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ALL liiehts Keserved. Copyright— 1920 in U.S.A. by J. N. Ruffitt

FORMS OF

ORATORICAL EXPRESSION

AND THEIR DELIVERY

OR

LOGIC & ELOQUENCE ILLUSTRATED

Without pronunciation and action the best orator in the world can never succeed, and an indifferent one, who is master of these, shall gain much; giea,ter applause.

" De O^'atorH*'— CiCKRO.

BY

J. N. RUFFIN, B.A.,

Diploma of Polyteehnie School of Speech Training^ Mem. Inc. Soe. of Authors, etc., London.

(Copyright).

London : Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton. Kent & Co., Ltd.

To the HUNDREDTH YEAR of PEACE and FRIENDSHIP

Between ENGLAND and AMERICA, Brought about by the Memorable Treaty of 1820, '. .* r ' *» I * negotiated by

Lord Ashburto;j. ^nd Daniel Webster {The GreaUst American Orator) ;

*'.*!• • • •*• I

'* To' thVse'who, in School, and College, and University,

PREPARE to discuss ARIGHT VITAL QUESTIONS ; AND TO .

Those, who, in the well-being of their Fellow- Citizens, hold, and are to hold, the Public Ear ;

Xlbis Mori? is BeMcate^,

PREFACE

Feeling that a treatise on the forms which are customary and most effective in the delivery of public addresses would contribute towards filling a much needed want by those who desire to address meetings, but to whom the questions arise :

.::.ss:yS to i-noii onll d^s

— ri omi ^'"'^

56^5od moil sail

shells and the thunder of the great guns, the writer kept on the steady execution of this volume; and he hopes that this centenary edition will be accorded a favourable reception and patronage by American and British readers, and accepted in the spirit in which it is written — viz., the com- memoration, the cementation, the cherishing of the great event — the hundredth year of Anglo-American friendship and peace.

London, 1920.

^1^0 I 00

ERRATA. Page ix., 8th line from bottom, "principle" should read " principal." ,, 37, 24th line from bottom, should read " Chersonesus or Byzantium." 47, 1 2th line from top, should read " many things." 79, 14th line from bottom, should read "than the

burst of irony y

87, 20th line from top, should read "the Briton."

399, 5th line from bottom, should be transposed to 6th

to read : ** all he can without discrimination."

415, 17th line from top, *' grave" should read "grace."

427, I2th line from top, " Paricles " should read

"Pericles." 501, 13th line from, bottom, " C. A. Vance " should read

" C. A. Vince." 493, 2nd line from bottom, '*Artiologv " should read

" Aitiology." 493, 3rd line from bottom, "' Ephonesis " should read

" Ecphonesis." 493, 8th line from bottom, " 18 " should read " 180."

PREFACE

Feeling that a treatise on the forms which are customary and most effective in the delivery of public addresses would contribute towards filling a much needed want by those who desire to address meetings, but to whom the questions arise : "How shall I say it?'" "What is the form?" etc., the author has ventured the preparation of this work — FORMS of Oratorical Expression or Logic and Eloquence Ilustrated.

This work is not offered as a grammar, nor as a text-book on elocution or rhetoric; but as a work that may be used in conjunction v/ith these studies. For the elucidation of the Figures appearing, many of the principal elocutionary and rhetorical authorities, ancient and modern, have been cited, with grateful acknowledgment herewith by the author. See "List of Authorities Consulted" at end of this edition. For full list, and for figures omitted, see complete edition to be published, which will also contain modern orators, together with French and Spanish. Also an expression of thanks by the author to his wife is hereby made for her constant labours and great assistance in preparing manuscript, proof-reading, etc. ; to the Record Composition Co., Ltd., for their most appreciable advice respecting type-composition ; to the printers, respecting arrangement, making of plates, proof-reading, etc. ; to the publishers, for most valuable general suggestions ; and to co-labourers who assisted in translating the Greek, the Latin, the German, and other foreign texts.

Beneath the photos of celebrated orators appearing in this work will be found the most striking Figures used by each.

The treatment ol each of the principal Forms or Figures is as follows : DefinitioUy Examples^ Use, Cauiion, and Delivery.

Should there be any error in quotation, omissions or failure to acknowledge due credit, the author apologises and will be glad to rectify same in the complete edition ; and should any criticism arise on this work, he hopes that it will be in the character of a stimulus to further reseanch; and will feel amply rewarded if it contributes in the smallest way to foment the spirit of philosophical inquiry into this most important subject.

Throughout the great war, and during the aerial bombard- ments of London, amid the hum of aircraft, dropping of shells and the thunder of the great guns, the writer kept on the steady execution of this volume; and he hopes that this centenary edition will be accorded a favourable reception and patronage by American and British readers, and accepted in the spirit in which it is written — viz., the com- memoration, the cementation, the cherishing of the great event — the hundredth year of Anglo-American friendship and peace.

London, 1920.

IV

INTRODUCTION

At the outset let us define a Figure of Thought and a Figure of Language. The Greeks called a Figure of Thought a')(7]yiaTa Aiavola^i (Scheme Dianoeas), that is to say figure of force, vehemence, vivacity; in a word — dynamic, the moving power from behind. In the "'Hermagoras oder Elemente der Rhetoric ' ' it appears thus : Figur die Sinn ; translated literally means Figures of Sense, of feeling, oi arousement, etc. They are of exceeding great value to speakers. Julius Rufinianus, the Latin rhetorician, gives the following : " Ha?c figura fit proprie cum proponitur non id quod fieri oportet sed quod ht. Vergilius : Furor arma ministrat." (Trans. — "This figure is properly formed when one states what is actually being done, not what is to be or ought to be done, as in this example from Virgil : (and sticks and stones fly through the air and) * Fury still arms doth find.' ")

Figure of Thought Defined.

A Figure of Thought " consists in the sug;gestion of an idea which is itself artificial, having for its object, not orna- ment, but Ethos or Pathos — moral persuasion or the excite- ment of emotion. If the speaker preface a statement by asking the question which he is himself about to answer : if he feign perplexity for the sake of giving greater effect to his own solution : if, instead of relating what other persons have said, he introduce those persons as speaking with their own mouths : if he imagine his adversaries as raising an objection which he goes on to refute — these and the like devices are Figures of Thought. . . . Unlike Figures of Language, these Figures of Thought are independent of any form of words; the form of words may be changed without affecting them. Their general tendency is to ^\v^ animation. . . . Aristotle opens his treatise with the observa- tion thstt whereas there are three instruments of persuasion — the ethical, the pathetical and the logical — . . . the logical proof is the very body of rhetorical persuasion, everything else appeals to the feeling, attractive portrayal of character and so forth is from the scientific point of view only appen- dage. This is essentially the modern, especially the modern Teutonic theory of oratory, and the modern practice is in harmony with it.** (See Fig. Enthymema.) Figure of Language Defined. " The Figure of Language is a combination of words (each of which may be used in its normal sense) for the artificial expression of an idea, as Antitheses. The object of such a figure is rhetorical ornament, and if the form of expression is changed the Figure of Language is destroyed. The

INTRODUCTION v

Figure of Thought depends on no special combination of words, but on an assumed attitude of the speaker's mmd — as Irony" (cf. R. C Jebb's "Attic Orators" and R. Voik- mann*s "Die Rhet. der Griech u. Rom."). The Figures of Language are called by the Greeks a^V/^i^'^ci Xefeco? (Scheme of Words). Cicero calls them " Ornamenta sententiarum. "_ (Ornaments of Thoughts).

Definition of a Figure. By the term "Figure" is meant form, and as given by Bain it is any deviation from the plainest form of statement — e.g., ordinarily we say " That is very strange," as a figure we say "How strange!" And as g-iven by "The Garden of Eloquence " a figure is a forn^ of words or of one or more sentences made new by art, differing from the ordinary manner and custom of writing and speaking. It gives the following example as to an eloquent person under the Fig. Homcxoteleuton :

" He is esteemed eloquent who can invert wittily, remember perfectly, dispute orderly, figure diversely, pronounce aptly, confirm strongly and conclude directly." The foregoing Homoeoteleuton is a figure of language in which the words have similar termination: 'wittily, perfectly, orderly," etc.

Cicero' s Rhetoric. "The constituent elements of a speech should consist of the invention of arguments (Inventio), of their arrangement (Dispositio); of the form of expression (Eloquutio); of clear- ness of perception and tasteful presentation (Memoria); of the delivery, including modulation of the voice and gesture (Pronunctiatio). Not until such matters have all been settled should the orator proceed to arrange his exordium or intro- duction; his statement of his case; his explanation of the manner of handling it; his array of arguments in support of his position; his refutation of the arguments of his antagonists; his conclusion or peroration.

"The precepts with regard to the speaker are then arranged under five heads — Inventio, Collocatio, Eloquutio, Actio, and Memoria; while the precepts with regard to the speech itself are also arranged under five heads — Exordium, Narratio, Confirmatio, Reprehensio, Peroratio. The whole of the art of rhetoric is therein arranged under three heads : the first treating of the subject in reference to the speaker (Vis Oratoris); the second, of the speech (Oratio); the third, of the case (Questio)." — Cicero. See further an excellent account in " Cicero, A Sketch of His Life and Works," by Rev. Hannis Taylor (pub. in 191 6).

On the following pages a complete diagram of how a speech is made up, and some argumentative forms and notes are given.

vi SPEECH

A SPEECH — Its successive Order or Stages.

(The Forms, etc., may be abridged to suit the orator's purpose.)

(b) In ductive 1

I.— PROOIMION (See Exordium) must be good; Ethos or Pathos, p. 258, 264, 421, 424.

II-— DIEGESIS (see Exordium, Narratio, Proecthesis)— lucid, brief credible ; 258, 264.

Ill- — THESIS (see Prothesis, Propositio) — subject and predicate clear and defined.

IV. — PISTEIS (Argument) — 1. Beboeosis (confirmation); 2. Lusis (refutation).

Inductive — Analogical — Deductive. r (a) Speaker's own opinion, the ipsi dixi, p. 110, or custom — p. 374.

/Examples: Paradigm, 376, proportional, comparative, 204, 207.

Gnome, 282. It may be in poetry or poetic prose.

(^Method of agreement, Meth. of Difference, Joint Meth. of Agr. & Dif., Meth. Concomitant Variation, Meth of Residues, Expeditio 279, and page viii, Enthymemas — Confirmative, see list, 208-210, Words Prob- that introduce enthymemas, page 205. Gnome, able ^ Analogical-Probable, pages 209, 210, 373. Ethos, Pathos, Kerdos, 375-377. Kerdos, i.e., pocket-book interest, pages 336, 337. Semeion, 377, old, young, rich, all classes, 333-335. Icos, i.e., oratorical imagery, 214; come-home-to-them, 1,214, 306; emotions, 329-332; Gnome, Epenthymeme, 374. {c) Analogical, p. viii.

[d) Deductive, viii. Gen. to Spec— Definition, 208. 337, Systrophe. 439. Rhetorical Proof anywhere, parenthetically ; Asteismus, other topics to relieve dry strain of reasoning, p. 255, 378. Enthymeme, p. 208, Gnome, Metabasis, 313.

( ^Epicheirema, p. ix., 110; Deictic, 146, 377, may be

j P . I used here and other parts of the argument.

(«) I nJ^ ^ ■{ Icos, Paradigm, Tecmerion, 376-7, cir. evid., nee. concom.

j Enthymema, Gnome, or Cathalou, page 376.

1, Semeion (prob. assn.) 373, 377, cir. evid., Elegchos 377.

P . , /^Doxatou Legotos 375, Martyria 375, Ex-silentio, 373.

P^ *' ■( Basanos. Oaths, adjurations, Apostrophes, appeals to

i, Heaven, unsupported assertions, etc., 376, Metabasis,

/^Proceed forthwith to the Just, your case to front. That pronounced just by law, authority or custom. What resembles it, what contrary, summarily applied. \ Univ. notion of right and wrong (use great eloquence).

Examples of same character, then Gnome, Enthymema. ! Metabasis of heads, if long ; .if short, sum up in a i. Definition, 208, 337 ; in same sentence start Expedient. /Go through proofs to support your recommendation, ' then summarily show, with Gnomes and Enthymems, 374, The Ex- ! ^''^ Figures, the inexperience, injustice, disgracefulness, pedient J difficulty, etc., not to do as you propose. 374 Contrast this summarily with the justice, expedience,

honour and pleasure that would follow your counsel. After suflflcient Gnomes or gen. maxims, give Definition, V 1208, 337, of your recommendation in conclusion.

CO tr- ee

CO

PQ

I Proof j of < Facts

(/) Facts known proofs i unnec

toi, 375-6

The Just 374

SPEECH

A SPEECH — Its successive Order or Stages.

(The Refutation and Epilogue.)

VI 1

-PISTE IS {Argument).— Continued.

"^ Inductive — Analogical — Deductive.

is)

ih)

(i)

Inductive

U)

( Examples, to contradict proposition, 202, 204, 375, 380, Probable : in most cases it falls out otherwise, 202. Enthymema — See Refutative list^ page 202, 203. Apparent Enthymemas, page 203.

/ Proposition essentially similar to another prop, mani-

I festly absurd (see Free-trade and Baptist) p. 203. Analogical \ F'^lse analogy, no connection, two things are not alike;

I (1) differ in a number of essential particulars, (2) essen-

(^ tial particulars are unknown.

^ Deduce or draw out another proposition that contradicts Deductive \ ^^ °^ ^^ absurd as logically deducible from it (see votes 1^ for women and catholic husbands, p. 203).

Opponent's arguments anticipated to minimise them^ same time magnify yours, Figs. Prolepsis, Hypobole, Hypophora : most perfect form with Lusis "p. 291, anti- cipating opponent 295, with " and " 383 ; Hyperbole, Moeosis, Auxesis, Asteismus, Ironia 378 ; Syllogism to show untruth and fallacy; Elegchos, 377; Tecmerion, 376 ; Hypophora again : very vivacious form, 292 begun with " if," 300, most vivacious form " it is cruel," 300^ 301 ; Enthymemata, 201, 205, " Heaven forbid " 206, " I marvel," " I wonder," " Monstrous," " Clever" etc., 211, 302.

Opponent's false reasoning and fallacies, 116, 120, 121. His shifts and dodges, 122, 123 ; proved too much, ix ; Dialogismus, 374, Apologismus, 374, either Asyndetic In- terrogatio (see Demos. 309, 310, 879) or mixed Polysyn- deton and Asyndeton, 383, 128, Proaeresis, 375.

Procata- | lepsis, 374 ^

( i^)

v.— EPILOGUE

Diabole 154

(0 Ampljficatio ?,5

(«) Paraineti- con, 327

(o) Peroratio 371

( Antiparabole : contrast your and opponent's arguments

! 374, "He said so-and-so and I so-and-so," 232; Op-

] ponent ill-disposed to audience. Demos., 233, "He omitted

l this," Cic. 246, Gods invoked 246, Alban Hills 108.

Amplify and diminish, 232, Auxesis and Mceosis ; Hyper- bole, "What Charybdis. . ? ocean itself. ." Cic. 249. Greatest eloquence here, 35, 36, 42, 43 ; Arsis and Thesis. Rhythmus : sublime, 401, " If ever we stood in need," 403. roll and richness, 407, 408, Period, 366-7, Parallelism, " He exceeded all . ." 341, Parison, " Oh ! eloquent and

j just . ." 351, The "head, heart and hand . ." 352;

1^ Polysyndeton for the grand, numerous, magnificent.

m) Epistatis - )■ Excite hearers : 232, 236, 237, revenge, indignation, 358.

Men are alive to — 329-335 ; object lauded, (great elo- quence used) " Keep the Faith," 337, means proven, 336, action, " Do something," 237, Exhortation, 240.

Uniform tone, 247, syllables long, less sonorous, 249, Anacephaleosis, 46, or Aparithmesis, 88 ; also see 369.

Note. — Ethos may be used anywhere in a speech ; Pathos chiefly at the beginning and end. Any number of figures may be used.

Vlli

ARGUMENTATIVE FORMS fi? TERMS.

THE MAJOR PREMISE is a statement of some law or principle. The MINOR is the application of that law or principle to the case in question. DISTRIBUTION of TERMS means taking the matter universally and neferring to all its parts. INDUCTION infers a fresh proposition which is more general than the first one, e.g., This and that orange is round .'. (there- fore) all oranges are round. DEDUCTION is an inference from universals. Newton, seeing an apple fall, argued deductively that this power of gravitation must affect all bodies .*. the moon must fall towards the earth. To reason eflfeclively, one must comprehend well the predicate ; e.g., What is decreed is decreed : the second " is decreed " has a different meaning. DIALOGISMUS, in logic, is a disjunctive conclusion inferred from a single (expressed) premise, e.g.. Gravitation may act without contact ; either some force may act without contact or gravitation is not a force, — cf. Webster's Die.

RELATIVE SYLLOGISM : the major must be relative, e.g.. As is the government so are the employees ; but the government is weak, so are the employees. SYLLOGISTIC FORM is better for deduction, gen. & spec, for greater clearness, certainty, e.g., All men will die; Jones is a man .*. Jones will die.

ANALOGY : Argument from analogy is by resemblance, contrast or com parison. Whatever is true of a thing is true of that which essentially resembles it, Q,g., This letter essentially resembles a letter which we know Brown wrote, .'.Brown wrote this letter. The conditions of good analogy are (1) the two things compared must be well known ; (2) the points of similarity must be more than those of dissimilarity. Reasoning by analogy : " When a country that sends out colonies is termed the Mother-country, the expression is analogi- cal, signifying that the colonies stand in the same relation to her in which children stand to their parents. And if any inference be drawn from this resemblance of relations, as for instance, that obedience or affection is due from colonies to the Mother-country, this is called reasoning by analogy." John Stuart Mill.

METHOD OF AGREEMENT : To find cause, use method of agreement, e.g., Several persons became ill, the only point in common was that they all ate fish, .*. fish caused the illness. To show cause false, show the operation of other causes, e.g.. The prosperity of England has greatly augmented during the last fifty years, due to free trade. The objector assigns other causes as coal, iron, insular position, etc. From cause to effect : A drought, .*, a scarcity of food. He is industrious, .'. he will be well-off.

METHOD OF DIFFERENCE : To find the effect, use method of differ- ence, e.g., Eating pork caused indigestion, omitting to eat it indigestion ceased, .*. indigestion was the effect of eating pork, as this made all the difference. The effect of this law is general misery, remove the law and see if effect remains. Public measures are denounced according to their effects. Seek out the original cause.

JOINT METHOD OF AGREEMENT AND DIFFERENCE : To increase probability, use this method, e.g.. Those who ate fish were ill, those in the same company who did not eat fish were not ill. This difference and agreement increase the probability of the fish being the cause. Also called positive and negative.

METHOD OF CONCOMITANT VARIATIONS : To find connection, e.g., Disorders and assaults increased in a certain period, drinking also in- creased in that period ; they both decreased at the same time, .'. a connection existed between them.

METHOD OF RESIDUES : To find effect of the remainder, e.g.. We know the liberal and labour members voted for the measure, .'.it was the conservatives, the remaining members of the committee, that voted against it.

CHAIN OF ARGUMENT : To find out a mystery, use chain of argument ; much used by detectives who start with a theory. The strength of the chain depends on the weakest link. Attack the weakest link.

ARGUMENTATIVE FORMS & TERMS. ix

AD REM : is the real point or issue in discussion. Ignoratio Elenchi is to keep away from the Ad Rem, i.e., to argue to another conclusion, e.g., *' Instead of proving that the taller boy had a right to force the smaller boy to exchange coats with him, you prove the exchange would have been advan- tageous to both." — Whately. Fallacies in general are to dodge or cloud the Ad Rem.

ENUMERATION: must cite all known cases, otherwise it will-be^aiL, extreme case, e.g., " If everybody did so, nothing would be done." One workman out of a thousand, who is educated, raises himself above his class, .*. education is bad for the workman, which is erroneous. What happiness is, enumerate all the things which contribute to make up happiness.

PROVE TOO MUCH : other points untenable would be established if the proposition is carried out, e.g.. If a loan is made to Japan, she might employ it in a war against a certain country, .*. a loan should not be made to Japan. By parity of reasoning : any dealing with Japan would increase her finance, -.'. all trade whatsoever with Japan must cease. This would be untenable.

TU QUOQUE : You" charge us with robbery, it's you who robbed ; because your political party I'obbed, you think our party robs. (See Demos. V. ^schines, p. 282.)

DILEMMA : To refute, attack the minor, which is the weakest point, show that the alternative does not exhaust all possible cases, e.g., If he likes reading no stimulus is required, and if he dislikes reading, stimulus will be of no service ; either he likes reading or he dslikes it, .". stimulus is needless and of no use. Like and Dislike are not the only two alternatives, for there may be some who neither like nor dislike reading and to them a stimulus would be highly beneficial. Rebut dikmma by starting another dilemma which leads to a contrary conclusion, transpose and deny consequents ; reduce complex destructive to constructive, convert major premise by juxtaposition, — cf. Hawkins.

EPICHEIREMA is giving proof to the major or proof to the minor, or proof to both before drawing the conclusion. It is much used in writing and public speaking. As the speech proceeds each premise is put out of question or doubt. Great eloquence, Cicero says, is required for the major. In the "Pro Milone," p. 10<)-102, Cicero proves his major: " It is lawful for one man to kill another," then his minor : " Clodius laid in wait for Milo . . ." then draws his conclusion : " It was lawful for Milo to kill Clodius."

PROOF, POINTS NECESSARY : (1) The reason or principle should be known or admitted as true, e.g., " Why does a live fish in water increase weight while a dead fish does not? " Is that a fact? (2) The reason or principle should imply truth of Thesis.

GENERAL OBJECTIONS TO ARGUMENT: (1) Argument is beside the question, i.e., Ignoratio Elenchi ; (2) begs the question ; (3) some important fact overlooked.

CONCLUSION should contain major as predicate and minor as subject. The middle term must be distributed at least, and not ambiguous.

CAUSE TO EFFECT : Refute by denying (1) " the actual or possible existence of some fact or circumstance ; (2) that such fact or circumstance is the adequate cause of the effect in question ; (3) that no other agency is operating or will operate to prevent the effect. The most prolific source of fallacy is overlooking counteracting causes. From cause to effect there are two principle objections. 1st. Fact alleged has not been proved to be an adequate cause of the effect, as, a wound will be cured by applying salve to the weapon which inflicted it. 2nd. Has not been shown that there are counteracting causes that will prevent the effect in question." E. Be-ll.

ARRANGEMENT OR ARGUMENTS : should be from ABCDE, i.e., strongest to weakest, and recapitulate from EDCB, concluding with A. (See Whately.) ABOVE ALL, LET SPEECH BE CHIEFLY ANIMATED CONVERSATION ON A BIG SCALE, and RHYTHM BE OBSERVED.

X SPEECH TO THE PEOPLE.

The Deliberative (National Assemblies or to the People).

1. Prooemion (see Exordium): To gain favour of audience by Icos, arouse attention by hinting importance, dignity, novelty, and remove their prejudices or prepossessions so as to make them amenable to persuasion; refer to self (Ethos, Egoism), course of adversary and his character; warn them — beware of his eloquence ! The Deliberative Procemion, says Quintillian, should be short.

2. Diegesis: Facts and Truths, order of circumstances, statement of any external circumstances referring to the subject. Aristotle says the Deliberative Diegesis should be concise, being only to recall what has past that hearers may judge better of the future, the orator praising or reprehend- ing them ; but these are really examples, and as such are proofs. The Diegesis, also, is to refresh the memory of the hearers.

3. Prothesis (see Propositio) : The Issue; the thing to be done or not to be done; the real point upon which the people are to act.

4. Pisteis : Aristotle says that for popular assemblies the topics for the Pisteis or argument are seven : Religion, Laws, the Constitution of the State, Alliances (treaties, commercial and otherwise, with foreign states). War, Peace and Revenue. Cicero says : Clemency, justice, benignity, fidelity, fortitude,, what is honourable or dishonourable, necessary or unneces- sary, fame among posterity, and what is of the greatest utility. Examples must be got out of these, after examples Gnomes, then Enthymemas; Passion and Reason united, other topics thrown in to relieve the dry strain of reason- ing ; Contradictory Examples or Analogies, Reductio ad absurdum, and Deductio, to refute opponent. Ethos, being the language, tones, suitable expressions, asservations, etc., may be used in any part of the speech. Cicero says: "Lan- guage should be grave and simple, magnificent, if the subject is magnificent "; Style, walking measure. (See page 403.)

5. Epilogue: (i) Diabole, (2) Amplificatio, (3) Epistatis, Prosopopoeia, Apostrophe, etc. Quintillian says that in this more than in any other kind of speech are the passions to be excited; people slighted, injured, etc. (4) Paraineticon, dissuading or persuading; (5) Peroratio.

The Deliberative or Speech to the People. As the orator has most calls to address popular meetings, a few brief remarks are here given respecting the Deliberative or Speech to the People, leaving the rest, also the Epideictic and Forensic, to be gathered elsewhere in this volume. Prof. Albert ]. Winans in his "Public Speaking" says that the mob does not think, is conservative, so appeal to what exists, to institutions, party, college, family; and as no new idea can enter, appeal to the old, the established. It likes

SPEECH TO THE PEOPLE. • xi

flattery, likewise is cowardly, and may be put to flight by crying fire ! or police ; but can be heroic under the right leader. It admires courage, so must be faced boldly. Any sign of weakness, any attempt to beg it to be good will be derided. If they suggest revenge, say a greater revenge. By any means get delay, for in most cases mob feeling does, not last long. Lead up to the point by indirect proof, then strike on main point. Do not antagonise at the outset. Convince or persuade by identifying the opinions or course of action which you wish to be adopted with one/ or more of their fixed opinions or customary course of action. The mob thinks in images, the speaker must control it by vivid imagery. Liberty, equality, fraternity, honour, patriotism, the rights of man it likes, also big phrases and big vague sentiments put in the most unmodified form. Explain nothing, but affirm and repeat; make use of the names of its heroes. Do not say "You are wrong," for you will get a rebuff. Gen. Garfield, cowering the mob at City Hall Park, stepped forward and said : " Clouds and darkness are round about Him. Righteousness and judgment are the habitations of His throne. Fellow Citizens ! God reigns, and the Government at Washington still lives! " This familiar sacred truth caught the mob, and held them long enough to receive the assurance that the Government did not fall even with the beloved President. The abovq was delivered just after the assassination of President Lincoln, and when Seward was lying at death's door. Prof. Bain says : " Ora- torical flattery is administered through such phrases as * the natural equality of men,' 'the natural goodness and dignity of human nature,' * the good sense of the common people,* 'the admirable instincts of women.' . . . The impassioned form of eg-oistic impulses is called ambition, to which human nature, especially youth, is easily inflamed by examples of men elevated to fame or power. Napoleon stimulated his troops b}^ layine open the highest rank to the hopes of the common soldier."

Cicero gives the following: "Clemency, justice, benignity, fidelity, fortitude in common dangers, are subjects agreeable to the audience in panegyric; for all such virtfies are thought beneficial, not so much to persons who possess them as to mankind in general; also wisdom, that greatness of soul which regards human affairs mean and inconsiderable; eminent power of thought and eloquence itself, as they excite admiration. The popular assembly appears to the orator to be his most enlarged scene of action; he naturally is excited in it to a more magnificent species of eloquence, and he cannot be eloquent without a numerous audience."

Quintillian says : To clap the hands together, stamp the foot, strike the breast and thigh, make a wonderful impres- sion on an audience of the lower classes.

xii . INTRODUCTION

Figs, of Thought and Language make one ^Natural.

In bearing in mind nature's forms, the speaker invariably addresses an audience naturally, as the ordmary man would talk, that is as to nature's tones, but becoming a cultured man. Cicero, in describing eloquence, says that he is eloquent who speaks in such a way that his hearer would say to himself "that is the very way I would deliver it '*; but if he tries he cannot do it.

One must know forms to sfeak well.

If a person wishes to express himself effectively in public he should acquaint himself with those forms that are suitable for public expression. People often say they do not need to study any forms or their delivery, as they can get up and say what they want to without them; but this is an erroneous idea, as the results are painful to their hearers; and those who appear to be so-called natural speakers have generally attained this facility by frequent association with trained orators or by constant attendance ■ on public meetings. In any case they have learnt it, for " Poets are born, orators are made.*' Public speaking is not a natural condition, there- fore one is liable to make errors and failures unless he has some form or guide to assist him, whereas conversation, being natural, no such forms for delivery are needed. A speaker, not having studied the forms of oratorical expres- sion, is likely to commence in the upper register, which is the one generally used in conversation, and in doing so he strikes a high key or abounds in rising inflections, thinking thereby to make himself heard ; but this not only pains his hearers but tires his voice; he then drops into a lower tone, which he finds unnatural, because he is not accustomed to it, and, as one writer says, finishes with a growl. Cicero says that the voice gains in strength and pleasing quality by constant variation of tone and pitch. John Hullah, Director of the Orchestra of the Royal Academy of Music, London, says that speaking in the lower or second register appears at first unnatural, but one should persevere in it until it becomes natural. He further says that in conversa- tion the first or upper register is used, while in speaking the second or Jower register is chiefly used. R. W. Cone, in his "Speaking Voice," remarks: "Speaking, if well modulated and effective, must be maintained in the middle or lower portion of the voice with appropriate inflections." Unless a person practises speaking, or bears in mind the forms of delivery, he is likely to use the rising inflection too much and to forget that one of the fundamental forms of public speaking is the predominant falling inflection. I do not mean the falling inflections of a cadence in which the tones gradually fall into a repose at the end of a period, but those deep mellow tones of the falling inflection within sentences and periods that make public speaking so attractive and pleasing and express such finality and character.

INTRODUCTION xiii

Difference between Conversation and Public Speaking.

In conversation, the weaker muscles, such as those of the throat and larynx, are employed, whereas in public speak- ing the more powerful muscles, such as those of the diaphragm and intercostals, are used, the diaphragm being continually pressed down so that the lungs may always_be^ full of air in order that a clear, pure tone with carrying quality may be produced. In conversation one can> look at another and note the effect and concentrate his attention on that one point, while in public speaking one not only has to direct his eyes upon the audience, those on the right, (see page 226 how Whitefield singled out one person) those m the centre, on the left, in the rear and near the platform, but must keep his mental eye on the central idea of a sentence as well as look a little ahead to his next idea. In the first case the direction of the eye upon the audience at different distances has the effect of automatically increasing and diminishing the voice as well as preserving its quality and strength, and in the case of concentrating the mental eye upon the idea and looking a little ahead, it has the effect of banishing nervousness and making one fluent. If one has a clear idea and becomes absorbed in it, it is practi- cally impossible to become nervous, as nervousness is due to eiving too much attention to words, which is unnecessary from the fact that the idea brings up all the words that relate to it. Again, m conversation one has an opportunity to stop and explain anything not understood or misunder- stood, whereas in public speaking- the orator has but one opportunity to impress his audience and make himselt understood, in which case he uses Synonyms of words, Synonyms of sentences. Repetition, Amplification, Climax, Anaphora, Polysyndeton, and other Figures or Forms of Oratorical Expression. The passions and emotions require a certain amount of diffuseness to sustain them, otherwise the expression will become, as Aristotle styles it, as stiff as a beam.

Although the author ha^ given the Delivery of the prin- cipal Figures, especially those of Demosthenes, still the speaker should consult a good voice trainer or elocutionist.

As a good grammarian, having learned the rules of grammar so well that he speaks perfectly without knowing that he does it, so a speaker should know the Forms of Oratorical Expression so well that he does not know them.

In order that the speaker might better study his own fitness in comparison with other men, we have given photos of some of the world's famous orators with a description of the manner of delivery of each, his person as to facial expression, his voice and how he trained it, his eye, physique, etc., in fact everything to enable one to form a clear picture of the orator as if standing before him actually addressing an audience. (vSee page 263 ve Dr. Hall.)

XIV

ANTHOLOGY AND MEMORABILIA

ANTHOLOGY and MEMORABILIA : " Men delight in listening to what they easily understand, and are prejudiced against what is obscurely said, dying as it is spoken, as if the speaker knew not what he said, or was afraid of having it understood.*' — Aristotle. " Since e universal knowledge is unattainable, do not acquire too much, as it will distract your thoughts. . . . Devote yourself chiefly to the improve- ment of your natural talent for oratory. Writing is a good modeller, it eats down superfluities. Write the Exordium last, so that good, solid forecasting matter may be presented. ... It should be well finished with thoughts, and happy in expression. Variety and progression throughout all the notes will strengthen and preserve the powers of the voice and add agreeableness to delivery." — Cicero. "By writing, resources are stored up, as it were, in the sacred repository, whence they may be brought forth in emergencies. Dictation is no good, the hand of the writer is necessary, as in dicta- tion you cannot have those gestures which stimulate the imagination, * nor thump his desk ' as Persius satirises, * nor taste his bitten nails.' By a lone lamp, in the silence of seclusion, with mind fresh and vigorous, is tTie best kind of retirement. Meditation is aided by darkness. In speak- ing, our mind must stretch in advance, and we must drive our subject before us. One must study hard to succeed, and this is why one orator outshines another.

* Where virtue dwells, the gods have placed before, The dropping sweat that springs from every pore.' Repeat in a low tone, as a kind of murmur, for the memory becomes excited by the voice; thus the speech is committed to memory. Stand with the inside of the foot constantly presented to the tribunal or people, as we look toward them. Keep the shoulders down. Hold the head horizontally." — Marcus Fahiiis Quint ilianus. " Sententiola, or little sentence, requires the falling inflection, but in a higher tone than the preceding words, as if you had finished a part of what you had to say ; and a period, or falling inflection, in a lower tone, as if you had nothing more to say. Nothing will so powerfully work on the voice as supposing ourselves conversing at different intervals with different parts of the audience." — Jo/in Walker. "If you wish to improve your voice, make up your mind to practise fifteen minutes twice a day at least. Do not practise when tired out, nor when the mind is not alert, nor where, if possible, to be over- heard • for to practise vocal exercises with an effort to keep them subdued may injure the voice. Crowd the audience together that they touch each other (says Beecher). Twelve people touching- each other is a crowded audience." — fames

ANTHOLOGY AND MEMORABILIA xv

Albert Winans. " Fixing the eye on the farthest point, you will endeavour mechanically to pitch the voice there. Dis- putes arise from terms not being clear and precise; use term in one sense and steadily adhere to it." — Thomas Sheridan. " The danger is, urging too forcibly what the hearer is not yet prepared fully to receive." — Alex. Bain. " It is un- natural to say comedy like tragedy, or for an educated, ~ sober-minded man to talk like an illiterate enthusiast" (see " natural manner "j — Whately. " It is important to define' — e.g., * ought we always to tell the truth to everybody ? ' Define everybody, that is, everybody that has a right to know. You would not tell one pursuing another to kill him, where he is. Disarm your opponent, not by starting out with abusive or provocative language, rather assume that your antagonists are actuated by good motives as your own, and that they would agree with you if they had only given due weight to the argument you are about to advance." — "Success Publishing Co.'' "The highest art is to condense a whole scene into one inflection. We are moved only by one sentiment at a time, hence it is useless to multiply gesture. But one gesture is needed for the expression of an entire thought. Do not omit the stroke of gesture, which is the culminating point, the flourish made like the last stroke of the German ' D.' " — Delsarte (by L'Abbe Delau- monse and Angelique Arnaud). " All sounds must diminish in proportion to their distance from the centre of expression." — Angelique Arnaud on "Delsarte." "An orator seldom uses more than four kinds of gestures; the supine, the prone, the index, and the clenched."— i^<9^^r/' /. Fulton and Thomas C. Trueblood. " A reserve of breath gives the audience a reciprocal feeling of confidence. Hold the chest steady and the lungs will thereby fill themselves to their utmost capacity. This gives a secondary resonance to the voice and fortifies the carrying power of the tone." — H. Curtis, M.D. " The voice should always be in liquid lines, even in anger; want of food in the stomach makes the voice thin and hollow. Apples, oranges, nuts, astringents, harden the voice." — Morell Mackenzie, M.D. "Do not stoop, as it impedes breathing. Do not throw voice down on the ground in front of you, thus making yourself inaudible at a short distance. Hold cold water in the mouth until it becomes tepid, repeat this ten or fifteen minutes, and wash the back of the throat with cold water. Speak two hours after meals, for an hour after the stomach is fullest cind the lung capacity is smallest. Hot fluids cause relaxation of the throat; flabby muscles retard circulation, and too much exercise fatigues; both react on the voice. Cleanse the teeth and wash the mouth after food and before using the voice. Pastry, suet puddings, melted butter, sauces and excess of fat meat, and jam (not marmalade), malted liquors, should be excluded; they im-

xvi INTRODUCTION

pair vocalisation. Fat of pork, salted provisions, nuts of all kinds should be avoided. All hot pepper, hot pickles and curries are injurious, as they lead to artificial stimula- tion of the mucous membranq of the throat with the effect of relaxation and reaction." — Lennox Brown, M.D. "Clean, teeth help to produce clear tones." — Rupert Garry. " If interrupted, always be courteous and good-tempered, for if you become cross and angry, it is all over with you. Do not make speaking difficult by leaning forward over the Bible. Stand upright, get a firm position, and then speak like a man. Shams and shows will have no mercy from a street gathering. Say what you mean, put it plainly, boldly, earnestly, courteously, and they will hear you."- — C. H. Spurge on. " Lungs partially full produce blood spitting after long and loud speaking. Vocal exercise, with lungs full of fresh air, promotes decarbonisation, which is salutary." — J. E. Carpenter. " Good articulation involves several qualities : the contact of the right organs for each sound, the firm attack and the sharp release of the initial and final consonants, and an easy transition from one articu- lation to the other." — Louie Bagley.

It only remains for the author to add a few remarks : The importance of taking care of the digestion is frequently overlooked by orators. The least indigestion impairs the brilliancy of tone, so that one should be cautious in choosing such food as suits his own digestion. He should constantly breathe through the nose, as mouth-breathing dries the vocal organs, dulls the tone, and makes the brain inactive. The voice should be brought well forward in mouth. Cold water is good locally, as it braces the soft palate and thus gives a good tone, but should not be taken into the stomach. True eloquence leads to the grandest of triumphs, and brings eminence, fame, power and great wealth. The writer hopes that the following Forms of Oratorical Expression, apart from whatever they may contribute towards the en- couragement of oratory, may help t© keep foremost the idea of merit, in that there is something higher in man than the metalised ambition of pounds and pence, dollars and cents ; that they may inspire the youth to high ideals, the love of country, the love of humanity; that they may arouse the public-spirited to defend on the hustings, the rostrum and the platform all that is good, noble and useful m political institutions; and also help the orator ever to stand a brave sentinel of the people's liberties, the mouthpiece of their traditions, their wrongs, their hopes and aspirations, and to guard the sacred portals of free thought^ that they may never be shut on the progress of mankind — in a word, that they may serve to make our good men great and our grea^ men good.

THE AUTHOR.

Forms of Oratorical Expression

(Figures of Thought and Words)

and their Dehvery

A

ACCUMULATION.

ACCUMULATION: Derived from the Latin cumulus, a heap; ac — to; accumulare — to heap up, to amass.

This is a most beautiful figure and is very effective when delivered properly. By this hgure phrases or sentences more or less of the same tenor are heaped up.

Example: "What did your sword, Tubero, do that was drawn in the field of Pharsalia? At whose body was the point of it aimed ? To what were your thoughts, your eyes, your hand directed ? What ardour inspired your breast ? What did you wish or demand ? — Cicero pro Ligario.

Use: The use of the figure Accumulation is for the pur- pose of riveting a thought on the mind of the hearer by amplification, and to please the ear by symmetry of construc- tion in phrases and sentences.

Caution: Do not heap up too many phrases or sentences as it becomes distasteful; also see that the clauses be of different lengths, excepting where isocola are used for variety; and that the clauses end with different feet, so as to avoid monotony. (See clause ending in selection " Character of King William " under Fig. Parison.)

Delivery: As the phrases or sentences which go to make up the Accumulation are more or less on a par with each other as to meaning and importance, the voice, in delivering them, does not increase in force step by step as it does in

2 '^•'* ' 'ACC^kULATION— AITIOLOGY

felie* '6giVe''"Ci>]iitfc.l^ftve»*br Anabasis, but it ascends and descends with a separate inflection on each and a subsequent pause, as if each stood independently, just as a person traversing a series of rolhng hills ascends and descends each one separately. In the Accumulation of direct interrogative sentences the voice commences and ends with a rising inflec- tion, but in the case of assertive interrogative, as in the above example from Cicero, it rises towards the centre and falls at the end. It should be borne in mind that a falling stress should be laid on such interrogative words as : what^ whose, who, when, luhere^ why, how, etc., and their com- pounds, when they stand at or near the beginning of inter- rogative clauses or sentences, and they should be pronounced, as it were, shot out by the voice.

AITIOLOGY : From the Greek aiTia cause ; and XeYo^ to speak, is a figure or form of speech whereby the speaker adds a reason or cause to a proposition or sentence uttered as an authentic seal thereon. This figure is of great strengtn in speech, for it seems to lead to a confirmation or refutation. George Puttenham, in "The Arte of English Poesie," pub- lished in 1589, calls Aitiology the "tell cause," and says that in many cases we are driven for better persuasion to tell the cause that moves us to say thus or thus ; or else v/hen we would fortify our allegations by rendering reasons to every one. This manner of speech is always commenced with these words : for, because, and such other confirma- tives. Aristotle was most excellent in the use of this figure,- for he never proposes 'any allegation or makes any surmise but he yields a reason or cause to fortify and prove it^ which gives it great credit.

Examples: "In vain it is to water the plant, the root being perished." "Happy in wanting little because not desirous of much." The errors of his nature were excused by reason of the greenness of his youth. The following examples from the Bible are given by E. W. Bulling^er, D.D. — Rom. I., 13, also verses 15, 16; Rom. III., 20; IV., 14, 15, and all other passages where the word "for" points out the reason or "therefore" shows the cause. Examples from Demosthenes : — " If anyone should kill another in a contest, the judge would decide that he did no wrong; on what ground ? He v/ould not look to what happened, but to the intention of the act. 'But what is that?' To conquer a man alive, not to kill him." Demos, vs. Aristo- crates, p. 637. " Is Philip dead ? No, indeed ; but he is ill. What matters it to you ? For, even if he were to come to grief, you would quickly make for yourselves another Philip." Demos, vs. Philip, Phil. I., 43.

Use: This figure is used to confirm, to fortify a proposi- tion by adding a reason or cause. It is also used to reduce

AITIOLOGY 3

to certain belief what may appear dubious, by adducing a brief and pithy reason. (Cf. Rutilius Lupus, Lib. II.) It is employed as a very graceful figure when we, as it were, respond to someone asking us a question and give a reason : "I wish to know if you have killed a man? — *a robber.'" Thus the defence anticipates the confession. (Translated fiom "Liber de Figuris Sententiarum et Elocutionis " by Julius Rufinianus.) " Have you seized on any estate ? — ^ My own.'" Quintilhan. Aitiology is often introduced by a question, giving a reason for a statement we have made as in the two quotations from Demosthenes in examples above ; and as in the following : — " I bolted the door against him. Why not? Because he is a thief."

Caution: Be careful that the reason added be a good and sufficient one.

Delivery: Therie should be a pause before and after the conjunction "for," "because,'" etc. The pause before the conjunction is to allow an occlusion, so that the vocal chords may adjust themselves for the inflection and pitch which are to indicate a change in the continuity of the thought. The pause after the conjunction is to enable the orator to concentrate his mind upon the idea following, and to allow the lungs and vocal organs time to arrange themselves for the utterance of the whole subsequent phrase as if it were one oratorical word. The pause also prepares the hearer to receive and to appreciate the force and weight of the cause or reason. S. S. Curry, in his "Vocal Expression," says that fitch manifests the variation in thinking; fause^ the spiritual weight of the idea. If the conjunction is not expressed, there should be a pause to supply the ellipsis. (See Fig. Enthymema for further details.)

Aitiology being one of Demosthenes' favourite figures, it will not be irrelevant to consider the life of this great man from an oratorical standpoint, before proceeding to other figures.

DEMOSTHENES

His Oratory, Delivery, and Some Notes Taken from Eminent Contemporary and Subsequent Critics.

Of all the orators, ancient and modern, Demosthenes is the greatest, and still holds uncontested the throne of eloquence. Cicero says : " We are told that when Demos- thenes was to plead, all ingenious men flocked to Athens from the most remote parts of Greece as to the most cele- brated spectacle of the world."

His Manner of Delivery.

Respecting Demosthenes' manner of delivery, David Hume, in his "Essay on Eloquence," says: "It is rapid harmony, exactly adjusted to sense; it is vehement reasoning without any appearance of art; it is disdain, anger, boldness, free- dom, involved in a continued stream of argument; and of all human productions the orations of Demosthenes present to us the models which approach the nearest to perfection." For 7ns His Ozvn Style.

Dionysius gives the following: "Demosthenes, then finding the art of public speaking in this state so variously developed, and coming, as he did, after men of such excellence, did not condescend to become an imitator of any one style or person, conceiving them all to be half-artists and unfinished speakers, but selecting from all the finest and most useful qualities of each, he combined them, and out of numerous models wrought a style of composition sublime yet simple; redundant yet concise; refined yet familiar; declamatory yet natural; dignified yet lively; nervous yet flowing ; pleasant yet pungent ; sententious yet impassioned ; imbued, in short, with all the versatility of Proteus, cele- brated by the poets of old for his ability to assume without effort every variety of form."

The following, from H. M. Wilkms, M.A., Fellow, Merton College, Oxford, is relevant : " The pathos and elevation of preceding passages, the graphic description of the jealousy and distrust that rankled between Thebes and Athens pre- vious to the battle of Cheronea, the lofty appeals to national honour, and the deeds of their ancestors, fully prepare the reader for th^ sublime invocation of the manes of the heroes of Marathon and Sal amis.

His Flights y His Metaphors and Similes.

" The neighbouring air sustained the eagle wing and nursed it for higher flight. Neither prose nor poetry boast a more graceful ornament than an apt metaphor. Logically speaking, it cannot prove, but it often suggests the proof; it is no argu- ment, only an allusion to an argument; in no other way, however, could so much argument be so completely suggested

From " Greek and Roman Portraits," by A. Heckler; by kind permission of publisher, William Heinemann, I/ondon.

Principal Forms of Oratorical Expression used by Demosthenes. His master- figures are those in italics :

Accumulatio, Aitiology, Allegory, Alliteration, Amplificatio, Anabasis, Anacolouthon, Anadiplosis, Anaphora, Anastrophe, Antithesis, Aposiopesis, Apostrophe, Arsis and Thesis, Asyndeton, Circle, Descriptio, Diatyposis, Ecphonesis, Emphasis, Enthymema, Eperotesis, Epidiorthosis, Epilogue, Epitimesis, Ethopoeia, Ethos, Exuthenismus, Hiatus, Hypophora, Hypo- thesis, Optatio, Oreo, Parallelism, Paralepsis, Parechesis, Parenthesis, Parison, Paronomasia, Pisteis, Polysyndeton, Prodiorthosis, Prosopopoeia, Rhythfnus, Sermocinatio, Simile, SyUepsis, Syntheton.

DEMOSTHENES 5

in a few words. ('Mills' Logic,' Vol. IV., p. 427.) Demosthenes, whatever his defects in wit or humour, might in this branch of ornament have passed the critical tribunal of the Stagyrite. Aristotle commends similes in prose if sparingly employed. They are drawn from the rich fund of common experience and daily life. Such is the com- parison between the apparent prosperity but inherent weak-" ness of Macedon and the human system into which some old disease has crept, which, quiet in a healthy state of the body, breaks out the moment any accident happens and seizes on the weak point : * Success, ' says the orator, 'throws a shadow over the vices of Philip and the weakness of Macedon now; prosperity is clever in hiding blemishes like these, but on any miscarriage they will be fully exposed. For, as in the human body, a man in health has no troublesome sense of partial ailments, yet, whenever illness occurs, they are in activity, whether it he a rupture, a sprain, or some other unsoundness of the system. So with States and despots; so long as they are engaged in a foreign war their weak points are invisible to most men, but the close grapple of a frontier war reveals them all.' Of a similar nature is the comparison between bor- rowers at high interest who, after a brief accommodation, lose their estate, and the Athenians who were buying a little present self-indulgence at the terrible expense of a conflict with the foe at their own doors. The reader will remark upon the homely sphere from which these two simili- tudes are drawn. It betrays the speaker's insight into character, insures popular appreciation from the familiarity of its source, and enlists itself effectively in support of the argument. It suggests the orator's desire to persuade his audience that it was dangerous to tamper vv^ith political as well as personal interests, since ruin or prosperity in either case obeyed the same laws.

Gnomes of Demosthenes.

" In the same mould are cast the general maxims inter- woven with the thread of argument. (See Fig. Gnome.) In the maxims of Demosthenes there is no ostentation of profound reflection or philosophical remark; they are valu- able, chiefly, as shrewd and pregnant summaries of current, social, or political experience; and their principal merit lies in the fact that they^ are not far-fetched ; that they are never platitudes; that they appeal successfully to the common sense and feeling of mankind ; that they are the natural fruit of discussion; the effluence, in short, of that fine judg- ments—the quintessence of the various discipline of life — which rhetoric cannot form. Such, for instance, is the fine passage in the Second Olynthiac, in which the orator describes the slippery foundation of ill-gotten power.

6 DEMOSTHENES

Exordiums and Perorations of Demosthenes. " The modesty and truthfulness to nature which mark Demosthenes show themselves, also, in the structure of his speeches, especially in his use of those two oratorical weapons the Exordium and the Peroration. (See full details under these figures.) The great speech for the Crown concludes with a prayer of singular animation, beautiful both in rhythm and ideas; the address on the Embassy terminates m a strain of powerful declamation; the oratory in defence of the Rhodians has a highly-wrought conclusion."

Whence Arose his Eloquence? Demosthenes' ambition to speak in pui)lic is said to have originated on this occasion : — Callistratus, the orator, after gaining the day in the celebrated Oropus trial, was escorted by the crowd and congratulated on every side. Demosthenes, struck with the power of such commanding eloquence that carried everything before it, forsook the studies and exercises in which boys are engaged, and applied himself with great assiduity to declaiming, in the hope of being one day numbered among the orators. (Cf. " Greek Lives from Plutarch," by C. E. Byles.)

Why Demosthenes Prepared his Speeches. Many of the demagogues used to chaff him about preparing his speeches beforehand, and one, Pythias, remarked jestingly that his phrases smelt of the lamp. " My lamp and yours, Pythias," retorted Demosthenes with asperity, "assist at very different proceedings." "He maintained, however, that for a man to prepare his speeches was the mark of a good democrat showing respect for the people;, while to be indifferent as to their reception of a speech was a sign of oligarchial tendencies and a reliance on force rather than persuasion.". He followed Pericles as his model only in respect to his action and delivery, and his decision not to xnake it a habit of speaking extemporaneously or on any chance occasion ; having concluded that his greatness was due to this fact. Nevertheless, he did not entirely neglect his reputation as an impromptu speaker, for Eratothenes tells us that in extemporaneous harangues he often spoke as from supernatural impulse.

Account by Demetrius. Demetrius the Phalerean, a rhetorician and contemporary of Demosthenes, relates the personal defects of the latter and his determined and constant efforts to overcome them. He says that Demosthenes told him in his old age how he corrected his hesitation and stammering jn his early days by practising to speak with pebbles in his mouth, strengthened his voice by running or walking up hill, at the same time reciting some passages of an oration or a poem, and practised before a

DEMOSTHENES 7

looking glass in order to correct his gestures while declaim- ing. Demetrius also states that, although the action of Demosthenes electrified the populace, men of refined taste thought it mean, inelegant and unmanly. In an address to the people he tells how Demosthenes, like a man inspired, pronounced the following oath in verse : — " By earth, by all her fountains, streams, and floods ! "

Demosthenes' first attempt to address the people from the Bema (orator's platform) was not successful, as he was ridi- culed and laughed at by the crowd. At another time when his speech was not well received and he :^as returning home much dejected, Satyrus, the actor, a friend of his, met him and accompanied him. Demosthenes complained to him that " though he was the most laborious of all orators, and had

Fyom Byles' "Greek Lives from Plutarch," by kind permission of

Edward Arnold, Publisher,

almost sacrificed his health to that applicatioji, yet he could gain no favour with the people; but drunken seamen (it is supposed that Demades the orator, who was a common mariner, is meant) and other unlettered persons were heard, and kept the Bema, while he v/as entirely disregarded." "You are right," said Satyrus, "but I will provide a remedy if you will ■ recite to me some speech of Euripides or Sophocles." After Demosthenes had finished, Satyrus delivered the same speech, in tones of voice, accentuation and gesture, which were so suitable and natural, that it seemed quite another speech.

8 DEMOSTHENES

Delivery above All.

From this Demosthenes concluded that delivery was the most essential point to be considered and that it was useless to make a speech without proper articulation of words, the observance of suitable tones, and the making of appropriate gestures. He accordingly set himself to put into practice these principles, built a subterranean chamber for this purpose and eventually, after much toil, became the greatest of orators.

It was the Bema, together with rival democracies, that gave Athens the mastership of the world's oratory. Imagine on Pnyx Hill, a surging, seething, heckling democracy, hissing or applauding the speaker on the "orator's platform " ; imagine, too, after this orator, or orators if several had to speak, has spoken, the herald, if the mass did not immedi- ately approve what has been said, calling out in a loud voice : *' Let any one above fifty years old, who wishes, speak ; and then the rest of the Athenians in order"; imagine this one, now that on^, ascending the Bema and addressing the multi- tude, pointing to the orator whose opinion he favoured most ; imagine the multitude being called on to vote, now holding up their hands, 6,000 votes the minimum necessary to pass any measure ; imagine now one of these orators receiving a majority of the votes adopting his measure, and his face beaming with satisfaction as he hears the verdict to which all the aims, and all the efforts, and all the labours of his oratory were directed ; imagine further Demosthenes from the bema, fiercely attacking Philip, and with his over- powering eloquence, dominating the refractory multitude, causing them unanimously to hold up approving hands and to shout, "Let us march against Philip" : you will then have a key to the superiority to all ages of Athenian eloquence. The Roman had his rostrum, but he never had a bema. In the palmiest days of the Roman republic Cicero had only the Roman senate to vote his measures, consequently his style of eloquence was different from that of Demosthenes, m that it was smooth, soft, gentle, insinuating, fluent, senatorial, lofty, "slow and steady as the tread of Nemesis." The nearest approach in modern times to Pnyx Hill was Tara Hill when Daniel O'Connell, in his hill-side stormings, haranguing the greatest multitude ever assembled to listen to an orator, very closely bordered on the Athenian's inimitable fire. But Tara Hill had not the power of Pnyx Hill. It is the absence of the condition of a stimulating bema that makes it impossible for the modern orator to excel Demosthenes, or even to approach the Athenian's sublime eloquence; but it is thought that the democratic tendency of modern times towards universal Parliamentary represen- tation, especially in America, may create a somewhat similar condition that will bring forth another Demosthenes.

DEMOSTHENES 9

A very interesting comment of modern times on the oratory of Demosthenes is to be found in the " Edmburgh Review," vols. 33 (1820) and 36 (1821-22), parts of which are here cited.

" It will thus be found that there is not any long and close train of reasoning in the orations, still less any profound observations, or remote and ingenious allusions ; but a constant succession of remarks, bearing immediately upon the matter in hand, perfectly plain, and as readily admitted as easily understood. These are intermingled with the most striking appeals, sometimes to feelings which all were conscious of, and deeply agitated by, though ashamed to own; sometimes to sentiments which every man was panting to utter, delighted to hear thundered forth — bursts of oratory, therefore, which either overwhelmed or relieved the audience. Such hits, if we may use a homely phrase (for more dignified language has no word to express the thing) are the principal glory of this great combatant; it is by these that he carried all before him, and to them that he sacrifices all the paltry graces which are the delight of the Asian and the Italian schools. Suppose the audience in the state we are figuring; it is evidence that one sentence, or parenthesis, or turn of expression, or single phrase — the using of a word or pro- nouncing a name, at the right place and in the just sense, may be all that is wanting to rouse the people's feelings, or to give them vent.

No Long, Close Reasoning. " Now in this way, and not by chains of reasoning like mathematical demonstrations or legal argument, it is that Demosthenes carries us away; and it is not otherwise that an assembly at the present day is to be inspired and con- trolled. Whoever among the moderns has had great success in eloquence, may be found not perhaps to have followed the Grecian master, but certainly in some sort to have followed in his track. Had he studied correctness equally, the effect would have been heightened, and a far more excellent thing would have been offered to our deliberate admiration, after its appeal to the feelings had been successfully made. Who, for instance, can doubt that theXeyero .... Kawov is a burst of the very kind most adapted to electrify the House of Commons? Indeed, we may go further; for change Macedon into 'Corsica, and substitute Europe for Greece, the passage itself might have been pronounced at any time during the late war, with infallible success, or perhaps, in the present day, we might apply it to the Calmuck members of the Holy Alliance. After showing the dangerous tendency of Philip's projects, and the evils of letting him bring war near their country, he breaks out into a vehement inculpation of the Athenians for their numberless negligences and follies in the conduct of their affairs.

10 DEMOSTHENES

Powerful Repetition.

** This passage has all the characteristic fire and rapidity and point of the oration; it affords, too, an example of a very fine repetition,^ in which the same words are used a second time with the most powerful effect, and the whole is brought to bear full upon the question of Diopeithes, which is first introduced by a skilful parenthesis. The orator's favourite figure of Antithesis is not spared; and the original is as sonorous to the ear as it is striking, by the sense which it is so over-enforced. * You neither chuse to contribute your money — nor dare to serve in person — nor bear to sacrifice your shares in the distributions — nor do you furnish Diopeithes the appointed supplies — nor give him credit tor supplying himself, but vilify him for what he has done Jnd pry into what he is going to do : but you go on lauding by your words those whose councils are worthy of their country while, by your actions, you are straining every nerve for their antagonists. Then you are perpetually asking of each other who appears — what is to be done? But I would fain ask you — what is to be said ? For if you will neither con- tribute, nor serve, nor sacrifice your shares, nor furnish Diopeithes his supplies, nor suffer him to supply himself, nor attend to your own affairs, I know not what is to be said ; for if you will give such license to those who are sifting and calumniating his conduct that you niust lend an ear both to their predictions of what he may hereafter do, and to the positive charges on which they ground these predictions, what can any one say ? ' This wonderfully condensed and most spirited exposure (in the last clause) of the unbearable injustice practised towards the general must remind every reader of many passages of Mr. Fox's speeches; one in parti- cular we recollect upon the conduct and consequences ot the war, in the debate on Parliamentary reform in 1797.

In passages of the same effect the third Philippic especi- ally abounds; in fire and variety, indeed, it is surpassed by none of the lesser orations, and by some preferred to all the rest. The argument against trusting Philip's friends, and giving up those orators who had steadily opposed him, drawn from the example of other states who had fallen into his snare, as Oritum, Eretria, and Olynthus, merits atten- tion. Fine Outburst of Irony.

" Nothing can be finer than the burst of irony at the close

* " Here is the same leading topic once more introduced ; but introduced after new topics and fresh illustrations. The repetitions, the enforcements af^ain and again of the same points, . area distinguishing feature of Demosthenes, and formed, also, one of the characteristics of Mr. Fox's great eloquence. The ancient, however, was incomparably more felicitous in this than the modern ; for in the latter it often arose from carelessness, from ill-arranged discourse, from want of giving due attention, and from having once or twice attempted the topic and for- gotten it, or perhaps from having failed to produce the desired effect. Now in Dem.osthenes this is never the case : the early allusions to the subject of the repetition are always perfect in themselves, and would sufficiently have enforced the topic, had they stood alone. But new matter afterward handled gave the topic new force and fresh illustration, by presenting the point in a new light."— Lord Brougham.

DEMOSTHENES ^ 11

of that part beginning KaX^jv y\o noWoi. *A noble (fine or pretty, the literal translation expresses the sense completely but is too colloquial) return have the Oritans met with for betaking themselves to Philip's creatures and abandoning the Euptraeus. A noble treatment have the Eretrians received for dismissing your ambassadors and surrendering to Clitarchus — they are now enslaved and tortured and_ scourged ! Nobly have the Olynthians fared for giving the command of the horse to Lasthenes while they banished Apollonides ! ' Now every name here pronounced awakened in the audience the recollections of events deeply interesting to them; and the few words applied to each were sufficient to bring up the most lively idea of those circumstances on which the orator desired to dwell.

Splendid Descnftion. " It may suffice the classical reader of the powerful descrip- tion of Philip where he contrasts his conduct with that of the Athenians and presents him wounded and maimed, but cheerfully abandoning to fate any of his limbs provided v/hat was left might live in honour and renown; the exposure of iEschines* inconsistency in ascribing to fortune the favour- able result of a mere statesmen's councils, while he imputes to those councils the disasters that arise in the operations of war; . . . the bitter description of the Athenian populace which he puts into the mouths of his adversaries, but seems to have wrought as highly as if he meant to adopt it; the appeal to his own services which had, for the first time, obtained for Athens the extraordinary honour of a crown from the other states of Greece, the question now whether the ordinary honours of the civic crown had been rightly decreed to him; with almost every other sentence of that long and most wonderful passage which immediately follows his Theban Decree, and more especially that part beginning ei ya/o TavTa^ — "Edinburgh Review," vols. 33 (i820)and30 (1821-22).

" As others of them were themselves eminent in speaking, and could readily see through all the common artifices of oratory, these he effects to despise; appears only solicitous to be understood. Yet, as it were without design, he raises the utmost admiration and delight, such delight as arises from the clearness of evidence and the fulness of conviction. And as all, even the lowest part of hearers, were acquainted with the beauties of poetry and the force of harmony, he could not admit of anything rude or negligent; but with the strictest attention laboured those compositions which appear so natural and unadorned. They have their orna- ments, but these are austere and manly, and such as are consistent with freedom and sincerity. A full and regular series of diffusive reasoning would have been intolerable in

12 DEMOSTHENES. .

,an Athenian assembly. He often contents himself with an imperfect hint, a sentence, a word, even his silence is some- times pregnant with meaning; and this quickness and vehem- ence flattered a people who valued themselves on their acute- ness and penetration. It is, indeed, insinuated by his enemy (^schines vs. Ctesiphon) that he was more solicitous about rounding a period than preserving his country. A modern reader is struck with some particular argument or topic; he is disappointed to And that it is not extended and enlarged. But, it is possible, nay, very likely, that the disposition of those who heard it required but a single hint; a minute detail would have tired and offended. But here we seem to confine our regards to our own sentiments, our own passions and our own situations. We argue from our own feelings to those of other persons, in circumstances totally different." — Thomas Leland, D.D., Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin (1770).

T/ie Person of Demosthenes. " Nature, in truth, seems to have stinted him in all the requisites of a great orator; his voice was poor, his utter- ances lisping and bad, his lungs weak, and his action almost ludicrous by an ungainly figure and extreme nervousness. But within the thin, weak body dwelt a heroic spirit and an indomitable will."— Percy Scott Whelan, M.A., T.C.D., Warden and Orator of St. Columba's College.

" He had some natural defects very incompatible with the profession he embraced — a thick, restive tongue, hardly pro- nouncing the letters that required emphasis or pliantness of the organ; a trembling voice given to interrupt the most noble expressions; in fine, an outside void of that eloquence which takes the eye, and prepares the way for persuasion. How- ever, perseverance and application surmounted all.

His Instructors in Eloquence. " Isocrates, Plato, and Isaeus initiated his eloquence, but action being according to his judgment, the chief or rather the only art of an orator, he had three masters (Neoptolemus, according to Phocius; Andronicus, according to Plutarch; Satyrus, according to Quintillian) to instruct him in the comeliness of gesture, justness of motion, and graces of pro- nunciation. To these foreign censors he added a domestic one, if the expression may be allowed, that never failed him ; I mean his glass which he made use of to let him know what others would not tell him, or at least were weary of repeating to him. Sometimes to fortify his voice and accustom it to the noise of a tumultuary audience, he would declaim upon the sea shore and harangue the waves — a lively image of a popular assembly." *

* From the " Preface for Monsieur Tourreil in Several Orations of Demosthenes," by M. Topham, Lord Landsdowne, Col. Stanhope and Others." Published in 1702-1744.

DEMOSTHENES

13

"A Comparison betiveen the Eloquence of Demosthenes and Cicero y

" Cicero had the advantage of being incomparably better educated than Demosthenes. At the age of sixteen years old he (Cicero) wrote the poem of Glaucus Pontius in imitation

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of Eschylus. Demosthenes, whose desires after knowledge were more confined, applied himself wholly to the reading of Thucydides, whom he made almost his whole study, that he might get the style and writing of that historian. Cicero spent more time in the universal study of all sciences, both in reading Plato, Aristotle, and all that wrote after them that had any relation to eloquence. Both devoted themselves

14 DEMOSTHENES

to the common good and with zeal to the interest of their country.

De77iosthenes choleric^ Cicero very complaisant.

■' For if to persuade 'tis necessary to please . . . Cicero may be said to surpass Demosthenes. It is observed that Tully was very neat in his clothes, and in all his dress, even to affectation, that he loved perfumes and a splendid table, and he was very pleasant in conversation; he was very complaisant with his friends; his raillery was smart and neat Demosthenes had not the taking way in his conversation ; his behaviour being more reserved made his discourses fitter to be listened to, and to be received as oracles. Demosthenes was of a choleric, melancholy temper; the heaviness which proceeded from his melancholy made him obstinately perverse in anything he had undertaken, and his choler inspired him with vigour and all his abilities necessary to bring it to perfection. Though his temper made him something peevish and cross, yet it did endue him with that serious humour which so much conduced to the great reputation he at length obtained. For it was partly from his temper that his great severity of manners, which gained him the name of so virtuous a person in his country, proceeded. And, indeed, he added to his natural vehemence such lively exterior actions that it was impossible to hear him without feeling at the bottom of one's soul sensible effects of his action.

Demosthenes' MarvellouSy Piercing, Sparkling Eye.

"Valerius Maximus tells us he had a marvellous, piercing,, sparkling eye, and that he made good use of that natural advantage to express diversely in his face such emotions as his subject required, but, above all, to make him seem terrible and dreadful when it was requisite he should be so. Demosthenes' Voice ^ Action and Figures.

" He let his voice fall so properly where it ought, gave his words such a tone, and a graceful air to all his action, that it made every one that heard him admire Eim; so that action was almost the chief quality wherein his eloquence consisted ; and he himself used to say it was the first, second and third part of it, meaning that it was all in all to pro- nounce well what one had to say ; and that all things are to be esteemed according to the manner they are delivered. Besides his action, which gave life to all he said, he improved all he had to say with proper expressions, lively descriptions, touching passages, and representations, that affected and made strong impressions on the mind. In fine, all his dis- course was full of expressive figures, of those frequent apostrophes, and reiterated interrogations which add so much vigour and do so animate a discourse, as Longinus observes. So that one may truly afBrm that never any orator raised his anger, hatred, indignation, and all his passions to that

DEMOSTHENES 15

height as did Demosthenes. What shall I say of that sharp style wherewith he stirred up the winds of all the common- wealth against Philip, without any regard of his quality? Of those passages where he is transported against ^schmes in the oration for Ctesiphon? , And of all those frequent invocations of the gods? those apostrophes to the sun and stars? of those oaths, by heaven and earth, by the fountains and rivers, according to the maxims of his religion? of thoire strange, forced figures, and other violent passions all his discourse abounds with ? To all of which he added a pro- nunciation and tone of his voice more thundering than that of Pericles, whom he had taken for his pattern. And his vehement action joined to that of his expression are things which chiefly make up the character of that powerful eloquence unto which nobody besides him ever arrived, as Longmus assures us. He had a particular talent in representing things exactly with all their circumstances, which is of no small moment to work belief in the people to whom all things seem much more probable from circumstances.

Demosthenes' Description^ TurnSy Zeal and Reasoning.

" He had also so exquisite an art of describing all things naturally, that the merest fables as he related them would persuade much more, by reason of that plain, natural way he delivered them in, than the most solid truth alleged by another. We are told by Dionysius of Halicarnassus that his eloquence was very subtle and artificial. He could turn and wind about, and follow the most untrodden paths, to come more surely to his proposed end. And this is the case in the oration about the fleet that was to be sent out against the king of Persia, by representing to the people the difficulties they would find, if they went about such an enterprise without engaging all Greece in the same design : he made the thing appear so difficult as he represents it, that though he seems to persuade them tq it, yet he dissuades them from it in reality as he at first designed. But his vehemence was the chief quality in his eloquence, so Photius assumes, in that those orations he made to the people had much more of it in them than those he made to the senate. There is, never- theless, in all this austere kind of eloquence, very much solid and judicious reason which had in it nothing that was either superficial or weak; and his reproaches, however severe, w^re always taken in good part because he backed them with such weighty reasons and arguments as were irresistible. His language was ordinary, having nothing far-fetched or sought for in it ; but he had the art of putting into language, as plain as it was, and into all his words, all the life and vigour that he pleased by the vehemence of his action.

Cicero Affecting on Pathetic Subjects.

" The Character of Cicero' s Eloquence. — But after all, the

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chief perfection of his eloquence was his admirable talent of affecting the heart upon pathetic subjects by that wondertul art of moving- the passions, the ground of which he had from nature, and which he so well improved by his constant studying of Aristotle's Rhetoric. He arrived at this per- fection chiefly by his natural temper; for he had a very tender soul and a soft, passionate air in all he did ; and besides, his graceful delivery and his excellent pronunciation gave him a very easy admittance into the hearts of his audience, who, finding themselves surprised by so many charms, were not able to make any resistance.

Cicero More Learned; His Art of Syllogising.

" It is also probable that the art of syllogising which Cicero had so carefully learnt in Aristotle's logic was not in use in Demosthenes' time, whose argumentation, being only plain enthymemes, was more natural and agreeable to his vehement pressing way; as that art of deducing particular consequences from universal principles, which Aristotle reduced into a method, and which Thomas Freigius has so well picked out of Cicero, is much more insinuating and suitable to his manner of writing.

The Chief Differences betiveen Them.

" These are the chief differences we can find between them. Demosthenes is more passionate than Cicero and more grave ; he sets upon his business resolutely and pursues things roughly without having any respect of person (for instance, calls Philip ' the fellow of Macedonia ') . . . and his choler and peevish humour were visible in all he said, so he gave himself up so much to the impetuous current of his temper, that it was but very seldom that he was cool and without passion when he spoke. Cicero is much more master of him- self and all his passions, he more gently manages his auditors' minds and regards whom he speaks to, he has nothing that is harsh or surly, is pleasant even in his anger and indig^na- tion, and has the art of pleasing still whatever he speaks of. Demosthenes finds out in all the reasons he thinks, all that is in them either solid or substantial, and has the arf of representing it in its full strength ; but Cicero, besides the solidity which never escapes him, does likewise lay hold on all it has in it of pleasing taking, and never fails of his aim in the pursuit of it. The torrent of Demosthenes' dis- course is so violent and rapid, his argumentation so close, his whole manner of writing has in it a height so like that of craggy rocks and precipices, as Longinus expresses it, that it is difficult to follow and keep pace with him; whereas Cicero carries his auditors along with him or makes them go before him ; he turns and winds the minds of his hearers, and touches their hearts so that they guess beforehand what he has next to say . . . one may affirm, methinks, that

I

DEiMOSTHENES 17

Demosthenes, by the impetuousness of his temper, the force of his arguments, and the vehemence of his pronunciation, was more pressing and forcible than Cicero, as Cicero by his soft and gentle way, his smooth, insinuating, passionate touches, and all his natural graces, did more affect and move. The Grecian breaks out like thunder, the Roman warms and inflames like a great Are. But when it was necessary to go to the very heart and insinuate oneself into the mind, by all those charms and delicate strokes of which eloquence is capable, then it is that Cicero's art is triumphant, and that his diffused, enlarged discourse succeeds far better than Demosthenes' more close, concise way ; and the one has not more power in the surprising strength of his reasoning than the other gains by the warming and affecting emotions he raises. Plutarch says that Demosthenes is everywhere concise and close, and his arguments very pressing without any ornament or beauty, whilst Cicero scatters many graces throughout his discourse, and is everywhere pleasing. Though Cicero was generally insinuating and affecting, yet he could likewise, when it was requisite, add to his natural sweetness as much passion and indignation as his subject required or the most transported spirit was capable of. Demosthenes is likewise not so absolutely given to be violent and passionate, but that he can sometimes make use of the other softer way, as it appears in some passages of his Olynthiacs, and that of Ctesiphon and the oration against Midias, though the greater part of this last be very vehement. And it is doubtless as much for this reason, as out of his inclination, that Demosthenes dealt more in accusation than Cicero, for he hardly undertook the defence of anyone, and Cicero accused but few persons for his nature was more inclined to sweetness and pity, ancl it was against his will if he accused any man. It is this taking air which accom- panies all he says and constitutes that sweet, obliging kind of eloquence wherewith all souls are charmed.

Persuasion of the Heart, and of the Understanding. " The fer suasion of the understanding is effected by a kind of dazzling light which is darted forth, and a violent impulse of reasons which the mind cannot resist; it works in a certain elevated manner, and with such force as surprises and con- founds the faculties, as Aristotle observes (book i, cap. 2, Rhet); the persuasion of the heart is produced by those graces and charms which captivate the will and draw her after them so delightfully, that she is pleased in forsaking her resolutions, and in giving away her liberty. For the understanding does not assent unto anything but the evidence of reason, and to that which enlightens her, so neither can the will yield itself to anything but the allective of good, etc., what is taking and pleasing. Though there be some

18 DEMOSTHENES

minds on which nothing will work but the force of reason, and who must be convinced before they can be persuaded, yet I esteem it not convenient _ to be always urging of arguments.

Demosthenes Dazzled the Mind, Cicero Captivated the Heart.

" One dazzles the mind by the splendour of his lightning and surprises the soul by the mediation of the amazed under- standing, but the other by pleasing and taking, would slip into the very heart and had a way of insinuating himself into, and making use of the interests and inclinations, passions and opinions of those he speaks to. More Glorious and Lasting, Eloquence of Understanding.

" Nevertheless that eloquence which works upon the under- standing is more glorious than that which wins the heart. A heart that is affected is no subject for the triumph of an orator, as a convicted mind ; and that which strikes the mind makes a more lasting impression because that reason which gave the stroke still continues the same, but that which touches the heart vanishes with the heat of that passion which produced it, because all things that proceed from passion are very transient. Finally, inasmuch as the resistance of the understanding is more difficult to be overcome than that of the will, so is passion less powerful to persuade than reason. This tempestuous eloquence, which Aristotle says troubles our minds, by overturning our opinions and subduing our reason, never does anything but openly and so as to be taken notice of, her strokes stun and dazzle like lightning and smite like thjmder; she is like those whirlwinds which overturn the tallest trees with the same facility as the trembling reed. Such was Demosthenes' eloquence, who had the art of governing and mastering the minds of the most fierce, light and untractable people that ever was. This masterless rabble which was so jealous of the merit of any one that made himself remarkable in their commonwealth, did submit their reason to that of Demosthenes, who forced them to bend under the weight of so irresistible a power. The truth is Cicero's eloquence charms the mind, but Demosthenes' astonishes it; the former makes itself loved, the latter feared and obeyed. If I were to speak to persons above me, I should choose to speak like Cicero ; but if to people below me, I would frighten them like Demosthenes. Demosthenes was so positively affirmative that he would always be thought to be in the right, but Cicero was content to make it appear he was so. Demosthenes was but seldom known to aim; at wit, but it was so natural to Cicero to be facetious that he was pleasant in adversity.

The Appearance of Cicero and Demosthenes.

" The Roman was of a very personable presence, had a comely face and a good, clear, loud voice. The Greek was

DEMOSTHENES 19

not unhandsome, but the earnestness of his action recom- pensed for the other exterior qualities which he wanted. The truth is, he spoke with more heat and vigour; Cicero, more gracefully and pleasingly. Demosthenes' air is more majestic than that of Cicero. But it is probable that Cicero under- stood the intrigues of man's heart better than Demosthenes, having learnt it so well from Aristotle . . . whose Rhetoric" . . . Demosthenes never saw, for it is evident that Aristotle wrote not that book till he was pretty well in years, and after having studied above twenty years under Plato. And in this Cicero had the advantage over Demosthenes, for he drew all that perfect knowledge he had in those matters from that copious spring. Best passages are led up to; Must not be separated from rest.

" Those admired passages cannot be taken out from the rest of the discourse without being spoiled or stripped of their beauty, which many times consist only in that exact preparation and suitableness they have with the other parts. This may easily be seen in that admirable passage of Demosthenes which is so cried up by all the great masters of eloquence where he says : * No, it is not so, I swear it by all the ashes and manes of those brave men that were killed in the battle of Salamis and Marathon,' etc., where the orator sets forth all that is great and glorious in eloquence. But it is not the same thing when it is taken out of its place and looked upon by itself without being concerned or having one's mind prepared by what goes before; for so, the depend- ence of it and proportion to the rest which makes up all, its beauty appears not." — "A Comparison between the Eloquence of Demosthenes and Cicero " (translated out of the French), R. Rapin. Oxford. Published 1672.

Demosthenes m a Milder Character of Oratory.

" His Leptinea is of a milder character, employed wholly in convincing rather than exciting the audience ; and possesses not the force and grandeur of language and sentiments which we admire in the Philippics and some of the rest. Here everything is calm, gentle, distinct, with a kind of uniform flow. This is the highest attainment of an able orator, to know how his style is to be diversified." — " Oration of Demosthenes against the Law of Leptines," by Rev. B. W. Beatson, M.A., Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge. The Great Oration on the Crown.

The following are the three points at issue : " First, because it was unlawful to make false allegations in any of the state documents.

" Secondly, because it was unlawful to confer a crown upon any person who had an account to render of his official conduct; and Demosthenes was both a conservator of the walls and the treasurer of the theoric fund."

20 DEMOSTHENES

" Thirdly, because it was unlawful to proclaim the honour of a crown in the theatre of the Dionysian festival, at the performance of the new tragedies; the law being that if the council gave a crown, it should be published in the council- hall; if the people, in the Pnyx at the popular assembly."

" The interest excited was intense, not only at Athens, but throughout all Greece ; and an immense concourse of foreigners flocked from all parts to hear the two most celebrated orators in the world. A jury (of not less than five hundred) was impanelled by the archon; and before a dense and breathless audience the pleadings began."

" This has justly been considered the greatest speech of the greatest orator in the world. It derives an additional mterest from the circumstance that it was the last great speech delivered in Athens."

" His rival, yEschines, opposed this measure as unconsti- tutional, and the trial of this celebrated cause before the assembly of the people was postponed until 330 (B.C.). The oration of Demosthenes, 'On the Crown,' which was really a defence of his entire public career, is undoubtedly his masterpiece, and the most perfect specimen of eloquence that was ever produced. Demosthenes triumphed, and ^schines was banished. More than four-fifths of the numerous judges in his trial voted against ^schines." — Spofford's "Library of Historical Characters and Famous Events."

" The real issue, as we have seen, in the prosecution was not an issue of points disputed in national law or national history; the issue was whether Philip's opponents at Athens could or could not be crushed ; Demosthenes once overthrown, the rest of his party would prove easy victims. But yEschmes had overrated his own ability and influence. The fiery rhetoric of the reply shrivelled the accusation to atoms. The blow he had aimed at Demosthenes was suicidal to himself. True the speech of ^schines has many points that are brilliant. But it is inferior in vigour, inferior in dexterity, inferior in its indignation, and inferior in its pathos. The one speech has a genuine ring of patriotism and courage about it; the other rings like debased metal, coated over thickly enough with an affectation of high principle, but still transparent to the naked eye as coin that will not pass. We have the two orations to compare in their last, most finished shape, not as they were actually spoken, but as they were corrected and polished, with a view to publication by their authors in permanent manuscript torm. To conclude, if we cannot wholly approve the moral tone of the Speech on the Crown, we can praise without reserve or stint the magnificent style of its language. The orator's exquisite choice of words and their still more perfect arrangement, the splendid roll of its long periods, the delicate balance of

i

DEMOSTHENES 21

the antitheta, the superb grammatiqal finish pervading the whole — these are unmistakable indeed; there can be but one opinion about it. Analysis of the argument : It was, in fact, what all the judicial orations of Demosthenes were, emphati- cally an argument constructed on a well-considered and wisely ordered plan, having a beginning, a middle, and an end^ The skeleton or framework of the argument is concisely as follows : The first eight sections constitute the exordium, or introduction, in which modestly but earnestly he claims his right to make his own defence in his own way, and with marvellous skill sweeps away all the cunnmg contriv- ances of his prosecutor, and clears the ground for a fair fight. . The next forty- four sections (9-52) are occupied with some preliminary and extraneous matters m reply to assaults partly on his private character and partly on public measures -on which ^schines had dwelt at great length, but for which, being prior to the administration of Demosthenes, he was in no way responsible, or which, in legal terms, were wholly impertinent to the indictment. In the next seventy-three sections (53-125) he takes up the charges in the very order of the indictment : first, defending his public policy during the period in which he took a leading part in the affairs of the state, ' and the difficulties under which^ the Athenians laboured in their contest with Philip. Coming to the events which brought on a renewal of the war, he shows how Philip's ambitious projects and encroachments in every part of Greece made it necessary to oppose him, especially for the Athenians who were menaced at home as well as abroad by his aggres- sions in Thrace, Euboea, and Megara. He pursues these topics until he has carried with him the feelings of his hearers, which must have been strongly on his side when he dilated on the glorious issue of the campaigns in Euboea and the Propontis, and read to them the decrees of the Byzantines, Perinthians, and Chersonesites in honour of Athens, all of which were due to the vigorous measures of his own adminis- tration. Having thus secured the goodwill and sympathy of his iudges, he proceeds to discuss the legal charges against Ctesiphon ' ; secondly^ justifying the proposal of Ctesiphon that he should be crowned for his patriotic services while he was still in office and his accounts had not yet been audited ; and thirdly, showing that it was lawful that the crown should be proclaimed, as Ctesiphon proposed, in the theatre at the Dionysian festivals. ( ... he throws the merely technical and legal points wherein his own weakness and the strength of his opponent lay into the middle of his oration, as Nestor advised Agamemnon to drive into the middle his poorest troops, while the beginning and end and main portion are so ablaze with the glory of his public policy, which his judges and hearers had adopted and still cherished as their own, that if they gave any consideration to these

22 DEMOSTHENES

nice points of law, they could not but regard them practi- cally of no account.) ' Dwelling on them but a short time^ he plunges into a personal attack upon .JEschines, holding up to ridicule the meanness of his birth and parentage, and retorting on him the same coftrse and opprobrious language which had been used toward himself.' This terrible invective occupies the next thirty- tour sections (126-159). Having thus disposed, in passing as it were, of some of the strongest points in the argument of ^schines, he returns to a narra- tion, rapid and graphic, of the course of events in the last great struggle of Grecian liberty against the supremacy of Macedon . . . . ' A graphic description is given of the consternation at Athens on hearing that Philip had seized Elatea. The meeting of the people, the advice of Demos- thenes to them, his embassy to the Thebes, the, .success of his negotiations, and the conclusion of an alliance between Thebes and Athens are briefly recounted, Demosthenes forcibly pointing out the advantage of his measures, con- tending that the-^' were not to be judged by the mere event of the battle, and that it was far more glorious for his country to be defeated in a struggle for the independence of Greece than it would have been to keep aloof from the contest. He made that noble adjuration which has in all ages been admired, appealing to his countrymen by the deeds of their ancestors, of whom they would have acted most unworthily, had they without a struggle abandoned the post of honour bequeathed to them ' . . . and he puts forth that world-renowned, matchless justification, or rather glorification of his policy which, though it led to the disaster at Chaeronea, was the only policy which Athens could have adopted consistently with her ancestral glory, and of which the Athenians themselves, after their defeat, expressed their unshaken and hearty approval by choosing Demosthenes to pronounce the funeral oration over those who had fallen in the battle (160-290). In the remaining sections (291-324), which are of a more general nature, the orator portrays the ideal statesman and statesmanship which Athens required for those times, and shows how he himself had answered to that ideal, in contrast with the baseness and treachery of .^schines and his fellow hirelings and traitors in all the Grecian States, concluding with that magnificent prayer and imprecation which the best translators halve confessed their inability to render adequately into any other language. * He (^schines) never came forward to assist her counsels when she needed them, but only to censure others who had given their advice because it had not turned out as well as was expected. It was a signal proof of his malignant disposition, that he had expatiated on the late disastrous events as if they were a subject of triumph to him, without shedding a single tear, without any faltering in his voice, without betray-

DEMOSTHENES 23

ing the least emotion or symptom of grief. Attachment to his (Demosthenes') country and earnest anxiety for her welfare had been his abidmg motives of action; throughout his whole life, in the day of power, in the hour of trial and adversity, those feelings had ^ never deserted him; that was the test of a good and honest citizen; by that he ought to be judged. Demosthenes stood before his country repre^ sentmg all which remained of Athenian dignity and glory. During the progress of his address such thoughts rushed upon their minds with greater and greater force, till they were elevated above themselves, and all the spirit of their ancestors was, for the moment, regenerate within them. They felt it was impossible to find him guilty without passing sentence upon themselves, without condemning the policy which Athens had for a long series of years consistently pursued.' ' (Remarks in single quotation from C. R. Kennedy.) — " The De Corona of Demosthenes," by Arthur Holmes, M.A., Senior Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge.

" Demosthenes to a great extent regards the concourse of vowels as a fault, and avoids it accordingly. Again, it is only very recently that attention has for the first time been drawn (by Blass HI., 99-104) to a subtle law of rhythm whereby Demosthenes, as far as possible, avoids the con- secutive use of three or more short syllables, except where the syllables are included in the same word or in combina- tions virtually equivalent to a single word — for example, a noun preceded by an article or preposition . . .it is to this rule, the general result of which is to give a preponderance to long syllables in consecutive words, that we ascribe the steady and stately march that characterises the prose of Demosthenes as compared, for instance, with that of Plato." — John Edwin Sandys, M.A., Public Orator in the University of Cambridge, 1885.

Regarding the magnificent Arsis (see Fig. Arsis and Thesis) of Demosthenes, " Not with stones nor with bricks did I fortify Athens : nor is this the ministry on which I most pride myself . . . ," Lord Brougham says: "The fame of this noble passage is great and universal. It is of a beauty and force made for all times and all places; its effect with us may be imagined by supposing Mr. Pitt to have been attacked for his Martello towers, the use of which was far more doubtful than Demosthenes' walls y trenches,'^ and to have indignantly and proudly appealed to the other services he had rendered and the other outworks he had erected for our internal protection against foreign and domestic enemies. One seems to hear him nobly pour forth his magnificent periods, alike majestic in structure and in tone, upon the Mines of circumvallation far mightier than any fortress, lines which the energy of a united people and the wisdom of a British parliament had drawn around

Walls," " trenches," are Greek in the Brougham text.

24 DEMOSTHENES

our glorious constitution, placing it in proud security above all the assaults either of an insulting enemy from without, or a more desperate foe at home,' and * desirmg that his title to the gratitude of his country should be rested on founda- tions like these, far more imperishable than any works which the hands of man could raise.' Or would he haply have spoken figuratively of the loftier towers which he had raised in the people's hearts, and the exhaustless magazines of their loyalty and valour?"

In a more, recent comment touching upon the disputed question as to whether or not the orations of Demosthenes were mere abstracts, S. S. Curry, Ph.D., in his " The Province of Expression" combats it thus: "Many men have con- tended that what has come down to us as the orations of Demosthenes are merely abstracts, because they are too concise for public oratory. But this is the modern, perverted', abnormal idea of oratory. Looked at from an ideal point of view, the literary style of perfect oratory must be more concise than the style of what is simply to be read. There are many things v/hich the tone of the voice can say better than words. A motion of the hand, an action of the eye or of the face, can supply an ellipsis which the essayist or novelist must give in words. One of the most familiar illus- trations of this is the difference between the drama and the novel. All will agree that the amount of thought is as great in Hamlet as in a great novel — as, for example, m David Copperfield — though Hamlet covers only a few pages and David Copperfield takes several volumes. This differ- ence is due to the fact that the drama is to be presented through the living languages of man and be both seen and heard, while the novel is only intended to be read in an easy chair. The principle is shown by Dickens himselL In a facsimile of a page from the readings as arranged by him from his novels for his recitations, I counted the words which were erased. In the original novel there were one hundred and ninety-three words, and of these one hundred and nineteen were marked out. Yet no important idea was omitted that Dickens could not readily supply by a look or a tone or some combination with the words. ... So that all ideal oratory must be concise, or at least its style must differ from the essay as the drama does from the novel, or the poem from history."

In Blair's "Essays on Rhetoric," under "Eloquence," a most valuable appreciation of Demosthenes' oratory is made. After treating of eloquence as of three kinds or degrees, he place Demosthenes' at the head, his treatment being given thus : " The first, and most inferior, is that which endeavours only to please the hearers. Such, in general, is the eloquence of panegyrics, inaugural or funeral orations, addresses to great men. ... A second' and a superior

DEMOSTHENES 25

degree of eloquence is when the speaker proposes, not merely to please, but likewise to inform, to mstruct, to con- vince; when his art is employed m removing prejudices against himself and his cause; in selecting the most proper arguments, stating them with the greatest force, disposing of them in the best order, expressing and delivering them with propriety and beauty; and thereby preparing us to pass that judgment, or favour that side of the cause to which he desires to bring us. Within this degree, chiefly, is employed the eloquence of the bar. Yet there remains a third, and still higher degree of eloquence, by which we are not only convinced, but are interested, agitated, and carried along with the speaker; our passions rise with his; we share all his emotions; we love, we hate, we resent, as he inspires us; and are prepared to resolve, or to act, with vigour and warmth. Debate in popular assemblies opens the most extensive field for the exercise of this species of eloquence, and the pulpit likewise admits it. It is necessary to remark that this high species of eloquence is always the offspring of passion. By passion, we mean that state of mind in which it is agitated and fired by some object it has in view. Hence the universally acknowledged power of enthusiasm in public speakers affecting their audience. Hence all studied declamation and laboured ornaments of style which show the mind to be cool and unmoved are so incompatible with persuasive eloquence. Hence every affecta- tion in gesture and pronunciation diminish so much the merits of a speaker. Hence, in fine, the necessity of being, and of being believed to be, disinterested and in earnest, in order to persuade . . . take a view of the great Demos- thenes, by whom eloquence was brought to t"he highest and most unrivalled splendour. Not formed by nature either to please or persuade, he struggled with, and surmounted, the most formidable impediments. He practised at home with a naked sword hanging over his shoulder that he might check an ungraceful motion to which he was subject.

Incentive to Students. " Hence the example of this great man affords the highest encouragement to every student of eloquence, since it shows how far art and application could avail for acquiring an excellence which nature appeared to have denied. . . . His orations are strongly animated and full of impetuosity and ardour of public spirit.

Short Exordium, and Straight to S-peech. " He seems not to attend to words, but to things. He has no parade and ostentation; no studied introductions; but is like a man full of his subject, who, after preparing his audience by a sentence or two, for the reception of plain truths, enters directly on business. His action and pronuncia-

26 DEMOSTHENES

tion are said to have been uncommonly vehement and ardent; which from the manner of his writings, we should readily belieye."

Affreciations of Demosthenes by Distinguished Men.

" Our orator (Demosthenes) owing to the fact that in his

vehemence, aye, and in his speed, power and intensity —

he can, as it were, consume by hre and carry away all before

him — may be compared to a thunderbolt or flash of lightning.

Longinus on the Sublime.

" Cicero, on the other hand, it seems to me, after the manner of a widespread conflagration, rolls on with all- devouring flames, having within him an ample and abiding store of fire, distributed now at this point, now at that, and fed by an unceasing succession . . . but the great oppor- tunity of Demosthenes' high-pitched elevation comes where intense utterance and vehement passion are in question, and in passages in which the audience is to be iitterly enthralled. The profusion of Cicero is in place where the hearer must be flooded with words, for it is appropriate to the treatment of commonplaces, and to perorations for the most part and digressions, and to all description and declamatory passages, and to writings on history and natural science, and to many other departments of literature/'

Quintillian on Demosthenes and Cicero.

" Of their great excellencies, I consider that most are similar; their methods, their order of partition, their manner of preparing the minds of their audience, their mode of proof, and, in a word, everything that depends on invention. In their style of speaking, there is some difference; Demos- thenes is more compact, Cicero more verbose; Demosthenes argues more closely, Cicero has a wider sweep; Demosthenes always attacks with sharp pointed weapons, Cicero often with a weapon sharp and weighty; from Demosthenes nothing can be taken away, to Cicero nothing can be added; in one there is more study, in the other more nature. In art, certainly, and pathos, two stimulants of the mind which have great influence in oratory, we have the advantage. We must yield the superiority, however, on one point, that Demos- thenes lived before Cicero, and made him in a great measure the able orator he was; for Cicero appears to me, after he devoted himself wholly to imitate the Greeks, to have embodied in his style the energy of Demosthenes, the copious- ness of Plato, and the sweetness of Isocrates. Read first Demosthenes and Cicero, and afterwards every writer according as he most resembles Demosthenes and Cicero. Demosthenes has been almost the sole model for oratory." Cicero on Demosthenes . . .

" Therefore this great man whom we call so superior to all the rest in that oration of his in defence of Ctesiphon,

DEMOSTHENES ~ 27

which is by far the finest of all his speeches, begins modestly at first, then when he argues about the laws he becomes more animated; afterwards, proceeding gradually as he saw the judges become excited, he gave himself more license and spoke with more boldness. And yet even in this very man so carefully weighing the value of every word, ^schmes finds something to reprove and to attack him for; and," laughing at him, he calls them terrible, odious and intoler- able expressions. Moreover, he asks him (Demosthenes had called him a beast) whether these are words or prodigies; so that even Demosthenes himself does not seem to ^schines to be speaking in the pure Attic style. . . . And though there are many kinds of orators of this sort, still the people among us who affect this style have no suspicion of the existence of more than one. For they think that a man who speaks in a brusque and fierce manner, provided only that he uses elegant and well-turned expressions, is the only Attic speaker."

Attic Oratory and its Service to Modern Eloquence. Having now treated extensively on Demosthenes, the greatest of the Attic orators, let us observe to what service and application the Attic is to modern eloquence.

Prof. J ebb on Attic Orators. For this purpose let us note a few remarks of R. C. Jebb, Litt.D., Professor of Greek and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and M.P. for the University (date of publication 1893). In the time of Demosthenes there were ten Attic orators at Athens, who were Antiphon, Andocides, Lysias, Isocrates, Isaeus, Demosthenes, Lycurgus, ^schmes, Hyperides, and Deinarchus. Prof. Jebb, in his " The Attic Orators," says: "The superiority of the Greek oratory to the Roman, in deliberative and forensic branches alike, has been recognised by the best critics as well as by the most competent practical judges. Brougham says : * In all his (Cicero's) orations that were spoken (for, singular as it may seem, the remark applies less to those which were only written as well as the Verrine, except the first, all the Philippics, except the first and ninth, and the Pro Milone) hardly two pages can be found which a modern assembly would bear. . . . Now, it is altogether otherwise with the Greek masters; changing a few phrases, which the difference of religions and of manners might render objectionable — moderating, in some degree, the virulence of invective, especi- ally against private character, to suit the chivalrous courtesy of modern hostility, there is hardly one of the political or forensic orations of the Greeks that might not be delivered in similar circumstances before our senate or tribunals.' Brougham . . . observes that in ancient oratory there are scarcely any long chains of elaborate reasoning; what

28 ' DEMOSTHENES

was wanted to move, to rouse, and to please the hearers^ was rather a copious stream of plain, intelligible observations upon their interests, appeals to their feelings, reminiscences from history, especially recent history, of their city, exposi- tions of evils to be apprehended from inaction or from impolicy, vindication of orator's own conduct, demonstrations of the folly which disobeys, of the malice which assails him. He impresses upon the student of rhetoric that a speaker must even remember that he is addressing the vulgar; he must not expect them to be capable of a far- reaching ratiocination, he must not string syllogism to syllogism, he must administer his logic temperately and discreetly. (* Dissertation of the Eloquence of the Ancient') Cicero's speech for Archias, which is exquisitely composed, but of which not more than one-sixth is to the purpose, or his speech for Publius Sextus, in which the relevant part bears a yet smaller proportion to the whole, could not have been delivered in a British court of justice.

The First Characteristic of Modern Oratory.

" Still this logical vigilance (the modern exaction of con- secutive and intelligent reasons) with a comparative indiffer- ence to form, is, on the whole, the first characteristic of modern oratory, and has, of course, become more pronounced since the system of reporting for the press has been per- fected ; as it is now, in many cases, far more important for the speaker to convince the readers than to fascinate the hearers.

The Next Characteristic — Sfeech be Extemporary. . . .

" The characteristic which comes next in degree of signi- ficance for our present object is the habitual presumption that the speech is extemporary . . . the fact of verbal prepara- tion must be kept out of sight . . . and a contempt is generated for those who design to labour beforehand on words that should come straight from the heart.

Modern Oratory — The Greatest Triumphs Won by Sudden Bursts. " The most memorable triumphs of modern oratory are connected with the tradition of thrills, of electric shocks, given to the hearers at the moment by bursts which were extemporary, not necessarily as regards form. It was for such bursts that the eloquence of the elder Pitt was famous; that of Mirabeau, and that of Patrick Henry owed its highest renown to the same cause. Sheil's retort in the debate on the Irish Municipal Bill in 1837. to Lord Lyndhurst's descrip- tion of the Irish (in a phrase borrowed from O'Connell) as "Aliens in blood, language and religion," was of this kind. Erskine, in his defence of Lord George Gordon, produced an astonishing effect by a protestation — which would have

DEMOSTHENES 29

been violent if it had not been solemn — of personal belief in his client's innocence." ....

It will be noted from the numerous authorities quoted, that the great Athenian, though he wrote his speeches, he cast them in forms so natural, that is to say the form in which a given thought or feeling customarily or naturally takes, and delivered them in tones and with gestures so- accordant with the respective thought or feeling as expressed in actual life, that they appeared as impromptu or extem- poraneous. This is the goal of all oratory.

It will also be noted that Demosthenes did not get up on every occasion to speak, but held himself in reserve; that though he eschewed ornament, yet he rarely expressed a thought that was not cast in some form or figure; that his Similes and Gnomes were taken from daily life, that his repetitions were not due to carelessness, but introduced with new matter and new illustration, his Antitheses perfect, his Arses magnificent, his bursts of Irony withering, his Description natural and masterful, his Enthymemes irresistible, his Apostrophes spirited, his Eperoteses or reiterated interrogations rapid and quick-firing, his Orcos — " by earth, by all her fountains, streams and floods . . . ," "by the manes . . ." — sublime and transporting, his Hypophoras animated and annihilating, his Ecphoneses electric and stunning, his Rhythm beautiful and majestic, his Exordiums brief, and his Perorations highly wrought; that delivery — i.e., proper gesture, proper tones of voice, proper accentuation, proper articulation — stood first and above everything else in successful public speaking; that he formed the style which was best suited to himself; that he practised before a looking-glass in order to correct any awkward or ungraceful gesture, and betook himself to a subterranean chamber where he could practise his elocution and speeches without having his attention distracted by being overhead ; that his speeches were delivered in the abstract form handed down to us, because the soul of powerful oratory is conciseness ; that he practised on the seashore to accustom himself to the noise of a heckling, tumultuous assembly ; that his eye was terrible and penetrating, like rays of light- ning, it flashed and darted to different parts of the audience as he rolled forth thunder after thunder; that his impetuosity, vehemence, and impassioned oratory made him appear as one inspired ; that his invectives, however terrible, and his Epitimenses or reproaches, however scathing, were neverthe- less received in good part as he sustained them with power- ful reasons and arguments; that his eloquence consisted in the conquest of the understanding, which eloquence is always dazzling and secures more lasting and glorious triumphs; ihat his affirmations were so positively made that they always bore the stamp of truth, making him dways thought to be

30 ALLEGORY

in the right ; that he has been almost the exclusive model of higher eloquence; and that whoever expects to attain success in the highest degree of eloquence must follow to a great extent in the steps of Demosthenes.

We shall now pass on to the consideration of Figures.

i\LLEGORY : Greek, aXkrj'yopia a description of one thing under the image of another ; aWo<i another; and a.'yopeveiv to speak. An allegory is a trope whereby a sentence must be understood otherwise than the literal inter- pretation shovv^s. One thing appears in words and another in sense. It is an extended simile with the comparative word left out — in other words, a metaphor in detail.

Ouintillian says : " An allegory presents one thing in words and another in sense, or sometimes a sense quite contrary to the words — e.g.y " O ship, shall new waves bear thee back to sea? O, what art thou doing? Make resolutely for the harbour." Horace puts ship for the commonwealth, waves for civil wars, harbour for peace and concord.

Puttenham calls allegory the ringleader and captain of all the figures of false semblance or dissimulation, either in the poetical or oratorical sense, as we speak otherwise than we think in earnest or sport, under covert and dark terms, m learned or apparent speeches, in short sentences and by long ambages. Calling storms wars, and councillors mariners are metaphors because of an inversion of a single word, but allegories are a series of metaphors.

Lovely lady, I long full sore to hear If you remain the same as I left you the last year. The answer is an allegory : —

My loving lord, I will well that ye wist. The thread is spun that never shall untwist. Meaning that her love was so steadfast and constant toward him that no time or occasion could alter.

" Allegory was a favourite met'hod of delivering instruction in ancient times ; for what we call fables or parables are no other than allegories. By words and actions attributed to beasts or inanimate objects, the dispositions of men were feigned ; and what we call the moral is the unfeigned sense or meaning of the allegory." (English Grammar by Lindley Murray, published in 1853.)

" Allegory metaphors continue still. Which with new graces every sentence fill."

— Langley's " Man. Figs, of Rhetoric."

A metaphor may be compared to a star, but an allegory likened to a constellation or company of many stars — e.g., " Shall we suffer the monstrous crocodile to come out of Nilus and to break into our fold, to overcome our shepherd, to ren"f off our skins with his griping paws, to crush our carcasses with

ALLEGORY 31

his venomous teeth, to fill his infallible paunch with our flesh, and to wallow at his pleasure in our wool ? "

By this allegory our enemies are described who, either by open force or secret conspiracy, are bent on capturing and destroying the people with their liberties, and to possess their dwelling places and enjoy their wealth.

Jixanifles : " Rub not the scar, lest you open again the" wound that is healed and so cause it to bleed afresh." " There is a ^ide in the affairs of men. Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune; Omitted all the voyage of their lives Is dound in shallows and in miseries." — Shakespeare.

"Did I but purpose to embark with thee On the smooth surface of a summer's sea. While gentle sephyrs play with prosperous gales, And fortune's favour fills the sivelling sails. But would forsake the sliip and inalse the shore When the winds ivhislle and the tempests roar ? ' ' Allegory of common conversation: e.g., to set foot to foot; aim at the throat.

" And other seeds fell into good ground and brought forth fruit a hundredfold."

The olive leaf represents the gospel, for in Luke x. 34 it is evident oil signifies mercy and peace.

Use : An allegory is used to engrave likely images and to present t^em to the contemplation of the mind, wherein wit and judgment take pleasure and the resemblance receives a lasting impression. It is employed chiefly in the forcible and in the elevated styles; also may be used as designated above by Puttenham. It may be used even to the extent of an entire book, as "Pilgrim's Progress," where, under the guise of a journey from the City of Destruction to the Celestial City, are portrayed the spiritual conflicts and ultimate victory of the faithful Christian. Philosophically, the use is, as Herbert Spencer styles it in his "Philosophy of Style," to economise mental energy both in perception and conception, that is, the orator uses less words when he conceives an allegory for presenting his thought, and the hearer having fewer words to hear, uses less energy in perceiving. It is therefore a compound metaphor which enables us to retain the brevity of metaphorical form even when the analogy is intricate. This is done by indicating the application of the figure at the outset, then leaving the reader or hearer to continue the parallel. In prose the allegory is mixed chiefly with plain phraseology, and rarely pure as Cicero says. The plain or natural ones intimate the sense, the metaphorical ones, the beauty : e.g., " I wonder men are so eager to destroy one another as even to make a leak in the ship in which he himself is sailing" (Cicero). It is the most ornamental where comparison, allegory and metaphor are united, and it

32 ALLEGORY

enables us to speak of melancholy things in words of a more cheering nature, or to signify our meaning for some good purpose, m language at variance with it. With regard to force, Demetrius, the rhetorician, says that the sayings of Demades . . . possess a certain force which they owe to innuendo, to the employment of an allegorical element, and lastly to hyperbole — e.g., " Alexander is not dead, men of Athens, or the whole world would have scented the corpse." The use of "scented" m place of "perceived" is allegorical and hyperbolical alike; and the idea of the world perceiving it suggests the might of Alexander. Further, the word con- veys a thrilling effect which is the joint result of the three causes. And every such sensation is forcible since it inspires fear. Of the same character are the words, " It was not I that wrote this resolution, the war wrote it with Alexander's spear." Respecting the elevated, Demetrius says that there is a certain kind of impressiveness in the use of allegorical language. This is particularly true of such menaces as that of Dionysius : "Their cicalas shall chirp from the ground" (ravage the Locrian land). Any darkly-hinted expression is more terror-striking, and its import is variously conjectured by different hearers'. On the other hand, things that are clear and plain are apt to be despised, just as men when stripped of their garments. Hence mysteries ara revealed in an allegorical form in order to inspire such shuddering and awe as are associated with darkness and night. The Lacedae- monians conveyed many of their threats by means of allegory, as in the message "Dionysius at Corinth" addressed to Philip (meaning Dionysius is deposed and now living an humble life at Corinth).

Caution : The real meaning should not be discovered, but left to the imagination, judgment or conjecture; if it is dis- closed it will then cease to be an allegory (Puttenham). " Where a riddle is not intended, it is always a fault in allegory to be dark. The meaning should be easily seen through the figure employed to shadow it. However the proper mixture of light and shade ... so as not to lay the meaning too bare and open, nor to cover and wrap it up too much; has ever been considered as points of nicety." (Murray's Grammar.)

Be careful not to mix the metaphors, that is, if the allegory starts off with metaphors relating to a stream, do not finish it with metaphors relating to a tree. Excess must be avoided "lest language becomes a riddle in our hands." Hermogenes says : " The dignified expression indulges in definite statements, it is true, but it is fond of the allegorical and symbolical."

Delivery : As this figure is used chiefly in the forcible and elevated styles, its delivery may be first in the forcible style, and consequently may abound in short, sharp phrases or

ALLEGORY— ALLITERATION 33

sentences, short Saxon words prevailing, the tones being those of admonition, warning, menace, revenge, or of the sentiment at the time operating. The tendency of the tone is largely guttural. (See respective tones and gestures under Fig. Pathopoeia.) Secondly, in the elevated, where the sub- ject is grander, the rhythm slower, the phrases and sentences^ larger, the words longer and more polysyllabic, and the pre- dominating tones are orotund, with vowels full, pure and sonorous: e.g.y "O ship shall new waves ... ?" For delivery of questions see figs. Interrogatio, Eperotesis, Sermocinatio.

ALLITERATION : Latin, as if from ad literam, i.e., according to the letter. It is a repetition of letters. "Allitera- tion is pleasing to the ear and helpful to the memory. Proverbs and epigrams derive their force from their allitera- tive structure. It consists simply in a succession of accented syllables that begin with the same sound, although by different letters: Young Phelim felled the cunning kangaroo.'* (Rossiter Johnson.) See figures Homoeoteleuton and Paroe- mion.

The Greeks call this figure " Homoeopropheron," which is a repetition of successive words beginning with the same letter or syllable.

Alliteration intentionally or purposely made. — Painting by means of letters lies in the nature of all primitive speech. Alliteration is an essentially popular element of speech, therefore it does not unfrequently appear in the messenger speeches of the Greek tragedies. It served in ancient times for what is now replaced by rhyme, which retains the emotions aroused by certain letters.

Demosthenes, who had so often heard the same facts — for instance, the terrible destruction of Olynthus — in the most moving manner from the orator's bema, and had himself often pronounced the same there, will have perfected the artistic form even in the separate syllables, even though the idea is never placed after the contents. In his ease, as in that of Sophocles, sarcasm and bitterness are especially developed in letter painting. (Rehdantz-Blass. Demosthenes' neun Philippische Reden : Rhetorischer.)

Examples; Blass, after calling attention to the repeated and strong alliteration in Demosthenes as likely to escape our notice, gives an example from him wherein alliteration serves solely for the sharpening of the contrast, therefore t'he thought directly, just as other Paronomasia. Example of an ironical colouring, as against ^schines in the embassy speech, 248 : " Bidding a long farewell to the sage Sophocles," the alliteration in Greek being " sopho Sophocles." Another example from the "Oration on the Crown** 317 *Your

34 ALLITERATION— ALLUSION

conduct was that of those that then calumniated these men."- A further example from Leptines 26. From the great American orator, Henry Clay: "I was born to no proud patrimonial estate; from my father I inherited only infancy, Ignorance, and indigence.'*

Use : Alliteration is used principally in pleasantries, irony, mockery or sarcasm. Wherever an ironical and mockery colouring occurs, these figures of sound are in their place, especially the kind of Paronomasia where no sharp contrast of meaning is present. It is also used to please the ear. Bain says there is something naturally pleasing in such con- junctions, which is evident from their frequency in the current sayings and proverbs; for instance, "life and limb," *' watch and ward,'' ''man and mouse, "far fowls have tair feathers."

Caution : In pathos and gravity everything of alliteration should be avoided, excepting such assonance as does not attract attention. Cacophony and too many alliterations should be avoided.

Delivery : For the most parts the voice in the pleasantries has a sly playful arch; in the ironical portions, it barely raises itself above the level tone (see Saintsbury on rhythm of irony), in mockery and sarcasm it takes the circumflex, a double kind of accent which well denotes the double- meaning or quibbling attitude of the mind (see S. S. Curry's Found, of Expr.) ; in bitterness, it , takes the sharp acute or grave accent. See respective passions under Fig. Patho- poeia.

ALLUSION: To hint at. Latin alludere, to laugh at; al — ad to; ludere — to play. It is a species of comparison in which the represented object is still made the leading theme though the comparative words are omitted, as " The self- seeking will betray his friend with a Judas kiss." Rossiter Johnson says : " This is the finest of all the rhetorical figures, partly for the reason that it most directly compliments the readers' intelligence and education. It assumes that he is familiar with the story, passage, character or fact alluded to, and that he will see the resemblance without having it pointed out to him or explained. It often enables the writer to suggest a great deal with a word or two or a short sentence. Thus: "Every man has his own Boswell " would evaporate if Dr. Holmes, instead of putting it tersely as an allusion, were obliged to say : " The reader may remember that one James Boswell in the eighteenth century made him- self the intimate friend and follower of Dr. Johnson, noted his daily actions and words, and finally published them ; thus producing from his very toadyism one of the finest biographies in existence. Putting these ideas together, the

a

ALLUSION— AMPLIFICATIO 35

reader may think of the present writer as recording his own sayings from day to day ..." The following caution is given by Johnson: "The allusion (i) must have point by reason of an evident similarity in the circumstances, charac- ters or relations that are compared ; (2) it must allude to something the reader may be supposed to be familiar with or at least to have heard of — e.g., The Gospel of Christ is the~ Rosetta Stone of the universe, is good rhetoric to a graduating class Vv^ho know that it was a slab of black basalt discovered near Rosetta in 1799 with its inscription in three languages, giving thus a key to the hieroglyphics of Egypt. But if one of those young divines were to use it before his rural congregation it would be a bad allusion." Other examples which are comprehensible to all : " Blowing hot and blowing cold." "Run with the hare and hold with fhe hounds."

AMPLIFICATIO : Latin amplus, large, spacious ; ampli- ficare — to make larger, wider, fuller. Amplification is in the terms as to say he was beaten, was 7nurdered\ or extenuates, as— that one who beat another touched him. " We have brought before your tribunal not a thief but an open robber; not a simple fornicator but a violator of all chastity . . , ." (Cicero.) Amplification is fourfold: (i) by augmentation, (2) by comparison, (3) by reasoning, (4) by accumulation.

As Defined by Quintillian. By augmentation : e.g., " It is an offence to bind a Roman citizen, a crime to scourge him, almost a treason to put him to death ; and what shall I say that it is to crucify him ? ' ' (Cicero.) Words are wanting to express what is beyond the highest crime, which is treason. Another way of augmenta- tion is not by steps, there being no more and most, but by hastening at once to the summit, not by climbing but at the utmost speed, without any breaks, but in one continuous series and course, something greater always following : e.g., Cicero reproaches Anthony with his vomiting " in an assembly i^t the people of Rome, when holding a public office, when Master of the Horse." Another speaker might have distin- guished these steps and dwelt upon each of them. (2) By comparison : e.g., " Did that illustrious man and chief Pontiff, Publius Scipio, kill, in his private character, Gracchus when he was making only moderate changes in the commonwealth, and shall we consuls bear with Cataline who is seeking to devastate the whole earth with fire and sword?" (Cicero). Here Cataline is compared to Gracchus; the commonwealth to the v^hole earth; moderate changes to slaughter, fire and devastation; private character with consuls. (3) By reason- ing: which is introduced in one place and produces its effect m another: e.g., We again use Cicero's reproach to Anthony

36 AMPLIFICATIO

on his excesses : " You with such a throat, with such sides, with such strength in your whole body ht for a gladiator," etc. Throat shows capacity to drink, sides what he could hold, etc. Scipio is magnified by dwelling on the military excellencies of Hannibal. Greeks and Trojans fought tor years over Helen. We reason how beautiful she must have been. One thing inferred from another : " You might have seen the couches of slaves in their bedrooms decked with Pompey's purple quilt." What great luxury is inferred, must have been that of Mark Anthony. A cyclop used a pine tree for a walking stick and slept stretched in' a cave; we infer how huge he was. By extenuating : " These are but triflijig charges against such a criminal" (Cicero). (4) By accumulation — of a number of thoughts or words having the same signification, for they do not ascend step by step, yet they are heaped up, as it were, by coacervation : e.g., " What did your sword do, Tubero, that was drawn m the field of Pharsalia? At whose body was the point of it aimed ? What was the object of your appearance in arms ? To what were your thoughts, your eyes, your hands directed ? What ardour inspired your breast ? What did you wish or desire?" (Cicero.) This is similar to the Greek's Syna- throismus (see fig. in list), but in the Greek there is an amassing of many things, whereas in this figure there is an aggregation of particulars relating to one thing.

Definition from Rehdantz-Blass* " Rhetorischer und Stilistisch er Index. ' *

Rehdantz-Blass defines Amplificatio as an idea or thought which is so deeply or heavily felt that it takes up a larger space than is usual in the soul of the speaker, and will endeavour to find corresponding breadth of expression. The simplest form of this breadth (amplification) is repetition : e.g., "never, never, never," "be friends, be friends, be friends" (Schiller); "Oh, horrible, horrible, horrible" (Shake- speare). This will, when a justified overpowering pathos (passion) breaks forth, have a sympathetic or corresponding effect upon the hearers. The repetition becomes more artistic when in different passages ; this idea again and again breaks forth, in the Traductio and Anaphora, or where the feeling is softened by Epizeuxis. When the logical identity thus predominates, the figure is called Pleonasmus; but an actual Pleonasmus does, not occur in a good author ; it appears as such, regarded from the point of view of unusual language and the calmer mood of the reader, (i) To this belongs the combination of an idea with its negative antagonistic prin- ciple. Should the latter (negative) precede, it becomes the Figure Arsis and Thesis (see this figure); should it follow, it would be the Figure Arsis.

(2) The connection of two synonyms also appears pleon-

AMPLIFICATIO 37

astic, but only with correctness in such places as the speaker himself neither thinks nor feels anything, and the added word thus remains void or empty. . . . Such combmations fail from a want of right feeling, in which the matter itself experiences an increase of sensibility or emotion and idea, and thereby excludes a similar increase in the strength of the expression, only we must not take our way of feeling and^ understand as a strange (irrelevant, not to the point) thing and our speech as a standard ; it is false7 owing to a want of logic when incompatible ideas and emotions are joined together.

Examples from Demosthenes by Rehdantz-Blass. " Very much,'* says this author, "is to be admired in Demosthenes, the addition of an exotic or tropical expression, sometimes only created at the moment by him, or first used in this manner, which explained what is present (compare ix. i8) in an ordinary and intelligible manner, but shed a fulness of sensuous life on the contemplation of what has passed away." Demos, vs. Philip III. i8: "What, if anything should happen, is the risk you run? The alienation of the Hellespont, the subjection of Megara and Eubcea to your enemy, the siding of the Peloponiressus with him. Defend yourselves instantly, and I say you will be wise; delay it, and you may wish in vain to do so hereafter. So much do I dissent from your other counsellors, men of Athens, that I deem any discussion about Chersonesus of Byzantium out of place. Succour them — I advise that — watch that no harm befalls them, send all necessary supplies to your troops in that quarter; but let your deliberations be for the safety of all Greece, as being in the utmost peril"

Example of the more energetic idea following. Rehdantz states that apart from the difficulty of fixing with certainty the greater and lesser standard of sentient life, which in the time of Demosthenes still inspired the single expressions, there appears reasons at once rhythmical and euphonic for the placing of these ideas, that the longer and more difficult should be put in the second place, and, having become logically the standard, the more energetic part or idea of kind should be placed after the ordinary idea or conception of species as well as after the effect of the cause. Both sorts, the rhythmical and logical reasons (grounds), meet surpris- ingly often, e.g., Demosthenes on the Liberty of the Rhodians, I : " I think, men of Athens, that on a consultation of such moment you ought to grant liberty of speech to every one of your advisers. For my own part, I have never thought it difficult to make you understand right counsel ; for, to speak plainly, you seem all to possess the Imowledge of yourselves — but to persuade you to follow it, I have found difficult; for when any jneasure has been voted and resolved, you are then

38 AMPLIFICATIO

as far from the performance as you were- from the resolution . before." In quite exceptional cases, affirms Rehdantz, such amplifications are opposed to one another in German examples, as "Conquered and beaten, the brave army." Examples of Demosthenes from Rehdaniz-Blass' Rhet. Stil. Ind,

Examples of synonymous substantives^ adjectives and adverbs (I limit myself to such combinations as are analogous to the above, or which appear to us to be more or less tauto- logical, and to a few which appear foreign to us) : Demos- thenes on Chersonesus, 13: "Then be sure, Atheniaus, now that all the rest is talk and petence^ the real aim and contrivance is that while you remain at home and the country has no force abroad, Philip may accomplish what he pleases without interruption."

Another example from Cor. 308 : " Withdrawing himself from public life when he pleases (and that is often) he watches for the moment when you are tired of a constant speaker, or when some reverse of fortune has befallen you, or any- thing untoward has happened (and many are the casualties of human life). At such a crisis he springs up an orator, rising from his retreat like a wina , in full voice, with, words and fhrases collected, he rolls them out audibly and breathlessly, to no advantage or good purpose whatsoever, but to the detriment of some or other of his fellow-citizens and to the general disgrace."

Another, Demosthenes on the Embassy, 63 : " And again it says that the Phocians shall deliver up these cities to Philip; not to the Thebans nor the Thessalians, nor any other people. Why ? Because this man reported to you that Philip had come to save the Phocians. To him they trusted for all ; to him they looked for all ; with him they concluded peace. Now for the rest. Look what they trusted to and what they got. Was it anything like or similar to this man's assurance?" The foregoing is with the interrogative, and the following is with '' or " : Demosthenes on Embassy, 270 : " Thus there is always need for judgment, and a wise judgment is not a whit more troublesome or irksome than a foolish one . . . ."

Examples by a co^nbination of synonyms. Rehdantz states that the more important is the amplification, by the combina- tion of synonyms of the following kind, but it is more con- cealed as the tone is directed elsewhere, Demosthenes on Embassy, 316: "Let me now recapitulate to you in what manner Philip outmanoeuvred you by getting these abomin- able men to assist him . . . ; but after we ambassadors had been with him, he engaged the defendant's services directly to second and supfort the beastly Philocrates and to overpower us whose intentions were honest; and he com- posed a letter to you, through which he mainly expected to

AMPLIFICATIO 39

obtain peace?" Another example from Philip, line 52: " They heeded not his epistles, for they understood his intentions in writing them . . . those intentions they seconded and strove to forward^

Example of Anaphora where it is at the same time sup- ported by synonyms. Demosthenes vs. Philip 11, 24: "By Jupiter, I said, there are manifold contrivances jEor the guarding- and defending of cities, as ramparts, walls, trenches and the like; these are all made with hands and require expense; but there is one common safeguard in the nature of prudent men, which is a good security for all, but especially for democracies against despots. What do I mean ? Mis- trust. Keep this, hold this, preserve this only, and you can never be injured. What do you desire? Freedom. Then see ye not that Philip's very titles are at variance there- with? Every king and despot is a foe to freedom, an antagonist to laws. Will ye beware, I said, lest seeking deliverance from war, you find a master ? ' *

Example with Alliteration. "Alliteration so frequent in German," says Rehdantz, "points to the touch of kindred between two partial ideas. It is subordinate in three synony- mous ideas — e.g.y Demos, vs. Phil, i, 36: "Nothing is left uncertain or undefined, whereas in the business of war and its preparations all is irregular, insecure, indefinite.^' Another example from Phil. TIL, 40: "For as to the ships and men and revenue and abundance of other materials, all that may be reckoned as constituting national strength — assuredly the Greeks of our day are more fully and perfectly supplied with such advantages than Greeks of olden times. But they are all rendered useless, 'unavailable, unprofitable.'^

Example with every idea amplified. See Demos, vs. Phil. Ill, 22 : " That Philip from a mean and humble origin has grown mighty, that the Greeks are jealous and quarrelling among themselves, that it was far more wonderful for him to rise from that insignificance than it would be after so many acquisitions to conquer what is left; these and similar matters which I might dwell upon I pass over.

" But I observe that all people, beginning with you, have conceded to him a right, which in former times has been the subject of contest in every Grecian war. And what is this? The right of doing what he pleases, openly fleecing and pillaging the Greeks, one after another, attacking and enslaving their cities. You were at the head of the Greeks for seventy-three years, the Lacedaemonians for twenty-nine, and the Thebes had some power in these times after th« battle of Leuctra. Yet neither you, my countrymen, nor the Thebans, nor Lacedaemonians were ever licensed by the Greeks to act as you pleased; far otherwise.'*

Example in which a thought is amplified by the develop- ment of each idea to a sentence. Phil. IL, 6: "First, men

40 AMPLIFICATIO

of Athens, if any one regards without uneasiness the might and dominion of PhiHp, and imagines that it threatens no danger to the state, or that all his preparations are not agamst you, I marvel; and would entreat you every one to hear briefly from me the reasons why I am led to form a contrary expectation, and wherefore I deem Philip an enemy; that if I appear to have a clearer foresight, you may hearken to me; if they, who have such confidence and trust in Philip, you may give your adherence to them. Thus then, Athenians, I reason what did Philip first make himself master of after the peace ? Thermopylae and the Phocian state. Well, and how used he this power? He chose to act for tfie 'benefit of Thebes and not Athens. Why so? Because I conceive, measuring his calculations by his ambition, by his desire of universal empire, without regard to peace, quiet, or justice, he saw plainly that to a people of our character and prin- ciples nothing could he offer or give that would induce you for self-interest to sacrifice any of the Greeks."

Summary of R ehd ant z-B lass' Amflification.

S. S. Kingsbury sums up Rehdantz amplification thus : including (i) Arsis, (2) the linking of synonyms, (3) Fig. whole and -parts^ (4) the expansion of a substantive by a sentence. (See further examples of Amplificatio under Jt^igs. Pleonasm, Periphrasis, Hyperbole, Hypothesis, and others in classified list.)

Use of Amplification : Hermogenes says that Amplification should be used in the Lamprotes, that is Brilliancy of Por- trayal, and in the Peribole, that is the Amplitude of the Portrayal. Demosthenes has made great use of Amplitude. The opposite of this is the Purity mentioned before. Ampli- fication shows itself in the thought when, in addition to that of which it is a question, something from outside is added, as the genus to species, the undefined to the defined, the whole to the part Such additions may also add to clear- ness, however opposed the latter may otherwise be to the amplification; further when the things are not announced, but with due regard for the Peristatica (surroundings), and by bringing in all kinds of amplifying additions, as if the matter in question would not have taken place, as well as which has nbt taken place. Of the figures, all those are suitable for amplification, such as the Synonymia, the piling up of synonyms; as the Epimone, the long dwelling on, also the repetition of one and the same figure; those in which to a single thought others are brought together, there- fore enumerations, divisions, construction of parts and every- thing similar, the taking up again of a thread which has been broken by an interpolation, hypothetical -divisions, dependent participial construction, the Fi^. Arsis and Thesis, which in other words is to say a "but" after a preceding

AMPLIFICATIO 41

negation, parenthesis. (See further under Anthology and Memorabiha, Hermogenes' " Concerning the Idea/*) Use-, by Longinus " On the Sublime.''^

Longinus on the Sublime gives the following most interest- ing paragraph, throwing much light on the use of Ampli- hcatio : " This figure is employed, when the narrative oil,, the course of forensic argument admits, from section to section, of many starting points and many pauses, and elevated expressions follow one after the other, in an unbroken succession and in an ascending order. And this may be effected either by way of the rhetorical treatment of common- places, rather topics, or by way of intensification (whether events or aguments are to be strongly presented), or by the orderly arrangement of facts or of passions; indeed, there are innumerable kinds of amplifications. Only the orator must in every case remember that none of these methods by itself, apart from sublimity, forms a complete whole, unless, indeed, where pity is to be excited or an opponent to be disparaged. In all other cases of amplification, if you take away the sublime, you will remove, as it were, the soul from the body. For the vigour of the amplification at once loses its intensity and its substance when not resting on a firm basis of the sublime. Sublimity is often comprised in a single thought, while Amplification is universally associated with a certain magnitude and abundance. Amplification is, to sum up the matter in a general way, an exaggeration of all the constituent parts and topics of a subject, lending strength to the argument by dwelling upon it, and differing herein from proof, while the latter demonstrates the matter under investigation. And it is in these respects that Cicero differs from Demosthenes in elevated passages; for the latter is characterised by sublimity which is for the most part rugged, Cicero by profusion. (See "Longinus" under "Appreciations of Demosthenes by distinguished men.'*)

"The profusion of Cicero is in place when the hearer must be flooded with words, for it is appropriate to the treatment of commonplace, rather familiar topics, and to perorations for the most part, and digressions, and to all descriptive and declamatory passages , and to writings on history and natural science^ and to many other departments of literature. But Demosthenes' high-pitched elevation comes where intense utterance and vehement passages — aye, and in his speed,, power and intensity — are in question, and in passages in which the audience is to be utterly enthralled. Although Plato thus flows on with noiseless stream, he is none the less elevated. * Those,' says he, 'who are destitute of wisdom and goodness, and are ever present at carousals and the like, are carried on the downward path, it seems, and wander throughout their life. They never look upwards to the

42 AMPLIFICATIO

truth, nor do they lift their heads nor enjoy any pure and lasting pleasure, but like cattle they have their eyes ever cast downwards and bent upon the ground and upon their feeding-places, and they graze and grow fat and breed, and through their insatiate desire of these delights, they kick and butt with horns and hoofs of iron and kill one another in their greed.' (PI. Republic, 568a.) Accordingly it is well that we ourselves also, when elaborating anything which requires lofty expression and elevated conception, should shape some idea in our mmds as to how, perchance. Homer would have said this very thing, or how it would have been raised to the sublime by Plato or Demosthenes or by the historian Thucydides. For these personages presenting them- selves to us and inflaming our ardour and, as it were,, illumining our path, will carry our minds m a mysterious way to the high standards of sublimity which are imagined within us. And still more effective will it be to suggest to our thoughts * what sort of hearing would Homer, had he been present, or Demosthenes, have given to this or that when said by me, or how would they Have been affected by the other ? ' A greater incentive still will be supplied if you add the question, ' In what spirit will each succeeding age listen to me who have written this ? ' "

V se : by Demetrius, Aristotle and Quiiztillian.

Amplication is used for imposing effect. On this point Demetrius on Style has the following interesting matter : "Amplified beginnings have an imposing effect. * But, lo, when they came to the ford of the fair-flowing river ' (Homer). If the poet had said,. * But when they arrived at the ford of the river,' he would have seemed to be using trivial language and to be describing a single occurrence. The particle {oh, now, already, what is more, do but, only, just -so, exactly so, etc.) is often used with a touch of feeling. ' O Zeus' seed, son of Laertes, Odysseus of many an art, is it so that home to thine own dear land thou art fain to depart?' (Homer). Remove the particle, and you will at the same time remove the feeling conveyed by the. line. In general, as Praxiphanes says, such particles are used to be employed in place of meanings and laments, as * Ah, me ! ' 'Alas ! ' and ' Oh ! what is it ? ' "

Aristotle says : "Amplification is more proper for demon- strative, i.e. panegyrical or declamatory eloquence. Here the fact is admitted, and it remains only to compare it to embellish it or depreciate it." It is on the honourable or dishonourable. Quintillian says : "All the resources of oratory are for Amplification, language of the greatest thought and magnificence. Here the highest effort of the orator is brought forward to show the quality of an act. It is here he is to reign predominant and triumph; on the quantity, that is.

AMPLIFICATIO 43

how great an offence has been committed. As demonstrative oratory is for display, and the object is for the pleasure ot the audience, all art and pomp of language are to be used— the speaker strikes to gain applause. The orator's chief power lies in exaggeration and extenuation, extenuation pur- posely done, as where he extenuates the most atrocious to make charges following more enormous ; e.g., * The captain of a vessel from a most honourable city, purchased exemption from the terror of scourging by a sum of money; another that he might not be beheaded sacrificed a sum of money : this was but an ordinary occurrence. These are but trifling charges against such a criminal.* (Cic. vs. Verres.) Cicero reasoning thus: If these are ordinary charges, how enormous must the offence charged be. Again, in Amplification where we speak of things inferior to others they are made to seem of greater importance. This may be done by one step or several, to the highest point and sometimes beyond; e.g., " It is an offence to bind a Roman citizen, a crime to scourge him, almost treason to put him to death, and what shall 1 say that it is to crucify him!" (Cicero.) Offence is the smallest, treason the greatest, and beyond that, crucify. Less evidently amplified, and thus more effectively, as in one continuous series; e.g., "... when holding a public office, when master of the horse." Some speakers might have dis- tinguished these steps and dwelt on each, but Cicero hastens to the summit at once, not by climbing, but at the utmost speed. u^^ . indicated by Cicero.

Amplification, Cicero says, is the greatest glory of elo- quence, that is, to exaggerate a subject by embellishment which has the effect of amplifying and extolling anything in speech to an extraordinary degree, also in extenuating it and making it appear contemptible. Panegyric and satire afford room for the greatest effect in amplification. The orator must have ability to perform both of these in an effective manner. Respecting virtue, duty, justice and equity, dignity, utility, honour, ignominy, rewards and punishments, the orator should have the spirit and talent to speak on either side."

Catition : Demetrius cautions against using expletive par- ticles aimlessly, and says that " those who use them thus resemble actors who employ this exclamation and that casually, as though one were to say: * Calydonian soil is this, whose fertile plains (alas!) look o'er the narrow seas to Pelop's land (ah, me!).' (Eurip.) For as in this passage the * ah, me ! ' and the ' alas ! ' are merely dragged in, so in the connective, when it is inserted carelessly and indis- criminately." Demetrius further says: "Amplification must ^be kept in bound, e.^., * For the Archelous, flowing from Mount Pindus, near the inland city Stratus, discharges into

44 AMPLIFICATIO

the sea.' We ought to break off and give the hearers a rest, thus : For the Archelous flows from Mount Pmdus, and discharges itself into the sea. This is far clearer than the other. It is with sentences, as with roads. Some roads have many resting-places and many sign-posts. But a dreary road with no sign-post seems hard to track, however short it may be."

The orator must remember that if you take away the sublime from Amplification, except in cases of pity to be excited or an opponent to be disparaged, you remove, as it were, the soul from the body.

Delivery of Amplification : The most effective place for Amplification is in the Epilogue. The fact having been admitted, as Aristotle says, it only remains to compare it, embellish it, or depreciate it. The honourable and dishonour- able, as Ouintillian styles it. Here the highest effort of the orator is .brought forward to show the quality of an act. All the resources of oratory are for Amplification, language of the greatest thought and magnificence are welcomed because here the audience has been worked up to this point and is ready to receive and to appreciate the glories of eloquence. It is here the orator, says Quintillian, is to reign supreme and triumph; and as the demonstrative oratory is for display and the object is to please the audience, all art and pomp of language are to be used — the speaker strikes out to gain applause. It is here one can appreciate Cicero's remarks that Amplification is the greatest glory of eloquence, for it is here that virtue, duty, justice, equity, dignity, utility, honour, ignominy, rewards and punishments are amplified.

Delivery : as indicated by Hermo genes. As Hermogenes says : Amplification should be employed in the Lamprotes, the Brilliancy of Portrayal, wherein the thoughts are brilliant, to which the speaker can give utter- ance with a certain confidence, because he knows he can reckon on the applause of the auditors. In this portrayal Hermogenes says the harshness and vehemence are rendered somewhat milder (than t'he trachutes, which is the rough and abrupt). The conclusion must be dignified ; trochaic rhythm can, however, appear in it. After Brilliancy comes Amplifica- tion in the Peribole, the Amplitude of portrayal, which is the "Grand and Dignified" in detail. The delivery in the grand and dignified is slow and impressive, and measured, the elevated passages following one after another. Where the passages ascend, as Longinus states, they are pronounced as a Climax, rather Incrementum (see these figs.), and where they are common or familiar topiqs of more or less the same importance, the Fig. Accumulation is the best, each clause having an independent inflection and pause. Where the amplification consists in the piling of synonyms.

AMPLIFICATIO 45

if the idea amplified is impressive and to be engraved on the minds of the hearers as "keep this, hold this, preserve this ' ' (see fuller information under Asyndeton, example " a wife — a mistress — unemployed "), it should be deliberate, slow, and with the rising inflection on "hold" and a pause after each comma. If the synonyms occur in anger, then delivery is quick ; if with alliteration, as " irregular, insecurer indefinite," delivery somewhat fluently and smoothly; as in the expression "useless, unavailable, unprofitable" the delivery is in a low, quick, ironical or sarcastic or angered tone^ Where there is -a similitude or comparison, or parti- cipial clauses, they all take the rising inflection till the turn of the voice where the assertion starts (see example and delivery under Fig. Simile). Where there is a parenthesis ^ the voice is lower and quicker; a Hypophora, it is sudden and quick; where the interjection — Oh\ for instance — ex- presses a feeling, it takes the emphasis, but if it is a part of an apostrophic phrase, then the interjection Oh ! is pro- nounced like an unaccented syllable of a word, the object or person apostrophised taking the emphasis. As to the delivery of the Antithesis, Parison, Parallellism and other figures used in Amplification, see respective figure for same; and as to the delivery of the figure Arsis and Thesis in the following example from Demosthenes, all the negatives take the Arsis, or rising inflection, up to the word but^'' and from this word on they take the falling inflection (there are two Arses and Theses up to the synonyms). Demos, vs. Aristogiton i, 52:" "His mind is not occupied in promoting any political good; he attends not to any trade or husbandry or other business; he is connected with no one by ties of humanity or social union : but he walks through the market- place like a viper or a scorpion with his sting uplifted, hastening here and there, and looking out for some one whom he may bring into a scrape, or fasten some calumny or mischief upon, and put in alarm m order to extort money. He does not frequent any one of the barbers' shops in the city, or the perfumers' or any other such establishments; but he is unappeasable^ undomiciled, unsociable^ having no feeling of kindness or friendship, nor any other which a right- minded man has. He goes about with those companions with whom painters represent the impious in Hades, namely, with imprecation and malediction and envy and dissention and discord." Rehdantz quotes Shakespeare as following the synonym after the style in Demosthenes : " Unhousel'd, unanointed, unanel'd " (Hamlet;.

In the following example from Demosthenes' Olynthiac ir, 9-10, which Rehdantz gives as one illustrating his statement tliat all the principal ideas in periods, which to a certain degree, form the knotty point of the whole speech, are

46 AMPHIDIORTHOSIS— ANACEPHALEOSIS

doubled : " But if any among you through agreeing in these statements think that Phihp will maintain his power by having occupied forts and havens and the like, this is a mistake. True, when a confederacy subsists by good will, and all parties to the war have a common interest, men are willing to co-operate and bear hardships and persevere. But when one has grown strong, like Philip, by rapacity ^nd artifice, on the first pretext, the slightest reverse, all is over- turned and broken up (i). Impossible is it — impossible y Athenians — to acquire a solid power by injustice and perjury and falsehood. Such things last for once, or for a short period ; maybe they blossom fairly with hope (2) ; but in time they are discovered and drop away (3). As a house, a ship, or the like ought to have the lower parts firmest, so in human conduct, I ween, the principle and foundation should be just and true. But this is not so in Philip's conduct." *

AMPHIDIORTHOSIS: According to Bullmger this figure is a double correction. It has reference, not merely to what has been said, but to the feeling of the hearer, so that the correction is on both sides. In argumentation it is called Prodiorthosis, which is mostly preparing that there should be no shock; but Amphidiorthosis prepares for a shock that comes, i Kings xiv. 14: "... that day; but what? even now" — as if the prophet meant (being led by the spirit) to say, first "that day," and then to add shock upon shock by going on, " But what am I saying? ' that day?' even now." i Cor. xi. 22: "What am I to say to you? commend you herein? no indeed."

ANACEPHALEOSIS: From^.the Greek avd, up, back; /ce(f)a\L<;, a head, chapter, division; a summing up of chief points or marshalling of the heads of a discourse, is a figure or form of expression used in the Epilogue of an oration. The Epilogue contains three parts: the Anacephaleosis or recapitulation, rather enumeration; Deinosis or indignation; Miseratio or excitement of pity, etc.

Use : It is used for the purpose of refreshing the memory of the judge or of an audience by briefly going over the chief points of argument — proof and refutation — according to their order, and to bring the whole matter before their eyes at a glance. It is also used to a certain extent in

* (1) C. R. Kennedy says that Demosthenes is very high-flown in his language here, passing from one metaphor to another.

(2) " Such is the state of man : to-day he puts forth the tender leaves of hope . . "— Shakespeare.

3) Like the leaves of a flower, pursuing the last metaphor, so says Moore in "The Last Rose of Summer."

The passage is finished with a beautiful Simile, the first part of which takes the rising inflection, from as " up to " so," and the rest is delivered with the falling, and a cadence.

ANACEPHALEOSIS— ANACCENOSIS 47

every transition (see Fig. Metabasis). When there are many divisions, and when the defence rests on several points of proof, it may be used with advantage. Den^osthenes, in his speech on the Embassy, uses an Anacephaleosis in thts middle.

Caution : Everything repeated in the Anacephaleosis must be said in a very few words, and must only be considered^ with reference to the principal points. What is enumerated must, however, be said with emphasis in which suitable sentences should be brought into a suggestive form and adorned with Figures, for a bare naked repetition or enumera- tion is unpleasant. There are many thing which, on account of their brevity and simplicity, do not need a recapitulation.

Delivery : Delivery should be smooth and flowing, vowels not too pronounced and sonorous. The enumeration can be divided into Synthetons with a balanced inflection, or Trithetons (threes) with harmonic inflections; or it may take the Asyndeton, which is the most usual, or the Polysyndeton. (See foregoing Figs., also Epilogue.)

ANACCENOSIS : From the Greek dvd, which ; kolvoco, to make common, make a sharer in, communicate; is a form of expression by which the speaker appeals to his hearers or opponents for their advice or opinion on a point m debate, also when he deliberates with the judge or acquaints him or his hearers with some part of his counsel and advice. Rossiter Johnson says it is the speaker's appeal directly to his hearers for an opinion or acknowledgment of the justice of his claim or proposition, or of a supposi- titious case assumed to be analagous to the one under con- sideration.

" Anacoenosis, sympathy to awake, Bids us another's case our own to make." — Langley. Examples :

" Tell me, fair lady, if the case were your own. So foul a fault would you have it be known ? ' '

— Puttenham. " Question your royal thoughts, make the case yj)ur own ; Be now the father and propose a son ; Hear your own dignity so much profan'd; See your most dreadful laws so loosely slighted; Behold yourself so by a son disdained And in your pow'r so silencing your son. After this cold consid' ranee, sentence me; And, as you are king, speak in your state What have I done that misbecame my place, My person or my liege's sovereignty." — Shakespeare. " I speak as to wise men; judge ye what I say " (i Cor. x. 1 5 ; also Isa. v. 34).

48 ANABASIS— ANAMNESIS— ANACOLOUTHON

ANABASIS : From the Greek avd, up ; jSaivco to go. In Latin this figure is called Incrementum and is used to express an increase or an ascent from a weaker to a stronger expression. When the ascent is made from word to word it is called Climax, e.g., Ps. i. I, "Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly, nor standeth m the way of sinners, nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful." This is a triple Anabasis taking the form of Parallelism. Ezek. xi. 6. " The Anabasis," says BuUinger, " is to impress upon us that whatever opposition we may encounter we are to speak and give forth the word of God." (See Fig. Incre- mentum.)

ANAMNESIS: From the Greek am, back ; /^z^^crt? memory, is a figure whereby a speaker calls to mind matters past, whether of sorrow, joy, etc., and makes a recital of them for his own advantage or for the benefit of those who hear him. It is an expression of feeling by way of recalling to mind a matter that might have been stated simply as a fact. It may also be taken as a kind of correction, as if something which had been overlooked was suddenly called to mind, as in the following example : " Hitherto in this discourse I did not sufficiently bear in mind one momentous consideration peculiar to our subject — i/ flashes on me now. When I addressed you about Abraham or Moses — he of whom I speak is absent; when I speak of God, He of whom I speak is present, to see with what heart I speak of Him."

It must not seem to be a pretended forgetting, as it would appear to the hearers a sham for the sake of effect.

Ps. cxxxvii. I : " By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down; yea, we wept when we remembered Zion. . . ." Luke XV. 17: "The prodigal son, when he came to himself, said : how many hired servants of my father's house have bread enough and to spare, and I perish with hunger? I will arise and go to my father, ' ' etc. An example from Virgil : " Oh, happy and over happy had I been, if never Trojan ship, alas, my country those had seen " (words of Dido" just before she died).

ANACOLOUTHON : From the Greek a, not ; KokovBov, following, is a figure by which the orator for the sake of energy drops the grammatical form with which he commenced, and adopts another not syntactically reconcilable with it. Kennedy's Latin grammar defines Anacolouthon as the passing from one construction to another before the former is completed. Bullinger styles it as a breaking off of the sequence of thought, and gives as Examples: (i) An accusa- tion standing alone at the beginning of a sentence. Luke xxi. 6: " These things which ye behold "—and then He turns

ANACOLOUTHON 49

-off and says: "There will come days," so we must add " as to " these things, etc. (2) Sometimes the leading proposition is interrupted by a parenthesis ; and when the subject is resumed, the grammatical connection is changed (John vi. 22-24). (3) Sometimes the construction suddenly changes without a parenthesis, by a change of persons; or trom parti- ciple to finite verb, or from singular to plural, vice versaT — 2 Cor. V. 6, 8: "Being confident — we are confident and con- tent rather to be from home." (4) Sometimes the construction is broken off altogether and not completed at all. Mark xi. 32: " But if ye shall say, of men; they feared the people." Here the reasonings of the rulers are broken off and the sense must be supplied. (5) Sometimes the change consists of a sudden transition from the indirect to the direct' form of speech. Mark vi. 9 : " But bei7ig shod with sandals ; and ;put not on two coats." (6) Sometimes from the direct form it passes into the indirect. John xiii. 29 : " By those things that we have heard of against the feast, or, that he should give something to the poor."

Examples from Demosthenes by Rehdanz-Blass. Rehdantz-Blass states that added participial definitions often cause Anacolouthon ; for instance, Demosthenes on the Embassy, 266 : "... when things proceeded thus far and corruption got the ascendency, although they possessed a thousand horse and were more than ten thousand mercenaries and fifty galleys and four thousand citizens besides, all of it could not save them; before a year of the war had expired the betrayers had lost all the cities in Chalcidice; Philip could no longer be at the call of the betrayers, and was puzzled what he should first take possession of." In the foregoing example Rehdantz says that such emphasis is laid on the same (participial clauses) that they become the subject instead of the all of it could not which replaces them. Compare Demos, vs. Phormio, 3, in which the subject quite changes place : " But, as many people reproached us, and especially the merchants who were in Bosporus with Phormio, who knew that he had not lost his money in the wreck, we thought it would be cowardly not to seek redress for the wrong which the defendant had done us." Rehdantz gives an example in which the second part of the period (Apodosis, or conclusion) is missing in the form proper, or its absorption is indicated : Demosthenes on* the Chersonese, 25 : " You like always to ask the speaker — what must we do? I will ask you this — what must I say ? For if you will neither contribute nor take the field, nor abstain from the public funds, nor give supplies to Diopeithes, nor let alone what he finds for himself, nor be content to mind your own busi- ness, I have nothing to say." In the foregoing example it appears as independent in a somewhat different form, or its absorption is indicated ; and in the following example there

50 ANACOLOUTHON

is absolutely no trace of the Apodosis : Demosthenes on the Crown, 126: "Since, therefore, the righteous and true verdict- is made clear to all "^ ; but I must, it seems — though not naturally fond of railing, yet on account of the calumnies uttered by my opponent — in reply to so many falsehoods, just mention some leading particulars concerning him, and show who he is and from whom descended, that so readily begins using hard words — and what language he carps at,, after uttering such as any decent man would have shuddered to pronounce — why, if my accuser had been Acacus or Rhadamanthus or Minos, instead of a prater, a hack of the market, a pestilent scribbler, I don't think he would have spoken such things or found such offensive terms, shouting as in a tragedy, * O Earth ! O Sun ! O Virtue ! ' and the like : and again appealing to Intelligence and Learning, by which the honourable is distinguished from the base — all this you undoubtedly heard from his lips — Accursed one ! ' * The Anacolouthon, as in the original, is preserved in the translation preceding, by Kennedy.

Example of another sort of Anacolouthon, which Rehdantz says is a sudden, voluntary breaking off, as in Demos, vs. Phil. Ill, 70: "And we, likewise, O Athenians, whilst we are safe with a magnificent city, plentiful resources, lofty reputation (i) — what must we do? Many of you, I daresay, have been longing to ask — well, I will tell you ..." Smead remarks (i) here on the adroitness of the orator, who, instead of applying the simile of the ship to the administration of the state, which he felt his quick-minded hearers had already done, suddenly interrupts himself with a question which naturally would occur to the audience.

Example from Demos, on the Embassy, 44 : " I, when I heard the defendant making such magnificent promises, being quite certain of their falsehood — and I will tell you why : first, because when Philip was about to swear the oath of peace, the Phocians . . . ; secondly, because Philip's ambassa- dors used no such language, nor Philip's letter, but only the defendant."

Another from Demos, on the Embassy, 264 : " When they had only four hundred horse and were not more than five thousand altoeether in number, the Chalcidians, not yet being all united, although the Lacedaemonians attacked them with a considerable army and fleet (for, of course, you know that the Lacedaemonians had comxmand, so to speak, both of sea and land at the period), notzvithstanding the attack of so mighty a force, they lost neither their city nor a single fortress, but even won many battles, and at last put an end to the war upon their own terms."

* Leland followin?* Wolf, infers from this passage that there must have been some acclama- tion in the court, which Demosthenes affects to consider as the general 'voice of the jury. Brougham holds that this is not a necessary inference from the text, where the connection witb what goes before is plain and easy.

ANACOLOUTHON 51

A fine example from Demos, vs. Timocrates, i66: "After- wards, when we sailed, not to attack any fort or district m Thrace — for this cannot be said, * True, we did some damage, hut it was in self-defence ' — nothing of the kind ; we went to no part of Thrace, but against Alopeconnesus, which is m the Chersonese and belonged to you ; it is a promontory juttmg out towards Imbrus at a great distance from Thrace^- and was full of pirates and corsairs."

Examples jroni Demosthenes by Blass.

Blass' "Demosthenes" gives this example from Corona, 277 : " And in addition to other things, just as if he had delivered his sentiments with simplicity and good feeling, he advises you to guard against me, and to take care that I may deceive you or lead you astray, styling me a powerful speaker, an imposter, a sophist, and such like; as if, when -any person may impute his own qualities to another (it would follow) that the fact must be so, and as if the hearers would not inquire who the person is that says so. I am sure that y^ou all know him, and that you consider these qualities to be much more attached to him than to me. And this I know, that with regard to my oratorical talents — for be it so. Though I am sensible that the hearers are, for the most part, the disposers of oratorical talent; for the reputation of an orator depends on the manner in which you may receive and be favourably affected toward each; but if I possess any such experience, you will all find that it was exerted in public affairs for your interests, and on no occasion .against you or for my private interest. His eloquence was otherwise employed, not only in speaking in behalf of the enemy, but likewise, if any one offended or opposed him, against this person."

An example of a participial construction taken from Blass, Cor. 249 : " Afterwards, when those who were bent to do me a mischief, conspired and brought indictments, audits, im- peachments and the re^t of it against me, not at first in their own persons, but in such names as they imagined would most effectually screen themselves (for you surely know and remember that every day of that first period I was arraigned, neither the desperation of Sosicles, nor the malignity of Philocrates, nor the madness of Diondas and Melantus, nor anything else was left untried by them against me) ; on all those occasions, chiefly through the gods, secondly through you and the other Athenians, I was preserved."

Use of Anacolouthon : Hermogenes places this figure under Alethia, that is, the stamp of truth and fervour, therefore it gives the portrayal the expression of earnestness. And to give the stamp of truth to what the orator says, Hermogenes enumerates the following : the removal of objections, rather Hypophora, introduced asvndetically, the designed Anaco- louthon as a consequence of strong emotion, the bringing in

52 ANACOLOUTHON— ANADIPLOSIS

of something, as if one had almost forgotten it, or as if it occurred to one just at the right time. In a word, it is used in the expression of strong emotion.

Caution : The Anacolouthon should come in as it were, says Hermogenes, of itself. There must be no announcement of it. For instance, Hermogenes points out that ^^schines had, in common with Demosthenes, the Paralepsis, and the vigour with which the orator, while in the midst of uttering his thoughts, suddenly stops and draws back; and that he is not capable of portraying in a vivacious and convincing manner the momentary movements of the soul. Only strong passion can warrant it nowadays, as it seems to imply such a degree of emotion in the speaker as to destroy the recol- lection of grammatical form; in other v/ords, the emotion is so great as to make the speaker forget how he began his sentence — i.e., "If thou beest he — But, O, how fallen!" (Milton). " But — ah ! — Him ! the first great martyr in this great cause ! — How shall I struggle with the emotions that stifle the utterance of thy name? " (Daniel Webster). This is an effective hgure of speech when used in the above sense, but becomes a solecism when it lacks grammatical sequence or coherence in a sentence or sequence of tenses, emotional feeling being absent — e.g., " Going down the street the sky grew dark." The sky was not going down the street. " His (Whitefield's) person was unusually graceful and imposing, and, like Chatham, the piercing glance of a singularly brilliant eye contributed in no small measure to the force of his appeals." Rossiter Johnson says Lecky means that Whitefield's eye was like Chatham's eye in its piercing glance, but that is not what he says.

