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CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY AND PALEON- TOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE, PANAMA, AND GEOLOGICALLY RELATED AREAS IN CEN- TRAL AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES FOSSIL CORALS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA, CUBA, AND PORTO RICO, WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE AMER- ICAN TERTIARY, PLEISTOCENE, AND RECENT CORAL REEFS By THOMAS WAYLAND VAUGHAN Custodian of Madreporaria, United States National Museum, and Geologist in charge of Coastal Plain Investigations, United States Geological Survey Extract from Bulletin 103, pages 189-524, with Plates 68-152 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1919 LosUe U | | gehen Vga ee, ane Ns 3 euek Golan CONTENTS. Page PCT hIOle ges oe Sh ice ot eee seek eS os + aa lee bp be sede 189 Geologic correlation by means of fossil corals..............22.-. 2202-2 eeeeeee 190 Geologic history of the upper Eocene and later coral faunas of Central America, the West Indies, and the eastern United States......................---.--- 193 Pinpenetes tees ser ec sc hates lace code m ast sytem: ceidanee eyes 193 iBmtotanmation.; Niearacuacas 2 scc cd Aghse etal BOO aoaSesice- x Porites solida GWorskiab) Ams Sesh ass ose e sae e R e a er egh al ee x somaliensis Gravier, MSVierecnsc cc ces same Se ak shoes ote eae nee see ena | See se eee x lichen Dana, PRC EUTS tS Se ke 5 i Male. ang cgi he oan x nigrescens Dana, DY se isa See sie cis wciclesatoee nee coaccee ecleasoeeal, TL: by alee Ree Nears ee eee Millepora dichotoma Forskal, br Inner margin!.......... J of barrier. platyphylla Ehrenberg, strong folia........... Neha bilan itactani [ia Remirsere | soe meet ere SP:, INCTUS bie os ol assis ese sin eeciiee eee meee e aac oelecinaeue ae ween a ieee steals Total number of species according to locality........--...-...-- 23 20 16 Of the 23 species found in the lagoon, 3 also occur on the exposed barrier, and one of these is so modified to meet surf conditions that ordinarily the specimens from the two localities would not be rec- ognized as belonging to the same species. Thirteen per cent of the lagoon species occur on the exposed barrier; while 18 per cent of the exposed-barrier species occur in the lagoon. These are the relations within perhaps half a mile. There are 20 species in the barrier pools and on the barrier flat. Of these 6 occur within the lagoon and 2 were obtained on the exposed barrier; or there are 30 per cent in common with the lagoon and 10 per cent in common with the exposed barrier. When such relations as these prevail among the living corals of a small group of small islands, what are the chances that we should among fossil corals get a large percentage of common species ? The collection listed shows that certain species do occur in all three habitats, and, by searching, spots may be found where the GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 193 faunas of the different habitats mingle. Corals of the same habitat should be compared, or groups of species of the same genera, as I have done for Empire (Canal Zone) and Anguilla, where the habitats are nearly enough alike for the same genus to thrive in both. Un- less it can be established that the habitats are ecologically very nearly the same the percentages can not be used safely. GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF THE UPPER EOCENE AND LATER CORAL FAUNAS OF CENTRAL AMERICA, THE WEST INDIES, AND THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. EOcENE. BRITO FORMATION, NICARAGUA. Dr. C. W. Hayes collected on or near the Pacific coast of Nicaragua the following species: Astrocoenia @’achiardiit Duncan. Syzygophyllia hayesi Vaughan. ST. BARTHOLOMEW LIMESTONE.? I am introducing the name St. Bartholomew limestone for the upper Eocene limestones of St. Bartholomew. Description of the rock, its stratigraphic relations, and summaries of its faunal char- acters are given in the papers referred to in the footnotes. Only two species of corals found in the St. Bartholomew limestone are actually described in the present memoir, namely: Asirocoena d’achiardia Duncan. ancrustans (Duncan) Vaughan. The fossil corals from the St. Bartholomew limestone have been specially considered by Duncan * and myself. Prof. A. G. Hégbom, of the University of Upsala, kindly lent me in 1904 the entire Cleve collection from St. Bartholomew, and in 1914 I spent eight days studying and collecting on the island. I am combining both the Cleve and my collections in the following list, and am adding the names of the Jamaican Eocene species, several of which also 1 For an account of the Brito formation, see Hayes, C. W., Physiography and geology of region adjacent to the Nicaragua Canal route, Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., vol. 10, pp. 285-348,1910. Description of the Brito formation, pp. 309-313. 2 For accounts of the geology of St. Bartholomew, see as follows: Cleve, P. T., On the geology of the northeastern West India Islands, K.svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. 9, Nv. 12, pp. 24-27, 1872. Vaughan, T. W., Study of the stratigraphic geology * * * of the smaller West Indian Islands, Carnegie Inst. Washington Yearbook No. 13, pp. 358-360, 1915; also Yearbook No. 14, pp. 368-373, 1916; [Present status of geologic correlation of the Tertiary and Cretaceous formations of the Antilles], Washington Acad. Sci. Jour., vol. 5, p. 489, 1915; Reef-coral fauna of Carrizo Creek, Imperial County, California, and its signifi- cance, U. 8. Geol. Survey Prof. Pap. 98-T, pp. 362, 363, 1917. 3 Duncan, P. M., On the older Tertiary formations of the West-Indian Islands, Geol. Soc. London Quart. Journ., vol. 29, pp. 548-565, pls. 19-22, 1873. Vaughan, T. W., Some Cretaceous and Eocene corals from Jamaica, Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 34, pp. 227-250, 255-256, pls. 36-41, 1899; A critical review of the literature on the simple genera of the Madre- poraria Fungida, with a tentative classification, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc., vol. 28, pp. 371-324, 1905; Study of the stratigraphic geology * * * of the smaller West Indian Islands, Carnegie Inst. Washington Year- book No. 13, pp. 358-360, 1915; The reef-coral fauna of Carrizo Creek, Imperial County, California, etc., U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Pap. 98-T. pp. 362-363, 1917. ‘ 194 occur in St. Bartholomew. BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Duncan described Eocene species from Jamaica in the papers referred to in the footnotes below.! Eocene corals from St. Bartholomew and Jamaica. Revised name. Placotrochus clevei (Duncan)............- Asterosmilia pourtalesi Duncan......... ME WASDECIESsmsertietiee mene eee Trochosmilia new species...........-...-- hill Neuchankes see ee Stylophora compressa Duncan............ contorta (Leymerie) (fide Dunean) Astrocoenia duerdeni (Vaughan).........- incrustans (Dunecan)......... d’achiardii Duncan........... Anitillia (?) compressa (Duncan) (?) clevei (Duncan) Columnastrea eyeri Duncan Favia new species 1........-.....--.-+--- new species 2 NOW; SPECIES 25. sac. ae sc ce ens Leptoria profunda Duncan..............- conferticosta (Vaughan) conferticosta var. (Vaughan) Trochoseris catadupensis Vaughan Antilloseris eocaenica (Duncan) major (Duncan)..........-.- grandis (Duncan)........... jamaicaensis (Vaughan)...... cantabrigiensis (Vaughan) .... angulata (Duncan) cyclolites (Duncan) Physoseris insignis (Duncan) columnaris Protethmos (?) new species 1 new species 2............. new species 3 new species 4 Meiethmes (?) new species..........-..-- Dendracis cantabrigiensis Vaughan Actinacis new species. ..............-...-- Ve ee cyathiformis (Dun- can Goniopora new species 1 new species 2 Jamaica. St. pane Cata- | Rich- | Cam- Notes. me dupa | mond | bridge forma-| forma-| forma- tion. | tion. | tion. Soiralis ace eae eel tigarceene Turbinoseris clevei Duncan. OREM erateatatats| ptstaleie atallinie ctaievers SC | a a Cece ea Flabellum appendiculatum Dune can, not;Brogniart. DCMT ck eae ne La 2 Oe Be) Oe ee See bili > iiilllaeeccon sooonse PXivallisiete iis | Satine ice aes KeAborlbedéeds x BOSBaaS alia lereietcieee Soil eer Stylocoenia duerdent Vaughan. See | eh eer TA su Siephanocoenia incrusians Dune can. yan |Gobobcel eaceecctocecane : : SC SS Se ee om Perartte Bete Circophyliia compressa Duncan. GEES eet aerial Geom ce ers Circophyllia clevei Duncan. [See ECE lpaeecae Rael ere an | CN oe I: ......| ““Eocene of Jamaica.” DWE ie stave Sretmransl oie bas = (See S asoeeoolecdséagaiisectace XK [| Manicina areolata Duncan, not Linnaeus. ‘ Shpall AN Nec ec a i Ulophyllia macrogyra Duncan, | not Reuss. peaig| ese epee ees ihe Sa 5a x |.......|.......| Diploria conferticosta Vaughan. seirete x doeBodellacod deg These three “species”? may be ’ reduced to one. Trochosmilia insignis Duncan + T. arguta Duncan, not Reuss. Trochosmilia subcurvata Duncan, pl. 19, fig. 1, not Reuss. Trochosmilia subcurvata Duncan, pl. 19, fig. la, not Reuss. Astracepora panicea Duncan, not Pictet. Actinacis rollei Duncan, not Reuss. Porites ramosa Duncan, noi Catullo. The following names in Duncan’s list of St. Bartholomew corals are dropped, because the specimens on which he based his deter- minations could not be found: 1Duncan, P. M., and Wall, G. P., A notice of the geology of Jamaica, especially with reference,to the district of Clarendon; with descriptions of the Cretaceous, Eocene, and Miocene corals of the island, Geol. Soe. London Quart. Journ., vol. 21, pp. 1-15, pls. 1, 2, 1865 (the descriptions of the corals are by Duncan), Duncan, P. M., On the fossil corals (Madreporaria) of the West Indian Islands, Geol. Soc. London Quart. Journ., vol. 24. pp. 9-33, pls. 1-2, 1867. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 195 Stylophora distans (Leymerie). conferta Reuss. tuberosa Reuss. granulata Duncan. Stephanocoenia elegans (Leymerie). Asirocoenia muligranosa Reuss. ramosa (Sowerby). Plocophyllia calaculata (Catullo). Solenastraea columnaris Reuss. The revised list of the St. Bartholomew coral-fauna contains 33 species, two of which may be referred to the synonymy, but a few species may be added from the collection I made, the study of which is not quite complete. I have described and have had figures made of all the species in the Cleve collection. I hope soon to add descrip- tions of the specimens I obtained and then to publish a full account of the fauna. I seriously doubt the Catadupa corals being Eocene; it seems more probable that they are Cretaceous. The species I described as Trochosmilia halla is probably a fungid coral. The Richmond “beds” - of Jamaica contain two species, one of which is found in the St. Bar- tholomew limestone. The Cambridge ‘‘ beds” contain three species, two of which also occur in the St. Bartholomew limestone. The correlation of the Richmond and Cambridge formations of Jamaica with the St. Bartholomew limestone, seems to be well founded. JACKSON FORMATION AND OCALA LIMESTONE. The corals of the upper Eocene Jackson formation in the Gulf States are described in monograph cited below.!. The species are as follows: Flabellum cuneiforme var. wailest Conrad. Aldrichiella ? elegans (Vaughan). Turbinolia pharetra Lea. Trochocyathus lunulitiformis (Conrad). var. montgomertensis Vaughan. Caryophyllia dalla Vaughan. Parasmilia ludoviciana Vaughan. Archohelia burnsi (Vaughan).$ Astrangia expansa Vaughan. ludoviciana Vaughan. harrist Vaughan. Platycoenia jacksonensis Vaughan. Balanophyllia irrorata (Conrad). 1 Vaughan, T. W., The Eocene and lower Oligocene coral faunas of the United States, U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 39, pp. 263, 24 pls., 1900. See especially p. 30. 2Changed from Aldrichia. 3Changed from Astrohelia. 4 Name added. 196 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Endopachys macluria (Lea). var. triangulare Conrad. shaleri Vaughan.! minutum Vaughan. A comparison of this list with the one of the St. Bartholomew and Jamaican corals reveals nothing in common; but I believe it can be made clear that the two faunas are of nearly the same age. That the Jackson formation in Mississippi and Louisiana is a shallow-water deposit is indicated by the nature of the sediments, the growth of specimens of Astrangia on rounded, somewhat indurated balls of sand, such as are common along some beaches, the presence of oyster shells, etc. The striking difference between the Jackson and St. Bartholomew coral faunas is due neither to great difference in geologic age nor to difference in the depth of water in which the faunas lived, but it is due to difference in the temperature of the water. The St. Bartholomew is a tropical fauna; the Jackson is a temperate fauna. The correlation of the St. Bartholomew limestone, the Richmond and Cambridge formations of Jamaica, and the Brito formation of Nicaragua with the Jackson formation of the Gulf States has been made possible by the work of C. W. Cooke and J. A. Cushman. Cooke shows in the paper cited in the footnote? that the Ocala limestone of southern Georgia and Florida is of Jackson age; and in more recent papers he * describes the stratigraphic occurrence, and J. A. Cushman ‘ describes the species of the orbitoid genus of foram- inifera Orthophragmina from the Ocala limestone in southern Georgia and Florida. The following is a list of the species: Orthophragmina flintensis Cushman. floridana Cushman. americana Cushman, st. mariannensis Cushman, st. mariannensis var. papillata Cushman, st. georgiana Cushman, st. vaughant Cushman, st. Those species whose names are followed by “st.” are stellately marked or are stellate in form. The Ocala limestone is a shoal-water deposit, laid down in a sea having a tropical temperature.® One of the results of my collecting in St. Bartholomew was to find in the St. Bartholomew limestone a stellate species of Orthophragmina, 1 Name added. 2 Cooke, C. W., The age of the Ocala limestone, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Pap. 95-I, pp. 107-117, 1915. 8 Cooke, C. W., The stratigraphic position and faunal associates of the orbitoid foraminifers of the genus Orthophragmina from Georgia and Florida, U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Pap. 108-G, pp. 109-113, 1917. 4 Cushman, J. A., Orbitoid foraminifera of the genus Orthophragmina from Georgia and Florida, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Pap. 108-G, pp. 115-124, pls. 40-44. 6 Vaughan, T. W., A contribution to the geologic history of the Floridian Plateau, Carnegie Inst. Wash- ington Pub. 133, pp. 150-153, 1910. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 197 nearly related to O. mariannensis Cushman, and a second species of Orthophragmina that is of lenticular form. I also collected two species of Nummulites and one species of Lepidocyclina in St. Bar- tholomew. Lepidocyclina occurs in Georgia as far down strati- graphically as a horizon about the middle of the Jackson formation, and apparently as low as the base of the formation. The presence of a species of Orthophragmina so similar to O. mariannensis seems to warrant the correlation of the St. Bartholomew limestone with the upper part of the Ocala limestone of Florida and Georgia, and there- fore with the Jackson formation in Mississippi and in the States farther westward. Regarding the Brito formation of Nicaragua, it must be recognized that a single poor specimen of coral furnishes slim evidence on which to base a correlation. Doctor Cushman submits the following state- ment regarding the foraminifera from the Brito formation: As to the Brito material, two lots especially are of interest. No. 6411 ‘‘coast about 2 m. s. e. of Brito Harbor” marked ‘‘Ool. fos. 1. s.’’ has abundant orbitoids with a beautifully ornamented exterior which without the confirmatory evidence of sections seem to be clearly Orthophragmina of a group not so far represented in the material studied. From No. 6408 two miles n. w. of Brito Harbor, however, there is more evidence. The material is very different and contains specimens which in accidental section show definite chambers of Orthophragmina of a different group. This does not however suggest either of the species from St. Bartholomew. Associated with it isa species of the flattened, broadly spiral form .of nummulites. In the St. Bartholomew material there is such a form but of a species very much larger. Now there is on the other hand a closer resemblance, that is to the lowest material of the Flint River collections. The Brito species of Orthophragmina is similar so far as I have made out to the one [ have called O. flintensis. Moreover it is associated at Brito as along the Flint River with this broadly spiral, flattened form of nummu- lite. The specimens of nummulite from the two localities are very close in form and size and only differ in minute details. They may not be specifically identical in final analysis but are very close. The statement by Doctor Cushman seems conclusive. A horizon very nearly the same is recognizable in Colombia as the following quotation from Doctor Cushman shows: Now, as to the specimen from one league west of Arroyo Hondo, Bolivar, Republic of Colombia. There is an association of Nummulites and stellate orbitoids which very decidedly suggests Eocene. While I can not definitely make out the equatorial chambers, the stellate form is very apparent in several specimens, and I ‘should say specifically different from any of the species of Orthophragmina described in my paper from Georgia and Florida; in fact, they represent a very different group, I think, but are undoubtedly Orthophragmina. Eocene deposits of the same or nearly same horizon as the St. Bartholomew limestone are widely distributed in Cuba, as is indi- cated by species of Orthophragmina and a number of echinoid species that also occur in St. Bartholomew. 198 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. CONCLUDING REMARKS ON THE EOCENE. From the foregoing discussion it is clear that marine upper Hocene formations are widely distributed in the southern United States, the » West Indies, Central America, and northern South America, and that the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans were connected at that time. One of the areas in which there was such a connection was across the present site of eastern Nicaragua. Haug, I believe, correctly correlated the Jackson of Mississippi and other Gulf States with the Bartonian-Ludian (Priabonian) of Europe.* Attention should be directed to a statement by Oppenheim ? in which he suggests that the St. Bartholomew coral-fauna might be the equivalent of the Priabona formation. The sequence I am giving three of the important American horizons precisely paral- lels Oppenheim’s order, as expressed on page 13 of his work cited. It is as follows: Oligocene: Middle (Stampian = Rupelian = Antiguan). Lower (Sannoisian = Lattorfian = Vicksburgian). Kocene: Upper (Priabonian = Ludian=Jacksonian = horizon of St. Bartholomew limestone, etc.). OLIGOCENE. LOWER OLIGOCENE. The lower Oligocene corals of the United States have been de- scribed by me.? Dr. C. W. Cooke, in a paper recently published, subdivides the Vicksburg group in Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida as follows: Subdivisions of the Vicksburg group in Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida. 1 | Mississippi. Alabama. Florida. Bryam caleareous marl. yg aR a RRA oa | 8 4 | Glendon limestone member. 2 so q g — as ce igs ie Ree tha cin Gua rT ec lees a A Mie = a 3 Mint Spring : “Chimney Rock” facies E s:5 calcareous mar! ! a | MOM Ol) wa cise lt alleen 8 =| Forest Hill sand RedsBluticlayait, Siete a, (Western Mississippi). (Eastern Mississippi). 1 Haug, Emile, Traité de géologie, vol. 2, p. 1523, 1911. 2 Oppenheim, P., Die Priabonaschichten und ihre Fauna, Palaeontographica, vol. 47, pp. 348, 21 pls, 1901. 3 Vaughan, T. W., The Zocene and lower Oligocene coral faunas ofthe United States, U.S. Geol. Survey Mon. 39, pp. 263, pls. 24, 1900. See especially p. 30. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 199 The ‘‘coral limestone,’’ formerly referred to the top of the Vicks- burg group, as will be shown on subsequent pages, is, in my opinion, equivalent to the basal part of the Chattahoochee formation. The following is a list of the species of corals at present known from the Vicksburg group: Fossil corals from the Vicksburg group. Marianna limestone. Byram Red Name. caleareous Mint Bluff mar]. | Glendon} Spring clay. limestone|calcareous member. marl member Flabellum magnocostatum Vaughan.............---.-..----200. rhomboidewm Vaughan.........- Turbinolia insignifica Vaughan......... Steriphonotrochus puicher Vaughan.. ... 3 Archohelia neglecta (Vaughan).......-..--- afte MoEKIMUTGENSIA (CONTA ))|- (0. -.<.5.0csicis s cine esiseuieta sak Z IELSSER NG TELE TOS#S UE OULUAG =<) 211 jara site closielesclslemicine oeie | » 0 Xn or || [Seiacieatewe cil bseeae swine leleisinig a salere ONNIS2I GMA BMAD) bore 5 oa j0ja/2 ce minjainicieieic oe aisje'cle wo ncleacnsicis CLATACH AN WATE AMD) erecta wiare Sioicises es iaisieiein clo sis emiaise PAMIPIGILaSined, CELULLOSa) (OUNGAN) ~ eo esisisinnto nina oneseiaee - dete Balanophyllia elongata Vaughan... .......0.-.s222--- cence eeenee enuilifenan (Conrad): =. can, not Linnaeus. CUD eee to state cinie Porto Rico, Canal Zone, An- | Isastraea conferta Duncan. guilla Porto Rico, Cuba, Mex...-.--.- Heliastraea antiguensis (Dun- ean) Duncan + Asfroria affinis Duncan + Astroria antiguensis Duncan. Portowticon Cuba. scene aces Heliastraea tenuis (Duncan). Duncan. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 201 Fossil corals from the Antigua formation—Continued. Name. Distribution outside Antigua. Nomenclatorial notes. -*Diploastrea crassolamellata (Duncan)...| Porto Rico, Cuba, Ga., Canal | Heliastraea crassolamellata Zone. (Duncan) Duncan + vars. ee pulchella, and no- ilis *var. magnifica (Duncan)..-..| Porto Rico, Cuba, Ga...-....- *var, nugenti)(Duncan):-:.--| 222. jneet etnies eee ccc e ene +- var. minor Duncan, Dendrophyllia new Species, -.-..--.-.----|-0--- 09-2 +022 enne e-em nee nae *Acropora panamensis Vaughan .....-.. Canali Zone). 42s...28326s284--< MIAWISPOCIESH conc qociecis daise aa) lscaecine cicies ema aieainels «sleisie rises *saludensis Vaughan.......-. Canal Zoness is ssid seeeetege sc. MO Ws SHACIES Ae icn ecienetercia stein | situa a diee eieclen cern ae aietwis ri ap *A streopora antiguensis Vaughan.......- CanaliZoness4i22t cee see *Actinacis alabamiensis Vaughan.....-.. Salt Mt., Ala.; Bainbridge, Ga. now speciesiL-£ . 227. -steee ee Bainbridge, Gals ce ares WOWAR RIOTS 7 EAC BE see bees tod |-oede cauaedoaseodsearadceqoeurae Gomopora now species Ws.\<. Jo2 chap Peel |E 2) ate ce-ms = orig oe eein=-- eer ME WIS DECIOS ie seems citsiciste isi =i='ia| siaicteiae Giclee aicisis mtareicle's ainie siceleterecarare Hine bl vals} (QD {bali ceo as odocol|idsoco SObbede me CoO eamGaseCoran ae Alveopora daedalaca var. regu- : : laris Duncan. *var. microscopica @Dumcartyee ies ese ee, Fes hoe sgaaetee ME WESTIE CIOSIS srarerarctn aie e corre oie wil eremie eect octet ta lols eicvotatcyeiateteia stcteters ¥*celeveti Vaughan. J....sscss< 0. Aneuilly Capa Zone......-.-- *portoricensis papeban eegceee IPOTTONIC Ons eee ee eatn ane *cascadensis Vaughan........- pe oalas Canal Zone....-.- e.. HOW SHAVES Ces So oeseess sedan) soseddseredscesoacetsotcnasasdee new species EME) UES S Se see sees 5. wade et eects wee 2 Goniopora (?) tenuis (Duncan) eeraseicte oie leetel ele cisiss niecaisinie s sicielnloecineismisteicicicte Stephanocoenia tenuis (Dun- can) + Rhodaraea irregularis Duncan. Alveopora new speciesl.,......-..----:--|--- alsiels So sne wee eesmemsaauac seuss MOWASPOCICS 2 claicnin ac < we paeetel Meme dace se oc comecce cuss s hesere ee Three of the species recorded by Duncan from Antigua, in my opinion, are. incorrectly identified and their names are dropped from the list. They are as follows: Favoidea junghuhni Reuss, according to Duncan. Heliastraea barbadensis Duncan. Solenasiraea turonensis (Michelin), according to Duncan. Another species, Asiraea megalaxona Duncan, is based on uniden- tifiable material, and its name is also dropped. The total number of recorded species from Antigua, therefore, is 69, and 5 varieties are recognized. Of the 33 species indicated as new, descriptions of 8 have been written and descriptions of 26 remain to be written at the time of making out the preceding table. The number of species, 69, recognized is interesting for compari- son with the number recorded for areas in which living reefs occur. Von Marenzeller ! records 71 species from the Red Sea in his report on the Pola expedition corals Bedot? records a total of 74 species +5 varieties from Amboina—a number that should be reduced by about 4, because of the reference of some names to the synonymy of other species listed, leaving the number of valid species at about 70. In my paper on the shoal-water corals from Murray Island, Austra- lia, I list 63 species from Murray Island and its vicinity in water not exceeding 18 fathoms deep, and report 51 species from Cocos- 1 Von Marenzeller, E., Riffkorallen, Exped. S. M. Schiff Pola in das Rote Meer, Zool. Ergeb. 26, K. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Mat.-Naturwiss Cl., vol. 80, pp. 28-97, pls. 1-29, 1906. 2 Bedot, M., Madréporaries d’? Amboine, Rey. suisse de Zool., vol. 15, pp. 148-292, pls. 5-50, 1907. 