but little used at present, and not likely to be of much economic importance. ; FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 415 LONGEvVITy.—Records of the age attained by the largest trees are not available. ’ Trees from 6 to 12 inches through are from 45 to 90 years old. The largest trunks are probably from 125 to 150 years old. 5 se bn} Tx or soe ee FY igh Fic. 198.—Cornus nuttallii. RANGE. From southern coast of British Columbia (Lower Fraser River and Vancouver Island) through Washington, Oregon, and California (coast ranges to San Jacinto Mountains and western slopes of Sierra Nevada Mountains). OCCURRENCE. Low bottoms, lower gentle mountain slopes, valleys, coves, ravines, herders, and well- drained bottoms of mountain streams, in rich, fresh, loamy, gravelly, or rocky soils; 416 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. largest in fresh, porous soils. Mixed, singly or in small groups, under Douglas fir, red- wood, and western hemlock, with broadleaf and vine maple, Nuttall willow, red and white alders; sometimes under western yellow pine and sugar pine. Largest in heavy Douglas fir forests of Puget Sound country. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of -Douglas fir. TOLERANCE.—Very tolerant of dense shade. REPRODUCTION.—Abundant annual seeder. Seed of medium high rate of germination (but tardy) and of persistent vitality; requires constantly moist seed bed for good germination. Seedlings scattered; most abundant in deep shade or on moist stream borders. Family GARRYACE. A small and little-known group of trees and shrubs represented in our Pacific country, adjacent southern territory, and in the West Indies, by one genus, Garrya, which commemorates the name of Garry, who facilitated the early northwestern explorations of David Douglas, discoverer of the type species. The general aspect of these plants suggests close relationship to the cornels (Cornacez), in which Garrya is usually placed; but the very different character of the flowers and fruit is good reason for separating Garrya from that family. GARRYA. About a dozen species (chiefly shrubs) comprise this group. Two of them occur in the Pacific region, and one of them sometimes becomes a tree. Im- portant characters of the group are opposite leaves and flowers (of two sexes) borne on separate individuals (only the female individuals producing seed). Other characters of the genus are given under the following tree species. Quinine Bush. Garrya elliptica Douglas. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Quinine bush gets its name from its bitter bark, leaves, and, especially, fruit. It is known also as “ silk-tassel bush,” and as “ fringe-tree,” in reference to the tassel-like clusters of flowers and fruit. Ordinarily a low, evergreen chaparral shrub, but in parts of its northern coastal range, sometimes a short-trunked tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 6 to 20 inches through. Little is now known of its trunk and crown form, for it is only rather recently that tree forms were first found. Mature leaves (fig. 199) are thick, leathery, smooth above and white-woolly beneath, the margins particularly wavy. Mature fruit (fig. 199), ripe in late summer or early au- tumn, is berry-like, with a thin brittle case covering an acid, slightly bitter, purplish pulp, in which there are 1 or 2 seeds. Male clusters of flowers (fig. 199) are from 8 to 5 inches long and fringe-like. Wood, not used commercially because of its rarity. It has not been studied fully, but is known to be heavy, dense, and hard. As a shrub quinine bush assists, with manzanita and ceanothus brush, in main- taining a scanty but tenacious cover on dry, gravelly, and rocky mountain slopes. Nothing is known of its silvical characteristics as a tree in moist, rich soils. Lonceviry.—Age limits undetermined. 2The late A. J. Johnson, a tireless explorer of Oregon forests, first brought this fact to the writer’s notice, and upon his statement the sizes here given are based. He re- ported finding especially large trees in Coos County, Oreg., in 1889. ~ FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 417 RANGE, RANGE.—Oregon through California south to the Santa Lucia Mountains in Monterey County. Range imperfectly known. Fic. 199.—Garrya elliptica. OCCURRENCE, Mountain slopes of medium elevation and on foothills; in dry, gravelly soils (shrubby), or occasionally in sandy loam soils (largest). Grows singly and in clumps. At higher 418 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. levels, Sometimes under western yellow pine with manzanita, ceanothus, and other brush; silvical habits elsewhere imperfectly known now. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of redwood and yellow pine. Tolerance (evidently endures a good deal of shade) and reproduction undetermined. Family ERICACEZ, Ericacee, popularly called the “heath” family, contains a large number of shrubs and a few small or medium-sized, hard-wooded trees, all widely dis- _ tributed in the warm and temperate regions of the world. Among its well- known members are the huckleberries, blueberries, and cranberries ; the popular trailing arbutus, wintergreen, and manzanitas; and the azaleas and rhododen- drons, which are among the most beautiful flowering shrubs and small trees in the world. While many of the shrubs, wild and cultivated, are commercially important for their fruit or for ornamental planting, but few of the trees supply wood of value, except for minor purposes. They vary greatly in their require- ments of soil, moisture, and light, some of them inhabiting cool, shady forests, or cold, wet bogs from sea level to high mountains, while others thrive in arid soils of hot mountain slopes. They have simple, single-bladed leaves, which are evergreen or shed annually in autumn. The flowers are perfectly bisexual, and the fruits vary from juicy berries to dry, small-seeded capsules, all of which are matured in one season. The family contains nearly 70 genera, about’ 20 of which inhabit the United States. Eight or ten of these are trees, represented in the Pacific region by Arctostaphylos ® and Arbutus. ARBUTUS. MADRONAS. Arbutus is a small group of evergreen-leafed shrubs and chiefly small trees, with peculiarly thin, red bark on branches, large limbs, and smaller trunks: bark of large tree trunks thicker, brown, and scaly. The leaves, borne singly, are thick and leathery, while the small, urn-shaped flowers (5-lobed at top) are in rather large, open, branched clusters, the main stem thick and stiff. The fruit, berry-like in appearance, dry and mealy, is spherical, one-third to one-half inch in diameter, bright red or orange-red, with a finely warty surface, and 5-celled, with several or numerous small seeds. The attractive looking “berries ” are eaten by birds, which assist in disseminating the seeds. Members of this group have dense, rather heavy, close-grained, often very strong, stiff wood, which is apt to check badly if dried rapidly and without special treatment. That of our representatives is not especially valuable, except for charcoal and minor domestic uses. Three of the dozen known species occur in the United States and Mexico, and one of these inhabits only the Pacific region. Some of them grow in rich, dry or moist soils from sea-level to several thousand feet elevation, sometimes forming a considerable part of the shady cover along mountain streams and in coves, while others grow on poor slopes of low hills and high mountains. «This group contains the chiefly shrubby, well-known manzanitas so frequent on dry slopes in the Pacific region, At least 3 or 4 (particularly A. manzanita Parry, A. glauca Lindley, and-A. viscida Parry) of the known species occasionally become veritable trees or tree-like, and eventually should be included among the Pacific trees. In the writer’s opinion, however, the whole group requires much more careful study than has yet been given to it in the field before this can be done properly. For the present, therefore, consideration of Arctostaphylos is omitted from this work. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 419 Madrona. Arbutus menziesii Pursh. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Madrofia is often a stately tree from 60 to 80 feet high, with a straight, clean trunk from 2 to 3 feet in diameter; sometimes, but rather rarely, con- siderably taller and thicker. Very frequently low and shrubby, or from 25 to 40 feet high, with a crooked or leaning trunk from 8 to 15 inches through. Its red-brown trunks, red branches, and shiny, evergreen foliage distinguish it at once from all other trees or shrubs in its range. The crown form varies from a narrow, dense, columnar one in younger trees to a broad rounded one in old trees. The thin, reddish-brown bark of old trunks is loosely scaly, mainly only on the lower trunk; that of the upper stem, limbs, and twigs, and of young trunks, very thin, smooth and red, peeling off in thin, irregular, flakes, much as in the sycamores. The showy, large clusters of flowers resemble lilies of the valley. Mature leaves (fig. 200) are thick, leathery, smooth through- out, shiny on their upper sides, whitish beneath, and 24 to 5 inches long. The brilliant orange-red, berry-like fruit (fig. 200), ripe late in fall, and often borne in great abundance, makes the trees most beautiful in autumn. Wood, pale reddish brown, with a thin whitish sapwood; rather heavy, dense, fine-grained, hard (when dry), but cuts like soft wood when green, and is usually quite brittle. Suitable for cabinet work and an excellent charcoal wood. At present not important for commercial purposes, but, with a better knowledge of how to season it, the wood should be of more economic value in a region so lacking in hard woods. LONGEvity.—The age attained by very large trees is unknown. Gives evidence of being long-lived. Grows very slowly, especially in diameter, but with little loss of vigor. Trees 12 to 16 inches through are 60 to 85 years old. Further study of age limits is desirable. ; RANGE. Coast region of southern British Columbia and Washington to southern California ; reported also in northern Lower California. Range still imperfectly known. BritisH CoLUMBIA.—East coast of Vancouver Island, and sparsely northward to Seymour Narrows, and around south efid nearly to Port San Juan. Adjacent islands and immediate mainland coast. Noted on Vancouver Island at Victoria, near Nanoose Bay and at Departure Bay; not in Port Renfrew region. WASHINGTON.—I’requent in coast region, especially on Puget Sound. Noted in valley of Elwha River; shores of Hood Canal in vicinity of Union City; Mat Mats Bay; vicinity of Seattle. OreEGON.—Common along coast, up rivers, and inland on southern coast ranges and slopes of Siskiyous eastward to head of Bear River (T. 40 S., R. 2 EB.) ; also northward on west slopes of Cascades to Umpqua-Rogue River Divide (T. 33 S., R. 1 W. and 1 to 8 .), and reported farther north on Lost Creek (T. 22 S., R. 1 E.). Locally noted at Astoria and Gold Beach. CALIFORNIA.—Northern cross ranges and coast ranges southward to San Gabriel Moun- tains; also southward in Sierras to head of Tuolumne River (lat. 37° 45’); generally from sea level to about 3,000 feet elevation. Northern cross ranges eastward to yellow pine belt in Shasta National Forest; southern slope of Siskiyous eastward at least to railroad crossing. Klamath, National Forest, in Siskiyou County; noted on west slope only of Marble Mountain up to 4,000 feet and westward into basin of Russian Creek, valley of North Fork Salmon River, to Sawyers Bar, Forks of Salmon River, and up east slope of Salmon Summit to 4,700 feet. Noted in Humboldt County on west slope of Trinity Summit above Hoopa Valley at elevations below 4,000 feet, and westward into Hoopa Valley, Supply Creek Canyon, Miners Creek Canyon, Redwood Creek, Korbel, and Blue Lake; farther south in Little Van Dusen Canyon and westward to Bridgeville and Hydesville; also in McNutts Gulch (south of Domingo Hill) on road from Capetown to Petrolia, and south of Petrolia on Upper Mattole to Briceland; lower slopes King 420 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Mountain and southward into Mendocino County. ‘Trinity National Forest, generally distributed from valley bottoms, at 1,500 to over 3,000 feet, eastward to a canyon near Lewiston, and extending up Canyon Creek to first falls; locally noted in vicinity of Wildwood, Hayfork Mountains, Post Creeks, South Fork of Trinity River, Mad River, Hayfork (Post-Office), on Post creeks to South Fork. Mendocino County: Coast from Fic. 200.—Arbutus menziesii: a, berries. Kenny southward to Westport, eastward to Cahto and Laytonville; road from latter to Round Valley; between Eel River and .Poonkinny, divide between Eel River and Round Valley, Round Valley hills north of Indian Agency and gulches; canyon on west slope Mount Sanhedrin, Tomki gulch, Upper Redwood Canyon; hills east of Redwood Valley, FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 421 and on Russian River at north end of Ukiah Valley to and beyond Willets; rare near sea, growing 5 or 6 miles back; noted between Gualala and Fort Bragg, Upper Big River, and divide between Ukiah and head of Big River. Sonoma County: Near coast on road to Plantation House; Austin Creek Canyon (south of Cazadero) ; Lower Russian River from Duncan Mills nearly to mouth, and eastward to Guerneville and Forestville; Dutch Bill gulch, Camp Meeker, Occidentalis to south edge of redwood forest, near Freestone ; east of Occidentalis to Green Valley ; between Meeker and Sebastopol; Middle Russian River (southward from Mendocino County). Southeastern Sonoma County: Sonoma Creek northward in Sonoma Valley; Glen Ellen, Beltane, Sonoma Mountains and those between Sonoma and Napa Valley; canyon between Knights and Alexander valleys; extreme northeastern Sonoma County; Big Sulphur Creek at Geysers, and up canyon to Socrates Basin and over divide into Lake County. Here about Russian River, east of Healdsburg, and north of Cloverdale. Marin County: Mount Tamalpais, common; Kent- field and westward; San Geronimo and Lagunitas valleys, Paper Mill Creek; hills west of San Rafael; Mill valley to Sausalito; south end of Tomales Bay, and on Inverness Ridge on west side of bay. Stony Creek National Forest, only on Eel River drainage of western border. Lake County: From Mount St. Helena eastward to within 2 miles of Middletown, and from west of Middletown westward up Cobb Mountain and into Sonoma County. Napa County: Southward in Napa Valley, on west side, to and beyond Oak- ville; upper Napa Valley to and beyond Calistoga; east of St. Helena, and on south side of Mount St. Helena up to Toll House; on west side of ridge south from Mount St. Helena on east side of Napa Valley. Solano County: Few isolated trees in Jameson Canyon from Green Valley westward, and perhaps elsewhere. Alameda County: Canyon about Mission Peak southeast of old San Jose Mission. Santa Clara County: Hills bordering Coyote Creek near Gilroy Hot Springs; Mount Hamilton range. San Mateo and Santa Cruz counties: Common on both sides of Santa Cruz range; noted from Boul- der County to Big Basin and on road from Los Gatos westward, west of Stanford de- scending to east base of range and common about Portola; following Santa Cruz Moun- tains southward from sea level to summits occurs in hills east of Monterey Bay nearly to Watsonville. Monterey County: Not detected about Monterey nor on Monterey Pe- ninsula, except a few trees in canyons on Point Pinos at 400 to 500 feet. Common on coastal summits of Santa Lucia Mountains, at 