Delivery of Anacolouthon should be in a different tone from what has preceded. If the clauses going before it are rising in nature, the Anacolouthon should be lower, forcible, quick; if it is a parenthesis being pronounced in a lower and quicker tone, the breaking off should be sudden as it is in all cases, and what follows in a higher, strong and quicker tone. The new construction to which the speaker goes before he has completed the construction of the one he has broken off from and left incomplete should be caught up or taken up quickly as if it were a surprise, as if it were a precious idea that one had forgotten, suddenly thinking of it, he expresses it, leaving everything^ else for the moment for fear the idea might escape him. The Anacolouthonic expression, be it a word, a phrase, or clause, should always be delivered forcibly.

ANADIPLOSIS: Greek am, again; ^ATrXoo), double, reduplication; is a figure whereby the last word or sound of the first clause is repeated in the beginning of the next, or a repetition of the last word or any prominent word in

ANADIPLOSIS 53

2L sentence or clause at the beginning of the next with an adjunct idea — e.g., " He retained his virtues amidst all his misfortunes — misfortunes which no prudence could foresee or prevent." It is also a figure in which the ending of a sentence, line or clause is repeated and emphasised at the beginning of the next — e.g., " Upon her trembling knees she held a book — a comfortable book for them that mourn."

** When the repetition of the same word or v/ords is in the middle of successive sentences it is called Mesodiplosis ; "Meso,'* middle; middle repetition. 2 Cor. iv. 8, 9 : * We are troubled on every side, ye^ not distressed ; we are perplexed, but not in despair; prosecuted but not forsaken; cast down but not destroyed.' " — Bullinger.

Julius Rufinianus defines Anadiplosis thus : "... est ejusdem verbi continuatim repetitio, ut : ' O Corydon, Cory- don quae te dementia cepit ' " (Eel. ii. 69). (Anadiplosis is a successive repetition of the same word — e.g., O Corydon, Corydon what frenzy has possessed you!)

The Liber de Schematibus et Tropis Badae Venerabilis (The Book of Tropes and Figures of the Ven. Bede) gives it as follows : " Anadiplosis is a repetition of a word in the last part of the preceding line so that it becomes the first in the following," e.g., " Our feet shall stand within thy gates, O Jerusalem. Jerusalem that was builded as a city." — Ps. cxxii. 2, 3.

" Anadiplosis ends the former line

With what the next does for its first design." — Langley, Examples : Bullinger remarks that Anadiplosis is the first figure employed in the Bible, and gives the following : " Gen. i. i , 2 : * In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the earth became without form and void.' The repetition of earth directs attention to the fact of a subsequent period of unknown duration, and the ruin it had fallen into."

" Amidst the flashing and feathery foam The stormy petrel finds a home — A home, if such a place may be For her who lives on the wide, wide sea." — B. CornwalL

" It was free — From end to end, from cliff to lake 'twas free ! Free as our torrents." — Knowles. With death, death must be compensated. On mischief, mischief must be heaped. Isidorus gives an example from Cicero (Cat. i, § 2) showing the successive repetition of a word : hie tamen vivit, vivit ? etiam in Senatum venit. (Still he lives, lives? he even conies into the Senate.) The speech of Demosthenes versus Meid,^ 174, contains a successive repetition of the word horse. "And when he was hipparch, what will you think of the rest.

-54 ANADIPLOSIS

when I tell you this ; why, not even had he the spirit to buy a horse, a horse, this illustrious and wealthy man/'

Use : The figure has its place m passionate and vigorous declamation, also m simple and calm speeches, but not m sustained and dignified discourse. The repetition usually occurs withm the colon, that is member, although exceptions occur, as m the sentence of Demosthenes against ^schmes. Embassy, 97 : " For ^schmes is not only accused on account of the peace, but peace on account of .^schmes was rendered •odious.'' The ov/c eariv (it cannot be) is often repeated successively m the preferred formula, seldom in a single word; e.g., Demosthenes' famous adjuration. Cor. 208: "But it cannot be, it cannot be, Athenians, that you have acted wrong ^m encountering danger for the liberty and safety of Greece." The passionate form of speech supports and demands so much that, should one desire to repeat in greater measure, then, as Aristotle says, he must at least change the expression (Arist. Rhet. III. 12J. Demetrius on Style says that Anadiplosis is used in the forcible style, and enumerates it amonq- such figures as contribute to force, as short com- parisons, striking compounds, mordant wit, etc. It not only adds pleasantness of sound, but a certain increase in the second member. It is also called the rhetorical echo, for it carries the resemblance of a re-doubled or iterated sound.

Caution-. The word repeated should not be in a weaker clause, nor without new matter. Aquila Romanus cautions thus : " rarum apud oratores figuras genus, f requentius apud poetas; si quando tamen et in civilem orationem incidit non rnediocrem dignitatem habet." (This class or kind of figure is rare among orators, more frequent in the poets, but when it occurs in an oration it has no mean dignity.) Volkmann's Hermagoras gives Anadiplosis as one of the figures of words, the use of which contributes to the Deinotes.

Delivery : As Demetrius places Anadiplosis in the forcible style and among such figures as short comparisons, etc., and as force implies brevity, the delivery should be sharp and quick, with an increased volume or force of voice put on the repeated word, in the character of an Emphatic Repetition (see under Fig. Emphatic Rep.).

"Anadiplosis is not employed by an orator of reserve . . . , but is suited to liveliness and energy of style. The repetition of the negative after less emphatic words tends to enhance their force." — W. W. Baden, B.A.

Impassioned Delivery : In the expression of force and strong feelings, the orator, says Quintillian, may step forward, if the movement be brief, moderate in quickness and not too frequent. The noted American orator, Daniel Webster, used this movement in his eulogy on Adams and Jefferson. Coming to the climax of his description of John Adams' oratory, he raised his body, brought his hands in front of him with a

ANADIPLOSIS 55

swing, and stepping to the front of the stage, said, with a broad swell and an imperious surge upward of the gruif tone of his voice, "He spoke onward, right onward y He threw into that single word "onward " such a shock of force that several auditors, who sat directly in front of the stage,, found themselves involuntarily half-rising from their seats with the start the words gave them. The effect was the greater because exceptional. The orator had been speakmg calmly, and rose from the level of a passionless delivery. (From Parker's "Golden Age of American Oratory," as cited in Mathew's " Oratory and Orators.") Thus was the fore- going Websterian Anadiplosis delivered with such powerful effect. The second " onward " is an echo of the first, and is increased in force by the addition of the word "right," the " right onward " taking also the Emphatic Repetition (see this Fig.). The Anadiplosis was one of Whitefield's favourite figures for expressing emotion. Take the following, containing Anadiplosis, Membrum, Apostrophe, Antithesis, Interrogatio and Parison : " O admire, admire the rich and free grace which hath brought you to this relation ; is not this an instance of the greatness of love, that you should be the spouse o"f the Lord Jesus Christ? You that had no beauty, you that had no comeliness, that were full of sin; that he should embrace such as you and I are; that we should be taken into the embrace of this Lord Jesus. O infinite condescending kindness ! O amazing love ! Reverence, reverence y \ beseech you, this Lord Jesus Christ." "... and Christ will be yours, then happy you that ever you were born! But if you die before this espousal unto the Lord Jesus Christ, then woe, woe unto you . . . ." " Strive, strive to enter in at the straight gate, that ye may be borne to Abraham's bosom, where sin and sorrow shall cease."

56

^SCHINES

His Oratory, Delivery, and Some Notes from Eminent Contemporary and Subsequent Critics.

^schines, who was chosen one of the ten public orators of Athens, was, in point of vocal development, perhaps the foremost of orators. Like all great actors, he had a splendid voice with full compass, highly trained and well modulated. It was on this point of vocal training that Richard Brinsley Sheridan surpassed Pitt, Fox, Burke, and all his other contemporaries, ^schines was a political opponent and great rival of Demosthenes.

His Splendid Voice.

" It appears from the testimony of ancient writers, as well as from the sneers of Demosthenes, that ^schines had a remarkably fine voice, and was not a little proud of it. A good voice must indeed have been a great advantage to an Athenian speaker, who had to address thousands of people in the open air. But vEschines not only possessed a voice that was loud and clear, but had a wonderful ease and fluency of speech, in these natural gifts surpassing Demos- thenes himself." — "The Oration of Demosthenes on the Crown, with notes," by Charles Rann Kennedy.

" ^schines was a man that came into life under all the disadvantages that are the common dead weight upon the hopes of rising;- in the world, namely a mean parentage, a stinted education, and a narrow fortune. A loud strong voice first recommended him to the stage. With this circum- stance Demosthenes perpetually upbraids him — the noisy player, the stalking buskin, and tragic pomp. At last, partly from the seeds of education and partly from being a constant auditor of the eloquence of the court, he sets up for an orator. He succeeded so well that he was chosen one of the ten public orators of Athens.

^schines compared with Demosthenes.

" It may suffice to observe that they all generally agree in this, that the manner of l/Eschines is softer, more insinuating and more delicate than that of Demosthenes; but that the latter is more grave, forcible and convincing. The one has more address, and the other more of strength and energy. The one endeavours to steal, the other to force the assent of his auditors. In this they both agree, the harmony and eloquence of their phrase, and the strength and beauty of their epithets; but with this difference, that the figures of the one are fine, of the other bolder. Both of them thunder and lighten, but ^schines does it oftener, and Demosthenes longer; it being the temper of the one to flash, and of the other perpetually to burn." — "The Orations of :^schines and Demosthenes concerning the Crown," by Thomas Dawson, LL.B., Dublin, 1732.

^SCHINBS.

From " Greek and Roman Portraits," by A. of publisher, William Heinemann, London.

Heckler ; by kind permission

Principal Forms of Oratorical Expression used by ^schines. His master- figures are those in italics :

Anaphora, Apostrophe, Descriptio, Dialogismus, Diasyrmus, Diatyposis, Ecphonesis, Epanalepsis, Bpanaphora, Epidiorthosis, Epiphonema, Erotesis, Ethopoeia, Ethos, Figura Etymologica, Hyperbole, Hypophora, HypoHposis, Metaphora, Oreo, Paralepsis, Polysyndeton, ProtropCj Rhythmus, Sermo- cinatio.

^SCHINES 57

The Exordium of JEschines.

" The Exordium of ^schines has very great beauties; and we may say conforms to all the rules of the art. Accord mg to the rules of eloquence, an exordium ought to have three qualities: (i) it should make the audience favourable, (2) attentive, (3) tractable. Each of these is found in the exordium of -^schines. The orator gains the goodwill of the judges when he declares that he conhdes entirely in the laws and in them, and that the interest of the state alone obliges him to speak; he excites their attention by the long list of disorders that certain persons had introduced into the Republic; and finally he renders them disposed to enter into what he is about to say, by showing the importance of reforming, these abuses, and by declaring his object to be no less than to preserve that popular government and the liberty of the people now in danger. Some rhetoricians blame this introduction as too pathetic, and call it a peroration, rather than an exordium But if they reproach .^Eschines for this supposed fault, with greater reason should they blame Demosthenes, who addresses all the gods and goddesses at once, as if he wished his prayer to interest all Olympus in the quarrel.

T/ie Hyfofhora of JEschines.

" We cannot but admire the skill with which L^schines anticipates the arguments of his antagonist. * He will ask me . . .' (see full passage, etc., under the Fig. Hypophora). We should almost be tempted to imagine that he had already read the speech, or that some one who had heard Demos- thenes read, had given him an exact account of it; otherwise we must attribute to ^schines an almost supernatural sagacity.

The Grand Peroration of Mschines. " It is beautiful, magnificent, and grand, and at the same time very touching and pathetic, ^schines brings before us Solon, Aristides, Themistocles, all the heroes who on the plains of Marathon and Platasa sacrificed their lives for the Republic. He calls them forth from their tombs to witness the sentence presently to be pronounced. . He calls upon the earth, the sun, upon virtue that universal reason, that celestial light which illumines every mind and makes it distinguish good and evil. In a word, he omits nothing to engage all nature in his contest, to raise heaven and earth, gods and men against Demosthenes.

The Sublime Peroration of Demosthenes. " Demosthenes terminates his speech as he began it, by invoking the gods with a confidence which nothing but a good conscience can give. There can be nothing more touching or more pathetic than this whole peroration. We say that it is in every point according to the rules which rhetoricians give us, or rather that rhetoricians have drawn

^8 ^SCHINES

their rules from this masterpiece of eloquence."—" The Orations of ^schines and Demosthenes on the Crown," by Alexander Negris, Boston, 1829.

" Fox (Kranzrede des Demosthenes, p. 214), indeed, main- tams that we are fully justified in believing that in the two orations on the crown, in their present form, we have not merely in the main, but in detail, the very orations pre- pared and committed to memory before the trial and delivered at the trial with the addition of a slight amount of extem- poraneous matter. As an orator, ^schines is a brilliant amateur. He is a spiritual brother of Andocides, and seems to have recognised the kinship. As an amateur, he touches topics on the surface, without feeling the necessity of search- ing them to the bottom. A chain of argument with proofs at every stop is something which he hardly understands. Like Andocides, he tells a story well, and will never, if he can help it, abandon narrative for argument. If carping criticism could have won the case, he would have been victorious.

His E-pifhonema and Features of his Style.

" His skill in putting the worst construction on Demos- thenes' acts, and making his discourse interesting while enforcing each point with some brilliant epiphonema (see this Fig.), has led Leopold Schmidt to call him *eine diabolisch natur.' In the legal part of the discourse, wherfe he had the advantage of Demosthenes, he is not at home. Here he presents a fault alien to his nature; he lacks lucidity. The whole treatment is so laboured that Demosthenes, with -a keen eye to his own advantage, gives it the most withering answer possible : * Neither by the gods, do I suppose you understood his arguments, nor was I myself able to under- stand most of them.' Among the features fairly characteristic of the style of i^Eschines may be mentioned: (i) Diatyposis, a vivid presentation of a picture; (2) Apostrophe; (3) Inclina- tion to digression (see lines or sections of the oration ]'] and 130, 132-136; it is also difficult to find any thread of con- nection in the epilogue), which justifies the verdict of Qum- tillian; (4) exaggeration (cf. 212, 25, 9); (5) a fondness for the figure Etymological (cf. 2, 4), his most striking super- ficial characteristic. In a less striking degree than Demos- thenes he exhibits : First, the art of dramatic representation — i.e., the carrying on of a discussion with questions and answers (cf. 20-22, 178, 186); secondly, the use of a pair of words to express a single notion (cf. 132, 2), mainly for the purpose of dwelling lone^er on the thought He is not altogether indiff^erent to Hiatus, and some transpositions in the natural order of words are made, with a view to avoiding it. The use of the Figura Etymologica of every variety is a favourite mannerism of ^schines. His fine form, and that voice which so excited Demosthenes' envy, were a capital

^SCHINES 59

out of which he was clever enough to proht." — " .^schines against Ctesiphon on the Crown," by Rufus B. Richardson,. Professor of Greek, Dartmouth College.

" The Exordium is an artful insinuation that Demosthenes,, by his cabals and intrigues with a party of men, would set aside the laws; and therefore bespeaks the assistance and favour of the people against such seditious and arbitrary proceedings. To alarm them the more, he (^schines). represents him as having already rendered himself formidable by such practice." — " The Oration against Ctesiphon and Demosthenes de Corona." by Andrew Portal, published in

^755-

" Scarcely more than Andocides did .^schines possess the art of speaking; but in a far greater measure than Andocides,., the practice, which even without art can do much to serve the need of the hour, this practice including both the habit of composition and skill in declamation. Lastly, he had in an extraordinary degree the third and supreme requisite — faculty. His natural gift was most brilliant.

Conception of Himself as an Orator. " If we look to that conception of himself as an orator which ^schines puts forward when he desires to appear at the greatest advantage over Demosthenes, we shall find that it has two chief traits: (i) First, jEschines gives it to be understood that he is the man of spontaneous eloquence,, while Demosthenes is the laborious rhetor. (2) Secondly, ^schines piques himself on his culture, meaning partly by this his familiarity with standard poets, such as the old tragedians; partly a general sense of propriety on refinement which, for instance, leads him to imitate the decorum of the old masters like Solon or Pericles — by speaking with his hands within his robe, instead of using vehement action — and which helps guard him, again, from such faults of taste in expression as he imputes to his rival. ,

His Training, His Style and Voice.

" .^schines had no systematic training. One account,, indeed, made him a pupil of Isocrates and Plato; others that he had imitated Leodamus, or studied Alcidamas (Demetrius the Phalereus).

" His style has not finish, purity, or beauty of rhythm ; it is blatant, inartistic, headlong, easily betrayed into coarse abuse ill-becoming an orator; but it has a stamp of power and of facility such as would come of nature and of private study, not under a master. When the Rhodians asked him to teach them rhetoric, he said that he did not know it him- self. H, however, ^schines was no rhetorical artist, he brought to public speaking the two-fold training of an actor and a scribe. He had a magnificent voice, under perfect musical control: 'He compares me to the sirens,' says

60 iESCHINES

^schines at his trial. As tritagonist, he had often to play showy parts, such as Creon, Cresphonte, Thyestes. As a scribe, he thus learned thoroughly the forms of public busi- ness, and gained that knowledge of laws and recorded decrees which, next to his natural eloquence, was his chief weapon. Without the intensity of Demosthenes, .^schines has a certain fluent vehemence; his diction, when neither low nor turgid, has that splendour which both Dionysius and Cicero recognised; and if his descriptions are sometimes tedious or pointless, he is certainly strong in exposition and narrative.

The Person of Ms chines.

" ^schines was about fifty-nine when the De Corona trial took place. Fifteen years earlier, when he spoke against Timarchus, he says that he was already grey, and looked more than his age. He was not tall, but exceedingly hand- some, and of a robust frame, in contrast with his rather younger rival (Demosthenes, now fifty-four) who, as a youth, had neglected the ordinary physical education. With his splendid voice, his trained elocution, and his practice in the statuesque manner which best suited him, L^schines must have had an advantage over his opponent in many accessories of effect. Near him in the court stood a group of men who came to speak for him or to support him by their presence; * oligarchs,' as the other side called them — leading members of the Macedonian party. Round Demosthenes were gathered friends and advocates of the opposite politics — chiefly generals or men distinguished in other offices of the state. The dicasts who formed the court were probably at least a thousand in number. There was besides a throng of Athenians and other Greek spectators.

Failure of the Peroration.

^'.^schines as accuser of Ctesiphon opens the case. The peroration is notable in the history of oratory : ' Remember, then, that the city whose fate rests with you is no alien city, but your own . . .' (see full peroration under Figs. Peroration and Epilogue) * . . . that they will utter a voice of lamenta- tion if he who covenants with barbarians to work against Greece should be crowned ? ' This was the true climax. But ^schines felt the pressure of the Attic rule. He must not end thus. The storm must be laid in a final harmony. And so he passed on to the most tremendous failure that ever followed so close upon a triumph : * O Earth and Sun- light ! O ye influences of Goodness, of Intelligence, of that Culture by which we learn to distinguish things beauti- ful or shameful — I have done my duty, I have finished. If the part of the accuser has been performed well and adequately to the offence, then I have spoken as I wished — if defectively, yet I have spoken as I could. Judge for yourselves from what has been spoken or from what has

^SCHINES 61

been left unsaid, and give your sentence in accordance with justice and with the interest of Athens.'

Fatal Weakness of the Speech.

" Apart from all faults of form, the hearers must have felt tnat the speech had one signal fault of matter. ^Eschines had not dared to show his colours. He had not dared to say, * I maintain that it was expedient to be friendly with Macedon, and therefore I deny that Demosthenes was a patriot.' He had tried to save appearances. He had dealt m abuse and in charges of corruption. But he left the essence of Demosthenes' policy absolutely untouched.

Demosthenes' Reply and the Perorations Compared.

" The tone of the speech : The nobility of this great speech declares itself not least in this, that the inevitable recital of personal services never once sinks into self-glorification. It is held above that by the speaker's proud consciousness that he has wrought, not for himself, but for Athens and Greece; not for ambition, but for sacred things, for duty and for honour, and that he can show this by proofs the most triumphant. In relation to the Attic theory of eloquence, it is most instructive to compare the perorations of ^schines and Demosthenes. :.^schines, not being a true artist, stands in awe of the art. He does not venture to be original and to stop at his real climax. He must needs conform with the artistic usage of a final harmony ; and he mars all. Demos- thenes, the master, can make the art obey him. With true instinct he feels this to be the rare case which the rule does not fit. The emotions of the hearers have been stirred beyond the point of obedience to the pulses of an ordered music His intense appeal to the memories of his countrymen ends in a storm of imprecation and prayer. Two thousand years have challenged a tradition which lives and will always live wherever there is left a sense for the grandest music which an exquisite language could yield to a sublime enthusiasm — that when Demosthenes had ceased, those who had come from all parts of Greece to hear that day the epitaph of freedom which they had lost, and a defence of the honour which they still leave to their children, had listened to the masterpiece of the old world's oratory, perhaps to the supreme achievement of human eloquence." — " The Attic Orators," by R. C. Jebb, Litt.D., Professor of Greek and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and M.P. for' the University.

"As to the speech itself, its construction is loose and irregular, and does not contain any narrative passages as lively as in the same orator's speech on the * Falsa Legatio.' Speech had no Prothesis or Regular Divisions.

" The, lengthy and somewhat conventional prooemium was criticised adverselv by the ancients; there was no regular statement of the subject of the indictment (Prothesis, see this

62 ^SCHINES

Fig.). Such as there is, gives only an imperfect enumeration of the points. But also the regular divisions of the speech are not well observed. The main body of it, the Narratio et Demonstratio, extends from sections 13 to 176; and all the rest is, as Blass says, Epilogue, in the widest sense of the term; yet from 170 to 230 there are matters which more properly belong to the previous division, and technically the Epilogue does not begm until 230. Finally the peroration is unduly long, and weakened and spoilt by the final 'section.- * I have spoken my utmost in behalf of all that is highest and best. It rests with you, O judges, now to vote for the right' "—T. Gwatkin, M.A., Late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge.

The Style of ^schines.

" ^schines was an orator whose style was full, diffusive and sonorous. He was a stranger to the glowing expressions and daring figures of Demosthenes, which he treats with contempt and ridicule. But though more simple, he is less affecting, and by being less contracted, has not so much strength and energy. But if we would view his abilities to the greatest advantage, we must not compare them with those of his rival. Then will his figures appear to want neither beauty nor grandeur. His easy and natural manner will then be thought highly pleasing; and a just attention will discover a good degree of force and energy in his style, which at first appears flowing and harmonious." — Thomas Leland, D.D., Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin.

" ^schines, in the speech against Ctesiphon, would have furnished a remarkable exception to this rule, had he finished with that truly magnificent passage in which he calls up the illustrious dead of Athens, and plants them round himself, and bids his hearers listen to the groans that the crowning of the man who had conspired with barbarians draws forth from the tombs of those who fell at Marathon and Platasa. Fine Peroration Badly Finished.

" So fine a peroration is not in any language to be found ; it probably suggested to his great rival the celebrated oath which has long stood, by universal consent, first among the remarkable passages of perfect eloquence. But ^schines was obliged to compose himself after this burst; and he added the two sentences, one of which has even been both extrava- g-ant and absurd, and was, indeed, attacked as such by Demosthenes — the invocation to a series of natural objects and abstract qualities ; and the other becomes still more feeble than it naturally could have been by immediately following that lofty but clumsy flight. The result is a total failure- one of the most remarkable in the history of rhetoric — an attempt which is violent and overstrained, rather than vehement, yet heavy withal and cold — bearing the character

^SCHINES 63

of the worst declamation — and succeeded by a mean common- place without any felicity whatever, either of conception or execution. This failure — this sudden reverse of fortune — this total defeat in the very moment of the most prodigious success — a transition from one of the grandest triumphs ot tne art of oratory to nearly the^most signal discomfiture upon record, must be ascribed entirely to a compliance with that harsh rule as regulating the Greek peroration, and which the judgment of succeeding ages, both ancient and modern, has repealed." — " Ihe Edinburgh Review," Vols. 33 (1820) and 36 (1 82 1- 1 822).

/Eschines' Clear Voice, Stately Delivery and Flowing Sentences.

" As regards his style, it is worthy of note that while ^schines repeatedly refers to the artificial diction and studied antitheses, and above all, the rhetorical skill of Demosthenes, the latter constantly ascribes the oratorical success of his opponent to his natural powers, and to his strong, clear and carefully cultivated voice. In contrast to the passionate gesti- culations which .^schines criticised in his rival, his own delivery appears to have been more solemn and stately. In the absolutely indispensable qualities of correctness, clear- ness, and terseness of expression, he is distinctly inferior to Demosthenes; but as a set-off to these defects, he has many merits of less essential order ; a certain pomp and splendour of vocabulary (section no), sometimes even a poetic beauty of diction, and a command of strong and emphatic language. His sentences though generally free and flowing, are often overcharged and redundant, having neither the compact force of Demosthenes, nor the elaborate clearness of Isocrates. Strong in the rhetorical figures of diction and thought, it is nevertheless in the latter alone that he is to any degree a worthy rival of Demosthenes (Blass, iiiB, 197-218)." — John Edwin Sandys, M.A.

The Three Celebrated Apostrophes.

" Among the most celebrated oratorical Apostrophes may be mentioned that of Demosthenes to the manes of the heroes who fell at Marathon, that of ^schines to the Thebes, and that of Cicero in his oration against Verres in which he describes the crucifixion of a Roman citizen." — " Oratory and Orators," by William Mathews, LL.D.

" The attack of ^schines is a powerful one, only inferior to the defence made by Demosthenes, and we must examine it briefly before passing on to the greater oration. In so weighty a cause much depends upon a happy introduction — and vEschines makes more than one good point in the opening of his address — he clearly identifies the prosecution with the constitutional rights of the people. After calling attention to certain grave results of unpunished illegality, he says : ' One -element of the Constitution still remains (if I happen to be

64 ^SCHINES

right in my opinion) — prosecutions for the violation of the laws. But if you will abolish these also, or sanction those abolishing them, I forewarn you that you will imperceptibly yield your constitutional rights to certain individuals. . . . Let none of you, therefore, be ignorant of this fact, but let each clearly understand it, that when he comes into the court to decide a prosecution for violation of the laws, on that very same day he is about to pass a decision respecting his own freedom of speech." — " The Making of an Orator,' by John O'Connor Power.

We shall now make a brief survey of ^schines. That which stands out prominently is his well trained voice, and this served him well in addressing the multitudes that assembled around the Bema. He was short in stature, but had a robust frame, which he kept fit by physical exercise. His elocution was perfected by strict training, and his vocal powers maintained in a healthy state by the proper production of the voice. The proper production of the voice has its influence on health, because the voice to be properly produced is the result of deep breathing, and deep breathing not only calls into play the muscles of the stomach as well as the intercostals, but inflates the lungs to their fullest capacity, which inflation causes decarbonisation and a greater purifica- tion of the blood. Whitefield, when a little indisposed, used to say that a good pulpit sweat would put him right. Although .^schines asserted that he was a man of spontaneous eloquence and that Demosthenes was the laborious rhetor, yet it must be remembered that the aim of the orator _ is, as Aristotle says, " to do his best but not seem to do it,'' to pose as a spontaneous speaker whose words come straight from his heart, and to claim that he is no orator as is his opponent. (See Whately's "Elements of Rhetoric," and Anthony's speech: "I am no orator as Bruius is.") It must also be remembered that ^schines laboured considerably despite the contention that he was a natural orator. He wrote his entire speech against Ctesiphon, excepting some extemporaneous matter, and committed it to memory. He was master of the Figures of Thought, and in this did not yield the palm to Demosthenes. No man ever used so variously and so effectively the Figura Etymologica, which is so charming to audiences even to this day. He was master of Dialogism.us, Diatyposis, Descriptio, and in the adroit management of these he did not concede an iota to Demos- thenes. He wielded the Ethopoeia, the Epiphonema and Ecphonesis, the Diasyrmus, Ironeia and Exeuthenismus with almost as deadly effect as Demosthenes; and employed the Hypophora, not as expertly as Demosthenes, still the form in which he did use it was almost with superhuman intelli- gence. He displayed no mean ability in the handling of the Anaphora, Metaphora, Polysyndeton, and Apostrophe,

ANAPHORA • 65

All these facts, together with his good rhythm, solemn, flowing and stately sentences, statuesque delivery so lofty and sonorous, and the splendour of his diction, betray an orator of considerable study.

It is unfortunate that in his speech against Ctesiphon he observed too closely the Attic rule, by concluding the same with a tame Peroration instead of terminating it with that magnificent passage wherein he bids his hearers listen to the groans that the crowning of a man who conspired with barbarians would draw from the tombs of their ancestors, etc.

In short, we learn this valuable lesson from ^schmes : that a voice well trained, capable of inflection and modulation so to respond at will to the most delicate shades of feeling, that whatever forms of speech or rules he may have learned, everything appears to come from the heart spontaneously, is a capital asset to any speaker. This is the goal of oratory, reached through the channels of trained elocution.

ANAPHORA : Greek avd ; again, back ; cj^ipco, to bring, bear, carry; is a figure by which several clauses of a sentence are begun with the same word or sound ; in other words, a repetition of a word or words at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences — e.g., Cicero : " A witness is Italy, which Lucius SyUa, being victor, confessed was by that man's counsel delivered ; a witness is Africa, which being oppressed with great armies of enemies, was flooded with the blood of slain men; a witness is France, through which a way was made with great slaughter of Frenchmen for our armies in Spain; a ivitness is Spain, which hath very often seen that by this man many enemies have been overcome and van- quished."

Anaphora, together with some of the figures of repetition, appears in the following symbol given by W. H. Kirk in his " Demosthenic Style *' :

Epanadiplosis ... ... ... ... a, a.

Anaphora

Antistrophe

Symploce

Cycle

Anastrophe

a — , a — . — b, —b. a — b, a — ^b. a — , — a. — b, b— .

Rehdantz-Blass,* " Rhetorischer und Stilisticher Index," says that it is the carrying over of the expression anaphorically to the smoothly recurring construction of the sentence, usually called parallelism of sentences, because it is the necessary further development from the word anapher. ... The relation of the single corresponding ideas to one another is plainly expressed in a sentiently distinctive manner, and the requisite combinations for comparing them are already accomplished. If a feeling of agreeable repose is easily called forth by harmonious arrangenient of homogeneous parts, so an un-

66 ANAPHORA

troubled spiritual life springs up where the anaphoric form contains antithetical contents, thus: two things are the most difficult to keep up ; mistrust in oneself when everything appears to be going on well, and trust in God when every- thing appears to be going badly. " Anaphora elegantly begins With the same word or phrase, successive lines."

— Langley.. "When we make a word, as they say, lead the dance to many verses." — Puttenham.

Exajnple's : From Corona 48 : " When Lasthenes was styled Philip's friend | until he betrayed Olynthus; | when Timolaus, I until he destroyed Thebes; | when Eudicus and Simus the Larissasans, | until they surrendered Thessaly to Philip." As another example take the famous Anaphora of ^schines in his speech against Ctesiphon, which Dionysius of Hali- carnassus pronounces as a sentence of great celebrity : " You summon him against yourselves, you summon him against the laws, you summon him against democracy." By Rufus Choate : " When he passed his cheque to my clients, he knew% gentlemen, that he was a bankrupt; he knew that he was a drowning man catching at straws; he knew that he was not worth the shirt he stood in; that, had he died at that moment, his estate would not have yielded enough to defray his funeral charges." Bullinger says that the Scriptures abound with Anaphora, which adds great importance to many of its solemn statements, and that the repetition of the same word at the beginning of successive clauses adds weight and emphasis to statements and arguments by calling special attention to them — e.g., 1 John i. 1-3 : " That which was from the beginning. Which we have heard, which we have seen with our eyes, which we have looked upon, that which we have seen and heard declare we unto you." Hos. iii. 4: "For the children of Israel shall abide many days without a king and without a prince, and without a sacrifice, and without an image, and without an ephod, and without teraphim." This fi.gure emphasises the present desolation of Israel. " pear lost companions of my tuneful art ! E)ear as the light that visits those sad eyes, Dear as the ruddy drops that warm my heart, Ye died amidst your dying country's cries." — Gray.

" Thereby to see the minutes how they run. How many make the hour full complete; How many hours bring about the day; How many days will finish up the year; How many years a mortal man may live. When this is known, then to divide the times: — So many hours must I tend my flock; So many hours must I take my rest ;

ANAPHORA 67

So many hours must I contemplate;

So ma7iy hours must I sport myself;

So many days my ewes have been with young;

So m,any weeks ere the poor fools will wean;

So many years ere I shall shear the fleece :

So minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, and years,

Pass over to the end they were created,

Would bring white hairs unto a quiet grave."

—Shakespeare. Use : The Anaphora is used " when the force is concen- trated in one word which, by reason of its importance, occupies the first place" (Baden). "The logical element of this hgure is subordinated, to the plastic (see under Parataxis). Whcct is its effect and where is its proper place? As through the anaphoric construction, the position of the single idea is rendered parallel m the sentences, the mind of the hearer is freed from the trouble of giving his attention to the con- struction of the second sentence which already has been indicated in the hrst. The sensations which are thus aroused and renewed again in the same order remain deeply imbedded in the mind because they come without exertion : 'And so flee my days restlessly as the waters of the fountain; and so fades my youth as the flowers of the garland wither away.' " — Rehdanz-Blass. It is used to economise the mental energy of the hearer, thereby becoming a source of pleasure. (See Spencer's Philosophy of Style.) As to this figure being used by all the great orators, Aquila Romanus says : " Hasc figura vel frequentisime et Demosthenes, et M. Tullius et omnes vehementer oratores utuntur : quando prascipue et ipsi commoti videri volunt, et judicem commovere." (Demosthenes, Cicero, and all vehement orators use this figure, especially when they desire to show themselves moved, and to move the judge.) *' It is used to add charm and grace to speech (Hermogenes ii» 335)> 3-^^ sometimes vigour and emphasis combined with pathos (Tiberius in, 73; Hermogenes i, c.)." — W. W. Baden, B.A. Demetrius on Style says that sometimes Sappho makes graceful use of the figure i\naphora, e.g.,

" O, Evening Star, thou bringest all that's best: The sheep, the goat, thou bringest home to rest : The child thou bringest to the mother's breast." Here the charm lies in the repetition of the phrase " thou bringest," which has the same reference throughout. Volk- mann's " Hermagoras " says that the Anaphora, especially the Asyndeton, contributes to the " Demotes " (force, vigour). Hermogenes, under the heading of Gorgotes (vivacity of portrayal) says that the figures by which speech gains in telling passages are especially the commatic Asyndeton, commatic Enumeration of names, commalic Epanaphora (same as Anaphora); and under " Kallos " (beauty of portrayal), the Epanaphora at the head of the Kola (colons or members),

68 ANAPHORA

the Antistrophe at the end, the Apanastrophe and such like, the Climax, but to be used in moderation. " The Anaphora is much more frequent either in Asyndeton, which is decidedly

the strongest form, or with the connective, usually ixkv hk

fjuev as a particle is equivalent to "truly," "indeed," etc., and used with de becomes adversative, as *' although (men) . . . yet de; as well . . . , as . . ." Sometimes Demos- thenes uses several, one at the beginning of each cola, without any corresponding Se, till the last clause. Anaphora with the particle is frequent both in Demosthenes and Isasus. Baden says that the absence of this figure from Isocrates indicates that it belongs rather to the sphere of everyday language. Demxtrius on Style says that Anaphora is used both in the elegant as well as the forcible style, and Epana- phora in the elevated style. Blass says that Isocrates scarcely used the Anaphora at all, but that Demosthenes used it in profusion — e.g.. Cor. 72 : " Officious have I been in speaking of such transactions; officious has the state been in being advised by me " ; stronger through Asyndeton, as well as through the Parechesis, which increases the repetition and further increases the emphasis which the Anaphora already gives.

Caution : Be careful not to use too many Anaphora. Moderation is the best guide, say two or three, or four Anaphora (see Cicero: "A witness is Italy . . ."); Blass remarks, in such parallelisms (see "When Lasthenes . . . ") in which that which is not identical closely corresponds to the same, for the most part have not only great oratorical power but also beauty; the orator has taken care that this does not become showy ornament, by abridgment of repeti- tion. Put the main word at the front or near the front.

Delivery : First let us take an example from Demosthenes as given by Longinus "On the Sublime," that is on lofty speech. He prefaces the delivery with these remarks : " A powerful effect usually attends the union of figures for a common object, when two or three mingle together as it were in partnership, and contribute a fund of strength, persuasive- ness, and beauty. Thus in the speech against Meidas, examples will be found of Asyndeton interwoven with instances of Anaphora and Diatyposis — e.g., ' For the smiter can do many things, some of which the sufferer cannot even describe to another, by attitude, by look, by voice.' (Then, in order that the narrative may not as it advances continue in the same groove, for continuance betokens tranquility, while passion — the transport and commotion of the soul — sets order at defiance, straightway he hurries off to another Asyndeta and Repetitions.) ' By attitude, by look, by voice, w/ten he acts with insolence, m/ien he acts like an enemy, wken he smites with his fists, mken he smites you like a slave.* By these words the orator produces the same effect as the

ANAPHORA 69

assailant — he strikes the mind of the judges by the swift succession of blow on blow. Starting from this point again as suddenly as a gust of wind, he makes another attack, ' When smitten with blows of fists, when smitten upon the cheek. These things stir the blood, these drive men beyond themselves when unused to insult. No one can, in describing them, convey a notion of the indignity they imply.' So he maintains throughout, though with continual variation, the essential character of the Repetitions (Anaphora) and Asyn- deta. In this way, with him order is disorder, and on the other hand, disorder contains a certain element of order. Come now, add if you please in these cases, connecting particles, after the fashion of the followers of Isocrates : Furthermore, the fact, too, must not be overlooked that the smiter may do many things, first by attitude, then by looks, then again by the mere voice; you will feel, if you transcribe the passage in this orderly fashion, that the rugged im- petuosity of passion, once you make it smooth and equable by adding copulatives, falls pointless and immediately loses all its fire. Just as the binding of limbs of runners deprives them of their power of rapid motion, so also passion, when shackled by connecting links and other appendages, chafes at the restriction, for it loses the freedom of its advance and its rapid emission as though from an engine of war." (See "Longinus on the Sublime," by W. Rhys "Roberts, Litt.D.)

When the subject-matter is of the graceful and beautiful, and therefore of the elegant style, e.g.^ Sappho's " Thou bringest . . . ," the r\Qo^ (gentler feelings) prevails, the vowels are pure but gentle and soft, and the parallel members are pronounced with an independent inflection as if each stood alone in the sentence, and with a subsequent pause (see Accumulation). If the subject-matter is that of force {7rd6o<i), e.g.y Demosthenes' " by attitude, by look, by voice . . . ," being commatic and asyndetic, it should be Incre- mentus (see this Fig.) with rising inflection as in counting numbers, each with corresponding modulation, and the whole delivered in the aggregate with greatest speed up to the top. If in the elevated, it should be slow, and the anaphoric word given with full, smooth, or subdued median stress, according to the nature of the matter — e.g., " But, ah ! Him ! the first great martyr. . . . Him ! the premature victim. . . . Him \ the head of our civil councils. . . . Hi^n ! cut off by Provi- dence ..." (see Webster's Bunker Hill address). In all these styles keep the diaphragm well pressed down so that th lungs may be kept full of air, that the tones may carry well, and that the gentlest or strongest touches may be properly made on the vocal chords.

See further details under Fig. Epanaphora and Figures used by Demosthenes.

70 ANASTROPHE

ANASTROPHE: Greek dvd, again, back, backwa.rd ; a-Tpe(f)co, to bring, bear, carry ; is a figure whereby the natural order of words is inverted. What should come first is put last and that last first — e.g., "Homeward directly he went." " Echoed the hills, for the hills echoed."

The Ven. Bede defines Anastrophe thus : " Anastrophe est verborum tantum ordo praeposterus." (An inversion of the order of the words, so that what is last comes first.) " I would seek unto God, unto God would I commit my cause."

Exajnples : Blass' Demosthenes says that in Anastrophe the final word of a clause again becomes the opening word of the following — e.g., Cor. 13: "For he cannot prosecute Ctesiphon on my account, on my account, nevertheless, he would have proceeded with the prosecution, if, indeed, he thought he could have convicted me." The Latin version of this figure of Demosthenes is thus : Ctesiphonten enim persequi judicio no protest propter 7ne, me scilicet ipsum si a se posse convinci confideret no accusasset. (For it is not possible to prosecute Ctesiphon on account of me, \ 7ne would he not have accused, had he thought conviction possible.) Elsewhere Blass says it is simpler as in Cor. 35 : " But an identity of interest; interest equally to Philip, to the Phocians and to all, to be relieved from the stupidity and insolence of the Thebans," where the figure serves after a lengthened pause to a smooth connection and continuation of what follows. Of the same nature is F.L. 97 : " For -^schines is not only accused on account of the peace, but peace on account of ^schines was rendered odious," an antithesis of importance. Then the climax belongs to this set, which, however, only appears once in Demosthenes, Cor. 179: ovBev ovK eiTTOv fiev ravra, ovk eypa-xlra he, ovS eypa^jra fiev, ovK eirpealBevo-a Se, ov8' eTrpeapevaa fiev, ovk eireicra he Srj/SahvS. (I did not speak thus, yet not move the resolution; not move the resolution, yet not serve the embassy ; not serve the embassy, yet not convince the Thebans.) The Climax, as Hermogenes remarks, is a piled up Anastrophe of the first rank.

" Anastrophe often by pleasing change Gracefully puts last the word that first should range."

— Langley. " Whose turf, whose shade, whose flowers among. Wandering the hoary Thames along His silver winding way." — Gray.

" On a sudden ofen fly With impetuous recoil and jarring sound. The infernal doorSy and on all their hinges Grate harsh thunder." — Milton. Use : " Such repetition lends beauty to the speech, and may serve as a smooth transition to what follows, the word repeated

ANATHEMA— ANTANACLASIS 71

being emphasised by chiastic arrangement.'' — W. W. Baden, B.A.

Caution : Be careful not to use too many anastrophic climaxes, because it is a most excellent figure if not intro- duced often in an address; nor make the anastrophic clauses too long, nor too numerous. Demosthenes only used it once__ in the oration on the crown, and then only two anastrophic repetitions — i.e., " not move the resolution," " not serve the embassy." Hermogenes counsels great moderation in its use.

Delivery : The repeated word is emphasised, being what Quintillian styles an Emphatic Repetition (see this Fig.). In the Greek text it will be seen that me, before the vertical line in the example, "For it is not possible . . . ," is a grave accent, and the repeated me, just after that line, has the acute accent. The first me has the downward inflection, and the second the rising; in other words, the voice rises with increased strength above the middle pitch. When the repeated word serves as a transition to what follows, the voice, after* a lengthened pause, is given a slight elevation on that word, somewhat after the modulation for the commencement of a fresh sentence. (See special list of Figures used by Demos- thenes.)

ANATHEMA: J. W. Macbeth says this figure is a form of condemnation hurled at crime, and can be grandly em- ployed. Throwing aside his papers, walking from side to side of the pulpit, lifting his heart and voice to Jehovah, the speaker can cry to God so as to shake the entire audience.

ANTANACLASIS: Greek anti, against; ana, again; fcXda-o), break; is a figure (i) when the same word is repeated in divers, if not in a contrary signification; in other words, where a word has two significations and one of them is con- trary or at least unlike the other, e.g., " Care for those things in your youth which may in old age discharge you of care.'" Here the same word is repeated in a different sense, as also in this example : " Learn some craft when young that when old you may live without craft.'* Craft in the first means science, occupation; in the secoad means deceit or duplicity. Matt. xxvi. 2g : "I will not drink henceforth of this fruit of the vine, until that day when I drink it new in my Father's Kingdom." The first "drink" is literal, the second, meta- phorical. John i. 10 : " The world was made by Him and the world knew Him not," etc. The first "world" means universe, the second, the unbelieving men in the world. (2) The same word may be repeated in a contrary sense, e.g., " Worthy of supplication, should be worthy of punishment." (Quintil- lian.) (3) The same word may be repeated at the beginning of a sentence after a long parenthesis, e.g., ^^ Shall that heart

72 ANTANAGOGE— ANTHYPOPHORA

(which not only feels them, but which has all the notions of life placed in them), shall that hearty I say . . .? " " Antanaclasis in one sound contains

More meanings which the various sense explains ' ' Examples : — Langley.

'' Whik we live, let us live." " Kiss the lips that felt no kiss."

— Montgomery. " Methought I heard a voice cry, Sleep no more ! Macbeth doth murder sleep, the innocent sleep Sleep that knits up the ravell'd sleeve of care."

— Shcikespeare. " Proud wish and vain ! I cannot give The word, that makes the dead to live — Thou art not dead — thou could' st not die."

— Montgomery. Caution : It is essential to this figure that the two words be the same in spelling. When the Declaration of American Independence was being Signed Hancock said, " We must be unanimous, there must be no pulling^ different ways." "Yes," said Franklin, " we must all hang together, or most assuredly we shall hang separately."

ANTANAGOGE : is a figure which consists in answering the charge of an adversary by a countercharge, or by charging him with some other crime; the meeting of an unanswerable accusation by a counter-accusation, or if not able to answer adversary's acccusation we return the charge by loading him with the sa-ne crime.

ANTHYPOPHORA: Greek avrl, against, vtto, under; ^ipo), bring, carry; is a figure which signifies a contrary illa- tion or inference, and is when an objection is refuted or dis- proved by the opposition of a contrary inference. A kind of Prolepsis, in which an opponent's possible objection is antici- pated and answered, thus preventing his use of such an advantage.

Examples : This figure is used when we grant an objection, bringing in another thing which makes the same objection tolerable, e.g., " I grant there are great labour and many perils, yet by painful travel and valiant adventure therein, they ensure immortal glory." "I cannot deny but that the way to learning and wisdom is long and painful, the ascent steep and slippery, the season dark and misty ; false turnings many, besides stops and many other kinds of discouragements ; yet by labour and Constance once attained, it bringeth with a plentiful harvest, a means both of profit and pleasure." Matt, xxi. 23, 24, 25 : " The chief priests and elders of the people came unto Christ as he was teaching and said, By what authority doest thou these things? and Jesus answered and said unto them, I will ask you one thing, which if ye tell me,

ANTHYPOPHORA— AxNTICIPATION 73

I in likewise will tell you by what authority I do these things. The Ba-ptism of John, whence was it? from heaven or of men," etc. " And they reasoned with themselves, saymg, If we shall say from heaven, he will say unto us, why did ye not then believe him? but if we shall say of men, we fear the people,'* etc.

According to Bullinger this figure is so called because, not only is the objection anticipated ; but it is stated, and the answer also is given. This figure is so called because by stealth, we take our opponent's objection and substitute it for our own. Isa. xlix. 14: Zion's objection is not merely antici- pated in this verse, but is answered in the next. " But Zion . . . " "Can a woman forget her suckling child . . .? Yes, they may forget, yet will I not forget thee." i Cor. xv. 35, 36 : " But some man will say, How are the dead raised up, and with what body do they come?* Thou foolish man! that which thou sowest is not quickened except it die."

Use: Anthypophora is used very effectively in argument, to moderate extremities and to arbitrate between comparative contentions, and to amplify.

Caution : The latter part should be made stronger than the first. ^

ANTICATEGORIA or TU QUOQUE : Greek anti, against; agorezio, to speak; is a figure when we retort upon another the very insinuation or accusation he has made against us. It differs from Antistrophe in that it has to do, not with any general kind of words, but with a particular accusation.

Examples: Ezek. xviii. 25, "Yet ye say the way of the Lord is not equal. Hear now, O house of Israel, is not my way equal ? Are not your ways unequal ? ' ' Also verse 29 and xxxiii. 17. This would be Anteisagoge were it not a simple question instead of an accusation. — E. W. Bullinger.

ANTICIPATION : Lat. ante, beforehand ; and capere, to take; anticipare, to take beforehand, prevent; is a figure by which objections are anticipated or prevented ; where we fore- see an objection and confute it or present one to knock it down. It is the same as Prolepsis. It also takes the form of announce- ments wherein interest is stirred in one to look forward to know the result, e.g., "More revelations to-morrow\" "My text is at the end," said the preacher, so each should fix upon an appropriate verse of the scripture. " We look forward with pleasure to know the outcome." — Prof. James Albert Winans*" " Public Speaking."

" Anticipation is of great effect, especially in the exordium.'*

— Quintillian.

74 ANTIMETABOLE— ANTIMETATHESIS

ANTIMETABOLE: Greek dvrl, against; fiira, back- wards; ySaX'Xo), to turn; is a figure in which the same word or ideas are repeated in an inverse order, e.g., " Be wisely true in order to be truly wise." "A wit with dunces and a dunce with wits.'*

" The Garden of Eloquence " says : " It is a sentence inverted or turned back, or it is a form of speech which inverts a sen- tence by the contrary, and is used frequently to confute by such inversion. Also a figure when words in the same sentence are repeated in a divers case or person. A change of words by contraries or turning of a wordj in a sense, upside down."

Examples : " It behooveth thee to eat that thou mayest live, and not to live that thou mayest eat." " If for love of honour, or honour of love." " That as you are the child of a mother so you may be the mother of a child." 2 Cor. xii. 14: "The children ought not to lay up for their parents, but the parents for the children." " In peace children bury their parents, in war parents bury their children."

" Antimetabole at effect will strain

And words and terms revers'd employ agam "

— Langley. ''A poem is a speaking picture; a picture is a mute poem." " Zion shall lamentation make with words that weep and Uars that speak.'

" The morn that usher' d thee to life, my child. Saw thee in tears, whilst all around thee smiled ; So live, that sinking to thy last long sleep, Sweet may'st thou smile, when all around thee weep!'

— Sir William Jones. "If Anthony is consul, Brutus is an enemy; if Brutus is a preserver of his country, Anthony is an enemy." (Quintillian.) Job XV. 76 : " You have not chosen me, but I have chosen you." Rom. vii. 19: " The good that I would, I do not; but the evil that I would not, that I do." Matt. ii. 2;: "The sabbath was made for man, not man for the sabbath."

Use\ It serves properly to praise, dispraise, distinguish, but most commonly to confute by inversion of the sentence. It opposes one thing to another and contrasts two or more things.

Caution : Be sure that the inverted parts are not false, nor perversely put contrary to the truth.

ANTIMETATHESIS: Greek, meaning a transposition; is a figure by which a repetition is made in an inverse order of the members of an antithesis. It chiefly results from a reverted arrangement in the last clause of a sentence of the two principal words of the clause preceding, much the same as Antimetabole, e.g., " A poem is a speaking picture, a picture is a mute poem." (Crabbe.)

ANTIPARABOLE-ANTIPHRASIS 75

" It is a transposition of one thing over against another, especially of one person over against another; as when the writer or speaker addresses the reader or speaker in the second person as if he were actually present. Rom. xi. 1 8 : * Boast not against the branches. But if thou boastest (know thou that) thou bearest not the root but the root (bearest) thee.' " — Bul^ linger. " Longinus on the Sublime ' ' says that the interchange of persons produces a vivid impression and often makes the hearer feel that he is moving in the midst of perils, makes him more excited, more attentive, and full of active participation if you keep him on the alert. (See Diatyposis.)

ANTIPARABOLE : Greek an^i, against; para, alongside; dole, to put, hold, to hold alongside, to compare; is a form of speech whereby the opponent's views and arguments are . compared. The opponent's arguments and views take the weak emphasis or rising inflection generally, and yours the strong emphasis, that is the assertive and falling inflection. The delivery corresponds to the two members of an Antithesis.

ANTIPHRASIS: Greek dvTL, opposite, against; ^pd^uy to tell ; is a form of speech whereby a word expressed signifies the contrary. A word or speech to be understood to the con- trary, a kind of irony, and is where in one sense the same word has a contrary meaning, or a meaning contrary to its original sense. " The difference between Irony and Antiphrasis is that Irony indicates by the pronunciation alone what is to be understood, whereas Antiphrasis not only signifies a con- trary thing by the tone of the voice, but also by the words themselves of which the original is the contrary." (De Tropis Beda.)

Exam-pies \ This opposite sense or signification may either be in humour, satire, or irony, e.g., " It was a bold Antiphrasis that gave the name Greenland to the icebergs of Iceland.'* " Court of justice; call it court of vengeance."

U se : The. use of this figure is to reprehend vice, mock folly, by bringing the sharp edge of comparison between virtue, •what he ought to be and what he is ; between what he has done and what he ought not to have done.

ANTISTROPHE : Greek dvrl, against, one against the other, mutually ; crTp6(f)co, turn, turn back or about, to retort ; is a figure (a) which repeats the words in an inverse order. " The master of the servant and the servant of the master." It is chiefly a change made between two terms that depend one upon the other, as in the foregoing example. It m*ay also be the reciprocal conversion of the same words in consecutive clauses or sentences, (b) A retort or turning of an adversary's plea against him. " Had I killed him, as you report, I had

76 ANTISTROPHE

not stayed to bury him." (c) Also when succeeding clauses or sentences end with the same word.

Examples: Demosthenes, Cor. 198, "Is anything- affected which appears to you to be expedient ? Silent" is ^Eschmes. Has any unfavourable circumstances occurred ? Forthwith comes ^schines/' See an example from Cicero under Fig. Symploce, commencing thus : " Who are they that have broken their treaties ? the Carthagenians. Who are they that have v/aged . . . ? the Carthagenians."

From Whiteheld's sermon on "The Lord our Righteous- ness " : " You need not fear the greatness of the number of your sins. For, are you sinners ? so am I. Are you the chief of sinners? so am I. Are you a backsliding sinner? so am I."

BuUinger gives a Biblical example of the turning of the words of a speaker against himself in the following : " The woman of Canaan used this figure in her reply to Christ. He had said, * It is not meet to take the children's bread and to cast it to dogs,' and she said, ' Truth, Lord; yet the dogs eat of the crumbs which fall from the master's table,' and thus turned His words against Himself." (Matt. xv. 26-27.)

" I call it counterturn because it turns counter in the middle of every verse; for to make them finish, it would hinder the rhyme,

She shuns my love and after by a train She seeks my love, so lightly won and lost : I longed not for her love, for well I thought, Firm is the love, if it be as it ought." — Puttenham.

Use : " The opposite of Anaphora, the Antistrophe, in which the like word stands at the end, is equally usable in parallelisms. The position of the repeated word at the end in long combinations does not result in such freedom of style as is the case when it is placed at the beginning to which the parallelisms of the thought and the emphasising of the idea lead naturally, and in this way the Antistrophe is also seldom to be found in Demosthenes, but it is combined with a more or less ironical colouring." — Blass' Demosthenes. It is used with almost the same force as the Anaphora.

" In artistic composition this figure is productive of beauty. Hermog. 11, 335. If the clauses are short, the repeated word gives energy and vivacity to the discourse. Hermog. 1 1, 36 .** ^W. W. Baden, B.A.

Caution : Hermogenes in his Hep I 'ISlmv (Teaching of the Idea) advises the use of this figure in moderation, that the kola (clauses) be of moderate length, and that the Hiatus be carefully avoided. When several kola are connected with one period, the last must be longer than the preceding one. Moder- ation in the Hermogenean caution, is not to pass four Anti- strophes as in Cicero's " The Carthagenians," which are limited to four in number. This makes a forcible and energetic period.

ANTISTROPHE— ANTITHESIS 77

Delivery : If the thoughts are of the invective, ironical, mockery, or sarcastic class, the delivery should be in the Pathos (sv/ift, forcible, violent) abounding in the forcible style, with the acute and grave accents in the invectives, and the cir- cumflex in the ironical, sarcastic, etc; and the voice should rise in force on each successive Antistrophe, reaching its fullest on the third if the period contains four Antistrophes or clauses" {or on the second Antistrophe^ thereby balancing the four), as in " The Carthagenians," and on the fourth Antistrophe a full falling inflection. If two., as in Demosthenes, the fullest rise is on the first "^schines," the second, falling inflection. If the sentiment is of the beautiful, graceful, etc., the Ethos (gentle, assuaging, calming) should prevail, the style being the Elegant; tones soft and pure, each antistrophic clause like Accumulation with an independent inflection and a pause, as if standing alone in the sentence. (See Figs, used by Demosthenes.)

ANTITHESIS : Greek avr/, against, opposite, one against the other; TLOijfii, to place, to set; is a figure which consists in bringing contrary ideas or terms, words or sen- tences, in close opposition, e.g., " When our vices leave us, we fi,atter ourselves that we leave them.'' An opposition of idea's or phrases, e.g., " Fire is a good servant, but a bad master'* It. may be a simple balancing, and as J. C. Robertson, M.A., says, where two thoughts are not antithetical, and are ex- pressed in a form which would lead one to expect antithetical thoughts, it is then called a false antithesis. Here the simi- larity in the structure of the clauses is such as would be appro- priate, and. naturally suggests opposition of thought, which, however, is lacking. Bain says : " Antithesis derives its force from the fact that the mind is affected by change, as in passing from rest to motion, from cold to heat . . .; and the greater and more sudden the change, the stronger is the effect.'* Quintillian says : " There is commonly a repetition of the first word of the phrase, e.g., " You awoke by the crowing of the cock, he, by the sound of the trumpet." The middle corresponds with the first or beginning, e.g., ''Thee Anguistas grove deployed, thee Fucinus with crystal stream.*' The beginning and the end, e.g., " Many severe afflictions for parents, and for relatives many.'' The middle with the end, e.g., " This ship laden with sfoil being itself a portion of the sfoiir

Anaximines defines Antithesis as consisting (i) in words; (2) in thoughts ; (3) in both words and thoughts. The latter part of Anaximines' definition has been adhered to as giving a good norm for comparison. Volkmann approves of it, saying that as a real rhetorical figure, only those antitheses should be considered, which combine opposition in words with opposition in thoughts. — W. W. Baden.

7^ ANTITHESIS

Aristotle gives us as the best sentence, one that contains an. Antithesis, a Metaphor and a Personification. Julius Rufinianus, in " Liber III. de Figuris Sententiarum et Elocu- tionis," says that Antithesis, rather Syncrisis, is a Figure of Words, and that it is " comparatio rerum atque personarum inter se contrarium, ut: tu delinquis, ego arguor." (A com- parison of persons and things opposed to each other — You committed the offence, I made the accusation.)

" The Garden of Eloquence ' * says : " This is the most excellent ornament of eloquence, it gives light by opposition.'** " Antithesis opposing things to things,

Oft from the contrast strength and beauty brings." Examples : — Langley.

" A hero perish or a sfarroiv fall, Atoms or systems into ruin hurl'd And now a bubble burst and now a world y — Pope. " Sweet harmonist ! and beautiful as sweet ! And young as beautiful ! and soft as young ! And gay as soft ! and innocent as gay ! And happy, if ought happy here, as good\ " "Death entombs the body, Life the soul." — Young. Demetrius on Style gives the following examples (i) of Antithesis in thought : " Sailing across the mainland and marching across the sea"; (2) verbally contrasted-. "To the man He gave a laborious and perilous life, while He caused the woman's beauty to be admired and coveted." Here article is opposed to article, connective to connective, like to like^ from beginning to end: "caused" to "gave," "admired" to "laborious," "covetous" to "perilous." The correspond- ence of one thing with another, of like with like runs through- out. An example of antithetic form, by no real opposition : "One time in their midst was I, another time beside them I." Example of a symmetry of members : " This implies that neither those who are asked disown, nor those who care censure the occupation." (Thucydides.) Example of Homoeoteleuton, i.e., members which have a similar termination : " You are the men who, when he was alive, spoke to his discredit, and now that he is dead, write to his discredit " ; or they may end with the same syllable.

Use : On the use of Antithesis, Herbert Spencer on " Philosophy of Style " remarks that the opposition of two thoughts which are the reverse of each other in some prominent train, insures an impressive effect, and does this by giving a momentary relaxation to the faculties addressed. If, after a series of ordinary images exciting in a moderate degree to emotion of reverence, or approbation, or beauty, the mind has presented to it an insignificant or unworthy, or ugly image; the structure which yields the emotion of reverence, or appro- bation, or beauty, having for the time nothing to do, tends

ANTITHESIS 79

to resume its full power; and will immediately afterwards appreciate anythmg vast, admirable or beautiful better than it would do otherwise. Conversely, where the idea of absurdity, due to extreme insignihcance, is to be produced, it may be intensified by placing it after something impressive; especially if the form of the phrase implies that something still more impressive is coming. Everyone knows that a paten of black on a white ground looks blacker, and a patch of white on a black ground looks whiter than elsewhere. fne effect is due to visual antithesis. But this extension of the general principle of economy ... to effective composition, that the sensitiveness of the faculties, musi be husbanded^ includes more than has been hinted . . . that certain juxtaposition of connected ideas are best . . . irrespective of logical cohesion. Rossiter Johnson says " the man that has no vices usually has precious few virtues," as if the absence of vices were not in itself a great virtue. Here is the danger if it becomes a habit, as after a ,time we tell absolute untruths because we can put them antithetically and epigrammatically. " He has travelled farther and seen less than any mxan he ever knew," an untruth, but it caught on and people remembered it..

Referring to the use of Antithesis, Blass says that in addi- tion to the various forms of Alliteration comes the whole mass of the Farecheses and Paronomasias connected with rhythms^ which are of the most varied kind, now weak and hardly noticeable, though always effective in a certain measure, now stronger and more striking, especially in passages of a mocking character, and sometimes at a moderate distance, and then of course, not weak, sometimes in close proximity where they may be weak. Cor. 145: "Although your generals carried on an unsuccessful I and a badly managed war against him yet he suffered numberless annoyances from the war itself | and from the pirates."

The " Edinburgh Review," Vols. 33-36, gives some splendid examples of the Antithesis as used by Demosthenes. Nothing can be finer, it says, that the burst of irony : " A noble return have the Oritcins met with for betaking themselves to Philip's creatures and abandoning the Euptraeus ! " It may suffice the classical reader of the powerful description of Philip, where he contrasts his conduct with that of the Athenians . . . ; the exposure of ^schines' inconsistency . . . ; the bitter description of the Athenian populace, which he puts into the mouths of his adversaries. Inculpation ^ reprehension, invec^ tive. See under " Demosthenes " the powerful and skilful use of the Antithesis respecting Diopeithes, where the orator ** breaks out into a vehement inculpation of the Athenians for their numberless follies in the conduct of their affairs. This passage has all the characteristic fire and rapidity and point of the oration; it affords, too, an example of a very fine

80 ANTITHESIS

repetition ... the orator's favourite figure Antithesis is not spared, and the original is as sonorous to the ear as it is striking." The Antithesis is used in Na/ralion, when it is called Antidiegesis, in Oxy^noron, and in a number of other figures.

Antithesis is used in the symmetry of members, largely to give charm and beauty. Demetrius gives this example : " I went from Athens to Stageira because of the great king, and from Stageira to Athens because of the great storm." If you, he says, take away "great" in either case, you will at the same time destroy the charm. The reason is that such mem- bers, like many antithetical of Gorgias and Isocrates, tend to heighten expression. So there are cases in which symmetry of members is useful. (See W. Rhys Roberts.) " Things opposed by being placed side by side, become very clear, and there is awakened in the hearer the agreeable feeling of easy perception." — Aristotle, i. 137. All Antiphon's efforts were engaged in inventing and contrasting ideas in order to bring out the arguments. " Both orators (Isaeus and Demosthenes) depend upon the exact significance of words to express their ideas. Both delight in bringing their contrasts forcibly before the minds of the judges, but in so doing often lound off the clauses so as to produce good periods, assisted by the outward graces of Parison and Homoeoteleuton. Antithesis and Pari- son: Isaeus i, 20, 26, 38, 43; 11, 15, 26, 30 ; 3, 60; Demos- thenes 27 — I, 22, 24, 36, 51, 54; 28 — 12, 18, 24; 29 — 5, 8, 43, 45> 58; 30 — 7, II, 19, 25, 28, 33, 37; Antithesis, Parison and Homoeoteleuton: — Isaeus: i — 29, 40; 7 — 29, 43, 44; Demos- thenes: 27, 47, 55, 64, 65; 28, 7, 9, 24; 29, 2, 5, 9. About one-half of the Antitheses in Isaeus and Demosthenes show a periodic structure more or less exact. Both orators are fond of contrasting the conduct^ feelings, etc., of the opposite parties. Chiastic Antitheses are very forcibly used by Isaeus. Although Demosthenes does not use such Antitheses so fre- quently as Isaeus, he has some examples: 27, 20, 26; 28, 10, 12; 31, II. The particles men (just as) de (so) attack dif- ferent members of the Antithesis with a chiastic effect." W. W. Baden, A.B. Chiasm in Antithesis is where both sides of the Antithesis are emphasised. For its effect see Hermogenes 1 1 ^ 242. On a rounded -periodic construction of the Antithesis y Demetrius says that the very nature of the subject-matter con- strains us often to construct sentences which are rounded, indeed, but forcible too, as in the following passage of Demos- thenes : " Just as you would not have made this proposal if any of the former parties had been convicted, so if you are convicted now no one will do so in the future." This par- ticular arrangement obviously g^rew out of the subject, and the order of the words evoked it. Paronomasia and Pare- chesis used in Antithesis, J. C. Robertson, M.A., states that

1

ANTITHESIS 81

the figure (Paronomasia) is more artistic the sharper the contrast in meajiing between the words which sound alike. The height of_design is reached in cases like: iSto?, life ; ^^09, bow ; here the words are different in meaning, and m the latter case the Parechesis contributes to a sharp Antithesis. Where the design is plain, the tone is apt to be ironical and_ scornful (Blass Demos., pp. 140-3). Ihe Antithesis and Parallelism employed by certain English writers, e.g.^ Macau- lay, have been recognized as among the chief sources of their rhetorical strength. " In all earnest thinking there is a ten- dency to place one idea over against another. Contrast is ' the soul of oratory.* The force of Antithesis may be realized by taking some simple sentence and giving each word succes- sively as the centre of attention. * He never said that ' " ("Foundation of Expression," by S. S. Curry).

Demetrius further says that the Homoeoteleuton is ill-suited for vigorous declamation, since artifice and study which they involve, impair the energy of discourse, e.g.^ " Men-slayers in nature, they were men-harlots in life; they were called com- x-aAes but were concubin^i"." — Theopompus. The similarity in the members, and the Antithesis between them, impair the vigour of the expression through the trick of art. -For indig- nation needs no art; in such invectives the words should be simple and, in a manner, impromptu. Such devices as I have shown do not contribute to the vigour of style. J hey are not afpropriate to the outbursts of -passion, or to the delinea- tions of character. Simplicity and naturalness are the mark alike of passion and of character-drawing. In the treaties of Aristotle on " Justice." for instance, a speaker laments the fate of Athens. If he asks " what city they had taken from their enemies as great as their own city which they had destroyed," he will have spoken with feeling and from the heart. But if he makes the members of the sentence sym- metrical : " what so great city from their enemies had they taken as their own city which they had iorsaken,'' you may depend upon it that he will not excite pity or compassion, but rather the so-called "mirth amid tears." For ill-judged ingenuity of this kind in emotional passages is no better than the proverbial "jest at a funeral." In the Forcible Type, Antithesis and rhyming termination will be avoided. Robert- son says that a short Antithesis is effective in pathos \ but that the Greek rhetoricians do not justify assuming Antithesis within a single colon, or at any rate, a single comma; for instance, such brief compass as married, unmarried.* Robertson further states on the effect of the Antithesis, that besides injuring the general effect in passages which involve feeling, the straining after Antithesis may lead to a sacrifice of conciseness, as in the case of Gorgias; or, of clearness and

* Such expressions make the Fig. Oxymoron.

82 ANTITHESIS

purity, as in the case of Thueydides. If Chiasm is employed, it prevents the symmetrical position of the two particles at tiie end of their cola. Hdt. in, 32.

Hermogenes is especially noteworthy in his praise of Demos- thenes for avoiding monotony in the use of the Homoeote- leuton, by shifting the hnal syllables which would give an assonance, or by inserting extra clauses. (Hermog., pp. 325- 3.) Blass' '* Demosthenes " remarks that these figures of sound (Parechesis, Homoeoteleuton, and Paronomasia) are m their place, especially the kind of Paronomasia where no sharp contrast of meaning is present ; but in pathos and gravity, and everything of that kind, they must be avoided, except such assonances as do not attract attention. (See F.L. 146.) Blass also says that Hermogenes shows very well m what manner the orator knows how to avoid, in different ways, the too exact correspondence of the form, that is to say, whether the one part will be broken up by interpolations, or transposition of words, or by the whole clause corresponding to the whole clause, and not the parts corresponding to the parts, e.g., Cor. 119: "Then while you acknowledge that the fact of receiving favours is consistent with the law you accuse as being illegal a return for them." We shall close the use of the Antithesis with some extracts from Blass' " Demosthenes." This is a figure which ^schines lays stress on in Demosthenes, and which as a fact is exceed- ingly valuable and indispensable to the orator. For, as Aristotle says, contraries appear very clear when placed in juxtaposition, and the Antithesis is like a syllogism, as in this also, opposites are often placed together, so that by this means the pleasing idea of understanding is easily awak- ened in the hearer. In the speech referring to the trierarch wreath, though the Antitheses are numerous, the Homoeote- leuta are rare, and a painfully accurate matching not sought. Slingle Parison and Homoeoteleuton are found in all the speeches because the latter comes in unasked, e.g., Cor. 104: " themselves little or nothing spending, but the impoverished of the citizens grinding." Demosthenes employed sharpness and accuracy in the formation of his Antithesis, which in the individual examples are exceptionally great, e.g., Lept. 26 : *' For the expenditure upon the choragiae | the gratification is afforded to those of us who are spectators for a small portion of a day, j but by the abundant supplies of the means of war, I is secured the safety of the whole commonwealth for all time." Irony and Paronomasia used in Antitheses against T^schines to sharpen the contrast, e.g., ''thinking his un- favourable time a favourable time for you." An expression used by O'Connell in this form ('* England's need, Ireland's opportunity"). Another witty play on words against ^schines: ". . . fit for freemen, fit for destruction of

ANTITHESIS 83

freemen." Another, with sarcastic contrast. Cor. ii: "Ill- natured as you are, you entertain the good-natured notion, that is, simply to fancy that I should forego the arguments of my actions and public conduct, and turn to your vituperation.'*" All this is used for the ends of mockery and jeering ^ as also the long row of small Antitheses in the same speech on the. Crown, 265 : ^

fiyv. ix6p6ve<;, iyo) 8' ixop^yovv. iypafjbfidreve^, iyco 8' tjkkKi)' ala^ov. irpLTayoovLCTTeL^, iyo) S' idecopovv. efeViTTTe?, iycb 8' iau- piTTOV. virep TMv i')(dpS}v TreTroXlTevaai iravra, iycb 8* virep t7}% 7raTpL8o<i,

(You were a teacher, I a scholar; you an initiator, I an initiated; you a clerk, I a public speaker; you a third- rate actor, I a spectator; you failed your part, I hissed; you were devoted to the interest of the enemy, I to that of my country.) W. S. Tyler, Professor of Greek in Amherst College, says: " This passage has been universally admired by a host of critics from Hermogenes downwards; but I cannot myself admire it at all, except for the neatness with which the *Anti- theta ' are balanced. It may be heterodox for me to say so, but this Antithesis seems to me studied and unnatural, and not consistent with the honest indignation which Demosthenes affects. But no doubt it would be very effective as oratory." Returning to Blass, he says that if these were other than mockery, then one would have to acknowledge that Demetrius was right, when he finds fault with the passage as being artificial. Milton's " Apology for Smectymnuus " imitates this passage : " They thought themselves gallant men, I thought them fools."

Caution : Demetrius says that Antithesis and Exact Paral- lelisms of words in periods should be avoided, since in place of force they render the style laboured and often frigid. Theopompus, for example, when inveighing against the inti- mation of Philip, enfeebled his invective by the following' Antithesis : " men-slayers in nature, they were men-harlots in life." The hearer having his attention fixed on this elabora- tion, or rather affectation, forgets to be angry. Excessive Antithesis is out of place even in Demosthenes' " You were initiating, I was initiated ; you taught, I attended classes ; you took minor parts in the theatre, I was a spectator; you broke down, I hissed." The elaborate parallelism of clauses pro- duces the effect of false artifice; of trifling, rather than the honest indignation. Series of uninterrupted periods, although appropriate to other styles, is favourable to force. These massed periods should, however, be short (of two members, say), since many-membered periods will produce the feeling" of beauty rather than of force.

S4 ANTITHESIS

Quintillian says : "Antitheses add grace to style, but too many soon offend. Who would bear a speaker raging, lament- ing, supplicating in studied Antithesis, balanced clauses and similar cadences? "

Robertson says : " WHere pathos is demanded, and the occasion is of a serious practical nature, the Antithesis must not be too artificial ; a short Antithesis, then, is more effective than a long one. But where display is the object. Antitheses may be longer ; they may be accumulated and each cut up into subordinate Antitheses, and the effect is then rather heightened than diminished by calling in the aid of other Gorgianic figures, especially the Parison."

Dionysius of Halicarnassus in " De Compositione " remarks — referring to austere composition : " It makes the clauses not parallel in structure or sound, nor is a slave to rigid sequence, but noble, brilliant, free. It wishes to suggest nature rather than art, and to stir emotion. It uses no supplementary words in order to round off periods ... is marked by flexi- bility in its use of the cases, variety in the employment of figures, few connectives; it lacks articles, it often disregards natural sequence; it is anything rather than florid, it is aristo- cratic, plain-spoken, unvarnished.'*

Delivery : If the two antithetical words are not expressed, then the one that is expressed should take the strong emphasis, that is the falling inflection, if the opposite idea is denied or excluded, e.g., " I am tortured even to think of the proud victor." The strong emphasis on " think" denies the use of '"speak" of him. This is what is called single e7nphasis\ and double emphasis where the two antithetical terms are ex- pressed, e.g. J " Must we, in your person, crown the author of our calamities, or must we destroy him." (^schines.) "** Cro^\Tl " takes the rising inflection, as it is the first of the Antithesis, and the second term " destroy," which is its oppo- site, takes the falling. This is the double emphasis, in other words, delivered as Saintsbury styles, " antiphonic and anti- thetic," that is, the tones take an opposite course or sound, and the words are antithetic. If three terms of the Antithesis are expressed, which is treble emphasis, the delivery should be thus : " In peace children bury their parents, in war pdrents bury their children." This is also called " Balanced structure with Antithesis." In case the contrast consists of a delivery in what is called General Emphasis, then redundancy of sound as well as words are necessary to express the Antithesis, and the falling inflection or strong emphasis must be given on the auxiliary verbs, etc., to exclude or deny the antithetical idea of "appearance, falsity," e.g., " If-R6me-must-fall, then we are innocent." " Perdition catch me, I do love her." The falling inflection on " do " denies the idea of "appear" to love.

ANTITHESIS— ANTITHETA S5

" Richard Brinsley Sheridan delighted especially in Anti- thesis, Apostrophe and rhetorical exaggeration." — Mathews. Russell says that the distinctive slide (a downward of the third interval, unimpassioned emphasis) is used in the delivery of contrasts or exactly balanced words or phrases, as " I would neither be rich nor poor."

In the delivery of ^ke Pari son, where the Antitheses and alF ■conspire to beauty, the balancing members may with elegance be broken into groups, and tliere is a perpetual paring and balancing (see examples under Parison), also a continuation of the intlection of the voice is necessary, including ascent and descent through the various successive notes. This is very suitable in the delivery of marked contrasts and highly- wrought rhetorical climaxes, e.g., ''By thme agony and bloody sweat; by thy cross and passion; by thy precious death and burial; by thy glorious resurrection and ascension. . . ." The voice is smooth and flowing, no clashing sounds, the anti- thetical words pronounced with opposing tones, but the inflec- tions not too deep or high. The successive antithetic cola, or the two clauses that make it up, may be pitched on a slightly higher tone to add to the beauty of the composition. (See delivery of Parison). In the delivery of the Forcible Anti- thesis, that is of the brief, sharp, opposing ideas, the emphasis becomes sharper and stronger. As force requires brevity, it likewise requires emphasis to bring out the meaning. In the famous Antithesis of Demosthenes, which Tyler said no doubt would be very effective in oratory, so it is, the cola, as will be noted from the Greek text, are concise and sharp. There are six antithetic cola, each one having a double emphasis with a tinge of contempt on each of the different occupations of yEschines. The six cola may be divided into two groups : group I, to be of four cola, the first colon low, the second higher tone, the third still higher, the fourth low tone with circumflex in " actor " ; group 2, fifth colon lower tone, sixth colon higher tone with a fieice invective, terminating with a strong, rising inflection, which marks the turn of the voice for the cadence, the rest in a strong, falling inflection, e.g., " You were a teacher, I a scholar; you an initiator, I initiated. . . .'* (See under use of this Figure for full marked passage, also Fig. Pathopoeia.) If this passage is delivered with the proper tones, the effect is powerful.

ANTITHETA : The same derivation as Antithesis ; is a figure whereby the orator joins the parts in opposition by a third contrary, e.g., " The one has obtained glory, the other riches; both by my benefit." The Antitheta, says Aristotle, are therefore acceptable, because not only the parts appear the better for the opposition, but also carry with them a certain appearance of enthymeme which leads to impossibility. This pleases, as well as has the form of Reducio ad absurdum.

86 A.NTITHETON

ANTITHETON: Derivation same as Antithesis; is a j&.gure by which a contrast or contraposition is made, not only between one particular, but between several preceding and suc- ceeding particulars, e.g.^ "A law not learned, or acquired, or read; but imbibed and derived and received." Bain says: " In knowledge there is a shock of transition. Light is known by passing out of the darkness. Conflicting statements are sometimes made to excite wonder. The contrast of great, results flowing from small agencies excite wonder in the highest degree — the sentiment of power or the s-ublime. Con- tradictory things are brought pointedly together to increase the oratorical effect, e.g., "Who is the man that has dared to call into civilized alliance, the wild and inhuman savage of the woods?" In this figure "the contrast is implied in the meaning of any term or description," as to be a blessing and not a curse.

According to Aristotle, the refutative element is from con- sideration of contradiction, as from times, actions, words,, either of the adversary or the speaker, or of both ; e.g., of the adversary : " He says he loves the people, yet he was in the conspiracy of the thirty tyrants " ; of the speaker: " He tells you that I am litigious, but is unable to prove that I brought any action into court." " The refutative is more palpable to the audience than confirmative enthymeme, because it sets contraries briefly together. Putting things in contrast makes them see them better, also leads to impossibility, and produces the greatest effect when, on the commencement of their enume- ration, men anticipate the conclusion, yet without being super- ficial to the hearers, they feel a pleasure in themselves in having anticipated it."

Use : Antitheton is used very suitably for amplification, and is a very pleasant figure. Puttenham calls it the quarreller, for " so be all such persons as delight in taking the contrary part of whatsoever shall be spoken." Isocrates made full use of this figure.

According to " De Rhetorica Isidori," contrary thoughts placed in juxtaposition produce s^reat beauty and in ornament of speech are very becoming. The following passage is given from Cicero as most charming and effective : " . . . . if, I say, omitting all these things, we choose to compare the causes themselves, which are opposed to one another, we may understand from that alone how thoroughly prostrate they are. For on the one side are fighting modesty, on the other wanton- ness ; on the one side chastity, on the other uncleanness ; on the one side honesty, on the other fraud ; on the one side piety, on the other wickedness ; on the one side stability, on the other frenzy ; on the one side honojir, on the other baseness ; on the one side continence, on the other lust ; in short, equity, temperance, fortitude, prudence, all virtues contend aeainst iniquity, luxury, indolence, rashness, against all vices ; lastly^

ANTONOMASIA 87

abundance contends against destitution, good plans against baffled designs, wisdom against madness, well-tounded hope agamst universal despair. In a contest and war of this sort, even if the zeal of men were to fail, will not the immortal gods compel such numerous and excessive vices to be defeated by these most eminent virtues?" _

Delivery : Is the same as in Antithesis, the first part or mem- ber takes, as a rule, the rising inflection, and the second part the falling inflection.

ANTONOMASIA: Greek, avri, for, instead; ovo/jua name; to call after another name; is a figure whereby the orator or speaker puts one proper name for another, or uses an epithet or name of some office, dignity, profession, science, or trade, instead of the proper name of the person, e.g., (i) the orator speaking of the king, says His Majesty, to a noble- man. Your Lordship, Your Honour, etc. ; (2) instead of name, use title, as Hon. Judge, Sir ; (3) the author by the name of his profession or science, as when they say "the Roman orator'* for Cicero ; (4) a man by the name of his country, as " the Persian," " the Britain," " the American "; (5) when we give to one man the name of another for the affinity's sake of their manners or conditions, etc. Or on the surname ; " not the King of Spain, but say the Western King, because his dominions extend further west than any other Christian king." — Putten- ham. In praise; as when we call a grave man " a Cato/' a just man " an Aristides." an eloquent man "a Cicero," an eminent philosopher "an Aristotle." In dispraise, call a tyrant "a Nero," a voluptuous liver " an Epicure." Bain says: "Anto- nomasia puts an individual for the species, e.g., ' Every man is not a Solomon. He is a Croesus (in wealth). Speciality or concreteness reaches the utmost point in the individual, e.g., ^ Some village Hampden here may sleep.' "

" Antonomasia proper names imparts

From kindred, country, epithets and arts."

Langley.

" The mighty Stagyrite (Aristotle) first left the shore Spread all his sails and durst the deep explore."

—Pope. ^* The Swedish sage (Linnaens) admires in yonder bowers His winged insects and his rosy flowers."

Use : This Figure helps much in praising or dispraising the equal comparison, and serves for variety.

Caution : Do not give a less name than the dignity requires, as Your Worship for King; nor ridiculous, as to call grand- father greybeard; nor amorous or indecent terms, as sweet- heart.

88 APARITHMESIS— APODIXIS

APARITHMESIS : derived from the Greek, meaning to count, reckon up, number ; is a figure which " consists in enumerating- particulars in such a way as to produce a cumu- lative effect and sometimes a climax. This is a favourite and effective figure in philippics. Burke's per(5ration of the Warren Hastings' trial is a notable example." — Rossiter John- son. Aparithmesis is a description by the enumeration of parts or particulars.

APHAERESIS : Greek apo^ from; aireo, to take; is a figure by which a letter or syllable is taken away or cut off in the beginning of a word. "Aphaeresis or front-cut : ' Down m 'Frisco." '—Bret Harte. "Why, he'd sharpen a knife upon his father's tombstone to kill his mother." — J. W. Macbeth.

APOCOPE: Greek afo, away, off; kopto, cutting; is a figure whereby the last letter or syllable is taken away or cut off. " Apocope, end-cut : * Go in the pi — , go in the pi — , go in the pious throng.' " — J. W. Macbeth.

APODIXIS : Greek, airo, forth ; heUw^iL, to show forth, to prove that a thing is ; is a form of speech by which the orator grounds his sayings upon general experience. It differs from Martyria — which is where the speaker confirms what he says by the testimony of his own knowledge. In Apodixis he infers his reason or confirmation from known principles, which experience proves and no main can deny. Of all the forms of speech this is the most apt and mighty to confirm or confute, because it is grounded upon the strong foundation of experience, confirmed by all times, allowed in all places, and subscribed to by all men, e.g.y "Trust not the horse's heels nor the dog's tooth." "Fire and water have no mercy." Many proverbs arise as the above. " Can the rush grow without mire? " " Can the flag grow without water.? " — Job viii. II. " Can a man take fire in his bosom and his clothes not be burnt ? Can one go upon hot coals and his feet not be burnt?" — Prov. vi. 27. Henry Clay, the American statesman, used this figure thus : " Is the fact not indisputable that all essential objects of consumption affected by the tariff are cheaper and better since the Act of 1824 than they were several years prior to that law? I appeal for the truth to common observation and to all practical men. I appeal to the farmer of the country, whether he does not purchase on better terms his iron, salt, brown sugar, cotton good.s and woollens for his labouring people. And I ask the cotton planter if he has not been better and more cheaply supplied with his cotton bagging?"

Caution : It is a fault when the facts are not commonly known or generally received.

APODOSIS-APOPHASIS 89

APODOSIS : aTTo, back ; SlBcofii, to give, to give back what is due; is a cons^,quent clause, or result, an after saying. Kossiter Johnson says : " Apodosis in a sentence is that made up of dependent clauses, those that set forth the conditions form the Protasis, and those that state the resulting conclusion form the Apodosis, e.g., "When all the world's a dream, we'll go to sea no more." The hrst clause is a Protasis (fore- saying) and the second Apodosis (after-saying). Sometimes a speaker produces a strong effect by purposely omitting an Apodosis, or by uttering an unexpected one, e.g., " Caesar had his Brutus, Charles -the First his Cromwell, and George the Third" — (Treason! Treason!) — "may profit by their ex- ample."— Patrick Henry.

APOPHASIS : Greek, dwo, away, from; (jirjfjLi, to speak; is a figure whereby the orator pretends a suppression, which is done in such a manner as to indicate it ; he formally declines to take note of a point, but does take note of it. It is a kind of irony whereby we deny what we say or do, that which we especially say or do, e.g. :

" What need I mention those inclement skies, Where, frequent o'er the sickening city, plague. The fiercest child of Nemesis divine, descends."

— Thompson. Apophasis, according to Quackenbos, is the pretended sup- pression of what one is all the time mentioning, as " / say nothing of his reckless extravagance, nothing of the notorious profligacy of his character, nothing of the disgusting intemper- ance which has caused him to reel in the streets, but I aver he has exhibited neither probity nor ability in the important office which he holds."

"Apophasis, affecting to conceal; What it would seem to hide, will yet reveal."

— Langley. " III would it suit your gentle ear. Ye lovely listeners to hear How to the axe the helms did sound. And blood poured down from many a wound ; For desperate was the strife and long. And either warrior fierce and strong. But were each dame a listening knight, I well could tell how warriors fight; For I have seen war's lightning flashing. Seen the Claymore with bayonets clashing, Seen through red blood the war-horse dashing, And scorned amid the reeling strife. To yield a step for death or life."

-^Scoii.

90 APOPLANESIS— APORIA

Use : " Apophasis or insinuation is used when, professing to suppress certain matters or ideas, the speaker proceeds to add the insinuation negatively ; for instance, " I will not mention the matter, but . . ," or, " I will not mention another argu- ment, which, however, if I should, you could not refute." When the matter is actually added the figure is then called Cataphasis or affirmation — addition by insmuation of reason- ing. In this case the insinuation is not added negatively but positively; e.g., "I pass by his deceit . . . etc., and this adds the insinuation to his deception.'* — E. W. Bullinger.

APOPLANESIS : Greek clto, away, from ; irXavdw^ to lead; to lead away from, stray; is a kind of aversion or turning away, and is when the speaker leads away the minds of his hearers from the matter propounded or question in hand, which makes much against him. In some Latin- American countries it is called " Armar un bochincho," that is to stir up a big fuss, noise or disturbance, to draw the minds from the point at issue.

Use. — It is used to make an evasion from the difficulties, or hard objection, or when the cause of the orator is weak and not able to abide the bitterest trial. The other is to assuage sorrow by leading the mind of the mourner from the matter of grief to new objects, i.e.y to cause forgetful- ness of sorrow.

APORIA : Greek a, privative ; iropo'i, way ; to lack a way; is a figure of speech whereby the orator shows that he doubts either where to begin for the multitude of matters, what to say or do in some strange or doubtful thing, and, as it were, argues the case with himself — e.g.^ " Whether he took from his fellows more impudently, gave them a harlot more lasciviously, removed them from the Roman people more wickedly or altered them more presumptuously, I cannot well declare." — Cicero. "What shall I do? Whither shall I fly? Whom shall I blame? What shall I pretend ? I know not what to term it : folly or f orget- fulness, ignorance or wilfulness."

" Apbria oft in doubt and fear will rest. And reason with itself what may be best." — Langley. Examples :

," What should he do? or seek his old abodes? . Or herd among deer and skulk in woods?

Here shame dissuades him, there his fear prevails. And each, by turns his aching heart assails."

— Addison from Ovid. " Me miserable ! Which way shall I fly, Infinite wrath and infinite despatr? Which way I fly is^ Hell; myself am Hell."— Milton.

APORIA— APOSIOPESIS 91

Use : The use of this figure is to show perplexity of mind.

Caution : Do not put too many doubts,, nor doubt where there is little need, or none at all; lest the speaker show himself to be simple, ignorant, stupid.

APOSIOPESIS: Greek airo, from, aicoTrdo), to hush, tQ_ be silent; to cease from saying a thing, as wiien a sentence IS broken off; is a figure of thought, whereby an orator breaks off suddenly as if unwilling to state, or unable to say what was in his mind — e.g., " I declare to you that his conduct — but I cannot speak of that here." It is also a form of speech when, through vehemence, the course of a sentence is stayed and thereby some part of the sentence not being uttered, may be understood'; also when the; speaker, through some affection, as sorrow, bashfulness, fear or anger, breaks off his speech or sentence before it all be ended • or when speaking of a thing we yet seem to conceal it, though indeed by this means we aggravate it. Ouintillian says that Aposiopesis attests some passion or anger, a kind of self interruption of what we were saying before we came to the natural conclusion of it, as if to say, "Why should I say more." It is where the feelings of the speaker induce him to interrupt the expression and leave the sentence incomplete. This figure, by its direct address to the imagination of the hearer, says Webster, is often one of great power.

" Aposiopesis leaves imperfect sense ;

And sometimes such a pause speaks eloquence."

— Langley. Examples : Blass' " Demosthenes ' ' says that we find the Aposiopesis, in which the speaker, to the astonishment of his hearers, does not say what he has apparently wished to say. In the example of the " Speech on the Crown ' ' there is a convincino- reason given for this silence, and the speech gains essentially in direct vitality through this figure. Cor. 3 : " For it is not the same thing for me to lose your affection, and for him to gain his suit. As to me indeed — ^but when commencing my defence, I do not wish to say anything ominous; but he accuses me without any risk." Examples from Putte(nham : Interruption or silence — From fear:

" He said vou were — I dare not tell you plain For words once out never return again." From shame, or indecent to tell :

" And did ye not come by my chamber door And tell him that — go to, I say no more." From anger, 7nenace, or moderation of zvrath :

" If I take you with such another cast I swear by Jove — but let this be the last."

92 APOSIOPESIS

From sudden occasion :

" He told me at large — lo, yonder is the man. Let him tell the tale that best can."

" Audacious winds ! from whence

This bold attempt, this rebel insolence?

Is it for you to ravage seas and land,

Unauthoris'd by my supreme command ?

To raise such tumults on the troubled main?

Whom I — but first 'tis fit the billows to restrain,

And then you shall be taught obedience to my reign."

— Dryden's Virgil. " Heaven and Earth !

Must I remember? why, she would hang on him,

As if increase of appetite had grown

By what it fed on : and yet within a month —

Let me not think on't — Frailty, thy name is woman! "

— Shakespeare. Bullinger gives the following examples from the Bible: (i) Frofnise. — Where some great thing is promised, too great to be conveyed in words. Ex. xxxii. 31-32: "And Moses returned unto the Lord , . . Yet now, if thou wilt forgive their sin — ; and if not ..." Here it seems that Moses was about to promise something on behalf of the people; but neither knew what promise he could make for them, nor how far- he could answer for its fulfilment by them. His sudden silence is solemnly eloquent. 2 Sam. V. 8; I Chron. iv. 10. (2) Anger and Threatening. — Gen. xx. 3 : " Behold thou art but a dead man^for the woman which thou hast taken; for she is a man's wife." Here we must supply, if thou dost not restore her, her husband will slay thee. Gen. iii. 22 : "... lest he put forth his hand and take also of the tree of life and eat and live for ever — Therefore the Lord God sent him forth from the Garden of Eden ..." Here the exact consequences of eating of the tree of life in his fallen condition are left unreveaied, as though they were too awful to be contemplated. (3) Grief and complaint. — Ps. vi. 3 : " My soul is also sore vexed : but thou, O Lord, how long — ? " The words are drowned in grief. " How long shall I be sore vexed? How long (before thou wilt arise)? " Luke xv. 21; Luke xix. 42. (4) Inquiry and deprecation. — John vi. 62 : " If ye shall see the Son of Man ascend up where he was before — ? '* (will ye then believe? to be supplied). Acts xxiii. 9.

Use : Aposiopesis is used in the elevated style. Demetrius says that in certain cases Aposiopesis produces elevation, since some things seem to be more significant when not expressed but only hinted at. It is used in the forcible style according to the same writer, who remarks that Aposiopesis will also make expression more forcible.

I

APOSIOPESIS - 93

Blass' "Demosthenes" gives the following, showing Demosthenes using the Aposiopesis as being unable to find a suitable word, (i) Against ^schines, Cor. 22: "O you — by what name shall I rightly call you ? " (2) Philip III, 54 : " But, you have arrived at such a pitch of folly or madness or — I know not what to call it; I am tempted- often to think that some evil genius is driving you to ruin." In (i) the speaker acts as if he were seeking a sufficiently strong expression, and can find none, so that the figure Diaporesis to a certain extent appears, though more distinctly in third Philippic. (2) S. S. Curry in his " Vocal Expression," under the heading of Pause ^ states that Daniel Webster, in Faneuil Hall, once gave a certain word for an idea, but it did not satisfy him; he hesitated, and g-ave another, hesitated again, and gave still another, and when after four or five trials he found the adequate word, the audience broke forth into applause. He united the action of the minds of his auditors to his own; both laboured together for a grander and more adequate con- ception of the idea, as well as for its highest expression.

It serves to stay the vehemence of our immoderate affec- tions proceeding to some excess or outrage; or to dignify by the half what the whole means, that is, to raise a sufficient suspicion without danger of the adve'rsary. " It is used to call our attention to what is being said or written, for the purpose of impressing us with its importance, so that the mind may be affected by what is too wonderful or solemn or awful for words; or when a thing «:iay be, as we sometimes say, better imagined than described." — Bullinger.

Caution-. Avoid length of wordiness. Demetrius cautions triviality as a result of over-worded Aposiopesis. If the sentence be broken off too soon, it leaves the sense most uncertain : contrarywise, if it be continued too long it makes that manifest that should be secret and shadowed with silence. If said in malice, it commonly leaves the venom of some false suspicion behind it, all of which faults are in wisdom and charity to be avoided.

Delivery-. Volkmann in his **Hermagoras " or ''Elements of Rhetoric," says that Aposiopesis contributes to the Deinotes (force of delivery) ; and Hermogenes places ir. under the heading of Aletheia (the stamp of truth and fervour); that is to say the inward participation of the speaker in what he says. The expression of the Aletheia must be harsh, violent; it may contain words formed by oneself. All the figures of the Sphrodrotes (vehemence of expression) may be employed here; further Aposiopesis, Epicrisis, Epidiorthosis, and Demetrius gives, in certain cases, the elevated. It follows that the delivery may be in either the forcible or the elevated^ with this difference, that

^4 APOSIOPESIS

in the former the expression is concise and the delivery quick, and in the latter the expression is grand and the delivery comparatively slower. Take the example of Demos- thenes— Phil. Ill, 54 — the voice rises in vehemence, force and rapidity, making a climax, but breaks off just before the last step in the climax is taken — e.g., " madness or — " ; after "or" the voice breaks off, and quickly takes a lower tone, just the opposite to that before the breaking off, and then, as "Schemata Dianoeas " indicates, hastens oif to something else. Take the Aposiopesis in the case of Daniel Webster, whom Curry styled as floundering about in search for an adequate word, which floundering would appear to the writer to have been made in a lower and quicker tone than that preceding the interruption; and at the rip^ht moment, hastening- to the adequate -word, pouncing upon it with that force of voice for which he was noted, be elicited that tremendous applause aforementioned. Ihe Aposiopesis was thus delivered in the same form or style in which a man naturally would say it, m the same mooa of mind, to another person. Alexander Bain in his "Ele- ments of Rhetoric " says that floundering and perplexity were much used by Demosthenes before announcing some- thing of great emphasis and import, thus giving to a medi- tated expression the effect of an impromptu.

The author remembers hearing the Rev. Sam Jones use this ligure very effectively in his attack upon the liquor traffic in an address to a large American audience. After fiercely attacking the trade and charging it with the woes and sorrows and poverty it had caused humanity, he ex- claimed, "Who permits this terrible traffic? " and suddenly breaking off intO' silence pointed his finger to the audience on his right. The imagination immediately supplied the phrase with which the preacher would have, himself, replied, viz. : " You whom I am now addressing." He then forth- with made an onslaught upon the saloons, bar-rooms and public houses, and cried out, "Who is responsible for this?" and again broke off into silence and pointed his finger to those in the centre of the audience. The Imagination not only supplied the preacher's answer but seemed to delight those on the right that the centre was accused of as great or g-reater charges. Immediately he poured forth a merci- less denunciation against dives, dens and gambling hells, debauchery and crime, as a result of liquor, and again exclaimed, "Who allows this debauchery and crime, these dives and gamblinp^ hells?" and breaking off into a sudden silence pointed his finger at those on his left. As before- said, the imagination was left to supply the answer, besides delighting all the rest that those on the left got, if any- thing, the greatest share of the rebuke.

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CICERO.

From " Greek and Roman Portraits," by A. Heckler; by kind permission of Publisher, William Heinemann, London.

Principal Forms of Oratorical Expression nsed by Cicero. His master- figures are those in italics :

Accumnlatio, Anaphora, Antithesis, Aporia, Apostrophe, Argumentum, Asteismus, Asyndeton, Compar, Correctio, Diatyposis, Digressio, Ecphonesis, Emphatic Repetition, Enumeratio, Epilogue, Epiphonema, Epizeuxis Frequentatio, Horismos, Hyperbole, Jnierroi^atio, Iroma, Mempsis, Metabasis. Optatio, Period, Ploce, Polysyndeton, Prosopodosis, Prosopopoeia, Protrope, Pysma, Rhythmus, Sermocinatio, Simile, Syllogismus, Symploce, Synonymia, Synchoresis, Zeugma.

95

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO

CICERO: HIS ORATORY, DELIVERY, AND SOME NOTES FROM EMINENT CONTEMPORARY AND SUBSEQUENT CRITICS.

Marcus Tullius Cicero, the most celebrated orator of Rome, has ever been the undisputed model in delivery for Senatorial and Parliamentary eloquence. His vast learning, refinement and culture, his slow, deliberate and magnificent style of speech, his well-trained voice and graceful gesture, have ever been the envy of subsequent ages; and his phraseology so beautiful, harmonious and tender, the standard for the pulpit and the lyceum.

"In his early youth, Cicero's father put him under the care of the poet Archias, who came to Rome with a high reputation for learning and poetry. Under this master he applied himself chiefly to poetry, to which he was actually addicted. Molo, the Rhodian, one of the principal orators of that age, and the most celebrated teacher of eloquence, happened to come to Rome, and Cicero presently took the benefit of his lectures and resumed his oratorical studies with his former ardour.

First Inspiration^ His Labours^ Studies.

"But the greatest spur to his industry was the fame and splendour of Hortensius, who made the first figure at the bar, and whose praises fired him with such an admiration of acquiring the same glory that he scarcely allowed himself any rest from his studies, either day or night. Yet with all his attention to logic, he never suffered a day to pass without some exercise in oratory — chiefly that of declaiming.

Taught by Molo and Minipfus. "Molo, the Rhodian, came again to Rome to solicit the payment of what was due to his country . . . which gave Cicero an opportunity of putting himself a second time under his direction and perfecting his oratorical talents by the further instruction of so renowned a master ... to qualify himself, therefore, particularly for this (the reputa- tion of an orator), he attended the pleadings of all the speakers of his time; heard the daily lectures of the most eminent orators of Greece, and was perpetually composing somewhat at home, and declaiming under their correction; and that he might neglect nothing which could help m any degree to improve and polish his style, he spent the intervals of his leisure in the company of ladies; especially those who were remarkable for a politeness of language, and whose fathers had been distinguished by a fame and reputation of eloquence.

96 CICERO

"From Athens he passed into Asia, Minippus of Stra- tonica, the most eloquent of all the Asiatics, attended him ... his (Molo's) greatest trouble with him was to restram the exuberance of a juvenile imagination, always ready to overflow its banks, within its due and proper channel.

His Jocular Nature.

"But he was really a lover of cheerful entertainments, being of a nature remarkably facetious, and singularly turned to raillery; a talent which was of great service to Jhim at the bar, to correct the petulance of an adversary, relieve the satiety of a tedious cause, divert the minds of the judges, and mitigate the rigour of a sentence, by making both the bench and the audience merry at the expense of the accuser. Yet of all his sarcastic jokes which are trans- mitted to us by antiquity, we shall not observe any but what were pointed against characters either ridiculous or pro- fligate, such as he despised for their follies, or hated fof their vices.

True Glory by Cicero.

"According to his own definition of it, is a wide and illus- trious fame of many and great benefits conferred upon our friends, our country, or the whole race of mankind ; it is not, -as he says, the empty blast of popular favour, or the applause of a giddy multitude; but the consenting praise of all honest men, and the incorrupt testimony of those who can judge of excellent merit which resounds always to virtue as the echo to the voice; and since it, in £he general com- parison of good actions, ought not to be rejected by good men.

"That those who aspire to this glory were not to expect ease or pleasure, or tranquility of life for their pains; but must give up their own peace to secure the peace of others; must expose themselves to the storms and dangers for the public good ; sustain many battles with the audacious and the wicked, and some even with the powerful ; in short, must behave themselves so as to give their citizens cause to rejoice that they had ever been born.

Eloquence for the Multitude.

" This was the genuine eloquence that prevailed in Rome as long as Cicero lived : his were the only speeches that were admired by the City; while those Attic orators, as they called themselves, were generally despised, and fre- quently deserted by the audience in the midst of their barangues. But after Cicero's death and the ruin of the Republic, Roman oratory sunk . . . and became properly only for the occasion on which it was employed — the making of panegyric and servile compliments to their tyrants. But the superiority of Cicero's eloquence, as ij: was acknowledged by the politest age of free Rome, so it has received the most

CICERO 97

authentic confirmation that the nature of things can admit from tne concurrent sense of nations; which neglecting the productions of his rivals and contemporaries, have preserved to us his inestimable remains as a specimen of the most perfect manner of speaking, to which the language of mortals can be exalted." — "The Life of M. Tullius Cicero," by" Conyers Middleton, D.D., Principal Librarian of the Uni- versity of Cambridge.*

His Feature the Period and Musical Construction. "Cicero's fulness largely depends on his use of the Period. This is the feature of his style which is most easily carica- tured, and its use by unskilful imitators has led to much prejudice. The justification of the Period is that it is an attempt to express in language the complexity of thought. (See Fig. Period.) Further, a carefully constructed sentence must be not only logical, but also musical. This brings us to the inmost secret of Cicero's prose, that its music is more perfect than that of any other writer at any period.

Cicero's Influence ufon the Pulpit.

"St. Jerome tells us that ... he sinned by reading Cicero even on fast days. The Siren's song never ceased to haunt him, and he was taunted with perjury by a rival, who said, ' Whence comes your fluency, your brilliancy ot thought, your power of expression? If I am not mistaken you still read Cicero in secret.' Jerome replies that his promise was only for the future. He cannot blot out of his mind what he has learnt : to do this he must drink water of Lethe of which the poets tell. St. Jerome was once seized with a fever and given up for dead. While lying unconscious he was, in a vision, brought before the Judgment Seat and asked, * What art thou ? ' He replied, * A Christian.' The voice came back, * No, thou art not a Christian, but a Ciceronian, since where thy treasure is, there is thy heart also.' Then he fell on his face and swore that never again would he keep or read books containing wordly wisdom. After this promise he rallied and was cured of his malady (Epist. xxii. 30). It is impossible to. read the speeches of Chatham, Pitt, Sheridan, Fox, and Burke, without recog- nizing their debt to Cicero and Demosthenes." — "Ciceronianism," by A. C. Clark, Oxford (pub. 1912). The Rhetorical Form of the Catilinarians.

"According to the rhetorical system most in vo^e in Cicero's time, a speech is made up of five divisions: (i) Exordium, the introduction; (2) Narratio, the statement of the case; (3) Tractatio, the proofs; (4) Refutatio, refutation of the opponent's argument; (5) Peroratio, the peroration. Narratio may be absent, the fact being well known. Refutatio may

Middleton's " Life of Cicero " was a favourite study of William Pitt, the younger.

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also be absent, the opponent not having made any state- ment. In all the speeches * in Catilinam,' this division (Dis- positio) into Exordium, Tractatio, and Peroratio is clearly seen, though, of course, owing to the peculiar circumstances of their delivery, they do not show the studied rhetorical technique of Cicero's most elaborate speeches, such as the * Pro Manila ' or ' Pro Murena.' The first speech was spoken, in the main, extempore. Cicero could not expect that Catiline would have the effrontery to appear in the Senate . . . the first (Catiiinarian) is the fierce invective which drove Catiline from the Senate after a vain attempt at defence. The following is an analysis of the rhetorical disposition of the first speech: §§ i, 2 inclusive, Exordium. The object of an exordium is, according to the rhetoricians, ut auditores (a) benevolos, (b) attentos, (c) dociles habeamos. §§ 3'3i> Tractatio, proofs. 3-27, proof of Catiline's guilt: (a) argued from his former plans, his present dangerous^ attitude, his mode of life. 3-18, §9, 11, i-io, digression: the attitude of the Senate, (b). Argued from other suspicious, circumstances, the libera custodia, the Senate's decision, the fact that Catiline intends to join his army, not go into voluntary exile, §S 27-31; proof of Cicero's right-minded- ness in acting as he has done, §§27, 28; Cicero acted humanely, and allowed Catiline to leave the state, §§29-31; this he did, not from fear, but in order to bring the matter to a head, § 32. Fin. Peroratio — all will end well if Rome does its duty and the gods grant the aid which Cicero now implores. According to rhetoricians, the object of the Peroratio (conclusion) was : Recapilulatio, summing up the facts; Amplification amplification of them; Communication appeal to the emotions : this latter being the main feature of the epilogue, and most prominent certainly in Cicero's.'*" — " Cieero in Catilinam," by H. W. Auden, M.A., late Scholar of Christ's College, Cambridge.

His Delivery Slow and Measured.

"Contrary to what we might have expected, his delivery was slow and measured — at all events in his later years — and Seneca compares it to the action of a slow-stepping horse. * Cicero quoque noster, a quo Romana eloquentia exstitit, gradarius fuit.' — Epist. 40. But however opinion may differ as to his oratory, some thinking him too florid and diffuse, and, to use a hoinely term, long-winded, there can be but one opinion of his m'erits as a writer. He created a style which has been the model and the despair of succeed- ing writers. Niebuhr says : * The predominant and most brilliant faculty of his mind was his wit. In what the French call esprit-light — unexpected and inexhaustible wit — he is not excelled by any among the ancients.' He would' have been a match for Talleyrand at a repartee. It was-

CICERO 9y

-only in the later years of his life that he indulged in a siesta after meals. He also took sufficient quantity ot exercise daily, and by these means, notwithstanding a naturally weak constitution, he enjoyed upon the whole excellent health. There is no authentic bust of Cicero. The emperor Alexander Severus possessed one, but it is not known to be in existence now." — "Life of Marcus Tullius Cicero,^ by William Forsyth, M.A., Q.C., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

Personal A-ppearance. "As a young man we know that he was thin, so thm that his friends thought him in danger of decline. Simple in his habits of life, he enjoyed good health, but always remained somewhat thin and haggard ; the fuller presence we see in some of his busts came only when he was con- siderably advanced in years. The bust in Madrid is believed by many to be a contemporary portrait. It has been described by Baring Gould : ' The head is very much that of an English parson, intellectually able, who is on the look- out for a deanery, and is careful to avoid pronounced opinions, can tell a good story, preach a good sermon, likes to associate with titled persons, loves his glass of port, but will preside at a temperance meeting.*

The Period: Us Use by Cicero. "The Romans had a fondness for expressing many facts in one well-balanced sentence. In such a compound or Period there were one or more subordinate clauses, the prin- cipal clause usually being last. Thus the meaning of the whole sentence is kept suspended till the close (see Fig. Periodicity). (See also classification of the simple and more complicated oratorical period, Apodotic or responsive, the features of which are symmetry and exact balance of clauses with an elaborate correspondence of Protasis and Apodosis, tinder Fig. Period.) The Period is employed by Cicero in dignified, sonorous passages, in calm, unimpassioned narra- tive; as for instance, in the introduction of his speeches and the statement of the case. Fie avoids monotony by employ- ing a more detached paratactic style in lively arguments, passionate description, vivid narrative.* His speeches show an attractive variety, well-balanced periods, enlivened by short, curt, incisive statements of facts. The Prooemia and perorations of his speeches afford the best examples of well- balanced writing; they should be carefully studied, read aloud, and if possible learnt by heart.

— "Cicero in Catilinam," by H. W. Auden, M.A., late Scholar of Christ's College, Cambridge.

* Parataxis is a mere arranj^ement of propositions one after the other without any •connectives or interdependence as opposed to syntax. — Webster's Dictionary.

100 CICERO

Fro MilonCy a Perfect Technique.

"As a piece of composition this oration is interesting from the perfection of its technique. All the rules laid down in the text-books upon rhetoric are strictly observed. I append the following analysis of this speech : I. Exordium. Ihe objects aimed at in this are three in number, ut attentos, ut dociles, ut benevolos auditores, habere possimus. In order to make the hearers attenios^ it is necessary to dwell upon the gravity of the subject; to make them dociles y one must state the summa causae; to make them benevolos ^ one should appeal to personal considerations. The exordium m this speech is one of those where the speaker calls attention to the unusual circumstances attending the trial. After hrst (a) securing the attention of the jurors, Cicero makes every effort to gain (b) their goodwill: (i) a sua persona, his own fears; (2) ab auditorem, Pompey, the army and the multi- tude; (3) ab adversariorum, the character of the Clodiani; (4) a rebus ipsis, the patriotic policy of Milo with whom Cicero associates himself, (c) He then rapidly sketches the smnina causae in order to secure the docilitas of his hearers : namely, insidias Miloni a Clodio factas. Before, however, entering into a discussion of the facts, it is necessary to remove three suppositions fatal to his client.

Frcejudicia.

"11. Prasjudicia: (a) the self-confessed shedder of blood is condemned already. This is so, since homicide is some- times justifiable: (i) from legend, the story of Horatius ; (2) from history, the execution of the conspirators ; (3) from fiction, the murder of his mother by Orestes; (4) from recent events, the soldier who killed his officer; (5J from liomicide in self-defence, (b) The Senate has decided that the murder v/as contra rem publicam. The violence in a free state is contra rem publicam, even violence in the course of order. The Senate agreed with Cicero in wishing for an inquiry into the facts, but did not contemplate these novel proceed- ings, (c) Pompey has condemned Milo already. Pompey has done nothing except order an inquiry. He did this not because the death of Clodius differed from tnat of other men, but in order to show his impartiality. He has shown the verdict he desires by putting on the box the strongest men in Rome and Domitius himself on the bench. i\fter this clearing of the ground, he proceeds to state the facts.

Narratio.

" in. Narratio 24-29. In this three things are necessary: ut brevis, ut dilucida, ut veri similis sit. Further it should be told in such a way as to suggest the points afterwards taken up in the tractatio. The narratio here is : (a) brevis ^ since Cicero plunges into the subject and uses all possible compression ; (b) dilucida^ since he observes the proper

CICERO : ^ .^ . . 101

sequence of events; (c) veri similis^, ,a& a. .m94el, Qf^ artful simplicity. The language employed ; i§ * XKaj^ Qf 'goc^il' xon- versation, never attemptmg to soar, but neither vulgar, nor bald.

Constitutio Causes and Profositio.

"The Narratio leads to the constitutio causae, 30, 31. VJas^ Milo right or wrong in killing Clodius? This depends upon the antecedent question uter utri insidias .fecerit. The accuser says it was Milo, and the defender, Clodius. The conflict of these two statements gives the point at rem qual in judicium venit. It is usual to state the point at issue earlier in a speech, but Cicero postponed it to the narratio, since the defence depends upon the colour to the facts.

Tractatia,

"IV. Tractatio: The parts of this are probable^ collatiOy signa, argumenta consecutio, a-pfrobatio. The probable falls into two parts — ex causa, and ex vita 32-34 ex c. ; 36-41 ex V. (i) The propositio, that he hoped to profit by Milo's death; (2) the ratio, that bad men are tempted even by a trifling gain; (3) the confirmatio, that if Milo were killed Clodius would control the consuls; (4) a striking exornatio in the shape of a dramatic appeal to Sextius Clodius to produce his portfolio of laws, (b) Ex Vita. Clodius had used violence against Cicero, Pompey and others : the dagger he inherited from Catiline had never rested ; Milo only used violence after he could not find a legal remedy, and then only in the cause of order. The Collatio succeeds 41-43. Again such an act agrees with the past life of Clodius, not with that of Milo. The Collatio is the process of showing how the allegations fit or do not fit the person accused. Signa and Argumenta are proofs taken from the place and time and of. the deed. Argumentum is evidence drawn from the behaviour of a person before, during or after the act. An argumentum against Clodius is that three days before he said to Favonius that Milo had only three days to live. This leads one to consider (a) tempus : (i) the day, (2) the hour; (b) locus — 53, 54 up to 6^. Consecutio, the behaviour of Milo since the event shows his consciousness of innocence, his trust in the people, in the Senate, and in Pompey. Argument Wound Up by Spirited Apostrophe.

"The argument is wound up by a spirited appeal to Pompey — 67-71. Apostrophe or aversus a judice (sermo), to save an old friend whom he may some day need. Pom- pey's face is supposed to change; a cry of triumph breaks forth from the advocate, and the first point of the defence is ended. Cicero now passes from the Constitutio juridicialis absoluta, and occupies his second line of defence. Pars Ads74,mptiva.

"V. Pars adsumptiva, or extra causam : 72-91. This is

i02 CICERO

resorted to when it; is necessary to strengthen the defence by " a* iresii argument. . In the pars absoluta Cicero argued jure fecit; in the pars adsumptiva the position is 'even if Milo did murder Clodius, still we must consider the circum- stances which qualify the act/ Various methods of con- ducting such defence are prescribed by the text-books. The one chosen by Cicero is termed comparatio or compensatio. In this the a^t is acknowledged, but it is urged that the benefit of the state outweighs the offence. He saw, how- ever, that the position could not be maintained, and there- fore soon shifts his ground — 82-93 — and declares that it was Providence which was at work, so that Milo cannot claim the glory. It was Heaven that tempted Clodius to his fall, and it was before the shrine of the goddess whom he out- raged that he received the fatal blow. But for the inter- position of Providence, ruin final and complete must have ensued. The object of the pars adsumptiva^ has been to kindle the jurors to passion, the method being that of Amplificatio. The next and final task is to excite pity.

Epilogue.

"VI. Epilogue: Q2-end. The orator proceeds by Cojn- miseratio. The usual course is to awaken the pity of the jurors by the tears of the accused, and by the description of the ruin which condemnation will entail. In the present case the demeanor of Milo makes it impossible to appeal for mercy towards him, and so Cicero pleads for pity upon himself. The framework of the peroration consists of a series of Prosofopoeia (see under Fig. Prosopopoeia), or imaginary dialogue of Milo with defender, those being especially appropriate in this place. The tears of the orator are now supposed to have spread to the jurors. The * psycho- log^ical moment ' has come; in short, broken sentences he makes a last appeal to their courage, and ceases before the tears have time to dry." — "M. Tulli Ciceronis, Pro T. Annio Milone ad Judices Oratio," by Albert C. Clark, Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford.

"Some few of Cicero's perorations appear to be formed upon the Grecian model. But the pathos of the anti- penultimate period in the Pro Milone is somewhat in con- trast with the last two sentences (Oratio Pro Ligario and Pro Archia). But many of his finest orations break off in bursts of his^hest eloquence, as the first Catilinarian, the exquisite oration for Flaccus and Cluentius, and that Pro Domo Sua which he himself prized so hisrhly and which he tells us he laboured so carefully." — "Edinburgh Review," Vols. 33 (1820) and 36 (1821-1822).

Defective in Action. "It is said that he was as defective as Demosthenes in action, and that accordingl}^ he carefully devoted himself

CICERO 103

first to Roscius, the comedian, and then to ^sopus, the tragedian. Cicero derived no small power of persuasion from his action. He used scoffingly to say of the orators who bawled loud, that because of their weakness they had recourse to shouting.

His Sarcasm and Sharp Sayings.

"His readiness at sarcasm and other sharp sayings was considered well adapted to courts of justice, and clever, but by over use of it he gave offence to many and got the character of a malevolent person. Upon Cicero saying some- thing to him in an oblique way, and Hortensius replying that he had no skill in solving enigmas, Cicero answered, * And yet you have a sphinx at home.' ' Did you not lately praise me in the same place ? ' asked Crassus, to which Cicero replied, * Yes, for practice' sake, exercising my elo- quence on a mean subject . . .' Yet there are some who pretend to be imitators of Demosthenes, dwell on an expression of Cicero, which is used in a letter to one of his friends, that Demosthenes sometimes nodded in his speeches. Seeing that there were still many members of the conspiracy standing in the Forum, who did not know what had been done and were waiting for the night, supposing that the men were still alive and might be rescued, Cicero said to them in a loud voice, * They have lived.' In these terms Romans used to speak of death." — "Plutarch's Lives of Cassar and Cicero," translated by A. Stewart, M.A., and George Long, M.A. (pub. 191 3).

Cicero Speaking in the Senate against Catiline.

** How long, O Catiline, wilt thou abuse our patience? . . . Has not the nightly guard of the Palatium, has not the watch kept in the city, has not the fear of the people, has not the unanimity of all men of honour, has not the fortified place of the Senate, have not the countenances and looks of those present produced any effect upon you ? " Towards the end of his speech, directing himself to the senators, Cicero pronounced the following eloquent passages: "To you your parent country, beset with the brands and the weapons of impious conspiracy, as a suppliant stretches out her hands; to you she recommends herself; to you, the lives of all her sons; to you, the tower and the Capitol; to you, her domestic images; to you, the everlasting fire of Vesta; to you, all the temples and altars of the gods; to you, the battlements and roofs of this city. This day you are to pass judgment upon your own lives, upon the souls of your wives and children, upon the general interests of all, upon your property and your homes."

The followinp- are some extracts of Cicero's orations against Catiline, and some comments taken from *' The Making of an Orator," by John O'Connor Power. The

104 CICERO

author has indicated in these extracts the principal figures used by Cicero.

If redundancy of words is a defect, amplification of the subject-matter, as this eloquent passage shows, is a source of power and beauty :

* "Happy country, could it be drained of the impurities of this city! To me the absence of Catiline alone seems to have given it fresh bloom and beauty. {^)Where is the villainy, where is the guilt, that can enter into the heart aad thoughts of man that did not enter into his? ^In all Italy what prisoner, what gladiator, what robber, what cut-throat, what parricide, what forger, ivhat rascal, what ruffian, what debaucher, is there found among the corrupted, among the abandoned of our countjy, that did not own an intimate familiarity with Catiline? . . ."

" The Fourth Oration (vs. Catiline) is a study of Parlia- mentary tactics, for Cicero was now at the height of his popularity. He deemed it prudent to throw upon the Senate the responsibility of determining the penalty to be awarded to the conspirators, while undertaking, as Consul, to carry out unflinchingly its orders. This he manages with a fine balancing of arguments, which conceals, under an appearance of the utmost impartiality, the subtlety of a master of words . . . the end of this oration :

" You have a leader mindful of you, unmindful of himself — a happiness not always to be met with. You have every order, every man, the w^hole body of the Roman people, unanimous and united in their sentiments — a circumstance which, in a civil case before this day, we never knew to happen. '\ Think, think, 0 Romans ! with what toils that Empire was reared ; on what virtue that liberty was founded ; by what munificence of the gods those interests were im- proved and heightened, which in one night had almost been abolished. This day you are to provide that such treason shall never again be executed — nay not so much as designed by citizens; and all this I have spoken, l^not to quicken you (for your zeal has almost got the start of mine), but that my voice, which ought to lead in matters of government, may appear to have discharged the duty of a Consul. Now before I proceed, Conscript Fathers, to take the sense of the House, I must drop a word as to myself. I perceive that I am now to encounter a multitude of enemies, equal in number to the conspirators, which you see is very great; but these I iudge to be ^scandalous and impotent, deserted and desficahle. But if ever, through guilt and frenzy of anyone, that faction shall get the better of your and the public dignity, never, Conscript Fathers, shall I repent of

* Fig. Ecphonesis. (1) Anaphora. (2) Amplificatio, Anaphora. + Epizeuxis, Anaphora, Apostrophe. X Arsis and Thesis, Parenthesis. § Syntheton.

CICERO 105

what I have done, and of what I have devised. "^For death, with w^hich they may perhaps menace me, awaits us all; but that pride of life with which I am digniked by your decrees has, hitherto, been equalled by none. To others you have decreed thanksgivings for the successful management, but to me alone for the auspicious preservation of the Republic." \Ail honour to Scipio ! the Scipio whose counsels and courage forced Hannibal to return to Africa, and to depart from Italy. May every distinguished glory await the name of Africanus who destroyed Numantia and Carthage, those two cities the inveterate enemies of Roman sway. For ever renowned be Lucius Paulus, whose chariot was graced by the captivity of Perses, a once powerful and glorious monarch ! May Marius enjoy immortal honour, who twice delivered Italy from invasion and the dread of slavery ! But above all these let Pompey be distinguished, whose actions and virtues are bounded by no other climes or limits . than those that regulate the course of the sun ! Yet amidst all their extent of glory, some corner must be reserved for my renown, unless you suppose that there is more merit in opening pro- vinces to which we may retreat than in taking care that our absent countrymen may have a place to which they may return in triumph. But in one circumstance the consequences of a foreign victory are preferable to those of «. domestic, inasmuch as foreign enemies reduced by arms are submissive. If received upon terms they have a grateful sense of favour; but citizens who from base degeneracy commence to be the enemies of their country, if you disappoint them of accom- plishing the public ruin, no force can restrain, no kindness can reconcile. I see, therefore, that I am to wage eternal war with desperate citizens — a war which I hope I shall easily repel from me and mine, through your and every man's worthy assistance, and by the remembrance of so many dangers which must cleave, not only to this delivered people, but to the tongues and minds of every nation on earth. Nor, indeed, can any power be so formidable as to penetrate and shake the union of your order with that of the Roman knights, and this perfect harmony of all well-affected citizens. X Therefore, Conscript Fathers, instead of a command ; instead of an army; instead of a province; instead of a triumph and other distinctions of glory, which I slighted for the preser- vation of you and this city; instead of my clientships and provincial appointments, which, with my fortune in the city, I labour as much to support as to acquire — for all these services, for all the instances of my zeal in your behalf, and for the pain of which ye are witnesses, io. behalf of the preservation of the Republic, all I require of you is the commemoration of this juncture and of the whole of my

=* Aitiology. + Ecphonesis and Anadiplosis. + Aitiology. Anaphora.

106 ' CICERO

consulate; while that shall remain in your minds, I shall thmk myself surrounded witn an impregnable wall. But should my expectations be disappointed by ruffian violence, to you I recommend my little son. Sufficient shall be his guard, not only to preserve but to show him honour, if you shall remember him to be the son of the man who, at his own peril, preserved you all.

" Now, then. Conscript Fathers, as you propose determine, with quickness and resolution, in an aftair that concerns your very being, and that of the people of Rome — '^your wives and children, your religion and property, your fanes and temples, the roofs and tuansions of all the city, your Empire, your liberty, the safety of Italy, and the whole system of your constitution. You have a consul who without hesitation will obey your orders, and while he breathes will in his own person charge himself with the execution and defence of whatever you shall decree."

In recapitulation it will be seen that Marcus Tullius Cicero, in order to arrive at the supreme height of eloquence which he did, was very asiduous in the pursuit of his oratorical studies,' that he incessantly laboured, declaimed frequently at home, and that he took lessons from the most accomplished masters, notably among whom were Roscius the comedian, ^sop the tragedian, Minippus, famed for eloquence, and Molo, the most celebrated in oratory of that day. His use of the figure Asteismus, with its 'witticisms, jocular turns, etc., which always make a speech so patching and piquant; and his use of the Period, which was so sonorous and well balanced, so musically and rhythmicallv constructed, and which some moderns, either because they do not know how to breathe properly, or how to deliver it, criticise and condemn, was never excelled by any orator. To such critics these Ciceronian periods must be chopped up into short sentences to be agree- able. The ending of successive clauses with different feet, to avoid monotony and gratify the ear, was never more effectivelv done by any public speaker. He was a perfect master of the Figures of Thought and Words (see Cicero's classification under " The Classification of Figures "). The Miloniana, which was the product of Cicero's most finished period, has always been regarded at the bar as a master- piece of legal defence, both in argument and rhetorical con- struction. He was the founder of that elegant style of writing which has been the envy and ambition of all writers. He was a master of rhythm, which is the third great requisite Aristotle prescribes for a speech, and was the connecting link between Grecian and Roman eloquence. The greatest Senatorial and Parliamentarv orators have always adopted his deliberate, measured, steady and fluent elocution. It was

* Enumeration, Syntheton and Peroration.

CICERO— APOSTROPHE 107

adopted by William Pitt the younger in his speech, particu- larly the peroration, on the " Rejection of the Overtures of Napoleon," and in his lofty, majestic panegyrics of the British Constitution. It was adopted by Henry Clay, and brought to perfection by him in the American Senate in his sublime and magnificent appeals for the preservation of the American Union. His tenderness, gentleness, and sweetness of dis- position which belied the Roman nature, his pathos and senti- ment, his high concept of justice, of right and wrong, his grand ideal of glory, which was to subserve the many, and his death in the cause of the Republic have endeared him to all patriots and true citizens.

APOSTROPHE : Greek airo, away from ; arpecpay, to turn; is a form of speech by which the orator turns suddenly from the previous form of his speech to another; that is, when he has been speaking of some person or thing he leaves speaking of ii and speaks to it, which is nothing else than a turning fiom a third to a second person. The diversion of speech is made (i) to God, (2) to angels, (3) to men in their several ranks, (4) to adversary or opponent, (5) to heavenly bodies and meteors, (6) to earth and things m it, (7) to sea and things in it, (8)* to beasts, birds and hshes, £tc., (9) to inanimate things.

" Apostrophe a bold digression makes. Moved by some sudden thought the theme awakes."

— Langley.

Tiberius 1 1 1 defines it as when the speaker turns from the judges to the opponent.

Examples : Blass gives the following from -^schines against Demosthenes : " Do you not remember his vile and incredible expressions, which how did you, O hearts of iron, endure to hear?"

Example, turning to the jury : " My father's will, 7nen of the jury, contained a specification of everything he left and a direction to the guardians to let the estates. . . ." — Demosthenes vs. Aphobus in, 42.

Turning to opponent : " Among all these witnesses who appeared against you, tell me, Aphobus, which have you sued for false testimony? You cannot mention one."

" Shut now the volume of history ; and tell me, on any principle of human probability, what shall be the fate of this handful of adventurers. Tell me, man of military science, in how many months were they swept off by the thirty savage tribes enumerated within the early limits of New England ? Tell me, politician, how long did this shadow of a colony, on which your conventions and treaties had not smiled, languish on the distant coast ? Student of history, compare for me the baffled project;s, the deserted settlements, the

108 APOSTROPHE

abandoned adventures of other times, and find the parallel of this." — Edward Everett on " The Pilgrim Fathers." '' O Caledonia \ Stern and wild,

Meet nurse for a poetic child !

Land of brown heath and shaggy wood . . ."

—Scott. Use : The use of an Apostrophe is to make a pleasant variation; it is very apt for vehement objections and grievous complaints, and sometimes to praise. Herbert Spencer justi- fies the Apostrophe on the principle of economy, that in the direct address, intermediate forms or words are economised, which gives pleasure to the hearer as he himself fills up the words omitted. It is used in the Philippic of Demosthenes, where the orator warns the Athenians, repeating the words he did to the Messenians and Argives — Phil, ii, 19. In Or. 55 (versus Callicles) 5-7 and 29, the Afostrophe is infused with expostulation.'" W. W. Kirk. Ex. Callicles 5 : ** Surely, Callicles, when you saw the watercourse stopped . . ." Demos, vs. Cal. 29. Rhetorical questions: The Apos- trophe is used in these also (cf. S. S Kingsbury). According to Hermogenes, the Apostrophe is used with advantage in the Sphodrotes (vehemence of expression), also in the question addressed to the opponent, at the same time pointing at him with the finger; and also in the Gorgotes (vivacity of por- trayal), by which a lively personal element is introduced.

Bain says it is frequently employed for comic effects, as in Burns' " Tam o' Shanter " : "Oh Tam, Oh Tam, ye'll get your f airin ! ' * Pie also says it is a liberty taken with exalted objects and persons, to address them with familiarity, as the result is degrading, thence ludicrous. This latter point is illustrated in a letter, signed " Iconoclast," in "The Essex Standard " of April 18, 1855, wherein the Rev. C. H. Spur- geon was attacked as talking "to Milton or Locke as slaves," and saying "come down here." Ouintillian says: "Apos- trophe is also used in an imploring air in order to throw odium on the opposite party or thing — e.g., " O Persian laws!" and digressing to invoke: "I appeal to, I call to witness, you, O ye hills and groves of ~Klba ! Y ou the demolished Alban altars ! ever accounted holy by the Romans and coeval with our religion, but which Clodius, in his mad fury, having first cut down and levelled the most sacred groves, had sunk under heaps of common buildings : I appeal to you, I call you to witness whether your altars, your divinities, your powers, which he had polluted with all kinds of wickedness, did not avenge themselves when this wretch was extirpated ? and thou, O Jupiter ! from the height of thy sacred mound, whose lakes, groves and boundaries he had so often contaminated with his detestable impurities : and you, the other deities, whom he had insulted, at length opened your eyes to punish this enormous offender. By you.

APOSTROPHE 109

hy you, and in your sight was the slow but righteous and .merited vengeance executed upon him!" — Cicero. This apos- trophe to the Alban Hills is one of the most eloquent, if not the most eloquent m any language.

Caution : The aversion should not be too abrupt and violent, and the matter not less important or less venement- which is spoken to the second person, for it is a fault to speak more behind the back than before the face. Hermo- genes cautions against the use of Apostrophe in the Semnotes ^dignity), as the dignified method indulges in definite state- ments, and its expression requires a certain breadth and fulness.

Delivery: The delivery is generally quick, vivacious, which is the character of tne Gorgotes (vivacity), and vehement, which is the stamp of the Sphodrotes (vehemence of ex- pression). The Apostrophe, being pronounced, is preceded by appropriate preparation, in which the feelings are gradu- ally worked up, as it were, a foundation laid for the coming powerful outburst of impassioned eloquence.

Mathews gives a fine Apostrophe of Henry Clay to John C. Calhoun, thus : " The honourable senator from South Carolina," said Clay, "says I was flat on my back, and that he wrote home to his friends in South Carolina half-a- dozen letters stating that I was flat on my back and couldn't move. Admirable evidence this in a court of law ! thirst make an assertion, then quote your own letters to prove it ! But the honourable senator says that he was my master on that occasion! " As he said this, the speaker advanced (Quintillian says in attacking we advance) down the aisle directly in front of Calhoun, and pointing to him with his quivering finger, said in tones and with looks in which were concentrated the utmost scorn and defiance: " He my master! He my master!" he continued in louder tones, with his finger still pointed, and retreating backward, while nis air and manner indicated the intensest abhorrence. " HE my master! " he a third time cried, raising his voice to a ^ill higher key, while he retreated backward to the ^ery lobby ; then suddenly changing his voice from a trumpet peal to almost a whisper, which yet was distinctly audible in every nook and corner of the senate chamber, he added : " Sir, I v/ould not own him for a slave! " For an instant there was a breathless silence; then followed a tempest of applause, which for a while checked all further debate, and came near c? using- an expulsion of the spectators from the galleries.

The impassioned Apostrophe of the Rev. George Whitefield to the Angel Gabriel, near the close of his sermon, is described by David Hume thus : " After a solemn pause Whitefield said : ' The attendant an eel is about to leave the threshold and ascend to heaven. Shall he ascend and not bear the news of one sinner among all this multitude reclaimed from

110 APOSTROPHE— ARGUMENTUM

.^le error of his ways? * (To give greater effect to this ex- clamation he stamped with his foot, lifted his hands and. eyes to heaven, and with gushing tears cried aloud : ' Stop^ Gabriel\ Stop GabrieO. Stop e're you enter the sacred portals of heaven and yet carry with you the news of one sinner converted to God ! ' He then in a most simple and energetic language described what he called a Saviour's dying love to sinful men, so that almost all the assembly melted to tears. This address was accompanied with such animated yet natural action that it surpassed anything I ever saw or heard from any other preacher." In the fore- going two Apostrophes, the greatest intensity of emotion is discernible.

ARGUMENTUM: Lat Arguere, to make clear, prove;. a/?76?, white shining, to make clear by a fixed standard. An argument, according to Quintillian, is a process of reason- ing affording a proof, by wiiich one thing is gathered from another, and which establishes what is doubtful by reference to what is certain. It is from persons, things, places, and time (of which we distinguish three parts, the preceding, the coincident, and the subsequent) ; from manner, that is how a thing has been done; from means, that is what instrument;, from definition, that is genus, species, differences, peculiari- ties, removal, division, beginning, increase, completion, simi- laritv. dissimilarity, contraries, consequences, causes, effects, issues, connection, comparison. Of the Epicheirema, Cicero makes at most five parts : a reason to the major (two), a proof to the minor (minor and proof equal two), and a con- clusion— e.g. : " Those things are better managed which are regulated by some plan than those which are constructed without any fixed design." The first part, says Cicero, to be established by various reasons and the most copious eloquence possible; the second, assmnftion or minor-, "But if those things are better managed which are regulated by a plan than those which are conducted without a plan, and if of all things, nothing is managed better than the world "; third, conclusion : " It follows therefore that the world is regulated by plan." Cicero calls this five, but Quintillian three. Lord Chatham did not argue, says Mathews, with his opponents, but asserted ; he wrested their weapons out of their hands by main force. The ipsi dixi, the "I affirm," "I am ready to maintain," "I pledge myself to prove," constituted all his logic. In this respect Quintillian says the assertion of the orator is worth much, and that assertion should not be overlooked. It is sometimes more effectiv^e than proof. " It must be so, from the way he spoke." Winans says that before the mob one must assert, must not prove, must declare, must affirm.

Caution : Do not prove too much ; either you convert a

I

ARGUMENTUM— ARSIS AND THESIS 111

public meeting- into a disputation meeting, or prove your hearers of little comprehension, or yourself a babbler.

Delivery : See full details as to delivery under Enthy- mema. Arguments that are of a spirited and rapid descrip- tion will require feet suited to their qualities, but among them they must not admit tribachs which give quickness, but not force; they should be composed of long and short syllables, they should not admit more long than short. The delivery, Quintillian says, of argumentation should be lively, animated, and spirited even in our actions; it generally requires gestures, impressive and animated. We must insist strongly in certain passages, and our words must appear, as it were, in close array. The voice rouses itself and strains to speak with every nerve. It may take, as Russell says, the upward concrete of the fifth. Austin says that argu- ments, when sharp, subtle and vehement, require gestures suited to their expressions. In such as unite strength and rapidity, the delivery requires more frequent gesture.

In advancing proof, the action may be various and diversi- fied, and sometimes we may offer our demonstrations m a strain of raillery and mimicry. " Arguing requires a cool, sedate, attentive aspect, and a clear, slow and emphatical accent with much demonstration by the hajtd] it assumes somewhat of authority, as if fully convinced of the truth of what it pleads for, and sometimes rises to great vehemence and energy of assertion. The voice is clear, bold, distinct, and firm, as in confidence. In affirming, the voice is low and solemn; but if mingled with rage or resentment the voice is more open and loud, the words quicker, and the counten- ance has all the confidence of a strong and peremptory asser- tion."— Walker. In the calmer arguments, the hand move- ment is directed chiefly from the elbow, but in the spirited and animated, the arm, which is the whole oratorical weapon, is disclosed, and the movement is then chiefly from the •shoulder.

ARSIS AND THESIS: Arsis, Greek atpw, to lift, to raise; Thesis, Greek Oecn^, proposition, statement, thing laid down; is a form of speech by which negations are placed first, followed by the word " but,^' and a denial of the opposite negation. Hermogenes' " Per Idion," by Volkmann, states that it is to say but after a preceding negation. Arsis and Thesis are nothing but degrees of intensity of the voice. The positive preceding the negative, according to Rehdantz- Blass, consists in the strengthening or widening of an idea by placing the positive expression before its proper negative opposite, a figure which is especially favoured by Herodotus and greatly admired by the highest rank of orators.

Exam-pies : " Not with stones nor bricks did I fortify

112 ARSIS AND THESIS

Athens; 7ior is this the ministry on which I most pride my- self."— Demosthenes on "The Crown," 299.

From Charles James Fox : " But, Sir, the high sheriff was threatened — and how? Was it by threats of assaulting him? No. Was it by holding up the fear of danger to him by mobs or riots ? No. Was it by a menace of taking away his books, breaking the peace of^ the hustings, and interrupting him m the discharge of his duty? No, no; but it was by warning him of the consequences of unjust partialities, false or corrupt decisions."

The following is a magnificent Arsis and Thesis in the peroration of Daniel Webster's famous reply to Robert Young Hayne : " When my eyes shall be turned to behold for the last time the sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the broken and dishonoured fragments of a once glorious Union; on states dissevered, discordant, belligerent; on a land rent with civil feuds, or drenched, it may be, in fraternal blood ! Let their last feeble and lingering glance rather behold the gorgeous ensign of the Republic, now known and honoured throughout the earth, still full high advanced, its arms and trophies streaming in their original lustre, not a strife erased or polluted, nor a single star obscured, bearing far its motto no such miserable interrogatory as * What is all this worth? ' nor those other words of delusion and folly, * Liberty first and Union afterwards ' ; but everywhere, spread all over in characters of living light, blazing on all its ample folds, as they float over the sea and over the land, and in every wind under the whole heavens, that other sentiment, dear to every true American heart — Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable! "

Delivery : In Arsis the voice rises to the culminating point, at which point it takes a level progress; in Thesis it gradually descends from that level progress, terminating in a cadence on the last sentence.

Rehdantz-Blass says that, although an idea has been logi- cally exhausted by the positive expression, it is not only retained by the added opposed negative, but an independent tone is placed on it.

"A sentence has three rhythmical divisions-, (i) a gradual rise to a pause or culminating point called Arsis; (2) then, a period of reposeful or level progress \ (3) then, a cadence or graduated solution. Such graceful management of sen- tences in prose of the more pedestrian type may impart much of the sense of rhythm, even when the balanced rhythm of clause and phrase is less marked — e.g., *' When all is done, human life is at the greatest and best, but like a froward child (arsis) that may be played with and humoured a little to keep it quiet till it falls asleep flevel progress), and then the care is over (cadence)." — Saintsbury.

ARSIS AND THESIS— ARTICULUS

113

The following diagram illustrates the Arsis and Thesis on a full octave : —

(2) LEVEL PROGRESS OF THE VOICE

m

is achieved the greatness of a nation; but

xJ not with

not with Catlings nor dreadnoughts,

P

not with submarines and U'-boats,

iz^

^

not with "Berthas"

and justice

1 —	0	(-/?
«>	not with Zeppelins and Gothas,	*J and citizenship,

i

not with drums and bugles and bayonets,

if o

not with mortars and trenches.

.'here freedom and education,

-cr

peaceful cottages

Not with bricks and stones.

humane hearts are sacred a'nd supreme.

The above words forming the Arsis, Level Progress of the Voice, which are in italics, and Thesis in the preceding musical scale read thus : Not with bricks and stones, not with mortars and trenches, not with drums and bugles and bayonets, not with Zeppelins and Gothas, not with "Berthas," not with submarines and ' U '-boats, not with Catlings nor dreadnoughts, is achieved the greatness of a nation ; but where virtue and honour and justice and citizenship, where freedom and education, peaceful cottages, human hearts are sacred and supreme.

Recite each clause commencing from the lowest note, going- up one note on each fresh clause until the top is reached, when the voice takes the level progress, then descend in the same way, finishing with a cadence as shown; pronouncing distinctly each syllable, each final consonant and every word.

ARTICULUS: Lat. articulus, a joint; literally, a little joint; is a figure which sets one word from another by cutting the sentence, thus : " We fight for our religion, for our wives, our children, our gods, our liberty, our lives and our country, either to die with honour or live with renown."

Use : The use of this figure is for pleasant brevity, and fit to express any vehement affection. It is likened to thick and violent strokes in fight, or to a thick and thundering peal of ordnance.

Cuition : It is not convenient to use words having many syllables, for long words are repugnant to the swiftness which it requires.

114 ASPHALIA— ASTEISMUS

ASPHALIA: Greek a, privative, not; o-cpaXo) to make totter, reel, to fail, to disappoint, make to fall; is a form of speech by which the speaker persuades a security and safety to his hearers by ottermg a surety for the confirma- tion of his warrant.

The following is an Asphalia of Lord Chatham : *' I say we must necessarily undo these violent oppressive acts; they must be repealed; you will repeal them; / fledge 7nyselj for ,it\ I will consent to be taken for an idiot if they are not finally repealed.'*

ASTEISMUS : Greek aareto?, of the town, witty, neat, ■courteous. A kind of irony, consisting of a pleasant and .harmless jest; polite irony or ridicule; a witty setting in a civil manner. Cicero says : " It becomes an orator to excite laughter, because mirth itself attracts favour to him who replies, and sometimes in him who attacks, or because it overthrows the adversary or hampers him, or makes light ■of him, or discourages and refutes him, or because it proves the orator himself to be a man of taste or learning or polish, but chiefly because it relaxes gravity and severity, and often by a joke or laugh breaks the force of offensive remarks which cannot be overthrown by argument." Asteismus con- sists in wit, humour, bulls and blunders, wilful mistakes, puns and conundrums, riddles, pa.ronomasia, bon-mots, paradoxes and unexpected turns, simulation and dissimulation, hyper- bole, etc. They are generally based on false reasoning, as Ouintillian says, not only what is said wittily, but done foolishly, angrily, etc. Asteismus also abounds in parody, travesty, mock-heroic, burlesque, humorous poetry, etc.

Dr. Isaac Barrows says : " Wit sometimes lieth in a pat allusion to a known story, or a seasonable application of a trivial saying, or in forging an apposite tale; sometimes it playeth in words and phrases, taking advantage from the ambiguity of their sense, or the affinity of their sound; some- times it is wrapped in a dress of humorous expression; some- times it lurketh under an old similitude ; sometimes it is lodged in a sly question, in a smart answer, in a quirkish reason, in a shrewd intimation, in cunningly diverting or cleverly retorting an objection; sometimes in a bold scheme of speech, tart irony, a lusty hyperbole, a plausible recon- ciling of contradictions, or in acute nonsense, counterfeiting speech, mimicing gesture, look and speech; sometimes affected simplicity, sometimes presumptious bluntness gives it; hitting on what is strange, wrestling obvious matter to a purpose, surprising in conceits."

Account by Aristotle.

Aristotle says: "An oration is graced by deceiving the hearer agreeably — e.g., ' He proceeded wearing under his

ASTEISMUS 115.

feet — chilblains.^ The hearer expected sandals to be the last word, but was deceived. The hearer has learnt somethnig from meaning being opposite to wiiat he expected, and says * How true is this — I however was wrong/ Wit is more striking and approved when the words are fewer and contam an antithesis^ as information by means of the antithesis is fuller, and by means of brevity more rapid."

Cicero on Wit, Humour and Mimicry.

Cicero : " Compared with Crassus, the other speakers ought to be fed on hay " (a Ciceronian bon-mot put in Catulus' mouth on dry speakers). There are two kinds of jokes, one by things and the other by words — e.g., Crassus said in a joke, " Memmius had eaten a piece of Largius' arm because he had a quarrel with him." Throughout Terracina, he added, these letters were on every wall: " M.M. L.L. L.," which an old man of the town on being asked the meaning replied: " Modacious Memmius Lacerates Largius' Limb."

Mimicing or imitation is another sort of jesting from things,, as in a narrative of some kind in which the manners of mankind are described; the characters introduced may be better understood by throwing in a bit of mimicry, they may be convicted of some impropriety remarkable enough for ridicule. Do not overdo the imitaUon, as the audience must conceive more than they can see represented.

By Words : They must not be scurrilous buffoonery ; they are scurrilous when they attack those you do not mean to- hit. The orator should not be a jester, as a jester amuses- to no purpose ; but a speaker must always have a purpose.

Jokes in verse, either as it is, or with some little alteration, or it may be some part of a verse, though most of the fore- going jokes lie in a single word. It is also an excellent joke when you take any part of another person's words in a. different sense from that which is intended ; saying things absurd, which, on the very account of their absurdity, makes them amusing. It is a happy stroke, too, when he who has uttered a sarcasm is jested upon in the same strain in which he has attacked another. Explanation of things also are amusing which are given from conjecture in a sense far different from that which they are intended to convey. Con- cede humorously to your adversary when he wishes to detract from yoli, as Caius said when a man told him he was un- worthy of his ancestors : " By Hercules, you are worthv of yours." Things which are impossible are often wished for with much wit, as Lepidus, when lying on the grass when others were exercising on the Campus Martius. exclaimed : " I wish this were labour " (that is, he wished that labour were as easy).

A Resumen : Jokes which lie in the subject are, though infinite in varieties, reducible to a few s^eneral headins^s; for it is by deceiving expectation, by satirising the tempers of

116 ASTEISMUS

others, by play mg humorously upon our own, by comparing a thing with something worse, by dissembling, by uttering apparent absurdities, and by reproving folly, that laughter is excited; and the graver and more serious a person is, as in the case of Crassus, so much the more humorous do the sayings which fall from him generally appear.

Quintillian on Jocular Stones and Absurd Reasoning. " A jocular story best becomes an orator, and what the orator adds himself should be most humorous. All modes of arguments furnish facility for jests — e.g., Definition as * He is not a dancer but an interrupter of dancing ' \ Distinc- tion as ' You cannot have my cloak, for if it does not rain you will not want it, and if it does rain I shall want it myself ' ; all the Figures as Hyperbole, Irony which is said gravely, etc., in Figures of Thought, as we make some remarks as if in compassion, and others as if in anger, etc." Sidney Smith on Sarcasm, Humour and Bulls.

" So great an essential in ivit is surprise that no W' it will bear repetition. It must be a surprise in the relation of ideas. To discover a gold watch hanging on a bridge is not witty, because it is a mere relation of facts and not a relation of ideas. 'Did I not give you los., then 15s., now 20s. a week to be sorrowful (at funerals) ; the more 1 give you the gladder you are ' — here is a relation of ideas, tne discovery of which is an emotion of surprise and hence wit, for he should have been more sorrowful, but it was the contrary. Sarcasm must not be a direct assertion (invective) but something established by inference and analogy. Humour is incongruity, an unusual combination of objects and of no particular utility, as to tumble in the mud, the gay attire with mud on it, his hat flying one way and he shouting his wrath at passers-by — harmless wrath, all go to increase laughter. A little child or an old woman falling down would not excite laughter, as they are weak and near falling. Surprise is as essential to humour as to wit. Bulls : Wit discovers real relations that are not apparent, bulls admit apparent relations that are not real. It is an apparent^ rela- tion of ideas leading to complete inconsistency — e.g., * Caesar, Cicero, Demosthenes, Shakespeare, etc., and every man v/ho has made a distinguished figure in the House of Commons.'

Alexander Bain says : ". . . among the causes of laugh- ter .. . are the special elation of power and superiority, or an unexpected diversion of the mind. To throw down anything from a height is a signal manifestation of power, and as such gratifies the agent and his symoathisers. . . . ' Behold a land of sixty religions and one sauce.' The putting of relig^ion and sauce together partly degrades religion. It is humour when the deeradation attaches to something that a man does not pride himself upon. We may without offence

ASTEISMUS 117

ridicule the bad handwriting of anyone not pretending to write well."

Examples : —

Of a double meaning : " What will you take, Diogenes, for a knock upon your pate? " " I'll take a helmet."

A smart answer : " It I am ejected from my house I know not where to hide my head." Answer: "Hide it in your cap."

Liisty hyperbole : " Let him shed tears big as plum pud- dings."

Bulls and Blunders : A bull : " Let u§ burn the notes of his bank and make him poorer " (to the contrary, it would make him richer, as he would not have to redeem them). Blunder : " The Rev. John McNeil left Liverpool on Saturday for Toronto, where his future work in the leading Presby- terian Church in that city is to lie."

Proverbs: "Let someone pick him up that knows him." " He's awfu' big ahint the door."

Fables : " I wonder if Mr. Valentine ever read ^sop's fable of the bat. There was a great battle between the birds and the beasts, and the bat kept running about the beasts pretending to be on their side against the birds, and then it fluttered about like a swallow and pretended to be helping the birds. But when the battle was over, both the birds and the beasts agreed in being ashamed of it, and ever since the bat has hid in holes and hollow trees, ashamed to show itself in daylight. That is where Mr. Valentine will be after the election." — Sir W. Lawson.

Bon-mots \ "Point of order, Mr. Speaker," exclaimed Sheridan just as a long winded speaker in the House stopped to take a glass of water. " What's your point? " All won- dered what the point was. " I think. Sir, it is out of order for a windmill to go by water."

Of epitaph :

" Here lies I, because I'se be dea.d, A waggon wheel ran over my head.'*

" Of things absurdy ainusijig on the very account of their absurdity y — Cicero. Very apt for the orator, says Cicero. ^* Every lane was thronged with this comical procession, com- pelling one to remember the old riddle about St. Ives : " As I was going to St. Ives I met fifty old wives; Every wife had fifty sacks. Every sack had fifty cats. Every cat had fifty kittens, Kittens, cats, sacks and wives, How many were going to St. Ives?

" If all the seas were one sea, What a big sea that would be; If all the trees were one tree,

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Vv^hat a big tree that would be;

And if all the axes were one axe,

What a big axe that would be ;

And if all the men were one man,

What a big man he would be :

And if the great man took the great axe

And cut down the great tree,

And let it fall into the great sea,

What splish splash that would be."

— C. H. Spurgeon- ^ " Supposing you had six baboons.