202 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Keeling Islands.1. It is known that at least a few more than 51 species occur in these islands. Outside the main coral-reef zone the number of species is smaller. For instance, there are only 43 supposedly valid species recorded from water between 0 and 25 fathoms deep in the Hawanan Islands and Laysan.? It is not cer- tain that 3 of the species included in the number 43 were obtained in the Hawaiian Islands. The usual number of species obtained in Florida or the West Indies, in water less than:25 fathoms deep, where conditions are favorable for coral growth is about 35. There were on the Antiguan reef as many species of corals as are at present usual for one island or a small group of islands in the Indo-Pacific, and about twice as many species as are usual on a living West Indian reef. The reason for referring the Antigua reefs to a horizon above the lower (Lattorfian) Oligocene is given on page 199. The following list of middle (Rupelian) Oligocene genera is taken from Fabiani, but it is considerably revised and needs further revision: Middle Oligocene (Rupelian) genera of corals in Veneto. * Stylo phora. Montlivaultia? * Hydnophora. Dimor phastrea? *Stylocoenia. Leptaxis. * Leptomussa. Cyathomor pha. * Astrocoenia. Astrangia. Mycetophyllia. Hydnophyllia. Trochosmilia. Holangia. * Trochoseris. Astraeomor pha? Coelosmilia. Gombertangia. Cyathoseris. Acropora. Epismilia? . *Orbicella. * Mesomor pha. Dendracis. Phyllosmilia? Solenastrea. Comoseris? * Astreopora. Parasmilia. * Antiquasirea. Mucetoseris. *Actinacis. * Huphyllia. Aplophyllia? Leptophyllia? *Goniopora. Dichocoenia. Rhabdo phyllia. Stephanosmilia. * Porites. Stylina? Calamophyllia Thamnasteria? * Alveopora. Grumia. *Gonvastrea. * Indicates that the genus is also found in the middle Oligocene of the West Indies or the southeastern United States. The generic characters of a number of the corals listed by Fabiani can not be ascertained without a restudy of authentically identified specimens in the light of modern systematic technique, which require that besides having an adequate knowledge of the morphology of the coral skeleton, the investigation shall proceed from a critical study of the type-species of the genera to be recog- nized to a similar critical study of the species to be generically iden- tified, and that due attention shall be paid to the rules of zoologic nomenclature as expressed in the International Code. I will point out in passing that there are in the United States National Museum 10 specimens of the coral to which Reuss applied the name Cyathophyllia annulata. It would be too great a diversion to give in this place a discussion of the literature on this species. This is a fungid coral, 1 Vaughan, T. W., Some shoal-water corals from Murray Island (Australia), Cocos-Keeling Islands, and Fanning Island, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 213, see especially pp. 67-72, 1918. 2 Vaughan, T. W., Recent Madreporaria of the Hawaiian Islands and Laysan, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. No. 59, pp. 32-34, 1907. [The list referred to has been slightly revised and the number reduced by 2 names.] 3 Fabiani, R., Il paleogene del Veneto, R. Univ. Padova Inst. Geol. Mem., vol. 3, pp. 229-231, 1915. ' GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 203 with a synapticulate and perforate wall at and just below the calicu- lar margin, the wall at lower levels usually, but not invariably, becoming solid. In Fabiani’s list this species, under the generic name Stephanosmilia (name proposed by Reuss in 1874, not Ste- phanosmilia De Fromentel, 1862), comes between Parasmilia and Plocophyllia (a synonym of Euphyllia). I do not know what the systematic relations of Leptavis Reuss are. Reuss based the genus and the type-species, L. elliptica Reuss, on a single specimen from Monte Grumi and seems not to have obtained another from any- where. Until additional specimens of L. elliptica have been critically studied, Leptaxis is not an identifiable genus. Although Duncan considered Leptaxis a subgenus of Antillia, I think that it may be one of the simple fungid genera. The species referred to 10 genera, whose names are followed by a question mark,‘ ?,” should all be critically restudied. The names of the genera preceded by an asterisk, Cane the foregomg table are also found in the middle Oligocene of the West Indies or the southeastern United States. The followmg genera have closely related species: Stylophora —- Euphyllia Leptomussa Actinacis Stylocoenia Orbicella Oyathomorpha ‘ Gomopora Astrocoenia Antiguastrea Astreopora Alveopora I am not at all sure that some of the American middle Oligocene and the European Rupelian species are not identical. Dr. Joseph A. Cushman has described the following species of Lepidocyclina from the coilection I made in Antigua (not yet pub- lished): Lepidocyclina gigas Cushman undulata Cushman undosa Cushman favosa Cushman L. undulata seems to be the largest known species of Lepicocyelina, some specimens attaiming a diameter of 100 mm. The calcareous algae, echinoids, Mollusca, and Bryozoa, as well as the Foraminifera of the Antigua formation will be described in a forth- coming volume to be published by the Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington. Tne Antigua formation must, in my opinion, be the type of the American middle Oligocene. PEPINO FORMATION OF PORTO RICO.1 The corals here listed were almost all collected by Mr. R. T. Hill. I have added the names of a few additional species collected by members of the New York Academy Porto Rico Survey. 1 For accounts of the geologic relations of this formation, see Hill, R. T., Notes on the forest conditions of Porto Rico, U.S. Dept. Agriculture Div. of Forestry Bull. No. 25, pp. 14, 15, 1889. Vaughan, T. W. , see references in footnote on pp. 193, 205. 204 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Fossil corals from the Pepino formation. Astrocoenia portoricensis Vaughan, Antigua, and Canal Zone. Orbicella costata (Duncan), Antigua, Anguilla, Canal Zone. Antiguastrea cellulosa (Duncan), Antigua, Florida, Georgia., etc. Maeandra portoricensis Vaughan. Leptoseris portoricensis Vaughan. Pironastraea anguillensis Vaughan, Anguilla. Siderastrea conferta (Duncan), Antigua, Canal Zone, Anguilla. Cyathomorpha antiguensis (Duncan), Antigua, Cuba, Mexico. tenuis (Duncan), Antigua, Cuba. Diploastrea crassolamellata (Duncan), Antigua, Cuba, Georgia. Astreopora portoricensis Vaughan. Gonopora portoricensis Vaughan, Antigua. Of the 12 species from the Pepino formation, 8 are known in the Antigua formation of Antigua. LIMESTONE ABOVE CONGLOMERATE NEAR GUANTANAMO, CUBA. The geologic relations of the corals from the vicinity of Guanta- namo will be described by Mr. O. E. Meizer in a rene ome report. The following is a list of the species: Fossil corals from the middle Oligocene, Guantanamo, Chip Pocillopora guantanamensis Vaughan. Astrocoenia guantanamensis Vaughan, Antigua, Panama. decaturensis Vaughan, Antigua, Georgia. meinzert Vaughan. Antiguastrea cellulosa (Duncan), Antigua, Porto Rico, etc. Trochoseris meinzert Vaughan, Panama. Prronastraea antiguensis Vaughan, Antigua. Cyathomorpha anguillensis Vaughan, Anguilla. antiguensis (Duncan), Antigua, Porto Rico, etc. tenuis (Duncan), Antigua, Porto Rico, etc. Diploastrea crassolamellata (Duncan), Antigua, etc. Goniopora decaturensis Vaughan, Georgia. Of the 12 species here listed 7 are also found in Antigua; of the 5 remaining species 2 are at present known from only one locality, 2 occur elsewhere in association with a fauna of the same facies as that of Antigua, while 1 occurs in the base of the Anguilla formation. Limestone, Rio Canapu, Manasasas trail, Cuba. The following species were collected by Dr. Arthur C. Spencer: Leptoria spencer Vaughan, Antigua. Cyathomorpha tenuis (Duncan), Antigua. Diploastrea crassolamellata (Duncan) Antigua. The first and second species of the above list were obtained at sta- tion No. 3473 of the U. S. N. M. record of localities for Cenozoic in- - GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 205 vertebrate collections. Specimens of Orthophragmina were obtained at the same station and indicate upper Eocene or lower Oligocene as the age of the rock. This matter will be further discussed in the forthcoming report on West Indian paleontology. BASAL PART OF CHATTAHOOCHEE FORMATION IN GEORGIA.! The localities at which the specimens of fossil corals were obtained are at Blue or Russell Springs on Flint River about 4 miles below Bainbridge, and at other localities along Flint River to Hale’s Land- ing, about 7 miles below Bainbridge. The corals are most embedded in or weathered out of chert which was once a coral-reef limestone that was formed on the subaerially eroded surface of the Eocene Ocala limestone after submergence. Dr. W. H. Dall in a recently published paper’ appears to correlate this bed with the Orthaulaz pugnax zone of Tampa, Florida, and states that I concur in that opinion. Although the chert forming the base of the Chattahoochee formation in the vicmity of Bainbridge is faunally nearly related to the ‘“‘silex’”’ bed of the Tampa formation, in my opinion they are not of the same age, the “‘silex’”’ bed being geologically younger. The coral faunas are not the same, and there is at least a species of one genus at Tampa of stratigraphically later affinities than any species in the vicinity of Bainbridge. The following are the species from near Bainbridge mentioned in this paper: Fossil corals from basal part of Chattahoochee formation near Bainbridge, Georgia. Stylophora minutissima Vaughan. Stylocoenia pumpellyi (Vaughan) Vaughan, Antigua. Astrocoenia decaturensis Vaughan, Antigua, Cuba. Orbicella bainbridgensis Vaughan, Santo Domingo?, Porto Rico. Antiguastrea cellulosa (Duncan), Antigua, etc., Tampa. var. silecensis Vaughan, Antigua, etc. Favites polygonalis (Duncan) var., Antigua. Siderastrea silecensis Vaughan, Tampa; Alum Bluff formation. Diploastrea crassolamellata (Duncan), Antigua, etc. var. magnifica (Duncan), Antigua, etc. Astreopora antiguensis Vaughan, Antigua. Actinacis alabamiensis (Vaughan), Antigua; Salt Mountain, Ala. Goniopora decaturensis Vaughan, Cuba. 1 The more important references to the literature are as follows: Vaughan, T. W., A Tertiary coral reefnear Bainbridge, Georgia, Science, n.s., vol. 12, pp. 873-875, 1900; Bainbridge and vicinity in Preliminary report on the Coastal Plain of Georgia by O. Veatch and L. W. Stephenson, prepared under the direction of T. W. Vaughan, Geol. Survey of Ga. Bull. 26, pp. 328-333, 1911; The reef coral fauna of Carrizo Creek, Imperial County, California, and its significance, U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Pap. 98-T; pp. 363-364, 1917. Cooke, C. W., Age of the Ocala limestone, U. 8. Geol. Survey Prof. Pap. 95-I, pp. 107-117, 1915. 2 A contribution to the invertebrate fauna of the Oligocene beds of Flint River, Georgia, Proc. U.S. Nat- Ms., vol. 51, pp. 487-524, plates 83-88, 1916. 206 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Of the 13 species and varieties listed above, 9 are common to Antigua, and Goniopora decaturensis occurs in Cuba in association with species of corals abundant in Antigua; of the 3 remaining species, Stylophora minutissima has so far been positively identified only at Bainbridge, but it is very near a species common in Antigua; 2 of the 13 forms are known from the ‘‘silex’’ bed of Tampa. The coral fauna near Bainbridge is a moderately rich one. In addition to those listed there are species of Stylophora, Astrocoenia, Antillia?, Astrangia or Rhizangia, Mesomorpha, Astreopora, Actinacis, Gonio- pora, and Alveopora, and of a few genera not yet positively identified. There are between 25 and 30 species, of which only 4 or 5 are com- mon to the Tampa coral fauna. It should be stated here that casts of a species of Pecten, which appears to P. suwaneensis Dall, occur at station 3381 in the matrix with Diploastrea crassolamellata, which may therefore be of upper Eocene as well as of Oligocene age, or I may not have discriminated closely enough between species. “CORAL LIMESTONE”? OF SALT MOUNTAIN, ALABAMA.1 I described in the monograph referred to in the footnote two species, as follows: Stylophora ponderosa Vaughan, Antigua. Actinacis alabamiensis (Vaughan), Antigua; Flint River, Georgia. I long surmised that the ‘coral limestone” of Salt Mountain really represented the basal part of the Chattahoochee formation, but only recently did I obtain evidence. that this limestone is the stratigraphic correlative of the Antigua formation and of the coral reef horizon near Bainbridge. SAN RAFAEL FORMATION OF EASTERN MEXICO? The formation from which the fossil corals were obtained was first designated by Mr. Dumble ‘‘San Fernando beds,” a name long in use for a Tertiary formation in the Island of Trinidad. He has recently changed the name to San Rafael. It is an important forma- tion in eastern Tamaulipas, Mexico. Several of the corals are not well enough preserved for purposes of identification. The following is a list: Antiguastrea celiulosa (Duncan), Antigua, etc. var. silecensis Vaughan, Antigua, ete. Favites mexicana Vaughan. Macandra dumblei Vaughan. ; 1 For a description of the geologic relations, see Vaughan, T. W., Eocene and lower Oligocene coral faunas of the United States, U. S. Geological Survey Mon. 39, pp. 30, 31, 1900. 2 The principal literature is as follows: Dumbie, E. T., Some events in the Eocene history of the present Coastal area of the Gulf of Mexico in Texas and Mexico, Journ. Geol., vol. 23, pp. 481-498, 1915 (see especially pp. 495-497); Tertiary deposits of northeastern Mexico, California Acad. Sci. Proc., ser. 4, vol. 5, pp. 163-193, pls. 16-19, 1915 (see espe- cially pp. 189-192). GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 207 Jyathormorpha antiguensis (Duncan), Antigua, etc. Goniopora species. Similar to Antiguan species. Although the identifiable species are few, it appears safe to cor- relate the San Rafael formation with the Antigua formation. TONOSI, PANAMA. Doctor MacDonald obtained at this locality, station 6587, the fol- lowing species of corals: Astrocoenia guantanamensis Vaughan, Antigua, Cuba. Favia macdonaldi Vaughan, Antigua. Maeandra antiquensis Vaughan, Antigua. Trochoseris meinzert Vaughan, Cuba. Diploastrea crassolamellata (Duncan), Antigua, Cuba, etc. There can be no reasonable doubt that this is the same as the coral fauna found in the Antigua formation. As the locality at which the specimens were obtained is on the Pacific coast of Panama, the evidence is conclusive that there was middle Oligocene connection between the Atlantic and the Pacific in that area. SERRO COLORADO, ARUBE. Three species were obtained at this locality,’ as follows: Orbicella insignis (Duncan), Antigua. Antiguastrea cellulosa (Duncan), Antigua. Goniopora species (the kind of casts to which Duncan applied the name Alvepora daedalea var. regularis). This fauna is evidently the same as that of the Antigua formation. CONCLUDING REMARKS ON THE MIDDLE OLIGOCENE. The foregoing lists show that Antiguan middle Oligocene coral fauna is known in Porto Rico, Cuba, southern Georgia, southern Alabama, eastern Mexico, Panama, and Arube. That it also occurs in Santo Domingo is known from some of the specimens, Siderastrea conferta (Duncan) typical and a peculiar variety of Asterosmilia exarata (Duncan), both brought from Santo Domingo by Gabb. It is a key horizon in the American Oligocene. The Byram calcareous marl of Mississippi occurs either at its base or just below its base. It therefore overlies all the Vicksburgian lower Oligocene, with the possible exception of the uppermost member, and is stratigraphi- cally just below the “‘silex bed” of the Tampa formation. The correlation of the deposits containing this fauna with the Rupelian of Veneto has been made on page 202. That there was middle Oligocene connection between the Atlantic and the Pacific was pointed out on this page in discussing the species from Tonosi, Panama. 1 Vaughan, T. W., Some fossil corals from the elevated reefs of Curacao, Arube, and Bonaire, Geolog. Reiéhs-Mus. Leiden Samml., ser. 2, vol. pp. 1-91, 1901 (especially pp. 11, 12). 208 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. UPPER OLIGOCENE. CULEBRA FORMATION. The Culebra formation and the base of the Emperador limestone in the Canal Zone contain a few species that indicate close relation- ship with the Antiguan horizon, but on the whole the affinities are rather with the next higher fauna. Fossil corals were obtained in the Culebra formation at three stations, as follows: Station 5863, west side of Gaillard Cut, at station 1863 of the Canal Commission, between points opposite Curacha and Paraiso. Station 6020c, Las Cascadas, Gaillard Cut, third bed from the bottom of the section. Station 6026, one and one-half miles south of Monte Lirio, on Panama Railroad (relocated line). The list of species is as follows: Species of corals from the Culebra formation. Station | Station | Station | Empera- . . Name. 5863. | 6020c. | 6026. | dors, | Dtigua.| Anguilla. Stylophora imperatoris Vaughan..-......... dah eee eae ol atte ts x D6 oS ecierrence x HOGI NEWEIEIN cy genobeceucalbdusoncesollescase sacs ie alles Sie NSS See eaten Orbicella; costata, @Ouncan))-. sst-- 5. hs osaee lone scene SKA PCR REIL Ne eS. oS x Xx Siderastrea conferta (Dunean)...........-..|..-.------ SOER al BABeeen eos eeeceeno’ x x Astreopora antiguensis Vaughan ...........|..-.------|---2----2- dar aT, ASE Kea Naa ae Goniopora cascadensis Vaughan.........-..|---:------ | ele Se ane Coded leas c80uo x x Of the 6 species in the Culebra formation, 2 also occur in the Emperador limestone; 4 also occur in the Antigua formation; and 4 also occur in the Anguilla formation. There is only one species, Astreopora antiguensis, that is elsewhere known only from the — Antigua horizon; while 2 species are at present known elsewhere only from the Anguilla horizon. These relations indicate, but do not prove, that the upper part of the Culebra formation, the part of the formation in which the corals were collected, is stratigraphically higher than the Antigua formation, and is, therefore, referable to the upper Oligocene. The foraminiferal fauna, to be discussed on pages 554, 555, 585, supplies stronger evidence in favor of considering the upper part of the Culebra as of upper Oligocene age. EMPERADOR LIMESTONE. The principal collections from the Emperador limestone were made by Doctor MacDonald and me at Station 6015 and 6016, in Empire village. Dr. Ralph Arnold subsequently made a small collection in Empire and obtained one species, Pocillopora arnold: Vaughan, not collected by Doctor MacDonald and me. Doctor MacDonald and I also made a small collection at Station 60246, the upper bed at the lower end of the culvert where the Panama Railroad (relocated line) crosses Rio Agua Salud; and he subsequently obtained some GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 209 very interesting specimens at station 6256, which is 14 miles south of Miraflores. The following is a list of the species: Species of corals from the Emperador limestone. Empire | Station | Station : « quarries.| 6024). | 6256, | ADSuilla.| Antigua, Stylophora imperatoris Vaughan...............----.-- Ne X. .. - |Saeeseewss. ivy sleeeaaste J PUNAMENSIS VaAlICNOAM ofp ccccclmeeecenact Kc op cleikineemwwiecinl s Ree |. See SE MI IN J GOCLBAISHIV OUPDAN «Ao scion cwociacinaane dene Dae cial asaya a ciel | EGRESS we ap te ties ye Shea Nee etd mackonads Vauehant: 22 x KON | os teat Bee Ce Ae ees ps eas sealer se alinrsririe Sel eky ae) Sele Xe ee dl eieermemretls Geto aoe soc cdoanlloooecsaqee Xx | x x x x x ‘ xX Goniopora h f x , LILUTIE TESTS) ViQIIP HAN Nes. oiare rsiaieqee screws x Sy anPperauones: Valea... coocn ee h ee seecee = x canalis Vaughan >. £0625. s36L5.260555.0% x cleyerViaiohannccerg sade scarencecanesensee x Porites douvillei Vaughan ...2 2... ccc dos. ecddedenescss Xx COUMLEN AIOT AM ere cre centers asec wee atk eae x ponamensis Vaughan... ...5b 25.4 .oiek seb 3 x enguillensts Vaughan. o.oo occ eo oe cee. x (Synaraea) howei Vaughan..................- x macdonaldi Vaughan ..........-... x Of 26 species from the Emperador limestone, 6 have been identified in the Antigua formation and 9 in the Anguilla formation, but it is probable that the number of species common to the Emperador limestone and the Anguilla formation will be somewhat increased. The Emperador limestone is of nearly the same horizon as the An- guilla formation, Additional evidence favoring this opinion will be adduced on subsequent pages. ANGUILLA FORMATION. This name is proposed for the coralliferous limestone and argilla- ceous marls of Anguilla. The type-locality is on the south and west sides of Crocus Bay, where it is exposed to a thickness of about 200 feet. The fauna has been monographically described, and the account of it will be published in a forthcoming volume of the Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington. The followmg species of corals from it are considered in the present paper: 1 The principal literature is as follows: Cleve, P. T., On the geology of the northeastern West India Islands, K. svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. 9, No. 12, p. 22, 1872. Vaughan, T. W., see references in footnote, p. 193. 210 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Species of corals from the Anguilla formation. Cu'ebra | Empera- Name. forma- | dor fime-| Antigua.| Other localities. tion. stone. Stylophora imperatoris Vaughan......-..--.---------- Orbicella imperatoris Vaughan.........--.------------ 3 Cosiatan (Dim gain) ee ieee rae canalis Vaughan.........-- Antiquastrea cellulosa (Duncan)... Agaricia anguillensis Vaughan..... Bye eae AU OTUASITOCON COG UA LLCAUSIS ENG CLT Rteye eyiete ety earn ee ey | ee eo |e RY: Siderasirea. conferta (Duncan)...........-----s-2------ nl pwd eeicig eee coe x P.R. Cyatiomorphasangiallen Sis yaw iar sey wala cen eee GMM ete sisi iG LA CRUZ MARL. This name is proposed for the bedded, yellow, argillaceous, and calcareous marl particularly well exposed on the east side of Santiago Harbor between Santiago and the Morro. The type exposures are along the railroad eastward from the La Cruz to the crossing of the highway from Santiago to the Morro. The corals collected in this ‘ GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 219 formation are listed below. Descriptions of the mollusca by C. W. Cooke will appear in a forthcoming publication of the Carnegie In- stitution of Washington. The corals are as follows: Fossil corals from the La Cruz marl, Cuba. 2 Santo x . Santo Name orES Domingo | Bowden.| Recent. | gone H. | 200° H . | ELON RONIAC LSU UU CAIs om aieniw bw oe,c cls winigies eae dose sese= Caer | SC te he SAREE STAIR RR OLS. co EACLE ION STO CIOS 5 aes atin setae enicys wiaic chetcis «Be colo oy ge taleete eet ate l ears deel eer eee eisb nial Soe cine of Stephanocoenia intersepta (Wsper)....---.------se-ee-seecene eens MK ewe wcse-- x x Orticeliaimoate @)uncan)' 25222... ae ee cee A eee Bx ee de el eres eeiciase lear ice SHLEINESUNE I AVOMCS: IANA) anne sucht. «J ce nieaaekptde cba. aoe PSOE eS ioe > delta cee ISS. Se bialen clastic. bournoni M. Edwards and Haime..................- Sc ae eae Boy Meee ee XK Thysanus aff. T. excentricus Duncan.............-.-c..0002-522- Iva AE Ral SASS ISE 2 ee PID HEE SEAS EES Niderasirea siderea (Mllis:and Solamder)...:. 222 .2-.-.00.---505s-| gee meecer x | 5G x Gortopora jacobiand Valighan!. 22 2585 oe eel eea ee eek hype ye Sn Sees A pa nl LING ac = at EDTA ENMPIO TALES ALAS) Sosa s een nee le ae ha ei ote Uae oie ae ocak eee eee RS oe eM ee ee > ‘astredides} (uamuck) 22e-%- 4924-6. 42s. ee tee...) | ode. Ley eS eee. x Of 11 species listed above, 5 are now living in the Antillean re- gion; but of the § genera represented, 4,7. e. 50 per cent, are now un- known inthe Atlantic Ocean. The horizon appears to be above that of the Bowden marl, and to be near zones D and E of the table on “page 217. I obtained numbers of poor prints and casts of corals near or at the base of the formation in the vicmity of Santiago. Although they are too poor for determination, they resemble in form the species of Placocyathus, Asterosmila, Antiulia, Thysanus, and Syzygophyllia, of the Santo Domingan deposits. Similar poor casts and imprints suggest that this is a widely distributed formation in Cuba. FLORIDA. ALUM BLUFF FORMATION. The coral fauna of the Chipola marl, member of Alum Bluff forma- tion is small, comprising four species representing as many genera, namely, Stylophora, Antillia, a new genus that resembles a Thysanus with a commensal sipunculid worm in its base, and Goniopora. The coral fauna of the Alum Bluff formation is meager. Exclud- ing the Chipola marl member it comprises the following species: Fossil corals from the Alum Bluff formation. | | - Tampa Oak White F Name. Grove. | Springs. oe Alstrireli@iMe WIS POCIES = 6 esse eae eee cook Sea esa otnne ene cope assets ae Sen at |e el beee i o SCT UESCNECMMLLSUOT OCIS tS IN AU SUM aes casa ie ipa = = afeyaaleintetale tate are n= =i== geese eeees x | x ELECETISES AAU IIATL eae a eee ot. Met tS Se CA i ES eee Oa ES aaa | ae te aceite = Ganie Onw JUCOUUET CAN AU EI AT Sere creme eerste Bee erate aorst oe eterarctararonmeirarc cel nvontorate ares icin bahay Nr sane aie 1 For description of the stratigraphic relations of beds at White Springs see Vaughan, T. W.,and Cooke, C. W., Correlation of the Hawthorne formation, Washington Acad. Sci. Journ., vol. 4, pp. 250-253, 1914.55 __Although, in my opinion, the formation in which these corals occur should be referred to the Miocene, I believe it is very low Miocene, 220 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. below the Bowden horizon. A recent discovery by Sellards is of importance in determining the age of the Alum Bluff formation! The following is a list of the vertebrates: Parahippus leonensis Sellards. 2 Merychippus species. Mesocyon? leonensis Sellards. Oxydactylus 2? Leptomeryx ? Sellards says: It would seem, therefore, as a whole, that the vertebrate fossils indicate that the Alum Bluff formation is to be referred to the Miocene. The presence of protohippine horses in particular would seem to be decisive as to the age of the formation, exclud- ing its reference to the Oligocene. The opinion of Prof. J. C. Merriam on the age indicated by the Merychippus is quoted. He says that he would judge the horizon to near the lower portion of the middle Miocene. Later Professor Merriam informed me that he considers the Merychippus as of lower Miocene (Burdigalian) age. The evidence in favor of considering the Alum Bluff as of lower Miocene age might be greatly multiplied. _ The presence at Oak Grove, Yellow River, Florida, of a species of Astrhelia closely related to A. palmata Colds.) oi the Maryland Choptank and Calvert formations suggests Miocene. Pecten sayanus Dall indicates Mio- cene. Canu and Bassler are positive that the Bryozoa are of Miocene age. Berry’s opinion based on his study of the fossil flora ? is not incompatible with this interpretation. MIDDLE AND SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES. The following is a list of the Miocene species, as far as at present known 38 Miocene corals from the Middle and South Atlantic States. Geologic formation. ae Chop- | _ St York | Choet op- ‘ ork- : octaw- Calvert.) tank. | Marys. | town. | DUPIND. | hatchee. = | Paracyathus vaughani Gane...........