800 to 4,250 feet, in watersheds of Sur, Carmelo, Arroyo Seco, San Antonio, and Nacimiento rivers; noted at north base of Santa Lucia Peak in gulch leading to head of Milpitas Valley, and west of Santa Lucia Peak in canyon of Arroyo Seco. San Benito County: Locally noted on north side of Fremont Peak only a few hundred feet below summit; also lower down on east slopes of San Juan Canyon and in other gulches about north base of mountain; in a gulch on west side of San Juan Valley 2 miles north of San Juan. San Luis Obispo Mountains, in Salinas, Santa Margarita, and San Luis river basins; noted at San Luis Obispo at 2,000 feet. Southern cross ranges eastward to San Gabriel Mountains; north slope of Santa Ynez Range, at 1,000 to 8,500 feet, with best growth at Refugio Pass, and at head of Rattlesnake Creek (Cold Spring trail), at 2,500 feet; in San Rafael Range, only on west slopes of Big Pine Mountains and on Mount Medulce, in cool canyons at 8,000 to 4,000 feet; Santa Monica Mountains, a few shrubby plants in Los Tuas Can- yon; San Gabriel Range, small group on Mount Wilson and in narrow belt on the Sturte- vant Trails, at about 3,000 feet. Reported also from San Bernardino Mountains. Sierra foothills, abundant but usually distributed in patches and small areas. Rare in Shasta County ; occurs sparingly along McCloud River for about 15 miles north of fish hatchery at Baird, and near Winthrop on Squaw Creek. General in foothills of Lassen Peak and Plumas National forests up to about 2,500 feet. Butte County: On the road from Oro- ville to Quincy from a gulch about 4 miles north of Bidwell Bar, at an altitude of about 1,200 feet, northeastward to “ Junction House” (deserted station—altitude, 3,500 feet) about 38 miles south of Merrimae Stage station, thence into Little North Fork Canyon. Yuba County: Yuba Pass road, abundant in canyon of North Fork Yuba River on east side of Oregon [ills, thence to and beyond Camptonville, above which it enters west end of Sierra County. Nevada County: Common near Grass Valley, particularly on north slope of ridge about 14 miles east of Grass Valley. Tahoe National Forest, in lateral canyons of North Fork of Feather River and between Camptonvyille and Middle York of Yuba River, at 2,300 to 38,200 feet. Placer County: Common on road from Colfax south to Forest Hill; also on south side of North Fork American River Canyon between Colfax and Iowa Hill, and for several miles east of Iowa Hill. Stanislaus National Forest, rather abundant at a few points in middle timber belt at about 2,500 to 4,000 feet, but especially so and of large size on headwaters of Sutter, Pioneer, Mill, and Jesus Maria ¢reeks; smaller and less frequent on Empire Creek, between Garden Valley and Georgetown, and on Otter Creek (tributary Middle Fork American River) ; extensive area in southern part of Amador County beginning about 3 miles east of Pine 422 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Grove, and extending eastward to Pioneer, and for about 3 miles along summit of ridge on north side of Mokelumne River Canyon (above Defender) at 2,700 to 3,000 feet. Sierra National Forest, one grove of large trees on north slope of Pilot Ridge on Pack- ards Camp Stream (tributary South Fork Tuolumne River, lat. 37° 45’), southern limit now known in Sierras. OCCURRENCE. ’ Foothill and low mountain slopes of every aspect, borders of streams, cool canyons and valleys; in well-drained, moist, rich, rocky, or loamy soils (here largest) to dry, loamy, or poor gravelly soils (here small or shrubby). Best growth near sea under influence of fogs. Forms small pure stands, but more commonly an undergrowth with redwood, tanbark oak, Douglas fir, California laurel, goldenleaf chinquapin, broadleaf and vine maples, California live oak; frequent in open stands of western yellow pine and Kellogg oak, and less often with gray pine. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of yellow pine and Douglas fir. TOLERANCE.—Appears very tolerant of shade throughout life. Endures dense shade, put requires at least partial top light for best growth; dense side shade cleans long, slender trunks. : REPRODUCTION.—Abundant seeder. Exact seeding habits undetermined, especially in the upen. Seed has moderately high rate of germination, and persistent vitality. Germi- nation best and most abundant in moist soil when seed is well covered; otherwise (as in drier places) tardy and seedlings scarce. Family OLEACEZ. Popularly known as the olive family, an important group of forest trees and shrubs, widely represented in warm and temperate countries, particularly those of the northern half of the world. It includes the world-famous olive-tree, cul- tivated centuries ago in Syria and Palestine, later in the Mediterranean coun- try, and now, in addition, in our southwest and in California; it includes also the ashes—very valuable timber and ornamental trees—and such popular shrubs as the lilacs, the gorgeous yellow-flowered Forsythias, sweet jessamines, and the privets, the latter much planted for hedges. All are similar in having their leaves arranged in pairs (one opposite another). Flowers of some are all per- fectly bisexual, those of others are either male or female, each kind borne on different trees; those of yet others are both bisexual and unisexual on the samé tree. Some 20 different genera are known in the world, 5 of which are represented in the United States. Three groups of these contain tree species. One genus, Fraxinus, has species distributed from the Atlantic to the Pacific region, whereas the other groups belong entirely to our eastern forests. FRAXINUS. ASHES. All the ashes except one are trees, and without exception all are known as ashes. Some are very large trees, commercially valuable for their timber, which is straight-grained, hard, and elastic. They grow naturally in a variety of soils, from wet, boggy swamps to the driest and poorest uplands, but most of them thrive best in moist, rich soils. A few form a large part of the forest in which they grow, while others constitute considerable, but only scattered, elements in it. Still others are unimportant stragglers, often confined to nar- row rocky banks of stream courses. With few exceptions, they have straight, evenly tapered trunks, and grayish, regularly and rather finely ridged bark. Their leaves, arranged in pairs, are all FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 423 of one type, a principal leaf stem with few or many pairs of (leaf-like) leaflets arranged on two opposite sides and a single leaflet at the end, so that the total number is always odd. The twigs and branches, also, have a characteristic arrangement in opposite pairs at every joint. Flowers appear in early spring, usually before the leaves. They are usually small or minute and inconspicuous, though densely clustered and are either perfectly bisexual or of separate sexes. When of separate sexes the sexes are borne on separate trees. Occasionally some bisexual flowers and some of one sex only are borne on the same tree. Fruits or “seeds,” borne in branched clusters, have a general similarity in form in all the ashes and are always produced in one season, ripening in early autumn, but often remaining on the trees for several weeks afterward. The “seed”? has a thin wing at one end which adds greatly to its buoyancy and enables the wind to waft it to considerable distances from the mother tree. Seeds are also disseminated to some extent by streams and flood waters. At Jeast a small proportion of the crop is eaten by mice and other small rodents. Falling to the ground in autumn or winter they germinate, if at all, the follow- ing spring, very rarely retaining their vitality for a longer time. Nearly 40 species are known, 16 of which occur in the United States, and all are trees except one, a shrub. Three arborescent and one shrubby species inhabit the Pacific region. One tree is confined to that region, while the other two barely extend into it from their principal, more eastern range. The largest and best timber ashes belong to the eastern United States. — Leatherleaf Ash. Fraxinus coriacea Watson. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Leatherleaf ash has no field name. The one suggested here is derived from the character of its leaves, to which the technical name refers. It was distinguished about thirty years ago under its present name, but until recently it has been confused with F’. velutina, the range and habits of which are much the same. Still imperfectly known, especially as regards range and silvical characteristics. Similar in size and general appearance to Ff’. velutina (but ocea- sionally of large diameter). It differs in having thicker, leathery, longer- stemmed, broader leaflets, 5 in number, which are 23 to 3 inches long and 1} to 2 inches broad (fig. 201), deep green and smooth above, lighter beneath, with minute soft hairs (sometimes smooth). Occasional leaves have 38 leaflets, or are simple and single bladed. Margins of the leaflets rather coarsely toothed, the teeth far apart. Twigs of a season’s growth are covered with fine, soft down. The flowers are as in fF. velutina, but they appear a few weeks earlier, and usu- ally before the leaves come out, but sometimes with them. Clusters of mature fruit (fig. 201) are narrow, 24 to 3 inches long, and the seeds few. Wood, not yet studied. The tree is of too rare occurrence in the Pacific region to be of economic importance there. LONGEVITY.—Not fully determined. Record of one tree 114 inches in diameter shows an age of 48 years. RANGE. Desert regions of southern Utah, northern Arizona, southern Nevada, and south- eastern California. 424 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. OCCURRENCE. On borders of desert streams and sinks; in gravelly or loamy soils. Forms open groups and patches of pure growth, or occasionally interspersed with desert willow and cotton- wood. IMShulj~ [A 201.—Fravinus coriacea. Fic. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Endures climatic conditions marked by high summer tempera- ture, rapid evaporation, small rainfall, dry atmosphere, and mild winters. Nothing is known now of silvical characteristics and reproduction. ey. ee FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 425 Oregon Ash. Frazrinus oregona Nuttall. ° DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Oregon ash, the only timber ash of the Pacific region; is recognized every- where in its commercial range as one of the most useful hardwoods. Lumber- men call it “ Oregon ash,” but it is often known simply as “ ash.” Forest-grown trees have long, clean trunks and narrow, short crowns of _ small branches, and are from 60 to 75 feet high and from 16 to 30 inches in diameter; sometimes larger. Trees on the open borders of streams have short trunks and very wide, round-topped crowns with large limbs. In drier parts of its range it is often a crooked tree under 25 feet in height and only from 6 to 8 inches through. The trunk bark, rather thick and soft on the surface, is deeply and regularly furrowed, the wide ridges connected by thinner side ones, and dull gray to grayish brown. Twigs of a season’s growth are usually covered with whitish—sometimes brownish—dense, soft, fine woolly hairs, but occasionally are only very minutely hairy or even smooth, with a whitish bloom. Mature leaves (fig. 202), about 6 to 12 inches long, with from 5 to 7 thick, yellow-green leaflets, which are about 3 to 6 inches long by about seven-eighths inch to 13 inches wide and more or less woolly or downy beneath, as are the grooved leaf stems (fig. 202). Male and female flowers, each borne on separate trees, appear as the leaves begin to come out; only the female trees bear “seed” (fig. 202), which matures in early autumn in large, full clusters. Seeds vary from about 14 to occasionally 2 inches in length, and the wings from one- fourth to one-third inch wide. Wood, dull yellowish brown with whitish sap- wood. The wood of forest-grown trees is moderately fine-grained and rather brittle, but that of open-grown trees is coarse-grained and elastic—particularly the sapwood of young trees. Of slightly lighter weight than the eastern timber ashes, but in general appearance and quality it compares favorably with them, and is suitable for the same commercial uses for which those timbers are employed. : LoNGEvity.—Age limits of very large trees have not been determined. Trees from 16 to 25 inches in diameter (grown in the forest) are from 95 to 155 years old. The largest trees appear to grow muGh»more slowly after the first century and probably attain 180 to 250 years before becoming decrepit. RANGE. From Puget Sound (shores) southward through Washington, Oregon, and California (coast region to San Francisco Bay; on foothills of Sierra Nevada Mountains to moun- tains of San Bernardino and San Diego counties). Also reported from the southern part of British Columbian coast. WASHINGTON.—Western part west of Cascades, but not on Olympic Mountains, from sea level to 2,000 or 3,000 feet. Columbia River, not above The Dalles. Noted at White Salmon on Columbia River in Klickitat County, Seattle, Satsop, Mount Rainer National Forest up to 2,500 feet, especially in the ‘‘ Big Bottom” of Cowlitz Valley. : ORrREGON.—Western part west of Cascades, in valleys. Noted on Willamette River bot- toms near Portland, on Columbia River flats above dunes between McClures and The Dalles (Wasco County), in Cascade (North) National Forest, in Bear Creek, and other valleys of Siskiyou National Forest at about 2,000 feet. CALIFORNIA.—Noted in Klamath, Mount Shasta, Lassen Peak, Plumas, and Stanislaus National Forests up to about 2,000 feet; in Sacramento River canyon just west of Mount Shasta and at Middle Creek just north of Redding, in Shasta County; in northern coast ranges west of Sacramento River, near Lewiston, Trinity County, and elsewhere; in Stony Creek National Forest on all tributaries of Hel River; at Cazadero, in Sonoma County, and at Ross Valley, in Marin County, near coast; in Napa Valley, Napa County, 426 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. and at Stockton in San Joaquin County. Also reported south of San Francisco in coast ranges in San Mateo County and elsewhere; in Sierras also noted in Kaweah River Val- ley,eand in southern California coast ranges near Los Angeles, in San Gabriel and Lytle Creek Canyons. OCCURRENCE. In vicinity of streams, on alluvial bottoms and flats; in rich, deep, humous, sandy soils or in moist, rocky, gravelly ones; largest in richer sites (southwestern Oregon) and correspondingly small or stunted in poorer situations. At north, occasionally in very small pure patches, but usually in rather close stands with red alder, broadleaf maple, California laurel, occasional grand fir, and Pacific post oak; at south, with white alder and California sycamore. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—In north, similar to those of grand fir, and in south, to those of Fremont cottonwood. TOLERANCE.—Decidedly intolerant of shade throughout life, except in very early seedling stages, which endure only slight shade. Side shade quickly cleans its stems of limbs and -in close stands produces long trunks with small crowns in full light. REPRODUCTION.—Abundant annual seeder in open stands or when isolated. Seed has medium high rate of germination and persistent vitality. Germination best and usually abundant on moist or rather wet humous soils; scanty in sandy and. gravelly stream bot- toms, owing to fact that much of seed is carried to unfavorable places by seasonal flood waters. In richer soils early height growth is very rapid. Fraxvinus velutina Torrey. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Frazinus velutina has no field name, except “ash,” and has no prominent characters upon which to base a good common name. Probably not distin- guished by laymen from other southwestern ashes. Ordinarily a rather slender, short-trunked tree from 20 to 30 feet high, with a grayish, sometimes faintly reddish, regularly seamed and broadly ridged trunk from 5 to 8 inches through ; surface of the bark is rather soft and scaly. The dense crowns of large trees are broad, rounded, and symmetrical. Twigs of a season’s growth are usually red- dish brown—sometimes dull grayish and covered with matted, fine woolly hairs, but often smooth and with a whitish tint, which can be rubbed off. Mature leaves (fig. 203), about 4 to 6 inches long, have from 3 to 9 thickish, somewhat leathery leaflets, which are smooth, deep yellowish-green on their top sides, lighter and more or less softly downy beneath. Angles of veins also hairy. Leaflets are from 3 to 4, sometimes 5, inches long, and one-third to seven-eighths inch wide; partly entire; indistinctly and distantly toothed, mainly above the middle, the points of the teeth turned in. Flowers appear with the growing leaves and are of two sexes, male and female, each kind borne on different trees, only the female trees bearing seed. Mature fruit (fig. 203) is in thick clusters 33 to 5 inches long, the wings about one-fourth inch wide and as long as the body of the seed. Wood, pale brown and with a very thick layer of sapwood ; moderately heavy, firm, fine-grained; cuts and works easily, but is rather brit- tle. Although usually finer-grained, it resembles the white ash timber of eastern markets. Except for the small size of available sticks, the quality is suit- able for many of the same uses. The occurrence of the tree in the Pacific region is too rare to give the wood economic importance there. In the writer’s opinion this is one of the best southwestern ashes for experimental planting in arid regions. LOoNGEVITy.—Not fully determined. One tree 154 inches in diameter showed an age of 114 years. RANGE. From western Texas (mountains) through southern New Mexico and Arizona to south- ern Nevada and southeastern California (Panamint Mountains and Owens Lake). FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 427 OCCURRENCE. ams, m ds od 428 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Flowering Ash. Frazxinus dipetala Hooker and Arnott. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Flowering ash is not known to reach tree size. It flowers and fruits as a _ shrub, with numerous, slender stems from 6 to 10 feet high; occasionally single Fic. 204.—Fraxrinus dipetala: a, flowers. stems are tree-like in form. It is included here in order to give a full accoUut of the ashes in this region. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 429 The flowers (usually bisexual), appearing in spring with the leaves, differ from those of other Pacific ashes in having their parts white and showy, as in ordinary plant blossoms (fig. 204, @). The conspicuous part of the flowers is, as the technical name indicates, of two white divisions (petals). Twigs of a season’s growth are more or less distinctly 4-angled and smooth. Mature leaves are smooth throughout, with from 5 to 9 (sometimes 3) thick leaflets (fig. 204). Mature fruit (fig. 204), variable in the length of its wings, is ripened in late summer, Upon the occasional occurrence of individuals with leaves of 3 leaflets is based the variety Frarinus dipetala trifoliolata Torrey, while F. dipetala brachyptera Gray is based on exceptionally short fruit (one-half to three-fourths inch long), the wing being about one-half as long as the body of the seed. RANGE. CALIFORNIA.—Along streams of the inner coast ranges and foothills of the Sierra Nevada. ; OCCURRENCE. On borders and in vicinity of foothill streams and in gulches; in dryish or slightly moist rocky and gravelly soils. In clumps and mingled with chaparral. Family BIGNONIACE. Bignoniacee is a large group popularly known as the bignonia or trumpet- vine family. It contains such popular climbing shrubs as the trumpet- vine and the well-known catalpas—so yaluable for their quickly grown, durable wood, Representatives of the family are particularly numerous in the tropical regions of the western hemisphere. The family comprises nearly 100 genera, 5 of which occur in the United States, while 3 of these, Crescentia, Catalpa, and Chilopsis, are groups of trees; the latter genus only is represented in the Pacific region. The flowers are large and showy, trumpet-like, or funnel-shaped, and the leaves of all (except Crescentia) are alike in being arranged on the twigs in pairs. The fruits (except in Crescentia) are long pods which split in half and have very light, flat, often fringed seeds, with two delicate wings. CHILOPSIS. This genus contains but one species, and its characters. are included in the following description of its representative. Desert Willow. Chilopsis linearis (Cav.) Sweet. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Desert willow is little known except to those who travel in its arid range, where it is called “‘ desert willow ” because of its narrow, willow-like leaves. Ordinarily from 10 to 20 feet high, with a narrow crown of slim, upright branches, and a short, often crooked or leaning trunk from 2 to 6 inches through; sometimes larger; very often shrubby, with several or many slender stems from 5 to 6 feet high. Bark of even the smaller stems is regularly cut by seams into a network of deep yellowish-brown, shallow, connected ridges. Twigs of a sea- son’s growth are smooth (sticky or densely woolly at first), and pale yellowish to reddish brown. Mature leaves (fig. 205), which persist from spring until 15188—08-——28 430 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. about midwinter, are smooth (often sticky when young), usually about 5 to 6 inches long, though sometimes nearly a foot long; mainly opposite on the lower parts of the twigs, but more or less alternate or diagonally opposite toward Fic. 205.—Chilopsis linearis: a, seed pod; 0b, seed. the ends of the slender, willowy stems. The large, funnel-shaped, violet-odored flowers (fig. 205) are white, faintly tinged with purple, and with bright yellow patches in the throat. Mature fruit pods (fig. 205, @), ripe in early autumn, about FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 431 5 to 10 inches long. They remain on the twigs more or less during the winter, gradually splitting open and liberating their small, flat, fringe-winged seeds (fig. 205, b), which are light and easily wafted by the wind, the principal agent of dissemination. The pods, which contain a very large number of seeds closely resembling catalpa seeds, have a flat central partition running their entire length, and upon two sides of which, as in catalpa pods, the seeds are borne. Wood, very much like that of catalpa in color and structure, is light and soft, yellowish brown, frequently with yellow areas, and durable in contact with the ground. Not used for commercial purposes, but sometimes locally used for fence posts, for which it is highly prized on account of its durability in the ground. LonGEvity.—Not fully determined. Record of one tree 82 inches in diameter shows an age of 48 years. Maturity is’ probably reached in less than 50 years. Old trees grow persistently for a long time, but show they have passed maturity by their hollow old trunks. RANGE. Through southwestern (from near Laredo) and western Texas, southern New Mexico, Arizona, southern Utah and Nevada, and southern California (San Diego County) ; northern Mexico. OCCURRENCE. Borders of desert and low mountain water courses, moist sinks, and water holes, in rather dry, well-drained, sandy and gravelly soils. Scattered and in groups. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of mesquites. TOLERANCH.—Intolerant of shade. REPRODUCTION and seeding habits undetermined. Family RUBIACEA. Rubiacee is popularly known as the madder family, to which belong the world-famous madder plants of India and of the Mediterranean country, whose roots yield the most permanent red dyes known. Other important representa- tives are the coffee and cinchona trees of South America, the latter yielding the alkaloid tonic drugs cinchonidia and quinine, so much used in medicine. The family comprises shrubs, trees, and herbs of some 350 genera, natives mainly of tropical countries. Four genera, containing trees and shrubs, are represented in the United States by arborescent species. One of these, Cephalanthus, occurs from the Atlantic to the Pacific. CEPHALANTHUS. Cephalanthus forms a small group of unimportant species, one of which in- habits the Pacific region, extending also throughout the eastern United States. Characters of the genus are given under its one widely distributed species. Button Bush. Cephalanthus occidentalis Linneeus. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Perhaps no woody plant is more widely known as a common shrub forming thickets on the borders of swamps, ponds, and streams than button bush. It has been known since the seventeenth century, but not until comparatively recent years has it been found to attain tree size, as in parts of southern Arkansas, eastern Texas, and ata few stations in California. Tree forms may be discovered at other points. In this form it is from 20 to 30 feet high, with a clear, straight trunk of 10 or 15 feet in length, and from 6 to § inches in diameter; taller and 432 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. thicker trees sometimes occur. Elsewhere, so far as now known, it is only a shrub from 3 to 8 feet high. Bark of the trees is blackish brown, with a gray- ish overcast, and rough with deep furrows and wide broken ridges. Fie. -206.—Cephalanthus occidentalis: a, flower; b, fruit. Twigs and leaves have a characteristic arrangement, 3 (or sometimes 2) growing from each joint of a main stem. Mature leaves (fig. 206, 6) are smooth on their upper sides, lighter green and smooth or very minutely hairy beneath, FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 433 8 to 6 inches long and three-fourths inch to 3 inches wide. The perfectly bisex- ual, minute, cream-colored, fragrant flowers are densely packed in spherical, long-stemmed heads (fig. 206, a), which grow chiefly in threes from the ends of the branchlets. Likewise, the minute, long (inversely conical), grooved fruits are densely packed in spherical, dark brown heads (fig. 206, b); as the fruiting heads fall to pieces late in autumn or winter each little dry, pod-like fruit splits upward from its base into from 2 to 4 one-seeded parts. Wood of tree forms has not been studied; that of shrubby stems is light brown, with reddish tinge, hard, moderately heavy, and fine-grained. Rare occurrence of tree ferms prevents the wood from being of more than incidental use. LONGEVITY.—No records of the age attained by tree forms are available. RANGE. Lowlands in the water from southeastern Canada, Florida, westward to eastern Nebraska and Kansas, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California, extending south to Cuba and Mexico. ‘ OCCURRENCE, Borders of lowland streams, marshes, and ponds; in moist and wet sandy, gravelly, and mucky soils; sometimes in dry streambeds within gray pine belt. Forms extensive pure thickets, interspersed with willows and other moisture-loving plants. Occasionally 4 small tree in river bottoms (Sacramento and San Joaquin). CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of sandbar willow. TOLERANCE.—Endures considerable shade in wet soil, but requires top light for best growth. REPRODUCTION.—Prolifie seeder; young plants abundant in shade and open. Family CAPRIFOLIACEA. Caprifoliacer is popularly called the honeysuckle family. Representatives are especially abundant in the temperate parts of the northern half of the world; there are a few in the warmer regions. Small trees and shrubs, those occurring in the United States being unimportant. . Well known and principal members of the family are the bush and climbing honeysuckles, snowberries, elderberries, and the familiar snowball. Of the 10 known genera, 2, Sambucus and Viburnum, contain tree species. Sambucus alone is represented in the Pacific region. Common characters of the family are their opposite leaves and small, often juicy, berry-like fruits. SAMBUCUS. ELDERBERRIES. The elderberries are small unimportant trees and shrubs represented by about 13 species, 5 of which occur in the United States. Two of the latter are arborescent and inhabit the Pacific region. They are commonly known as elderberries, and are distinguished by the large, soft pith of their twigs and branches, their large opposite (compound) leaves consisting of one main stem and several pairs of (leaf-like) leaflets, with an odd one at the end, and by their large, flat-topped, dense, branched clusters of small flowers, which produce similar conspicuous clusters of small, juicy, berry-like fruits with from 3 to 5 seed-like, stony nutlets, each 1-seeded. Most of them grow best in moist, rich soils with plenty of light, but one or two grow in dry soils. Our tree species occur too rarely and are of too small size to be of economic use, save for local domestic purposes. 434 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Blue Elderberry. Sambucus glauca ® Nuttall. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Blue elderberry is known in the field simply as “elder.” The name here sug- gested for the sake of distinctness has reference to the pale, bluish berries, which differ in color from the fruit of any other Pacific elder. : Co Ss =| = B one yy 3G NAY foe y = a, boo A GG @)s C) Z 06 Fic. 207.—Sambucus glauca, one-half natural size. In favorable locations it is commonly from 15 to 20 feet high, often with a slender, straight trunk from 4 to 8 inches through, and a rather dense, round @Tt is most probable that Rafinesque’s Sambucus cerulea, two years older than Nuttall’s S. glauca, and based upon the Lewis and Clark reference to an ‘alder,’ with “ pale sky blue’”’ berries, is the rightful name for this species. These explorers were in the region now known to contain the common glaucous-berried elder, to which alone their short but unmistakable description could have been applied. For the present, however, it seems advisable to retain Nuttall’s name. FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 4385 crown; less frequently, from 30 to 40 feet high, and from 10 to 15 inches in diameter; exceptionally large individuals are sometimes 2 feet through. At higher altitudes chiefly a tall, many-stemmed shrub. Lower branches are often arched and drooping, while large limbs are frequently sharply crooked (“ el- bows”), owing to upright shoots growing out from points where the limbs are broken off. Bark of tree forms thin, dark yellowish-brown—sometimes faintly reddish—rather regularly and deeply cut into a network of connected, narrow ridges. Twigs of a season’s growth are smooth, sparsely white-hairy at first, shiny reddish brown, somewhat angled—strongly so when young—and marked with large, horseshoe-like leaf-scars, which have 5 minute pits (ends of woody fibers of the parted leaf-stem). Mature leaves (fig. 207), shed in autumn, are smooth throughout, composed of 3 to 9 leaflets which are lighter green beneath. Mature “berries” (fig. 207), whitish with a chalky bloom which, when rubbed off, reveals a smooth, blue-black skin; the berries are 1 to 3 seeded, sweetish and edible. The seeds are disseminated yery largely by birds and a few mammals which eat the berries for the juicy pulp. Wood, pale brownish yellow, with thin, whitish sapwood; usually wide-grained, rather light and soft, and very brittle. Not used for economic purposes. LonGEvity.