And made them dance a dozen jigs, How many pairs of pantaloons, Would equal fifty suckling pigs ? If every dog had fifty barks. And every bark had eleven bites. How many children's Noah's arks Would equal two electric lights. If seven senses are confused By whales 600 acres long, Why shouldn't people be amused At this my idiotic song? "

—Walter Parke Things impossible often wished for : " Said a youth to the cloud as he turn'd up his eyes. How I wish soup and pudding were rain'd from the skies. Oh ! how charming 'twould be, ready cook'd if 'twould fall,. So that one might dine with no trouble at all." " How I wish little branches grew out of the backs of little pio-s, and on every branch hung big sausages." Parody. With apologies to Gray's Elegy:

" Save that in yonder cobweb-mantled room, Where lies a student in profound repose, Oppress' d with ale, wide-echoes thro' the gloom, The droning music of his vocal nose." With apologies to Mrs. Hemans :

" The same fond mother whipped them all, .. As mothers should know how? She wiped each blessed cherub's nose — Where are those young 'uns now?" Of felicitous stroke of brevity^ witty for this reason only : " What is mind? " 'No matter.' " But what is matter? " * Never mind.'

Jokes in verse : Cicero recommends, they soften and soothe- the pride of the wounded sufferer and his sympathisers. Respecting the whale swallowing Jonah, the secularist wound' up his poem thus :

"Do you believe that story to be true ? There are a lot of fat-heads who do."

ASTEISMUS 119

The wit lying m a momentary flash, its only ingredient: " Kiss her ajid kiss her till you raise a blister, And then go and kiss her sister."

Humorous -play on one's self: Regarding laying the side- walk around St. Paul's, Sidney Smith said : " If we put our lieads together we can do it." Anyone else telling the people to put their heads together on the ground, it would have been repugnant.

Puns and Paronomasia : ''A pig success " (at a pig show). Proposal to erect a hotel at Bull Run tO' commemorate the battle there, Lincoln said : " There was a hot(h)ell there before." "When I went to school, said Bones, I studied George Gravey (geography), Jimmy-nasty-sticks (gymnastics;, and Robinson Corkscrew (Robinson Crusoe)." " Gladiator v(Glad-I-ate-her)."

Riddles- and Conundrums : What's the best tune of all? — Fortune. What's the most dangerous- robbery ? — A safe robbery. What nation has the most marriages ? — Fascination. "' In what ink should a marriage certificate be written ? — In-violate " (C. H. Spurgeon). Why are ladies bad gram- marians ? — Because but few can decline matrimony.

A jocular story, says Quintillian, best becomes an orator, and, as Sidney Smith says, there are a thousand little diversities that can be added when repeated as gesture, look, manners, etc. " Poor old Tim is dead, and won't there be a rousing fire when he is cremated. Always full, Tim was." "' Have you been to see the doctor, to have him look at your throat? What did he say? Give you any encouragement? *' He couldn't find what I wanted him to find. I asked him to look down my throat for the sawmill and farm that had gone down there." "And did he see anything of them? " " No, but he advised me if I ever got another mill to run it by water." If there be no suitable story, make up one as Cicero says Crassus did regarding Memmius' arm, or as Dr Barrow, forge an apposite tale.

Similitude : " His legs were like parsley-stalks, so crooked were they."

Contrary to expectation create the 7nost laughter \ also deceiving expectation on last word, as Aristotle observes. " Mr. Policeman, my watch has gone . . . , please help me find it." "What? Your watch gone? Why, watches were made to go."

Conceal suspicion of ridicide : The Sicilian who, when a friend lamented to him that his wife hung herself on a fig tree, said, " I pray you, send me some shoots of that tree that I may plant them."

"Did my speech arouse pity?" asked a bad speaker of Crassus. " Yes, there was no one so hard-hearted that your speech did not appear pitiable to him."

Charles James Fox was happy in his climaxes, and full

120 ASTEISMUS

of wit and humour in holding up to ridicule the absurdities and weak points of his opponents. Richard Brmsley Sheridan, John Bright and Spurgeon were also full of wit and humour.

Use- Asteisiniis may be used in all the Figures, both verbal and those of thought— ^.^., "Whatever a man walks, he tramples on ; he walks the whole day, therefore he tramples on the whole day." The foregoing, of the figure Antiptosis. Fig.^of^^Emphasis: "Saddle me the ass, and they saddled him." "Thou shait not bear false witness against thy neigh- bour " — but you can against anybody else's neighbour. In the verbal figures: Paregmenon (Paronym): "All designing men are untrustworthy; this man is a designer." Quibbles, or verbal fallacies: "John Owen, rope maker, makes and sells rope." You don't make ropes, your workmen do; you don't intend to give them away. Fig. of Syllogismus : String the heads of syllogisms together and assert the last one in brief words as a conclusion, and with the air of one — e.g., " Greece was the foremost in learning, Greece produced the greatest orators, Greece had a well trained army, etc., etc. Greece saved the world." It is ludicrous to say that Greece saved the world, follows from the previous assertions. Quin- tillian says : " Combat figures by asking opponent to use plain language." Why don't you use plain English — words people can understand?

False Reasoning Source of Laughter.

In all the modes of argument, says Quintillian, Asteismus may be used, and that laughter generally arises from false reasoning. The figure Asteismus is one of the orator's greatest and most powerful weapons. It is most especially serviceable in refuting attacks. Everything that is not relevant to proving the point in debate can be made the subject of wit or humour — e.g., (i) Begging the question: "Mama, why does the grass grow? " Puzzled parent, not desiring to be bothered : " It grows, because it grows, that's the reason." Question-begging epithets : " It's un-American," " It's against the Constitution," " It's an undeniable truth," "Where is the proof," "Work of a simpleton," etc. (2) True divided, false when united: " He knows the letters of which the verse is composed, therefore he knows the verse for it is the same thing." — Aristotle. One is confirmative and the other is refutative. 7 and 6 are even and odd ; 7 and 6 are 13; therefore 13 is even and odd. (3) Apparent Enthymeme, i.e., asserting what is conditionally so, but not stating it absolutely or non-absolutely. "What is unknown is known for it is known as unknown." Aristotle says this is sophistical because of the omission of circumstance of extent, relation and place. Also zvhen and how are omitted. This apparent Enthymeme has only a place in rhetoric. The omission of extent, relation, place, hozu and when make the imposition in rhetoric, and can be made the butt of Asteismus

ASTEISMUS 121

— e.g.y " The poor are happy because they sing and dance m the temples, for all who do that are happy." The silly asserter has lost sight of the fact of the omission of the cir- cumstance that the poor have to do it for a living. (4) F lures interrogationes (two questions or more in one). " l3id you beat your wife this morning? " This should be resolved into two questions, for there are two propositions contained m the one. (5) Cause which is not the cause. " The cock crew, immediately after the sun rose, therefore the crowing of the cock is the cause of the sun rising." (6) Apparent compari- sons to be avoided. *' A new ship is better than an old one, therefore a new friend is better than an old one." ** If another woman's gold is better than yours, would you like hers? — Yes." ** If another woman's husband is better than yours, would you like her husband better? " Proper answer: " I would prefer that my husband was as good as yours." (7) Ad populum argument. When case is weak, the opponent resorts to exciting the passions of the people to prevent a fair judgment on the matter or point under debate. This is a great weapon, says Bain, in the hands of the rhetorician. Offset this fallacy by retorting with an opposite, as opposite passions destroy the effect of each other — e.g.^ a lawyer holds up a crying child (which perhaps has been pinched) to the jury and carries it around to each one to incite pity, in that it was crying for its father. The opponent destroys the effect thus: " Give the child a cake, that it may leave off crying. What can I do ? I can't carry my client (a big fat man) around." If opponent is serious, create laughter; if he is humorous, destroy it by the serious, etc. (8) False analogy. The secularist said there is a multitude of religions and thev all can't be leading to heaven, with one opposed to the other. The opponent replied : *' There are numbers of railroads leading to Liverpool from London, operated by different companies, one perhaps fighting the other, still we all get to Liverpool." The secularist retorted: "Your analog^y is false; one is material and the other immaterial; the one is proven by people who have gone to Liverpool and come back to London; in the other, those that have gone to the unknown have never come back to tell us." Aristotle says retorts and refutations are most amusing and interesting where the people can see a little something of what is coming, but not too much. (9) By contrary. A young fellow dis- missed by the Emperor: *' Go home and tell your father that the Emperor displeased vou." (10) Reductio ad absurdum Tpopularly known as driving an argument home). Daniel Webster v. Hayne : '' The States have a constitutional right to interfere and annul the laws of Congress is the proposition of the honourable gentleman. I do not admit it ... it is the servant of four and twenty masters of different wills and different purposes and yet bound to obey all. This absurdity,

122 ASTEISMUS

for it seems no less, arises from the misconception as to the origin of this government and- its true character." (ii) By definition. *' He is not a dancer but an mterrupter of dancing." (12) Jocular refutation, as denial. " I didn't say I sold old shoes, but that you bought old shoes." Extenua- tion of defence, as " You ate up your patrimony," *' 1 thought it was mine," and other false arguments. " Who rules over freemen should himself be free." — Dr. Johnson. " I do not agree, who drives fat oxen should himself be fat."

Shifts, Dodges, Tricky Defences Grounds for Wit.

Those are subjects of Asteismus (wit, humour, ridicule, etc.), all catching at straws, shifting of grounds, dodging the question, clap-trap, and all tactics to keep away from the Ad Rem — i.e., the real point at issue; all tricky defences to prevent questions being asked, etc., as " What do you- mean ? " "You are dealing in verbal quibbles or verbal refinement, instead of taking a broad and sensible view"; or '' Your question is aimless and irresponsible such as any fool can raise about a piece of wisdom " ; " We are not deal- ing with an exact science; all important kinds of business in life are of necessity carried on by means of rules and notions more. or less vague"; '* People who press for definite- ness are of small experience and capacity"; '* What an absurd question; any sensible person knows what it means; you ought to look up the rudiments of the subject"; and lastly, " You are mistaken," and dogmatically refuse to hear him. This brings a deadlock. — A. Sedgwick.

Fallacies Good Source of Wit, Hu7nour, Ridicule, by Bent ham.

All those fallacies described by Jeremy Bentham are fruitful sources of Asteismus (which can be mixed with some of the other figures, as Diasyrmus, Exuthenismus, etc.), a few of which are the following: (a) Self -authority, as " I am not prepared to say"; then what presumption must be in the conclusion formed by anyone else. Fallacy, exposure. If not prepared, ask for more time to study question, (b) Meii and not Measures, whichever suits. " He ^is a bad man, therefore the measure is bad." Fallacy and exposure is an ad-hominen argument — what has the man's character got to do with the measure? ''Bad men steered into the harbour, therefore we steered clear of harbour and went on the rocks." (c) Ad fVfetum argument or Hobgoblin: ''Here it comes! "The innovation! " Fallacy and exposure: financially or socially interested, therefore do not attack it. (d) Scarer' s Device, back of the reasons given, is the desire to intimidate so that charges may not be made, (e) Ad Quietum argument : Nobody complains, therefore nobody suffers. Fallacy and exposure, there is no chance to make a complaint, or fear of attacking great interest, or being resented, (f) Consolation argument : " Look at the people over there. How much better

ASTEISMUS 123

off you are than they. You have your well-being, etc." Fallacy, the people " over there " are not the point ot discussion, and liave nothing to do with us; try to pay your taxes with the well-being of others as an argument. (g) Procrastination -argument'. "Wait a little, this is not the time." Fallacy and exposure, is not good welcome at all times.? "Is it not lawful to do good on the Sabbath day.? " They are -against the proposition. (h) Siiail Face argument'. "One thmg at a time," " Not too fast," " Slow but sure." Fallacy and exposure, it is an excuse to leave things undone. Try this in home affairs, (i) Acl Verecundiam \ "Why this?" Whv not this or that ? The fallacy is to turn the obnoxious measure aside for one more beneficial. (j) Ad Judiciam : " No one thinks so." No one thinks the earth revolves, therefore Galileo is wrong, (k) Ad Ignorantiain : " No one knows to the contrary, therefore this is correct." (1) Im- poster^s Terms, that is, use the best term to disguise — e.g.^ *' The licentiousness of the press, or the liberty of the press," whichever term best suits the purpose, (m) End justifies the means. Fallacy and exposure, note same if good and proper means are omitted in the following : A loaf of bread is good for hunger. The acquisition of a penny loaf is the end I am at; the goodness of this is indisputable. If by the goodness of the end I am justified in employing any means to obtain the loaf, the absurdity is patent. I give a pound for the loaf, justified on the ground of prudence, or 1 may cut the baker's throat and get it for nothing, justified on the ground of benevolence and beneficence. In brief, the person using the above fallacies, his bluntness, confident tone, arrogance, etc., can all be jested upon; how his eye so expert (made so by golden light) can take in a single glance a whole question that has taken years for others to study out; and see at once the obnoxiousness of it; how his vast experi- ence and wonderful talents enable him immediately to fathom the bottom of any issue (that is not convenient to his interest) and pronounce it forthwith as theoretical, visionary, romantic; bow he instantly classifies every proposal, and browbeats the slightest gainsaying or opposition.

Caution : The less offensive jokes, says Quintillian, are the best, and Cicero advises never to tell a story that has no application, nor jest except to a purpose. '' To joke scurri- lously and passionately is unbecoming a respectable man." As the great Roman orator says : " Jesting and mimicry should be attempted cautiously, and mimicry only for a moment, else it does not become an educated man; they should not be indulged in without cause or reason, nor be far-fetched. Do not overdo imitation, as the audience must conceive more than thev can see represented bv the orator. He should give proof of his modesty by avoiding everything offensive or unbecoming in word or action."

124 ASTEISMUS— ASYNDETON

Although Asteismus is of greater advantage to the one refuting the charges or assertions of the opposite party, he should be careful not to make too earnest a refutation, or elaborate an argument, when one refutation might perhaps have convinced, otherwise the opponent may ridicule it as doubtful because it requires so much argument, or as Whately says: "They see the respondent plying artillery and musketry, bringing up horse and foot to the charge. It must be of great strength what he is attacking.'*

Delivery: " One of the most effective ways of delivering a jest \^ by a Parenthesis." Walker, the great English elocu- tionist, says : * ' What can add greater force to a pathetic sentiment than a thought, as it were, in the middle of a sentence arising out of the fulness of the heart; greater poign- ancy to a sally of wit with least premeditation, springing from the luxuriance of the subject; greater importance to a transient thought, than saying it in the negligence of an intervening member? For we esteem it more in proportion as the author seems to esteem it less." (For the tone of the voice, etc., see Fig. Parenthesis.) In the delivery of cheerful subjects, says Quintillian, the voice should flow in a clear full tone, and is itself, as it were, cheerful. Bain says that the trochaic measure is frolicsome and gay.

ASYNDETON : Greek a, privative ; ovv, together ; 8ew, to bind, to connect, not connected together; is a hgure by which energy of style is secured by the omission of the connectives, also to express great rapidity of action. ** There is no time or leisure of combining with conjunctions. Demos- thenes summarises arguments in a long series of asyndetic clauses; the clauses are short and have a keener thrust." ' * Asyndeton the copulative denies ;

And sometimes haste, and rage sometimes implies."

— Langley.

Asyndeton as defined by Aquila Romanus is when we pronounce words and sentences as if they were separate and independent, leaving out the conjunctions and prepositions by which they are connected.

' Julius Rufinianus classifies Asyndeton among the schemata lexeos (Figs, of Words), and gives as Asyndeton by separate words the following: " Haec eaden ^nea, terram, mare, sidera juro " (Even so, ^neus, do I swear by stars, sea, land); as by a number of members which the Greeks call cola, thus: "Nuba cava speculantur Amicti, quas fortuna viris, classem quo litore linquant, quid veniant." — ^^n. (Ihey, surrounded by mist, endeavour to discern what fortune betide their fellows, on what shore they linger, whence they had

come). _ , (( -nv

Examples : Calm examination or review : Blass' ' Demos- thenes " says that a rather simple character bears the Asyn-

ASYNDETON 125

deton of the sentences in the Exetasis (a searching out, a review, inquiry), the calm examination of a matter, in which the single moments are to be sharply differentiated, and for that very reason the connection is missing; for instance, in Phil. II, 17: Demosthenes: ''Consider. He desires empire; he conceives you to be his only opponents. He has been for some time wronging you, as his own conscience best informs him, since by retaining what belongs to you, he secures the rest of his dominion. Had he given up Amphipolis and Potidaea, he deemed himself unsafe at home. He knows, therefore, both that he is plotting against . . . , he thinks you must hate him; he is alarmed, expecting some disaster, if you get the chance, unless he hastens to prevent you. Therefore he is awake."

Example in Narrative. Blass continues: '* Expressing especially brevity and haste, as in the story of the Timocrates, in which the conjunctions are absent from 'beginning to end: Demosthenes vs. Timocrates, 11, 14: * Aristophon moved a decree in the assembly that inquisitors be appointed, and that whoever heard of any one having in his possession any sacred or public property of the state should give informa- tion to them. After this Euctemon gave information that Archebines and Tysithides, who had been trierarchs, had in their posse^^sion the proceeds of a cargo from Nancrates .... He communicated with the council, an order was drawn up; an assembly was thereupon held. . . . Euctemon got up and explained in the course of his speech how the ship was taken . . . how the people to whom the cargo belonged presented their petition, and how you rejected it on the ground that the cargo was not friendly. He then reminded you . . . that in such a case the property must be confiscated. You all thought that what he said was just. Androtion, Glaucetes and Malanopus jumped up, and (pray watch if I am speaking the truth) they poured out a torrent of complaint and abuse, exonerated the trierarchs, and .... You heard what they said, and as soon as they had done bawling, Euctemon advised — nothing could be fairer — that vou should have recourse to the persons who had it ... . They indict the decree; it came into court; to cut the matter short, it was considered to have been legally moved, and the indictment was in its favour . . . .*'

Example in Descri-ption : Asyndeton ''has an artistic effect when Demosthenes describes the rapid advance of Philip's mio-ht in unconnected, mostly short clauses. Olynthiac I, 12: 'Wherefore, Athenians, we must be exceedingly careful of further measures, that by amendment therein we mav efface the shame of the past. Should we abandon these men too, and Philip reduce Olynthus, let any one tell me, what is to prevent him marching where he pleases? Having just tRken Amphipolis, then Pydua, Potidaea next, Methone

126 ASYNDETON

afterwards, he invaded Thessaly. Having ordered matters at Pheras, Pagasas, Magnesia, 'everywhere exactly as he pleased, he departed for Thrace, where, after displacing some kings and establishing others, he fell sick; again recovering, he lapsed not into indolence, but instantly attacked tne Glynthians. I omit the expedition to Illyria and Paeonia, tnat against Arymbas and some others. . . . if it be his principle ever to do more than he has done, and yours to apply yourselves vigorously to nothing, see what the end promises to be. Heavens ! which of you is so simple as not to know that war yonder v/ill soon be here, if we are careless. And should this happen, I fear, O Athenians, that as men who thoughtlessly borrow on large interest, after a brief accommodation, lose their estate, so will it be with us : found to have paid dear for our idleness and self- indulgence, we shall be reduced to many hard and unpleasant shifts and struggles for the salvation of our country."

Example in Parallelisms : The omission of the conjunction is disproportionately more vigorous than the placing of the same, especially when the subordinating conjunction is also omitted. Cor. 198 : '* Is anything effected which appears to you to be expedient? Silent is ^schines. Has any un- favourable circumstance occurred? Silent is ^Eschines."

Example in Participial Clauses with Asyndeton in Demos- thenes vs. Aphobus III, 55-7, in the Epilogue wherein there are nine participial clauses without connectives: "Having shown that he refused to examine as to the truth of the disposition . . . ; that his brother ^sius deposed . . . ; that Aphobus himself when he was called by me as a witness against Denon . . . ; that my mother was willing to make . an oath ... ; that I tendered for examination all the rest of my servants . . . ; that he has not sued for false testi- mony a single one of the witnesses . . . ; that he did not produce the will nor let the estate . . . ; lastly, that when, by swearing a solemn oath after myself ... I declare to heaven, I could not devise a surer method of proving my case than the one I have adopted.'*

Example in Irony : The following is the preparatory part leading up to the great outburst of asyndetic irony: *' Many rights did the people surrender at last, not from any such motive of indulgence or ignorance, but submitting in the belief that all was lost, which, by Jupiter and Apollo, I fear will be your case, when on calculation you see that nothing can be done. I pray, men of Athens, it may never come to this ! Better die a thousand deaths than render homage to Philip or sacrifice any of your faithful councillors." Then comes that famous asyndetic ironical outburst: ** A noble recompense have the people of Oreus got ..." (see full number of clauses under "Delivery of Demosthenes "). W. H. Kirk, among other participial clauses in asyndetic sequence,

ASYNDETON 127

cites an example where the construction, occurring at the end of a long Polysyndeton, gives a strong effect or increas- ing warmth and vehemence which is heigntened by the hammering beat of the Homoeoteleuton : Demos, vs. Aphobus> II, 48: " Having shown him also to have disposed of the will surreptitiously y to have sold the slaves dishonestly^ to have managed the whole estate so ruinously as ,not even the bitterest enemies would have done, I cannot conceive it possible to convict him more clearly."

" Through life, whate'er my lot may be — I lived — dared — suffered — but for thee."

— Miss Jesbury.

I Cor. xiii. 4, 5, 6, 7 : '' Charity suffereth long, envyeth not, vaunteth not itself unseemingly, seeketh not her own, is not easily provoked, thinketh no evil," etc.

U se : The use of this figure is to avoid tedious repetition, partly for sound, partly for expedition, and it serves to utter thingfs of like nature. Quintillian says the Asyndeton is the absence of connectives, is aptly used when we have to express anything with vehemence by making the particulars appear more numerous — e-g-y " Those I ordered to be sum- moned, to be kept in custody, to be brought before the senate; it was in the senate that they were arraigned." — Cicero. ** . . . and thus we saw a revolution brought about by affidavits; an army employed in executing arrest; a town besieeed on a note of hand; a prince dethroned for the balance of an account." — Sheridan on Warren Hastings.

Asyndeton is to be used " when we make haste, or are to be in earnest." — Puttenham. It is used in the forcible style, for Demetrius states that " above all figures, Asyndeton is the handmaid of force — ^.^., ' He passes through the place of assembly, puffing out his cheeks, raising his eyebrows, walking in step with Pythocles.' — Demos. F. L. 442. If the words be coupled by conjunction, the effect will be tamer." Asyndeton is for summing up, a certain vigour is given by the figure, and a pause when the conjunction is omitted, so that full signification of each word and its relation to the whole is more readily and deeply grasped (cf. J. E. Hardy's Lept. Or. of Demos.). Blass says that this figure may be employed in all other forms of speech except in th'=^ Prooimium, and that it has its place in passionate and vivid speech, also in simple and careless speech, but not in sus- tained and dignified discourse or speech. Hermogenes, under the head of Gorgotes (lively portrayal, vivacity) asserts that the figures by which the speech gains in telling passages are especially the commatic asyndeton, commatic enumeration of names. According to Rehdantz-Blass, the Asyndeton is mostly the 7n(^le of expression of those who are excited, in whom the enormous amount of pressing matter leaves neither time nor repose for connection. In Demosthenes it happily

128 ASYNDETON

expresses the restless many-sided activity of the opponent, the unsettled state of the Athenians; also Asyndeton is used in the analysis of the preceding general idea or thought into its parts, and in summarised narrative there, and where, m the preceding, through such words as " the following,*' a hint of what is yet to be said or given, we put a colon, which explains it {asyndetic explanation). It is further used m longer, more ordinary argumentation, Exetasis (a searching out), with short, principal sentences, and in the more emo- tional forms of shortened hypothetical sentences. Kirk says it may lend the air of haste to the utterance of a series of substantives — e.g.. Demos, vs. Boeotus i, 9: '* How if any of her functionaries impose a public charge — for example, the Archon, the King's Archon, the Umpire of prizes — what sign will distinguish the person intended ? ' ' Herbert Spencer, in ** Philosophy of Style," writes that extreme brevity is a trait of passionate language. The sentences are generally incomplete, and frequently important words are left out. Excited persons are given to figs, of speech

" Away with him, are the cries of the angry citizens at a disturbed meeting, crash went the ropes, down came the mast." The vituperation of the vulgar: "Brute, cut-throat, villain ! " Great admiration does not vent itself in a precise proposition, as *' it is beautiful," but in the simple exclama- tion ''Beautiful! "

Caution : The great fault that may be committed in this figure is when it utters contraries, as if one should say : pleasure, pain, peace, war, life, death. Blass' " Demos- thenes " says that the Asyndeton is not to be used in sus- tained or dignified speech. Rehdantz-Blass remarks that the fine artistic perception of Demosthenes found moderation and limit in the Asyndeton, having alternated it with the Polysyndeton, and that there is danger of unrestraint in this figure by adding a corresponding general idea or thought to the enumerated particulars, which, besides, appears to cover quite a number of unspoken particulars. Demetrius states that in the Plain Style, strange compounds, as v/ell as coined words and Asyndeton, are to be avoided. Pro- longed form of expression represents coolness, which is not the characteristic of Asyndeton. " He who, when reading a lawyer*s letter, should say * Vile rascal ! ' would be thought angrv; while ' He is a vile rascal,' would imply comparative coolness. * ' — Spencer.

Delivery : According to Aristotle, quotes Rehdantz-Blass, Asyndeton belongs to argumentative speech and requires dramatic delivery, alternating with Ethos (mild) and Tonos fforce, intensity).

The emotion placed on the first word absorbs the con- necting particle. " The emotions that have from time to time been produced by the strong thoughts wrapped up in

I

ASYNDETON 129

these forms (asyndetic, etc.) are partially aroused by the forms themselves. These create a preparatory sympathy, and when the striking ideas looked for are reached, they are the more vividly pictured." — H. Spencer. (Compare Delsarte on pantomimic expression as disposing the mind to reproduce the correspondmg emotions.) J. E. Harry, on the Leptinean oration of Demosthenes, describes the orator's asyndetic recapitulation as delivered so rapid, the tone so confident, that the sweeping statements do not have the semblance of falsehood. Longinus on *' The Sublime": " The words issue forth without connecting links and are poured out as it were, almost outstripping the speaker him- self. * We pass, as thou badst, Odysseus, midst twilight of oak-trees round. There, amidst the forest-glens, a beauti- ful palace found.' — Odys. For the lines detached from one another, but none the less hurried along, produce the im- pression of an agitation which interposes obstacles and at the same time adds impetuosity." This figure acquires greater weight when it is made cumulative by the asyndetic sequence of several clauses or words. It may then convey the effect of rapidity, and may be strengthened by Anaphora, especially in the very elaborate example in 28, 20 (Demos, vs. Aphobus II, 20), which shows a heightening of the force bv an accumulation of words cognate in meaning, a figure which is also described as a form of Epanadiplosis (Blass in, 147): ** Succour us then, succour us for the sake of justice, for your own, for ours, and our deceased father's sake. Save us, have mercy on us, since these our relations have shown no mercy. To' you we come for protection. I pray and beseech you by your wives and children, by all the blessings you possess; as you hope to enjoy them, do not abandon me, do not cause my mother to be deprived of all her remaining hopes in life, or to suffer distress unbecoming her condition. Now, poor woman, she expects that I shall return home to her restored by your verdict to my rights, and that my sister will not remain portionless; but should you decide against me Twhich heaven forbid), what think you will be her feelings when she beholds me, not only stripped of my inheritance, but also deprived of my franchise, and my sister wholly destitute without a chance of ever obtaining a suitable establishment."

Being used in the forcible style, and the forcible implies brevity, the delivery is for the most part quick, ^ut when there is very strong feeling, also emphasis, each word stands out, the delivery is slower, and each important word followed by a pause so as to rivet the same on the mind of the hearer,, the pause absorbing, as Rhedantz-Blass states, the connec- tive— e.g., ''A wife — a mistress — unemployed — do this — and you tread on Greek and Roman glory." Deliver the first three cumulative, and the fourth with falling inflection as marked.

130 ATTITUDE

ATTITUDE : Lat. aptitudo, aptitude (attitude is a doublet of aptitude), position, posture ; . is a Figure of Thought. According to J. V. Macbeth, all expressions such as cannot be done justice to except by throwing the body into some attitude, fall under this head ; as when speaking of some famous individual whom you knew in early life, you say proudly, " I knew him when he was so high,*' where- upon it behooves to elevate the outspread palm knowingly to the proper attitude.

Examples : Lord Chatham frequently disconcerted his opponent by a look or glance. The following are a few of Jiis attitudes : With an attitude of dehance he exclaimed, "Is there an Austrian among you?" and that look when he said, ** As to the late ministry . . . ," and with a look of inexpressible derision he uttered these words: '' Whenever that member has nothing to say, I recommend him to say nothing." (See full expressions under *' Lord Chatham, his oratory, delivery, etc.") An example of the attitude of the younger Pitt in the House of Commons while Erskine was making his maiden speech, as described in Croly's '' Life of George IV." : " Pitt, evidently intending to reply, sat with pen and paper in his hand, preparing to catch the arguments of his formidable adversary. He wrote a word or two. Erskine proceeded, but with every additional sen- tence Pitt's attention to the paper relaxed, his look became more careless, and he obviously began to think the orator less and less worthy of his attention. At length, while every eye in the House was fixed upon him, with a contemptuous smile he dashed the pen through the paper and flung them on the floor. Erskine never recovered from the expression of disdain; his voice faltered through the remainder of his speech, and he sank into his seat dispirited and shorn of his fame." Gladstone, when interrupted by an opponent, is said to have directed a terrible askance look at him.

■Silb

THE EARI. OF CHATHAM.

Principal Forms of Oratorical Expression used by Lord Chatham. His master- figures are those in italics :

Anadiplosis, Anamnesis, Anaphora, Apostrophe, Arsis and Thesis, Asphalia, Attitude, Ecphoricsis, Eperotcsis, Epimone, ij^pitheton, Digressio, Optatio, Parainetiqon, Parison, Pause, Rhythmiis.

131

THE EARL OF CHATHAM

HIS ORATORY, DELIVERY, AND SOME NOTES TAKEN FROM EMINENT CONTEMPORARY AND SUBSEQUENT CRITICS.

Lord Chatham was the most renowned, the most eloquent,, and the greatest of British orators.

" Tall and slender^ his figure genteel and commanding, he had cultivated all the arts of grace, gesture and dramatic action. Graceful in motion, says his reluctant nephew, ' his eye and countenance would have conveyed his feelings to the deaf.' All authorities dwell on the magic of his eye. His eyes, said his grand-daughter, presumably on family tradi- tion, were grey, but by candle light seemed black from the intensity of their expression. ' He spoke more to your passions 'than to your reason.' Grattan says: * He was a man of great genius, great flight of mind. He was very great and very odd. He spoke in a style of conversation, not however what I expected. His gesture was always graceful. He was an incomparable actor. His tones were remarkably pleasing. I recollect his pronouncing one word, "effete," in a soft charming accent.' Lord Camelford said: * His voice was clear and melodious, and capable of every variety of inflection and modulation . . . his diction flowed like a torrent, impure often, but always varied and abundant. He deviated into a thousand digressions, often reverted back to the same ground . . . .'

Brief Description of Hint Speaking in the House. " We can imagine him rising in the House . . . his opening is solemn and impressive. Then he warms to his subject. He states his argument. He recalls matters of history and his own personal recollections. Then with an insinuating wave of his arm, his voice changes and he is found to be drowning some hapless wight with ridicule. Then he seems to ramble a little; he is marking time and collecting himself for what is coming. Suddenly the rich tones swell into full- ness of a great organ and the audience find themselves borne into the heights of a sublime burst of eloquence. Then he sinks again into a whisper full of menace which carries some cruel sarcasm to some quivering heart. Then he is found playing about with his subject, pelting snow-balls as he pro- ceeds. If the speech is proceeding with his satisfaction, it will last an hour or perhaps two. Its length perhaps will not improve it, but no one can stir. There may be ineffective, tedious, obscure passages, but no one knows what may be coming — these vapours often precede a glowing sunburst. So all through the speech men sit as though paralysed, though many are heated with wine. He will not finish^ without some lofty declamation which may be the culminating splendour

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of the effort. His action, his inflection, his vehemence are no doubt at least as good as Garrick's.

Tones Musical ^ Action Harmonious ^ even when Excited.

" Pitt no doubt had trained himself to be graceful in animation, had studied and enhanced the beauties of his voice, so that when excited his tones were always musical and his action harmonious. He might not, indeed, have studied his gestures at the moment, but that was because he had been studying gestures half his life. He appropriated the dramatic way of doing things till it had become a second nature to him; thus what would have been acting in others was natural to him. Mrs. Siddons would give her orders at dinner in the awful tones of Lady Macbeth. This was not acting, but nature, trained unconscious nature. Attains Fame only Late in Life.

"He is forty -eight when he attains anything like power. He contended against poverty, disease and contempt. From this point of view his career is pathetic. But through these long impatient years he was being trained, hardened, one may almost say baked in the furnace. In silence and bitter- ness the force was being accumulated that was to electrify the Empire.'* — " Chatham, His Early Life and Connections," by Lord Rosebery.

" His oratory was unlaboured and spontaneous. He rushed at once upon his subject, and usually illustrated it rather by glowing language and original conception than by cool reasoning. Anon, however, he could descend to the easy and playful. His voice seemed scarcely more adapted to energy and to terror than it- did to the melodious, the insinuating and sportive. Lord Chesterfield said he possessed * a most happy turn for poetry.' " — ** History of the Life of William Pitt, Earl of Chatham," by William Godwin (pub- lished in 1783).

'' When he first appeared in Parliament, his voice, even when it sank to a whisper, was heard to the remotest benches, and when he strained it to its fullest extent, the sound rose like the swell of the organ of a cathedral, shook the House with its peal, and was heard through lobbies and down the staircases, to the Court of Requests and the precincts of Westminster Hall. His play of countenance was wonderful ; he frequently disconcerted a hostile orator by a single glance of indignation or scorn. Every tone from the impassioned cry to the thrilling aside was perfectly at his command. He did not succeed either in exposition or in refutation, but his speeches abounded with lively illustrations, striking apothegms, well-told anecdotes, happy allusions, passionate appeals."— ''Essay on Pitt," by T. B. Macaulay (published in 1901).

''Shakespeare, especially ' Henrv IV.' and 'Henry V.,' he loved, and was fond in later life of reading aloud. . . .

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Plutarch's Lives was a favourite with him, especially the account of J:"ericles, whose speech in part he translated from Thucydides.

His Startling Anamnesis — ''It strikes me now.'' 1 he Rhone and the Saone speech (which was full of interrogations and interjections) exhorts as follows : * . . - But there are parts of the address that do not seem to come from the same quarter with the rest. I cannot unravel the mystery — but yes! (he cries, clapping his hands suddenly to his forehead) I too am inspired ! it strikes me now ! 1 remember at Lyons to have been carried to see the conflux of the Rhone and the Saone : this a gentle, feeble, languid stream, and though languid, of no depth; the other a bois- terous and overbearing torrent — but they meet at last; and long may they continue to be united to the comfort of each other, and to the glory, the honour and happiness of their nation.' " — " Life of William Pitt, Earl of Chatham," by Basil Williams (published in 191 3).

" One of the fairest specimens which we possess of his lordship's oratory is his speech (1766) for the repeal of the Stamp Act. In this speech they should have seen the look of ineffable contempt with which he surveyed the late Mr. Grenville, who sat within one of him and should have heard him say with that look : ' As to the late Ministry, every capital measure they have taken has been entirely wrong.' They should also have beheld him when addressing himself to Mr. Grenville's successors, he said : ' As to the present gentlemen, those at least whom I have in my eye ' (looking at the bench on which Mr. Conway sat) ' I have no objection . . . pardon me, gentlemen ' (bowing to them), 'confidence is a plant of slow growth.'

His Skilful Use of the Figure Attitude.

" Those who remember the air of condescending protection with which the bow was made and the look given when he spoke these words will remember how much they them- selves were delighted and awed. ... It seems quite evident that it was the manner, not the words, that did the wonder. This, however, used to escape the observation of his hearers; they were quite blind to Lord Chatham's manner and ascribed the whole to what he said. ' Commons, Lords and Kings. Bring them to me ' (in a voice of thunder). * i meant nothing! Indeed, I meant nothing! . . . ,' said the other. Chatham said : ' I do not wish to push the matter any further * (in a voice little above a whisper, then in a higher tone) * the moment a man acknowledges his error, he ceases to be guilty. I have great regard for the honour- able member, and as an instance of that regard I give him this advice ' (a pause of some moments ensued, then, assum- ing- a look of unspeakable derision, he said in a kind of colloquial tone) — ' whenever that member means nothing, I

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recommend him to say nothing.' When the Prussian sub- sidy, an unpopular measure, was in agitation in the House of Commons, Lord Chatham justified it with infinite address; insensibly he subdued all his audience, and a murmur of aporobation was heard from every part of the House. Avail- ing himself of the moment, his lordship placed himself in an attitude of stern defiance, but perfect dignity, and exclaimed in his loudest tones : * Is there an Austrian among you ? Let him stand forth and reveal himself.' " — *' Reminiscefices of Charles Murray," published by John Murray in 1822

*' The keen lightning of his eye spoke the high respect of his soul before his lips had pronounced a syllable. There was a fascination in his looks when he eyed one askance. He had the verba ardentia (the bold glowing words)." — '* Mis- cellaneous Works of Hugh Boyd " (published m 1800).

His Speeches Elevatedy Rapid, Conversational.

'' It would not be difficult to find points of resemblance between the great Athenian and the great Englishman. Each was a mighty master of invective, each an impassioned patriot. Mr. Lecky says : ' His speeches usually took the tone of a singularly elevated, rapid and easy conversation.' His Ecphoneses and Stunning Outbursts of Eloquence.

** His invective and sarcasm were terrific. Perhaps no English orator was ever so much feared. * I rejoice that America has resisted ! ' — what lightning flash is there. ' In a good cause on a sound bottom, the force of this country would crush America to atoms.' ' If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop was landed in my country, I never would lay down my arms, never ! never ! never ! ' The Duke of Grafton in his memoirs says : * But in his reply to Lord Suffolk's inhuman position he started ud with a degree of indignation that added to the force of the sudden and unexampled burst of eloquence which must have affected any audience, and which appeared to me to surpass all that we have ever heard of in the celebrated oratory of Greece or Rome.' Then followed the amazing outburst which critics will estimate according to their tem- perament. The appeal to the tapestry, some critics may venture to doubt the sobriety and good taste of this cele- brated outburst." — " Lord Chatham as an Orator," by Henry Montague Butler, D.D. A Lecture at the Sheldonian Theatre, 1912.

^^ He crushed together proof and statement in the same sentence, and reached his conclusions at a single bound. Chatham turned and returned the pages of Demosthenes into English. He did not argue with his opponents, but asserted; he wrested their weapons out of their hands by main force. The ipsi dixi, the " I affirm," ''I am ready to maintain," " I pledge myself to prove," constituted all his logic.

THE EARL OF CHATHAM 135

Chatham's U Audace, Asphalia and Epimone, ** Like Danton, he relied on Taudace, as in the famous passage where he declared, ' I rejoice that America has resisted,' and when, with even more defiance, he said, * I hope some dreadful calamity will befall the country, that may open the eyes of the Kmg.' He bore down all by his intensity, by reiterating blow upon blow, as upon an anvil. ' I say we must necessarily undo these violent, oppressive acts. They 7nusi be repealed. You will repeal them. 1 pledge myself for it that you will in the end repeal them, i stake my reputation on it. I will consent to be taken for an idiot, if they are not finally repealed.' If ever a man was born with great oratorical powers, and could afford to dispense with all helps to success, it was Lord Chatham. Yet even he, the king of British orators, did not trust to the gifts of which nature had been so prodigal, but, as we have already seen, laboured indefatigably to improve them by study and discipline." — " Oratory and Orators," by William Mathews, LL.D. (1879).

'* His speech, his action, full of grace . . . And all his country beaming in his face." — Cowper.

Studied Elocution a7id is the Best of Models. " Garrick was not a greater actor than the elder Pitt was, and no man probably since the days of Cicero submitted to such drudgery. His gestures were energetic and vehement, his eloquence was of a strongly excited feeling peculiarly fitted for the broad and rapid combination of oratory. His power lay in his sudden burst of passion. They were his greatest charm, ' Sugar ' (smile in House). * Sugar ! Sugar ! 1 Sugar ! ! ! Who will laugh now at sugar ? ' He studied considerably elocution, and is the best of models." — Breton's ** Complete Orator."

It is unnecessary to make extensive comment on this great English orator, for his oratorical abilities are too well known. Suffice it to say that his tones were clear and beautifully varied, his lowest whisper being distinctly audible, and in the height of his impassioned outbursts they were always pleasant and musical. His sentences were well turned and his gestures graceful. He was well on to fifty before he attained anything like fame, and no man ever went through such drudgery since the time of Cicero to equip himself for the highest eloquence, nor has any Englishman yet surpassed him in his glorious oratorical triumphs. He has always been the best of English models. Henry Clay, the greatest of American orators, in variety of delivery and in arousing the sentiments and passions of his countrymen, adopted Lord Chatham's style.

The principal Figures used by Lord Chatham are marked in the following : —

136 THE EARL OF CHATHAiM

Lord Chatham's Address on the Speech from the Throne^ 'November 20th, ly/y. (Taken trom Hugh Boyd's Mis- cellaneous Works by L. D. Campbell.)

"It is a shameful truth that ^ not alone the power and strength of this country are wasting away and expiring, but her well-earned glories, her true honour, and substantial dienity are sacrificed. France,^ my Lords, has insulted you; she has encouraged and sustained America : and whether America be wrong or right, the dignity of this country ought to spurn at the officious insult of French interference. The ministers and ambassadors of those who are called rebels and enemies are in Paris, ^ in Pans they transact the recipro- cal interests of America. ^ Can there be a more mortifying insult ? Can even our ministers sustain a more humiliating disgrace ? Do they dare resent it ? Do they presume even to hint a vindication of their honour and the dignity of the State by requiring the dismissal of the plenipotentiaries of America ? Such is the degradation to which they have reduced the glories of England ! "^ The people whom they affected to call contemptible rebels, but whose growing power has at last obtained the name of enemies; the people with whom they have engaged this country in war, and against whom they now command implicit support in every measure of desperate hostility; this people disposed as rebels or acknowledged as enemies are ^ abetted against you, supplied with military stores, their interests consulted and their am- bassadors entertained by your inveterate enemy ! And our ministers dare not interpose with dignity or effect. Is this the honour of a great kingdom ? Is this the indignant spirit of England, who ' but yesterday ' gave law to the House of Bourbon ?

" My Lords, this ruinous and ignominious situation, where we cannot act with success nor suffer with honour, calls upon us to remonstrate in the strongest and loudest language of truth, to rescue the ear of Majesty from the delusions which surround it. The desperate state of our arms abroad is in part known. ^/ know the valour of your troops; / know the skill of your officers; that in a good cause on a sound bottom, the force of this country can crush America to atoms. 7 know they can achieve anything, except impossibilities; and 7 know that the conquest of English America is an imDOSsibility.

" You cannot, I venture to say, conquer America. Your armies last war effected everything that could be effected; and what was it? It cost a numerous army under the com- mand of a most able general,! now a lord in this House, a long and laborious campaign to expel 5,000 Frenchmen from French America. My Lords, you cannot conquer America.

* Arsis and Thesis (1) Apostrophe (2) Anadiplosis (3 Eperotesis, with Asyndeton (4) Anaphora (5) Accumulatio (6) Anaphora. + Parenthesis.

THE EARL OF CHATHAM 137

As to the conquest, therefore, my Lords, I repeat it is im- possiole : you may ^ swell every expense and every ett ort still more extravagantly; pile afid accumulate every assistance you can buy or borrow; trajfic and barter with every little pitiful German prince that sells his subjects to the shambles of a foreign prince; your efforts are forever in vain and impotent; doubly so from this mercenary aid on which you rely,^ for it irritates to an incurable resentment the minds of your enemies to overrun them v/ith mercenary sons of rapine and plunder, devoting them and their possessions to the rapacity of hireling cruelty ! If I were an American as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop was landed in my country I never would lay down my arms, ^ never ^ never ^ never ! But, mv Lords, who is the man that in addition to these disgraces and mischiefs of our army has dared to "* authorise and associate to our arms the tomahawk and scalping knife of the savage; to call into civilised alliance the wild and in- human . savage of the woods ; to delegate to the merciless Indian the defence of disputed rights; and to wage the horrors of his barbarous war against our brethren ? My Lords, the enormities cry aloud for redress and punishment; unless thoroughly done away with, it will be a stain on our national character; it is a violation of the constitution. 1 believe it is against law. It is ' not the least of our national misfortunes that the strength and character of our army are thus impaired : '' infected with the mercenary spirit of ® robbery and rapine^ familiarised to the horrid scenes of savaee cruelty, it can no longer boast of the noble and generous principles which dignify a soldier; no longer sym- pathise with the dignity of the royal banner, nor feel the pride, pomD and circumstance of glorious war, * that makes ambition virtue ! ' What makes ambition virtue ? The sense of honour. ^ But is the sense of honour consistent with the spirit of plunder, or the practice of murder ? Besides the murderers and plunderers, let me ask our ministers, ^ what other allies have they acquired ? What other powers have they associated to their cause? Have they entered into an alliance with the king of the gypsies? Nothing, my Lords, is too low or too ludicrous to be consistent with their counsels. ^■^ Not five thousand troops in E^igland ! Hardly three thousand in Ireland ! What can you oppose to the combined force of our enemies ? Scarcely twenty ships of the line fully and sufficiently manned that any admiral's reputation would permit him to take command of. The river of Lisbon in possession of our enemies ! The seas swept by American privateers — our channel torn to pieces by them ! In this complicated crisis of danger, of weakness at ^^ home and

(1) Accumulatio (2) Aitiolo^ [3) Ecphonesis with treble negation (4) Accumulatio (5) Arsis (6) Alliteration (7) Thesis and Arsis with a positive assertion preceding, followed by a negation (8) Hypophora (9) Interrogatio with two assertive inte^rogatives and two direct ouestions (10) Ecphonesis or impassioned outburst of eloquence (11) Antithesis followed by Eperotesis with interrogative pronouns. ^

138 THE EARL OF CHATHAM

calamity abroad, terrified and insulted by the neighbouring powers, unable to act m America, or acting only to be destroyed; where is tlie man with the forehead to promise or hope for success in such a situation, or from perseverance in measures that have driven us to it ? Who has the forehead to do so ? Where is that man ? I should be glad to see his face. ^'~ In a just and necessary war to maintain the rights or honour of my country, 1 would strip the shirt from my back to support it ; but in such a war as this, unjust in its principles, impracticable in its means, and ruinous m its consequences, 1 would not contribute a single effort nor a single shilling. I have laid before you* ' the ruin of your power, the disgrace of your reputation, the pollution of your discipline, the conta^nination of your morals, the complication of calamities, foreign and domestic, that overv/helm your sinking country. Your dearest interests, your own liberties, the constitution itself totters to the foundation. All this disgraceful danger, this multitude of misery, is the monstrous, unnatural war. We have been deceived and deluded too long; but let us now stop short: this is the crisis of time and situation to give us a possibility of escape from the fatal effects of delusion. But if ^ ijz an obstinate and i?tfatuated perseverance y we meanly echo back the peremptory words this day presented to us, nothing can save this devoted country from complete and final ruin. We madly rush into multi- plied miseries and ^ ' confusion worse confounded.' I shall therefore, my Lords, propose to you an amendment to address to his Majesty, to be inserted immediately after the first paragraphs of congratulation on the birth of a princess : to recommend an immediate cessation of hostilities and the commencement of a treaty to restore * peace and happiness to America, strength and happiness to England, security and permanent 'pr 0 sperity to both countries. This, my Lords, is yet our power; and let not the wisdom and justice of your Lordships neglect the happy and perhaps the only opportunity. By the establishment of irrevocable laws, founded on mutual rights and ascertained by treaty, these glorious enjoyments may be firmly perpetuated. ^ My Lords, to encourage and confirm that innate inclination to this country, founded on every principle of affection as well as consideration of interest, to restore that favourable disposi- tion into a permanent and powerful re-union with this country, to revive the mutual strength of the Empire, again to awe the House of Bourbon, instead of meanly truckling, as our present calamities compel us, to every insult of French caprice and Spanish punctilio, to re-establish our commerce, to re- assert our rights and our honour, to confirm our interests and renew our glories forever — a confirmation most devoutly to

(12) Arsis and Thesis.

* (1) Anabasis (2) Parenthesis (3) Gnome (4) Syntheton (5) Peroration with Parison,

CATACHRESIS— CHARIExNTISMUS 139

be endeavoured, and which I trust may yet arise from recon- ciliation with America — I have the honour of submittmg the following amendment, which I move to be inserted after the two first paragraphs."

CATACHRESIS : Greek Kara, against ; XP^}^^^> use, to misapply, to misuse, to tv/ist from its proper use; is a form of speech v/hereby the speaker or writer, wantmg a proper word, borrows the next or the likeliest to the thing that he would signify. By the license of this figure we give names to many things which lack names, as when we say the water runs, which is improper, for it is proper to those creatures which have feet, and to many things which lack proper names. It is also used to designate an object, idea, or act to which it can be applied only by an exceptional or undue extension of its proper sphere of meaning — e.g., " i"o take arms against a sea of trouble." — Shakespeare. To ''stone (pelt) a person with bricks." A palatable tone: to display our horsemanship riding a mule. ** A Catachresis terms abused receives. And epithets and attributes' improper gives." " The peacock spreads — Langley.

His every colour' d glory to the sun, And swims in radiant majesty along."* — Thomson.

Deut. xxxii. 14: "The blood (juice) of the grapes did'st thou drink."

V se : This figure serves chiefly in time of need to yield a necessary supply for the want of a proper word. By it we give horns to snails, feet to a stool, etc.

Caution : It must not be too far-fetched, nor used too often — e.g., " He threatens me a good turn," *' The elbow of his nose."

CATACOSMESIS : Greek Kara, against, down from; jcoa-fieo), arrange in order down from the top or head; is a figure by which the worthiest word is set first, which order is the natural one— ^.^., God and man, men and women, sun and moon, life and death. The artificial way is when the worthiest and weightiest word is set last.

Use : The use of this figure is for the purpose of ampli- fying.

CHARIENTISMUS : Is a form of speech or trope, which mitigates hard matters with pleasant words — e.g., ** He stopped a bullet" (he was killed). ''Alexander the Great asked an arrested man why he railed against him so. He said : ' Had not the wine failed me he had fared worse,' signifying- that those words proceeded rather from the wine than malice, by which free and pleasant confession, he assuaged Alexander's great displeasure and obtained remis- sion."

140 CHIASMUS-CIRCLE

CHIASMUS: Placing crosswise; from the Greek letter X; is a figure by which the speaker inverts the order of words or phrases when repeated or subsequently referred to in a sentence — e.g.^ " If e'er to bless thy sons, my voice and hands deny, these hands let useful skill forsake, this voice in silence die." — Dwight. It is also a contrast by parallelism in reverse order, as " We live to die — we die to live.''

" Chiasm emphasises both sides of an antithesis."

CHRONOGRAPHIA • Greek x^ovocr, time ; ypdcfyco, sketch, draw, paint; is a figure by which the orator describes any time or season for delectation's sake, as the morning, the evening, midnight, the dawn and break of the day, the rise of the sun, the setting of the sun, summer, winter, etc. " The Morning: When break of day had drawn the curtains of heaven; when the morning had won the field of darkness; when the morn's fair cheek had not yet lost her tears. The Evening : When the stars begin to give forth their light which they borrow from the sun ; when the night's black mantle o'erspreads the sky; when candles begin to inherit the sun's office; when night clad in black mourns for the loss of the day; when the labourer forsakes the fields, birds betake themselves to their night-boughs, and when the silence of all creatures is increased by the desire of rest. Autu^nn : When trees are widowed of their leaves, etc. By like observa- tion of circumstances are all descriptions of time."

Use : This figure serves to give plenty of matter, and pleases the mind of the hearer.

Caution : He who uses this figure ought to be skilful in the knowledge of all, or at least of the most effectual circum- stances belons^ing to the time described, for otherwise the description will be imperfect and unpleasant.

CIRCLE : Greek kvkXo^ ; is a figure by which the second clause ends with the initial of the first, according to the following formula as given by W. W. Kirk : A — , —a. Circle arises, according to Hermogenes 252, "Whenever any one ends with the same noun or verb with which he began with- out a change of case, person, tense or number." Blass' "Demosthenes" gives it thus: "When the sentence returns at the end to its first word, the figure 'is called Cycle (circle), of which the ancient rhetoricians give an example out of the Leptinean oration, in which a story of Themistocles begins and ends with legatai.'' (It is reported, the story goes.)

Examples: Demosthenes versus Leptines, 73: ''Many of his achievements are worthy of praise, O Athenians, and on all accounts you are bound not to annul their rewards; but the noblest of them is the restoration of our walls. You may judge by comparing how Themistocles, the most renowned man of his day, accomplished the feat. The story is that

CIRCLE— CIRCUMLOCUTION 141

he desired his countrymen to begin building, and instructed them to detain any one that should come trom Lacedasmon; he went off himself as ambassador to the Lacedaemonians, ' and at a conference with them, it being reported that the Athenians were building their wall, he denied it, and bade them to send ambassadors to inquire, and when they did not return, he advised them to send others. And how he tricked the Lacedaemonians, you doubtless have heard from the story y

From the Embassy Speech of Demos., 289: "It alarms me noty whether Philip is alive, but whether the abhorring and punishing of criminals are dead in the commonwealth. If all is sound with you, Philip alarms me noty

Bullinger classifies Circle under the heading " Cycloids," a circular repetition, and says: ** It is so called because the sentence or phrase is repeated at intervals as though in regular circles. If as a refrain or burden as in poetry, it is called Amoebaeon. 2 Sam. i. 19, 25, 27, where we have the burden of the lamentation three times, * How are the mighty fallen?' Jer. iii. 12, 22. Ezek. xxxii. 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32 — twelve times we have the expression repeated, * slain with the sword,' at intervals, irregularly, but twelve times to denote the judgment as being executed by Divine government. Amoebaeon, or Refrain, is used in the repetition of the same phrase or sentence where it occurs in poetry, at the end of successive periods. Cycloids may occur at the beginning or middle or any part of the circle, but Amoeb^on only at the end. Rev. ii. 7, ii, 17, 29; iii. 6, 13, 22. Seven times at the end of each of these epistles is the solemn burden repeated : ' He that hath an ear, let him hear what the spirit saith unto the churches.'

Caution: Be careful not to exceed two periods or full stops, nor make the clauses within them too long and numerous, otherwise the force of the Circle will be lost sight of, the extremes unobserved, and their beauty unappreciated.

Delivery: The Circle should be treated as an Emphatic Repetition; on the word or words at the beginning, the voice rises in force to call attention, and on the same word or words at the end it falls with somewhat additional force than the usual cadential repose.

CIRCUMLOCUTION: Latin circum, around; loqui, to speak; to speak in a round-about way; is a round-about speech. It is a figure of words by which the orator expresses in a round-about way what he cannot plainly say, or what decency forbids him to say — e.g.^ '^ For the necessities of nature." Sallust. " It will take a lot of talking to make me believe that," which is equivalent to saying: ''I don't believe that "

142 CLIMAX

CLIMAX: Greek, /cXlfjua^ — ladder, staircase; is a figure by which the orator so distinguishes by degrees, that the 'word which ends the clause going before begins the next following, as ** The empire of Greece was the Athenians, the Athenians were conquered by the Spartans, the Spartans were vanquished by the Thebans, the Thebans were over- come by the Macedonians who joined Asia, being subdued by war to the Empire of Greece." '' His arm no oftener gave blows than the blows gave wounds, than the wounds gave death "

" Climax by steps advancing onward goes,

Higher and still more high to an impassion'd close."

— Langley.

Climax, as defined by Hermogenes, is a heaped up Anas- trophe of the first kind, see Fig. Anastrophe. Julius Rufinianus gives it as a Figure of Words; and *' De Rhe- torica," Isidori, says: "a climax is a gradation in which we begin with a word inferior in sense, and terminate with one superior, rising, as it were, by steps or degrees. This figure may be made not only by single words, but by con- nection or weaving of words."

Examples-. ** A young man of great beauty, beautified with great honour, honoured with great valour." "Add to your faith virtue, and to virtue knowledge, and to know- ledge temperance, and to temperance patience, and to patience godliness, and to godliness brotherly kindness, and to brotherly kindness love."

Use : It is used to enable the hearer to appreciate the less weighty as well as the weighty thoughts. Herbert Spencer : *' Immediately after looking at the sun we cannot perceive the light of the fire, while by looking at the fire and the sun afterwards we can perceive both; so after receiving a brilliant or weighty or terrible thought, we cannot properly appreciate a less brilliant, less weighty or less terrible one, though by reversing the order we can appreciate each." Volkmann's " Hermagoras oder Elements of Rhetoric " : * ' Among the figures of words which especially contribute to the Demotes (force) is Climax." Hermogenes also puts Climax under his heading " Kallos " (beauty), which beauty shows itself in the symmetry of the construction of its parts and divisions, in connection with an agreeable colouring. He enumerates this figure as one which adds to beauty as well as Deinotes. Demetrius on '* Style " designates Climax as a figure for the Forcible style, denominating it also as the handmaid of force.

Caution : Hermogenes warns against too free a use of the Climax, and enjoins that moderation be used in its em- ployment. Be careful not to make a Climax a mere recital of events; for instance, Demetrius cites the famous Climax

COACERVATION— COMPAR 143

of Demosthenes: "I did not speak thus, yet not move the resolution ; not move the resolution, yet not serve the embassy ; not serve the embassy, yet not convince the Thebans," and observes that if it were written thus : ' ' Havmg expressed my views and moved a resolution, I acted as an envoy and con- vinced the Thebans," it would be a mere recital of events with nothing forcible about it; whereas in the above Climax the sentences seem to climb ever higher and higher.

Delivery : The repeated word or words must be treated as an Emphatic Repetition, the first repeated word or words on a somewhat moderate scale with a double emphasis, that is the voice rises on the first part and falls on the new matter introduced, and so on rising higher and stronger with each successive repetition, giving always the double emphasis until you get to the last repetition, which should be the highest and strongest as well as the most important word; for it is here the climax is marked, and the turn of the voice makes the cadence. As the climax is used in the forcible style, its delivery is somewhat quick, having regard to beauty in the symmetry of the parts; hence making the voice not only cumulative, but flowing and rhythmical.

COACERVATION: Lat. coacervare, to heap up; is a figure by which the orator heaps up words, phrases or sen- tences without increase of force.

'COMMORATIO: Lat. com (cum), together; morare, to tarry; is a form of speech by which the orator, knowing whereon the whole weight of his case depends, makes often recourse thereto and repeats it many times by variation. There are two kinds : (i) expresses one thing with many words^ which is like synonym— ^.^., "And shall so great a virtue be expelled, thrust out, banished and cast away from the city": (2) declares one thing with divers members, divers clauses, divers effects, and divers reasons.

COMPAR: Lat. com (cum), with; par, equal, on a par with ; called also Isocolon and Parison. It is a form of speech whereby the parts of a sentence consist almost of the like number of syllables : or when the words match each other in rank or parts, and accord in a fit proportion; which is when the former part of a sentence is answered by the latter, and that by proper words respecting the former — e.g., "He left the city garnished, that the same mie;-ht be a monument of victory, of clemency, of continency ; that men might see that he had conquered — what he had spare, what he had left." — Cicero. If you compare the parts of the latter clauses with the former you will find that they are fitly matched. " An innocent, although he be accused, he may be acquitted;

144 COMPAR— COMPARATIO

but the guilty, except he be accused, he cannot be con- demned." Here contraries are connected.

TJ se : The use of this figure is chiefly for causing delecta- tion by virtue of proportion and number.

Caution : Inequality of form and number should be avoided, and do not use this figure in grave and serious causes.

COMPARATIO : Lat. coynfarare, to adjust, to set together; is a figure or form of speech whereby the speaker makes a comparison, from greater to less, equals to equals, less to greater, and from contraries — e.g., (i) of like thmgs, as: " Camillus by his virtue drove away the barbarians, and set up again the Roman Empire, bemg sore oppressed and almost brought to utter destruction; even so Lamentius Valla restored the Latin tongue to the former purity which through ignorance of the barbarians was corrupted, sup- pressed and almost quite extinct." (2) Unlike things: ** Brutus put his sons to death for conspiring treason; Manlius punished his sons for their virtue." (3) Contraries: ** Marcellus restored to the Syracusians, his enemies, their ornaments; Verres took away the same from his friends and companions." (4) From the less to the greater: "If God doth clothe the grass of the field, shall He not do much more for you? " (5) From greater to less: " If the shepherd be not able to resist the wolf, much less are the sheep able."

Use : This form of speech is used in praising or dispraising, accusing, reprehending, confuting, confirming, moving aftec- tion, persuading. It is a mighty force and power to move by example and to persuade by reason, as likes and likes, unlikes, and unequals and equals are brought together as in a balance. It is used very effectively in Amplification.

Caution : In a like or equal comparison, take care that the parts be not unlike or unequal, and not to offend. As Quin- tillian says, " Comparisons are of greatest effect between those nearly equal — e.g., * The body can make no use of the limbs, nerves, blood, without the mind, so a state is power- less without laws.* "

Comparison is one of the most powerful means, says Whately, of exciting or heightening any emotion — viz., by presenting a parallel between the case in hand and some other that is calculated to call forth such emotions; taking care, of course, to represent the present case as stronger than the one it is compared with, and such as ought to affect us more powerfully. Men feel, naturally, more indignant at a slie^ht affront offered to themselves or those closely connected with them, than at the most grievous wrong done to a strang-er : if therefore you would excite their utmost indigna- tion in such a case, it mi^ht be by comparing it with a parallel case that concerns themselves— -i.^., by leading them

COMPOUND WORDS-CURIOSITY 145

to consider how they would feel were such and such an injury done to themselves, and on the other hand if you would lead them to a just sense of their own faults, it must be by leading them to contemplate like faults in others.

COMPOUND WORDS : is a form of speech by which the speaker uses a plurality of epithets. Aristotle says that these are appropriate to one who speaks under the excitement of some passion, for one has a fellow-feeling with another in calling his wrongs " Heaven-measuring," " prodigious." When one is master of his audience, and has wrought them up to an enthusiasm either by panegyric or invective, by excitement of anger or friendly feeling; as Isocrates, near the conclusion of the Panegyric: ** Men who had the spirit," " The record and remembrance." For a speaker in a trans- port of enthusiasm gives utterance to such expressions, and the audience similarly affected readily welcomes them. This IS when we employ poetical expression, and poetry is the language of enthusiasm or irony. Abstain from compound or outlandish words unless speaking passionately, and you have already inebriated the hearer; or when ironically.

It is also called ** Combination," and Macbeth gives the following example by Lamb : ' ' How-do-ye-do-George-my- boy " and " Go-to-meetin* coat," taken from ** New Eng- land." " In nick -names, O'Connell was especially happy, as in his ' Scorpion Stanley ' and * Spinning-jenny Peel * ; the smile of the latter was ' like the silver plate on a coffin.' "

" Compound words lend vigour, as is seen in those which usage often forms so forcibly, as * earthward-hurled,' * slant- shelving,' and the like." They '* derive a certain quality and grandeur from the fact that they are composite, also a certain pith as well. One word will stand for an entire phrase." — Demetrius.

CUMULATIVE : Lat. aimulare, to heap up ; is a form of speech by which the speaker arranges his words and clauses so as to produce an aggregate effect, starting with the lowest in importance and rising step by step to the highest, at the same time increasing the force of the voice with each respec- tive word, phrase, or clause. See Accumulation.

CURIOSITY: Lat. cura, attention, and ous, full of; is the form of language adopted by the speaker to arouse atten- tion, to make the audience curious — e.g., ''What's coming: Jelly Fish and Equal Rights." As " Public Speai^ing," by Winans, says : " The trick of holding up a mysterious document and not refer to it, hints of notable disclosures; but the speaker must interest the audience in something else, else the cry of wolf! wolf! " Also suspense to know the hero's fate in a novel. The uncertainty should arise from something one cares about.

146 DEICTIC

DEICTIC : Greek BeUvvfiL, to point out, to show; is a form of speech used to make clear by pointing out certain statements, arguments or transitions. W. H. Kirk on 'Demosthenic Style " gives the following: "As lucid argu- ment and firm construction are among the recognised excel- lencies of Demosthenes, it will be worth while to enquire into the mechanical means by which he achieved this clear- ness and solidity. Two particles seem of special importance as constructive elements : the Greek toinun (so then, there- fore) and oun (consequently, accordingly, therefore, to mark the result of what has been said; also, when a speech has been interrupted, * to resume '). Both are employed to mark the introduction of an important statement, a new instance, or a fresh link in a chain of reasoning; they serve in a formal way to call attention to what is about to be said. The hearer's attention is engag;ed and fixed upon a desired point by a free use in emphatic positions of the demonstrative : autos (the same, idem), toioutos (such as the foregoing, of such a state, kind, quality), tosoutos (so much, so far, so large), ekeinon (that person, that thing or in that way, that manner). A more open demand is made upon them by the employment of verbs and verbal phrases. Thus we find point- ing forward deixo (I shall point out, I shall explain), gnoses the (you are acquainted with . . . ); the imperatives skepsasthe (note, consider . . . ) ; akousate (give ear to . . . ) ; the phrases 'you will bear witness to,' * it is evident,' * it is open to view,' * it is well known.' The introduction of testi- mony is often prefaced by * so thus,' 'I frankly say'; and in the same connection a summary of facts is often given."

*' In oration 27, sections i to 59 are taken up with the statement of the case, and here we find men oun (ay indeed, rather, nay rather) nine times , tauton (the same, that) twenty times; and some two dozen demonstratives and as many monitory verbs. So the movement of the speech is deliberate and regular. At the beginning of section 60 he reminds the judges of what they have heard, and then putting aside finally all such restraints on the flood of speech, moves on to the close in a rapid torrent of crowding sentences which breathe mingled denunciation and entreaty. And since in this passage we find none of the Deictic utterances noted above, it becomes plain where fheir province lies; they belong to demonstration, and are expelled by the intrusion of passion. The love of clearness is especially observable in the careful deliberateness with which the orator passes from one to another of the main divisions of the speech . . . from narrative to argument, or any shift of topic, is with Demosthenes habitu- ally marked and emphasised." (See further details under Enthymema, Metabasis and Pause.)

DESCRIPTIO 147

DESCRIPTIO : Lat. de, fully, down, out; scribere, to write; serif tus, p.p. to copy; ion — io nom. case Lat. — ing, act of, state of being, that which : is the act of writing down, copying or drawing out. It is a form of speech whereby the orator, by a diligent gathering together of circumstances and by a fit and natural application of them, expresses and sets forth a thing so plainly and lively that it seems rather painted on canvas thaii declared by words, that the hearer rather thinks he sees them than hears them — ^.^., " Men in their countenances and habits, some grave, some smiling, some angry, some weeping, some young, some old, some asleep, some dead ; also in their degrees : princes, subjects, rich and poor; men of art and occupation, ladies, maidens, old women, kinds of persons, face, gesture, apparel, etc." Its movement is of two kinds : (i) rapid, which consists in giving the outlines; (2) slow, which goes into details.

Description of a "' Thing^

Ouackenbos gives the following brief rules for description of things: (i) Circumstances under which seen, as at sun- rise, noon or moonlight. (2) Natural features of the scene, as level or undulating, fertile or barren, vegetation; trees, mountains within view. (3) Improvements in art; whether well cultivated; building or other productions of human industry. (4) Living creatures that animate the scene, human beings. (5) Neighbouring inhabitants, peculiarities, etc. (6) Sounds ; murmur of a stream ; noise of a waterfall ; rustling leaves; lowing of cattle; barking of dogs; singing of birds; cries of children ; noise of machinery. (7) Distant prospect. (8) Comparison with other scenes. (9) Historical associa- tions. (10) Feelings awakened in the mind.

Description of a '' Person^

For the description of persons : (a) Form : athletic, tall, short, fleshy, or thin, (b) Face : features, hair, beard, ex- Dression, etc. (c) Manners : dignified, graceful, awkward, haughty, or affable. (d) Dress. (e) Any peculiarity of appearance, (f) Character, disposition, mental abilities, etc. Of biography: (i) Birth. (2) Early education. (3) His enemies. (4) His losses and reverses. (5) His character, learning, piety, habits.

Central Point and Particular Moment.

Bain says the Description should be made, first, from a centre or main trunk. Many towns afford this naturally, as in a river, a valle}/, ridge. Sometimes the point of departure may be a very prominent central object, as an elevated castle, or citadel, or a great public building. A description is more easily and fully realised when made individual, that is pre- sented under all the conditions of a particular moment of time, as the sea is rippled or piled up in storm-breakers; the

148 DESCRIPTIO

animal in some posture or performing some act, characteristic of the moment. As our mental conception of the visible world is a compound of Form and Colour, these must be sufficiently given in any description, as a brown visage, a deep blue sea. Next to colour is posture or attitude, or the momentary aspect of the thing described, as from *' The Odessey " : ** He ceased: the whole assembly silent sat Charmed in ecstacy with his discourse Throughout the twilight hall." Some accompanying action also gives individuality : '■ Her feet beneath her petticoat Like little mice, stole in and out.'' An interior is more vividly pictured when a moment is chosen, and the characteristic attitude and movements pointed out.

" For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn, The busy housewife fly her evening care, No children run to lisp their sire' s return, Or climb the knee, the envied kiss to share." Associated circumstances are an aid to description, as the solitary peaks, comfortless den, comical face . . . the acts, feelings and thoughts of an observer, real or supposed, have an individualising effect in description.

Subjective Description. The Description of the feelings and the thoughts of the mind may je effected by me3.ns of a proper vocabulary of the mind, as pleasure, love, rage, fear, etc. . . . and of the feelings: (i) By their outward expression; as a smiling countenance, a dark frown of anger. (2) By their known occasions, causes or provocations; as on hearing of some great provocation we recall the emotion of anger. (3) By the resulting actions or conduct. (4) By external scenes, objects, and circumstances that are in harmony with them, as ** Fresh as the month of May"; "In the seventh heaven"; "Life softened and mellowed as with sunset glow."

Indirect Description, by Whately. Regarding Indirect Description, Whately says: "It is not always advisable to enter into direct detail of circumstances, which would often have the effect of wearying the hearer beforehand with the expectation of a long description of something in which he probably does not, as yet, feel much interest; and would also be likely to forewarn him of the design against his feeling. Rokeby, describing the prowess the buccaneer had displayed, does not particularise any of his exploits, but alludes to the terrible impression they had left. (See 'Panama's Maids.*) The first of the dramatists, who mig-ht have been perhaps the first of orators, has offered some excellent exemplifications of this rule," especially in the speech of Anthony over Cassar's dead body."

DESCRIPTIO 149

Things suitable for Description in the Sublime.

The sublime are those (i) associated with ideas of danger, as the howl of a storm, report of musketry, the howl of a wolf, because it is dangerous, being different from a dog's howl, which is domestic and harmless; (2) associated with great power actively exerted, as noise of a torrent, fall of a cataract, cracking of conflagrations, the dashing of waves; {%) associated with ideas of majesty, solemnity, deep melan- choly or profound grief, as the sound of the trumpet and other war-like instruments, the notes of the organ, the tolling of the bell, etc. ; (4) those that awaken emotions of grandeur known to proceed from strong and ferocious animals, as of a lion, growling of bears, howling of wolves, the scream of the eagle; (5) sounds of human voice that indicate serious emotions, sorrow, terror and the like, especially the loud, grave, lengthened and swelling. Battles are amongst the sublimest of spectacles, darkness, obscurity, difficulty, great heroic acts of men, also feeling. Moral Sublimity : The most fruitful sources of this are the following : (a) firmness in the cause of truth and justice; as "Socrates did not avail him- self of the means of escape as it might imply his guilt ' * ; death of Christian martyrs, tortures amid the flames, rack, etc., rather than go back on their faith, (b) Gracious self- sacrifice on behalf of another; as ''Mother, thou hast saved Rome but lost thy son." (c) Self-possession and fearlessness in circumstances of danger, as about to turn back in a storm; " What do you fear, you carry Caesar "; " Scasvola thrusting his arm into the flame till consumed," to show contempt for torture; thus unmoved, the enemy sued for peace, (d) Exalted patriotism; as Wolfe's death scene. "They fly, they fly!" "Who?" "The enemy." "Then I die happy."— Quackenbos.

Things in the Beautiful apt for Description.

(i) The regular in form; i.e., in curves, waving lines, a& a lady's ringlet, corkscrew, and other graceful lines. (2) Smoothness; as flowers, coats of birds and animals, polished surfaces. Ts) Motions; as undulating — e.g., " The curling smoke, gentle as a bird gliding through the air." (4) Smallness and delicacy, as they capture our love and sympathy, in which case we use diminutives, as a lovely little flower, the fragile violet, the modest forget-me-not, much of which quality (smallness and delicacy) belongs to a woman's beauty. (5) Combination of means to an end; as the beauty of the hand wherein its parts are adjusted to form a member unequal in strength, flexibility and usefulness, arches, doors, festoons, etc., that are of a useful end and unity of design in forming one symmetrical whole. (6) In sound; the ones that are simple, those marked by sweetness, softness and delicacy, and are associated with beautiful animals, as

150 DESCRIPTIO

warbling birds, the minuteness of their form, as well as their delicacy, and those of domestic attachment. (7) The human countenance whereon are indicated amiable qualities, mtelli- gence, frankness, benevolence, etc. (8) And all that is descriptive of tranquility, composure, serenity, complacency, peaceful activities, etc. — Quackenbos.

Descriptive Prose and Picturing Power.

Genung says that in descriptive prose (Imaginative style ' whose field is naturally descriptive), the tendency to rhyttim is more marked in measure, but not enough to impair the integrity of the prose tissue. It freely draws on poetic resources, especially epithet and word paintmg ; also allitera- tion, balancmg language, etc. — e.g., Ruskin's master descrip- tion, ** Stones of Venice." (i) Epithet: terraced gardens, raijty green, iizto the blue sea. (2) Word painting : sleeping in the sun, the great peacefulness of light, tormented by furious pulses, the -flaky veil of the mist of the brook. (3) Alliteration : bossy beaten work, mixed amofig masses of laurel and orange and plumy palm, bites their peaks into barrenness. No less masterly than these sounds are the deli- cately varied combinations of sounds both vowel and con- sonants. (4) Rhythm encroaching on metre :

" Here and there an angry spot of thunder, W^th bossy beaten work of mountain chains Spreading low along the pasture lands » By furious pulses of contending tide ..."

The picturing power is strongly in evidence. The adjective and adverb in prose are for fulness of meaning and for the roundness of phrase. They convey warmth and colouring to the imagination. They give richness and depth to the austere outline of verb and noun. Word Painting consists (i) of epithets, as ''languid air," " w^eary dream," " shadowy pine "; (2) of the picturing verb, as " The moun- tain wave will roll us home," '* The slumbering stream along the cliffs, to fall and pause " ; (3) of the flow and sound of words, as " The slow dropping veil of thinnest lawn"; (4) of elaborately wrought pictures. Word painting employs epithets as its chief source, added to it, on occasion, the picturing power of the verb and noun, harmony of phrase, and descriptive beauty of imagery skilfully elaborated. Cicero savs that description is most effective which sets the things before the eyes as if actually happening.

Aids to, and Description by Negative. Aristotle remarks, respecting, for instance, pity, that the greatest effect is produced by those characters which are got up with the aid of the voice, gesture and dress ; for thus it sets the evil before our eyes as being on the eve of taking Dlace, or having happened, and makes it appear close at hand, as displaying the garments of those who have suffered.

DESCRIPTIO 151

One notable example of this is Anthony's displaying of Caesar's robe. According to Aristotle, description by nega- tives is a most effective beauty — e.g., lyreless. Just as one builds up by the affirmative, *' There is a little hill around which the wind . . . ," so we may build up by the negative. In Cope's ''Analysis," Aristotle says that this mode ot treatment, namely, that the things are not there (or that the^ object of praise or censure has them not) may be applied to things good and bad. Example: " And there, nor ram, nor snow, nor breath of frost, nor blast of hre, nor rush of rattling hail, nor fall of rime nor scorching heat of sun, nor lasting cold nor drought, nor winter shower." The foregoing is a translation from an old Anglo-Saxon piece.

Examples: Dyer's ''Granger Hill" is considered one of the best descriptive poems in the English language : " Now I gam the mountain's brow,

What a landscape lies below !

No clouds, no vapours intervene.

But gay, the open scene,

Does the face of nature show

In all the hues of heaven's bow;

And swelling to embrace the light,

Spreads around beneath the sight.

Old castles on the cliffs arise.

Proudly towering in the skies !

Rushing from the woods, the spires

Seem from hence ascending fires !

Half his beams Apollo sheds

On the yellow mountain heads;

Gilds the fleeces of the flocks

And glitters on the broken rocks."

Burke' s Unsurpassed Description of the Carnattc. "When at length Hyden Ali found that he had to do with men who either could sign no convention, or whom no treaty and no signature could bind, and who were the determined enemies of human intercourse itself, he decreed tc make the country possessed by these incorrigible and pre- destinated criminals a memorable example to mankind. He resolved in the gloomy recesses of his mind, capacious of such things, to leave the whole Carnatic an everlasting monument of vengeance, and to put perpetual desolation as a barrier between him and those against whom the faith which holds the moral elements of the world together was no protection. He became at length so confident of his force, so collected in his might, that he made no secret whatever of his dreadful resolution. Having terminated his disputes with every enemy and every rival, who buried their mutual animosities in their common detestation against the creditors of the Nabob of Arcot, he drew from every quarter whatever a savage ferocity

152 DESCRIPTIO

that could add to his new rudiments in the arts of destruction, and compounding all the materials of fury, havoc and deso- lation into one black cloud, he hung for a while on the declivities of the mountains. Whilst the authors of all these evils were idly and stupidly gazing on this menacing meteor, which blackened their horizon, it suddenly burst and poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains of the Carnatic. Ihen ensued a scene of woe, the like of which no eye had ever seen, no heart conceived, and which no tongue can adequately tell. All the horrors of war before known or heard of were mercy to that new havoc. A storm of universal lire blasted every field, consumed every house, destroyed every temple. The miserable inhabitants flying from their flaming villages in part were slaughtered, others without regard to sex, to age, to the respect of rank or sacredness of function; fathers torn from children, husbands from wives, enveloped in a whirlwind of cavalry and amidst the goading spears of drivers and the trampling of pursuing horses, were swept into captivity in an unknown and hostile land. Those who were able to evade this tempest fled to the walled cities, but escaping from hre, sword and exile, they fell into the jaws of famine.

" For eighteen months without intermission this destruction xaged from the gates of Madras to the gates of Tanjore, and so completely did these monsters in the art, Hyden Ali and his more ferocious son, absolve themselves of their impious vow, that v/hen the British armies traversed, as they did, the Carnatic, for hundreds of miles in all directions, through the whole line of their march they did not see one man, not one woman, not one child, not one four-footed beast of any description whatever. One dead uniform S'ilence reigned over the whole region." (See Demosthenes' description of Philip's rapid march, under Asyndeton.)

IJ se : Description may be used in all other kinds of com- position, narrative of events, campaigns, battles, etc., apart from the various uses pointed out in the foregoing examples, also to set vividly before the hearers things, circumstances, persons, etc.

Caution : Do not use too many picturing adjectives and adverbs, as it then becomes a blemish. Ouackenbos says : " In the description of sublime objects be sure to use a clear, strone, concise and simple style, as the greatest thoughts must be presented in the fewest words — e.g., ' I love God and little children.' In what more elevated terms could love for sinlessness and innocence be expressed. It is grand because strikingly condensed." Curry says: "If the mind of the reader accentuates the subtleties or essentials, then the pictorial energy of the minds of the audience will be stimulated." Do not commit a similar blunder as Theopompus. When

DESCRIPTIO 153

Theopompus had dressed out in marvellous fashion the descent ot the Persian king upon Egypt, he spoilt the whole by some petty words. He runs oft Irom the more elevated to the more lowly, whereas he should, on the contrary, have risen higher and higher. With his wonderful description of the whole outht he mixes bags and condiments and sacks, and conveys the impression of a confectioner's shop !

** In lofty passages we ought not to descend to sordid and contemptible language unless constrained by some over- powering necessity." — W. Rhys Roberts' translation of Longinus on the Sublime.

Delivery : Description should be in the middle tone, as Bell directs ; and in the diatonic melody, according to Dr. Rush, which " consists of a simple rise through the concrete of tone, varied by an occasional downward tone, the radical pitch playing in its several phrases; and the termination of the melody by a descent of cadence, which diatonic melody is used in plain narrative and description." It is also flowing in style in all that is of the beautiful. Russell says it is in the Distinctive slide of the third interval, downward — e.g., " The dazzling summits of the snowcapt mountains in the distance, threw an air of enchantment over the scene."

Pathetic description is in the diatonic scale, as in the tone of ''Fire! " ''Alas! " "Well a day! " "Ah, me! " "Farewell!" The delivery of moral observations and description adopt a diffuse and flowing style.

The following descriptive prose is delivered in the poetic monotone (a distinctive second which gives its peculiar melody to prose and verse when not marked by emphasis or im- passioned force, as contrasted with the partial cadence of complete sense in clauses, pure tone, moderate force): "In the calm Spring evenings, what delightful hours the cottager spends in his little garden, . . . for as the shades of the night fall darkly on the scene, he leans upon his spade, and lingers to breathe the odorous air, to heaV the faint murmur of his wearied bees now settling for the night, and the glad notes of birds dying melodiously away in the inner woodsy The words in italics should be delivered with the poetic monotone. — Dr. Rush's " Orthophany."

Animated, but opposite to the poetic description, median expulsive, the accents more pronounced. Early rising : " One whines and purrs about him, another frisks and capers, does everything but speak, the stern mastiff, the plodding ox, the nobl3 horse, harmless sheep, prating poultry, each in his own way expresses joy when he (man) first appears."

Examples of the Sublime (The Ocean) : "Thou glorious mirror! ... In all time.

Calm or convulsed — in breeze, or gale, or storm, I cine the pole, or in torrid clime

154 DIABOLE—DIACOPE— DIURESIS

Dark heaving, boundless, endless, sublime, The image of eternity.'* — Byron.

In the above the orotund voice is used, force impassioned, and pitch low. The italics with vowels full and prolonged, stress median, and pauses long. A vessel on the ocean, awe and horror (pathetic description): '* . . . in the awful storm, ingulfing seas, the shivering vessel . . ." — Everett.

Mount Blanc, description by Coleridge: ". . . O sovran Blanc ! The Arve and Arveiron at thy base rave carelessly : but thou, most awful form ! risest from forth the silent sea of pines, how silently ! Around thee and above, deep is the air and dark — substantial black — an ebon mass : methinks thou piercest it, as with a wedge ! But 1 look again ; it is thine own calm home, thy crystal shrine, thy habitation from eternity! O dread and silent mount! ..."

" From peak to peak, the ratling crags among, leaps the live thunder, not from one lone cloud, but every mountain hath found a tongue." — Byron.

(See Figs. Diatyposis, Hypotyposis, Topographia, Topo- thesia, Pragmatographia, Chronographia.)

DIABOLE : Greek Sta/SoXrj, accusation, slander, calumny ; is a form of speech whereby a man is set against his neigh- bour, influencing a hostile feeling against the opponent, raising prejudice against him, or his course or policy, against his past conduct, character, or circumstance, that he is un- friendly to hearers, against their interest, favours their enemies, so as to make audience angry with him, that he is undeserving, to make them envious. It is used in the Prooemium, in that part called the Diegesis and Epilogue (see Exordium).

DIACOPE : Is from the Greek and means to cut, to cut into, to break through. It is a figure by which the orator repeats a word, allowing a word or a few words to come in between — e.g., " My heart is fixed, O God, my heart is fixed. "^Psalm Ivii. *' I have sinned, O Thou my Maker, I have sinned: what shall I do?"

Use : It serves to express afi^ection ; is most fit for sharp invective or exprobation, as " Thou knowest not, foolish man, thou knowest not the price of virtue " ; it is also an apt ornament for meditation : " Thou art my portion, O my God, thou art my portion."

Caution-. Do not repeat a wanton or idle word. Too short a word makes an ill sound.

DIURESIS : Greek Sm, through, right through, asunder, apart ; dipecri^, a taking. As a figure of words, it is when one syllable is divided into two parts, and as a form of speech

DL^RESIS— DIALOGISMUS 155

it is when a general kind is divided into a special kind, yet not in a dialectical form, but in rhetorical manner for amphfication^s sake— ^.^., Job. xii. 7-8: "Ask the cattle and thev shall inform thee; and the fowls of the air and they shall tell thee; the increase of the earth and it shall show thee; or the fishes of the sea and they shall declare unto thee." Here Job amplifies the gross ignorance of his friends. Use : This figure is an apt and ready form of speech to open the bosom of nature; to spread out at large both virtues and vices in their kinds, whereby the oration is enriched with copiousness and garnished with variety, which occupy the mind ot the hearer with a pleasant beholding of new matter.

Caution : Do not number too few kinds, nor too many to be superfluous. The division is much deformed if things of another kind are mingled with it, for by the mingling of many kinds together it falls into an odious confusion.

DIALOGISMUS : Greek om, across, one with another, two ; Xo'yocFy word, conversation; is a figure whereby, or when one is discussing a thing with himself as if he were talking with another, asks the question and makes the answer; or where the speaker feigns a person to speak to whether it be much or little, somewhat like Prosopopoeia with this difference : when the person feigned speaks all himself, it is Prosopopoeia; but when the speaker answers now and then to a question or objection which the feigned person makes to him, it is Dialogismus. It is a form into which with much effect an argument or burst of feeling may be thrown — cf. J. W. Macbeth. When the Dialogue uses animated questions and answers in developing an argument, it is called Diancea, from the Greek Dianoia, a revolving in the mind — cf. E. W. Bullinger. It is also called Socratic Disputation — one which seems to have excited the emulation of Aschines and Plato in no common degree. It puts a proposition into an interrogative form, as Demetrius gives it, somewhat as follows : " My dear lad, how much property has your father left you? Is it considerable and not easily assessed? " * It is considerable.' Socrates: ''Well, now, has he also left you the knowledg^e which will use it rightly? " In this way Socrates drives the lad into a corner; he reminds him that he is ie^norant; he urges him to get instruction, and all this naturally and in perfect taste.

Examples: (i) A statement introduced and a reply thereto, from Demosthenes. " He who reproaches me with intimacy A\ith Alexander! I reproach thee with the intimacy of Alexander ! How couldst thou obtain it ? How couldst thou aspire to ^it? I could never call thee Philip's friend nor Alexander's intimate, I am not so insane; unless we are to

156 DIALOGISMUS

call the menial servants, who toil for their wages, the friends and intimates of those who deign to hire them."

(2) Examples between other -persons than the speaker^ the speaker not taking part : Fox's great speech on the rejection of the overtures of Napoleon: "... But if a man were present now at a field of slaughter and were to inquire for what they were fighting — Fighting ! would be the answer ; they are not fighting, they are pausing. Why is that man expiring ? Why is that other writhing with agony ? What means that implacable fury ? The answer must be : You are quite wrong. Sir, you deceive yourself; they are not fighting; do not disturb them ; they are merely pausmg ! This man is not expiring with agony, that man is not dead, he is only pausing ! Lord help you. Sir, they are not angry with one another; they have no cause for quarrel; but their country thinks that there should be a pause. All that you see. Sir, is nothing like fighting; there is no harm, nor cruelty, nor bloodshed in it whatever; it is nothing more than a political pause ! It is merely an experiment to see whether Bona- parte will not behave himself better than heretofore; and in the meantime we have agreed to a pause in pure friend- ship! . . r

Sheridan's famous Begum speech against Warren Hastings : '* If we could suppose a person to have come suddenly into the country, unacquainted with any circumstances that had passed since the days of Siyah Ul Dowlah, he would natur- ally ask, ' What cruel hand has wrought this wide desolation, what barbarous foe has invaded the country, desolated its fields, depopulated its villages ? ' He would ask, ' What disputed succession, civil rage, or frenzy of the inhabitants had induced them to act in hostility to the works of God and the beauteous works of man ? ' He would ask, * What religious zeal or frenzy had added to the mad despair and horrors of war ? ' The ruin is unlike anything recorded in any age; it looks like neither the barbarities of men nor the judgments of vindictive heaven. There is a waste of desola- tion as if caused by fell destroyers, never meaning to return and making short period of their rapacity. It looks as if some fabled monster had made its passage through the country, whose pestiferous breath had blasted more than its voracious appetite could devour."

John Campbell in " The Life of Spurgeon," says Spurgeon was a master of dialogue. The following is an example : *' I think if you walked up to the top of that hill of Calvary and asked one of those men who cried out ' Crucify him, crucify him,' 'What do you say that for? Is he a bad man?' * No,' he would have said, * he went about doing ^ood.' 'Then why do you say crucify him?* 'Because Rabbi Simeon gave me a shekel to help the clamour.' So

DIALOGISMUS 157

the multitude were much won by the money and influence of the priests.''

The foregoing are dialogues between persons^ m which the speaker takes no part, but it may also be between life and death, conscience and passion, etc.

(3) Example dialogue between the speaker and justice^ etc.^ or the preacher and eternity: "O dread eternity, I ask thee to tell how can man live in safety on earth? And eternity, looking down on me from heaven speaks and says, * Despise the bribes of sin ! give not up thy soul to things perishable ! give God the chief place in thy heart! ' " Example between the speaker and another person-. From Demosthenes: "For I " — thus he addresses ^schines — *' and all those with me, call you a hireling, first of Philip and now of Alexander ! If you doubt, ask these present; but I will rather do it for you. Does it seem to you, Athenians, that -^schines is a hireling or guest of Alexander? Do you hear what they say?" — cf. J. W. Macbeth. Further examples see Isa. Ixiii. 1-6 and Isa. xiv. 16-24.

Dialogue from Gurney's " Shorthand Sermons of White- field " : " . . . Even though the body is removed in sleep, the soul is gone where it shall be sorrowful no more. O, says one, * I will fly tO' the mountains.' O silly fool, silly fool, fly to the mountains — they are themselves to be burnt up and moved. O, says you, * I will flee to the sea.' O you fool, that will be boiling like a pot. Will you fly to the moon? — that will be turned into blood. Will you stand by the stars ? — they will fall away. I know but one place you can go to — that is to the devil; God keep you from that."

Use : Dialogismus is used to introduce a conversational element into discourse, and, as Curry says, has the educa- tional value of developing self-control, and that it teaches command of thought, of imagination and passion, and makes us realise the nature of expression, its subjective processes and its direct relationship to other minds. This figure has also the important use of aiding one to keep himself in a conversational style.

Caution : Care must be taken that the speech be suitable to the person feigned or introduced.

Delivery. Its delivery is conversational, tones natural; and when questions and answers are animated, the conversational delivery likewise becomes animated. This form of language, says Macbeth, is admirably fitted to give energy and im- passioned life to oratory or argument. Demetrius says that their very similitude, their vividness, their nobly didactic character, met with great success in the days of their first invention, or rather they took society by storm. (See further details under Figs. Sermocinatio, Anthypophora and hypo- phora.)

158

RICHARD BRINSLEY SHERIDAN

RICHARD BRINSLEY SHERIDAN: HIS ORATORY, DELIVERY, AND SOME NOTES FROM EMINENT CONTEMPORARY AND SUBSEQUENT CRITICS.

Richard Brinsley Sheridan was a contemporary of Pitt and Fox, but, unlike these eloquent men, besides being a splendid orator, he was a great playwright and Shakespearean actor. He possessed the best trained voice of all his contem- poraries.

" In person he was above the middle size, of a robust con- stitution, weU limbed, inclined a little to stoop, and deep in the chest. Sir Joshua Reynolds said the pupil was the largest of any human eye he ever painted. He was the last of that hemisphere of talent by which this country was adorned in the period between 1770 and 18 10, a period unexampled in British history for senatorial eloquence. . . . He joined to the higher attributes above spoken, the natural advantages of a clear and melodious voice ^ a distinct, emphatic and unapected utterance, and a manly and becom- ing action. Of his divine oration on the Begums in Parlia- ment only fiagments have come down to us.** — ** Memoirs of the Life and Death of R. B. Sheridan," by W. Howe (pub. 1816).

" Mr. Sheridan's style is neat, simple and unaffected. His wit new, vivid and original, happily associates with his argu- ment, which at once is clear, vigorous and impressive. In his studied speeches every species of eloquence is powerfully and luminously exhibited. His ridicule is pleasing, pointed (when he chooses), severe and sarcastic, and is often blended with such inimitable strokes of comic humour as justly make him the delight and favourite of the House. His speech on the motion for impeaching W. Hastings was the most im- passioned, brilliant and eloquent that was ever delivered in Parliament." — '* Characteristic Sketches of Some of the Most Distinguished Speakers in the House of Commons since 1780," by C. and R. Baldwin (pub. 1808).

Begum Speech without a Parallel.

*' . . . In this state Sheridan brought forward Feb. 7th, 1787, in the House of Commons the charge relative to the Begum Princesses of Oude, and delivered that celebrated speech whose effect upon its hearers has no parallel in the annals of ancient or modern eloquence. The effect of this speech, added to the line taken by the Minister, turned the balance against Hastings and decided the impeachment. The verbatim report of any speech must always appear diffuse and ungraceful in the perusal. The very repetitions, the redun- dancy, the accumulation of epithets, which give force and

RICHARD BRINSLEY SHERIDAN 159

momentum in the career of delivery, weaken and encumber the march of the style when read. * Sheridan wrote the best comedy (School for Scandal), the best opera (The Duenna, Beggar's Opera), the best farce (The Critic), and delivered the best oration (the famous Begum speech) ever conceived or heard in this country,' so said Lord Holland. _

Sheridan^ s Industry as an Orator and Writer.

'* A striking character of Sheridan as an orator and a writer was the degree of labour and preparation which his production in both lines cost him. The showier passages were generally written two or three times over (often without any material change in their form) upon small pieces of paper or on cards. To such minutiae, even to the precise place to come in * Good God, Mr. Speaker. ' While the world gave him credit for being asleep, he remained many hours during the day in bed laying the framework of his wit and eloquence for the evenmg. Still he had quickness of readily replying." — " Memoirs of the Life of the Rt. Hon. Richard Brinsley Sheridan," by Thomas Moore (1825).

His Fluency y Voice, Gesture and Vivid Conception.

" In flow of diction, Mr. Sheridan yielded not to Pitt. Every quality of the orator was united in him; the mind, the eye, quick, sparkling, penetrating, matchless almost for brilliancy and expression — attitude, the gesture, the voice. Sheridan and Burke were taught by the philosophy that a" degree of belief attends vivid conception ; and to arrest the attention of men is a great step towards their conviction. Both soared with epic freedom into the boundless regions of fancy, and made the most energetic appeals to the passions." — " Sheridan, by a Constitutional Friend" (pub. in 1816).

" Sheridan possessed in the highest degree the gift of the orator — namely, that of exciting the emotions and rousing the passions of his auditors." — *' Great Orators: Richard Brinsley Sheridan," by Henry James Nicoll (1880).

Description of the Famous Begum Speech.

" Sir Gilbert said there was not a dry eye in the assembly during Sheridan's great Begum Speech, that he himself never ciied so on a public occasion. The close was very pathetic; he fell back into the arms of Burke as if exhausted (some ascribe it to stage effect). His speech moved Mrs. Siddons to tears and caused Mrs. Sheridan to faint away as she felt her own husband hailed as an incomparable orator. Sheridan excelled as an orator by geniality of his tone, the excellence of his voice and manner, happiness with which he made points, and his shrewdness in knowing how to make an end. Sheridan had an eagle eye for the ridiculous side of an opponent.

160 RICHARD BRINSLEY SHERIDAN

He Excelled all Orators in Dialogue. "As an orator Sheridan excelled all his contemporaries in casting his thoughts into the form of a dialogue. ' We ask Middleton whether any battle was fought anywhere? None, he owns, that ever he heard of. * Did any one man, horse or foot, march to suppress this rebellion? ' * None.' ' Did you ever hear any orders for any troops to march to suppress it ? ' ' None. * The rebellion seems clearly to have died a natural death, though raised certainly for a most unnatural object.' He possessed a fi.ne and flexible voice; used appro- priate gestures, manner insinuating. In short, he was a con- summate actor.

* * The most memorable mention of Sheridan in the House of Commons during the life time of the present generation was by John Bright, who quoted what he styled ' the beauti- ful language of Sheridan ' ; he said that his ideal for the country was the advent of the time depicted by him, when * 'Content sits basking on the cheek of toil,' and the House warmly responded to the invocation of the greatest of its past members by him whom it as fervently admired and as highly esteemed."—** Biography of Sheridan," by W. Fraser Rae (1896).

'* Long shall we seek his likeness, long in vain. And turn to all of him which may remain. Sighing that nature formed but one such man And broke the die in moulding Sheridan." — Byron.

" His manner was theatrical, but full of life and energy. He delighted especially in antithesis, apostrophes, and rhetori- cal exaggeration. His practice in great emergencies was to rise at four in the morning, light up a prodigious quantity of candles around him, and eat toasted muffins while he worked." — '* Oratory and Orators," by William Mathews, LL.D.

The foregoing comments on the oratory of Sheridan amply portray his powers of eloquence. We shall limit ourselves to indicating some of the most striking Forms of Oratorical Expression in the celebrated Begum speech, and to these remarks — that he was like the Greek master .i^schines, in that he had a splendidly cultivated voice, tones diversified and gestures graceful, and that he excelled in Dialogismus, Descriptio and Asteismus. He was master of all the forms of oratorical expression, and he had the art of well rounding a sentence or period. He held that vivid conception induces belief.

Extracts from the famous Begum Speech of the Rt. Hon. R. B. Sheridan.

'* But had Mr. Hastings the merit of exhibiting either of these descriptions of greatness even of the latter? He saw

RICHARD BRINSLEY SHERIDAN 161

' nothing great, nothing magnanimous, nothing open, nothmg direct m his measures or m his mind. On the contrary, he had too often pursued the worst objects by the worst means. His course was an eternal deviation from rectitude. He tyrannised or deceived; and was by turns a Dyonisius and a Scapiu. In his mind all was shuffling, ambiguous, dark, insidious and little ; nothing simple, nothing unmixed : - all affected plainness and actual dissimulation, a hetero- geneous mass of contradictory qualities, with nothing great but his crimes; and even those, contrasted by the littleness of his motives, at once denoted both his baseness and his meanness, and marked him for a traitor and a trickster. Nay, in his style and writing there was the same mixture of vicious contrarieties; the most grovelling ideas were con- veyed in the most inflated language, giving mock consequence to low cavils, and uttering quibbles in heroics; so that his compositions disgusted the mind's taste as much as his actions excited the soul's abhorrence. Indeed, this mixture of char- acter seemed by some unaccountable but inherent quality to be appropriated, though in inferior degrees, to everything that concerned his employees. . . . Alike in the political and military line could be observed ^ auctioneering ambassadors and trading generals; and thus we saw a revolution brought about by affidavits; an army employed in executing an arrest; a town besieged on a note of hand; a prince dethroned for the balance of an account. Thus it was they exhibited a government which united the mock majesty of a bloody sceptre and the traffic of a merchant's counting house, wield- ing a truncheon with one handy and picking a pocket with the other.'' (" The description of the desolation of the pro- vinces of Oude by the misgovernment of Col. Hanny and of the insurrection at Goruckpore is perhaps the most masterly portion of the whole speech." See under Examples.).

Sheridan's Highly Wrought Rhetorical Kuklos or Circle.

^" State Necessity; No, my Lords ; that imperial tyrant State Necessity is yet a generous despot, bold is his demeanour, rapid his decisions and terrible his grasp. But what he does, my Lords, he dares avow, and avowing, scorns any other justification than the great motives that placed the iron sceptre in his hand. But a quibbling, pilfering, pre- varicating State Necessity that tries to skulk behind the skirts of justice; a State Necessity that tries to steal a pitiful justi- fication from widespread accusations and fabricated rumours. No, my Lords, that is no State Necessity : tear off the mask and you see coarse, vulgar avarice — you see speculation lurking under the gaudy disguise, and adding the guilt of libelling the public honour to its own private fraud. My Lords, I say this because I am sure the managers would

(1) Descriptio by Negatives (2) Accumulatio with Antithesis (3) Kuklos or Circle.

162 RICHARD BFINSLEY SHERIDAN

make every allowance that State Necessity could claim upon any great emergency. If any great man m bearmg the arms of this country; if any admiral, being the vengeance and the glory of Britain to distant coasts, should be compelled to some rash acts of violence, in order, perhaps, to give food to those v^ho are shedding their blood for Britain; if any great general, defending some fortress, barren itself perhaps, but a pledge of the pride, and with the pride of the power of Britain; if such a man were to . . . (reporter threw pen awav in despair) . . . while he himself was ... at the top, like an eagle besieged in its imperial nest; would the Commons of England come to accuse or arraign such acts of State Necessity ? No.

''And yet, "^ my Lords y I am asked to prove why these people arose in such concert. There must have been machina- tions, ^ forsooth and the Begums' machinations, to produce all this ! Why did they rise ? Because they were people in human shape; because patience under the detested tyranny of man is rebellion to the sovereignty of God ; because allegi- ance to that Power that gives us the forms of men commands us to maintain the rights of men. And never yet was this truth dismissed from the human heart, never in any time, in any age, never in any clime where rude man has had any social feelings, never was this one inextinguishable truth destroyed from the heart of men, placed as it is in the very core and centre of his Maker, that man was not made the property of man ; that human power is a trust for human benefit; and that when it is abused, revenge becomes justice, if not the bounden duty of the injured. These, my Lords, -were the causes why those people rose !

''^/ do say that if you search the history of the world, you will not find an act of tyranny and fraud to surpass this; if you read all past histories, peruse the annals of Tacitus, read the luminous page of Gibbon and all the ancient or modern writers that have searched into the de- pravity of former ages to draw a lesson for the present, you will not find an act of treacherous, deliberate, cool cruelty that could exceed this.

His MagnifLCcnt Epilogue.

*' ^ But I will ask your Lordships, do you approve of this representation ? Do you feel that this is the true image of justice ? Is this the character of British justice ? Are these Ther features ? Is this her countenance ? Is this her gait or her mien? No. I think even nov/ I hear you calling upon me to turn from that vile libel, this base caricature, this Indian pagod, formed by the hand of guilty and knavish tyranny, to dupe the heart of ignorance, to turn from this deformed idol to the true majesty of Justice here. Here,

(4) Apostrophe (5) Hypophora (6) Deictic (7) Sermocinatio.

DIAPHORA-DIAPORESIS— DlASYRiMUS 163

indeed, I see a different form enthroned by the sovereign hand of Freedom, ** awful without severity, commanding without pride, vigilant and active without restlessness or debasement, nor arrogantly scorning to stoop to the voice of afflicted innocence, and in its loveliest attitude when bending to uplift the suppliant at its feet.

''It is by the majesty, by the form of that injustice, that" I do conjure and implore your Lordships to give your minds to this great business ; that ^ I exhort you to look, not so much to words which may be denied or quibbled away, but to plain facts, to weigh and consider the testimony in your minds : we know the result must be inevitable. Let the truth appear and our cause is gained. It is this I conjure your Lordships, for your own honbur, for the honour of the nation, for the honour of human nature, now entrusted to your care, it is this duty that the "Commons of England, speaking through us, claim at your hands.

His Beautiful Fer oration. ** ^'^They exhort you to it by everything that calls sublimely upon the heart of man, by the majesty of that Justice which this bold man has libelled, by the wide fame of your own tribunal, by the sacred pledge by which you swear in the solemn hour of decision, knowing that that decision wiii then bring you the highest reward that ever blessed the heart of man, the consciousness of having done the greatest act of mercy for the world that the earth has ever yet received from any hand but Heaven."

DIAPHORA : Greek dia, across; pkero, to carry; to carry across, with a difference. This figure is much like the figure Ploce, but differs from it only in this : that Ploce repeats a proner name, and Diaphora a common word — e.g., ''What man is there living but will pity such a case : if he be a man.** Man repeated signifies humanity or compassion proper to man.

DIAPORESIS : Greek dia, thoroughly, completely ; <2, privative; poros, way; to be completely without a way, to be at a loss. It is when the subjects are of equal worth, the orator doubts where to begin; is a form of figurative doubt in which a speaker represents himself as hesitating what course to take, whether to proceed or remain silent, what to say, where to begin or end, or the like.

DIASYRMUS : Greek dia, through; suro, to drag; to tear to pieces, to disparage ; is a trope by which the argu- ments of the adversary or opponent are either disproved or

(8) Antithesis and Paradiastole (9) Epilogue commenced with Paraineticon (10) Epilogue finishing with Peroratio.

164 DIASYRMUS— DIATYPOSIS

rejected. This figure is for the most part made either by some base similitude, or by some ridiculous example with which the opponent's objection or argument is compared, whereby it is either made ridiculous or at least much dis- graced. ** It is a figure of rhetoric expressing disparagement or ridicule," Phillip says, " in which we elevate any person or thing by way of derision." (See Rich. III., Act i, Sc. i. W. Dodd.)

DIATYPOSIS; Greek Sid, through, straight through, completely; tuttoo), stamp, impress, outline, sketch; is a figure when we have spoken of a thing in general, we descend to particulars; when a thing is described by more words, that it may seem to set it, as it were, before the eyes. It is also '* a form of speech by which the orator commends certain profitable rules and precepts to his hearers and to posterity"; is used as by law makers, those in authority, parents to children, old to young, by apostles, magistrates, etc., and should not be used in false counsel.

Diatyposis, according to Aquila Romanus, is defined thus : Descriptio vel deformatio, ubi rebus subjectis personisque et formas ipsas et habitus describimus et expnmimus (trans. : Description rather delineation, by which we describe and express the forms themselves of a person and his habits, and thingj-s, as near and actually passing before our eyes) — e.g., from Cicero: "Put before the eyes Rulus being put up to public auction by his handsome surveyors, even in the camp of Pompey." He gives a further instance as the delineation of Milo with a cloak around him, sitting down with his wife, and Clodius on his horse leaving the villa.

Examples : This figure is also employed by Demosthenes in many ways, as in the Midiana; Demos, vs. Midias, 221 : '■ Midias hates me perhaps^ and some one else hates each of you. Would you allow those who hate you to have the power of doing each to the object of his hatred what Midias has done to me? I should imagine not. Then don't leave me, O Athenians, to the defendant's mercy. (The Diatyposis.) Only see. Presently, when the court rises, everyone of you sooner or later will return home, not heeding nor caring nor troubling himself in the least whether a friend or an enemy will cross his path, whether a big or a little man, a strong or a weak, or anything of the kind. Wherefore so ? Because he is sure in his mind of this, having a firm reliance upon the Constitution, that no one will lay hands upon him or assault or strike him. Thus walking in security yourselves, will you leave me not equally secure? " The above quotation is in the Epilogue of his speech.

DIATYPOSIS— DIEGESIS 165

From .^schines : Blass says that as an orator he is in these descriptive figures Prosopopoeia, Ethopoeia, Diatyposis and so forth, indubitably powertu], and not less rich than Demos- thenes. With Diatyposis, he depicts imaginary legal process on the ground of a formal contract of love or immorality not kept by one party — e.g.^ ^Eschines vs. Timarchus, 162.

A further example : "If you desire that 1 make you- a Diatyoosis or lively description of the nature of Desire, i will tell you : It is a strange country whereunto the prodigal child went when he forsook his father's house to undertake a banish- ment; a country where corn is still in grass, vines in buds, trees perpetually in blossom, and birds always m the shell; you neither see corn, fruit nor anything fully shaped : all is in expectation; a country where the inhabitants are never without fever, one is no sooner gone out but that another comes into its place; where time looks on you from afar off and never comes near you, but shows you an enchanted looking glass wherein you see a thousand false colours which amuse you. Here at best you have nothing to dinner but smoke and expectation."

U se : Diatj/posis is used t'o make fast things as -present. Demetrius says: '* If you introduce things which are past as present and now taking place, you will make your story no longer a narration, but an actuality. Xenophone furnishes an illustration : * A man has fallen under Cyrus' horse, and being trampled strikes the horse with his sword in the belly; he rears up and unseats Cyrus, who falls.* In like manner the interchange of -persons produces a vivid impression, and often makes the hearer feel that he is moving in the midst of perils — e.g., 'Never in that month launch thou forth amid lashing seas.' "

Caution and Delivery are much the same as in the figure Hypotyposis, as Diatyposis is synonymous with it. See the delivery of JEschines' magnificent Hypotyposis: "Since you were not present in person, in imagination, at least, contemplate their misfortune. Fancy that you behold their city captured, the burning of their walls . . . and when at the close of this defence . . . imagine that you behold, standing where I now address you, the benefactors of the state arrayed against the villainy of these men. Solon ..."

DIEGESIS: Greek hia, though; 'r]yeo^at, to go before; is a narrative of the circumstances which are required to be known about a case; a Prothesis is a statement of the points you are about to prove. The object of the Diegesis, accord- ing to Aristotle (see Cope's Analysis), is to prove something; so ^^ou cannot prove without stating what you mean to prove, or state without proving your statement. According to Quintillian, the Diegesis is a narration, a statement in detail, or narrative recital of all the preceding circumstances

166

DIEGESIS— DIFFUSENESS

which are necessary to the full understanding of the case^ including sometimes the case itself. In the Deliberative speech the Diegesis, if introduced at all, is a review of past transactions to call the facts to the memory of the assembly, and to enable them to judge better the future course of policy which the orator is enforcing; it is to refresh the memory of the hearers, to excite prejudice, or to praise; but in this the deliberative orator is not doing his own work (this being the work of Demonstrative oratory). The deliberative oratory is for the public, and national assemblies.

The Diegesis should be brief, clear, and plausible; clear that the hearers may thoroughly understand what is stated ;. concise, that they may remember what has been said;, plausible, that the statements may not be condemned or rejected by the audience at first sight before they have been substantiated and confirmed by evidence and arguments.

The Forensic Diegesis concerns the existence or non- existence of facts, and here rigorous demonstration is more possible, for the past has precision, and enthymemes are more suitable. Iti the Deliberative, someone has to be brought in to be praised or blamed; or policy, etc.

Delivery : The statement of facts, which is the Diegesis, requires a slower, and if I may use the expression, says Quintillian, more modest feet, and in general a mixture of all kinds. The style of this is commonly grave, but some- times assumes elevation. Its object is to inform the judge and fix the particulars, and this is not done by hasty speakers. To me the whole narrative part of a speech (the Diegesis) admits of longer members but should be confined within shorter periods. When anything is introduced, not to inform the judge, but to embellish, the periods should be gentle and flowing.

In the Epideictic or Demonstrative eloquence, the hearers are those who go to be amused or interested by the show speeches, funeral orations, burlesque, or wherever there is a display of skill in composition without practical interest. The Diegesis should be a division of " goods " into those who reside in virtue and those who reside outside of it. These are wisdom, justice, courage, reputable pursuits and habits, which are the objects of a panegyric; those of birth, wealth, strength, beauty must be smuggled in indirectly^ for strong, handsome, well born and wealthy ought to be congratulated, not praised. ... If not of high birth, say : "True nobility depends on virtue, not birth"; "Many sons have turned out unworthy of their fathers," etc. ; ** The man, and not his ancestors.*' (See further details, Figs. Narratio and Proecthesis.)

DIFFUSENESS: Lat. dif, dis, apart; jundere, to pour, to shed abroad, to pour around, to spread, to scatter; nes^

DIFFUSENESS— DIGRESSIO 167

(Anglo-Saxon, nes), a state or quality of being. It is a figure of thought availed of by the speaker for the purpose of sustaining any passion by diffusing it through a number of Synonyms, Pleonasms, Circumlocutions or Periphrases, Repetition, etc. Just as a pretty piece of dance music is repeated again and again to sustain the enjoyment of the tune. ~^ ~

Quintillian says: "' A more diffuse style is for eulogising, also is of great effect in Epilogue.''

On the matter of diffuseness, Aristotle treats on the differ- ence between written and spoken style thus : Written is pre- cise and appears jejune when delivered at disputations. They are for the closet and quiet perusal, therefore exclude all superfluous matter. They are the impress of character, the spoken, that of feeling. Spoken or declamatory when read appear ridiculous; and when abridged of their declamation produce no effect, being shorn of their connectives and repeti- tions, which written style explodes. When repeating, vary the expression, which opens the way for declamation — e.g., ** This is he who robbed you; this is he who defrauded you; this is he who, at least, endeavoured to betray you." '* I came, I met, I besought him." One must give these passages with declamation or become like the proverb, '' Stiff as one carrying a beam," and must not enumerate it with the same manner and tone as though simply saying one thing.

DIGRESSIO: Lat. di, dis, apart; and gradi, to step; DigressuSy p.p. of digredi, to go apart; is a form of speech used by the orator wherein he digresses for the purpose of praising or dispraising, delighting or exciting passion.

Examples : Quintillian gives an example of Cicero making a digression in connection with a statement of facts as follows: "Oh, incredible wickedness of a woman," and states that Digressions should be short as if hurried into by strength of feeling.

Use : Digression is a virtue whereby the oration is ampli- fied, garnished and well commended; otherwise it is a vice and deforms an oration by, as it were, patching it with broken pieces. It is used to inveigh against ingratitude, when speaking of services rendered to an opposite party, to prepare for a proposition or argument, to excite passion, etc.

Lord Chatham (William Pitt the elder) frequently made digressions. Lord Camelford, a contemporary of Lord Chatham, and an intimate but merciless critic, says: "His eloquence was supported by every advantage that could unite in a perfect actor. ... He deviated into a thousand digrressions, often reverted back to the same ground ..."

Cicero says: "A digression may be made by way of amplification or embellishment after stating the case, after

168

>IL]

propounding the question, after confirming what makes for us by arguments and reasonmgs, and alter refutmg what makes for the opponent, or m all." Rufus Choate, the greatest of American forensic orators, followed Cicero respect- mg Digression for embellishment and amplification, and, according to William Mathews, he " scattered the flowers of fancy along the pathway of his rapid and vivid speech, with his teeming fancy fortihed every proposition and illustrated every theme. ..."

Digression should be short in the middle of a speech and return to the subject be soon, and, as Cicero says, both should be happy and elegant. To make a digression from what we have proposed, and are discussing, is advantageous to arouse the passions. For the purpose of making a digres- sion in deliberative oratory, bring in some person to praise or dispraise, as Isocrates did, accusing Charles in the speech about alliance.

Caution: (j) Let there be a cause why we should digress, and contribute to the cause in some way and not to a strange purpose. (2) Do not stay out too long and be careful to make a fit return, that is, to your subject. (3) Take care not to darken the main cause or principal matter. We darken it if we digress abruptly, tarry too long from the subject or point, tell strange things distant or disagreeing from the purpose, or return to the cause over-thwartly.

Delivery : Quintillian says that in an oratorical digression the voice is flowing and of a tranquil clearness.

DILEMMA: Greek dia, two, double; lemma, assumption, two-horned ; is a horned or double argument, whichever way convinces, and consists of two propositions which conclude both ways, wherein, whichever of the two you grant, your opponent will take hold of or reprove you — e.g., ** If he be a good man, why speak you ill of him ? If he be naught, why do you keep his company? "

DIPLASIASMUS : Greek dia, double, twice, two; plasso, tc mould, fashion; is a figure of words by which the orator makes a repetition of a word or name for the sake of emphasis. An immediate repetition with added emphasis : "O swallow, swallow, flying, flying south." — Tennyson. Also a repetition after one or two words intervening: "Again and again"; ''On, Stanley, on." — Scott.

ECPHONESIS: Greek eV, out; ^(i:>vko to call, to cry; to call out, to cry out, to call upon; is a form of speech whereby the orator through some vehement affection, as of love, hatred, gladness, sorrow, anger, marvelling, admiration, fear, or such like, bursts forth into an exclamation or outcry signifying the vehement passion of his mind. It is ex-

ECPHOiNESIS 169

pressed or understood by an adverb of crying out, as Oh, alas, behold, etc., which are the signs — e.g., " Pyrocles seeing the mild Philoclen innocently beheaded, burst forth into this exclamation : ' O tyrant heaven and traitor earth, how is this done? How is this suffered? Hath this world no government?'" *' Ah, poor confidence! Oh, glorious triumphs over unarmed captives ! " '* Oh, admirable clemency and mercy ! " '' Bravo ! " " Dreadful ! "

Examples: Patrick Henry: "... The war is inevitable; and let it come ! I repeat it. Sir, let it come ! It is vain, Sir, to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry * Peace, peace \ ' but there is no peace \ The war is actually begmzl The next gale that sweeps from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms ! Our brethren are already m the field ! Why stand we here idle ? What is it that gentlemen wish? What would they have? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery ? Forbid it, Almighty God ! I know not what course others may take; but for me, give me liberty or give me death ! "

George Whitefield, near the closing part of his sermon on ** Jacob's Ladder " : ** When we come before the great Judge of quick and dead, while I stand before him, God grant you may not part with me then, to go into the fire, to be amone the devil and his angels ; God forbid it ! God forbid it \ God forbid it !

" By Ecohonesis straight the mind is raised

When by a sudden flow'd passion seized." — Langley. " Leans o'er the humble gate, and thinks awhile — Oh ! that for me some home like this would smile, Some hamlet shade to yield my sickly form, Health in the breeze and shelter in the storm."

— Campbell. William Pitt's anti-Slave Trade speech: "If when we feel that this perpetual confinement in the fetters of brutal ignor- ance would have befallen us ; if we view the gratitude and exultation the contrast between the peculiar blessings we enjoy and the wretchedness of the ancient inhabitants of Britain; if we shudder to think of the misery which still would have overwhelmed us had Great Britain continued to the present time to be a mart for slaves to the more civilised nations of the world through some cruel policy of theirs; God forbid that we should any longer subject Africa to the same dreadful scourge. ... I answer, if this is as criminal as it is asserted to be, or if it has the thousandth part of the criminality which I and others, after thorough investigation, charge upon it, God forbid that we should hesitate in determining to relinquish so iniquitous a traffic. . . . God forbid, however, that we should fail to do our utmost toward inducing other

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ECPHONESIS

countries to abandon a bloody commerce which they have probably been m good measure led by our example to pursue;. God forbid that we should arrogate to ourselves the glory of being singular in renouncing it."

Lord Chatham. "Is he (an American) represented by any knight of the shire in any county in this Kmgdom ? Would to God that respectable re-presentation was augmented to a greater number ! Or will you tell him that he is represented by any representative of a borough— a borough which perhaps- no man ever saw. . . .'*

Charles James Fox on the " Rejection of the Overture:s of Napoleon by W. Pitt " : ** Oh ! pity the condition of man, Gracious God, and save us from a system of malevolence, in which all our old and venerable prejudices are to be done away, and by which we are to be taught that war is the natural state of man, and peace but as a dangerous and difficult extremity ! And all this because you may gain a better peace a year or two hence. We must keep Bonaparte for some time longer at war as a state of probation. Gracious God, Sir\ is war a state of probation ? Is peace a rash system ? Is it dangerous for nations to live in amity with each other ?^ Cannot this state of probation be as well under- gone without adding to the catalogue of human sufferings ? But we must pause ! What ! must the bowels of Great Britain be torn out, iier best blood spilt, her treasure wasted, that you may make an experiment ? Put yourselves. Oh ! that you would put yourselves in the held of battle, and learn to judge of the sort of horrors that you excite! "

Example from Wm. Russell : Ecphonesis of Admiratioti, downward concrete of the fifth: "Oh, the depth of the riches, both of the wisdom and knowledge of God ! Hov/ unsearchable are His judgments and His ways past finding out!'*

Ecphonesis of Exultation, downward fifth on the italics : " Si7ig, O ye heavens, for the Lord hath done it. Shout, ye lower parts of earth : break forth into singing, O mountaiiis , O forest, and every tree therein !

Dr. Rush says that exclamations may be regarded as elliptical. The design of these broken phrases is to effect a quick and forcible expression of thought or feeling, and this is done with brevity which requires additional means of intonation. They generally take the downward or falling interval.

The Plaintive Ecphonesis is produced by the rise of the semitone continued into the descending third, fifth or octave. The direct wave of the fifth is the proper intona'tion of the following :

"O Banquo, Banquo, our royal master is murdered! "

Imperative Ecphonesis takes downward interval or direct

ECPIiONESIS 171

wave, aspiration and guttural grating add to the degree of force and authority. Macbeth to Banquo's ghost taKes the fifth or octave downward throughout : ' * fience, horrid shadow, unreal mockery, hence! " In the Imperative ques- tion, the command overrides the real inquiry: ''Why sinks the cauldron aitd zvhat noise is this}^^ — Macbeth. A strong downward intonation must be given to the words in itaiicsr Exclamatory Question: "I live with bread like you, feel want, taste grief, need friends; subjected thus, how can you say to me, 1 am a king? " The sentiments of reproof, dis- pleasure, surprise and conclusive denial require no answer and take the downward concrete and direct wave. Derisive Ecphottesis of Gabriel to Satan is by the natural form of the fifth, that is by stress on the radical or opening portion, and the vanish dwindling away in its descent. * ' Cou;'<2geous thief !

The first in flight from pain." " ra " in italics is made by the natural and unaltered radical and vanish of the falling fifth.

Thomas Sheridan, in his *' Lectures on Elocution," remarks thus: *' Do not omit the aspirate, as several of the emotions are strongly marked by it, as by this method, words are shot out with full breath, as What\ When\ Where \ Whyl howl Hark ! in exclamations, and all interrogative words, adverbs, as Whither ? Whence ? and the like, should have their phrases, clauses or sentences end with a falling inflection."

Walker says: *' If the exclamation point be placed after a member that would have the rising inflection in another sentence, it might have it in this; if after a member that would have the falling, likewise; or if an exclamation is mingled with a question, it requires the same inflection the question would have required unless it be echoed, which alone takes the rising inflection — e.g,^ Whither shall I turn} wretch that I am ! To what place shall I betake myself ? Shall I ^o to the capitol ? Alas ! it is overflowed with my brother's blood! Or shall I return to my house! Yet there I behold my mother plunged in misery, weeping and despair- ing.'— Gracchus. Every distinct passage may be truly said to be an exclamation ; * whither ' an interrogative word ; * that I am,^ rising like a member of incomplete sense; * go to the capitol,' like a rising interrogatory commenced with a verb; 'alas' is falling. 'In what soil grows?' 'Where grows? ' is echoed, and takes a turn into admiration, and is equal to ' Do you ask where it grows? ' (rising inflection)."

Use : The Ecphonesis serves to move affections in others ; i.e., by the vehemency of our voice and utterance to express the greatness of our affections and passions. Ah is used chiefly to express pity, regret, surprise, etc., as in the twelfth 'Century {a wah) it was " woe! " and in mid. English denotes

172 ECPHONESIS

satisfaction or irony, being formed of a and ha^ aha ! Ex- clamation : '" Aha\ the fox." — Chaucer. Uh\ tor triumph,, admiration, also pam. Can be 6^ ! Marsh, m his " Eectures on the English Language," says: ** It is related of Whiteheld that his interjections, his Ah ! of pity for the unrepentent sinner, his Oh ! of encouragement and persuasion tor the almost converted listener, formed one of the great excellencies of his oratory, and constituted a most effective engine in his pulpit oratory. Much depends upon the right articulation and introduction of this element of speech.. It is thinking aloud. It is the mother tongue of passion. Farewell \ Heaven forbid ! "

Caution : Ecphonesis is not to be used without some great cause for it. It is folly to exclaim on small occasions and for light causes; nor should it be too often used as it becomes odious.

Delivery : As this figure is used to express some sudden emotion interjectionally, as joy, sorrow, fear, wonder, indig- nation, anger, or impatience, in the form of an exclamation, question, or other form of words, there is always, as Foster says in his *' Ten Lessons of Elocution," the general panto- mimic condition preceding (such as are the usual signs in the face, etc., which the respective emotions awake), which pantomimic condition predisposes the vocal organs to sym- pathise with the respective emotion and express it properly; and after the exclamation or interjection, there should always be a brief silence and start again suddenly as if we had hit upon the right word, which gives the effect of extempore thinking. Sounds must decrease in proportion as they become distant from the centre of expression. The exclamatory word takes the rising inflection and the clause after it the falling inflection — ^-g-y " Awake! Arise! or be forever fallen." The centre of expression is on ** arise," the clause immediately succeeding should be of the falling inflection; awake and arise, the exclamatory words, have the rising inflection followed by a short pause.

Delsarte says: "Exclamations are abrupt, loud, im- passioned sounds and improvisations ; that ' ah ' is the mother vowel ' a,' with the acute accent becomes a (as in at), which is eccentric ; with the grave a (as in awe), which is con- centric* The eccentric vowels are suited best for quickness, quick passions and weak emphasis, etc. ; the normal, which bring the full clear orotund, is for the noble, moral, spiritual, and grand. In this comes the ' Oh ! ' of which Marsh speaks as having been used to such effect by Whitefield ; and in the concentric falls the ' Ah ! * of pity which he says Whitefield used for the unrepentant sinner. The * Ah ' is said farther

* The eccentric vowels are a, e and i ; the normal a, o, au ; and the concentric a, h, eu, u.

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ECPHONESIS 173

back in the mouth, the * Oh' is more forward, and in the cup of the palate."

' ' O " is an exclamation addressing a person or personified object; also is an emotional or impassioned expression of fear, desire, grief, etc., sometimes followed by " that " with ellipsis of *' 1 wish " — e-g-y '* O (I wish) that Ishmael might live before thee!" "Oh" and *' O " express various, emotions according to the tone and manner, especially sur- prise, sorrow, anxiety, shame, disapprobation or wish. " Ah " is an exclamation, expresses pity, surprise, complaint, entreaty, contempt, threatening, delight, triumph, etc., according to the manner of utterance. Skeat, in his '* Etymo- logical Dictionary," says: "There is no particular reason for the spelling * Oh,' which is not old. Some make a dis- tinction in use between ' O ' and * Oh ' ; this is merely arbi- trary." " We stretch our hands out in Exclamation, as in that of Gracchus, 'Whither shall I flee, etc. . . .' " — Quin- tillian.

We shall now give a brief account of William Pitt the younger, who adroitly used the Figs. Ecphonesis, Amplifi- catio, Rhythmus, Sarcasmus, etc., to such good effect.

174

THE RIGHT HON.

WILLIAM PITT, THE YOUNGER.

THE RIGHT HON. WILLIAM PITT THE YOUNGER : HIS ORATORY, DELIVERY, AND SOME NOTES TAKEN FROM EMINENT CONTEMPORARY AND SUBSEQUENT CRITICS.

William Pitt was for twenty-three years Prime Mmister of Great Britain, and was the greatest exponent of the oratory of Cicero in the Empire. He read and re-read Middleton's ** Life of Cicero." His sentences have the genume Ciceronian ring in them, and as a Parliamentary orator he stands with- out a rival. His eloquence was "state papers on hre," and the principal characteristic of it was its fluency.

"Sir Nathaniel Wraxall says of Pitt: 'In formation of his person, he was tall and slender^ but without elegance or grace. In his manners, if not repulsive, he was cold, stiff and without suavity or amenity. From the instant Pitt entered the doorway of the House of Commons, he advanced up the floor with a quick and firm step, his head erect and thrown back, looking neither to the right nor left, nor favouring with a nod or glance any of the individuals seated on either side.' Pitt was asked how he acquired his admirable readiness of speech, his aptness of finding the right word without pause or hesitation. He replied, his father bade him take up any book in some foreign language with which he was acquainted, in Latin or Greek especially, and read out a passage in English, stopping where he was not sure of the word to be used in English till the right word came to his mind and then proceed. The tones of William Pitt were by nature sonorous and clear; and the further art of how to manage and modulate his voice to Ihe best advantage was instilled into him by his father with exquisite skill. Lord Chatham was pre-eminent in that art. To train his son in sonorous elocution, Lord Chatham caused him to recite day by day in his presence passages from the best English poets. The two poets most commonly selected for this purpose were Shakespeare and Milton, and Mr. Pitt continued through life familiar v/ith both. Immediately after his arrival (at Cambridge) we find him attending a course of lectures on Quintillian. He studied Quintillian and Thucydides. He was fond of Middleton's * Life of Cicero.' His sentences, however long, and even when catching up a parenthesis as they proceeded, were always brought to a right and regular close, a much rarer merit in a public speaker than might be supposed by those who judge Parliamentary debates only by the morning papers. De

WILLIAM PITT, THE YOUNGER 175

Oratoribus Pitt translated as follows : * It is with eloquence as with a flame, it requires fuel to feed it, motion to excite it, and it brightens as it burns.' Magna eloquentia sicut llama materia alitur et motibus excitatur et urendo clarescit." — •' Life of the Right Hon. William Pitt," by Earl Stanhope (pub. 1861).

V* Pitt and Fox both were verbose. Mr. Fox by refeU-^ tioksy Mr. Fill by his amplificaiions . ! Hume compares the • sublimity of ancient eloquence with the temper of modern,' in v/hich he cites Demosthenes' oath, by the manes . . . and the tragic terms in which Cicero describes the crucifixion of Verres. Have there not been moments when Mr. Pitt and Mr. Fox might have hazarded in some parts of their speeches with success still bolder figures, still bolder appeals to the imagination, still bolder addresses to the passions of their nearers } A want of these appeals, of these bold figures and apostrophes, may be thought to give the speeches of the Greeic ana Roman orators a superiority over those of Mr. Pitt and Mr. Fox; but surely those daring flights of oratory would be well received by the House and attended with the greatest effect." — *' Butler's Reminiscences of Pitt, Fox and Burke."

** The style of his eloquence was characteristic of the man, pre-eminently lofty and dignified, c Coleridge, in describing his style, has spoken of the ' architectural pomp of his sen- tences.'" — 'Great Orators," by Henry James Nicholl (pub. 1880).

" As a Parliamentary orator^ Pitt's powers were various. In statement he was perspicuous, in declamation animated. If he wanted to arouse a just indignation for the wrongs of the country, he was rapid, vehement, glowing and im- passioned. And whether his discourse was argumentative or declamatory, it always displayed a happy choice of ex- pression and a fluency of diction which could not fail to delight his hearers. He seldom was satisfied with standing on the defensive in debate, but was proud to contrast his own actions with the avowed intentions of his opponents. These intentions, too, he often exposed with tlie most pointed sarcasm, a weapon which perhaps no speaker ever wielded with more dexterity and force than himself. He admired much in Fox, the happy eff^ect with which he illustrated his arguments by the application of well-known anecdotes, or by passages from modern authors; but he did not imitate him in this respect; on the other hand, he used to condemn his habit of repetition. Mr. Pitt's love of amplification has been sometimes urged as detracting from his excellence as an orator; but it was his own remark that every person who addressed a public assembly, and was anxious to be distinctly \ understood, and to make an impression upon particular points, ' must either be copious upon those points, or repeat them.

176

and that

speaker he preferred

lousness to repetition. — "A History of the Political Life of the Rt. Hon. WiUiam Pitt," by John Gifford, Esq. (pub. in 1809). Fitt and Fox Corn-pared.

" The force of Fox*s reasoning flashed like lightning upon the minds of his hearers; the thunders of Pitt's eloquence gave irresistible effect to his powerful and convincing argu- ments. Bursting in frequent but often unconnected succession from his fertile mind, they (Fox's flashes) electrified when they did not convince, and always left a sense of admiration at their acuteness and splendour even when their light was eclipsed in the glare of subsequent flashes. Mr. Pitt's elo- quence, on the contrary, proceeded with all the majesty of sound and all the force of fire; uniting the rapidity of the flash with the awful solemnity of the peal, it enveloped its auditors in the light of conviction and made the impression indelible by the Irresistible energy with which he urged it." — ^'My Recollections of C. J. Fox," by B. C. Walpole (pub. in 1806).

" He had, indeed, been carefully trained from infancy in the art of managing his voice, a voice naturally clear and deep-toned. ... At a later period, the wit of Brookes's, irritated by observing night after night how powerfully Pitt's sonorous elocution fascinated the rows of country gentlemen, reproached him with having been * taught by his dad on a stool.' He had less amplitude of mind and less richness of imagination than Burke, less wit than Sheridan, less perfect mastery of dialectical fence, and less of that highest sort of eloquence which consists of reason and passion fused together than Fox. The speeches of Fox owe a great part of their charm to that warmth and softness of heart, that sympathy with human suffering, that admiration for everything great and beautiful, and that hatred of cruelty and injustice which interest and delight us even in the most defective reports. No person, on the other hand, could hear Pitt without per- ceiving him to be a man of high, intrepid and commanding spirit, proudly conscious of his own rectitude and of his own intellectual superiority. . . . Pride, indeed, pervades the whole man, was written in the harsh, rigid lines in his face, was marked by the way he sate, in which he stood, and above all in which he bowed. Such pride, of course, inflicted many wounds. Pities oratory resembles Cicero's in copious- ness, polish, fluency and correctness. He could pour forth a long succession of round and stately periods without even pausing for a word, in a voice of silver clearness and with a pronunciation so articulate that not a letter was slurred over." —"The Life of William Pitt," by Thomas Babington Macaulay (1902).

*' The action of Pitt in public speaking was not such as might pernaps be guessed from his ever self-possessed and

WILLIAM PITT, THE YOUNGER 177

stately style. It was very vehement. So it was described by Lord Lyndhurst, who often heard him. He would some- times bend forward eagerly, and so far that his hgure almost touched the table. This account well agrees with the state- ment of Francis Horner, who in 1796, then very young, but even then a very intelligent eye-witness, used to attend the gallery of the House of Commons : ' Of the great Parlia- mentary rivals,' he observes, ' the one (Mr. Fox) saws the air with his hands, and the other (Mr. Pitt) with his whole body.' " — Earl of Stanhope.

** He would generally swallow a bottle of port wine before joining in any debate. Once, says Wraxall, * he was unable to manage the debate.' " — "A Biography of William Pitt,' by Edward Walford, M.A.

"Fox's style was * dashing ' and 'vivacious'; but Fox had not ever at command that copious supply of well-turned periods that Pitt had. The magic effect was produced by his unbroken flow, which never for a moment left the hearer in pain or doubt, and yet not the mean fluency of mere relaxation, requiring no effort of the speaker, but imposing on the listener a heavy task. Pitt said, ' Take care of the thoughts, and the words will take care of themselves.^ His greatest speech, universally considered so, was against the slave trade, 1792. For twenty minutes, Wilberforce said, * he really seem.ed to be inspired.' " — "William Pitt, His Career and Contemporaries," by Walter S. Shirley, M.A., Barrister- at-Law (1881).

" His sentences, which fell from him as easily as if he had been talking, were stately, flowing and harmonious, kept up throughout to the same level, but though his language was sonorous, pure and clear, it lacked fire; his intonation was ironotonous, and his gestures passionless. . . . The barber who attended him, on approaching the oak door of .his room, overheard him declaiming to himself." — " Oratory and Orators," b> William Mathews.

" Pitt is excellent in the selection and collocation of his words, his periods flowing and harmonious, pleased the ear and captivated the House. The same glittering verbosity, the same monotonous cadence, the same tumid pomp of language, the same unvaried arrangement of phrase was equally exhi- bited on the most trivial and important topics." — " Charac- teristic Sketches of the House of Commons " (1808).

From the foregoing it will be seen that William Pitt the younger was a finished Parliamentary orator. He was polished, cool and deliberate. In sustained and measured thunder he hurled forth his vehement denunciations against the enemies of his countrv, and in harmonious and flowing . periods the *' architectural pomp of his language " rolled on as he pro- nounced those magnificent and sonorous encomiums on the greatness of the British Constitution.

178 WILLIAM PITT, THE YOUNGER

His fluency : The secret of his fluency lay in the fact that Pitt attended to the idea, for he maintained that the words would attend to themselves. If the idea is clear, fluency will result.

His happy choice of words : * This was attained by the rules of rhythm, by the help of translations, and by the trainmg. of his father. Lord Chatham.

His well-turned periods : t This was drilled into him by Lord Chatham, who laid great stress on the proper turnmg of a period as the means of convincing. He was noted for his clear enunciation, his well-turned periods and his mellow cadences. Daniel O'Connell said that he first learned from William Pitt how to throw off those lovely deep tones at the end of a sentence, with which Pitt rounded oil his periods, and so much charmed the House.

Length of his period : Though Pitt generally conformed to the Ciceronian rule of four members to a period, he frequently used more. Some of his contemporaries objected to the length of his periods, but one of his biographers says it was more because they "envied him, and had not the lungs to deliver them nor the ability to produce them themselves. It one is well acquainted with the rules of rhythm and with the figure Arsis and Thesis, also knows how properly to produce the voice, the periods of Pitt are easy of delivery as well as beautiful and sonorous.

Pitt, like Cicero, loved glory, loved power tor power's sake. He cared nothing for wealth or title, for upon some he con- ferred the highest of titles and on others the greatest of wealth, but himself died poor and heavily in debt.

Extracts, with the figures noted therein, of the address of Mr. Pitt on ** The Rejection of Napoleon's Overtures of Peace."

" ^ If under such circumstances we find them giving proofs of their unalterable perseverance in their principles; if there is every reason to believe that the same disposition prevails in many other extensive provinces of France; if every party appears at length equally wearied and disappointed with all the successive changes which the Revolution has produced ; if the question is no longer between monarchy and even the pretence and name of liberty, but between the ancient line of hereditary princes,^ on the one hand, and a military tyrant, a foreign usurper, on the other; if the armies of that usurper

* A good axiom in rhythm is to write down the idea in its energetic form regardless of the words, then take a dictionary of synonyms and substitute th^ words which are better and more harmonious in sound, without detracting anything from the idea, inserting the proper feet ; that is, if the idea is stately insert geneious feet ; if of anger, tribachs; if grand and stately, feet accordingly. If the substituted words are harmonious to the ear, and the original energy of the idea retained, the words are happily chosen.

+ A Period is well turned when the last member but one takes the rising inflection prepara- tory to descend on the last member and fall into a gradual repose in a cadence of three accented syllables at the end ; or at the end of the second member where there are four. (See Figs. Rhythmus, Arsis and Thesis, Period and Periodicity.)

(i) Hypothesis and Protasis (2) Antithesis.

WILLIAM PITT, THE YOUNGER 179

are likely to find sufficient occupation on the frontiers, and to be forced at length to leave the interior of the country at liberty to manifest its real feeling and disposition/ what reason have we to anticipate the restoration of monarchy under such circumstances so impracticable ? "^

" In addition to these grounds of reliance on our own strength and exertions, we have seen the consummate sktlt and valour of the arms of our allies proved by that series of unexampled successes in the course of the last campaign, and we have every reason to expect a co-operation on the Con- tinent even to a greater extent in the course of the present year.

" ^ If we compare this view of our own situation with everything we can observe of the state and condition of our enemy; if we can trace him labouring under equal difficulty in finding men to recruit his army or money to pay it; if we know that in the course of the last year the most rigorous efforts of military conscription were scarcely sufficient to replace to the French armies at the end of the campaign the numbers which they had lost in the course of it; if we have seen that that force, then in possession of advantages which it has since lost, was unable to contend with efforts of the combined armies; if we know that even while supported by the plunder of all the countries which they had overrun, those armies were reduced, by confession of their commanders, to the extremities of distress, and destitute not only of the principal articles of military supply, but almost of the neces- saries of life; if we see them now driven back within their own frontiers and confined within a country whose own resources have long since been proclaimed by their successive governments to be unequal either to paying or maintaining them; if we observe that since the last revolution no one substantial or effectual measure has been adopted to remedy the intolerable disorder of their finances, and to supply the deficiency of their credit and resources; if we see through large and populous districts of France, either open war levied against the present usurpation or evident marks of disunion and distraction, which the first occasion may call forth into flame; if, I say. Sir, this comparison be just, I feel myself authorised to conclude from it,® not that we are entitled to consider ourselves certain of ultimate success, not that we are to suppose ourselves exempted from the unforeseen vicissi- tudes of war, but that, considering the value of the object for which we are contending, the means for supporting the contest, and the probable course of human events, we should be excusable if at this moment we were to relinquish the struggle on any grounds short of. entire and complete security ; that from perseverance in our efforts under such circumstances,

{^) Turn of Period ^4) Erotema, Thesis and Cadence (5) Peroratio in form of Periodicity t6) Arsis and Thesis within a member of the Peroratio.

180 ELLIPSIS— EiMPHASIS

we have the fairest reason to expect the full attainment of our object; but that at all events, even if we are disappointed in our more sanguine hopes, we are more likely to gam than to lose by the continuation of the contest; that every month to which it is continued, even if it should not in its effects lead to the final destruction of the Jacobin system, must tend so far to weaken and exhaust it as to give us at least a greater comparative security in any termination of the war; that, on all these grounds, this is not the moment at which it is consistent with our interest or our duty to listen to any proposals of negotiation with the present ruler of France; but that we are not therefore pledged to any unalterable deter- mination as to our future conduct; that in this we must be regulated by the course of events; and that it will be the duty of his Majesty's ministers from time to time to adapt their measures to any variation of circumstances, to consider how far the effects of the military operations of the allies or of the internal disposition of France correspond with our present expectations; and on a view of the whole, to compare the difficulties or risks which may arise in the prosecution of the contest with the Drospect of ultimate success, or of the degree of advantage to be derived from its further continuance, and to be governed by the result of all these considerations in the opinion and advice which they may offer to their sovereign."

ELLIPSIS : Is a figure whereby the speaker leaves out something so as to stir the imagination of the hearer, in which respect it is akin to Aposiopoesis ; or some part of the gram- matical construction for brevity, etc., as in the case of Brachilogy — e.g., ** I can not iniquity — I cannot bear iniquity."

Ellipsis, says Bain, conduces to brevity and is a sign of strong feeling. It suggests and leaves the mind to fill up, and is more effective than a full sentence. Walker says that vivacity and force depend on brevity, and brevity borders on obscurity, emphasis supplies the Ellipsis of fulness and tardiness.

EMPHASIS: Greek eV, on ; (/xicrt?, an appearing; an appearing on; is a Figure of Thought whereby the orator places stress upon a certain part of a sentence for the purpose of impressing the understanding.

Emphasis, according to Quintillian, signifies more than is said — e.g., ** The Greeks descended into a horse by a rope let down"; "descended" shows the vastness of the horse and the height of it.

There are two kinds of Emphasis — the strong and the weak. Walker says that the strong emphasis, which takes the falling

I

EMPHASIS 181

inflection, affirms something with emphasis and denies what IS opposed to it in the antithesis; the weak emphasis ^ which takes the rising inflection, aftirms only ^ and does not deny — i.e., affirms something in the Emphasis without denying what IS opposed to it in the antithesis — e.g.^ strong emphasis: *•* ril be in men's despite (falling inflection) a monarch"; this excludes the idea that he will be a monarch in menT favour, which is the antithesis of despite. Example of weak efnphasis : "I would not turn aside from my least pleasure though all thy (rising inflection) force were armed to bar my way.' This affirms that Horatio's force was too msigniflcant to restrain him, but it does not deny that the force of others cannot restrain him. Strong emphasis always excludes the opposite or antithetical meaning: '* I am tortured even to think (falling inflection) of the proud victor." It excludes *' to speak of." Under these two headings there are the (i) single emphasis, where the two emphatical words are expressed, or one is expressed and the other is understood ;

(2) the double, where there are two antithetical members;

(3) where there are three. The Single Emphasis : All good speakers finish negative sentences with the rising inflection as opposed to the positive, which is affirmative and falling. In the following example, the antithetical words are implied : " Observe then, ^schines, our ancestors acted thus in both these instances; not that they acted for their benefactors, not that they saw no danger in their expedition. Such con- siderations never could induce them to abandon those who fled to their protection. No, from nobler motives of glory and renow7i (falling inflection) they devoted their services to the distressed." — " Demosthenes on the Crown." The inferior motives implied are excluded by the falling inflection. But if it is a mere comparison, and the speaker wishes to declare with emphasis the priority or preferableness only, then the strong emphasis should be on the comparative word, and the weak with rising inflection on the word compared — e.g., John is greater than James.

Walker says that in Double Emphasis the first member should rise and the second should have the falling inflection ' — e.g., " They are not so gross as those of sense (rising inflection), nor so refined as those of the understanding."

The Treble Emphasis : In this emphasis there is a much greater sacrifice to sound than in the Double Emphasis —e.g. :

" He raised a mortal to the skies, She drew an angel dow^n."

In the General Emphasis, where the composition is ani- mated and approaches a close, and where the emphasis is placed on several successive words emphatically, the anti- thesis or opposition is appearances, similitude, or least

182 EMPHASIS

possible, diversity. The General Emphasis then has identity and reality as its objects — e.g., " The very man who received." Stress on. man would give force, very will con- siderably increase the force, and on the will give it the utmost pitch. The — very — man. To give this contrast, the mind to express itself strongly uses redundancy of sound as well as words, as own and self — e.g., *' This book is mine; this is my own book." The mind for the same end uses auxiliary verbs to express action or passion m a shorter way, perhaps, than m any other tongue. ** Nay, more, for justice some devote themselves, yet there is one — step — left above their history, above their fable, a wife — bride — mistress — unemployed. Do that and tread upon the Greek and Roman glory." Pronouncing ''one'' and ''step*' with the falling inflection, and " left " rising, with considerable pause after each, snatches a grace beyond the reach of wit; then with falling inflection, pause, and increasing force on the four successive words wife, bride, mistress, unemployed, crowns the whole climax with a suitable force and harmony. Intermediate or Elliptical Member : Emphasis derives as much force from pronouncing those words which are not emphatical with a peculiar inflection as it does from saymg the emphatic words with a suitable inflection and greater force — e.g., " Must we, in your person, crown the author of our public calamities or must we destroy him?" — .^schines. The italics must be pronounced with the rising inflection like crown, but in a feebler and higher tone nearly approaching a monotone. Another example : ** It is not he who hath strengthened our fortification, who hath digged our intrench- ments, who hath disturbed the tombs of our ancestors, that should demand the Itonours of a patriot minister : but who hath procured some intrinsic service to the state." — Demos- thenes. The intermediate member in italics agrees with the negative part of the sentence, and must be pronounced with a rising inflection, same as ancestors, but with a feebler and higher tone as the above example. This is also called *' flight of voice " or Emphatic Tie.

The rationale of flight is to allow the least possible lapse of tijne between related words.

"Emphasis of Pulsation is that by which a word or emotion is enforced by some bodily impulse or action. Its expressive quality may be seen in the glance of the eye, the nod of the head, gesture of the hand, stamp of the foot, and the physical act of the vocal organs in the light and heavy syllables of rhythmical lans^uag^e "— ^.^., " My answer would be a blow." — Grattan. "Inhuman wretch, take that, and

that, and that ." " Methinks I see him stamp his foot

thus, and call thus, ' Come on, you cowards.' " — Shakespeare, (cf. Fulton and Trueblood.)

r

EMPHASIS 183

Exam-pie : " Why do you move for this class ? " " Why," asks a critic, ''don't you move for all working menV " Because while Daniel Webster gets forty thousand dollars for arguing: the Mexican claims, there is no need of anybody movmg for him. Because while Rufus Choate gets five thousand dollars for makifig one argument to a jury, there; is no need of moving for him or for any man that works with his brains, and does highly skilled labour, invents and writes books. The reason why the labour movement confines itself to a single class is because that class of work does not get -paid, does not get protection. Mental labour is adequately paid, and more than adequately protected. // can shift its channels, it can vary according to supply and demand." — Wendell Phillips. The above is as emphasised in '* The Art of Public Speaking," by J. Berg Esenwein.

V se : The use of Emphasis is chiefly to enlighten the understanding, to which it especially appeals.

Caution : Be sure to place the Emphasis on the accented syllable of the emphatic word, to pause before the emphatic word~£.^., " The paths of glory lead but to the — grave." Foster says this oratorical pause before a word or words of importance gives the idea that the speaker is for the moment deprived of speech, being overwhelmed by the greatness of thought or sentiment. The silence (before the word grave or other word) arouses attention and often moves the hearts of the hearers. If the Emphasis comes on a word with the acute accent, be sure to make it acute, and not draw, the acute syllable or vowel out to a sort of drawl, which fs a fault among some speakers — e.g., the state; do not say the sta — a—te. Do not forget that Emphasis should not be placed on small words, as particles, prepositions, conjunctions, and things the hearer is supposed to be pre-acquainted with, also ideas which have already been introduced — all of which should be passed over obscurely and feebly, in other words pronounced like unaccented syllables of one long word — e.g., *' Even an in^2#erent constitution . . ." are sounded like an eleven syllable word with the accent on the fifth syllable; that substantives, verbs and more significant words (adverbs, adjectives, etc.) are firmly and distinctly pronounced, and that the emphatic word is forcibly pronounced. — Walker.

Delivery. Dr. Rush, also Behnke's ** Mechanism of the Human Voice," state there must be, before pronouncing an Emphasis, an occlusion of the voice, that is a shutting off or stoppage of the breath, so that the vocal cords may assume the position necessary for utterance of the Emphasis (which amounts to a pause). Delsarte says that ** the initial con- sonant should be articulated distinctly, that the strength of the word lies in it." Stebbins, of the Delsatian school, says that " it would be better to say the initial consonant

PHASIS

of the root. One of the secrets of expression is the time you hold the niitial consonant of the root or of the accented syllable of the emphatic word before articulation." (The root of the word "construction" is struct, as "con" is only a prefix. The word struck is from the Latin root struere, so that the initial consonant to be held would not be "c" in con, but " s" m struct, the accented syllable; "ion" is a suffix.) This silence is the father of the word and justifies it.

Fe?u Examples of the Delivery of E7nphaszs \ (i) Radical Emphasis — i.e., sharp radical stress on the first syllable, thus : Victoiy. (2) Median stress, made on a simple rise, but more frequently on a wave; for instance, the intonation of the word sole is through the wave of the second : * * Wonder not, sov'reign mistress, if perhaps thou canst, who art sole wonder." {1^ Vanishing Emphasis or final, as a symbol of angry impatience in one case, and threatening in the other — e.f^., "Oh, ye Gods\ ye Gods\ must I endure tms .^^ Oh! that I had him . . ." "I won't\ " "You shan't \ " (4) Compound stress. (5) Thorough stress. (6) Intermittent stress.

Radical Stress Cuts the Air and adds Charm to Speech. The Radical Stress : This is the Trochaic foot - ^ and corresponds to the weak emphasis, whereas the Iambic cor- responds, as it were, to the strong emphasis. This long foot is the beginning of the first paeon _ w ^ ^, which Aristotle prescribes as a good one to open a sentence, and which Saintsbury says is to summon the attention. Fulton and Trueblood, in " The Essentials of Public Speaking," say that " The Radical stress is that in which the force is applied on the first part of the sound or syllable. It is heard in the tick of a clock, tap of a drum, the clapping of the hands, the report of a gun, and in animated conversation. The radical stress gives clearness and brilliancy to vocal utterance; it gives a clear-cut edge to words, makes them penetrate space and fall with precision and force upon the ear of the audience. It is the most commonly used of the stresses, and by its definiteness and clearness in impressing the ear, it adds great charm to conversation and to a public speech. Example of radical stress, animated exhortation: —

" Look forward to the triumph that awaits you. Fight the good fight, finish your course, keep the faith, there is laid up for you a crown of righteousness. . . . What, tho' in the navigation of life you have sometimes to encounter the war of elements ? What tho' the winds rage, the' the zt'rzters roar and danger threatens around ? Behold at a distance the mountains appear, . . . already the feast is prepared. . . . No tempests assail those blissful regions which approach to view . . ." — Modie.