----- Xx TAS INA Cony (Eo Cbitss) pengnocoeppeeaet es. || >< 8 |seedscesee Astrangia lineata (Conrad)...............-- x conradi Vaughan...............- x Septastrea marylandica (Conrad).......-.... pat SK crassa] huwomeyeand BEVOlm eS) ees ee a eens ee | er oes eee INAS CQUMUILGIDG (CRYZON) Soh55555 co secuse| Ssoeecces-lsoodscooseloeasées- oe 1 Sellards, E. H., Fossil vertebrates from Florida, A new Miocene fauna, Florida Geol. Surv., 8th Ann, Rept., pp. 83-92, 1916. 2 Berry, E. W., The physical conditions and age indicated by the flora of the Alum Bluff formation, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Pap. 98-E, pp. 41-59, pis. 7-10, 1916. 3 Vaughan, T. W., Anthozoa: Maryland Geol. Survey Miocene, pp. 438-448, pls. 122-129, 1904; The reef coral fauna of Carrizo Creek, Imperial County, California, and its significance, U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Pap. 98-T., p. 366, 1917. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 221 Berry has recently reviewed the Miocene Calvert flora of Maryland and Virginia, and expressed the following opinion :* Seven of the Calvert plants, or 26.9 per cent, are common to the Tortonian of Europe, and 10 others, or 38 per cent, are represented in the Tortonian by very similar forms. In view of the fact that these floras spread into both regions from a common and equally accessible source, as I have just stated, the evidence that the Calvert flora indicates a Tortonian age is as conclusive as intercontinental correlations can ever be. Com- pared with other American floras of Miocene age, that of the Calvert has little in com- mon with the described Miocene floras from Colorado, Idaho, Oregon, or California, which are all lake or river valley floras of moist upland forest types. Should Berry be correct in his correlation of the Calvert with the European Tortonian, there is at present no definitely recognized Helvetian Miocene in the Coastal Plain of the United States; and con- sequently no Helvetian coral-fauna. COSTA RICA. Corals representing the Bowden horizon or one very near it were obtained in Costa Rica at two localities, viz: ‘Limon, Colline en démolition,’’ No. 618 of the H. Pittier collection; and at station 6249, Hospital Point, Bocas del Toro. The species _ from the former of these localities are as follows: Asterosmilia hilli Vaughan. Stephanocoenia intersepta (Esper). Dichocoenia tuberosa Duncan. Balanophyllia pittiert Vaughan. Balanophyllia pittiert was obtained at Hospital Point as well as at Port Limon. PANAMA. _ The type of Stylophora portobellensis Vaughan, from Portobello, was probably collected in the Gatun formation. COLOMBIA. Mr. George C. Matson collected at a locality 0.5 kilometer east of Usiacuri in association with a fauna representing the Gatun. forma- tion specimens of Septastrea matsont Vaughan, which is very nearly related to Septastrea marylandica (Conrad)—a species common in the St. Marys and Yorktown Miocene of Virginia. The available evidence leads to the opinion that the Gatun formation is of Miocene age, and that part of it is of upper Miocene age. CONCLUDING REMARKS ON THE MIOCENE. The Gatun formation, the formation next above the Emperador limestone, according to the geologic map, plate 153, occurs only on the north flank of the Isthmus and does not extend from ocean to ocean. There is in the Canal Zone no evidence to indicate inter- 1U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Pap. 98-F., p. 66, 1916. _ 222 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Oceanic connection during Miocene time, although there was such connection in other areas not far away, in Nicaragua for instance. During the Miocene there was a very weak development of reef- corals in Central America, the Antilles, and the southeastern United States, as the foregoing lists show. The Miocene is characterized by the disappearance of many genera of corals that were abundant in the middle and upper Oligocene and by the introduction of the modern coral-fauna. However, a number of genera at present known living only in the Indo-Pacific persisted. These genera are as follows: Placotrochus. Pocillopora. Syzygophyllia. Placocyathus. Antilra. Pavona. Stylophora. ° Favites. Goniopora. Of the Miocene genera, Astrhelia, Septasirea, and Thysanus are not known living. PLIOCENE. CALOOSAHATCHEE MARL, FLORIDA. The following species of corals have been recognized in the Caloosa- hatchee marl: *Archohelia limonensis Vaughan. Dichocoenia new species 1. new species 2. Meandrina maeandrites (Linnaeus). Cladocora johnsoni Gane. _Phyllangia floridana Gane. *Solenastrea hyades (Dana). *bournont M. Edwards and Haime. Sepiastrea crassa (Tuomey and Holmes). Thysanus species. Maeandra pliocenica (Gane). aff. M. strigosa (Dana). aff. M. clivosa (Ellis and Solander). *Siderastrea pliocenica Vaughan. *dalla Vaughan. *Poriies poriies (Pallas). *furcata Lamarck. dwaricata Le Sueur. Those species whose names are preceded by an asterisk are con- sidered in the descriptive part of this paper. The foregoing list is complete for the Caloosahatchee corals from Caloosahatchee River and Shell Creek, Florida, except one species of whose genus | am not sure. There are in the United States National Museum 19 species from the Caloosahatchee marl. Of these 19 species, 6 and perhaps 8 are also living in the Floridian region, while the other species, except those belonging to Septastrea GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 223 and Thysanus, have close relatives in the present Floridian fauna. I have previously pointed out! that this fauna contains no genera at present confined to the Indo-Pacific, such as Placotrochus, Placo- cyathus, Stylophora, Pocillopora, Antillia, Syzygophyllia, and Gonio- pora, all of which occur in the West Indian Miocene, and all except the first two also occur in the West Indian Oligocene or Eocene. LIMON, COSTA RICA. Certain corals collected in the vicinity of Limon are reputed to come from a bed of Pliocene age. They are as follows: Madracis mirabilis (Duchassaing and Michelotti). Archohelia limonensis Vaughan. Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander) var. cavernosa var. endotihecata (Duncan). var. cylindrica (Duncan). Except Archohelia limonensis, it appears that these corals might represent the Santo Domingan Miocene above the Bowden horizon. ’ The material is not adequate for a positive opinion. CARRIZO CREEK, CALIFORNIA. Recently I have described in detail an interesting small reef- coral fauna from Carrizo Creek, Imperial County, California.’ The following table, taken from the paper mentioned, contains the names of the species composing this fauna and of the most nearly related species in Florida and the West Indies. Corals from Carrizo Creek, Cal. | ernie Most nearly related species in Florida or West Indies. Eusmilia carrizensis Vaughan..........-------.------ | Husmilia fastigiata (Pallas), Pl, R. Dichocoenia merriami (Vaughan)............-.-..-.-. ae eccnarie species, P; D. stokesi Milne Edwards Var cnassisepia) Vaughan: o 0) 85. -2-. 65.8. de if and Haime, Pl, R. Solenastrea fairbanksi (Vaughan), typical............. var. columnaris (Vaughan) isietctiatewse Atgase Var. 2Ormaus Vaughan... -..2..-- feos -ce-- var. minon Vaughan. -2: 2.0... -<--<22-% Maeandra bowersit Vaughan..... Solenasirea hyades (Dana)?and S. bournoni Milne -|(Edwards and Haime, P, Pl, R.8 / Nene ode | Maeandra labyrinthiformis (Linnaeus), Pl, R. Sederyet 44 Ee alga tA aa ee eR 8 aa x \siderastrea dalli Vaughan, P. Siderastrea californica Vaughan.......-....---.---. _..| Siderastrea pliocenica Vaughan, P. POribeSCUTNIZENSIS: VAUSNOAN 2 eo ooc ie emis nes cine Porites astreoides Lamarck, Pl, R. P, Pliocene; Pl, Pleistocene; R, Recent. Regarding the geologic age of this fauna, it was said: The specific affinities of the Carrizo Creek corals are discussed in detail after the descriptions in the systematic part of this paper. The Carrizo Creek species are so near species belonging to the same genera in the Pliocene Caloosahatchee marl of Florida and in the Pleistocene and living reefs of Florida and West Indies that it seems to me they can scarcely be so old as Miocene; lower Pliocene appears to be the maximum age which may be assigned to the fauna. 1 The reef-coral fauna of Carrizo Creek, Imperial County, California, Prof. Pap. 98-T. p. 366, 1917. 2U. 8. Geol. Suryey Prof. Pap. 98-T, pp. 355-386, pls. 92-102, 1917. 224 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. The following is said as to the bearing of this fauna on a possible post-Oligocene interoceanic connection: That there was interoceanic connection across parts of Central America during upper Oligocene time and that this connection was terminated in Miocene time is generally admitted. The extinction of Pacific faunal elements in the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the Western Atlantic Ocean has been discussed and sum- marized on page 366. Was there interoceanic connection during upper Miocene or Pliocene time after the sharp differentiation of the Caribbean and Mexican Gulf faunas from the Indo-Pacific faunas, thereby permitting interoceanic faunal migra- tion? The discovery of a reef-coral fauna of purely Floridian and Caribbean facies at the head of the Gulf of California strongly suggests, if it is not positive proof, that the western Atlantic fauna extended from the Atlantic into the Pacific after the faunal differentiation had taken place. It is well known that the living reef-coral fauna on the Pacific side of Central America is depauperate in comparison with that on the Atlantic side. Greater vigor may account for the dominance of the migrant fauna over the Pacific fauna, which was finally suppressed, or geologic or other ecologic conditions that are not yet understood may have excluded the Pacific fauna from the head of the Gulf of California, while they permitted the migration of the Atlantic fauna into that area. That the suggested interoceanic connection existed can scarcely be doubted. To locate it, in the present state of meager knowledge of the areal and stratigraphic geology of Central America, is not possible. Perhaps it was across the Isthmus of Tehuante- pec. The problem awaits future investigation. This fauna differs from the Miocene fauna of the La Cruz marl of Cuba in the absence of genera at present living in the Indo-Pacific, for instance, Stylophora, Pocillopora, and Goniopora. As none of the Indo-Pacific genera occurs in the Carrizo Creek fauna, and as only genera of Atlantic affinities have been found there, it seems neces- sary to infer that the fauna migrated from the Atlantic to the head of the Gulf of California after the Indo-Pacific genera had become extinct in the Atlantic. This would mean connection between the Atlantic and the Gulf of California in very late Miocene or Pliocene time. Attention should here be called to a statement for which I am responsible. It is said in the report referred to below’ that some fossils obtained by Mr. William Palmer in a quarry in Calle Infanta, Habana, may be of Pliocene age, although it is probable that they are Pleistocene and that other limestone near Habana is perhaps of Pliocene age. The material obtained by Mr. Palmer is very poor, but some specimens are casts of the inside of the calice and the inter- septal loculi of a large bilobate species of Antzllia. The species more probably is A. walli Duncan of the Bowden marl, but it might be A. bilobata Duncan; another cast seems to represent a species of Thysanus; while another is a species of Syzygophyllia, probably S. dentata (Duncan). One specimen of Stephanocoenia intersepta (Ellis and Solander) is identifiable. The material seems quite clearly to represent either the Bowden or a somewhat higher horizon 1 Hayes, C. W., Vaughan, T. W., and Spencer, A. C., A geological reconnaissance of Cuba, p. 23, 1902. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 225 inthe Miocene. It isnot Pliocene, according to our present knowledge of Pliocene coral faunas, PLEISTOCENE. Only the names of the Pleistocene species considered in this paper are given in the following lists: Pleistocene corals from Mount Hope and Colon, Canal Zone. Oculina diffusa Lamarck. varicosa Le Sueur. Husmilia fastigiata (Pallas). Astrangia (Phyllangia) americana M. Edwards and Haime.* Cladocora arbuscula Le Sueur. Solenastrea bournona Milne Edwards and Haime. Favia fragum (Esper). Maeandra areolata (Linnaeus). Manicina gyrosa (Ellis and Solander). Agaricia agaricites (Linnaeus). var. purpurea Le Sueur. pusilla Vervill. Siderastrea radians (Pallas). siderea (Ellis and Solander). Acropora muricata (Linnaeus)! palmata (Lamarck) at Colon. Porites furcata Lamarck. astreoides Lamarck. Millepora alcicorns Linnaeus. It will be remarked in passing that the coral fauna at Mbit Hope is a typical inner-flat coral fauna. Pleistocene specimens were obtained at Monkey Point and Limon, Costa Rica. The list is as follows: Pleistocene corals from Monkey Point and Limon, Costa Rica. Monkey | Limon Name. Point. |Moin Hill DOS LART ISTP (GRAN ES) aco ceeteone seee see sos oneocoscds- Sazeccsesdesdoassenocees YK Macandra clivosa (Ellis and Solander)...-- Sioa bc actu dag gars oe rep eete see ceeoEEeeeed « Marek lossee tees SETIGOSI AMA) maemo ce cetiac eee cae oss ce caace ne eens ciscc seine ose x Manicine gyrosa (Ellis and Solander)....--..--.---------++-+---0+-++-2 22sec ece reece et) pee c eee eee x Agaricia agaricites var. crassa Verrill -.......---------22---- 0252 - n= = nonce n eee ele === x Siderastrea siderea (Hillis and Solander)....-.--+---------2-+-s2ceencsseee- sconce ene x ETO MOR TUR (URNIIACUS) ac eee se ae 9 emia win =m omen oe alninlniel ns =l= = | SA lbaéstesace DULG WAMArCk - essere ase ise eee ee se ees ase se sen es eee - eee x BOTESIUTCRIE NE ATIALC Keen es cen ioassaeie aie sade: os 522s «ic eee eee aos oes ees neeacie eseeSeer3 } Xx The corals from Monkey Point represent a seaward-facing reef; while those from Moin Hill are more characteristic of inner-flat conditions. 1 Names added in the proof and not entered in the table of species, pp. 228-237., or the systematic account of the faunas. 226 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. SUMMARY OF THE STRATIGRAPHIC AND GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF THE TERTIARY AND PLEISTOCENE CORAL-FAUNAS OF CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES. 1..The upper Eocene coral-fauna of the St. Bartholomew hme- stone is known in St. Bartholomew, in Jamaica, and on the Pacific side of Nicaragua. 2. No lower Oligocene coral-fauna is at present known in the West Indies or Central America. 3. Rich middle Oligocene coral-faunas are known in Antigua, Porto Rico, Cuba, Georgia (neat Bainbridge), Alabama (Salt Moun- tain), eastern Mexico, Panama, and the Island of Arube. The same fauna is known to be present in Santo Domingo. 4. Upper Oligocene coral-faunas are present in Anguilla, the Canal Zone, Florida (Tampa formation), and there are some reef- corals representing the same fauna in Cuba. There seems to be a distinct break between this and the succeeding Miocene faunas. 5. The Bowden, Jamaica, lower Miocene fauna is represented in Santo Domingo, Cuba, and Costa Rica. This fauna is probably younger than the coral-fauna of the Alum Bluff formation in Florida. 6. A closely related but higher Miocene fauna is present in Santo Domingo and Cuba. It seems probable that this fauna is geologi- cally older than the coral fauna of the Maryland and Virginia Miocene. 7. The presence at Usiacuri, Colombia, of a species of Sepiastrea, very closely related to 8. marylandica of the St. Marys and Yorktown Miocene of Virginia, suggests the presence in northern South America of a middle or an upper Miocene coral fauna. 8. There is a moderately rich Pliocene fauna in the Caloosahatchee marl of Florida, and this fauna appears to be represented at Limon, Costa Rica. 9. Pleistocene reefs are extensively developed in Central America, the West Indies, and Florida. 10. Living reefs exist in the same areas in which there are Pleis- tocene reefs. ; 11. The periods of reef-coral development are as follows: (a) Upper Eocene St. Bartholomew limestone, weak development. (6) Middle Oligocene, the greatest known developn nent of American. coral-reefs. (c) Upper Oligocene, considerable development of reefs. (d) Miocene, weak development of reefs. (¢) Pliocene, weak development of reef-corals in Florida. (f) Pleistocene, extensive development of reefs. (g) Recent, extensive development of reefs. 12. Periods of connection between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans are as follows: (a) Upper Eocene. (6) Middle and upper Oligocene and lower Miocene. (c) A connection, probably narrow, in very late Miocene or in Pliocene time. a, pend ayset’ ~) V Aereonpeye-simacmrerads $+ * . with (5 sok Pentti oyiabe Wat h , = ¥ 0 ap ames ot hes ie ‘ Solioan ; itis skips eae oat iaauitels jp POG 2 Serene «» Rupdigere T samsbeuc aud eye Iekion (PSD Neewenee De fe) Pee aes wadene't: Yoo sql ‘ 4m veal i medgue 7 Ratna 5 iui ¢ twit AMET Wiprees ees a aera tier 4) anaes sian 1 omer um ans th he } \ oces ‘osonqa’s heres ty = dinnsonide > » MARBLE seeaaTansV OI DSy haciiticnas en's a ae Se. peerea fone: ; Bay Pore , Fee bans cts “3 f sinmseshens 228 BULLETIN 108, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. TABLE OF STRATIGRAPHIC AND Name of species. Eocene—Brito formation, Nicaragua. Stylophora imperatoris Vaughan..-...--- panamensis Vaughan affinis Duncan portobellensis Vaughan goethalsi Vaughan macdonaldi Vaughan......-- granulata Duncan canalis Vaughan ponderosa Vaughan Pocillopora arnoldi Vaughan baracodiensis Vaughan guantanamensis Vaughan. - Madracis mirabilis (Duchassaing and Michelotti). A strocoenia @’achiardii Duncan...------ guantanamensis Vaughan. . incrustans (Duncan) decaturensis Vaughan meinzeri Vaughan portoricensis Vaughan Stylocoenia pumpellyi (Vaughan) A sterosmilia hilli Vaughan Stephanocoenia intersepta (Esper) - Also St. Bar- tholomew. Dichocoenia tuberosa Duncan...........|.........-.-.--- Eusmilia fastigiata (Pallas) Cladocora arbuscula (Le Sueur) Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Sol- ander). limbata (Duncan) Oligocene. Horizon of Culebra Horizon of Antigua | formation, Anguilla formation. | Canal Zone. formation. etait ie etal Gaillard Cut; | Anguilla....-. ib ky 1S Monte Lirio. cbeepaneisne sacs teeq eer tice JaciseeSfece eee | ke anti Sof jen eee Monte Lirio. *Mlabama;/Ane,|(5 0 sce. tigua. Near Guanta- namo, Cuba. | | Antigua; near Guantanamo, Cuba; Tono- si, Panama. Bainbridge, Ga.; Antigua; near Guanta- namo, Cuba. Near Guanta- namo, Cuba. Antigua; Lares PLR Bain bridge, Ga.; Antigua. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES. Oligocene— Continued. Emperador limestone, Canal Zone. EEMPING SION |e sis ccjnncisccess Agua Salud. ITA Oia ra aps tall nter=ss.9.siniaata slaiessate alse ices ice 23 Santo Domin- go; Santiago, tuba. ROPE eek si (?) | FEI Oe ate ail erateiccsecancies RUD INE EULO) | teen secre ae Seicstei Agua Salud, SH eEeCae mae Matanzas and Baracoa, Cuba; Rio Gurabo, St. Domingo,ete. | Bmpireess:£.|--./-kpseseth eek ID DO SICRsoE| GaeeS aee neeenes | SARGGHE SHORE Ee Baracoa, Cuba Matanzas, Cuba. eee we ee ee eee ewes Limon, C. R.; Miocene— Horizon of ST? ixé] Bowden Pliocene. Pleistocene. marl,ete. | | | ma * Rica. | Recent. gion. 229 “Limon, C. R.; Caloosa- hatchee marl, Florida. Bowden, Ja- maica. Bowden, Ja- maica; Li- mon, C. R.; Santo Domin- go; Santiago, Cuba. Limon, C. R.; Santo Domin- go. Santo Domin- go, Cuba. > Limon,C. R... Mt. Hope, C.Z.| Florida; West Indies, etc. Mt. Hope, C. Z.|...-.. do West Indian | West Indies, region. Bermuda,ete. Mt. Hope, C. | West Indies; Z.; Monkey | Florida, etc. Pty Capek; . W. I. Mt. Hope,C.Z.}...-. Go zniwas- Wiles la eteheae- GOec i see Remarks. ° Porto Bello; prob- ably Gatun forma- tion. Upper Eocene of St. Bartholomew. Very near the Plei- stocene and living D. stokesi M. Ed- wards and Haime of the West Indies, Florida, etc. 230 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. TABLE OF STRATIGRA PHIC AND GEOGRAPHIC Name of species. Eocene—Brito formation, Nicaragua. Horizon of Anguilla formation. Orbicella imperatoris Vaughan antillarum (Duncan) altissima (Duncan) cavernosa (Linnaeus) cag ec eee var. endothecata (Duncan). - var. cylindrica (Duncan)... . aperta (Verrill) bainbridgensis Vaughan costata (Duncan) canalis Vaughan tampcdensis Vaughan var. silecensis Vaughan brevis (Duncan) insignis (Duncan) intermedia (Duncan) gabbi Vaughan irradians (M. Edwards and Haime). Solenastrea hyades (Dana) bournont M. Edwards and Haime. Septastrea matsoni Vaughan Antiguastrea cellulosa (Duncan) var. curvata (Duncan). . var. silecensis Vaughan. elegans (Reuss) alveolaris (Catullo) Stylangia panamensis Vaughan Favia fragum (Esper) macdonaldi Vaughan Favites mexicana Vaughan polygonalis (Duncan) Goniastrea canalis Vaughan Maecandra antiguensis Vaughan ..... - portoricensis Vaughan dumblei Vaughan ..........- areolata (Linnaeus) - Oligocene. Horizon of Culebra Antigua formation, formation. Canal Zone. "Bain bridge, |...........-.--- G a. Antigua; Lares, P.R. Antigua; Aru- be. Antigua Antigua; P. R.; Cuba; Ga; eastern Mex.; Arube. Antigua Bainbridge, Ga.; Antigua. Tonosi, Pana- ma; Antigua. Eastern Mexi- co. Antigua; Bain- bridge, Ga. Antigua; To- nosi, Panama. Lares, Porto Rico. Eastern Mex.. Anguilla Cuba. ; “sycs° Anguilla; Tampa, Flori- da. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. DISTRIBUTION OF SpECIES—Continued. Oligocene— Continued. Emperador limestone, Canal Zone. Empire and near Mira- flores. ey Miocene— Horizon of Bowden marl, etc. Santiago and Ciénaga, Cuba. Santiago, Cuba; Santo Domingo. Usiacuri, Co- lombia. eae e eee cree sceee Pliocene. 231 Pleistocene. weet eee ence eee West Indies; Florida. Caloohat- | West Indies; Ghee marl, Florida. a. Fae do ......-.|.--------.---+-- | ee eae resets eseeceeees ed |e Motors crete roles, PE ih dae Sarees [face eee Res. ME HoperOuyns Wek: Fila. Ow ed ey Os te wet ew em wwe sewers emcees esa ceseenslsce asses eters seclsce es eceseseeece www ewe ee ees e eee cee sees eee etter e else estes eens tener lee nese esseseccse On eg ee Se eg ee 37149—19—Bull. 1083——-4 Mt.Hope,C.Z.; Wits hla ete. Recent. West Indies; Florida; Bra- zil. iprazils os es West Indies; Florida. W. I; Fla.; | Bermudas; Azores; St. | Vincent. ween eases ccscces wee meee e cee eceee wee ecco eee ccess wer ccccccccccace Remarks. Montserrat, geologic horizon unknown, St. Croix, Trinidad; probably about the orizon of the An- tigua formation. Tampa, Fla.; about the horizon of the Anguilla formation. Do: Santo Domingo, Niy- ajé shale. Horizon unknown, Santo Domingo; hori- zon unknown. Lutetian (Eocene); Rupelian (Oliogo- cene) of Veneto, Italy. Formation in part the same as the Gatun formation, C. Z. Byram marl, Miss. Rupelian (Oligocene); Venetio, Italy. Bupeten (Oligocene), enetio, Italy 232 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. TABLE OF STRATIGRAPHIC AND GEOGRAPHIC Name of species. Maeandra clivosa (Ellisand Solander) - - strigosa (Dana) Leptoria spencert Vaughan Manicina gyrosa (Ellis and Solander) -. willoughbiensis Vaughan Thysanus excentricus Duncan hayesi Vaughan Syzygophyllia hayesi Vaughan Trochoseris meinzeri Vaughan......---- Agaricia agaricites (Linnaeus) var. purpurea Le Sueur var. crassa Verrill var. pusilla Verrill........-- anguillensis Vaughan . . dominicensis Vaughan Pavona panamensis Vaughan .......--- Leptoseris portoricensis Vaughan . ...... Pironastraea anguillensis Vaughan .... antiguensis Vaughan Siderastrea pariana (Duncan) radians (Pallas) stellata V errill confusa (Duncan) pourtalesi Vaughan pliocenica Vaughan hillsboroensis Vaughan Oligocene. Culebra formation, Canal Zone. Horizon of Anguilla formation. Eocene—Brito formation, Nicaragua. Horizon of Antigua formation. aes oe Sas Rio Canapu, Cuba; Anti- gua?. soeeseesece bone Antigua... Britos-22 bee. 4) Taores rosettes Pict eg cee ete Guantanamo; Tonosi, Pana- ma. sudenen) (Ellisiand Solander) i... 265.2 neces | Seee eee ceeesea Geeec ces e en eaes Eeceee Seceeee _var. dominicensis Vaughan silecensis Vaughan........-. dalli Vaughan Lares road, |.. 222.200.2222.) Anguilla 21127] Zone C, P.R. JNagtavep CMe oon esaumeeasalbsscoscescsocce= tanamo,Cuba. Eater pias de vl shin ae ted eel ele laa AUN GTYSSIIIE 2 oso GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES—Continued. Oligocene— Continued. Emperador limestone, Canal Zone. wee ewww eww ene Miocene— Horizon of Bowden marl, etc. Pliocene. Pleistocene. Santiago, Cuba; Bow- den, Jamaica. Matanzas, Cuba. meen e ew enee See er eter eee eee eee ee eee ery errr rere rere reer rere eee ee rrr rr) See er ey Monkey Pt. CoRR , Mt.Hope,C.Z.; Moin Hill, C. R.; W. 1.; ete. wee ewww ewww ew en eee Mt.Hope,C.Z.; a Bias ete. Mt.Hope,C.Z.. Moin Hill, C.R Mt.Hope,C.Z.. ay Recent. ee me ewww eww ewes W.1.; Fla.; ete. tee dois. .P Especially abundant east side of Andros _Is., Bahamas. Colon, C. Z.... See nd ey wet ee ween wee wees Bowden, Ja- maica; Santo Domingo; Santiago, Cuba. Caloosahatchee marl, Fla. Caloosahatchee marl, Fla. Mt.Hope,C.Z.; .> Fla.; Mt. Hope,C.Z.; Monkey Pt., Co Re aWreeles Fla. cH W... 13 alas; Bermudas. Brazilian reefs. See ee ee ee er ere rrr rrr errr rr ry ees ee es ed ee ee er Wee 8 ete. Fla.; Ree eee ee ee ey 238 Remarks. St. Croix,§Trinidad; probably nearly the same as the Antigua horizon. Santo Domingo; hori - zon unknown. Chattahoochee, Tam- a, and Alum Bluff leorerione! Florida and Georgia. 