—The age limits of the largest trees are not fully known, but it is undoubtedly a short-lived tree. Smaller trunks studied indicate yery rapid height and diameter growth, while a record of one planted tree shows it to have attained about 40 feet in height and 28 inches in diameter in approximately fifty years. Record of a forest-grown tree 12 inches in diameter shows an age of thirty-five years. RANGE. From southern British Columbia (Fraser River) and Vancouver Island to the southern borders of California and eastward to the Blue Mountains in Oregon and the Wasatch Mountains in Utah. OCCURRENCE, Bottoms of mountain canyons, valleys, and adjacent slopes, on mountain streams, in ravines, and moist hillsides; in rich, porous, gravelly soils. Largest in northern low val- leys; shrubby at high levels. Scattered among Douglas fir, western yellow pine, grand fir, madrofia, red alder, broadleaf maple (at north), and sometimes with liye oak, Cali- fornia sycamore, and white alder (at south). CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of Douglas fir (in northern range) and Cali- fornia sycamore (in southern range). TOLERANCE.—Endures very little shade at any period. REPRODUCTION.—Abundant seeder ; reproduction frequent, but scattered. Mexican Elder. Sambucus mexicana Presl. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Mexican elder is known in the field simply as “ elder,’ but it should have a more distinctive common name, and Mexican elder is proposed. Nearly always of tree form, from 15 to 25 feet high and from 6 to 10 inches threugh above the swelled base; the clear trunk, with yellowish brown (some- times faintly reddish), finely ridged bark, is short; the crown is broad and rounded. Lower branches arched, drooping, and angled, as in the blue elder- berry. Twigs of a season’s growth nearly always with dense, whitish, fine hairs when young, pale reddish brown and usually smooth. Mature leaves, very similar in general appearance to those of the preceding elder, containing “Settlers use the berries as a fruit, which is excellent when cooked. 436 FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. usually 5 thickish leaflets which are smooth above and lighter green and hairy, or at least somewhat hairy on the veins, beneath (sometimes almost or quite smooth). Mature “berries,” of similar form and size to those of the blue elder, are smooth and almost black ¢ never with pale bloom of the latter species. The edible fruit is highly prized locally. Wood, pale yellowish brown, and other- wise similar to that cf blue elder. Not used commercially. LonGeEvity.—Not fully determined. Appears to grow much more slowly than the preceding tree. Record of one tree 7} inches in diameter shows an age of o2 years. Record of a planted tree in Sonora, Mexico, 20 inches in diameter (26 feet high) shows an age of 34 years. This indicates, as for the blue elder, that Mexican elder grows rapidly under cultivation. RANGE, From western Texas (Nueces River) through southern New Mexico and Arizona to southern California; also in northern California (Plumas County) ; southward through Mexico to Central America. OCCURRENCE. Borders and bottoms of mountain streams and springs, in wet or moist gravelly soil. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.—Similar to those of yellow pine and tolerance and repro- duction as in blue elder. = Red-berried Elder. Sambucus callicarpa Greene. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. Red-berried elder is said to attain tree size occasionally, but in the main it is a shrub, bordering streams and ravines in the coast mountain region of Cali- fornia. Distinguished by its bright red (sometimes yellow) berries. The leaf- lets are smooth above and hairy beneath. Excepting the occasional tree form of this plant, its characters, as found in California, are perplexingly close to those of the northern red-berried elder, Sambucus pubens Mchx., which is probably best considered the same as S. racemosa L., a tree form of which (var. arborescens) was described by Torrey and Gray (FI. N. A. II, 13, 1840). Much further study of this California elder is required before its true status can be determined. Nothing can now be said of its tree size, the character of its wood, or its growth and silvical requirements. «Berries of the common and mainly eastern bush elder, Sambucus canadensis L., are black-purple and in this respect are closely similar to those of this southwestern species, the range of which it enters in the southern Rocky Mountain region. The shrubby form is distinguished, however, by its smooth twigs and leaves, and particularly in its non-arborescent habits. bE. A. Mearns. a) ee er ee INDEX OF Page. MRMNUS feed Se of 106 REFILEOALUR Se eo ae ith 125 VONCOUOT = 22-2252 23 eS 116 HANGS eas oso ee its bil LAS CHiN a= 32a 107 SUC OMEIG OS! 132 TO DUS 3 NaS Ta a ee 128 OCT Tee a = a et AA | DE ie = Se aS ea pees eae 369 REO Gib tee ae a8 Ae Se 369 ener eh op 7 ee als 386 CINCNAtUM 2 = = RS 389 WL UTAH Ee ot rt 892 macrophyllum —=..--=--22= 387 negundo californicum___——~ 396 0 ES Se 386, 0 BRU), a iE a eee 398 COMPOMICd Eros) ‘B98 Pamtiay CYPIess a2 Se 168 SN EEN ae eae ae 263 BIMOnNG a Willows =. 12 = e's 216 cu) pa a 263 GRCOUNGe se. ees, Pha 268 BNONLOUTOUG 226 aS 263 SL CINCTUSt Bae ae ee ea lie 270 LONUEOUG Hea 266 be |i 11S 1 a 107 APetrrs OB pe es 71 FRIED Be te et Bee es oa 289 BME S ofits == eee 125 FRPRONCHIACN 5 a a 345 atvifolia 2 = es 345 BBCUTATLCE 23-3555 So ee 384 Bib eee a 342 Pema G0 S72 SS eh ge 153 OL, GTS ec ae oe 418 MenaAesti es so 419 ONS LiSi) pS ee SOS eS 422 oA SMS TH SE ER eee of ta ee 239 me sim-O8 Gilead: 22 a. 2 eet 244 “CHESS Say 1) ae aes SS ap a PE See 107 COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES. Pg ee a ee eee QIGSICONG te ee POTTS a ge ee IG CHUL ECU ees Ser es occidentalis___________-- Betulacee Biveovwe pines 22 = 2— -= ee te ere spruce Bignoniaeee. ee [kn ee bees eee ESP CHO Sh eee ee peer ad Birch-leaf mahogany —_--___~-- 1S3 (5) 0UG) OMS jal 010.0 eee yee esate Bitterscherry 2. 2s Black cottonwood) 225—- = ee = haw SpHLuUCe =< = rake pet pill ayy ee oe ee aot Boxelder; Californias=- = = | EAR CNW Re) Sed OF 1c hoee ee fre Pe Dine eee Broadleaf maples-=-. “sashes s= WHO Wis oo a eee Puck eyes ise ees ete Ne pt BUCKHORN Sy = oe ee SUCCOMS DUS ee = ee Galifornia black oak,- 3.2. bomeld eres Ste) Duekeye==— ose OR ses Sees LONE (ds) [gee Sass See UL EAC 0) 2 {ee A a OR 438 Canyonshive: oak os sieessS Caprifoliacee Cascara \saera dass) Soa GUStANODSIS22 ee eee chrysophytia==—-— Gtk Se) yy ee ieee CeGnOThU sia Se ee eS UEDOLCUS a SPINOSUS ee ee thyrsijloris == @edars==22===- o> Se ee ae CClisindcées-2 eS Gephalanthus,- = a ees occidentalis ____-— CUCU 2 eS ee tOrreyanwmn 22a. ==2= GErGig Ie 2 ee occidentalis: = 3 Ses Cercocanpis = Se eee ee ledifolases == ses parvifoliUs = Se == inaski@i = 222 sees Chanecy pens Se lawsoniana______ nootkatensis_____ GHELPIOS = pst a re ee CHALOPSIS:2 Se = =o ees ee ee ancanes =.= = Sa Chingug pins) 253... OS eee Choke cherry, western____----_ Christmas:berry os ee COL UREA PIES ee PRS pS COTND CCEA] At re a ee CGorneig= fossa o> a eee OORRUS Ree 2 oS ee ee PULAU, 2 Ses Bea eN Cottonwoods 2 4. 2 aes Coulterspine =. eee CRALCOUS 2a era et COUugLESi == eS eS CUDressuss = = sea Joventang =e MACNAOLONG = 222s macrocar py: ——_ = pygne2= Cunuliicnps-- > 42> INDEX OF COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES. SPINS =P = * 2: a ee Desertawillow<2o) 322s. ee Dicouwledones.