EMPHASIS 185

The italics take the radical stress. Russell says that in animated conversation, whether narrative, descriptive or didactive, the pungent and piercing effect of awakening and kindling the emotions is lost to the ear by substituting the median for the radical stress with proper acceleration ot movement. The radical has two stresses, the expulsive and explosive. B, v, d, g, z, f, q, p, t, k make good explosives T 1, m, n, r, h, th (as in them;, s, c (as in cease) make good exDulsives. " Expulsive orotund rises from the forcible action of the abdominal muscles added to full expansion of the chest and deep inspiration. It belongs to earnest and vehement declamation. The eloquence of Demosthenes, Chatham, and our own contemporary, Webster, if divested of its full expulsive utterance, would be ridiculous in its effect upon the ear and the imagination. Depth, energy and fulness of tone form one powerful assemblage of effects in all Mr. Webster's utterances on great and exciting occasions." — Rush. Example of expulsive :

" Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I am for the declaration. It is my living, and by the blessing of God, it shall be my dying sentiment : Independence noWy independ- ence forever. . . . All that 1 have, all that I am, all that I hope in this life, I am now ready to stake. . . ." — John Adams.

Final Stress^ like Iambic Foot, the Greatest. The Final or Vanishing Stress is the most important ot all the stresses. It corresponds to the Iambic toot ^ — which is the chief of all the feet, the others being noble and generous as they in their composition approach the Iambic. Aristotle places it in the pason minori ^ ^ w — which he gives as the best foot to close a sentence. Cicero gives the cretic — w — . The Spondee — — is a grave, slow, majestic foot, the

Bacchi ^ for strong and solemn sentiments, the Cretic

— w — for bold and eager ideas, the Molossus — — — for sublime and stately, and the Anapaest w w — is rapid and vehement, and is adapted to martial, songs, etc. It was in this the Roman generals were wont to harangue their men, as nothing is better fitted to excite the passions.*

This Vanishing Stress or Emphasis ends with a heavy, violent sound which leaves off instantly and abruptly. It expresses determined purpose, earnest resolve, stern rebuke, fiercest and obstinate will, dogged sullenness of temper, stubborn passion, etc. — language of protest. Daniel Webster on *' Freedom of Speech " : " On such occasions I will place myself on the extreme boundary of right, and bid defiance to the arm that dares push me from it." This determined purpose and high resolve was delivered, says Russell, in a pectoral quality and declamatory force. In the following the stress is more deliberate : " Let the consequence be what they

* We'll repel the vile rout, Martial air, e.g., " The double double beat

186 EMPHASIS

will, I am determined to proceed ... to sacrifice estate, health, ease, applause, and even life at the sacred call of my country ! " — Otis.

"Thou slave, thou wretch, thou coward! strong on the stronger side."

Once more to the breach, dear friends, once more, Or close up the walls with the English dead, ..." Median Stress jor Pathos, Repose, Solemnity. The Median Stress : After the principal stresses, Radical and Final (Vanishing), comes the Median. This stress cor- responds, as it were, to the Amphibrach foot ^ — ^, which foot, Saintsbury says, " has an undulating and rocking movement." Median stress is made up thus — by commencing softly and swelling out earnestly and afterwards diminishing. The middle or swelling may be gentle or intense according to the sentiment expressed. It has the effusive form only. It is heard, as *' Essentials of Public Speaking " says, m the howl of the dog, the moaning wind, groan of a child. . . . It is the stress used to express solemnity, reverence, weakness, indifference, whining, awe, secrecy, 'etc. In the Median stress, strive for smoothness and evenness of tone, and for swelling notes, not abrupt.

'* But a dove perch' d upon the mast Did mourn, and mourn and mourn. O fair dove! O fond dove! . . . " Pathos — I.e., pure tone, moderate, soft and subdued utter- ance: "... and shall I see thee start away, and helpless, hopeless, hear thee say. Farewell! we meet no more? "

Solemnity: "How still and peaceful is the grave, where life's vain tumult's past, the appointed house, by Heaven's decree, receives us all at last." The Poetic monotone in descriptive prose : Pure tone, moderate force, median stress, low pitch. "The thought is sweet to lay our bones Within the bosom of our native soil. The verdure and the flowers I love so well will brighten around my grave-, the same trees, where pleasant murmurs cheered my living ears, will hang their cold shadows over my dust; and the eyes that met mine in the light of affection will shed tears over the sods that cover me, keeping my memory green." (This starts like a verse in ordinary poetry; the starting of the sentence, as Quintillian says, is like the end of .a verse, and the voice in the poetic monotone slightly rises to the second.) The above words in italics are Median stress.

Compound : the Ironical or Double-faced Stress. (4) The Compound Stress is the force placed on the first and last parts of a sound. It may be expulsive and explosive. "It is heard in mimicry, mocking laughter, taunt, or where one is impelled by satyrical motive. It is a double-faced stress and expresses also irony, sarcasm, ridicule, derision.

EMPHASIS 187

A few words in compound stress will tinge with irony or sarcasm the whole selection" — e.g., "I don't rise to jawn or cringe to this house. . . . You call it court-martial — a mere nickname; I stigmatize it as a revolutionary tribunal." --Daniel O'ConnelL

Thorough Stress: Lofty Appeals, Prolonged Emotions. _

(5) Thorough Stress '' is the force applied throughout the sound or syllable with nearly uniform intensity. It may be expulsive or explosive. It is heard in the crowing of the cock, the lowing of cattle, the call of herdsmen, and the shout of victory." It is for prolonged calling, lofty appeals, apostrophe, and a cry of rage or alarm. Rush says it is the natural mode of utterance in powerful emotions of that which seems, as it were, to delight in full and swelling ex- pression, and dwells upon and amplifies the sound of the voice. It is said to fill the soul, swell the bosom, fire the heart, and delight and charm the fancy. It is found in all vehement declaration in which emotion is sustained by respective sentiment, as in the excitement of virtuous indig- nation and high-souled contempt. It is the highest weapon of oratory, but becomes vaunt and disgusting mouthing it used indiscriminately and ineffectively.

Lofty command, orotund, expulsive, powerful and pro- longed thorough stress, sustained calling : Satan's call :

" Princes ! Potentates ! Warriors, the flower of heaven . . . Awake ! Arise! or be forever fallen! " ^

Vehement indignation, expulsive, orotund, declamatory force: Chatham's rebuke: " I call upon that Right Reverend Bench, these holy ministers of the Gospel and pious pastors of our church; I conjure them to join in the holy work, and vindicate the religion of their God; I appeal to the wisdom and the law of this learned Bench, to defend and support the justice of their country; I call upon the Bishops, to inter- pose the purity of their ermine, to save us from this pollu- tion; I call upon the honour of your l^ordships, to reverence the dignity of your ancestors, and to maintain your own; I call upon the spirit and humanity of my country, to vindi- cate the national character; I invoke the genius of the con- stitution. From the tapestry that adorns these walls, the immortal ancestor of this noble Lord frowns with indignation at the disgrace of this country. ..."

The Thorough Stress is equal, as it were, to the noble and generous feet, the Spondee ( — — ), which is grave and

majestic; and to the Molossus ( ), which is sublime

and stately. Three or four Spondees are used to fix an impression.

'' O Tiber! Father Tiber, To whom the Romans pray.

188 EMPHASIS

A Roman's life, a Roman's arms

Take thou m charge this day."— Macaulay.

Russell states that in the orator's exclamations of im- passioned excitement, he will distinguish the Thorough Stress not by a vague and general loudness, but by a well marked and highly characterised utterance, which lays an obvious stress on the beginning, the middle and end of every emphatic word.

Intermittent Stress: for Deep Pathos, Great Joy, Horror.

(6) The Intermittent Stress, according to " Essential Elements of Public Speaking," is that stress in which the main force is applied in alternating impulses throughout the sound. It is effusive, expulsive or explosive. Ridmg in a wagon over a rough street, one would vocalise in unavoid- able intermittent stress. It is used to express tenderness, deep pathos, ecstatic joy, deep reverence, feebleness, whim- pering, rage, horror and intense fear, according to the quality and form used. The Intermittent is the broken, tearful voice of grief or other great excitement. The tremor or Intermittent in the semitone increases the force of a plaintive expression — e.g.,

*' Pity the sorrows of a poor old man,

Whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door, Whose days are dwindled to the shortest span, O give relief and heaven will bless your store." Here, says Rush, the tremor may be applied on every syllable capable of prolongation except "pity" and "shortest.

"It is not the tremulo which arises from the weakness of the diaphragm, but the tremulo under the control of the speaker, which is one of the chief ornaments of speech " (see Behnke's " Mechanism of the Human Voice ").

" Thou art the ruins of the noblest man that ever lived in the tide of times." The tremor on the first syllable of noblest, given in the wave of the third or second, gives vocal consummation to the feeling prompting the praise.

The Downward Third in Moderate Impassioned Speeches. Emphasis of the Downward Third (the downward second having no emphatic power), which is the raising of the voice three notes above the level to descend to it, is used on emphatic words of conditional, concessive and hypothetical phrases, as if, gra^tted — e.g., '' If 1 must contend; then when I am your captive talk of chains; though heaven's king ride on thy wing; except created things, naught valued he. . . ." The Third, fifth or octave may be used on the emphatic syllables of such sentences. The minor third (a tone and a half) cannot be used on them, for the minor third is for plaintive expressions. The rise and fall must not be abrupt. The third may be used in moderate interrogations and un- impassioned speeches.

EMPHASIS 189

The Fifth for Dignified Appeals and Interrogations. Emphasis of the Fifth : The Fifth is more dignified. The Downward Fifth is less emphatic than the octave. '* But rapture and beauty, they cannot recall." Beau is raised through the fifth, and ty is brought down to the pitch of the current melody. The fifth is more dignified in its appeals^ and interrogations.

The Octave for Taunting, Mirthful Appeal and Intensest

Feeling.

Emphasis of the Octave : The interval of the Octave when set on a long syllable is the highest deg^ree of Emphasis — £.g., *' So frowned the mighty combatants, that hell grew darker at their frown." The downward octave on "hell" brings out hell's darkness, deep and black. Nothing but the strongest feeling or passion justifies an orator carrying the voice through eight notes or the octave, and in interro- gation it carries the spirit of quick taunting or mirthful appeal or inquiry. It is not used in calm, serious, dignified ques- tions. The fifth is more dignified and is not subject, there- fore, to these objections. The Octave has the power of raillery, of quaintness, and of mockery.

The Emphasis of the Third, Fifth and Octave in their deliberate use falls on a long quantity vowel in the syllable of the accented one of the emphatic word. The simple rise has not the solemn and dignified character which belongs to them when doubled into a wave.

The Falling Third, Fifth a7id Octave for Conviction, etc. The falling Third, falling Fifth and falling Octave denote

positiveness and a settled conviction on the part of the speaker, hence they are given to the phrases signifying authority, command, confidence and satisfaction. They also are used as signs of surprise, astonishment, wonder, and amazement.

Aspirated and Guttural for Earnestness, Horror, Execration. Aspiration of the tone indicates also emotions of earnest- ness, curiosity, surprise and horror. The unequal wave does not carry the full measure of scorn, contempt, and sneer, as when coloured with the aspiration. When the Guttural Emphasis Is added to the aspiration, combined with vibration, it produces the most impressive blast of speech. The senti- ments of disgust, execration and horror give their expression to an emphatic word, thus : '' Nothing TU bear from thee but nakedness, thou detestable town." The syllable ''test " takes the aspirated emphasis on vowel '* e ** of the accented syllable. (See Figs. Ara, Apostrophe and Pause, also Rhythmus.)

190 EMPHATIC REPETITION— ENANTIOSIS

ExMPHATIC REPETITION: Is given as a figure by Ouintillian — e.g.^ *" 1 have killed, I have killed, not Spurius Maelieus." — Cicero. The first " I have killed " merely asserts, the act and the second confirms the assertioh. An example expressing pity: "Ah, Corydon, Corydon." Emphatic Repetition alter a parenthesis, which adds force to the same : " I have seen the property, unhappy that I am! (for though my tears are spent, grief still dwells fixed in my heart), the property, I say, of Cneius Pompey, subjected to the cruel iorce of the public crier." — Cicero. Sentences are sometimes commenced, to give them spirit and energy^ with the repeti- tion of same word or words, ** Has not the nightly guard of the Palatium, has not the watch kept in the city, has not the fear of the people, has not the unanimity of all men of honour, has not the fortified place of the Senate, . have not the countenances and looks of those present, produced any effect upon you?" — Cicero. In Antitheses or Comparisons there is commonly a repetition of the first word of each phrase alternately so as to correspond, as *' You awoke in the night that you may give answers to your clients; he that he may arrive early with his army." A Repetition which recurs to things or persons mentioned before for the purpose of distin- guishing them: ** Iphitus came and Pelias came with me: Iphitus slow with age, and Pelias lame as wounded by Ulysses."

ENALLAGE : Greek en, in; alios, another, exchange; allasso, pass; to be exchanged; inversion, turn upside down; is a figure whereby the number or gender, mood, person or tense is exchanged or one put for another.

ENANTIOSIS : Greek eV, in ; avTi^ opposite, contrary, against ; c5?, adv. so, thus. It is a figure whereby the orator states negatively what should be understood affirma- tively— e.g., '' He is no fool." *' Were there no graves, none in our land, that thou hast brought us on the deep to die? " '■ Earnest in idle things " (meaning idle in matters of earnest- ness). " Could not look on " (meaning kept looking on, or would not look off).

We come now to Enthymema, the greatest and most useful of all the figures for the orator. This is the backbone of a speech, " the theory of modern oratory " (see Jebb under Intro- duction). It was the skilful use of this figure which Demos- thenes, the greatest orator who ever lived, entrenched behind the bold Figures of Thought, ** Pathos," and so disposed at will the fierce " democratic of Athens." It was this figure that gave the palm of eloquence to the great Athenian over the Roman orator; that gave Charles James Fox the un- challenged position of the greatest Demosthenean orator of

191

Britain, and of being the most brilliant and accomplished debater, as Burke says, the world ever saw; it was this figure that established Webster's fame as the foremost of American orators and made all the difference between him and Henry Clay. Clay could outstrip Webster in arousing the feelings and passions of his countrymen, but Webster outdistanced him in the greater and more enduring conquests' of eloquence, those of the understanding. Enthymema secures the grandest triumphs of eloquence and causes the orator to live, not only in the hearts of his countrymen, but of genera- tions to come.

Feelings may raise mortals to the sky.

But Enthymem will never let them die.

Before taking up the definition, delivery, etc., of the Fig.

Enthymema, we shall give a brief description of Charles

James Fox's oratory, his use of this figure, and his manner

of delivery, etc.

192

THE RIGHT HON.

CHARLES JAMES FOX

THE RIGHT HON. CHARLES JAMES FOX: HIS ORATORY, DELIVERY, AND SOME NOTES FROM EMINENT CONTEMPORARY AND SUB- SEQUENT CRITICS.

Charles James Fox, for forty years Member of Parliament, was Prime Mmister of England, her greatest Demosthenean orator, and the most accomplished debater of his day.

" Fox from his mother's side was related to the then reigning royal family. In person and manners he somewhat resembled the sage of Ithaca; he was short and corpulent \ his chest, capacious; his shoulders, broad; his hair, dark and thick; his eyebrows, black and bushy; his complexion tinged with a yellow hue." — " Memoirs of the Life of the Rt. Hon. C. J. Fox, the Man of the People," by Gateshead.

" In vehemence and po\Yer of argument. Fox resembled Demosthenes , but there the resemblance ended. He possessed a strain of ridicule and wit which nature denied the Athenian, and it was the more powerful as it always appeared to be blended with argument and to result from it. He was heed- less of method, having a complete command of good words; he never sought for better if those which occurred expressed his meaning clearly and forcibly; he paid little attention to their arrangement or harmony. This detracts from the merit of his speeches when read; but when delivered, it perhaps added to their effect as it tended greatly to make the hearers believe that he was above art and spoke from con- viction. . . . When he had stated the argument of his adver- sary with greater force than he had done, and he seized it with the strength of a giant and tore and trampled on it to destruction; if he at this moment had possessed the power of the Athenian over the passions or the imaginations of his hearers, he might have disposed of the House at his pleasure, but this was denied him; and on this account his speeches fell very short of the effect which otherwise they would have produced." — Butler's " Reminiscences of Pitt, Fox and Burke."

" Mr. Fox' s elocution was -striking and peculiar^ rapid, copious and i77tpressive. The logic of rhetoric was never dis- played with such energy, simplicity and precision." — " Characteristic Sketches of the House of Commons."

'* He was the son of Lord Holland and Lady Georgiana Carolina, eldest daughter of the second Duke of Richmond. On his mother's side he inherited the blobd of the Stuarts and Henry of Navarre. From the earliest youth he was encouraged to deliver his sentiments with freedom on all

►

THE RIGHT HON. CHARI.ES JAMES FOX.

Principal Forms of Oratorical Expression used by Mr. Fox. His master- figures are those in italics :

Anaphora, Arsis and Thesis, Astcisniiis, Asyndeton, Dialogismiis, Ecphonesis, Enthymema, Eperotesis, Epidiorthosis, Epimone, Erotema, Ethos, Hypobole, Hypophora, Pisteis (ethica), Sermocinatio.

CHARLES JAMES FOX 193

subjects. . . . This naturally produced a habit of thinking freely and speaking with readiness at all times and in all places, and probably contributed not a little to that facility of comprehension and quickness at reply for which Mr. Fox was afterwards so pre-eminently distinguished in the House of Commons. His orations were the spontaneous effusions of his own noble mind, delivered without any affectation of" superior attention to the subject, without the least pride or supercilious dogmatism." — *' Memoirs of the Rt. Hon- Charles James I^ox," by R. Fell (pub. m 1808).

** Fox was rapid in his delivery, raising his voice at times almost screaming m his emotion, but still pressing his argu- ment and keeping in view his object. Sir James Mackintosh said: 'He forgot himself and everything around him; he thought only of his subject. His genius warmed and kindled as he went on; he darted fire into his audience; torrents of impetuous and irresistible eloquence swept along their feelings and convictions. He certainly possessed above all moderns that union oj reason, si7nplicity and vehemence which formed the prince of orators.

F ox compared with Demosthenes.

" ' He was the most Demosthenean speaker since Demos- thenes.' Lord Brougham says: 'For while Fox, in the simplicity and vehemence of his reasoning might bear com- parison with Demosthenes, a speech from Demosthenes resembles a beautiful Greek temple; it is composed of elegant diction, of appeals to patriotism, and public spirit of his hearers. Take, for instance, the great speech on the rupture of peace of Amiens. The general doctrines against an over- bearing power, and the examples of Switzerland and Holland, might have found their counterpart in a speech of Demos- thenes against Philip; but when we come to the illustrations — Mulev Muloch in his scarlet robe, Almanzor in a play of Dryden, and various allusions to classical literature and to Demosthenes — we see how great is the distance between the finished performance of the Greek orator and the vast and various topics of the British statesman.' He declaimed argument, says Henry Walpole. Shorthand, secured from imperfections, could have perpetuated the lustre and effect of so rapid and vehement elocution. His great effects were in sudden, unforeseen occasions. He always took his station IV some fixed, invulnerable principle. The grand principle on which Fox opposed the American war was its injustice. Whilst instead of seeking afterwards to enforce them (his ideas) by cold premeditated illustrations or episodes, which, however beautiful, only distract attention, he was accustomed to repass his subject not methodically, but in the most unseen and fascinating review,* enhghtening every part of

* See fig. Epimone and Brougham on repetition under " Demosthenes.

194 CHARLES JAMES FOX

it and binding even his adversaries in a kind of a spell, for the moment involuntary assent. Fox, with great povv^ers, had likewise great defects. His action was ungraceful, and he frequently recurred to a topic on which he had already

awelt. Fox's Advice to a Young Orator.

" Fox said the best rule for a young orator is contained in the lines of * Odessey ' which Homer puts in the mouth of ' Minerva ' :

But him the Goddess answer' d, azure eyed : ' Telemachus, thou wilt in part thyself Fit speech devise, and Heav'n will give the rest' " — " Charles James Fox," by Earl Russell (pub. in 1866).

" His eloquence was plain, nervous, energetic, vehement; it simplified what was complicated. It came home to the sense and feelings of the hearer. And to crown all, this astonishing eloquence was uniformly exerted in the cause of liberty and justice, in the defence of the oppressed and perse- cuted, and in vindicating the rights, the freedom and the happiness of mankind." — A » discourse by Thomas Belsham on the death of the Rt. Hon. Charles James Fox, at the Unitarian Church, Essex Street, October 12th, 1806.

** His oratio7is were digested, I thiitk, in a jew moments of silent rapid reflection, and they then gave him no further anxiety. He had a powerful memory. Mr. Fox rose in the summer between six and seven, and a little before eight in the winter. Breakfast between 8 and 9 in summer, and a little after nine in the winter. After which he usually read some Italian author with Mrs. Fox, and then spent the time preceding dinner in his literary studies, in which Greek • Doets bore the principal part. The evening he dedicated to walking and conversing till tea time, when reading aloud in history commenced and continued till near ten. A light supper, and at 10.30 the family were gone to rest." — " Memoirs of the Latter Years of the Rt. Hon. Charles James Fox," by John Bernard Trotter, Private Secretary to Mr. Fox.

" Charles James Fox sat under Dr. Barnard, the great elocutionist of Eton, and his pulpit manner was much admired perhaps rather in consequence than in spite of its haste and vehemence. This same description applies to his pupil; but long before he sat under Barnard he could get quite as many words into a minute as the conditions of human respiration would allow. Charles could always run up to the House when an interesting question was on. The head master, Barnard, attended carefully to the rhetorical training of boys who had boroughs waiting for them as soon as they came of age, and Fox with his repertory of favourite passages from dramatists and his passion for an argument was always to the front in the speech-room and the debating society.

CHARLES JAiMES FOX 195

His Words Flowed Rapidly, His Oratory Charmed and

Persuaded.

" Charles Fox had great facihty in speaking, his words flowed rapidly; he had nothing of Burke's variety of lan- guage or correctness, nor his method. His eloquence was tor use, not for show. Fox moved, charmed and persuaded because his oratory was the faithful reflection of his ardent and sagacious nature. ... Pitt, Porson says, * conceives his sentences before he utters them; Fox throws himself into the middle of his and leaves it to God Almighty to get him out.' There probably never was such a famous and attrac- tive orator who gave so much care to the substance and so little care to trappings. A Prussian clergyman said, as to his hearing Fox in the House of Commons : ' It is impossible for me to describe with what fire and persuasion he spoke, and how the speaker in the chair incessantly nodded appro- bation from his solemn wig, and innumerable voices inces- santly called out "Hear him! hear him! " and when there was the least sign of his intending to leave off speaking they no less vociferously exclaimed ''Go ori ! *' and he con- tinued to speak in this manner for nearly two hours.' " — " The Early History of Charles- James Fox," by Rt. Hon. Sir George O. Trevelyan, Bart.

" His acquaintance with dramatic literature was very extensive. He excelled most in tragedy. No doubt his practice of acting was useful to him in the modulation of his voice as an orator. It is said that his deep tones, when speaking in Parliament, had the most thrilling effect and could scarcely have been attained by one who had not dis- ciplined his mind to such a purpose by the recital of sublime or impassioned passages of poetry.

His Open Countenance and Twinkle of Fun.

** Fox's countenance was manly, open and benevolent. His eyes twinkled with fun and good humour, and his whole appearance betokened one who loved mirth and jollity. His complexion was swarthy. He spoke with such fiery vehem- ence that Lord Eversley, when taken to the House of Com- mons to hear him speak, asked his father, * What is that fat gentleman in such a passion about ?'"—'* Great Orators," by Henry James Nicoll (pub. in 1880).

" Fox did not merely address words to his audience. Every tone, and look, and gesture, and flash of the eye, every — one knows not where to stop, the whole man spoke to you. In a word, the secret of his success was sympathy." — Walter S. Shirley, M.A., Barrister-at-Law (a lecture in 1881).

" His hurried sentence, the involuntary exclamation, the vehement gesture, the sudden start, the agitation — every

196

CHARLES JAMES EOX

peculiarity of his manner — indicated an eloquence that came from the very depths of his soul.

He united Natural Passion with Scholastic Reasoning. ** It is true that he had in the highest degree the oratori- cal temperament, and, as Bulwer has remarked, in union of natural passion with scholastic reasoning excelled all others who have dignified the British Senate. He always spoke as if he were in a passion; his gesticulation was extravagant and graceless; his whole manner ungainly; his voice husky; and his articulation, in spite of all his efforts to improve

it, so indistinct as to be at times unintelligible. When about to begin a speech, he advanced slowly, with a heavy, lumbering air, to the table, and began fumbling awk- wardly with his fingers. , . . But this very awkwardness of manner — his entangled, broken sentences, the choking of his voice, and the scream with which he delivered his vehement passages — only deepened the interest with which he was listened to, because they were regarded as proofs of his absolute sincerity. Fox was indefatigable in his efforts to perfect himself, till he rose, as Burke said, to be the most brilliant and accomplished debater the world ever saw. At times his tongue faltered and his face was bathed in tears (see the sad rupture with Burke, his life-long friend). It has been justly said that m his climaxes he was especially happy, . . . Hardly less surprising was his wit — the wit which holds up to ridicule the absurdities, inconsistencies, or weak points of an opponent's argument — which he had m a rare degree. Both Pitt and Canning pronounced him the wittiest speaker of his times." — ** Oratory and Orators," by William. Mathews, LL.D. (1879^

Sketch of a Statue in House of Commons.

His characteristic attitude was the uplifted hst. When Fox warmed up all his defects disappeared, and he became supremely majestic. The eloquence of Charles James Fox combined passion and reason, which were the chief qualities of the great Athenian. It was reason entrenched behind passion that made it so effective. He spoke fluently; point came upon point, reason upon reason, his countenance beaming and his eye twinkling with fun as he held up to ridicule some fallacy of his opponent; now a sudden outburst, now

CHARLES JAMES FOX 197

a happy climax, but pressing on, his ideas promuient before his eyes, and his words, like quick evolution of soldiers, fell rapidly and automatically into line.

He spoke impressively, having deep tones and charming modulation, ' which he acquired from his early study and training by reciting dramas and tragedies. He was a master of the hgures of Asteismus and Hypobole, and used very much the figures Epimone and Metabasis in his repetitions and in repassing over what he had already said, for he held that an argument stated in hve different forms was equal to five arguments. He also largely used the figure Pathos, for he frequently spoke with great vehemence, and Ethos, for his face was often bathed in tears in the expression of his humanitarian and benevolent sentiments. His eloquence was Pisteis Ethica, that is Ethical persuasion.

Summed up, the charm, persuasion and magnetism of Mr. Fox's eloquence arose from the lofty sentiments and noble principles which fired his heart, and upon which he founded his arguments. These principles become doubly sublime when we consider that they were uttered by a man whose early days had been surrounded by the terrible influences of Spa^ and that every effort, as we are informed, had been exerted to make him ' ' a finished rake ' ' ; also when we consider the atmosphere in which Mr. Fox was born and reared, which, as Trevelyan, his biographer, says, abounded with pages and pages of the same dismal story of gout due to drink; when cards shuffled and rattled at every society gathering, and it was gallant freely to bet and handsomely to lose; when a statesman of the Georgian era ** sailed on a sea of claret from one official heaven to another ' ' ; when every office was filled two deep; pensions and sinecures were numberless; and when men were old at forty-seven and were stuffing themselves with Morello cherries to bring the gout to a crisis. ''Such was the atmosphere," continues Trevelyan, " in which Charles James Fox was born and lived, the only British statesman who left a reputation of the first order, acquired not in office, but in an almost life-long opposition, who cheer- fully sacrificed all he had been taught to value for the sake of principles at which he had been taught to sneer. So that to one who began his course weighted and hampered by the worst traditions of the past we owe much of what is highest and purest in our recent political history."

" Characteristic Sketches of the House of Commons " says that " the most profound and just opinions on government, freedom and rights of people, the most liberal sentiments on religious toleration and ethics, fell from Fox^s lips." Mr. Fox declared the following principles on government : " Every one should have a share in the government that the humblest may have its success at heart." *' The people are sovereign

198 CHi^RLES JAMES FOX

in every state, and by a convention speaking the sense ot the people, have a right to change the form of government and cashier their governors for misconduct." " What is good government ? That which secures to every individual of a nation the highest possible happiness." Respecting American independence, he declared : * ' The British had no right to levy taxes on the Americans without their consent, or that of their own chosen representatives sitting in Parliament, and that upon this point resistance was justifiable."

No man can be truly eloquent unless his themes are noble and sublime, and the eloquence of Mr. Fox teemed and burned with such lofty themes as these : The American inde- pendence, the French Revolution, the Emancipation of the Catholics, the Impeachment of Warren Hastings, the Aboli- tion of the Slave Trade, and the Reforms of Parliament.

Though badly beset with unfavourable and demoralising circumstances in his early life, still the goodness that was embedded in him always showed itself. All recognised it, all felt it. Though his entii'e life was grand, the last eight years of it were truly sublime; for he had quitted forever the gaming table, he had become Prime Minister of England, he had brought peace to his country. His closing days were like those of the sage of Ithica. He discoursed on the immortality of the soul and the indisputable existence of God, and in his closing hours he said. ** I have injured no one, I have laboured for the happiness of milHons, I have not professed myself a Christian and embroiled the human race." His last words were: "I die happy." And so he did. Surrounded bv those he most loved, no groans of incarcerated victims assailing his ear, no curses of the oppressed molesting his mind, no shades of murdered citizens troubling his sweet repose, no wounds nor famished eyes staring at him in his last hour ; but in peaceful slumber he passed away, his countenance serene and sublime, his face calm and bright, the transcript of a guiltless mind and ot a soul that had done all it could to alleviate human oppres- sion and suffering, and bring peace to an afflicted world. For twenty-five years afterwards, Macaulay says, those who knew Fox could not speak of him without tears in their eyes.

We shall note a few figures in Fox' reply to Pitt's address on " The Rejection of Napoleon's Overtures of Peace."

*' *A11 the topics which have so often misled us, all the reasoning which has so invariably failed, all the lofty pre- dictions which have been falsified by events, all the hopes which have amused the sanguine, and all the assurances of the distress and weakness of the enemy which satisfied the unthinking are again enumerated and advanced as arguments for our continuing the war. What ! ^ at the end of seven

(i) Anaphora andAccumulatio (2) Ecphonesis.

1

CHARLES JAMES FOX 199

years of the most burdensome and the most calamitous struggle in which this country ever was engaged, are we again to be amused with notions of finance and calculations of the exhausted resources of the enemy as a ground of con- fidence and hope ? Gracious God ! ' were we not told five years ago that France was not only on the brink and m the jaws of ruin, but that she was actually sunk into the gulf of bankruptcy? Were we not told, as an unans\y.erahle argument against treating,' ' that she could not hold out another campaign, that nothing but peace could save her, that she wanted only time to recruit her exhausted finances, that to grant her renose was to grant her the means of again molesting this country, and that we had nothing to do but persevere for a short time, in order to save ourselves forever from the consequences of her ambition and her Jacobinism ? ' ^ What ! ^ after having gone on from year to year upon assur- ances like these, and after having seen the repeated refuta- tions of every prediction, are we again to be gravely and seriously assured that we have the same prospect of success on the same identical grounds ? ^ And without any other argument or security, are we invited at this new era of the war to conduct it upon principles which, if adopted and acted upon, may make it eternal ? ^ If the right honourable gentleman shall succeed in prevailing upon Parliament and the country to adopt the principles which he has advanced this night, I see no possible termination to the contest. No man can see an end to it; and upon the assurances and predictions which have so uniformly failed, we are called upon '* not merely to refuse all negotiations, but to counten- ance principles and views as distant from wisdom and justice as: they are in their nature wild and impracticable. . . . They have imitated the practice of their great prototype,, and through their whole career of mischiefs and of crimes have done no more than servilely trace the steps of their own Louis XIV. ^ If they have overrun countries and ravaged them, they have done it upon Bourbon principles; if they have even fraternised with the people of foreign countries and pretended to make their cause their own, they have only followed the Bourbon example. They have constantly had Louis, the Grand Monarque, m their eye. . . . ' What has there been in the conduct of the French to foreign powers; vvhat in the violation of solemn treaties; what in plunder, devastation, and dismemberment of unoffending countries; what in the horrors and murders perpetrated upon the sub^ dued victims of their rage in any district which they have overrun, worse than the conduct of those great powers in the miserable, devoted and trampled-on kingdom of Poland; and who have been or are our allies in this war for religion

(2) Ecphonesis (3) Erotema (4) Arsis and Thesis. (i) Protasis and Apodosis (2) Eperotesis.

200 CHARLES JAMES FOX

and social order, and the rights of nations ? Oh ! ^ but you regretted the partition of ir'oland ! Yes, regretted ! You regretted the violence, and that is all you did. . . . ' ihe hero of Poland, Suwarroff, perhaps was merciful and mild I He was as much superior to Bonaparte m bravery and m the discipline which he maintained as he was superior m virtue and humanity ! What do we understand to have been • the conduct of this magnanimous hero with whom Bonaparte is not to be compared ? He entered the suburb of Praga, the most populous suburb of Warsaw; and there he let his soldiery loose on the miserable, unarmed and un- resisting people. Men, w^omen and children — nay, infants at the breast — were doomed to one indiscriminate massacre ! Thousands of them were inhumanly, wantonly butchered ! ^ And for what? Because they had dared to join m a wish to meliorate their own condition as a people, and to improve their constitution which had been confessea by their own sovereign to be in want of amendment. And such is the hero upon whom the cause of religion and social order is to repose ! And such is the man whom we praise for his disci- pline and his virtues, and whom we hold out as our boast and dependence; while the conduct of Bonaparte unhts him to be even treated with as an enemy! . . . Oh! ° pity the condition of man, gracious God, and save us from a system of malevolence, in which all our old and venerated pre- judices are to be done away, and .by which we, are to be taught to consider war as the natural state of man, and peace but as a dangerous and difficult extremity ! And all this because you may gain a better peace a year or two hence. We must keep Bonaparte for some time longer at war as a state of probation.^ Gracious God, Sir! ^ is war a state of probation? Is peace a rash system? Is it dangerous for nations to live in amity with each other? Cannot this state of probation be as well undergone without adding to the catalogue of human sufferings ? ^ But ^ we must pause ! What ! must the bowels of Great Britain be torn out, her best blood spilt, her treasure wasted, that you may make an exoeriment ? Put yourselves. Oh ! ^ that you would put yourselves in the field of battle, and learn to judge of the sort of horrors that you excite ! But if a man were present now at a field of slaughter and were to inquire for what they were fighting — Fighting, would be the answer ; they are not fighting ^ (see full passage under Fig. Dialogismus). And is this the way, Sir, that you are to show yourselves the advocates of order? You take a system calculated to uncivilise the world, to destroy order, to trample on religion, to stifle in the heart, not merely the generosity of noble sentiment, but the affection of social nature; and in the prosecution of this system you spread terror and devas- tation all around you.*'®

'(3) Hypophora (4) Sarcasmus and Ironeia (5) Sermocinatio and Entbymema (6) Ecphonesis (7) Dialogismus (8) Accumulatio. Arsis and Thesis.

ENTHYMEMA 201

ENTHYMEMA : Greek iv, in ; i^u/xo?, mind. Is where one proposition is carried in the mind, or one of the premises is understood. Bullinger says that Enthymema is the opposite of Syllogismus, that in Enthymema the conclusion is stated and one or both of the premises omitted; that both are alike in being an abbreviated Syllogism ; also that it is related _to. Hypocatastasis in that it is an implication — e.g., " We are dependent; we should therefore be humble." Here, he' says, the major premise is omitted — '* dependent persons should be humble."

The words for, because, since, therefore, consequently , inasmuch, hence, etc., which shows that an inference is being drawn, denote Enthymema or reasons without the formality of a syllogism.

Rehdantz-Blass, defining Enthymema, states that Aristotle limited the expression to such thoughts as pronounce a judg- ment, while giving, at the same time, the proof on which it is supported ; and comprising the Enthymema among the imperfectly expressed syllogisms peculiar to rhetoric. He says that they, at all events, contain the judgment and the poof, already the most essential parts of the syllogism, which in its fullest and strictest exposition, with its two premises and conclusion, neither speaker nor audience could long support. Demetrius in his definition says that an Enthymema is a thought expressed either controversially or consequenti- ally. rL word in proof. In general, the Enthymema is a kind of rhetorical syllogism, while the Period is not reasoning at all, but simply a combination of words. Nor is this the only point of distinction. We use Periods in every part of discourse— for example, in the exordium — but we do not so use Enthymema. The Enthymema is an additional utter- ance, while the Period is an independent utterance.

Enthymemata or Antithetic Enthymema : Rehdantz-Blass' " Rhetorischer und Stilistischer Index " says that these " ex contrariis ccnclusa " are mostly called 6vdvfj.ijjj.aTa (Enthy- memata), that is conclusions from contraries.

All great orators use Enthymemas. Demosthenes abounded in them — e.g., " yEschines, each of these was accountable for the office which he discharged, but not accountable for the actions for which he was crowned; therefore, neither am I; for certainly I have the same privilege as others in similar circumstances." — Demosthenes on the Crown. '^ For if you decide against Ctesiphon on the ground that my administra- tion was not good, you will appear to have acted wrong, not t> have suffered a defeat by the fickleness of fortune." — Demosthenes de Corona. Gilbart says that conversational reasoning is chieflv by Enthymema. *' Is it going to rain? " —interrogative; '' \ shall take my umbrella, for I think '^\ will rain " — Enthymeme. The minor is most commonly

202 ENTHYMEMA

expressed because it has more particular reference to the question to be proved; except where the minor is very evident it is omitted, and much stress is laid on the major, as : " Every tyrannical king deserves to be deposed by his subjects, therefore Nero deserves to be deposed by the Romans." The minor '* Nero was a tyrannical king" is omitted. Aristotle says that the elements in the Enthymema one argues from must be certain and determinate, and its assumptions must not be too remote, for they will be obscure; nor too plain or common, as it would be a waste of words; but must be inherent and peculiar, as: "To praise Achilles because he is a man, one who made war against Troy," etc., is the same as thousands of others did, hence such is vague ; but to say : ' * He slew Hector, the bravest of the Trojans," is peculiar.

The Rejutative Enthymema the Best. Aristotle says that Refutation is better than Confirmation, because the former proofs produce reductio ad absurdum, and please better than the direct, as the opposites are set by each other, and are more clearly recognised because, from the comparison of contraries, truth and falsity, the force of the syllogism better appears.

The Refutative Enthymema is from consideration of con- tradiction: (i) From time, actions or words \ (2) from ex- planation \ (3) from cause ajtd effect and vice versa; (4) from fact thai he could have done better — e.g., " He didn't do it for he could have thereby bettered himself"; but this may involve the fallacy that it was not clear to him at the time, but was too late how he might have bettered him- self at the time; (5) from the incompatibility of the thing to be done — " If she is goddess, then do not sing a dirge; if a human being, do not make a sacrifice"; (6) from pun on words — "Steel in truth you are and bear the name"; (7) from equivocation of terms, and all those mentioned under Asteismus, as the refutative apparently reduces to absurdity, and absurdity is ridiculous or ludicrous. The Refutative Enthymema is more palpable to the audience than the Con- firmative, as it sets contraries briefly together. (See Anti- theton.)

Refutative : The Enthymema may be confronted (a) by the probable, for the most part it falls out otherwise; (b) examples : object to it by offering an instance in contra- vention and it has been answered to show that it is not necessary, we must contend that the present case is not the case in point, or its application is not in point, or that it has some difference at all events ; (c) analogy : that the pro- position in question is essentially similar to another proposi- tion that is manifestly absurd and untenable — e.g.,* " To

* The example, though modern, is a very good illustration.

ENTHYMEMA 203

say that when the policy of the government is changed by an election from protection to free trade, every book-keeper and letter-carrier and messengier and porter in the public offices must be a free-trader, is as wise as to say that if a merchant is a baptist every clerk in his office ought to be a

believer in total immersion." — Geo. W. Curtis. _^

Refuting a Deductive Enthyinema consists, says Edwin Bell, in drawing out or deducing from the proposition in question another proposition that contradicts it; or in other words in reducing it to absurdity by showing that a proposi- tion manifestly absurd or untenable is logically deducible from it. Thus said Wendell Phillips: ''Let women vote. Cries one : * Why, our wives and daughters might be demo- crats, while their fathers and husbands would be whigs. It would never do. It would produce endless quarrels.' This self -satisfied objector thinks he has settled the question. But if the principle be a sound one why not employ it in a still more important instance. Difference in religion breeds more quarrels than difference in politics, yet we allow women to choose their own creeds, although we thereby run the risks of wives being episcopalians whilst their husbands are methodists, daughters being Roman Catholics whilst their husbands are Calvinists. Practically this freedom in religion has made no difficulty, and probably equal freedom in politics would make as little."

Apparent Enthymemas.

Apparent Enthymemas are from (i) diction : as to repeat several sentences with the last one brought in as a conclusion, short and concise, or to string heads of syllogisms together — e.g., '* That he preserved some, avenged others, emanci- pated the Greeks"; (2) from similarity of names: "The mouse is excefllent," referring to the mouse of the rite; (3) from what is true divided to what is false joined; (4) from exaggeration and amplification: "The crime is too great to supDOse him to have done it"; (5) from a sign to draw an argument, as to conclude a fact from the manner of one's life: " Dionysius is a robber for he is a wicked man," is illogical, for every wicked man is not a thief, though every thief is a wicked man; (6) from accident or chance of a thing: "What you bought yesterday you eat to-day; you boug!"ht raw meat yesterday, so you will eat raw meat to-day " ; (7) from asserting as a logical property that which is not, or as a consequence: "The poor are happy because they sing and dance in the temple"; (8) from asserting as a cause that which is not; (9) from the omission of some particulars or circumstance — i.e., when, manner, koWy where^ (10) from that probable in some cases to what is probable simply: "He did not do it because he suspected they would suspect him," etc. (See Asteismus.)

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Enthymemas from Examples are Best for Orators.

This is the great field for the orator. Aristotle says examples are best suited for deliberative oratory (reasoning from what has happened that a like will probably happen). This is the oratory for the masses. Reasoning from examples, says Gilbart, is the subject in relation to other things. " fo destroy the false idea of genius, as idleness, adduce eminent orators, statesmen who have worked as dictionary makers and are superior to other men as they have taken more pains." ** Gibbons was at his desk at six, Cicero nearly died by over work, Pascal died by study.'* — Sidney Smitli. We induce fiom examples — ^.^., " I see that a horse has four legs; 1 assert (induce) every horse in the wotld has four legs.*' Enthymemas are best suited to forensic oratory, as they respect what is or is not a matter of fact and refer to things past, from v/hich we conclude necessarily and require Enthy- mema; but examples refer to things to come, and we must needs adduce examples out of what has been. " It snowed three Christmases, therefore it will snow every Christmas," are not enough examples to prove it. Examples may be from analogy, from similitude or proportional; as one is to ten so ten is to a hundred, '* As an enemy so is a bad citizen." The greatest effect is from comparison between those that are nearly equal, " The body can make no use of the limbs, nerves, blocd, without the mind; so a state is powerless without laws." Examples from fables, which please the masses, especially the illiterate and rustic. Agrippa recon- ciled the people to the senators by the fable, ** The body revolting against the belly."

Exatnples from similars : ** Dionysius requested guard for his person and made himself a tyrant. Pisistratus secured absolute power in the same manner." From dissimilar points : ' ' Since any one compelling me to quit my house by force I should have a ground for action, shall I have no ground for action if a man prevents me from entering it? " From opposite points : *' There is no reason a marriage should be valid if made by mutual consent without license, for it would be to no purpose if with a license and no mutual consent." Another ot similitude from Aristotle, based on some action past: " Darius came into Greece after conquering Egypt, Xerxes also conquered Egypt, one ought therefore to hinder the king of Persia from conquering Egypt." A fable: "The horse wanting- to drive the stag out and have the whole pasture to himself, asked a man to help; the man said if he let him put this bit into his mouth, he would mount with his dart and drive it out; ever since the horse has been a slave. So if Pharlaris says * put yourselves under me and take my bit, I will avenge your enemies,' you will l>ecome his slaves past recovery."

ENTHYMEMA 205

Words which Introduce an Enihymema. The most useful form of these Enlhymemata ex contrariis, to which apo elattonos (from the inferior) or ek tou ^nation kai hatton (from the worse or weaker) also belong (see example below, 9, 13), is that by which the words aro-nov {strange, \ absurd), evriBe^ {silly, simple), hetvov {marvel^ lous, clever), alrr'^pdv {base, infamous, shameful), (Ty^^T\iov {cruel, merciless, abominable, shocking; hardy, unfimching), and such like, are introduced m the question *how, how should that be, for it cannot be tliat ... ? as if sometnmg had gone before; why not, certainly (see examples below, 6, 27; 20, 12; 21, 120, etc.); or with is it 7tot} not therefore} not then ? then, therefore, accordingly (see example below, 5. 25); or with and indeed, and yet, altogether, certainly, at any rate, yet, however, still, nevertheless, used to mark an objection ; for truly, for confirming a proposition which of itself is tolerably certain; but, wJiile, on the other hand; in truth, verily, to strengthen or confirm; and m interroga- tive sentences, what, pray, or can it be} ; would have, a conditional assertion ; conditional particle, if ; or such like antagonistic principles. Although . . . but are often joinea by if, where the interrogative contrary is still to be realised and is, therefore, up to this place hypothetical (19, 337, see example below, also 51, 9); or the second statement is inten- tionally presented as hypothetical, which is indeed when the bitter conclusion is addressed directly to the hearer, a clever means of mitigation — i.e., Demos, versus Boeotus 11 (40, 31): " And further, all the persons who were before the arbitrator have stated to you in evidence that Boeotus was himself present when the arbitrator decided in my favour, and that he did not appeal to the court, but acquiesced in the award. // would be strange, I take it, when other men, who consider themselves wronged, carry the most trifling causes on appeal to vou, that this man who sued me for a marriage portion to recover a talent, and had an award m the suit against him, as he himself sa3's, unjustly, should acquiesce in that award. Oh, but perhaps he is a quiet sort of person, not fond of litigation."

Illustration from Demosthenes by Rehdantz-Blass . Ex. 9, 13, or Philip HI. 13. ** MaUon " (from worst): "' People who would never have harmed him, though they might have adopted measures of defence, he chose to deceive rather than warn them of ins attack; and think you he would declare war against you before he began it, and that while you were willing to be deceived? Impossible \ " " OuJzoun'' {\\\^x\)\ The Demosthenean passage in Phil. 1. 25 commences thus: "It were folly then, utter absurdity, after dealing thus with each party singly on matters of vital moment to ourselves, to battle now with them all for a shadow of

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Delphi." ''Men'' (if, wlien) ; '' de'' (but): Demos, on the Embassy, 337: ** About his voice, too, it may be necessary to say something; for I hear that upon this also he very confidently relies, as if he can overpower you by his acting. I think, however, you would be committing a gloss absurdly i/, when he played the miseries of Thyestes and the men at Troy, you drove and hissed him ott the boards, and nearly stoned him to death, so that, at last, he desisted from his playing of third rate parts; yet now that, nof upon the stage but in public and most important affairs of state, he has wrought mfinity of evil, you should pay regard to him as a fine speaker. Heaven forbid ! Do not you be guilty of any folly, but consider : ij you are making trial of a herald you should see that he has a good voice, but if of an ambassador and an undertaker of public duties, that he is honest, that he demeans himself with spirit^ a:s vour representative, like a fellow-citizen towards you; as I (for example) had no respect for Philip, but respected the prisoners, delivered them and never flinched; whereas the defendant crouched before him and sang paeons, but you he disregarded." ** Demosthenes' Oration on the Chersonese " : *• For ij Philip were to ask, ' Which would you prefer, that these soldiers of Diopithes, whatever be their character, 1 dispute not about that, should thrive and have credit at Athens, and be reinforced with the assistance of the state, or that they should be dispersed and destroyed at the instance of calumniators and accusers? ' I think he would say the latter. And what. Philip would pray to the gods for, certain persons are bringing about; and after this you ask how the state is ruined? " Demos, on the Chers. 44: ''None of you surely is so foolish as to suppose that Philip covets those n-.iseries of Thrace, for what else can one call Drongilus, and Cabyle, and Mastira, and the places which he is taking and conquering now? "

Further Illustrations from Demosthenes.

" The Thessalians, again, think ye, said I, when he ejected their tyrants, and gave back Nicr-^a and Magnesia, they expected to have the decemvirate, which is now estab- lished or that he who restored the meeting at Pylac would take away their revenues ? Surely not. And yet these things occurred as all mankind may know " Or in the instance of Demos, vs. Phil. 11, 13: "Well, it may be said, he knew all this, yet he so acted not from ambition or the motives which I charge; but because the demands of the Thebes were more equitable than yours ..." Or the Parataxis may be as a relative sentence, as in 14, 36; 20, 8; or with whenso- ever, when, at one time, at another time, whenever, if as a conditional particle. Take Demos, vs. Phil. 44: "For it is impossible — aye, impossible — foi one man to execute all

ENTHYMEMA 207

your wishes; to promise, and assert, and accuse this or that person is possible; but so your affairs are ruined. The general commands wretched unpaid hirelings; here are persons easily found, who tell lies of his conduct; you note at random from what vou • . . ; what then can be expected ? ' ' And take Demos] vs. Halonneus, 43: "And here they are right ;- he did so allege, and, on my indicting him for an unlawful measure, you acquitted him, and thus he has caused your title to the land to be contested. But if you could bring yourselves to refer this dispute with the Cardians, whether the lands be yours or theirs, why should not the other people of the Chersonese be dealt with on the same principle?" A.nd also Demos, vs. Leptines, 8: ** And further should you bear in mind, that by the present laws, which have long been in force, and the propriety of which even my adversaries will dispute, each man takes the public offices every other year, so that he is exempt for half of his time." These subordinate sentences may also, as Rehdantz-Blass says, take the second place. Bullinger gives the following; example from the Bible (Matt, xxvii. 19): *' Have thou nothing to do with that just man." Here the fire, feeling and urgency of Pilate's wife is all the more forcible in that she does not stop to formulate a tame, cold argument, but she omits the major premise, which was greatly emphasised by being left for Pilate to supply. The complete syllogism would have been : (i) It is very wicked to punish a just or innocent man. (2) Jesus is a just man. (3) Have therefore nothing to do with punishing him.

Argument by Enthymetna and Examples.

Use aftd examples : Aristotle says where an Enthymema is wanting put examples, similitudes and fables, also facts; first to serve as proof by induction. It is best to put examples at the end to come in as testimony, and one witness is evidence, if a credible one. If placed at the beginning, it requires to cite many. In *' Principles of Argument," by Edwin Bell, it is given as the best use in case of the audience being fairly favourable or if no opposing speaker; it is best not to put them into a critical frame of mind by laying down a proposition and setting out to convince hearers of its truth, but best to use homiletic speaking or the expository method. " State a subject, set forth facts, and leave it to those to draw the Conclusion for themselves." They come in as partners to the argument and are more apt to be convinced and not suspend judgment to hear the other side. To announce a proposition first is more weighty, and examples to follow, as hearer's mmd is enlisted thus in thinking of similar instances to confirm the conclusion. First give examples that are obvious and 7iear at hand, .or more recent; then those that are more remote, as the mind is arrested

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by those that are obvious, and curiosity i^ satisfied by reler- ence to those that are more remote, that is, not thought ot m that light before. Argue from cause to effect, from analogy, from exam-pie, because it prepares the mmd for conviction by showing antecedent probability of the fact to be proved. " Dead men cannot rise again, dead states cannot restore themselves." *' The conqueror decides the state of the conquered. They must come in as new states or remain as conquered provinces." The Indirect Argument First, tJien the Direct. Reverse this order or form and the effect is bad. Enthymemas are used to confirm and refute. To Confirm. (i) from contraries; the contrary quality must be inherent, ac; " Temperance is good because intemperance is bad." (2) Relative-. "If it be not base for you to sell them, it is not base for us to buy them." ** If the patient has suffered justly, so the agent has acted justly." There may be room for a fallacy— for if he did suffer justly, has the agent the right to inflict the suffering ? (3) From Comparison : (a) a fortiori, from the relations of the greater to the less: *' If the gods do not know, less should I "; (b) a minon : " If the less probability exists, the greater will also"; (c) by parity of reasoning: "If Theseus comrnitted no wrong, neither did Paris"; "Suppose Hector did slay Fatroclus, Paris slew Achilles." (4) From Time: "If to have a statue, will you not then grant it to me, now that I have achieved it?" Modern example: "Then you were men, nor time, nor place did adhere; and yet you would make both: they have made themselves, and that their fitness now does unmake you." — Shakespeare. (5) From retorting: Derived from what opponent says of himself, and is of great service. "Would you, Aristophanes, have betrayed the fleet?" "No." " Then," retorted Iphicrates, " if you who are Aristophanes would not have betrayed the fleet, hov/ shall I who am Iphicrates? " Generally it is absurd when one chides m another what he does, or would feel inclined to do, or exhorts him to do what he himself would not do or be induced to do. (6) From, definition : The inferences are drawn from the points ascertained or defined. " The spirit is either God or the creature of God, therefore he denies not a God that confesses there are spirits." — Socrates. (7) From the number of meaning;^ s of the term or distinction of an ambiguous word. (8) From. Division : "If all men do what they do from one of three causes whereof two arq|impossible, and the accuser charges not the third, it follows he has not done it." (g) From Deduction : " Those who ill protect the safety of others are not to be trusted with our own." (10) From, Authority or former decision; as Sappho insisted that to die was an evil, the gods having so decided ; had it not been so, they themselves would have died ; or death is an evil for the gods have judged it so in making themselves

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209

immortal, (ii) Front Differ eiit Motives, as men will call a thing just and honourable in public, but expedient m private. The orator should take the one which suits best his purpose, for this element is of sovereign use in exposing anomalies ot opinion. (12) From Anqlogy\ deducible trom analogy ot results, as " Iphicrates held, when to give up his son who was under the age, but tall, that if they esteem great children ^as men, then assuredly they will vote small men to be children." Gilbart says that the reasoning from analogy is from the resemblance of one thing to another. Any bad observation will vitiate the conclusion (see illustration), for analogy is not based on identity but upon a relation — e.g.^ " The practice of passing bad money off for good on some

one else because we have taken it for good, is much the same way as if one robbed on the highway should imagine it right to reim- burse himself out of the pocket ot the first traveller he meets." — Paley. It is the type of all reason- ing where two things resemble each other in one or more respects. Sedgwick says that argument by analogy is the most disputable ot all, because the parties ' ' feel m their bones " more than what they K^.' clearly express T'he thin end of w '^^ wedge in, the objector claim^ ,>^ that the two cases are widely apart, while che proposer of an innovation claims they are analogous, and that there is no difference between them. The objector says: " If we once begin to feed the school children, there is no telling where we will end; by and by we will have to clothe them, next house them, then they will grow up de- pending on the state, and loss ot independence will result, and relieving the responsibility, the probable analogy, what probably true of the other if the preponderating number of essential particulars resemble each other. " The planet Mars has an atmosphere, clouds, mists, seas and lands, etc., like the earth, therefore it is inhabited." — Hawkins. But if the two cases are alike in all material

B) kind permission of Messrs. Dollond Ssf Co., Ltd., Opticians, Ltd.

These legs are perfectly straight if observed from page rn level with the eyes. Inaccuracies also proceed from other senses, as in hearsay evidence, etc.

parents of their

Bell says that m

arguments from

is true of one is

210 ENTHYMEMA

points, it ceases to be an argument by analogy and becomes an imperfect induction. (13) From enumeration of farts \ as of the soul, it is either of this or that description. (Regarding Socrates) : "Toward what temple hath he been guilty of impiety ? Whom of the gods hath he not honoured? " (14) from Cofisequent or consequences : This consists (since in the generality of instances it happens that under somewhat the same circumstance is consequent whether good or evil) m the exhortation or dissuasion by means of these consequences, the accusation or defence, the blaming or praismg — e.g., " On education, envy is consequent, which is an evil, or it is good to be wise " —whichever suits your point. (15) Fro7n Dileinma or two consequences : " 'Tis not good to be an orator, because if he speaks the truth he will displease men, if he speaks falsely he will displease God." The retort may bie : *' If you speak the truth, you will please God, if an untruth, you will please men, therefore by all means be an orator." (16) From Similarity of consequents y as where one result is the same as another : " They are equally guilty of impiety who assert that the gods were produced, as those that assert that they die, for in both cases it happens at some time or other, the gods do not exist." — Xenophanes.

(17) From Inconsistency of Men; that men change their mmds; another deduced from the circumstance; that the same person does not choose the same thing subsequently as before, but contrarywise : " If when in exile we fight to get back, now that we are back, we take flight in order that we may not fight." The other leaves the country to avoid fighting.

(18) From, a Possible for tlie Real Reason, assumed; as ^* Diomedes chose Ulysses to go with him, not as the more valiant, but that as one who would partake less of his glory." (19) From. Considering Motives and Causes which stimulate or retard men; as "If the undertaking be easy and possible, or beneficial either to the person in question, to himself, to his friends, to his enemies or kinsmen, or entail- ing loss on them; or if the loss be less than the object pro- posed. The orator must exhort on the foregoing and dissuade on their opposites." There is also, as Gilbart says, the Final Cause — the object or purpose for which the thing came into being. This generally refers to ethics and theology, and in the administration of laws, being the interpretation, the inten- tion, the spirit or object of the act. Object of a measure : '■' If death would prevent the spread of crime and satisfy the demands of justice, then impose it, otherwise more regard is shown for the life of the murderer than for that of the innocent." Also Assign a Motive, then build upon what political economists do sometimes, when they assume mankind were originally savages — i.e., so created; if so, they probably Avould have remained savages, they would have formed no

ENTHYMEMA 211

idea of civilisation, etc., etc. The doctrine of final causes enters Jargely in our reasonings on the nature and character of the liuman raind, and circumstances surrounding us — e.g.y ''Man has a capacity for being happy; we infer he was designed to be happy; man has a faculty for acquiring knov/ledge; we infer he was designed to acquire knowledge; man has feelings and capacity to live in society; we infer he was designed to live in society." From the animal creation we infer the design and hnal cause of their creation — e.g., "The gift of scent to the hound, swiftness to the greyhound, and the sagacity of the pointer denote the use, hence man is justified in using them for hunting."

Enthymema is also used to incite the hearer to think out the logical conclusion for himself, which always is a source oi pleasure to the hearer, as it seems to be a compliment to his abilities, as well as a gratification to himself, m that he perceives easily the logic of the statement. To facilitate this, Rehdantz-Blass, under the heading "Parataxis," says: * The Greek arranges by paratactic formation (parataxis, according to Webster's Dictionary, is the mere ranging of one proposition after another without indicating their con- nection or interdependence), so that, on the one hand, the expression does not appear as a reflection, corresponding to the emotion; and on the other, the logical contrast appears more striking through the equalisation of the form, and thus incites the hearer to think out this logical relation for himself. Such parataxis have, properly speaking, their places in Enthy- memas full of emotion; usually in the form: 'men,' on the one hand; ' de,' on the other; after Onv/jid^co (I marvel, I wonder, etc.), as in Demosthenes' second Olynthiac, 24: */ 7narvel not at that, the contrary would have been marvellous, if we, doing none of the duties of war, had beaten one doing all. But this surprises me, that formerly, Athenians, you resisted the Lacedaemonians for the rights of Greece, and rejecting many opportunities of selfish gain to secure the rights of others, expended your property in contributions and bore the brunt of the battle; yet, now you are loth to serve, slow to contribute in defence of your own possessions, and though you have often saved the other nations of Greece collectively and individually, under your own losses you sit still ' ; after ' Deinon ' {monstrous, clever, etc.), as in Demos, vs. Nausimachus, 18: 'You hear the law, tnen of the jury, declaring positively that if they bring no action within five years, their right of action shall be barred. Well, we com- mence action; they may say, "Yes, and you settle it too." It would, indeed, he mo7istrous, when for the original injury the law does not allow actions to be brought after five years by orphans against their unreleased guardians, that you should now, in the twentieth year maintain action against us, the children of your guardians, upon matters upon which you

212 ENTHYMEMA

^ave them a release.' After ' azschron ' {shameftd, etc.), as m Demos, v. Aristocrates, 143 : * Thersagoras and Execestus came to Lesbos and resided there; had any of the friends or children of Philiscus laid hands upon either of them, he must have given them up, by virtue of their decree. Would not your conduct have been sha77teful and dreadful, O Athenians, if, while you set up in brass and reward with the highest honours those who have performed such a feat at Athens, you had pioscribed as outlaws men of other countries who showed the same devotion to their fatherland? ' After * atopon ' {absurd, etc.), as in Demos, vs. Leptines, 147 : Besides, li would be a most gross absurdity, if on that occasion the deeds of Chabrias had more influence with you than the words of Leodamas; yet, when you have these deeds and the deeds of your other benefactors added to them, they should altogether be weaker than the words of this man.' A.fter v7r6p(l)V€<; (monstrous), as in Demos, on the Embassy, 267 : * And the perpetrators of all this were not ashamed to look at the sun or at the earth on which they stood, or at the temples or sepulchres, or at the infamy that upon such doings was sure to follov/. So mad and senseless, O Athenians, are people rendered by taking bribes ! You, therefore, you the people, must be wise, and not permit such practices, but punish them by public sentence. It would, ind,eed, be monstrous if having passed so many resolutions against the betrayers of Olynthus, you should fail to punish criminals in your own country. Read me the decree concern- ing the Olynthians.' After ' Schetilion' {cruel, etc.), as in Demos, vs. Timocrates, 31 : * Is it not shameful that a man, who knew the statutes which you have just heard to be in force, who knew also of another statute declaring that no decree, even though it be legal, shall be of greater force than a law, should frame and propose to you a law in pursuance of a clearer, which itself he knew to have been illegally moved ? Is it not cruel, that when the state has secured us all against the suffering of wrongs or grievances at this period by the institution of a holiday, she should herself have obtained no such security against Timocrates, but have suffered on this very holiday the most grievous wrong? For how could a private individual more deeply have injured the state than by overthrowing the laws by which s'he is governed?* After ' tiypomeneite^ {will you endure), as in Demosthenes on the Embassy, 280: 'How say you,, then, O Athenians ? Under these circumstances, you being the descendants of those men, yourselves being some of them still living, will you endure that Epicrates, the benefactor of the people and the liberator from Piraeus, should be degraded and punished ? that again Thrasybulus . . . should have incurred a penalty . . . ? and that the descendants of Harmodius and Aristogiton and men who have conferred

ENTHYMEMA 213

benefits . . . and that neither mercy, nor pity, neither weeping children named after your benefactors, nor anything else should have helped them ? and shall the son of Atrometus, the pedagogue, ard Glaucothea (the assembler of Bacchanals for performances for which another priestess has died) shall he, when you have caught him, be let off, he the issue— of- such parents, he that in no single instance has been useful to the state, neither himself, nor his father, nor any other of his family ? ' "

The following, which were a favourite scheme with Edmund Burke, afford a good source of supply for Enthymemas : whence, why, to what end, with zvhat rneans, and what result.

Caution : Do not forget that the E?ithyme7natic /Antithesis is formed independently, and the conclusion is added inde- pendently, as in Demosthenes vs. Phil, ii, 15: ** All this he intends and will intend, I dare say, but to attack the Lace- daemonians on behalf of Messene and Argos he does not intend ; he actually sends mercenaries and money into the country, and expected to go himself with a great force. The LacedcEmomans , who are e?2emies of Thebes, he overthroivs; the Phocians, whom he hijnself before destroyed, will he now preserve! '^ Compare Demos, vs. Phormio, 26-27: "And to the creditors who lent on the voyage out, you could scarcely pay their principal, though they were at sea with you and continually pressing you; yet to this man, who has not pressed, you not only returned his principal and interest, but also paid all the penalties of the agreement, when you were under no necessity. (27) And you did not for these persons to whom their agreement gave the rieht of demand- ing payment in Bosporus ; yet pretend to have regarded the claim of this man who alleges that you defrauded him in the very outset by not shipping his money's worth of goods according to your agreement from Athens ! And now that you are come to the port where the loan was advanced, you do not scruple to cheat the lender; yet you pretend that you did more than justice in Bosporus where you were not likely to be punished! " Do not oinit the fact that the Parataxis, as Rehdantz-Blass says (** men . . . de,"" although . . . yet'), is delivered when the (established) first sentence is formed participially, for instance as in Demos, on the Peace, 25-26: '* And to Philip now {although) that we have ceded Amphipolis by treaty, and allowed the Caridians to be excepted from the other people of the Chersonese; and the Carian to seize the islands Chios, Cos, and Rhodes, and the Byzantines to detain our vessels, evidently because we think the tranquility of peace more beneficial than strife, and con- test about such questions : (yet) it were folly then and utter absurdity, after dealing thus with each part singly on matters

214 • ENTHYMEMA

of vital importance to ourselves, to battle now with them all for a shadow at Delphi."

In drawing the Enthymema from examples, fables, facts, etc., " do not string Enthymemas together, for they prove an mjury to one another, and hinder and' confuse the hearer; blend them by the way, nor should the speaker seek after Enthymemas for every thmg, lest he proves the known from what is less known"; nor indulge m logical niceties as if he were addressing a disputation society instead of the people or masses; nor bring up too many proofs, nor prove too much; just sufficient else the wedge may be knocked out.

'* A good orator should have m readiness the choicest 'particulars of whatever he foresees he may speak of, not making assumptions out of every subject, but from those circumstances that are inherent in each question; for this reason uneducated men have more persuasive influence over a mob than those of high acquirements, because they speak in a manner that comes home to them." — Aristotle.

Delivery : As the home of the Enthymema is in argument, therefore everything bearing on the question of argument is germane here, for the Enthymema is a rhetorical syllogism, rather a pronouncement of a judgment with a proof sup- porting it. The Protasis with the hypothetical " i/," " sup- posing," or wnth participial clauses, takes the rising inflec- tion, each one being pronounced as Accumulation, or if arranged according to the importance, with the least im- portant first and the most important last, it should be as an Incrementum. as in counting, one, two, three, four — the last being the highest and strongest. In the equalisation of form, the delivery is rhythmical; it becomes argument con- cealed under symmetry and beauty of form, for such Para- taxis, as Rehdantz-Blass says, have their place in Enthy- memas full of emotion. The emotion in which the Period is cast should stand out well, thus concealing the argument within it. They are usually in the form of Enthymematic Antitheses following after such expressions as ** it is monstrous," "it is cruel," "it is shocking," "it is shame- ful," " will you endure," etc. (see examples above). These powerful emotions give persuasion, for thus a man expresses himself in ordinary life when speaking under the influence of certain emotions and passions, therefore the speaker addressing an audience in like manner appears to mean what he says. Longinus on the Sublime, speaking of " Oratorical Imagery," declares that the best feature is always its reality and truth. " What, then," he says, " can oratorical imagery effect ? Well, it is able in many ways to infuse vehemence and passion into the speaker's words, while more particularly, when it is combined with argumentative passages, it not only persuades the hearer, but actually makes him its slave. Here is an example. Hyperides, on

ENTHYMEMA 215

being accused, after he had proposed the liberation of the slaves subsequently to the great defeat, said : * This pro- posal was framed, not by the orator, but by the battle of Chasroneia.' The speaker has here at one and the same time followed a train of reasoning and indulged in a -flight of imagination. He has, therefore, passed the bounds of mere persuasion by the boldness of his conception. By a sort of natural law' in all such matters, we always attend to what possesses superior force whenever it is that we are drawn away from demonstration pure and simple to any startling image within whose dazzling brilliancy the argu- ment lies concealed. And it is not unreasonable that we should be affected in this way, for when two thmgs are brought together, the more powerful always attracts to itself the virtue of the weaker."

And in regard to figures, Longinus gives the example of Demosthenes' powerful demonstration of the fact that the Athenians did ** no wrong '* under the cover of the figures Oreo and Apostrophe, ** when however, as though suddenly inspired by heaven, and as it were frenzied by the god of prophecy, he utters his famous oath by the champions of Greece (* Assuredly ye did no wrong ; I swear it by those who at Marathon stood in the forefront of danger ') in the public view, by this one figure of Adjuration, which I here term Apostrophe, he deifies his ancestors. It is said indeed that the germ of the oath is found in Eupolis : For, by the fight I won at Marathon, No one shall vex my soul and rue it not. Now in the passage of Eupolis there is nothing but the mere oath, addressed to the Athenians when still prosperous and in no need of comfort. Furthermore, the poet in his oath has not made divinities of men in order to create a worthy conception of their valour, but has wandered away from those who stood in the forefront of the danger to an inanimate thing — the fight. In Demosthenes, the oath is framed for vanquished men with the intention that Chseroneia should no longer appear a failure to the Athenians. He gives them at one and the same time, as I remarked, a de^nonstration that they have done ' no v^^rong,' an example, the sure evi- dence of oaths, a eulogy, an exhortation." (See Rhys Roberts' Translation.)

A delivery of the Entliymema, when couched in appro- priate figures and concealed within the proper emotion or passion, has the stamp of truth, earnestness and reality.

Delivery -. All the Enthymematic words, that is words which show that an inference is being drawn, such as therefo^e^ for, inasmuch as, because, since, then, hence, con- sequently, etc., should have a pause before them, which indicates the change in the mental view, a pitch and a pause after them, as they denote, according to Delsarte, an ellipsis;

216 ENTHYMEMA

it is also to permit adjustment of the vocal chords to pro- nounce the clause following. Delsarte gives a pause of 9 degrees to follow "if" (hypothetical or conditional), ** then " (conclusive), "for," etc. This is one of the highest degrees of pauses — e.g., " This might be one of your kmd, fo7 — you would not thmk of sparmg me." Suppress the silence after " for," he says, and there would be no effect. Bell says " for " as a conjunction has the full eighth vowel sound, and is longer than the " for " which is a preposition. "The Essentials of Public Speaking" says the "third" may be used, that is the voice going over three notes; that it gives distinction and character to the accented and emphatic syllable, and is used for conversation, wit, argu- mentation, description, and oratorical thought. Rush says the second is used though the illative conjunction may .take a wider interval — that is, the voice rises up to, say, three notes on the accented syllable and comes back immediately to the level of discourse.

In argument and pleading, the speaker, says Ouintillian, must use a thousand and one figures, and make his language appear to grow and spring naturally — e.g., " W/Tiat is the object of our weapons 7 (major) which certainly we were not to have (minor) if we were to make no use of them." Elo- quence must support refutation and proofs. Simple state- ments are not good enough, but must be urged by extra- ordinary, vigour by those who use them, particularly arising from the cause in which we blame or praise any action showing it just or unjust, or make it appear greater or less, worse or better than it really is. The index finger pointing down toward the ground and moved up and down two or three times is for insisting strongly. The Socratic method, as if conversing with your opponent, is very good in the proof by examples, but the orator propounds and answers his own questions — e.g., "What is the most noble of fruit? the best I should suppose. What horse ? that assuredly the swiftest. Then he is the best of men who excels most, not in nobleness of birth, but in merit." As to digressions to make illustrations, embellishment, fire the passions, see fig. Digression. Aristotle says: "Passions may be aroused only in maxims, for proof possesses neither an air of char- acter nor deliberate choice — e.g., maxim: 'Injured though I be, yet I do not repent, for the gain is on his side, but justice is on mine.' Here he speaks to excite passion. In exciting passion, leave off Enthymema, for either it will expel the passion or the Enthymema be uttered to no pur- pose; one or the other will be feeble, if they happen at the same time. They mutually destroy each other. If you have no proofs or Enthymemas, convey an impress of your char- acter, for a good man is as acceptable as accuracy of speech. If you have proof, prove strongly."

ENTHYMEMA 217

. The tone oj voice in Delivery: Garry says that the middle tone should be used for calm reasoning, and a moderate time (see Fig. Argumentum). What is affirmed takes the falling inflection, and what is denied the rising.

Waryn reasoning: "By my white beard, you offer him, if this be so, a wrong, something; unfilial, reason my son.'^

Gestures used in delivering Enthymemas. Ihe hand is^ supreme in this. Delsarte divides the arm into three parts, the upper arm (part attached to the shoulder, which is vital), the fore-arm, which is moral, and the hand, which is mental; and in the hand the index finger is supreme. With the index finger we define, the hand moving up and down, with its side to the earth. The movement of a single finger indicates great finesse. Mathews, in speaking of its etfect, makes the following reference to Daniel Webster: "In speaking of the Buffalo platform in 1848, he said: * It is so rickety that it will hardly bear the fox-like tread of Mr. Van Buren.' As he said * fox-like tread,' he held out the palm of his left hand, and with the other played his fingers along his extended arm down to the hand, with a soft running motion, as if to represent the kitten-like advance of the foxy advocate upon his rickety platform. A shout of laughter testified to the aptness of this sign teaching." When the hand is raised and turned towards the shoulder, it affirms by a small inclination. When the index is turned to the earth and pointing downward, it is urgent. For simple affirmation',

~ " use the hand prone at about 45 deg. ; as per illustration with the fingers at the extremities bent upwards it is a more forcible affirmation, as : "I disclose ; I affirm ; vou cannot doubt me ; I open my heart; behold me." The supine is appropriate in affirmation, concession, appeal. The supine affirms, the prone denies. " The prone is an emphatic declaration " (cf. Bell). To affirm strongly, *' the hand makes movement of affirmation up and down " ; and to deny, " the hand, palm down, makes movement of negation from side to side (see illustration under Ficr. Ominatio); and to affirm in spite of every observation, in spite of all objection, say whatever you will, I affirm whether or no" — extend hand palm outward. The degree of certainty in the affirmation varies, according to Delsarte, with the angle the forearm forms with the arm. As the hand ascends: "This is proven"; "I have proof in my hands." The hand and fore-arm at right angles with the arm (upper part) simply affirms; if raised higher, it is cer- tain; and higher still, it is evident, the hand being supine; and with the hand prone— 2.^., palm toward the earth, and moving down— signifies "Perhaps it is so"; lower, "I

218

ENTHYMEMA

doubt if it is so " ; lower still, "It is not probable"; lower further, "It is not possible, it is impossible." The following diagram from Delsarte will aptly illustrate the movement up and down of the forearm and hand. The highest to which

the hand can go is " abso- lute truth." Here the equality plane is, they say, the plane of direct address. It ranges vertically through an arc of about 30 degrees, with the shoulder as the centre. It is the normal zone in which men deal with their fellow-men. Gestures of calm reasoning, ordinary public address, direct ap- peal, description, didactic thought, are in the plane of equality — e.g., " Uo we mean to submit to the measures of Parliament, Boston Port Bill, and all? " Positive assertions : the hand always rises: (i) hand level with shoulder-line at right angles to the upper arm, is simple assertion/ evidence, certainty and absolute truth are the three positives which rise from the shoulder line; the five negatives fall from the shoulder line, namely, probability, possibility, im- probability, negation (it is not so) and impossibility. The gesture coincides with the stress of the voice which falls on the accented syllable of the main or emphatic word. The reasoning gestures are from the elbow, the oratorical are with the arm bent at the shoulder. The elbow is not to be pinned to the sides (this represents one in fear). These gestures, Austin says, are like the flights of domestic birds, short, are frequent, resting after short and rapid flights ; and the oratorical gestures are like the great seafowl, whose flights are magnificent, and which glide so gracefully. Whence, but, and, etc., standing at the head of a sentence or beginning of an important clause, should always have a pause after them — e.g., " For — death is the close of life to all men, even though one should keep himself shut up in a cage, but — it behooves good men always to aspire to what is noble, proposing to themselves favourable hopes, and to endure with fortitude whatever Providence may allot them." — Demosthenes on the Crown. " Then — when I saw our state voluntarily engaged in so many and such dangerous contentions for the interests of others ..." "Wherefore —

ENUMERATIO— EPANALEPSIS 219

I do not appear to be either the mover nor the author of the first peace . . /' "Why? — because you had discontinued all preparations for war . . . ." — Demosthenes. (See further references under Figs. Argumentum and Pisteis.)

ENUMERATIO: Latin e, out, fully; and numerare; \er- number; io^ ing, act of; the act of reckoning up; is a figure used by the orator to divide a subject mto its accidents, the matter into antecedents, the effects into causes, and thmgs annexed, and following after. It is also that part of the peroration which recapitulates the heads of an argument. Enumeratio is also numbering and rehearsing the effects and consequents, showing those which go with it and follow after it, as: "Anthony was the cause of the civil war, of those slain armies of the Roman people, of the death of many noble citizens, of overthrowing the authority of the Senate, and, finally, of all evils whatsoever.'* — Cicero.

, The use of this figure serves greatly both for garnishing the oration with variety and also to enrich it with plenty (amplitude).

Delivery : The clauses or members are pronounced with a falling inflection, excepting direct questions, but not with the voice falling into a repose as at the close of a period (see Fig. Accumulation). At the end of each clause or member there should be a slight pause.

EPAGOGE : Greek eTrt , on, upon; a7a>, to lead, to bring; to lead on or upon. It is a number of particulars or examples brought forward to lead to a general conclusion or induction; also wherein like things are compared. "You have a cold, you did not take your umbrella, got wet boots; your family says it's your own fault because you do not take care of yourself ; this is cause and effect: but you observe a number of friends with a cold and you induce it is an unhealthy season." "Under the operation of the American system, the objects which it protects and fosters are brought to the consumer at a cheaper price than they commanded paor to its introduction, or than they would command if it did not exist. (Examples.) The average price of -flannels in 1826 was 38I, 1827 tariff at 46 it was 38, 1829 was 36, 18^0 32 cents. Brown sugar: 1792 to 1802, duty \\ cents a lb., average 14 cents; 18 20- 1830, duty 3, average only 8 cents a pound." Argument used by Henry Clay.— E. Bell.

EPANALEPSIS : Greek eV/, on, up ; am, again ; l^afx,l3av(Oy to take: to take up again. It is a figure by which the orator uses the same word or clause at the begin- ning and at the end of the same sentence. Symploce makes use of the same but in several sentences. It is a figure when,

220 EPANALEPSIS— EPANAPHORA

for eleganc)''s sake, a sentence is begun and ended with the same word or sound — e.g.^ ** Severe to servants, to his children severe." ** In sorrow I was born, and must die in sorrow."

•' Epanalepsis words will recommend

The same at the beginning and the end." — Langley. Exam-pies :

" Who does the tender heart subdue. Tell me, my Sappho, tell me who? "

— Ambrose Phillips. " There honour comes a pilgrim gray To bless the turf that wraps their clay. And freedom shall awhile repair To dwell a weeping hermit there y — Collins. IJ se : It serves to place a word of importance m the beginning of a sentence to be considered^ and in the end to be reme7nbered\ also it has sweetness in the sound of the repetition. It is also a resumption after a parenthesis or digression.

Caution : Do not use too many words between the beginning and the end, as it drowns the repetition of the first word and thus loses its grace; and not repeat too soon lest it returns barren and empty, and thus also have no grace.

EPANAPHORA : Greek epi, on, upon ; ana^ again ; pherOy bring, bear, lead; is a form of speech which begins divers members with one and the same word.

(i) In long periods — e.g., " A witness is Italy . . . , a witness is . . . ," etc. —Cicero. (See full sentence under hg. Anaphora).

(2) By most periods : * ' The Lord sittest above the water floods; the Lord remaineth King forever; the Lord shall give strength to his people; the Lord shall give his people the blessing of peace."

(3) By commas: "Whom they loved, whom they served, whom they ran after, whom they fought and worshipped."

(4) By interrogation: "Where is the wise, where is the scrilDe, where is the disputer of this world? "

(5) By double anaphora in antithesis: "The covetous man is ever poor, the contented man is always rich; the covetous man is an enemy to himself, the contented man is a friend to others; the covetous man is full of care, the contented man is full of comfort."

(6) By certain increase in the clauses: " I desire you for the love I have borne to you, for the love you have borne to me, and for the love which our good God doth bear to all, that you will remember these my last words, uttered with my last breath." Epanaphora is also the same word or group of words repeated at the beginning of two or more

EPANODOS— EPANORTHOSIS 221.

clauses, sentences or verses in immediate succession or m the same passage (see examples).

" On words repeated Epanaphora plays

Or the same sense in other words conveys." — Langley,

Examples :

** Fallefz, fallen y fallen, fallen ,

Fallen from his high estate, - —

And weltering in his blood." — Dryden.

: A little school-girl saici this repetition was to get m all the syllables.)

In the 29th Psalm this figure is used three times in the first two verses: "Give unto the Lord"; ** The voice of the Lord " occurs seven times in verses 3-9. It is also an Epanaphora when synonyms or words of similar meaning are substituted for those words or word to be repeated — e.g., synonymous words: " You mourn, O Romans, that three of your armies have been slaughtered by Anthony; you lament the loss of your most illustrious citizens — they were torn from you by Anthony; the authority of this order is deeply wounded — it was wounded by Anthony. In short, all the calamities we have ever since beheld (and what have we not beheld ?), if we reason rightly, have been entirely owing to Anthony. As Helen was of Troy, so the blame, the misery, the destruction of the state is Anthony." — Cicero.

V se : This figure is used to repeat a word of importance and of an effectual signification. It serves also pleasantly to delight the ear, both with respect to the repetition and also the variety of the new clause.

Caution : It must not be too often said ; the repeated word should not be the weakest.

EPANODOS: Greek eV/, opposite, upon against; am, again; 6S69, way ; is a figure by which a repetition of persons or things is made in an inverse order — e.g., " O more exceeding love or law more just, just law indeed but irore exceeding love." A repetition or recapitulation of item by item often w^ith conditional discussion, especially in an inverse order. Ouintillian says: "A kind of repetition w^hich recurs to things or persons mentioned before and dis- tinguishes them, as Iphictus and Pelias came," etc. (see Emphatic Repetition).

V se^ : The use of this figure is to enrich the oration by partition of the whole, and also to garnish the same by variety of several difterences.

EPANpRTHOSIS : Greek epi, upon, opposite or against, in addition, one or another, over and above; ana, again, to the sense of strengthening; orthoo, to set right; is a fio-ure when in our speech something that went before is

222 EPEROTESIS— EPIDIORTHOSIS

called back and corrected, (i) When tPie word is corrected before it is spoken; is the same as Prodiorthosis ; (2) when the word is corrected after it has been spoken (correction meaning having used a word of sufficient force, yet pretend- ing greater strength of meaning, rejects it and supplies the place with one of more extension; see Epidiorthosis). There are four ways: (i) by comparison, (2) by comparison of greater and less, (3) ,by doubting, (4) by signs of repenting — ^•<^-j "Joseph was amongst his brethren: did 1 say brethren? — nay, tiger-like monsters/' "For this shameful and accursed fast, what shall I call thee, a wretch? JNay, a beast; nay, a poisonous serpent.*'

** Epanorthosis oft a phrase corrects.

And feeble words, for stronger terms rejects."

— Langley. ^•^•y " What is it, then, can give men the heart and courage — but I recall that word, because it is not true courage, but fool-hardiness to out-brave the judgment of God." — Tillot- son.

Epanorthosis is also a repetition of a term to call attention to it, as " Most brave! brave did I say — most heroic act."

EPEROTESIS: Greek eVt, upon, on, , one on another; epo^ai, to ask, to advise of, consult; is a question on top of a question. It is a figure whereby the rhetorical question is asked for effect rather than with an expectation of an answer; the question or questions are used without expecting an answer from another person in order to express astonish- ment, or to suggest to the minds of the hearers an answer favourable to the speaker's cause, especially the use of an unbroken series of rhetorical questions — e.g., '' Is not France, the most polished, in many respects the most distinguished state of Christendom, Catholic? Is not Flanders, the most populous part of Europe, also Catholic ? Are the Catholic parts of Switzerland and of Germany less prosperous than those which are Protestant?" — Henry Clay.

EPIDIORTHOSIS : Greek eVi', after, upon, or after an ■event ; opdoco, to make straight, to set right, to correct •or set in order afterwards. Alexander III. 15 defines Epidi- orthosis as a subsequent explanation of an assertion to prevent offence to judges.

Examples: Blass' "Demosthenes" gives as a genuine Demosthenic Epidiorthosis an improving or strengthening Oi the expression just used : Olynthias II. 2 : "It must then be our care, Athenians, that we are not more unkind to ourselves than circumstances have been ; as it would be a foul, a most foul reproach to have abandoned not only cities and places that once belonged to us, but also the allies, and

EPIDIORTHOSIS 223

advantages provided by fortune." An example stronger still, Cor. 130: "Accordingly I shall pass over these circum- stances; I shall commence with the actions of his own life. For he was not a person of ordinary rank, but of those whom the people execrated. For lately — lately, do I say ? — yesterday, and very recently, he became at once both an Athenian and an orator : and by adding two syllables he transformed his father from Tromes to Atrometus . . . ."

Example from ,^2schines vs. Ctesiphon, 106: " I come now to the third period, or rather to that bitterest period of all, in which Demosthenes brought ruin upon our state, ' and upon all Hellas, by his impiety toward the shrine at Delphi and by making an alliance with the Thebans, an unjust alliance and utterly unequal."

V se : Epidiorthosis is used to correct what we have pre- viously said, or explain something gone before so as not to give offence, or to place matter of less weight at the beginning of the figure so as to build up stronger matter thereon, thus calling forth a similar increase of feeling in the hearer. For instance, the ** Embassy Speech " of Demos- thenes, 234: *' Now let me speak of the entertainment and the decree : I had nearly forgotten what was most material to say to you . . . when nothing either spoken or done \\rongl)^ by these persons, I, according to customary usage, commended and invited them to the City Hall. And what is more, I entertained Philip's ambassadbrs, and very splen- didly too . . . the defendant will bring the matter forward and say, * Demosthenes himself commended us, himself feasted the ambassadors,' not distinguishing the when. It was before the country had sustained an injury, before it had been discovered that these men had sold themselves; when the ambassadors had just arrived for the first time, and the people had to hear what they proposed, and it was not yet known that the defendant would support Philocrates, or that he would make such a motion. If he should bring this forward, remember the dates; they were earlier than the offences : since that time there has not been the slightest connection or communion between these men and me."

Take another instance from Demosthenes, Cor. 180: " Now, .^schines, in what character am I to consider you on that day, and in what character myself? Do you wish that I should consider myself a Battulus, as you call me in your abusive and malicious language? and you a hero of no ordinary rank, but one of those heroes from the stage, a Cresphontes, Creon, or an CEnomaus, whom you murdered formerly in Colottus by your miserable acting? At that period, then, I, the P^anian Battulus, appeared of more value to my country than yon to the Cothocian CEnomaus. You were useful on no occasion; I, on the contrary, did everything that became a useful citizen."

224 EPIDIORTHOSIS

The Epidiorthosis is used, according to Hermogenes, in the Aletkeia (the stamp of truth and fervour, that is to say, the mward participation of the speaker m what he says), and that here ail the figures of tne Sphodrotes (vehemence oi expression), furtlier i\.posiopesis, Epicnsis, Epidiorthosis, are employed.

Caution : The Epidiorthosis might appear too abrupt it a stronger expression, as Blass says, be added froi'n the beginning, and is likely to displease the hearer, as he cannot accompany the speaker as he would do if there is an increase gradually of the thought and feeling. Be sure to observe the climax of thought and feeling to be explained or unravelled. Also take note that it is a climax of thought, not of words or sentences which arise one out of the other by stens. (Note Olyn. III. 15, a good Epidiorthosis.) Be careful not to announce your feeling beforehand, for Hermo- genes warns against this, also Aristotle, who says that one 13 not permitted to do this although he can with eff^^ect announce the fact that he is going to reason or establish the matter by proofs, etc. Blass' "Demosthenes " states that this very warning or announcement awakens opposition instead of impressing us, and, as Quintillian affirms, puts one on his guard. Blass gives some instances where ^schmes violated this, namely in " Timarchus " 70: ''Shall I yield to the temptation to use language somewhat more explicit than my own self-respect allows'? Tell me, fellow -citizens, when a man has defiled himself with Hegasandrus, does that man seem to you to have prostituted himself to a prosti- tute ? In what excesses of bestiality are we not to imagine them to have indulged when they were drunken and alone . . ." Another from yEschines on the " Embassy," ^y : " Is it not therefore, an outrage, gentlemen, if one dares utter such lies about a man who is his own — no, I hasten to correct myself, not his own, but your — fellow-citizens, when he is in peril of his life? " Here Blass states that the passion is distinctly broken by the addition of " if one dares to utter such lies . . . "; and generally Epidiorthosis, full of life as it is, is out of place here (see ./Eschines vs. Ctesi- phon, 106, under examples above), and shows more malice than inner anger.

In cautioning not to use a too strong expression from the beginning of the figure, as it might appear too abrupt, Blass cites Demosthenes* Olynthiac III. 15, thus: ''Little or nothing . . . "; but in this way it is harmonised, and immediately the expression of life and direct feeling is brought into the speech which also calls forth a similar increase of sensibility in the auditors: "Another thing, too, you should observe, Athenians, that a decree is worth nothing without a readiness on your part to do what you

EPIDIORTHOSIS 225

determine. If decrees could of themselves compel you to perform your duty, or execute what they prescribe, neither would you with many decrees have accomplished little or nothing, nor would Philip have insulted you so long. Had it depended upon decrees, he would have been chastised long ago." _

Delivery: In a simple correction, like "I declare that they were thieves — no, robbers," it should be pronounced suddenly and quickly, with an increased force of voice. As a subsequeiti explanation or unfolding of an assertion, it should be, according to Hermogenes, in the Aletheia, that is, have the stamp of truth about it, be fervent and vehement, quick and forcible; the voice growing stronger and stronger as it pronounces each stronger and more important clause.

Before taking up the next Figure — Epilogue — which caUs forth the greatest resources of oratory, we shall precede same by a brief description of the eloquence of the Rev. Geoige: Whitefield, who, in concluding one of his famous epilogues with " Awake, oh, north wind! and come thou south; blow upon this garden that the spices thereof may flow out . . . ,' caused many people to follow him into adjacent towns.

226

THE REV.

GEORGE WHITEFIELD, M.A.

DESCRIPTION OF HIS ORATORY, DELIVERY, AND SOME NOTES TAKEN FROM EMINENT CONTEMPORARY AND SUBSEQUENT CRITICS.

From the authorities quoted below, the reader will be able to appreciate the extraordinary ability of the Rev. George Whitefield, whose great eloquence shook both hemi- spheres for over a quarter of a century.

" One hundred and fifty years ago dramatic education was an important part of the education of the public schools of England. He was early taught in histrionics. His sonorous voice, action, facial expressions, intonations gave astonishing effect to his discourses. A fine highly ornamental style, he eschewed. He had an unequalled voice and of wonderful versatility. One moment he would thunder on Mount Sinai, and the next whisper mercy on Mount Calvary. He was a man of middle stature, of slender body and of comely appearance, sprightly temper, and acts and moves with great agility and life. He spoke entirely without notes, had a ready memory, wit quick and piercing, imagination lively and florid, a clear and musical voice of which he had wonderful command. He used much gesture, but with great piopriety. Franklin said: * His * delivery of a sermon was so improved by frequent repetition that every accent, every emphasis, every modulation of the voice was so perfectly well turned and well placed that without being interested in the subject one could not help being pleased with the dis- course.' Rev. William Cooper (Boston) said: * He is a holy, fervent youth, but I think has too much action with his fervour ! ' Johnathan Edwards' wife wrote : * You have already heard of his deep-toned, yet clear and melodious voice.' Whitefield usually singled out one person of a vast audience and directed his tremendous power and appeals to him, which accounts, in great part, for his great influence over the congregation. He was full of ejaculations and inter- rogations, made use of anecdotes or illustrations in the most serious passages, even relieved them by jest. Often, the audience strung to a high pitch, he would suddenly make 5L long solemn dramatic pause. He had great variety of gesture and intonation." — Rev. L. Tyerman.

" Whitefield was not a flighty orator, but spoke the words of soberness and truth with divine pathos and floods of tears, declarative of his sincerity." — Rev. Fletcher, Vicar of Madeley.

" Professed orators might object to his hands being lifted up too high, and it is to be lamented that in that attitude,

I

THE REV. GEORGE WHITEFIEI.D, M.A.

Priacipal Fjrins of Oratorical Expression used by the Rev. Geo. Whitefield. His master-figures are those in italics :

Anadiplosis, Anaphora, Antistrophe, Apostrophe, Arsis and Thesis, Asyndeton, Aitiology, Dialogismus, Ecphonesis, Eperotesis, Epidiorthosis, Epilogue, Exordium, Hypophora, Hypothesis, Hypotyposis, Metahasis, Ominatio. Parenthesis, Parison, Parrhesia, Pathopoeia, Pause, Peroratio, Polysyndeton.

REV. GEORGE WHITEFIELD, M.A. 227

rather than in others, he is represented in print. The atti- tude was very transient, and always accompanied by expres- sions which would justify it. Sometimes he wept exceed- ingly, stamped loudly and passionately, and was frequently so overcome that nature required some little time to com- pose itself. His style was now (in his advanced years) collo- quial, with little use of motion, patient exposition with suit- able remarks all comprehended within an hour. Some con-" sidered the familiar and objectionable style used by White- field at the close of his public ministry as notably inferior compared with that of the commencement of his career. These late day ones were free and easy talks intermixed with anecdotes, personal reminiscences and quaint quotations." — Cornelius Winters.

*' These extracts are not particularly eloquent nor instruc- tive, but they show the declamatory and colloquial style used by Whitefield in the latter par! of his ministry. His sermons were earnest talks, full of anecdotes and ejaculatory prayers." — Joseph Gurney's Shorthand Report of White- field's Sermons. (Whitefield was then about 48.)

Winters says that Gurney's reported sermons were those of the Wednesday evening (except last two), when he was worn out and fatigued.

Though Whitefield's sermons were repeated again and again in his travels, even for the hundredth time, yet no speaker was ever quicker to seize upon any passing incident and turn it to account. In the art of rhetoric, apostrophe and personification, which quickened the coldest abstractions into life, he held the first place." — Mathews' "Oratory and Orators."

" W^hitefield was not only the orator of nature but also of art. He studied oratory, he drilled himself; he copied the finest models. He sought out acceptable tones, gestures, and looks, as well as acceptable words. Every accent of his \-oice spoke to the ear, every feature of his face, every motion of his hands, every gesture spoke to the eye, so that the most dissipated and thoughtless found their attention in- voluntarily fixed. The grand source of his eloquence were an exceedingly lively imagination and an action still more lively."— Dr. Gillies.

" Whitefield's voice was loud and clear, and he articulated ztords so perfectly that he might be heard and understood at a great distance, especially as his auditors observed the most perfect silence.**— Benjamin Franklin.

Garrick said he would give a hundred guineas if he could only say " O " Hke Whitefield, who could 'make his audience weep or tremble by varying his pronunciation of the word Mesopotamia.

"James of Birmingham has occasionally reminded me of Whitefield, of his alternate bursts of tenderness and

228 REV. GEORGE WHITEFIELD, xM.A.

terror, in all but their rapidity. Whitefield made no secret of his attention to delivery. He was not ashamed to quote Sheridan's lectures in remonstrating with Durell. He lett nothing to accident that he could regulate by care m his delivery. Practiced speakers could tell whenever he delivered a sermon for the hrst time. Dr. Southey said the salient points of his oratory were not prepared passages — they were bursts of passion.'' — Robert Philip, ** Life and Times ot Whitefield.''

*' The very tame exordimn used by Whiteheld, which was so excellent, did not presage the power that was to come. As he went on he warmed up. An old man who heard him said he did not know whether it was his voice or his coun- tenance that spellbound him. His face was like a canvas on which the preacher printed every passion that stirs the human breast. It was at one moment terrific as if the furies were enthroned on that dark brow, and the next, by a dis- solving view, sweet as from heaven it would come forth. In gesture no man ever equalled him^ they were unstudied. A single movement of his finger with the accompanying expression of his face would thrill an audience or dissolve them into tears. The radiance of his face we felt often before a word was spoken. As his face alternated with tears or smiles according as the subject was pensive or joyful, how the audience responded in sympathy, wept or rejoiced. His voice was smooth and variable and clear. When it sv/elled in thunder peals it tingled every ear and made every heart tremble. He rebuked those at Oxford for their neglect of its study (oratory), provided for it in his orphan asylum, and recommended it to the American colleges." — J. B. Wakeley's "Anecdotes.**

" Whitefield had an of en beaming countenance and a voice of rich compass, and was a consummate actor. Just as crowds went to Plamlet and Macbeth to see the powerful passions displayed, they did to Whitefield to hear his hundredth repeated dramatic passages.** — Breton's " Com- plete Orator.**- ___„_^_____

Whitefield was undoubtedly the greatest Demosthenean pulpit orator. He was a highly learned divine with the degree M.A., having graduated from Pembroke College, Oxford. In all the bold Figures of Eloquence he stood supreme, and has never been surpassed by any other preacher- Among the greatest features of his oratory were the figures Panse and Ecphonesis. Pie was an ardent student of oratory and strongly recommended its study, likewise Sheridan's *' Lectures on Elocution,'* but with all his reading he never allowed himself to become affected with what Sheridan called '■ book delivery,'* which so much mars the speaking of many learned men. He kept himself constantly imbued with

REW GEORGE WHITEFIEED, M.A. 229

the natural forms of that heart language which made him so popular with the masses. The Rev. C. H. Sp'urgeon took Whitefield as his model.

In early life Whitefield was of slender appearance, but in his later days he became somewhat corpulent. His countenance was generally beaming and pleasant, though at times, when he was greatly excited and hred up, his ey_e_ would dart with lightning rapidity among his congreg-ation, and at moments he would appear almost stern m his con- demnation, but the next melting in tears. He was very careful as to his* diet, eating only such food as was suitable to his digestion in order that his voice might be kept clear and himself in fit condition, for he was famed for the clear- ness and resonance of his voice. He retired to rest promptly at 10 o'clock, that his body might become thoroughly rested, as he knew full well the disastrous effect of the reflex action of tired muscles, especially on the voice. He, however, arose early and commenced his day's work, for on one occasion he told his congregation he prepared that sermon at four o'clock that morning,- while most of them were asleep. It is unnecessary here to describe his vast audiences and his extra- ordinary eloquence, as they are well known to all conversant with historical characters of sacred history; so 1 shall sub- jcin a few extracts of one of his famous sermons, with the Figures noted therein, preached by him in Philadelphia, U.S.A., on Sunday, August 24.th, 1746, when he was about thirty-two years of age and in the height of his early ministry: "Britain's Mercies, and Britain's Duty."

" *Men, brethren and fathers, and all ye to whom 1 am about to preach the kingdom of God, I suppose you need not be informed that, being indispensably obliged to be absent on your late thanksgiving day, I could not show my obedience to the governor's proclamation, as my own inclination led me, or as might justly be expected from, and demanded of me. But as the occasion of that day's thanksgiving is yet, and I trust ever will be, fresh in your memory, I cannot think that a discourse on that subject can even now be altogether unseasonable. . . .

** Happy art thou, O England ! ^ Happy art thou, O America ! who on every side art thus highly favoured ! ^ But,^ alas ! how soon would this happy scene have shifted, and a melancholy gloomy prospect have succeeded in its room, had the rebels gained their point, and a popish abjured Pretender been forced upon the British throne ! * For, supposing his birth not to be spurious, ^ (as we have great reason to think it really was), ^ w/ia/ could we expect from one descended from a father who, when Duke of York, put all Scotland into confusion; and afterwards, when

* Exordium i) Ecphonesis (2) Hypophora (3) Ecphonesis (4 Aitiology (5) Parenthesis ■o) Erotesis.

230 REV. GEORGE WHITEFIELD, M.A.

crowned King of England, for his arbitrary and tyrannical government, both m church and state, was justly obliged to abdicate the throne, by the assertors of British liberty? . . . ' But, alas ! what an inundation of spiritual mischief would have overflowed the church, and what unspeakable danger should we and our posterity have been reduced to, in respect to our better parts, our precious and immortal souls i ** How soon would swarms of monks, dominicans, and friars, like so many locusts, have overspread and plaguea the nation ; ^ with what winged speed would foreign titular bishops have posted over, in order to take possession of their respective sees ? ^ How quickly would our universities have been filled with youths who have been sent abroad by their popish parents, in order to drink in all the super- stitions of the church of Rome ? What a speedy period would have been put to societies of all kinds, for promoting Chris- tian knowledge, and propagating the Gospel m foreign parts r How soon would our pulpits everywhere have been tilled with those anti-Christian doctrines, free-will, meriting by works, transubstantiation, purg;atory, works of supereroga- tion, passive obedience, non-resistance, and all other abomi- nations of the whore of Babylon ? Hoiv soon would our Protestant charity schools in England, Scotland and Ireland have been pulled down, our Bibles forcibly taken from us, and ignorance everywhere set up as the mother of devotion ! How soon should we have been deprived of that invaluable blessing, liberty of conscience, and been obliged to commence (what they falsely call) Catholics, or submit to all the tortures which a bigoted zeal, guided by the most cruel principles, could have possibly invented ! How soon would that mother of harlots have m.ade herself once more drunk with the blood oL saints ! and the whole tribe, even of free-thinkers them- selves, been brought to this dilemma, either to die martyrs for ^° (although I never heard yet of one that did so), or, contrary to the most ia vowed principles, renounce their great Diana, unassisted, unenlightened reason ! . . .

"If we take a distinct view of this notable transaction, and trace it in all the particular circumstances that have attended it, I believe we must with one heart and voice confess that ^^ if it be a mercy for a state to be delivered from a worse than a Catiline's conspiracy, or a church to be rescued from a hotter than a Dioclesian persecution; ij it be a mercy to be delivered from a religion that turns ploughshares into swords, and pruning-hooks into spears, and makes it meritorious to shed Protestant blood; if ii be a mercy to have all of our present invaluable privileges, both in church and state, secured to us more than ever; if

(7) , gatio (lo)

Hypophora and Eperotesis (8) Anaphora with Eperotesis and Ecphonpsis (9) Interro- (10) "Parenthesis (11) Hypothesis, Protasis, Anaphora and Arsis

EPILOGUE 231

It be a mercy to have these great things done for us, at a season when, for our crying sins, both church and state deserve to be overturned; and if it be a mercy to have all this brought about for us, under God, by one of the blood- royal, a prince acting with experience far beyond his years; ^^ if any or all these are mercies, " then have you lately com- memorated one of the greatest mercies that ever the gloriotr^- God vouchsafed to the British nation. . . .

"May I appeal to the most rehned reasoner, ^^ whether the religion of Jesus Christ be not a social religion ? whether the moral law, as explained by the Lord Jesus m the gospel, has not a natural tendency to promote the present good and happiness of a whole community, supposing they be obedient to them, as well as the happiness of every indi- vidual ? ^* From zu hence came wars and lighting amoiig us ? From what fountain do all those evils, which the present and past ages have groaned under flow, but from a neglect of the laws and statutes of our great and all-wise law-giver Jesus of Nazareth ? Tell me, ^^ ye men of letters , whether ^^ Lycurgus or Solon, ^^ Pythagoras or Flato, Aristotle, Seneca, Cicero, or all the ancient law-givers and heathen moralists, put them altogether, ever published a system of ethics any way worthy to be compared with the glorious system laid down in that much despised book (to use Sir Richard Steel's expression), emphatically called the Scrip- tures ? Is not the Divine image and superscription written upon every precept of the Gospel? Do they not shine with a native intrinsic lustre? ^"^ And, though many things m them are above, yet is there anything contrary to the strictest laws of right reason ? Is not Jesus Christ, in the Scripture, stvled the Word, the Logos, the Reason? ^'' And is not His service a reasonable service ? What if there be mysteries in his religion ? ^^ Ar£ they not, without all controversy, great and glorious? '^^ Are they not mysteries of godliness and worthy of that God who reveals them ? " 'Nay, is it not the greatest mystery, that men, who pretend to reason, and call themselves philosophers, who search into the * arcana naturae,' and consequently find a mystery in every blade ot g^rass, should yet be so irrational as to decry all mysteries in relis^ion ? Where is the scribe ? Where is the wise ? Where is the disputer against the Christian revelation ? Does not everything without and within us conspire to prove its divine origin ? "

EPILOGUE : Greek eVt , upon, besides, in the sense of strengthening; \6709, speech, a speech on a speech; is

(12) Level Progress ol the voice with rising inflection at the end for turn of voice (13) Apodosis. Thesis and Cadence (14) Asyndeton with Asyndetic Eperotesis after the style of Demosthenes' Asyndetic reasoning (15) Apostrophe (16) Syntheton (17} Polysyndeton preceded by Asyndeton a la Demosthenes (18) Asyndeton (19) Epidiorthosis.

232 EPILOGUE

a form by which the orator recounts the principal matters or recapitulates them; a conclusion; an appeal by the speaker to the feelings or passions; the closing part of a discourse in which the principal matters are recapitulated. This figure is the greatest glory of eloquence. It is here the orator strikes out for all that is sublime and magnificent. The rule laid down by Aristotle is very good, and is as follows : (i) Getting the hearers favourable to one's self and ill- disposed toward the opponent, for after showing yourself in the right and your opponent m the wrong, and having said all respecting the cause, it is the best season to praise or dispraise the parties, to blame and give the last hnish^ aiming especially to show that he is good relatively or absolutely to the audience, and that the opponent is bad relatively or absolutely to them. (2) We must now am-plify and. diminish y as the facts must need be acknowledged it one is about to state their quality, for the increase of quan- tity or bodies is from substances previously existing. When it appears what is good or evil, then is the time to show how great or how little that good or evil is. (3) We must excite the hearers. When it is manifest how great the good or evil is, it will then be opportune to excite or move the anger, love, hatred, envy, emulation, indignation, and con- tentiousness. (4) We must awaken memory ^ by a recollection of what has been before stated. In the exordium we state the case in full so that it may not be unknown to the hearers upon what the subject turns, but in the peroration merely the means by which it has been proven, and that summarily.. (a) The commencement of the Epilogue will be that one has made good what he undertook, and how. (b) ^y means of the juxtaposition with his opponent's statements or in com- paring his arguments one by one with his opponent's, as "He on this subject said so-and-so and I so-and-so"; or by interrogation, '' What would he do had he proved this point and not the other ? " ' ' What has not been proven on my side or what has this man established?" (c) Or state his reasoning as it was originally stated, or state that of his opponent's speech if he pleases, (d) For the close, the style without connectives is becoming in order that it may be a peroration and not an oration. "I have spoken —you have heard — the case is in your hands — pronounce your decision."

In numbers 2 and 3 all the powers of eloquence must be brought into play, all the resources of oratory, all the language of greatest thought and magnificence must now be marshalled. Here the orator is to reign supreme (see tig. Amplification). Here all the master figures must be called into service, the Apostrophe, Ecphonesis, Prosopopoeia, Hypotyposis, Interrogatio, etc.

1

EPILOGUE 233

As, for instance, where the pohcy of aiding or deiencling an individual state, to persuade to this with the three feel- ings, love, gratitude and pity. Dissuading : that the adver- sary's proposed reasons are unjust, disgraceful, inexpedient, and everything else mean and wrong; that it is laborious and impossible. Magnify the course of your advice. On the dissuasive side, show they deserve anger or envy^or hatred ; that those you are addressing have suffered a " slight " or injustice; that they deserve envy because of their undeserved prosperity; or that they deserve animosity by showing that they have been ill-treated, either themselves or their friends.

Examples : It was m the Epilogue that, after working up his audience, Whitefield delivered his wonderful apostrophe to the angel Gabriel (see fig. Apostrophe), and in the last sermon but one he preached on earth he uttered this most touching Epilogue; ** I go," he cried, ** I go to my ever- lasting rest; my sun has arisen, and by aid from Heaven has given light to many. It is now about to set forever — nay, it is about to rise to the zenith of immortal glory. I have outlived many on earth, but they cannot outlive me in heaven. Oh, thought divine! I soon shall be in a world where time, age, pain and sorrow are unknown. My body fails, my spirit expa^nds. How willingly would I live for ever to preach Christ! But I die to be with Him.'*

Demosthenes^ jmnous Epilogue on the Crown, in which he shows himself favourable to the Athenians and his oppo- nent against them : (The inflections are as marked by the great elocutionist, Walker, who says the Epilogue com- mences witn reasoning plain, simple, middle tone. The vertical lines represent the accentual groups.)

"There are two | distinguishing | qualities, Athenians | which the virtuous | cftizen [ should ever | possess, \ I speak | in general terms | as the least | invidious method | of doing justice | to my- self, I a zeal | for the honour | and pre-eminence | of the state | in his official conduct, | on all | occasions | and in all | trans- actions I an affection | for his country. | This, | nature can bestow, I abilities | and success | depend upon another power. | (Strong assertion, firm., loud, and lower tone.) And in this | affection | you find | me | firm | and invariable. | {Enumeration of particulars; firm, loud, loiver tone, rising in strength on each to the end.) Not | the solemn j demand | of my person, | not the vengeance | of the Amphictyonic | council | which they denounced against me, | not the terror | of their threatenings, | not the flattery | of their promises, | no, | nor the fury | of those

234 EPILOGUE

accursed | wretches | whom they roused | like wild beasts | against me, | could ever | tear | this affection | from my breast. | (Higher tone, and not so loud). From first | to last, | I have uniformly | pursued | the just | and virtuous course | of conduct ;| assertion | of the honours, | of the prerogatives, | of the glory, of I my country; | studious | to support them, | zealous | to advance them', | my whole | being [ is devoted | to this glorious | cause. I (Reproach, sneering, middle tone). I | was never known | to march | through the city | with a face of joy | and exultation | at the success | of a foreign power, | embracing | and announcing | the joyful | tidings | to those | who 1 sup- posed I would transmit it j to the proper | place. | I | was never known \ to receive the successes | of my own country | with tremblings, | with sighings, | with eyes i bending to earth, | (Indignation, higher tone) like" those | impious men | who are the defamers | of themselves, | who look | abroad | and when a foreign | potentate | hath established j his power on the calam- ities I of Greece, | applaud | the event, | and tell us | we should take every | means | to perpetuate his power.

** Never, O ye gods, may those wishes be conhrmed by you ! If possible, inspire even in these men a better sense and a better feeling ! But if they are indeed incurable, destroy them by themselves; exterminate them by land and sea; and to us who remain grant a speedy rescue from our present fears and a lasting deliverance."

Lord Brougham says : '' The music of this passage is almost as fine as the sense is impressive and grand, and the manner dignified and calnl." " If you have tears, prepare to shed them now.

You all do know this mantle. I remember

The first time ever Csesar put it on ; . . .

Look ! in this place ran Cassius' dagger through : . . .

Through this, the well-beloved Brutus s'abb'd ; . . .

O, what a fa'l was there, my countrymen ! . . .

Here is himself, marr'd, as you see, with traitors." — Shakespeare.

John Bright^ s Impassioned E-pilogiie at Durham. " I have seen the freemen of your city looking disconso- late and sad I have seen their wives, too, with

three or four children about them — one in the cradle and one at the breast. I have seen their countenances. I have

seen the signs of their sufferings Aye! and 1

have seen those little children who, at no distant day, will be the men and women of the city of Durham. I have seen their poor little wan faces and anxious looks, as if the

EPILOGUE 235

furrows of old age were coming upon them before they had

escaped from the age of childhood You have seen

in all probability, people from my neighbourhood, walking your streets and begging for bread which the Corn Laws would not allow them to earn.

** Bread taxed weaver! let us see — .

What hath bread tax done for thee,

And thy children, vilely led,

Singing hymns for shameful bread,

1 ill the stones of every street

Know their little feet.'' This is what the Corn Law does for the weavers of my neighbourhood and for the weavers and artizans of yours. Yes ! Men of Durham ! Yes, freemen and electors ! i implore you on my bended knees, I would ask you tor your sakes, not mine; for personally, it is not to me the value of this piece of paper which way the election ends; upon principle, I ask you to claim for yourselves and tor your families the right to have that cheap and wholesome food which a merciful and wise God has supplied for both poor and rich, and upon which they might have been happy and comfortable if His wise laws had not been infringed by human power; I ask you before it is too late — now that you have an opportunity — now when your countrymen from the farthest ends of the Empire are turning anxious looks to the accounts received from this ancient and renowned city ; — I ask you, on behalf of yourself and your houses, on behalf of millions of suffering families — on behalf of the principles of justice and humanity — I ask you, I implore you, to cast away all party feeling, to come forward to the poll to- morrow, to register your votes in a cause on which, 1 believe, hangs the salvation of our common country and by which, if you are but true to it, and to yourselves, you will strike a blow which may be followed up by many other counties, and cities, and boroughs of the Kingdom, and the cloud which at thiir moment overhangs our social horizon be swept away forever. And as at this moment, those clouds which soar above us temporarily obscure the rays of the glorious sun, so the clouds which now overhang this unhappy country shall be dispelled, and the radiant beams of that glorious orb of commercial freedom v/hich gives life and health, and joy to all, shall shine again upon the people of this country, and England shall once more be gfeat, and happy and free." In Nos. 2 and 3 enthymemes must not be brought in, as Aristotle says, to exclude the passion. Here you prove nothing, but assert and affirm, and if you are addressing the mob, rather .the masses, then vivid imagery must be employed. (See Under Introduction — " Speech to the People."

236 EPILOGUE

Oratory of the Feermgs, for Fersuasi07t, Exhortation, etc.

On the matter of exciting the passions, which is the special feature of the Epilogue, Prof. Bain devotes m his " English Composition and Rhetoric " some interesting pages on " oratory of the feelings," from which I here make a few extracts. It is supposed that in all persuasion there are some feelings or human susceptibilities to work upon, it will be sufficient to address the feelings under three heads, (i) Our own pleasures and pains considered as remote. (2) Sympathy zvith others. (3) The emotions or passions. 1st. To induce belief that a certain course of future pleasure or pain v/ill ensue, it is lequisite to appeal to something parallel in the experience of those addressed, or lire the imagination by means of lively description. Phe incentive to industry are future comfort, ease, independence, opulence with all its train. To health, are temperance, exercise, due remission of labour, etc. Knowledge; esteem, converse with the greatest men of all times. Wealth, power and tame, that place men on glittering pinnacles, belong to the impas- sioned ends. Virtue, being just, tends to make others just. 2nd. Sympathy with the pleasures and pains of others. Phe orator presents a strong and intelligible case of distress, misery or sorrow, those of universal sympathy being hunger, cold, disease, poverty, danger to life, loss of objects oi affection, public shame. The pleadings of philanthropy lor the poor, the outcast, the neglected, the degraded, the enslaved. 3rd. The emotions or passions, 2.'^ fear, love, selt- esteem, power, anger, ridicule, aesthetic emotion, religion, moral sentiment, (a) Fear, terror or dread. Terror is made use of in governments, religion and education. Phe passions are excited by the prospect of unknown dangers, uncertain- ties, and vast possibilities of evil in matters keenly felt by the hearers. History furnishes many examples of political oratory succeeding through the excitement of terror. It is a usual device of rhetoric to paint future possibilities in cases where there is no proof of any great immediate evil. ** As his kind grow mischievous And kill him in the shell." (b) Love, tenderness, affection, admiration, esteem. 'I'he orator joins commendation of the sufferer to the recital of his sufferings. The speech of Anthony is a skilful union of both modes of appeal. Love of country is addressed and inflamed by political oratory ; esteem, respect, admiration, or reverence. In England, it is enough for ensuring a favourable disposition to any measure to cite Pitt or Pox, Wellington or Peel, (c) Yanity, pride a?id sentiment of power. The orator appeals to the people by compliments, praise or flattery, through phrases as " the natural goodness and dignity of human nature," ** the sound judgment and

EPILOGUE 237

feelings of the heart," etc. By the intoxicating idea ot glory many in all ages have been tempted to incur hazards of the profession of arms, the inflaming examples of men elevated to fame or power hre the ambition, especially of youth. (d) AiigeTy indignation, hatred ^ antipathy. tJy attributing to persons bad qualities, the speaker arouses^ against them the angry feelings of the audience. Wendell Phillips was unsurpassed in force of invective; speaking ot Daniel Webster, he said: ''.... No man since the age ot Luther ever held in his hand so palpably the destinies and

character of a mighty people He had but to uphold

the cross of common truth and honesty, and the black dis- honour of two hundred years would have been effaced tor ever. He bowed his vassal head to the temptations of the flesh and ot lucre. He gave himself up into the lap of the Delilah of slavery for the mere promise of a nomination, and the greatest hour of the age was bartered away tor — not for a mess of pottage, but for the promise of a mess of pottage, a promise, thank God ! which is to be broken. I say, it is not often Providence permits the eyes of twenty millions of thinking people to behold the fall of another Lucifer, from the very battlements of Heaven, down into the lower deep of the lowest deep of hell." The most favourable aspect of the vindictive feeling is termed moral or righteous indignation, such as Burke, Fox, and Sheridan in the im- peachment of Hastings, (e) Ridicule ^ derision, contempt. Seeking out the mean and despicable side of an opponent with a view to weaken and destroy his influence, the orator brings to bear upon it a flood of degrading illustration. Comic and satiric poetry is used as an oratorical weapon often more powerful than speeches, (f) The emotions of fine arts. 1 he elements of poetry may be introduced to heighten the effect of oratory. The laws that regulate the appeal to the feelings in an oration are: ist. To proceed from gentler to the stronger effects in the manner of a climax; 2nd. To alternate the different emotions or kinds of interest, (g) The moral sentiment. It is a specie of flattery, indirectly, m which we assume in the hearers a greater sense of duty than perhaps actually belongs to them, there being no serious care or endeavour on the Dart of the hearers to adapt their conduct to the high-toned precepts of the orator.

Action, the great aim of Epilogue. We come now to the next cardinal point in the Epilogue, and that is the appeal to the will. The point where Spurgeon says: "Brethren, do something, do something." After exciting the passions, the next is "A deed, a vote, a ver- dict. The thought informed, the emotions awakened, now practically direct it to produce some result.*" Genung says (i) appeal tc the will indirectly, for direct appeal is arbitrary

238 EPILOGUE

compulsion, not persuasion. Base your plea on some motive^ hence place the proposed action before him so as to coincide with his own desires, interest and standard of life. So doing what the speaker wills, he does what he himself wills. (2) /v higher and lower motive^ not good and bad, for men do not like to be charged with bad motive. Make appeal to highest for effect. The lower starts with self-interest, proht, ambition to rise; the finer with prudence, integrity, self-respect, duty to self, then to dependants, to law, custom, society, to country and to God. Benevolence, working in philanthropy, self-abnegation, self-sacrifice, love of humanity. There are three ways : (a) The motive is named, and proposed action identified with it. (b) Presence of the motive may be taken for granted. This is effective with educated audiences. (c) Form 01 strong invective. Appeal in the negative as you appeal to justice, honesty, etc., so enveigh against wrong.

Winans says that those things are of interest which engage one's time, thought, labour, also give him pleasure and enlist his emotions. Life and health first, acquiring property; pocket-book interest is the surest to which to link a theme; acquiring power, reputation, also honour, social welfare, good of country and righteousness, the education of offspring sports, drama, music, literature, and all that give pleasure. An old idea in new clothes, as audience likes to identify the familiar in a new guise, to find that accepted principles have application hitherto unknown, give it a new material or treatment or both. (The late ex-President Roosevelt often did this.) Something sensational interests, as "Hell in the church to-night," to catch attention.

Impelling motives are, first, personal interest; second, appeal to social duty; third, appeal to religious duty

The Epilogue should secure action. No greater illustra- tion of this can be found than in Mark Anthony's speech. Anthony aimed at action, and at the end of the epilogue he so aroused the passions of the people that they cried : "Revenge! About! Seek! Burn! Fire! Kill! Slay! Let not a traitor live! "

Caution : M. Bautin advises that the peroration be not too long, to avoid being fed up, and after its delivery rest the head and nervous system so wrought up. This is most suitable advice, and it would be advantageous for ail speakers to heed this caution, that is those who make use of passionate appeals and perorations or epilogues. In gesti- culating, do not cut the perpendicular, that is, make all g^estures on the right side with the right hand, and on the left side with the left hand. James Rush says that the sentence should finish in the keynote or the octave nearest to it. The key-note is the first of the succession, and the melody is unfinished if the last sound be not the kef^-note

I

EPILOGUE 239

or octave nearest to it. In arriving at this key-note on the finish do not drop the voice too abruptly at the close of the sentence; do not give last syllable with a tune or note of song, which is styled "preacher's cadence"; do not turn plain discourse into pathos by placing a semitone on the last note; do not make a cadence where the thought is not final, as is sometimes done in saying poetry. John Walker »_ the great English elocutionist of the time of Garrick, gives some examples with a description of the respective passions suitable for Epilogue see full details under Fig. Pathopoeia).

Delivery : In the impassioned mode of address, the lan- guage becomes strongly rhythmical, approaching to poetry; and is accompanied by the music of the voice and the arts of elocution.

The uneducated aie easier swayed by pathos, humour or impassioned phrase. (See delivery, Fig. Pathopoeia.) The educated require more moderate, subdual of emotion. Delivery as to Gesture.

Delsarte remarks : ' ' We are moved by one sentiment at a time, hence it is useless to multiply gestures. But one gesture is needed for the expression of an entire thought, since it is not the word, but the thought that gesture must announce. When the intelligent man speaks, he employs great movements only when they are justified by great exal- tation of sentiment which should be stamped upon his face. Let it be carefully noted, the expression of the face should make the gesture of the arm forgotten. Where there are two gestures, one must come before the proposition and the other in its midst. The gesture should be retained, but the face expression changed. If the double change takes place there will be no unity; V/'hile the speaker is under the influence of one and the same sentiment, the same inflection and gesture must be retained."

Gesture of the Magnificent and Sublime. The arm creeps up spirally or in a. sort of wavmg line, as the " ChircTiomia " says, coming back upon itself as the circumlocution and pomp of language proceeds, making pre- paration and parade, the grander the idea the more magni- ficent the parade till it gets to the culminating or emphatic word that represents the whole ^thought, then it accelerates its motion to the stroke on the accented syllable of that emphatic word This stroke consists of a spring of the hand, or a turn briskly or quickly of the wrist as the stroke IS made on the accented syllable," and is the finishing touch, as it were, to the gesture. This stroke of gesture and voice agree on the accented syllable of the emphatic word. It should not be omitted, as it is a great ornament and shows great finesse.^^ It^is, as Delsarte says, like the last part of the Germ.an '' Al." The stroke may be a strong percussion,

240

EPILOGUE

mere turn of the hand, a change of position, arrest of gesture in transit, etc., and should be held till the close of the cadence of the sentence. This gesture is of the Epic plane, which plane contains the highest and grandest of the gestures. The centre of motion is the shoulder, and the whole arm, as the oratorical weapon, is disclosed. In these gestures of magnificence the action is flowing and unconstrained, the prepara- tions are made in some graceful curve, the transitions are easy. The motions of the head are free, and the inflections of the body manly and dignified. The action of the lower limbs is decided, and considerable space is traversed with firmness and with force. See fig. 1 1 7 of the Chironomia, here reproduced, representing Mrs. Siddons in the " Grecian Daughters." " This arm shall vindicate a father's cause." The hands are over the shoulders, the gestures ranging through an arc of 40 or 50 degrees describing the lofty and magnificent, bespeaking hope, beneficence, patriotism and triumph, inspiring liberty, and appeal- ing to heaven.

"Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; but for me, give me liberty, or give me death." — Patrick Henry. In Exhortation, Quintilhan says the hand is presented in a hollow form with the fingers apart and raised with some spirit above the top of the shoulder, not tremulous, for this is theatrical. In panegyrics (unless they be funeral orations), in giving thanks, in exhor- tations, and in subjects of similar nature, our action should be animated or grand or sublime. In funeral orations, speeches of consolation and the greater part of criminal causes, the gesture should be grave and staid. In the Senate the gesture should be grave, but in a speecPi to the people it should be dignified.

Passional Gestures — jor Anger , Envy, Hatredy Indignation ,

etc.

After the Epic, come the passional gestures. These do not make the grand parade and preparation of the epic. They go straight to the point and represent the vital, while the epic represent the spiritual or moral. These take straight lines and belong to what Quintillian denominated the Pathos which is violent and refers to passions. This kind of eloquence is engaged wholly in exciting anger, hatred, envy, or pity, etc. What is generally regarded as inconsiderable, by Pathos we make appear intolerable. In these passions

EPILOGUE 241

Demosthenes showed his extraordinary power. In order to move others you must be moved yourself. To appear like the truth let us assimilate our feelings to those who are truly aifected, and our language will accordingly excite the same in others. Will the hearer be angry if orator shows no like feeling? To move the compassion, Vy^e must imagine our- selves to be those very persons for whom we lament as having"" suffered grievous, undeserved and pitiable treatment, feel for a time their sufferings, and say them as if ourselves believe the evils complained of as actually having happened to ourselves, and be so convinced. It is well to note Cicero's remarks regarding gestures for the orator, which are: ** fhe po-per gesture to attend all the emotions are not the gestures of the stage, expressive of mere words, but one showing the whole force and meaning of the passage; not by gesticulation but by emphatic delivery, by a strong and jnanly exertion of the kings, not imitated from the theatre and the players; but from the camp and tJie palestra (gymnasium). The stamping of the foot should be used in the most vehement efforts at their commencement or conclusion."

Russell, in " Pulpit Elocution," says the up-and-down movement is the prevalent mode of speaking, more or less direct according to the form of the sentiment. The energetic character of the descent of the arm is in a strong assertion; ascending gesture is lofty and associated with elevation and sublimity, poetic includes loftiness of epic description, vividness of lyric emotion and graphic effect of drama. The orator seldom uses more than four kinds of gestures — the supine, the prone, the index and the clenched. The supine : The palm is turned upward; it is revelatory in character and used in welcome, presenting, soliciting, appealing, con- ceding, submitting, humbling and such like. The prone : Palm downward, ranging about 40 or 50 degrees below the level of the shoulder; is for negative ideas, denials, the bad, the low, the contemptible, malevolent, hateful, gloomy and horrible — e.g., "What a rash and bloody deed is this! " — Shakespeare. The index : When used in pathos or im- passioned delivery is of great force, with the whole arm extended. It then indicates invective, and is employed for indignation, reproach, rebuke, serious warning and corri- mand. When held vertical and slightly shaken backward and forward it warns, admonishes, accuses and remonstrates. With the hand prone, the index finger extended horizontally, great emphasis is given to a directive gesture — e.g., "For along from peak to peak .' . . leaps the live thunder."— Byron. " You knew, none so well, none so well as you, of my daughter's plight. "—Shakespeare. The index moved from side to side, the palm of the hand and fingers down, indicates rejection, denial, refusal, etc. (see Fig. Ominatio).

242 EPILOGUE

The clenched or synthetic. The hngers bound together by the thumb into a soHd mass, is tor enforcing of strong passion, and signifies resolution and force of will. It denotes great physical energy, courage, defiance, hate, anger and revenge. All great orators use it to enforce a thought with considerable energy and power. Delsarte says the fingers, which are the representative of the mental in the hand, are synthesised or drawn from the service of mentality under the thumb, which is vital ; it says " remark this well ! " (See plate of the Right Hon. David Lloyd George).

Gesture for Ethos, the Calm and Flowing.

Quintillian says that a moderate extension of the arm with the shoulders thrown back and the fingers opening as the hand advances is a kind of gesture excellently adapted to continuous and smoothly flowing passages (see illustration under Parallelism). But when anything finer and fuller than ordinary is to be expressed, as " Rocks and deserts respond to the voice of the poet," it moves toward the side and the words and gesture expand themselves.

Delivery as to To7te.

We have now spoken of the delivery in so far as it refers to gesture; we shall now treat on the tones. Delsarte says that the highest art would be to condense a whole scene into one inflection. A mediocre man will employ 20 or 30 tones. Mediocre speakers are always seeking to enrich their inflec- tions ; they touch every range and lose themselves in a multi- tude of intangible effects. Arthur Lovell gives an excellent illustration in ** The Last. Rose of Summer," in which he says the dominant idea is the horror, the sadness of being left alone, all its companions gone; the horror of loneliness. This one culminating thought must receive the inflection so that the horror of loneliness may be brought distinctly to the mind. The magnetic voice is the emotion which pours forth itself and suffuses the voice for the time being with the warmth and tenderness peculiar to the emotion. The good speaker will arouse the kindred emotions, and the bad one will go on using words full of sound and fury signifying nothing. As to tone, Delsarte laid down this principle : the teeth are mental, that is they correspond to the rational in m.ind, and the tones placed just behind or at the teeth are those used for arguing, reasoning, etc. ; that the palate or cup of the palate is moral and corresponds to all the elevated, spiritual, and emotional parts of the mind, and that the tones placed in the forward part of the palate, or the cup of the palate, are those for high, noble, spiritual, moral, compassionate and elevated feelings, which are expressed chiefly by the orotund voice, produced by the diaphragm well pressed down and the lungs full ; and that pharynx is the vital, that tones placed there are used to express chiefly those of hatred, anger, envy, reproach, aversion and all the baser ideas.

EPILOGUE 243

Aristotle says: "The Pathetic (passionate) renders an audience sympathetic, as in the case of an assault, the style of feeling is that of a man in passion; if loathesomeness and impiety, that of disgust and painful caution; of praise, that of exultation -^ of pity, that of submission and so on : for the mmd is thus cheated into the persuasion that the orator is speaking with sincerity because under such circum- stances men stand affected. Thus the orator expressing himself feelingly bears down his hearers kindred in feeling, though he should say nothing to the purpose, but in storm of passion." This is one of the devices to lead people away from the idea that the speech is all got up and " cooked '* for them, which makes an audience chary about things which seem got up, specially made for them, and which have none of the appearance of those things commonly seen in the general course of mankind.

Tones as Given by Cicero. Respecting the tones to be used, the following are note- worthy. Cicero says: '^ Anger assumes a particular tone of voice, acute, vehement and with frequent breaks — e.g., ' Does any one perceive this? Bind him.' Lanientatio7i and bewailing assume a flexible, full, interrupted tone, in a voice of sorrow, as ' Whither shall I now turn myself ? What road shall I attempt to tread ? ' * O father, O my country. House of Priam ! All these did I behold enwrapt in flames, and life from Priam torn by violence.' Fear has a desponding, hesitating, abject tone — e.g., ' In many ways am I encom- passed round! By sickness, exile, want; and terror drives all judgment from my breast; deprived of sense! One threats my life with torture and destruction, and no man has so firm a soul, such boldness, but that his blood shrinks back- ward, and his look grows pale with timid fear ' (Ennius). Violence has a strained, vehement, impetuous tone with a kind of forcible excitement :

* Some greater storm, some greater ill by me Must be excited, that I may confound And crush his cruel heart.' Pleasuye, unconstrained, mild, tender, cheerful, languid. Trouble, a sort of gravity without lamentation; oppressed, a.^ it were, with one heavy uniform sound."

Deep Tones for Deep Feeling; Upper for Attack; Monotone, Solemn. Fifth or octave denote strong appeal, surprise, exclamation and impassioned querulousness. A fall through these inter- vals denotes strong confidence, wilfulness, petulance and impassioned command.

Low or deep tones are those that express fear, secrecy, grief, solemnity, profound feeling, gloom, melancholy, concentration of passion, etc.

244 EPILOGUE

High or upper tones express elevated and joyous feelings, strong emotions, impetuosity, passion, rage, mvective, earnestness, threat, animated description, vigorous narrative. The low or deep tones slow time; the high or upper tones, quick time.

The monotone is for solemn or elevated parts and for awe and sublimity. It corresponds to the spondee foot (— — ),

and the molossus foot ( ); where special attention is

to be drawn and the fixing of a^i impression is desired, three or more spondees may be used.

The Rising Inflection and the Falling. The rising inflection directs the mind to what follows : it is for hesitation, conciliation, for questions that can be answered by yes or no; it is appellatory, hypothetical, and for clauses of incomplete sense, as "Wretch that I am"; and for preparing the close of a sentence by placing the rising inflection on the penultimate member and at the end of a sentence on the penultimate foot of a cadence.

The falling inflection directs the attention to what has been stated and shows determination, positiveness and finality. The first member of an antithesis takes the rising and the second the falling inflection; and when two mem- bers are connected by " or," the first member takes the rising inflection and the second the falling. The exclamatory word or words of an Ecphonesis take the rising inflection and the balance of the clause the falling, as ''Hark! hark! the clash of arms."

The length of the inflection gives emotional colouring to the expression. A semitone, which is the slide of the voice over a half-interval of the musical scale, is used in sadness, plaintiveness, tenderness, pity, grief, etc., as *' Ah, cruel fate! Better that I should die." The fifth is the slide of the voice over five notes of the musical scale. It is heard in the exultant or indignant outburst or Ecphonesis of the orator, and in giving vent to strong feelings, joy, delight, anger, surprise, defiance, lofty command and earnest 'interro- gation-— e.g., "The Sun of Liberty."— Victor Hugo. "We are in Russia. The Neva is frozen. That trestlework which has just been swallowed up is the throne ! .and this other trestlework which is going off^ it is — the scaffold ! And for this immense engulfing, and for this supreme victory of life over death, what has been the power necessary ? One of thy looks, O Sun! One of thy rays, O Liberty! " (Sec Fig. Emphasis for other slides of voice.)

The Orotund — Master Tone of the Epilogue. A few notes from Dr. Rush and William Russell's " Ortho- phanv " are here given: —

The Orotund is the distinctive quality of grandeur and power. It is round, full, resonant, combining the purity

EPILOGUE 245

of the tones of the hard palate with the reverberation of the chest. Ore-rotundo : It is clear, that is free from nasal murmur and aspiration; smooth, free from all reedy and guttural harshness; ringing, resembling the resonance of certain musical instruments; it allures, catches the ear with its music, gives delicate attenuation to the vanish; its puxe vocality gives distinct articulation; it hlls the ear and makes the speaker feel he is energising his full power; it can make the long quantities better and the tremulous; it diminishes fatigue of voice exertion, at same time gives out a clear and agreeable sound; and it spares the lungs by throwing vigour into the voice.

The explosive orotund is by an abrupt exertion of the abdominal muscles acting on the diaphragm, and this dis- charging a large volume of air, the breath being dashed against the glottis causes a loud and instantaneous explosion, as in the abrupt exclamation of high-wrought courage, in the eruptive curse of anger, the sudden alarm of fire. Laugh- ing in its fullest and strongest sense is another natural form of the explosive orotund radical stress — e.g., courage: ex- plosive shouting.

" Strike for the sires who left you free! Strike for their sakes who bore you ! Strike for your homes and liberty. And the Heaven you worship o'er you! " To arms! they come! the Greeks, the Greeks! " (Terror.) Expulsive orotund, which varies from forcible action of the abdominal muscles, added to full expansion of the chest and deep inspiration, belongs to earnest and vehement declama- tion, impassioned and poetic excitement of emotion, and to any language -in the form of shouting or exclamations. The eloquence of Demosthenes, Chatham, and our own contem- porary Webster, if divested of its full expulsive utterance of deep and powerful emotion, would be ridiculous in its effect upon the ear and the imagination. The body must be perfectly erect, chest fully expanded and projected, shoulders depressed, to maintain a vigorous play of the abdominal muscles. Examples of declamatory style and force (declamatory force in elocution means a full, bold style of oratory): " Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I am for the Declaration ..." (see Emphasis). Webster on the " Slave Trade " : "I hear . . . , I see the smoke . . . I see the visages of those who by stealth and at mid- night labour in this work of hell ..." In calling the voice should be kept perfectly smooth, and purest tone, as in the loudest singing in its gradual and skilful swell — e.g., "The Herald's message," ''^Rejoice ye men of Angiers ! Ring your bells, open your gates and give the victor sway." — Shakespeare. The foregoing example of calling should never become abruptly explosive, but intensely effusive.

246 EPILOGUE

Shouting and calling, the strongest swell of which the voice is capable, the note prolonged :

"Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is dead!

Run hence! Proclaim, cry about the streets."

Cassius : '' Some come to the pulpit, and cry out liberty, freedom and enfranchisement!

The T 7677107 (tremulous or intermittent stress) is a brief succession of jets in which the human voice is said to tremble — e.g., extreme pit}^ pure tone, impassioned utter- ance : * * Oh ! I have suffered with those that I saw suffer ! A brave vessel that had no doubt some noble creatures in her, dashed to pieces. Oh ! the cry did shock against my heart ! Poor souls, they perished! "

If one stands upright, weight on forward foot, shoulders down so that the diaphragm may have good play and be easily pressed down, a slight curve in the lower part of the spinal column, the head horizontal so that the chin does not fall on the chest to make the voice low, nor unduly raised so that the voice becomes thin, the lungs will automatically a7id insia7itaneously fill themselves or keep themselves sup- plied, the orator, of course, duly observing the rhetorical and grammatical pauses for inhalations.

Fo7e7tsic Epiloguey by QuinttlUan.

I quote this high authority in concluding the treatment of this most important figure, Epilogue. In jo7e7tsic elo- quence, Ouintillian says the object of the Epilogue is to refresh the memory of the judge, and what is recapitulated should be set forward with some emphasis, enlivened by suit- able remarks, varied with different figures; for nothing is more offensive than a straightforward repetition, as if you distrusted the memory of the judge. *' If your father him- self were judge, what would he say when these things v/ere proven against you?" subjoining, as Cicero did, in the enumeration of particulars; then in the same speech he enumerates, invoking the gods, all the temples spoiled by Verres in his praetorship. " What hope can the accuser have when our case is so fully established ? He omitted this point in the cause or he made it his object to oppress us with odium. He had recourse to entreaty, and not without reason when he knew ..." To excite the feelings the accuser must arouse them with greater earnestness ; the accused must allay them. It is possible to excite jealousy, hatred or indig- nation in the Epilogue more than anywhere else, as if the accused be arrogant, contumacious, or full of assurance. Accuse7 shows the heinousness of the charge, makes pitiable the condition of the party seeking redress.

The Accused must allege his 'dignity or manly pursuits, his wounds received in the war, or nobilit}^ of birth, or services of his ancestors may be subjects to recommend him, allusions

EPILOGUE 247

may be made to the public good. Pity produces the most powerful mipression on the judge. What the accused has suffered, or what he is actually suifering, or what awaits him if condemned, doubly enforced if we show the condition from which he has fallen and the one into which he will fall. To those conditions sex may be added, objects of affection as children, wife, relatives. Prosopopoeia — i.e., fictitious addresses delivered m another person's character — is suitable to both prosecutor and defendant; as one seems to hear the afflicted one's voice, as Cicero says of Milo. " O labours undertaken by me in vain ! O deceitful hopes ! O thought cherished by 'me to no purpose! " The pity should not be long, for nothing dries sooner than a tear; cease as soon as the feelings are raised to the utmost, as persons will not long bewail another's misfortune. Modes of exciting pity or tears, not only by words, but by acts; such as exhibiting blood-stained garments (as Cassar's robes, in Shakespeare) make the crime seem to be actually occurring; wretched appearance of the person introduced, piece of fractured bone, as the wound seems to be seen.

The Epilogue must excite as well as allay compassionate emotions; dispel either by act, speech or some jocous remark. All resources of oratory are called forth here, and as ampli- fication forms the greatest part of an Epilogue we may use language and thought of greatest magnificence and elegance. The style to accuse is close, and for eulogising, and in Epilogue it is diffuse. In expressing the vehement feelings the voice should rise, and in calmer ones it should fall.

In exciting the judge and jury, as also in speech to the people, there should be m.any varieties of tones. The highest and loudest tones a speaker can adopt are proper for the following: "When war was begun, Cassar, and even in a great degree advanced," for he had said pre- viously : "I will exert my voice as loudly as possible that the people of Rome may hear." A tone somewhat lower and having something pleasing in it for this: "What was your sword doing, Tubero, in the field of Phasalia ? " A tone still fuller and consequently more agreeable: "But in the assembly of the people of Rome, and when holding an office," etc. Here every sound may be prolonged, the vowels extended and the mouth well open, yet the words " Ye Alban Hills and Groves," etc., should flow in a still stronger stream.

A Uniform Tone is required in the Peroration for the continuous enumeration of particulars. If to soothe, the tone calls for smoothness; if to move to pity, it calls for a kind of musical cadence and plaintive sweetness of voice by which the mind is strongly affected, and which is extremely natural. There is one mixed with indignation, as in con-

248 EPILOGUE

demnation, and another in a lower tone accompanied with deprecation. Since there may be something of scarcely per- ceptible music in the delivery of the words, ** But m the assembly of the people of Rome," for Cicero did not utter them in a tone of invective; and in that exclamation, " Ye Alban Hills," etc., for he did not speak as if he were invoking or calling them to witness, yet the following must have been spoken in a manner infinitely more modulated and harmonious: "Miserable, unhappy man that I am," and ' * What answer shall ' I give to my children ? " " O miserable afflicting duty of my voice! " " Unhappy man," ** poor creature," must be uttered in a lov/ and subdued tone, and " robbers " in a more elevated tone, courageous and vehement. Do not study too many niceties, stops, pauses and inflection of tone to move the feelings, for oratory must not be seasoned too much because it consists in serious pleading, not in mimicry.

Persuasion depends greatly on assertion, which sometimes has more effect than proof : ' ' Would these statements have been made or delivered in such a way if they had not been true."

Chin on breast. One should not press the chin on the breast, as it makes the voice indistinct and gross, from the throat being compressed; nor stretched up, as the voice is weakened and exhausted, also has tension put on it. The shoulders should be kept down, countenance grave, not anxious, stolid or languish.

Styles: The two styles which come into the Epilogue are the Floridy and the Majestic or grand. The florid is for pleasing — i.e., conciliating; it will abound more with meta- phors and be rendered more attractive by the figures of speech; it will seek to please by digressions; it will be elegant in phraseology, with perfectly natural thoughts, but flowing gently like a clear stream overshadowed on either side by banks of green wood. (Aristotle's directions on elevation of style come in very aptly here — that is, employing definition instead of noun; plural for the singular, as the '' Grecian Heavens," though they be but one; distinct particle to each word, as "this man," "this woman"; drawing expressions from absent qualities by negatives, as " There is a certain little hill visited by the winds"; for thus it could go on to infinity; so this would hold good in the qualities tha,t are negative: "Thou drunken but not with wine," "A trumpet is a lyreless harmony," also the poet's " stringless," etc., as they build on privatives.) The Majestic ^or Grand style is for moving the feelings for which energy is needed, as gentleness of manners is for conciliating. It is like the impetuous torrent whicli carries away rocks, disdains bridges and makes banks for itself. It will impel the judge, though

EPILOGUE 249

he strives against it, whithersoever it pleases, and oblige him to take the course into which it hurries him. Ihe orator who employs this style will wake the dead, his country will lament, and sometimes call upon it, as Cicero did against Catiline in the Senate ; he will elevate his oratory with amplification, and rise into hyperbole: ''What Chary bdis was ever as insatiable?" and ''The ocean itselir assuredly," etc. Such an orator will bring down the gods themselves to form portion 6i his audience, and almost to take part in what he says: " For you, O Alban hills and groves," etc. Such an orator will inspire his hearers with rage and pity; he will say: " He saw you, called upon you and wept," and the judge, excited with variety of emotion, will follow the speaker hither and thither without requiring any proof of what is stated. The Florid aiid the Grand are also used in the speech to the people (see " Introduction "). Rhythn and Feet used in Epilogue.

We now come to one of the most important parts of the Epilogue, namely Rhythm. Quintillian says what is sublime should march majestically; calm, advance leisurely; spirited, should run ; and what is tender should flow : using spondees and iambics for tumour, e.g. :

" Lo, I rule Argos; Pelops to me left his sceptor." Several chorei (trochee) and pyrrhic for comic, as they run : " What therefore shall 1 dQ, not go " ; iambics for the rough and contentious: "Who can endure to see, who suffer this, except a rake, a glutton, a cormorant?" A speaker ceases to please when he turns his attention from his matter to niceties of sound. The Feet: The elevated portions require long and sonorous syllables; they like the fulness of the dactyl, also of the pason. The Peroration and more subdued parts should call for syllables that are long, indeed^ but less sonorous. The numbers must be free and flowing for all demonstrative or laudatory eloquence; judicial and deliberate, a proportionate variety. Vowels and feet : grave for sublime, and for demonstrative subjects long syllables are necessary; in calm subjects, lengthening of the vowels; sublime and showy ones, fulness in pronouncing them. (See Rhythm for more particulars.) Begin your sentence, says Quintillian, as a verse in poetry ends. (See further details on the passions or emotions under Figs. Pathopoeia, Em- phasis, etc.)

After advising that the emotional passages be composed chiefly of the ionic majori, ionic minori and paeon; the grand ones with the dactyl, the anapaest, cretic and iambic'; those that are t^ impress, to fix the attention, with the spondee and molossus; and the necessity of ending each clause or member of a sentence with a different foot so as to avoid monotony, and after advising that the proper rests and

250 EPILOGUE

pauses be observed, as eloquence consists as much in using proper pauses as in proper words, all of which w^U be found fully detailed under Rhythmus, and after advising to use a proper cadence at the close of each complete sentence or period, which should be with three accented words, as Walker says, we close this Figure with an Epilogue from Daniel Webster's speech on '* The First Settlement of New England." The stops or rhetorical rests, accentual and pausal sections, are taken from William Russell.

" Oratorical Apostrophe to Future Generatio7ts.''

I * Thev I ^ are in the { distant j regions [ ^ of fu- | turi- ty I , j -— - j tliey | ^ ex- | ist j ^ ^ | only in the | all-cre- \ ating j power j ^ of | God j , | — | ^ who shall | stand | here | ? | '^ a | hundred j years | hence | , | ^ to | trace | , I ^ through I us I , I ^ their de- | scent from the [ Pilgrims | , | ^, and to sur- [ vey | , | ^ as | we have | now sur- | veyed [ , j ^\ the I progress of their | country | , | during the | lapse of a I century | .* j ^ ^i j ^, ^ | ^ ^ j ^ * On the | morning of | that j day | , Y^, al- j though it | will not dis- [ turb j us | ^^ in our re- j pose | , j ^ the | voice | ^ of | accla- | mation | ^ and I gratitude j , I ^ com- 1 mencing | ^, on the | Rock | ^ of 1 Plymouth | ? j ^ shall be trans- | mitted | wj through | mil- lions I ^ of the j sons | ^^ of the | Pilgrims 1 ? 1 ^ till it | lose itself 1 ^ in the | murmur [ ^ of the Pa- [ cific | seas | .' | ^i ^ |

I ^ ' Ad- I vance 1 ? | ^ ye | future | *gener- | ations | ! j ^^\^,^\^ We would I hail you | , | ^ as you | rise | ^ in your I long sue- | cession | , | ^ to | fill the | places | ^ which I we I now I fill j , I wj and to | taste the [ blessings | ^ of ex- 1 istence | , | m where | we | ^are | passing | , | ^> and | soon | ^, shall have | passed | , ] ^ our | human du- 1 ration | • | ^, m | ^ i?i I ^ 5i^ I i?- We I bid you | Vvelcome | ^ to | this | pleasant | land I ^, of the | Fathers [ . | ^ ^ J ^ ^iii | ^ We | bid you | wel- come I ^ to the I healthful ] skies I , i ^ and the j verdant J fields I i^ of I New England |.|^g|ii^l^We| greet your ac- | cession [ ^ to the ] great in- | heritance j^ which f we I ^ have en- 1 joyed | . | ^ ^ | ^ ^ 1 ^ We | welcome you j ^ to the I blessings | ^ of | good | government | ^ and re- j

EPILOGUE 251

ligious I liberty | . | ^ %^ j i;^ ^ | ^, We | welcome you | ^, to ihe I treasures of [ science | , | and the de- | lights of | learn- ing j . I ^1 i^ I ^ ^ I ^, We ! welcome you | ^ to the tran- | scendant | sweets | ^ of do- | mestic | life | , | ^, to the | hap- piness I i^ of I kindred | , | ^ and | parents | ? | ^ and | cbil::: dren | . | ^i^ i^ | ^ i^j | ^ We | welcome you | ^> to the im- | measurable | blessings | ^ of | rational ex- | istence [ , | m the im- I mortal | hope I ^ of Christ!- | anity 1,1^ and the | light I ^ of I ever- | lasting | Truth |!' j^i^j^ii^l^i^f

* The initial half accent, in words analogous to the above, is assumed as the equivalent of a full accent ;— the tpne of half accent being equal to that of accent, although the force is not.

The initial rest represents the slight interval between the hist bar and the preceding utterance whatever that may be. True rhythm not only extends itself from clause to clause, but from sentence to sentence, from paragraph to paragraph, even to the long pause which is the close of a piece or dis- course. Paragraph pauses are usually double the length of those of periods. Double paragraph pauses are the proper distinctions of the heads of discourse, and these ought to be doubled if referred to as a definite measure.

A fault, says Russell, is the businesslike despatch of a minister in passing from the last word of his sermon to the formula that follows, as if his purpose were to obliterate as quickly as possible the effect of his discourse.

There is no more fitting place than this for a description of the oratory and manner of delivery of the eminent Ameri- can orator, Daniel Webster, who stands almost without a rival in the skilful and effective employment of the Figure Epilogue.

252

DANIEL WEBSTER

HIS ORATORY, DELIVERY, AND SOME NOTE'S FROM EMINENT CONTEMPORARY AND SUB- SEQUENT CRITICS.

Daniel Webster was the greatest and most renowned orator America has ever produced. He was for many years United States Senator, representing the State of Massachusetts, which among the American States is considered the foremost in learning. He was Secretary of State under the administra- tion of President Millard Fillmore, when he concluded the famous Ashburton- Webster Treaty, by which the North- Westeirn Boundary question and other differences between England and America were settled.

The greatest speech ever delivered on the American Con- tinent was that delivered by Webster in his reply to Hayne in the American Senate, when he was forty-eight years of age. This speech is described below by Charles W. March, who was present on the occasion; and I also give, among others, some notes by Henry Cabot Lodge, the present U.S. Senator for the State of Massachusetts, taken from his book, " Daniel W'ebster," which are of great interest.

'* He never rose on an ordinary occasion to address an ordinary audience more self-possessed. There was no tremu- lousness in his voice nor manner; nothing hurried, nothing simulated. The calmness of superior strength was visible everywhere, in countenance, voice and bearing. Much oi the instantaneous effect of the speech arose, of course, from the orator's delivery — the tones of his voice, his countenance and manner . . . ' Of the effectiveness of Mr. Webster's manner in many parts,' says Mr. Everett, * it would be in vain to attempt to give any one not present the faintest idea. It has been my fortune to hear some of the ablest speeches of the greatest living orators on both sides of the water, but I confess I never heard anything which so com- pletely realised my conception of what Demosthenes was when he delivered the oration for the crown.' The variety of incident during the speech, and the rapid fluctuation of passions, kept the audience in continual expectation and ceaseless agitation. There was no chord of the heart the orator did not strike as with a master hand. The speech was a complete drama of comic and pathetic scenes; one varied excitement; laughter and tears gaining alternate victory. A great portion of the speech is strictly argumen- tative; an exposition of constitutional law. But grave as such portion necessarily is, severelv logical, abounding in no fancy or episode, it engrossed throughout the undivided attention of every intelligent hearer. Abstractions under the glowing genius of the orator acquired a beauty, a vitality.