234 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM, TABLE OF STRATIGRAPHIC AND GEOGRAPHIC A Oligocene. Eocene—Brito Name of species. formation, Nicaragua. Horizon of Culebra Horizon of Antigua formation, Anguilla formation. Canal Zone. formation. Siderastrea conferta (Duncan)..........|.......--.------ Antigua; | Las Cascadas..| Anguilla...... Lares, P. R. Cyathomorphamochertina: (Michelin) ea) seeesee eee eee |b cen nen ee alee ne ease Searels hill) Vaughan 5. 22sec | Seeaseeaeec eros ANITISUA. Gas ecllseliecaer eee ease | browni Vaughan........ yet Sigh atbmeurat Nel ooo COeodensss bella Vanghane 5 a5 a are nena eee | sone Choy eee a SplendensiVjausian ars seep ener ene: aos do. CAME NSOS MEWEAIEN. -o5|bcconases 27-0 aU loeoeeonceonsouae morborough? Viauehanleess | Seeeaeeeeeeeteen| sacle coke sce ee antiguensis|(Duncan)s-s9\eeeeseeeeaeeeees Won) G12 Wag Woo. bos seee eee eal cere: eee eee Lares, P. R.; Guantanamo, | Cuba; eastern Mexico. LEnuish CONC an) peas =n | Sees Antigua; Lares, P. R.; Rio Canapu and Guanta- namo. ID NESE: AO TOGOs QUETMTRICI) 6 Goocg||eonss cosbseounsoosocssedsecss2 6250020405000 205|\55=5>555755525-5- crassolamellata (Duncan)...|...-..------+--- ACT Gig Poul aay nee cece siete eel eee eee eee er Eee Lares, P. R. (Zone C); Cuba; Bain- bridge, Ga.; Tonosi, Pana- ma. var, magnifica (Duncan). |--.------------- AS Gi Bi Ua Ue sie SS SH ee ee Lares, P. R.; Guantanamo, Cuba; Bain- bridge, Ga. var. nugenti (Duncan) ...|...------------- Antiquac: ie cece eee ee Reece ee eee eee Blonophiyllia: pittiennV aug an yoo ais a a ee Seo alia gm oes cle ee 2 ee Acropora panamensis Vaughan.........|..-------------- IAT tigate al jueh seebac\cmelal| Soe ee eee eee saludensis Vaughan ..........|..-.------- See oscue (CO eRe Pen naManeree natn Menactucopbocccs muricota (Linniens): 5.552.ehalscs seo natttea | sce aiae aeeix ot nace eseeeciccerie orl ee Cee eee eee eee palmata; (Lamarck) so. joi Joe lbs sctetz ace cate os aseee Gee cle cells oe cian etic est eee eee eee AistreoponagocihalsimViaushany =. 22526 sl nace eee era ee eee ee eae el MERE ee eee eee }e abe eeiateceteleicieiieys antiguensis Vaughan........|.....----------- Antigua;}|1$ mi. S. of |................ Bainbridge, Monte Lirio. a. portoricensis Vaughan......|.........------- ares ieWR icc). oi ces scatiocccs =| peste ee eee Actinacis alabamiensis Vaughan........|......-.-.--.--- ‘Alla.s) ); Bainq'|5.2222202522.22| te ene ceeeeenees bridge, Ga.; Antigua Gonioporaille Vaughan: osc sa5ec0) > scence fe ceae elon eenenia= sees eee ee Soe ceo sae eee ee eee panamensis Viaughan:.2. 0. .|)ss2setece saete ale eeees cs sees eee |aee sec ne cee oars Anguilla ...... decaturensis Vaughan ........|......-.------- Bainbridge, |..........-...-- In ike ee ea Ga.; Guanta- namo, Cuba. , regularis (Duncan)...........|....------eee00- NTiti gual: MPO Wie a Cae : R.; Arube var. microscopica (Duncan) .|....-.-.-.------ Antigua. =< 2 Fig. 6. REPRODUCTION OF J. B. JUKES’ SECTION ACROSS THE GREAT BARRIER REEF OF AUSTRALIA. 4@, SEA OUTSIDE THE BARRIER, GENERALLY UNFATHOMABLE. 0. THE ACTUAL BARRIDR, Cc. CLEAR CHAN- NEL INSIDE THE BARRIER, GENERALLY ABOUT 15 OR 20 FATHOMS DEEP. d, THE INNER REEF. ¢. SHOAL CHANNEL BETWEEN THE INNER REEF AND THE SHORE. J’. THE GREAT BUTTRESS OF CALCAREOUS ROCK, FORMED OF CORAL AND THE DETRITUS OF CORALS AND SHELLS. G. THE MAINLAND, FORMED OF GRANITES AND OTHER SIMILAR ROCKS. 2. The first important protest against the Darwinian explanation was by Carl Semper,’ who, in 1863, after studies in the Pelew Islands, advanced the hypothesis that atolls could be formed in areas of elevation by the solution of the interior of preexistent limestone masses, and that solution, erosion by currents, and wave-cutting could develop platforms behind fringing reefs, thus transforming a fringing into a barrier reef. 3. Murray* introduced the idea of ‘banks bemg built upward by showers of the remains of pelagic organisms until the bathymetric zone of reef-forming organisms is reached, and he called attention to the cutting of volcanic islands down to wave base. His theory has been briefly summarized by himself in the following words: - That when coral plantations build up from submarine banks they assume an atoll form, owing to the more abundant supply of food to the outer margin, and the removal of dead coral rock from the interior portions by currents and by the action of the carbonic acid gas dissolved in sea-water. That barrier reefs have been built out from the shore on a foundation of volcanic débris or on a talus of coral blocks, coral sediment, and pelagic shells, and the lagoon channel is formed in the same way as a lagoon. That it is not necessary to call in subsidence to explain any of the characteristic features of barrier reefs or atolls, and that all these features would exist alike in areas of slow elevation, of rest, or of slow subsidence. 4. H. B. Guppy in 1890 published the following important opinion regarding the relations of barrier reefs to submarine plateaus or ledges: _ Ihave now gone far enough to establish the probability, judging from the instance of the Australian Barrier-reef, that reefs of this class are in reality, and not in appearance, 1 Structure and distribution of coral reefs, ed. 3, pp. 138, 139. 2 Semper, Carl, Reisebericht, Zeitsch. fiir wiss. Zoologie, vol. 13, pp. 563-569, 1863. 8 Murray, John, On the structure and origin of coral reefs and islands, Roy. Soc. Edinburgh Proc., vol. 10, 1879-80, pp. 505-518, 1880. 4 Idem, p. 517. : 5 Guppy, H. B., The origin of coral reefs, Victoria Inst. Journ. Trans., vol. 23, pp. 51-61, 1890. 244 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. situated on the border of a submarine plateau or ledge. Such a position, according to the explanation of barrier-reefs, first advanced by LeConte, and supported by myself, presents the most favorable conditions for reef growth, the corals being limited on the outside by the depth, and on the inside by the sediment in the water. The influences of food-supply and currents act subsequently as auxiliary causes. What, then, is the explanation of the submarine ledge? The supposition that it is a continuation of the land slope is at once negatived by the fact that the slope of the land in the reef-encircled islands of the Pacific is usually 6 degrees or 7 degrees, some-*. times only 3 degrees or 4 degrees, but often as much as 10 degrees, or 12 degrees, whilst the submarine ledge, when stripped of reefs and defined by the 100-fathom line, would possess a scarcely recognizable inclination, represented by a fraction of a degree. It will be found, however, when we examine the contour of such an island as Vanikoro, that the distance of the barrier-reei from the coast may vary according to the slope of the land. Thus, on the west side of this island, the average angle of the land slope is 6 degrees, and the distance of the barrier reef about 2} miles. On the north side the inclination of the land is between 11 degrees and 12 degrees, and the barrier reef is rather over a mile distant. This is just what we should expect. The more gradual the land slope, the broader will be the submarine ledge, cut out in the course of ages by the action of the sea, and the more distant will be the barrier reef that has grown up along its margin. This I believe to be the true explanation of the position of barrier reefs. A submarine ledge is in the first place necessary; and, since the sediment and mud in the shallower waters on the ledge repress the growth of corals, reefs will naturally spring up toward the margin of the ledge, where the water is clearer and where the depth is within that of the reef-coral zone.' 5. Admiral Sir W. J. L. Wharton? explained the uniform depth of atoll lagoons, whose edges are in various degress encircled by growing coral, by considering that the corals grow upon foundations that are the bases of volcanic islands that have been reduced by wave action to wave base. 6. Alexander Agassiz * found older limestone under the recent reefs in many areas investigated by him. He explained atolls by the solu- tion and erosion of the interior of preexisting limestone masses and ascribed the formation of the platforms of barrier reefs to marine erosion without change of sea level. 7. Andrews ‘* pointed out that the platform of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia has been submerged at a relatively recent date and that it continues southward beyond the reef, and he inferred that only a minor part of the platform is “‘formed of coral growth.”’ 8. The opinions of Stanley Gardiner® are closely in accord with those of Semper, Murray, Wharton, and Agassiz. According to him sub- marine planation is effective to depths as great as 200 fathoms. 1 Guppy, H. B., The origin of coral reefs, pp. 60, 61. 2 Wharton, W. J. L., Foundations of coral atolls, Nature, vol. 55, pp. 390-393, 1897. 3 Agassiz, Alexander, The Coral reefs of the Tropical Pacific, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. ai, 1 vol. of text, 3 vols. of pls., 1903. 4 Andrews, E. C., Preliminary note on the geology of the Queensland coast with toferenices {to the geography of the Gnenncinnd and N.S. Wales Plateau, Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, pt. 2, pp. 146- 185, 1902. 5 Gardiner, J. Stanley, The formations of the Maldives, Geographical Journal, pp. 277-296, March, 1902; Fauna and geography of the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes, pp. 182, 183, 1901-3. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 245 9. Hedley and Griffith Taylor! accepted Andrews’s interpretations and clearly showed that coral reefs of either atoll or linear form that rise above shallow platforms owe their shapes to prevailing winds and currents. They say: This explanation differs from that of Sir J. Murray, who considers the atoll form to be assumed by abundant growth of well-fed corals on the margin and the solution of dead coral rockin the interior. But if solution be so destructive, how can a reef form at all?? 10. According to Daly* the depths in the drowned valleys within barrier reefs, in barrier-reef lagoons, and in atoll lagoons in the Pacific, are closely accordant and he attributes this accordance to Recent rise of sea level subsequent to deglaciation, whereby the depth of water in the Tropics was increased some 33 to 38 fathoms, thus submerging antecedent platforms of marine planation. That glaciation and deglaciation effect the development of living reefs did not originate with Daly, but it is principally he who has elaborated the hypothesis. He gives in his papers an account of the earlier suggestions. 11. Wood Jones‘ considered sedimentation the critical factor in coral-reef theory, as corals grow only where there is comparatively little deposition of sediment. He accepts the conclusions of Hedley and Griffith Taylor on the importance of winds and currents in shap- ing atolls, and especially attacks the hypothesis of ‘‘a deepening or widening of the lagoon by a process of ‘solution’.”’ Although the results of my own investigations will be biabordted on subsequent pages, the following summary statement may here be made: I have greatly multiplied the evidence in favor of Recent submergence in the coral-reef areas in the western Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea, and have shown that the living off- shore reefs in those areas formed either during or after submergence and are growing on submerged basement platforms where conditions are favorable for the life of reef-forming corals. The platforms are continuous beyond the limits of the reefs and their existence is in no wise dependent upon the presence of reefs. T have also shown that the great Florida Plateau has existed as a plateau since at least late Eocene time; and that some of the West Indian platforms are about as old. As these plateaus existed previous to Pleistocene time they could not have been formed by marine plana- tion during Pleistocene glaciation. Whatever be the cause of shift in position of strand line, off-shore reefs form on shallow submarine flats during or after rise in sea level, provided the rate of movement be not too rapid. This explanation applies to the fossil reefs of 1 Hedley, C., and Taylor, T. Griffith, Coral reefs of the Great Barrier, Queensland, Australasian Assoc. Adv. Sci., Adelaide Meeting, pp. 397-413, 1907. 2 Idem., p. 407. 3 Daly, R. A., Pleistocene glaciation and the coral-reef problem, Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 30, pp. 297-308, 1910; The Glacial-control theory of coral reefs, Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. 51, pp. 157-248, 1915. 4 Jones, F. Wood, Corals and Atolls, London, 1910. 246 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Florida and the West Indies as well as to the.reefs living to-day. I have pointed out that there are in the Virgin and northern Leeward Islands and off the shores of Central America certain submarine terrace flats, one at a depth of about 17 to 20 fathoms, another at a depth of about 26 to 30 fathoms, the deeper flat being separated from the shallower by an escarpment. These relations accord with the demands of the Glacial-control theory as expounded by Daly. TEsts OF CORAL-REEF Hesone Sn. The tests of the theories comprise ascertaining the answers to the following questions: 1. Were the important coral reefs of the world formed during or after the submergence of their basements, either by a sinking of the land or by a rise of ocean level due to some world-wide cause ? 2. What is the réle of corals as constructional geologic agents } What percentage of the sediments around coral reefs is composed of corals, and is the flat area between a barrier reef and the shore due to infilling behind the reef or was there a shallow marginal flat before the reef formed ? 3. Can a lagoon channel behind a barrier reef or the lagoon within an atoll rim be formed by submarine solution by sea water or by submarine scour ? 4, What and how much effect have wind-induced and other cur- rents in shaping coral reefs ? 5. What effect have glaciation and deglaciation had on the development of living coral reefs ? Before considering the fossil and living coral reefs of the West Indies in their bearing on the answers to these questions, some of the more important criteria to be used in answering the questions will be briefly outlined. CRITERIA FOR RECOGNIZING SHIFT IN THE POSITION OF STRAND LINE." 2.3 The criteria for recognizing elevation of a former strand line comprise: (a) Coastal terraces bordered inland by escarpments or cliffs that may be inferred to owe their origin to wave cutting; (b) wave-cut grooves in cliffs and sea caves that stand too high to have been formed at present sea level; (c) elevated beaches or bars, which under proper conditions form on shallow marine terraces and at the mouths of embayments; (d) the presence above sea level of organisms that must have lived in the ocean, The criteria for recognizing submergence of former strand lines comprise: (a) Indentation of the coast line caused by the sea invad- ing the lower parts of subaerially eroded valleys, the channels of which in many instances are preserved below sea level across and beyond the existing strand line; (6) the presence below sea level: of GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 247 submarine flats separated by relatively steep slopes or escarpments, that are due either to marginal wave cutting by the sea or are due to the formation of a subaqueous profile above a previous profile; (c) the presence, especially in limestones, below sea level, of solution wells, pits, and caverns that inferentially were formed subaerially by the solvent action of fresh water; (d) the presence inland of free openings that connect with the sea, showing that there are underground channels by which ground water formerly flowed to the sea; (e) the presence of submerged peat bogs or swamp deposits composed of plants that grow only at or above sea level; (f) the presence below sea level of indurated limestone, the induration of which is due to solution of some of the original material and subsequent redeposi- tion? (g) erosion unconformities at the bases of marine formations, showing that there was subaerial erosion of the basement previous to the submergence during which the formation was deposited or accumulated in the sea. The foregoing statements might be elaborated, but to do so seems unnecessary. The criteria enumerated are those I have actually used in my own work. Besides ascertaining the proper succession of changes in the posi- tion of strand line, it is essential that the amount of the oscillations be measured, that differential crustal movements be noted and dated, and that an estimate be made of the endurance of the strand line in its relation to present sea level. CRITERIA FOR MEASURING THE AMOUNT OF VERTICAL SHIFT IN STRAND LINE, AND FOR DETERMINING THE RELATIVE AGES OF TERRACES AND THE PHYSIO- GRAPHIC STAGE ATTAINED BY A SHORE LINE. The criteria for estimating the exact amount of rise or fallof sealevel are not yet definite, because adequate study has not been made of the factors that determine effective wave base and of the depth to which effective wave cutting extends. Notwithstanding this inade- quacy of precise information, an approximation of the amount of change may be made. In the case of elevation, the base of a wave- cut escarpment or cliff, the flats of marine terraces, and wave-cut grooves on sea clifis, may be assumed to represent approximately former sea level. Approximate measures of the amount of sub- sidence may be based upon the depth of drowned valleys, the depth below sea level of the bottoms of submerged solution wells and 1 For discussions of this subject see as follows: Barrell, Joseph, Factors in movement of the strand line, Washington Acad. Sci. J ourn., vol. 12, pp. 413- 420, 1915; Factors in movements of the strand line and their results in the Pleistocene and Post-Pleisto- cene, Amer. Journ. Sci.,ser. 4, vol. 40, pp. 1-22, 1915. Vaughan, T. W., Some littoral and sublittoral physiographic features of the Virgin and northern Lee- ward Islands and theirbearing on the coralreef problem, Washington Acad. Sci. J ourn., vol. 6, pp. 53-66, 1916. 2? The fundamental principle of this criterion is discussed on p. 250, under the caption “Solubility of cal- cium carbonate in sea water.” 37149—19—Bull. 103——_5 248 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. caverns, and the depth to which peat or swamp deposits that were formed at or above sea level are submerged. Where there are recog- nizable submerged wave-cut scarps, the depth of the base of the scarp below sea level is nearly a measure of the amount of sub- mergence; the depth in the West Indies in some instances probably exceeds the amount of submergence by about 6 fathoms. In the case of islands that rise from a common platform and which biologic and other data show were once parts of one land mass, the depth of water on the common platform may be assumed to be an approxi- mate measure of the amount of the rise of sea level with reference to those islands. The criteria for determining the relative ages of elevated terraces with reference to each other and for determining the amount of deformation to which they have been subjected are as follows: (a) Relative height; (6) relative amount of dissection; (c) relative degree of inclination and direction of the slope of the terrace flats; (d) pres- ence or absence of a succession of higher and lower terrace flats on promontory tips and in places protected from vigorous marine cut- ting; (e) stratigraphic relations of terrace deposits. Estimates of the endurance of the present relation of sea level to strand line are based upon recognizing the stage of physiographic development of the shore line. Among the important features to be observed are the presence or absence and the character of sea cliffs bordering the shore; the amount of delta and alluvial plain building at the mouths of stream ways; the character of beaches, bars, and spits; the nature and extent of the alluvial deposits back from the shore; the profiles of valley sides; and the axial profiles of the streams. CRITERIA FOR ASCERTAINING THE ROLE OF CORALS AS CONSTRUCTIONAL AGENTS. The failure correctly to evaluate corals as geologic agents has been a defect of nearly all investigations of the so-called coral-reef prob- lem; in fact, usually no attempt has been made to make such an evaluation. This evaluation may be made in several ways, which are as follows: (a) In studying fossil reefs exposed to view, the relative proportion of coral to other constituents of the rock should be estimated; (6) in studying marine bottom samples, percentage estimates of the proportion of the different ingredients should be made; (c) for submerged platforms on which reefs grow, the area of the reefs should be compared with the total area of the platform, an effort should be made to ascertain the nature of the rock under- lying the sea floor between the reef and the shore, and the continuity in outline of the platform should be compared with the extent and position of the reefs; (@) knowledge of the growth rate of corals, GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 249 when the relative frequency of specimens is known, permits an estimate of the rate of their constructional work. This subject as a part of the problem of the formation of coral reefs possesses an importance that can scarcely be overestimated, for it comprises critical tests of both the Darwinian and the glacial-control hypotheses. The topics in the foregoing list will be discussed seriatim. (a) Estimate of the relative quantity of coral to other constituents in emerged formations containing reefs, if they have not been exten- sively recrystallized, is relatively simple, although great precision in quantitative expression is not to be expected. This topic will be further considered in discussing the Caribbean, Floridian, and Baha- man fossil reefs. (6) Percentage estimates of material according to source are difficult, but the results are of great value. The technique of making such estimates is described in a memoir recently published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington.' (c) Here it should be emphasized that one of the postulates of the Darwinian hypothesis is that the prism of material included between three surfaces, namely, (1) the sea-bottom landward of the barrier, (2) asurface assumed as an extension of the land slope under sea until it intersects (3) a surface projected. downward from the landward face of the reef, is due to the presence of the reef (see figure 4, page 242). Proof that a barrier has formed during or after submergence does not carry with it proof that the prism of material above indi- cated is due to the presence of the reef. There are at least three criteria that can be applied in deciding whether or no the flat between the reef and the shore exists inde- pendently of the reef. They are as follows: (1) If the flat is de- pendent on the presence of the reef, where there are breaks in the barrier tongues of deep water should extend landward across the shallow bottom of the flat behind the reef; and where there is no reef there should be either a normal profile of equilibrium or an approach to such a profile, showing a deeper flat than that behind the reef, be- cause of the absence of an off-shore wall behind which sediment could accumulate; but if the flat is mdependent of the reef, in general it should be continuous irrespective of the presence of the reef and shouldin places extend beyond the reef limits. (2) If the formation of the flat is dependent on the presence of the reef, the reef should stand on the seaward edge of the flat, that is, the flat should not project seaward beyond the reef. (3) It is often possible to discover the nature of the rock forming the sea floor between a barrier and the 1 Vaughan, T. W., in collaboration with Cushman, J. A., Goldman, M. I., Howe, M. A., and others, Some shoal-water bottom samples from Murray Island, Australia, and comparisons of them with samples from Florida and the Bahamas, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 213, pp. 235-297, pls. 94-98, 1918. See especially the article by M. I. Goldman, Composition of two Murray Island samples according to source of material, pp. 249-262. 250 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. shore. Such a floor if formed by agencies associated with the pres- ence of the reef will not be composed of rock demonstrably older than the reef, and will not exhibit geologic phénomena that in age clearly antedate the reef; but if it can be shown that the rock of the floor is older than the reef and that the floor has had a geologic his- tory antecedent to the formation of the reef, it is demonstrated that the reef is merely growing on the surface of a flat whose formation is entirely independent of the reef development. (d@) The growth rate of corals, which furnishes one of the checks to be applied to the Glacial-control hypothesis of the formation of living reefs, is further considered on pages 253, 254. SOLUBILITY OF CALCIUM CARBONATE IN SEA WATER. As the formation of lagoon channels behind barrier reefs and of atoll lagoons by the solvent action of carbon dioxide (CO,) dissolved in sea water is a part of the coral-reef hypotheses of Semper, Murray, A. Aggassiz, and Gardiner, if lagoons and lagoon channels have been formed in the way indicated, in the Tropics the surface waters of the ocean should contain an excess of carbon dioxide (CO,) and should exercise a demonstrable solvent effect on calcium carbonate (CaCO,). If it should be found that there is no excess of carbon dioxide (CO,) in such water and that the water is saturated with reference to calcium carbonate (CaCO,), the hypothesis of the forma- tion of lagoons and lagoon channels in the manner postulated by Murray and others must be definitely abandoned. In 1913, Mr. R. B. Dole undertook at Tortugas, Florida, certain examinations that were intended to solve this problem, if possible. In 1914 I summarized in the following words the results I had ob- tained from a study of the bottom samples along the Florida reef tract, those of Drew on dentrifying bacteria, and those of Dole on the chemistry of the waters.’ There are two rival hypotheses for the formation of atolls: One of these attributes them to the submarine solution of the interior of a mass of limestone, the other ac- counts for them by constructional agencies. In order thoroughly to test the solution hypothesis the results of four lines of investigation were brought to bear upon it, and all are accordant. (1) All the bays, sounds, and lagoons within the Florida reef and key region are filling with sediment; (2) Drew’s investigations of dentrifying bacteria show that chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate is taking place in the lagoons; (3) the chemical examination by R. B. Dole of samples of sea water flowing into and out of Tortugas lagoon, collected twice daily for a lunar period, show that although both carbonate and bicarbonate radicles are in solution uncombined carbon dioxide is not present, and that the water possesses no capacity for further solution of calcium carbonate by virtue of its content of free carbon dioxide; (4) the determinations by Dole of the salinity of the water within the Tortugas lagoon and at the southern end of Biscayne Bay show a higher concentration than that in the open sea water on the outside, indicating that tidal inflow and outflow are not suffi- cient completely to mix the water in the lagoons with the water of the surrounding 1 Wash, Acad. Sci. Journ., vol. 4, pp. 27-28, Jan. 19, 1914. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. Biya sea and that concentration by evaporation is taking place. As the results of these lines of inquiry are so positive, the formation of lagoons by submarine solution may be definitely eliminated from consideration. Since the publication of this statement other investigators have made important contributions to this subject, noteworthy among whom are John Johnston, H. E. Merwin, and E. D. Williamson, of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington, and Roger C. Wells, of the United States Geological Survey. Wells says: 1 In other words, sea water [irom the Florida reef] appears to contain so much car- bonate that in contact with the atmosphere at 1° C. it neither has nor acquires an appreciable solvent action on calcite. As I have considered the subject in detail in my paper on the Murray Island bottom-samples? and in a paper on ‘‘Chemical and organic deposits of the sea’’* I will merely say that sea water in shoal-water areas within the Tropics can not dissolve calcium car- bonate, and that lagoon channels and atoll lagoons are not formed by solution, but are flattish areas more or less completely inclosed by built-up walls. As lagoons are areas of sedimentation and not of removal of material, their formation by submarine scour may also be discarded. EFFECTS OF WIND-INDUCED AND OTHER CURRENTS IN SHAPING CORAL REEFS. This is an old topic; in fact, considerable bibliographic work would be needed to ascertain the names of all the investigators who have contributed to it and who deserve mention. That Darwin at least had an adumbration of the importance of these agents is indi- cated by his statement regarding Keeling atoll: ‘ That they [the waves] beat against it in the same peculiar manner in which the swell from windward now obliquely curls round the margin of the reef, was evident from the conglomerate having been worn in to a point projecting from the beach in a similarly oblique manner. Among recent investigators Hedley and Griffith Taylor, as noted on page 245, Wood Jones,® and I, in a number of my papers, two of which are cited below,® have devoted attention to this subject. During the field season of 1914 I had numbers of Ekman meter current-measurements made around Tortugas and at other places along the Florida reef tract. The measurements to a certain degree 1 Wells, R. C., The solubility of calcite in sea water in contact with the atmosphere, and its variation with temperature, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 213, pp. 316-318, 1918. 2 Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 213, pp. 265-268, 1917. — 3 Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., vol. 28, pp. 933-944, 1918. 4 Structure and distribution of coral reefs, ed. 3, p. 22, 1889. 5 Coral and atolls, pp. 253-261, 1910. 6 The building of the Marquesas and Tortugas atolls and a sketch of the geologic history of the Florida reef tract, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 182, pp. 55-67, 1914; Sketch of geologic history of the Florida coral - reef tract and comparisons with other coral-reef areas, Washington Acad. Sci. Journ., vol. 4, pp. 26-34, 1914, 252 | BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. give quantatively the relations of currents to land forms, and com- pletely confirm the more qualitative generalizations of Hedley and Griffith Taylor, which in brief are the axis of elongation of linear reefs is parallel to the direction of the dominant current while the bow of a crescentic reef is directed toward the direction whence the dominant current comes. These relations of reef form to current direction are most striking where the reefs rise above comparatively shallow plat- forms, as along the Great Barrier reef of Australia and along the Viorida Keys. In atolls that more or less encircle the flat tops of submarine peaks, although currents are undeniably important in shaping sections of the reefs, they are not of so great importance as reefs that rise above shallow, long, wide platforms. CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING THE EFFECT OF GLACIATION AND DEGLACIATION ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIVING REEFS. Daly’s elaborate paper on the Glacial-control theory of coral reefs has been cited on page 245. If the Glacial-control theory is true the following conditions should prevail: (a) There should be evidence of geologically Recent submergence of most of the shore-lines of the earth; (6) the average amount of submergence should be equal to the amount of lowering of the ocean-level during Pleistocene glaciation; (c) the position of the strand line during Pleistocene glaciation should be indicated by scarps separating flats, and the amount of sub- mergence indicated by their present position below sea level should agree with the amount of raising ocean level due to deglaciation; (d) rate of growth corals should be such that since the disappearance of the continental ice sheets coral reefs could grow to a thickness equal to the amount sea level was faised as a result of the deglaciation; - (e) living barrier coral reefs and atoll reefs should be superposed on antecedent basement flats or platforms. It should here be stated that the fact that there has been local differential crustal movements does not at all invalidate the importance of the Glacial-control theory in its application to the explanation of the modern coral-reef develop- ment. Of the criteria stated in the foregoing list only the amount of vertical change in the position of sea level because of glaciation and deglaciation, the length of time since the disappearance of the great continental glaciers, and the rate of growth of corals need discussion at this place. After their consideration some attention will be given to other criteria of less determined value. AMOUNT OF VERTICAL DISPLACEMENT OF STRAND LINE BY GLACIATION AND DEGLACIATION. It is entirely obvious that the withdrawal of water from the ocean to form the Pleistocene continental glaciers would lower sea level, and that the return of the waters so locked up to the ocean upon the melting of the continental glaciers would raise sea level back to where GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 253 it stood previous to the formation of the continental glaciers, unless crustal changes in the earth counterbalanced the effects of such with- drawal and return of oceanic water. Reference here will be made to only the two latest computations. W. J. Humphreys, as part of a symposium before the Geological Society of Washington, on March 24, 1915, said:1 The fact that the average thickness of the ice cap during the last glaciation can be only roughly estimated renders any calculation of its effect on ocean level corre- spondingly doubtful. It does not seem probable, however, that they should have averaged much if any thicker than the present caps of Greenland and of Antarctica, which a number of good observers have estimated to be about 1,000 meters. Taking this value and assuming the deglaciated area to be equal to one-fifteenth the area of the océan, or, roughly, twice the glaciated area of North America, we estimate the change in sea level to have been about 67 meters. As already stated, this is only an estimated change, but perhaps it is a conservative estimate. Daly in his paper on the Glacial-control theory of coral reefs sum- marizes his discussion in the following words:? Combining results, it is seen that, at the time of maximum glaciation, the tropical seas probably had an average level which was 60 to 70 meters (33 to 38 fathoms) lower than at the present time. The estimates of Humphreys and Daly are essentially the same. As maximum glaciation was probably not of long duration the greatest effect of submarine terracing would be expected in some- what shallower depths, probably between 20 and 30 fathoms. RATE OF GROWTH OF CORALS AND LENGTH OF POST-GLACIAL TIME. Recently I have published two summaries of the results of my experiments and observations on the growth rate of Floridian and Bahamian corals, and compared my results with those obtained by investigators in the Pacific? The following statements are taken from the second of the papers referred to in the footnote: As has been stated, the primary object of this investigation was to get an approxi- mate measure of the rate at which corals might build reefs. In order to make this estimate the true reef corals must be considered separately from those which live in other habitats. The reef species par excellence in the Recent and Pleistocene reefs of Florida and the West Indies is Orbicella annularis; after it in importance are Maean- dra strigosa, M. labyrinthiformis, and Siderastrea siderea. Other corals, the most impor- tant oi which is Porites astreoides, with Agaricia and Favia fragum of secondary _ importance, occur in the areas intermediate between the prominent heads. In some areas Acropora palmaia is the dominant species. The massive heads form the strong framework of the reef, with infilling by other corals and other organisms. Therefore the upward growth rate of Orbicella annularis on the reef is critical. * * * i Humphreys, W. J., Changes of sea level due to changes of ocean volume, Washington Acad. Sci. Journ., vol. 5, pp. 445-446, June 19, 1915. 2 Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. Proc., vol. 51, p. 174. 3 Vaughan, T. W., Geologic significance of the growth-rate of the Floridian and Bahaman shoal-water corals, Washington Acad. Sci. Journ., vol. 5, pp. 591-600, 1915; Growth rate of the Floridian and Bahaman shoal-water corals, im On Recent Madreporaria of Florida, the Bahamas, and the West Indies, etc., Carnegie Inst. Washington Yearbook No. 14, pp. 221-231, 1916. 254 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Using these figures [in the paper referred to] as the basis of a further computation, a reef by the continuous upward growth oi corals [Orbicella annularis] might attain at a rate of 6 mm. a year a thickness of 25 fathoms=150 feet in 7,620 years; and at a rate of 7 mm. a year it might attain the same thickness in 6,531 years. mn Should the growth rate of Acropora palmata be taken as a measure, the time to accumulate such a thickness would be considerably less. This species forms spread- ing, palmate fronds, rising from stout bases. As age advances the fronds thicken and can withstand the pounding of surf and breakers. The average upward growth is between 25 and 40 mm. per year, but as the interspaces between the fronds are con- siderable in volume, comparisons with Orbicella annularis must be based upon relative increases in weight fora known period. * * * These two estimates [as shown in the paper cited] give a measure of the limits of reef formation under continuously favorable conditions for upward growth. Such | corals as Orbicella annularis might form a reef 150 feet thick in between 6,500 years - and 7,600 years; while such corals as Acropora palmata might form a similar thickness in 1,800 years. * * * * * * * The data available for the Pacific corals are not so abundant as those for the Atlantic, nor have the records, with few exceptions, the same degree of precision. However, they are sufficient for some general comparisons. The general growth rate of branching corals is nearly the same for both regions; but the growth of the massive forms in the Pacific appears to be appreciably more rapid than that of similar forms in the Atlan- tic. Therefore it seems probable that in the coral reef regions of the Pacific and Indian oceans a reef 150 feet thick may form under favorable conditions in less than 6,000 years. According to Gardiner such a reef might form in 1,000 years. As the disappearance of the last continental ice sheets is estimated to have been between 10,000 years ago in Scandinavia and Alaska and 40,000 years ago at Niagara, the data presented show that there has been ample time for the development of any known. living reef since deglaciation. EFFECT OF LOWERING OF MARINE TEMPERATURE ON REEF CORALS DURING GLACIATION. Daly in his paper on the Glacial-control theory devotes much atten- tion to the probable extinction of reef corals over large areas and their restriction to only the hotter parts of the ocean during glacia- tion. Daly’s discussion of this subject is interesting and suggestive, but not really convincing. It is one on which far more research is needed. I rather hope that the data I have recently presented in my paper on the temperature of the Florida coral-reef tract? will aid in furnishing a basis for such a computation. That there was a lowering of the vitality of corals over large areas marginal to tropics can scarcely be doubted, but that reef corals thrived throughout Pleistocene time appears more than merely probable. In this connection this following list of corals from the elevated reefs of Barbados is pertinent. Professor Jukes-Browne sent the collection to me after Prof. J.W. Gregory had published his paper on the Bar- badian elevated-reef corals,? making the statement that great care had been taken in determining the height above sea level at which 1 Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. Proc., vol. 51, pp. 166-171. 2 Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 213, pp. 319-339, 1918. 3 Gregory, J. W., Contributions to the paleontology and physical geography of the West Indies, Geol. Soc. London Journ, -, Vol. 51, pp. 255-310, pl. 11, 1895. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 255 each lot was obtained. The collection is now the property of the United States National Museum. Corals from the elevated reefs of Barbados submitted by Prof. A. J. Jukes- Browne. Elevation 1,043 feet. Horse Hill, St. Joseph. Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander). Elevation 845 feet. Cutting side of road, Parris Hill, St. Joseph. Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander). Elevation 747 feet. Cutting side of road, Market Hill, St. George. Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander). Elevation 720 feet. Russia Gully, St. Thomas. Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander). Maeandra labyrinthiformis (Linnaeus). Elevation 707 feet. Haynesfield, St. John. . Stephanocoenia intersepta (Esper) Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander). Manicina gyrosa (Ellis and Solander). Elevation 700 feet. St. Johns Church, St. John. Maeandra strigosa (Dana). Elevation 480 feet. Locust Hall, St. George. Stephanocoenia intersepta (Esper). Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander). cavernosa (Linnaeus). Siderastrea siderea (Ellis and Solander). Elevation 362 feet. Ridge, Christ Church. Siderastrea siderea (Ellis and Solander). Elevation 360 feet. Small Ridge, Christ Church. Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander). Elevation 300 feet. Skeens Hill, near Lower Greys, Christ Church. Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Bolandery. Siderastrea siderea (Ellis and Solander). Elevation 300 feet. Dayrells Hill, St. Michael. Manicina gyrosa (Ellis and Solander). Elevation 180 feet. Codrington Quarry, St. Michael. Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander). Manicina gyrosa (Ellis and Solander). Elevation 160 feet. _ Cutting side of road, Charles Rose gully, St. George. Maeandra labyrinthiformis (Linnaeus). Elevation 100 feet. Chelston Quarry, St. Michael. Meandrina maeandrnites (Linnaeus). Manicina gyrosa (Ellis and Solander). Siderastrea siderea (Ellis and Solander). Acropora muricata (Linnaeus). 256 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Elevation 80 feet. Prospect, St. James. Stephanocoema intersepta (Esper). Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander). Maeandra labyrinthaformis (Linnaeus). Acropora muricata (Linnaeus) s. s. (as pebbles). Elevation 70 feet. Grazettes, St. Michael. Stephanocoenia intersepta (Esper). Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander). Maeandra labyrinthiforms (Linnaeus). Siderastrea siderea (Ellis and Solander). Elevation 40 feet. Sandy Lane, St. James. Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander). Maeandra labyrinthiforms (Linnaeus). Elevation 40 feet. Colleton, St. Lucy Parish. Maeandra strigosa (Dana). Elevation 20 feet. Black Rock. Acropora muricata (Linnaeus) s. s. Just how much of Pleistocene time is represented by this collection I can not say, but it is certainly a considerable part of it. Mr. O. E. Meinzer, in the vicinity of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, ob- tained living species of reef corals on Pleistocene terraces between 400 and 500 feet, at 275 feet, 200 feet, 125 feet, and 50 feet above sea level. It is unfortunate that Daly should have attempted to account for the disappearance in the West Indies of so large a percentage of genera that now persist in the Indo-Pacific by appeal to the lowering of the temperature in the western Atlantic Ocean through Pleistocene glaci- ation. In a recently published paper’, as well as the present one, I have shown that the genera had disappeared previous to Pliocene time. It is at present my opinion that not enough is known regarding the effect of lowering of marine temperature during glaciation to serve as a basis for very strong arguments for or against the validity of the Glacial-control hypothesis. VALLEY-IN-VALLEY ARRANGEMENT AND CLIFFED SPURS, Professor Davis says in his Shaler Memorial study of coral reets: Furthermore, if the embayments of a central island within a barrier reef result from the drowning of valleys that were eroded with respect to lowered sea level of arelatively short glacial period, then each valley must be entrenched in the floor of a preglacial valley; and above the head of each embayment resulting from the drowning of a new-cut valley, there should be a ‘‘valley-in-valley” landscape, unless the pre- glacial valley was so young and narrow that its sides were undercut and destroyed by the deepening and widening of the glacial valley.” 1 Vaughan, T. W., The reef-coral fauna of Carrizo Creek, Imperial County, California, and its significance, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 98-T, p. 366, 1917. 2 Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 35, p. 240, 1915 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 257 The character of the entrenching within an established valley after lowering of sea level will depend upon the off shore slope of the sea bottom previous to the lowering of sea level. As any acceleration of headward erosion by a stream depends upon increase in steepness of the longitudinal profile of the stream bed, unless the gradient of the lower course of the stream is considerably increased there will be no visible valley-in-valley landscape after submergence following deglaciation. Subsequently I will show that in the West Indies there is abundant evidence of another kind that during Pleistocene time sea level was lowered, and that at the close of Pleistocene time it was raised. Valley-in-valley arangement is a criterion of very doubtful value. Professor Davis also insists that if the Glacial-control hypothesis is correct, the spurs of islands within barrier reefs should be cliffed— the cliffs cut during Pleistocene glaciation. As promulgated in print by Professor Davis, I doubt the validity of this criterion. Perhaps the following hypothetical explanation may apply in some instances: ' Around volcanic islands, the centers of which are far enough from the shore for the surface profile of the ejecta to have assumed the theoretic catenary curve, marine planation may proceed without at first cutting pronounced cliffs. If the material on the higher slopes is not greatly consolidated, alluviation and surface creep may deliver detritus more rapidly than the sea can remove it by marginal cutting and by undertow and. other transporting agents. The seamay thus be held back from the interiorly situated harder volcanic rocks and the development of well-marked sea cliffs may thereby be prevented while the sea bottom would be aggraded near shore and a submarine flat produced. Should sea level then fall so that the shore line would shift to the outer edge of the previously formed flat, erosional processes might obliterate the low scarp carved into unconsolidated colluvial and alluvial material. Under such circumstances, should the sea- bottom gradient be less than that of the stream profiles, the lowering of sea level would not lead to the development of valleys-within- valleys, and alluvial plains might be pushed forward beyond the ends of the interstream spurs. Should sea level rise back to its former stand reef corals might establish themselves on the submerged flat at any place where the proper ecologic conditions might be found and develop into a barrier reef, off a land area on which there would be no valley-in-valley arrangement of stream courses and along whose shores there would be no cliffed spurs. This is an hypothetical in- stance, but that it is possible is apparently shown by the island of St. Christopher, West Indies, where such an arrangement of central volcanic mountains and relatively flat areas underlain by volcanic ejecta and colluvial and alluvial material intervene between them 258 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. and the shore. In other volcanic islands the sea may not be held ~ back from the harder rocks and may cliff them. There are numbers of possibilities which deserve consideration, but the actual explanation of how present conditions were brought about ~ ‘is possible only through detailed field work in each area. Some other kinds of shore lines may be mentioned. It is well known that one of the important factors in determming the amount _ of cliffing and the character of the cliffing of some shores is geologic structure. In an uplifted island composed of bedded sediments which have been moderately tilted the highest cliffs will be on the up-dip side along the line of the strike; the cliffs will decrease in height from the up-dip exposure along the line of the dip, and on the side of the island where the rocks pass beneath sea level there may be almost no cliffs. These relations are well illustrated im Anguilla and other islands in the West Indies. After such an earth block has been outlined there may be oscillation of strand line without further local crustal deformation. i The island of St. Croix is interesting in this connection. Just south of its north shore, which is determined by a fault, are maturely dissected mountains which attain an altitude of about 1,000 feet. Off the south foot of the highland is a sloping, slightly undulating ~ plain, underlain by limestone, which extends to the south coast, (See-pl. 70, fig.D). If this island were submerged 120 feet the lime- stone plain would form a submarine flat from one to about three sea-miles wide. Corals might grow on such a flat and form a barrier reef inside which there would be no strongly cliffed spurs along the shore, while the mountains would be in a stage of mature dissection. AMERICAN TERTIARY AND PLEISTOCENE REEF CORALS AND Coral REEFS. Most investigators of the genesis of coral reefs have considered only the modern; but the ancient, or fossil, reefs in many instances afford better opportunities than the living reefs to determine the geologic character of the basement on which the reefs have been built, the change in the relation between the reef basement and sea level, and the importance of corals as constructional agents. The southeastern United States and near-by West Indian Islands furnish numerous examples of both ancient and modern coral reefs, and these have been the subject of investigation for many years. The location of the Tertiary fossil reefs in the southeastern United States, their associated faunas, the inclosing sediments, including in most instances both the overlying and underlying strata, the stratigraphic relations of the successive geologic formations, the geologic structure, and the geologic history, have been ascertained with a fair degree of accuracy. The coralliferous beds range in age from the base of the Eocene to Recent, and the coral fauna of each geologic formation is GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 259 known with approximate completeness. The total coral faunas have yielded some hundreds of species. EOCENE REEF CORALS OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. The corals obtained from the St. Bartholomew limestone are listed on page 194. Although there are many specimens and species of reef facies, they scarcely form a reef properly speaking. However, the Stratigraphic relations are interesting. The best collecting ground is on the northeast face of the northwestward projecting limb of the island, between Anse Lézard at the northwest and Jean Bay at the southeast. Anse Ecaille lies between the two bays mentioned. Cleve’s ' account of the geologic succession is correct, perhaps with some modification of his dates of a part of the igneous rocks. The base of the section is composed of volcanic agglomerate, above which there is interbedded agglomerate or sandstone, conglomerate composed of volcanic material, and limestone, succeeded by mas- sive, hard, blue limestone. Most of the corals occur in the !ower part of the sedimentary formation, in the limestone or in the softer, more rapidly weathering layers of calcareous sandstone, in which there is rehandled volcanic material. In conglomerate at the base of one exposure I observed boulders of volcanic material as much as 8 inches in diameter. Although, as Cleve stated, there is some interbedding of the limestone and agglomerate in the lower part of the sediments the upper formation rests unconformably on the lower. The gradation upward into purer, more massive limestone has been mentioned. The presence in the higher limestone of a few corals of the same species as those in the lower beds and the abundance of calcareous algae in some places, indicate a shoal-water deposit; 'and, as the area of the deposit is relatively extensive, the evidence is in favor of its having been laid down on a submerged flat. The Jamaican Eocene corals are shoal-water forms but they are really not of reef facies. WEST INDIAN MIDDLE OLIGOCENE REEFS. ANTIGUA. That the bedded volcanic tuffs underlying most of the Central Plain of Antigua dip under the Antigua formation toward the north- east is indicated by the general structure of the island, and is con- firmed by a well record, kindly furnished me by Dr. H. A. Tempany, government chemist of the Leeward Islands. The record mentioned is of a well bored on Fitches Creek, half a mile northeast of the south- west boundary of the limestone. Compact, noncalcareous rock was struck below the limestone. In the Central Plain patches of 1 Cleve, P. T., On the geology of the northeastern West India Islands. K. svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. vol. 9, No. 12, pp. 24-27, 1872. 