-— = ees Dicger~ pine... 22. ee ee Dozwoods =. SS ee Douglas Mira. 22 oe ee Spruce £2 2-2 eee Deyari cypress=-. = = eee JUDIpers so. 23 ee maple* =.=. eee Biderberries::2 2-2 EVACO CER: = 2 > SS eee Hvergreen buckthorn___________ aise hemlock === _ 2s = ae Mlowering ash = eee Fiour-leat -pine --=_ = eee Hoxtail pine =... eee Trroacinis.-—.— = - 9 4 eee COTIGGEDR = ee dipetal ad) =- 2 2 ae oregond_... ee velutina Fremont cottonwood _-__----__~- Beemonta 2. > = ee Fremontodendron.____.. = Garry ogk,.=- =>. = = Garry @. = = eliuipicd._-_ +. =e Garryace? = eee Gowen. Cypressi2==3_ = 2 eee Grand sfir es =o a ee Gray pine: => eae Green-bark acacia _____________ Galmnosperme_-_— = eee Mackberry 22-22" = Se eee Hemlocks-- ke eee Weteromeles.~~ ==). = eae Grbutifolia _—-=— = Hip pocastangcee, —= =e f Hollyleaf cherry____-__----_--- Hooker, willow. === a eigrse-hean |=. =. Dea incense. cedar —_ ==. es SS Indigo: bush==2-- _— = ee SS INDEX OF COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES. 439 Page. = Page. VS TEA SI 010015 a a OS ee a7 |peteuntain. hemlock” 222+ > s=2 95 PUM TINTS St ee a oe” Se eet 201 | mahoranies== a5 == 336 STOR SS ye Se ee eee || ET LAT GT ii nl a 208 LSTA LL Ee 206 COMSOTNICO = ee 209 LV GIT (TRS as ER ee ORR DUG PMNITICOCE ==. 208 BAU OTNIGO =. = paul tise Ces ee ee et 407 0 SO] STS: ee a aS 8 175*| Neowashingtonia ____---.-_- + __ 198 TERMIRTICUN So ke 175 USF OTE 2 199 californicass- + -- = TLS 76 bee LC) DLS ab eee eae ee 128 communis --=2------- GM bce baw alloy =. = ssp os 228 occidentalis _________ TUS HIELO 2 es a melee ES a ee E 276 scopulorum____.----- Sty ies | DLC OLC EOE e ee ee ee de 422 Wien sig <= = os ee BEES CAME | tL CU a ee ee 2 hs 378 STE ho EG 0 a ES 256 TESOL eee es ee Shh 3878 fmmopcone pine... 2s ae 62 | Oregon ash____- ee a epee Pe 425 vo 1 ETEL OG) a SS a 68 Crab. ee = Le 342 1h) lt PCR ES a ia SLS) ec A 1 1 ee tee EEA ee ee 197 LOROUG= oO Ess auton lyr (O38! frat: eee = SE oes 6 eee ee 198 LULL eS SEY SA Fy lis PO DlaneOs = tee ae WP ae 325 CERO ONTOIES = 9 2 ra eno Fa 68 geno (eee a ee eee 376 ERIE CO CE ewe 8 a ANN SIO ICLINR OT. 2 See Ee as) 371 ere eS 327 | aculedig=- es 371 ihanvyeon. Cypress... 2 alee | microphylla _______ 373 Geatherleaf ash ___. =... Bess erry spite Ate 33 Teguminose:..-.-__ =o Bed edhe Pe me Noe ko 277 WAU CU PUG So on ie AS eRe OR 5 Bn ns es se eee ol 77 decurreng ==) 225 -= 148 | Dreweriond = news Se 84 _.) Da ee eee 311 | CONUGEN SIS f= Sete SS OO RVG eS ES SOS Oren 200 ENGCUINUNN. =e GF meer DING. 2 2 | TOPS ee ope eal he rn 86 Little-leaf horse-bean _________~ B73 | Si chernsis Sees 81 Live oak, California___________ Bie ieeiniea seo ead a ok 19 HOG E DOLE DING = = == 49 | Pion, see Pinus monophylla___ 35 feneleat willow... =. 7 COAST 1) a ae A a Pe eee all 19 MMOVOLROMNUS 9 2 2 B31 | GLUICCULIS 30 floribundus _____ BB1 OTUSTOTG 2S 2 2 Leh 37 MB CIEND CY POSS 227 2 os 165 | QLCCTLGT irae = os ES ee 62 Mackenzie willow ____-________ 225 DOMOUNiCNG, 2 = See 3 (LUIS VRS eS a ee eee 418 | CORTON cea lenges 49 Mahogany sumach_____________ 385 | mpiiiteri MPa on gle 57 |, a a ees 342 Perils. bs) tibia > 27 CPP ULOTIS =a oe ee es 7 342 Gel Tis Bn m8 Pb 47 , 0, Eee eee See B86 lambertiang .....--.---=- 23 0.) Ge eee eres 362 monophyjla_._.------==.— 35 Bete (Plders> = 2 2 a2 8 435 MONnTCOIU 4 Aas de ty. 2 20 TRON WOOGiE 2 =e ae 378 WUALPCON | =e debe BE 52 65 Mibbnive Syucca >. - =e aaa Fe 2038 MUTrAYONG. 2 = et 49 Monocotyledones __-_--___-=_.- 197 GOnTeV OR 42 Menterey cypress_._-__-______. 158 quadrifolig— — = 33 pine_——- = ee 58 aT |, ee eee See 58 LT a a a a 311 an hininng' = +, oS Shea 54 Memmi e ider oo fe 266 torreyang. <2 aye SS 41 re) 2 ae BOON Pigtangced «2 i ee 334 440 Page. BIGtanis= See See oe 334 / TAUGCCMOSOS Le Eee se = 2= 3373) LE Oi dys eee eee a eS IPOplars 2228 2 Ske Le ee sees 238 POD ULUS 2 es ee ee 238 balsanifend === 244 SRemonitis Ses Diy: LRCTANVOLUES a eae = 239 ERUCWOC UTD = ae oe 247 Port Ortord..cedar. = >= 171 Pricer a ky sae ae) ee ee 309 Pricklecone (pine=.2=-—-s2 se 65 PNOSOP1S Soe ee 362 julifiora glandulosa____ 364 OCOTAG Se 362 PUIUS: Be =e RE ee 349 deMissa- tes eee 356 CMOArGinate 22— 3554 MCT OU eee 359 ilicifolia integrifolia ____ 361 SLU COT AWUh ee 352 PiCudotsu a SS 99 macrocarpa _______ 104 LOL OG, 22a 100 QUE Cus See ete 276 He Unf OY oe eee a nae ee 303 alvordiang 289 Onewert ee See 281 COLfOnnich = aes 313 ChiYSOlepis= Se 295 densiflov aa ee 317 COUGUUSTi ee eee 285 GUMOSH Seee 25s eee 292 engelmannt-—==— = = 289 COPTONGLL =< See Se 283 LOOGTG Ses ok ee 278 MOT CWUS. a AES ee Sil DiMCei > ee a eRe 309 sadlenang 2 Ss 285 tonentcla.._ 300 Wishizenii——— Ss 307 Quinine: pushe= == 242232 416 REAM Aes ke eee ot Red: "alder. * 220 es seo sie, = e268 Red-berried elder..2__ 22s 25o" 436 fcabud.Calitornia, ===> sas 367 Red Gedaree aes a5 ee See 153 1G eee ete La ed PE en Ss Se RA LE as 132 Red w-O0d Sa aaa ea as 188, 145 RU CNNECCC Rao a2e eae Se 400 RRONNUS 2 SS ee 401 Croced 2 ee ee 401 DUTSiang=—2_—= = esse 404 INDEX OF COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES. RNS ee ee ae eee iNbCOT fOUd 2 eee Rocky Mountain red cedar TOSOCEE ree ae ee eee EU OIA COG =e 1 eed ee Sadlervoaik.2 22 Sa eee SQUCUCCR SSS See SH0UCKS_ 2S eee callicarpa glauch 23 ae ee mexicana SQlUn 22 = ae eee UGarensis 2 eee amplifotia = es amyoqdaloides =. ee cordata mackenzicana ____ ~ fluviatilis 2s ee hookeriang—.-_ ae levigete. <= eee lasiendr2 = SS ee [asiolepis— eS Se TOTO a ee Nut Wee eee sessilifolia see Stichensis=_— 2 ae SOvifrigacee= === eee Screwpod mesquite S€QUu0tda 28 2s es sempervirens —__--__=_-= washingtoniana = fie Serviceberries=2=- =3= 3s Silky willow {2 4.24002 a Silver pine. = eee Silverleat willow. == Single-leaf pine=—= Se Sitka alder. !2s2 32 eee - Spruce-:=< =.) a Smooth willow Sterculiacee: 2 = Se Stinking” cedar == =] ae E Sucar pine= ea & Sumachs:2..=):' 4:2" asa Sycamores 22 222-4) =>) Pamaracl.. 224) 2 4 eee: Ee Tanbark oak Paraceee- = ae Taxus Thuja piceta22=_. 22 ee Tideland spruce Page. 384 385 Nnwwndwhd Ww wv NWNerHrHANWNrRPW WH DONNNADWOW DD bw bo bo Oo ® bo lo bh Ww bh bd bo pe ive) (oe) ies) INDEX OF COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES. Page. Morey pine 2) = —- en ee Alt Westernsironwood.=_= 2-2-2 nae Manorany —— eo 338 4 L000 02 eee. Seen ee Vo Tecet Sa 409 RE CTs ee oR ae eee LLUSATE ae 2 es it MMs > See WGLCFOPNYUG Ss 2 91 Len *CeQare nha eee mertensiana____________- 95 “serviceberry =__--__.__ EGC as SS Se eta le 190 Wilite pine 5 —- 22.05. ce californicum=a = a ADT: yellow spine 2.2 = 25 OL (COTE CE: ODS IR a cas A 322 eww. } epee tee Umbellularia__._---___- Sor | Wiite alder 2 = 6 * re COASOTNIGO.= = dk} White-barlc pines. 2 ss : inet pers 2 8 LSor| Wihite “birGh = et = aes eS 25! \We ene 01 ig = eae ee ee 278 jt) emer ee: Me et eS i Ug a ae Wao Maliientie ales oe eae 2 389 DINes = 2: Sea ee ee art AU calla GS oS Se Se eee er 206 Sprlice=4) see Washington palms. 2 = 199 | WilO Wess Se ee oD rags PRAT VCS se ee Nae 2 2S nie Willows 1a. S22 on Ane NMGEDINO USPEUGE oo i Sis WAslizenus Oalkoe: = 2s se, woe NVOSTGTS Og) 17) cig ea Se 244 ellowicy press... en ee Dla willow. 2-2 219 | WINCH = epee es Nye ae ae ehingwapine 5-2 Miers pe CONVIS see ek na ees age choke cherry_—__~-—~.= SHGsl ey UCM Gl VOFESCENSss =e ‘5 LOYEN 70) 00 De aie ee 413 | INONAUCTSIS So eee oe ETNLOGK, 2. Stee et ae OC COS! eat a See ee Sree O ss Red oo teks ates as ive ‘ Ae 1! @ Af Rai MUNK ii NN i Hh by ANG i i iif aN Pea AWA, i tg be Ry tah Aue Wey i] Moda Ue Mer dss Ney ay ee ph a 3 5185 00258 7150 ; x ~ MN oo : ‘ is - iS ‘ Sh “ ty a ak SSN A vt ROE ; AS AER a OM ae ;: . a a a _ HEN - a Ae ape Na Noe SONG - 7 iN R Re D ‘ aya _ ee wore Aaa A | Pm een et OZ. - ce mae AS, ae ene tise Gere SAX ee Me een aon a ay Ane an AY UN a é\ Bi My SONURS BN Yet ARS i ee iN ite He te it \ Ny WY WY Ni Y) ah nN