DANIEL WEBSTER.

Principal I^ornis of OratoricarExpression used by Mr. Webster. His master- figures are those in italics :

Anacolouthon, Anadiplosis, Anaphora, Aposiopesis, Apostrophe, Argu- mentum, Arsis and Thesis, Attitude, Descriptio, Diegesis, Ecphonesis, Enthymcma, Epilogue, Erotesis, Ethos, Exordium, Hypotyposis, Optatio, Oxymoron, Paralepsis, Pause, Polysyndeton, Fisteis, Period, Rhythmus.

I

DANIEL WEBSTER ^^J

a power to thrill the blood and enkindle the affections, awakening into activity many a dormant faculty. His ponderous syllables had an energy, a vehemence of meaning in them, that fascinated while they startled. . . . There was a sense of power in his language— of power withheld and suggestion of greater power— that subdued as by a spell ot mystery the hearts of all. As the orator carried the morai_ of Macbeth, and proved by the example of that deep- thinkmg, intellectual, but insanely ambitious character, how little of substantial good or permanent power was to be secured by a devious and unblessed policy, he turned his eyes, with significance of expression, full of prophetic revela- tion, upon the Vice-President, reminding him that those who had foully removed Banquo had placed — ' A barren sceptre in their grip ...

Thence to be wrenched by an unlineal heir.

No son of theirs succeeding.' Every eye of the whole audience followed the direction of his own, witnessed the changing countenance and visible agitation of Mr. Calhoun. Within a few months the political fortunes of the Vice-President had sunk so ... as none to do him reverence.

" Ah ! who can ever forget that was present to hear the tremendous, the awful burst of eloquence with which the orator spoke of the Old Bay State \ or the tones of deep pathos in which the words were pronounced : * Mr. President, I shall enter no encomium upon Massachusetts . . .* But now as he alluded to Massachusetts, their feelings 'were strained to the highest tension; and when the orator turned, intentionally or otherwise, his burning eyes fell upon them — they shed tears like girls. Assuredly Kean, nor Kemble, nor any other masterly delineator of human passions ever produced a more powerful impression upon an audience, or swayed so completely their hearts. This was acting not to the hfe — but life itself. No one ever looked the orator as he did. His countenance no less audibly than his words. The Webster tan *' Tilt-hammer ** Gesture. ** His manner gave new force to his language. As he stood swaying his right arm, like a huge tilt-hammer up and down, his swarthy countenance lighted up with excitement, he appeared amid the smoke, the fire, the thunder of his eloquence, like Vulcan in his armoury forging for the gods ! The exulting rush of feeling ivith which he went through the peroration * threw a glow over his countenance, like inspiration. Eye, brow, each feature, every line of the face seemed touched as with celestial fire. The swell and roll of his voice struck upon the ears of the spell-bound audience in deep and melodious cadence, as waves upon the shores

* See Fig. Arsis ar.d Thesis for full passage.

254 DANIEL WEBSTER

of the ' far-resoundmg ' sea. His voice, exerted to its utmost power, penetrated every recess or corner of the Senate — penetrated even the ante-rooms and stairways, as he pro- nounced in deepest tones of pathos these words of solemn significance • * When my eyes shall be turned to behold . . / In the evening (after this great speech was made) General Jackson held a levee at the White House. It was known in advance that Mr. Webster would attend it. Before this evening the General had been the observed of all observers. . . . Mr. Webster, it was whispered, was in the East Room, and thither the whole mass hurried. .' . . Some on tip-toe, and some even mounted on chairs of the room. . . . One would ask his neighbour, ' Where is Webster ? ' * There, don't you see him — that dark, swarthy man, with a great deep and heavy brow — that's Webster.' No one was obliged to make a second inquiry." — '' Reminiscences of Congress," by Charles W. March (published in 1852),

*' The boy Webster preached love of country, the grandeur of American nationality, fidelity to the constitution as the bulwark of nationality, and the necessity and the nobility of the union of the states, and that was the message which the man Webster delivered to his fellow-men. Mr. Webster was a man of slow growth, not reaching his highest point until he was nearly fifty years of age. . . . The Plymouth oration : Mr. Ticknor says : * In speaking of the oration, the passage at the end, where, speading his arms as if to embrace them, he welcomed future generations, and the great inheritance which we have enjoyed,^ was spoken with the most attractive sweetness and that peculiar smile which in him was always so charming. The effect of the whole was very great.'

" Re-ply to Hayne. This great speech marks the highest point attained by Mr. Webster as a public man. He never surpassed it, he never equalled it afterwards. It was his zenith intellectually, politically, and as an orator. His fame grew and extended in the years which followed, he won ample distinction in other fields, he made many other splendid speeches, but lie never went beyond the reply which he made to the Senator from South Carolina on January 26, 1830. . . . The reply to Hayne was the zenith of Mr. Webster's life, and it is the place of all others where it is fit to pause and study him as a parliamentary orator and as a master of eloquence. In the midst of the hush of expectation, in that dead silence which is so peculiarly oppressive because it is possible only when many human beings are gathered together, Mr. Webster rose . . . and as he rose and stood forth, drawing himself up to his full height, his personal grandeur and his majestic calm thrilled all who looked upon him. With perfect quietness, unaffected

fi) See Fig. Epilogue for full passage.

DANIEL WEBSTER 255

apparently by the atmosphere of intense feeling about him,^ he said m a low, even tone: 'Mr. , President, when th\e mariner . . .' This opening sentence was a fiece of con- summate art. The simple and appropriate image, the low voice, the calm manner, relieved the strained excitement of the audience which might have ended by disconcerting the speaker, if it had been maintained. Everyone was now ar^- ease . . . with breathless attention they followed him as he proceeded. The strong, masculine sentences, the sarcasm, the pathos, the reasoning, the burning appeals to love of state and country, flowed on unbroken. As his feelings warmed, the fire came into his eyes, there was a glow on his swarthy cheek, his strong right arm seemed to sweep away resistlessly the whole phalanx of his opponents, and the deep and melodious cadences of his voice sounded like harmonious organ-tones as they filled the chamber with their

music

Bursts of Feeling joined ivith Convincing Argument. ** Throughout there were bursts of eloquence skilfully mingled with statement and argument, so that the listeners were never wearied by a strained and continuous rhetorical display; and yet, while the attention was closely held by the even flow of lucid reasoning, the emotions and passions were from tiriie to time deeply aroused and strongly excited. In many passages of direct retort, Mr. Webster used irony, which he em.ployed always in a perfectly characteristic way. He had a strong, natural sense of humour, but he never made fun or descended to trivial efforts to excite laughter against his opponent. He was not a witty man or a maker of epigrams. But he was a. master of the use of- a cold, dignified sarcasm; which at times, and in this instance parti- cularly, he used freely and mercilessly. Beneath the measured sentences there is a lurking smile which saves them from being merely savage and cutting attacks, and yet brings home a keen sense of the absurdity of his opponent' s^ posi- tion. . . . Logical vigilance and long chains of reasoning, avoided b}/ the ancients, are the essentials of our modern oratory. Many able men have achieved success under these conditions as forcible and convincing speakers. But the grand eloquence of modern times is distinguished by the bursts of feeling, of imagery, or of mvective, joined with convincing argument. This combination is rare, and when- ever we find a man who possesses it, we may be sure that, in a greater or less degree, he is one of the great masters of eloquence, as we understand it. Webster was, of course, essentially modern in his oratory. He relied chiefly on the sustained appeal to the understanding. ... At the same time Mr. Webster was in some respects more classical, and resembled more closely the models of antiquity than any of

256 DANIEL WEBSTER

those who have been mentioned (Chatham, Burke, Fox,. Sheridan, Erskine, Mirabeau, Vergniand, and Patrick Henry), as belonging to the same high class. He was wont to pour forth the copious stream of plain, intelhgible observa- tions, and indulge in the varied appeals to feeling, memory and interest, which Lord Brougham sets down as charac- teristic of ancient oratory. Dr. Francis Lieber wrote : ' To test Webster's oratory, which has ever been very attractive to me, I read a portion of my favourite speeches of Demos- thenes, and then read, always aloud, parts of Webster, then return to the Athenian; and Webster stood the test.' Apart from the great compliment which this conveys, such a com- parison is very interestmg as showing the similarity between Mr. Webster and the Greek orator. His style was vigorous, clear and direct in the highest, and at the same time warm and full of vitality.

Personal Appearance and Voice. *' He was five feet ten inches in height, and m health weighed a little less than two hundred pounds. He had a swarthy complexion and straight black hair. His head was large, the brain weighing, as is well known, more than ^ny on recotd, except those of Cuvier and of the celebrated brick- layer. At the same time his head was of noble shape, with a broad and lofty brow, and his features were finely cut and full of massive strength. . . . His voice was in harmony with his appearance. It was low and musical in conversa- tion; in debate it was high but full, ringing out in moments of excitement like a clarion and then sinking to deep notes with the solemn richness of organ-tones, while the words were accompanied by a manner in which grace and dignity mingled in complete accord. Webster was, of course, the greatest orator this country has ever produced. Patrick Henry's fame rests wholly on tradition. The same i^ true of Hamilton, who, moreover, never had an opportunity adequate to his talents, which were unquestionably of the first order. Fisher Ames's reputation was due to a single speech, which is distinctly inferior to many of Webster's. Clay's oratory has not stood the test of time; his speeches, which were so wonderfully effective -when he uttered them, seem dead and cold and rather thin as we read thejn to-day. Calhoun was a great debater, but was too dfy and hard for the highest eloquence. John Quincy Adams, despite his physical limitations, carried the eloquence of combat and bitter retort to the highest point in the splendid battles of his congressional career, but his learning, readi- ness, power of expression, arguments, and scathing sarcasm were not rounded into a perfect whole by the more graceful attributes which also form an essential part of oratory. But in these college days ... he loved to speak, to hold the.

DANIEL WEBSTER 257

attention of a listening audience. He practised oft-hand speaking, but he more commonly prepared himself by medi- tating on his subject, and making notes, wMcTi, however, he never used. He would enter the class-room or debating society and begin in a low voice and almost sleepy manner, and would then gradually rouse himself like a lion and pour- forth his words until he had his hearers completely under his control and glowing with enthusiasm." — " Daniel ""Vebster," by Henry Cabot Lodge.

" He was not so tall as Clay, but he was much larger and more massive in every way. He had broad shoulders, a' deep chest and a large frame, and when one heard him speak, he found that Webster's voice was exactly the kind of voice that such a looking man ought to have. It was deep, resonant, mellow, sweet with a thunder roll in it which, when let out to its full power, was awe-inspiring. In ordinary speech its magnificent bass notes rolled forth like the rich tones of a deep-voice organ; but when he chose to do so, he could elevate his voice in ringing clarion tenor tones of thrilling power.

His Power of Magnifying a Single Word.

*' He also had the faculty of magnifying a word into such prodigious volume and force that it would drop from his lips as a great boulder might drop through a ceiling, and jar the Senate chamber like a clap of thunder. Butler of South Carolina (Calhoun's colleague) became very angry and indulged in a fierce and vituperative attack on what he called the bad faith of the North. When Butler sat down, Webster was seen to be getting, up. I use this form of expression because the getting up of Daniel Webster was not a mere act, it was a process. . . . After Webster got upon his feet, he slowly rocked himself back and forth for a few moments, with his head bowed and his hands clasped behind him. Then he looked up and around, and fixed his gaze upon Butler. The suspense was intolerable . . . Slowly unclasping his hands and letting them fall by his side, and speaking in low, deep, musical, metallic tones, surcharged with intensity and power, Webster said : ' Mr. President, the honourable member from South Carolina, who has just taken his seat, says that he^is prepared to say boldly that the Northern States have not observed but have broken the com- promises of the Constitution.* Mr. Butler (in his seat) : ' 1 said it.' Mr. Webster: 'Yes, Mr. President, he said it.

n ^^u^^ ^^^^ ^^- ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ "P ^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ thrown to ^u 11 ^°^^^ ' ^^ ^s ^o duty of mine to accept a general challenge. But if the honourable member shall see fit to be so obliging as to inform the Senate in my hearing on what occasion the state, whose representative I stand here, has forborne to observe or broken the compromises of the Con-

258 DANIEL WEBSTER

stitution, he will find in me a COMBATANT on that ques- tion.' Senator Mangum, of North Carolina, subsequently said that the word * combatant ' weighed at least forty tons; and, as it fell from Webster's lips, he took a step towards Butler, his bronze complexion glowing as with inward fire, his brow clothed with thunder, his eyes blazing lightnmg, both arms raised, and his huge form towering in all its majesty.

Master of Exordium and Die ge sis.

"Webster was a master of Exordium, as witness the exordium of his Plymouth Rock oration, of his oration on laying the corner stone of Bunker Hill Monument, or of any of his great speeches, and especially the exordium of his reply to Hayne. Quintillian considers the Statement of Facts of paramount importance, and says it must be lucid in order that it may be * easily understood ; brief that it may be easily remembered; credible that it may be readily believed.' Anyone who has read many of Mr. Webster's speeches must have been struck with the predominance of those qualities — lucidity, brevity and credibility, in his state- ment of facts. . . . His demonstration of his statement, his reply to his opponents, and his peroration were equally admirable. His complexion was dark bronze. When he became animated, his complexion would glow, so that his appearance made one think of a transparent bronze statue, brilliantly lighted from within, with the luminosity shining out through his countenance." — " Great Senators of the United States, Forty Years Ago" (1848-1849), by Oliver Dyer.

" Wherever his volume of speeches go, there his statue and his portrait ought to go. In his face and form, taken together, he was doubtless the most impressive figure of American, if not of modern times. That rich complexion . . . those sad eyes so black, so reposeful, so sovereign, not large, but looking large from the cavernous sockets in which they were sunk; that broad face, every feature and lineament of which had its own power and beauty; that head Thor- waldsen thought was nobler than any European or even antique head ; . . . and beetling over all the capacious- dome of that vast brow, which has become a national ideal of personal grandeur, and first created the epithet * Websterian ' — these all combined with his build of body — blending the Herculean with a statelier grace, to encompass that grand mortal with his own majesty. His head, his bust, his statue, his portrait, his medallion, have been multiplied for every city and almost every house in America. Webster was em; phatically the orator of the understanding. The hold that Clay had upon the heart of his countrymen, Webster had upon the American mind. Probably no man ever heard or

DANIEL WEBSTER - 259

read a leading speech of Webster's without being impressed with the tone of majestic grandeur with which it seems to resound. This was partly the effect of his unequalled physi- cal presence and his nobly deep voice, but it was also due to the elevated range of his ideas.

His Closing Invocation equal to Demosthenes'.

" How widely charged with all the passionate fervour of a deep nature, sounds that splendid invocation to his Maker and his country with which he rounded off and ended the immortal speech in the Senate for New England and the Con- stitution; that final prayer worthy to stand with the great * oath ' of Demosthenes when he swore to tlie Greeks * by Marathon, by Salamis,' that prayer that his last lingering glance might rest upon the gorgeous ensign of his country. . . . That prayer shall echo forever around this whole con- tinent.

** Webster's temperament was the bilious and phlegmatic, the temperament for endurance and for the tardiest but most consuming passion. . . . His swarthy complexion and sluggish movement alike' indicated it. . . . This is the temperament to wield that lost power of oratory, that terrible energy, that absolute sovereignty over others, despotic, defiant, deadly, which the Greeks called the awful power : Deinotes.

" It has been maintained that none of the other varieties of temperaments can attain it at all, especially that no blue- eyed Saxon man can own it. They say it * takes black eyes for that.' But this can hardly be true, for Henry Clay was not black-eyed, nor was Mirabeau, nor Chatham.

The Secret of His Eloquence and His Gestures.

** The loftiest reach of the Attic arts was to express the intensest passion and struggle combined with the most absolute self-control; to unite external war with internal peace. In this principle lurked the Websterian secret. His exertion was always power in repose, power half leaning on its own right arm; the athlete conquering without a strain or visible contortion. In the most energetic and high -wrought things he ever said, there was a tone of moderation.

" His gestures were the gestures of enforcing rather than of describing; . . . the open palm of the hand, the pointing finger, the vigorous bringing down of the arm, the easy sidewise wave of all; these were pretty much his variety. He seemed in no way bookish in speaking. He had the broad, deep ringing tone of a son of the soil.

" In correcting the Hayne speech, he corrected and cor- rected till he really weakened and debased its original sturdy energy. There was one sentence of remorseless severity which bystanders reported at the time, which' never appeared in print : ' Sir,* said Webster, in words jarringly grumbled

260 DANIEL WEBSTER

forth, like the rumbhng of chariot wheels, * the Senator said he should carry the war into Africa — if God gave him the power. But, Sir,' glowering down upon Hayne with the look of Agamemnon upon Hector, ' God has not given him the power. I put it to the gentleman, God has not given him the power.' " — '* The Golden Age of American Oratory," by Edward G. Parker (published in 1857).

Taught Elocution Early by His Father. " Colonel Webster was a man of strong natural talents, and is said to have had an intuitive knowledge of the prin- ciples of elocution. His voice was loud, clear and musical, and his reading and speaking were of natural oratory. The books he delighted to read aloud for the gratification of his family and others were the Bible, Shakespeare and Pope's Essay on Man. With an inherited taste and capacity for elocution, and the lessons of his father added to those of his teachers, Daniel Webster was the pet of the travellers (his father kept an inn in addition to his occupation as a farmer, a calling which in those days was held in high repute) who stopped at the inn . . . the teamsters were wont to say, * Now let us go in and hear little Dan read a Psalm.' In variety of style, pathos, satire, ponderous argument, light raillery, animating apostrophe, Mr. Webster never on ^ny occasion exceeded his reply to Colonel Hayne.

" ' The Bunker Hill Monument is finished. Here it stands. Fortunate m the high natural eminence. . . . That powerful speaker stands motionless before us ! * (see also passage under Fig. 'Pause). Here Webster paused, and pointed in silent admiration to the lofty pile; the assembled thousands burst into long and loud applause. When the echoes of that mighty shout died away, the orator proceeded : ' It is a plain shaft. It bears no inscription . . . who, with heroic devotion, have sacrificed their lives for their country.' " — 'The Young American's Library," "Life of Webster" (published 1853).

, " His famous exordium of the tempest tossed mariner is a masterly stroke of genius. The notes from which Webster spoke (the Hayne reply) were made on a few sheets of paper the preceding night, when tradition says his anxious fiiends were hanging about him, alarmed by his seeming indifference. But his whole life had been a preparation for this event,. and he was serenely conscious of his power." — '; Daniel Webster, the Orator," by Albert Pillsbury (pub- lished in 1903).

"It is quite evident that Mr. Webster matured rather slowly; that his efforts made before the age of fifty were his most popular because the most impassioned efforts; but that his productions dated beyond the age of fifty, though less fiery, are generally more indicative of his unsurpassed abili-

I

DANIEL WEBSTER 261

ties as a man of deep, penetrating, far-reaching and compre- hensive mmd/ His mind, mdeed, seemed to grow clearer as he advanced in years; and the very latest speeches, though not so striking to the superficial hearers, will be regarded- hereafter, by close and competent readers, as the most finished of all the productions of his tongue and pen. — -

His Style, Slow, Dignified, Conversational. "It is to be hoped that his style of elocution, calm, slow, dignified, natural, unambitious, and yet direct and powerful, will take the place of that showy, flowery, flashy, fitful and boisterous sort of speaking, which seems to be becoming too common, which breaks down the health of the speaker, and which is, nevertheless, most likely to strike the feelings and corrupt the judgment of the young. . . . What he had to say, he said as easily, as naturally, and yet as forcibly as possible, with such a voice as he used in common conversa- tion, only elevated and /strengthened to meet the demands of his large audiences, v^et me say here plainly that, having heard Mr. Webster speak very frequently, on almost every variety of occasion, I have never heard him, even when most excited, raise his voice higher or sink it lower, or utter his words more rapidly than he could do consistently with the most perfect ease, and with the utmost dignity of movement. So intent did he seem to be, so intent he certainly was, in making his hearers see and feel as he did, in relation to the subject of the hour, that no one thought of his manner, or whether he had any manner, till the speech was over. That is oratory, true oratory. . . ." — " The Speeches of Daniel Webster and His Masterpieces," by B. F. Tefft, D.D., LL.D. (published in 1854).

** In debate Webster was quick at retort. If it was a personal insult that roused the slumbering lion, his roar of rage was appalling, and the spring and the death-like blow that followed were like lightning in their suddenness. How He Prepared His Speeches. " Commonly he prepared himself with conscientious care for all his speeches, not by writing them out, but by thinking over and over what he had to say, all the while mentally facing his audience. In many passages, no doubt, the very languag-e was pre-chosen, and selected with the nicest dis- crimination, and the closing paragraphs, in which were con- densed the very pith and marrow of his entire argument. Webster's manner in speaking was usually calm, quite the opposite of Clay's or Calhoun's. Except in moments of high excitement he had little action — an occasional gesture with the right hand being all. In his law arguments he was still more sparing of gestures; his keen, deep-set eye glancing, his speaking countenance and distinct utterance, with an occasional emphatic inclination of the body, being the only

262 DANIEL WEBSTER

means by which he urged home his arguments. The vast mass of the man did much to make his words impressive. Clay had a more electric or magnetic nature, and showed far keener sagacity in divining public sentiment, and in sweeping the strings of popular feeling ; but in sheer intel- lectual might — in that comprehensiveness of vision which sees all sides of a subject and judges it in all its relations — in that largeness and weight of utterance which give the greatest impressiveness to everything that one says, and m hard logic, which links conclusion to conclusion like a chain 'ot iron — neither Clay, nor Calhoun, nor any other American was ever equal to Webster. He was emphatically the orator of the understanding, and spoke to the head rather than to the heart, because his qualities were those imperial ones that compel admiration rather than win love — he was never a favourite of the populace. He did not dart to his conclusions with the swift discernment of the eagle-eyed Clay, but won them by sheer force of thinking. Daniel Webster was a prodigy of physical and intellectual endowment; but his greatest gift was a prodigious capacity for hard worJi. Mr. Webster once told his friend Peter Harvey that his great speech in reply to Hayne, which was generally supposed to have been without preparation, had been substantially pre- pared long before, for another but not dissimilar occasion, so that when he was called upon suddenly to defend the honour of New England against the fiery Carolinian's attack, he had only to turn to his * notes tucked away in a pigeon- hole,' and refresh his memory with his well-weighed argu- ments and glowing periods. As he himself said, he had only to reach out for a thunderbolt and hurl it at him. ' If Hayne had tried,* he said, * to make a speech to fit my notes, he could not have hit it better. No man is inspired by the occasion; I never was.'" — ''Oratory and Orators," by William Mathews, LL.D.

Daniel Webster is the most conspicuous figure in the history of American eloquence. On account of his magnificent physique, massive head and commanding look, he was called "God-like Daniel." In polish, rhythmical roll, partition of speech, combination of passion with reasoning, concen- tration of enormous force into a single expression, in Ecphonesis, Sarcasmus, Apostrophe, Pause, in the bold rhetorical and ornamental figures, and in many points of delivery, he is one of the nearest approaches to the great Athenian since the days of Demosthenes. But he lacked the fire and rapidity of Demosthenes. The difference between the two can be noted by taking a spirited Hypophora of Demosthenes. On this particular point, the great English- man, Fox, approached nearest to the Athenian. However, it must be borne in mind that Webster was a larger built man than Demosthenes. Like the latter, though endowed

DANIEL WEBSTER 263

with the highest talent, he trusted nothing to chance, for he prepared his speeches; even the Hayne reply, which was thought to be extemporaneous (and this is oratorical art to deliver a prepared speech as if extemporaneous), was pre- pared for another occasion, and is the epitome of previous years* study and thought. Although his reply to SQine_ members appeared to be extemporaneous, still Webster had long before he rose revolved the question in his mind and debated it with himself. Webster's articulation was clear, his cadences melodious, and his voice full and deep-toned. We cannot all have a voice as deep as that of Daniel Webster, nor speak in his slow, heavy style, for these qualities are natural for a Herculean frame like that of Webster, who weighed 200 lbs. and was 5ft. loin. in height) nor can we all have the mellow depth of voice and the diversified oratory of Henry Clay, who was slender, 6ft. lin., with a long neck, which also gives extra vocal resonance; but we can develop those qualities of our own voice, parti- cularly the tones of the lower register, to their greatest capacity, so that our own depth, mellowness and sweetness of tone, suitable to our own nature, will be just as telling upon our audience as were those of Webster or Clay upon their respective audiences.

Spurgeon says: ** We cannot censure John Gough's mar- vellous gesticulations and perambulations, for he would not have been John Gough without them. Now this was right enough for John Gough; but if you, John Smith or John Brown, commence these perambulations, you will soon be likened to the wandering Jew or to the polar bear at the zoological garden. Be natural in your action. Your own clothes, though homespun, will fit you better than another man's, though made of the best broadcloth."

Mathews tells us of the famous English preacher, Robert Hall, having tried, when in his early days, to imitate Dr. Robinson's style, his musical voice and intonations, and then tried the elephantine manner of Dr. Johnson; but finally concluding thus: *' I ought to have known that for me to speak slow was ruin. You know. Sir, that force or momentum is conjointly as the body and velocity; therefore as my voice is feeble, what is wanted in body must be made up in velocity, or there will not be, cannot be, any impression."

It is a strange coincidence that the great Demosthenean orator of England, Fox, and the great Demosthenean orator of America, Daniel Webster, resembled each other in many characteristics. Both appealed to the understanding in con- junction with passion, both were slow in development, both were animated by lofty sentiments, both laboured for peace between America and England (the recent centenary of peace between the two countries dates from the Webster-Ashburton

264 DANIEL WEBSTER

Treaty, 1820), and both passed away in a very similar manner — Fox during his last days discoursed on the immor- tality of the soul and Webster on death. It was the wish of the latter to retain his reason until the last moment that he might find out what death really is. In an apparently semi-conscious state he exclaimed, ''Life! life! death I death! how curious it is! " Soon after. Doctor Jeffries repeated to him, " Though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death . . . ," and Webster immediately rejomed, " The fact! the fact! that is what I want! " He then lapsed into an unconscious condition, but again revived, and, surprised at finding himself still alive, said " I still live." These were his last words. Still lives ! yea, lives in the hearts of Ameri- cans, as Senator Lodge says: "The grandeur of American nationality . . . and the nobility of the Union of the States;" — lives in the memory of all as a champion of justice and freedom, whose oratory was spent not in behalf of tyranny and despotism and oppression, but in behalf of the human race, its peace and happiness; and in eloquence will live not as an American legacy, but as a glorious international heritage.

Extracts from the " Reply to Hayne.''

" Mr. President, — *When the mariner has been tossed for many days in thick weather and on an unknown sea, he naturally avails himself of the first pause in the storm, the earliest glance of the sun, to take his latitude, and ascertain how far the elements have driven him from his true course. Let us imitate this prudence, and before we float farther on the waves of this debate, refer to the point from which we departed, that we may at least be able to conjecture where we now are. I ask for the reading of the resolution. . . .

** ^ We have thus heard, sir, what the resolution is which is actually before us for consideration; and it will readily occur to every one that it is almost the only subject about which something has not been said in the speech, running through two days, by which the Senate has been now enter- tained by the gentleman from South Carolina. Every topic in the wide range of our public affairs, whether past or present — everything general or local, whether belonging to national politics or party politics — seems to have attracted more or less of the honourable member's attention, save only the resolution before the Senate. He has spoken of every- thing but the public lands ; they have escaped his notice. To that subject, in all his excursions, he has not paid even the cold respect of a passing glance. . . .

" ^ The honourable member complained that I had slept on his speech. I must have slept on it or not at all. . . .

" Sir, let me recur to pleasing recollections; let me indulge in refreshing remembrances of the past; let me remind you

* Exordium (i) Diegesis (2) Saicasmus.

DANIEL WEBSTER 265

that in early times no states cherished greater harmony, both of prmciple and feeling, than Massachusetts and South Carolina. ^ Would to God that harmony might again return ! Shoulder to shoulder they went through the revolu- tion, hand in hand they stood round the administration of Washington, and felt his own great arm lean on them-ior support. Unkind feeling, if it exists, alienation and dis- trust are the growth, unnatural to such soils, of false prin- ciples since sown. They are weeds, the seeds of which that same great arm never scattered. "^ Mr. President, I shall enter on ^ no encomium upon Massachusetts ; she needs none. There she is. Behold her, and judge for yourselves. There is her history ; the world knows it by heart. The past, at least, is secure. There is Boston, and Concord, and Lexing- ton, and Bunker Hill; and there they will remain for ever. The bones of her sons, falling in the great struggle for independence, now lie mingled with the soil of every state from New England to Georgia ; and there they will lie for ever-^-^-And, sir, when American liberty raised its first voice^ and where its youth was nurtured and sustained, there it still lives, in the strength of its manhood and full of its original spirit. If discord and disunion shall wound it, if party strife and blind ambition shall hawk at and tear it, if folly and madness, if uneasiness under salutary and necessary restraint shall succeed in separating it from the Union, by which alone its existence is made sure, it will stand in the end by the side of that cradle in which its infancy was rocked ; ^ it will stretch forth its arm with whatever of vigour it may still retain over the friends who gather round it; and it will fall at last, if fall it must, amidst the proudest monuments of its own glory, and on the very spot of its origin. . . .

" M have not allowed -myself, sir, to look beyond the Union, to see what might lie hidden in the dark recess behind. I have not coolly weighed the chances of preserving liberty when the bonds that unite us together shall be broken asunder. I have not accustomed myself to hang over the precipice of disunion, to see whether, with my short sight, I can fathom the depth of the abyss below ; nor could I regard him as a safe counsellor in the affairs of this government whose thoughts should be mainly bent on considering, not how the Union should be best preserved, but how tolerable might be the condition of the people when it shall be broken up and destroyed. While the Union lasts, we have high, exciting, gratifying prospects spread out before us and our children. Beyond that I seek not to penetrate the veil. ^ God grant that in my day, at least, that curtain may not rise ! God grant that on my vision never may be opened what lies behind ! When my eyes shall behold . . . one and inseparable ! " (For full passage see Pig. Arsis and Thesis.)

(3) Opta'io (4) Apostrophe (5) Paraleipsis (6) Arsis and Thesis, Parison (7) Paraleipsis (8) Apostrophe.

266 EPIMONE— EPIPHORA

EPIMONE : Greek ep, upon; meno, to tarry, to linger, to stay at home; is a figure whereby the speaker dwells upon and persists in a former conclusion, or the same cause, much after one form of speech, but repeated in other words more plainly; by some it is said to be when the speaker, knowing whereon the greatest weight of his matter or cause dep^uids, makes often recourse thereto and repeats it many times by variations.

IJ se : In the use of this figure the greatness of desire is signified; to warn effectively; twice may be remembered when once may be forgotten.

EPIPHONEMA: Greek epi, upon; phono ^ to speak out; is a figure by which the speaker makes an exclamatory sentence or a striking reflection which sums up to confirm or conclude an argument, description, narrative, etc. — e.g.^ " I have had power to save, and do you ask whether I can destroy.'* An Epiphonema is a concluding attestation to something already related or proved, not as a proof, but as a triumphant blow at the close of a period, to the adverse party, as " . . . Such was the task to found the Roman State." Epiphonema, or Striking Thought, as Quintillian states, are those introduced chiefly at the close of periods. It relates sometimes to a thing, as *' nothing attributes more to popularity than goodness."

" Epiphonema for a final clause An inference strong by sudden , impulse draws."

— Langley. Example :

" She loved me for the dangers I had passed, And I loved her that she did pity them. This only is the witchcraft I have used : Here comes the lady; let her witness it."

Shakespeare. V se : The use of this figure is also to signify content, liking or admiration of the speaker in respect of the words uttered or matter aoproved of, and may thus be called the rhetorical pause. It ends with the amplifying of honesty, wickedness, shame, dignity, profit, loss.

Caution : Brilliant thoughts should not be too crowded, as they interfere with one another and make style too curt.

EPIPHORA : This is a figure by which the orator makes a repetition of a word at the end of S'everal sentences, to add force and impressiveness to the matter; a figure which ends divers members or clauses with one and the same word.

Examples-. "When I was a child I spake as a child, I understood as a child, I imagined as a child." " Ambition

EPISTATIS— EPITHETON 267

seeks to be next to the best, after that to be equal to the best, and last to be chief and above the best." (See Fig. Circle.)

V se : This figure is much esteemed as an ornament of great eloquence, yet it should be used sparingly in grave and severe causes. It serves to leave a word of importances in the end of a sentence that it may the longer hold the sound in the mind of the hearer.

EPISTATIS : Epistatis is that part of the speech or oration which appeals to the passions. For full treatment of figures used to appeal to the passions or emotions, see Figs. Epilogue, Nos. 2 and 3, Emphasis and Pathopoeia.

EPITHETON: Greek epi, on, in addition to; tithemif to place, to put; an apposition; is a figure or form of speech which joins adjectives to those substantives to which they properly belong, and that either for the purpose of praising or dispraising, amplifying or extenuating.

Examples: To praise: '* Oh, wonderful clemency! Oh, most holy discipline ! Gracious princes, honourable judges, reverend fathers, prudent councillors, etc." To dispraise: Wicked counsel, rash consent, and cursed slaughter; evil counsellors, unnatural parents, disobedient children. To Amplify : Glorious fame, heavenly music, insatiable avarice, mad drunkenness, horrible fear. To Extenuate a small fault, a feeble excuse, momentary time. Among all the forms cf eloquence there is no ornament either more general or more excellent than this figure.

Examples : "... it is the alliance of God and of nature — immutable, eternal — fixed as the firmament of heaven." — Chatham. " . . . in his mind all was shuffling, ambiguous, dark, invidious, little; nothing simple, nothing unmixed." — Sheridan. Rufus Choate, the greatest forensic American orator, says Mathews, not only multiplied but sometimes repeated adjectives with telling effect, and " drove his sub- stantive and six," as *' a safe, sound, substantial, suitable, second-rate, second-hand harness."

For delivery of Epitheton, see *' Harmonic Inflection."

EPITIAIESIS : Greek eVt, upon ; TtfMdco, value the amount of punishment, to lay an estimate on, reproof or censure: is a figure which encouches an epiplexis, a castiga- tion or censure. Bullinger classifies it as "an expression of feeling by way of censure, reproof or reproach," and gives as an example Luke xxiv. 25 : " Then he said unto them, O fools, and slow of heart to believe all that the prophets have spoken!^" This figure was much used by Demosthenes.

268 EPIZEUXIS— EROTESIS

EPIZEUXIS : Greek eVt, on, upon, one upon another; ^€v^La, a yoking, after the manner of oxen ; is a figure by which the orator repeats a word for emphasis or greater vehemence, which repetition has nothing between and is said commonly with a swift pronunciation. The Epizeuxis may be accumulated — e.g., "Alone, alone, all, all alone, alone on the wide, wide sea." — Coleridge. Bullinger says it is a repetition of the same word in the same sense.

Examples: "Oh! trust Him, trust Him, trust Him, trust Him. '* — Spurgeon.

" And my kingdom for a little grave;

A little, little grave, an obscure grave." — Shakespeare.

Cicero to Anthony: "Thou, thou, Anthony gavest cause of civil war to Caesar."

Use : The use of this figure is to expross the vehemence of any affection or emotion, whether it be of joy, love, hatred, admiration or any such; in respect of pleasant affections or such like, it may be compared to a quarter m music; in respect of sorrow, a double sigh of the heart; in respect of anger, to a double stab with a weapon's point.

Caution : Words of many syllables are unfit for this repeti- tion, for if one repeat " abomination " it would sound un- favourably, also take a. long time to say, as the difference is great between saying " O my son, my son," and " O abomination, 'abomination." The one has brevity and beauty, the other prolixity and deformity.

Delivery : An Epizeuxis is to be delivered quickly, the repetition being a sort of Emphatic Repetition (see this fig.), the first word being the assertion, the second or repeated being as a confirmation. The voice is more forcible on the second or repeated word or words. The pronunciation is swift and the vehemence is great.

EROTESIS : This is a figure by which the orator makes a strong affirmation in the form of an earnest interrogation; an oratorical question implying the reverse of what is asked — e.g., "You believe that story, do you?" A figure con- sisting in the use of a question or questions for oratorical purposes. It is a rhetorical question. " Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery?" — Henry.

Examples : The affirmative interrogation is a vehement denying; and a negative is a vehement affirming. A negative interrogation sometimes vehemently commands, and an affirmative interrogation in like manner forbids.

Vehement Negation: "Who can understand his errors?" is the same as no man can understand the depth of them. Also to diminish and abate: "Who art thou, oh great mountain, before Zerubbabel ? " is the same as "Thou

EROTESIS— ETHOPCEIA 269

lookest very big and great, but who art thou?" To raise and heighten the sense by way of admiration: " Oh, Lord, our Lord, how excellent is Thy name in all the world ! " To expostulate and complain-. "Why died I not from the womb . . . ? " "My God, my God, why hast thou for- saken me? " Emphatical and strong affirmation \ " If thoih do well, shalt thou not be accepted — have I not commanded them? "

" By Erotesis, what we know we ask

Prescribing for effect, a needless task."— Langley.

** And thou, O silent mountain, sole and bare, Who sank thy sunless pillars deep in earth ? Who filled thy countenance with rosy light ? Who made thee father of perpetual streams ? And you, ye five wild torrents, fiercely clad. Who call'd you forth. Night and utter Death? "

— Coleridge. Use : It is used to declare a conviction, express an indig- nation, or vindicate an authority by putting it in the form of a question without expecting an answer.

Delivery : This highly wrought, figurative form of speech usually abounds in the Epilogue (see this Fig. Nos. 2 and 3), and pre-supposes great energy of feelings ; it is therefore not delivered calmly. The interrogative words or pronouns which as a rule begin the question (who, what, which, why, whence, how, etc.) should, as Thomas Sheridan in his " Lectures on Elocution " says, be shot out of the mouth. The clause or member takes the falling inflection like a declarative sentence. They do not take a rising inflection at the end, as does a simple inquiry or question for informa- tion.

ETHOPCEIA : Greek ^^09, custom, habit, disposition, temper, usual haunts of wild beast first, then of men; poeeo, to make, produce, represent; is a figure of rhetoric in which there is a feigning of certain words accommodated to certain persons either to their praise or reproach.

Some define Ethopoeia as a direct quotation.

Julius Rufinianus defines it thus : Ethopceia is the imita- tion of the disposition, habits and words, whatever sort one may wish, of others, for the purpose of reprehension. In Latin it is called figuration. Fortunatianus classifies it among the Schemata Dianoeas — i.e.. Figures of Thought. In ** De Rhetorica Isidori " the following is given: "We, in fact, call Ethopoeia that in which we present the person of a human being for the purpose of expressing his disposition, state of mind or body, as to his period of life, his study, his fortune, his delight, sex, his lamentation, his insolence, audacity, courage, presumption; for example, as when we

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present the person of a pirate, his speech would be abrupt,, insolent, audacious; when we simulate the speech of a woman,, it ought to be suitable, to her sex; as also that of a youth, an old man, a soldier,' an emperor, and a parasite, and a rustic and a philosopher; it ought to be as each respective person would say it. (2) In another manner, in fact, it must be said joyfully, if the person is so affected; angrily, if injured, in which kind of speech they are for the most part as if meditating what one may say, before whom, from whom, where, and in what time; what he will do or what should be done, or what he would suffer if he should neglect this advice.

Examples of a direct quotation, or directly related, such as in ^schines, who in this respect is more frequent, freer and simpler than Demosthenes (cf. Blass' *' :-&schines," p. 244), in the following example, in which there is avowedly a play of fancy; vs. Timarchus, 175: "So I do beg you by all means not to furnish this sophist (Demosthenes) with laughter and patronage at your expense. Imagine that you see him when he gets home from the court-room, putting on airs in bis lectures to his young men, and telling how successfully he stole the case away from the jury : ' 1 carried the jurors off bodily from the charges brought against Timarchus and set them on the accuser, and Philip and the Phocians, and I suspended such terrors before the eyes of the hearers that the defendant began to be the accuser, and the accuser to be on trial, and the jurors forgot what they were to judge and what they were not to judge ; to what they listened.' "

A direct quotation with an apostrophe; -^schines vs. Timarchus, 121 : " But I will suggest to you, Timarchus, a different line of defence, which is honourable and fair, and you will adopt it if you are conscious of having done nothing shameful. Come, dare to look the jury in the face and say that which a decent man ought to say of his youth : ^ Fellow- citizens, I have been brought up as a boy and youth among you; how I have spent my time is no secret to you, and you see me with you in your assemblies.' "

Directly related speech with Diatyposis, see in examples under this figure; .y^schines versus Timarchus, 166. See also example of .^schines vs. Ctesiphon, 211, as instance of what the speaker ought to have said : ** . . . he ought to have come before the Assembly and said : * Fellow-citizens, I accept the crown, but 1 do not approve the time at which the proclamation is to be made.' "

Example from Demosthenes, Embassy, 209: "... 1 should have expected language like this from him, if he had not sold himself : ' Men of Athens, deal with me as you please \ I believed, I was deluded, I was in error, I confess

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it; but beware of the man, O Athenians; he is not to be trusted, he is a juggler, a villain. See you not how he has treated me ? how he has cajoled me ? ' I hear no language of this kind, nor do you. Why ? Because he was not cajoled or deceived, but had hired himself and ..."

And this fine example of what the jury should say -to- ^schines, Emb. 335: '* But if any general has injured you, it has nothing to do with the present inquiry. For v/hat general has lost Halus, or who has destroyed the Phocians?- Who, Doriscus ? Who, Cersobleptes ? Who, the sacred mountain.? Who, Thermopylae? Who has given to Philip a road all the way to Attica through the territory of friends and allies ? Who has alienated Coronas, Orchomenus, Euboea ? Who nearly Megara lately ? Who has made the Thebans powerful? Gf all these important matters, none was lost through the generals, none has Philip yielded to him at the peace with your consent; they have been lost through these men and their venality. If therefore he shirks from these points, if to lead you astray he will talk of anything sooner than them, meet him as I suggest : * We are not sitting in judgment upon a general ; you are not tried upon these charges. Do not tell us who else has caused the destruction of the Phocians, but show that you are not the cause. Why, if Demosthenes did any wrong, do you mention it now, but did not accuse him when he rendered his accounts? For this reason you have deserved to be punished. Do not tell us that peace is a hne thing or an advantageous thing, for no one charges you with the states having concluded peace; but that the peace is not a shameful and injurious one — that we have been cheated in many ways and all was not lost after it — this you may tell us. For all these consequences are proved to have been brought upon us by you; and how is it that up to this day you praise the author of such things?' — if you keep watch upon him thus, he will have nothing to say, but will raise his voice and have exercised himself in spouting all to no purpose."

Example of certain hypothetical cases which Demosthenes invents; for instance, as in the speech on the Chersonese, 34-37: /'By Jupiter, if the Greeks call you to account for the opportunities which you have indolently lost and ask you, saying : * Men of Athens, you send us ambassadors on every occasion and assert that Philip is plotting against us and all the Greeks and that we should take precaution against the man, and more to the same effect ? (We must admit and acknowledge it, for so we do.) * And yet, O ye wretchedest of mankind, though Philip has been ten months away, and by illness and winter and wars prevented from return- ing home, you have neither liberated Euboea nor recovered any of your dominions. He, on tlie contrary, whilst you

272 ETHOPCEIA

were staying at home, at leisure, in health (if men so actmg may be called in health), established two rulers in Euboea, one like a hostile fortress opposite Attica, another threaten- ing Sciathus; and these nuisances you have never got rid of; not even this would ye attempt; you have submitted, left the road open to him clearly, and made manifest that, if he died a hundred times, you would stir never a step more. Then, wherefore send embassies and make accusation and give us trouble? * ... If they asked this, what could we answer or say, men of Athens, I really cannot tell."

Use : The reproduction in them, as Baden states, brings out more clearly the motive of those who are represented as speaking, and lends great freshness and vivacity to the dis- course. It was probably borrowed from the speech of people who are fond of dwelling on particulars and details. Hence Andocides, the natural orator, delights in the figure, while Isocrates in his court speeches does not indulge in it. . . . Demosthenes only makes use of these expedients when they are specially suited to his purpose. The Hypothetical Ethopceia is used to give the speaker an opportunity of mentioning his merits with less offence, to bring out the feelings into strong light, and also to produce an enthymeme of extraordinary effect (cf. Blass' " Demosthenes "). Blass says that the recital of the speeches in an imitative manner, as Demosthenes in the Embassy, 242, confers great vivacity; as the strongly marked speech of the opponent forms a strong contrast to that of the speaker. As an instance, he gives Demosthenes on the Chersonese, 70: " . . . If I were to be asked to declare what service I had done the state, although, ye men of Athens, I could mention services as ship-captain and choir-master, payment of contributions, ransom of prisoners, and similar acts of liberality, I would mention none of them; I would say that I espouse a different course of politics from these, that although others accuse and bribe and do everything which these men do, I have never engaged myself in such a task, never been induced either by avarice or ambition; I continue to offer counsel by which I sink below others in your regard ; but if you followed it, would be exalted. So perhaps might one speak without offence."

As used in a supposed case, take Demosthenes vs. Timo- crates, 208, a passage Blass says is very highly praised, with respect to the proposal of Timocrates, who partly abolished punishment by imprisonment : ** Why, suppose just now you were to hear a noise close to the court, a^nd then some one told you that the prison had been opened and the prisoners were making their escape; . . . For what is the use of them, when persons sentenced to imprisonment are released, and if you sentence any one hereafter you are none the better for it."

ETHOPOEIA 273

In brief, Ethopoeia is used, as Romanus says, to accom- modate words to certain persons for the purpose of showing their iniquity or dignity; and as Juhus Rufinianus gives it, for the purpose of reprehension. It also gives one an oppor- tunity, as Aristotle advises, to show forth without offence his own character. It is like what J. W. Macbeth calls the figure Egoism, which he says is an introduction of one's own opinion, wants or experience; the bringing one's self individually before the audience is at times necessary to give an air of life to oratory; or to show befitting earnestness: " I have read with astonishment,'' said the energetic Lord Brougham, " and I repel with scorn the insinuation that I had acted the part of an advocate, and that some of my statements were coloured to serve a cause. How dares any one skulking under a fictitious name to launch his slanderous imputation from his covert ! 1 come forward in my own person. I make the charge in the face of day. I drag the criminal to trial. I openly call down justice on his head. I defy his attack. I defy his defenders. I challenge investi- gation."

*' I defy them as I ever did." — Henry Clay.

Caution : In the matter of imitation, the orator should be moderate, taking care not to over-do it, and to avoid everything offensive, lest he might commit something un- becoming to the dignity of an orator. See Cicero's caution in this respect under the figure Asteismus, also Quintillian's observation, where he said that it is ** the orator I wish to form " in this, that the orator should not encroach upoji the actor. The imitation of any peculiar words or actions ohould be brief so far as the orator is concerned. " Inst. Oratorias " Sulpitii Victoris observes that ethopceias are for the most parts excluded from the narration of extreme danger or critical circumstances, which, if they are introduced, ought to be few and brief. Be careful that the words be suitable to the character.

Delivery : As Ethopoeia is, according to Fortunatianus, a Figure of Thought, rather Dianoeas (feeling, force, etc.), it follows that it should be delivered in a lively manner. It is in this way that it gives vivacity and freshness to a speech, similar to what Hermogenes indicates in his fifth idea called Ethos, in which he says that all the mythical narratives (Demosthenes' Aristocrates, 65 ff.) are charming, only the speaker must, when making use of them, deliver them m a somewhat lively manner, thus providing them with Gorgotes (vivacity). As to the gesture and voice, the words we put intQ the mouth of the person introduced into our speech, some of them may be given in the peculiar voice and accent or pronunciation of that particular person, together with a few of his characteristic gestures; if the person is cultured, the

274 ETHOS AND PATHOS

extent of imitation must be left to judgment of the speaker, but if a rustic, a pirate, a dandy, etc., he should narrate or describe, delivering only a very few words in the charac- teristic style of that person, with a slight gesticulative imita- tion, principally those words which illustrate the point the orator wishes to make. The audience should imagine more than they see. According to Halm*s *' Emporii Oratoris,'* if the speech is of an angered person, it should commence thus and follow an angry style; if timid, timidly;- if happy, happily; if joyous, joyfully; vam, tumidly; precipitate, brief and quick; if of a meretricula (prostitute), blandly and iKeretriciously ; of a parasite, facetiously, wittily; of a miserable or poverty stricken person, humbly, making long and many circumlocutions; of the orator, culturedly and decorously. In fact, the speaker should deliver the speech in the same style of feeling; if joy, then m a joyful manner; if sad, then adopt a sad tone, etc.

ETHOS and PATHOS :* "H<9o? Kal UdOo^ : These are two Figures of Thought, the form of expression in the one being mild, and in that of the other violent. "Lib. de Phetorica,'' Cassiodori, gives the following very adequate definitions: *' Of these two dispositions or mental states, which the Greeks call Ethos and Pathos — Pathos are those states that are violently moved, rapid, swift, passionate, ardent; Ethos, in fact, are the composed, quiet ones. In the latter, the emotion is gentle, mild; in the former, it is violent, vehement. Pathos is that which commands. Ethos that which persuades; these prevail towards perturbation, those to benevolence. Pathos is temporary; Ethos is, as it were, permanent, and may appear throughout the whole speech. As to the nature of each. Pathos is the greater, as in love, desire, ardour; Ethos, the less, as in respect, high esteem, regard. Pathos stirs up, excites, shakes, arouses, spurs on; Ethos checks, stops, appeases, allays, quiets."

Volkmann's ** Hermagoras " defines them thus: ** Pathos is a temporarily excited mood; the Ethos, on the contrary, is the equable, calm attitude of the emotional nature, depen- dent on' certain qualities in the character."

Hermogenes gives Ethos as his Fifth Idea, and explains

* Mr». E. Pankhurst, the great protagonist of the woman's suffrage movement in England, is full of sentiment and has a very sympathetic voice. She is deliberate, but more inclined to Ethos. Her articulation is exceedingly clear, which quality gives considerable carrying power. The writer was greatly impressed at one of her meetings, held at the London Pavilion, by the very effective way she delivered the words "Women have done so well." The last word was pronounced in such a full and sympathetic voice that it conveyed a far deeper meaning than when spoken in an ordinary tone. The mellow falling inflection on the word " well" and the resonant way in which she pronounced the "11" were so forceful as to create a sympathy among her listeners with what women had done. At another address, delivered at the Roya! Albert Hall in celebration of the Parliamentary Act according women the vote, she was extremely impressive. Her voice seemed to be the voice of tears as she recounted the trials and sufierings women had endured to arrive at such a triumph, and recalled how some of those women who had taken part in the great struggle had passed away and could not rejoice with them in the victory. The whole passage was highly pathetic, sentimental and sublime.

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it thus : one might say the character portrayal or demonstra- tion. It may be equally divided over a whole speech, but may also appear mixed among the other Ideas. It is pro- duced by epieikeia (fairness, mildness, equity, the spirit of the law as opposed to the letter, reasonableness) and apheleia (simplicity, plainness), and in the true and close endiathetovr (from the heart) which appears in them. The barutes (gravity of manners, harshness) also belongs to this, to a certain extent; it can, however, only appear in combination with other kinds of ethical portrayal or representation. The apheleia is that which we designate naivete. The thoughts are homely and simple, childish; indeed, they may almost border on the trivial. Examples from the animal world, especially those taken from nature, are naive. Everything else coincides with the katharotes (clearness, purity). The combination of naivete and beauty lead to glykytes (sweet- ness), to the charm and loveliness of the portrayal, which does not differ from the abrotes (delicacy) and the o)paio<f (the word in due season or at the right time). Thoughts are also '' charming," in which lifeless things and those without will are treated as having a soul and a will, as the naive statement of Socrates in the Platonic Phaedrus, or the address which Herodotus puts into the mouth of Xerxes, which the latter addressed to the sea chastised by him; and also when animals have human feelings and sensibilities.

Examples of Ethos : We shall give some examples from '^schines, who was a master of Ethos. Blass says that in general ;^schines is less happy as a practical than as an ethical speaker, that the Prooemium of the speech against Ctesiphon is full of moral dignity and worth. In the speech on the Embassy, where he allows the Ethos to shine through in the whole bearing of the speech, and in many single passages, he impresses on us with great effect, as in the Embassy, 152: "You try to bring into contempt Ipicrates, Philon's brother; but who ever saw him behaving in an indecent manner . . . This suggestion I will put to you, for I ask, fellow-citizens, whether you believe that I would have betrayed to Philip not only my country, my personal friend- ships, and my right under the shrines and tombs of my fathers, but also these children, the dearest of mankind to me.

Example of the Ethos of a witness. yEschines shows also the Ethos of his witness, Aristophanes of Olynthus, excel- lently, in the answer which he makes him give to Demos- thenes' attempt at bribery or corruption. Embassy, 155: " But Aristophanes answered him as he himself told the story, * that so far as his exile and present need were con- cerned, Demosthenes' aim had not been wide of the mark — indeed, no aim could have been closer — but that he had

276 ETHOS AND PATHOS

•entirelv misjudged his character ; for he could do nothing of the sort.' To testify to the truth of what I say, please call Aristophanes ..."

The examole of JEschines vs. Ctesiphon, jy : Blass says the whole section is a masterpiece of cunning, throwing suspicion, while yEschines generally attacks, calumniates, scorns openly ; but he thoroughly understands how to change his tone, to call up varied colouring, and to speak now with simple or dignified Ethos, now with mockery and irony, now earnestly and weightily. For instance, after he has exposed Demosthenes' flattery toward the Macedonian am- bassador, he digresses with : ** Now this man it was, fellow- citizens, this past master of flattery, who, when informed throup^h scouts of Charidemus that Philip was dead, before any one else had received the news, made up a vision for himself and lied about the gods, pretending that he had received the news, not from Charidemus, but from Zeus and Athena, the gods by whose name he perjures himself by day, who converse with him in the night, as he says, and tell him of things to come — (caricature and mockery with sharp and bitter attack) — and although it was but the seventh day after the death of his daughter, and though the ceremonies of mourning were not yet completed, he put a garland on his head and white raiment on his body, and there he stood making^ thank-offerings, violating all decency — miserable man who had lost the first and only one who called him ■* Father ! * — (Ethos with mockery) — not that I reproach him for his misfortune, but I am probing his character. For the man who hates his child, and is a bad father, could never become a safe guide to the people; the man who does not cherish the persons who are nearest and dearest to him will never care much about you who are not his kinsmen; the man who is wicked in his private relations would never be found trustworthy in public affairs; and the man who was base at home was never a good and honourable man in Mace- donia, for bv his journey he changed his position, not his disposition."

In the oration against Timarchus, on the contrary, the Ethos consists in the affectedly honourable attitude, and in the human forbearance which gladly overlooks even vice, of which it is here a question, except in the case of Timarchus and those who take his side.

U se : Ethos is used to manifest character, whether it be of one's own or that of another person. I'he modest equit- .ableness (the epieikeia) is used or shows itself when anyone, instead of exacting his full rights, contents himself, in con- sideration of mitigating circumstances, with moderate demands, when the speaker puts himself on the same level as his hearers, when he shows that they would have acted

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in the same manner as he himself, when he emphasises the point that he is to a certain extent forced by the opponent to take up his legal position. On the other hand, the accused may also say that he has only been put into this position because he could not make up his mind to take^ harsh measures. The Ethos is used, or rather prevails, in the judicial or forensic addresses. In the judicial proper, Avhere character is important, abound the apheleia and efieikeia ; and the barutes (gravity of manners, etc.) retires ; in the deliberative speeches, i.e., those to the people, etc., Ethos retires and the Idea of Greatness prevails; the great- ness lies in the prolixity of the thought. According to Hermogenes, Ethos does not figure much, if any, m pane- gyrical addresses. In the panegyrics proper, the greatness comes to the foreground, with the exclusion of harshness and vehemence, also vivacity of portrayal disappears in the same. Ethos is used to give charm and beauty to speech, where, for instance, simple words or sayings are put into the mouth of an animal or some part of nature showing character, and poetic words introduced into prose though not equal to the express quotation of a poetic passage.

Caution : Do not forget that Ethos is chiefly mild and gentle, assuaging; and particularly in manifesting one's own character, it should be modest and inoffensive; and that it is the equable, calm attitude of the emotional nature, depen- dent on certain qualities in the character. Care must be taken not to announce the utterance of an emotion whereby the whole effect will disappear.

Delivery : Generally speaking. Ethos is the language used by the speaker as to suitable tones, suitable expressions, asseverations, assertions, etc. Cicero says the language should be simple, grave or magnificent if the subject is magnificent. It is the tones and manner which characterise certain emotions or mental states. In this respect the Ethos may be distributed through the whole speech, but Pathos (passion) may appear in the Exordium; however, its chief place is in the Epilogue, in that part called Epistatis, which is devoted to arousing and firing up the passions. Speci- fically speaking, the delivery of Ethos is mild, gentle, com- posed, quiet, the opposite of Pathos (passion), which is rapid, swift, ardent. It is that delivery which checks, allays, assuages, quiets, persuades, and gives the impression of benevolence and amiable character, just the contrary of Pathos, which stirs up, spurs on, excites, shakes, arouses, and it is of a "temporarily excited mood; the Ethos, on the contrary, is the equable, calm attitude of the^ emotional nature, dependent on certain qualities in the character." A good modern instance of the delivery of Ethos is found in the oratory of John Bright. C. A. Vance says Bri^ht's

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oratory was . . . sentimental, emotional and sympathetic. The appeal to the Ministry to stay the war (which took victims from the mansions of the rich and the cottages of the poor and lowly, etc.) was made in a slow and tremulous voice, but with a manner dignified and solemn. Russell says: " He spoke very slowly. It was extremely effective because it conveyed the impression of considered and pro- found conviction." John O'Connor Power describes his delivery thus: ** Mr. Bright . . . spoke in the tone of friendly conversation. . . . The purity and simplicity of his diction, for which his oratory is remarkable, form in my view the best groundwork of a good style; and the per- suasive moral force by which his arguments are sustained indicate a sense of personal responsibility in the speaker which cannot be too highly commended." Bright had a *' strong and beautiful voice, clear rather than loud, rich and sympathetic in tone, and so well controlled that he could produce a fine effect by a very slight increase in the volume of sound or force of utterance in passages of denun- ciation, or by a very slight fall in pitch for humour or irony." In speaking of oneself, Hermogenes says : '* The method consists in speaking with a certain modesty of oneself y and willingly to slur over one's good qualities, and to mitigate that which has to be said with heat against the opponent, without exclusion, however, of irony. The orator speaks cautiously, with doubt and within limits. The figure of Paraleipsis is good in this respect. (See Demosthenes, Embassy 242 and Chersonese 70, as good instances; in speaking of the deeds he had done, he says : * I would mention none of these.' See full passage under Ethopoeia.) The epieikeiay fairness, equity, is in other respects the same as the katkaroteSy clearness, and apheleia, simplicity."

Respecting the delivery of mythical narratives^ to give them charm and beauty (see Demos, vs. Aristocrates, 65 ff.), the speaker must, says Hermogenes, when making use of them, deliver them in a somewhat lively manner . . . also thoughts in which lifeless things and those without will are treated as having soul and will, thus providing them with gorgotesy vivacity.

The delivery of Charles James Fox, according to a noted critic, was ** pisteis ethica " (see Fig. Pisteis).

Note the incomparable beauty of the Ethos in Robert G. Ingersoll's epilogue of his lecture on Shakespeare, commencing with / ' He exceeded all the sons of men in the splendour of his imaginations"; in the delivery of which. Garret P, Serviss, on " Eloquence," states that Ingersoll's charm of voice and manner had the effect of a strangle music which fascinated every hearer. (See epilogue under fig. Parallelism.)

EXPEDITIO—EXPOLITIO— EXORDIUM 279

EXPEDITIO: Latin ex, out; pedi, foot; expedire, to extricate the foot, release, .to make ready; is a figure when many parts or " reasons of an argument being enumerated and touched upon, all are destroyed save that only, upon which the speaker intends to conclude, stand to, or rest upon. Compare Method of Difference, Method of Concomi- tant Variations, and Division.

EXPOLITIO : Latin expoliiio, a polishing; expolituSy polished, smooth, refined. It is used in three ways : the ■first is by shift and change of words, which is called Synonymia; the second, by altering the pronunciation, that is, when the orator repeats the same words, he alters his voice and gesture — e.g., " Sextius Roscius Js convicted that he slew his father." Now this is said with a plain pronuncia- tiott] *' Did Sextius Roscius slay his father?" is said with an interrogation, which the orator says in a hot and vehement speech ; he may repeat it again with cool and quiet words. The third, by altering the handling, as when the orator conveys his speech either in a Prosopopoeia, Sermocinatio, Exuscitatio or any other such figures.

Use : It is one of the principal ornaments of eloquence both in respect of great copiousness of words and matter, and also of the diversity of pauses and pleasant variety, and is very apt for any great and weighty cause.

Caution: Genung says: " It will not do to let the sense of literary exertion iron down the speech into flat propriety and regularity like a book, for it is no longer sparkling, but a recitation." Some teach seven ways in speaking one thing.

EXORDIUM : Latin exordiri, to begin, to begin a web, to weave; ex, out, a beginning; is also called Prooemium. It is a form of speech used by the orator in opening his address. Cicero says that the Exordium should be written last so that good solid forecasting matter may be presented. (a) The commencement ought at once to propitiate and attract the attention of the audience; (b) should be well finished zvith thoughts, and happy in expression, accurate and judicious; for our earliest acquaintance should be good, and its first recommendation to our notice; (c) it should be moderate, as nothing in nature springs entire instantly into being. It should very seldom be vehement and pugnacious. There should be something ornamental too, like vestibules and approaches to houses and temples. Ihe Greeks recom- mend to make the hearers at the very commencement attentive and desirous for information. The hearers should only receive a slight impulse at the outset so that the rest of the speech may come with full force upon those who are already impressed in your favour.

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On Cicero's point (a), Genung, in his " Working Principles of Rhetoric," has the following also: " The public speaker must make his meaning intelligible at once, must arrest the attention and arouse the interest of the audience from the outset of his discourse, and not let the attention slip." Aristotle says, respecting the exordium, that the most neces- sary business of an exordium is to throw light on the end for which the speech is made, (i) The speaker must show himself a person of character, for to such the people give heed, must be reputed good; the hearers are more attentive at the beginning; the orator must make appear his probity.

(2) He must conciliate the hearers^ goodwill or inflame them, attracting their attention or the reverse; for which reason many endeavour to induce them to laughter, which makes them more tractable. (3) The subject : If to get attention, say that the matter in hand is of great importance, concerns the hearer, is new, strange, also pleasing, concerns you more than me. If not to get attention, the object is foreign, trifling, not important, is of no concern to them, is disgust- ing. Favourable to speaker : The audience must be im- pressed to love the speaker or pity him. Common to all parts of the speech to arouse attention : ' ' Lend me your whole attention, for the question does not affect me more than you." ** I will tell you something strange, wonderful, never heard before." Compliment the audience, either them- selves or their manners; what they love; dispraise, including their enemies, and what they hate. " Praise Athenians before Athenians is not difficult, but to do it before ark audience of Lacedaemonians." (4) Have an exordium that speech may not appear hastily got up, and hint what the speech concerns.

Topics for removing imputations to your prejudice : (i) By recurring to those topics by means of which one does away with surmises prejudicial to him. (2) By contradicting the points; ** it is not the case," or not hurtful, not of much importance, not unjust or not considerable, though hurtful yet it was honourable, though painful yet it was beneficial.

(3) By extenuation or excuse, arguing that the action is merely a fault or error, or that it was necessary, as Socrates said " he trembled not at his calumniator but of necessity, that his 80 years did not overtake him of his own choice."

(4) By raising a counter prejudice against the calumniator : "It is absurd; if the man himself is unworthy of credit, his words obtain it." (5) Impeach elsewhere, this is not the place. (6) Disclaiming against calamity itself, as " how great an evil it is," or because it produces decisions foreign to the point; that it relies not on the strength of its own case. (7) Praising little and blame much, suits the accuser; after bestowing a short praise, to censure at great length;

EXORDIUM 2S1

putting forward great virtues briefly, or very many- which are not relevant, then to censure in one point bearing upon the case (good at races, good at ping-pong, but not to run a state); this is crafty and most malignant, for they attempt injury by means of one's virtues being blended with their failings. (8) By taking the motive that suits your purpose; that is, interpret to the best when to praise or purge, and to the worst when to incriminate — e.g., Ulysses said: " Diomodes chose him for his companion as the bravest of the Greeks to aid him in his exploits"; but his adversary said " he chose him for his cowardice, as the most unlikely to rival him in honour."

Quintillian says, respecting Exordium, that it should not appear insolent, malignant, overbearing, or reproachful. We must secure the hearer's goodwill and attention to make him desirous of further information. The opponent can be referred to sometimes with ho7ioiir , as to fear his eloquence and influence so as to render them objects of suspicion, very rarely with contempt. Modesty in thoughts^ style, tone and look are pleasing, the confidence of the orator being not too plainly displayed; not promising too much either in words or looks, but wear the appearance of unaffectedness and simplicity. Unostentatious mode steals most successfully on the mind of the hearer. Memory in speaking should not fail him, nor fluency of speech at the commencement, as no- where has it a worse effect. Length in proportion tp the cause, but not a head of disproportionate size, lest that which ought to prepare hearers should weary them. Figures may sometimes be employed, a simile provided it be short, and a metaphor and other figures. Impress them that you come to plead for the highest and most honourable motive, free from meanness, hatred and ambition ; and conceal art.

Delivery, says Quintillian, is generally calm, for nothing is more attractive than modesty to gain us a favourable hearing. M. Bautin says that the Exordium should be spoken low and softly, as there is always a moving, coughing, settling, etc. ; and as men esteem what they have not, and dread losing words they did not catch, they are more attentive, hence hear the low (which should be pronounced distinctly and clearly). Softness enlists audience's sym- pathy, as you do reverence to them, and it shows no arro- gance, which is so objectionable. Austin says a gentle inclination of the body to either side is good. Mathews says : ' ' We are told by some of the ancient writers that he (Cicero) began his speeches in a low quivering voice, just as a schoolboy, afraid of not saying his lessons perfectly enough, to escape whipping." (See beautiful Exordiums under "Henry Clay" and "Daniel Webster.")

Spurgeon says, in open air speaking, where the audience is changing, a man must from beginning to end be intense,

282 EXUTHENISMUS— GNOME

and for that reason he must be condensed and concentrated in his thought and utterance. Foster says that the Exordium, should begin with a low voice; it argues modesty, and is best for the voice, as it enables it to rise gradually and feel its way to its natural pitch and force, with a tendency to slowness. Rev. E. J. Bidwell says : " When lowering the voice, speak more slowly and clearly."

EXUTHENISMUS: This is a rhetorical figure in which there is an extenuation or speaking contemptibly of a person or thing. It usually takes in the Delivery the compound inflection expressive of sneer, contempt, irony — e.g., " How like a fawning publican he looks"; i.e., "a scorning ex- clamation with an unequal wave of the rising fifth and the falling octave under a slight degree of guttural aspiration, and the rest of the sentence with a falling fifth and like aspiration." — Rush. "Dost thou come here to whine}'' The radical stress is placed on " i," which sets forth the threatening rage, and vanishing stress on **n" denotes the inquiry.

Examples : "A calumniator, men of Athens, is a monster, a vile monster, in every respect malicious and querulous; this despicable wretch is even a brute by nature, one who from the commencement never did any act that was good or liberal — a theatrical ape, a rustic CEnomans, a blundering orator ... no one could equal you in howling; but in the day-time, leading your noble bacchanalian choirs through the streets crowned with fennel and with -poplar, grasping those snakes (called pareae), and raising them over your head and crying out Evoe, Saboe, and performing the dance called Hyes Attes, Attes Hyes (an Antimetabole, see fig.), being styled leader, and director, and ivy-bearer, and van- bearer, and such like epithets by the old women, receiving as wages for these services, tarts, and biscuits, and new- baked crusts; in consequence of which who would not justly congratulate both himself and his fortune ? . . . but hiring yourself out to those deep-groaning tragedians . . . you acted third characters, gathering figs, grapes, olives, like a fruiterer, from the grounds of others, receiving more wounds in consequence of this than from the battles which ye fought for life. For there was an interminable and irreconcilable war between you and the spectators, from whom, having received many wounds, you naturally deride as cowards those inexperienced in such things." — Demos- thenes vs. ^schines.

GNOME: Greek yvcoiJiT] , opinion of wise men, maxims. Gnome becomes a figure when applied to a purpose. It is a maxim, it is some excellent, profitable, and remarkable

GNOME— HIATUS 283

saying, it is a pearl in a discourse. Gnome is a figure when we bring in a maxim of such remarkable saying of another, and apply it. It is a saying pertaining to the manners and common practices of men, which declares by apt brevity what in this our own life ought to be done or left undone, (i) Universal maxim— ^.^., ''Evil gotten goods are evil spent." (2) A single maxim: "Necessity hath no law." " A contented man is very rich." (3) Double sentence or maxim: "Flattery gets friendship and truth, hatred." " In worldly matters something ever lacks and nothing long endureth." "The beginning of every action is easily seen; but the sequel is uncertain." (4) A maxim without showing a reason: "Young men ought to reverence their elders." "Silence does well beseem womankind."

(5) A maxim with a reason: " He that doth evil, hatest lest his deeds should be reproved." "It is good so to live that the rehearsal of all our lives may not make us ashamed."

(6) A maxim containing contraries : "By concord small things increase, by discord great riches are soon consumed."

(7) A maxim with divers things: " Death is not to be feared but the way and passage of death." (8) A maxim showing what happens in life: " Pride goes before and shame comes after." " Prodigality is the mother of poverty." " To-day a king, to-morrow dead." (9) A pure maxim, not mixed with any figure, as: " *Tis good to be merry." "He is happy that takes warning by other men's harms." (10) A maxim of equity : " Do as thou wouldst be done by." (11) A figured maxim and as such is as many as there are figures, and then it bears the name of figure. BuUinger defines Gnome as "a quotation without giving the name of the author."

U se : This figure must be sparingly used or sparingly sprinkled in an oration, and that only in consideration of their beauty and brightness. They should be esteemed as precious pearls and as the most beautiful of flowers.

Caution : The maxim must not be false, strange or low, light, without pith or importance. Not often said. It is permitted to a philosopher, but not so much to an orator, for an orator is the handler of matters, and the philosopher the instructor of life.

HIATUS: Is a gap, a chasm; especially, a break, a space where something is wanting, the concurrence of two vowels in two successive words or syllables.

V se : It is used in the Forcible style. Longinus on the Sublime says: "In the passage which describes Dirce torn away by the bull: ' Whitherso'er he turned, swift wheeling round, he haled and hurled withal. Dame, rock, oak, inter-

284 HIATUS

shifted ceaselessly ' ; the conception itself is a fine one, but it has been rendered more forcible by the fact that the harmony is not hurried or carried, as it were, on rollers, but the words act as buttresses for one another and find support in the pauses, and issue in a well-grounded sublimity." Demetrius says that the clashing of letters, as a rule, is unpleasant to the ear, but here the very excess brings out the greatness of the hero: " And Aias the mighty at Hector the brazen-helmed, evermore was aiming his lance." Thucydides almost invariably avoids ^noothness and even- ness of composition. He has rather tne constant air of a man who is stumbling, like travellers on rough roads; as when he says that ** from other maladies this year, by common consent, was free." It would have been easier and pleasanter to say that " by common consent, this year was free from other maladies." But this would have destroyed the effectiveness of the sentence. Demetrius further states, under his heading " Forcible " style, that violence even conveys a certain impression of energy in composition (avoiding all fashioned traits, both of character and rhythm). Yes, in many passages harshness gives all the effect of vehemence, as though we were jolted on rough roads. Demosthenes' words are a case in point: ** He has deprived you of the bestowal — you of the prerogative." Cicero says: "The Hiatus and concourse of open vowels has something soft in it, indicating not an unpleasant negligence, as if the speaker were more anxious about his matter than about his words." Hermogenes points out that the semnotes (dignity) in com- position is not too particular about the Hiatus.

Caution : Hermogenes declares that in kallos (beauty of portrayal) the Hiatus should be carefully avoided.

Delivery : As the Hiatus is used both in the elevated and the forcible style, chiefly the latter, the delivery of the parts containing them should be quick, energetic, vehement. It is as Dionysius of Halicarnassus remarks respecting the Austere composition, "which does not shrink from using harsh clashing sounds. It wishes to suggest nature rather than art, and to stir emotion. It uses no supplementary words to round off periods; it often disregards natural sequence; it is aristocratic, plain-spoken, unvarnished." The home of the Hiatus is, strictly speaking, in the austere composition as described by Dionysius, and in the forcible style. Here a Hiatus is a break, a pause, then an onward rush like a pent-up, or a suddenly-interrupted stream; or like the description of the charge of the bull above in the example from Longinus. When it occurs in the semnotes (dignity), the delivery is slower, as the concurrence of the vowels and consonants retard vocal movement, thus giving an elevated impression as in the case of " And Aias, the

HOMGEOPTOTOxN— HOMCEOTELEUTON 285

mighty hero ..." quoted above, and in the case of Ajax rolling the heavy stone up the hill. (See Rhythmus for further information.)

HOMCEOPTOTON : Greek homois, like; ptoton, case; piptao^ to fall, to leave off. This is a figure whereby divers— clauses end with like cases, or end alike with the same letter or syllable — e-g.y " He came into Cilicia and spied out Africa and after that came with his army to Sardinia^ " In activity commendable, in wealth profitable, and in war terrible." '* Art thou in poverty, seek not principality but rather how to relieve thy necessity." It may exhibit a correspondence either in begmnings with beginnings, middles with middles, or terminations with terminations, or there may be an interchange so that' the middle of one phrase may answer to the beginning of another, or the conclusion of one to the middle of the other.

Use: This figure gives excellent reception and facility to certain proverbs and brief maxims — e.g., " A friend in need is a friend indeed." The use of this adornment tends chiefly to delight the ear by the like fall and the similitude of the sound wherein the nature of that sense takes singular pleasure.

HOMCEOTELEUTON : Greek 6>o69, like ; reXe'o), to bring to an end or ending ; is a figure whereby the orator makes divers parts or members of a sentence end alike, for the most part with a verb or adverbs. It is a figure con- sisting in the use of a succession of words or clauses con- cluding with the same sound or similar endings or same syllable.

Examples'. "No marvel though wisdom complains that she IS either wilfully despised or carelessly neglected; either openly scorned or secretly abhorred." Geyrge Puttenham, •"^ i! ^vf ^^^^ "^^ English Poesie," says: '' Homoeoteleuton IS the like-loose, where clauses finish in words of like tune by using like cases, tenses, or other points of assonance : "Long beards heartless, painted Hoods witless, gay coats graceless, Make all England thriftless." Use : Its use is chiefly to please the ear, as the ear partly anticipates the similarity, which relieves the mind of som^ labour in perception, also which makes the relation of the words clearer, so the mind is delighted with the ease and clearness of perception.

La Beda Venerabile says that poets and orators frequently make use of this figure, and that Pope Gregory is found to have used it very frequently, and to have considered ex-

286 HOMCEOTELEUTON— HORISMOS

pressions of this mode to be those which Geronimus called elegant declamations of rhetoric. This figure gives delecta- tion to the ear. and perspicuity to the sense.

Caution : Avoid excess and too great affectation. Deme- trius on "Style" cautions the foUow^ing : "They are ill- suited for vigorous declamation, since artifice and study which they involve impair the energy of discourse." (See Antithesis.) " We must be careful, however, not to assume Homoeoteleuton unless rhetorical design is plain " (cf. J. C. Robertson).

Delivery : Let us take the famous passage of ^schines, the Greek text of which is as follows : eiri avrov Ka\el<;, eiTL TOf? vo/jLvo(i KaXeh, eiri ttjv Srj/jiOKparlav fcaXeU and the cumulative force in the delivery of the same as pointed out by Demetrius, who says: "Here the figure in question is threefold. ' Against yourself, you summon him; against the laws, you summon him; against the democracy, you summon him.' It has already been termed an Epanaphora, because it is the repetition of the same word (or words) at the commencement of each clause; Asyndeton, because of the absence of conjunctions; and a Homoeoteleuton, because of the recurring termination * you summon him.' And force is the cumulative result of the three figures. Were we to write * Against yourself and the laws and the demo- cracy you summon him,' the force would vanish with the figures." The words which compose the Homoeoteleuton should have a little more force of voice put on them than the rest of the sentence so as to bring out the same and make them salient, but not too much.

The author is of the opinion that the famous expression of -/Eschines would have increased in fluency and force had the Homoeoteleuton been omitted, and the expression con- fined to the figures Anaphora and Asyndeton, thus : You summon him against yourself, you summon him against the laws, you summon him against democracy; and delivered as Arsis and T*hesis with " You summon him against the laws " as the level progress of the voice.

HORISMOS : Greek bpi'C^oi , to make out by boundaries, lay down, limit, define ; bpiafjuof; boundaries, frontiers, definitions; is a figure whereby we declare what a thing is, fix its terms or delineate the nature of it. It is often used when we should show a difference between two words — namely, by defining both — and is very useful in arguing.

Example: Cicero: "This is not fortitude but temerity, for fortitude is a contempt of perils by honest reason; temerity is a foolish enterprise of perils, without respect to virtue."

By this adornment also a word of action is eloquently distinguished in degrees by certain general words.

HYPALLAGE—HYPERBATON— HYPERBOLE 287

HYPALLAGE : Greek hypo, in, (comp.) of the mixing of one thing with another; alios, another, other; is a figure when the natural order of the word is changed, as when two words change their cases, or when words are altered among themselves, or the usual construction is inverted — e.g., Cicero to his little boy playing with his toy sword: *' Who -has^ tied my son to that sword?"

HYPERBATON-: Greek hyper, over, by, beyond; baino, go : is a figure whereby words are for elegancy and variety transposed from the right order of construction (which is the plain grammatical order) into another handsomer and more fit order— ^.^., "And you hath He quickened who were dead in trespass and sin." It is a transposing or inverting the natural order, chiefly for emphasis — e.g.y ** Echoed the hills, for the hills echoed." In oratory they are passages of an earnest and passionate , character. Bain says : ** The Hyperbaton (much used, it is said, by Demos- thenes) is purposed inversion, floundering and perplexity before announcing something of great emphasis and import, thus giving to a meditated expression the effect of an impromptu.''

HYPERBOLE : Greek virep, over, beyond ; l3aX\a3 throwing; is a figure whereby the orator amplifies the great- ness or smallness of things by exceeding similitude. Hyper- bole sometimes expresses a thing in the highest degree of possibility, beyond the truth, that we may descend thence to find the truth; and sometimes in flat impossibility, that we may rather conceive the unspeakable than the truth of the relation.

Hyperbole is of two kinds : (i) Auxesis, from the Greek av^r](Tco, to make grow, to exalt, is used to place a greater word than the occasion requires; as to call a proud man "a Lucifer," a patient man *' Job." (2) Moeosis, and here it is when we use a lighter and more easy word or term than the matter requires, as when we call a wound " a scratch." In Moeosis, take care not to fall into that fault of speech called Tapinosis (humility), as to call the ocean a stream; to the king, "May it please your mastership."

This form of speech is either Simple or Compared. (i^ Simple, as to call the belly of a glutton "bottomless"; he that is most hasty in his fury, " brainless." (2) Hyper- bole is Comi)ared in two ways : First, by equality of com- parison, as to call a beautiful virgin an " angel "; a shrew, a "devil"; a drunkard, a "swine"; an extortioner, a "wolf." Secondly, by the Comparative Degree-, (a) From like things, as "sweeter than honey"; "swifter than thought"; "lighter than smoke"; "heavier than lead."

288 HYPERBOLE

(b) From living things or creatures: "Swifter than the swallow"; "slower than the snail"; "more loving than the turtle." (c) From feigned and false gods, as " mightier than Zeus," " fairer than Venus," " swifter than Pallas." (d) From persons feigned in fables : * ' Thriftier than Tcin- talus, more chaste than Penelope." (e) From persons in comedy: "More glorious than Thraso, more covetous than Nitio." (f) From persons in histories, • as "More envious than Zoilus, richer than Croesus." (g) From nations: " More cruel than Scynthians, more false than a Cretian, more wanton than a Miletian." (h) From dignities, offices and conditions of life: "More stately than an emperor," "more vigilant than a watchman," "more base than a swineherd," "more vain than a kite," "more hated than a hangman."

Hyperbole on the Frontiers of Impossibility — e.g.y " Though a thousand deaths followed it, and every death were followed with a hundred dishonours." "Words and blows came so thick together, as the one seemed a lightning to the other's thunder."

" Hyperbole soars too high, or creeps too low, Exceeds the truth, things wonderful to show."

— Langley. Examples : Cicero against Anthony (who drank so) : "What Charyhdis was ever so voracious} What Charybdis, do I say ? If such a monster ever existed, it was but one animal, but the whole ocean, by Hercules, would scarcely have been able, as it seems to me, to have swallowed up so many things, so widely dispersed, and lying in places so distant, in so short a space of time."

" Having mentioned these things, he gives the secretary a decree to read, longer than the Iliad, more frivolous than the speeches which he is accustomed to deliver, and than the life which he has led, but full of hopes never to be realised, and of armies never to be raised." — ^-^schines vs. Demosthenes on the Crown.

"Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world, Like a Colossus, and we petty men Walk under his huge legs, and peep about To find ourselves dishonourable graves."

— Shakespeare. Use : Hyperbole is used for praise and dispraise. They suit the young from their vehement temper; those in anger most frequently use them, as Achilles in his wrath said : *' Though bribes were heap'd on bribes in number more than the dust in the fields or sands along the seashore." They are used with more grace by those in anger, but are not comely for old men. Regarding this figure, Bain says : " Every strong passion magnifies whatever concerns it.

HYPOBOLE— HYPOCATASTASIS 289

Love, hatred, fear, exaggerate their several objects in pro- portion to their intensity. Affection is always permitted to enhance its object far above its reality. Fear exaggerates danger, hatred intensifies and even creates bad qualities in the person or thing hated. Human desire is naturally illimit- able, hence whatever pleases, as m poetry, generallj^ -t?r magnified as far as can be done without offending our sense of reality and truth. Exaggeration is largely resorted to for cofuic effect, as the ludicrous requires that a certain object should be depreciated in some mode or other— ^.^., " The EngHsh gained tv/o hours a day by clipping words.*' —Voltaire.

Caution : (i) Hyperbole should have regard to zvhat the hearer is disposed to admit in the way of departure from the known reality, and his. feelings must be sufficiently strong to come up to the hyperbolical expression. The hyperboles of love are admissible only with lovers. (2) Hyperbole should be sparingly used. (3) Should not be trite, originality is indispensable to hyperbole. A mere exaggeration is easy ; the kind that yields pleasurable surprise must be recom- mended by novelty, grandeur and point. Horace speaks of a man " Striking the stars with his sublime head."

Delivery : Hyperbole bordering on wit should be smart and brief, as " brevity is the soul of wit " — e.g., " His tears were as big as plum puddings." It should be in a smooth, flowing, light, playful style, voice in the middle with ten- dency toward the upper tones.

In boasting hyperboles, they exaggerate three appear- ances; by loudness, blustering, and swaggering, the voice swelling into bombast.

HYPOBOLE : Greek hyfer, under; ballo, throw or put under, hence to put under, as a foundation; to reply, retort. This is a figure in which several things are mentioned that seem to make for the opposite party, and seemingly against themselves, but each of which is refuted in order. It is {used in the section of argument, chiefly ^that of refutation, \vhere the opponent's arguments are compared and refuted. This was a favourite method of President James A. Garfield, who was wont to present the opponent's reasons in such a strong light as to make his supporters fear and tremble for their own side, then he would destroy them in turn, reducing the proposition of his opponents to nullity. Charles James Fox used effectively this figure.

HYPOCATASTASIS: According to Macbeth this figure is an implied resemblance or representation — i.e., an implied simile or metaphor. If a metaphor is more forcible than a simile, then Hypocatastasis is more forcible than a metaphor.

290 HYPOCATASTASIS— HYPOPHORA

and expresses, as it were, the superlative degree of resem- blance— e.g.y ''You are like a beast." This would be a simile tamely stating a fact. If, however, he said, " You are a beast," that would be a metaphor. But if he said simply " Beast ! " that would be Hypocatastasis ; for the other part of the simile or metaphor (" You are . . .") would be implied and not stated.

"Rising above the deluge of years," whereby is implied that years sweep over the loftiest edifices of the past, as did the flood over the mountain peaks. " Honour and selfishness are never found in the same sack."

Hypocata stasis is of great importance to the orator, because it concentrates in one or a few words a whole scene or course of action. It is very effective, especially in popular assem- blies.

HYPOPHORA : Greek virlp, under ; ^hw, to carry ; is a form of speech by which the orator answers to his own question. It propounds an objection, and is the statement of the opponent's objection or of an argument which might be urged against the speaker's or writer's position. The Hypophora is followed by the answer or counter-argument called the Anthypophora. Hypophora and Anthypophora frequently take the form of a series of questions and answers. Hypophora is sometimes used as an equivalent to Eperotesis. It is a statement intended to forestall an objection or argu- ment that will or may be used by the opponent.

It is a rejoinder which the speaker pronounces himself in order to repudiate it immediately. Not unfrequently where a point is put, as if it is conceded and a new one contradicting it appears (cf. Rehdantz-Blass). "Hypophora is a sort of debate in which the speaker represents both sides. Demosthenes was fond of this figure. He argued his side, then bids the jurors to look at the other, the fallacy of which he examines and destroys." — J. E. Harry on " Demosthenes' Leptinean Oration."

Hypophora is one of the favourite methods of surprise, by which the ordinary course of the speech is interrupted and a lively conversational or dramatic element introduced. The figure is productive of beauty and energy. Tiberius III. 'jy says : " The most artistic form of Hypophora occurs when . the speaker, who wishes to make a general refutation^ brings forward the particulars one after the other in the form of a question, and then rejects them." W. W. Baden notes that Isaeus, like Lysias, raises continued Hypophora for the purpose of raising numerous objections which he immediately disposes of. Special points of an argument are thus summed up in a vigorous and energetic manner. A series of rhetorical questions frequently precedes. Like Isseus, Demosthenes

HYPOPHORA 291

precedes (the Hypophora) by a series of rhetorical questions, and follows them by an asyndetic objection with aXXd (but) at the end of a question, which is akin to Hypophora, and introduces raore or less dramatic element (Demos. 28, 18). " Artis. Rhet.," Fortunatiani, defines the difference between Hypophora and Anthypophora thus : " Quo differt hypn- - phora and anthypophora ? Hypophora est mtentio adversae partis, anthypophora responsio ejus." (What is the differ- ence between hypophora and anthypophora ? Hypophora is the charge, accusation or objection of the adverse party; anthypophora is the response to it or refutation of it.)

Examples : With rhetorical questions preceding. Demos. 28, 18 — i.e,, vs. Aphobus ii, 18: "Have I not been deeply wronged from the beginning, and am I not still persecuted by them because I seek to obtain redress ? Is there one of you who does not feel an honest indignation against the defendant and compassion for me, seeing that he, besides an estate of more than ten talents which he inherited, has got another of equal . amount belonging to me, while I have not only lost my patrimony, but am, by the villainy of these men, deprived of the trifle which they returned to me? To what am I to have recourse should you come to an adverse decision? To the property mortgaged to creditors ?— ^2^/ that belongs to the mortgagees. To surplus remaining after payment? — but that will go to the defendant if by your sen- tence I am decreed to pay a sixth part of the damages. I entreat you, men of the jury, do not entail upon us so heavy a calamity ; do not allow my mother, myself and my sister to be reduced to unmerited misfortune."

Example of the most perfect form, of Hypophora, which contains four parts, according to Hemogenes 3, 108 (see Rehdantz-Blass) : (i) A protasis — e.g., ^iXiirnTo^. Philip begins about Halojzneus, saying it belongs to him, but he gives it to you. He denies your claim to restitution, as he neither took it from Athens nor detains it from her. He addressed the like argument to us on our Embassy to Macedon; that he had won the island from pirates and it was properly his own. (2) Hypophora: // is not difficult to deprive him of this argument by showing its fallacy. (3) Antiprotasis : All pirates seizing places wrongfully, and fortifying- themselves, make excursions among other people. One who has chastised and vanquished the pirates surely cannot urge with reason that what they robbed the owners of becomes his property. (4) Lusis (refutation): // you grant this, then, supposing that pirates seize a place in Attica, or Lemnos, or Imbrus, or Scyrus, and some persons dis- lodged the pirates, what is to prevent that place where the pirates were, and which belonged to us, from instantly becoming their property who chastised the pirates? Philip

292 HYPOPHORA

is not ignorant of the injustice of this plea. He knows it better than anyone ; but he expects you to be cajoled by a set of men who, having undertaken to manage things here as he desires, are performing that service now." — 7, 2. Phil. II. 2. This most perfect form is suited to calm, conscious demonstration of the proof.

Example of one somewhat more vivacious than the perfect form. Demosthenes vs. Aristocrates, 187: ^^ Perhaps I may be asked y how it happens that, having such an accurate knowledge of these things, having closely traced some of his delinquencies, I let him alone and never made any opposition either when you created him citizen or when you gave him a vote of honour — in short, took any notice of him, until after the passing of this decree. I, men of Athens, will tell you the whole truth. I knew his unworthiness, and was present when these dignities were conferrd upon him and offered no opposition : I confess, and why ? Because, men of Athens, I thought, in the first place, that a multitude of persons, telling lies about him without scruple, would be too strong for me simply speaking singly the truth; and in the next place ... for in your crowning and making him a citizen, both these things were involved."

Example of one rendered very vivacious by interrogation and counter-interrogation. Demosthenes vs. Aristocrates, 38 : '* It is monstrous then, when there are so many causes for which it is lawful to kill another man, that Charidemus should be the only person in the world, even for these causes, it is unlawful to kill. Suppose it should happen to Chari- demus, as doubtless it has to others before now, that he should quit Thrace and take up his abode in some city, where he does so many things forbidden by the laws, he will be driven to make the attempts by force of habits and desires : won't people be obliged to submit to his outrages in silence ? At least it will not be safe to kill him or to seek redress which the law affords of this decree. // / am met with the objection y where can such things take place ? what prevents me also saying who can slay Charidemus?"

Example of Protasis appearing in the forms \ lgou^, per- haps. " Alia (But) it may be said, we have resolved that succours are necessary, and we will send them; tell us only how." — 01. III. 10.' Another, Demos. Olynthiac III. 19: ** But if any one can let alone our theatrical fund, and suggest other supplies for the military, is he not clever ? // may be asked. I grant it, if this were possible; but I wonder if any man ever was or will be able, after wasting his means in useless expenses, to find means for useful." Demos, vs. Leochares 55 : " . . . how then, can you main- tain any longer that this is a rightful act according to the statute?/ Oh . . . because he has been registered as the son of Archiades ! Yes, by the violent act of these men done

HYPOPHORA 293

only the other day." * Demos. Olynthiac i, 19: " If you assign this to your troops, you need no further supply; otherwise, you need a further, or rather you have none at all." In single cases: "How then? some one may exclaim, do you move that this be a military fund ? Verily, not 1. My opinion is . . ." The forms appear before the Hypo- phora in calm tones, but when more moved by emotion, between or after the same] the former position also frequently in the form, Demos, vs. Phil. III. 47: " There is a foolish saying that Philip is not as powerful as the Lacedaemonians were formerly ..." The Hypophora may also appear in the vivacious interrogative form, see above examples, Olyn- thiacs III. 19 and 1. 19; and further without Protasis and AntiprotasiSy as in this example. Demos, on the Peace, 24 : * ' Must we then do as we are bidden for fear of conser quences ? And do you recommend this } Far from it. 1 advise you so to act, as not to compromise your dignity, to avoid war, to prove yourselves right-thinking, just-speaking people." Or it is simply and naturally introduced by aXXa {but) without protasis.

Examples of the popular form, especially Kai vr) Alo^ emphasising the answer to the hearer's question (and as such used seriously by Demosthenes). Phil. III. 70: "And we, likewise, O Athenians, whilst we are safe, with a magnificent city, plentiful resources, lofty reputation, what must we do ? Many of you, I dare say, have been longing to ask. Well then, by Jove, I will tell you ; I will move a resolution : pass it." This form is used more frequently than by any other orators, and to such an extent in rejoinders (objections) which are repudiated, that the commentator says " exag- gerating."

Example of emphasising the antithesis. Demos, vs. Lep- tines, 3 : " aWa vv, A<a (but, by Jove). But, possibly, he may reply that he framed the laws so, because the people are easily misled." Phil. II. 13: "aXXv ar) At' enroL rt? av Well, it may be said, he knew all this, yet he acted so not. . . Of all the pleas, this is the least open to him. He that bids the Lacedasmonians resign Messene, how he pretends, when he delivered Orchomenos and Coronea to the fhebans, to have acted on a conviction of justice! "

Example with Protasis following which is elsewhere missing. Demos, vs. Midias, 160 : Alia ne Dia . . . "Oh, but he gave a ship of war: I am certain he will boast of this, and say 'I gave you a ship.' Now, men of Athens, take my advice. If he gave the ship from patriotic motives, be thankful to him, requite him as he deserves for his kind-

1p.^I?HvhL pLu^P i^ *° ^'^ P""? ^^"* ""^^ ^'^ ^^^°"'" demonstration of 100,000 people more or Fn^nl ' ; M^ n °"' '■e^^ently, and heard Tom Mann. Sec of the Amaleamated Ass of

Engmeers very skilfully use the popular form of Hypophora. At the end of his eloauent and animated address he was carried shoulder high amid cheering and singirig ^'°^"«°t ^nd

294 HYPOPHORA

ness; but don't permit him to be insolent: that should not for any consideration be allowed."

Exam fie with the Antiprotasis following. Demos, on the Cheronese, 9 : Alia ne Dia {but by Jove) " Here, it will be granted, they are shown in the wrong : but mercenaries make bad work of ravaging the Hellespontine coast, and Diopeithis has no right to detain vessels, and we must not .allow him! Well, be it so! I am content."

Example of where the lusis (refutation) y with alia (but, why) is mostly introduced. Demos, vs. Leptines 75 : Alia ne Dia. ** Well, let us allow the son of Chabrias to be deprived of the immunity which his father justly received from you and bequeathed to him. Why, I scarcely thmk any man in his senses would think this proper."

Exam^ple of the strengthe^iing of the pithy word of' the Hypophora by the position between ' * but ' ' and ' ' by Jove." Demos, vs. Phil. II. 14: *' He that bids the Lace- daemonians resign Messene ... a conviction of justice ! aX>C i^iaaOr). But, forsooth (by Jove) he was compelled — this plea remains — he made concessions against his will, being surrounded by Thessalian horse and the Theban infantry. Excellent! ..." In the preceding example the raising up by means of the following '* by Jove " regularly takes place when the speaker himself proceeds to address strong or offensive questions to the opponent or hearer, and then adds the answer belonging to the same in that manner (without "but"): 38, 11. Contrariwise, however, the "but" may appear after the "by Jove."

Example of the " btii " after " by Jove.'' Demos, de Corona 117 : " Did I hold office? Yes; and I have rendered an account of my official acts, not of my bounties. Ne Di alia {Oh, but) I was guilty of malpractices in office ! And you were present when the auditors brought me up, accused me not?" Although the "but" in the example just pre- ceding follows immediately after the " by Jove," still it may be separated from it by a protasis, as in 23, 64; mostly, however, the "but" immediately follows, as in Cor. 117. Always without the Protasis and Antiprotasis, and with " but " introduced by " lusis " (refutation). Demos, vs. Aristocrates, 166: " 'Tis true he did some damage , but it was in self-defence ; nothing of the fzind : we went to no part of Thrace, but against Alopeconnesus, which is in Cher- sonese and belonged to you."

Example of a stiffened transition, where, as m other places, no really proper objection is made, but the Hypo- phora has become a stiffened form of transition. Demos. vs. Leptines, 58 : " Then, when we need a service, shall we allow any one that likes to render it; and after we have received it, shall we inquire into the merit of him that

HYPOPHORA 295

served us? It will not be righteous. . . . But, perhaps those are the only men who will be so treated, and all my argument concerns them also.**

Example with negative cofistruction, in which a pomt is conceded and a new one contradicting it. Demos, vs. Androtion, 69 : dXka vrj Ala ravra tovtovto^. " Bttt~i perhaps y notwithstanding the political faults, there are other things which he has managed creditably. Nay, his behaviour to you in everything else has been such that what you have heard are the smallest grounds for detesting him."

-(tschines against Demosthenes in his oration delivers various Hypophoras anticipating opponent's argument, as follows: *' Now in reply to the unanswerable argument, as Demosthenes calls it, I wish to premise a few remarks. For this man will say, I am director of the works; I acknowledge it, but I have voluntarily ^iven to the state one hundred minas, and the greater portion of the work has been com- pleted; for what then am I responsible, unless there is some responsibility for generosity ? In answer to this evasion, hear me urging what is both just and advantageous.'* Another example from vEschines : ** But I shall endeavour to express myself with more clearness concerning his public acts of injustice. For I hear that when leave of speaking is granted to him, Demosthenes intends to enumerate to you that there are forsooth four periods, in which he has been in public administration. . . . After having enumerated these, as I hear, he intends to call upon me, and to ask me for which of the four periods I accuse him. ... I reply that I accuse you for all these four periods which you distm- guish."

"... And, by Jove, as I hear, he intends to ask me why I censure the general tenor of his administration; but I neither hindered nor impeached each separate act, but brought my accusation after an interval of time, and when I was not much engaged in public affairs.'*— .iEschines versus Demosthenes in the De Corona Trial,

Use : The use of this figure is an excellent ornament of speech and very convenient to garnish eloquence, for it retains the attention as well with the grace of speech as with the expectation of the reason and answers ensuing. It has the important effect of making the opponent's argu- ments common, that is, it robs them of their novelty or newness and freshness when presented by the opponent. The argument having already been stated takes away the zest of the hearer when it is presented again. Hermogenes treats the Hypophora under the heading of '* Gorgotes " (vivacity of portrayal), and gives short objections and their equally short repudiation as among the telling passages of a speech, so It is used largely for vivacious expression. Blass*^

296 HYPOPHORA

" Demosthenes " says that the speaker used it to arouse and direct the attention of the hearer, especially in the ex- planation of the laws, by the continued addressing of ques- tions to himself^ as in Demos, vs. Aristocrates, 30 : "... and what says he ? That it shall be lawful to kill or take into custody. Does it mean the captor's oWn house or as he pleases ? No such thing. How then ? As is directed in the tablet, he says. And what is that ? What you all know. The judges have authority to punish with death those who are in exile for murder. . . ." The using of such form at once arouses from the very beginning, as Hermogenes remarks, the confidence of the hearer, for who- ever asks himself must be sure of his facts. Contrariwise^ the question or questions may be addressed to the hearer or the opponent, and the answer may be in the form of a rejoinder (Hypophora) which the speaker causes to be made to himself, from which procedure there is a far greater appearance of a dialogue than in the former case, as m Demos, on the Chersonese, 17: "Then if the present army be kept on foot, it will be able to defend that country and attack some of Philip's dominions; but if it be disbanded, what shall we do if he march against the Chersonese ? Try Diopekhes, I suppose. And how will our affairs be bettered ? But we shall send succour from Athens. And suppose the winds prevent us ? Oh, but he won't come ! And who will insure that? Do you mark and consider, men of Athens, the approaching season of the year, against which certain persons desire to get the Hellespont clear of you and deliver it up to Philip? Suppose he should leave Thrace, and without going near Chersonese or Byzantium (I beg you also to consider this), he should invade Chalcis or Megara as he did Oreus, think you it is better to resist here and suffer the war to approach Athens, or to find employment for him yonder? I think the latter?" Lysias frequently used the repeated Hypophora, which is simpler, where a concentrated refutation results; here the rejoinder appears much more as a question addressed to oneself. Demos, vs. Midias, 148: "Let us compare the cases. Who is Midias and who are they to whom he demeans himself ? Rest assured, men of Athens, that besides being dishonourable, it would be unlawful and unrighteous in you, the descen- dants of such a people, when you have got in your power a rascally and outrageous bully, a mere nobody and the son of nobody, to accord him either mercy or pity or favour. Why should you7 For his services as general? Why, even as an individual soldier, he is not good for anything, much less as a leader for others. But for his speeches. But for his speeches? In none did he ever utter a word for the public good, but he abuses every one's private character.

HYPOPHORA 297

For his family's sake perad venture. (Ans. as a quest.) And which of you is ignorant of his mysterious birth, resembling what one sees in a tragedy ? Two of the most opposite have befallen him ..." Demosthenes did not always use the Hypophora as Lysias, by always introducmg the clauses with alia, " but." Here the Hypophora is used as an alle- gation and the answer as question. Demos, vs. Timocrates, 99 : " What shall we do during the eight presidencies ? Tell us Timocrates. Shall we cease to meet and deliberate in case of need ? Then shall we still be living under a free govern- ment ? Shall the courts civil and criminal not sit ? And what security will there be for people who suffer wrong ? Shall the council not attend to transact their constitutional business? And what remains for us but dissolution of the government ? But perhaps we are to do these things without pay. Would it not be monstrous that, through a law which you have been paid to propose, the assembly and the council and the courts should be unpaid ? Surely, Timocrates, you ought to have inserted a clause ..." The use of the Hypophora is multiform; it may be used even for the purpose of giving 7totice of a rejoinder which the speaker really expects, or notice of one already made, in order then to refute it, as in Demos, vs. Leptines, lio: "I believe that Leptines will urge this argument too: that the law does not take statutes and maintenance from parties who have received them, nor from the state the power of honouring worthy men ... In regard to what he will say he leaves to the state, I must observe that if you take away anything that you have given a man before, you will render all your remaining gifts insecure. For how will the grant of a statute or of maintenance be more secure than the grant of immunitv. when it will appear you have given that to persons formerly and taken it away?" Especially popular is Hypophora when used as a form of leading on or of transition, for which self-questioning is also used else- where (see Phil. I. 74), and in this application the former becomes a directly fixed form, since it is not always correctly observed whether the objection could be raised as such,, as in Demos, vs. Leptines 75: '* Well, but let it be allowed the son of Chabuas to be deprived of the immunity which his father justly received from you and bequeathed to him. aXK' ovhkv. Why, I scarcely think any man in his senses would say this was proper. ..." Demos, on Embassy 272 : ** You may see then as it appears from this that your forefathers were anxious to prevent even strangers being hired to injure Greece; whilst you make no provision even to prevent your fellow citizens doing wrong to the state. (Transition.) Al' vrj aXX* ottod^. Oh, hut tliis inscription stands in some ordinary place ! No. Whilst the whole of

298 HYPOPHORA

yonder citadel is sacred and of considerable extent, it stands on the right by the great bronze statue of Pallas, which the Republic offered up as the chief memorial of their war with the barbarians, the Greeks having given the money."

Use of the Hypophora by JEschines. Blass says that the s^trict Hypophora, which so frequently calls up those systems of questions and answers m Demosthenes, is rare m ^schines; for he is not at home in the province of dialectics, and so the ancients describe him, not altogether wrongly, as not vivid, nay as monotonous and soporific (Hermog. p 4n). Hypophora serves him occasionally for transitions, and here sometimes, as in Demosthenes, a fixed form, ^schines vs. Timarchus 113: "I beg you, fellow citizens, therefore not to present the spectacle of showing resentment toward the Senate . . . and I beg you not to preserve for the popular assembly a public man who has proved useless to the Senate. (Transition.) But you say, though such is his record in the offices filled by lot, he has been a better man in the elective offices. Why, who of you have not heard of his notorious conviction for stealing? "

Hypophora is a Figure of Thought, and according to Blass the mobility called forth by these figures Schemata Dianoeas (figs, of thought) cannot be equally in view in all the divisions of the speech, and least of all in the Procemium; the principal place for this is the proof and the refutation (Hermog. p. 413).

The Hypophora is used to increase animation , according to Rehdantz-Blass' " Rhetorischer Stilistischer Index." '* The Hypophora is everywhere a figure which powerfully increases the vivacity of the expression which, in those passages where several Hypophoras and ' lusis ' (refutation) follow one anpther in ready repartee, rises into dramatic vivacity." *

Fortunatianus says: "Are there not other modes of intro- ducing the Anthypophora ? There are : either when the objection is obscurely put or when the opponent has said something rather for the sake of pleading than of proving; or when by Hypophora we make a step in our argument, or turn the adversary's argument to our own side; or when we treat the first question by putting a second. When shall we do this ? Either when we seek the charm of variety or when the first question makes strongly against us, and is not to be put in the first place. Do we always introduce a Hypophora? Not always; for it is an elegant style some- times to dissemble it. Can we introduce a Hypophora by way of an answer ? We can : when the argument is a

* Used by Charles James Fox:— "Oh, but you regretted the partition of Poland! Yes regretted! You regretted the violence, that is all you did." See also another form by Fox, under Fig. Arsis and Thesis. And by Whitefield : One says, 'he will fly to the moon," but that will be turned into blood. Another, • he will fly to the stars,' but the elements will be dissolved.

HYPOPHORA 299

captious one and the answer is to be made to a somewhat strong opponent, as in the Divinatione of the Verrine orations."

In short, Hypophora is used for vivacity (" Gorgotes "), for forestalling^ the argument of the opponent and refuting it, for making a rejoinder or giving notice of a rejoindeF, for emphasising an antithesis, for introducing a dramatic element, for arousing the attention of the hearers, for givmg variety to the speech, for making a simple or stiffened transi- tion, and for making with the Anthypophora a climax.

Caution : Respectmg what should be avoided as to the Hypophora, " Artis Rhet. Fortunatiani " observes: "What are the cautions m respect of Hypophora? That they should neither be too full nor too many, but we may here and there produce them from two causes or sources, either on account of laughing at or ridiculing the cause of the opponent, if to increase this an exaggeration may be made, no question in this case being asked ; or- when we show what is discrepant or inconsistent."

See that the questions are necessary and not needless, and the answers direct and furnished with sufficient reasons; therefore, both in invention and also in the use of this ornament, there necessarily requires both wit and judgment lest it fall into a barrenness of matter and want of due form. Do not forget that the form of the Luszs (refutation) may also be much varied. Although the following form is used,, Rehdantz-Blass says it is unusual; Demos, vs. Phil. I. 44: ** One thing is clear, he will not stop unless one oppose him. And shall we wait for this ? And if you despatch empty galleys and hopes from this or that person, think ye all is well? Shall we not embark? Shall we not sail with at least a part of our national forces ? Shall we not make a descent upon his coast ? Where shall we land ? Some one may ask. The war itself, men of Athens, will discover the rotten parts of his empire, if we make a trial; but if we sit at home, hearing orators accuse and malign one another, no good can ever be achieved."

Delivery : The delivery of the Hypophora and Anthypo- phora : In the Hypophora the inflections are mostly upward, beinp- the weaker emphasis, that is, with the rising inflection, exceptinp- questions beginning with interrogative words, as Dronouns and adverbs, which take the falling inflection as a declarative sentence; in other words, it is like an anti- thesis, in which the first member takes the rising inflection and the second the falling inflection. The Anthypophora or answer with following argument, if any, should take the falling inflection and strong emphasis, for it is here the orator asserts his own position; as Aristotle says, *' he who proves must prove strongly, and insinuate the impress of

300 HYPOPHORA

his character and manners." Here the falling inflections should be of full force, and points carried home with that slow and powerful delivery, pauses properly observed, and with an effective cadence that will rivet the Anthypophora firmly on the minds of the hearers. Spondee, molossus, and other strong feet may be used.

The delivery of the Hypophoric word alia (but), yet, or some similar sign of objection, is pronounced with a quick rising tone as that of surprise, and sometimes to intensify it the interjection "Oh! " precedes, as in the example of Demosthenes on the Crown, 117: '' Oh\ but I was guilty of malpractices in office"; or an intensifying word may follow, as in Demosthenes vs. Leptines, 3 : ** But, by Jove (or But, possibly . . . ), he may reply that he framed the laws so because the people are easily misled." Intensifying words, like "possibly," "indeed," "by Jove," etc., should be pronounced as Rehdantz-Blass states: " Certum est, says Franke, uno tenore vocis pronur^ciata esse " (It is certain that it is pronounced in one tenor of voice). In Demosthenes' First Olynthiac, 14, which runs thus: ''Why, it may be said, do you mention all this now? " should be pronounced in the same tenor or drift of voice; that is to say, if the voice is drifting upward, the tone on these words should likewise be upward. Walker says that such short phrases as " said he," " said one of the frogs," should be said in a higher and feebler tone of voice than the rest, if the preceding member breaks off with the rising inflection, and if it breaks off with the falling inflection, they should be said in a lower and feebler tone. (See asides, under Fig. Parenthesis.)

In calm, conscious demo7tstration of the proof, the Protasis is delivered mostly in the upper or higher tones of a ques- tioning nature; the Hypophora, with its quick surprising tone of objection, voice increasing in force. The Anti- protasis takes the slower, lower and falling tones, for it is the speaker's position which he approves, and, as Bell points out, "what one attacks, he speaks in a higher and quicker tone, and what he supports, he affirms or asserts in a slower and lower tone." The Lusis, or refutation, may commence with the word ** if " in the opening phrase, as " if you grant this," which phrase takes the rising inflec- tion, and the hypotheticaT clauses, with "supposing" or similar word, which clauses also take the rising inflection, thus: "Supposing that pirates seized a place in Attica . . . and some persons dislodged the pirates"; but the Lusis proper, as in " what is to prevent that place where the pirates were from instantly becoming their property . . . ," must commence with a strong falling inflection on the word at the very beginning — for instance, on the word " what " just preceding. (See full passage under Examples.)

' HYPOPHORA 301

Where a lively conversational or dramatic element is intro- duced, interrupting the ordinary course of the speech, it savours of a dialogue, and the tones ar<; exactly like those used in conversation only they are on a bigger scale so as to be heard by an audience, and the accents the same as in a conversation.

The Hypophora used as a transition, as when " but " or the like stands at the head of a new sentence or paragraph, takes the rising inflection, as if arresting the attention, and then followed by a pause, m which the mind adjusts itself for the conception and delivery of the clause following.

We come now to the " Gorgotes " (vivacity) and shall start with the delivery of the rhetorical questions in which the particulars are brought in one after the other in the form of questions, and then rejected ; the questions should all take the rising inflection both at the beginning and the end, if they are direct questions, as in the example: " Shall we inquire into the merit of him that served us?" But if they are of an assertive nature, in which case they usually begin with an interrogative pronoun or some such word — e.g., ** To what am I to have recourse, should you come to an adverse decision " — they take the falling inflection exactly as a declarative sentence. The questions may be pronounced as an Accumulation (sqe this i'ig.) or an Incre- mentum, and are all in a quick and vivacious tone, as all questions, as a rule, are. The Lusis or refutation takes the falling inflection of an assertion or affirmation, as the Lusis to this question : " To the property mortgaged to the creditors? But that belongs to the mortgagees."

The delivery of the most vivacious form. This usually opens fire with some such expression as "it is monstrous," "it is disgraceful," "it is cruel," "it is shocking" (see full details under Fig. Enthymema); and abounds with interrogations and counter-interrogations, with Hypophora and Anthypophora rising, as a rule, into a climax, and finishing up with a sweeping, powerful lusis or refutation. It is like the duel of artillery, the opposing fires coming quick, one answering the other; finally a big ordnance sweeps the whole into silence — this is the Lusis. The questions are in one tone, usually those of the higher, as also are the attacks, the objections and answers another tone, sharp and decisive. To illustrate the whole better, take the follow- ing parts of Demosthenes' speech against Aristocrates, 38 and 211, the latter with a climax: "It is monstrous, then, when there are so many causes for which it is lawful to kill another man, that Charidemus should be the only person in the world, even for these causes it is unlawful to kill? . . . (211) . . . and deliberating whether she (the stated must guard the person of Charidemus ! Charidemus ! alas

302 HYPOTHESIS

the day ! And yet this is not the cruel part of it, that we deliberate less wisely than our forefathers, whose merits are transcendent, but that we are worse than any people. Is it not dis graceful, when the ^ginetans, inhabiting so small an island and having no reason to be proud themselves, have not even to this day made a citizen of Lampis, who is the largest shipowner in Greece and who has embellished their port, but have with much reluctance granted him exemption from the alien law — when the accursed Megarians so well maintained their own dignity . . . — and when the Orites, inhabiting the fourth part of Euboea, have so treated this very Charidemus . . . after conferring other honours, should give him this also in addition ? For what reason ? What ships did he ever capture for your benefit, that he is plotted 'against by the losers? What city has he ever taken and delivered into your hands? What perils has he encountered for your sake? What enemies of yours has he adopted tor his own? None can say."

HYPOTHESIS : Greek viro, under ; T/^?;/xt, to place, to place under, as a foundation, a ground work, that laid down as a rule of action; is a figure in the form of an argu- ment, or matter whereon one may dispute; or it is a condi- tional proposition. By rhetoricians it is, in its peculiar signification, said to be a finite question. Of questions there are two kinds: (i) infinite or endless; (2) .finite or limited. The finite is called Hypothesis, which is, as it were, a conditional proposition. When the speech is only hypothetical, it concludes nothing — e.g., '' If these should hold their place, the stones would immediately cry out." It will not hence follow that there was some inclination in the stones to speak.

" If " is the same as grant, allow, or suppose — that iron is impure, it is brittle. A proposition is Conditional or Unconditional. Any circumstances which must be grahted before the assertion becomes applicable is a Condition, and they are hypothetical or disjunctive. E. L. Hawkins says, respecting Hypothetical syllogism, that if the major is hypo- thetical, the minor is categorical (unconditional) — e.g., *' If it rain the ground is wet; it does rain, therefore it is wet." This is constructive hypothetical. ** If it rain the ground is wet; the ground is not v/et, therefore it does not rain," This is destructive hypothetical. Gilbart says the condi- tional form is used for expressing arguments, having no reference, however, to the relation of conditional cause and effect. This form is adopted because it is a more forcible way of stating arguments (no condition or contingency being intended).

Example from Demosthenes de Corona : ' ' For if I deli- berated concerning matters, with full powers vested in my-

HYPOTHESIS— HYPOTYPOSIS 303

'•self, then it rested with you, the other public speakers, to accuse me; but if you were always present in all the assem- blies, if the state proposed that we should in common deliberate on what was expedient; and if these measures appeared to all at that time to be the best, and particularly to you (for not from motives of affection did you concede to me the hopes, the applause, the honours, which were attached to my conduct at the time, but because you were, forsooth, overcome by truth, and because you had nothing better to offer); do you not act unjustly and outrageously in arraigning those measures now you could not then adduce better?*'

Delivery : Rush says that the hypothetical takes the third interval (that is, the voice rises three notes up and comes down to the level of the discourse) on the ''if" — e.g,, ''If I must contend,'* said he, " best with the best, the sender, not the sent." The rising inflection terminates where the Hypothesis really ends, rather the hypothetical clause. . If •climatic, a pause should be after each " if " to make the increase of voice easy and to supply the ellipsis. Clauses, phrases, or sentences which express doubt, condition or con- tingency take the rising inflection.

HYPOTYPOSIS: Greek hypo, under, below, beneath; typoo, to impress, stamp; is a figur'e whereby the orator draws a lively effigy of a thing or describes a scene as though it were present before the eyes of the audience. An oratorical word painting or picture; a vigorous picture of events. To produce it, says Genung, it is necessary to have a subject that admits of it, then a happy choice of w^ords with short sentences and rapid movement. It is also called word-painting — e.g.,

" On Prague's proud arch the fires of ruin glow, His blue-dyed waters murmuring far below, The storms prevail, the ramparts yield away. Burst the wild cry of horror and dismay." It is expressed in words so that it seems to be seen rather than heard, as: "He himself, inflamed with wickedness and fury, came into the forum, his eyes glared, cruelty showed itself over his whole countenance." — Cicero. " Hypotyposis persons, things, events,

In vivid language to the eye presents."— Langley. J^xamples : Whitefield's picturing power was great. No preacher ever used the Hypotyposis more effectively, and none with such splendid result' Whitefield's pictures were faithful delineations of nature; they were truthful. His dramatic powers were of a high order, enabling him to describe incidents so vividly as to appear almost real, as testified bv Lord Chesterfield respecting Whitefield's descrip-

304 HYPOTYPOSIS

tion of the blind man, the votary of sin being presented under the Hypotyposis of a blind begger led by a little dog. '' The dog breaks his' string. The old man, with his staff between both hands, unconsciously gropes his way to the edge of a frightful precipice. Step by step he ad- vances; he feels along with his staff; it drops down the descent, too far to send back an echo; his foot trembles on the ledge; another moment and he will fall headlong into the valley below " (when up starts the peer, crying out in an agony, as he springs forward to save him, " Good God! he is gone! ") Whiteheld kept nature's volume open before him. Peter's Denial: Says VVhitefield, " Methinks I see him wringing his hands, rending his garments, stamping on the ground ..."

Hypotyposis was a great feature of Henry Ward Beecher's eloquence. Spurgeon, too, was a master of Hypotyposis. "The Popularity of the Rev. C. H. Spurgeon," or "Why was Spurgeon so Popular," by a Doctor of Divinity, says, regarding Spurgeon's picturing power: "Characters, vices^ virtues, personified, pass before us as the 'dramatis personae' on the stage, and give an exceeding vivacity to truths and exhortations, which in plain didactic form would arrest no more than ordinary attention."

An example from -^schines vs. Demosthenes: " But since you were not present in person, in imagination at least contemplate their misfortunes; fancy that you behold their city captured, the levelling of their walls, the burning of their houses, their wives and children dragged off to slavery; their aged men and aged matrons unlearning liberty in their old age, weeping, supplicating you, incensed not against those who took vengeance on them, but on those who were the authors of these calamities, making a dying request of you by no means to crown the scourge of Greece, but even to guard against the evil genius and the curse that follows the man. For neither state nor private persons ever came off well, who followed Demosthenes as their adviser."

"... And when at the close of this defence, he shall call on the accomplices of his corruption as his advocates. imagine that you behold in this gallery, where standing 1 now address you, the benefactors of the state arrayed against the villainy of these men ; Solon, who adorned the constitu- tion with the noblest laws, a philosopher and an excellent law-giver, entreating you modestly, as became him, by no means to regard the speeches of Demosthenes rr.ove than your oaths and the laws; Aristides, who prescribed their respective subsidies to the Greeks, whose daughters, after he had died, they portioned off, indignant at the insult offered to justice and asking you, are you not ashamed that your fathers were very near putting to death Arthmius the

HYPOTYPOSIS 305

Zelian, who had brought gold from the Medes into Greece, being a sojourner m the state, connected by ties of hospi- tality with the Athenian people, and by proclamation ex- cluded him from the state, and from the territory which the Athenians command; and are about to honour with a golden crown Demosthenes, who did not bring gold from the Medea^ but received bribes and possesses them even now? And do you think that Themistocles and the heroes who died at Plataea and Marathon; do you think the very tombs of your ancestors will not send forth groans if a man who, by his own confession, has ever been conspiring with barbarians to ruin Greece be crowned? "

Delivery : As the orator makes a lively portrayal, the delivery is much the same as Animated Description. When to embellish, Qumtillian says, the description (hypotyposis) should be of a diffuse and flowing style. The dochmius (a five syllable foot), paeon, and ionic come much into play. Foster says: "When a mental picture is introduced you will mentally picture the scene, locate each object in it, and use the fore-finger of the right hand to point them out to your hearers." In this imaginative style the tendency is to a marked rhythm without destroying its prose tissue. This style, as Genung says, *' draws freely on poetic resources, especially epithet and word painting, also allitera- tion, balancing language, etc., the picturing verb — e.g.,

* will roll us home,* * the slumbering stream along the cliffs to fall and pause ' ; the sound and flow of words good — ' the rolling slumbrous sheet of foam,* ' the slow dropping veil of thinnest lawn ' ; euphonious words, as * Albion for Eng- land,' 'Erin for Ireland'; the polysyllabic words are alternated with the short ones. The intense identification of the writer's soul with the subject matter, and its occasion which produces these effects fervid and imaginative, wherein prose diction approaches that of poetry, require a greater degree according to the loftiness of the occasion. In cold blood, poetic effects cannot be manufactured by a manipula- tion of word, phrase or figure. Emotion and art must fuse thoroughly. The lofty or emotional figures come in ' Behold how altered.' Exclamatory: * The same heavens are indeed over your heads, the same ocean rolls at your feet; but all else, how changed ! * Interrogation : * How shall I struggle with the emotions that stifle the utterance of thy name ? ' The Apostrophe and other bolder figures. There is the rhythmical roll of words and construction: 'Venerable men,'

* former generation,* ' roar of hostile cannon,* ' the heights of yonder metropolis,* ' your country's means of distinction and defence,' ' 'ere you slumber in the grave,' ' this monu- ment may moulder away,* and others; also constant balanc- ing of elements, as * the head of our civil council and the

306 ICON— INCREMENTUM— IiNTERROGATIO

destined leader of our military band.^ " The above show the necessity of delivering each figure according to its own tone.

ICON : Greek elVo), to be like, to seem like; eUwVi an image, likeness, a semblance, simile; is a form of speech whereby the orator points out the image of a person or thing, by comparing form with form, quality with quality, and one likeness with another.

Example : * ' The cart of covetousness is borne upon four wheels, pusillanimity, incourtesy, contempt of God, and forgetfulness of death; it is drawn with two cattle in one yoke; greedy catching and false holding; to these there is one driver, vehement desire of increasing. This driver, to move speedily forward, uses two sharp whips; greediness of getting and fear of losing. This vice, as you see, has but one servant because he is loth to hire many."

Goodrich in '' British Eloquence " says respecting Edmund Burke: '* The association of resemblance was one of the most active principles of his nature. He traced out contrasts, analogies, for his beautiful series of associated thoughts. To this he added cause and effect, thus : Why ? Whence ? By what means ? For what end ? With what results ? These two principles were the origin of Burke's inexhaustible rich- ness and invention." Icon is also the touching of a like or similar chord of feeling or sentiment of the hearer by the orator.

Use : Its use is to praise or dispraise.

INCREMENTUM: Latin i«, in, on; cresco, to grow, to come forth; is a form of speech by which our saying grows by an orderly placing of words, making the last word always exceed the former in the force of signification, contrary to the natural order of things, which always puts the worthiest words and the weightiest first.

Use : The use of the Incrementum is to beautify speech and to amplify the matter; for in form, it is near the Arti- culus, and in force, to Comparison; the orator's ladder by which he climbs to the top of comparison.

It is a Catabasis to descend from the highest to the lowest — e.g., ''Who being in the form of God, thought it no robbery to be equal with God : but he made himself of no reputation and took on the form of a servant, and was made like unto men and was formed in the shape of a man; he humbled himself and became obedient unto death, even the death of the cross."

INTERROGATIO : Latin i^/er, among, between, thoroughly; rogare, to ask; is a form of speech by which the orator makes a confident assertion presented under the form

INTERROGATIO 307

of an inquiry or question. There are two kinds of interro- gation : First, the one which is simple or direct, as when we ask a question with a desire to receive an answer; second, the one which is figurative, when we ask a question with no intent to receive an answer, but only because we would wish our speech to be more sharp and vehement.

Use : Interrogatio serves aptly to express any affection or emotion, (i) Love\ "How fair art Thou?" "Oh! how sweet art thy words? " (2) Hatred: "Why wilt thou hate thy brother?" (3) Desire: "How long tarrieth thou. Lord? " (4) Anger: "How long, Catiline, wilt thou abuse our patience?" (5) Adiniralion: "What is it that the greedy hunger of gold does not compel mortal man to attemot? " (6) Doubting: "What shall I do, whither shall I go, to whom shall I flee for succour? " (7) Wishing: " Shall I not see him before I die? I would I might." (8) Sorrow or Pity: " Why died not I in my birth, why set they me upon their knees and give me suck with their breasts?" (9) Despair: "Alas! what ground, what sea may me (now a wretch) receive? "

James Rush says: " Interrogations are purely questionary, appealing^ argumentative^ exclajnatory, and imperative^

" A certain pitch of excitement is requisite to justify the boldness of this figure."

Austin Phelps says : ' ' The interrogative style is the electric wire which carries to the hearer the sign of vivid conviction. You can't drawl a question. Men scold in inter- rogatives. The common people, when aroused, spring to the interrogative. It requires an animated delivery."

Aristotle prescribes the following for asking questions or use of the Interrogatio : (i) Interrogation to be employed when an absurdity will result. (2) When your conclusion will be established by it. (3) W^hen the opposite party must contradict himself, as when a man would make ' it appear that his adversary does contradict himself, or speak some- what revolting to general opinion. (4) When we reduce our opponent to sophisticated answers, making him take such shifts as these : That in some sort, 'tis so ; in some sort, 'tis not so\ that it is, and is not] or partly is and partly is- not\ or one may it is and another way it is not\ the hearer hoots him off, being at a loss for his meaning.

Caution : Aristotle cautions not to make or attempt an interrogation under any other circumstance, for should the party interrogated start an objection to the question, you might appear to have been overcome. It is not possible to- put many questions by reason of the imbecility of the hearer, on which account we ought to, as much as possible, compass even our enthymemes. (He whose question succeeds not, is thought vanquished.)

308 INTERROGATIO

Aristotle prescribes the following as How to answer Equi- vocal Questions: (i) By distinction and not concisely. (2) By anticipation, and to what seems a contradiction by offering immediately an explanation, before the interrogator can put the next succeeding question, or draw the inference he aims at. (3) By explanation, that is when we see that our answer will conclude against us, we must immediately with our answer give an explanation and distinguish or assign a cause.

The Success Publishing Co. on ** How to be a Fluent Speaker," says respecting Interrogation: ** 'Tell me this?' ' You dare not say that,' ' Everybody knows,' * Nobody can deny,' are challenges for an answer, and if you get it, blame yourself. It is all right in the pulpit, where no one is expected to answer, or where the audience is sympathetic."

Delivery: "When we pronounce any sentence in doubt or ignorance, and with the desire of assurance or informa- tion, we terminate it with a rising inflection, more or less strong, in proportion to the degree of our earnestness to be assured or informed." When} Why} Who? How} take a tone which is generally falling as expressive of the assured certainty as to the fact. (i) Does the clause communicate the speaker's will or knowledge? .If so, fall\ if not, rise. (2) Does the clause appeal to the hearer' s will or knowledge ? if so, rise\ if not, jail (cf. Bell).

John Walker gives the following : In the declarative sentence the common order is that of placing the rising inflection towards the middle and the falling at the end. The interrogative inverts the order by using the falling in the middle and the rising on the last word. A question terminating with the rising breaks the chain of the discourse grown heavy by its length, &nd rouses the auditor from the stupor or languor qf attending to a continued series of arguments, and excites fresh attention by the shortness, briskness, and novelty of the address.

Walker gives the following rules respecting the use of the Interrogatio : Rule (i) When the interrogative sentence com- mences with any of the interrogative pronouns or verbs, with respect to the inflection, elevation or depression of voice, it is pronounced exactly like a declarative' sentence. Rule (2) Interrogative sentences commencing with interrogative words and consistmn- in a series depending necessarily on each other for sense are to be pronounced as a series of members of the same kind, in a declarative sentence.

As to questions without Interrogative Words: Rule (i) When interrogative sentences are formed without the inter- rogative words, the last word must have the rising inflection. Rule (2). When the interrogative sentences connected by *' or " succeed each other, the first end with the rising

INTERROGATIO 309

inflection and the rest with the falling — e.g., " Shall we m your person crown the author of these public calamities, or shall we destroy him ? "— i^schines. Rule (3) Interroga- tive sentences without interrogative words, when consisting of a variety of members necessarily dependinpr on each other for sense, admit of every tone, pause, and inflection of the- voice as other sentences, provided the last member on which the whole question depends has that peculiar elevation and inflection of the voice which distinguishes this species of interrogation — e.g., '' But can we believe a thinking being, that is in perpetual progress of improvements, and travelling on from perfection to perfection, after having just looked abroad into the works of its Creator, and made a few dis- coveries of His infinite goodness, wisdom and power, must perish at her first setting out and in the very beginning of her inquiries?" — "Spectator." Placing the falling inflec- tion without dropping the voice on "improvements" and " Creator" will prevent the monotony apt to rise from too lone a suspension of the voice, but enforce the sense by enumerating, as it were, the several particulars of which the question consists. Rule (4) Interrogative sentences, formed without interrogative words, and consisting of mem- bers in a series which form perfect sense as they proceed, must have every member terminate with the inflection of voice peculiar to this interrogation — e.g., "And with regard to the unhappy Lacedaemonians, what calamities have not befallen them for taking only a small part of the spoils of the temple? They who formerly assumed a superiority over Greece, are they now not going to send ambassadors to Alexander's court, to bear the name of hostages in his train, to become spectacles of misery, to bow the knee before the monarch, submit themselves and their country to his mercy, and receive such laws as a conqueror, a conqueror they attacked first, should think fit to prescribe them?" — vEschines on the Crown.

If the question does not end the paragraph, but is either answered directly bv the speaker, or followed by something so immediately connected with it as to remove the suspense of waitibg for an answer; if this is the case, let the train of questions be ever so numerous, it seems quite necessary to conclude with the rising inflection, thus: "Consider, I beseech you, what was the part of a faithful citizen ? of a prudent, an active and an honest minister? Was he not to secure Euboea as our defence against all attacks by sea ? Was he not to make Boetia our barrier on the midland side ? the cities bordering on Peloponnesus our bulwark on that quarter ? Was he not to attend with due precaution to the importation of corn, that this trade might be protected through all its progress up to our own harbours ? Was he

310 INTERROGATIO— IRONIA

r

not to cover those districts which we commanded by season- able detachments, as the Proconesus, the Chersonesus, and Tenedos ? to exert himself in the assembly for this purpose ? while with equal zeal he laboured to gain others to our interest and alliance as Byzantium, Abydus, and Euboea? Was he not to cut off the best and the most important resources of our enemies, and to supply those in which our country was defective? And all this you gamed by my counsels and my administration!" — Leland's "Demos- thenes." In pronouncing this passage we find no method so proper as that of annexing the rising milection to every single clause, and as they are not final but closed by a sentence with the falling inflection, the whole comes forcibly to the mind and agreeably to the ear, instead of that hiatus, both in sense and sound, with which the former sentence concludes when we finish it with the rising inflection.

/* Was he not " makes the Anaphora, a fig. much used by Demosthenes.

Caution-. Walker says: "When these questions requiring the rising inflection are drawn out at any length, they are apt to carry the voice into a higher key than is either suit- able or pleasant; too much care cannot be taken to keep the voice down when we are pronouncing the former parts of a long question and the commencing questions of a long series of questions; for as the characteristic pronunciation of these questions is to end with the rising inflection, provided we do but terminate with this, the voice may creep on in a low and almost sameness of tone till the end, and then, if the voice is not agreeable in a high key, which is the case with the generality of voices, the last word of the whole may be pronounced with the rising inflection in nearly the same low key in which the voice commences."

IRONIA : Greek Eironeia, an ignorance purposely affected to provoke an antagonist, used by Socrates against the Sophists, a dissimulation. It is a figure by which the orator seems to praise that which he really condemns; a figure whereby one thing is thought and another is spoken; signifies also taunting speeches or speaking by contraries. It has near affinity to Antiphrasis, which consists in the contrary sense of a word. Irony, the contrary sense of a sentence. It is censtire with p7ete7ided praise, or to praise under the appearance of censure — e.g., " Most upright man, he had no entry in his books," etc.

Irony saying what it ne'er intends, Censures with praise, and speaks to foes as friends."

— Langley. Examples: "We are fools, ye wise; we nothing, ye all." Crv aloud for he is a god, either he is talking, or he

IRONIA-ISOCOLON 311

is pursuing, or is on a journey; peradventure sleepeth and must be awakened." "When the Persian army was at variance among themselves, Phillip of Macedon, their utter enemy, said he would send his army to make them friends."

Use : The use of Ironia is chiefly to reprove or rebuke, also to jest and move mirth by opposing contraries:

Delivery : As Irony is the opposite of the words used, this meaning must be brought out by gesture or the tone of the voice.

Cicero says: "Dissimulation, or the humour of saying one thing and signifying another, which steals into the mmds of men m a peculiar manner, is extremely pleasing when well managed, and said not in a vehement strain of language, but in a conversational style."

Prof. Saintsbury says that the rhythm of irony is quiet- ness, absence of emphasis, the clauses are neatly balanced, but not obtrusively. There are no sharp pulls-up or varia- tion of final sound. The whole glides along in a smooth and deadly flood. If there is too much clamour of sound or flamboyance of colour, the sting into the enemy's body and the inner meaning slips the reader's mind. Swift does not raise his voice in the most withering passages of Gulliver. Fulton and Trueblood say that the nasal tone often gives special pungency to irony, sarcasm, sneer, and contempt.

ISOCOLON : Greek isos, same, same as, equal; kolon^ member, clause, limb; is a figure in rhetoric which consists in the use of two or more clauses in immediate succession having the same length or number of syllables. If tKe equality is approximate, the figure is properly called Parison. It is also a period containing successive clauses of equal length.

Examples : * ' No one could give to another in matrimony except him in whose hands is the patrimony."

The foregoing example is also Homoeoteleuton and Parono- masia united. Rush says that the measuring process occa- sionally may give variety to discourse.

" Here and there an angry spit of thunder, With bossy beaten work of mountain chains, Spreading low along the pasture lands By furious pulses of contending tide."

The foregoing example is prose encroaching on metre; the first two members form a perfect Isocolon, as they have just an equal number of syllables, but the second two are nearly equal, and would therefore technically be called a Parison (cf. Genung).

Caution : It is a most delightful figure and carries great delectation to the ear. It should be sparingly used, as it

312 LEPTOTES— MLRISMUS

^ill nauseate if too much in evidence. If used sparingly or as a variety, it is of the greatest effect.

LEPTOTES (or Litotes): A^eTrro'?, small, insignificant, is a figure by v^hich the orator makes a diminution or softening of a statement by contrast with the moderation shown in the form of expression — e.g.^ ** A citizen of no mean city," which means '' an illustrious city."

Use : It tends most usually to praise or dispraise, and that in a modest form or manner. Dispraise another : * * He is not the wisesjt man in the world " is the same as he is not wise at all. This is more modest than to say he lacks wit. Commend himself: ** I was not the last in the field against the enemy of my country, neither have I been the least esteemed or worst accounted of in the love and favour of noble men." This is more modest than to say I was the fiist or one of the foremost in the field.

MEMBRUM : Latin membrum, member, joint, a limb, one of a community ; is a figure which in few words ends the construction, but not the sense — e.g., " Thou light of our eyes, thou comforter of our life, thou hope of our generation."

U se : It is used as a pleasant and excellent ornament.

A Membrum or Member, says Ouintillian, is a portion of thought completely expressed but detached from the body of the sentence and establishing nothing by itself, as "O crafty man! " separated from the rest of the period has no force.

MEMPSIS . Greek /xe/^A/ro/xat, to blame, find fault with; is a form of speech by which the orator makes a complaint and craves help.

TJ se : It is to move compassion ; it tends to complain ot injuries suffered and to pray for succour and redress.

MERISMUS : Greek meros, parts ; merimos, a partition, a dividing of the whole into parts, distributing; a repetition of parts, a disposition of several things in their proper places, as, for example, " The body : the eyes for tears, the hands for grasping, the stomach ..." It is the whole separated into its parts, giving to each its maximum office of service or utility. "It is a figure very apt for orators or eloquent persuaders, and is when we may conveniently utter a matter in one entire expression or proposition, but rather do it piecemeal and by distribution of every part for amplification's sake — e.g.y 'A house was outrageously plucked down.* The oratpr would say it thus : ' They first undermined the ground-sills, they beat down the walls, they unfloored the lofts, they untiled and pulled down the roof.*

MERISMUS -METABASIS 313

' ' Example :

' Set me where'er the sun doth parch the green, Or where its beams do not dissolve the ice; Intemperate heat where it is felt and seen, In presence prest of people mad or wise; Set me m high or low degree - —

In longest night or shortest day; In clearest sky, or where clouds thickest be, In lusty youth or when my beards are grey; Set me in heaven, in earth or else in hell, In hill or dale, or m the foaming fiood^ Thrall or at large, alive whereso I dwell. Sick or m health, in evil fame or good : Her's will I be, and only with this thought. Content myself, although my chance be nought.' All of which might have been said in these two lines : ' Set me wheresoe'er you will, I am but with you still.' " — Puttenham.

METABASIS: Greek yLtera, composition, participation, community; reversely, back again ; ^aivw ^ to pass, go; to pass over from one to another; is a figure whereby the parts of an oration are knit together, as when we are briefly put in mind of what has been said and what is further to be said. This ornament conduces to eloquence and attention; to the understanding and remembrance of the things handled m a speech.*

Caution : Care ought to be taken (a) to be brief in rehearsing the matter already said and likewise of that which shall next follow; (b) to provide that the matter which follows be neither less important nor less plausible than the matter going before, for a long rehearsal is tedious and quenches attention, and turns away expectation. Metabasis is made from the equal: *' The matters which you have already heard were wonderful and those that you shall hear are no less marvellous "; from the like: " I have hitherto made mention of his noble enterprises in France, and now I will rehearse his worthy acts done in England"; from the con- ttary: " As I have spoken of his sad adversities and misery, so I will speak of his happy prosperity, which at length ended as the bright day does the dark night *' ; from con- sequents or from things relating to something precedent : "You have heard what kindnesses I conferred on him; now what return has he made me of those favours, attend ye. You have heard how he promised, I will tell you how he performed," etc.

* Mrs. Annie Besant is unquestionably the most accomplished and eloquent of women orators. She is generally deliberate and has a striking manner of summarising matter she has had uH'ier discussion. Her sentences have excellent rhvthm and roll, in which she greatly resembles Cicero. Her chief power lies in the hgure Metabasis.

3 1 4 METALEPSIS— METAPHOR A

Delivery : Delivery of the transition or Metabasis should be, says Foster, with more rapid movement and in a higher tone. On the introduction of a new thought there is gener- ally a change in the attitude of the body. W. H. Kirk in his thesis on the "Demosthenic Style" says that whenever Demosthenes made a transition from narrative to argument, or any shift of topic, he habitually marked and emphasised it for clearness. Bell says there should be a change of modu- lation or key at all changes of style, beginning of para- graphs, at the beginning of a new subject or division of subject, from n^ration to description, from literal to figura- tive language; any marked change in the style of composi- tion. The degree of modulation changed to a higher or lower key must depend on the speaker's judgment.

Whitefield frequently used secondly, thirdly, fourthly, etc.

In summing up what has been treated on in the paragraph, the summary should be by Asyndeton — i.e., without con- nectives; brief, somewhat quickly delivered, the inflections harmonically arranged or placed, and pronounced in free and ' flowing numbers, good and generous feet, not too sonorous, nor containing jarring sounds, as this figure is not only an ornament of eloquence, which must please the ear, but enlighten the understanding.

METALEPSIS : Greek yu^era , following in participation ; Xafjb^dvo), to take; is a form of speech whereby the orator m one word expresses or signifies another word or thing removed from it by certain degrees. This figure is a kind of Metonomy, signifying the effect of a cause far off by an effect nigh at hand.

Examples : Virgil, by ears of corn, signifies summers, by metonymy of the subject ; by summers, years, by a synecdoche of the part. So many moons signify so many months.

METAPHORA : Greek ?ne^a, one to another, change of place, condition, etc.; p/tero, to carry; a transferring of one word to the sense of another. It is the friendly borrowing of a word to express a thing with more light and better note, though not so directly and properly as the natural name of the things meant would signify. It is a form whereby the orator tells not what a thing is like, but what it is. If one sees a caterpillar eating the tender buds and blossoms of a plant, and sees a man living on the spoils of another man's labour, he is inclined to call him a caterpillar. When the property of one thing is transferred to another, as to say : '* God is said to repent,*' here the property of man is trans- lated to the Omnipotent. A metaphor is pleasant, for it enriches our mind with two things at once, with the truth and a similitude; and there is nothing in the whole universe whence a simile may not be taken.

METAPHORA 315

Bain says: "By dispensing with the phrases ot compari- son, like, as, etc., it has the advantage of being briei a.nd of not disturbing the structure of the composition. He was a lion in combat. Like simihtudes, they generally may (l) aid the understanding, (2) deepen the impression on the feelings, and (3) give an agreeable surprise." _

The principal sources from which metaphor is drawn : (i) From sight, which chiefly refers to the understanding; you look for much and lo it comes to little; "look for" is equivalent to " hope for." " He put his hand to the plough and looked back," is equal to wavering; high looks is same as pride; winking, partiality or circumspection; looking away, displeasure; looking down, discomfort. " Gifts blind the wise," i.e., obscures the understanding. " The blind lead the blind," means both are destitute of knowledge and are ignorant.

(2) From hearing, which principally refers to the affection, that is they are not so much to express the powers of the mind as to express the affections of the heart — e.g., " Hear the complaint of the fatherless and the widows — do them justice, pity them, and tend their distresses." ** I heard thee — granted thy petition." The translation is taken to signify pity, compassion, succour, consent, obedience, atten- tion and granting. By the privation of this sense, the con- trary is signified, as they are deaf, they are obdurate, they are hardened.

(3) From smelling, which chiefly regards things pleasing to the mind, also wise and prudent, as smell often finds out before the eye, hence its prominence in foresight, as " smell out the ungracious practices." A sacrifice of sweet savour — one acceptable to God.

(4") From feeling or touching, refers to understanding, also pierce, plague, etc. God has touched me, smitten me. They were pricked in their hearts, pierced with sorrow and repent- ance; feeling, understanding; prick, remorse of conscience; renting, extreme grief; smoothness, fairness of speech or flattery : coldness, want of affection ; heat, vehement dis- pleasure or fervent zeal; dynness, defect.

(5) From tasting, refers chiefly to experience, suffering, to try, prove. Man is born to taste as well the sorrow as the sweet — to suffer adversity as well as enjoy prosperity. By sweetness, we may signify pleasure, bitterness, grief of mind, or cruelty of speech; sorrow — severity. ** There are certain of them who stand here shall not taste death." " Tasted heavenly gifts."

(6) From the mind to the body, as pitiful eye, malicious tongue.

(7) From living creatures without reason to man, that par- takes of reason — e.g., a man without reason is called a brute.

316 METAPHORA

In praise, as to call the innocent ** a dove." From the particular qualities of these animals, as stinging — secret mischief; by crowing — proud, swimming — abundance; roar- ing— impatient misery ; hissing — terrible threatening ; bitter — curling; fawning — flattering^; hovering — attending oppor- tunity.

(8) From man to brute creation, as the mourning dove, the proud peacock, circumspect cat, mistrustful toad, wise raven, diligent spider. They show how near these creatures come to man.

(9) From the living to things without life, as the sea swallows, the wind rages, ground thirsts, water roars, fortune is fleeting, love is blind. Metaphors from here are copious for orators and poets.

(10) From things without life to things having life, as for a man of renown, say shine; stony heart, green; leaden wit, raw youth, bitter people.

(11) From things senseless to things senseless, vice buds, beauty withers, evil words corrupt good manners, flowing speech, storms of adversity.

(12) From offices and actions of men, as " Judge not and ye shall not be judged," " Wrestle not against faith," " Tread not the poor under thy feet," to pull down, to build, to square, to register.

(13) From substantives, as "Thy word is a lantern"; the night is past, the day has come; is a gate to all miseries; hypocrisy is covered under the cloak of religion.

(14) From the elements-, (a) Fire, as "an mflamed mind." (b) Air, as " The tyrant never ceases to thunder out in most dreadful threatenings." His venomous breath blasts the green. The raging tempest of sedition, the whirlwind of trouble. (c) Water, as "Wedlock is a sweet shower"; strive not against the stream; waves of trouble; men ebb and flow, (d) Earth. This gives a large field for translations : *■ a mountain of wealth," wilderness of doubts, path of pleasure, vale of misery, etc.

From God to men, as He is God. From men to God, as the Lord of Hosts.

U se : The Metaphora serves to give light ; move the affec- tions ; they are pleasant ; they are forcible to persuade ; they are remembered.

Caution: Take heed that there be no unlikeness, as " the bull barks," which is very unlikely; not far-fetched, that is strange and unknown to the hearers, as parts of a ship and apply them among husbandmen who have never been to sea, thus obscuring what should be made evident. Avoid unchaste significations. See that the similitude be not greater than the matter requires, and contrariwise.

METAPHORA 317

Aristotle says that men like things out of the common, as they do foreigners; on which account you should give your phrase a foreig-n air, and the metaphor gives a foreign air because it gives two ideas for one; besides, the metaplior is perspicuous, novel and sweet. There are three rules for the use of metaphors, (i) From the better class if to em- bellish, as he has "taken" for he has ''stolen*'; and if to debase, from a lower class, as call an ** error " a " crime." They must be constructed on the principle of analogy or similitude. They should be Euphonious, that is they must be of a pleasing sound.

(2) They must not be far-fetched, that is they must be perspicuous, for receiving information with ease is the funda- mental principle, and if a thing is not clear it is not pleasing ; nothing is more delightful to man than to find that he apprehends and learns easily ; it necessarily follows that those words are most grateful to the ear that make a man seem to see before his eyes the things signified. Foreign words are unpleasant because obscure, plain words because they are too manifest, making us learn nothing new, but metaphor is in the highest degree pleasing because it begets in us by the genus or some common thing to that with another, a kind of science, as when an old man is called a " stubble "; a man suddenly learns that he grows up, flourisheth and withers like grass, being put in mind of it by the qualities common to stubble and to old men. Men hearken to those whom they easily understand.

{'\) Metaphor should be from the most beautiful and noblest things-. "Better rose fingered than red fingered." One word represents the object under different circumstances, and on this principle we may lay it down that one word has more or less of beauty and inelegance than another. We are to deduce our metaphors from these sources — from such as are beautiful either in sound, in meaning, or in the image they present to the sight or any other sense.

The metaphors should be from terms that are appropriate yet not too obvious. Those metaphors are most graceful which are the analogical and which are constructed on similar ratios, as : " Moerocles said he was no more a knave than the other, since that person indeed played the rogue at the rate of 30 per cent., himself at merely 10 per cent.," meaning that he was less villain in the same ratio in which 10 per cent, was less usurious than 30 per cent. We ought to aim at three things — metaphor, antithesis, and personifi- cation. If therefore in the same sentence there occur both metai)hor and personification, and also antithesis, it cannot hut be very grace fid.

Delivery : Delivery of the Metaphora depends on the emotion or passion; if to embellish, it is graceful and smooth,

318 METAPHORA-METONYMIA

both in voice and gesture; but if to debase, it takes the lower, harsher tones, and gesture in the lower plane. Aris- totle says we must conceal our art and not appear to speak in a studied manner; but naturally (that is, the manner in which one naturally delivers himself under the influence of a similar passion), for the one is of a tendency to persuade, the other is the very reverse because people put themselves on guard as though against one who has designs upon them, just as they would against adulterated wine. And the deceit is neatly passed off if one frame his nomenclature upon a selection from ordmary conversation. The orator may con- struct his style in a foreign air and use the art of oratory to elude observation, and will have the advantage of clear- ness.

METONYMIA : Greek meta, change, over and above, m common with; onoma^ name; to call by a near name. This is a form of speech whereby the orator puts one thing for another which by nature are nigh knit together. It is an exchange of names between related things. '* Metonomy does new names impose And things for things bv near relation shows."

— Langley.

"Laying the iron" means the rail of the railroad; " Serving with the colours " means the flag.

Metonymia is used in four ways: (i) When the Cause is put for the effect; (2) when the Ejfect is put for the cause; (3) when the Subject is put for the adjunct; (4) when the Adjmzct is put for the subject. Under the name of Cause and Effect are contained: (a) the Efficient: "The sword without, pestilence and famine within." By pestilence and famine is signified death, the effect of those causes, (b) The Inventor for the thing invented; Bacchus for wine, (c) The Com^nander for the commanded, the Governor for the government. " Hannibal was defeated by Scipio," meaning his army, (d) The Instrument for its effect : " He learned his arguments from Aristotle and his eloquence from Tully " — out of Aristotle*s works and out of Cicero's works.

Second, Effect for the cause-. "Death is pale," "wine is bold " — that is, death makes pale, wine makes bold. " 1 am the resurrection " (Christ) — I am the cause of the resur- rection.

Third, Subject for the adjunct is when the subject is put for the adjunct or that which belongs thereto; the subject is that which contains and the adjunct the contained, as " the CUD ' ' for the wine ; ' * the purse ' * for the money therein ; " the city " for the inhabitants contained in it. (a) The possession for the thing possessed, (b) Time for the things done in that time. I have considered the days of old and

METONYMIA— NARRATIO 319

years past — i.e., the peace and prosperity of those days. (c) Place for the things it contains: '* Greece for learning/' the people in it. *' They invade the city oppressed with sleeo," the people, (d) The container for the contained. (e) Place for the actions done in it— ^.^., ** The hall is done," actions in the hall. —

Fourth, the Adjunct for the subject : Righteousness looked down from heaven — i.e., God. There is no truth, no mercy in this land — few or none possess these adjuncts. When the adjunct or that which belongs to a thing is put for the subject or thing to which it belongs or is adjoined. "Set thy house in order" — i.e., household affairs.

Metonymy of matter is when the name of the matter is put for the thing made of the same, as I want silver — i.e., money. Seed— i.^., children. Earth — i.e., man. They eat the finest wheat and drink the sweetest grapes — i.e., bread and grape wine.

Metonymy of Adjuncts, as weapons, arms, signify war. keys, power; villainy for villain — i.e., quality adjunct. Take heed young idleness means idle youth. The days are evil — men are evil, which is the adjunct of time put for the persons or things subject thereto. The names of virtues are put for men, vices for evil men, and divers other names for persons to whom they are adjoined or pertain, as justice for a. just man; books for library or study; a play for a playhouse. Antecedent is put for the consequent, as to hear is to obey; thev have lived — i.e., they are dead; the sword is drawn — i.e., the ensuing slaughter. Consequent for antecedent, as the guests have risen — i.e., have supped. When all things going together, one is put for another : Joshua overcame the Canaanites — i.e., he and his army.

Metonymy of the end : When the end is put for the means — e.g., ** Sodom and Gomorrah were set forth for examples" — i.e., were punished for example's sake.

Metonymy of form : When the form is put for the thing tp which it gives a being ; art is put for artificer ; modesty itself — i.e., some one very modest.

NARRATIO (in Greek called Diegesis) : Latin narratio, a tale; narrare, to relate, to tell; narus, which is another form of gnarus, knowing, acquainted with; lit, to make (ate) known (narus). This is a figure whereby the orator gives an account of the real or imaginary facts or events. It is mostly personal, respecting the proceedings, accidents or adventures of individuals.