260 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. gravel and cobbles overlie the surface of the bedded tuffs at a number of places, two of which are Casada Gardens and Gunthorpe sugar- factory. At Morris Looby Hill, near the head of Willoughby Bay, conglomerate immediately underlies the limestone; and the basal contact of the formation is also exposed on the north side of Wil- loughby Bay, where it is underlain by conglomerate, mostly composed of basic voleanic material. The main reef occurs within the Antigua formation at or near its base and is exposed along a southwest- northeast line from Willoughby Bay to near Wetherell Pomt. The Antigua reef therefore grew upon a basement that had been sub- aerially eroded and was later depressed below sea level. The reef and the limestone of which the reef forms a part were formed during or after the submergence of their basement. Associated with the corals are many specimens of several species of Lepidocyclina, which are organisms characteristic of shallow, tropical water. The areal extent of these sediments, coupled with the fact that the deformation of the water-bedded tuffs that lie below the Antigua formation is not * much greater than that of the Antigua formation, indicates that — they were deposited on a submarine flat. In the northeastern part of the island both the tuffs and the limestone, according to J. W. Spencer, dip northeastward at a rate of 12° to 20°.1. My own meas- urements show dips of about 20° toward the north or northeast for the volcanic tuffs and dips between 10° and 15° in amount, and rang- ing from N. 60° E. to N. 70° E. in direction, for the Antigua formation. The rocks are more disturbed in the Central Plain, where the dips of the volcanic tufis were measured. Therefore, according to the available evidence the Antigua formation was a relatively extensive formation deposited in shoal water on a flattish floor. The main reef-coral bed is about 60 feet thick and is near the bottom of the formation. Above it corals are scarcer, but appear ~ to be too sparingly distributed throughout a thickness of about 300 feet of limestone above their profuse development nearer the base, or the Antigua formation seems to have a total thickness of a little more than 350 feet. PORTO RICO. The middle Oligocene coral fauna, as has been stated on page 204, occurs in the geologic formation to which Hill applied the name Pepino. This is a hard, calcareous marl, full of coral heads, with occasional indurated strata of white porous limestone. It is well exposed north and northwest of Lares in the Pepino Hills, whence the name for the formation is derived and where the collection of corals submitted to me by Mr. Hill was obtained.? This is the for- 1 Spencer, J. W., On the geological and physical development of Antigua, Geol. Soc. london Quart. Journ., vol. 57, pp. 494, 496, 1901. 2 Hill, R. T., Notes on the forest ecnditions of Porto Rico, U S&S. Department oi Agricuiture, Div. of Forestry Bull. No. 25, pp. 14, 15, 1899. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 261 mation to which C. P. Berkey later applied the name Arecibo forma- tion.t I have no field acquaintance with the formation but from some notes on it made by Cleve, before 1t had been named, from the descriptions of Hill and Berkey, and from some of the corals collected by members of the New York Academy Porto Rican investigations, I am inclined to the opinion, that there is not a ‘‘formation” but a group of formations of similar lithology, for the ‘‘formation” contains both middle Oligocene (Antiguan) and upper Oligocene (Anguillan) fossils, and probably also some Miocene species. Ultimately the “formation,” as Berkey also has suggested, will probably be split into several formations; it seems to me that there will be at least three and perhaps more. Only the stratigraphic relations of the base of the formation particularly need consideration here. These rela- tions are those of unconformity according to Berkey, who says:? Above it [the Arecibo formation] in all cases lie the recent alluvial deposits and the San Juan formation, and below it lie the older and more complicated igneous and sedimentary rocks. The break between these two represents the chief unconformity in the whole geological column. An excellent illustration of the te neoteaity below the ‘‘Arecibo”’ is given on page 16, figure 3, of Berkey’s paper. Berkey says in Hie summary of the geologic history of the island: Where more simple marine conditions came into control, as would happen when submergence or planation had masked or destroyed the more elevated source of sup- ply, the deposits became almost wholly reef limestones and shell limestones, with only minor amounts of strictly detrital material irregularly distributed. The middle Oligocene reef-coral development of Porto Rico, there- fore, took place after its basement had been subaerially eroded and then depressed belowsea level, and it seems that the basement prior to its submergence had been almost reduced to a peneplain surface. CUBA. Reef corals of middle Oligocene age were first collected in Cuba, on Rio Canapu, by Arthur C. Spencer, who obtained three species, all of which also occur in Antigua; but the only at all extensive col- lection is from the vicinity of Guantanamo, and was made by O. E. Meinzer, who studied in detail the stratigraphic relations of the coral- liferous formation. I am taking the following note from a manu- script by Mr. Meinzer, now awaiting publication. That there is a pronounced unconformity is indicated by a conglomerate at the base of the formation. Previous to the submergence, during which the coral reefs were formed, there was a long period of subaerial erosion, but geologic investigations have not been prosecuted over large 1 Berkey, C. P., Geological reconnaissance of Porto Rives New York Acad. Sci. Ann., vol. 26, pp. 12-17, 1915. 2Tdem. p. 3. 3Idem. p. 59. 262 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. enough areas in Cuba to draw inferences as to the physiographic features of the land surface resulting from the erosional activities. WEST INDIAN AND PANAMANIAN UPPER OLIGOCENE REEFS.. ‘ ANGUILLA. * Basic igneous rock above which in places there is some sandstone is exposed below the coralliferous limestone at Crocus Bay and Road Bay. The contact is very clearly one of erosion unconformity. The following is a composite of the sections exposed at Crocus Bay: Geologic section at Crocus Bay, Anguilla. 3. Hard cavernous limestone, with few or no corals.........--....--.-.----- 60 feet. 2. More or less argillaceous limestone with some beds of harder, purer lime- stone; contains fossil corals from bottom to top, some coral heads as much as 2 feet in diameter; this member subdivisible into subordinate beds F510) 11 RAD ROL pA AR AER MUL Nia ya Ne RE MMR Mi aoe 200 feet. 1. Yellowish and brownish clay underlain by dark blue-black clay, or sand- stone and conglomerate of igneous material overlying basic igneous rock (exposed at Pelican Porat) si is toe Se ol cei cae rte ye nD 5 feet+. The exposure at Road Bay is essentially the same as that at Crocus Bay. — ; The Anguillan reef was evidently formed during submergence after the subaerial erosion of its basement. It should be emphasized that the richly coralliferous limestone is overlain by more massive, harder, limestone in which there are few or no corals; and that the areal extent of the shoal-water limestone indicates a submarine flat. CANAL ZONE. The Emperador limestone, according to Doctor MacDonald, les unconformably on several of the beds belonging to the underlying Culebra formation, and supplies another instance of a fossil coral reef with an unconformable basal contact. ‘ The stratigraphic relations of the important West Indian and Canal Zone reef corals and coral reefs are summarized in the followmg table: Stratigraphic relations of West Indian and Canal Zone Eocene and Oligocene reef corals and coral reefs. Surface of base Age. Locality. Basal contact. Overlying rock. | qigeee > \ Uneontogmanlel om) iia eevee eee See Up | uae canes veges es ataane ene yee pee ahion. Are Yale ieee i A ‘ nconformable on imestone withou ubmerged flat. Upper Oligocene. ...|) Anguilla........... | igneousrock oron | or with few corals. sandstone and con- glomerate. ssa nears le Save Be . . ; orto Rico (Pepino |..... OUR ARES a Ak a Nan OS AOR 0. Middle Oligocene:... formation). Cuba (Guantanamo). ...- GO anos Be LEA ev AP GL REALE a aS Not known. Upper Eocene.......| St. Bartholomew...|.-..- Gone yeas Limestone without | Submerged flat. or with few corals. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 263 All of the fossil reefs discussed in the foregoing remarks were formed during periods of subsidence that followed subaerial erosion of their basements. The basal contacts might be interpreted as supporting Darwin’s hypothesis, but in four of the six instances the reefs are buried under later nearly pure limestones in which there are few or no corals. What caused the change in the character of the sediments, and coincidently led to the extermination of the reefs is not known; but the organisms in the overlying sediments indicate shallow, tropical waters, and as the geologic formations are areally extensive (relatively speaking), they were evidently formed on submarine flats. The corals began to grow on such flats and were ultimately killed. So long as the ecologic conditions were favorable, the corals flourished, but died when the conditions changed. The formation of the flats can scarcely be attributed to the corals. WEST INDIAN MIOCENE REEF CORALS. Meager developments of reef corals durmg the Miocene occur in Cuba and Santo Domingo, but at present no Miocene reefs are known unless the name reef be applied to the corals found in the La Cruz marl, eastward from La Cruz to the intersection of the railroad with the highway from Santiago to the Morro. The La Cruz marl is a bedded formation in which there are a few reef corals. The presence of pebbles in the basal part of the formation at the south end of Santiago Harbor suggests an erosion unconformity with some ake Tertiary formation. No Pliocene reef corals are at present known m the West ae The erroneous suggestion, that a coralliferous limestone exposed in a quarry on Calle Infanta, opposite Castillo de la Punta, Habana, might be Pliocene, has been corrected on page 224. This limestone seems to represent very nearly the same horizon in the Miocene as the Bowden marl of Jamaica; it may be stratigraphically somewhat higher. It contains some corals of reef facies but it can not appro- priately be called coral-reef rock. The stratigraphic relations of the base of the deposit are not known. WEST INDIAN PLEISTOCENE REEFS. The West Indian Pleistocene reefs, whose stratigraphic relations have been critically investigated and can be discussed here are those of Jamaica and Cuba. Mr. R. T. Hill has placed in my hands a manuscript describing the Pleistocene reefs of Barbados, and Doctor MacDonald will discuss those of Costa Rica and Panama in his memoir on the geology of the Canal Zone and adjacent areas. The basal contacts of the Jamaican Pleistocene reefs, as has been elaborately presented by R. T. Hill in his account of the Jamaican * 1 Hill, R. T., The geology and physical geography of Jamaica, Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 34, pp. 90-99, 37149—19—Bull. 1083——6 264 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. reefs, at least usually show unconformable relations. Although that Agassiz was aware of the unconformity at the base of the Cuban Pleistocene reefs can be inferred from his descriptions, he did not emphasize the stratigraphic relations; however, he does say regarding, the living Cuban reefs: ‘‘In Cuba they [the coral reefs] abut upon the Tertiary limestone of its shores.” I observed the unconformable relations at Baracoa, and stated that ‘‘Upper Oligocene yellowish calcareous marls or limestone are found in the vicinity of Nuevitas; also at Baracoa, where they immediately underlie the Pleistocene coastal soborruco.””+ On page 32 of the same report it is stated: ‘‘It should be added here that all of the elevated Pleistocene coral reefs as seen by us and all of those recorded by those whom we consider compe- tent observers, are plastered on the surface of the upper Oligocene [mostly Miocene] formations, or in some instances upon older geolo- gic formations.’ Unconformable relations between the elevated Pleistocene reefs and the underlying Miocene limestone or marl are observable at Matanzas, Habana, and Santiago. The rock in the left foreground (pl. 71, fig. A,) is the slightly elevated soborruco (coral-reef rock) that extends into the mouth of Santiago Harbor, clearly show- ing that the harbor was outlined as a drainage basm previous to the formation of the particular reef now under consideration. The bluff and slopes in the background and on the right side of the illustration are formed in the Santa Cruz marl. The known unconformable relation at the base of the Pleistocene elevated reefs was the basis of inferred ‘‘subsidence of 80 to 100 feet”’ during the Pleistocene; this subsidence was followed by elevation and channeling in the mouth of the harbor; and this was followed by Recent submergence.” I have recently prepared a revised account of the shore-line phenomena of Cuba, and present the followimg sum- mary for the vicinity of Habana: 1. Stand of land high enough for the subaerial erosion of the basement of a reef that seems to be about 30 feet above sea level at present, and for the outlining by erosion of Habana Harbor. 2. Submergence in Pleistocene time to a stand about 30 feet lower than at present. 3. Emergence in Pleistocene time sufficient to permit the cutting of a channel, now submerged 100 feet in Habana Harbor; the amount of this emergence would be about 100+ feet—130 feet. 4, Submergence, assigned to Recent time, to a depth of about 100 feet. 1 Hayes, C. W., Vaughan, T. W., and Spencer, A. C., A geological reconnaissance of Cuba, made under the direction of General Leonard Wood, Military Governor, p. 23. The upper Oligocene in this quotation is now considered Miocene. The italicized part of the sentence is in Roman letters in the original. 2Tdem., p. 34. GHOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 265 5. There may have been minor oscillations, for instance the 5-foot soborruco may represent slight elevation subsequent to the last submergence. Mr. O. E. Meinzer, in his manuscript, “Geologic reconnaissance of & region adjacent to Guantanamo, Cuba,” referred to on page 204, gives the following summary of events for the vicinity of Guantanamo: 1, (Previous to the formation of the terraces) “Krosion, resulting in the excavation of the principal valleys now in existence, some of them probably below present sea level. 2. Submergence sufficient in amount to bring the land at least 750 feet below the level of the present shore line. 3. Successive stages of emergence and perhaps slight tilting of the land, alternating with stages of quiescene, the emergence being about 850 feet in amount so that the land area stood about 100 fect higher than at present, thereby permitting stream erosion below the present sea level; during the stages of quiescence sea benches and cliffs were formed at different, successive stands of the land. 4. Submergence to the present level, resulting in the drowning of the lower parts of the stream valleys and in the production of innum- erable small estuaries, bays, and coves. 5. Filling of the submerged valleys and development of a new sea bench by destructive and constructive processes.’’ The reefs considered in this section are fringing reefs. They rest unconformably upon their basements, but were formed during pauses In emergence. TERTIARY AND PLEISTOCENE REEF CORALS AND CORAL REEFS OF THE UNITED STATES. SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. In the United States Tertiary reef corals first appear at the base of the Eocene in the Midway group in Alabama, but these are not sufficiently abundant to entitle the deposit to the designation “‘coral reef.’’ The oldest Tertiary coral reefs in this province are of middle Oligocene age, and have been studied at Salt Mountain, near J ackson, Alabama, and near Bainbridge, Georgia. The basal contact of the reef-at Salt Mountain is not exposed, and its nature is, therefore, unknown. The reef in the basal part of the Chattahoochee formation at Bainbridge, Georgia, rests on the surface of the upper Eocene Ocala limestone, which shows evidence of subaerial erosion, and is exposed from place to place along Flint River throughout a distance of 8 or 9 miles. It is relatively thin, perhaps only 10 to 15 feet. thick, and contains a fauna of about 30 species of corals, mingled with which are many specimens of Lithothamnion and large Lepidocyclina. The next younger development of reef corals is in the upper part of the Chattahoochee formation and its stratigraphic equivalent, 266 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. the ‘‘silex’”’ bed and limestone of the Tampa formation. Corals are sufficiently abundant to justify being designated ‘‘reefs” at several localities, the most important of which are 18 miles south of Talla- hassee, Florida, in several counties in southern Georgia, and at Tampa, Florida. Coralliferous limestone of the same or nearly the same age is exposed one-half mile south of River Junction, Florida, and at old Jacksonboro, Georgia. Well borings in Tampa show that beneath the coralliferous limestone is a variable thickness of clay which overlies the irregular surface of the Ocala limestone, indicating subaerial erosion, followed by submergence. The coralliferous beds are stratigraphically below the next younger set of deposits grouped under the Alum Bluff formation, indicating the continuation of sub- sidence after the formation of the reefs. The thickness of the reefs and coralliferous beds is not great, perhaps between 10 and 20 feet. The fauna comprises about 20 species of corals. Where not silicified and its character may be studied, the limestone associated with the corals is of complex origin. It is partly organic, probably in part a chemical precipitate, and contains terrigenous impurities. This indi- cates that the reefs and corals of this period grow during subsidence on a previously formed platform, but possess greater value for their aid in stratigraphic correlation than as constructional agents. The Alum Bluff formation, which, in my opinion, is of Miocene age, according to the usage adopted by the United States Geological Survey is subdivided into three members, which named from the bottom upward are the Chipola marl, Oak Grove sand, and Shoal River marl. The basal Chipola marl member was known only in an area extending from Alum Bluff on Apalachicola River westward to Chipola River until it was recently identified by Miss Julia Gard- ner from a collection made by Dr. EK. H. Sellards at Boynton Landing on Choctawhatchee River, in Washington County. The bed on Chipola River seems conformably to overlie the Chattahoochee forma- tion, it is conformably overlain by higher beds of the typical Alum Bluff formation, and is between 15 and 17 feet thick. Of the four or five species of corals found at this horizon, one is of reef facies, a massive species of Gonmopora. Subsidence was in progress while these coralliferous beds were being deposited. Before completing the discussion of the Alum Bluff formation cer- tain events antecedent to its deposition in central peninsular Florida should be stated. Previous to the deposition of Chattahoochee and Tampa sediments, the Ocala limestone was deformed with the pro- duction of a low, elongate dome, the axis of which extends from near Gainesville to near Ocala. On both the east coast and the west coast along an east-west line through Gainesville the surface fod GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 26% of the Ocala is below sea level and is overlain by younger forma- tions, while along the axis of the dome its surface rises from 80 to a little more than 100 feet above sea level. This low dome formed in the upper Oliogocene sea an island or a group of islands to which I have applied the name ‘Orange Island.” The Chattahoochee and Tampa formations were deposited on the western slope of this island but they are not known in central Florida. The subsidence which brought about the deposition of these two formations con- tinued until the Alum Bluff sea advanced entirely across central Florida, where deposits of Alum Bluff age rest on the surface of the Ocala limestone apparently without the intervention of deposits of intermediate age. The portion of the Alum Bluff formation above its basal member contains in central Florida at numerous localities heads of corals of reef facies belonging to the genus Siderastrea. At a place near Nigger Sink, about 8 miles north of Alachua, Florida, there is a Siderastrea reef, which, according to aneroid barometer measurement, is about 35 feet thick. The sediments associated with the Alum Bluff reef corals are greenish, usually phosphatic sands and clays, and impure phosphatic, in places magnesian limestone. The corals are decidedly subordinate in importance to other constructional agents, although they grew on a subsiding basement. Alum Bluff sedimentation was succeeded by uplift and subaerial erosion preceding the depression initiating the deposition of the Choctawhatchee Miocene. Although the Miocene Choctawhatchee and Chesapeake faunas comprise about a dozen species of corals of distinctive facies, no reef corals are known as the temperature of the water was evidently too low. No Pliocene coral reefs are known, but corals of reef facies are well represented in the Caloosahatchee marl, which is largely composed of molluscan shells. The stratigraphic relation of the Caloosahatchee marl to the Miocene has not been definitely ascertained, but available evidence suggests separation by an erosion unconformity. Whatever this relation may be, the formation was deposited during subsidence. Corals are of slight importance as contributors of material to the formation, as Heilprin long ago poimted out. The following table, which is a slightly revised copy of a table previously published,’ shows the stratigraphic distribution of coral reefs and reef corals from Oligocene to Recent time, and their rela- tion to changing sea level. 1 Vaughan, T. W., and Shaw, E. W., Geologic investigations of the Florida coral reef tract, Carnegie Inst. Washington Yearbook No. 14, p. 238, 1926. 268 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Stratigraphic distribution of coral reefs and reef corals in the southeastern United States from Oligocene to Recent time, and their relation to changing sea level. 1 Change in Rorice Geologic formations, members, Distribution of reef corals and relation of ripeay unconformities. coral reefs. basement to sea level. TRO COR Hee eae aes ie oc Sle She Rise PR Ea ea ae Worallirepisy tase tes Gates oe ee Submergence. Erosion unconformity. Pleistocene. .... Key Largo limestone.........-..-- Woralinesis: ale. agg su Bons lees Subsidence. Erosion unconformity. : Pliocene.....--. Caloosahatchee marl...-..-..--.-- ReenCorals Sse ess feces feel eee Subsidence. Erosion unconformity - \ Choctawhatchee marl--.-...------- No reefs, a few corals....--.---.--- Subsidence. Erosion unconformity. ie Near eaeat - A ew corals; slight development o Miocene.......- Alvin Butt ton Sue vernal | reefs in central and northern qtIOd a = “|| peninsular Florida. Subsidence. Chipola marl..... 2 ag one species of reef : i 5 --_ fUpper ..| Coral reefs (Tampa, Fla., etc.)..... Subsidence. Oligocene... -.- Chattahoochee formation; PPer ..| Coral reefs (Bainbridge, Ga.)_..... Subsidence. Erosion unconformity. Tocene......-.- Ocala limestone.......-----.------ No coral reefs. 26. Stee geste te Subsidence. The table shows, besides the stratigraphic distribution of the reefs and reef corals, that, with possibly one exception, each development occurred during subsidence which followed subaerial erosion. To consider the basement of these fossil reefs: The geographic extent and composition of the limestones of upper Eocene age, which form the basement of the Floridian plateau, have been ascertamed with considerable exactness. The surface outcrop has been mapped in Georgia and Florida, and well borings have revealed the presence of limestone of this age and character under younger formations in west Florida, at Panama City, and in Peninsular Florida, at Tampa, Key West, Key Vaca, and Palm Beach. The limestone is largely composed of the remaims of Foraminifera, including myriads of Nummulites and orbitoidal Foraminifera, Bryozoa, and some mollusks and echinoids, with which is an undetermined proportion of chemi- cally precipitated calcium carbonate and some terrigenous material. Corals are always rare and are usually absent. The organisms occur- ring in the formation are characteristic of tropical, shoal water, 50 fathoms or less in depth. As the 100-fathom curve delimits the sub- merged border of the Coastal Plain, it is evident that the Floridian plateau was a part of the Coastal Plain and had essentially its present outline back in upper Hocene time before the formation of the oldest Chattahoochee reef, which was therefore superposed on a subsiding platform not produced by corals. The paleogeographic development of the Floridian plateau shows that each successive development of Tertiary reefs was on an antecedent platform which was formed by agencies other than those dependent on the presence of coral reefs. In all instances the volume of coral as compared with material from other sources is of minor and usually of negligible importance. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 269 The accompanying map (fig. 7) shows the location of the Oligocene reefs with reference to the Plateau surface. That Pliocene deposition was followed by uplift, erosion, and de- pression, is shown by the fact that the Pleistocene shell marls along Caloosahatchee River rest on the eroded surface of the Pliocene. The Pleistocene reefs, the location of which is shown on the map (fig. 8), were formed during subsidence which followed uplift at the close of Pliocene deposition. At the base of the reef, which is 105 feet thick, RIP pa = 86° 85° 4° 83° 82° Bie —— < edie ch Bain OH idge h h | 5 2 . eee 4 +C Cc AS ¢ River Junction. te eae Baie guile = i Tallahassee uy <= Cn @Panayla City +Al.B. bo} 2257ty, : 1 9¢. Is.) ch. Al.B. ‘ it \ Alachua , °“Gaineswill ote th S Ocala ‘© bs fee ss Rio \ = aR S 3. s 8 ; e + rant % is ‘ ee olamumpa. ri ‘el = b\70-100F t. ox

= NORTH COAST OF HAVANA HARBOR MOSQUITO BANK ST. THOMAS Showing depth of filled channel in harbor A Fig. 11.—SUBMARINE PROFILES OFF WEST INDIAN ISLANDS AND ACROSS MOSQUITO BANK. existed and was marginally cut by the sea while it stood about 120 feet higher than at present. ST. MARTIN PLATEAU. J. W. Spencer has applied this designation to the plateau on which St. Bartholomew, St. Martin, and Anguilla stand. This plateau, as bounded by the 100-fathom curve, is irregular in shape and is 75 miles long by 45 miles wide. The maximum depth of water between St. Bartholomew and St. Martin is 16 fathoms and between St. Martin and Anguilla 14 fathoms. (See text fig. 12.) The shore line of St. Bartholomew is indented, the indentations are usually divided by beaches into an inner or lagoon part and an outer bay or harbor part (pl. 68, figs. C, D). The beaches may have been elevated between 3 and 5 feet. The lagoons behind the beaches 276 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. are the salt ponds of the island. There is an entire absence. of ele- vated terraces, unless some apparent shoulders on outlying islets, not actually visited by me, should be shghtly elevated sea-cut benches. Wave-cut cliffs margin the rocky shores, and alluvial flats occur around the heads of the bays. The shore line of St. Martin is mdented. Each reentrant into tke land is usually divided by a transverse beach into an inner lagoon or 26 jne gy. Sigh. T.MARTIN I. Loe Pond 20 22 oer ‘ ® oo! siite ZOMG } 2 6 ‘Qh ie Se ae 26 iB / 91-86 Pa icy € a dan 17,08 gh (33 iN 15 100 28 Hie. 12.—CBARY OF Si. MARTIN PLATEAU. FROM U.S. HYDROGRAPHIC CHART NO. 2318. SCALE, ONE INCH=ABOUT 12.8 NAUTICAL MILES. salt pond and an outer bay portion; and alluvial flats margin the heads of the reentrants and project inland between the hills. The spurs along the shore are truncated by wave-cut cliffs (see pl. 69, fig. A) and exhibit no definite terracing. Older beach rock was seen at the northeast end of Blanche Point, perhaps indicating slight differential uplift for that locality. The shore line of Anguilla (see pl. 69, figs. B, D), although not so conspicuously indented as that of St. Bartholomew and St. Martin, GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 200 is indented, and a number of instances, Road Bay, for example, of the separation by beaches of an inner lagoon from an outer bay are present. Three instances of inclosed basins having underground communication with the sea were noted (pl. 69, fig. C). No definite terraces are present and wave-cut cliffs are greatly developed. That the last important change of sea level was by submergence of the land is evident from the character of the shore line in St. Bar- tholomew, St. Martin, and Anguilla; and in Anguilla additional evidence is afforded by the underground communication between inclosed basins in the limestone and the sea. Stable condition of the shore line for a considerable time is attested by the wave-cut clifis, the development of the beaches, the alluvial fillings at the heads of reentrants into the landmass, and in St. Martin by the presence of unterraced flood plains along the streamways. In my paper on the littoral and sublittoral physiographic features of the Virgin and northern Leeward Islands, referred to in the foot- note on page 272, I have shown that on the windward side of the St. Martin plateau there is an outer deeper flat, 26 to 36 fathoms below sea level, with a maximum length east and west of over 30 miles, and that this flat may be subdivisible into two subordinate terrace flats. The scarp on the landward side of the deeper flat in places is about 50 feet high, in depths between 20 and 28 fathoms; above the deeper flat is a shallower one, whose outer edge is about 20 fathoms under the sea (see text-fig. 11, p. 275). Other submarine evidence of sub- mergence in this area is given in my paper cited. At the time the shore line around the St. Martin Plateau was about 20 fathoms lower than at present, Anguilla, St. Martin, and St. Bartholomew must have been united. The biologic evidence at present available is not sufficient to be decisive, but all that is known accords with this interpretation. Notches on the outer edge of the plateau sim- ulate hanging valleys and may represent the outer ends of valleys cut while the sea stood about 40 fathoms lower than now; but the information on these is too scant to justify more than a suggestion. The hydrographic chart does not show well the reefs of these islands, nor does the British Admiralty West India Pilot give a good descrip- tion of them. Because of rough weather most of my own observa- tions were made from the shore. Coral reefs occur across the en- trances to most of the bays on the northeast and southeast sides of St. Bartholomew; reefs are well developed on the east side of St Martin, off North Point, and on the southeast side of Tintamarre Island; and there are dangerous reefs off the southeast coast of Anguilla and on the north coast of the east end of the island. Seal Island reefs occur on a ridge extending westward from the northeast end of Anguilla. Some of these reefs are of the barrier type, as navigable channels lie between them and the shore, one at Forest Point is an instance. 278 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. The reefs of the St. Martin Plateau are superposed on an ante- cedent platform that was brought into its present relations to sea level by geologically Recent submergence to an amount of about 20 fathoms. 65° oS — ~~~ 140 _—"— sinless ollers frequently occur / from October to May 453 26 aa ‘ 3 fein 20 28 fne wh. S. 4 {RN 4 &F 19 se H,229, Spa 7 #2 23 21 101s 238\1 7 £288 == 516 1670 565 1020 aL [oy 65 ¥iG. 13.—CHART OF VIRGIN ISLANDS AND ST. CROIX. FROM U.S. HYDROGRAPHIC CHART NO. 2318. SCALE, ONE INCH=ABOUT 12.8 NAUTICAL MILES. ' $T. CROIX ISLAND. This island rises above a bank about 30 miles long and 10 miles wide. The distance from the shore to the 100-fathom curve is usually GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 279 less than three-quarters of a mile on the west end; and on the north side west of Sugar Bay the distance ranges from one-quarter to one- half mile. Off the south shore the distance to the 100-fathom curve in places slightly exceeds 3 miles; off the east end for 7 miles the water is less than 40 fathoms deep, while off the north coast the platform gradually narrows westward until near Salt River Point its width is less than one-half mile. There is a long, disconnected barrier reef off most of the south coast, and barrier reefs are present off the north coast to a short dis- tance west of Christiansted. The indented, ragged coast line and the depth of water on the platform so clearly point to the same con- clusion as that already drawn from a study of Antigua, St. Bar- tholomew, etc., that reiteration is not necessary. VIRGIN BANK. The Virgin group of islands consists of about 100 small islands and keys (text fig. 13). The bank above which they rise is an eastward prolongation of that on which Porto Ricostands. The chart shows the indented coast line and the extensive, relatively shoal platform above the surface of which the islands project. The maximum depth of water between the islands is about 17 fathoms. St. Thomas well exhibits the coastal phenomena to which attention has already been so often directed—reentrants with alluvial fillings at their heads, unterraced alluvial bottoms along streamways, and wave-cut cliffs on the unterraced promontories (pl. 70, figs. A, B, C). In my paper on some littoral and sublittoral physiographic features of the Virgin and northern Leeward Islands, already referred to, it has been pointed out that there are three terrace flats under the sea off St. Thomas, St. John, Tortola, and Virgin Gorda (see text fig. 11, p. 275). On the leeward side the deepest les between 26 and 30 fathoms in depth and is separated by a scarp or steep slope on its. landward side from a flat rangmg from 14 to 20 fathoms in depth, which in turn is separated by a steep slope from a flat ranging from 6 to 10 fathoms in depth. On the windward side the respective depths are 26 to 34 for the deepest flat, 14 to 20 fathoms for the intermediate flat, and 7 to 10 fathoms for the shallowest one. The intermediate flat is narrow or absent on the promontory tips on the windward side, while it is preserved on the leeward side, strongly suggesting, if not actually proving, that the intermediate flat is older than the deeper one and was cut away in exposed places while the deeper one was forming. This evidence necessitates the deduction that in recent geologic time the Virgin Islands, except minor differ- ential crustal movement in the vicinity of Anegada, have been sub- merged to a depth of about 20 fathoms, and that they were previously joined to Porto Rico, a deduction completely corroborated by bio- 37149—19— Bull. 1083-7 280 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. logic evidence, for Dr. L. Stejneger says in his herpetology of Porto Rico that ‘St. Thomas and St. John form only a herpetological ap- pendix to Porto Rico,” and Dr. P. Bartsch informs me that the testimony of the land mollusca is the same as that of the reptiles and batrachians. Indentations at depths of about 40 fathoms in the outer edge of the submarine bank simulate hanging valleys that may have been formed while the sea level was 40 fathoms lower than at present. In the Virgin Islands there are three tiers of coral reefs, namely, (1) on the outer edge of the deepest flat, (2) on the outer edge of the intermediate flat, (8) within depths of 10 fathoms or less. The reefs could not have been formed on the deepest flat while the scarp on the landward side of the flat was being cut, and the other reefs are clearly younger than the basements above which they rise, for their basements existed and had had a complicated history prior to the formation of the living reefs. In fact, the basements were dry- land surfaces during at least a part of Pleistocene time. CUBA. The principal contributors to the literature on the shore-line phe- nomena of Cuba are W. O. Crosby,! Alexander Agassiz,? R. T. Hill,? Vaughan and Spencer, and Hayes, Vaughan, and Spencer.* I have in papers cited on pages 271, 272 referred to some of the features of the Cuban shore line as bearing on the conditions under which the hv- ing coral reefs off the shores of the island have formed. W. M. Davis has recently alluded to the origin of the pouch-shaped harbors,® and here it may be well to direct attention to a criticism made by him in his article cited in the foot note. He says: It is, however, worth noting that the embayments here considered have a quite different relation to the adjacent coral reefs from that found, according to Hayes, Vaughan, and Spencer, in the pouched-reef” harbors of Cuba: All the embayments I saw inside of sea-level barrier reefs in the Pacific islands occupy valleys older than the reefs; but in Cuba the valleys, and still more the subsidence which drowned them in producing the pouched harbors, are described by the above-named authors as younger than the elevated reefs which inclose them; and such valleys do not bear on the origin of the reefs, as appears from the following extract: * * * The extract is followed by comment, then by a quotation from Crosby and one from Hill, after which he says: ‘“ Without additional 1Crosby, W. O., On the elevated reefs of Cuba, Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc., vol. 22, pp. 124-130, 1883. 2 Agassiz, A., A reconnaissance of the Bahamas and of the elevated reefs of Cuba in the steam yacht Wild Duck, January to April, 1893, Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 26, pp. 108-136, 1894. 3 Hill, R. T., Notes on the geology of the island of Cuba, Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 16, pp. 278-281, 1895. 4 Vaughan, T. W., and Spencer, A. C., The geography of Cuba, Amer. Geog. Soc. Bull., vol. 34, pp. 105- 116, 1902. 5 Hayes, C. W., Vaughan, T. W., Spencer, A. C., Report on a geological reconnaissance of Cuba, pp. 123, 1902. 6 Davis, W. M., A Shaler Memorial study of coral reefs, Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 40, pp. 227-228 1915. 7“ Pouched-reef harbors” are words not used in the publication under discussion by Professor Davis. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 281 field study it is impossible to say which one of these views is correct, but the features of the Pacific reefs that I have seen support Hill’s explanation.”” I have twice published the statement that ‘ Hayes, Vaughan, and Spencer have shown, as is evidenced by the pouch- shaped harbors of the Cuban coast and filled channels, such as the submerged filled channel in Habana Harbor, that the last movement of the Cuban coast has been downward with reference to sea level,’’ and that ‘the platform on which the Cuban reefs grow! has been brought to its present position by subsidence.’”’ These remarks apply to the present living coral reefs and not to the elevated reefs, and the conditions presented by the pouch-shaped harbor is only a part of the evidence showing recent submergence of the Cuban shore line. Professor Davis’s remark that ‘‘all the embayments I saw inside the sea-level barriers in the Pacific occupy valleys older than the reefs” has no application whatever to the protecting effect a fringing reef may have on the shore of a land during elevation subsequent to the formation of a fringing reef, thereby permitting erosional agencies to operate more rapidly on the softer rocks lying back from the shore. The words in the Cuba report are: “‘ Wherever the conditions are favorable for the growth of corals a fringing reef is 15 (Uli ats i On preceding pages of this paper I have shown that there were coral reefs in Cuba in middle Oligocene time; that there were reef corals in both upper Oligocene and Miocene time (this Miocene is called upper Oligocene in the Cuba report); and that there are Pleistocene as well as living reefs. In the Miocene La Cruz marl in the vicinity of Santiago the greatest abundance of reef corals is not at the present head of Santiago Harbor, but it is seaward of the town of Santiago, east of La Cruz. (For a view seaward through the mouth of Santiago Harbor, see pl. 71, fig. B.) Whether the coral heads are sufficiently abundant to have retarded erosion toward the mouth of the harbor, while it was more rapid on the landward side, I am not prepared to say. This, however, was not a fringing reef, should it be appropriately considered a reef. As to whether the elevated Pleistocene fringing reefs extended up to the sides of the outflowing water at the harbor mouths, thereby maintaining restricted outlets, or whether channels have been cut across the reefs after uplift, either of the alternatives is possible. Off the mouths of bays in Antigua, channels are maintained across living barrier reefs, which are tied to the shore at one end; while off Virgin Gorda, a barrier reef extends perpendicularly across the axis of the mouth of a submerged valley. These are living reefs, which have grown up during or after submergence and are younger 1 Not italicized in the original. Note use of present tense, ‘“‘grow,”’ 282 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. than the valleys landward of them. However, as the elevated Cuban reefs under consideration are fringing reefs, it seems to me more probable that they never extended across the harbor mouths; and I will add that the harbor basins had been formed, at least in large part, before the development of the now elevated fringing Pleistocene reefs. . Crosby, in 1883, seems to have been the first one to recognize the significance of the pouch-shaped harbors of Cuba. He says:' * * * During this period of elevation, Cuba, like most rising lands, had few harbors, but when subsidence began the sea occupied the channels and basins which had been excavated and cleared out by the rivers, and thus a large number of harbors came into existence. * * * They are half-drowned valleys filled to a consider- able depth with land detritus, conditions which could not exist if the land was rising or had risen. There are very many pouch-shaped along the Cuban coast. The following table presents information on 15 of them: Principal Cuban harbors. Maxi- Height of adja- Chan- Maxi- | mum | Chan- cent land. mum |known| nel ee Name. Shape. width, | depth | length, aaa sea- |inchan-| sea- est East West iles.1 i : : miles cur miles. | part. | side. | side. NORTH COAST. Feet. Feet. Feet. Bahia Honda... ..| Palmately digitate.......... 1.50 | 2,180 30-40 60 Cabafias 4) Prilobate. 228th. ass. sae -50 | 1,825 160 160 Mariel... .| Irregularly digitate. - . 60 900) | 8 os Habana. TPrilobatel 550i ek Set ee .75 470 200 +10 Nuevitas 2B ilobate. ce ne sess ot 4.38 | 1,400 Flat. Flat. Padre... ..| Irregularly bilobate.....-.-.-- 1.75 900 Flat. | 7 Flat. Banes .| Palmately digitate........-- 1.50 450 8 100 9150 1 Of apes ies ee Ra Unequally bilobate........-- 52.00 | 2,900 8 200 9 200 Livisa and Cabonico. --}.---- Osttececeeee Shes stee -50 | 1,300 50-75 | 75-100 anamo!: 125. 3/3I = Trregularly bilobate...---..-- . 63 600 | 120-176 120 SOUTH COAST. Baitiqueri....-..------ Trilobate head.........----- - 60 12 33 -18 300 590 600 Guantanamo.....-.--- tree ularly dumb-bell 5.00 59 3.75 | 6,530 436 310 shaped. i Santiago... 22-sos—- == Winilateral ee $2655 sees sn 1.00 68 -38 675 230 220 Pnsenadaide Moral ss-2| 8s. 3235452 meee eee cessed = elh see ee 58"). sok 2a [Ssce - Ss ee ee Cienfueross-25-=-555-- Unilateral = aan ees. 4.25 | 13139 2.13 | 1,200 130 157 iS 2 1] sea-mile=6,081 feet. 8 South. 2110 feet outside at channel mouth. 9 North 3 90 feet in channel mouth. 4 About. 5 Submerged channel 100. 6 100 feet frequent. 10 180 feet and over frequent. 11 150 feet frequent. 12 78 feet at mouth. } 13 214 feet off Pta. Pasa Caballos. 7 Coral rock according to A. Agassiz. It is important to note that where the harbors are digitate in shape, Bahia Honda for instance, one or more streams enter each digitation, and that the mouths of the streams are either embayed or, in places, swamps and delta plains have formed. The pouch- shaped harbors are not the only indentations of the shore line, for ‘the lower courses of all the larger streams are more or less embayed. 1 Crosby, W. O., On the elevated reefs of Cuba, Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc., vol. 24, pp. 124-180, 1883. 283 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. OSM 24817 ouvoy _. = == Se a ee S437z0/\\ 002 001 O e2uNn¢ &/ ap ML ITD) 284 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. How are the harbors to be explained? Doctor Hayes and I believed we found the answer in the conditions at present existing along Yumuri River, near Matanzas. The river here empties into - the sea through a narrow gorge cut through Miocene limestone and marls (see pl. 71, fig. C). The top of the gorge is 200 feet above sea level, while farther back from the stream altitudes of- 400 feet or slightly more are attained. Above the gorge, the Yumuri and its tributary, Rio Caico, have sunk their courses through the lime- stone, have removed it, and have developed wide, almost base-level valleys (see pl. 71, fig. D), on the underlying softer sandstone and shale. If this basin were depressed sufficiently to let the sea into it through Yumuri gorge a pouch-shaped harbor would result. Additional evidence bearing on the problem of the origin of these harbors was obtained from records of borings. Mr. C. A. Knowlton, an engineer at Santiago, reported to us that m boring wells in the valley of San Juan River, 3 miles southeast of Santiago, he found at a depth of 70 feet below sea level what appeared to be stream gravel. Even more convincing evidence was obtained in Habana Harbor. In the preparation of plans for a sewerage system the Military Governor had a series of borings made across the harbor. This harbor occurs in a rather wide valley surrounded by sides which slope upward from sea level to an altitude of about 200 feet. The borings revealed a submerged terraced valley within the wider valley and in the middle of the inner valley a channel reaching a depth of more than 30 meters (about 100 feet) below sea level (see text-fig. 14). The depth: of the first flat above the sides of the channel is about 13 meters (about 42 feet) below sea level. This flat is now covered with sand and the submerged channel is filled with sand and clay. There are at present no known processes whereby such a channel and terrace could be developed and then buried, except by a higher stand of the land enabling a stream to cut a trench and develop a terrace, followed by a lower stand of the land. which submerged both the channel and the terrace and resulted in their burial by sediment deposited over them. It appears to me that there is no escape from the interpretation, made first by Crosby, that the pouch-shaped harbors are drowned drainage basins. Before the accumulation of the data by Hayes, Spencer, and me, Hill endeavored to explain them without a shift in height of strand-line, but after the additional information was presented to him he abandoned his interpretation and accepted ours. There is a statement to this effect in a manuscript by him now in my possession, and this citation is made with his authority. The factors producing the peculiar form of the harbors will now be briefly considered. According to Crosby, Hill, and the account in our report on Cuba, fringing reefs are supposed to have restricted GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 285 the mouths of the streams, either by growing up to the edges of the outflowing water, a channel thereby being maintained, or because of their greater hardness they offered greater resistance to erosion than did the softer rocks on their landward side. It is my present opinion that the hypothesis of the reefs having more than a secondary importance in the development of these features must be discarded for the following reasons: First, that such physiographic forms are in no wise dependent on the presence of coral reefs is shown by their frequency in areas underlain by Cretaceous limestones in Texas. Hillcoat Valley in the southwest quarter of the Nueces quadrangle, Texas, is such a basin, with a narrow outletinto Nueces River. This is only one of a number of instances that might be given. In phy- siographic form this basin and its outlet resemble the pouch-shaped harbors of Cuba. Second, there is no evidence that corals had any more influence in Cuba than in Texas, for instance, Yumuri gorge at Matanzas is about 200 feetdeep. The highest important elevated coral reef rocks occur at an altitude of about 35 feet above sea level off the sidesof the stream mouth. Thestream has cut and maintained a gorge through about 165 feet of limestone and marl which are topographi- cally above the reef and which are not coral reef rocks, but which are bedded and were formed by other.agencies. Other instances of these relations might be given. The conditions around the Habana Harbor are interesting in this connection. Limestone of upper Oligocene or Miocene age occurs at the Morro and forms the higher land along the shore east of the city, and it outcrops at lower altitudes in the western part of the