Aristotle says: (i) The narration in demonstrative speeches (panegyrical) is not given in continuity but scattered m portions. From some, Oien, establish the character for courage-, from others, for wisdom-, from others, justice,

320 NARRATIO

because to relate them successively would be difficult to remember. If facts are well known you have only to awaken the recollection. (2) Narrate enough to make, the subject clear. (3) Bias the audience in your favour. The orator should narrate such incidents as conduce to his own excel- lence, as "I all along used to instruct them in what was just, bidding them not to abandon their children." ('Tis good to insert something commendable to one's self and blameable in his adversary, as ** I advised him, but he would take no counsel.") (4) The Defendant; narration brief. He should state that it has not taken place or is not hurtful, or not of such importance if the fact be acknow- ledged, but ,its injustice disputed. (5) It should convey an impress of character. The narration ought always to be in such words as argue the manners; that is, some virtuous or vicious habit m him who speaks, although it be not ex- pressed, as " Setting his arms akimbo he answered . . . ," by which is insinuated the pride of him that so answered.

Let the 'Narrative be Pat he tike (passionate), that is, draw your narrative out of those things which are indicative of the passions, narrating both their attendant circumstances and those which the audience know, and which attach pecu- liarly to the speaker himself or his adversary: " He, having scowled at me, departeci," and as u^schines said of Cratylus, "that whistling and snapping his fingers"; for they have a tendency to persuade, therefore those things which they know become indices of what they do not know.

Let the Narrative be Ethike (characteristic), and forthwith insinuate yourself as a person of a certain character in order that they may look upon you as one of such a description, and your adversary as the reverse; but beware of observation as you do it.

Narration should be least in the Deliberative speech. A narration of things past may be made that men may better deliberate on the future, but that is not narration, but proof, for 'tis example. It may also be narration in deliberations in that part where criminations and praise come; but that part is not deliberative but demonstrative. (See Diegesis, also examole under " Daniel Webster.")

Cicero says : A narrative referring to various characters and intersected by dialogues is very gratifying; and that which vou report to have been done becomes more probable when you describe the manner in which it was done.

Quintillian says: "In the statement of facts an account is given of circumstances, persons, occasions, places and motives : as Cicero, in describing the scourging of a Roman citizen, not only touched all the feelings, gave the condition of the sufferer, the place of the outrage, the nature of the infliction, but extolled the spirit he bore it — e.g., ' When

NARRATIO 321

he was lashed with rods, uttered no groans, made no suppli- cation, but only exclaimed that he was a Roman citizen.' Some figures may be used, but they must be hurried and short, as if hastened into it out of our right course by strength of feeling, as Cicero's digression : * O incredible wickedness of a woman! ' "

Alexander Bain, " English Composition and Rhetoric," says: "Narrative composition apphes to a succession of views or things changing from one to another, and to the stream of events. Such pre-suppose the means of descrip- tion, as are the movements of armies and the occupation of new countries, tj^e larger processes of industry, the busy life of cities, the workings of nature on a great scale, the vicissi- tudes of the seasons, geological changes, the evolution of vegetable and animal life. Narration may therefore have to put on the guise of descriptions . . ."

(i) The first principle of narrative is (a) to follow the order of events, that is, to place the events before us as we should have witnessed them. It is also the order of cause and effect, (b) To assign the date of every transaction and to intimate one bond of vital action between it and other transactions. To fix up a year and to assign the things transacting within all the countries historically known is a favourite theme with Macaulay. (c) For the better explana- tion of events a backward reference may be necessary. A short summary of the previous transactions that bear on the special point. (d) It is sometimes best to commence by describing a state of things more familiar to the persons addressed, and then point out what previous steps were arrived at. It corresponds to a rule in teaching science.

(2) It is necessary to provide for the narration of concurring stream of events. Many narratives may be under the simili- tude of a tree, as of colonisation, spread of languages, etc. Concurring streams of nearly equal importance, as in the history of Greece, in which may exist a plurality of histories, as Athens, Sparta, Argos, Medes, Corinth, etc.

(3) The details of events should be relieved and assisted by summaries — e.g., " The narrative, after many turnings and windings, in the difficult navigation of affairs at the court, has now come to that point where Las Casas, having conquered his troubles in Spain, was now ready to start for teira-firma.** " Gr^eat Britain imposed an obnoxious tax on her American colonies; they resisted, fought, and made themselves independent," is an easy abridgment of several years.

(4) Narration requires that every fact or event should be made to groiv out of something previous,

Vh^^^^^ Delivery : Ouintillian says that in the narrative part the afeiv;:Qry should be full and expressive, and where to em-

i

322 NARRATIO

hellish, it should be gentle and flowing, and in all demonstra tive eloquence (eulogistic and panegyrical) the numbers should be free and flowing, the narration, as Austui says, proceeding equably.

Narrative style takes the distinctive slide downward of the third interval, as " The Conspiracy of Catiline, as related by Sallust, was one of the most . . ." — Russell, " Pulpit Eloquence.'*

Rush says : Where the narrative represents things as they are in themselves, without reference to our relationship to them on .the point of pleasure or pain, desire or aversion, interest and injury, they are in the plain, unobtrusive interval of the second. When those are absent the current melody is diatonic — i.e., rise and fall, radical change of tone.

Didactic, Russell says, includes slight uses of the open hand and the discriminating finger in moderate emphasis. The distinctive slide^ which is not for the purpose of emo- tion or passion, but for the understanding and judgment, which may be termed intellectual and not impassioned ex- pression, usually extends through the third interval. It is used in Didactic style in introducing a person, or an event in narrative, also in the mere designations, as in the an- nouncements of a subject or topic, or an object m the descriptive style, thus: "The duties of the citizens of a repiiblic formed the subject of the orator's address.** "Among the men of the period of the American Revolution, Benjamin Franklin held a conspicuous place."

The " Chironomia ** says that narration will require the hand to extend more boldly (than in the exordium), the gesture marked, the tones of the voice nearly those of common conversation except that they should be louder; some passages, simplicity of tone; the affections, whether vehement or tender, require an expression of voice peculiar to them.

Foster says, respecting the delivery of the narration, the voice should be a little higher than in the exordium. Matters of fact should be related very distinctly, and proper emphasis laid on each circumstance. The manner easy and familiar. If you call particular attention to some portion of the narra- tion, proceed in a slower and more impressive manner, and move the index finger up and down continually so as to mark every accent with a gentle stroke.

Russell* s * * Orthophany " gives a good example of ani- mated narrative : (Pure tone, moderate force, vivid radical stress. The vividness of eff"ect in this style raises the pitch above that of serious narrative; the prevailing note, how- ever, is still, as in conversation, near the middle of the scale.)

"Julius Caesar,'* by J. S. Knowles : "To form an idea of Caesar's energy and activity, observe him when he is sur-

NARRATIO-OMINATIO

323

prised by the Nervii. His soldiers are employed in pitching their camps. The ferocious enemy sallies forth from conceal- ment, puts the Roman cavalry to rout and falls upon the foot. Everything is alarm, confusion and disorder. Every one is doubtful what course to take, every one but Caesar ! He causes the banner to be erected, the charge to be sounded;r the soldiers at a distance to be recalled — all in a moment. He runs from place to place; his whole frame is in action; his words, his motions, his gestures, exhort his men to remember their former valour. He draws them up and causes the signal to be given — all in a moment. The contest is doubtful and dreadful; two of his legions are entirely surrounded. He seizes a buckler from one of the private men, puts himself at the head of his broken troops, darts into the thick of the battle, rescues nis legions, and over- throws the enemy." (See Diegesis.)

OMINATIO : Latin ominari, to presage, to divine by omen. This is a form of speech by which the orator warns or foretells the likeliest effect to follov/ some evil cause. When taken in good part it is Euphemismus. Cicero against Anthony : ** If you follow these purposes believe me you cannot long continue." " Therefore thy poverty cometh upon thee as one by the way, and thy necessity like an. armed man." By this figure the orator foreshows beggary to the slothful, shame to the proud, mischief to the quarreller,. and gallows to the thief.

Delivery : Walker gives the following respecting admoni- tion, warning, etc. It assumes a grave air, bordering on severity, the head sometimes shaken at the person we

admonish as if we felt for the miseries he was likely to bring upon himself. ^ The right hand is directed to the person spoken to, and the forefinger, projected from the rest, seems to point out more particularly the danger we give warning of; the voice assumes a low tone,, bordering on a monotone, with a mixture of severity and svmpathy, of pity and reproach — e.g.. To act justly: " Re- member March, the ides of March, remember! "—Shake- speare.

Example (lowest descent of the falling inflection or down- ward slide or concrete of the octave, Russell) : " Woe unto them that call evil good, and good evil, that put darkness for light, and light for darkness, that put bitter for sweet and sweet for bitter! "

324 ONOMATOPCEIA-OPTATIO— ORCOS

ONOMATOPCEIA : Greek onomato, name; pceeo, make; to make up a name; is a figure whereby the speaker imitates the sound or voice of that which it signifies. It is to make a sound, especially to express natural sound. In rhetoric, i'i is the use of imitative and naturally suggestive words for rhetorical effect, as the wind went whu-u-u-u-oo ; ** I heard the whiz of the bullet by my head, and its thud as it struck the mark. Gee whiz ! "

(i) By imitating sound, as to say a " hurliburly," signi- fying a tumult, uproar, also rattling, creaking, lumbering, etc.

(2) By imitating voices , as the roaring of a lion, the bellow- ing of bulls, the bleating of sheep, grunting of swine.

(3) By composition^ as when we put two words together and make one, as orator-like, scholar-like, and also when we call a churl, thick-skin ; a flatterer, a pick-thank.

(a) When we signify the imitation of another man' s pro- perty in speaking or writing, as " I can't Italian it."

OPTATIO : Latin optare, to wish; also Greek optao, to roast, burn, bake, boil, metph. to burn (of love); is a form of speech by which the speaker expresses his desire by wish- ing to God or men.

Examples: II. Philip: "I could wish I were not con- jecturing aright. But I fear that the event is much nearer than even what I said." And at the close of same: "O all ye gods, let it not be that the event shall have been foretold only too accurately." — Demosthenes.

'* I would to God they were spared you.**

Use : The use of Optatio is to signify our desire by wish- ing what we cannot accomplish by our power.

ORCOS : Greek 6p/c6co , to bind by oath, to make one swear, to swear ; 6pfco<;, the witness of an oath, the power or object adjured, as "by the Styx," "by the Gods**; opfcto^, that w^hich is sworn by, adjured as a witness to an oath. A form oF speech by which the speaker expresses an oath for the better confirmation of something affirmed or denied, which both necessarily require a sure and high testimony. Webster defines an oath as a solemn appeal to God, or in a wider sense to some person, superior sanction or a sacred or revered person (as the temple, the altar, the blood of Abel, the Koran, a tribal superior, etc.), for the truth of an affirmation or declaration, or in witness of the inviolability of a promise or undertaking, also the affirmation or promise or the like supported by the oath, or the form of expression in which it is made.

ORCOS 325

u

Examples :

•' For, by the sacred radiance of the sun. The mysteries of Hecata and the night; By all the operations of the orbs From whom we do exist and cease to be, Here I disclaim all my paternal care.''

— Shakespeare.

J. W. Macbeth says that this figure is greatly desirable, as if a mighty preacher were to cry : "By yon heaven, the home of the righteous, I adjure you; and by hell, self-made dungeon of the impure ! you will perish if you persist in this crime ! **

Paul: "For God is my witness whom I serve in my spirit that, without ceasing I make mention of you always in my prayer.'* Sometimes the speaker uses it to confirm his saying by- swearing by his faith, credit or truth, or some such form of confirmation.

Use : Orcos serves most aptly to confirm matters either by high and divine testimony or by the gauge of the speaker's faith and credit, and therefore it is best becoming a grave man who is imbued with age and credit.

In the great Orcos, " By the manes of those who fell at Marathon and Platasa," besides the figure Orcos, the following figures, according to Blass* " Demosthenes " axe employed : Epanaphora, Polysyndeton, and finally Apos- trophe, inasmuch as the speaker turns suddenly to absent persons. But as the orator, says Lord Brougham, continues to emphasise in his brilliant exposition, the latter (those who fell at Chsroneia) are placed in a similar position to the gods by the formula of the oath, and further, as it is always the battle and not the victory which is designated, those also who have not conquered are included in the oath and the Apotheosis, and therefore the combatants of Chaeroneia must share the same honour ; this raises and strengthens the spirits of the hearers in a wonderful manner.

Bain says :**Iii connection with oratory we quote the celebrated adjuration of Demosthenes in the speech on 'he Crown ; probably the greatest effort ever made to soothe and reconcile men under calamity and defeat. Demosthenes had himself been the chief adviser of strenuous resistance lo Philip; the resistance had been unsuccessful, and he claimed lionour for the intentions and the exertions of those engaged in it. The orator here has skilfully touched the most power- ful chords in the minds of his audience, and trusting to the effects of his address has dared the highest flight of figurative boldness."

Caution : Swear not to deceive or to confirm an untruth, as did Antiochus to the Jews, thereby to deceive them, or as Peter did when he swore he knew not the man. (Mark

326 ORCOS-OXYMORON

xiv. 71 : " But he began to curse and to swear, saying, I know not this man of whom ye speak.")

That we use not this form of confirmation often, for often swearing cannot be without sin ; it becomes odious to the hearer, and dimmishes the credit of the speaker.

Delivery : Campbell's War Song of the Greeks, the Ortho- phany gives the delivery thus : Orotund quality, impassioned force, vehement vanishing stress :

" We've sworn by our country's assaulters.

By the virgins they've dragged from our altars, By our massacred patriots, our children in chains. By our heroes of old, and their blood in our veins, That living, we will be victorious. Or that dying, our deaths shall be glorious." The following is the celebrated Orcos of Demosthenes, rhythmically divided by Blass, in the Greek text (see vertical lines in the delivery below) :

'AXX' ovK eariv, ovk ecrrcv ottco? r)/jidfjT€T€, avhpei; 'AOrjValoc, \ Tov virep Ti}? aTTCLVToyv ekevOepia^ koX accrrfpla^; Kivhvvov dpd/LLevot, | /u-a TOL'9 ^lapadowc irpofcivSvvevaavra^ tmp Trpoyovcov j kol rov^ iv nXaratatv Trapara^a/uLevov^ \ Koi rov'^ iv ^aXafjulvi vaviJja')(7]cravTas KUi TOV'; iir 'Apre/jbicrLa) j koI ttoXXou? irepov'; tol>9 eV roU Srj/j^o- crioi,<i /jiV7]/jba(n Keifievov; dyaOov<; dv8pa<;, | 01)9 d7ravTa<; 6fjbOLa)<; rj TToXt? T779 auT^? d^L(i)craaa tz/xt}? e6a^pev, Alo-'^lvr), | ov')(l rot/? KaTo'p6coaavTa<; avroiv ov8e rov<; /cparyiaavra'; fiovov;.

Translation : ** For if you now pronounce that my public conduct hath not been right, Ctesiphon must stand con- demned ; it must be thought that yourselves have acted wrong, not that you owe your present state to the caprice of fortune. But it cannot be, it cannot be, my countrymen | that you have acted wrong in encountering danger bravely for the liberty and safety of Greece. | No ! By those generous souls of ancient times who were exposed at Mara- thon ! i By those who stood arrayed at Platasa ! | By those who encountered the Persian fleet at Salamis ! who fought at Artemisium ! | By all those illustrious sons of Athens, whose remains lie deposited in the public monument ! | All of whom • received the same honourable interment ; not only those v/ho prevailed, not only those who were victorious, and with reason, since all did the work of brave, men, though each had the fortune that the Supreme Director of the World dispensed to each."

Walker says that the last two members of the first sei^tence adopt the specific inflection, that is, falling^ inflection on the word ''wrong" and rising on "fortune," as it is negative. (See Fig. Hypophora.)

OXYMORON : Greek ofu?, sharp, piercing, pointed, keen ; /xco/do?, dull, heavy, stupid, foolish, a remark that

PARADIASTOLE— PARAINETICON 327

seems to contradict itself; is a figure in which an epithet of a contrary signification is added to a word, as cruel kindness, laborious idleness. It is used tor epigrammatic ^-ffect, and Kmsbury says " is produced by a juxtaposition of words of opposite meaning and has the eftect of producing a sharp antithesis." By this figure contraries are acutely and discreetly reconciled or joined together so that at first sight it seems to be spoken foolishly, which afterwards is acknowledged to have been hidden under a notable and •excellent wittiness. Examples :

*' How rich, how poor, how abject, how august, How complicated, how wonderful is man ! If they are silent, they say enough. That something is nothing. A man is no man. Seeing and not seeing. In the light and \ not in the light. O heavy lightness. Do make haste slowly, A wanton modesty, proud humility, knowing ignorance, a numberless number. Job xxii. 6: " Thou hast stripped the naked of their clothing." "At fond sixteen my roving heart

Was pierc'd by love's delightful dart: Keen transport throbb'd through every vein, I never felt so sweet a pain.'' — Montgomery.

** And Pity, dropping soft the sadly-pleasing tear.*'

—Gray.

PARADIASTOLE : Greek para, alongside, besides; dia, in comp. one against another, or one with another, asunder; stelloy to arrange, set in order; is a form of speech whereby we note a difference, or dilate or enlarge on a matter by interpretation. It is also a contrast of similar things, as, for euphemism, for prodigality say liberality; a* distinction by which things that have some similitude are distinguished, as when you call yourself ivise instead of cunning, brave instead of presumptuous, frugal instead of miserly. It is a figure when we grant one thing that we may deny another.

Examples '. " Truth may be blamed but not shamed.'* " And unto the married I command, yet not I, but the Lord . . ."

PARAGOGE f Greek Trapd, beyond, past; ^ay&), to lead; to lead past or beyond ; is a figure of words whereby a letter or syllable is added to the end of a word — e.g., The culprit, tired of being harangued and of having his back exposed to the cold, exclaimed: "If you floggee, floggee; if you preachee, preachee ; but no preachee and floggee both."

PARAINE7TCON : Greek Trapd, from one to another (m composition) beyond ; dcveco, to speak, to tell, speak in praise of, approve, advise, recommend; is a form of speech

328 PARAINETICON

by which the orator makes an exhortation, that is, urges by strong argument, as to a good deed, etc. (Webster's Diction- ary gives Parasnesis, a shorter term for Paraineticon, as meaning advice, an exhortatory composition.) Aristotle says that Exhortation and Dehortatioyi (profitable and unproht- able) in Deliberative oratory refer to time to come. For these purposes the orator must be ready in the other prin- ciples, namely, of what is done and not done; possible and not possible; what is the greater good and what is the lesser. The orator exhorts and dehorts on these subjects and ends ; (i) Business of the State, as levying of money, of peace and war, of safeguards of the country, of provision, of makmg^ laws. So that to speak in a council of state, the orator must know history, sight of wars, travel, knowledge of revenue, expenses, forces, havens, garrisons, wares, and provisions in the state he lives in; and what is needful for the state to import or export. (2) The orator in exhorting always pro- pounds F elicit y^ or some part of felicity, to be attained by the actions he exhorts, and in dehortation to the contrary.

Felicity is commonly meant, prosperity with virtue of con- tinued content of life with surety ; many and excellent friends, wealth, good offspring, good old age; honour and good fortune; virtue and its constituents, prudence, courage, justice and temperance.

The elements in the Deliberative Oratory are common opinions concerning good and evil, and are absolute or com- parative. The absolute are disputable and indisputable. The indisputable are: (i) Good which we love for itself; (2) that which every man with reason dictates; (3) that which satis- fies; (4) to take good and reject evil is good; (5) greater good than lesser; (6) lesser evil for the greater; (7) pleasure; (8"* all things beautiful; (9) justice, valour, temperance, mag- nanimity, magnificence, health, beauty, strength, riches, friends, honour and glory. The disputable are: (i) Whose contrary our enemies are glad of; (2) upon which much labour and cost have been bestowed; (3) what is suitable; (4) what we are fit for. On questions of good and expediency we must deduce our means of persuading from hence. The comparative are : The greater good (a) must be of the same species, as five guineas are greater than one; (b) plurality is a greater good than one or few; even one object separated into their several constituents have an air of superior great- ness (" In this detail of circumstances Sheridan *s celebrated speech against Warren Hastings abounded"): (c) that which is conducive to a greater number of uses; (d) that which is accompanied by less pain; (e) that which is held dear is a greater good; (f) the greatest part of what is great, as Pericles said, " The youth were swept away from the city just as if spring were to be withdrawn from the year";

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(g) that which men of practical wisdom, or the majority of persons would have pronounced ^ or have to be the greater good. From these sources we deduce our means of persuad- mg in exhortation and dissuasion. The deliberative orator must know governments.

In the Demonstrative oratory (vice and virtue; honourable and dishonourable) these are the objects of the orator who praises and blames. The honourable is that which we love for itself and that good which pleases us because it is good. The constituent parts of virtue are justice, courage, temper- ance, magnificence, magnanimity, liberality, placability, wisdom. Those virtues are the highest which are most beneficial to others.

Amplification is more proper to demonstrative oratory than any other. For here the actions are confessed, and the orator's part is only this — to contribute unto them magnitude and lustre. Examples suit deliberative oratory, because we there decide by argying of the future from what has gone btfore.

Deliberative and Demonstrative oratory have one point in common — for whatever we would suggest to a man in giving advice, that, by change of diction, becomes an encomium.

Points men are alive or are insensible to : An audience gives credit to a speaker that appears to possess these three qualities — prudence, moral cxcellencey and the having our interest at heart) for men are fallacious in what they allege or advise; either from want of ability they do not rightly apprehend the question, or rightly apprehending it, from depravity they do not tell you what they think; or being men of ability and moral excellence, they have not your interest at heart and do not advise you what is best, though they know fully what is best. The feeling our interest and of friendliness are shown in the emotiofzs or ■passions; for instance, anger, pity, fear, etc., and their opposites. Aristotle describes all the passions with which an orator must be well acquainted if he hopes to exhort or dehort effectively. (See figs. Pathopoeia, Emphasis and Epilogue for full details.) Men are alive or sensible to: (l) Shame-. The things they are ashamed of: (a) cowardice^ as to throw away arms, run away, etc. ; (b) sign of injustice, as to deny that entrusted to one's charge; (c) sign of wretchedness, as to borrow, and so to praise as if to ask; (d) sign of intemperance, as cohabit with whom, when and where he ought not to ; (e) -flattery, to praise one's virtues too much and slur over their vices; (f) hanJsering after lucre, as to gain from paltry sources, as from the poor or from the dead; (g) sign of effeminacy, as unable to endure such labours as those elders or inferiors d^ ; (h) pusillanimity, as to be beholden to another; (i) sign of arrogance, as to be

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one's own which belongs to another; (j) sign of vanity, as to " blow one's trumpet*'; (k) sign of disgrace, as the non- participation in those creditable qualities which either every- body has, or all our equals, or a greater part of them par- take, as not being educated ; and (1) sign of depravity when it is your fault*

The orator must not overlook the fact that things do not show themselves in the same light to persons affected by love, by hatred, by anger, and those disposed to placa- bility; also (i) how men are affected; (2) toward whom; and (3) for what. Persons who are angry — i.e.^ who seek revenge because they or some of theirs have been neglected or slighted — are those who have been treated with con- tempt, that is considered little as compared to themselves; treated with contumely, that is disgraced or made fun of for pastime; and have been crossed, that is hindered without profit to the hinderer. In short, they are angered against such as mock, deride, and jest at them, contradict them, underrate what they are interested in, look indifferently on what they have put labour and study upon, more agamst friends, as they are disappointed at evil from them; such as do not look up to them, such as should help and neglect to do it, jest when we are serious, forget our names, and announce evil tidings. Sick men, poor men, lovers, and generally all that desire and attain not, are angry at those who stand by unmoved. It is necessary for an orator to work up his audience by his speech into such a frame of mind as that under which men are prone to anger, and his opponent, too, as one to be angry with. Men who are placable are those in a frame of mind opposite to feeling angry — i.e., when in amusement, in mirth, fv^stivity, amid rejoicings, success or glorification, or, in a word, when in a state of freedom from pain, amid chastened pleasure and virtuous hope; those who have laid aside their anger because they have got victory, or offender has suffered or been revenged by another; offender dead or insensible. The orator must appease the audience by working up the hearers themselves into feelings as described ; and those with whom they are enraged, either as objects of fear, or as deserving reverence, or as persons who have benefited them, or as having been involuntary agents, or as now exceedingly pained at what they have done.

Toward whom men entertain friendly feelings or Jtatred, and why: we feel friendly to those who participate in our joy, are pleased at our good fortune, and are aggrieved at our sorrows, but not from motive; those who are friends

* Dr. Johnson refuted the argument of those opposed to the educntion of the p or on the ground that it would raise thfir ideals above their sphere in life, saying that if only a fpw be educated it is a distinction, and the contrary will result if education be made general, it would thereby destroy the distinction and make it a shame not to be educated. --^

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and foes to the same persons, those who suffer the same €vil, those who are liberal and brave, the just, those who are pleasant companions, not quarrelsome or contentious, who have a happy turn in passing a joke, who dress neatly, ^ho imitate us but not rival us, or get their livelihood out of the same profession, as "potter hates potter," those who do not inspire us with fear. The causes of friendship are gratuitous benefits, the rendering of service unsolicited and privately. The orator must prove those to be friends and enemies who are really so, and draw over those who are hesitating as to whether an act was done from motives of anger or hatred. (Anger is temporary and is cured by time; hatred is permanent, is incurable, and seeks the ex- tinction of the object of its hatred.)

Things and men to be feared : an irreparable error by oneself, except by an enemy, and the approach of danger — i.e., the nearness of the evil feared; men to be feared are such as know our faults and our weaknesses, as can do us harm, those who have been wronged or conceive them- selves wronged, for they are on the look-out to retaliate ; those who have wronged others, who are competitors in things that cannot satisfy both; those feared by men more powerful than we are; those who have attacked their inferiors, and those who speak their minds freely or passion- ately. If the orator desires to put fear into his audience, he must set them off as persons liable to suffer, as others greater than they have suffered; that their equals have been exposed to suffering and at the hands of those they least thought, and at a time least imagined.

Those who are not afraid are those who expect no evil, or not now, or not this, or not from those; those whose feelings have been chilled as to what awaits them; those who have already been on the rack.

Those who are confident are those who hope things help- ful near at hand, and from whom evil is far off; those who attack first, as they think they will succeed at last; those who have means of recovery from or averting loss; who have not injured others, or been injured themselves; have no great rivals, or, if great, are friends whom we have benefited ; those who have often escaped danger and not suffered, who have mostly succeeded well ; who have never experienced calamity; who see their equals are not afraid; and those who have wherewith to make themselves feared, as wealth, strength, friends, territory, and warlike preparations, either .all or the most important of them ; the iitnocent who have wronged no one, or not many, or those of such character as are to be apprehensive of; in a word, whose account stands well in heaven (cf. Aristotle, translated by Theodore Buckley, B.A.).

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Men are sensible to shame (i) when they are suffering or about to suffer anything which tends to loss of self-respect^ or loss of esteem, or is disgraceful, or lending oneself per- sonally in any action where there is an idea of suffering insult. (2) Before those -we respect, those that admire us and those whom we admire, whose opinions we do not contemn; (3) ashamed before old and well-bred men; (4) those we live with always; (5) those not guilty of the same faulty

(6) those that reveal our faults, such as are injured and on. the look-out to retaliate, tatlers, jesters, scbffers, comic poets;,

(7) of those before whom we have had always good succesSy of such as desire our friendship, of our familiars that know none of our faults.

Men are affected and feel shame when the world is looking on, when discredit may attach on their conduct or that of their ancestors, or any of those they are closely connected with.

Men are i7tsensible to shajne in the presence of those whose judgment most we despise, or whose opinion they hold cheap^, for no one feels shame before children or brutes.

The orator must dispose his audience to gratitude, or pity, or indignation, or even to envy, if he does not desire his adversary to prevail.

Men feel gratitude toward such as bestow a benefit, not in return for something or to accrue to the object.

Those who feel pity are those who have passed through suffering, old men, weak men, timorous men, educated people, those that have parents, wife, and children. Those who feel indignation are those deserving to have the highest goods and those, not their equals, getting them, the ambitious who do not obtain what the undeserving do. Those who feel envy are those who feel that every man is carrying ' off what belongs to them, those esteemed on account of their wisdom, and narrow-minded men, as to them everything anpears of consequence. Those who feel emulation are those: who desire to acquire those things which are held in honour and which admit of one's gaining them for himself; it is not like envy which wished to dispossess the good others have, but to acqi5ire it for themselves, such as wealth, number of friends, office, etc., for men feel emulous of such goods. Objects of emulation are things that tend to benefit others as well as aid them. Persons who are objects of emulation are those who possess courage, wisdom, sove- reignty, for these have the power of benefiting many; generals, orators and all who have abilities, those whom many wish to resemble or admire, who have many friends and acquaintarifes, those whom poets, praise, etc. The orator has this as one of the means of exciting and allaying the passions in the breast and of persuading. The young and high spirited are mostly affected by emulation.

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For the purpose of effectively persuading, Exhorlijtg and Dehorting, the orator should have in mmd the habits and passions of the old, the young and the middle-aged, for each, Aristotle says, welcomes an address worded to their own disposition.

The Y oung, Aristotle says, follow impulse, are changeabie, fastidious, view every thmg in a good light, as they have not seen much depravity ; sanguine, for they are v/armed bv nature just as old men are warmed by v/ine, bemg a kind of natural drunkenness; they are full of courage and hope, for they have years to come, and have little memory; they love and hate to excess, and have too great earnestness; they overdo everything and know everythmg, once having given their opinion they are obstinate; they are fond, of boon companions, fond of jests; they pity every orie, judging by their own innocence, the sufferer undeserving; they are apt 'to violent anger and want to execute it with their own hands ; they long fervently and are soon satisfied; want victory and superiority, for superiority is a kind of victory, and love honour more than profit and money ; are easily deceived, etc.

The Habits and Passions of the Old are all contrary to those of the youth; they neither asseverate anything, nor determine anything; they are doubtful, they always suppose but know nothing, questioning everything, always subjoining "perhaps" or "possibly"; do things less vehemently than fit, they err in everything, more on the side of defect than they ought; view everything on the dark side; look on the dark side, are peevish because they interpret everything to the worst; are distrustful and timid; keen on everything that supports life, as little of life remains to them, and we value most that which we most lack; look more to profit, covetous and illiberal, knowing how easy it is to lose money and how hard it is to get it; hope little, as their expectations have often turned out wrongly; talkative, for they live on memory which they like to recall; dislike appearances ; they live more by reason and calculation than honour; they pity misfortune because they are v/eak and the same 'might befall them ; are complaining because they think evil is near; they trespass and injure on the side of malice, and not in contumely as. the youth; they are the reverse of fondness for mirth because of their infirmity.

Persons of Middle Age or Prirde of Life are of a disposi- tion intermediate between the old and young, subtracting the excesses of each ; they are not rash in too great a degree, nor too much given to fear, neither dare nor fear too much' but what is fit; they do not believe all nor reject all, but judge conformable to truth ; neither do they live with a view solely to what is honourable nor solely to what is expedient or of profit, but both; neither covetous nor prodigal, but what is fitting; neither easily angered nor too full of hope

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or desire, nor yet stupid, but between both ; they are spirited with coolness, the young being spirited with intemperate rashness, while the elderly are of a chastened or chilled spirit and are timid. In a word, whatever advantages youth and age have divided between them, the middle age possesses both, and in whatever they are in excess -or defect, it holds a mean and what is fitting. The body is in prime about from 30 to 35, and the mind about 49 years.

Those of High Birth; they are more ambitious than others, for when any possession is realised to them, they are wont to accumulate upon it; they are liable to indulge in contempt upon those whose ancestors are not so good or do not go so far back as theirs, and affcSfrd a ready plea for arrogance; generous when they have kept up the family quality, not degenerated, that is not become stupid or blockish or mad.

Character of the Rich is overbearing and insolent from being tainted in a certain way of getting their wealth; they are contumelious and proud, this they have from riches, for seing everything may be had for money, having money they think they have all that is good; they are effeminate, affectedly delicate and purse-proud, fastidious, and violate the rules of good breeding; boast of their wealth, and speak in high terms foolishly ; they think themselves worthy of command, having that by which men attain command and office; they are delicate on account of their luxurious lives and the display they make of their prosperity. In a word, the disposition of the rich is that of a fool amid prosperity.

The Recently Rich (nouveau riche) are different from the rich of old; the former have all these faults in a greater degree, and are inexpert in wealth; are, as it were, apprentice in wealth. They are guilty of offences, not of a malicious nature, but such as are of contumely or intemperance; for instance, in the case of assault or adultery.

Disposition of Men in Poiver : Those in power resemble the rich, but they are more ambitious, more manly; they have a greater sense of honour than the rich ; they are more industrious, for power is sustained by industry. They are the less given to trifling business, because from a necessity of looking after their power they are constrained to a diligent attention ; they comport themselves with a dignity which is conciliatory rather than repulsive, a softened and grateful sedateness, and when they do injuries they are great ones.

Prosperous Men or the fortunate: Their manners are com- pounded of those of nobility, the rich, and those in power. Prosperity in children and goods of the body make men desire to exceed others in the goods of fortune. Men who prosper have this ill, that they are more proud and incon- siderate than others, are overbearing in consequence of pros- perity. The fortunate are religious in consequence of the good accrued to them from fortune.

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Manners of poor men, obscure men, men without power and men in adversity may be collected from the contrary of what has been said.

The speaker endeavours to arrive at a decision by exhort- ing or dissuadi?ig, because what we have decided on there is no further need of an oration. In addition to the fore- going, which serve as means of exhorting or persuadmg, there is the chief question, possible and impossible; for if a thing is not possible there is also no need of an oration, as no one desires the impossible.

Cicero y respecting the Paraineticon or exhortation, and regarding the speech to the people, says: " For persuading there is nothing more desirable than worthy which is of the greatest utility. He will exhort his audience to honour by collecting examples of our ancestors which may be imitated with glory though attended with danger; he will expatiate on the immortal fame among posterity ; he will maintain advantages arising from honour and that it is always con- nected with worth. What is possible or impossible, neces- sarv or unnecessary are questions of the greatest moment, if not possible all debate ends. As the concerns of the Republic are of most importance, and as the commotions of the multi- tude are of extraordinary violence, a more grand and im- posing method seems necessary to adopt, and the greatest part of the speech is to be devoted to the excitement of the feelings either by Exhortation or the commemoration of some illustrious action, or by moving the people to hope or fear or to ambition or desire of glory; and often, also, to dis- suade them from temerity, from rage, from ardent expecta- tion, from injustice, from envy, from cruelty."

Ouintillian says : To persuade /and dissuade ; there are three : what is the subject for deliberation ? who are those that deliberate ? what is the character of him that would influence their deliberations? (i) *' Is it certain or uncertain that it can be done, can the isthmus be cut through? " If not conjectural, then the deliberation may be on some other point, as what is honourable, what is useful, what is neces- sary for persuading; or what is easy, important, pleasing or free from danger, which belong to expediency, as it is expedient but difficult, is of little importance, unpleasing or dangerous. (2) Who those that deliberate are : to recom- mend honourable measures to those who are honourable is easy, but to the unprincipled, they must not be reproached with the opposite nature of their lives. (3) Him who exhorts or advises : what is his authority, credit, age, experience, etc.

Means, which i? one of the powerful elements in the Paraineticon, supposes power, as we suppose the smaller number was killed by the larger number, weaker by the stronger, unsuspecting by the well prepared; also instruments.

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resources, etc. Presumptive evidence arises from instruments, as a sharp weapon was found sticking in his body.

Examples are of 77tost effect in deliberative oratory. Camp- bell, in his " Philosophy of Rhetoric," says there is no Dersuasion without appeal to the passion, that the coolest reasoner always in persuading addresseth himself to the nassions some way or other. The first is to excite some desire or .passion in the hearer- and the second is to satisfy their judgment that there is a connectio7i between the action to which he would nersuade them and the gratification of the desire or passion which he excites. This is the analysis of persuasion.

There are two things, says Whately, regarding persuasion, necessary to influence the will: First, object fro-posed should appear desirable-, sencond, 7neans suggested should be proved conducive to the attainment of that object which depends upon the process of reasoning. Persuasion depends on the (i^ argument to prove the expediency of the means pro- posed; (2) exhortation — i.e., excitement of men to adopt those means by representing the end as sufficiently desirable.

Bain says : Political oratory may be defined as the art of persuading some society or body of people or a nation at large to adopt, for the good of society, some one line of policy rather than another.

*' Prudential Exhortation must proceed by vividly depicting the {^ood or evil consequences of actions to the agent's own self." Bain^ recommends that one should have a systematic scheme of man's nature : l^o what extent the feelings common to human beings are developed m the particular class he has to deal with; v^hether disposed for action principally or emotion, ■ for love or hatred, veneration or self-esteem; for fine arts or for duty, studious acquirements or recreative sports; their specific loves and veneration, party ties, objects of respect; their practical maxims, education, experience, principles of actions; their individual and social ends, the prevailing opinions and sentiments (allowing for party differ- ences) relating to the mode of conducting public affairs (livelihood, activities, etc.), etc.— these are the data of the Qjator and his medium of persuasion, these are the major "■premises of his reasonings, the minor are the applications. ^^ Just before you are generous " is a maxim with a number <of followers; another, " Man must live for something higher than himself " : " The earth has been assigned by its Creator to each generation of men in turn for their support, and any dominion a man is allowed to exercise must be bounded by the interest of succeeding generation." Inattention to the character of the persons addressed will render nugatory the oratorical efforts of the highest genius.

The Means of PersuasioTi: "It may be based on simple i:ommunication, description of scenes that arouse passion.

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narration, as the chain of events that favour the speaker's side; besides the recital of facts, persuasive touches may be introduced, and exposition as a few examples and defini- tion may be highly effective in oratorical stimulation, as Demosthenes' definition of law; also his elaborate anti- thetical definition of two species of character, the straight- forward adviser and the truckler, in order to point out the contrast between himself and his adversary."

" Pitt's definition of a' * theatrical part,' Hall's exposition of slavery to create a feeling of detestation; also Similes, Metaphors, Antitheses, Epigrams, balanced construction, have all the effect of deepening the hold of certain things upon the mind and thereby increasing their force when used in persuasion."

Winans says: " Pocket-book iizterest is the surest to which a theme can be linked. The audience likes to identify the familiar in a new guise, to find that accepted principles have application hitherto unknown."

CommSiting upon the eloquence of the late ex-President Roosevelt, the "Daily Nev/s " of London said: "He had a gift of carrying his audience with him by his intensity, and of persuading them he was saying something profound when, as a matter of fact, he was only relating familiar truths."

To recapitulate : We have shown the character and disposi- tions of men, as all sorts enter a public audience, as being necessary to know so as effectively to exhort. We have shown the necessity of identifying the speaker's theme with the interest of his hearers; the necessity of appealing to the passions, which makes this an exceptionally good figure for the Epilogue (Nos. 2 and 3); the necessity of bringing in the greatest eloquence vividly to set forth the object and end ; and the necessity of arguing the means most suitable to effectuate the object. We shall now pass to a few examples of the Delivery of the Paraineticon. The delivery must be various because the figures are various, such as Antithesis, balanced structure, Parison, Simile, Narration, Description, and others according to the emotion or passion reigning at the time.

The Tone of voice : Walker says : In exhorting, encourag- ing, and persuading, the voice softens of love, intermingled with the firijiness of courage, the arms sometimes spread as in entreating — e.g., "Why look you sad? Be great in act as you have in thought." — King John.

William Russell directs a proper union of the radical stress, and lively movement in this example of Ani^nated Exhorta- tion : " Look forward to the triumph that av/aits you. Fight the good fight, finish your course, keep the faith; there is laid up for you a crown of righteousness which the Lord the Righteous Judge shall give unto you at that day. What,

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tkough in the navigation of life, you have sometimes to en- counter the war of elements ? What though the winds rage, though the waters roar and danger threatens around ? Behold at a distance the mountains appear, your friends are im- patient for your arrival, already the feast is prepared; and the rage of storm shall serve only to waft you sooner to the haven of rest. No tempests assail those blissful regions which approach to view — all is peaceful and serene; there you shall enjoy eternal comfort; and the recollection of the hardships which you now encounter shall heighten the felicity of better days.'* — Moodie. Nearly all the clauses in the foregoing example commence with the radical stress, and this passage illustrates the great principle of exhorting, that is, giving a reason. The reasons here are ** a crown," " a feast," the " haven of rest," and without these reasons it would be a command pure and simple, which might be resented. The voice is strong in Exhortation.

Gesture : Quintillian says that in Exhortation, and in giving thanks and in like subjects, our action should be animated. It is a gesture in exhortation when the hand is presented in a hollow form with the fingers apart, and raised with some spirit above the top of the shoulder, not tremulous, for this is theatrical.

To summarise, Quintillian also says that persuasion greatly depends upon the assertion, which sometimes has more effect than proof: "Would these statements have been delivered in such a way if they had not been triie ? " Let confidence, therefore, and firmness be apparent in the orator's manner. The first part of the Paraineticon, which may be taken as it were the first part of an antithesis, is delivered in the style of fine eloquence, magnificently and vividly setting forth the object and end ; and the second part, antiphonic, assertive and argumentative, showing the expediency, means, etc.

PARALEPSIS : Greek para, beyond, besides, going, beyond or by; leipOy leave, to- leave on one side, leave un- noticed, as going by; is a figure by which the speaker artfully pretends to pass by what he really mentions or really em- phasises. It is introduced by some such expression as " Say- ing nothing of," "I let pass," " I am silent," " I will leave out," " I omit," followed immediately by a brief but effective statement of a strong point. It is defined, as Baden says, by Alexander III. 23 and Hermogenes II. 374. By this pre- tended omission the speaker really brings forward all that he desires, and is saved from dwelling upon the less important subjects, also is enabled to give hints only, when fuller details would be to his disadvantage. The more subtle uses of Paralepsis belong to practical oratory.

C. Julius Victor very fully defines Paralepsis thus: " Para- lepsis is as when one deliberates, as it were, with the audi-

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€nce, or even with the opponent, for the purpose of describing the speech or manners of a man, to adumbrate something by silent mention, to turn the mind from what is discussed, to convert it into hilarity and laughter, to check an inter- rupter, to speak what we say we are reticent about, to fore- shadow what should be avoided, to irritate, to rebuke, to deprecate, to correct, desire, execrate, and similar to be discerned and not fully told. Paralepsis is one of the Schemata Dianoeas, that is, Figures of Thought."

Exam-pies: From Virgil: ''Quid repetam exustas Erycino in litore classes? " — ^^^n. lo, 36. (Trans. : '* Why should I tell the tale of shiphost burnt on Erynx shore? ") Example from Demosthenes, with the Paralepsis at the beginning of the portrayal (a good form for personal tributes or eulogy), Lcptines, 76: "You know, perhaps, without my telling you, that Chabrias was a noble man; yet there is nothing to pre- vent my briefly mentioning his performances. In what manner he took the f.eld with you against all the Pelo- ponnesians at Thebes, and how he slew Gorgopas in ^gina, and how many trophies he raised m Cyprus, and afterwards in Egypt, and how, traversing as he did almost every place, he nowhere disgraced the name of the commonwealth, or himself; all these things it is not easy to speak of as they deserve, and it would be a shame that in my description they should fall below the opinion which you entertain of him. Those, however, which no language of mine could degrade, I will endeavour to recall to your minds. He vanquished the Lacedaemonians at sea, and captured forty-nine galleys; he took the greater number of those islands and delivered them up to you, and made them friendly, when before they were hostile; he carried to Athens three thousand prisoners, and brought in more than a hundred and ten talents, the spoil of the enemy. To these facts some of the eldest among you can bear witness. And, besides, he captured above twenty galleys more, taking them one and two at a time; all of which he brought into your harbours. To sum up the whole, he is the only general who never lost a single city or post or ship or soldier when he commanded you ; none of your enemies has any trophy over you and him, while you have many over many enemies under his command." In the fore- going example, Blass says that the figure at the beginning serves to emphasise what follows, while what has taken place already appears as great.

Here the Paralepsis comes after: Demosthenes vs. Meid, 15: "What trouble he caused me by opposing the dis- charge of my choristers from military duty, or by offering himself as superintendent for the Dionysia and requiring you to elect him, or in other ways of that sort . . . I shall pass by; for I am aware that, although to me, who was then annoyed and insulted, every one of these affronts caused as

340 . PARALEPSIS

much irritation as the gravest injury could have done to you: who are out of the affair, they would hardly appear wortk while going to trial about. 1 will mention only that, the hearing of which will excite equal indignation in you all."

An example of modesty in speaking of oneself (see also Emb. 242, under the Fig. Ethos), Demosthenes on the Crown, 268 : " Such has been my character in political matters. Irt private, if you do not know that I have been liberal and humane and charitable to the distressed . . . / am silent,, I will not say a zvord, I will offer no evidence on the sub- ject, either of persons whom I ransomed from the enemy, or of persons whose daughters 1 helped to portion, or anything else of the sort. For this is my maxim. I hold that the one receiving an obligation should ever remember it, the party conferring should forget it immediately, if the one is to act with honesty, the other with meanness."

An example from ^schines vs. Demosthenes: "I pass over the forged letters, and the seizing of spies, and the tortures for crimes never committed, as if I, in conjunction, with certain persons, wished to make innovations in the state.*'

Daniel Webster, in his reply to Hayne, used this figure several times : "I have not allowed myself to look beyond the Union to see what might be hidden in the dark recess, behind. ... I shall enter no encomium upon Massachusettes. She needs none. There she is — behold her."

TJ se : Paralepsis is used for the purpose of commending without appearing lavish and sycophantic (see Lept. 76); it is used to speak modestly of oneself, as in the Emb. 242, and the Cr.own 268. Aquiia Romanus says that by means of this figure we are able to speak of things which if said directly would become envious, odious or vain-glorious. It is used, as Blass says, to emphasise what follows, which is really what has to be said, while that which has taken place already appears as great, as in Phil. III. 26 and Olynth. I. 13. The emphasis is increased by the imagination of the hearers in this respect, that if the things the speaker says he passes over or treats as if comparatively nothing, how terrible must be those which he omits, and how terrible would they appear if he said theni directly. Volkmann's " Herma- p-oras " says that Paralepsis cofitributes to Deinotes (force). Demetrius, respecting force by rhetorical figures, points out that it can be secured by figures conveying the speaker's thought — e.g., that which is called " prastermission," as in " I pass over Olynthus, Methone, Appollonia, and two-and- thirty towns on the confines of Thrace. "-^Demos. In these words the orator has said everything he wished, while pro- fessing to have passed everything over in his desire to proceed to weightier matters. In a word, it is used in all the cases. mentioned by C. Julius Victor in his definition above; and

PARALEPSIS-PARALLELISM 341

as Biass states, to make more effective v/hat is mentioned, which, like marxy other hgures of thought, springs from a certain shrewdness and clever calculation, \Vhich cleverness comes in (see Baden) by giving hints, etc., only, when fuller details would be to the speaker's disadvantage. It is most fit to accuse and reprehend, and most usually m a negative form, and sometimes it serves to command.

Caution-, This figure is most abused, by malice, as v/hen it is applied in false accusation or malicious detraction or feigned praise.

Delivery : As this is a figure of Deinotes (force), abounding chiefly in censure, rebuke, denunciation, etc., the delivery for the most parts would be forcible, that is quick in these matters of attack, therefore the Paraieptic expression, " I pass over/* " I say nothing about," etc., should naturally be of the same strain. If the subject-matter be commendatory, panegyrical and the like, the delivery of the Paraieptic form would be correspondingly smooth, rhythmic and flowing; likewise if the subject-matter is sad, or melancholy. The tone or voice which is characteristic of the passion or emotion which at the time aft-ects the speaker should always be observed. In other words, if the subject is one of the Pathos (impassioned), the Paralensis would likewise be in the same tenor; and if one of the Ethos (mild, gentle, etc.), it would accordingly be in the same strain.

PARALLELISM : Greek f)ara, alongside, in comparison with ; alios, another ; is a form of speech used by the orator in making a repetition of construction, that is the construc- tion already applied to elemicnts within the sentence.

Exajnples : A splendid example of Parallelism is shown in the following lecture by Robt. G. Ingersoll on Shakespeare, which Garret P. Servias in his ''Eloquence'' says: "Not- withstanding their exaggeration and their flights of fanciful rhetoric, such sentences coming from a speaker of Ingersoil's charm of voice and manner had the effect of a strange music which fascinates every hearer."

Inge/soil's Parallelism.

** He exceeded all the sons of men in the splendour of his imagination. To him the whole world paid tribute, and Nature poured her treasures at his feet. In him all races lived again, and even those to be were pictured in his brain.

'^ He was a man of imagination — that is to say, of genius — and, having seen a leaf and a drop of water, he could construct the forests, the rivers, and the seas; and in tiis' presence all the cataracts would fall and foam, the mists rise, the clouds form and float. /

"If Shakespeare knew one fact, he knew its kindred and its neighbours. Looking at a coat of mail, he instantly

342 PARALLELISM

imagined the society, the conditions, that produced it and what it, m turn, produced. He saw the castle, the moat, the draw-bridge, the lady in the tower, and the knightly lover spurring across the plain. He saw the bold baron and the rude retainer, the trampled serf, and all the glory and the grief of feudal life.

" He lived the life of all.

" He was a citizen of Athens in the days of Pericles. He listened to the eager eloquence of the great orators, and sat upon the cliffs, and with the tragic poet heard * the multi- tudinous laughter of the sea.' He saw Socrates thrust the spear of question thro'ugh the shield and heart of falsehood. He was present when the great man drank hemlock, and met the night of death tranquil as a star meets morning. He listened to the peripatetic philosophers, and was un- puzzled by the sophists. He watched Phidias as he chiselled shapeless stone to forms of love and awe.

" He lived by the mysterious Nile, amid the vast and monstrous. He knew the very thought that wrought the form and features of the Sphinx. He heard great Memnon's morning song when marble lips were smitten by the sun. He laid him down with the embalmed and waiting dead, and felt within their dust the expectation of another life, mingled with cold and suffocating doubts — the children born of long delay.

" He walked the ways of mighty Rome, and saw great Caesar with his legions in the field. He stood with vast and motley throngs, and watched the triumphs given to victorious men, followed by uncrowned kings, the captured hosts, and all the spoils of ruthless war. He heard the shout that shook the Coliseum's roofless walls when from the reeling gladiator's hand the short sword fell, while from his bosom gushed the stream of wasted life,

" He lived the life of savage men. Pie trod the forest's silent depths, and in the desperate game of life or death he matched his thought against the instinct of the beast.

" He knew all crimes and all regrets, all virtues and their rich rewards. He was victim and victor, pursuer and pur- sued, outcast and king. He heard the applause and curses of the world, and on his heart had fallen all the nights and noons of failure and success.

''He k7tew the unspoken thoughts, the dumb desires, the wants and ways of beasts. He felt the crouching tiger's thrill, the terror of the ambushed prey, and with the eagles he had shared the ecstasy of flight and poise and swoop, and he had lain with sluggish serpents on the barren rocks uncoiling slowly in the heat of noon.

" He sat beneath the bo-tree's contemplative shade, wrapped in Buddha's mighty thought, and dreamed all

PARALLELISM 343

dreams that light, the alchemist, has wrought from^ dust and dew, and stored withm the slumbrous poppy's subtle blood.

" He knelt with awe and dread at every shrine, he offered every sacrifice and every prayer, felt the consolation and the shuddermg fear, mocked and worshipped all the gods, enjoved all heavens, and felt the pangs of every hell.

" He lived all lives, and through his blood and brain there crept the shadow and the chill of every death, and his soul, like Mazeppa, was lashed naked to the wild horse of every fear and love and hate.

" The imagination had a stage in Shakespeare's brain, whereon were set all scenes that lie between the morn of laughter and the night of tears, and where his players bodied forth the false and true, the joys and griefs, the careless shallows and the tragic deeps of universal life.

" From Shakespeare's brain there poured a Niagara of gems spanned by Fancy's seven-hued arch, fie was as many- sided as clouds are many-formed. To him giving was hoard- ing-, sowing was harvest, and waste itself was the source of wealth. Within his marvellous mind were the fruits of all thought past, the seeds of all to be. As a drop of dew contains the image of the earth and sky, so all there is of life was mirrored forth in Shakespeare's brain.

" Shakespeare was an intellectual ocean, whose waves touched all the shores of thought; within which were all the tides and waves of destiny and will; over which swept all the storms of fate, ambition, and revenge; upon which fell the gloom and darkness of despair and death and all the sunlight of content and love, and within which was the inverted sky lit with the eternal stars — an intellectual ocean * — tov/ards which all rivers ran, and from which now the isles, and continents of thought receive their dew and rain."

The subject and predicate in the above are italicised, not only to show their position, but to give both the advantage of an Emphatic Repetition, the predicate being after the stvle of Repetition by Synonym.

Blass gives the following from Demosthenes, rhythmically divided, Chersonese 64: " From you all that has been taken I recount not ; but in the very making of peace, how have you been abused ! how despoiled ! Of Phocis, Thermopylae, places in Thrace, Doriscus, Serrium, Cersobleptes itself! Does he not now possess the city of Cardia and avow it ? Wherefore, I say, deals he thus with other people, and not in the same manner with vou ? Because yours is the only state in which a privilege is allowed of speaking for the enemy, and an individual taking a bribe may safely address the assembly though you have been robbed of your dominions. It was not safe at Olynthus to be Philip's advocate | unless the Olynthian commonalty had shared the advantage by possessing Potidaea; \ it was not safe in Thessaly to be

344 PARALLELISM

Philip's advocate | unless the people of Thessaly had shared the advantage \ by Philip's expelling their tyrants and restoring the Pylaean Synod; | it was not safe in Thebes , until you gave up Boeotia to them and destroyed the Phocians. . . . Ye^ at Athens, though Philip has deprived you of Amphipolis and the Cardian territory, nay is even making Euboea a fortress to curb us, and advancing to attack Byza.ntium, it is safe to speak on Philip's behalf." Blass says the repetitions here are less limited than in Cor. 48 and that the Anaphora increases the weight.

TJ se : The use of the Parallelism is to afford pleasure to the hearer, which arises from two sources, the facility of perception and economy of mental energy. The hearer, having perceived the construction of the first sentence, easily perceives the following sentences which are formed on the same model, having thus perceived the similarity of con- struction, he has nothing to do but to attend to the neW things that may be introduced, which is less labour mentally than having to attend both to the constructions new and different, and the perception of the meaning. So the fact that he perceives easily at the least possible expenditure of mental energy becomes a compliment to his mtelligence which affords him the highest possible delight.

Ca2aion : Genung says that the sentences need constant testing, lest the Parallelism, becomes artificial. Be careful to see that the successive sentence deals with the same subject of thought and that the subject be kept in the foreground of attention and stress, that subordinate or digressive ideas have a difi'erent tone from that of the principal ones, and that the voice of the verb be not changed — i.e., from activ? to passive — unadvisedly. (See Blass' remarks respecting the care of Demosthenes on Parallelism, page ^%.) Demetrius says that exact Parallelisms should be avoided v/here force i.s concerned, for the hearer, having his attention fixed to the form, forgets to be angry. Who would express his anger, wrath, etc. in Parallelism, balanced clauses and Antitheses? (cf. Ouintillian). Parallelism belongs more to the charming, gentle (Ethos) than to the impassioned (Pathos).

Bain says it does not violate the parallel construction to place the main subject for the sake of emphasis at the end of the first sentence — e.g., " There is not a work of human policy so well deserving of examination as the Roman Catholic Church." Here "Catholic Church " is propounded merely as a theme for consideration; they do not yet affirm' any of its important predicates. After the subject has been propounded, it must take its proper position and be main- tained in that position throughout: "The history of that Church joins together the two great ages of human civilisa- tion. No other institution is left standing v/hich carries the

PARALLELISM

345

mind back to the times when the smoke of sacrifice rose from the Pantheon, and when camelopards and tigers bounded in the Flavian amphitheatre. 'Ihe poudesi royal houses are but yesterday when compared with the line of the Supreme Pontiffs. That line we trace back in an unbroken series, from the Pope who crowned Napoleon in the nine- teenth century to the Pooe who crowned Pepin in the eighth," etc. The second and third sentences are contrast- ing or obverse sentences, and their subject takes the place corresponding to the main subject; by v/hich means the Parallelism is maintained.

The sentences, Quintillian says, must begin like a verse ends in poetry. There must be an Arsis, then a level pro- gress of the voice, then a Thesis with a properly formed cadence with three accentual syllables if possible, and the voice allowed to fall into a gradual repose to the end. Where there are antitheses the voice should rise on the first and fall on the second; negatives take the rising, except emphatic or assertive; the clauses that contain couplets or Synthetons, each couplet should have the pause of voice at the end ; although the pause is very slight, it should be observed by the voice ; at the end of each clause the voice should pause to about the length of a comma, and at the end of the sentence there should be a longer pause. The subordinate clauses or intermediate numbers must be pronounced in a softer tone and little more rapidly. The principal subject which stands at the head of the new idea in connection with the subject should be pronounced, as Quintillian says, as an Emphatic Repetition, but not too pronounced, as the pre- vailing tone of voice in Parallelism is Ethos. In a word, the voice throughout must be smooth, clear and flowing in a steady stream.

Delivery as to Gesture : There are not so many gestures in the delivery of the Parallelism; the chief beauty lies in the charm and harmonious intonations of the voice. What

gestures there may be, as a rule, accompany the voice. Quintillian gives the follow

mg gesture as good: "A moderate extension of the arm, with the shoulders thrown slightly back, and the fingers opening as the hand advances is a kind of gesture excellently

adapted to continuous and smoothly flowing passages." On the emphatic repetition of the principal subject at the head of a new idea, the index finger may be slightly raised to indicate that the next amplification of the subject is about to be made, which elevation of the index must coincide with

v^

346 PARAMYTHIA— PARECHESIS

the accented S}llable of the .principal subject. The author heard Col. Ingersoll deliver his lecture on Shakespeare, and in his foregoing magnificent Parallelism Col. Ingersoll slightly raised his index finger at each " he " standing at the head of each new amplification, then the following clauses were delivered with a mellow charming voice, fluent and -clear.

PARAAIYTHIA : Greek para, alongside of, (in comp.) by the side of; mylheornai, to say, speak, tell; to address with soothing and cheering words, console, appease; is a form of speech by which the orator takes away or diminishes a sorrow conceived in the mind of his hearer.

Examples-. "Hath thou, with weeping eyes, committed to the grave the child of thy affections, the virtuous friend of thy youth, or the tender partner whose pious attachment lightened the load of life? Behold they are not dead. Thou knowest that they are in a better region with their Saviour and their God." — Finlayson.

Delivery : The consolation is delivered in a slow movement, but not dragging or drawling, with tones similar to those for tenderness, but more solemn.

PARECHESIS : Greek para, alongside, from one to .another; ecAo, to have, to hold. Parechesis is a figure of ^ords, and is synonymous with Paronomasia, but Parechesis is from a different root and Paronomasia from the same root. According to Baden, Parechesis roots differ in a single letter, accent, or different words pronounced alike. Parechesis is also a play on adjoining words. Paronomasia sharpens antithesis or juxtaposition, Parechesis intensifies one idea by the use of two words in which the sound is similar, as " toil and moil.'*

In Parechesis (i) the words differ in accent or in a single letter; (2) the words are combined in pairs; (3) the words are not in pairs, but may occur at a considerable distance, sometimes in different cola, the assonance being evidently designed. Paronomasia may contribute to passion when irony is not involved. This figure is most artistic when sharpened by contrast in the meaning between the words which sound alike; while the Parechesis contributes to a sharp antithesis. Parechesis, in this sense, is a figure of words, and is the same as Homonym, which is a word having the same sound as another, but different in meaning, as bare,' bear. It delights the hearer because, although there is a repetition apparently, the repetition brings an entirely new idea. " Figures based on similarity of sound recommend themselves to the popular mind and popular ear, appealing not so much to the intellect as to the attention, imagination, and emotion." — Kingsbury.

PAREGMENON— PARENTHESIS 347

Use : It is used chiefly in subjects that are not of a serious vein, having its greatest effect in irony, fidicule, mockery, joking, and the like. See other points on this particular under Fig. Antithesis. The position in the colon is un- essential; the definitions make no requirements in this respect. The Paronomasia and Parechesis contribute to Kallos (beauty), according to Hermogenes.

Caution : Similarity of sounds is not conducive to force. The same caution in this respect as given under Homcco- teleuton, Antithesis, Paronomasia is applicable to this hgure.

Delivery : The delivery is ironical, sarcastic, ridiculing, according to the sentiment, facetious or jocular'; if the beauti- ful, then fluently.

PAREGMENON: Greek para, near, alongside, together; ek, out; men, strengthening particle, word. It is a figure of \yords, whereof one word is derived from another ; where one word going before brings the word following.

Use : It serves to delight the ear by the derived sound and move the mind with the consideration of a nigh affinity and concord of the matter.

Caution : It is an abuse when one of the words is super- fluous, as if one should say merry mirth, mournful mourning, friendly friendship, or when the derivation is inapt or not in use.

Exaynples: "I will .destroy the wisdom of the wise." " They have stumbled at the stumbling stone." " The first man of the earth was earthly, the second man was the Lord from heaven, heavenly." Sometimes a double Pareg- menon in one sentence, as ** He wished rather to die a present death than to live in the misery of life."

PARENTHESIS: Greek irapa, passing by, alongside; ev, in the midst ; ^ecrt?, a putting ; is a form of speech which sets a sentence asunder by the interposition of another.

Examples : ' * Tell me ingeniously (if there be any in- genuity in you) whether . . ." " That what his wit could conceive (and his wit can conceive as far as the limits of reason stretch) was all directed to setting forth his ..."

Walker says, respecting Parenthesis, that it is a member of a sentence which is neither necessary to the sense, nor at all affects the construction. What can add greater force to a pathetic sentiment than a thought rising up from the fulness of the heart, as it were, in the middle of another sentence? What can give greater poignancy to a sally of wit than conceiving it as springing naturally from the luxuriance of the subject without the least effort or premedi- tation ? What can give such importance to a transient thought, as producing it in the negligence of an intervening

348 PARENTHESIS

member; and how much is composition familiarised and rendered natural and easy by the judicious introduction of these transient unpremeditated thoughts ! This manner of conveying a thought makes us esteem it the more in pro- nortion as the author seems to esteem it less. The best Parenthesis is the shortest. Rule i : The most general rule IS that the Parenthesis always terminates with the pause and inflection of voice with which the interrupted part of the sentence, that precedes it is marked; for any closer con- nection betv/een the Parenthesis and the former part of the sentence would form a fresh member, compounded of the Parenthesis and the latter part, and by this means leaves the former imperfect.

Use : A Parenthesis is often put in when the speaker, supposing that the hearer ma}/ demand a reason or make some objection to that which he says, prevents him by an interposition expressed before the sentence be ended, so that a Parenthesis is to con:&rm the saying by interposition of a reason, and to confute an objection by the timely prevention of an answer. Also v/here the sentence may seem dark or doubtful it puts in a short annotation or exposition to give light and to resolve the doubt. It is also to interpose asides, sallies of wit, sudden thrusts,* ridicule, or a pathetic senti- m^ent.

CaiitiG7i : If the Parenthesis be long, it causes obscurity, and should not be a needless interposition.

Delivery : The Tone : Walker says that it ought to have a moderate depression of the voice and a pause greater than a comma. The tone of voice should be interrupted, as it were, by something unforeseen and, after a pause, the Paren- thesis ought to be pronounced in a lower tone of voice, at the end of which, after another pause, the higher tone of voice, which was interrupted, resumed. It ought to be pro- nounced swifter than the rest of the period, as this better preserves the broken sentence and distinguishes it from the rest of the text, for this is the case in conversation. What- ever is supposed to make our auditors wait gives an impulse to the tongue, in order to relieve them as soon as possible from the suspense of an interruption. W^hen the member immediately preceding the Parenthesis ends with imperfect sensi] or a comma, and the rising mflection (which is almost ;)lways the case), the Parenthesis ends with a comma, and the rising inflection likewise — e.g., " Know ye not, brethren (for I speak to them that know the law), that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth? "

W^hen it ends with perfect sense, generally marked with a colon, and consequently requires the falling inflection of voice (which very seldom happens), the Parenthesis ends

* Amongst the notable women speakers of to-day, Mts. Driimmond, wlio is very fluent in delivery, usf;s the Parenthesis to great effect, especially Pareuihetical thrusts.

PARENTHESIS 349

with' a colon and the falling inflection also — e.g., "Then went the captain with the officers, and brought them without violence : (for they feared the people lest they should have been stoned : ) and when they brought them they set them before the council." The following must be pronounced in a lower tone of voice, and conclude with the same pause and inflection which terminate the member that immediately preceded it — e.g., " Notwithstanding all this care of Cicero, history informs us that young Marcus proved a mere block- head; and that nature (who it seems was even with the son for her prodigality to the father) rendered him incapable ot improving by all the rules of eloquence, the precepts of philosophy, his own endeavours and most refined conversa- tion of Athens.^*— " Spectator."

When the Parenthesis is long, not only must the voice be lowered and the Parenthesis pronounced more rapidly, but be given by a degree of the monotone or sameness to the voice which will perhaps distinguish the Parenthesis and keep it from mingling with what incloses it better than any of the mother peculiarities — e.g., " For these reasons, the Senate and the people of Athens, (with due veneration to the gods and heroes, the guardians of the Athenian city and territory, whose aid they now im^plored; and with due attention to the virtue of their ancestors, to whom the general liberty of Greece was ever dearer than the particular interest of their state,) have resolved that a fleet of two hundred vessels shall be sent to sea, the admiral to cruise within the straights of Thermopylag." — Demosthenes.

Asides, etc. Under this article, perhaps, may be arranged aside speeches in dramatic works, and all intervening ex- planatory members in narrative writing; for both these species of members, like the Parenthesis, require both a lower tone of voice and a more rapid pronunciation than the rest of the composition. Stnall intervening members, as ** say I," ''says he," "continued they," etc., not only follow the inflection, but the tone of the member which precedes them : that is, if the preceding member breaks off with the rising inflection, those intervening jnembers are not* pronounced in a lower tone, like the other Parenthesis, but in a higher and feebler tone of voice than the rest— ^.^., boys pelting frogs with stones : "Children, says one of the frogs, you never consider that though this may be play to you, it is death to us." When the intervening members go farther than these simple phrases "says one of the frogs," they must always be pronounced in a lower tone of voice and terminate with the rising inflection.

Rule 2 : The Parenthesis, like the member immediately preceding it, almost always terminates with the pause of.the comma and the rising inflection; the exception' being When

350 PARENTHESIS— PARISON

the Parenthesis terminates with an emphatic word, which requires the jailing infleclioji.

'* Had I, when speaking in the Assembly, been absolute and independent master of affairs, then your speakers might call me to account. But, if ye were present, if ye were all m general invited to propose your sentiments, if ye were all agreed that the measures then suggested were really the best; if you, .^schines, in particular, were thus persiiaded, (and it v/as no partial affection for me that prompted you to give me the hopes, the applause, the honours, which attended that course 1 then advised, but the superior force of truth, and your utter inability to point out any more eligible course : ) ; if this was the case, I say, is it not highly cruel and unjust to arraign those measures now, when you could not then propose any better? " — Demosthenes.

Here the Parenthesis, finishing with two parts in opposition to each other, the first of them being negative and the last positive^ the sense necessarily requires that "advised" should terminate with the rising inflection and ** eligible course" with the falling; but as the member which immedi- ately precedes the Parenthesis is emphatical and takes the falling inflection, likewise in this case the general rule is not broken.

Rupert Garry says that parenthetical clauses are pro- nounced with quicker time and a lower key, while explana- tory clauses are generally pronounced in a quicker tone and a higher key.

PARISON: Greek para, nearly, near; isos, equal; almost equal ; is a *form of speech whereby the orator balances one clause with another; it is an almost even balance between members of a sentence; a correspondence combined with vigorous thought; similarity in the members of sentences. Parison is more natural when the cola express antithetical thoughts, and this explains many of the parisa of Thucy- dides.

Aquila Romanus, in defining Parison, says that it is different from Isocolon in rhat Isocolon has the same number of words in the members, whereas Parison has an addition of words either in the member preceding or in the one follow- ing, thereby excluding or avoiding the equality. The effect of Parison applies to equal cola as to single words. — Hermo- genes.

Bain has the following respecting clauses which balance : " (a) When a succession of clauses is formed upon the same plan, a certain aid is given to the jnemory. (b) A further effect of the balanced structure is to cause an agreeable sur- prise. Sameness of form in difference of matter communi- cates a pleasurable impression, (c) When a new distitzct ineaning can be conveyed in nearly the same words, our

PARISON 351

feeling of surprise is all the greater, as * This is true but not new, that is new but not true,' there is a double appli- cation of the balance. First, the sameness of sound in the <X)ntrasted terms, * true ' and * new ' ; second, the employ- ment of the identical terms to convey a new meaning by mere transposition, ' What is Hecuba to him, or he to Hecuba? ' (d) The balanced structure is frequently com- bined with antithesis or contrast. (e) The purest torm ot antithesis is the obverse iteration. In an obverse proposition the equivalent fact is stated from the opposite side, as * To buy in the cheapest market and sell in the dearest* (f) Sometimes the contrast of the balanced members is a species of epigram, as * When reason is against a man, he will be against reason.' (g) Merely to keep up the same leading term, under change of meaning, has the effect of the balance, as * The greatest happiness of the greatest number ' is balanced in sound, in grammar, and in the recurrence of the word ' greatest ' "

Examples '. "Man proposes, God disposes." "Chronic diseases must have chronic cures."

A Parison with Antithesis, from Whitefield : ^* The spirit of the world is hatred; that of Christ is love:

The spirit of the world is vexation; that of Christ is pleasure :

The spirit of the world is sorrow ; that of Christ is joy :

The spirit of the world is evil, and that of Christ is good :

The spirit of the world will never satisfy us, but the spirit of Christ is all satisfaction :

The spirit of the world is misery; that of Christ is ease." — Sermon, " Christ the Only Preserver."

" If they were unacquainted with the works of philo- sophers and poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God. If their names are not found in the registers of heralds, they were recorded in the book of life. If their steps were not accompanied by a splendid train of menials, legion of angels had charge over them." — Macaulay's " Essay on Milton." This whole paragraph is highly rhetorical.

The forward movement of thought is effected, not by the successive enumeration of particulars merely, but by the perpetual pairing and balance of elements (cf. Genung).

George Saint sbury, in his ** History of English Prose Rhythm," gives, with a very apt comment, the following beautiful example :

"O eloquent, | just, | and mighty I Death! I whom none

I could advise, \ thou \ hast persuaded ; | what none | hath

dared, ! thou | hast done; | and whom all | the world | has

flattered, | thou only | hast cast out | of the world \ and

despised. | Thou | hast drawn | together | all the far-stretched

352 PARISON

I greatness, | all the pride, | cruelty | and ambition | of man,, I and covered it | all over | with these | two narrow | words | Hie I Jacet. |

It is well worth notice how there is actually the strong and almost meticulously arranged balance of euphuistic anti- thesis in clause; but how tlie euphuistic sing-song and snip- snap is entirely drowned in the marvellous rhythmic flow of the passage, which never trenches upon verse (even the consecutive anaps^ts do not, to my ear, produce anything like a metrical effect), how the abundant monosyllable feet arrest and , solemnise the cadence, while the anapassts them- selves, and not the rare pssons, prevent any dragging or mumbling.'*

Saintsbury says that the first great instrument of rhythm is balance. The rhythmic sweep (balance or parallelism) is widened, softened and moulded out into great undulating sweeps of phrases, rising, hovering, descending with bird- like motion. Note the good progression here :

" The strong | flourishing | and beautiful. | " The same author gives this beautiful selection with a Parison of clauses from Donne, the absolute perfection of rhythm, showing the central idea of the Parison, v/hich turns on difference, inequality, and variety :

w W _ \J ^ \J \J _ _ww

"... thou have been | benighted | till now, | wintered | and frozen, | clouded | and eclipsed, | damped and benumbed, | smothered | and stupefied | till now, I now God \ comes to thee, | not | as in the dawning | of the day, [ not |

^ \J ^ — \J \J — \J \J \J ^ \J ^ w

as in the bud | of the Spring, | but | as the sun at noon | to

illustrate | all | shadows, | as | the sheaves in harvest | to fill |

all I penuries."

] ohrt Mason says that a foot that succeeds itself immedi- ately above three or four times becomes verse, which should be avoided in prose. Other feet should be used to throw it out of poetic measure; and he gives the following Parison, which is a panegyrical description, and which is generally drav/n up in the prose-poetical style:

" The Character of King William." " He was | but is na

more | the head, | heart and hand I of the ! confederacy :

WW — WW —WW

The asserter | of liberty, |

w w — www — ,w

The deliverer [ of nations,

WW— W W — —

The support | of the empire, |

W — W W — w

The bulwark | of Holland, I

w w — w w — w

The reducer | of Ireland, | . And the terror of France.

PARISON— PARCEMION 353

His thoughts were wise, serene and secret,

His words few and faithful.

His actions many and heroic,

His government without tyranny.

His justice without rigour.

And his rehgion without superstition.

He was Magnanimous without pride, Vahant without violence. Victorious without triumph. Active without weariness, Cautious without fear.

And meritorious without thanks. The clauses in the above prosaic poetry are made up of a variety of feet, and this variety constitutes the beauty of a good Parison.

Caution : Be careful to see that the successive clauses have different lengths, that there be a variety in each member of the Parisa, and that each clause ends with a different foot, if possible, so as to avoid monotony in the endings; also avoid the immediate succession of three or four feet of the same kind in the same clause. See different endings as to feet in foregoing example, " The Character of King William.^'

Delivery : First it requires euphonious language and a smooth style. It is almost entirely in the tone of Ethos with a little Pathos now and then to give more variety. (See Figs. Ethos and Pathos.) There must be a coherence and smoothness of junctures — no clashings, or few, of semi- vowels with semi-vowels, or mutes, or of mutes and vowels one with the other, nor a juxtaposition of the same. Who would not admit that the speeches of Demosthenes are like the finest poems and lyrics, particularly his harangues against Philip and his pleadings in public lawsuits ?

The accents are generally between the acute and grave, and the inflections not too deep.

PARCEMION: Greek Trapa, well-nigh, almost near, near; ofioL<;, way. Is a figure of speech which begins divers

words with the same letter, making a sentence more ready for the tongue and more pleasant to the ear.

Examples: It is a good figure in proverbs: " Hold with the hare and run with the hounds." " Let comfort banish care, and hope relieve heaviness.'*

Use: Its use is to give facility to the tongue and delight to the ear, which takes pleasure in renetition joined with

354 PAROMOLOGY— PARONOMASIA

variety, that is, where the same letter brings with it a new word. " The artistic effect is increased combined with other Gorgianic figures, say Antithesis, Parison and Homoeo- teleuton. ' ' — Robertson.

Caution : It is a fault to be in excess in the repetition, also to use jarring sounds, called Casemphaton. Excess, as " This mischievous money makes many men marvellous mad.** Jarring, as "In my drowsie and dreadful dream, methought I saw a dragon drinking blood."

PAROMOLOGY: Greek para, against, contrary to; omos, one and the same, joint; omologia, assent, admission, agree,, to allow. This is a figure by which an orator concedes something to an adversary in order to strengthen his own argument; to concede some point of an adversary to advance some stronger argument against him. The " Garden of Eloquence * ' says that it is when the speaker grants many things to his adversary worthy of commendation and at length brings m^' some notable crime which opposes and quenches all that was granted before.

Use : It is by the use of this figure that the speaker, in his conclusion, brings in something that was not looked for, or that which is contrary or at least far distant from the premises — e.g., " Solomon rehearses the parts of his felicity, he mentions his riches, possessions, sumptuous buildings and pleasures; but suddenly concludes that all this is but vanity and vexation of spirit. The expectation was to hear what felicity followed all this wealth." He may be good at ping- pong, fine at football or baseball, but to run a state, never ! Also used for confuting.

Caution : Be careful not to grant the great and infer the less, or bring in one evil thing to subvert and overthrow many good, or to infer small faults to disgrace and drown great virtues — e.g., Cicero for Flaccus : " Notwithstanding, this I say of the whole nation of the Greeks ; I grant unto them learning, I grant unto them the knowledge of many arts, I take not from them the comely grace of speech, fine wits, singular eloquence . . . yet religion and faith that nation never favoured. What virtue, what authority, what weight there is of all this matter, they know not."

PARONOMASIA: Greek para, for, by side of, besides; *] onomasia, name; is a figure of v/ords, when by the change of one letter or syllable of a word, the signification is also changed. Agnomenation is a pleasant sound of words or a small change of names. It is a figure by which the same word is used in different senses, or words similar in sound are set in opposition to each other so as to give an anti- thetical force to the sentence, especially one in which the

PARONOMASIA 355

similarity of sound is the prominent characteristic, or use I of the same word in different senses, as in a pun; it is some resemblance or opposition of words which attracts attention of the hearers, as " a woman unskilled in every- thing, unhappy in everything." In accordance with Hermo- g^enes* definition, which Robertson regards as the best, Paronomasia is: (i) Word the same but used in a different sense; (2) word is followed immediately after a short interval by same word in a different case, or by the same root; (3) the root is the same, but words vary as to prefix; (4) a word followed by its negative, either as a negative adverb or a negative prefix being used, or in such a way as to cause a rhetorical effect; (5) change of voice in a verb with rhetorical effect; (6) a word is followed at any interval by another word of the same root, the effect being designed. Paronomasia sharpens antithesis by juxtaposition.

Paronomasia is defined by George Puttenham as the " nick- namer," being a figure by which you play upon a couple of words or names much resembling, and because one seems to answer the other — e.g., Nero, a great drinker, was called Caldius Bibero Mero instead of Claudius Tiberius Nero. Erasmus they called Errans mus.

Prove mfe, madam, ere ye fall to reprove Meek minds should rather excuse than accuse. Here "prove" and "reprove," "excuse" and "accuse" pleasantly encounter and, as it were, mock one another by their much resemblance, and this is the figure. If they are froijer itames, it is called Prosonamatia.

Julius Rufinianus defines it as a schema lexeos, figure of words.

" Paronomasia to the sense alludes When v/ords but little varied includes." — Langley. (In this figure Alliteration is included, as "By blessing- beauty blest.") ^

Examples'. Phil. III. 2, 3: "Beware of dogs, beware of •evil workers, beware of the concision, for we are the circum- cision which worship God in the spirit and rejoice in Christ Jesus, and have no confidence in the flesh." Examples from Demosthenes. A witty Paronomasia in which there is a play on words with mellcin (purpose, intend), and mellein (to delay): Demos, on Philip, Or. 11, 15: ''All this he intends and will mtend, I dare say: but to attack the Lacedae- monians on behalf of Messene and Argos he does not intend ; he actually sends mercenaries and money into the country,' and IS expected himself with great force."

Example from ;^schines : Blass says that the oration against Ctesiphon has also that Demosthenic paronomasia where a word is used once in the actual sense and then in a different sense, ^sch. vs. Ctes. 7: "... But as each

356 PARONOMASIA— PARRHESIA

man of you would be ashamed (aischythein) to desert the post to which he had been assigned in war, so now you should be ashamed to desert the post to which the laws, have called you sentinels, guarding the democracy this day."

Demosthenes on the Chersonese, 30 (with an adjective) : ** Thus would men of discretion act; malignant and' mis- chievous, would proceed as they do."

U se : Hermogenes, speaking of Paronomasia under "Naivete," says: '' Drimytes (wit) and Oxytes (penetra- tion) are connected with the naive, therefore are the thoughts in which a certain depth is visible on the surface. They lie, however, more in the method; and construction than in the thought, as, for example, the equivocal play with the different meanings of a word, the Paronomasia."

It is commonly used to illude by the addition, change, or taking away — e.g.. Added \ ** Before you trust his word, be sure of his sword." Changed; '* A lit witness, a fit witless." Taken away \ ''This is not stumbling, but plain tumbling." General; " Wine is the blood of the vine." " Hardly any treason is guided by reason." ** You are likely to have a bare gain out of this bargain," etc.

Caution : Its use should be rare both in respect of the light and illuding form, and especially in grave and weighty causes. Heed should be taken of whom it is used, and against whom it is applied.

Delivery : As Paronomasia contributes to pleasing the ear and is classified under the naivete and beautiful, which come under the general heading of Ethos, its delivery should be of a kind of gentle raillery — i.e., flowing.

PARRHESIA : Greek rrrapa , amiss, contrary to, against, besides ; prjat^, speech ; free spoken, frankness of speech, boldness of speech ; is a form by which the orator speaks boldly or freely on things displeasing and liable to envy, or when in any case we show our confidence for the present, our fearfulness for the future or our ability to confute a false accusation; when we boldly acknowledge and defend a fault not proved against us, or when we venturously and confidently upbraid and rebuke others for' their faults — e.g., " May I with your leave speak freely what I think?" It is a form of speech by which the orator, speaking before those he fears or ought to reverence, and having somewhat to say that may either touch themselves or those whom they favour, presents the displeasure and offence that might be taken by craving pardon beforehand, and by showing the necessity of free speech in that behalf, or some other form of humble submission and modest insinuation, as '* Pardon me if I be tedious."

Examples-. From Whitefleld's sermon, "The Day of Small Thines " : "I came, and I saw (you will not be offended

I

PARRHESIA— PATHOPaaA 357

with me to speak the truth) the nakedness of the land.** Cicero: " I speak with great peril, I fear, Judges, after what sort you may take my words, but for my continual desire that I have to maintain and augment your dignity, I prav and beseech you that if my speech be either bitter or incredible unto you at the first hearing, yet that you would accept it without offence, spoken of Marcus Cicero^ neither that you will reject xt before I have plainly declared the whole unto you." This speech of Cicero made an apt and ready pathway to his purpose, which was boldly to blame the Senate, and sharply rebuke their inconstance.

Use : It serves to insinuate, admonish and reprehend.

CauiioTi : It best becomes a man of wisdom and gravity. Avoid rude boldness, which often causes malice against a speaker on the part of his hearers, and a contempt of his doctrine, sometimes a punishment of his person.

PATHOPCEIA : Greek pathos, passion, suffering, any- thing that befalls one; pceeo, to create, beget, produce; iraa^d), to suffer, to be affected by anything. This is a figure whereby the orator moves the minds of his hearers- to some vehemence of affection, indignation, fear, envy, hatred, hope, gladness, mirth, laughter, sadness or sorrow. Examples :

" T ranquility appears by composure of the countenance, general repose of whole body, without the exertion of any one muscle, countenance open, forehead smooth, mouth not just shut, cast of happiness which borders on cheerfulness over the face." — Walker.

" Oh ! that this lovely vale were mine ! Then, from glad youth to calm decline My years would gently glide, Hope rejoice in endless dreams. And memory's oft-returnmg gleams By peace be sanctified."

Russell says that the main object in the slow movement used in the ordinary forms of solemn and pathetic language, in description, narration and sentiment, is to preserve the voice from a lagging, drawling, formal or heavy effect on the one hand, and from a tone dry and unimpressive on the other.

Revenge " is a pippensity and endeavour to injure the offender, which it attended with triumph and exaltation when the injury is accomplished. It expresses itself like malice but more openly, loudly and triumphantly." (Malice i- exnressed thus — aspirated, guttural, low pi>ch, vanishing stress, falling inflection of the fifth, slow movement, long pauses, emphasis and expression intense.)

358 PATHOPCEIA

** There, there's Lucretia ! Now, look ye where she lies!

Ask yon deserted street, where Tullia drove 'O'er her dead father's corpse, 'twill cry, Revenge ! Ask yonder senate-house, whose stones are purple With human blood, and it will cry. Revenge ! Go to the tomb where lies his murdered wife, And the poor queen, who loved him as her son, Their unappeased ghosts will shriek. Revenge ! The temples of the gods, the all-viewing heavens, The gods themselves shall justify the cry, And swell the general sound, Revenge! Revenge!" '* The Student's Elocution Book," by L. Bagley and G. Goodes, give the above passage to be rendered as a climax, the last revenge being pronounced with an intense whisper.

The mob admires courage, says Winans, so it must be faced boldly; any sign of weakness, any attempt to beg it to be good will be derided. If they suggest revenge, say a greater revenge. By any m^ans get delay, for in most cases mob feeling does not last long.

Delight dwells on the pleasing object, tones same as joy, but less forcible and more permanent. Thus we gaze upon a pleasing figure or picture: "O sweet Paulina! Make me to think, so twenty years together no settled sense of the world can match the pleasure of that madness."

Entreaty. "Slightly aspirated quality, earnest but sub- dued force, tremulous stress, high pitch, falimg inflection of the semitone and minor third, slow movement, feeble em- phasis, long pauses, plaintive and languid expression." — "Pulpit Elocution."

" Cease, fond nature, cease thy strife. And let me languish into life f " Lamentation and wailing: "Assume a flexible, full, inter- rupted tone, in a voice of sorrow." — Cicero. (See Epilogue.) Delsarte says lamentation is produced by a voice loud, plaintive, despairing and obstinate, indicating a heart which can neither contain nor restrain itself.

hidignatio7t\ "Orotund voice, pectoral, somewhat aspirated, full force, sometimes impassioned, low pitch, vanishing stress, prevalent falling inflection, slow movement, pauses long, emphasis strong." " From East to West, a groan of accusation pierces heaven ! The wretch pleaded against us."

Denunciation : Same as indignation, but moderated to more restrained and calmer mood, by the influence of solemnity and regret'. "Slave Trade," by Dewey: "The world is full of wrongs and evils, and full of wronged and suff^ering men . . . the prowling man-stealer ! He has torn men and women and children from their country and their

PATHOPCEIA 359

homes who never did him any wrong. . . . Oh ! it is the great felon act in human history ! Oh ! it is the monster crime of the world ! "

Expostulation, also remonstrance : Example of the boldest up and down slides of the voice, the interrogation in the form of remonstrance or expostulation adopting the down- ward slide as do all other emphatic forms of language. In- dignant address: "Is it such a fast that I have chosen? a day for a man to afflict his soul? Is it to bow down his head as a bulrush and to spread sackcloth and ashes under him ? "

Awe, sublimity y -pathos {passion) with sublimity : The orotund is the natural mode of utterance in all the deep, pov/erful and sublime emotions. It belongs accordingly to oratory and to the bolder forms of poetry (Russell) — e.g., of vastness, sublimity — the orotund quality, impassioned force^ median stress, low pitch.

"The Ocean. ^' " Thou glorious mirror! where the Almighty's form Glasses itself in tempest : in all time, Calm or convulsed — in breeze, or gale, or storm, Icing the pole or in the torrid clime . . ." — Byron.

Gravity. " The speech is slow and solemn, the tone with- out much variety; it is as when the mind is fixed or deli- berating on some important subject; smooths the counten- ance and gives it an air of melancholy; the eye-brows are lowered and the eyes cast downward'* (Walker) — e.g-, grave deliberation on War and Peace :

"Fathers, we once again are met in council, Ca5sar's approach has summon' d us together, And Rome attends her fate from our resolve. * How shall we treat this bold aspirmg man? . . ."

—Addison's " Cato."

Use: There are two kinds; (i) is when the orator, being inwardly moved himself with any of those affections (sorrow excepted), bends and applies his speech to stir his hearers to the same. This kind is called Imagination or Oratorical Imag^ery, to which divers vehement figures belong, as Exclamation, Obtestatio, Imprecatio, Optatio, Exucitatio, Interrogatio, Oreo, and such like; and to move to mirth, such figures as Asteismus and others of similar nature. Matters that fall into this figure ought to be great, cruel, horrible, odious, pleasant or marvellous, for the greater the cause is, the sooner the affections of the hearers are moved. (2) Another kind is when the orator, by declaring some lamentable cause, moves his hearers to pity and compassion. Lamentable histories are oftentimes used, likewise lively description of woeful suffering, pitiful miseries, and how they may be artificially expressed, poet's complaints give apt examples. To pardon offences, the perorations of Cicero

360 PATHOPCEIA

are good precedcTits. A serious and deep affection in the orator is a mighty furtherance and help in this figure, as when he is zealous and deeply touched himself with any of those vehement affections, but specially if he be mwardly moved with a pitiful affection, he moves his hearers to the same compassion and pity by his passionate pronunciation. The voice must also lend to it.

Caution-, (i) Observe that the causes may be sufficient to move the minds of the hearers to affections and passions, for it must be effectual matter and not bare words that may work so great effects in the minds of prudent hearers. (b) That there be a discreet observation of necessary circum- stances, as in what causes^ what affections are to be moved, for in funeral orations and such like, to move to laughter is opposed to so serious a cause, (c) When and where, that is time and place must be observed ; mourning at marriages, joyful time at funerals are not the proper places nor time.

(d) It is needful to shun the untimely and too hasty a change of affections, for first to move pity and weeping, and then presently laughter, or contrariwise, makes the action absurd.

(e) It is prudent to observe a measure in moving affections lest he kindles that which he is not able to quench, (f) Avoid feigned matter, fond gesture and counterfeit pronunciation. Let ■ the audience imagine more than you express both in gesture and words.

Delivery : Move ourselves to move others : To appear like truth, let us assimilate our feelings to those who are truly affected, and our language accordingly will excite the same in others. We must represent absent objects as if we see them with our eyes and have them before us. Whoever can best conceive the images will have the greatest poiver in moving the feelings. I complain of a man being murdered; I must bring before my eyes everything likely to have happened when it occurred.

Aristotle says : ' * The mere being in possession of what .one ought to say is not enough, but we must deliver it as we ought. Three points are necessary- — loudness of voice fitness of tones, and rhythm. One General Ride : If the words, tones, loudness of voice, gesture of body and counten- ance seem to proceed from one passion^ then 'tis well pro- nounced, otherwise not, for when there appear more passions than one at a time, the mind of the speaker appears un- natural and distracted — as the mind of the speaker, so the mind of the hearer.*'

Cicero says that there must be a generous infusion of the blood. (In common nowaday parlance, ** make the blood boil, flesh to crawl.**)

Genung's rhetoric on "Appeal to the Emotions": " Ihe speaker must consult wisely the taste, the culture, the familiar ideas of the persons addressed. Uneducated are more easily

PATHOPOaA 361

swayed by pathos, humour or impassioned phrase, at the same time more palpable and striking, more coarse-grained, the. jokes must be of the knock-down kmd, must turn not so much on words as on acts and situations. The emotional figures must be overt and emphatic, vergmg to declamation and rant. The Educated are less suscejitible, are moved b^' moderate means. There is a subdual of eiAotion. It is not less emotion, but emotion concerned with other objects, which latter may be deeper and more vital though less demonstra- tive. The Signs of emotion in voice and manner, and to a great extent in style, are better suppressed or rather subdued to understatement, in order that the grounds and provoca- tnres of emotion may be kept in advance of them. Then if in spite of repressive effort they break bounds, they are exhibited to real purpose. It was a maxim of Webster that violence of language was indicative of feebleness of thought. . . . He kept his audience constantly in advance of him by suggestion rather than by strong asseveration, by calm ex- position of considerations which ought to excite feeling in the heart of both speaker and hearer, not by undignified theatrical exhibition of passion in himself."

General rule, according to Bain, is to proceed from a weaker to a stronger passion.

Foster states: " The appeal to the passions which combine the direct and indirect, making the latter the foundation upon which the direct appeal to the feelings rests and is built, will be found not only the easiest and most practicable to the speaker, but most telling upon his audience. This direct appeal to the passions is when the speaker by the mere force of his own vehement passion expresses himself in , burning words, in a passion that finds expression in his flashing eye, in his quivering voice, in his earnest gestures. The indirect appeal to the passions is more common, as very few men possess the faculty of acting directly and immedi- ately, without preamble or preparation, solely through the force and intensity of their own strong feeling, upon the hearts of their fellow-men. The indirect brings before their minds, without any direct display of his own sentiments in vigorous, earnest and nervous language, those scenes, circum- stances or occasions which he deems fitting and calculated to awaken in the hearts of the hearers the' passions which he seeks to excite."

The argument from cause to effect, and from analogy, illustrates argumentatively the indirect appeal as preparing the mind for conviction (see Edwin Bell's Principles of Argu- ment) by showing antecedent probability of the fact proved : ** Dead men cannot rise again, dead states cannot restore themselves. The conqueror decides the state of the con- quered; they( must come in as new states or remain as con- quered provinces." Baden says: "Demosthenes is fond of

36? PATHOPOEIA— PAUSE

discussing^ each point of his case separately, beginning with an introduction and closing with a recapitulation in which he frequently employed a series of questions '* (Eperotesis). He thus prepared the hearers and made his powerful direct appeals in the bold figures, Interrogatio or Eperotesis. (See Figs. Deictic, Emphasis, Epilogue, Ethos and Pathos.)

PAUSE: Greek pausis, a stopping; fano^ I make to cease; pauomai, I cease; is a Figure of Thought. S. S. Curry says: ''It is the mind taking time to weigh and deeply realii^e the truth which it is to express. The absence of pause denotes superficiality and lack of feeling. The length and frequency of pauses show the intensity of think- ing. Pause is one of the most dignified modes of expres- sion. The concentration of the mind upon an idea or the reception of an impression during a pause causes the words which express it to be gathered into a single group and given with the unity of one word. The words belonging to one idea cluster about it like filings around a magnet. A phrase expressing an idea has been called ' an oratorical word.' " Respecting the Rhetorical Pause ^ Rupert Garry says: ** The grammatical pause refers to the synthetical structure of a sentence (appeals to the eye, as Thos. Sheridan remarks); the rhetorical is addressed to the understanding through the porches of the ear. Rhetorical punctuation is to keep together the groups of words between the stops and not mixing up a word of one group with the preceding or subsequent group. The stops are regulated by the nature of the composition, the conception, feeling and aim of the speaker. The finest effect is lost by omitting the pause, not those marked in print — e.g.^

' We fought and conquered ere a sword was drawn, An arrow from my bow had pierced their chief.' Instead of : ' We fought and conquered — ere a sword was drawn.' "

Examples-. Dr. John Livingston's sermon: ** Why are convulsed nations using a new and terrible form to exter- minate each other ? Must the blood so long covered and forgotten by men now come in remembrance and be dis- closed? Must this generation— we forbear! Judge ye! " See Webster's effective pause in addressing the " Bunker Hill Monument," under ''Daniel Webster," and Lord Chat- ham's, mentioned under " Lord Chatham."

Whitefield's eloquence was noted for the pauses he made. In the course of a sermon in Norwich (England), Whitefield broke off abruptly, paused for a few moments, then burst into a flood of tears, lifted up his hands and eyes, arid exclaimed with tremendous emphasis: "O my hearers, the wrath to come! the wrath to come! " In "The Warning Voices," preached at Yorkshire, where thousands were

PAUSE 365

gathered, Whitefield, with uplifted hands, offered a most impressive prayer; then in a manner peculiarly solemn an- nounced his text: '* It is appointed unto men once to die, and after that the judgment." He faused for a moment before he proceeded, when suddenly a wild shriek issued from the centre of the congregation : an immortal soul had- just passed into eternity.

V se : Thomas Sheridan says that as the hearer is not pre-acquainted with the meanmg of the sentence, a pause before the emphatic word shows exactly where emphasis begins and which words go with it. A pause before an im- portant word or words calls attention y and after the word is for the hearer to ruminate on it. The hearer must be put to no trouble but attending to the meaning, and the ear must be pleased as it conveys it to the understanding. There- fore pause and tone should distinguish members, tell whether one is to continue or stop. Use exact tones for the stops as one uses in conversation. The hearer must also be relieved of the fatigue of continuous sound, and have time during the pauses to distinguish members of sentences, whether sense continues in the same sentence or the next.

" The law of Pause is: Words necessary to convey each idea of a sentence should be grouped together and separated from adjacent groups by pauses." Rhetorical Pauses should be made thus : (i) Pause Before : (a) Relative pronouns^ who, which, what, that, in their various numbers and cases, both- simple and compound. (b) Conjunctive words — e.g., '* Though He slay me — yet will I trust Him." (c) Preposi- tional phrases, (d) Before Infinitive phrases^ with excep- tions.

(2) Pause Between : (a) Between a series of words y such as are of the same part of speech, (b) Between whatever intervenes between the nominative case and the verb.

(c) Whatever intervenes between verb and accusative.

(d) Betv/een words where there is an ellipsis, (e) Between clauses.

(3) Pause After : (a) A noun or nominative if compound — e.g.y " The great and invincible Alexander — wept for the fate of Darius." (b) Words or phrases used independently , or loose members, (c) After v/ords of strong emphasis or emotion, or in contrast, antithesis or apposition. Emphasis may even separate the syllables of a strong word, making what is cpJled an Inter syllabic Pause in the word, as " chas — tisement." *' He who reigns in the sky," a speaker could say this all in one breath, but if he wishes to put emotion into it he would pause after each word, thus: ** He — who~ reigns — in — the — sky." (d) After the first constructive part of a direct period, (e) After an inverted period : Every in- verted period consists of two principal constructive parts, and at the end of the first part a pause, which is v/here the

364 PAUSE

latter part begins to modify it (former). Yet (is understood at the beginnmg here): " Every one that speaks and reasons is a grammarian and a logician — though he may be utterly unacquainted with the rules of grammar or logic." (f) After several adjectives but the last, which is joined to the noun. The pause represents an ellipsis of the noun after each adjective — e.g., " He was a great, good, and noble man." (g) After each adverb if before a verb :" Warmly, wisely rationallv and prudently to love." If they come after the verb, then a pause after each, thus: "To love wisely — prudently — and rationally is, in the opinion of lovers, not to love at all." Also after each verb when coming before the adverb, except the last verb, thus: " To eat — drink — and sleep moderately." (h) After whatever is put in thq ablative absolute or participial construction, must be separated by a short pause: " If a man borrow aught of his neighbour, and it be hurt or die, the owner thereof not bemg with it — he shall surely make it good." " The owner thereof not being with it " is absolute ablative, and like a parenthesis is to be separated, (i) After nouns in a f posi- tion, or words in the same case, where the latter is only explanatory of the former : ' * To send on earth Virtue — his darling child, designed ..." If the two nouns are single, no pause: "King George"; if of many terms, thus: ' George — King of Great Britain, Ireland, and Emperor of India." (j) After conjunctions: First, cumulative, after " and," which stands at the head of the list, also, yea, likewise, so, in like manner, first, secondly, again, besides, furthermore, moreover, further, yet another, once more; second, adversative conjunction, pause after " but " (called arrestive), but then, still, vet, only, nevertheless, however, at the same time, for all that. An entire paragraph is not unfrequently devoted to arresting or preventing a seeming inference from one preceding, and is therefore appropriately opened by "but," "still," "nevertheless," etc. (k) Pause after each accentual group or ivord, the suspension is very slight: " Like | children | for some | bauble | fair."

(4) After the Exclusive, because they indicate the exclusion of some circumstance that would otherwise be allowable; "else," "otherwise," are the chief. (5) Alternative, pause after nor or or. When nor is used without neither preceding, it is commonly in the sense of "and not." (6) After Illative, which indicates effect or consequence, and used in reasoning, as therefore, wherefore, hence, whence, conse- quently, accordingly, thus, so, then, so then, for, because, and other conjunctions such as hypothetical, conditional, as if, provided that, and in words of reference, " in this case," "under these circumstances," "after what has now been said " (cf. Bain, Bell, Walker, Fulton and Trueblood).

" It was my privilege to hear — (audience wonders who)

PAUSE 365

the great evangelist — (people wondered to which evangelist) Dwight L. Moody — (pause). I came to regard him — (audience held in brief suspense) as the greatest preacher of his day." — \V. J. Bryan. (The dashes indicate pause.) An unskilful speaker would have rattled off this without pause, nor suspense, and the sentences would have fallen- flat upon the audience. It is precisely the application of these small things which makes the difference between the successful and unsuccessful speaker. — J. B. Esenwein.

Delaumosne says that silence is a powerful oratorical .agent, that Chrysostome stopped and the audience burst into sobs. It gives the orator time to judge of his position. Silence gives gesture time to concentrate and do good execu- tion.

Caiiiion : Avoid placing the Pause in the wrong part of a phrase, as it renders the phrase indistinct or obscure; nor pay too much attention to rules respecting pauses, or the idea may be sacrificed to form. Curry remarks on this point : ** Mechanical rules, such as * pause before a preposition or relative pronoun,' and the like, are useless. They are, more- over, vicious, because they concentrate the student's attention upon accidentals and may prevent genuine thinking."

Delivery: C. H. Spurgeon, on "Open Air Preaching," •says : '•*, In quiet country crowds there is much force in an eloquent silence, now and then interjected ; it gives people time to breathe, and also to reflect. Do not, however, attempt this in a London street; you must go ahead, or someone else may run off with your congregation. In a regular field sermon pauses are very effective, and are useful in several ways, both to the speaker and listeners, but to a passing company who are not inclined for anything like worship, quick, short, sharp address is most adapted."

T. A. Hammerton, on " Actor's Art," says that pause aiul emphasis give a speech its greatness or mediocrity. One of Kean's means of effect was to make long pauses between certain phrases — e.g:, " Wilford " — a pause, in which his face underwent a rapid succession of expressions, fluently melting into each other and tending to one climax, then the deep tones of " remember " came like muttered thunder. G-irrick's delivery of the curse, the audience shrunk at it — his preparation, throwing away his crutch, grasping his h?.rds, turning his eyes to heaven — inspired a strong fore- cast of terror; he set his teeth, his limbs trembling, broken tones of anger, with mward utterance began, then louder and louder and quicker to the termination on " ingratitude." Austin says Garrick paused twelve times in the delivery of the " Soliloquy," sometimes as much as 3 3/5 seconds. Austin further says that rhetorical pauses before and after important matter leave it strongly impressed on the memory. Though the sound is interrupted in these pauses, the gesture

366 PERIODICITY— PERIODOS

and the countenance must express that something further is expected. ihese pauses make a person appear full of his subject and rather to wait for the expression ; he appears to take time for reflection, to think, to doubt, to resolve, to be alarmed. It makes him appear sincere y which is the chief point of a speech. J. Edgar Foster says an oratorical j>ause before a word or words of much importance shows that the speaker seems overwhelmed by the greatness of thought or sentiment, and is for the moment deprived of the power of speech — ^.^., '* The paths of glory lead but to the- — grave.** Silence . arouses attention. To throw energy into an address, increase a little the volume of sound; make clearer the articulation, increase the emphasis, also the intonation, and make the pauses longer. Rev. E. J. Bidwell says that a dead silence after a climax is very impressive.

PERIODICITY: Derivation sam.e as Period. It is a form of speech by v/hich the orator puts the principal thought last. When a sentence is so short that the eye and the mind take it all in at a glance, Periodicity is of little con- sequence. The following is one of the finest examples of stately periodic sentences: "You who listen with credulity to the whispers of fancy, and pursue with eagerness the phantoms of hope; who expect that age will perform the promises of youth, ■ and that deficiencies of the present day will be supplied by the morrow, attend to the history of Rasseles, Prince of Abyssinia." — S. Johnson.

Delivery : As all tends to one important point it may be delivered either as an Accumulatio or Anabasis.

PERIODOS : Greek TrepL, around ; 6S6<;, way, road ; feriodos, making a circuit around, going around in a circle; a well-rounded sentence.

''What is meant by a rhetorical period} The Period is a structure in which the completion of the sense is sus- pended till the close. One effect of the periodic structure is to throw emphasis updn the end. Further, the period satisfies all the expectation it excites. In the act of attending to the discourse, the mind of the hearer always gravitates. Besides, the period permits the disclosure to the hearer of the growth of a thought. Here lies its chief advantage. A certain loftiness of imaginative thinking cannot be ex- pressed without a skilful and free use of the periodic struc- ture. Short, dense, antithetic sentences will not do for it." — Austin Phelps.

A Period y according to Quintillian, is of two kinds : simple when the thought is expressed in a rather full com- pass of words; the other consisting of commas and members. A period must have two members; the average number

PERIODOS 367

appears to be four^ but it frequently admits of more. Full periods are very proper for exordia of important causes where it is necessary to excite solicitude, interest or pity. They are also adapted for moral dissertations or for any kind of amplification.

" A period must finish with the sense, for by dividing it, it is possible to understand the contrary of the fact. A period is either of clauses or simple (a simple period consists of a single clause); of clauses, when the parts are perfect and distinct and can be easily pronounced at one breath — e.g.y 'I wonder you were not afraid of their ends (one part), seeing you imitate their actions (the other) ' ; and both make the period." — Aristotle.

The following is a well-balanced Ciceronian, period, with skilful arrangement of words and clauses : —

* " Si non minus nobis jucundi atque illustres sunt ii dies,

quibus conservamur, quam illi, quibus nascimur, quod salutis certa lastitia est, nascendi incerta conditio, et quod sine sensu nascimur, cum voluptate servamur,

profecto, quoniam ilium, qui hanc urbem condidit, ad deos immortales benevolentia famaque sustulimus, esse apud vos posterosque vestros in honore debebit is, qui eandem hanc urbem conditam amplificatamque servavit" — Cicero vs. Catiline, III. 2. H. W. Auden makes this division: (i) the single Historical Period, he gives as the various elements inserted between the subject and predicate according to their temporal rela- tions, the events in the order of their occurrence; (2) the Oratorical Period y as the exact balance of clauses, with an elaborate correspondence of Protasis and Apodosis. For example of the Historical Period, see Caesar, B.G., VI. 31, beginning with " Catuvoleus rex ..." and ending with " se exanimavit." Another example of an Oratorical Period: Cat. 1. 13, 31, commencing with " Ut saepe homines ..." ^nd ending with " vivis ingravescet "

There are the simply divided period, the antithetical, the antitheta, which joins the parts in opposition to a third contrary (see this fig.)» ^^d equipose, where the clauses are equal.

Caution: Foster says: ''Do not permit a weaker expres- sion to follow a stronger. They must rise in energy and

* Translation. — And if the days of our preservation are not less joyous or less illustrious, I 'than those on which we were born; 1 because the pleasure of deliverance is certain, I but the condition of life is precarious ; | and because we are born unconscious of it, I but we are preserved with great delight ; | ay, since him, who founded this city, | we have, by our gratitude and vener- ation, raised to the immortal gods : i he ought, by you and your posterity, to be revered, | he, who this city with all its accessions of strength and wealth has preserved : !l for, by me were those :flames averted. — " Cicero in Catilinam." published by fPm, Blackwood &f Sous.

368 PERIODOS

close with the strongest; the members of a long period should go on lengthenmg and close with the longest. Ihe best method is to mingle long and short sentences together. Let the period end harmoniously with a word of length or of a long syllable."

Cicero says that the proper length of the members should be limited to about four hexameter, or the space between the times of taking breath.

Delivery : ' ' The rise and cadence depend on the nature and situation ot the members. In a period of two members the turn of the voice begins with the latter member — e.g., * If impudence prevailed as much in the forum and courts of justice as insolence does in the country and places of less resort; Aulus Cascina would submit as much to the im- pudence of Sextus Ebutius in this cause as he did before to his insolence when assaulted by him.' Here the cadence begins on Aulus Caecina. If the sentence consists of three members, the inflection is best made at the end of the second. Where there are four members, which is reckoned the most complete and perfect, the cadence begins with the third member, being equally balanced. In proportion to the time of raising the voice, space may be allowed for its sinking. In speaking, the turn of the voice should begin where the sense ceases to be suspended. The cadence should be preceded by a considerable pause, and the word immediately before the cadence should have an upward slide." — " Lessons on Oratory," by J. Edgar Foster. The upward slide of the voice is on the word *' resort." The Thesis commences with " Aulus Caecina," where the voice begins to turn for the descent, not a sudden drop, into a gradual repose or cadence {cadere, to fall) of three accentual syllables at the end. The third or penultimate member may be arranged so as effectively to take the level progress of the voice. (See " If any or all of these are mercies," under " Whiteheld," his sermon "Britain's Mercies and Britain's Duty.")

" Having already shown how fancy is affected by the works of nature . . . how they mutually assist each other in forming scenes as are most apt to delight the mind of the beholder: I shall in this paper ..." The sense of this sentence is suspended till the word " beholder," and here are to be placed the long pause and rising inflection.

Bain says: " xA-mong the hinges of the period, one of the most important is the participial construction. This is one of the advantages accruing from the participle. The follow- ing period would be a very loose sentence, but for the sus- pension arising out of the participial clause. * Accustomed to a land at home where every height seen dimly in the distance might prove a cathedral, a tower, a church spire, a pilgrim's oratory, or at least a wayside cross, these

PERIPHRASIS- PERORATIO 369

religious explorers must have often strained their sight in order to recognise some object of a similar character.' The voice rises on ' wayside cross.' All the foregoing conditional sentences form the Protasis, and should take the rising inflection as a rule."

PERIPHRASIS: Greek irepi, around, about, beyond, exceeding; (ppd^cj , to tell, to declare; is a form of speech whereby the orator declares and expounds with many words, and in sundry ways, that which may be said with on^ word, or at least with very few words.

Exmnfles: ''Man goeth to his long home," "Go, put. off this tabernacle" — i.e., to die.

" If thou would view fair Melrose right, Go visit it by the pale moonlight, For the gay beams of lightsome day Gild but to flout the ruins away : When the broken arches are black in night And each shafted oriel glimmers white; When the cold light's uncertain shower Streams on the ruin'd central tower; When buttress and buttress, alternately Seemed framed of ebon and ivory ; W^hen silver edges the imagery And the scrolls that teach thee to live and die; When distant Tweed is heard to rave, And the owlet to hoot o'er the dead man's grave; Then go — but go alone the while-^ Then view St. David's ruined pile; And, home returning, soothly swear Was never scene so sad and fair." — Walter Scott. U se : First, of necessity, as when we lack the proper word; second, for copiousness and clearness-, third, so as to shun obscenity and naked telling of bashful matters.

Caution : Do not make the circumlocution too long, as this ornament serves only to garnish the oration, and never increases matter.

** Periohrasis a single thought demands.

And uses many words for what but few demands."

— Langley. , Delivery: In oratory, it is chiefly an embellishment and therefore should be delivered in the smooth, flowing style and with corresponding easy flowing gestures.

PERORATIO : Latin perorare, peroratus; per, through ; and orare,' to speak : to g^o through the oration. It is a form of speech employed for the closing of a speech. Strictly speaking, the peroration is the last part of an epilogue, and the form of speech for this close, as given by Aristotle, is asyndetic, that is without connectives, " in order that

370

PERORATIO

it may be a peroration and not an oration." The following example is given by Aristotle in closing his own work or Treatise on Rhetoric: "I have spoken — you have heard — the case is in your hands — pronounce your decision."

Some make the peroration longer, that is composed of con- siderable clauses without connectives, forming a complete rounded sentence at the close.

Gladstone introducing the Second Home Rule Bill. Frcm the Painting by R. Ponsonhy Stafles. Bv kind fermission of Henry Gr

Co., Ltd.

In the above plate is shown one of those magnificent epic gestures with which "The Grand Old Man," rich in scholar- ship and f^icitous in expression, pronounced those fiery, incompar^le perorations for which he was so distinguished. Sir T. Wemyss Reed, in his " Life of Gladstone," says that this was Mr. Gladstone's favourite gesture. (See epic gestures, pages 239 and 240.)

Example: "May God reward you for all your works

PERSONIFIC ATION— PISTEIS 371

of faith, and labours of love, and make you abound more and jnore in every good word and work towards all men ; may he truly convert all that have been convinced, and awaken all that are dead in trespasses and sins; may he confirm all that are wavering, and may you all go from, one degree of grace to another, till you arrive unto the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ ; and thereby be made to stand before that God, * in whose presence is the fulness of joy, and at whose right hand there are pleasures evermore *! ^ Amen! Amen!" — Whitefield, on " Persecution Every Christian's Lot."

Caution : Do not fail to rest the head and the body quietly immediately after the delivery of the Peroration, as the nerves have been wrought upon very highly. A pause double that after a paragraph is considered suitable for closing the rhythm of the whole speech or oration, and gives the im- pression of not wishing hastily to efface the effect of what you have said. Sinking from distress and fatigue, being expressed by the orator, has an extraordinary effect in a Peroration — e-g., ** But there must be an end: for 1 am no longer able to speak for tears," etc. (Sheridan fell back into his seat at the trial of Warren Hastings, after he delivered the last sentence or peroration of his famous speech.)

Delivery : Ouintillian says that the Peroration and the more subdued parts of a speech call for syllables that are long indeed but less sonorous. The Peroration requires a continuous enumeration of particulars in a uniform tone; if to soothe, it calls for smoothness and gentleness ; if to move pity, a kind of musical cadence and plaintive sweetness of voice, by which the mind is strongly affected and which is extremely natural. (See Fig. Epilogue.)

PERSONIFICATION: Latin pcrso?za, meaning a char- acter, a person. It is a figure by which the orator gives the qualities of a person to things or animals, etc., that do not possess such qualities. This figure is the same as Proso- popaeia and Hypotyposis.

Aristotle says that sentence is best which contains a metaphor, an antithesis and a Personification.

PISTEIS : Greek ircaTevco, to believe, put faith in, con- fide in, to believe that, feel sure or confident that a thing is; -pisteiSy faith, belief, trust in others, persu*asion of a thing, a means of persuasion, an argument, proof. This is a form of speech whereby persuasion or belief is induced, in other words probable arguments calculated to mduce persuasion or belief, whence the name " rhetorical proofs." This is the form of all arguments, because, if a thing is known or believed, there is no necessity of arguing any further. In Deliberative oratory, the proofs which must follow are of this tenor: (i) a certain thing will happen, or

372 PISTEIS

will not happen; (2) these things will result from adversary's policy, but are unjust; (3) they are inexpedient; (4) will result in a less degree than he says. Must see if he has made any false statement outside his immediate subject, for such statements seem to justify the inference that he is misrepresenting his subject itself. The past facts are recalled for an explanation of present facts, and for the purpose of a comparison, and as guide for future course of action.

The Deliberative proof, which properly belongs to the Forensic, may be raised in the shape of a denial (i) of the future facts — i.e., of the consequences which the speaker attri- butes to the course of policy which he recommends ; or admitting them, (2) of the justice, (3) expediency, or (4) im- portance of the line of action suggested.

For popular assemblies, the Pisteis or Argument there are seven topics : ReligioUy laws, the constitution of the state, alliances, treaties, commercial or otherwise, with foreign states, zvar , peace, and revenue. For instance, the alliance is unjust, has done the country wrong at some former time, or assistance is remote. In popular assemblies the speech is deliberative, that is, the chief object is to persuade or dissuade from a course of action and nothing more; also in public or national assemblies. (A distinguished writer says that the eloquence of Charles James Fox was Pisteis Ethica, that is ethical persuasion, that such and such a course was right or wrong, the procedure, etc.)

Most of the arg^ument in the Demonstrative or Epideictic is indirect, as the facts must be taken upon trust, and the orator very seldom tries to establish them by proofs; or only when they are incredible, or for some other reason.

In Demonstrative or panegyrical oratory, first enumerate all the admirable points in character, pursuits, actions, etc., and apply to these the various topics of amplification; then compare the best with the worst of others; then give Gnomes and Enthymemes, and a brief summary ; then pro- ceed to the moral virtues, justice first, then wisdom, last courage, if there be any. Instead of the Diegesis and Bebceosis of the deliberative speech or dicastic (forensic), the confirmation is replaced by Auxesis, which figure see, also Amplification, Gnome and the Enthymeme ; the state- ment of acts and virtues constitute the narrative style, in the panegyrical, magnificence of language is aimed at, which is effected by multiplying our words, accumulating high sounding words in the individual sentences. Do not use indecent terms in describing foul actions for fear of •setting in an unfavourable light your own character, or the character of the speech. They must be hinted at, enigmati- cally insinuated ; irony and derision are good. In great crowds any common popular vulgar accusation will serve for a topic of abuse; in private conversation, and with a few

PISTEIS 373

listeners, the object should be to discredit him or bring him into contempt — of course, by serious argument. If you wish to add pomp and dignity to your style, as in an ordinary narrative, employ conjunction (Polysyndeton), and if you wish to give vigour and animation to your language, and to be concise. Asyndeton will often do it.

Argumentation is the proving or attempting to prove the truth of a given assertion. Inference is the process of reach- ing a conclusion from knowri or admitted facts or proposi- tion. (Some smoke infers hre.) Proof always demands a reference ro some wider generality than that which is to be proved. Argument from example, cite twQ or more instances where the effect in question appears which agree in having one antecedent and differ in all other antecedents, we may argue that one is the cause. Argument from analogy : what- ever is true of a thing is true of whatever essentially resembles it. Probable arguments from analogy : when two things resemble in a preponderating number of essential parti- culars, what IS true of one is probably true of the other. Argument Ex-silent io is drawn from the absence of testi- mony or the silence of a witness to disprove a fact which if true would probably have been mentioned. Argument from Association : when one thing is constantly associated with another we may argue from the latter to the former, although they are not connected by any known law of causation. Reduction to Absurdity is by showing that a proposition manifestly absurd is logically deducible from it either by a deductive argument or by analogy. Disproof: there are three modes. Inductive, Deductive, and Analogical. Inductive consists in t)ringing examples which contradict the proposition in question; Deductive consists in drawing out or deducing from the proposition another proposition that contradicts it, or in other words, in reducing it to absurdity by showing that a proposition manifestly absurd or untenable is logically deducible from it. Analogical dis- proof consists in showing that the proposition in question is essentially similar to another proposition that is mani- festly absurd and untenable, and it is closely allied to deductive proof. — " Principles of Argument," Edwin Bell, LL.B.

The order of the Pisteis or Argument, as given by Aris- totle and elucidated in the " Analysis and Introduction to Aristotle's Rhetoric," by E. M. Cope, Tutor in Trinity College, Cambridge, and edited by J. E. Sandys, M.A., Public Orator in the University of Cambridge, is as follows : (i) The BebceosiSy which is the confirmation by argument of what has been stated, proving them, demonstrating their justice and expedience, and presented in a series, the most appropriate to public speaking, are the evidence of custom in the confirmation of the truth of a fact (that such things

374 PISTEIS

are usual), examples and then enthymemes, and next epen- thymemes, which are supplementary enthymemes, as the speaker's own opinion. Any other kind of rhetorical proof may be inserted parenthetically m the series. The order of success should be in the Bebaeosis (a) the speaker's opz7iiony or in default of that, custom, to show that what we state or something like it is usual; (b) next Examples, which we must apply (so as to shov/ its analogy) '-to our statements. Select examples nearest to the hearers in time and place, and that are most appropriate or intimately connected with our facts; if none, then with the most striking and remark- able and the best known that can be found, (c) Gnome , or a general sentiment in point ; that is, we must adduce a gnome or general sentiment in point, and also the parts which contain the arguments from probability and the examples which may be ended with enthymemes or gnome. Proofs of facts, when they are notorious, may be omitted, and their place supplied by showing that they are lust, legal, expedient and the rest (universal notions of right and wrong come under just, or special enactments). Place your case m the forefront of arguments if just, then go through all topics immediately connected with it — that pronounced by authority or decided to be just, that which resembles what is just, and that which is contrary to it — all of which may be summarily applied. Examples must have the same character. Then conclude with gnome and enthymemes; if long, ^ concise recapitulation of its heads; if moderate, sum it up in a definition, and then immediately (in the same sentence) proceed to next topic, as expediency. When you have gone through all your proofs in support of your recom- mendations, then_ in a summary way, and with gnome and enthymemes, or figures, show that not to do as you propose would be unjust and inexpedient, and disgraceful and un- pleasant; and contrast this likewise in a summary way, the. justice and expediency and honour and pleasure that will follow from complying with your counsel. And after you. have enunciated sufficient general maxims, give a definition of what you have recommended by way of conclusion; and in this way we shall confirm our previous statements. And now we shall pass on to (2) Procatalepsis, wherein the- opponent's arguments or charges are anticipated for the purpose of pulling them to pieces, making them appear trifling, at the same time magnify and give imp^ortance to our own. You may contrast your arguments and the opponent's singly (one to one) if yours be the stronger; or collectively compared (several to several) ; or one to many, or many to one; your own magnified, your adversary's depreciated. When this has been gone through, you may recapitulate, employing any of the figures : Dialogismus (division), Apologismus (enumeration, or statement of^

PISTEIS 375

reasons), Proaercsis (a deliberate choice, preference), a sum- mary to show the purpose or general intention of our state- ment or arguments, Eperotesis, Irony, etc.

There are three modes of -proof y namely Pistcis, Ethos and Pathos, (i) Pisteis is by direct logical proof, by argu- ment; (2) Ethos, the conveying of a favourable impression by the exhibition of character in and by the speech that you are an honest man, incapable of misrepresenting the facts, intelligent enough thoroughly to understand them, and well disposed to your hearers and their interests. The orator must study the rich, poor, young, old, well-borp, the power- ful, so as to accommodate his tones according to each; also their respective age and conditions of life, as each are actuated by different motives. The next Ethos is impart- ing to your speech an air of truthfulness and fidelity; (3) Pathos, by working on the feelings of the audience, so as to bring them to the state of mind favourable to the orator's purpose, to excite an angry or calm temperament, love or hatred, envy, jealousy, indignation, and so on. The moral character is imparted by the choice of language, of terms, of tones and expression. HypocrisiSy which is acting, includes the management of the voice, that of the features, arms, hands, and the entire body. Gnome, the opinions of wise men, maxims (often in metrical collection).

The Direct Logical is divided into Pisteis proper, and Pisteis Epithetoiy which is adventitious or proof outside what is properly logical. The Pisteis Epithetoi is divided into three: (i) Doxatou legotos^ as given by Spengel, is ** the speaker's own authority or opinion, which may be given v/ith advantage in arguing his case, provided he shows the hearers that he is thoroughly conversant with his subject and that it is to his interest to speak the truth; the adversary's opinion must at the same time be shown to be worthless as himself. If this cannot be done, he should point out that even men of skill and experience (such as the adversary has been shown to be, or is known to be) are liable to error; if this, again, prove impossible, if you cannot show that he is likely to be mistaken, say that it is against your opponent's interest to speak the truth." (2) Martyria, that is testimony of one who was privy to the fact. This excludes all evidence but that of the living and present witness, one who shared in it. When the evidence is credible and the witness can be relied on, the evidence needs no concluding summary, unless you like to finish off with a concise sentiment, a ** Gnome" or Enthymeme for the pur- pose of giving point and sentiment to it. (3) Basanos, which 15 an involuntary admission by a party to the transaction, or an accomplice, or one privy to it It is compulsory, while Martyria is voluntary evidence.

\\

376 PISTEIS

Oaths are adventitious proofs, also magnifying, extoiimg,. enlarging upon the advantage; or disparaging, depreciating, vilifying; a statement unsupported or an assertion unsup- ported by proof with an adjuration or appeal to heaven in attestation of it.

The Pisteis or Argument is of two kinds: (i) Immediately arising out of the speech itself, the circumstances of the case and the persons engaged — e.g., '* Exetasis," for instance, or criticism of character and conduct, and is conducted by the speaker according to rules of art; and the other (2) *' Epithetoi," added (from without). Of ** Exetasia " there are seven, which are as follows : (a) Icos, that is probable which when mentioned immediately suggests similar or analogous cases to the minds of. the hearers — e.g., if a man hears another give utterance to a popular sentiment or maxim, or say he desires the greatness of his country, friends and comrades, and misfortune to the enemies, he thinks this probable because he is conscious of the existence in himself of the same or similar sentiments and wishes. We must be on the look out in addressing an audience to fund if they are sv77ipathetic or conscious of the same senti- ments, for such will lend a willing ear. There are three species in the probable : Pathos, Ethos, Kerdos (which belongs to human nature). They must be employed m our speech. The Icos in the deliberative branch is made of " analogous cases " to make facts more probable, (b) Para- dim, which are examples or facts that have occurred similar or opposite to those we are now stating. Examples are brought in when the topic of ** probability " fails, as an evidence of the truth of an incredible or an improbable statement by the allegation of analogous acts or events that have actually occurred. There are two species, first those in accordance with ordinary reckoning or calculation, or general rule — e.g., " The rich are less disposed to wrong- doing than the poor"; the general rule or probability is on our side, and examples are easy to support our assertion ; second, the improbable or unexpected (exceptions to rule) — e.g., we want to prove that a rich man accepted a bribe to betray his country's interest, we must find instances of exceptions (improbable) to the general rule, (c) Tecmer'ioji, which is the inconsistenc)^ or incompatibility between facts and the opponent's speech, or contradictions in the speech itself. From these contradictions and inconsistencies most hearers at once draw a conclusion of the utter unsoundness both of his word?i and actions, that one must be false and the other wrong. (d) Enthymemes, which is a statement with one of the premises left out, or a statement with a reason given. See figure Enthymema. (e) Gnoine, which is an expression of private opinions or things in general; " Catholou," which is "a general expression of opinion,"

PISTEIS 377

and is the usual definition. If counter to popular opinion, a reason must be brought forward concisely to avoid long- windedness and incredibility : the reason if short and pointed is more likely to carry conviction, (f) '' Semeion*' is where one thing is the sign of another, the ordinary concomitant - either before, or after, or simultaneously. Not only may a thing that has happened be the sign of something else that has happened, but also of something that has not happened. In the " Semeion " the habits and associations of the audi- ence must be studied m the same way and the speech accom- modated to them. The ** Icos " likewise which takes in their present mood of mind.; contempt or terror, pleasure or pain, or any other emotion by which they happen to be influenced. These the speaker ought to ascertain and to these he must appeal, and humour them by his speech. And the " Kerdos " their interests or profits in like manner must be appealed to. The " Semeion " is more the probable sign, and **Tecmerion" the necessary sign or concomitant. Every- thing when represented in these three ways — the Icos, the Kerdos, and the Semeion — will appear probable to the audience (cf. E. M. Cope), (g) Elegchos, which is a contra- diction of opponent's conclusion, or a refutation by counter syllogism or enthymeme. Cope adds: "Any positive asser- tion or statement that cannot be contradicted either in support of something we want to prove ourselves, or in refutation of an argument of the adversary." Spengel says that Elegchos are always founded upon some kind of evidence, as witnesses, torture, documents, contracts, common rumour. It corresponds to the Latin or Spanish law court proceedings called ** alegatos," that is positive proofs or proofs generally of a documentary or written kind.

Caution : Aristotle says when you excite any passion or •emotion^, do not employ an enthymem, for either it will expel the passion or the enthymem will be uttered to no purpose. (See Deictic and Enthymem.) Enthymem should not be used in a continued series, for they injure each other's force by confounding the hearer. Foster says : " Never fall short of the proposition, consider and explain it from every point of view— ^.^., * Charity must be confined to almsgiving alone.' This is falling short of the proposi- tion. Charity must be considered in its proper acceptation — universal love. Never discourse wide of the proposition. Avoid employing arguments which can be applied to other subjects as well as to that on which you are arguing. Speak- ing, for instance, on lying, and using arguments equally applicable to vice in general, would be to argue wide of the proposition. Never use arguments that prove too little, but let them be such as warrant the conclusion — e.g., * That man will suffer some great temporal punishment because

378 PISTEIS

he is cruel and oppressive/ My argument would prove too little, for great tyrants have enjoyed great affluence and as much good fortune as this world is capable of affording. Avoid making those terms general which will apply with truth only in particular places. Were I to say, * Philosophy is adverse to Christianity, because Voltaire, Diderot, and several other philosophers were infidels,' I should prove nothing to the purpose. It is not true that all philosophers are infidels. Let your arguments be such that those which precede will throw light on those which follow, and thus form such a connection that the agreement or disagreement expressed in the proposition shall be made manifest. Do not extend your arguments; a few well-chosen words will carry a greater weight of conviction than a great number of weak extended arguments can possibly do."

As with several facts in the Epideictic Diegesis, so likewise here in the use of argumentative proofs. Aristotle recom- mends that they be not all brought forward in a string, but interspersed with other topics so as to relieve the weariness and assist the comprehension of an audience; for a long and connected chain of arguments not only puzzles and confounds a listener unaccustomed to continuous reasoning, but also wearies and overwhelms him ; so that one argument coming upon another before he has fully perceived the force of the preceding they clash together, and the force and effect of the whole is weakened and destroyed. (See Webster's reply to Hayne where he introduced passion and various topics to relieve the strain of reasoning.) In painting emotion, or working upon the feelings of the audience, use no argument. The effect of the argument and feeling cannot co-exist in their minds; one will expel the other or else the stronger' over- powers the weaker. Nor when you are trying to give an ethical character to your speech; for argument is indepen- dent of character and moral purpose. To blame or praise, bring in outside topic. Gorgias in his "Art" says: ** Destroy the effect of your adversary's earnest by jest, or their jest by earnest." Irony is more appropriate to a well- bred, cultivated man than buffoonery, so be careful to select those jokes which are suitable to yourself and your own character; buffoonery looks to the reward *of the applause of the vulgp.

Delivery : The arguments of the opponent, or the pro- catalepsis, should be repeated very distinctly, so that they may not appear to be concealed by the speaker, or the force of them avoided. If they are unworthy of serious attention, the gesture should be in a facetious or jocular manner.

The great preacher, C. H. Spurgeon, says regarding preaching outdoors: ''Reasoning must be brief, clear and soon done with. The chain of thought must be taken to pieces, and each link melted down and turned into bullets

PISTEIS 379

, . . Come to the point at once, and come there with all your might. Short sentences of words and short passages of thought are needed for outdoors. Long paragraphs and long arguments had better be left for other occasions. In the streets a man must from beginning to end be intense, and for that very reason he must be condensed and con- centrated in his thought and utterance.''

Foster, in his " Lessons of Oratory," gives the following as to the delivery of the Oration on the Crown: *' The argu- ment implies feelings and opinions to be combated, the voice becomes louder and generallv higher than in simple narra- tion; the inflections are heightened; they move more within a greater interval, going deeper into the grave and higher into the acute; the rate of the pronunciation is slow, moderate and rapid by turns; slow when a particular point requires steady attention, rapid when premises carefully collected preiient a sudden irresistible conclusion. The preparation for an emphatic stroke is begun in good time, the elbow gradually ascending with the current of pronunciation, till at the moment the action is wanted the hand is brought down with a sudden spring. For the extension to the front, the hand is brought very near the mouth, that is the fingers, and the action completed by propelling the hand to the front, with the palm outward and the fingers pointing down."

The prince of all orators, Demosthenes, worked himself up to the conclusion of his arguments, which he made in enthymematic, asyndetic interrogations, clauses being short and with a keen thrust, a method used by the great Ameri- can orator, Henry Clay. Demosthenes, after speaking about fortifying the city not with bricks and stones, the estimation of his fortifications in the cities and places and harbours and the bulwarks in defence of Attica, about his not being defeated by Philip's calculations, nor by his military pre- parations, but that the generals and forces of the allies were defeated by fortune, concludes thus : ' * What are the proofs of these things ? They are clearly evident. Consider, I beseech you, what was the part of a faithful citizen?" (see full passage under Delivery of Fig. Interrogatio, also further particulars under Figs. Argumentum, Enthymema and Asvndeton).

No better caution can be given than that 'in the " Elements of Rhetoric " by Whately, which says that the Proposition may be stated at once if nothing is particularly offensive in it, and the proof subjoined; but if unfamiliar to the hearers, or likely to be unacceptable, it should not be stated at the outset. Proving too much : You either prove by contradicting the premises or by showing that an absurd conclusion follows. Against long established prejudices : The absurdity of such prejudices in the clearest point of view tends to an opposite

380 PISTEIS

aim as to make one ashamed of his folly of believing such that is so evident, even to a child, and will stop his ears to argument. They could have, perhaps, borne to change their opmion, but not so to change it as to take their former opinion v^ith gross folly. They get angry with him and thus the triumphant force of reason adduced serves to harden them against admitting the conclusion. Those not prejudiced, or not strongly so, will be ready to admit it if supported by sufficient argument, but if very much beyond what is sufficient, will have their suspicions aroused — ^-g-, ** Can it be possible that a thing so obvious should not have been admitted, possible that eminent philosophers, divines and statesmen should have been all their lives under delusions so gross?" Hence they infer that he has mistaken the opinions of those he imagines to oppose, or has some subtle fallacy in his arguments. What is sufficient is not much more than to prove, your conclusion in the combating of deep- rooted prejudices, or maintain unpopular and paradoxical truths. More probable, decidedly, your opinion is than your opponent's, for if you can satisfy men you will have carried your point more effectually than by a multitude of forcible arguments till you have affronted the esteem of some and awakened the distrust of others. Strike the wedge just suffi- ciently. It is more satisfactory to show whence the error arose than to disprove the proposition. It is often advisable to Drove by instalments, as Aristotle first tells of what happi- ness does not consist, then one by one he establishes his several points on it; to prove after the style of resolutions in a public meeting which are proposed in series, each part carried, whereas if in a mass they might have been rejected. Whately also says : ' * Do not make too earnest a refuta- tion, which has the effect of giving importance to, the opponent's argument, when one refutation might have sufficed, nor run the danger of being too forceful, as the hearer may not be prepared yet fully to receive it." Bain says: " Chatham took care to show that he was not inferior in zeal for the supremacy of the British Crown in arguing for conciliation with America. He (Chatham) said though he loved Americans as men prizing and setting the just value on that inestimable blessing, Liberty; yet if he could once bring himself to be persuaded that they entertained the most distant intentions of throwing off the legislative supremacy and the great constitutional, superintending power and control of the British Legislature, he should be the very person himself who would be the first and most zealous mover for securing and enforcing that power by every possible exertion this country was capable of making." Baifi also says: '* The strict handling of these questions, however desirable in itself and useful to the speaker, is too round- about and abstruse for popular address; the rhetorician must

PLOCE— POLYPTOTON 381

content himself with his usual resource, the stating of palpable contradictions. The citing of contradictory instances always disproves 9nd often silences both bad inductions and bad definitions."

PLOCE : Greek nXeKco, to twine, weave. This is a. figure of words when a word is repeated signifying another thing-; by way of emphasis so repeated that it denotes not only the thing signified but the quality of the thing. It is a figure by which the proper name of any man well known being repeated signifies the nature and permanent quality of the man whose name it is.

Caution : The man ought to be well known whose name is repeated, and likewise his manners and natural inclina- tion, otherwise it must needs be a sounding repetition with- out sense — e.g., */ Cicero continued Cicero till his death " ; meaning a lover of his country and a most faithful patron of the commonwealth. " His wife's a wife indeed." Wife is repeated with reference to a special significance — i.e., her attributes. It may be formed also by a repetition of the same word or words in various forms in the same sentence, as *' Is then to know in thee nothing, unless another know thou know'st it?" " I do not say what I knov/, I say w^hat r do not know, I do not know what I say." ** Review of Reviews."

POLYPTOTON : Greek poly, many, often, oftentimes;. pipto, to fall, leave off; ptosis, a case, a falling. This is a figure of words by which the word is repeated in different forms, cases, number, gender, etc. — e.g., " My own heart's heart and ownest own, farewell." — Tennyson. " Govern- ment of the people, by the people, and for the people." '* Now shield with shield, with helmet, helmet closed." Diff-erent cases or inflections of the same context: "Unless the death of death had brought death to death by (His) death, the door of eternal life would have been closed."

The Polyptoton is a repetition of a word of the same lineage that differs often m termination, and is made by changing (i) the mode, (2) the tense, (3) the person, (4) the case, (5) the degree, (6) the gender, (j) the number, (8) the part of speech. Exceeding exceeding. In several cases : *' For fear concealed his fear." Same adjective in several ^comparisons: "Much may be said in my defence, much more for love, and most of all for that incomparable creature who hath joined me to love." "Vanity of vanities, all ir vanity." " Thou, O King, art a King of kings."

" Polyptoton still the same word places

If sense require it in two different cases." — Langley.

382 POLYSYNDETON

POLYSYNDETON: Greek -poly, often, repeated, many times; sy?i, with; deo, to bind, tie; detos, a band, bond. A figure by which the speaker unites the different parts of his speech by many conjunctions. It is where divers words are for their weightiness, and not without emphasis, knit together with many copulatives. Rhetorically it consists of a number of conjunctions in close succession; an introduction of all members of a^ series of co-ordinate words or clauses with conjunction, usually the same conjunction (as, and, or, nor, etc.), to connect co-ordinate words or clauses — e.g.y " Both house and household gods, and arms, and army claean dog, and quiver, form'd of Cretan make." The Polysyndeton may also be of different conjunctions.

Both the Asyndeton and the Polysyndeton are accumula- tions of words, the only difference being the presence or absence of conjunctions. The source of them is the same, as they render what we say more vivacious and energetic; exhibiting an appearance of vehemence and of passion burst- ing forth, as it were, time after time. The Asyndeton pro- duces an accelerated m.ovement. Polysyndeton a retarded movement in the sentence. Asyndeton gives the effect of accumulation and energy. Polysyndeton demand.s special and deliberate attention to each separate word and clause introduced.

** Carmen de Figuris vel schematibus " defines Polysyn- deton as " multijugum, articulis quod pluribu' jungo *' (a multijunction, that is, with many copulatives or joins), as ** This one fails, but that one succeeds." " In Polysyndeton conjunctions flow And every word its copulative will show." — Langley.

Examples: " For I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature shall separate us from the love of God . . ." '* Cupid got his finger stung by a bee. Straight he fills the air with cries — Weeps and sobs and runs and fliesy

That as a Polysyndeton: '* They contended that not one of the offences alleged against him amounted to high treason; that an endeavour to subvert this law or religion or the rights of Parliament was not treason by any statute; and that the description of an ofr"ence so vague and indeter- minate ought not to be admitted."

W. W. Baden says Polysyndeton dwells on particulars, and by the accumulation of particles gives more deliberation and impressiveness, more judicial weight and dignity to the speech. It imparts a special ease and grace to diction, hence is well suited both to a plain and solemn speaker. All orators employ Polysyndeton with about the same range of conjunctions.

POLYSYNDETON 38

Acts I. 13: "Where abode both Peter, and James, and John, and Andrew, Philip and Thomas, Bartholomew and Matthew, James the son of Alpheus, and Simon Zelotes, and Judas the brother of James."

Further examples of Polysyndeton see Demosthenes, Phil. III. 26, Demosthenes vs. Midias 20, Demos. Chers. 23 (an example with nor, nor), Demos, on the Embassy 204 (an example with " and "), Demos, on the Embassy 219 (another example with '' and "), Demos. Cor. 44 (another type of construction with "and"), ^schines on the Embassy 92 and 93.

Another example from .^schines with *'and'* standing at the head, also "or," see oration against Ctesiphon 52: "To review the private life of Demosthenes, it would be a work of tedious detail. And why need I tell it now? either the story of what happened to him on the indictment for the wound, when he brought Demomeles the Paeanian, his own kinsman, before the Areopagus; and the cut on his head ; or the circumstances respecting the expedition under Cephisodotus, and the sailing of the. fleet to the Hellespont; or kgain, when Demosthenes being one of the trierarchs, and entertaining the general in his ship, and banqueting with him, and sacrificing and offering libations with him, and being considered worthy of these honours because he was his paternal friend, he did not scruple to become his prose- cutor when tried for his life in consequence of impeachment. And those affairs relating to Midias, and the buffets he received in the orchestra, when manager; and how he com- pounded for thirty minee both the insult offered to himself and the sentence of condemnation pronounced by the people which they passed on Midias in the temple of Bacchus? I think I shall pass over those circumstances and others similar to them. . . . And, Ctesiphon, whether is it fit that a person should be honoured with a golden crown or be censured . . . ? and whether is it right that you, daring to propose false and illegal measures, shotild despise the tribunals, or that you should render satisfaction to the state? "

An example of another line of thought with " and " at the forefront, from ^schines vs. Ctesiphon, 109; also one in the form of a Hv^ophora with " and " at the head of each particular, vs.' Ctesiphon 215.

IJ se : It is used to knit many things of like nature together for the consideration of each, and to distinguish and separate contrary matters asunder. For this reason it may be called the chain of speech, as every chain has a conjunction of matter and a distinction of links. The use of Polysyndeton, alternated with Asyndeton, gives great effect and variety. Baden says it is like the imperfect tense, it dwells on par- ticulars or gives the details of an enumeration, while Asyn-

384 POLYSYNDETOiN

deton, like the aorist, gives the outlines. It is used for clearness^ and Demetrius says: "Clear writing should shun ambiguities and make use of the Epanalepsis, which is the repetition of the same particle in the course of a long- sustained outburst — e.g., * All Philip*s achievements indeed — how he subjugated Thrace, and seized the Chersonese, and besieged Byzantium, and neglected to restore Amplii- polis — these things, indeed, I shall pass over.' It may be said that the repetition of the particle ' indeed ' reminds us of the prelude and sets us again at the beginning of the sentence. For the sake of clearness, the same thing must often be said twice over. There is somehow more charm than clearness in conciseness. For men who race past us are sometimes indistinctly seen, so also the meaning of a sentence may, owing to its hurried movement, be only im- perfectly caught." Demetrius also says that in many passages, however, the opposite figure to separation — viz., combination (Polysyndeton) — tends to elevatio?i of style : " To war flocked both Greek and Carians and Lycians and Pomphylians and Phrygians." The repeated use of the same conjunction gives the impression of an immeasurable host. Blass' " Demosthenes," in referring to the use of the Polysyndeton, has the following : ** Meanwhile the Poly- syndeton has also a place : when by the repetition of the same conjunction the hearer is forced to concentrate every- thing into one unit, he gets the impression of grandeur and imposing fulness, although the movement and pathos (im- passioned delivery) of the speaker and the lively delivery are better suited to the Asyndeton." Respecting the use of Polysyndeton by ^schines, he says that it served him to emphasise what he has heafed up, or even for the dignity of the speech. See examples, ^schines vs. Ctesiphon 51-54 and 109: *' . . . and why need I tell it now ..." "And sacred land with hand and foot and voice aitd all their might." In the celebrated oath (Marathon, etc.) Blass notes the use of Polysyndeton.

Caution: See Longinus on the "Sublime," as to the weakening of the expression by the insertion of Polysyn- deton, page 69, under Anaphora: "Come now, . . ." Blass' "Demosthenes" says: *'How exceedingly the inser- tion of the conjunction would paralyse and w^eaken in pathetic (passionate) passages, the author has demonstrated in a specially striking manner."

Delivery : As Polysyndeton is used to make appear more numerous what is enumerated, or to give emphasis to what is heaped up, or to give elevation of style, also vastness, dignity and imposing grandeur, or to maintain the course of a long sustained outburst, it should therefore be delivered in the strain in which these thoughts flow, and as they

' POLYSYNDETON 385

tend to a certain fulness, so should the Polysyndeton. The copulative words should be pronounced in all their fulness, and this retards movement which naturally contributes to and is in keeping with the slow movement of the noble, elevated, imposing, grand sentiments, and the sustained outbursts, and the vastness of numbers. The Polysyndetic word, usually " and,*' "or,*' ** nor,'* is fully and some- what slowly enunciated; in the "and" the letter "d" is well and fully pronounced and not shortened as in, as it were, a preposition. For instance, take the "and " in ^schines' Ctesiphon 52, and vs. Ctesiphon 109, it is pro- nounced fully as a conjunction. The words "or" and "nor" have the letter "r" with both its articulative and its vowel sounds as noted by Bell in his diagram as the eighth vowel, as if "or" v/ere spelt " or-er " and "nor" as "nor-er." "And," "or," "nor," etc., are pronounced as emphatic repetitions. By prolonging the " a " in " and " and a pause after " and " these give the effect of considera- tion required by this figure in enumerating like things, and the pause after " and " supplies an ellipsis of all that's said and done in the previous words. Care must be taken to give a longer pause at the end of eagh link so as to distinguish it from the next link. Take, for instance, the words of Webster: "There is Boston, and Concord, and Lexington, and Bunker Hill; and there they will remain forever." There is Boston, a-nd (a slight pause for the ellipsis of "besides Boston and what they did there") Concord (here a slight bursting forth, as, it were, of passion, at the new idea, and a pause longer than the one after " and " to distinguish the link, also to give tin;ie to ruminate on what was done at Concord), a-nd Lexington (pause after "and," which fills up the ellipsis of "besides Boston and Concord, and what they did there, I proceed to tell you what they did at — Lexington," the voice slightly stronger than on Concord), a-nd Bunker Hill. The last "and" enumerates all that has gone before and says, " I now proceed to tell you that the climax of all was Bunker Hill and what they did there." Bunker Hill takes the greatest force and energy of all the outbursts of passion or feeling in the preceding links.

Where the links separate and distinguish contrary matter each conjunction is treated as an Emphatic repetition as " and," and the contrary matter or links delivered as an Antithesis, the first with the rising inflection and the second the falling, taking care that the most important contrary should appear in the second link — e.g.^ There were cats and dogs, and mice and monkeys, and birds and snakes, and hogs and horses, and fish and men — such a con- glomeration was never seen before.

386 PRAGMATOGRAPHIA— PROCATALEPSIS

PRAGMATOGRAPHIA : , Greek pagmatos, a deed, a thing, action (battles), affairs; grapho, to sketch, to pamt, draw; is a figure whereby the orator makes a description of things by gathering together all the circumstances belong- ing to them, plainly portraying their image as if it were most lively painted out in colours and set forth, to be seen.

Examples : " If one say the city was overcome by assault,, he would comprehend many fires and scattered flames upon houses and temples, the noise of houses falling down, a confused sound of many things and woeful cries, some flying with great peril, others embracing their friends and bidding 'them farewell forever, infants perishing, women bitterly weeping." (See ** Eve of Waterloo," by Byron, -^schines on the Thebans.)

Use : This figure serves to describe wars, tempests, ship- wrecks, conquests, triumphs, destruction of cities and coun- tries, murders, dearths and deaths; to present things or actions to the mind of the hearer. This figure or ornament helps to amplify, to declare things plainly, and none more forcible to move pity.

Caution : The principal effects and circumstances ought not to be omitted, and not preposterously placed as to rehearse that last which was first done, which fault is called Hysteron proteron.

Delivery : As this is much the same as Anim9.ted Descriptio, Narratio, Hypotyposis, the same observations under these figures will serve here, only this figure is especi- ally used to describe great actions, things on a big scale. (See animated description on the " Phenomena of the Uni- verse— pure tone, moderate force, vivid median stress." — Russell.)

PROCATALEPSIS: Greek fro, before, beforehand; kata, down, against; lainbano, to seize, to grasp, get; is a figure or form of speech by which the orator, perceiving aforehand what might be objected against him and hurt him, confutes it before it is spoken, as when the orator puts forth the same objection against himself which he thinks his adversary would, and then repels it by a reason whereby he provi- dently prevents him. Something after the style of what Edwin Bell calls setting up an argument to knock it down.

Example : Cicero says that he knows some will marvel, seeing he defended so many and hurt none; he now comes to accuse Verres, then he shows this accusation against Verres to be a defence of their fellows.

Use : This form of speech porperly belongs to confutation, and is also an ornament which greatly enriches the oration with a new increase of matter and occupies the mind of the hearer as well with the consideration of an objection going:

PROCATALEPSIS— PRCECTHESIS 387

before as with attention and expectation of the answer to follow, and makes stale or flat the opponent's argument by anticipating him.

Caution : Take heed of curious and vain objections, of weak and insufficient answer, for it is an easier matter to move hard objections than to make sufficient solutions; ami the orator commits a great absurdity when he makes an objection he is not able afterwards to answer, in which case he shows his ^.dversary's strength and his own weakness.

PRCECTHESIS: Greek pro, before; ek, out; tithemi, to place, put. Is a form of speech which is, as it were, a pre- exposition of a speech, wherein that which comes into the controversy is presented to the eye. The Prcecthesis takes m the Proposition (see Fig. Propositio) and the Statement of Facts.

In the Diegesis of the Epideictic, the facts should not be given altogether, in a series one after the other, for to draw inferences from them would lead to great confusion in the mind of the hearer, and be difficult to remember. We must distribute them over the speech, introducing actions severally by the way of Prothesis and then put upon each of them as it occurs, the required construction : as such and such actions, show that our hero was just; and such that he was wise and brave and so on. Give it an ethical cast, as to say of a man ** he talked as he was walking," this shows recklessness and contemptuous indifference to the opinions and feelings of others. Throw in Pathos also in the naurra- tive — i.e., feeling, emotion, pslssion, as ** hissing and shaking his fist furiously " for such traits are known.

Delivery : See Diegesis— Statement of Facts.

Quintillian says the Statement of Facts is an account of a thing done or supposed to have been done, or a narrative to inform the auditor what the matter in question is. The cornnience^nent of the Prcecthesis or statement of facts can be by extolling some character on our side, or can be intro- duced with descriptive circumstances, as " man held a high position." The Facts should be clear>, that is easily under- stood ; brief, that is nothing foreign to the cause, and not wholly unadorned or it becomes mere rudeness; credible, that is advance nothing contrary to nature, assigning causes and motives for the facts we detail, and persons of character according with the fact, as " the accused of theft is a covetous man." We may touch on character, cause, place, time, instrument and occasion in stating facts. Figures may not be excluded. Statement of facts should display agreeableness, something to excite surprise and expectation, unexpected results, conversatio7is between different people, and all the feelings of the mind; as Cicero, in a few words,

388 PRGECTHESIS— PRODIORTHOSIS

touches all the feelings in describing the scourging of a Roman citizen. There should be no borrowed figures from poetry, nor similar terminations, similar phrases and similar constructions. To gratify the ear is to -persuade^ therefore, in speaking of a heinous crime, do so in tones of invective,, mournful occurrences, in a tone of pity. Picture circum- stances that audience may, as it were, actually see them — this has a powerful effect when subjoined to what is true really. Avoid studied art or suspicion of art in this part of the speech; all should seem to emanate from the cause rather than from the speaker. Close of the Statement of Facts should be on the point in dispute — e.g., "The decree was made, was reinstated, a sum of money was deposited, and it is concerning this deposit that we must decide."

PRODIORTHOSIS: po, beforehand; dia, completely; orthoo, to set straight; defined by Alexander III. 14 as a figure of thought (cf. W. W. Baden). Prodiorthosis will meet a reproach, a surprise, or an erroneous view, caused by a subsequent statement. It shows a tree and confident style of argument. Aquila Romanus defines it thus: "Pro- diorthosis is a precedent correction. This figure forewarns something that is necessary to be said that may be unsavory to the hearers or odious to ourselves." Romanus points out that there are many examples in Cicero. See a good Ciceronian example under Fig. Parrhesia.

Exa7nfles : Promise of brevity from Demosthenes vs. Aphobus 1 , 3 : y I entreat you to give me a favourable hearing, and if you think I have been wroneed to give me the justice which I am entitled to. / shall compress my speech into as short a compass as possible, commencing with a statement of those matters which will give you a clear view of the question." (This was in the exordium of the speech.) Example of a free and confident style of argument. Demos, vs. Aphobus 1,8: " And I will produce witnesses to prove that they consented on my behalf to be taxed in the manner I have stated, and that my father, so far from leaving me an estate of only seventy minas, left me one so considerable that even those m.en were not able to conceal its value from the state. Take and read this deposition."

Caution-. Blass* " Demosthenes " has the following in- teresting comment on this point: "On the other hand, according to the same rhetorician (Hermogenes), Demos- thenes does not fall into the error of ./Eschines, first to excuse his outburst of rage and then draw attention to it, by which all direct vitality is withdrawn and it becomes distasteful ; the Deinai'chic is also no Demosthenic Prodi- orthosis, Dein. I, 15, as this self-reproach contains too much reflection, and its pathos (passionate nature) is des- troyed. There are Prodiorthoses in places where the speaker

PRODIORTHOSIS 389

wishes to say something harsh or offensive in a calm and in a similar case, something of a softening nature can also be said later (Epidiorthosis), both had already been in frequent use by Isocrates." Blass further notes in his com- ment on -^schines that by this warning or announcement (Prodiorthosis) the outbreak is revealed as prepared before- hand, and it awakens opposition instead of impressing. He gives as an illustration of the forewarning in -^schines' address vs. Timarchus 70, and Embassy 87-88 (see passages under Fig. Epidiorthosis). See an example of a justifiable case nearing a Prodiorthosis under Fig. Aposiopesis, where the speaker acts as if he were seeking to find a sufficiently strong expression and can find none. According to Aristotle, a speaker is permitted to announce the fact that he is going to reason on a point, but not to announce feelings or passions.. Blass censures :^schines' passionate outbursts previously announced, and concurs with Hermogenes, who verifies this from a passage in the Embassy speech, where an ungovern- able outburst of rage is previously excused or justified, which passage is as follows, Emb. 88 : '* Will you then, fellow-citizens, pardon me if I call him a lewd rascal, un- clean of body, even to the place whence the voice issues forth, and if I go to prove that the rest of his accusation about Cersobleptes is false on the face of it ? "

This caution must not be confounded with the Figure Climax or Incrementum of thoughts. Those great outbursts of passionate eloquence, though one can see a great outburst coming from the thoughts following one another increasing in weight and importance, yet there is no excuse or begging pardon, whereas in Prodiorthosis there is a more or less formal warning. The outbursts of Incrementum are sustained by appropriate sentences or clauses leading up to them. (See excellent comment by the " Edinburgh Review" on how Demosthenes supported his great flights of eloquence, under " Manner of Delivery of Demosthenes '* in this work.) Blass criticises jEschines for having made such passionate exclama- tions or outbursts without any previous preparation made for them, and cites the two following examples : ^schines on the Embassy, 158; and I^Eschines vs. Ctesiphon, 137: " I think that not Phrynnondos and not Eurybatus, nor any other of the traitors of ancient times ever proved himself such a juggler and cheat as this man, who — Oh, Earth and HeaveUy oh ye gods and men — if any men of you will listen to the truth — dares to look you in the face and say that Thebes actually made the alliance with you, not because of the crisis, not because of the fear that was impending over you, not because of your reputation, but because of Demos- thenes' declamations! '*

Delivery : Delivery inclines to Ethos, and the words form-

390 PROLEPSIS— PROOIMIOxN

ing the Prodiorthosis should be as prescribed by QuintTUian, namely: "In flattering, apologising, confessing, suppli- cating, the voice is gentle and submissive.'*

PROLEPSIS : Greek fro, before, beforehand; lambano, to take; to take beforehand, anticipate; is a figure consisting in the anticipating and answering or nullifying beforehand of objections or opposing arguments.

** Prolepsis makes objections, then replies, And wisely thus anticipates surprise." — Langley. Example :

" Our fathers lov*d rank ven'son — you suppose Perhaps, young men ! our fathers had no nose. Not so : a bucK was then a week's repast, And 'twas their point, I ween, to make it last." — Pope.

PROOIMION (or Prooemium) : Greek piro , before; and oljjLO^, a way, path ; means in music, a prelude, overture; in speeches, a preface, exordium ; in law, a preamble ; meta- phorically, any beginning. This is a form of speech em- ployed for the commencement of addresses. It is, the same as Exordium, and all observations made under same are applicable to Prooimion, for Prooimion is the Greek word for Exordium. In Cope's Analysis, a Prooimion is a pre- liminary flourish to conciliate the audience and to put them in good humour. ** For here there is no real interest at stake, and the orator is allowed a much greater liberty in his choice of topics for amusing (and gaining over) the audience; a license which would be intolerable in a case of life and death, or in a suggestion of a course of action which may involve the safety or ruin of the state. Here the audience are too eager to come to the point to admit of any trifling with their anxiety." — Cicero. " A Prooimion is necessary if only for mere ornament's sake," says Aristotle, ** because without it the speech has an off-hand, slovenly air." The object of the Prooimion is to make clear what the end and object of the speech or story is, and therefore if the subject (the thing or matter in hand) be already clear and short (of trifling importance) the Prooimion is not to be employed (on the end and object of the speech).

The orator must lead the listener to suppose that he is a participator in the eulogy either personally, or by his family and race, or his habits and pursuits, or somehow.

The FroGimion of an Efideictic (demonstrative, panegyric, laudatory or censurious) speech (the epideictic orations were such as frequently used by the Greek rhetoricians, called set orations, or speeches for display) is derived from the follow- ing topics — praise, blame, exhortation, dissuasion, appeal to hearers. Like the Prooimion of the peliberative, has added

PROOIMIOxX— PROPOSITIO 391

to those topics for attracting attention, the marvellous and striking.

The speaker should infuse Ethos into his speech — i.e.^ set his own character and intentions in the most favourable light, make himself appear a worthy and respectable person, because people are always inclined to attend to those whose^ characters they esteem. This is good to make the audience '* dociles," ready to receive the information he is prepared to communicate.

The Prooimion of the Deliberative speech (which is for persuading and dissuading from a course of action and nothing more) is not necessary in recommending this or that measure to the assembly unless adversary has poisoned the hearer's mind against it and its author, or some special reason ; the audience is usually well acquainted with the subject. Prooimion and Diegesis are borrowed from the forensic when used in the Deliberative and Demonstrative oratory. Jebb says: "The proems of the forensic speech furnish those of the Deliberative, in which, however, it is naturally rarest: (i) Raising and rebutting prejudice; (2) amplifying or minimising the subject; (3) or an orna- ment." See example under Daniel Webster.

PROPOSITIO: Latin fro, forth; ponere, to set; to set forth; is a figure whereby the orator comprehends in a few words the sum of the matter of which we intend presently to speak.

Use\ It serves to beautify an oration, (i) The first con- dition is that it must contain absolutely whatever belongs to the cause. (2) That it be well divided. (3) That it be most suitable for the cause or subject. By this means the oration is not confounded with a mass of matters while the hearer has some certain thing to occupy his mmd upon, both to remember and what to expect — e.g., Cicero: "I have now to speak of the excellent and singular virtues of Pom- pey."

Quintillian says : Propositio is really the commencement of the proof. It is sometimes entirely bare, as "I charge with theft"; sometimes it is with a reason, as "He is guilty of treason, for he read his own law." Semblance of Propositio — adding these words: "It is upon these points that you are to decide." " A law has been enacted that whosoever mounts the w^all should die; you mounted the wall there is no doubt; what remains is that you undergo the penalty." Division of the Propositio is good where there are several charges, as: "I shall show accused is not of such a character, I shall show he did not commit the murder, I shall show he had no motive, I shall show he was beyond the seas." What is admitted and what is disputed, may be shown. Must be clear.

392 PROSOGRAPHIA— PROSOPODOSIS

Foster says make the subject and predicate clear, terms well defined. Make the members as concise as possible consistent with perspicuity.

Delivery : It should be delivered with a very clear and audible voice. If it be divided into several parts, each part should be expressed very deliberately and distinctly. There is very little room for gesture. See Thesis.

PROSOGRAPHIA : Greek proso, person; grapko, to sketch, draw, paint. Is a form of speech whereby the speaker makes a picture or description of a person, as to his form, stature, manners, studies, doings, affections, and such other circumstances serving to the purpose so described, that it may appear a plain and lively picture set before the eyes of the hearers. The principal circumstances to be described are these— parentage, nation, country, kind, age, education, discipline, habit of body, former deeds, apparel, etc.

PROSOPODOSIS : Greek pro, from (prep.), forth, to, upon, therefore; apo, down from, again; deiknumi, to show, point out. Rustilius calls it reasoning suited to the order •of distribution — e.g., in Caius Antonius : " But neither do I dread him as an accuser, inasmuch as I am innocent; nor do I fear him as a competitor, s jice I am Antonius ; nor do I expect anything from him as Consul, since he is Cicero.** The foregoing example is what Cicero calls reasoning sub- servient to your proposition. After two or three points are laid down, the reasoning is applied to each in the same order.

Many reasons are often subjoined to one observation — .

£,g.,

" Whether from thence the lands a secret power And fattening nurture gain; or from the soil Its Mhole corruption is by fire expell'd. And useless damp exudes ; or whether pores More numerous and more passages unseen The heat expands, by which sap may pass Up to the tender herb; or whether more It hardens and constricts the opening veins.*' — Virgil.

PROSOPOPCEIA : Greek prosoton, face, person; poeeo, to make; is a figure by which inanimate things are represented as animate: absent persons introduced as speaking, deceased as alive and speaking. It is the feigning of a person, that is when the speaker impersonates another, as where Milo is introduced by Cicero as speaking through his own lips — e.g., "Attend, I pray, hearken, O Citizens: I have killed Publius Clodius by this sword and by this right hand I have kept

PROSOPOPCEIA 393

off his rage from your necks, which no laws, no , courts of jurisdiction could restrain." It also attributes personality to inanimate or irrational things, representing them as speaking, etc., as Cicero in his first oration against Catiline;, the Republic is made the speaker and addresses Cicero him- self: " For if my Country, which is dearer to me than my life, if all Italy, if the whole Republic should thus addrebs" me : * Marcus Cicero, what are you doing ? Are you suffer- ing him whom you have found to be an enemy, who you see is at the head of the war, whom you perceive our enemies wait for in their camp as their general, who has been the contriver of all this wickedness, the chief of the conspiracy, the exciter of the slaves and profligate citizens, to leave the city, which is rather to bring him in than let him out ? Will you not order him to be imprisoned, condemned and executed?''^ The orator by this figure makes the commonwealth speak, to command, to dispraise, to ask, to complain, also life and death, virtue and pleasure, honesty and profit, wealth and poverty, envy and charity, to contend and plead against another; and raises the dead to life and brings them forth complaining or witnessing what they know. Sometimes to cities, beasts, birds, trees, stones, weapons, fire, water, lights of the firmament, he attributes speech, reason and affection, to no other end than to further his purpose, and confirm and make his cause evident. For instance, if the orator wishes to commend virtue to his hearers, as truth or such like, he may, after he has suffi- ciently praised truth, feign it a person, and bring it in bitterly complaining how cruelly she is oppressed and how little esteemed, how often outraged and how much abhorred, how many her enemies, how few her friends, and remaining without habitation. He may feign her complaining against false balances, weights and measures, against false testimony, lies and perjury, against wicked hypocrisy, etc., etc.

It is twofold — Imperfect and Perfect; iniperject, as when the speech of another is set down lightly and indirectly, as David ' brings in the wicked as saying unto his soul : ** Flee as a bird unto yon mountain "; perfect^ as when the whole feigning of the person is set down in our speech with a formal entering into and a leaving off of the same. Prov. 8 : '* Wisdom crieth at the gate. . . . Unto you, O men, I call, and my. voice is to the sons of men," etc., where the entering is in the beginning of the chapter, her speech in the latter part of it.

Examples: "I see my words will not move you, but suppose some of your grave ancestors should thus speak to you : * Children, can we behold your manners without indig- nation, being full of pride, effeminateness, etc. ? ' If your ancestors were now alive and saw you abusing yourself in mis-spending your estate, by them providently gathered

394 PROSOPOPCEIA

together and conferred upon you, would they not say thus, etc. ? '*

Sir Phihp Sidney gives sense and speech to the needle and silk m Pamela's hands. John xxiv. 2;: ''Behold this stone shall be a witness unto us, for it hath heard all the words of the Lord which He hath spoken unto us." The olive tree will not leave his fatness nor the hg tree its sweetness: but it is the bramble that affects sovereignty and domination, a base, scratching, worthless, fruitless shrub, good for nothing but to stop grass and keep out beasts from spoiling pleasant fields.

An example of the simplest k'md of Prosopopceia, Demos- thenes' First Olynthiac, 2: "The present juncture, Athenians, all but proclahns aloud that you must yourselves take these matters in hand if you care for their success."

Example of a hypothetic jorjji, simply referring to the feelings of the dead, Demos, on the Emb. 66: "The ruin Avhich has fallen on the poor Phocians may be seen not only by these decrees, bu^ by what has actually been done— a shocking and pitiable spectacle, O Athenians! On our late journey to Delphi we were forced to see it all — houses razed to the ground, walls demolished, a country stripped of its population, a few women and little children and miserable old men. No language can come up to the wretchedness now existing there. I hear you all say that once this people gave the opposite vote to the Thebans on the question of enslaving us. How think ye then, O Athenians? Could your ancestors return to life, what vote or judgment would they pass upon you, the authors of this destruction? In my opinion, though they stoned with their own hands, they would consider themselves pure. For is it not disgraceful — is it not, if possible, worse than disgraceful — that people who had then saved us, who gave the vote for our preser- vation, should have met with an. opposite return through these men, and been suffered to incur greater misfortune than any Greeks ever knew? Who, then, is the author of them? Who was the deceiver? :^schines — who* but he?"

Another example of the hypothetcal form, see Demos, vs. Bceotus I, 31.

Blass gives the following from Demosthenes as an example of extraordinary richness in the form of Ethopceia and Proso- po'pceia, Demos, vs. Aristocrates, 210 : " These ^persons then become the heirs of your renown and your possessions; you have not the least enjoyment of them, but are witnesses of the prosperity of others, and come in for nothing but to be cheated. How deeply would be the groaning of those men who died for freedom and for glory, vv^ho left memorials of so many noble deeds, could they see that Athens has acquired the rank and style of a dependent, and is deli- •herating whether she must guard the person of Charidemus !

PROSOPOPQiIA. 395^

Charidemus ! alas the day!" See also Demos, vs. Apho- bus I. 69.

Take some examples from ^schines, who as an orator, Blass affirms, is, in these descriptive figures. Prosopopoeia, Ethopoeia, Diatyposis, etc., indubitably powerful and not less rich than Demosthenes.

Example from Mschines zvith Ethopoeia and Prosopopceiay vs. Timarchus, 71 : *' And yet you will presently see Hegesandrus and his brother leaping on to the platform here, and most vehemently and eloquently declaring that what I say is all nonsense. They will demand that I present witnesses to testify explicitly v,'here he did it, how he did it, or who saw him do it, or what sort of an act it was — a. shameless demand I think." Another from ^schines vs, Timarchus, 132: ''But in the course of the defence one of the generals will, as I am told, mount the platform, with head held high and a self-conscious air, as one who should say : ' Behold the graduate of the wrestling schools and the student of philosophy ! ' And he will undertake to throw ridicule upon the whole idea of the prosecution, asserting that this is no legal process that I have devised, but the first step in the dangerous decline in the culture of our youth. He* will cite first those benefactors of yours, Har- modius and Aristogeiton, describing their fidelity to one another and telling how in their case this relationship proved the salvation of the state."

An example of an excellent "Prosopopoeia from Mschines, as given by Blass, wherein he says it is the earlier great men of Athens whom the speaker summons before our eyes as his mediators, and after he has caused Solon and Aristides to speak, he adds more boldly (.^schines vs. Ctesiphon 259) : **And when at the close of this defence he calls on the accomplices of his corruption as his advocates, imagine that you behold in this gallery . . ."

Use : It may be used in any part of the speech. Volk- mann's /' Hermagoras " states: " Naturally the Prosopopoeia ma}/ also appear in other parts of the speech as well as in the Epilogue, as Demosthenes has done quite at the beginning of his first Olynthiac speech, where ' the frese^tt juncture all but proclaims aloud' speaks in person." Great av/e may also be connected with the figure Prosopopoeia, if one intro- duces the lifeless or dead as speaking and feeling among others. It serves to complain, to accuse, to reprehend, to confirm, to commend. The use ought to be rare ^nd then, v/hen the orator has spent the principal strength of his argu- ments. An imaginary speech is sometimes given to a person not specified, as " Somebody says " or " Somebody may say."

Caution-. Volkmann's " Hermagoras " cautions the follow- ing: ** Finally the person who speaks must always be kept

396 PROSOPOPCEIA

in view. What the orator says must always be suited to his personality. Particular care must therefore be taken in the preparation of Prosopopoeia, that is to say, of the speeches which are to be put in the mouth of a certain person, tq see how the historians used to deal with such person — a Caesar would persuade in one way, a Cicero in another, and again a Cato in another." Blass* " Demosthenes" observes that Demosthenes is, however, very careful and temperate in this respect. His personifications are for the most part exceedingly simple (see example, Olynthiac I. 2), and he only refers to the feelings of the dead in a hypothetical form. (See in examples, Boe. II. 31.) Thus it is in that magnificent passage of Aristocrates (see Arist. 210). But within these limits which moderation or restraint fixed for him, Demos- thenes develops extraordinary richness in the forms of Ethopoeia and Prosopopoeia.

Do not forget that the figure Prosopopoeia is chiefly used in the Epilogue, and wherever used it should be after the principal strength of the speaker's arguments has been spent.

In this figure it is allowable to bring down the gods from heaven and evoke the dead, and give cities and states voices. Combined with Hypotyposis, we pretend at times and v/ith good effect, that images of things and persons are before our eyes and their various sounds in our ears, and affect wonder that the same appearances are not per- ceptible to our opponents, or hearers, pr to the judges — £.g.y "It seems to me," or "Does it not seem to you? " Great power of eloquence is necessary for such efforts, for what is naturally fictitious and incredible must either make a stronger impression from being beyond the real or be regarded as nugatory from being unreal.

Delivery : As this figure is resorted to after the orator has spent the principal strength of his arguments, and is brought in t^ confirm and make mere evident his cause, also to minister pleasure to the hearer ; and further as great eloquence is necessary so that what is fictitious and incredible may make a stronger impression, the orator must deliver the emotions and passions which predominate at the moment in the tones and gestures that correspond to that emotion or passion, as such, says Aristotle, please the ear. In the Prosopopoeia which Cicero introduces after he had exhausted his argument in the natural way on the conspiracy of Cati- line, the passages: "For if my Country, which is dearer to me ... ," etc., roll on with intense Interrogatio, and -the Anaphora "who," "whom" are given the Emphatic Repetition. The Prosopopoeia of Truth, v/hich after being sufficiently praised, is feigned as a person complaining, supplicating (which takes a gentle and submissive tone), and in the accusing, reprehending, commending, confirming, .etc., with their corresponding tones and gestures. In a word.

PROTASIS— PROTHESIS—PROTROPE 397

the Prosopopoeia should be better both in delivery and phraseology than what precedes it on the particular point under treatment at the moment.

PROTASIS: Greek fro, forward; teinOy to hold, put, stretch; Protasis, that which is put forward, a premise, a proposition. In rhetoric it is, as Rossiter Johnson says, the" first clause or clauses of a sentence which usually set forth the conditions,, .limiting or defining the assertion or question which follows (which is the Apodosis) — e.g., "When the skies fall, we shall catch larks.'* When the skies jail is the Protasis. "If we run (Protasis), we shall be in time for the train (Apodosis).'*

Delivery : Takes the rising inflecton up to the point where the conditions or condition ends.

PROTHESIS : Greek pro, before; tithemi, to place, to set; to set before; is a form of speech used for setting forth a statement of what you are going to prove. It is the same as Propositio (which see), and the observation respecting delivery, etc., given under Propositio will equally apply to Prothesis. See also Thesis.

PROTROPE : Greek fro, forward; trepo, to turn, betake oneself, turn about ; rpeiro), to turn or urge forward, exhort to, persuade. It is a form of speech whereby the orator exhorts and persuades his hearers to do something.

Use : It is used to move, for when commanding cannot force nor promises allure, nor commination terrify, as alone by themselves working in their single strengths, yet exhorta- tion, having all these joined in it, and also sundry reasons of mighty power as helping hands to force and move the mind forward to a willing consent, prevails to the purpose.

Caution : Every exhortation or imperative mood is not an exhortation, as to say " Do this, do that, eschew evil and do good, seek peace and ensue it," etc., are not the forms ^f exhortation, but only bare commandments without any reason annexed, the authority of the commander excepted.

Example-. "Have respect and regard, Judges, what apper- tains to your name, estimation and safety of the common- wealth. Wherefore, Judges (Senate), look to yourselves, your wives, your children and goods, maintain and uphold the renown and safety of the Roman people." — Cicero. . Delivery : As this figure is the same, practically, as Piraineticon, the same remarks under said figui^e will apply here. Protrope with an entreaty, from i^schines versus Demosthenes: "Do not, I entreat you, in the name of Jupiter and of the other gods, Athenians, do not erect a trophy against yourselves in the theatre of Bacchus; do not .convict of mental aberration the Athenian people in the

398 PYSMA— RHETORIC

sight of all the Greeks. Do not remind the wretched Thebans of their desperate and incurable misfortunes, whom, when exiled by means of this man, you sheltered in your city ; whose temples, children, and monuments the corruption of Demosthenes and the king's gold have destroyed." This magnificent passage or Protrope of ^schines is delivered with the arm moderately stretched forth at the Apostrophe *' Athenians," the voice taking increased force, and tne follow- ing ** do nots " each are treated as an Emphatic Repetition, with a stroke o^ gesture on each one, the voice increasing in force, forming a climax, and falling into that most beautiful cadence with three accented generous feet, '* and the king's — gold — have destroyed. ' '

PYSMA : Is a figure whereby the orator demands many times or uses many questions in one place, by which he makes his speech very sharp and vehement. It differs from Erotesis, as that may be answered with one word either granting or denying, but Pysma requires many. It may also be dialogues displaying their interrogator^^ parts with communicatively pysmatic and sustentative flourishes.

Example : Cicero for Rosius : "In what place did he speak with them? With whom did he speak? Did he hire them? Whom did he hire and by whom ? Lo, with what end and how did he give them ? "

Use : This figure serves for complaining, for confirmations and the like. It is mighty to confirm, to confute, to provoke, to cause attention, to move affections^ to insult, etc.

Ca7ition : It should not be used to deceive the hearer by a multitude of questions, thereby to countenance falsehood and suppress truth, as does the fallacy or sophistry called Plures Interrogationes.

RHETORIC : Greek pew, to flow, flow of words, to stream; turos, voice clear, distinct; iureuo, to sing in a clear, piercing tone, or utter in a loud tone. In the literal sense, Rhetoric is a clear, smooth, flowing voice, and in this sense it may be considered that form in speaking; wherein the orator applies the smooth, clear, distinct voice, gliding like a stream;* 'but Rhetoric in its derived sense is the art which consists in a systematic use of the technical means of influencing the minds, imaginations, emotions and actions of others by the use of language. Skeat's Etymological Dictionary gives it as coming from rhetor, an orator, and meaning the art of speaking with propriety and elegance.

* Lady Astor. I\I. P., the first of her sex to enter Parliriment, unquestionably charmed the House by the rhetorical and rhythmical qualities : flow of speech and a c'ear, distinct voice :. as the following extracts from the PreKS testify ; "She has a clear, f^lensant vo/ce, and her elocution was so admirable that every word was audible in every part of the crowded House. There were some witty sallies and passionate appeals. When Lady Astor resumed her seat she received quite an ovation by the delighted House at her brilliant and incisive speech, finding expression in prolonged applause. A solitary woman in an assembly of men she achieved an unmistakable success." " She had no manuscript, only a few notes to which she referred from, time to time without a pause in the flow of her rhetoric,"

RHYTHMUS 399

RHYTHMUS : Greek pvOfio^ , measured motion, or time, or measured proportion ; pvOfil^o) , to set to time, bring into measure; pvTo^, flowing, running, liquid. It comes from the base Rheo, to flow, like the heating of the pulse, movement in time. Rhythm is a form of speech whereby the orator expresses his phrases, clauses, sentences or other expressions within certain lengths of time. Apart from lengths of timir, - meter requires times to be in a certain order, says Quintillian. Rhythm consists m having two parts equally balanced : the space from the raising of the voice to the lowering of it. Rhythm requires to be the same, and the rhythm flows on as it commenced as far as the Metabole or change to another kind of rhythm. The oratorical number, or rhythm, is the regular flow of a period. Vv^e come now to the third requisite in a speech, which Aristotle pronounces to be Rhythm. Cicero says: " The thunderbolts of Demosthenes would not have vibrated with so much force, if they had not been hurled and impelled by rhythm." Dionysius of Halicarnassus in " De Compositione " says that, in point of variety of rhythm, Herodotus, Plato, and Demosthenes hold the foremost place.

Saintsbury says: ''The first great instrument of rhythm is balance." Dionysius gives this example from vtschines' oration versus Demosthenes : ' ' You summon him against yourself, you summon him against the laws, you summoa him against democracy"; a sentence of great celebrity formed of three clauses which could have been embraced in one, as follows: "You summon him against yourself, and the laws, and democracy"; but which has been divided into three clauses, the same expression being repeated not from any necessity but in order to make the rhythm more agreeable. Thus may clauses be expanded.

We will now consider a few remarks by some of the prin- vcipal authors on Rhythmus.

Aristotle: Style must have rhythm but not meter, for meter has not persuasive efficacy since it appears to have been " got up," and at the same time draws off the atten- tion, for it causes one to fix his attention on similarities of cadence when they recur. The -pceon is for oratory, because meter cannot be constructed out of it; therefore, the orator will elude detection in employing it. There are two sorts of paeons the orator employs; one is for opening, which consists of one long syllable and three short ones, — w v^ w ; and one for concluding, which consists of three short syllables and one long, www — , without discrimination, and measures out the periods of his

Cicero : The unpractised speaker pours forth all he can speech not with art, but by the power of his breath; but the orator clothes his thoughts m such a manner as to com- prise them in a flow of numbers, at once confined to measure yet free from restraint; for after restricting it to proper

400 RHYTHMUS

modulation and structure, he gives it an ease and freedonx by a variety in the flow, so that the words are neither bound by strict laws as those of verse, nor yet have such a degree of liberty as to wander without control. Oratorical numbers : (Poetry cannot be constructed above three feet, above this oratory goes, and is therefore called oratorical numbers). Do not let the paeon or heroic feet alarm you, they will naturally come into your phrases; they will, I say, offer themselves, and will answer without being called; only let it be your care and practice, bbth m writmg and speaking, that your sentences be concluded with verbs and that your sentences commence with mmibers that are long and free, especially the heroic feet, the first paeon — ^ ^ ^ or the cretic — ^ — , but let the cadence be varied and diversified, for it is in the conclusion of sentences that sameness is chiefly- noticed, and if these measures are observed at the beginning and at the conclusion of sentences, the intermediate numbers may be disregarded ; only let the compass of your sentence not be shorter than the ear expects, nor longer than your strength or breath will allov/. For the two or three feet towards the conclusion are to be marked and noted, and these last feet ought to be either troches — w or heroic feet, or those feet used alternately, or to consist of the latter fcBon wow — , which Aristotle approves, or what is equal to it, a cretic — ^ — . The interchange of these feet will have the good effect that the audience will not be tired by an offensive sameness, and that we shall not appear to make similar endings on purpose. All people are moved,, even the illiterate, by words artfully arranged, and by numbers and sounds of the voice. An illiterate man judges and admires a picture but cannot make it.

Quintillian : Oratorical number or. rhythm is the regular flow of a period. Commencing periods : The end of verses are suitable for commencing periods, not the beginnmg of a verse. Long syllables have impressiveness and weight; short ones are for lightness; short ones with long ones, run; feet that rise from short to Icng w — are more spirited; from long to short — ^ are more gentle. Long feet are for commencing with, as something of a similarity to parti- tion which requires speed, but we may sometimes very properly commence with a short syllable. (Saintsbury s;ivs that the beginning foot summons the attention.) Rush, also Fulton and Trueblood, call a one-syllable word a Monad cadence, which is not the best — e.g., " My answer would be a blow.'' Duad cadence, with trochee: "They all fired at r6Z72-dom." Iambic duad: "Let me not hinder, Cassius, your de-j-i;-^." Triad cadence or molossus, three long syllables: "Ah, good painter, you caii' t paint sound.'' A Dactylic triad: "The feast was boun-\\-i\A." Tetrad:

RHYTHMUS 401

** The work was done ieau~ti-iul-\y.'* The Pentad: ** He was prompted by pure dis-^Vter-est-ed-ness." The long syllables are italicised, the others are short. The Tetrad and Pentad do not make good cadences. Hervey says very long words do not conclude well, nor those with very short syllables, as " particularly," nor should adverbs and prepositions be used for a close, as ** of, to, from, by, with*'; simple verbs are better than compounds to terminate members and sentences, as not "bring about," ** come up " ; use instead thereto, therein, therewith, at the close of mem- bers, etc. If four or five shorts succeed each other, put in a long one, thus: " how-much-soever." A good cadence is made by a long and liquid monosyllable, as ease, same, shine, etc. It is not necessary, says Quintillian, to take into account more than three feet from the end as the result will be measure and not number, or fewer than two. Cicera gives also three "dissyllabic" feet from "the end," but not more thaa;! two trisyllabic. Quintillian now takes up the best feet with which to close a period. One concluding foot may be a Dichoreus, that is a double trochee (ditrochee)

— ^ — vj or a pason (trochee and pyrrhic) — ^ w ^ (may be the second paeon ^ — ^ ^ or the third ^ ^ — S) or it may be the proper one ^ ^ ^ — ; or it may be a Dochmius, which is formed of a bacchiu^ — — ^ and an iambic ^ — , or formed of an iambic ^ — and a cretic

— ^ — , which is a firm and grave foot for the close of a period. Cicero regards the pason and dochmius, which are four and five, as numbers and not feet, and states that there should not be more than one dochmius in the con- cluding feet because it would make the close too numerous.

Quintillain closes by saying do not give too much atten- tion to feet, as it cools the ardour; practise writing, observ- ing due numbers, which will enable us to pour them forth in a similar manner extemporaneously. It is not so much the feet as the general -flow of composition that is wanted. The ear must be the judge. Pauses have great effect in oratory, the ear must regulate them. Many things cannot be taught by rule. Why they are harsh, the ear still must tell. In a few words he says : Rhythm of Language : What is sublime should march majestically; calm, advance leisurely ; is spirited, should run ; and what is tender should flow. The care is great, but that which is devoted to thought and delivery is greater. But all our care must be dilip-ently concealed in order that our numbers may seem; to flow from us spontaneously and not to be forced or studied.

The following table and remarks are from John Mason : The generous feet are : Iambic v — , Spondee — — ,. Anapaest ^ w — , Cretic — ^ — , and Molossus .

402 RHYTHMUS

The baser feet, i.e. low and feeble, are: Pyrrhic w w, Trochee — w , Tribrach w w ^ , Dactyl — w ^,, Amphi- brach ^ — w . The Dactyl is a grave and venerable foot when joined to the Spondee.

Pyrrhic Trochee Tribrach Amphibrach Dactyl

titi tumti tititi titumti tumtiti

Palimbacchi

tumtumti The Generous feet in this order : Cretic Iambic Spondee Bacchic Molossus Anapaest

tumtitum titum tumtum titumtum tumtumtum tititum

A good style is both expressive and harmonious, the former depending upon happy choice of words to convey our ideas; the latter upon a happy choice of numbers in the disposition of our words. Every sentence has a distinct and separate clause, and every clause where there is an apparent cessation of the voice should always end with a generous foot.

Of the Mason rules I cite the following as of great interest. Rule VIII. Let your first care be a clear and strong expres- sion of sentiment, what is rough and harsh can be rectified afterwards. Rule II. When four or five or more short syllables come together, part them by inserting a particle containing a long quantity. Rule III. An ellipsis will often help the rhythm, as 'tis, don't, also some words can be left out providing no weakening or obscuring of the sense occurs, i.e., "that" or "the" — ^-g-y "I see nothing can be done to save either — man or horse." Rule X. This art of all others requires the greatest art to conceal it. An orator will certainly miss his aim if his hearers once suspect that by bribing their ears he means to make his way to their hearts. Besides, a good skill in the principles of numerous structure opens to us one chief source of that pleasure which in the style of a well-composed piece we have often tasted, but never knew before whence it sprung. Rule IV. The last syllable, being common, is often neg- lected and made no account of, especially if it be naturally short, and serves only to give a grace or flourish to the. preceding long one.

The following is worthy of notice on Rhythm, taken from " De Comp. et de Metris Oratoris — Versus Rufini : "There was at one time a dispute or debate as to what difference there was between the orator and the poet, as they both appeared in number and verse; now among orators, number itself has become strong. However it may be, it falls under some measure of the ear, even it is different from verse — for verse is, indeed, a defect in oratory — it is called number what the Greeks styled rhythm. Orat. paragraph 66."

RHYTHMUS 403

Joshua Steele says, respecting Rhythmus, that the swing of the arm and other such motions made by pubhc speakers, are derived from their instinctive sense of rhythm, and are in effect beating time to their orations. Also' cursing, swear- ing and many other unmeaning words so frequently inter- woven in common discourse are merely expletives to fill the measure and to round each rhythmical period. The ** walk- ing measure y*^ Steele says, is firnty slow and uniformly loud. He illustrates it with these lines from Demosthenes (the walking measure meaning that the duration of the whole quantity of syllables and pauses contained withm two bars. or vertical lines should be equal to the time of making one step of walking, which admits of the varieties of flow, ordinary and quick walking : the next degree above which velocity is the running measure) :

" And I now M if | ever we | stood in | need | of mature | dte-li-be | ra-ti-on and j counsel, | .•'i the | present | juncture | . calls I loudly | for them ; | "i *1 we must be [ careful | not to drive | those to ex | tre-mi-ties | 1 who are | now as \ sem- bled I " and | call them | selves | 1 the | council | *1 of am | phycty I ons.*'

All discourse delivered to large audiences should be deliberate (largo e sostenuto) and the sound of each syllable as to loudness, continued uniformly audible to its just length or quantity. They should be supported to the full extent of their proper quantity with nearly a uniform strength of voice, and not dying away or interrupted by rests after every syllable as if they were sighed out. There is a per- fection in the pronunciation of the best speakers (which was remarkable in the late Mrs. Cibber, and is the fame in Garrick) : they are distinctly heard even in the softest sound of their voices; when others are scarcely intelligible though offensively loud. This essential quality is chiefly owing to the speakers dwelling with nearly uniform loudness on the whole length of every syllable, and .to confining the extent of the acute and grave accents within the compass of fozir or five notes; and also in adopting in general a deliberate instead of a rapid measure. For if a person pro- nounces from six to nine syllables in a second of time, as many people do, an auditor must be extremely rapid, quick and attentive to be able to keep up with so rapid an utter- ance. But good speakers do not pronounce above three syllables in a second and generally only two and a half, taking in the pauses.

Walker, in his *' Elements of Elocution " respecting^ Rhythm, says that liarmonious prose resolves itself into an arrangement of accented syllables somewhat similar to versi-

404 RHYTHMUS

fication. The return of the accented syllable at certain intervals seems the common definition— ^.^., "We hear at the distance but a faint echo of that thunder in Demosthenes, which shook the throne of Macedon to its foundation; and are sometimes at a loss for that conv^iction in the arguments of Cicero, which balanced in the midst of convulsions the tottering Republic of Rome." In the latter part of this sentence we find the accented syllable at exactly equal inter- vals from the word "sometimes" to the word "midst."

The conclusion of Cicero's celebrated book, " De Oratore,'* is thus :

" The best orator . . . who is master of this Shall gain much greater applause," should be pronounced with a harmonious cadence, the word "this" must have a rising inflection as at the end of the first line of a couplet, and "much greater applause" from the last of the second line. The rule therefore is this : When the last member ends with four accented words they are pro- nounced in this order of inflection : falling, rising, rising, jalli7ig ; and if of three accented words thus : falling, rising, falling, or rising, rising, falling. Thus in the case of the four accented words, the cadence or rhythm is like the last ' line in this couplet :

" A brave man struggling in the storm of fate And greatly falling with a falling state." This is called Harmonic Inflection (see Emphasis). And if there are three accented syllables, or words, such arrangement ought to be adopted as to give the last a falling, the penultimate a rising, and the antepenultimate either a rising or falling inflection. Three accented words will be enough to form a cadence. The foregoing demonstrates how the rhythm of a cadence is to be delivered, that cadence which comes at the end of a sentence so necessary to gratify the ear of the hearer. In addition to the harmonic or rhythmic inflection, there is. the gradual fall of the voice into repose.

James Rush in his " Philosophy of the Human Voicfc " says, respecting Rhythmus : _" The ear is cognizant of two kinds of proportions in the successions of sound : one embraces the relationship of force, the other the durations . The ear is pleased with varied percussions and durations within symmetrical arrangements. The most impressive means of expressive intonation consists in the extended time of syllabic utterance, a quality which Rush says he noted in listening to Mrs. Siddons. A person with a quick poetical ear and a free command of language will find no difficulty in carrying on for any duration an extempore rhythmus of mere unrelated words or phrases. Besides the variety and impressiveness thus arising from stress and quan-

RHYTHMUS 405

tity, the rhythmic effect is further diversified by including one or more accentual sections (which contain the accented syllable) from one to five syllables, and these within the boundaries of pauses, called Pausal Sections^ which contain irom one to twenty syllables."

George Saint sbury, in his '* History of English Prose- Rhythm," says: In Pure Prose highly Rhythmed, instead of sameness, equivalence and recurrence, the central idea turns on difference^ inequality and variety. William Tyndale founded the rhythm and cadence of the English Bible. Tyndale saw the advantage given by the Greek pronoun and grasped it; "Him that is weak in the faith receive unto you." (This Greek pronoun Daniel Webster employed to such great effect in his ** Bunker Hill " oration : " Him! the premature victim of his own self-devoting heart! Him ! the head of our civil councils . . . Him ! cut off by Providence . . .") The Rhythmic sweep, the balance or parallelism, is widened, softened, and moulded out into ^reat undulating sweeps of phrases, rising, hovering, descending with a wing-like motion. A sort of keynote or dominant of the music is taken. The Rhythm swells out into paeons, and some Dochmiacs. This foot often has the quivering straightness and onset of a lance in rest at charge. X)ochmiacs (five syllables) make good passages, also fine and good rhythm. We take a few of the 43 rules, axioms, etc., of Saintsbury, which are so important: (i) Rhythm of prose, like meter of verse, can be expressed in the foot system or a system of mathematical combinations of *' long" snd "short" syllables. (11) Monosyllable feet are of extreme importance as -pivots for the turn, and stepping- stones in the progress of English prose rhythm. (14) The beginning is of great importance in summoning special attention. (15) Neglect of the middle will deprive the structure of all claim to really numerous. (24) Sentences or clauses follow in succession to each other, drawing them- selves out, or shutting themselves up like slides of a tele- scope, like a flight of steps ascending or descending. (25) These arrangements are specially prominent in what is called the balanced style; in which pairs or batches of clauses and sentences are aligned and opposed to each other with anti- thetic and even antiphonic effect. (40) In harmonious passages, especially of an emotional kind, a foot which may be in most cases either ionic a minore ^ ^ — — or third paeon ^^ w — ^ is present so frequently that it seems to be almost a specific. Cicero says: "There is in speaking a kind of underhum of song." Do not slur over feet as some orators do, so as to hurry on the emphatic word, upon which they pounce. Give each foot its full measure. The chief touchstone of composition is the ear, both of

406 RHYTHMUS

selection of single words and ordonnance of phrases. It is impossible to render an exact reason why one , thing is right and another wrong. It is so: and there's an end on't." — Saintsbury.

Chatham held cadence no trifling thing, for an orderly and sweet sentence by gaming our ear conciliates our affections.

James Harris, in his " Philological Inquiries," says that syllabic quantity is more often determined by accent, it being enough to make a syllable long if it be accented, and short if it be unaccented, whatever may be the position of any subsequent consonants. The two paeons and the cretic may

— w W w _ w-

be called the feet for prose — e.g.. Beauty may be — lost may

be for — years out-lived — ; but virtue remains the same, till life itself — is at an end.

William Russell says that Rhythm implies a just observ- ance of pauses whether marked in punctuation or not, and these pauses become like rests in music, portions of the measure or rhythm. It is the last mentioned effect which renders rhythm so important to an easy, fluent and natural use of the voice. It is the time of regularly recurring and exactly proportioned pauses, or regular returning quantity,, accent and p^use in the successive sounds of the voice — abrupt elements thereby being skilfully avoided, and the coincidence of emphasis with mutable and indefinite quanti- ties; but more particularly the exact timing or recurrence of accents at the end of clauses, and in the cadence of sen- tences, as these places are particularly adapted to sounds intended for effect on the ear. Some readers err on the extreme of marking time too prominently, and with a jerking accent, which offends the ear. A delicate marking of rhythm is a genuine grace of cultivated elocution in the language of oratory or of sentiment. Rhythm imparts a smooth, agree- able and symmetrical effect to the voice; ' it prescribes and facilitates a regular and easy breathing] it enables the reader or speaker to pronounce the successive clauses of every sen- tence with a regulated, easy, fluent style of accent, which renders the effort of utterance comparatively light; it pro- motes tranquility of the emotions, saves his own organic strength, and gives forth his language with a harmonious and pleasing effect to the ears of others. Every accented syllable in elocution is equivalent to the beginning of a bar in music, and may be so marked; the rule for marking is simply place a bar before every accented syllable wherever found, and before every pause. Every accented monosyllable in elocutionary rhythm constitutes a bar. The initial rest represents the slight interval between the first bar and the preceding utterance, whatever that may be — e.g., \

" Pro I crasti I nation I 1 is the | thief 1 1 of time. I "

RHYTHMUS 407

i

Genung-, in *' The Working Principles of Rhetoric,** says that Rhythm, of Prose is the natural flow, the melodious flow of eloquent or well ordered speech. Rhythm has no tair opportunity in a short sentence, such as concentrates its power in a single word; it calls rather for some roll and richness of movement, and for the balance of clause and— clause. Special care must be given to the treatment of mono- syllables in order to avoid the unwieldy congested effect of tumbling accented or weighty words in heaps together — e.g., ** Good Lord give us bread now ** : all the words but "us" are emphatic, and the enumeration is heavy. FoLy- syllables with their alternation of accented and obscure (unaccented) sounds, are! the *' phrases of nature's own making,*' and for this reason are very useful in the varied web of rhythm.

We come now to one of the greatest and most essential parts of Rhythm, which is Pause. Genung says one of the most important principles coming into prosody from the rhythm of music is that the Pause must be reckoned with. It has a distinctive value expressed in silence; in other words, while the voice is waiting, the music of the movement is going on. (See Fig. Pause.)

The Right Hon. John Bright was regarded as the greatest orator of the Victorian Age. Lord Salisbury said he was ** the greatest master of English oratory that this generation has produced, or I may say several generations back." ** The greatest English master of the oratory of sentiment,** writes C. A. Vance, *-* his chief artistic inspiration lay in his sense for the value of words and for the rhythm of words and sentences. His invariable quality is the choice of the right word or run of words : ' A small but extdtant voice within me tells me that I shall not appeal m vam,' * This incapable and guilty administration,^ ' Angel of Death,' 'The beating of his wings'; Bright could no more have said * flapping,' as Trevelyan in his ' Life of John Bright * observes, than Mr. Gladstone could have made a false quantity." " No orator excelled him in rhythm," says Vance in his " Bright's Oratory." Bright was a popular orator, " although he would often use a Latin word for the sake of sound or rhythm." He would say constantly trepi- dation, profligate, decorous, -penurious, eradicate, assembly where he might, except for sound or dignity, have said "' fear," " wicked," ;' seemly," " stmgy,** '' uproot,*' *' meeting." The italicised words are rhythmical words in the use of which John Bright and the great American orator, Daniel Webster, were similar; of the latter, Genung cites from the ''Bunker Hill Oration" some of the following rhythmical words : venerable, bounteously, behold, metro- polis, unutterable, combat, ere, slu7nber, strife, gloom.

408 -" RHYTHMUS

endure; rhythmical constructions : venerable men, former generation^ ri^r of hostile cannon, heights of yonder metro- polis, your country* s means of distinction and defence, ere you slumber in the grave, this monument may moulder away ; and the constant balancing of elements, as : the head of our civil council and the destined^ leader of our military bands. Vance says that instead of these rhythmical words : con- federation, main, freedom, refuge, race, clii7ie, try the effect that these words would have in their place : cqnfederacy , ocean, liberty, asylum, nation, climate, in Bright's memor- able passage on America: "I cannot believe that civilisation in its journey with the sun will sink into endless night in order to gratify the ambition of these men, who seek to- * wade through slaughter to a throne and shut the gates of mercy on mankind.' I have another and far brighter vision before my eyes. It may be a vision, but I will cherish it. I see one vast confederation, stretching from the frozen North to the South, and from the wild billows of the Atlantic westward to the calmer waters of tl;ie Pacific main; and I see one people, and one faith, and over all that wide continent the home of freedom and a refuge for the oppressed of every race and of every clime." One realises how much of the beauty of these fine passages is. due to the artful disposition of the accents and of the long vowel sounds. Bright's reputation as tHe greatest English- master of oratory of sentiment may confidently be staked upon the last few sentences of this speech, sentences pure and unlaboured in diction, majestic in rhythm. " Bright spoke very slowly," says the Rt. Hon. George Russell, who heard him. '* It was extremely effective because it conveyed- the impression of considered judgment and profound con- viction." Sir Wilfrid Lawson says: "A five-syllable word always fetches John Bull. There is nothmg like a five- syllable word. Lord Beaconsfield knew that. Whenever any one proposed reform, he said, * We will not Americanise our institution,' and everybody went away and said * We will not be Americanised.' If anybody proposed to make peace without afdding a great deal of blood, they were asked, ' Will you submit to the humiliation of the Empire ? ' and everybody said 'We don't want to be humiliated.' " The charm of the five-syllable word (the Dx>chmiac foot) is highly rhythmical, and is why it fascinates in an oration, mixed, however, with short or monosyllabic words.. Vance adds the following respecting Bright's cadences: ** To one who has caug-ht the suavity of Bright's cadences, the accents of Macaulay sound like the stroke of a blacksmith's hammer, the sentences of Burke strike the ear like the tramp of a regiment, and the periods of Fox or Gladstone like the, tumult of a hurrying crowd."

RHYTHMUS 409

Delivery. From ''The Speaking Voice'' by Behnke: "" When the rhythmical stress or beat does not fall on alternate syllables, but is divided by two or three small syllables or unimportant words, they are said quickly, and thus the swing of the rhythmical pendulum is evenly maintained. If on the contrary, the rhythmical word or syllable is not., followed by one or more short syllables, but a word which, from the sense of the passage, requires more stress, a pause is made between these two words equivalent to the short beat ; or the vowel quality of one or both words is slightly prolonged, and thus the time is made up. On this point of the right maintenance of rhythm, even in rapid passages, G. H. Lewis wrote as follows : * No sooner have they (actors) to express excitement or emotion of any kind, than they seem to lose all mastery over the rhythm and cadence of their speech. Let them study great speakers, and they will find that in passages which seem rapid there is a measured rhythm, and that even in the whirlwind of passion there is strict regard to ** tempo" as in passionate music* Uni- versal as is rhythm in speech, a number of persons trans- gress its rules as soon as they commence to speak or read in public. Light syllables are strongly marked and heavy ones passed over lightly. Long vowels are pronounced short, and short ones are drawled out. Ihese errors give an artificiality to the language used, which is an offence against good taste. The more natural and flowing the diction, the more evenly and regularly falls that pulsation to which the name of * Rhythm ' is now usually applied. It is the ever-recurring action and reaction, the long and short, the heavy and the light syllable, which constitutes the measure of all speech. Almost every sentence has, or should have, a different keynote; and every note or cadence should bear its proper relation to the keynote, as in a musical composition."

S. S. Curry in '^Mind and Voice" says: '^When the rhythm of speaking is easy and natural, it co-ordinates with the rhythm of breathing in life; but whenever there is con- fusion one interferes with the other, sore throat and all sorts of injuries to health result." In his other work, titled '* Vocal Expression," he further says under the subject of pausing : " As the mind thinks by pulsation, by rhythmic leaps, by action and reaction, so speech must have the sanve characteristics." He cites in illustration ot these pulsations, the action of a water beetle in propelling itself after pausing. Russell says that flowing speech causes thought to glide into the mind.

If we wish to express many attractive things, we make many spheroidal gestures. What is called the culminating point of a gesture must not be forgotten. This is a ring

410 RHYTHMUS

in the form of the last stroke of the German letter iJ, which is made by a quick, electric movement of the wrist,

" Rhythm causes thoughts to flow freely into the mind.'' G. Bower Codling, in his " Public Speaker's Training Course,'' gives the pausing and phrasing m the following: —

"It is natural | in every man | to wish distinction; I| and the praise of those who can confer honour | by their praise, |1 is, I m spite of all false philosophy, | sweet to every human heart; || but, |1 as eminence can be only the lot of few, |i patience of obscurity is a duty, | which we owe not more to our own happiness, | than to the quiet of the world at large. ||1! Give a loose, | if you are young and ambitious, | to that spirit which throbs within you; || measure yourself with your equals; || and learn, | from frequent competition, | the place which nature has allotted to you; i| make of it no mean | battle, | but strive hard, ||| strengthen your soul | to the search of Truth, ll and follow that spectre of Excellence j which beckons you on, || beyond the walls of the world, |! to something better | than man has yet done. |il| It may be I you shall burst out into light and glory | at the last ; | but, I if frequent failure | convince you of that mediocrity | of nature which is incompatible with great actions, |i submit wisely [ and cheerfully | to your lot; || let no mean spirit of revenge |i tempt you to throw off your loyalty to your country, ||| and to prefer a vicious | celebrity | to obscurity | crowned by piety and virtue. ||| If you can throw new light upon moral truth, | or, | by any exertions, | multiply the comforts | or confirm the happiness | of mankind, || this fame | guides you to the true ends of your nature; || but, | in the name of Heaven, | as you tremble at retributive justice; || and in the name of mankind, | if mankind be dear to you, I seek not that easy and accursed fame which is gathered in the work of revolutions : || and deem it better to be for ever unknown, || than to found a momentary name | upon the basis cf anarchy | and irreligion." — " Means of Acquiring Distinction," Sydney Smith.

In resumen : Rhythm is timed movement of sound, accelerated or retarded according to sentiment or emotion; and we close with these observations : The cadence is a gradual falling into repose at the end of a sentence or period.. To be perfect it should have three accented syllables with a gradual fall on each one. The retardation is graduated to the amount of preparation or acceleration that has been made for it. In general, where a sentence does not seem to sound alright, a reduction of it to feet will often disclose where the harshness is, and will enable one to give it smoothly and satisfactorily to the ear. Pause after an accentual group (very slight, imperceptible) ; pause after a pausal section (rhythmical pause, taking up to 20

SARCASMUS— SCEMATISMUS 41 1

syllables); pause, to some length, after a sentence or period ^ and, as Walker says, to speak or read well one must pause on an average after every fifth or sixth word. Public speaking requires pausing much oftener than conversing in private.

SARCASMUS : Greek ' sarkazo, ty rend off ilesh like dogs, to bite the lips in rage, to sneer; sarx^ flesh. Is a form of speech by which a bitter kind of taunt or derision is made, most commonly used of an enemy. Sarcasm is vituperation softened in the outward expression, says Bain, by the arts and figures of disguise — epigram, innuendo, irony — and embellished by the figures of illustration. There is irony amounting to sarcasm m Locke's remark upon Aris- totelian logic: ''God did not make man, and leave it to Aristotle to make him rational.*'

Examples : The Duke of Saxon, captured in war, was a fat, large, corpulent man. The Emperor, after having seen the prisoners, said to those about him: ** I have gone hunting many times, yet never took I such a swine before.*' ** Behold the dreamer comcth." " How glorious was the King of Israel to-day! " — that is, how contemptible and inglorious. ** He saved others, himself cannot save."

Delivery : This is the bitterest irony, and has a guttural aspirating tone, compound stress, which see under Emphasis, also, the unequal wave; the falling inflection is prevalent. No stress or emphasis suits this figure better than the double- faced stress of the compound.

Use : The most lawful use of this trope is to repress proud folly, wicked intolerance, pride and rudeness.

Caution : It should not be used without some great cause deserving it, as arrogance, shameful lechery, ridiculous avarice, etc.

SCEMATISMUS: Greek skeptomai, to look about, look carefully at, consider; skemmatos, a subject for reflection; is a form of speech whereby the orator propounds his meaning by a circuity of speech, in which he would have it understood by a certain suspicion what he does not say, for three causes, (i) Safety's sake, as when it is dangerous to speak directly and openly. (2) For Modesty and good manners' sake— 2.^., when it is indecent to speak plainly. (3) For Delectation's sake and grace of the hearer, as v/hen it may be a greater delight under this figure than by the plain report and open show. In the (i) the orator may use two matters : (a) by reproving another person as a ruler, king, tyrant, etc., in whom the same evils are or were while he lived ; (b) by commending such persons in whom the contraries are. An evil man, hearing their praises, is

412 SERMOCINATIO

moved in mind and begins to covet commendation and- praise. Modesty's sake-. "Whose aunt was delighted vv^ith daily marriages '* means " an unchaste life."

SERMOCINATIO : Latin sennocinare, to talk, to dis- course; is a form of speech whereby the orator feigns a person and makes him speak much or little according to comeliness; much like Prosopopoeia; but in Sermocinatio the orator answers now and then the questions which the feigned person propounds to him. Webster defines Sermo- cination as a form of Prosopopoeia in which the speaker answers his. own question or remarks immediately.

Examples : The practice of questioning and answering to oneself is generally pleasing — e.g.^ Cicero: "Before whom then do I say this ? Before him assuredly, who at a time when he had a full knowledge of what I have just said ..." Another mode: Cicero: ^^ Some one will say, is this your moral discipline ? Do you thiis instruct your youth ? If, judges, if any man was ever of such strength of mind," etc., etc. Another method-. " Was a house wanting to you? but you had one. Was ready money superabundant with you? but you were in want." In the foregoing you immedi- ately give the answer.

-^schines vs. Demosthenes: "Shall not the senate of the Areopagus therefore receive a crown? No — for it is not usual for them (to do so). Are they not ambitious o^ honour? Certainly; but they are not satisfied merely that no one should commit a fault amongst them, but, if any person is culpable, they punish him . . . O Hercules ! any one may say, ' Shall I not leave the country, because 1 have been a magistrate ? * No ! lest after becoming a defaulter respecting the property or service of the state, you should have recourse to flight."

Demosthenes vs. ..^schines : "... but if I, as a senator, thought it necessary to introduce the ambassadors, he inveighs against me for this. What was right that I should do? Was I to move that those should not be introduced who came for this purpose, that they may confer with you? or to order the architect not to give them seats in the theatre? They might have purchased seats for two oboli, if this decree had not been proposed. Was it necessary that I should guard the trifling interests of the state, and sell its main interests to Philip, as this man did? Certainly not. Take and read this decree for me ..."

Henry Clay on the Seminole War: "How, I ask, did they come into our possession ? Was it in the course of fair, and open, and honourable war? No; but by means of deception — by hoisting foreign colours on a staff from which the stars and stripes should alone have floated. Thus

SERMOCINATIO 413

ensnared, the Indians were taken on shore; and without ceremony, and without delay, were hung. When did this humane custom, by which, in consideration of their ignor- ance, and our enlightened condition, the rigours of war were mitigated, begin ? At a time when we were weak and they comparatively strong; v/hen we were seeking, from the vices, from the corruptions, from the religious intolerance, and from the oppressions of Europe, to gain an asylum among them. And when is it proposed to change this custom, to substitute for it the bloody maxims of barbarous ages, and to interpolate the Indian public law with revolting cruelties ? At a time when the situation ot the two parties is totally changed — when we are powerful and they are weak — at a time when, to use a figure drawn from their own sublime eloquence, the poor children of the forest have been driven by the great wave which has flowed from the Atlantic Ocean almost to the base of the Rocky Mountains, and, overwhelming them in its terrible progress, has left no other remains of hundreds of tribes, now extinct, than those which indicate the remote existence of their former companion, the mammoth of the new world! "

Use : It serves to complain, to reprove, to confute, to excuse, to teach, to describe the nature or properties of a particular person.

Caution : It is necessary that the words be agreeable to the person feigned and not otherwise than he would use, also to consider the circumstances both of person and things, their estate, condition, kind, age, disposition, manners, place, time, etc. Cicero, in this respect, was mar- vellously cunning 4nd most artful. He brought in Milo speaking valiantly, Anthony arrogantly, Nenius wickedly, Erutius impudently; ever framing their speech according to their nature.

Sermocinatio being one of Henry Clay's special figures, we v/ill pause to consider him from an oratorical standpoint at this juncture.

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HIS ORATORY, DELIVERY, AND SOME NOTES FROM EMINENT CONTEMPORARY AND SUB- SEQUENT CRITICS.

Henry Clay, the great Kentuckian, for nearly half a cen- tury held the attention of the American people by the majesty of his eloquence. Perhaps no voice ever raised on the American continent was so musical, so magical, so mar- vellous. He held the highest positions in the gift of his countrymen, excepting the Presidency, but he was twice nominated for this: first, in 1832, and was defeated by Jackson; second, in 1844, when he was beaten by Polk of Tennessee, partly on account of his opposition to the annexation of Texas, which he held would bring about a war with Mexico and possibly friction with the Latin Republics, also an extension of slavery witli all its evils. His defeat in '44 was a great disappointment, but Clay bore it well, and uttered that famous expression which has become proverbial in America as the synonym of the highest political ethics : " I would rather be right than be President." As to whether Clay was right, these facts speak for themselves : Texas was annexed, war took place with Mexico; Mexico not only lost Texas, but New Mexico arid California; hence the present Mexican antipathy and of the expectativeness, jeahousy and mistrust of the Latin States towards the Great Republic; slavery was extended, together with its evils, to such an extent, that on account of it in the '6o's the United States of America was nearly destroyed.

*' Clay is a tall 7na?iy six feet and o?ie inchy not stout but the opposite; always erect in standing, walking or talking; in debate still m.ore erect. The temperament of Mr. Clay is sanguineous and mercurial, susceptible of quick, and in the presence of powerful causes, of high excitement. This constitutional excitability in Mr. Clay has always been with him a severe test of the power of self-government. (See Clay's Apostrophe to Calhoun, remarks by Oliver Dyer.) Clay's Wonderfully Modulated Voice.

" TAe voice qi Mr. Clay has been one of great melody, compass and power. With a foundation of low basSy deep and strong, it has been capable of rising to the sharp falsetto y ever}/ note in the scale, musical and far-reaching. Within this compass lies the power of expressing all human feelings and passions. In regard to the modulation of his voice for oratorical purposes, instructed by nature rather than by art, and employing his vocal powers chiefly for the practical uses of society, of the forum, and -of public debates, Mr. Clay has always escaped the vices of tuiie and song.

HENRY CI.AY.

Principal Forms of Oratorical Expression used by Mr. Clay. His master- figures are those in italics :

Anaphora, Apostrophe, Asteisnius, Apodixis, Asyndeton, Epagoge, Eperotesis, Ethos, Exordium, Parenthesis, Pathos, Pause, Periodicity, Sarcasnius, Scrmocinatio.

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Hence his elocution has been felt to be natural, and has consequently been effective. But the attributes of Mr. Clay's eloquence extend to a wider range than his voice. His person, tall, erect, commanding; his countenance as well as his voice, capable of expressing every feeling and passion of the human soul, pleasure or pain, satisfaction or discon- tent, hope or fear, desire or aversion, complaisance or con- tempt, love or hatred, joy or grief, ecstacy or anguish, valour or cowardice, kindness or cruelty, pity or revenge, resolution or despair; his large mouth and swollen upper lip working quietly or in agony as occasion requires; his eye resting in calmness or beaming with lively emotion or sparklmg with strong feeling, or flashing with high passion like the thunder- bolts of heaven in the darkness of the storm. His Gestures and Attributes.

** His arms now hanging easy by his side, now out- stretched, now uplifted, now wavii^g with grave, or striking with the vehemence of passion; his finger pointing where his piercing thoughts direct; the easy or quiet or violent movements of his whole frame; the bending of his body forward or sidewise or backward ; the downward or upward look ; the composed or suffused or impassioned countenance ; the watchful, shifting glances taking in the field of vision and making one feel that he is seen or individually addressed; the theme; himself; his audience; his fame; his position on the subject in debate or under discussion; his relation to the assembly or body before him; the respect and esteem in which he is held by them ; his dignity, courtesy, deference; his disinterestedness, his philanthropy; his patriotism — all these and many others that might be named are among the attributes of Mr. Clay's eloquence, and appertain to that accumulation and concentration of influ- ences which have given his popular harangues, his forensic efforts, his various public addresses and his parliamentary speeches so much power over the minds, the hearts and actions of his countrymen.

** In a conversation between the author and Mr. Clay about his reply to Mr. Rives of Virginia, August lo, 1841, touch- ing Mr. Tyler's veto of the Bank Bill, which was one of the impassioned class of his speeches, Mr. Clay said : * I do not know how it is. with others, but on such occasions I seem to be unconscious of the external world. Wholly engrossed by the subject before me, I lose all sense of personal identity, of time, or of surrounding objects.' " — "Life and Times of Henry Clay," by Calvin Colton (published in 1846).

*' Mr. Clay was now (18 15) in the zenith of his popu- larity, and the pride of his manhood. The epithet * furious orator ' which the British press applied to him, referred only to his energetic and zealous efforts against what he deemed

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HENRY CLAY

abuses, or in denunciation of what he considered unpatriotic or dangerous measures, declamations against foes abroad or errors at home. The following description of his manner, gesture, and appearance is from an anonymous writer, but strikes us forcibly with its graphic distinction : * Every muscle of the orator's face was at work. His whole body seemed agi- tated as if each part was instinct with a separate life, and his small white hand, with its blue veins apparently distended almost to bursting, moved gracefully but with all the energy of rapid and vehement gesture. The appearance of the speaker seemed that of a pure intellect brightly shining through the thin veil of flesh that invested it.' " — " Young American's Library" (published in 1852).

Taken from " Young American' s Library" publiihed in 1 852.

Henry Clay, in his early days, practising speaking in a debating society.

HENRY CLAY 417

" To feel the full charm of his lucid explanations, and his winning persuasiveness, or the thrill which flashed through the nerves of his hearers by the magnificent sun- bursts of his enthusiasm, or the fierce thunderstorms of his anger and scorn, one had to hear that musical voice, cajol- ing, flattering, inspiring, overawing, terrifying in turn-^^L- voice to the cadence of which it was a physical delight to listen; one had to see that face, not handsome, but glowing with the fire of inspiration, that lofty mien, that command- ing stature, constantly growing under his words, and the grand sweep of his gesture, majestic in dignity and full of grace and strength — the whole man a superior being while he spoke. Survivors of his time, who heard him at his best, tell us of the effects produced by his great appeals in the House of Representatives or the Senate, the galleries trein- bling with excitement, and even members unable to contain themselves; or in popular assemblies, the multitude breath- lessly listening, and breaking out in unearthly shouts of enthusiasm and delight, weeping and laughing, and rushing up to him with overwhelming demonstration of admiring and affectionate rapture." — '' Life of Henry Clay," by Carl Schurz (published in 1887).

"It is said, of course, that a great part of Clay's power was in his incomparable voice, his facial expression, the movement of his graceful body; and there is truth in these observations, though he who emphasises them is in danger of conveying a false impression. These traits the orator had in a remarkable degree, but he never relied on them to the exclusion of the more substantial elements of success. He did not go into a contest without preparation, thinking to win by his natural gifts. There are in existence the most elaborate collection of notes and quotations which he made for some of his principal speeches. Mr. Harrison's estimate of Mr. Clay as a public speaker is of interest, as it comes from one who had long and intimate acquaintance with the great orator : * A notion has been entertained by some who knew but little of his habits, or the loftiness of his temperament or character, that Mr. Clay was but an impulsive orator, dashing and reckless, always ready for a speech, a frolic, or a fight, and never taking time for preparation, however difficult or weighty the subject or the occasion. Every such notion is utterly unfounded and untrue. . . . You would see the emotion in his whole person as he slowly rose to his feet ... his heart . . . would manifest its emotion not only in the preliminary out- line of facts to be considered, but would occasionally mani- fest its emotion even before he had uttered a word.' * No such voice was ever heard elsewhere,' wrote Ben Poore; * it was equally disti?zct and clear whether at its highest key

418 HENRY CLAY

or lowest whisper; rich, musical, captivating. He gesticu- lated all over. The nodding of his head, hung on a long neck, his arms, hands, fingers, feet and handkerchief aided him in debate. He stepped forward and backzvard, and from the right to the left with effect. Every thought spoke; the whole body had its story to tell and added to the attractions of his able argument'" — ''Henry Clay," by Thomas Hart Clay, his grandson (published 1910).

" No orator's voice superior to his in quality, in compass and in management has ever, we venture to say, been raised upon this continent. It touched every note in the whole gamut of human susceptibilities; it was sweet and softy and lulling as a mother to her babe. It could be made to float into the chamber of the ear as gently as descending snow flakes on the sea; and again it shook the Senate, stormy, brain-shaking, filling the air with its absolute thunder. That severe trial of a speaker to speak in the open air, he never shrank from. Musical yet mighty, that marvellous organ ranged from all levels from the diapason organ-tone to the alto shriek; from the fine delicacies of pathetic inflections to the drum-beat rolls of denunciatory intona- tions. And all the time it -flowed harmoniously . In the very torrent, tempest and whirlwind of his oratory, he could beget the Shakespearean temperance which could give it smoothness and beauty.

His Style in the Open Air.

"Although, as we have said, he spoke in the open air, his style was there also much the same as with chamber audiences. The sustained tumultuous frenzy of the Irish school of eloquence he was never urged on to, even by the shoutings of the thousands in the open air. Even there beneath the blue sky and before the million, it was as unlike as possible to the rough hillside stormings with which we may imagine O'Connell used to meet and grapple with his monster gatherings.

*' His management of his body was very manly, dignified and graceful; whether flinging his arms about in the storm of passion, or passing in his course to take a pinch of snuff so indispensable, his movement was fit to be seen by a theatre audience. His by-play as he went along in his speech was capital; and indeed, his whole expression, by face, form, fingers, and arms, added so prodigiously to the effect of what he was saying that the reporters would often fling down their pens in despair, declaring ' He* s a great actor , and thaf s the whole of it.* That, however, was not the whole of it by a good deal . . . then, when his mind was full of broad thoughts, when his soul was aglow with burning sentiments, when his bodily sensibilities were all up and reacting on his faculties, the rapid throb

HENRY CLAY 419

of his pulse beating a reveille to all his powers — then, in- deed, for one moment you might fancy that Cicero's splendid dream was realised; that in the Senate House Roscius was, indeed, in action; that all combination of the statesman and the orator was standing right before you. . . . For Henry Clay had by nature much of Garrick^s style of effecL\ _ Everett follows Kemble; and Choate is of the passionate order of Edmund Kean. During the war of words between President Jackson and him, as the chief of the opposition in the Senate, he uttered a sentence which was never reported, but which is said to have been at once electric and pic- turesque. He was predicting dangers from the dictatorship of the old hero: *Yes,' said he, waving his hands out towards the Capitol gardens; 'Yes, and even in these sacred grounds some military chieftain with his nodding plumes shall dart his satisfied eye upon his troops.' The tragic intensity of the * dart his satisfied eye ' was so true to nature, the Senators almost saw another Cromwell at the door counting his files with gleaming eye as they invested the inviolate Capitol. It is said of Mr. Clay that he used to utter the words * The days that are passed and gone ' with such melancholy beauty of expression that no man could hear him without a tear. His manner of speaking was eminently natural. It was natural, easy, graceful and dignified. He never seemed to be trying lo do anything . . . if Clay was furious, you felt that he ought to be furious. . . . His usual delivery was quite deliberate; every word golden and clear- cut. His figure inclined pliantly and with dignified and courtly emphasis; though in the moments of vast passion it would bend almost double, and for an instant play up and down like the walking-beam of a North River steamer. His eye usually smiled, however, with an expression, at times, like a jet of flame. . . . And as he warmed, his words came faster and faster, yet still articulated har- moniously; his awkward arms began to sweep gracefully in wider and wider sweeps; the prophetic expression of his feelings darted across his features in advance of his words; single words would be blazed out, yet still the general level of the utterance was low and sweet; his uncomely face beamed with animation and his homely mouth seemed to shrink and curve in his passion, almost to a Grecian chiselling. His general level of speech was conversational, like animated talk, something like what the great Irish orator, Grattan, in one of his youthful letters, described Lord Chatham to have been. But even upon this level so silver-tongued were his tones, so easy and gliding their flow, and so varied and delicate their inflections, that he held his auditors' attention fascinated and unflagging. When, then, he rose above that subdued level, the effect

420 HENRY CLAY

was correspondingly powerful; and in every pitch of the scale that glorious voice was unbroken; he had never injured it by bad usage, he had never roared it into grujfnesSy nor growled it into hardness and an edgy coarseness, but always he was golden-mouthed — a modern Chrysostom in that part at least. He did not, like some quite popular declaimers, indulge in violent contrasts of pitch; running along, for instance, for ten sentences on one level, and then abruptly changing to another and remote level; but maintained always the melodious general level of spirited conversation from which easily and gracefully and by gradations he rose and fell. Single words and tones, however, he would some- times give with great variety of modulation; for his voice was not only full and wide-ranging, but it was under the most exact command; from his low and sweet level tone, he would sometimes strike instantly a tone like an alarm- bell. We remember hearing him throw off the simple words ' railroad speed ' in such a manner that in an instant he made the whole express train under lightning headway dash across our mind. He had, too, the faculty of crowding, as by some hydrostatic pressure of oratory, an amazing weight of expression on to the backbone of a single word. Some- times mounting from his easy level on one word alone, he would go through a whole pantomime of action; his form rises, his eye burns, his looks strike awe, when the final ejacu- lation of that much-anticipated word would burn into the very fibre of the brain, for an everlasting memory. In boy- hood, we heard him utter the word ' Crevasse ' ; we did not even know then what a * crevasse ' was, but it was struck, as by some tremendous die, into our mind; and has been there ever since, the type and synonym of everything appalling.'' — *' The Golden Age of American Oratory," by Edward G. Parker (published in 1857).

*' His voice was a marvel. ... It could range all the octaves and command every pitch. It could whisper or roar, sing lullabies or shriek; it could be delicious, sweet, in- sinuating, or wild, terrible, denunciating, gentle as a breeze or fierce as a tornado. Its carrying powers were as remark- able as its quality. He loved to speak out of doors, where he could reach the multitudes by the thousands. This voice, Clay had under perfect control. He was never declamatory . . . He was an actor and spoke with his whole body. He was always dramatic. When he denounced Jackson for appointing his servile follower, Amos Kemdall, superinten- dent of the state bank, he ended with a withering accusa- tion by stretching his arms full length, rising on tip-toe, and with a terrible frown and voice, thundering disgust to the vaunted roof of the old Senate chamber and yelling : ' An agent was sent out to sound the local institutions as

HENRY CLAY 421

to the terms on which they would receive deposits, an agent was sent out, ' and the voice rose to a shriek, ' and such an agent.'' Calhoun was distinguished for his logic, Webster for his argument, Clay for his eloquence/' — ** Five American Politicians," by Samuel P. Orth (published 1906).

"In controversy he was logical, witty, humorous, forcible, - sarcastic, eloquent. His style was vehement and impas- sioned. When he became excited in debate, his manner was peculiarly knightly, gamy, audacious, and sometimes . arrogant. As he set forth proposition after proposition with increasing energy and fire, his tall frame would seem to grow taller with every new statement. Clay could tell an anecdote in a captivating way. There was a freedom, a sweep, an elegance in his anecdotal style which was very taking.

His Beautiful Exordiums.

*' Clay's felicity in Exordium. He began a speech with the same masterly simplicity, directness and precision with which Shakespeare begins a drama. His exordium exhibited all the Quintillian attributes. It was brief, it was in keeping with the subject and the occasion, and it predisposed the audience in favour of the speaker and his cause. His lan- guag;-e and his metaphors always exactly fitted the place, the occasion, the audience and the circumstances." — " Great Senators of the United States Forty Years Ago (1848-49), with Personal Recollections and Delmeation of Calhoun, Benton, Clay, Webster . . . ," by Oliver Dyer (published in 1889).

'' It has been said by those who listened to Mr. Clay's speech that his sarcasm upon the Federalists was over- whelming. The sarcastic tone, the withering look, and the scornful gesture — these have passed away with the occasion, and cannot be imagined by those who are unacquainted with the manner of the orator. Although the day (when speaking on the impressment of American seamen) was extremely cold, so cold that Mr. Clay, for the only time in his life, was unable to keep himself warm by the exercise of speaking, there were few individuals in the house who did not bear witness, by their streaming eyes, to the orator's control over their sensibilities. . . . He is such a perfect master of the language, tone, and look of passion, he addresses himself to the deeper feelings with such mysterious skill, that opposing spirits feel the influence of his power, and, * like kindred drops, are mingled into one.' Mr. Clay and Mr. Webster, though perhaps equal in strength, were "wholly unlike each other in the conformation of their mmds. The arguments of Webster were powerful weapons, which -went toward their mark with a force that seemed irresistible; but they were weapons whose temper and character were

422 HENRY CLAY

well known, and hence they could be guarded against with the more certainty. On the other hand, the contents of Mr. Clay's intellectual armoury, if not more massive, were at least more diversified and fatal. * The eloquence of Mr. Webster,' says a gentleman, who was a spectator, * was the majestic roar of a strong and steady blast pealing through the forest; but that of Mr. Clay was the tone of a god-like instrument, sometimes visited by an angel- touch, and swept anon by all the fury of the raging elements.' After having delivered his sentiments at large on the state of the question (the Missouri compromise), and in those deep and solemn tones which had before sounded through the house in the hour of his country's need, he made an earnest appeal to members of both belligerent parties to bring to the discussion minds prepared to harmonise.' His voice is deep, full-toned, and commanding. It has the almost magic power of controlling the feelings of those who listen to its varying cadences. His action in speaking is uniformly appropriate and graceful. His every gesture has its manifest meaning ; and every change of his countenance its corresponding effect upon the audience." — " Biography of Henry Clay," by George D. Prentice (published 1830).

" This sent us to the Senate chamber, where our attention was at once arrested by a voice that seemed like the music of the spheres. It came from the lips of a tall, well-formed man, with a wide mouth, a flashing eye, and a counten- ance that revealed every change of thought within. It had a wonderful flexibility and compass, at one moment crash- ing upon the ear in thunder-peals, and the next falling in music as soft as that of * summer winds a-wooing flowers.' It rarely startled the hearer, however, with violent contrasts of pitch, and was equall}/ distinct and clear when it rang out in trumpet tones, and when it sank to the lowest whisper. Every syllable, we had almost said every letter, was per- fectly audible.

He Spoke Deliberately and Steady.

** There was not a word of rant, not one tone of vocifera- tion; in the very climax of iiis passion he spoke deliberately, and his outpouring of denunciation was as slow and steady as the tread of Nemesis. . . . Who could it be? It took but a minute to answer the question. It was — it could be no other man — than Henry Clay. He had just begun an attack on another giant of the Senate.* His eloquence was generally of a warm and popular rather than of a strictly argumentative cast, and abounds in just those excellences which lose their interest when divorced from the orator's manner and from the occasion that produced them. . . . Clay was chivalric, impulsive, poetic, enthusiastic — full of coruscations of wit and flashes of fancy. ' Webster,

* See Clay's remarks directed to Calhoun under fig. Apostrophe.

HENRY CLAY 423

besides the Doric propriety of his diction, arrested your attention by the ponderous ring in his weig^-hty sentences, as they fell like trip-hammers upon the casques of his antagonists . , / Clay's words, when assailing an enemy, were usually courteous and polished, while Calhoun's were fierce, blunt and rudely terrible. He attributed his success not to sudden illuminations while speaking, but mainly to the fact that he beef an at the age of twenty-seven, and for years continued the practice of reading and speaking upon the contents of some historical or scientific book. * These off-hand efforts,' he says, 'were sometimes made in a corn- field, at others in the forest, and not unfrequently in some distant barn, with the horse and ox for my auditors. It is to this early practice in the great art of all arts that I am indebted for the primary and leading impulses that stimulated me forward, and shaped and moulded my sub- sequent entire destiny. Improve, then, young, gentlemen, the superior advantages you here enjoy. Let not a day pass without exercising your powers of speech.^ " — '* Oratory and Orators," by William Mathews, LL.D.

Henry Clay was a United States Senator and Secretary of State in the administration of John Quincy Adams, and, according to records, was the greatest of American orators in the sense of inflaming and playing upon the feelings and passions of his countrymen. His voice ranged through the whole gamut of passion, from a bass foundation to a shrill falsetto, with wonderful modulation and delightful cadences. In his lowest tones, as well as those of terrifying denuncia- tion, he was clear and harmonious. His articulation, how- ever rapid became his words, was distinct. He kept his eye steadily on his audience while speaking, as if he addressed each person individually. He had the great art of holding the initial consonant of the root of an emphatic word, so as to throw a tremendous ** hydrostatic pressure" into it.

His most admirable quality was naturalness — that is, if the passage called for fury he was furious; if facetiousness, he was jocular; if gentleness, he was calm; and he knew well how to manipulate all the figures embraced in the Figs. Ethos and Pathos. His style generally was subdued, slow, deliberate, steady, and conversational, or it might better be classed as Animated Talking, and this, together with his naturalness, always kept him from tune and song. H^e stood erect so that his lungs could automatically keep them- selves inflated, and his diaphragm act freely, taking care not to roar himself hoarse, and saved his voice for popular assemblies, the forum and the Senate. In action he followed Garrick, and in orator}^ Lord Chatham; and from the lightning of his countenance the audience divined the

424 HENRY CLAY

approaching thunder. He was master of the Figures Exordium, Hypotiposis, Sarcasmus, Sermocinatio, Asteis- mus, Anaphora, Eperotesis, Pause, Periodicity and Epi- logue.

To attain and keep his high oratorical acquirements, Mr. Clay constantly practised the art of speaking, and, although naturally gifted with eloquence he prepared his speeches. The author had the pleasure of visiting Clay's house at the Ashland Farm, and of being shown the room in which, he was informed, Clay wrote his great speeches.

Mr. Clay formed the great Whig Party, and remained its leader until his death in 1852. Eight years after it was merged into the present Republican Party. He was animated with the tenderest feeling and the loftiest patriotism, as his efforts to remove, with its consequences, the foul blot on his country's history, his eloquent pleas for the indepen- dence of the South American Republics, and his sympathy for the Greek insurgents attest.

Extracts from Mr. Clay's speeches with Figures marked therein : —

^ " I am an old man — quite an old man, but — (here he straightened himself up and his eyes flashed) — it will be found that I am not too old to vindicate my principles, to stand by my friends and to defend myself.

" It so happened that I have again located myselt, m the practice of my profession, in an office within a few rods of one which I occupied when, more than forty years ago, I first came among you, an orphan and a stranger; and your fathers took me bv the hand and made me what I am. I feel like an old stag, which has long been coursed by the hunters and the hounds through brakes and briars, and o'er distant plains, and has at last returned to his ancient lair to lay him down and die. And yet the vile curs of party are barking at my heels, and the bloodhounds ot personal malignity are aiming at my throat.

"/ scorn and defy them as I ever did\ (Cries and sobs and shouts hurtled in the air, and there was a fierce looking around for enemies of Henry Clay.)

'^ " If it were allowable for us, at the present day, to imitate ancient examples, I would invoke the aid of the Most High. I would anxiously and fervently implore His divine assistance; that He would be graciously pleased to shower on my country His richest blessings; and that He would sustain, on this interesting occasion, the individual who stands before Him, and lend him the power, moral and physical, to perform the solemn duties which now belong to his public station.

(i) Exordium ot a political speech to the people previous to his nomination for tlie U.S. Presidency (*a) Exordium of a speech in the U.S. Congress, 1824, on the distress in the country — solemn and impressive.

J

Henry Clay Speaking in the U.S. Senate.

Note the erect posture which is the one most favorable for easy breathing and for t>roper voice production.

HENRY CLAY 425

^ t *' And now— (he almost screamed out)— what whig would vote for this man? What whig would promise to vote for this man ? + What whig, havmg promised, would dare to keep that promise?

* Plea for the Union. - -

" At a moment when the White House itself is in danger of conflagration, instead of all hands uniting to extinguish the flames, we are contending about who shall be its next occupant. When a dreadful crevasse has occurred, which threatens inundation and destruction to all around it, we are contesting and disputing about the profits of an estate which is threatened with total submersion.

"Mr. President, It is "" -passion, passion — party, party, and intemperance — that is all I dread in the adjustment of the great questions which, unhappily, at this time divide our distracted country. Sir, at this moment we have, in the legislative bodies of this Capitol and in the .States, twenty odd furnaces in full blast, emitting heat, and passion, and intemperance, and diffusing them throughout the whole extent of this broad land. Two months ago all was calm in comparison to the present moment. All now is uproar, confusion, and menace to the existence of the Union, and to the happiness and safety of this people. * Sir, I implore Senators, I entreat them, by all that they expect hereafter, and bv all that is dear to them here below, to repress the ardour of these passions, to look to their country, to its interests, to listen to the voice of reason.

" Mr. President, I have said — what I solemnly believe — that the dissolution of the Union and war are identical and inseparable ; that they are convertible terms. * Such a war, too, as that would be, following the dissolution of the Union ! Sir, we may search the pages of history, and none ^ so furious, so bloody, so implacable , so exterminating, from the wars of Greece down, including those of the Com- monwealth of England and the Revolution of France — ' none, none of them raged with such violence, or was ever conducted with such bloodshed and enormities, as will that war which shall follow that disastrous event — * if that event ever happen — the dissolution of the Union.

'"And what would be its termination} Standing armies and navies, draining the revenues of each portion ot the

(2) S Periodicity (3) Epizeuxis (4) Apostrophe and Protrope (5) Ecphonesis (6) Ana- uhora and Synonym (7 Epanalepsis and Epizeuxis (8) Parenthesis § Clay having heard about a whi^ promising to vote for the contirmation of a democrat, commenced his speech without the faintest reference to the promise, but reviewed the animosity of the democrat to the whig party and after (+ Fig. Attitude) fiercely glaring round on the row ot Senators, he tliundered forth these three tremendous interrogations, gradually approaching, with threfr narrowing sweeps of his great arm, he turned full front on the object of his wrath and stood for a moment (J Fig. Pause) before him, glaring in his eyes, he hurled with all his accumulated concentration of power, the last thunderbolt sentence upon him as if he would strike death to hie heart. The oratorical cannonade was too tremen.lous to be endured. Need- less to add the whig did not vote for the democrat's confirmation, (Edward G. Parker).

Spoffard's "Historical Characters and Famous Events" gives this speech as one of the

426 HENRY CLAY— SIMILE

dissevered empire, would be created; exterminating war would follow — not a war of two or three years, but of inter- minable duration — until some Philip or Alexander, some Caesar or Napoleon, would rise to cut the Gordian Knot, and solve the problem of the capacity of man for self- government, and crush the liberties of both the dissevered portions of this Union. ^^ Can you, sir, lightly contem- plate these consequences ? Can you yield yourself to a torrent of passion, amidst dangers which I have depicted in colours far short of what would be the reality, if the event should ever happen ?

^' *' I implore gentlemen — I adjure them from the South or the North, by all they hold dear in this world — by all their love of liberty, b}^ all their veneration for their ances- tors— by all their regard for posterity — by all their gratitude to Him who has bestowed upon them such unnumbered blessings — by all the duties which they owe to mankind, and all the duties they owe to themselves — by all these con- siderations, I implore thein to pause — solemnly to pause — at the ^a^Q of the precipice before the fearful and disastrous leap is taken into the yawning abyss below, from which none who take it will ever return in safety.

^^ " And finally, Mr. President, I implore, as the best blessing which Heaven can bestow upon me on earth, that if the direful and sad event of the dissolution of the Union shall happen, I may not survive to behold the melancholy and heart-rending spectacle.'*

SIMILE : Latin simile, a like thing ; a comparison ; is a form of speech by which the orator makes a comparison or likening of two things having some point or points of resem- blance. It is a statement of the likeness ijt literal terms — e.g.y ** Man is like grass, Herod is like a fox." The meta- phor taxes the imagination by saying the first object is the second, or by speaking as though it were, as " All flesh is grass," "Go and tell that fox." There are various combinations of simile and metaphor, as *' We all do fade as a leaf"; the metaphor in these cases precedes. An Alleg-orv is the likeness wherein abstract things are usually personified at some length, as "Pilgrim's Progress" allegorises Christian experiences. A Parable is the likeness in a story that is or might be true, and is generally to teach some moral or religious truth, as a Socrates' story of the sailors who chose their steerman by lot, as suggestmg a similar course in choosing the helmsman of the state, is a fine example of a parable of civil life. A Fable is the likeness extended to improbable or impossible, being as a

(lo) Eperotesis and Apostrophe (ii) Paraineticon, Apostrophe and Anaphora (12) Peror- ation and Apostrophe.

SIMILE 427

fact; in making trees choose a king, beasts talk, frogs pray to Jupiter; and is generally short and points to a homely moral. Aristotle, respecting Simile, also Similitude, says that they differ from metaphor in that they have the particles '* as," " even as," "so," ** even so," etc. Jt IS a metaphor with, this trifling difference, as like a lion, instead of " <2 lion he leaped on them." It is good in prose but must not be too frequent, for it carries with it the air of poetry, as Plato says : '' Like young dogs which bite the stone without touching the person who threw it." Ihey also do well in an oration, but must not be too frequent. Paricles said: ''Like so many oaks in a wood, they did nothing but beat one another." When constructed on similar ratios, they ought always to admit of paying back the borrowed term — e.g., " Call a pilot the ruler of his vessel, so you may call a ruler the pilot of the state." From species to species; for instance, '* If a cup be called the shield of Bacchus, it is also proper to call a shield the cup of Mars." Similes are less pleasing, for they do not assert this is that, and the mind does not pause to ascertain what it is like, but hurries to know what it really is. Quintillian says that the Simile should be plainer than that which it is meant to illustrate, and is adapted to entorce conviction; '* As ground is made better and more fertile by cultivation, so is the mind by learning." This mutual comparison brings each object, as it were, under the eye. Short Similes, as *' Wandering through the woods after the manner of wild beasts," " From which trial he escaped naked as from a house on fire," should be short, concise and plain.

Bain says it is a comparison when the likeness is followed out in detail, and as a Simile quotes this: '^ As in the range of equidistant columns, the farthest off look the closest : so, the conspicuous objects of the past seem more thickly clustered the more remote they are." The characteristic effects of these examples have been given by anticipation.

Exa-mples : Demosthenes, Cor. 227 : " Then he plays the Sophist, and says * You ought to disregard the opinion of us which you came from home with — that, as when you audit a man's account under the impression that he has a surplus, if it casts up all right and nothing remains, you kllow it, so should you now accept the fair conclusion of the argument' ; only see how rotten in nature is such. For by this cunning simile he has acknowledged that you are convinced that I advocate the cause of my country, and he that of Philip. For he would not be anxious to alter your^ persuasion, if such were not your present opinion of each of us. Now that he makes an unjust argument, in requiring you to change your minds, I shall easily prove^ not by aid of figures, for it is not thus that an estimate

428 SIMILE

is made of public services, but by briefly reciting each particular, appointing you, my' hearers, as my judges and witnesses. My administration of affairs made the Thebans join us and impede Philip's designs, instead of uniting with him in the invasion of our territory, as all expected would happen; and instead of the war bemg m Attica, (it caused) it to be seven hundred stadia from the city, on the confines of Boeotia; and instead of Philip's possessing the Hellespont by capture of Byzazntmm (it caused) the Byzantines to join their arms with us against him. Whether then does the examination of facts appear like the calculation of accounts ? Ought (those services) to be cancelled from the account, and ought we to consider how they shall be remem- bered for every age ? I do not add to the account that it happened to others to experience the cruelty which, when- ever Philip has once become master of any persons, may be seen in his conduct, whilst you justly reaped the advan- tage of that humaneness which he assumed toward you, whilst projecting future schemes." W. S. Tyler gives the following summary of the notable simile : ' * I must notice here an ingenious sophism of my opponent's. He says you ought to cast up my services and rewards arithmetically and see whether there is any balance in my favour; or rather he says you will see there is none. Now I deny that public services can be treated like sums in arithmetic. But you may set facts against facts, set what happened agamst what would have happened had it not been done tor me. 1 am quite content to abide by that calculation."

XJ se : The following is quoted from Herbert Spencer : *' Simile is in many cases used chiefly with a view to ornament', but whenever it increases the force of a passage it does so by being an economy. But by the help of com- parison much of the effort otherwise required is saved. The position of the Simile : what has been said about the order of the adjective and substantive, predicate and subject, principal and subordinate propositions, etc., is applicable here. As whatever qualifies should precede whatever is qualified, force will generally be gained by placing the Simile before the object or act to which it is applied — e.g., * As wreath of snow, on mountain breast, Slides from the rock that gave it rest, Poor Ellen glided from her stay And at the monarch's feet she lay.' Inverting the couplet will be found to diminish the effect considerably. As putting the Simile first is advantageous only when it is carried forward in the mind to assist in forming an image of the object or act . it must happen, if from long complexity, it cannot be so carried forward, the advantage is not gained."

^ SIMILE 429

Simile is further used to elucidate abstract truths or ideaSy as we take the known as an example to explam the un- known, for instance to explain a scientific point less clear — e.g., to say "Like water acts in an ordinary hand pump so does steam in a reverse manner act on a piston/'

Caution: Spencer further says: "But a limit is put to the advantageous use of metaphor by the condition that it must be simple enough to be understQod from a hint. Evi- dently, if there be any obscurity in the meaning or appli- cation of it, no economy of attention will be achieved — rather the reverse. Hence when the comparison is complex, it is better to put it i?t the form of a Simile.^'

In a word, the great use of Simile is to give pleasure, which arises from this : Economy of mental attention, and the perspicuity it affords which enables the listener to com- prehend clearly what is presented.

Delivery: Walker says, respecting "as" and "so,** that " as " excites the expectation, and "so " answers it — e.g., ''As in my speculations I have endeavoured to extin- guish passion and prejudice i^so understood) I am still desirous of doing some good in this particular " : the first part of this constructive sentence, wherein is the expectation, is to end with the rising inflection and to have a pause at the end; for instance, the rising inflection should be on " prejudice " and a pause after same, so as to point out distinctly where the answer begins, or where the second part begins to modify the first. In Walker's Rule VIL, for reading verse, Similes should always be in a lower tone than that part of the passage which precedes it — e.g., "... shakes a guilty hand

Such as of late o^ er pale Britannia past.^'

Walker also advises Similes as good for gaining a habit of lowering the voice; as, for instance, in the following the voice is lowered twice on the two italicised similes, the last being pronounced in a lower than the former Simile, and both nearly in a monotone :

"... His form had not yet lost

All its original brightness, nor appear' d Less than Archangel rum'd and th' excess Of glory obscur'd; as when the sun new ris'n Looks through the horizontal misty air Shorn of his beams; or from behind tlie moon In dim eclipse disastrous twilight sheds On half the nations, and with fear of change, Perplexes monarchs." — Milton. The Simile, as it is a beauty or ornament, should be delivered, as a rule, in a flowing and smooth manner.

430 SIMILITUDO— SIMULATIO

SIMILITUDO : Latin, same derivation as Simile ; is a. form of speech much the same as Simile, and is that by which the orator compares one thing with another by a similitude fit to his purpose — e.g., Cicero: ''Even as the light of a candle is oppressed with the brightness of the sun, so the estimation of corporal things must needs be darkened, drowned and destroyed by the glory and great- ness of virtue."

U se : The use of the similitude^ is very great, yielding both profit and pleasure; profit by their perspicuity, and pleasure by their proportion. They serve to praise, dis- praise, teach, exhort, move, persuade, etc. Of all the forms, of speech, they are best conceived and longest remembered.

Caution : Things compared should not be alike ; they should not be strange and unknown; by the one, there is. absurdity, by the other, obscurity. The same observations on Simile apply to Similitudo.

SIMULATIO: Latin similiSy like; suffix ate, to make; also simuly together with;* simulare, td make like, to feign, pretend. It is that form cf speech whereby the orator imitates a given passion or emotion; whereby we feign that we are angry, that we rejoice, or fear, or wonder, or grieve, or feel indignant, or wish, or are moved by any other similar affections.

Aristotle says it is good to simulate a passion, that is, to put a wrong passion instead of the one proper for th^ expression, or even to say a thing as it should not be, as it throws the hearer off from the idea that the speech is written or got up. However, this should only be done now and then in the delivery of the whole speech. There is also a certain uncontrolledness of language (cf. Cicero).

SOLILOQUY: Latin soliloquiimi, a talking to oneself; solus y alone; loqui, to speak. A speaking to oneself, liiis is a form of speech by which one makes an address to himself or reflects alone. Austin Phelps says that it is a form of apostrophe, and is of effect when direct censure, etc., is difficult. Foster gives soliloquy as one of the five great figures of an oration. The Soliloquy is a concentric state wherein the mind of oneself turns itself upon itself. It is passive, it concentrates upon and withdraws to itself. The Soliloquy chiefly takes the forms of reflection, medita- tion, sorrow, regret, silent grief, pensive foreboding, remorse, melancholy, complaints, etc. It is called into service very much in Prosopopoeia, in that part where the orator feigns a person and puts into his mouth words he would be likely to say in the way of complainings, etc., which complainings: and other words attributed to him the orator marks or

I

SOLILOQUY 431

mimics. It is here a third person, as a speaker, may put Soliloquy to a great advantage, as he can refute what is soliloquised.

Delivery: "Remorse, repentance, shame take the aspirated orotund, suppressed force, low pitch, prevalent falling in- flection, slow movement, long pause, strong empha&is^ vanishing stress : * How shall 1 behold thy face ? Oh ! might I here m solitude live a savage in -some glade obscure. Cover me, -ye pines, ye cedars, with innumerable boughs, hide me where I may never see thee more.' Melancholy takes lowest pitch, prevalent falling inflection, emphasis intense." — Russell. " Oh my soul's joy, if after every tempest comes such a calm . . . joy bordering on sorrow." Deep melancholy : * * She never told her love, but let con- cealment, like a worm i' th' bud, feed on her damask cheek . . .*' Pensive foreboding: "My mother had a maid call'd Barbara. She was in love; and he she lov'd prov'd mad, and did forsake her. She had a song of Willow, an old thing 'twas, but it express' d her fortune, and she dy'd singing it. That song to-night will not go from my mind. I have wish to do but go hang my head all o' one side, and sing it like DOor Barbara." — Othello.

Grief deploring happiness :

" O now for ever Farewell the tranquil mind ; farev/ell content,

Farewell! Othello's occupation's gone."

The pensive takes well the Anapaestic foot : Genung says the Anapaestic is adapted to pensive or meditative senti- ments where the movement is quiet and subdued — e.g.. It will come | I suspect | at the end | of life.

Those that are sad take very well the trochee — v whose nature is of a bewailing character, says Saintsbury; and the Amphibrach ^ — ^ which is the gentle swell of the voice in the middle, for pity and sadness.

" Remorse or painful remembrance of criminal actions and pursuits, casts down the countenance, and clouds it with anxiety ; hangs down the head, shakes it with regret ; just raises the eyes as if to look up and suddenly casts them down again with a sigh ; the right hand sometimes beats the breast and the whole body writhes as with self -aversion. The voice has harshness, as in hatred, and inclines to a low -and reproachful tone." — Walker.

" In criminal cases he (Daniel O'Connell) played the part of an indignant lawyer to perfection; caught up his brief- bag in a seeming fury, and dashed it against the witness- table — frowned — muttered fearfully to Jimiself — sat down in a rage, with a horrible scowl on his face . . ."

Perplexity, irresolution, anxiety : " These emotions collect the body together as if for thoughtful consideration ; the

432 SORITES— SYLLABIFICATION— SYLLEPSIS

eye-brows contracted, the head hanging on breast, eyes cast downward, mouth shut. Suddenly the whole body alters its aspect as if havincr discovered something, then falls into contemplation as before; the motions of the body are restless and unequal, sometimes moving quick and sometimes slow; the pauses in speaking are long, the tone of voice uneven,, the sentences broken and unfinished." — Walker. Example : Perplexity from unexpected events : ** Heaven for his mercy ! What a tide of woes

Comes rushing on this woeful land at once !

I know not what to do : I would to heav'n

The King had cut. off my head \vith my brothers'.

What are these post despatches from Ireland ?

How shall we do for money for these wars ? ' ' The Meditation of Hamlet on Suicide is one of the most remarkable.

SORITES : Greek soros, heap ; is a form of speech used in argumentation, and is, according to Jevons, " a con- secutive chain wherein each term except the first and last occur twice. They must all be universal and affirmative, but Sorites may contain one particular premise provided it be the first, and one negative piemise provided it be the last. To have particular elsewhere would be to have an Undis- tributed Middle." E. L. Hawkins says: "Sorites is a series of compressed syllogisms of the first figure, the predi- cate of each proposition becoming the subject of the next — e.g.y 'All savages are men, all men are rational beings, all rational beings can be educated, all who can be edu- cated can be civilised ; therefore, all savages can be civilised.* "

The foregoing is called the Progressive Sorite. The Retrogressive is the reverse order: "All who can be edu- cated can be civilised, all rational beings can be educated, all men are rational, all savages are men; therefore, all savages can be civilised."

The Sorite may be hypothetical or categorical, like a syllogism; and variety may be progressive or regressive.

Delivery : Sorite, especially the progressive, is delivered same as Climax or Anastrophe.

SYLLABIFICATION: Of the termination of "ed," a mark being put over the " e," thus "loved."

SYLLEPSIS : Greek syllambano , to put together. This is a figure of words, or construction, as when the nominative- case in the plural is joined to a verb in the singular, a nominative singular to a verb in the plural; or it is a com- prehension of the more unworthy under the more worthy

SYLLEPSIS— SYLLOGISMUS 433

— e.g.y " I and my father are safe; neither I nor you are wife. The king and queen be blest." The audience hear well.

An Oratorical Syllepsis consists in employing a word in two different senses at once, the one literal, the other figura- tive. The first Philippic gives us a fine example: ** If we send out galleys empty of munitions and e7npty hopes given us by some paltry orator, think ye that all will be well ? ' ' Here the empty galleys were sent out against Philip literally, and the empty hopes figuratively (cf. J. W. Macbeth).

SYLLOGISMUS : Greek syllogizomai, to reckon all together, collect from premises; to infer by way of syllogism or reasoning. It is a form of speech by which the orator amplifies a matter by conjecture, that is by expressing some sign or circumstances of a matter, which circumstances are three: (i) going before it; (2) annexed with it; (3) follow- ing after it. This is rhetorical syllogism.

(i) Circumstances going before the matter — e.g., " As the Lord God of Israel liveth before whom I stand, there shall not be dew nor rain these years, but according to my word." Hereb)/ Elijah signifies the great famine and dearth which should be brought by it.

(2) Circumstances annexed with the m,atter : Virgil of Poliphemus said he held a pine tree in his hand to stay himself, and walked through the sea; by which we conclude what a great body he had.

(3) Circumstances following the matter : David is described sorrowfully bewailing the death pf his son Absolom, by v/hich is collected how dearly he loved his son, notwith- standing his evil inclinations.

Syllogismus, according to Bullinger, is an omission of the conclusion. The Latins gave it the name Significatio, meaning something which is signified; also Ratiocinatio, because only the reasons are stated and not the conclusion. It is also called Emphasis, because of the emphasis which is given to the argument which is omitted. Matt. x. 30 : '* But the very hairs of your head are numbered" — i.e., therefore how infinite must be the knowledge of our "Father"!

IJ se : The use of this figure is a very commendable orna- ment of eloquence, and is a neat form of speech to amplify any great or excellent matter. It is also used as a rhetorical or oratorical syllogism, where the premises, as Volkmann says, are respectively proved by argument before the speaker draws his conclusion.

Caution : It is necessary to signify our meaning by such circumstances as may best amplify the matter and most clearlv signify our meaning, otherwise we shall speak " in the clouds," without profit. " Those great sides," etc. —

434 SYMPHORESIS -SYMPLOCE

Cicero's reference to Anthony as to the quantity of drink he could hold.

Delivery: The principal word or words, that are to serve as collection of something else, must be" emphasised so as to bring out the thing understood; and a gesture that would represent the principal action of the thing understood or which we do not express — e.g.^ " Those great sides, and throat " — a gesture signifying drinking, if this be the idea.

SYMPHORESIS: Greek sym, together; pkero, to bear, bring; to bring together; is a form of speech by which the orator both multiplies and heaps many words together, signi- fying divers things of like nature.

Examples: ''Thus all things were mixed together with blood, manslaughter, theft and deceit, corruption and un- faithfulness, sedition, perjury, disquieting of good men, u'nthankfulness, defiling of fools, disorder in marriage, adultery, and uncleanliness.'*

Use : It serves to praise or dispraise, accuse, defend and confute. In vehement affection, it is like the violent strokes of battle, but in mildness it may be compared to a plentiful shower in a time of need.

Caution : Do not make too great a heap, and that of the same heap nothing be contrary one to another.

SY'MPLOCE : Greek syjn, together; pleko, to twine; to twine together. Is a form of speech which makes many members or clauses following to have the same beginning and the same ending; or when all our beginnings and our endings are alike.

Examples : Where the beginning and end of each phrase are alike: " Who are they tliat have broken their treaties? the Carthagenians. Who are they that have waged war with the utmost cruelty ? the Carthagenians. Who are they that have devastated Italv ? the Carthageniaiis. Who are they that importune forgiveness? the Carthagenians^ — Cicero. By ijtcrease of ivord in divers clauses : " O cruel death ! why hast thou taken away my father, my dear father, my dear and most loving father, and hid him in the dark where I cannot find him? ** By increase of word in the clause following: *' Dido built Carthage, Dido built renowned Carthage."

V se : This figure serves for any affection, and is a singu- lar ornament, pleasant to the ear; which by some is called *' Rhetorical Circle " and by others the musical repetition. It is so much the more pleasant, the more sparingly it is used.

Caution : Too many members blemish its beauty and betray affectation, for this ornament is much deformed if

SYNCHORESIS— SYNCOPE— SYNCRISIS 435

it be stretched with tenters of foohsh fancy, as often it is, likewise many others.

" Symploce sometimes Anaphora will join With Epistrophe, and .both in one combine."

— Langley. Delivery : As this is an ornament it should be delivered in a smooth, flowing style. It may also be delivered m an Icrementum style with the highest or culminating point of the voice at the end of the third clause, or at the end of the second clause, which latter would balance the four.

SYNCHORESIS : Greek syn, at once, completely, at the same time, along with, in company; choreo, to give away, to make room for. This is a figure when an argument is. ironically or mockingly yielded to and is then marred with a stinging retort upon the objector. This form of speech delights most, either when that which we granlf is prejudicial to and stings the objector, as in controversies often happens, or when the argument granted brings no loss to him that grants it.

" Oft Synchoresis will a point concede

That other points with greater weight may plead." Examples : -Langley.

''And he it so. Let those deplore their doom Whose hope still grovels in this dark sojourn; But lofty souls who ?ook beyond the tomb, Can smile at Fate and wonder how they mourn . . ."

— Beattie. John Adams, the American statesman, made great use of the figure Synchoresis. In a passionate appeal in his speech on the Declaration of Independence, which is com- menced with his accustomed directness and earnestness, he moved his hearers from their seats: ''Sink or swim, live or die. . . . We may die! die colonists! die slaves! die, it may be ignominiously on the scaffold ! Be it so, be it so."

SYNCOPE : Is a figure of words by which a letter or syllable is cut away from the midst of a word, by which a word is contracted. ** We ne'er shall be at peace till we are strong."

SYNCRISIS: Greek syn, along with, with; krino, choose, separate, distinguish; is a form of speech by which the speaker makes a comparison of contrary things and divers persons in one sentence.

SYNECDOCHE: Greek syn, together with; ek, from, away from; dechomai, to take, receive, to choose; is a form of speech by which the orator signifies more or less by a

436 SYiVECDOCHE

word which the proper signification does not express, and is by putting the whole for a part or a part for the whole ; when a part is understood by the whole, or the whole by the part; the general by the special, and vice versa; or it is the exchange of the name of the part for the whole, or of the name of the whole for the part — e.g., of a part for the whole; a. kind of metonymy. " A master employed new hands'' — i.e., new men; and of the whole for a part: "i took the train for Boston," meaning a part.

Synecdoche, the whole for a part will take, Or part for whole, just for the meter's sake."

— Langley.

Vse : This figure gives grace to speech which otherwise it would want, enforcing the understanding of the hearers to a deeper consideration of the sense and meaning.

Caution-, (i) When using a part for the whole, see that there be a discreet and apt choice of the part— 2.^., the roof is put for the house, not the windows nor the rafters; (2) that there be not a choice of the special kind when they signify the general] (3) that it is not to be urged in judicial pleadings nor in evidences; (4) that it is very unfit among ignorant people, also not to be used among cavilling persons, who may pervert its true meaning either by malice or mockery.

By the whole is meant the whole of a quantity; the general kind is meant the plural number; the matter, of which the things are made, (i) Whole put for a part: e.g., "All the world came to hear the wisdom of the holy scriptures." (2) The general kind for the special kind : ** Preach the gospel unto all creatures," signifies to all men and not to any other creature. (3) The plural number for the singular : Cicero to Brutus: "We deceived the people and seemed orators," meaning himself, i. Part expressed is understood for the whole : " I am not worthy that thou shouldst enter my roof"; here, by roof is signified the whole house. 2. Special for the general: "Man shall not live by bread alone," meaning all kinds of nourishment. 3. Singular for the plural: "The Roman was victor in battle," understand- ing the Roman hosts. " He lived in such a century," meaning he is dead now. " He swallowed the Thames," i.e. the water of the Thames. Bain says that the name of the passion is given for the object that inspires it, as my love^ my joy^ my admiration, my honour; "The sigh of her sacred soul" designates that which is sighed for; the name of the person for his fame, as " the dreaded Demo- gorgon."

Delivery : Where the Synecdoche is important or emphatic, a gesture representing the thing signified or to be under- stood should be made, so as to give the Synecdoche greater force and impression upon the understanding.

SYNGNOME— SYNCECEOSIS— SYNONYMIA 437

SYNGNOME : Greek sv7i, with; gignosko, to know, to understand; syngignoskoy think with, consent, agree, hence have a fellow feeling with; excuse, pardon, forgive. It is the same as the Latin ig7tocentia, and is a form of speech by which the orator, being a sufferer of many and great injuries or of some one great and grievous wrong, pronounces pardon and forgiveness to his adversary who was the author of all his miseries.

Examples: "God forgive him.'* This signifies a kind of accusation, sufficiently to raise a suspicion and yet express nothing. " Father forgive them for they know not what they do." Stephen the martyr, at his death, cried with a loud voice: "Lord, lay not this sin to their charge."

SYNCECEOSIS: Greek syn, with; cekeioo, to make one's own, to make a person one's friend ; is a form of speech by which divers things or contraries are conjoined; and by which common opinion is repugned with reason; things that are different are reconciled. It is when contraries are attri- buted to the same thing.

Caution : Special care should be taken that the latter clause or part of the sentence be not weaker than the former part, for if it be, then the former part remains single in itself and the oration is made very weak and feeble. Synoeceosis is, in a word, a combination of statements seemingly con- tradictory— e.g-y " A miser owns what he owns as little as what he does not own." " The covetous and prodigal are both alike in fault, for neither of them know how to use their wealth aright — they both abuse it, and both get shamed by it."

SYNONYMIA: Greek sy7i, with, together, like; onyma, name; like name, or like meaning; is a form of speech whereby the orator iterates one thing divers times, by a variation and change of words that are of nearly the same signification. " Called also * Chain-shot ' from the similar •effect designed by the military and by the verbal battery. In Isocrates and Demosthenes the figure has been embellished^ by rhetorical art, and the synonyms are with a view to produce climax or rhythm." — Kingsbury. " The beginning ,may be of different words yet of a similar signification — e.g., * I would have thrown him into every kind of danger, I would have exposed him to treachery, I would have con- signed him to public odium ' ; the conclusion : * You deter- mined, you gave your opinion, you pronounced your judg- ment.' " — Cicero.

There are two kinds: (i) Synonymia of words: e.g.^ *' Wisdom in the poor man lies as a thing despised, rejected, oppressed, buried, and utterly extinct." (2) Synonymia .of sejitences : "Who are more worthy of renown, honour,

438 SYNONYMI A— SYNTHESIS— SYNTHETON

and fame than Cccsar? Who more worthily esteemed,, beloved, reverenced and honoured than Cassar ? Who- amongst men was his equal in knowledge, understanding, policy and wisdom ? Who may be compared to him, either in courage of heart, fortitude of mind, or magnanimity of nature?" — Cicero. Thus to describe a beautiful woman: ** She hath a most winning countenance, a most pleasant eye, a most amiable presence, a cheerful aspect; she is a most delicate object, etc. ; your beauty hath conquered my reason, subdued my will, mastered my judgment."

TJ se : This kind of figure is to be used as often as we see not enough in one word to signify the dignity or magni- tude of the thing mentioned. It serves to amplify and to excite vehement affection and passion, also when from one thing many ways may be expressed, we fasten many things, as it were, in the mind of the hearer. This figure serves, further, to delight much both for the plenty of words and variety of sentences; but most of all for that it signifies the worthiness of a word or sentence, deserving repetition in a changed form or habit, whether it be in affection of praise or dispraise. Genung says that an important thought should appear more than once, to be impressed; but repeated in a different language, shade of meaning, as synonyms, etc.

Caution : It is not good to make too great a heap of words considering that there is no increase .of matter, for in too great a multitude, long time is spent, and little matter expressed; and although the ears of the simple hearers are satisfied, yet their minds are little instructed. Secondly, it is requisite to regard that words or sentences be not unlike or repugnant among themselves.

Delivery: As this is an adornment, it is as. an accumula- tion, with its own independent inflection and pause at the end; and as there is no increase of matter, the ear must be gratified, therefore the delivery should be smooth and contain nothing jarring either in sound or consonants, the tones clear, the inflections harmonic.

SYNTHESIS: Greek syn, with, together; tithemiy to place, put; to put together. It is a figure whereby two words are joined into one by a hyphen, as ** The tempest- tossed seas," " The green-mantled earth," " The master- feather in the eagle's wing." — Chatham.

SYNTHETON: Same derivation as Synthesis; is when two words are joined by a conjunction, as when we say "end and aim," "time and tide," "rank and fortune." Gen. xviii. 27: "Dust and ashes." Acts vii. 22: Moses was " mighty in words and in deeds."

SYSTROPHE— TAXIS— THESIS— TRADUCTIO 439

SYSFROPHE: Greek cru, together; o-rpetpco, to coil or twist; is a form of speech by which the orator brings in many definitions of one thing, yet not such definitions as declare the substance of a thing by the general kind and the difference which the art of reasoning prescribes; but others of another kind, all heaped together.

Example: Cicero: ** A history is the testimony of times, the light of verity, the maintenance of memory, the cheerful- ness of life, and the messenger of antiquity."

Use : This figure is an ornament of singular grace and eloquence, serving aptly and most elegantly to commend virtues and dispraise vice.

Caution : It is not good Vo use this ornament too much, nor too often, nor in using it make too many definitions of one thing. ,

Delivery : As this is an ornament of eloquence, and its phraseology is elegant, the delivery should " flow," as described by Quintillian, " gently, like a clear stream."

TAXIS : Greek tasso, taxo^ to arrange, to put in order, to assign to a class; is a figure or form of speech which distributes to , every subject the most proper and natural adjunct.

Use: This figure is a singular ornament of eloquence, for it ministers a pleasant harmony to the ear.

Caution : Take heed not to attribute improper adjuncts to the subjects, as it is absurd to attribute weeping to a valiant captain, or to say that rich men are envied for their wisdom, holy m.en for their wealth. This vice is called Acyrologia. *

THESIS: Greek tithemi, to place, fix, establish; is a form of speech by which the orator determines the position which he pioposes to maintain. Webster's Dictionary says it is a position or proposition ^hich a person advances and offers to maintain, or which is actually maintained by argu- ment.

This is the same as Prothesis, which is a setting forth or placing forward. (For delivery and other observations see fig. Propositio, which is the same in Latin.)

TRADUCTIO: Latin tra, across; ducere, to lead; to lead across; is a figure of words whereby, according to Quintillian, a transition from one signification to another is made — e.g., " A pest repressed for a time but not sup- pressed forever." When the literal and figurative are joined, they are of great effect, as "He purchased immortality by death." "He did not die on the embassy, but dwelt upon it." It is also a repetition of the same word in the same sentence, as Ploce, which fig. see— ^.^., ''To the weak, I became weak to win the weak."

440 VISION

VISION: Latin videre, to see; visio^ sight; is that form of speech which is called largely the imciginative, because it proceeds from a lively imagination. Quintillian s,ays : ** A man of a lively imagination vividly represents to himself things, voices, actions, with the exactness of reality ; and this faculty may be readily acquired by others if they desire it. When, for example, the mind is unoccupied and we are indulging in chimerical hopes and dreams, as of men awake, the images of which I am speaking beset us closely that we seem to be on a journey, on a voyage, in a battle, haranguing assemblies of people, to dispose of wealth which we do not possess, and not to be thinking but acting, shall we not turn this lawless power of our minds to our advan- tage? " Respecting this great power of vision as concerns the orator, Cicero says: "Memory is the business of the orator, and ii is order that gives distinction to memory. The following comes into play in Vision: (i) The Mental Eye; things to be well remembered must be recommended to our imagination by the mental eye. A kind of form, resemblance and representation might denote invisible objects, and are retained by the aid of the visual faculty such as are in their nature from the cognizance of sight. By these imaginary forms or objects, as by those that come under our corporal vision, our memory is admonished and excited; but some place for them must be imagined, as bodily shape cannot be conceived without a place for it.

(2) We must fancy many plain distinct -places at moderate distances, and such symbols as are impressive, striking and well-marked, so that they may present themselves to the mind and act upon it with the greatest quickness. An entire sentence may be called up from the symbol of a single word.

(3) The memory of things is the proper business of the orator. Words at the command of a practised speaker serve him to substitute any word forgotten, and thus we may be able to impress our audience by the creation of imaginary figures aptly arrayed to represent particular heads, so that we may recollect thoughts by images and their order by place. (4) Those things are most easily retained in our minds that are imprinted on it by the senses, seeing, hear- ing, etc. (a symbol is a sign, as of some place or thing seen, heard or felt, etc.). It is not true that memory is preserved by the weight of the representations, they must be connected with some place, some association to call them up." As Quintillian says, we imagine the sofa, for instance, with its place in the room. One scene will call up its associa- tions, and if a word is forgotten another will soon arise to take its place, if the scene be clear in one's mind. Wherever there is a clear scene before the mind there is fluency of speech.

ZEUGMA 441

ZEUGMA: Greek ^euyvvfii, to join, link together, to yoke; ^61)709, any pair or couple; ^evjfia^ band or bond. It is a figure of speech whereby some word is put in the first clause and is omitted in the following — e.g., Cicero: " For neither art thou he, Catiline, whom at any time shame could call back from dishonesty; either fear, from peril; or reason, from madness/* Here the verb ** call back" is the common word which is expressed in the first clause and understood in the rest following. It is a figure of words or of construction when one verb or adjective answering nearer to the divers nominative cases or substan- tives is reduced to the one expressly, but to the others by supplement.

There are various kinds of Zeugma : Prozeugma, when the verb or adjective is placed at the be^innrng; Meso- zeuema, when the verb or adjective is placed in the middle ; Hypozeue^ma, when placed at the end ; and Diazeugma, the zeugma throughout.

U se : This is a very pleasant ornament, serving well to delight the ear regarding commendable brevity; whereby the tedious repetition of a word is artificially avoided.

Caution : Observe a medium that there be not too many clauses lest the common word be obscured; for if there follow too many members after the first, it may be forgotten, and likewise of a word in the midst; and if there be too many clauses put before the last clause wherein it is ex- pressed, it holds the mind of the hearer in too long a suspense. Avoid this figure in writing testaments and in evidence.

"^"^2 Forms of Oratorical Style

or The Peri Idion By HERMOGENES, THE GRECIAN

whose eloquence tired all Rome and whose rhetorical works, for three centuries, were the text-books in the Roman Schools.

A Summary Translation from the Greek Text and Richard Volkmann's " Hermagoras " oder Elemente der Rhetoric, published in Leipsic in 1865.

Hermoj^enes gives seven Forms of Oratorical Style and their subdivisioris, and shows how, by skilful application of them, the orator is certain to gain his end ; also comments on the Figures which mainly correspond to each Style.

The teaching of the varieties of style has received a peculiar and indeed^ as we often hear, an indepenclent development at the hands of Hermogenes. His view, when closely examined, is only the consequent development of three thoughts, which we already meet with in the earlier orators. Firstly, that the varieties of style are by no means exhausted in the said division into three or four parts, that there are at least many subdivisions, all sorts of transitions by many different steps from one kind to another. Secondly, that the speaker must have unlimited power over all the varieties of style. Thirdly, that the different kind of style in its peculiar idiosyncrasy, is more affected by the contents and form than by a fixed use of Figures and a special composition. Hermogenes develops his theory of ideas, and force from these thoughts. His teaching amounts, principally, to the following : Hermogenes regards as a petfect model of Oratorical Style, that of Demosthenes. In this, all the primi- tive forms or ideas of style are set forth with equal mastery and in the most varied diversity, so that each comes to its full value or effect at the proper time and in the proper place. There are seven of such primitive forms : Sapheneia (clearness), Megethos (exalted expression), Kallos (beauty), Gorgotes (vivacity), Ethos (characterization), Aletheia (fervour, sincerity). Demotes (true eloquence) — Hermogenes pp. 268, 274. (See p. 447.)

These are, therefore, the ideas or forms of oratorical style which exist partly by themselves, and partly fall under subordinate divisions, also partly enter into combination with one another. The speech itself, however, apart from the form in which it appears, comes into being through eight fixed elements, to all of which the idea belonging to each individual case gives its fixed stamp, but which, on the other hand, is also of importance for marking out the ideas. The speech, then, firstly consists of one or more thoughts, secondly of the method, that is to say the exposition of the thoughts, and thirdly of the Expression which is connected with both. With the Expression are also connected the figures, the formation of the cola, the composition and conclusion, which together give the rhythm, that, in addition, has something of its own. According to the different ideas Cforms) these elements are of different importance. On the whole, it depends first on the thought, then on the expression, next on the figure of words, and then on the figures of thought, which forms the method. In the Deinotes, it is true, the figure of thought is of decisive importance. At the end come the composition and the conclusion, (p. 272.)

The First Form of Oratorical Style — Clearness.

The first idea is the Sapheneia, that is to say clearness of the style. It is created by Eucrineia (lucidity) and Catharotes (purity, cleanness). * The thought is pure when it is intelligible in itself. The method consists in the simple communication of the facts without the use of accessories. The Peristatica (details, circumstances) are excluded. The expression or style requires intelligible words with an avoidance of tropes and of words that are hard-sounding in themselves. The figure is the Orthotes, that is to say one relates in the nominative and not in a subordinate participial construction. The Hyperbaton is allowable throughout. The cola must be short, commatic, and make sense of themselves. The composition' is simple without troubling about the avoidance of the Hiatus. The Rhythm must be iambic or trochaic — these rhythms are connected most closely with ordinary speech — at the beginning of the cola ; further on in the sentence they must be more numerous than dactyls and anapests ; at the conclusion they must again appear with or without catalexis. The Catharotes (purity) comes to the assistance of the Eucrineia. It consists, principally, in the method of communicating things in their

SECOND FORM OF ORATORICAL STYLE 443

naiural order, therefore setting forth arguments (objections) before giving the solution of the same. All thoughts are clear which form a transition to the following thought and at the same time introduce it. Divisions, propositions,, transitions, classification and enumeration are designated as Figures of Clear- ness. To these, also, belong questions which the speaker addresses to himself and then answers, also short recapituations and reference to what has already been said (epanalepsis). The opposite of the Sapheneia (clearness) is Asaphei(t~ (indistinctness), and used in a degenerate or common form, it leads to Eusteles, (paltryness) and Tapeinon (poverty). The opposite of Eucrineia (orderly arrangement) is Syncrisis (confusion).

The Second Form of Oratorical Style — Grandeur.

In order to avoid the degenerate form there must be a certain grandeur and dignity, so Hermogenes thus advances to the consideration of the second idea, the Megethos (greatness), a synonym with Ogkos (roll, weight, importance, grandeur).

We may here remark that Ogkos as used by the orators has by no means a bad signification, as our word " bombast," but the " os magnum " which expresses sublimity. Sophocles had already spoken of the Ogkos (exalted expression, grandeur) of ^4ischylus. Therefore Ogkos is the speech provided with exalted expression. The Megethos (grandeur) is broken up into sub- divisions as follows : Semnotes (dignified thought), Peribole (amplitude),, Trachytes (harshness or abruptness), the Latnprotes (brilliancy of portrayal). Acme (the force of the portrayal), and Sphodrotes (the vehemence of the expression), which is quite identical with Trachytes (harshness). Of these, the two first stand by themselves, the others affect one another in a more or less contrary manner. (1) First of all, therefore, is Semnotes (Dignity). Dignified thoughts are thoughts of the gods, without antropopathic admixture,, religious thoughts in general, thoughts concerning the universe and what is in it, thoughts about natural phenomena, the ethical thoughts concerning the soul and the immortality of the same, concerning duty, law and the like, thoughts about the important events of history and the life of man. The dignified method indulges in definite statements, it is true, but it is fond of the allegorical and the symbolic. The dignified expression requires a certain breadth and fulness in the delivery, especially in the vowels and in the final syllables, and especially words with many long vowels and diphthongs — with the exception of " ie " and corresponding final syllables ; also words with a long final syllable and the vowel *' o " in the one preceding. Tropes are also required, but not in great number. In the speech, the use of the nouns and nominal words, such as participles and pronouns, must predominate ; as few verbs as possible. All the figures which make the expression pure, assist in lending it dignity ; then the Epicrisis, that is to say the explicit confirmation of a previous thought in a generally current, not merely subjective or limiting^ form ; while it is otherwise dignified. Apostrophes and Hypostrophes, that is to say parenthetical interpolations, are to be avoided. As in the case of purity, the cola must be as short as possible. The composition is not toa particular about the hiatus. It is fond of dactyls, anapests, paeons, some- times iambic, and still more spondaic rhythms, also epitrites, hut avoids trochaic and Ionics. One of these rhythms must also form the conclusion, but without catalexis, in order to avoid the trochaic, if possible with a noun of three or more syllables of preponderate length, and, if possible, full-toned vowels.

Secondly, the Trachytes, that is the Jiarshncss cr abruptness of the exp'"es- sion. .All thoughts are harsh in which persons of lower rank make reproaches in a bare, unconcealed manner to any one of a higher rank or to the judges or the assembled company. The expression is rendered harsh through words which are harsh in themselves, and through abrupt or harsh metaphors. As a figure, the form of command or the reproachful interrogation are suitable. The commatic construction of the sentence is preferable. In the composition, the hiatus is specially aimed at, and everything of a rhythmical nature avoided. The conclusion must be formed, now by one foot, now by another. The vehemence of expression, the Trachytes, is related to the Sphodrotes. In this case, blame and reproaches are not addressed to those of a higher standing,, but against such persons whose condemnation is agreeable to those present.

444 THIRD FORM OF ORATORICAL STYLE

In it, abuse is hurled forth (Demosthenes vs. Aristogiton). The method is the same as for harshness, also the expression. The speaker may here form harsh words himself. Of the figures, the Apostrophe may be used with advan- tage, also the question addressed to the opponent, at the same time pointing at him with the finger. The commata are used as little as possible. The composition is also the same as in the case of harshness.

The Lamprotes (Brilliancy of Expression) renders the harshness and vehemence somewhat milder, so that it does not degenerate into roughness. The thoughts are brilliant to which the speaker can give utterance with a certain confidence, because he knows that he can reckon on the applause of the auditors. Thoughts which possess a certain moral greatness and a justifi- able pride (Demosthenes on the Crown) and which should be delivered confidently, without doubting or wavering, may assuredly be called into service. The dignified expression is also brilliant. Of the figures. Negations are em- ployed ; "not with stones and bricks have I walled this city round," and Apostascis, that is to say one separates the thoughts from one another, and with these forms single sentences. The cola must be rather long, and are asyndetically joined to one another ;' the Orthotes (relating in the nominative, etc.) is interrupted by Plagiasmos, that is to say by the employment of dependent participial construction in the " casibus obliquis " (oblique cases). In brilliant expression, amplification should be employed. The composition is the same as in the Semnotes (Dignity). In the formation of a dignified con- clusion, trochaic rhythm can, however, appear.

The Acme (Force of Expression) consists in the union of the Harshness and the Vehement with the Brilliant, and indeed the thoughts and methods are the same as those in the harsh and vehement. The expression is a mixture of those and of the brilliant ; the same is the case in regard to the figures, and everything else is as in the brilliant.

The last subdivision of the Grand and Dignified is the Peribole (the Amplitude of the expression). Demosthenes has made the greatest use just of this. The opposite of this is the Purity mentioned at first. The amplifica- tion shows itself in the thought when, in addition to that of which it is a question, something outside is added, as genus to species, the undefined to the defined, the whole to the part. Such additions may also add to the clearness, however opposed the latter may otherwise be to the amplification ; further, when the things are not simply announced beforehand or prewarned, but with due regard for the Peristatica (Circumstances), and by bringing in all kinds of amplifying additions, if the matter in question would not have taken place, as well as which has not taken place. In this method the natural order of events is inverted, the last is said first, then reference is made to what has already been said, the foundations and amplifications being placed before the period itself.

It gives no special expression to this sort of portrayal if one does not reckon the piling up of synonvms with it, which really belongs to the said method, as also the Epimone (the long dwelling on, or also repetition of one and the same figure). Of the figures, all those are suitable for amplification in which to a single thought others are brought together, therefore enumera- tions, divisions, construction of parts and everything similar, the taking up again of a thread which has been broken by an interpolation, hvpothetical divisions, dependent participial construction, the Figure Arsis and Thesis, that is to say a " but " after a preceding negation, and the parenthesis. There is nothing special to be said concerning cola, conclusion, and rhythm. Every composition is allowed except that which is characteristic of the Katharotes (Purity). A very detailed Penbole (Amplitude) has the special name Mestoies (fulness of express-ion).

The Third Form of Oratorical Style — Beauty. To the Distinctness and Grandeur of Expression, a certain beauty must now be added. This is the third idea Kallos (beauty). The expression must have a certain colouring {Chroma). This beauty shows itself in the symmetry of the construction of the parts and divisions, in connection with an agreeable colouring which is evenly distributed over the whole Ethos (Character), see Fig. Ethos. Plato means this, when he says in Phredrus a beautiful speech

FOURTH FORM OF ORATORICAL STYLE 445

resembles a living organically constructed being. The beauty of expression^ otherwise closely connected with Brilliancy and Force, consists essentially in the Expression and Composition connected with it, but not in the singularity of the thought or of the method.

The expression is beautiful when it is simple, or pure. Therefore, Iso- crates who laid special weight on the beauty of expression, has made use of tropes to a limited extent Short words and those consisting of few syllables- possess quite special beauty, and the character of carefulness. Of the figures, the domain of the Parison belongs to this place, which appears largely in Isocrates, but which is scarcely represented in Demosthenes, at least in a pure state, as the latter laid more stress on Deinotes than exactly on the beauty of the expression. Then there are the Epanaphora at the head of the cola, the Antistrophe at the end, the Epanastrophe and such like ; the Climax, but to be used in moderation, the Hyperbaton, the figures Antiphrasis, Double Negations which appear, and the Polyptoton. The cola require moderate length and careful avoidance of the Hiatus. When several cola are connected with one period, the last must be longer than the preceding one. The com- position must be rhythmical throughout and closely related to verse, without really being verse. For this purpose, the feet of which the rhythmical lines consist, must relate to one another and suit one another ; the divisions of the speech, of which the rhythm consists, must have the same number of syllables, the same quantity and the same accent. The conclusion requires a long, final syllable with one or two short ones preceding it. A long closing word of one syllable is of great effect. • '

The Fourth Form of Oratorical Style — Vivacity.

The fourth Idea is the Gorgotes (Vivacity of Expression). It must be added to the three mentioned, so that these may not prove wearisome employed alone. Thought, as such, cannot be termed lively, penetrating ; witty thoughts would, then, have to be added. Vivacity lies much more in the method than in the expression. The former consists of bringing in everywhere as many telling passages as possible. For this purpose, short objections and their equally short repudiations, and the Apostrophe, are used. The monotony of the speech is avoided by Hypostrophe, that is to say short interpolations. The Figures by which the speech gains in telling passages are especially the- commatic Asyndeton, commatic enumeration of names, commatic Epanaphora, short Symploce, which, however, must not stretch over the whole period. The expression also gains in vivacity by the already mentioned Plagiasmos and Systrophe, that is to say by rounding off the sentences. The words must be as short as possible. The composition requires careful avoidance of the Hiatus and trochaic rhythm. A trochaic word, however, must form the conclusion.

The Fifth Form of Oratorical Style — Characterisation. The fifth idea is the Ethos, one might say the characterisation of the portrayal or character in the expression. It may be equally divided over the whole speech, but may also appear mixed among the other ideas. It is pro- duced by Epieikeia (fairness, equity), Apheleia (simplicity), and in the true- and close Endiatheton (from the heart) which appear in them. The Barytas (gravity of manners, solemnity, etc.) belongs to this to a certain extent ; it can, however, only appear in combination with other kinds of Ethical Expres- sion. The Apheleia is what we designate Naivete. The thoughts are homely and simple, childish, indeed they border on the trivial. Examples from the animal world, especially those taken from nature are naive. Everything coincides with Catharotes (cleanness, purity). The combination of Naivete and Beauty leads to Glycytes (sweetness), to the charm of expression, which does not differ from Ahrotes (delicacy), and Logos Oraios (the word in the right place and at the right tipie) (p. 368). All the mythical narratives (Demos- thenes vs. Aristocrates 65 ff.) are charming, only the speaker must, when making use of them, deliver them in a somewljat lively manner, thus providing them with Gorgotes (vivacity). The following is the passage above mentioned respecting mythical narration, Arist. 65: — "We, men of Athens, created Charidemus a citizen, and by means of such grant we admitted him to civil

446 SIXTH FORM OF ORATORICAL STYLE

and religious communion, to partake in our legal rights in all that we ourselves enjoy. There are many institutions among us of a character not to be found elsewhere, but one there is the most peculiar of all, and the most highly venerable, the court of Areopagus, respecting which we have more glorious traditions and myths, and more honourable testimonies of our own than we have of any other tribunal ; of which it is proper you should hear one or two by way of example. In ancient times, as we are informed by tradition, the Gods in this Tribunal alone deigned both to demand and to render justice for murder, and to sit in judgment upon disputes between each other ; so says the legend : Neptune demanded justice of Mars on behalf of his son Halirr- hothius, and the twelve Gods sat in judgment between the Furies and Orestes. Such are its ancient glories, despot nor oligarchy nor democracy have ventured to deprive it of its jurisdiction in murder : all people consider that any process of their own invention would be less efficacious than that devised by the Areopagus — In contempt of this jurisdiction and of the legal remedies attached to it, the author of the present decree has empowered Charidemus in his lifetime to do what he pleases, and, in case any disaster should befall him, has given the means of persecution to his friends." Further narratives, con tinues Hermogenes, from the heroic period, which touch on the pure myth, and then, everything which awakens our fancy, such as descriptions of beautiful neighbourhoods, no less than whatever flatters our self-love. Thoughts are also charming in which lifeless things and those without will, are treated as having a soul and a will, as the naive statement of Socrates in the Platonic Phaedrus, p. 230 D., or the address which Herodotus puts into the mouth of Xerxes, and which the latter addressed to the sea, chastised by him ; and also when animals have feelings and sensibilities attributed to them. The naive and poetical expression is charming. Therefore, the interweaving of poetical words in prose makes a charming expression, while this is, however, not equal to the express quotation of a poetical passage. The poetical Epitheta also make the speech charming. Figures and composition are the same as in Beauty ; the dignified rhythm must preponderate. The Drimytes (wit) and Oxytes (penetration, sharpness, cleverness, pungency) are connected with the naive, therefore the thoughts, as Hermogenes says, in which a certain depth is visible on the surface. They lie, however, more in the method and in the construction than in the thought, as for example, in the equivocal, double play with the different meanings of a word, the Paronomasia, the surpassing of a single metaphor by a bolder. The Epieikeia (the well-meaning, modest equitableness) shows itself, when anyone instead of exacting his full rights, contents himself, in the consideration of mitigating circumstances, with moderate demands, when the speaker puts himself on the same level as the hearers, when he shows that they would act exactly in the same manner as he himself, and when he emphasises the point that he is to a certain extent forced by the opponent to take up his legal position. On the other hand, the accused can also say that he has only been put into this position because he could not make up his mind to take harsh measures. The method consists in speaking with a certain modesty of oneself, and willingly to slur over one's good qualities, and to mitigate that which has to be said with heat against the opponent, without exclusion, however, of irony. The orator speaks cau- tiously, with doubt and within limits. Figure Paralepsis is admitted. The Epieikeia (fairness, equity) is, in other respects, the same as the Katharotes (cleanness), and Apheleia (simplicity).

The Sixth Form of Oratorical Style — Fervour. The Stamp of Truth and Fervour, that is to say the inward participation of the speaker in what he says, the Aietheia (truth and fervour, frankness and sincerity) was fixed by Hermogenes as the sixth idea ; in the second book, however, on p. 375, there appears the Logos Alethes or Alethinos (the true, actual, sincere words) as a subdivision (a secondary kind) of the ethical or Ethos ; should the expression which presupposes naivete and moderation of the thought receive utterance, etc., in a preponderating degree through Method Figure, then the exclamations, which are here in place, be they involuntary asseverations and appeals to the gods, attestations of astonishment or admira- tion, abuse of the opponent, all belong to the domain of Method. Here great

SEVENTH FORM OF ORATORICAL STYLE 447

care must be taken not to announce the utterance of an emotion whereby the whole effect would disappear. Everything must come in, as it were, of itself. Therefore, in order to give the expression the stamp of truth, the removal of objections (rejoinders) must be introduced asyndetically. Another method con- sists in the designed or intentional Anacolouthon as a consequence of the too strong emotion. The bringing in of something as if one had almost forgotten it, or as if it occurred to one just at the right time, also belongs here. Th^ expression must be harsh, violent, it may contain words formed by oneself. All the figures of the Sphodrote (vehemence) may also be employed here, further, Aposiopesis, Epicrisis, Epidiorthosis. The composition is as in the Sphodrotes. Should the speaker, however, wish to excite sympathy through the logos endiathetos drotes (heart to heart, voice of tears), then, the expression must take the character of the Apheleia (simplicity). The Barytes (gravity of manners, weight, importunity, harshness) complains of ingratitude experienced and proceeds very often in reproaches, often with an ironical Epieikeia (fair- ness) ; irony is, indeed, its principal method.

The Seventh Form of Oratorical Style — True Eloquence.

In the application at the right time of all the Ideas cited up till now, as well as the employment of all the other rhetorical rules, the last idea consists in the Demotes (p. 388) (true eloquence), which must be distinguished from m.erely apparent Demotes of the older and newer sophists, who in the case of the want of genuine, inward contents, mostly sought to call forth the appear- ance of eloquence by the art of the expression (p. 395). The genuine Demotes gives the logos politicos (stately speech, befitting a statesman), the perfect artistic representation or expression, as in the classical orators, and above all, of Demosthenes.

It is divided into three kinds : the judicial, deliberative (counselling) and the panegyrical speech. In the judicial speech proper, the Ethos prevails, Apheleia (simplicity) and Epieikeia (mildness) ; the Barytes (harshness) retires ; in the deliberative, the Idea of Greatness prevails, the Ethos retires, the greatness lies in the prolixity of the thought ; in the panegyrical proper, the greatness comes to the foreground, with the exclusion of harshness and vehemence ; naivete and charm pervade everywhere. It is nearly all narrative, therefore the vivacity of expression almost disappears. This is not the place to submit the theory of Hermogenes in single parts to criticism. Only one thing is clear and that is this, it would have gained in clearness by the consideration of the kinds of oratorical style which are not oratorical.

* Catharotes or Purity consists in not using obsolete terms or construc- tions, nor those that are newly coined, neither foreign nor provincial ; propriety in avoiding vulgarisms, and discriminating between words of the same root — civil, civilian — precision in discriminating between synonyms — behaviour, con- duct. The Sapheneia or Clearness avoids obscurity, bad arrangement, amphibology, wrong ellipsis, equivocation and ambiguity. Acme or Force is vivacious and strong, avoids all unnecessary words (see Asyndeton). It puts the weaker idea first, and casts, for deeper effect, contrasts in the Parison or Isocolon, e.g., *' Homer was the greater genius, Virgil the better artist ; in one we admire the man, in the other, the work."

1 The Megethos or Dignified has its own peculiar cast ; the Sublime is generally framed in the simplest language — " God said let there be light and there was light." The elements of sublimity are chiefly: the vast, the powerful, the obscure, as a mountain towering through the mist, darkness, stillness, disorder, as rocks naturally lying in confusion. These, when described, give pleasurable emotion of elevation, and as these emotions are of short duration, because " too violent to be lasting," the expression should, therefore, be clear, forcible, concise and simple. The Kallos or Beautiful is different, as the emotions aroused are like those aroused from contemplating a pleasant object, and as they continue longer the language may be more expanded, and ornament may be used. The description may be less rapid, less vehement, more gentle and subdued^ — Cicero's orations were beautiful, Demos- thenes' sublime. The Deinotes almost treads on the verge of poetry, it is srriooth, it is flowing ; it is rhythm, never verse ; it is harmony and unity. It is true eloquence.

448

Recent Orators and Those of the Great War

British and American.

The Rt. Hon. W. E. GLADSTONE, M.R

HIS ORATORY, DELIVERY, AND SOME NOTES FROM EMINENT CONTEMPORARY AND SUB- SEQUENT CRITICS.

William Ewart Gladstone, the most distinguished of British orators since the days of Charles James Fox, was born December 29th, 1809, ^^^ died May 19th, 1898. Many who sat under the spell of his wonderful eloquence are now living, and recount with admiration the marvellous eftects of his great speeches. He was four times Prime Minister, and up to the famous Midlothian Campaign, when he was seventy, he had served as a Member of Parliament forty-seven years, and had been a member of the Cabinet twenty years. At this advanced age, due to proper cultivation and production, his voice was still clear and resonant. One of his distinguishing features was the piercing glance of his eye. Such an eye had Demos- thenes, Chatham, Whitefield and Clay. He was a great scholar, particularly in the Greek and Latin. In the former, a source from which British statesmanship has constantly drawn, he was well versed.

Mr. Gladstone was a hard student of eloquence, and devoted himself much to its practice. In his Homeric studies, Vol. III., he observes that the work of the orator from its very inception is inextricably mixed up with practice. He closely applied himself to Quintillian and to Cicero's " De Oratore." Tha study of the latter, together with his earnestness and extensive knowledge of the subject he had under discussion, largely accounted for his prolixity, notwithstanding his mastery of Aristotle and Thucydides.

He gave six suggestions on the art of speaking, as follows : (i) Study plainness of language, always preferring the simpler word. (2) Shortness of sentences. (3) Distinctness of articu- lation. (4) Test and question your own arguments beforehand, not waiting for critic or opponent. (5) Seek a thorough digestion of and familiarity with your subject, and rely mainlv on these to prompt the proper words. (6) Remember that if you are to sway an audience you must, besides think- ing out your own matter, watch them all along.

These are splendid suggestions, but John Morley in his "Life of Gladstone" says that the first two hardly fit him. His voice was remarkably well trained, and he understood its production so thoroughly that he could speak for a very long time without hoarseness, his voice being as clear at the

I

From a painting at 10 Downing Street, by Sir John E, Millais, P.R.A.

THE RIGHT HON. WILLIAM E. GLADSTONE, M.P.

Principal Forms of Oratorical Expression used by the Right Hon. William E. Gladstone. His master-figures are those in italics : Aitiology, Amplification, Anadiplosis, Anaphora, Antithesis, Argumentum, Arsis and Thesis, Attitude, Circumlocution, Compar, Diffuseness, Digresio, Echo, Emphatic Repetition, Enumeratio, Epanalepsis, Epanaphora, Epanados, Eperotesis, Epilogue, Epiphonema, Erotema, Expolitio, Gnome, Homceoteleuton, Hyperbaton, Hypophora, Hypothesis, Isocolon, Parallelism, Parenthesis, Parison, Parcemion, Paromology, Paronomasia, Pathopceia, Periodos, Peroratio, Pisteis, Polysyndeton, Procatalepsis, Prooimion, Protrope, Rhythmus, Sarcasmus, Sermocinatio, Syntheton, Synonymia, Tritheton.

WILLIAM E. GLADSTONE

449

end as at the beginning. While speaking he stood perfectly erect. The clearness^ fulness, resonance, depth and variety of his tones were the results of cultivation and practice. His fluency, and as one writer styles it "super-exuberant rush of words," added strength to his eloquence, and over- whelmed his audience. He understood so well the quantity of syllables that one writer says it was impossible for him to make a false quantity, and he could use the largo e sostenuto to great effect, as seen in his Waverley speech, where his syllables and deep tones slowly and rhythmically rolled to the farthest limits of the great hall. He was also master of Ars celare artem^ in that the art was so concealed in his well-prepared speeches that it appeared natural, and he was the greatest exponent of the histrionic art as laid down by Aristotle, in that his eye, mouth, voice and gesture all concurred to express the one thought dominant in the mind at the time. He was a good reciter, and largely interested * ^ j^ j„ ^^e name of m Homer, Dante, hymnology and poetry, the religion which the Sir Wemyss Reid said he remembered vast bulk of us believe to

the solemn roll of his voice as he de- be holy, which we believe

claimed the last stanza of Scott's version to be the greatest and the

of ''Dies Irae." «"^y ' ^^"^ treasure of

His epilogues were magnificent, beau- --^?', \ ^J^^ ^11 tifully composed, and delivered with ^^^j^ ^p^^ ^^^^ a resource faultless accent, suitable emphasis and —though of course, it is graceful gesture. His perorations usually •primarily, bro^adiy, and ended in final harmony, appropriate and mainly on the ground of

effective. *^^* which we are here to

• His eloquence reached its pinnacle discuss-namely, consti-

T • J 1 u'^ *. „ i-u^ tutional law and political

on religious and moral subjects, as the ^.^^^^_^ ^^^^ ^\ ^^^ Bradlaugh Relief Bill, where he advo- ^^^ ^^ gj^^ ^^^^ ^^se^t to cated the admission of Bradlaugh to the second reading of this Parliament on the grounds of justice. Bill." the Bulgarian atrocities, etc.

He was master of invective, denunciation and impas- sioned speech. His " flight from the prosaic into the oratorical and the poetical " won great admiration, and his sustained ' eloquence, not the rhapsodical bursts with which Demosthenes

' Illus. London News.

Phot., Walter Wilson—

R. Taylor & Co.

* Gladstone's pose in delivering the Peroration of the Religious Disability Bill. ^ Parcemion, ' Double Parenthesis, ^ Homoeoteleuton, * Epanalepsis, ■ Protrope.

450

WILLIAM E. GLADSTONE

Drawn from a statue in Manchester.

Stunned the intellect, together with his wonderful personality, his gleaming falcon eye and bell-like voice, his countenance alert and mobile, his vehement gestures, made his speeches full of inspiration.

John Bright, his great contemporary and political associate, defined the differ- ence between his own oratory and that of Gladstone thus : " Here is the chart of an argument. There are three or four prominent headlands. I dwell on them at length, and so do you. But you go into all the little creeks and bays and inlets, and enlarge on them with equal detail and elaboration, instead of bringing out the great promontories of your argument forcibly, and so your audiences lose sight of them. When you use so many small arguments, people think you have no big ones. I leave out the creeks and dwell on' the projecting headlands only. If 1 can convince a hearer of one of them, • Excoriating the Bui- J have got him . But you dwell on small garian atrocities. ^nd great arguments alike.**

The following are some extracts of Mr. Gladstone's speeches, with figures noted therein :

His Early Oratorical Training — Studies Aristotle.

" Gladstone was early trained in speaking in the Eton debating society . . . unless he happened to be travelling, and he resumed work in the evening. Eight o'clock saw him once more engaged in a stiff hout with Aristotle, or plunged deep tn the text of Thucydides. . . . There were many directions in which Mr. Gladstone's energetic genius found vent, but perhaps none so appropriately as the ' Oxford Union ' Debating Society, with which he became closely connected. He was a strong believer in this kind of practice to aid in the development of oratory, and the last writing that is to be found under his name in the Eton Miscellany, was a strong appeal to, Etonians to support the Debating Society to their utmost. Possibly the ' Oxford Union ' was responsible to a large extent for the training of Mr. Gladstone as a Parliamentary orator." — " Life Pictures and Career of the Late Rt. Hon. W. E. Gladstone," published 1898, by Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co., Ltd.

His Eloquence, Manners and Appearance — 1859.

** Mr. Gladstone is incomparably the best speaker in the House. . . . It must have been noticed by readers of the debates in Parliament that Gladstone seldom evokes either cheers or laughter. The reason why he is not cheered is that he seldom deals in sentiment. . . . He is a close reasoner, and close reasoning may hold the attention, but never evokes the cheers of the House. .A.nd, as to laughter, he never attempts a witticism.

" Mr. Gladstone's manner when speaking is generally energetic. When he is very earnestly pursuing his argument, he throws back his right arm until his hand touches his shoulder, and then throws it out again. When he is less earnest — when he is introducing a fresh argument — ^his favourite position is bolt upright, with the finger of his right hand placed in the palm of his left.

" Mr. Gladstone is about the middle height. . . . He is now a little round-shouldered, and his legs are too slight for his bodily frame, which is, however, not massive ; . . . And, moreover, though his broad forehead is

6 Gladstone using the gesture of negation, see Fig. Ominatio, p. 323.

WILLIAM E. GLADSTONE

451

still unwrinkled, and his fine black earnest eyes are undimmed, his face is deeply furrowed and careworn." — " Popular Life of the Right Honourable W. E. Gladstone," Vizetelly and Co.

From " Popular Life of the Right Honble. W. E. Gladstone," Vizetelly and Co. Gladstone using the Synthetic — the most powerful gesture in the conversational realm — in the demolition of Disraeli's first budget, 1852.

Gladstone Speaking in the House of Commons.

" Even to look at him when in the full flood of oratory was an inspiring sight. His eyes gleamed with marvellous light. Every muscle of his mobile face was in action. Every turn of successive sentences — and his sentences were exceedingly sinuous — had its appropriate gesture. ... A favourite action in the frenzy of argument was to hold out his left hand palm, and beat it wiih his right, the resounding clap sometimes drowning the sound of the very word he desired to emphasise. In the same mood he banged the brass-bound box with a violence that threatened dislocation of the finger joints. For the most part Mr. Gladstone's oratory swept on a stately, now and then tumultuous flood, pitched on levels of loftiest heights. . . .

" When Lord Randolph had made an end of speaking, Mr. Gladstone sprang up with catapultic celerity. For a moment he held on to the box at arm's length, drawing himself up to fullest height with a genial smile upon his countenance. ... In half-a-dozen sentences of exquisitely modulated speech Mr. GladsTone, . . . played with Lord Randolph, and finally rolled him aside, turning his attention, as he said, to more serious matters. This was all very well to begin with, but warming with his work, the Premier proceeded through a series of gymnastic exercises that would have left an ordinary man of half his years pale and breathless. Watching him as he brought down his strong right hand on the Blue Book from which he had just quoted, new- comers understood the fervency with which Mr. Disraeli once thanked God that the table intervened between him and his lifelong rival. . . . Some- times with both hands raised rigid above his head ; often with left elbow leaning on the table and right hand with closed fist shaken at the head of some inoffending country gentleman on the back benches opposite ; anon standing half a step back from the table with left hand hanging at his side and the right uplifted so that he might with thumbnail lightly touch the shining crown of his head, he trampled his way through the arguments of the adversary as an elephant in an hour of aggravation rages through the jungle. . . . But in respect of originality, multiplicity, and vehemence of gesture, Mr. Gladstone, as in some others things, beat the record of human achievement." — " The Right Honourable W. E. Gladstone. A Study from Life," Henry W. Lucy; published 1898 by W. H. Allen & Co., Ltd., London.

452 WILLIAM E. GLADSTONE

As a Budget Orator and Debater.

" His Budget oratory is hard to describe or analyse. . . . The famous Budget quotations of 1860 — triumph for Free-trade. The speech contained many happy allusions and sentences. It was both an oration and a magnificent state-paper combined. The crowding ideas, the beautiful imagery, the accurate sentences, the perfect wording and balancing of parts, the whole appearance of the man, combined to make the effort a remarkable one." — " Life and Work of Mr. Gladstone," J. Castell Hopkins, 1898.

" With skill of an artist, Mr. Gladstone marshalled his figures and facts, each in its right perspective, bringing out the salient points with an emphasis that prevented the auditor from losing sight of them. . . . He could mak'e a budget speech as fascinating as a romance . . . and could draw lessons for the guidance of the human race even from the figures of our imports and exports. As a debater, he stands without a rival in the House of Commons . . his pale face twitches, his magnificent voice quivers, his body sways from side to side, as he pours forth argument, pleading and invective strangely intermingled." — T. Wemyss Reid.

l^he following are some extracts of Mr. Gladstone's speeches, with figures' noted therein :

* 1 " Surely, ^ if eloquence never excelled and seldom equalled — if an expanded mind and judgment whose vigour was paralleled only by its sound- ness— if brilliant wit — if a glowing imagination — if a warm heart and an unbending firmness, could have strengthened the frail tenure and prolonged the momentary duration of man's existence, that man had been immortal! . . ."

" And now I will grapple with the noble lord on the ground which he selected for himself in the triumphant portion of his speech, by his reference to those emphatic words, Civis Romanus sum. t He vaunted amidst the cheers of his supporters, that under his administration an Englishman should be, throughout the world, what the citizen of Rome had been. ^ What, then, was a Roman citizen ? He was a member of a privileged caste ; he belonged to a conquering race, to a nation that held all others bound down by the strong arm of power. ■* For hitn there was to be an exceptional system of l^w ; for him principles were to be asserted, and by him rights were to be enjoyed that were denied to the rest of the world. ^ Is such, then, the views of the noble lord as to the relation which is to subsist between England and other countries? Does he make the claim for us that we are to be uplifted upon a platform high above the standing ground of all other nations? It is, indeed, too clear, « not only from the expressions, but from the whole tone of the speech of the noble viscount, that too much of this notion is lurking in his mind ; "^ that he adopts in vain that conception that we, forsooth, have a mis- sion to be the censors of vice and folly, ^ of abuse and imperfections among the other countries of the world ; that we are to be the universal schoolmasters ; and that all those who hesitate to recognise our office can be governed by prejudice or personal animosity, and should have the blind war of diplomacy forthwith declared against them.

" T ' You may drive us from our seats. You may bury the Bill, but we will write upon its gravestone for an epitaph this line, with certain con- fidence of its fulfilment: ' i" Exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor.'

" You cannot fight against the future. ^^ Time is on our side. The great social forces which move onwards in their might and majesty, ^2 and which the tumult of our debate does not for a moment impede or disturb —

* From a speech at Eton College on Mr. Canning. 1 Hypophora. 2 Hypo- thesis and Parison. 3 Sermocinatio. 4 Kpanaphora. 5 Eperotesis. 6 Arsis and Thesis. 7 Polysyndetic " that " and 8 Syntheton. t From a speech versus Lord Palmerston, who used the phrase Civis Romanus sum. With this phrase Gladstone wrecked the Palmerston Ministry. + Epilogue of the- speech replying to Disraeli's taunt on having left the Conservative Party. 9 Paromology. 10 Gnome. 11 Aitiology "for" understood. 12 Syntheton..

WILLIAM E. GLADSTONE 453

13 those great social forces are against you ; they are marshalled on our side ; and the banner which we now carry in this fight, ^^ though perhaps at some moment it may droop over our sinking heads, yet it soon again will float into the eye of heaven, and it will be borne by the firm hands of the united people of the three kingdoms, perhaps ^^ not to an easy, but to a certain and to a not far-distant victory,"

" § Looking forward ^*^ I ask the House to assist in the work which we have undertaken, and to believe that no trivial motive can have driven us to it — to assist us in this work which we believe will restore Parliament to its dignity, and legislation to its free and unimpeded course. / ask you to stay that waste of public treasure which is involved in the present system of Government and legislation in Ireland ; and which is not a waste only, but which demoralises while it exhausts. I ask you to show to Europe and to America that we, too, can face political problems which America twenty years ago faced, and which many countries in Europe have been called upon to face, and have not feared to deal with. / ask that in our case we should practise with firm and fearless hand what we have so often preached — the doctrine which we have so often inculcated upon others, viz., that the con- cession of local self-government is not the way to sap or impair, but the way to strengthen and consolidate unity. / ask that we should learn to rely less upon merely written stipulations, and more upon those better stipulations which are written on the heart and mind of man. / ask that ise should apply to Ireland that happy experience which we have gained in England and in Scotland, where the course of generations has now taught us, ^^ not as a dream or as a theory, but as practice and as life, that the best and surest foundation we can find to build upon is the foundation afforded by the affec- tions, the convictions, and the will of the nation ; and it is thus, by the decree of the Almighty, that we may be enabled to secure at once the social peace, the fame, the power, and the permanence of the Empire."

One of the greatest, if not the greatest, of Mr. Gladstone's popular ad- dresses was that delivered in Waverley Market, Edinburgh, during the famous Midlothian campaign. The " Daily News " gives the following description of this speech : '* The intervening space for a mile was literally blocked by an enthusiastic crowd . . . everyone stood up, and, it is perhaps rather under- estiinating the fact that there were seventeen thousand men present, for the most part working-men. The spacious galleries surrounding the market were reserved for ladies, and these, with the occupants of the platform, would bring ^he total to 20,000. ... At length Mr. Gladstone came. Cheers rose upon cheers in continuous peals . . . the crowd surged to and fro. . . . At the end of a week of unremitted and unexampled speech-making, having just delivered an elaborate oration of an hour and a half in another part, he now, apparently without any painful effort, sent his magnificent voice rolling in full force over the heads of 20,000 people. His voice dominated the full length and breadth of the hall."

* Extract of the Waverley Speech.

' " My Lord Rosebery, my lords, ladies and gentlemen, — There is nothing that I can say, or that much better and wiser men could say, to this meeting that is one half as remarkable as the meeting itself. (Cheers.) It is no light cause that has brought together, that has called off from their usual occupation, to stand in such a compressed mass before me, this ocean of human life. (Cheers.) I fear, gentlemen, you must have suffered inconvenience — (cries of ' no, no ') — notwithstanding the admirable order that prevails. But 2 although I can say to you nothing that can add to the interest of such an assemblage, yet neither can I part from you without a brief interchange of sentiments for a few moments on some of the questions in which our hearts are alike engaged. (Cheers.) I say, gentlemen, ^ an interchange of

13 Emphatic Repetition, see also Epanaphora. 14 Antithesis. 15 Arsis and Thesis. § Epilogue and Peroratio to the Home Rule Bill. 16 Protrope and Epanaphora. 17 .^rsis and Thesis.

* Mr. Gladstone took " The Freedom of Nationalities " as his theme. The delivery of the speech is for the most part largo e sostenuto (see p. 403). 1 Prooimion. 2 Hypophora and Antithesis. 3 Emphatic Repetition or echo

454 WILLIAM E. GLADSTONE

sentiments, '^ for you have already expressed to me what your feelings are on behalf of the working classes, as I am glad to see that you do not fear to call yourselves the working men of Edinburgh, Leith, and the district. (Cheers.) Vou have given me your sentiments, and I wish to echo them back. (Cheers.) An assemblage of this nature does not afford a place appropriate for minute criticism. My strength would not suffice, your patience would be exhausted. (Cries of ' no.') I will, therefore, avoid such criticism. I will fall back upon a positive principle and upon which I would hope there can be no difference of sentiment among you, even if there be within the limits of this hall some whose opinions are not wholly those of the majority, and whose opinions and feelings we should endeavour, upon so noble an occasion, scrupulously to respect."

f Eastern Question: Who is to have the Succession of Turkey? " ^ That succession is not to pass to Russia — (a voice, ' no ') — it is not to pass to England under whatever name of Anglo-Turkish convention — (cheers and hisses) — or anything else it may be called — it is to pass to the peoples of those countries — (cheers) — ^ to those who have inhabited them for the many long centuries, to those who have reared them to a state of civilisation — (cheers) — when the great calamity of Ottoman conquest spread like a wild wave over that portion of the earth and buried civilisation in its overwhelming forces.

The Emancipated Provinces.

" Those people, gentlemen, are already beginning the commencement of liberty. ^ Four millions or five millions of Rumanians who were formerly subjects of Turkey are now independent. (A voice : ' Lord Beaconsfield. *) (Cries of ' Put him out,' cheers and uproar.) Two million Servians who were once political slaves are now absolutely free ; 300,000 heroes such as Christen- dom cannot match — the men of Montenegro, § who, for 400 years, have never submitted to the insolence of despotic power, » these men have at last achieved not only their freedom, but the acknowledgment of their freedom, and take their place among the states of Europe. Bulgaria has reached a virtual independence ; and, gentlemen, let me say a word on another Province — that which was the scene of the terrible massacres and sorrows of 1876 — ^ the Province of Eastern Roumelia, inhabited by, perhaps, a population of a million. . . . Gentlemen, this is what I call progress. ^^ When you uproot slavery, 7vhen you put an end to ^^ suffering and shame, when you give security 12 to life, property and honour, which had previously only existed at the will of every representative of the Turkish power, ^^ of everyone professing the mohammedan religion, you accomplish a great, a blessed work, in which the uttermost ends of the civilised world ought ^* to rejoice, do rejoice, and will rejoice. (Cheers.) i^ The end of it all is thus far that no less than ten millions of people, in one form or another, have been brought out of different degrees of political servitude and have been given virtual freedom. (Cheers.) Gentlemen, ^^ j appeal to you to join me in the expression of a hope that under the yoke of no power whatsoever will these free provinces be brought.

A Festival of Freedom.

'* ** I hope that I am right in saying that such is not a mere compliment to an individual or a mere contribution to the success of a party. Your

(see also Epanados). 4 Aitiology. t Pisteis. Eastern Question ; Emancipated Provinces ; Russia, Austrian and English Schemes. 5 Arsis and Thesis, " but " understood. 6 Anaphora (see also Emphatic Repetition. 7 Parallelism and Enumeratio. " Who," he asked, '* was to have the succession to Turkey and the Balkan Peninsular?" "As he named the peoples just delivered from servitude the march of his rhetoric became more imposing. +* Four millions. . . . the men of Montenegro;' and then, with uplifted hand, the look of inspiration in the eye, and a leonine roar in his throat, he exclaimed : § * Who, for four hundred years, have held the sword in hand, and never have sub- mitted to the insolence of despotic power.' " 8 Epanodos, Arsis and Thesis. 9 Emphatic Repetition. 10 Epanaphora. 11 Syntheton. 12 Tritheton. 13 Emphatic Repetition. 14 Paronomasia (see part on verb). 15 Epiphonema. 16 Protrope. ** Epilogue.

WILLIAM E. GLADSTONE 455

gathering here to-day in almost countless thousands, I regard as a ^'^ festival of freedom — ^^ of that national freedom best known to us, which is essentially allied with order and with loyalty ; and I. hope, gentlemen, that you will carry with you the determination ^^ on the one hand to do all you can in your civil and your social capacity for maintaining that precious possession for yourselves and handing it down to posterity ; and, on the other hand, for endeavouring by every lawful and honourable means, through the vast moral influence of this country, and through all the instruments 20 which may from time to time be conformable to the principles of justice, to extend that in- estimable blessing to such nations and races of the world as hitherto have remained beyond the range of its beneficial influence. (Cheers.) *** Gentle- men, I thank you for the extraordinary kindness which has enabled me to convey the remains of a somewhat exhausted voice, yet even to the limits of this enormous meeting — 21 that kindness is only a portion of the affectionate reception — ^^ ior •! can call it no less — which hai* been granted to me at every turn since my arrival in this country ; and through you I desire, ^3 j ^ill not say discharge, for discharge it can never be, but at least ^4 fully, truly, and cordially to acknowledge the debt I owe to the people of Scotland. (Loud cheers.)"

See page 370 for epic gesture in following paragraph.

The above gesture was also used in the Epilogue of the " Disestablishment of the Irish Church." See " Life and Times of William E. Gladstone," by John Clark Ridpath. " There is something in the idea of a national estab- lishment of religion, of a solemn appropriation of a part of the commonwealth for conferring upon all who are ready to receive it what we know to be an inestimable benefit. . . . There is something in this so attractive that it is an image that must always command the homage of the many. ..."

17 Metaphora. 18 Anadiplosis. 19 Antithesis, and Parison. 20 Parenthesis. *** iPeroratio. 21 Emphatic Repetition or Echo. 22 Aitiology and Parenthesis. 23 Parenthesis and Aitiology. 24 Homoe- oteleuton.

456

The Rt. Hon. JOHN BRIGHT, M.P.

HIS ORATORY, DELIVERY, AND SOME NOTES

FROM EMINENT CONTEMPORARY AND

SUBSEQUENT CRITICS.

John Bright, "the Tribune of the People," was bom November i6th, 1811, and died March 27th, 1889. He was a member of the Gladstone Cabinet, and for many years member of Parliament. For over half a century his voice resounded in the political arena for freedom, justice and humanity. He was perhaps the greatest orator of sentiment that Great Britain has produced, but he was not maudlin, for he skilfully touched the chords of human sympathy just enough to arouse compassion. He kept in advance the provo- catures or effects (see signs of emotion, p. 361) that ought to enlist human interest.^ He did not deal in logical finesse, but struck out from salient propositions and fundamental prin- ciples. His voice, as a rule, was pitched in the lower or second register, consequently his manner of speech was gener- ally slow and his articulation clear (see pp. 277, 278).

His master-figures are Ethos, Rhythmus, Peristatica, Parison, Anaphora, Protrope, Anadiplosis, Emphatic Repeti- tion and Epilogue.

His best and most magnificent speeches are those on the Russian war, and, as Vince says, " Future compilers of a florilegium of British oratory will probably, resort to these speeches for their specimens of his eloquence."

Bright lived long enough " to see almost all the causes he advocated to become law," and the measures he cham- pioned become the cherished principles of the nation.

" He was the greatest master of English oratory that this generation — I may say several generations back — has seen. I have seen men who have heard Pitt and Fox, and in whose judgment their eloquence at its best was inferior to the finest efforts of John Bright." — Lord Salisbury. Bright's Oratory.

" If it was robust and vigorous it was also emotional, sympathetic, senti- mental. It was by virtue of a well-tempered combination of what may be called the masculine and feminine elements of rhetorical persuasion that Bright claims the first place among the British orators of the century. . . . But those who heard him during this period (speeches in the days of the Anti-Corn-Law-League) of his career, described his speeches as animated, impetuous and exhilarating, but as consisting of mere passionate declamation, disorderly in arrangement and amorphous in style, and anticipating but rarely the majestic manner of his latter orations. He almost invariably wrote out the concluding words and sentences, ... It was his custom to revolve his speech in his mind for some days. . . . He was afraid, not that he might

* " Burke would have laboured the picture of the dispossessed potentates until he had forced us to resist his pathos. . . . He might have introduced some of the oriental scenery of the tragedy ; we should have heard of Rannies and Zamindars, of diamonds and palanquins. Bright's appeal to the sentiment of compassion for fallen greatness, and to our sense of perplexity that follows the uprooting of institutions, is sufficient, and it does not over- shoot the mark. The mind is powerfully impressed with the sense that it is easier to conquer than to govern, to destroy than to reconstruct." — C. A. Vince. (See Bright's Epilogue and Peroration of speech on India.)

JOHN BRIGHT 457

not say the right thing, but that lie might not say it well. ... He was, for the most part, content to deduce his political conclusions from a very few broad principles. ... He had a most delicate sense of rhythm. In this respect no one of our admired orators has excelled him. . . . The appeal to reason is ineffective unless it is followed by an appeal to the emotion ; and of the emotion, indignation is that which is most readily excited. . . . A public meeting never enjoys itself more thoroughly than when it is cr^^ng * shame!'. . . . Bright's manner filled all these conditions of success. . . . as ' incompetent and guilty,' another, as ' turbulent and wicked,' or when a statesman of good repute is accused of ' haughty unwisdom.' But the populace rejoices to be told that it does well to be angry. His Voice and Build. " Bright had a strong and beautiful voice, clear rather than loud. (See p. 278.) He relied for colour and emphasis almost entirely on choice of words and modulation of voice, making little use of gesture and action. He would call attention to a strong point by leaning forward and raising his right arm. . . . His bodily attitude in speaking was dignified.

" Bright was a man of middle height and stoutly built. . . .mild blue eyes, the lip and chin shaven." — "John Bright," by C. A. Vince, M.A., pub. 1898. " The speech itself is always singularly clear and vivid, now rippling with humour, now impregnated with earnestness and pathos. Mr. Bright is unquestionably a fine humourist. . . no other speaker of our time, with the exception, perhaps, of Mr. .Spurgeon, has the same full, genial, and flowing humour. There have been few happier strokes of parliamentary humour in our time than Mr. Bright's comparison between Lord Beaconsfield and the quack at the country fair who sold pills that were good against the earth- quake."—" The Life and Speeches of the Right Hon. John Bright, M.P.," by George Barnett Smith. Pub. 1881 by Hodder and Stoughton.

" It has been well said that at times when he has spoken there have been tears in his voice. . . . The progression of his sentences is rhythmic, sonorous and majestic. . . . He has a fine vein of comic and satiric humour." — '* The National Portrait Gallery."

Bright's Sentiment and Story -telling. " John Bright delivered the following touching passages speaking of his bosom friend, Richard Cobden, and the minds of his audience could not help wandering to that peaceful spot in West Lavington Churchyard where Cobden lies interred :

" ' Methinks I hear his voice ! sweet as the breath Of balmy ground-flowers, stealing from a spot Of sunshine sacred, .... To everlasting spring.* " A poetic vividness ran through his speeches, and his prevailing character- istic of oratory is pathos, and apparently with little effort affecting his audience to tears." — William Robertson.

The foregoing indicates the touch of sentimentality that prevailed in his speeches, the strain of which was relieved by the use of Asteismus. (See this Figure.) " When he is telling one of hia best stories, or uttering one of his best sayings, he hardly moves a muscle of his face, and seemingly takes no share in the merriment of his audience. . . . And one peculiarity of his humour Is that it always appears to be unconscious. The story of the old getleman, for instance, who used to say that ' a hole wore longer than a patch,' and the .Syrian monk to whom ' tears were as natural as perspiration,' f>re good examples of his ready wit with which he supplies every argument he employs with an appropriate illustration." — T. Wemyss Reid.

Comparisons between the Oratory of Bright and Gladstone. " John Bright had the merits and defects of simplicity. Gladstone — even in the whirlwind of his own oratory, arms over head and eyes flashing — was always a debater, meeting his opponent's every argument, instructing hrs audience, often exciting them over the details of some financial or legislative measure. Bright, on the other hand, for all that he never gave the reign to his passion, never swung his arm and scarcely raised his voice. . . . Gladstone's orations suffer in the reading from a quality which made them

458

JOHN BRIGHT

lUus. London News.

delightful to hear, their dependence on the skill of the speaker to effect his escape with grammar intact from the maze of parentheses — an operation safely sustained on that magnificent voice and by those dramatic gestures.

Bright. . . . had never to shout in order that it (his voice) might thrill with its music the farthest corner of the largest hall. But he had no gesture except to raise his hand, and that not above the level of his breast. Gladstone was everything at once — actor, missionary, debater, exponent of legis- lative detail — such a one never before or since rose to address an iiudience ; Bright excelled in pure ora- tory in its strictest sense. ...

Silent Meditation and Homely Illustration. " He often lay awake over his speech : ' I find when in bed that my ideas come easily and fix themselves on my mind,' he writes in 1866 : 'I sup- pose the dim light and the silence are favourable to the imagination and memory.' His chief artistic inspiration lay in his sense for the value of words, and for the rhythm of words and sentences. . . . His greatest passages are those in which his sense of poetry and of grandeur come closer to his vision of homely common life, which was to him, as it was to Wordsworth, the source of high thought and great imaginings. Thus. ... he leads up to the death of Col. Boyle by telling how he lately met the colonel at ' Mr. Westertons,' the book-sellers, near Hyde Park Corner, a place well known to the mem- bers whom he was addressing, and how their late colleague had told him his fears at going to war. Then comes the thundering climax : ' the stormy Kuxine in his grave ; his wife a widow, his children fatherless ' — (see full passages under extract) which quite overpowered his hearers. If Bright had been in the habit of using adjectives freely, ' stormy ' would have carried less weight, but it was one of his first principles to eschew adjectives unless they meant much. The Miltonic ' Euxine ' for the ' Black Sea ' also marks a solemn occasion, and the words together have ' a sound of the sea.' . . . '* I have endeavoured,' said Bright, ' further, always to abstain from speak- ing on subjects which I had not examined and well considered.' " — " The Life of John Bright." by George Macaulay Trevelyan, pub. 1913. Constable and Co., Ltd.

" Pursuing the even and majestic flow of his words, he played upon the souls of his audience as a minstrel on his harp, now absorbing their attention to some closely linked argument, then flushing their faces with laughter at his witty sallies ; here melting them into tears by his exquisite pathos, there causing them to spring to their feet in a storm of indignant emotion. " Now he has passed, we miss the glowing word, That spoke for peace, for freedom, and for right, The earnest life, the patriot soul which stirred For other's needs, the true and faithful knight Of that grand chivalry which God still leads And arms with grace and truth for noble deeds." — " John Bright : Apostle of Free Trade," by Jessee Page, pub. 1904 by S. W. Partridge and Co.

Extracts. The following are extracts from some of Mr. Bright's speeches with figures marked therein : —

* " We all know what we have lost in this House, i Here, sitting near me, very often sat the member from Frome. I met him a short time before he went out, 2 at Westerton's, the book-sellers, near Hyde Park Corner. I asked him whether he was going out. He answered, he was afraid, he was —

Extracts from his Russian or Crimean War speeches. IHypotyposis and

JOHN BRIGHT 459

not afraid in the sense of personal fear, he knew not that — but, he said, with ■a look and tone I shall never forget, ' It is no light matter for a man who has a wife and five little children.' ^ The stormy Euxine is his grave, his wife is a widow, his children fatherless."

Epilogue. ** Let it not be said that I am alone in my condemnation of this war, and of this incapable and guilty administration, and even * if I were alone, if mine were a solitary voice raised amid the din of arms and the clamours of a venal press, ' I would have the consolation to-night — which I trust will be mine to the last moment of my existence — ^ the priceless consolation that no word of mine has tended to promote the squandering of my country's treasure or the spilling of one single drop of my country's blood."

Appeal to Lord Paltnerston. "The 7 Angel of Death has been abroad throughout the land; you may almost hear the ^ beating of his wings. There is no one, « as when the first-born were slain of old, to sprinkle with blood the lintel and the two side-posts of our doors that he may spare and pass on ; ^° he takes his victims from the castle of the noble, the mansion of the wealthy, and the cottage of the poor and lowly, and it is on behalf of all these classes that I make this solemn appeal. I tell the noble lord that ^Mf he be ready, ^2 honestly and frankly to endeavour by negotiations about to be opened at A'ienna, to put an end to this war, i^ no word of mine, no vote of mine, will be given to shake his power for one single moment, or to change his position in the House. (Hear, hear.) I am sure that the noble lord is not inaccessible to appeals made to him from honest motives and with no unfriendly feeling. " The noble lord has been for more than forty years a member of this House. ^^ Before I has born ^^ he sat upon the Treasury Bench, and he has spent his life in the service of his country. He is no longer young, and his life has extended almost to the term allotted to men. ^^ I would ask, I would entreat the noble lord to take a course which, when he looks back upon his whole political career — ^^ whatever he may therein find to be pleased with, whatever to regret — cannot but be a source of satisfaction to him. ^^ By adopting that course ^^ he would have the satisfaction of reflecting that, 2^ having obtained the object of his laudable ambition — having become the foremost subject of the crown, the director of, it may be, the destinies of his country, and the presiding genius in her councils — ^o ^e had achieved a still higher and nobler ambition : 22 ^i^^^ j^g j^^j returned the sword to the scabbard — that at his word torrents of blood had ceased to flow — that he had restored tranquility to Europe, and saved this country from the indescribable calamities of war." (See another epilogue, Bright's impassioned speech at Durham, p. 234.)

Narratio. 2 Peristatica (surrounding circumstances or detail). 3 Pathos and Parison. " Some of the finest effects of his eloquence were produced by the sudden transition from some simple statement or some plain argument pre- sented in plain terms to a stroke of passion or imagination. . . . The subdued tone of the introductory narrative, and the odd triviality, as of a conscientious witness in the details of the place where the speaker met Boyle, add vastly to the irresistible force of the stroke of pathos. When the effective sentence comes it needs only the slightest touch of art — the substitution of Euxine for the commoner Black Sea, and the addition of a single ornamental epithet — to give it elevation." The eloquence comes like a flash of lightning, and fixes itself forever in the ,jnemory ; but it has obeyed the primary rule of pathetic utterances, that it should be unlaboured and simple." — C. A. Vince, M.A. 4 Synonymia and Protasis. 5 Apodosis. 6 Emphatic Repetition, see also Anadiplosis and Epanalepsis. 7 Metaphora. 8 Metalepsis. 9 Simile. 10 Ethos, Parison and Polysyndeton. 11 Hypothesis and Protasis. 12 Homoeoteleuton. 13 Apodosis and Synonymia. 14 Narratio. 15 Protasis. 16 Apodisis. 17 Pro- trope and Synonymia. 18 Parenthesis. 19 Protasis. 20 Apodosis. 21 Paren- thesis and Anaphora. 20 End of Apodosis. 22 Exegesis and Anaphora. " The fine and beautiful, yet withal simple, simile with which Mr. Bright introduced

460

Rev. CHARLES H. SPURGEON

HIS ORATORY, DELIVERY, AND SOME NOTES

FROM EMINENT CONTEMPORARY AND

SUBSEQUENT CRITICS.

The Rev. C. H. Spurgeon, the greatest English preacher since the days of WhitefiLeld, was bom June 19th, 1834, and died January 31st, 1892. He took Whitefield as his model,, and no divine of modern times has excelled him.

In his early days Spurgeon was a hard student ; whilst other boys played he studied. He was excellent in poetry and a good hymn writer, which accounts for the fine qualities of, Rhythm noted in his sermons, his highest flights frequently verging on the poetic. In his preaching he was eminently natural and colloquial, speaking to his congregation as if conversing with them, and his language was of the plam, simple kind which is the first requisite of sublime speech. Like Whitefield, he had a powerful voice and knew well how to use it. It has been said he could be heard a mile away. He was dramatic, but not theatrical, in that he used the Hypo- typosis in the most vivid form, and in the use of Asteismus no preacher surpassed him.

A few hints taken from his book " Lectures to my Students'* will be found very useful: ''Avoid cramped posi- tions, do not make speaking difficult by leaning over the Bible. Stand upright, get a firm position, and then speak like a man. Say what you mean, put it plainly, boldly, earnestly, courteously, and they will hear you. Mannerisms should be avoided. If interrupted, always be courteous and good-tempered, for if you become cross and angry, it is all over with you."

Spurgeon's most notable figures are: Ecphonesis, Epero- tesis. Paradigm, Epicrisis, Paradoxon, Epiphonema, Epizeuxis, Antistrophe, Anaphora, Parison, Isocolon, Hypo- thesis, Arsis and Thesis, Syntheton.

His Gesture, Voice and Manner.

" He was dramatic, but not theatrical, ... It is the vivid picturesque form that invests ideas with a living force. . . . their interpretation in voice and gesture that commands. Mr. Spurgeon, in his palmy days, preached all over; not violently, but composedly; not with affectation, but naturally." — " Spurgeon," by Geo, C, Lorimer.

" ' I cannot stand like a statue when I preach. I prefer a wide range both of thought and action.' Mr. Spurgeon, longo intervello, uses the greatest freedom of emotion of any modern preacher of celebrity. His hands in the fervour of appeals traverse the hand-rail along the whole line of his semi- circle, so that when he finishes a sentence or a paragraph he is standing at a distance of five or six feet from the point at which he began it. His action is sometime vehement, and his open palm frequently comes down with force upon the hand-rail. . . . Among the secrets of Mr. Spi/rgeon's success, his strong, clear, full-toned voice deserves prominent mention. To the educated and fastidious there seems to be a surplusage of power in this respect. In the latgest building in the Surrey Music Hall, or in his new chapel, he seems

his peroration, thrilled every listener. The appeal was made by the orator with slow and tremulous voice, but with manner dignified and solemn, and a large number of the members were visibly affected." — *^Life and Speeches ^f the Right Hon. John Bright, M.P.," by George Barnett Smith.

CHARLES H. SPURGEON

461

to speak louder than is needed. He is full of anecdote, tells a good story, and does not object to the risibility it excites." — "An Account of the Life and Extraordinary Preaching of the Rev. C- H. Spurgeon," by Thos. Wilks. " He was an omnivorous reader and a keen observer, and he cultivated the practice of turning everything to spiritual profit. . . . The smallest incidents — such as the doings of his dog, ' Punch,' the habits of the birds, or the growth of the flowers — were constantly used to enforce divine truth. Often his illustrations were of a decidedly humourous character. In his early days, when he succeeded in filling one after another, New Park Street Chapel, Exet^er Hall, and the Surrey Gardens Music Hall, his chief aim was to attract great crowds and arrest their attention to the claims of religion. Every art of oratory was cultivated, and the discourses were most elaborately prepared, but not delivered as it prepared. Many of these sermons were exuberant in style. ... in some he rose to heights of eloquence that have rarely been equalled in the history of oratory before or since. In early life it was very elaborate, but subsequently his wide experience and unique ^ifts enabled him to dispense with any long premeditation. The preacher's delivery was remarkable for nothing save its distinctness. He was careful to enunciate every syllable, especially the final ones. . . . and he had a curious habit of emphasising the personal pronoun. The charm of his oratory lay in its perfect naturalness. He just ' talked ' his sermons. . . . and when warm to his subject his words flowed like a majestic flood. When denouncing sin, his sarcasm could be withering ; when pleading with sinners, his voice would be full of tears ; when speaking of the wonders of divine love, his tones became musical in their graciousness. . . . When we first heard him preach — many years ago — he used to walk about the spacious pulpit and gesticulate freely. In latter days this entirely ceased, and he stood almost still, leaning with one hand on the back of a chair. With the exception of occasionally raising one of his arms, gesticulation was, as a rule, conspicuous by its absence.

His Person, Asteismus, and Sermon Preparation. " Person : Somewhat below the middle height, he in later years was very stout. . . . His features were heavy, and there was a curious inequality in his eyes. . . , There was a gleam of fun in almost every glance. ... As a punster, ... no pun was too far-fetched or too utterly absurd to be per- petrated when he was in the mood He was very fond of asking riddles. (See pp. 118, 119.) His viode of sermon preparations was peculiar. His Characteristic gesture ^'^"d^iy morning sermons were usually prepared after in early ministry. ® o'clock on Saturday evening. His chief task was to fix upon the texts. Sometimes these had been in his mind more or less definitely for a few days beforehand, but more often they came to him almost at the last moment. Whether he had secured his text or not, Mr. Spurgeon always shut himself up in his study at 6 o'clock on Saturday evening, and did not, as a rule, leave it until Sunday morning serman was ready The evening one received much less preparation, only the general lines of though were decided upon, and the remainder was left for a quiet hour on Sundaj afternoon. . . . finally his jottings were arranged in order and the outlin of the sermon neatly copied on a half-sheet of notepaper for pulpit use."- " Charles Haddon Spurgeon. By one who knew him well." Andi-e\J Melrose, 1903. j^-^ Naturalness.

" A lively imagination, sometimes rising to the region of poetry, but more frequently delighting in homely and familiar figures of speech ; a free coloquial manner of delivery that goes directly to the understanding of the simplest. . . . This condemned humour is a part of that great merit of Mr. Spurgeon 's naturalness. , . ." — " The Freeman," February 27th, 1856.

" He begged them to avoid speaking always in one unvarying tone, if they did not wish to lull their hearers to sleep, and also, because the habit would be injurious to themselves. ' It will be evident,' said an eminent physician, ' that continued speaking in one tone is much more fatiguing than

Permission Messrs. Marshall Bros. Ltd.

462 CHARLES H. SPURGEON

frequent alterations in the pitch of the voice ; because by the former one muscle, or set of muscles, is strained, whilst by the latter different muscles are brought into action and thus relieve one another. In the same way a man. raising his arm at right angles to his body becomes fatigued in five or ten minutes, because one set of muscles has to bear the weight ; but the same muscles can work the whole day if their action is alternated with that of others. '"—" Spurgeon, the People's Preacher." Walter Scott. His Flow of Speech and ad captandum. " Spurgeon possessed a flow of utterance that was quite unstudied. Many of his utterances are in the highest degree novel. Referring to the assump- tion of power on man's part, he says : ' Power does not lie with the king ; nor,. for the matter of that, with the mob ; it does not lie with the premier, nor with the cabinet, nor with the multitude. Britannia Rules the Waves ! Does. she? Put Britannia on the waves and see.' Spurgeon was a master of ad captandum touches, whether of pathos or humour. . . . For example, in the sermon on ' I will give you rest,' which he treats in a staccato fashion,, making of each word a separate peg for thought, we find the following pathetic touch : ' If your mother — ah ! you have no mother now — were to give you a little book with her name in it, you would not part with it for all its weight in gold.'" — "The Prince of Preachers. "—James Douglas, M.A., pub. by Morgan and Scott.

" He belongs to the peripatetic, or Walker school, perpetually walking up and down as an actor treading the boards of a theatre." ("The Essex Standard," April 18th, 1855.) — " Like him (Whitefield), too, he has a powerful voice, which would at times be more pleasing, and not less impressive, were it not raised to so high a pitch." (Jjames Grant, Editor of " The Morning Advertiser," February 19th, 1855.) — " His sermons abound with aphoristic and pointed sayings. . . . ' Bright-eyed cheerfulness and airy-footed love ' are fine phrases. ' God puts our prayers, like rose leaves, between the pages of His book of remembrance.' . . . ' In England, ^-sovereign will not speak to a shilling, a shilling will not notice a sixpence, and a sixpence will sneer at a penny.' " (" The Patriot," September 21st, 1855.) — " Of course, at times, there is a fluent declamation which the mob around takes for such (eloquence)." (" The London Pulpit, 1857.).

Above from *' C. H. Spurgeon 's Autobiography," by his wife.

Mr. Sptirgeon's Sustained Vocality. " Sustained vocality is the secret of good oratorical speech. Consonants may be softened to any degree, but vowels must be given fully and with swelling clearness. This quality has, perhaps, never been better illustrated than in the case of the Rev. Mr. Spurgeon, who with no apparent efforts, in the vast Agricultural Hall at Islington, made himself distinctly heard by an essemblage of 25,000 persons. I got within 5 ft. of the speaker with the view of studying his management of his vocal bellows, but could discover no unusual labour or straining. All was easy and natural. A friend who compared with me notes was in the most distant seat. The nearest ear was not offended by bellowing : the most distant lost no syllable. There could, of course, be no undue softening of the consonants in such delivery, nor, on the other hand, was any harshness or prominence of consonant-action perceptible even to the nearest auditor. Some coarseness of effect in the immediate vicinity of the speaker is almost unavoidable in order to secure an effect at a distance." — A. Melville Bell, author of " Visible Speech."

" His voice. ... It is neither deep nor shrill, but something between,- while it possesses marvellous compass, flexibility and power. It has, to an extent we never met before, a property which may be termed lashing. . . . He conversed with them — he was one of them. . . .' Is he abrupt, blunt, direct? It is his nature. Is he idiomatic, colloquial, playful, dramatic? It is nature."-—" The Modern Whitefied. Remarks on Mr. Spurgeon 's Oratory," by John Campbell.

His Style. " It was simple, direct, bold, earnest and dramatic ; simple, all could understand ; direct, like Whitefield and Davies, he employs the word ' Sirs ' in addressing his audience. He talks to the people before him : * Is it wisdom,.. O, my fellow creatures, is it wisdom to hate your creator?' Dramatic, character, vices, virtues, personified, pass before us as the dramatis personce oft

CHARLES H. SPURGEON

463

the stage. . . . (See p. 304.) Take the following plea of the sinner with justice. . . . We can almost see the scales. . . . and the stern frown upon the face of justice. Now, it is not everyone . . . who can employ that style to advantage ; but it must be acknowledged that it gives the preacher immense power over his audience."—" The Popularity of the Rev. C. H. Spurgeon," by Daniel F. Oakley.

Extracts.

The following are extracts from some of Mr. Spurgeon 's most nota'Blfl sermons, with figures marked therein. (See foot-notes, p. 464.)

* " But, my friends, I am inclined to think that our class sins are the most grievous. Behold this day the sins of the rich. ^ How are the poor oppressed? How are the needy downtrodden? In this age there is many a great man who looks upon his fellows as only stepping-stones to wealth. 2 He builds a factory as he would a cauldron. He is about to make a brew for his own wealth ; ^ pitch him in ! He is only a poor clerk who can live

Rev. .Mr. Spurgeon preaching in the Metropolitan Tabernacle, p. 461. (Kind permission of Messrs. S. W. Partridge & Co., Ltd.)

on one hundred a year. Put him in ! There is a poor time-keeper ; he has a large family ; it does not matter, a man can be had for less ; in with him. ! Here are the tens, the hundreds, and the thousands that must do the work. Put them in ; * heap the fire ; boil the cauldron ; stir them up ; never mind their cries. The hire of the labourers kept back may go up to heaven ; it doesn't matter, the millions of gold are safe. The law of demand and supply is with us. * Who shall interfere?"

t " Oh yes ! « we shall have choice company in heaven when we get there. There will be no distinction of ^ learned and unlearned, clergy and laiety, but we shall walk freely one among another, we shall feel that * we are brethren, we shall sit down with ^ Abraham and Isaac and Jacob. *o I have heard of a lady who was visited by a minister on her death bed,

464 CHARLES H. SPURGEON

and she said to him : ' I want to ask you one question now that I am about to die.' ' Well,' said the minister, ' what is it?' ' Oh,' said she, in a very affected way, ' I want to know if there are two places in heaven, because I could not bear that Betsy in the kitchen should be in heaven along with me; she is so unrefined.' The minister turned round and said: 'Oh! don't trouble yourself about that, madam. There is no fear of that, for until you get rid of your accursed pride, you will never enter heaven at all.' ^1 ^2 vve must get rid of our pride, we must come down and stand on equality in the sight of God, and see in every man a brother, before we can hope to be found in glory. ^^ Aye, we bless God, we thank him that there will be no separate tables for one and for another. ^^ The Jew and the Gentile will sit down together. The great and the small shall feed in the same pasture, and we shall sit down with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven. Now shut the black book, ^^ who wants to say any more about it? I have warned you solemnly. I have told you of the wrath to come ! '^^ Oh ! and the even darkens with some of you. I can see grey-headed men here. 1' Are your grey hairs a crown of glory or a fool's cap to you? Are you on the very verge of heaven, or are you tottering on the brink of your grave and sinking down into perdition? Let me warn you, grey-headed men, your enemy is coming. Oh. poor tottering ^^ grey -head, wilt thou take the last step into the pit? . . . What wilt thou do with seventy wasted years to answer for, with seventy years of criminality to bring before God? God give thee grace this night to put thy trust in Jesus."

§ " It is not generally a wise thing to tell out all your heart. Samson reached the climax of folly when he did this to Delilah. Yet if one could meet with a Solomon who could solve all our difficulties, one might wisely do so. We have a greater than Solomon in Jesus, who is incarnate wisdom. The mischief is that with him we are too silent, and with worldly friends too communicative. "^9

§§ 20 Jf you will remember the world's dire necessities — if you will ponder the tremendous value of a soul — if you will think about the dread immeasur- able eternity to which men are hastening — if you will recollect that the name of Jesus is every day blasphemed — if you will bethink you that false gods usurp the place of the God of the whole earth — and if, with these thoughts in your mind, you will go forth into daily life to propagate the faith as it is in Jesus Christ — if, with prayer, with holy living, with a godly example, and with earnest walking, you shall all of you be missionaries for Christ, 21 then I will be content, and unto God shall be the honour and glory for ever.— Amen."

* From his sermon at the Crystal Palace, about 20,000 present. Lifting up his voice against the tyranny of mammon he cried. 1 Ecphonesis. 2 Parison. 3 PLcphonesis, Synonymia and Antistrophe. 4 Isocolon and Parison. 5 Erotesis. t From a sermon on Hackney Fields, Sept. 4th, 1855 : ** The faces of the vast crowd turned as one man with deep interest towards the youthful speaker, moving them now to smiles, now to sobs of contrition, as he spoke of the raptures of heaven and the terrors of hell." — " C. H. Spurgeon, His Life and Ministry." Jesse Page. 6 Ecphonesis. 7 Syntheton. 8 Epana- phora. 9 Polysyndeton. 10 Paradigm. 11 Epicrisis. 12 Anaphora. 13 Epi- phonema. 14 Parison, Metaphora and Polysyndeton. " Toward the close of this remarkable sermon, he pictured to the awestruck listeners the horrors of the lost. . , . Then, stretching forth his hands in earnest entreaty, he besought them to flee the wrath to come. Now shut the black book he cried. . . ." — Jesse Page. 15 Erotesis. 16 Ecphonesis. 17 Eperotesis. 18 Synecdoche. 19 Exordium. " As a specimen of skilful introduction we submit the follow- ing taken from Mr. C. H. Spurgeon 's sermon notes. The merits of such an exordium are great. Its terms are clearly cut. It leads quickly and surely up to the theme to be considered. Already, ere the discourse can be said to begin, the main truth to be taught is applied and the conscience is convicted, while the mind is aroused to consideration. § Text : " She communed with him of all that was in her heart." — 1 Kings, x., 2. — James Douglas, M.A. §§ Peroratio from Spurgeon's De Propaganda Fide Lecture, Jan. 4th, 1858, to the Y.M.C.A. at Exeter Hall. 20Anaphora, Hypothesis, Protasis. 21Apodosis.

Vandyk, London. THE RIGHT HON. DAVID LLOYD GEORGE, M.P.

Principal Forms of Oratorical Expression used by the Right Hon. David Lloyd George. His master-figures are those in italics : Anacephaleosis, Anadip- losis, Anaphora, Antithesis, Apodosis, Aposiopesis, Arsis and Thesis, Asteismiis, Asyndeton, Compound Words, Diatyposis, Emphatic Repetition, Epanalepsis, Epanorthosis, Eperotesis, Epiphonema, Erotesis, Ethopoeia, Exe- gesis, Hypocatastasis, Hypophora, Isocolon, Parabola, Paradigm, Paramythia, Paregmenon, Parenthesis, Parison, Paromology, Peroratio, Pisteis, Prooimion, Protasis, Sermocinatio, Symphoresis, Synonymia, Syntheton.

465

Rt Hon. DAVID LLOYD-GEORGE, M.P.

HIS ORATORY, DELIVERY, AND SOME NOTES FROM EMINENT CONTEMPORARY CRITICS*

Before entering into the description of the oratory of the Premier, let us first take a cursory view of the country whence he hales. For over a century Wales has been the centre of the world's great preachers. Decade after decade the succession of unrivalled pulpit eloquence has been unbroken. No other country can boast of such a galaxy of eminent and remarkable divines. It has resounded with such names as Walter Craddock, whose eloquence drew thousands at the fairs, the market-places, in the fields and along the hillsides; Daniel Rowland, whose stirring voice shook the land and brought forth throngs from every quarter of the country ; Howell Harris, whose whirlwind oratory like a tempest bore down all before it. Following these mighty celebrities of Cymric eloquence came John Elias, Christmas Evans, and Williams of Wem : Elias, most eminent and popular, the prince of pulpit orators, an accomplished rhetorician, a Demosthenes, like a tornado his eloquence swept the land, and smote whole counties with fear; Evans with his winning figures Allegory and Parabola conquered all, and was agnominated the John Bunyan of the nation; and Williams, philosophic and learned was mighty in speech. These with David Davies, Robert Roberts, and Michael Roberts, though of less potence yet powerful, made Wales ring. Following immediately this hurri- cane of eloquence came John Jones and Henry Rees : Jones, chaste in language and sublime in speech; Rees, intense and pathetic. ' Then came the following, whose names are familiar to the humblest of the humble, and household words in every nook of the principality : Gwilym Hiraethog, Lewis Edwards, Owen Thomas, Edward Matthews, Thomas Aubrey, Thomas Jones, Dr. John Thomas, Thomas Charles Edwards, Robert, Llwynhendy, Herbert Evans, David Saunders, and John Evans, Eglwysbach.

These divines have played the principal part in Welsh national life. They knew how to touch every chord of the emotions, to use the histrionic art, the apostrophe, the direct appeal, and the vivid Hypotyposis to the best advantage. And as the hundred orators in and around Boston prepared the way for the coming of Daniel Webster, the greatest of the American orators, so these eloquent divines prepared the way for David Lloyd George, the most distinguished of present-day British orators. "The giants of the Welsh pulpit," says J. Hugh Edwards, M.P., " have always ranked as the chief of his heroes, and his style of oratory has been ^exclusively modelled upon theirs."

466 DAVID LLOYD GEORGE

The fountain of Lloyd George's eloquence arises in the well-spring of freedom. His soul was fired at the wholesale land evictions in Wales, and the awful suffering consequent thereupon. He thus struck out for the freedom of the Welsh church and of the Welsh people.

♦The Right Hon. David Lloyd George was born at Man- chester, of Welsh parents, in 1863. His style of oratory is principally "brilliant conversation." In his conciseness he is Demosthenic, m repartee he is quick, and in the use of Asteismus he has no superior. His perorations and epilogues are particularly good and well finished, and he is master of Anaphora, Parenthetical thrusts and Rhythmus. Like most great orators, Mr. Lloyd George has a fine poetic conception, and is a believer in the efficiency of the platform, as will be seen in the following quotation from Mr. Lloyd George in " The Art of the Orator/' by Edgar R. Jones, M.P. : "I once heard Mr. Gladstone say that in a conflict between the platform and the press for the direction of public opinion in this country, an efficient platform would surely win. Whether that be so or not, the influence of the spoken word must always be great in the government of all democratic communities, and in every sphere of activity, however exalted, it must continue to inspire men and fashion their lives. Every aid to the efficient discharge of so important a Characteristic gesture function must be welcome."

See also cartoon ti ^ ,. '

''Vanity Fair r ^ "« (Jrator.

" Mr. Lloyd George has enjoyed from early m his life the gift of clear, forceful and eloquent speech. . . . It is recorded that during his younger days^ he would walk through the country lanes rehearsing his speeches aloud. So completely did he master early in his life the art of public speaking, that at the present day he finds it possible to deliver a speech with the aid of only a few hurried phrases on a slip of paper. ' He is in this respect,' says the editor of The Daily News, ' the antithesis of Mr. Churchill. . . . But it has qualities of sudden eloquence, imaginative flight and quick wit that make it unique in the records of political oratory. Above all, it has a quite unexampled air of intimacy. His swiftly responsive nature brings him into extraordinary close relations with his audience, so that he almost leaves the impression of a brilliant conversation in which all have been engaged . . .* " — "The New Lloyd George and the Old," by E. W. Walters; pub. 1915 by J)oseph John- son, Holborn Hall.

'* He has a flexible, sympathetic voice, a silvery mellifluous articulation, and his action is that of an accomplished orator." — " Daily News," April 2nd, 1890.

His Maiden Speech in the House of Commons, June 13, 1890.

** It was a soft-spoken, skilful piece of debating, expressed in excellent, idiomatic English. It was full of swift debating thrusts and sharp-edged jests. It was in this speech that he described Lord Randolph Churchill and Joseph Chamberlain as ' political contortionists who can perform the great feat of planting their feet in one direction and setting their faces in another.' Here was just the kind of humour that the House of Commons loves. It came-

DAVID LLOYD GEORGE 4^7

well within the line of that traditional parliamentary wit which has to be appreciated even by its victims. Mr. Lloyd George by no means despises the tactics of public appeal. If necessary, he v^ill use even the theatrical in order to impress the public mind." — " The Prime Minister," by Harold Spen- der, pub. by Hodder & Stoughton.

" What are the methods by which the man has attained success?. . . . Courage, oratory, astute use of the Press, and supreme smartness. . ^ . Associated with every village, frequently with every chapel, was a Literary and Debating Society, peculiarly adapted for developing oratory and shaping, the powers of debate. The members of various such Societies in a given area frequently combined to form societies of a more pronouncedly nationalist character, known as ' Cymmrodorion.' None of these may have been exactly an ' Oxford Union ' — but they answered the purpose of sharpening the wit, of brightening the intellect, and of training the powers of both oratory and debate. Of each and all these facilities young David Lloyd George took the fullest advantage, and soon became recognised among their ablest debaters. Their work was supplemented at the local parliament of the village smithy. . . ' where, night after night we discussed all the abstruse questions relating to this world and the next, in politics, in theology, in philosophy and science. . .^ said Mr. Lloyd George when Chanceller of the Exchequer." — " Life Romance of Lloyd George," by Beriah Evans, pub. 1916. His Voice and Wit. *' A voice of singular sweetness and melody, adds an indescribable charm, to the concise form of his vigorous utterances. . . . He has all these qualities of quick repartee — of scathing invective, of logical analysis, and of caustic wit and humour which make up the necessary outfit of a great Parliamentary debater. . . . On the occasion of his first visit to Carmarthenshire in South Wales, the chairman confessed to the audience that he was quite disappointed in Mr. Lloyd George's appearance. ' I had heard so much about Mr. Lloyd George,' he declared, ' that I naturally expected to meet a big man in every sense, but, as you can see for yourselves, he is a very small man in stature. *" Mr. Lloyd George was equal to the occasion : ' I am grieved to find that your chairman is disappointed in my size,' he quietly replied, * but this, is owing to the way you have in the south of measuring a man. In North Wales we measure a man from his chin up, but you evidently measure him from his chin down.' " — " From Village Green to Downing Street. Life of the Rt. Hon. D. Lloyd George," by J. Hugh Edwards, pub. 1908, by George Newnes, Ltd.

An Eloquent Peroration. " This speech, cogent in its statements, irrefutable in its arguments, would be famous even if it rested only on its peroration, for here its dialectical force reached its culminating point. The Irish Members were supporting the Bill» and Mr. Lloyd George, in concluding, turned to them, and with a tenderness in his tone, and appeal in his every gesture, spoke with an eloquence reminiscent of the greatest of Irish orators : —

We are in a minority,' he said, turning dramatically to face them, ' for one reason, and one reason only, and I am not ashamed of it. It is be- cause we committed ourselves to the cause of Ireland. In 1868 we threw over our most cherished leaders in this country, Spurgeon and Bright, Dr. Allan, Dr. Dale, and the right honourable gentleman, the Member from West Birming- ham (Mr. Chamberlain). We threw them over for one reason only ; we realised what was due to Ireland. It is rather hard, I think,' he proceeded in a softened tone, ' to be put in this plight of being beaten down for the cause of Ireland, and that Irishmen, of all people, should help our foes, and theirs to make our defeat more intolerable. Let them remember this : the people who will benefit by this Bill are the people who coerced Ireland and supported every measure for throwing their leaders into prison. In Wales we were offered by the Member from West Birmingham, disestablishment if we would throw over Home Rule. We did not do it, and some of the men who declined to do it will be sold up for rates under this Bill, and probably imprisoned under the mandamus of this Bill. They will remember,' he added, pointing his outstretched finger reprovingly in the direction of the Irish Benches, ' that

468 DAVID LLOYD GEORGE

the instrument under which that happened was forged partly by the Irish Members. Even the chiefs of their own church have not been as good friends as the chiefs of Nonconformity. Cardinal Vaughan, a priest of their own church, passes them by when they are fallen by the roadside. I am not sure that he did not join in helping their assailants. But Noncomformist Samaritans, from the Catholic point of view, who are distant as the poles in their religious views, declined absolutely to listen to the appeals of religious bigotry, and helped them, notwithstanding all the risks which they foresaw. I do appeal to honourable Members from Ireland sincerely for the sake of their own country. I appeal to them not to join in oppressing Nonconformists who have been their friends, with the enemies of their faith and their race. '

". . . . Here was Bright 's simplicity of thought, directness of expression, and vivid instinctive fighting qualities. It was this fighting quality, together with its wealth of rhetorical graces, . . . which made this speech surpassingly brilliant as a piece of oratory. . . " — ** The Life of David Lloyd George," by J. Hugh Edwards, M.P./pub. 1913. The Waverley Book Co.

Empire' s Honour. ** Mr. Lloyd George's characteristic qualities were notably exhibited in his invigorating and inspiring speech on the wax in the Queen's Hall on Saturday afternoon. It touched many chords — irony, scorn, pathos, denunciation — and ended with a passage of prophetic eloquence. . . . The whole audience burst into laughter when Mr. Lloyd George asked, * Have you any £^ notes about you, or any of those neat little Treasury £\ notes?' But the mood changed when he went on to exclaim, ' If you have, burn them. They are only scraps of paper ! ' And there were fierce cheers in response to his telling questions and answers : * What are they made, of ? ' — Rags. What are they worth ? — The whole credit of the British Empire.' He fiercely denounced the savage and destructive spirit that animates the German troops in dealing with the Belgians. . . .Then in a peroration of rare eloquence, Mr. Lloyd George hailed the rise in this country, as the result of the war, of a new patriotism, richer, nobler and more elevated than the old." — From "The Times," Monday, September 21st, 19 14.

Extracis from his Greatest Speech.

" I have come this afternoon to talk to my fellow-countrymen about this great war and the part we are to take in it. I feel my task is easier after we have been listening to the greatest battle-song in the word. (Cheers.) (This was a reference to *' Men of Harlech," which was sung before he rose.) * There is no man in this room who has always regarded the prospects of engaging in a great war with greater reluctance, with greater repugnance, than I have done throughout the whole of my political life. There is no man either inside or outside this room more convinced that we could not have avoided it without national dishonour. (Cheers.) I am fully alive to the fact that whenever a nation has engaged in any war she has always invoked the sacred name of honour. Many a crime has been committed in its name ; there are some crimes being committed now. But all the same, national honour is a reality, and any nation that disregards it is doomed. Why is our honour as a country involved in this war? Because in the first place we are bound in an honourable obligation to defend the independence, the liberty, the integrity of a small neighbour that has lived peacefully, but she could not have compelled us because she is weak. (Cries of ' Quite right!') ^ The man who declines to discharge his debt because his creditor is too poor to enforce it is a blackguard.* (Cheers.)

1 Anaphora, see Anadiplosis.

THE RIGHT HON. DAVID I.LOYD GEORGE.

Reproduced by kind permission of the Eagle, Star and British Dominions

Insurance Company, owners of copyright.

Mr. Lloyd George driving a powerful argument home. See page 242.

DAVID LLOYD GEORGE 469

" t We entered into this treaty, a solemn treaty, to defend Belgium and her integrity. Our signatures are attached to the document. Our signatures do not stand alone. . . .

" 3 What is a treaty? says the German Chancellor. '* A scrap of paper." Have you any £5 notes about you? I am not calling for them. (Laughter.) Have you any of those little neat Treasury notes? (Laughter.) If you have, burn them ; they are only scraps of paper. (Cheers.) ^ What are they made of? Rags. (Laughter.) What are they worth? The whole credit of the British Empire. (Cheers.) ' Scraps of paper.' I have been dealing with scraps of paper within the last month. We suddenly found the commerce of the world coming to a standstill. The machine had stopped. I will tell you why. We discovered, many of us for the first time, that the machinery of commerce was moved by bills of exchange- I have seen some of them — (laughter) — ^ wretched, crinkled, scrawled over, blotched, frowsy — and yet wretched little scraps of paper move great ships, laden with thousands of tons of precious cargo frcvm one end of the world to the other. (Cheers.) 3 What was the motive power behind them? The honour of commercial men. (Cheers.) ^ Treaties are the currency of international statesmanship. Belgium has been treated brutally — how brutally we shall not yet know, ' We know already too much. ^ what has she done? Had she sent an ultimatum to Germany? Had she challenged Germany? Was she preparing to make war on Germany? Had she inflicted any wrong upon Germany which the Kaiser was bound to redress? She was one of the most unoffending little countries in Europe. There she was. ^ peaceful, industrious, thrifty, hardworking, giving offence to no one. '' Her cornfields have been trampled down. Her villages have been burned to the ground. Her art treasures have been destroyed. Her men have been slaughtered ; yes, and her women and her children ^oo. What had she done? Hundreds and thousands of her people, their neat, comfortable little homes burnt to dust, wandering homeless in their own land. ^ What was their crime? Their crime was that they trusted to the word of a Prussian king.

Outrages in Belgium. It is enough for me to have the story which the Germans themselves • avow, admit, defend, proclaim. ^ The burning and massacring, the shooting down of harmless people. ^ Why? Because, according to the Germans, they fired on German soldiers. ' What business had the German soldiers there at all? (Cheers.) Belgium was acting in pursuance of a most sacred right, the right to defend her own home. 1° But they were not in uniform when they were shot. ^^ If a burglar broke into the Kaiser's palace at Potsdam, ^ destroyed his furniture, shot down his servants, ruined his art treasures, 12 e.specially those he made himself — (laughter and cheers) — burned his precious manu- script, * do you think he would wait until he got into uniform before he shot him down? (Laughter.) They were dealing with those who had broken into their households. But their perfidy has already failed. They entered Belgium to save time. 2 Xhey have not gained time, but they have lost their good name.

The Case of Serbia. " But Belgium was not the only little nation that has been attacked in this war, and I make no excuse for referring to the case of the other little nation — the case of Serbia. . . . Russia has a special regard for Serbia. . . . Austria knew that ; Germany knew that ; and Germany turned round to Russia and said : *' * I insist that you shall stand by with your arms folded whilst Austria is strangling your little brother to death.' (Laughter.) What answer did the Russian Slav give? He gave the only answer that becomes a man. (Cheers.) He turned to .A.ustria and said : ^"^ ' You lay your hands on that little fellow and I will tear your ramshackle empire limb from limb.*^ (Prolonged cheers.) And he is doing it. (Renewed cheers.)

2 Epiphonema, * Prooimion, + Pisteis : The Treaty, Outrages in Belgium, Case of Serbia. History of Small Nations, The German People, Through Terror to Triumph, etc., etc., A Welsh Army. 3 Sermocinatio. 4 Compound Words, see also Epitheton. 5 Eperotesis. 6 Synonymia. 7 Parison. 8 Syn- theton, Mombrum, Hypotyposis. 9 Erotesis. 10 Hypophora. 11 Paradigm, see also Paradiegesis and Parabola. 12 Parenthesis, see Parenthetical Thrusts. 13

470 DAVID LLOYD GEORGE

History of Little Nations.

" That is the story of little nations. The world owes much to little nations — (cheers) — and to little men.^^ (Laughter and cheers.) This theory of bigness — this theory that you must have a big empire and a big nation and a big man — ^' well, long legs have their advantage in a retreat. (Laughter.) ^^ ITie greatest art of the world was the work of little nations The most enduring literature of the world came from little nations. The greatest literature of England came from her when she was a nation of the size of Belgium fighting a great empire. The heroic deeds that thrill humanity through generations were the deeds of little nations fighting for their freedom. Yes, 17 and the salvation of mankind came through a little nation. God has chosen little nations as the vessels by which He carries His choicest wines to the lips of humanity, ^^ to rejoice their hearts, to exalt their vision, ^^ to -stimulate and strengthen their faith ; and ^o if we had stood by when two little nations were being crushed and broken by the brutal hands of barbarism, 21 our shame would have rung down the everlasting ages. (Cheers.) ' The Test of Our Faith.'

**.... What about England? ^2 Qq ^q Greece, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, France — m all those lands I could point out places where the sons of Britain have died for the freedom of those peoples. (Cheers.) France has made sacrifices for the freedom of other lands than her own. Can you name a single country in the world for the freedom of which modern Prussia has ever sacrificed a single life? (Cheers.) By the test of our faith, the highest standard of civilisation, is the readiness to sacrifice for others.

Tribute to the German People.

" I will not say a single word in disparagement of the German people. They are a great people, and have great qualities of head, of hand, and of heart. I believe, in spite of recent events, the;re is as great a store of kindness in the German peasant as in any peasant in the world, but he has been drilled into a false idea of civilisation. (Hear, hear.) ^^ jj jg efficient, it is capable ; but it is a hard civilisaton ; it is a selfish civilisation ; it is a material civilisation. They cannot comprehend the action of Britain at the present moment ; they say so. ^^ < France, ' they say, ' we can understand ; she is out for vengeance ; she is out for territory — Alsace and Lorraine. (Cheers.) Russia, she is fighting for mastery; she wants Galicia.' 24 fhey can understand you fighting for vengeance, they can understand you fighting for mastery, they can understand you fighting for greed of territory ; but they cannot understand a great empire pledging its resources, pledging its might, pledging the lives of its children, pledging its very existence to protect a little nation that seeks for its defence. (Cheers.)

Through Terror to Triumph.

" 24 They think we cannot beat them. It will not be easy. It will be a long job ; it will be a terrible war ; but in the end we shall march through terror to triumph. (Cheers.) We shall need all our qualities, every quality that Britain and its people possess : 25 prudence in counsel, daring in action, tenacity in purpose, courage in defeat, moderation in victory — (cheers) — in all things faith, and we shall win. (Cheers.) It has pleased them to believe and to preach that we are a decadent and degenerate nation. They proclaim it to the world, ^^ through their professors — (laughter) — 27 that we are a non- lieroic nation, skulking behind our mahogany counters, whilst we are egging on more gallant races to their destruction.

' A Welsh Army in the Field.'

" Some have already given their lives. There are some who have given more than their own lives ; they have given the lives of those who are dear to

Ethopoeia. 14 Hypocatastasis. 15 Aposiopesis and Asteismus. 16 Anacephal- cosis, Parison, see also Accumulatio, and Aparithmesis. 17 Epanorthosis. 18 Isocolon. 19 Syntheton. 20 Protasis. 21 Apodosis. 22 Symphoresis, see Accumulatio. 23 Antithesis and Parison, Asyndeton. 24 Paromology and Asyndeton. 25 Exegesis, Isocolon, Parison, and Accumulatio. 26 Asteismus, see Parenthetical Thrusts. 27 Epanalepsis, see Emphatic Repetition^ Echo.

DAVID LLOYD GEORGE 471

them. I honour their courage and 28 may God be their comfort and their strength. But their reward is at hand ; those who have fallen have 29 died consecrated deaths. They have taken their part in the making of a new Europe — a new world. I can see signs of it coming through the glare of the battle-field. The people of all lands will gain more by this struggle than they comprehend at the present moment. They will be rid of the greatest menace to their freedom. That is not all. There is another blessing, infinitely greater and more enduring, which is emerging already out of this great contest — o new patriotism, richer, nobler, and more exalted than the old. I see a new recognition amongst all classes high and low, shedding themselves of selfish- ness— 30 a new recognition that the honour of a country does not ^i depend merely on the maintenance of its glory in the stricken field, but also in pro- tecting its homes from distress. -2 j^ is a new patriotism which is bringing a new outlook for all classes. The great flood of 3» luxury and sloth which had submerged the land is receding, and a new Britain is appearing. We can see, for the first time, the fundamental things that matter in life, that had been obscured from our vision by the tropical growth of prosperity.

" May I tell you a simple ^^ parable what I think this war is doing for us? I know a valley in North Wales, between the mountains and the sea. ^'^ It is a beautiful valley, snug, comfortable, sheltered by the mountains from all the bitter blasts. It is very enervating, and I remember how the boys were in the habit of climbing the hill above the village to have a glimpse of the great mountains in the distance, and to be stimulated and freshened by the breezes which came from the hill tops, and by the spectacle of their grandeur. ^^ We have been living in a sheltered valley for generations. We have been too comfortable and too indulgent, many, perhaps, too selfish, and the stern hand of fate has scourged us to an elevation where we can see the ever- lasting things that matter for a nation — the great peaks we had forgotten — Honour, Duty, Patriotism, and, clad in glittering white, the towering pinnacles of sacrifice pointing like a rugged finger to heaven. We shall descend into the valleys again ; but as long as men and women of this generation last, they will carry in their hearts the image of those mighty peaks whose foundations are not shaken, though Europe rock and sway in the convulsions of a great war." (Prolonged cheers.)

"A Great Sfeechr

" The Chancellor of the Exchequer delivered on Saturday to an audience composed chiefly of his Welsh fellow-country- men, the greatest speech of his public career. Some speeches are deeds, and this is such a one. . . . The Chancellor of the Exchequer attained a height of eloquence that will scarcely be surpassed in public references to the war. Yet he was not merely eloquent. His speech was closely reasoned and nourished with historical facts. He dwelt on our constant defence of Belgian neutrality and dealt scornfully with the ' scrap of paper ' theory of treaties . . . and he clinched his argument with a telling phrase : * Treaties are the currency of international statesmanship.'

(The above extracts are taken mainly from " The Times.")

23 Paramythia, Epilogue. 29 Paregmenon. 30 Anadiplosis. 31 Arsis and Thesis. 32 Emphatic Repetition. 33 Syntheton. 34 Parabola, see also Alle- gory. 35 Descriptio, see also Diatyposis. 36 Peroratio with Allegory, Anaphora and Antithesis.

472

WENDELL PHILLIPS

WENDELL PHILLIPS : HIS ORATORY, DELIVERY AND SOME NOTES FROM EMINENT CONTEMPORARY AND SUBSEQUENT CRITICS.

Before taking up the orators of the Great War we shall now survey the oratory of those whose eloquence still rings in the memory of living men though the orator has long since passed away. Among these Wendell Phillips stands at the head as the greatest talking orator. He was the heavy artillery of the abo- lition movement. With him the abolition of American slavery was a holy creed, a religion. He was born Nov. 29, 1811, in Boston, the intellectual hub of the United States and the cradle of American liberty, and of the hundred orators in and around Boston, he was the only Boston boy.

Wendell Phillips' fame dates from his use of these two powerful Figures of Thought: Apostrophe and Proso- popoeia in the protest meeting against the murder of Lovejoy. In the same way William Jennings Bryan leaped into renown by employing that wonderful metaphor "Cross of Gold" in the Democratic Convention in 1896. He was slow and deliberate in his delivery, but had sufficient rapidity to give it that animation and freshness which so much charm an audience.

He was a great scholar and his style was of the highest culture and polish, at the same time it was natural. No man has ever exceeded him in natural conversational oratory. Phillips was distinguished in his use of irony, sarcasm and invective. Of modern times, he was the best example of the Greek theory : the greatest action with the least apparent effort. The reason of his great eloquence was his devotion to a great cause, the cause of freedom, for which cause he gave up fortune and a lucrative profession.

"You are looking for a man who is all art, all thunder. Lo ! a quiet man glides on to the platform and begins talking in a simple, easy, conversational way; presently he makes you smile at some happy turn, then he startles you by a rapier-like thrust, then he electrifies you by grand outburst of feeling. 'You listen, believe, applaud, and that is Wendell Phillips — that is also ora- tory,— to produce the greatest effect by the quietest means.' "

"Oratory and Orators," by William Mathews, LL.D., published by S. C. Griggs and Company, Chicago.

WENDELL PHILLIPS 473

"Wendell Phillips, Orator and Agitator," by Lorenzo Sears, L.H.D., published by Doubleday, Page & Co., has the following: His Perorations

"There was another and rarer but most impressive feature which has sometimes been overlooked in traditional accounts of his prevailing colloquial address — that is, the beauty and sublime impressiveness of his closing paragraphs when the subject re- quired it. Occasionally the same perfection of rhythmic speech marked the end of some division of an address* especially note- worthy also are the perorationsf of the addresses entitled *Under the Flag' and 'War for the Union,' *The State of the Country' and 'Lincoln's Election,' 'Christianity a Battle,' *The Education of the People,' 'The Scholar in a Republic,' 'Daniel O'Connell' and 'William Lloyd Garrison.'

After figures of speech and thought or apt anecdotes, nothing fastens the gist of a paragraph in the hearers' memory like barbed epigrams:}:. Phillips had a condensing invention which could mass the weighty discourse of an hour into a single sentence, as 'Power is ever shifting from the many to the few,' 'On God's side, one is a majority,' 'Popular agitation is the life of a repub- lic' As an agitator his hope rested on this principle. He be- lieved that the people would eventually side with righteousness when they saw it clearly."

"Upon rising to speak, he slowly buttoned his black frock coat, and advanced to his position on the platform with the easy deliberation of a gentleman in his drawing-room. Unlike Webster, he never appeared in the conventional evening dress. The weight of the body was usually supported upon the left foot, with the right slightly advanced at an easy angle, his head bent slightly forward and gently inclined to one side. The attitude was the union of firmness and repose, the perfect economy of muscular effort.

His Voice

The chief weapon of his oratory was his voice. The musical register was a baritone, used in the upper series of the chest notes. With its absolute purity, and its density of vibratory resonance, his voice possessed a carrying power that penetrated to every part of any large audience room. It had an intimate tone as if it were speaking to each one as an unknown friend. Another element in its magical charm was the easy method of its production. They (modulations) were the flexible intona- tions of elevated conversation. His modulation, like his style and diction, was the perfection of talking to people.

In rate of utterance he achieved the rare excellence of speaking deliberately without seeming slow. He was enabled to secure

*See Metabasis.

tThe peroration on "Toussaint rOiiverture" came first in the author's enumeration.

$See Epiphonema.

474 WENDELL PHILLIPS

audibility and distinctness by giving sufficient time, or 'quantity* to the formation of the open vowels and a clear-cut stamp to the consonants. With an indifference to the foppery of culture, he would put to frequent use the colloquialisms, 'well,' 'can't,* 'wasn't,' 'don't,' 'won't,' 'wouldn't,' 'shouldn't,' but from his re- fined lips they seemed almost to gain authority and propriety. His Emphasis, Force, Pause, Etc.

"In the use of the intellectual and emotional instruments of expression — 'emphasis' and 'force,' 'inflection' and 'pitch,' 'move- ment' and 'pause,' — he had a felicity which attuned them to every shade of sentiment and meaning. Whenever he wished the audi- ence to weigh any important thought he had just uttered, he made a most skilful use of the emphatic pause. Sometimes the pause would be made before the word; then the word came with the added value of an aroused curiosity. But when his voice stopped, his mind did not.

The interval was always filled with some expressiveness of manner that enhanced the vividness of the thought 'Why cannot I make an audience cry as you do ?' he once asked Anna Dickin- son. 'Because, Mr. Phillips you never cry yourself,' was the truthful reply.'

In his poetical quotations he usually lowered his pitch, slightly retarded his movement, softened the force and infused the tones with his deep appreciation of the sentiment, but he attempted no more. In his most pitiless invective his eyes were half closed in withering scorn, and his voice was smooth, steady and low.*

His Gestures

He made many more gestures than he was supposed to have made. He freely used the open palm, now with one hand, now with both. In the expression of ideas that were disagreeable to him he used the averted palm. In the more moderate emphasis of feeling he placed his index finger, or the palm, or the fist of one hand on the supine palm of the other. Contrasted ideas were almost always symbolized by some expressive antithetic gesture. The difficult art of gracefully standing still before an audience he observed to perfection. The hands either hung quietly by the side, or were clasped behind or in front of him. He never walked the platform. He was often an enthusiastic observer of actual training in vocal culture and expressive de- livery; and took delight in assisting his young kinsmen in pre- paring their tasks in declamation.

His Advice — Be Yourself

'Never use a word in private you would not use in public. Be yourself, and you will succeed.' "

"The Andover Review" Editorial, Boston, March 1884, pp. 309-316.

"He is a natural orator. He is highly cultivated by art, more

*See Rhythm of Ironia.

WENDELL PHILLIPS 475

highly than most of his admirers suspect ; but he is, to begin with, a natural speaker. When he was twelve years old, he made his first schoolboy declamation in the old Latin school-house in School Street in Boston.

His figure is lithe and slim. He is of a sanguine temperament, blonde in complexion ; and light-brown hair, slightly sandy. His face beams with an expression of resolute goodness, if we may use the term.

When the applause which always heralds him to an audience subsides, he quietly commences. The zvords flow forth in a level, colloquial way, with a rhythm decided, but not forcing notice; and for sometime after he begins he produces a pleasing rather than impressive effect upon the hearer.

The Protest Meeting on the Lovejoy Murder

He began by calmly expressing his 'surprise' at the sentiments of the last speaker — surprise at such sentiments from such a man ; but most of all, surprise that they should have elicited ap- plause within these walls. He was vehemently interrupted ; they tried to put him down, but he went on with a rising and equable ardor till he gained the acme of his impassioned diatribe — raising his voice till it rang through the outer arches of the now listening Hall ; and pointing his outstretched finger to the portraits of the heroes of the Revolutionary day, frowning from the wall, he exclaimed : 'I thought those pictured lips would have broken into voice to rebuke the recreant American — the slanderer of the dead. The gentleman said (here he fixed his glittering gaze on him (Austin) that he should sink into insignificance if he dared to gainsay the principles of these resolutions. Sir, for the senti- ments he has uttered, on soil consecrated by the prayers of Puritans and the blood of patriots^ the earth should have yawned and swallowed him up.' He spoke this as if he would dart lightning through his veins; and deafening applause fol- lowed the daring appeal. The resolutions were at once voted on and adopted, and the youthful champion came down from the platform a famous man.

In no sense can he be called a demonstrative speaker. He rather seems to suppress than express all he feels. Thus he calls the imagination of the hearer into play to aid the conception of the idea which hearer feels him to be struggling with, though he does not see the struggle.

When he utters such ejaculations (referring to the Fugitive Slave Law) as 'The United States Constitution is a covenant with Hell,' he does not gnash his teeth like the stereotype agi- tator is presumed to do ; no, he is as 'bland as a couple of sum- mer mornings,' as it has been expressed. In an address in which he was describing European matters in a commonplace, chatty way, he uttered the sentence : "There is a place on the pavement of Florence upon which is graven these words: 'On this spot, three hundred years ago, sat Dante;' he uttered it gently, but

476 WENDELL PHILLIPS

with entire change of manner and rhythm as though he was impressed for the moment with the shadowy presence of the sad man who went down into hell."

His propositions are few, but enforced with great variety and felicity of illustration. He has considerable humor and some wit. His fancy is also playful. Careful as his composition is in its main features, it is yet a colloquial style.

His Voice

On its lower notes it is very rich, though on its general level it is thin. Although his tones are level and low, yet the accurate- ness of his articulation renders them audible to an audience of several thousands. His tones have a rhythm and a melodious flow, but they have no song as of ideal music floating on their cadences.

The orator should frame his style upon the basis of good, plain, common sense talk ; man to man, face to face, hand to hand ; the same plain, frank way in which he would say 'Good morning,' and 'how -are you.' But that style, in its rhythmic flow, and as it advances in its more and more imposing diction should lead off and lead up toward the vistas of cloud-land and the music of the spheres.

His Quietness Does Not Forewarn

He is more quiet than any orator we have ever heard, who pre- tended to passion. It is the very style of an agitator, because it has no agitation. You are not forewarned by it against excite- ment. We remember noticing in one of his most inflammable appeals a slight but significant indication of the entire repose of the body and arms ; for the fingers of his right hand were dang- ling and playing on the side of the table upon which it rested, while he was delivering the very climax of the appeal. This repose of manner is rarely broken.

He has a certain species of the power of declamatory interro- gation; the power of putting those short, sharp questions which smite with their scornful sarcasm. This was a marked quality in Henry Clay's style of oratory — so with a sudden, tempest-like squall, the blue-eyed Kentuckian one day startled the opponents of the War of 1812 in the House of Representatives. He was discoursing on his darling theme — the glory of his country ; and on a sudden he came down upon them with all his might. On the words of one single questioning sentence he seemed to let right down on them a storm of indignation: *If a man is not patriotic' — here there was an immense pause, everybody ex- pecting then a prepared descent of declamatory denunciation on the wretch who 'is not patriotic' — but the great master dropped his voice and he crushed the man who 'is not patriotic' with the single sentence, — 'what is he good for?'

Foretokening the Thought

In Phillips' face, too, you will often see an expression of features foretokening the thought whose blow, in an instant more

WENDELL PHILLIPS 477

you will feel; just as the lightning on the face of heaven glitters in our eyes before the thunder from its depths roars in our ears.

He was stormy (against Kossuth) and spoke in a vociferous key. This he relieved and alternated with much skill, by dropping his voice on sudden, sharp interrogations, which he put to the imaginary Kossuth ; and not unf requently his tone sunk down to a whisper. The transitions from that whisper to the loud, fierce clauses of his vituperation were prodigiously effective."

"The Golden Age of American Oratory," by Edward G. Parker.

"Wendell Phillips: The Agitator/' by Carlos Martyn, published in 1890, by Funk and Wagnalls Company, gives a most interesting account of Phillips' oratory, a few extracts of which are here added :

"How describe the voice? It was of no great range. In the higher register it was thin. But in the middle and lower notes, where he usually held it, it resembled the tones of Paganini's violin."

"In Mr. Phillips the rhythm was felt rather than perceived. The cadence was lulling and beguiling, never obtrusive. In rate of utterance he was neither fast nor slow — slow enough to be distinctly heard, yet fast enough to give the impression of ani- mation."

Thomas Wentworth Higginson says :

"The keynote to the oratory of Wendell Phillips lay in this: that it was essentially conversational,^the conversational raised to its highest power. Perhaps no orator ever spoke with so little apparent effort or began so entirely on the plane of his average hearers. It was as if he simply repeated, in a little louder tone, what he had just been saying to some familiar friend at his elbow."

"The poise of his manly figure, the easy grace 9f his attitude, the thrilling modulation of his perfectly trained voice, the dig- nity of his gesture, the keen penetration of his eye, all aided to keep his hearers in hand. The colloquialism was never relaxed ; but it was familiarity without loss of keeping."

"Then, as the argument went on, the voice grew deeper, the action more animated, and the sentences came in a long, sonorous swell, still easy and graceful, but powerful as the soft stretching of a tiger's paw."

"It was this colloquial quality, infinitely varied yet without interruption, which made him the least tedious of speakers."

"He had exactly the manner for an agitator, it was so entirely without agitation. This repose, fire under snow, enabled him to husband all his electricity and flash it out to magnetize the audience."

478

Rev. HENRY WARD BEECHER

REV. HENRY WARD BEECHER: HIS ORATORY, DE- LIVERY, AND SOME NOTES TAKEN FROM EMI- NENT CONTEMPORARY AND SUBSEQUENT CRITICS. Henry Ward Beecher, the great American preacher was born at Litchfield, Conn., June 24, 1812, and died at Brooklyn, N. Y., March 8, 1887. Of all modern divines, he approached nearest the eloquence of Demosthenes. Many of the bold Figures of Thought for which the noted Athenian was so famous, were most skilfully and effectively employed by Mr. Beecher. Among his numerous figures, the Aposiopesis, the Paralepsis, Paradoxon, Aitiology, Mimesis, Eperotesis, Apostrophe, Prosopopoeia, As- teismus are noticeably apparent. He used both Pathos and Ethos. His oratory was multifarious and of much variety, though the basis of it was conversational.

Beecher's eloquence may be traced: 1st, to his wonderful con- centration. He could so concentrate his mind upon a given matter, that he could reproduce it at a moment^s requisition in a speech or sermon at a future date; 2nd, to the lofty spirit that fired him. When discoursing on the glorious theme of liberty, he was at his best. His voice then rang out in clarion notes. His speech at Liverpool, in 1863, wherein he championed the cause of freedom, is universally considered his most eloquent.

Henry Ward Beecher

"Mr. Beecher was great as an emotional orator, will probably be regarded as the first of that class of the public speakers of this country, and as not surpassed in any century. He was bom an emotional orator."

*The Christian Intelligencer," March 16, 1887.

How Beecher Prepared His Sermons "... but we would not advise any of our young preachers to follow this course, unless they are pretty confident that they are incipient Beechers. — *Ed. Universalist.'

T read a book for information and inspiration. If, while reading, a thought comes to me which is worth expanding, I write down the title of the book, the passage which suggested the thought, the hour of the day, or the night, the local surroundings, in fact everything which will enable me to reproduce my exact mood — then I write till I have nothing more to say on that topic. I fold my manuscript, write the name of the topic on its back, and lay it away. On Sunday morning I begin my sermon. I know what my congregation is thinking about, and my subject is gen- erally in the line of their thought. It flashes into my mind that I have written on that topic. I hunt among my manuscripts, find the one I want, and have a sermon at hand which with a little alteration and addition serves my purpose. I try by reading

HENRY WARD BEECHER 479

and re-reading the title of the book, the quoted passage, and the narrative of the surrounding circumstances to get back into the mood in which I was when I wrote the manuscript. Then I go into the pulpit and let my mind swing' — Life of Beecher.

Most of his (Beecher's) time was spent in general study; his Sunday morning sermon was prepared on Sunday morning^ and his Sunday evening sermon in the afternoon."

" . . . and it does strike us as somewhat strange that preachers who, like Rowland Hill, Berridge, Spurgeon and many others, have given loose rein to their bit have been among the most eminently successful in their ministry. Mr. Beecher's study of oratory at Amherst has undoubtedly been one of the most effi- cient means in the acquirement of his success, and has been an attainment the value of which he could not at that time have foreseen.

I well remember the impression produced upon the audience by Mr. Beecher one Sunday morning by a single sentence, solemnly uttered with upraised hand. 'If I had a son who was a slave, and he did not seek for liberty at every hazard and at every cost, I would write across his name the word 'disowned.' The sentence seems simple enough now, but it thrilled the audience then like a flash of electricity from a powerful battery."

"Henry Ward Beecher" (pub. in 1883), by Lyman Abbott, DD.

"The introductory was over and he began. He took his posi- tion behind the desk, whose standing place was on a level with the platform, — there he took his place, but it was as a place of de- parture, not of performance ; a place to rush from and come back to, not to stand long at . . . and for two hours of unflagging action he talked and he walked before that spell-bound crowd — • conversing, denouncing, describing; now telling funny stories, making allusions to the slang of the day, making quotations from the grand old masters of speech ; now breathing out threatenings upon the objects of his wrath, and again bursting into benedictions upon imagined philanthropies and ideal cures for all the sorrows ot the struggling race in slavery. In all that rush of two hours he did not speak for any two quarters of an hour alike in tones or words. — So easy, so smooth, yet so fiercely moving was his orator-course, — the tones flying from the 'ivory rampart of his teeth,' faster and faster, now a parenthesis slipping out, swifter than thought, — changing, alternating, and verging into slow, orotund tones of impressive weight, or flashing into cracking emphasis like a volley of pistol-shots ; — curious, steady, strenuous, sublime.

Chapin and Beecher. Beecher, under high-pressure of passion, walks about much more than Chapin, but whether moving their legs or brandishing their arms, passion pulls the pulleys, not art. 'If your hand in gesture' said a wise school-master, 'goes up of itself higher than your head, it is right; for it is sent up there hy passion, and passion knows more than art.' A musical voice

480 HENRY WARD BEECHER

may seduce senates, but a mighty voice alone can manage the multitude, and with these great voices, they deliver themselves with most effect when they wind, into their rising climaxes of thought, and go off in long, swelling, sustained flights, gnashing and chafing and holding you long and high before they let you down on a smooth, sinking cadence.

. . . he abounds in contrasts, violent, unexpected, undigni- fied— and therefore effective; sudden surprises and suspendings of voice, and paradoxes of thought, changes of level and quality of tone as violent as the intonation of Edwin Forrest in the Gladiator. His thought seems to move in shocks rather than sen- tences and the interval between is often filled by the auditors with inextinguishable laughter. When surging along in some grand diapason of deep-souled indignation, he will break down into a cutting but coarse jest, very telling, but marring the harmonious whole. These anti-climaxes were wonderfully effective with the mass, but they belong to the mob-orator. But to see Beecher in his glory, behold him cheering on what he invokes as 'the columns of freedom' — his tones breathe out clarion-notes of defiant exultation. Then you behold him one mass of fiery sen- sibility— a sort of poet, philosopher, and madman, all fused into one orator.

Beecher, it must be admitted, sometimes rants, Chapin rarely^ if ever, does so. There is one great charm about both these speakers, which from the fact that they are so rapid in speech, would be liable to be unnoticed or unrecognized, though its agree- able effect would always be felt. Rapid fervors, if they have free play, always fall naturally in a sort of rhythmical utterance, amounting on impassioned passages almost to a chant ; and to one listening carefully suggest the idea of an utterance more lofty than natural and altogether out of the common beat. But it will be found on close observation — and here is the charm which we mean — that, no matter how large the audience they speak in- variably from a conversational level; no matter to what degree of pathos or of bathos they go, they maintain conversational cadences and talking inflections of voice.

It is incredible how much ease and relief to hearer, and how much advantage to the speaker, this produces : the ear of the one is never strained by an uninterrupted hammering of sound, while the tongue of the other is never parched with its unbroken wagging; and what is of no less consequence, this colloquial modulation prevents the stilled mannerism into which all inex- perienced speakers are sure to fall; because speaking to an audience must be something very much more magnificient than speaking to a man."

"The Golden Age of American Oratory" (pub. in 1857), b}^ Edward G. Parker.

"Beecher has well said that 'there are cases in which by a single explosive tone a man will drive home a thought as a

HENRY WARD BEECHER 481

hammer drives a nail/ There was a large grove between the seminary and his father's house, and it was the habit, he tells us, of his brother Charles and himself, with one or two others to make the night, and even the day, hideous with their voices as they passed backward and forward through the woods exploding all the vowels from the bottom to the very top of their voices."

"Oratory and Orators" (pub. 1879), by William Mathews7 LL.D.

His Elocutionary Training

The ''Christian Union" of July 14, 1880, gives the following words of Mr. Beecher: *T had from childhood a thickness of speech arising from a large palate, so that when a boy I used to be laughed at for talking as if I had pudding in my mouth. When I went to Amherst, I was fortunate in passing into the hands of John Lovell, a teacher of elocution, and a better teacher for my purpose I cannot conceive. The system consisted in drill or the thorough practice of inflections by the voice, of gesture, posture, and articulation. Sometimes I was a whole hour prac- tising my voice on a word like 'justice.' I would have to take a posture, frequently at a mark chalked on the floor. Then we would go through all the gestures, exercising each movement of the arm, and the throwing open the hand. All gestures except those of precision go in curves, the arm rising from the table, coming to the front, turning to the left or right. I was drilled as to how far the arm should come forward, where it should start from, how far go back and under what circumstances these movements should be made. It was drill, drill, drill until the motions almost became a second nature. Now I never know what movement I shall make — my gestures are natural, because this drill made them natural to me. The only method of acquiring an effective education is by practice of not less than an hour a day, until the student has his voice and himself thoroughly sub- dued and trained to right expression."

'Tt is not too much to say that Mr. Beecher was the greatest

orator that the century has produced — and above all in the ability

to speak with swiftly flowing eloquence upon a subject which

had been presented but a few moments before he rose to his feet.

His Person and Speed of Speech

He was gifted with a massive frame, a fine presence, a power- ful and well-modulated voice, and an impressive demeanor. Ordinarily he spoke slowly and with deliberation, but he would now and again indulge in passionate outbursts in which the words came like a torrent. Stenographers and other reporters of his addresses never felt quite sure of him. He would proceed for some minutes at the rate of about one hundred and twenty words a minute, and then would suddenly rise to double that speed.

He used but few gestures. His play of feature and his mimetic skill were so remarkable that it was often said of him that he

482 HENRY WARD BEECHER

would have been a wonderful actor had he chosen that calling. He felt too strongly what he said, however, to have simulated passion. When he pleaded for a cause he did so with his whole being. His voice would grow husky, his frame would tremble, and tears would follow one another down his cheeks.

"The New York Independent" pays the following tribute to his oratory: 'There lies before us the picture of the young, dark- haired man who came to Brooklyn from Indianapolis more than forty years ago. We recall the fervor and brilliance of his oratory. Such a voice as he had! It was sweet, mellow, most delicate and rich in its intonations, now moving steadily along a low level of tone, sinking into a tender pathos, bubbling over in some quick sally of mirth or humor, and then swelling out in a mighty volume of force that seemed to crash against the roof.' His Health and Care Re. Oratory

He studied other preachers, but he studied still more carefully himself. Health seeming to him the prime condition of good preaching, he sought to realize the most perfect health imaginable in his own body, and his success was very great. He was particularly careful of the condition of his body on his preaching days. His Sundays were ascetic. He allowed himself only so much food as would prevent faintness. Those who met him Saturday in the print-shops and picture galleries often imagined that his Sunday sermon was already written, or he would trust to luck for it. They were wrong in either case. It was not written. But Mr. Beecher was loafing on principle. Saturday always was his most careless day. His system was to keep him- self full by reading and by observation, and then, the subject once chosen, it became magnetic to the multitude of observations and ideas with which his mind was stored. He was always seeking for analogies in his walks about town and in his rambles in the country, and they returned to him when needed, and became the spontaneous method of his thought.

Beecher Stamping on the Fetters of John Brown

Mr. Beecher created a great sensation by an address he de- livered at the Broadway Tabernacle in New York City. The chains that had bound John Brown in his captivity were placed on the desk before him, and inspired him to one of his most eloquent and thrilling appeals in behalf of human liberty. In the frenzy of his eloquence he seized the clanking irons and hurled them to the floor and stamped upon them, and awakened a sentiment in his vast audience that filled the place in every part, that was lasting, and which took flight across the whole anti-slavery section of the country."

"Life and Work of Henry Ward Beecher" (pub. in 1887), by Thomas W. Knox.

The dramatic scene of the chains is thus described in "Effective Public Speaking," by Frederick B. Robinson, AM., Ph.D., pub- lished in 1914, under the heading "The Striking Stimulus to

HENRY WARD BEECHER 483

Attention" as ''Abrupt Shocks" or ''Promises of Reward/'

"Facing the audience, he cried out: These shackles bound the limbs of a human being; I hate them; I trample them under foot/ and suited the action to the word. Henry Ward Beecher is said to have begun a sermon, one hot Sunday morning, while mopping his brow, with the remark 'It is hotter than helW Naturally this shocked his very moral audience into attention. Rest Necessary for the Orator

The speaker must have plenty of rest. On this point Bishop Buckley said: 'When an important address is to be delivered, the orator should begin the special care of his body at least twenty-four hours before the time. Henry Ward Beecher, ad- dressing the Clerical Union of Brooklyn, stated that this was his invariable practice, and that, though he had a powerful constitu- tion, he made it a point to eat less and rest more as Sunday ap- proached. On his lecture tours he was in the habit of taking a short nap just before going on the platform."

"Gladstone was often troubled with self-consciousness in the beginning of an address. Beecher was always perturbed before talking in public. *I never see anything in nature which does not work towards that for which I give the strength of my life. The material for my sermons is all the time following me and swarming up around me,' said Henry Ward Beecher. Beecher stood for hours before the window of a jewelry store thinking out analogies between jewels and the souls of men. Liverpool Speech His Greatest

Henry Ward Beecher was able to deliver one of the world's greatest addresses at Liverpool because of his memory. In speaking of the occasion Mr. Beecher said that all the events, arguments and appeals that he had ever heard or read or written seemed to pass before his mind as oratorical weapons, and stand- ing there he had but to reach forth his hand and 'seize the weapons as they went smoking by.'

Concentrated attention at the time when you wish to store the mind is the first step in memorising — and the most important one by far. Impressions that are gathered lightly are soon obliterated. Only deep impressions can be recalled at will. Henry Ward Beecher once said : 'One intense hour will do more than dreamy years.' Listen with the mind and you will remem- ber."

The Liverpool Speech, Oct. 16, 1863 ^^ Robinson in his "Effective Public Speaking" under heading of "Direct Hostility/' says : "The people not only sympathized with the South and hated the North, but they had been inflamed against Beecher. The method here (in the Introduction) is to make an open, manly appeal for fair play. The manner should be conciliatory but not subservient. Make it clear that fair play is expected from such an audience. The following extracts from his Introduction will indicate his method."

484

HENRY WARD BEECHER

Taken from Thos. W. Knox "Life of Beecher"

Beecher dominating the turbulent audience at Liverpool. "If you sym- pathize with the weaker party, go sympathize with the devil, he is the weaker." "England and America together . . . are a match for the world."

Extracts from the Speech "^"For more than twenty-five years I have been perfectly familiar with popular assemblies in all parts of my country, except the extreme south. There has not for the whole of that time, been a single day of my life when it would have been safe for me to go south of the Mason and Dixon's line in my own country, and all for one reason: my solemn, earnest and persistent testimony against what I consider to be the most atrocious thing under the sun — the system of American slavery in a great free Republic (cheers). I have passed through the period when the right of free speech was denied me. Again and again I have attempted to address audiences that, for no other crime than that of free speech, visited me with all manner of contumelious epithets ; and now since I have been in England, although I have met with greater kindness and courtesy on the part of most than I de- served, yet, on the other hand, I perceive that the southern in- fluence prevails to some extent in England. (Applause and up- roar). . . . And therefore'f, when I sazv so much nervous apprehension that, if I were permitted to speak (hisses and ap-

*Exordium.

fSee Figures Anaphora and Aitiology,

HENRY WARD BEECHER 485

plause) when I found they were afraid to have me speak (laugh- ter and *no, no') — zvhen I found that they considered my speaking damaging to their cause (applause) when I found that they ap- pealed from facts and reasonings to mob law (applause and up- roar)— I said: *No man need tell me what the heart and secret counsel of these men are. They tremble and are afraid.' Now personally it is a matter of very little consequence to me whether I speak here tonight or not. But one thing is very certain, if you do permit me to speak here tonight you will hear very plain talking (applause and hisses). You will not find me to be a man that dared to speak about Great Britain three thousand miles off and then is afraid to speak to Great Britain when he stands on her shore (immense applause and hisses), and if I do not mistake the tone and temper of Englishmen, they had rather have a man who opposes them in a manly way than a sneak that agrees with them in an unmanly way (applause and *bravo*). Now, if I can carry you with me by sound convictions, I shall be immensely glad; but if I cannot carry you with me by facts and arguments, I do not wish you to go with me at all ; and all that I ask is simply fair play (a voice: *yo^ shall have it too'). **'You cannot help going with the minority, who are struggling for their rights against the majority. Nothing could be more generous, when a weak party stands for its own legitimate rights against imperious pride and power, than to sympathize with the weak. But who ever sympathized with a weak thief, because three constables had got hold of him? (hear, hear!). And yet the one thief in three policemen's hands is the weaker party.§ I suppose you would sympathize with him (hear, hear! laughter and applause). Why, when that infamous King of Naples, Bomba, was driven into Gaeta by Garibaldi with his immortal l3and of patriots, and Cavour sent against him the army of North- ern Italy,§§ who was the weaker party then? The tyrant and his minions — and the majority was the noble Italian Patriots, struggling for liberty. I never heard that old England sent deputations to King Bomba and yet his troops resisted bravely there (laughter and interruption). To-day the majority of the people of Rome are with Italy — nothing but French bayonets keep her from going back to the Kingdom of Italy, to which she belongs. §§Do you sympathize with the minority in Rome

*"Beecher, when part of his Liverpool audience favored the South because it must always sympathize with 'the weaker people, the minority,' answered by showing the absurdity of any attempt to carry out this theory in all cases — Reducto ad Absurdum." "The Principles of Argumentation," by George Pierce Baker, Prof, of English in Harvard University.

§"We don't sympathize with slavery, but we go for the South be- cause they are the weaker party." Beecher replied, "Go, then, and sympathize with the devil — he was the weaker party also when he rebelled and was turned out of heaven." — Beecher at Manchester.

§§See Figure? Sermocinatio and Erotesis.

486 HENRY WARD BEECHER

or the majority in Italy?"

Those of you who are kind enough to wish to favor my speak- ing— and you will observe that my voice is slightly husky, from having spoken almost every night in succession for some time past — those who wish to hear me will do me the kindness simply to sit still, and to keep still ; and I and my friends, the Secession- ists will make all the noise (laughter).***

Beecher^s Peroration Prophesying Union of England and America in a Future War

"And now in the future it is the work of every good man and patriot not to create divisions, but to do the things that will make for peace. On our part it shall be done. On your part it ought to be done ; and when, in any of the convulsions that come upon the world, Great Britain finds herself struggling single-handed against the gigantic powers that spread oppression and darkness, there ought to be such cordiality that she can turn and say to her first-born and most illustrious child, *Come !' I will not say England cannot again, as hitherto, single-handed manage any power; but I will say that England and America together for religion and liberty are a match for the world.'

***See Figure Asteismus.

"He appealed to his hearers for 'fair play' something every Britisher

is supposed to grant any one. Lastly, the imperturbability of his manner won respect and sympathy, and the easy good nature of his *I and my friends the Secessionists will make all the noise' won him sympathetic laughter."

Moffett. Chicago.

HON. WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN

Principal forms of oratorical expressions used by William J. Bryan. His master-figures are those in italics.

Rhythmus, Pause, Metaphor, Simile, Anaphora, Prooimion, Epilogue, Arsis and Thesis, Polysyndeton, Parison, Eperotesis, Ecphonesis, Anti- thesis^ Hypothesis, Hypocatastasis and the bold Figures of Thought.

487

Hon. WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN

HON. WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN: HIS ORATORY, DELIVERY, AND SOME NOTES FROM EMINENT CONTEMPORARY CRITICS.

William J. Bryan was a member of the American House of Representatives and was Secretary of State in the Cabinet of President Woodrow Wilson. Judging from results, Mr. Bryan is the greatest of the American orators since the days of Daniel Webster, for it was his speech at the Democratic National Con- vention in Chicago, in 1896, that caused his nomination for the Presidency, and that, for twelve years, gave him absolute control of the Democratic party. This speech goes down in history as the "Cross of Gold" speech.

Mr. Bryan is a master of Rhythmus, Pause, Metaphor, Simile, Anaphora, Prooimion, Epilogue, Arsis and Thesis, Polysyndeton, Parison, Eperotesis, Ecphonesis, Antithesis, Hypothesis and the bold Figures of Thought.

Mr. Bryan's voice is well trained and his gestures are grace- ful. He is a gallant oratorical fighter and a w^orthy, honorable opponent.

"William Jennings Bryan was born in Salem, 111., March 19, 1860. In connection with his school he developed an interest in the work of literary and debating societies. During his first year at the Academy he declaimed Patrick Henry's master- piece, the second year found him again entered wjth *The Pal- metto and the Pine,' as his subject. Later in the year he de- claimed 'Bernardo del Carpio,' and gained the second prize. In his sophomore year he entered another contest, with an essay on the not altogether novel subject 'Labor.' This time the first prize rewarded his work. An oration upon 'Individual Powers' gave him the first prize in the junior year. The winning of the junior prize entitled^ him to represent Illinois College in the intercollegiate oratorical contest which was held at Galesburg, 111., in the fall of 1880. His oration was upon 'Justice,' and was awarded the second prize of $50. At the time of graduation he was elected class orator by his class and, having the highest rank in scholarship during the four years' course, delivered the valedictory. Upon entering the academy he joined the Sigma Pi Society and was an active member for six years, profiting much by the training in essay, declamation and debate.

As a conclusion for this sketch I have asked the publishers to give a picture of our library, the place where Mr. Bryan spends most of his time when at home, and where, as he has often said his happiest hours are passed. Our collection of books is more complete along the lines of economic subjects and in the works and lives of public men. The orations of Demosthenes and

488

WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN

Copyright Underwood and Underwood, N. Y.

Some characteristic modes of Mr. Bryan: Enforcing a point by slapping his hands (upper center) ; outstretched hands in the realm of the Epic, Hogarth line of beauty (upper left corner) ; outstretched arms — shoulder line, in the rhetorical realm (lower left hand corner) ; a powerful double synthetic (lower center).

WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN 489

the writings of Jefferson afford him the greatest pleasure/'

"Life of William Jennings Bryan," by his wife (pub. in 1900), by R. H. Woodward Company, Baltimore.

''Mr. Bryan has taken his place among the great orators. Of commanding physique, with a face that frankly expresses every shade of emotion, he looks the part of an orator. His carefully trained voice can be heard with distinctness in the largest audi- torium, and carries to the farthermost sections when he speaks from Chautauqua platforms. His oratory has the essential sin- cerity of all effective speech. In hearing him address an audience one realizes that oratory is conversation raised to its highest power. He illustrates the definition of an orator given by George William Curtis who described Wendell Phillips on the platform as * a gentleman conversing.' As a political speaker he has raised stump speaking to the dignity of deliberative oratory."

"William Jennings Bryan," by Maynard Lee Daggy. Taken from "Famous Living Americans," edited by Mary Griffin Webb and Edna Lenore Webb; published in 1915 by Charles Webb and Company, Green Castle, Indiana.

Mr. Bryan's Pauses

"Most speakers pitch their voices too high. One of the secrets of Mr. Bryan's eloquence is his low, hell-like voice. The pause is a valuable instrument in the hands of a trained speaker to arouse and maintain suspense. We once heard Mr. Bryan say in a speech: It was my privilege to hear' — and he paused, while the audience wondered for a second whom it was his privilege to hear — 'the great evangelist' — and he paused again; we knew a little more about the man he had heard, but still wondered to which evangelist he referred ; and then he concluded : 'Dwight L. Moody.' Mr. Bryan paused slightly again and continued: 'I came to regard him' — here he paused again and held the audience in a brief moment of suspense as to how he regarded Mr. Moody, then continued — *as the greatest preacher of his day.' Let the dashes illustrate pauses and we have the following: Tt was my privilege to hear — the great evangelist — Dwight L. Moody. — I came to regard him — as the greatest preacher of his day.'

The unskilled speaker would have rattled this off with neither pauses nor suspense, and the sentences would have fallen flat upon the audience. It is precisely the application of these small things that makes much of the difference between the successful and the unsuccessful speaker.

Mr. Bryan is a most fluent speaker when he speaks on political problems, tendencies of the time and questions of morals. It is to be supposed he would not be so fluent in speaking on the bird life of Florida. Mr. Bryan often slaps his hands together for great force, holding one palm upward in an easy manner. His Exordium to Cross of Gold Speech

He asserts his own inability to oppose the 'distinguished gentle- man,' he maintains the holiness of his cause; and he declares

490 WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN

that he will speak in the interest of humanity. This introduction completely dominated the audience, and the speech made Mr. Bryan famous. Notice how Senator Thurston in his plea for intervention in Cuba and Mr. Bryan in his 'Cross of Gold' speech constituted themselves the apostles of humanity."

''No one can advise you when to throw your 'hat in the ring.' Only be sure that your opening attitude is well thought out — or whether the solemn gravity of Mr. Bryan before the convention will prove to be more effective.

Example is a Pozverful Means of Suggestion

'Everybody is going to the big store.' That makes everybody want to go. Observe how this principle has been applied in the following selections, and utilize it on every occasion possible in your attempt to influence through suggestion : 'The war is actually begun . . . why stand we here idle ?' — Patrick Henry.

'With a zeal approaching the zeal which inspired the crusaders

. . . ever imposed upon the representatives of the people.' — William Jennings Bryan.

Figurative and indirect language has suggestive force, because it does not make statements that can be directly disputed. Note in the following Mr. Bryan did not say that Mr. McKinley would be defeated. He implied it in a much more effective manner: 'Mr. McKinley was nominated at St. Louis . . . they beat upon the lonely shores of St. Helena.'

The successful pleader must convert his arguments into terms of his hearer's advantage. Mankind are still selfish."

"The Art of Public Speaking," by J. Berg Esenwein and Dale Camagey.

''Metaphor and Simile. Perhaps the most famous recent effect gained from metaphor is Mr. Bryan's close to his speech at the Democratic Convention in 1896. 'If they dare come out in the open field . . . you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.' "

"The Principles of Argumentation," by George Pierce Baker, Prof, of English in Harvard University and Henry Barrett Huntington, Asst. Prof, of English in Brown University; pub. in 1905 by Ginn & Company.

"Life and Speeches of William J. Bryan," by J. S. Ogilvie Publishing Company has the following respecting Bryan's oratory and his 'Cross of Gold Speech': "Bryan neglects none of the accessories of oratory. He is happy in attitude and pose. His gestures are on the Hogarth's line of beauty. It (voice) is strong enough to be heard by thousands. It is so modulated as not to vex the ear with monotony, and can be stem or pathetic, fierce or gentle, serious or humorous with the varying emotions of its master. In his youth, Bryan must have had a skillful teacher in elocution. He enriches his speeches with illustrations from the classics or from common occurrences of every day life with equal felicity and facility. But his crowning gift as an

WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN

491

orator is his evident sincerity.

He is a person of middle height, strongly and without giving any one a fatty impression, stockily built. His eye is dark, his complexion swarthy, with the British, not the Spanish swarthi- ness. He is cool and of flawless temper. No flush of irritation ever reddened his cheek."

By permission of Messrs. J. S. Ogilvie Publishing Co., N. Y. William J. Bryan, at the age of 36, when he delivered the famous "Cross of Gold Speech."

Bryan's Great Speech at the Democratic Convention Cheer after cheer went up as Bryan, of Nebraska, tall, smooth- faced, youthful-looking, leaped up the platform steps, two at a time, to close the debate. Banners waved from the free-silver delegations. At one time the applause became deafening and could not be suppressed by Mr. Richardson, who was still acting as chairman. When quiet had been restored, Mr. Bryan began clearly and deliberately as follows :

492 WILLIAM JENNING BRYAN

Extracts of Mr. Bryan's Speech

"Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen of the Convention : I would be presumptuous, indeed, to present myself against the distinguished gentleman to whom you have listened, if this were but a measur- ing of ability, but this is not a contest among persons. The humblest citizen in all the land when clad in the armor of a righteous cause is stronger than all the whole hosts of error that they can bring. I come to speak to you in defense of a cause as holy as the cause of liberty, the cause of humanity.*"

"tOur silver Democrats went forth from victory unto victory until they are assembled now, not to discuss, not to debate, but to enter the judgment rendered by the plain people of this country. In this contest brother has been arrayed against brother and father against father.^ The warmest ties of love and ac- quaintance and association have been disregarded.

"When you come before us and tell us that we shall disturb your business interests, we reply that you have disturbed our business interests by your course." (Great applause and cheering).

"§We say to you that you have made too limited in its appli- cation the definition of the business man. The man who is em- ployed for wages is as much a business man as his employer. The attorney in a country town is as much a business man as the corporation counsel in a great metropolis. The merchant at the cross-roads store is as much a business man as the merchant of New York. The farmer who goes forth in the morning and toils all day, begins in the spring and toils all summer, and by the ap- plication of brain and muscle to the natural resources of this country creates wealth, is as much a business man as the man who goes upon the board of trade and bets upon the prices of grain. The miners who go a thousand feet into the earth or climb two thousand feet upon the cliffs and bring forth from their hiding- places the precious metals to be poured in the channels of trade are as much business men as the few financial magnates who in a back room corner the money of the world."

"We come to speak for this broader class of business men. **Ah, my friends, we say not one word against those who live upon the Atlantic coa.st;^^bi4.t those hardy pioneers who braved all the dangers of the wilderness, who have made the desert to blossom as the rose — those pioneers away out there, rearing their children near to nature's heart, where they can mingle their voices with the voices of the birds; out there where they have erected school-houses for the education of their young, and churches where they praise their Creator, and cemeteries where sleep the ashes of their dead, are as deserving of the consideration of this party as any people in this country." (Great applause.)

*Prooimion. tArsis and Thesis. ^Polysyndeton.

§'Horisraos, Parison and Parallelism. **Ecphonesis, Arsis and §§Thesis, with Emp. Rep. Anaphora.

WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN 495

*'It is for these that we speak. **We do not come as aggressors. Our war is not sl war of conquest. We are fighting in the defense of our homes, our famiUes, and posterity. (Loud applause.) "flVc have petitioned, and our petitions have been scorned. We have entreated, and our entreaties have been disregarded. We have begged and they have mocked, and our calamity came. We beg no longer. We entreat no more. We petition no more. JWe defy them."

"Mr. McKinley was the most popular man among the Republi- cans, and everybody three months ago in the Republican party prophesied his election. "^How is it to-day? Why, that man who used to boast that he looked like Napoleon — that man shud- ders to-day when he thinks that he was nominated on the anni- versary of the battle of Waterloo. Not only that, but as he listens he can hear with ever-increasing distinctness the sound of the waves as they beat upon the lonely shores of St. Helena."

X **Why this change? Ah, my friends, is not the change evident to any one who will look at the matter?"

§ "Therefore we care not upon what lines the battle is fought. §§If they say bimetallism is good, but we cannot have it till seme nation helps us, we reply that, instead of having a gold standard because England has, we shall restore bimetallism and then let England have bimetallism because the United States has. (Ap- plause.) If they dare to come out in the open and defend the gold standard as a good thing, we shall fight them to the utter- most, having behind us the producing masses of this nation and the world. Having behind us the commercial interests, (l) and the laboring interests, and all the toiling masses, we shall answer their demands for a gold standard by saying to them, you shall not press down upon the brow of labor this {2) crown of thorns. You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold."

"Then ensued perhaps the most extraordinary scene of the con- vention. As if by the magic touch of a wand delegation after delegation rose in solid phalanx and gave vent to the most en- thusiastic demonstration in honor of the Nebraskan orator. Westerners shouted, waved handkerchiefs, hats, bags, canes, um- brellas, and anything else conspicuous and portable. Deafening cheers rent the air, and articles of every description were thrown high above the surging sea of humanity.

Mr. Bryan's height and weight are given in the following letter addressed to the author : —

** My Dear Sir. — I beg pardon for delay in answering your favour of September 28th. . . . Height 5ft. lOi inches. Weight

at 30, 18— at 36, 205— at 48, about 220— at 60, 205 Think

other questions are answered in the two books I hope you

will send me a copy of yours. Am interested in it. "Yours truly, - ^^ j^ Bryan."

♦♦Arsis. fAnaphora and Synonymia. JEthopoeia. ♦Sermocinatio and Hypocatastasis. fEperotesis and Ephonesis. §Epilogue, with Artiology and §§Hypothesis and Antithesis. (1) Polysyndeton. (2) Metaphor.

494

Senator WARREN G. HARDING

SENATOR WARREN G. HARDING, HIS ORATORY, DE- LIVERY, AND SOME NOTES FROM EMINENT CONTEMPORARY CRITICS.

This illustrious orator is one of the most effective speakers of the present day in America. He was born in the State of Ohio, in the year 1865, a year, unquestionably the most memorable in the history of America excepting that of the American Revo- lution.

In '65 when Harding was born, the smoke was rapidly dis- appearing from Chicamauga and Gettysburg, though the great guns were still belching elsewhere. In '65 Grant was commenc- ing operations in Virginia, the battle of Five Forks was being fought, Sheridan twenty miles away was making his ride to save the day, Petersburg was falling, Richmond being captured, Lee, at the famous apple tree, was surrendering to Grant, Davis was being taken a prisoner, and the flag of freedom again over the whole Union was being hoisted.

In '65 when Harding was born, the 14th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, wiping away forever the foul blot on America's honour, was adopted.

In this year of great events, the world seemed ablaze with the spirit of liberty. Russia was abolishing serfdom in the Trans- caucasian provinces, and the Muscovites were demanding a two chamber House of Representatives; France, under Napoleon, was withdrawing her troops from Mexico, Spain relinquishing her hold on Santo Domingo, and England was inquiring into the deplorable condition of the poor and of the working classes.

In this year the world, economically, seemed to take a new start. International industrial exhibitions were being held in England, Germany and Portugal; Italy was opening her cable with Algeria; Britain, her telegraph line with Bombay; and the "Great Eastern" was laying the Atlantic cable to connect the old with the new world.

Senator Harding as a Public Speaker The following is taken from the Republican Campaign Text- book, 1920:

''As a public speaker he is calm yet forceful. His voice is mellow, yet has wonderful carrying power. He has a command- ing presence, and an almost inexhaustible vocabulary, but his utterances are never verbose. His appeals are always to the head and to the heart; never to passion or prejudice. He is quick at repartee, ready in debate, but never acrimonious; even in the fever-heat of discussion he never forgets to be a gentleman. He has a charm of expression, and a winning manner which assures him an attentive hearing, and carries conviction.

Harris & Ewing, Washington.

SENATOR WARREN G. HARDING President-Elect of the United States of America

Principal Forms of Oratorical Expression used by Mr. Harding, gathered from his entire speech to the Republican Press. His master-figures are those in italics : —

Allegory. Anadiplosis, Anamnesis, Anaphora, Antithesis, Apodosis, Arsis and Thesis, Epilogue, Epitheton, Hypophora, Hypothesis, Metaphora, Paren- thesis, Parison, Paromology, Peroratio, Polysyndeton, Prooimion, Protasis, Synonymia. Syntheton.

WARREN G. HARDING

495

"In his masterly presentation of the name of President Taft for renomination at Chicago to the most turbulent convention in the annals of Republicanism, overcoming massed opposition and irritating interruption with good humor and the persuasive power of his eloquence, and in his keynote address at the last national convention, he acquired a nation-wide reputation as an orator and as a safe and sane thinker. In presiding over the delibera- tions of the last named convention he proved himself a man of poise, and an able parliamentarian.

A snapshot of Senator Harding, taken by Messrs. Underwood and Underwood, photo- graphers, New York City, while the Senator, as chairman of the National Republican Con- vention, was delivering an address to that body in session in 1916, at the Coliseum, Chicago, 111., U.S.A.

The Senator is using the "index" in the range most powerful of the conversational realm. This gesture borders on the rhetori- cal, and is much in evidence among great orators. It was a favourite with the eloquent Robert G. Ingersoll, the renowned Charles Haddon Spurgeon, and other popular speakers divine and political. "In many respects Mr. Harding resembles that other favorite son of Ohio — William McKinley. Both were of Scottish descent. In presence, in manner of speech, in ability to judge of men, in careful, painstaking mastery of detail and tact in bringing to- gether opposing factions on some common ground, there is a remarkable similarity.

"Mr. Harding is first of all a patriot. He believes in America ; in its form of government; is proud of her past and hopeful for her future ; and he believes that our highest obligation is to our own, and that the problems which vitally concern us are domestic and not foreign.

"His father was a soldier in the Civil War, and the Senator grew up amidst the afterglow of that flaming patriotism which preserved the Union and broke the chains of slavery. His youth was spent around a fireside aflame with the love of liberty and the love of country."

From "Warren G. Harding, the Man," by Joe Mitchell Chappie :

"He loved to speak pieces, and his rendering of Patrick Henry's 'Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death' was at least concluded with the graceful bow then taught in schools."

"Rather shy, big and awkward, Warren Harding was known as a serious boy, with an inclination to write essays and an oc- casional flight to 'poetry.' Pie pored over encyclopedias now and then, to drink deep in the biography of his favorite Napoleon

496 WARREN G. HARDING

and Alexander Hamilton. In order to have his essays in real type, he was ambitious to become a printer."

"The literary society, debates, amateur dramatics, in fact all activities included the services of the quiet, but ever-ready American lad."

From the above it is noted this distinguished American orator, like all the world's great orators, was rocked in the cradle of liberty; that his youth was spent amid her exalted surroundings; and that his maturer years have resounded and still resound with her noble principles.

True eloquence is the offspring of liberty. This is the key to the mighty eloquence of Demosthenes, Charles James Fox, and of "God-like Daniel ;" and as the great merit and fame of their eloquence rest almost solely on their fervid appeals to the under- standing, so do the merit and fame of Senator Harding's eloquence.

It is a favorite scheme of all accomplished orators to intrench powerful reasoning behind some master figure or form of ex- pression. Demosthenes did this in his renowned "Orcos" or Adjuration: "By the manes of those who fell at Marathon," ^schines in his spirited Apostrophe on the Thebans, Chatham in his great Metaphora "The Masterfeather of the Eagle's Wing," Webster in his magnificent Arsis and Thesis "When My Eyes Shall be Turned to Behold for the Last Time the Sun in Heaven," Ingersoll's beautiful Allegoria "Shakespeare Was An Intellectual Ocean," and Harding's well-balanced Parison and forcible Alle- goria "A Temple of Liberty no Storms May Shake." I quote this remarkable passage so that every student of oratory as well as the plain American citizen may appreciate the beauty of the Parison whose harmony so well satisfies the ear, and the force of the Allegoria behind which is intrenched a powerful reasoning which so profoundly impresses the understanding and leaves the soul vibrating with lofty sentiments.

"Here is a temple of liberty no storms may shake, here are the altars of freedom no passions shall destroy. It was American in conception, American in its building, it shall be American in the fulfilment. Sectional once, we are all American now, and we mean to be all Americans to all the world."

Since writing the foregoing pages, Senator Harding has been elected President of the United States of America. During the Presidential Campaign, the President-elect brought a new art into the service of oratory.

Short-Hand to Use of Oratory

He wrote his speeches in short-hand and then had them set up in type in his newspaper office at Marion, and printed on cards. I am also informed that he delivered some directly from the short-hand manuscript. Short-hand has the great merit of rapid- ly jotting down the thoughts. These thoughts are the opera- tions and activities of the soul. Some call them unconscious

J

WARREN G. HARDING 497

cerebratiotis, and when jotted in the instant of their activity, this faculty of the soul becomes stimulated and strengthened. Mr. Harding's Build

In build, Mr. Harding is six feet and a half inch tall, being a half inch shorter than Henry Clay, and weighs 211 pounds. He is two and one-half inches taller than Daniel Webster and weighs about eleven pounds more.

I subjoin an extract of one of Mr. Harding's great presidential campaign speeches, namely, the one delivered to the press :

"Gentlemen of the Republican Press:

"The passing years have wrought great changes in the news- paper business even in the comparatively short time since my ad- venturous entry upon it. The prolific inventors of printing ma- chinery and other appliances have borne their share in it ; the free rural delivery, the advance in education, bringing new multitudes of readers, have all had their influence in the developments and evolutions which have followed. I can remember when in most of the county seat towns the possession by one of the papers of a power press — even if the power was applied by a husky man at- tached to a cranked wheel — was widely proclaimed as an evidence of astounding prosperity and recognized as a potential influence.

'*We who are gathered here have seen the typesetting machines come in — not to supplant the hand compositor, but to shift him to the 'Ad. Alleys' and the job cases. They have taught the printers as the mowers and reapers have taught the farmers that increased capacity in production does not mean a lessening of a demand for labor, but on the contrary increased production, through increased efficiency, mental, manual or mechanical, opens new avenues for employment and brings luxuries into the class of common commodities.*

Every Hope is of Tomorrow

*'*''' Something has been said lately about looking to the sunrise of tomorrow, not the sky-line of the setting sun. Every hope in life is of tomorrow, we could not live yesterday again if we would. But the glory of ten thousand morrows was wrought in the wisdom gleaned on yesterday. Mariners and planters and har- vesters— all study the sky. Sometimes above the sky-line, in lands where the desert stretches, there is a mirage,t with its lure to the fevered and thirsting, with inviting promise of relief. It has speeded travel and revived hopes, and spurned waning strength, it has diverted from proven routes, and left death and destruction as its monument to broken promises. In the horizon of Republicanism and maintained constitutionalism, there is no mirage to lure the American caravan, but we mean to go securely on, over the proven routes of triumph for the republic and the people thereof.

±No one agency can render a greater service in holding to the charted way than a conscientious and patriotic American press.

*Prooimion. **Epilogue. Metaphora and Hypocatastasis. fAllegory.

498

WARREN G. HARDING

But it must remain free, utterly free, along with freedom of speech, freedom of religious belief, and the freedom of righteous pursuit, it must be honest and it ever must be rejoicing in Amer- ican nationality which is our priceless possession."

From the N. Y. Times Wide World Photos

"SENATOR HARDING

Audiphone and Notes Laid Aside in Characteristic Pose in His Campaign of the

Northwest on the Heels of Governor Cox."

"The New York Times," Sunday, September 17, 1920,

A Brief Survey of the Recent American Election.

The American Presidential Campaign of 1920 was remarkable for the unprecedented majority won by the Republican Party, having gained 404 out of 531 electoral votes and a popular majority of over 6,000,000. They also carried the Senate and the House of Representatives. Unquestionably this huge success was very largely the outcome of their tremen- dous oratorical cannonade. Every available orator was secured, their heavy artillery was in action in every quarter. The oratorical assault was arranged by Senator New and Chairman Havs in two divisions; the Western was at Chicago and the Eastern at New York. Senator Lodge with

$Peroratio and Anaphora, also Anadiplosis.

ORATORY IN THE AMERICAN ELECTION 49Q

ability, learning and cleaurness; Senator Wadsworth with mellow-toned eloquence ; Senator Johnson with hre and Roose- velt zeal; Senator Calder with masterful exposition; Senator Fernald with beautiful, flowing periods; Senators Watson, Borah and others were making the country resound from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The Democrats were not so vigorous. President Wilson, owing to illness, could not take the plat- form, and Mr. Bryan, the great tribune of the people, was not so active. Governor Cox, the Democratic Presidential candi- date, was making a splendid flght, but, unfortunately, for a while his voice broke down. Following close upon him was Senator Harding with irresistible eloquence.

An instance of this Republican activity is shown in the huge meetings held at the Knickerbocker Hotel, comer of Broadway and 42nd Street, where the whole of the ground floor was retained and meetings held every day. On the day prior to the election, forty-eight of the ablest orators^ were engaged in speaking. 1 he meeting opened at noon and closed at midnight, and as soon as one orator sat down another was up, streams of people pouring in and out during the whole time.

If oratory were to win, and oratory is a primal asset in political campaigns, the Republicans left no stone unturned in this direction, as a result of which they gained the greatest victory in the electoral history of the country.

CONCLUSION.

-.^ From the preceding it will be seen that the greatest oratori- cal-triumphs have been the consequence of training, study and practice, combined, as a basis, with a delivery that is con- versational and forms of expression that are natural, which forms this work has endeavoured to assemble and explain.

" All eloquence relaites to the transactions of human life. Every man refers what he hears to himself, and the mind easily admits what it recognises as true to nature.*' We have laid before you the natural Forms of Oratorical Expression, we have laid before you the most eminent authorities, we have laid before you the world's most eloquent men; it now rests with the reader to adopt that which expert advice, his own nature, his own judgment may best determine.

* The author himself spoke seven times on different occasions at these meetings, ^nd was one of the forty-eight speakers above mentioned.

500 LIST OF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED,

'* Aristotle's Treatise on Rhetoric, with Hobbe's Analysis," by Theodore Buckley, B.A., of Oxford ; " 1 he Rnetoric of Aristotle," R. C. Jebb, Litt.D., Professor of Greek and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; " Analysis and Introduction to Aristotle's Rhetoric," E. M. Cope, Fellow and Tutor, Trinity College, Cambridge ; " E. M. Cope," edited by J. E. Sandys, M.A., Public Orator, Cambridge University; "Demosthenes De Corona," m the Greek, with notes by the Rev. Arthur Holmes, M.A., Senior Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge ; ** Orations of Demos- thenes," C. R. Kennedy; "Orations of Demosthenes," T. Leland, D.D. ; "Speeches of .^schmes," C. D. Adams; "Demosthenic Style," W. H. Kirk; "Cicero de Oratore et Oratoribus," "Institutes of Oratory" — Qumtillian, trans, by the Rev. John Selby Watson, M.A., M.R.S.L.; " Figuras Sententiarum at Elocutionis," Aquila Romanus; "Versus," Ruhni; "Liber de Schematis Lexeos, de Dianoeas," Julius Rufinianus ; " Arffioa^evei a)^7]fMdTa)p/ Tiberius Rhetor ; "Ile/Jt 'IBiMv/* Hermogenes, the Greek rhetorician who at the early age of 17 hred the " Eternal City " with his eloquence and was appointed Public Teacher of Rhetoric at Rome by Marcus Aurelius, the Emperor ; " Cicero — m Catilinam," H. W. Auden, M.A., Christ's College, Cam- bridge; " Ciceronianism," "Pro T. Annio Milone," "Prose Rhythm in English," Albert C. Clark, Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford; "Life of Cicero," Rev. Hannis Taylor; "Carmen Incerti de Figuris " ; "Liber de Rhetorica," Fortunatiani ; " Institutiones Oratoriae," Sulpitii Victoris; "Liber Rhetorica," Isidori ; "Liber de Tropis et Schematibus," the Venerable Bede; " Rhetores Minores," Carolus Halm ; " Hermagoras oder Elemente der Rhetoric, ' ' Richard Volkmann; "Die Attische Beredsamkeit, " F. Blass; " The Garden of Eloquence " (published in the golden age of English literature when Shakespeare, Milton and Bacon flourished); "Arte of English Poesie," Geo. Puttenham, 1589; " Rhetorischer und Stilistischer Index," Rehdantz- Blass; "Attic Orators," R. C. Jebb; "Philosophy of Style/' Herbert Spencer ; " Demetrius on Style, ' ' " Longinus on the Sublime," and " Dionysius of Halicarnassus," by W. Rhys Roberts, Litt.D. (Camb.); " Loeb Classical Library," pub. by Wm. Heinemann; "Lectures to my Students," Rev. C. H. Spurgeon; "Pulpit Elocution," Wm. Russell; "A System ^of Christian Rhetoric," Geo. W. Hervey; "Manual of the Figures of Rhetoric," Larut Langley, F.L.S. ; "English Composition and Rhetoric,"' Alex. Bain, LL.D. ; "Public Speaker's Training Course," G. Bower Codling; "Figures of Speech Used in the Bible." Rev. E. W. Bullingef, D.D. ;

LIST OF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 501

"The Might and Mirth of Literature," J. W. V. Macbeth, Prof. Rhet., Univ. W. Virginia; " Delsarte's System of Oratory," L' Abbey Delaumonse and Angelique Arnaud; also works of Delsarte pub. by E. S. Werner, New York; " Voice, Song and Speech," Mrs. E. Behnke and Dr. Lenox Brown; "Oratory and Orators,*' Wm. Mathews, LL.D. ; "American Eloquence," Frank Moore; "The Golden Age of American Oratory," Edward Griffin Parker; "Essentials of Public Speaking," Robt. I. Fultcn and Thos. C. True- blood; "The Students' Elocution Book," L. Bagley and Geo. Goodes; "Elocutionary Manual," Alex. Melville Bell, F.E.I.S. ; "Elocution, Voice and Gesture," Rupert Garry; " Ten Lessons in Elocution, Founded on the Teachings of Delsarte and Sheridan," Rev. J. Edgar Foster, M.A. ; "The True Theory of Voice Production," J". P. Sandlands; "Art of Public Speaking," Breton; "The Cultivation of the Speaking Voice," John Hullah, Director of the Royal Academy of Music Orchestra; "Principles of Argument," Edwin Bell, LL.B.; "The Speaking Voice," R. W. Cone; "The Art of Extempore Speaking," M. Bautin; " Chiro- nomia or a Treatise on Rhetorical Delivery," Rev. Gilbert Austin, M.A. ; " The Mysterie of Rhetoric Unveiled, Tropes and Figures," John Smith (Milton's nephew); "Essay on the Power and Harmony of Prosaic Numbers," John Mason; " Melody and Measure of Speech," Joshua Steele; "The Alphabet of Rhetoric," Rossiter Johnson; "Elements of Elocution," John Walker; "History of English Prose Rhythm," George Samtsbury; "Philosophy of the Human Voice," James Rush, M.D. ; "The Working Principles of Rhetoric," John Franklin Genung; "Practical Rhetoric," G. P. Quackenbos, M.A.; "English Style in Public Dis- course, especially Usage for the Pulpit," Austin Phelps; "Essays on Rhetoric," Dr. Blair; "Foundation of Expres- sion," S. S. Curry, Ph.D., Litt.D. ; "Course of Lectures on Elocution," Thomas Sheridan.

Biographers: ".^schines," Rufus B. Richardson; "Cicero," Convers Middleton. D.D.; "Lord Chatham," Charles Butler; "William Pitt," Earl of Stanhope; "Charles James Fox," Earl Russell; " R. B. Sheridan," Thomas \loore; " Whitefield," Rev. L. Tyerman; "William E. Glad- stone," Andrew Melrose; "John Bright," C. A. Vance; "Life and Times of Daniel O'Connell,'* Wm. Fagan, M.P. ; "Daniel Webster," Henry Cabot Lodge, U.S. Senator; "Flenry Clay," Calvin Colt, and Thomas Hart Clay. For further biographers, see Demosthenes, j^schines, Cicero, Chatham. William Pitt. Tr,.. Sheridan, Fox. Whitefield, Webster and Clay. " C. H. Spurgeon's Autobiography," by His Wife ; " Lloyd-George— From Village Green to Downing Street," by J. Hugh Edwards, M.P. : " Wendell Phillips, Orator and Agita- tor," by Lorenzo Sears ; ♦' Life and Work of Henry Ward Beecher," by Thos. W. Knox; "Lifeof William Jennings Bryan," by His Wife! "Warren G. Harding, the Man," by Joe Mitchell Chappie; and Data by Mr. George B. Christian. Jr... Private Sec. to Senator Hardinp.

502

INDEX

ORATORS, PLATES, ILLUSTRATIONS, &c.

PAGE

/Eschines ,. Plate and t"igures facing 56

His Oratory, Delivery, etc 56-65

Anthology and Memorabilia xiv-xvi

Argumentative Forms and Notes , viii-ix

Arsis and Thesis ... ... Full Octave Illustration 113

Beecher, Revd. Henry Ward... His Oratory, Delivery, cic 478-483.

Plate, Liverpool Speech 484

Extract of Speech analysed 484-486

Bema at Athens Plate ..1

Bright, Rt. Hon. John .., His Oratory, Delivery, etc 456-458

Plate, Characteristic gesture 458

Extract of Speech analysed 458-459

Bryan, Hon. \\'illiani Jennings Plate and Figures facing 489

His Oratory, Delivery, etc. .: 487-491

Plate, Characteristic gesture 488

Plate, Portrait, age 36 491

Extract of Speech 492-493

Chatham, The Earl of ...- Plate and Figures facmg 131

His Oratory, Delivery, etc 131-135

Extract of Speech analysed 136-139

Cicero, Marcus Tullius ... Plate and Figures facing 95

His Oratory, Delivery, etc 96-107

Extracts of Speeches analysed 104-106

Clay, Henry Plate and Figures '. facing 414

His Oratory, Delivery, etc 414-424

Practising in a Debating Society (plate). -..416 Speaking in the U.S. Senate (plate) .........425

Extracts of Speeches analysed 424-426

Demosthenes Plate and Figures '. facing 4

His Oratory, Delivery, etc 4-29

Practising on the Sea-shore (plate) 13

Difference between Conversation and Public Speaking xiii

Figure of Thought and Figure of Language defined iv

Fox, Rt. Hon. Chas. James Plate and Figures facing 192

His Oratory, Delivery, etc 192-200

Characteristic Gesture (plate) 196

Extract of Speech analysed 198-200

George, Rt. Hon. David lAayd Plate and Figures facing 465

j Plate frontispiece

His Synthetic Gesture 242^.468

Plate, characteristic gvsture 466

His Oratory, Delivery, etc 465-468

Extract of Speech analysed 468-471

Gestures Affirmation, hand prone (illustrated) 217

Argument, etc 218

Flowing Period 345

Warning, etc. ^ 323

Gladstone, Rt. Hon. Wm. E. Plate and Figures facing 448

His Epic Gesture, from a painting by

R. Ponsonby Staples... 370, 455

Plate, Delivering a Peroration 449

Gestures : Ivxcoriating, 450, Synthetic, 451

His Oratory, Delivery, etc ' 448-451

Extract of Speech analysed 452-455

Harding, Hon. Warren G. ... Plate and Figures facing 494

His Oratory, Delivery, etc 494-498

Plates, characteristic gestures 495-498

Extract of Speech analysed 497-498

Oratory in the American Election '..... '....499-

INDEX 503

Mai Observation Plate, crooked-straight legs 209

Phillips, Wendell His Oratory, Delivery, etc 472-477

Pitt, Rt. Hon. VVm. (Younger) His Oratory, Delivery, etc 174-180

Extract of Speech analysed 178-180

Sheridan, Rt. Hon. R. B. ... His Oratory, Delivery, etc 158-163

' Extract of Speech analysed 161-163

Siddons, Mrs ... Epic Gesture in " Grecian Daughters "

(plate).. .240

Speech, its successive Order or Stages vi-vii

,, to the People (Deliberative) x-xi

„ to Parliament, Senate, Pulpit and Lecture-Hall.... 95, 97, 106, 174-6

„ to Law Courts, Forensic (Pro Milone 100-102) 25, 166, 246

,, Epideictie ; Eulogies, Celebrations, Anniversaries 166, 341, 372

Spurgeon, Rev. C H. ... His Oratory, Delivery, etc, 460-463

Plate, characteristic early gesture 461

Plate, Preaching in the Met. Tabernacle... 463

Extracts of Sermons analysed 463-464

Webster, Daniel Plate and Figures facing 252

His Oratory, Delivery, etc ...252-265

Reply to Hayne (Healy's painting) 254

Extracts of Speeches analysed 264-265

Whitefield, Rev. George ... Plate and Figures facing 226

His Oratory, Delivery, etc 226-231

Extract of Sermon analysed 229-231

Supplement to Forms of Oratorical Expression,

-VNTEZELGMENON : Is a Figure whereby the verb or adjective is placed in

the commencement clause, ANTI-CLIMAX : Is where the ideas fall off in importance towards the close,

or where they fall off in dignity. CATABASIS : Same as Anti-Climax. ANTl PTOSIS : Is placing one case instead of another, as dative for the

accusative; e.g., " Him that overcometh will I make a pillar. • ." -APOMNEMONSYSIS : A Form of Speech whereby the orator recites some

saying or sentence and applies it to his purpose. .\R.\ : Is a Form of Speech by which the orator invokes a cur.se or evil ; e.g.,

'' Let his days be few." " I leave my curse on her and hers for ever." BR.ACHYLOGY : .\ concise speech, especially wherein a necessary grammatical

word or phrase is omitted — " I do not think so now, but have (thought

so)." DIALLAGE : Is a Figure whereby several arguments are brought to establish

one point. DIASTOLE : Is a Figure by which a syllable naturally short is made long. DIEXODOS : A rushing through ; e.g., " Someone bore this once, I twice.

nobody thrice." ECHO : Is a repetition of a preceding word or phrase, and should be in a

rising inflection with an increased tone of voice ; e.g., '* Shall I. who wa«

born > . . . shall I?" " He calls himself a painter, a painter! — fit to

daub. ..." EPAN.\DlPLOSIS :The use of the same word at the beginning and end of

the same sentence or clause ; e.g., " Severe to his servants, to his children

severe." EPANALEPSIS : A resumption after a parenthesis or digression ; example :

" Who (O earth, and gods, and men, as many of you as wish to hear

the truth) who ..." EPENTHESIS : A Figure of Words by which a letter or syllable is put in the

midst of a word. EPICRISIS : A Figure by which the orator recites a maxim or saying of some

author and adds his opinion upon it in praise or dispraise. EPITROCH.VSMUS : Speedily running over several things either for brevity

or to amaze those we speak to. '

504

l-^l rKKPlSM rS : This Form not only numbers the parts before, but also gives a kind of definition or dx:claration of those parts in the same order.

EXEGESIS : A Form l)y which things at first spoken darkly arc in the same sentence explained.

FIGURA ETYMOLOGICA : " The Figures of Etymology are the inientional deviations from the ordinary forms of words. There are eight : Aphaeresis, Prosthesis, as prefixing a letter or letters, bedecked for decked, Syncope, as ha'penny ; Apocope, Paragoge, Diaeresis, Synaeresis, as condensing two sylables in one ; e.g., walk'st for walkest ; Tmesis, a separating of the compound by introducing a word or words between, as, What way soever he turned.

Figures of Syntax are intentional deviations from ordinary construction of words.

Figures of Orthography are intentional deviations from the ordinary spelling of words ; Mimesis and Archaism ; Mimesis, being the mispronunciation of words by false spelling, as " well zur," " I'll argify the topic"; Archaism is as the ancients spelt, e.g., " The gret Kyng bathe." Com- pare Ouackenbos.

FREQUENTATIO : The gathering together of various matters expressed throughout a paragraph or speech into one sentence or expression ; e.g., " Thus, when all is done . . . he is covetous, vicious, proud. . . ., finally intolerable to all men." Cicero.

HTRMOS : .'\ sudden entrance into a confused heap of matters ; e.g., " Nobles, gentry, poor, rich, young, old, merchant, all cry out against the burden."

HYPOSTROPHE : Is a return to the subject after a parenthesis.

HYPOZEUXIS : Is contrary to Zeugma, as it joins to each subject its proper verb ; e.g., '* Pride disdains obedience, idleness neglects labour, ambition strives for honour:."

ILLUSTR.-\TION : To make clearer by examples, figures, comparisons and instances. The real power of oratory is to pass from homely illustrations to the dizzy heights of imagination.

MET.'\STASIS ": Is a recrimination of the accuser ; e.g., " What I have done, the accuser has done, or his kinsmen."

MIMP^SIS : Is the imitation of one's utterance, pronunciation, gesture, etc.

PARADIEGESIS : Is a proof by example, or when the orator mentions some- thing which declares his further meaning ; an extraneous ccmfirmation

P.\RADOXON : Is a figure by which we raise the expectation of something enormous and stoop to something that is either of little moment or not at all criminal ; e.g., " He leans over the departed sufferer . . . whnt does he do? What does he do?— (voice still higher)— What does he do? Smells gin and brandy." Rufiis cboate.

PARATHESIS : Is the immediate conjunction of two or more nouns; e.g., " City Rome."

PARTITIO : Is dividing the whole into its parts ;

PLEONASM : Is a figure whereby some superfluous word or words are added to signify emphatically the vehemence or earnestness of the speaker, and certainty of the matter spoken of.

SPECIFIC TERMS: Minute details; e.g., "... whose dag.iieys killed Caesar," not the men ; " a minute detail of the circumstances connected with the death of a youthful pair. ... at the battle of Fontenoy," is more effective than a general description of the battle.

SrGGESTION : Is a hint, not a clear statement; e.g., "a certain gentle- man. . . ."

Sl^STENTATIO or SUSPENSION : Before the main point or word is said there is a suspension or pause; e.g., "What do you think he has corn- mitted? Some theft perhaps, some robbery?" Cicero, after keeping his hearers in suspense, added something more atrocious.

SYNATHROISMUS : Is when the orator either accumulates words or phrases presenting particulars of the same subject, or when several matters of a different nature are heaped up together.

SYSTOLE : Is when a long syllable lay nature, is contracted into a short one.

TAL^TOLOGY : When used as a figure, is the repetition of the same words.

505

INDEX

Nomenclature of the Forms of Oratorical Expression and liov/ pronounced.* Current names with the corresponding numbers will be found at the end of this Index.

PAGE

A

hccumulatio 1

Aenigma^ (e-nig'ma)

Aitiology^ (e-ti-ol'o-gi) 2

.•Allegory 30

Alliteration 33

Allusion 34

Amphibology^

Amphidiorthosis 46

Amplificatio 35

Anabasis (a-nab'a-sis) 48

.Anacephaleosis'^ (an-a-sef"a-le-o'sis) 46

Anacoenosis (an"a-se-no'sis) 47

Anacolouthon (an"a-ko-lu'thon) 48

Anadiplosis'' (an"a-di-plo'-i>is) 52

Anamnesis*' (an"am-ne'sis) 48

Anaphora^ (a-naf'o-ra) 65

Anastrophe* (a-nas'tro-fe) 70

Anathema 71

Antanaclasis* 71

Antanagoge^" (ant"an-a-go'ie) 72

Antezeugmenon 503

Anthropop athia

Anthypophora'i (an"thy-pof'o-ra) ... 72

.'Vnticategoria 73

Anticipation 73

Anti-climax 503

Antimera

Antimetabole^- 74

Antimetathesis 74

Antiparabole 75

Antiparabole 75

Antiperistatis

Antiphrasis (an"tif' ra-sis) 75

Antiptosis 503

.Antirrhensis

A n tisagoge

.Xntistatis

Antistoechon

.Xntistrophei- (an"tis'tro-fe) 75

Antistrophon

■Antithesis" 77

Antitheta 85

Antitheton'^ 86

Antonomasiai® (an"ton-o-ma'zhi-a) 87

.Aparithmesis^' (ap"a-rith-me'sis) ... 88

.\ph;cresis'8 (a-fer'e-sis) 88

Aphodos

Apocateresis

Apocopei^ (a-poc'o-pe) 88

Apodioxis (a"po-di-ox'is)

Apodixis (a"po-diks'is) 88

-Xpodosis ('a-pod'o-sis) 80

.Apomnemonsysis 503

Apophasis (a-pof'a-sis) 89

Apoplanesis^" 90

Aporia^i 90

Aposiopesis^^ (ap"o-si"o-pe'sis) 91

Apostrophe^^ (a-pos' tro-fe) 107

Argumentum 110

Ara 503

Arsis and Thesis Ill

Articulus 113

Asphalia (as'fa-lia) 114

Asteismus-' (as"tez'mus) 114

Asyndeton (a-sin 'de-ton) 124

Attitude 130

.Auxesis (awks-e'sis) 287

Basanos 375

Bdeligmia

BebcEosis ( be-be-o'sis) 374

Bracheipia

Brachylogy (bra-kil'o-je) 503

Catabasis^* (ka-tab'a-sis)

Catachresis^* (kat"a-kre'sis)

Catacosmesis (kat-a-kos'me-sis) ....

Cataplexis^ '

Characterismus^* {kar"ak-ter-iz'

mus)

Charientismus (ka"ri-e;n-iiz'mus) ...

Chiasmus (ki-az'mus)

Chronographia (kron-o-graf'ya) ....

Circle (sur'k'l)

Circumlocution

Climax" (kli'maks)

( oacervation

C^ommoratio'"

Compar

503 139 130

139 140 140 140 141 142 143 143 143

■ The p.cute ' represents the primary stress or accent, the double marks " the secondary, Forms not paged will appear in the complete modem edition.

506

INDEX

PAGE

Comparatio 144

Compound-words 145

Conciliation

Correctio

Cumulative 145

Curiosity 145

D

Deictic^i (dik-tik) 146

Descriptio 147

Diabole»» (di-ab-o-le) 154

Diacope (di-ak'c-pe) 154

Diseresis" (di-er'e-sis) 154

Diallage (di-ara-je) 503

Dialogismus'* (di"a-lo-jiz'mus) 155

pialysia

Dlalyton

Diaphora (di-af'o-ra) 163

Diaporesis (di"a-po-re'sis 163

Diastole 503

Diasyrmus (di"a-sur'mus) 163

Diatyposis'^ (di"a-ty-po'sis) 164

Diazeugma (di"a-zug'ma) 441

Dicaeology

Didactic

Diegesis^s 165

Diexodos ^ 503

Diffuseness 166

Digressio 167

Dilemma 168

Dilogy •••

Diplasiasmus (di-pla"si-as'mus) .... 168

Diremens Copulatio

Dissimilitudo

Dissipatio

Distributio

Doubt

Doxatou legotos 375

E

Echo 503

Ecphonesis^^ 168

Egoism 273

Elegchos 377.

Ellipsis 180

Emphasis 180

Emphatic Repetition 190

Enallage" (en-al'a-je) 190

Enantiosis (en-an"ti-o'sis) 190

F^ncomion

Enthymema (en'thi-me"ma) 201

Enumeratio 219

Epagoge (ep"a-go'je) 219

Epanadiplosis (ep-an"a-di-plo'sis) 503 Epanalepsis39 (ep-an"a-lep'sis) 219, 503

Epanaphora (ep"a-naf'o-ra) 220

Epanastrophe (ep"a-nas'tro-fe)

Epanodos (ep-an'o-dos) 221

Epanorthosis*" (ep-an"or-tho'sis) ... 221

Epenthesis (ep-en'the-sis) 503

Eperotesis (eper"o-te'sis) 222

Epexegesis

„ . . . PAGE

Epicrisis 503

Epidei.ctic*^ (ep"i-dik'tik)

Epidiorthosis'2 (ep"i-di-or-tho'sisj... 222

Epicheirema (ep"i-kai-re'ma) 110

Epilogue 231

Epimone*' 266

Epiphonema** (ep"i-fo-ne'ma) 266

Epiphora (e-pif'o-ra) 266

Epiplexis

Epiploce

Epistatis (ep-is'ta-tis) 267

Epistrophe (e-pia'tro-fe)

Epithetoi 375, 376

Epitheton*^ 2ft7

Epitimesis 267

Epitrochasmus (ep"i-tro-kaz'mus) .. 503

Epitrope

Epizeuxis^* (ep"i-zuks'is) 268

Erotema*^ ,^,

Erotesis (er"G-te'sis) 2§^

Ethopceia*' (e"tho-pe'ya) 269

Ethos and Pathos 274

Eucharistia

Euche

Eulogia

Euphemismus (yu"fe-miz'mus)

Eutrepismus / 504

Eustathia

Evocatio

Exegesis 504

Exergasia ,

Exetasis** 37©

Exordium (egz-or'di-um) ZTQi.

Expeditio 279

Expolitio (eks"po-li'tio) 279

Exusicitatio^''

Exuthenismus^^ 282

F

Figura Etymologica, Syn, Orth ... 504 Frequentatio 504

G

Gnonie^^ (nom) 282

H

Hebraism (he'bra-izm)

Helii n ism

Hendiadys

Hiatus (hi-a'tus) 283

Hirmos 504

Homoeoprophon .,

Homoeoptoton (ho'me-op-to"ton) ... 285 Homoeoteleuton^-

(ho"me-o-te-lu'ton) 285

Honionyraia (honi-o-nim'ya)

Horismos^* (ho-ri/'mos) 286

Hypallage'^'' (hy-pal'a-je) 287

Hyperbaton^e (hi-pur'ba-ton) 287

Hyperbole^' (hi-piir'bo-le) 287

Hypobole^* (hi-pobVle) 289

INDEX

507

PACK

Hypocatastasis^*

(hi"po-ka-tas'ta-sis) 289

Hypophora (hi-pof'o-ra) 290

Hypostrophe (hi-pos'tro-fe) 504

Hypothesis (hi-poth'e-sis) 302

Hypotyposis'''^' {ho"po-ti-po'sis) 303

Hypozeugma*^ (hi"pozug'ma) 441

Hypozeuxis (ho"po-zuks'is) 504

Hysterologia

I

Icon«2 ri'kon) 306

I dolopoea

Illustration 504

Imprecatio

Incrementum 306

Interrogatio 306

Inter-se-pugnantia

I n verso

Ironia*' (i^ro-ni'a) 310

Isocolon 311

K

Kerdos 377

L

Leptology (lep-toro-gi)

Leptotes" (lit'o-tez) 312

M

Martyria 375

Medela

Meiosis (mi-(/si.s) 287

Membrum 312

Mempsis 312

Merismus*^ (mer-iz'mus) 312

Mesozeugma*^ ('mes"o-zug'ma) 441

Metabasis (me-tab'a-sis) 313

Metabole^^ (me-tab'o-Ie)

Metalepsis** (me-ta-lep'sis) 314

Metania^a

Metaphora'" (met'a-for-a) 314

Metaplasmus

Metastasis 504

Metathesis (nie-tath'e-sis)

Metonymia"^ (me-ton'i-mi-a) 318

Mimesis 504

Mycterisnius fmik"ter-iz'mus)

N

Narratio 319

Noema^^ (no'e-ma)

O

Obtestat io

Ominatio (om"i-na'tio) 323

Onedismus

Onomatopoeia (on"o-mat"o-pe'ya).. 324

Optatio (op-ta'tio) 324

Orcos (or-kos) 324

Oxymoron (ok"sy-mo'ron) 326

p PAGE

Paean isimus

Palilogia

Parabola (parable) 426

Paradiastole^3 (par"a-di-as'to-le) ... 327

Paradiegesis 504

Paradigm^^ (par'a-dim) ....^. 376

Paradox (par'a-doks)

Paradoxon^^ 504

Paragoge^^ (par"a-go'je) 327

Paraineticon (par"e-net'i-con) 327

Paralepsis''' (par"a-lep'(Hp)sis) 338

Parallelism 341

Paramythia .k 346

Parasiopesis

Parathesis 504

Parecbasis

Parechesis 346

Paregmenon (pa-reg'me-non) 347

Parenthesis'* 347

Pareuresis

Parison^* (par'i-son 350

Paroemia*" (pa-re'mi-a)

Paroemion*^ (pa-re'mi-on) 353

Paromology*2 354

Paronomasia*^ (par"on-o-ma'zhia)... 354

Parrhesia** (pa-re'zhi-a) 356

Partitio 504

Pathopoeia*^ (path"o-pe'ya) 357

Pause 362

Per iergy

Periodicity 366

Peristatica 442

Periodos 366

Periphrasis'^^s (pe-rif ra-sis) 369

Perissology

Peroratio«^ 369

Persiflage^* (per'si-flagh)

Personification 371

Philoph ron esis

Pisteis89 371

Pleonasm (ple'on-azm) 504

Ploceso 381

Polyptoton (pol"ip-to'ton) 381

Polysyndeton^^ (por'i-sin'de-ton) ... 382

Pragmatographia^' 386

Frobole

Procatalepsis^s 374^ 336

Proclesis

Proecthesis (prec'the-sis) 387

Prodiorthosis94 388

Prolepsis 390

Prooimion (pro-e'mi-on) 390

Propositio , 391

Prosographia 392

Prosopodosis 392

Prosopopceia^s (pros"o-po-pe'ya).... 392

Protasis Tprot'a-sis) 397

Prothesis 397

Protrope 397

Prozeugma^^ (pro-zug'ma) 441

Pysma 398

508

INDEX

Rhetorics^ 398

Rhythmus 399

Restrictio

Sarcasmus^^ 411

Scematismus (see-ma-tiz'mus) 411

Semeion 377

Sermocinatio (ser rTios"i-ri;i'tio) .... 412

S ign ification

Simile 426

Similitudo 430

Simulatio 430

Soliloquy (so-liro-kwy) 430

Sorites 432

Specific terms 504

Suggestion 504

Sustentatio 504

Suspension 504

Syllabification 432

Syllepsis 432

Syllogismus 433

Symphoresis 434

Symploce'9 434

Synaeresis (see Ety.) 504

Synathroismus^o° (sin"a-thres'mus) 504

Synchoresis 435

Syncope^"! (sin'ko-pe) 435

Syncrisis 435

Synecdoche (si-nek'do-ke) 435

Syngnome 437

Synoeceosisi^''- (si-ne"si-o'sis) 437

Synezeugmen on

Synonymia^o'' (si-no-nim'ia) 437

Synthesis 438

Syntheton (sin'the-ton) 438

Systole 504

Systrophe 439

Tapinosisi"^ 287

Tautology 504

Taxis 439

Tecmerion 377

Thaumasmus

Thesis 439

Threnos

Tmesis ((see Ety.) 504

Topographia^ 05

Topothesia "^^^

Traductioio'' 439

Tricolon

Tu Ouoqueios 73

\^ision 440

Zeugmaio9 (zug'ma) 441

1, The Riddle 5, The Redouble.

9, The Rebound. 10, Counter-accuser. 11 charge. 13, Counter-turn. 14, The Opposer namer. 17, The Sum-up. 18, Front cut. 21, The Doubter. 22, The Stop-sudden. 23,

25, Climb-down. 26, Abuser. 27, The Knock-out. 28, The Sly-nip. 29 Ladder. 30, The Abider. 31, The Clarifier. 32, The Prejudicer. 33,

2, Tall-cause. 3, Double-meaner. 4, The Give-heafls.

6, The Jog-Memory. 7, Front Repeater. 8, Climber.

Counter-arguer. 12, Counter-

15, The Quarreler. 16, Sur-

19, End cut. 20, Distracter.

Turn-tale. 24, The Civil Jest.

The

The

Disintegrater. 34, Right-reasoner, also Cross-talker. 35, Live Picturer. 36, Facts-giver. 37, Outcrier. 38, Exchanger. 39, The Pick-up-again. 40, After-corrector. 41, The Praiser. 42, After-excuser. 43, The Tarrier. 44, Exclamatory approver. 45, The Qualifier. 46, Sharp-repeater. 47, Ques- tioner. 48, Tell-character. 49, Calm-examiner. 50, Feeling-arouser. 51, The Belittler. 52, The Sage-sayer. 53, Like-ender. 54, The Definer. 55, The Changeling. 56, Transposer. 57, Over-reacher. 58, Both-side-arguer. 59, The Implier. 60, Vivid-representer. 61, Rear-warder, homebringer. 63, The Dry-mock. 64, Moderator. 65, Middle-marcher. 67, Rhythm-changei . 68, Far-fetcher. 6 70, Name-borrower. 71, Misnamer, 72, Hidden conceit. Nors. 74, Example-resembler. 75, The Surpriser. Passer-by. 78, Between-comer. 79, The Near-equal.

62, .Argument- Distributer. 66, 9, The Repenter. 73, Neithers and 76, The Add-on. 77, 80, The Proverb. 81,

Like-letters. 82, Admitter. 83, Nick-namer. 84, The Licentiate. 85, The Feeling-mover. 86, The Round-a-bout. 87, The Ender. 88, Light Jester. 89, Chief Arguer. 90, Double-repeater. 91, Chain-speech, also Many Ands. 92, Big Deed-teller. 93, Opponent refuter. 94, Fore-corrector. 95, Personi- fier. 96, Ring-leader. 97, Smooth-streamer. 98, The Bitter Taunt. 99, Fore-and-aft repeater. 100, Heaper. 101, Mid-cut. 102, Cross-couple. 103, Near-same, also Chain-shot. 104, .Abaser. 105, Place-describer. 106, Place- feigner. 107, The Translacer. 108, Retaliator. 109, Common-linker.

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