city; but the drainage at the south end of the harbor has cut through the limestone and exposed the underlying rocks, serpentine, rotten diorite, etc.; and that underground solution is active is indicated by the presence of springs along the serpentine contact. The condi- tions are here favorable for erosion by both mechanical cutting and solution in the area lying behind, while a channel has been main- tained across the limestone on the sea front. This basin after it was outlined was submerged. It is intended to give a much fuller discussion of the Cuban harbors in a paper now almost ready for press. The differences in form, and the causes to which the differences are due, are worthy of far more detailed treatment than is practicable in this place. I will end this part of the present discussion by saying that corals have in certain instances played a subordinate réle by narrowing the mouth of a harbor and by preserving a constricted outlet. That the outlets of the basins here considered were constricted by reef rocks, now ele- vated, is shown by the conditions in Habana and Santiago harbors, and that similar constriction is now taking place by similar agencies 286 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. is exemplified in many of the West Indian Islands. As the coral rock is usually harder than the rocks on which it rests, after its emergence it protects the narrow exit behind which erosion is more rapid and enlarges the basin. From the remarks already made it appears unnecessary to discuss specially which are the older—the drainage basins occupied by the harbors or the coral reefs now elevated about 30 feet. However, that the Santiago basin is older than the coastal soborruco is shown by finding the soborruco within the harbor mouth; and as I found recent species of reef corals, apparently in place, on the east side of Habana Harbor, south of the Morro, at a height of 30 feet above sea level, the 30-foot reef seems to extend into the mouth of Habana Harbor. The valleys are clearly older. On page 264 of this paper a ‘special point was made of the unconformity between the elevated Pleistocene reefs and the underlying Miocene material and the in- ference was drawn that the reefs were formed during subsidence after erosion of the basement under them. This is precisely the interpreta- tion Professor Davis had made of the relations in the elevated reefs of the New Hebrides, but it seems such relations may develop in the same cycle, and, in my opinion, they are of slight importance in their bearing on the general theory of coral-reef formation. The Isle of Pines furnishes important information on changes in sea level around Cuba. This island is nearly opposite Habana, 60 miles south of the south coast of Cuba, from which it is separated by water less than 10 fathoms deep. It comprises two parts, a southern which is mostly swamp, and a northern which is topographically higher. The surface of the northern division is mostly a plain, really a peneplain (see pl. 72, fig. A), above whose surface stand monadnocks of harder rocks (pl. 72, fig. B). This island is very different from the main island for, as no Tertiary or Cretaceous marine deposits are known to occur on it, it appears to have remained above sea level during these periods, but it has experienced the later changes of sea level which affected the larger island and during Pleistocene time it was joined to Cuba. The peneplain was formed at a lower level than that at which it now stands, it was then sufficiently uplifted to permit streams to cut into it, and has then been depressed, thereby drowning the mouths of the streams, but not bringing the plain surface so low as it formerly stood (pl. 72, fig.C). The coast line of the Isle of Pines and that of Cuba immediately north of it both are indented by the embayment of stream mouths through geologically recent submergence. That the Isle of Pines was joined to Cuba during Pleistocene time is shown convincingly by its land fauna. Every species of reptile, except one, found on it, Dr. L. Stejneger informs me, is known to occur in Cuba, and two species of the mammalian genus Capromys GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 287 are common to both. Dr. Paul Bartsch tells me that the Isle of Pines is only ‘‘a chunk of Cuba” and that its land Mollusca represent a faunal area as closely related to the faunal areas of Cuba as are the different faunal areas in Cuba to one another; that is, faunally, the Isle of Pines is simply a portion (a faunal area) of Cuba. There- fore, it is clear that the Isle of Pines has been severed from Cuba in the latest Pleistocene or Recent geologic time. Practically all the Cuban shore line has now been considered except that on the north side of the Province of Pinar del Rio, within the Colorados Reefs. Guadiana Bay is a nearly typical estuarine em- bayment, while slighter embayment of other stream mouths is indicated, and lines of islands extend seaward from some headlands. The shore line clearly indicates submergence. Mr. J. B. Henderson and Doctor Bartsch, however, tell me that there is positive evidence of minor uplift west of Gulden Bay. ! The Cuban shore line as a whole shows evidence of Recent or latest Pleistocene submergence, and this submergence has influenced the modern coral-reef development. _ Regarding the amount of Recent submergence of the Cuban shore line, reference to the table on page 282 shows that there is close ac- cordance in the depths of the channels or harbors, except certain ones that will be discussed later. These indicate that prior to the last submergence the land stood about 100 feet or slightly more, about 20 fathoms, higher than at present. The amount of emergence would establish a broad land connection with the Isle of Pines. The discrepant harbors are Nuevitas Bay, which shows an excess of only about 27 feet, Nipe and Tanamo bays, and the channel leading from Livisa and Cabonico bays, on the north coast, and Cienfuegos on the south coast. The harbors with the discrepant depths on the north coast all occur on the north side of the Province of Oriente and at the eastern end of the Province of Camaguey. They seem to indicate deeper submergence than at other places and that the submergence has not been uniform in amount for the entire coast. However, the depths do not contradict a Recent rise of sea level to an amount of about 20 fathoms. The harbor of Cienfuegos would be expected to be abnormal, for the fault line which runs northward from Cape Cruz intersects the shore line at its mouth (see text-fig. 15). It is possible that structural relations have also influenced the depths in the other harbors and channels that are discrepant. Regarding these it will be said that except Nuevitas Harbor they occur within a linear distance of 31 miles. Nipe Harbor, the westernmost of the group, lies on the north side of Loma de Mulas, while it, Livisa, Cabonico, and Tanamo harbors all are on the north side of Sierra Cristal. 1 Henderson, J. B., Cruise of the Tomas Barrera, pp. 161-164, New York, 1916. 288 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. The great extent and relatively uniform height of a coral-reef terrace between 30 and 40 feet above sea level favors the interpreta- tion that the geologically Recent shift in position of strand line has been without pronounced crustal deformation. The relations of the off-shore reefs to the platforms on which they grow will now be briefly considered. A detailed description of the reefs is unnecessary here, as it would be only a repetition of that already given by A. Agassiz! and the accounts contained in the West Indies Pilot.2 It need only be stated that the best developed off-shore reefs on the north coast are the Colorados Reefs, between Bahia Honda and Cape San Antonio; and that off the south coast the best are those between Trinidad and Cape Cruz and those east and west of the Isle of Pines. Mr. John B. Henderson has devoted attention to the Colorados Reefs in his ‘‘Cruise of the Tomas Barrera.” Wave the reefs off the south coast grown up on the surface of preexistent platforms or are the platforms due to infilling behind a reef during subsidence? The area between Trinidad and Cape Cruz wili be considered first. The fact that the reefs form disconnected hillocks or mounds, sometimes of mushroom shape, above a plain surface, which in places is 50 miles wide along a line perpendicular to the shore, while on the seaward side of the reefs there are large areas of shallow platforms, without any margining reefs, seems conclusive evidence against the platform having been caused by infilling behind reefs. The following, in my opinion, is the correct explanation: The lit- toral geologic formations from Cape Cruz to Trinidad are mostly upper Oligocene or Miocene marls and limestones which dip under the sea at relatively low angles. They dip into the Cauto Valley, which is a gently pitching syncline, and into its seaward continua- tion, the Gulf of Guacanayabo. The embayment northeast of Boca Grande passage is probably also synclinal in structure. The abrupt undersea termination of the platform is most reasonably explained by a submarine fault which runs from Punta Sabanilla, at the mouth of Cienfuegos Harbor, to Cape Cruz. The coral reefs have grown up on the surface of a plain underlain by geologic formations that were gently tilted seaward and faulted along the line indicated. That the Isle of Pines was joined to Cuba during Pleistocene time has, I believe, been shown in a convincing manner. As the Miocene and upper Oligocene formations from Batabano to Pinar del Rio dip -under the sea at low angles they must underlie the flat bottom of the Gulf of Batabano. That the submarine slope from East Guano Key to off Cape San Antonio is determined either by a fault or by a very steep flexure is clearly indicated, as off the south shore of the 1 Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 26, pp. 133-136, 1894. 2 West Indies Pilot, vol. 1, pp. 199-332, 1913 (U. S. Hydrographic Office). 289 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. ‘0621 “ON LUVHO OIHdYWIOUGAH S$ “Q woud “SANIT LINVA CHUUAT NI GNV LV1Id CHADUTNANS ONIMOUS ‘VANS AO LSVOO HLNOS 10 LUV )— ST “OL _bplukeg Piel ee = at sost E001 ’: Fiewkeg on 290 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Isle of Pines the descent from the shore in 9 sea-miles is 13,080 feet, a slope of about 1 in 4. The Gulf of Cazones appears to have been outlined by faulting. This shelf differs from the one considered in the preceding paragraph, in that the Isle of Pines, whose area is about 1,200 square miles, stands on its outer margin, and apparently has affected the course of the fault. However, there was here also an undersea flat, which was produced by the gentle seaward tilt of low-lying geologic formations, and its outer margin was also deter- TOO. Juan Garcia Cay 100 ‘SC, Corrientes L.L.POATES CO., N.Y. - Fic. 16.—CHART OF COLORADOS REEFS, CUBA. FROM U. S. HYDROGRAPHIC CHART NO. 966. mined by faulting. The living reefs are growing on its submerged unfaulted part, above which they rise as disconnected patches or as a broken barrier. The Colorados reefs (text-fig. 16) grow as patches of barrier reefs or upon a shelf, which, according to Henderson, largely consists of coral rock that had been uplifted above the sea and then depressed.+ The conditions under which the Cuban offshore reefs are growing can be very easily summarized, as follows: (1) They are superposed 1 Henderson, John B., Cruise of the Tomas Barrera, pp. 62-64, 126-130, 1916. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 291 on flats submerged in geologically Recent time; (2) the amount of the submergence of Cuba was about 100 feet. BAHAMAS. Alexander Agassiz has in his reconnaisance of the Bahamas! the following very significant statement: May we not to a great extent measure the amount of subsidence which must have taken place at certain points of the Bahamas by the depth attained in some of the so-called ocean holes, as marked on the charts? Of course we assume that they were due in the aeolian strata to the same process which has on the shores of many islands formed potholes, boiling holes, banana holes, sea holes, caverns, caves, sinks, cavities, blowholes, and other openings in the aeolian rocks. They are all due more or less to the action of rain percolating through the aeolian rocks and becoming charged with carbonic acid, or rendered acid by the fermentation of decomposed vegetable or ani- mal matter or by the action upon the limestone of sea water or spray under the most varying conditions of elevation and of exposure. None of them have their upper openings below low-water mark, though some of them may reach many feet below low-water level. Ocean holes were formed in a similar way at a time when that part of the bank where they exist was above high-water mark, and at a sufficient height above that point to include its deepest part. The subsidence of the bank has carried the level of the mouth and of the bottom of the hole below high-water mark. From the description of the strata which crop out upon the banks in the vicinity of some of the ocean holes at Blue Hole Point, there seems to be little doubt that the stratification characteristic of the aeolian rocks has been observed. The deepest of the holes mentioned by Agassiz has a depth of 38 fathoms, ‘‘in the extension of the line of Blossom Channel leading from the Tongue of the Ocean up on the bank.” I have had opportunities to study such ‘‘holes” or solution wells, above sea level in Florida and have examined many of them, both above and below sea level, in the Bahamas. Mr. E. W, Forsyth sounded other ‘‘holes”’ and reported the results tome.” The depths of the holes range from about 2 fathoms to as much as 33 fathoms, the deepest hole in Fat Turtle Sound, North Bight, Andros Island, sounded by Mr. Forsyth. As in my opinion Agassiz’s deduction as to the origin of these holes is incontrovertible, they indicate a stand of the land during Pleistocene time at least.228 feet higher than at present. Shattuck? and Miller accept a higher stand of 300 feet, followed by submergence of 300 feet, and conclude that this move- ment in strand-line position was followed by emergence, to an amount between 15 and 20 feet. From my own experience in the Bahamas the last change in the position of strand lime was accompanied by minor differential crustal movement. For instance, at Nicollstown Light, Andros Island, a sea cave stands at such a height above the sea as to show conclusively an elevation of 18 feet above the position 1 Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 26, pp. 41-42, 1894. 2 Vaughan, T. W., Carnegie Inst. Washington Yearbook No. 13, p. 229, 1915. 3 Shattuck, G. B., and Miller, B. L., Physiography and geology of the Bahama Islands, The Bahama Islands, pp. 19, 20, 1905. 292 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. at which it was formed; but 4,000 feet southeast of the cave the elevation is only about 4 feet in amount. I have given more infor- mation on this minor uplift in the paper referred to in the footnote.’ Agassiz, Shattuck, and Miller, and I agree as to the geologi- cally Recent submergence of the Bahamas. The accompanying diagram (text-fig. 17) mdicates the relations of the barrier reef off the west side of Andros Island to the platform on the edge of which it is growing. This reef is growing on the edge of a platform that had stood above sea level at least as much as 192 feet. It was perforated by solution wells and then submerged. The perforations in the platform show that it antedates the barrier reef, and that its formation is not dependent on agencies associated with the presence of the reef. There is here another instance of a reef formed during or after submergence, and superposed on the surface of an antecedent platiorm. Cick one une ridge Coral reef eras Aa : u Sea level. > deep ihaeueiies oolite Solution well 31-33 fathoms deep Horizontal scale 2,000 (0) 2,000 4,000 6,000 Feet —_—_————e—=——SSSSSSSSSSzQ=SSaqqJ Fic. 17.—DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION ACROSS THE BARRIER REEF, ANDROS ISLAND, BAHAMAS. _ The relative importance of the constructional role of the living reef will be briefly mentioned. - The Pleistocene oolite of the Bahamas is not coral-reef rock, as was contended by A. Agassiz. It is composed of calcium carbonate chemically precipitated on extensive submarine flats.2 I have several times published the estimate ‘‘that on Andros Island, Bahamas, the ratio of the constructive work of the present reef to that of agencies that previously resulted in the formation of the Pleistocene oolite is approximately as 1 to several thousand, or, as a constructive agent, chemical precipitation has been several thousand times more effective in forming limestone than corals.’ Before passing to the discussion of the next area it should be pointed out that the amount of submergence of the Bahamas, 228 1 Carnegie Inst. Washington Yearbook No. 13, p. 229, 1915. 2 For the most recent discussions of this subject, see Vaughan, T. W., Some shoal-water bottom samples from Murray Island, etc., Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 213, pp. 277-280, 1918; Chemical and organic deposits of the sea, Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., vol. 28, pp. 933-944, 1918. 3 Wash. Acad. Sci. Journ., vol. 4, pp. 26, 27, 1914; Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 213, p. 279, 1917. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 293 feet, is greater than that, about 120 feet, indicated for the areas already considered, unless the notches in the outer edges of the St. Martin Plateau and the Virgin Bank really indicate a position of sea level 40 fathoms lower than present sea level. BERMUDAS, Alexander Agassiz has given a good account of proto-Bermuda, that is of the extent and general physical character of the Bermudas pre- vious to the submergence that has left the group in very nearly the form in which we now know it.!'| Recently Prof, L. V. Pirsson has con- tributed two highly valuable articles to the literature on the geology of the islands, basing his interpretations largely upon a study of samples from a well bored in Southampton Parish, on the slope of a hill about a mile west of the lighthouse on Gibbs Mill, from a height of 135 feet above sea level to a depth of 1,413 feet below the surface, or to a depth of 1,278 feet below sea level.? There were penetrated in the well mentioned three major classes of material, as follows: (1) From the surface to a depth 383 feet below it, limestone; (2) from 383 feet to 600 feet, oxidized volcanic material; (3) below 600 feet to 1,413 feet, with one slight exception, basaltic, usually black lava. Pirsson concludes the first of his two articles with the following statement: It appears to the writer that what has been learned regarding the history of the Bermuda volcano has an important bearing on the question of the way in which the platforms on which coral islands, barrier reefs and atolls are situated, have been formed. There is of course nothing new in the idea that these may be volcanic in origin, only in Bermuda we have once more a positive demonstration of the fact. We have also seen that, provided the volcanic masses are of sufficient antiquity, they may, even though of great size, have been reduced to sea level, furnishing platforms of wide extent. As mentioned above, such masses reduced to sea level would con- tinue to project from the ocean abysses indefinitely and many of them may be of great geologic age. There is nothing in the mere size of any of the atolls of the Pacific which would preclude their being placed on the stumps of former volcanic masses; it is not intended to assert by this that the foundation in every case is necessarily a volcanic one. Ifsuch masses have once been brought down to-sea level and continue to exist and that level changes within limits from time to time by warpings in different places of the sea floor, or by an accumulation of ice on the lands and its melting, as suggested by Daly, then conditions of shallow water over them may be established suitable for their colonization by those organisms concerned in the production of the so-called coral reefs, which may be formed under the conditions postulated by Vaughan. It was the understanding between Professor Pirsson and me that I should prepare a report on the calcium-carbonate samples. The following is a preliminary statement, accompanied by determinations of the Foraminifera by Dr. Joseph A. Cushman. 1 Agassiz, Alexander, A visit to the Bermudas in March, 1894, Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 26, pp. 273- 277, pl. 2, 1895. ? Pirsson, L. V., Geology of Bermuda Island, I. The igneous platform, Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 38, pp. 189-206; II. Petrology of the lavas, Idem., pp. 331-344, 1914. 294 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Preliminary description of the limestone samples and list of species of Foraminifera from the Bermuda well. No. of specimen and depth below surface. 1 (0-6 feet) 2 (61-110 feet) 3 (110-216 feet) 4 (216-241 feet) 5 (241-286 feet) 6 (286-331 feet) 7 (831-341 feet) 8 (341-383 feet) Description. Light cream-colored limestone; mixture of cal- cite and aragonite; most of the constituent particles angular; largely or mostly broken remains of organisms; occasional small round grains 0.10 mm. or less in diameter, may be aggregates of chemically precipitated calcium carbonate. Largely or mostly an organic limestone. Light cream-colored limestone; mixture of cal- cite and aragonite; constituent particles most- ly angular, Foraminifera and broken tests of other organisms present; a few rounded grains 0.04 mm. or less in diameter, may be aggre- gates of chemically precipitated material. Largely or mostly an organic limestone. Light cream-colored limestone; mixture of cal- cite and aragonite, apparently but little ara- gonite; largely a recrystallized limestone, without conspicuous grains; some small pock- ets contain pulverulent calcium carbonate; some pieces granular. A few grains 0.05 to 0.8 mm. in diameter resemble small oolite grains. The rock is mostly a foraminiferal limestone, the Foraminifera embedded in a eryptocrystalline matrix. Whitish limestone, very slight yellowish tinge, some blackish particles; mixture of aragonite and calcite; specimen consists mostly of broken rock fragments; an occasional small pebble, one 2.5 mm. as maximum diameter; constit- uent material largely organic, Foraminifera fragments of mallusks, shells, ete. Most small particles angular; a few less than 0.12 mm. appear oolitic. One 0.09 by 0.17 mm. in size had form ofan ooliticellipsoid. Mostly an organic limestone. Whitish, faintly yellowish, pulverulent lime- stone; mixture of calcite and aragonite. Com- paratively few tests of organisms, some Fora- minifera, many small rounded grains and cryptocrystalline material. Some ofthe round grains appear oolitic; one of these is 0.11 by 0.15 mm. in size. It appears that a consider- able proportion of this bed is a chemical pre- cipitate. White, pulverulent limestone; mixture of cal- cite and aragonite. No organic tests were ob- served. Round grains up to 0.1 or 0.2 mm. appear to be oolite; small round grains 0.04 mm. in diameter. Much cryptocrystalline material. This bed appears to be largely a chemical precipitate. White, friable limestone; mixture of calcite and aragonite. ‘Round grains which range in di- ameter from 0.22 to 0.45 mm., may be oolitic. Small grains, 0.09 mm. in diameter seem defl- nitely oolitic. Besides the rounded, there are broken angular grains and much cryptocrys- talline material. Few or no organic tests. ane appears to be largely a chemical precip- itate. Light-colored, earthy, yellowish-gray, impure limestone; some iron pyrites; mostly calcite, if aragonite is present the proportion is small. Many Foraminifera, Nummulites, fragments of coral, Bryozoa, etc.; many rounded grains which may be detrital; no definitely oolitic grains were observed. A thin section shows many Foraminifera embedded ina cryptocrys- talline matrix. This bed isanimpure, forami- niferal, shoal water limestone. It may con- tain some.chemically precipitated material. Species of Foraminifera. Textularia agglutinans OT EE ic Polystomella striatopunctata Moll. Polystomella species. ‘ A mphistegina lessonii d’ Orbigny. Quinqueloculina reticulata d’Orbigny. Q. oblonga Montagu. Q. auberiana d’Orbigny. Peneroplis pertusus Forskaél. Orbiculina adunca Fichtel & Moll. Textularia agglutinans d’Orbigny. Polystomella striatopunctata Fichtel «& Moll. Polystomella species. Amphistegina lessonii d’Orbigny. Quinqueloculina reticulata d’ Orbigny Q. auberiana d’Orbigny. Orbiculina adunca Fichtel & Moll. Clavulina angularis d’Orbigny. Planorbulina larvata Parker & Jones. Truncatulina species. Polystomella striatopunctata Fichtel & Moll. Amphistegina lessonii d’Orbigny. Triloculina cf. T. circularis Borne- mann. Orbiculina adunca Fichtel & Moll. Truncatulina species. Pulvinulina canariensis d’Orbigny. Polystomella striatopunctata Fichtel & Moll. Polystomella species. Amphistegina lessonii d’ Orbigny. Triloculina linneana d’Orbigny. Orbiculina adunca Fichtel & Moll. Bolivina species. Truncatulina species. Discorbis vilardeboana d’Orbigny. Amphistegina species. Quinqueloculina reticulata d’ Orbigny. Biloculina species. None reported. Amphistegina species. Nummulites species. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 295 This examination reveals three kinds of limestone, the uppermost of which subsequently py be subdivided. The three divisions are as follows: Specimens 1-4 (0-241 feet) represent a linmestigets which is largely or mostly of organic origin, but which may contain a few grains of chemically paepipiewteld mat eape This corresponds to the upper faunal division recognized by Cushman. Specimens 5-7 (241-341 feet) represent a pulverulent limestone, composed of rounded grains imbedded in finely crystalline material. The grains in their size and shape resemble oolite, and some grains showed with greater or less distinctness suggestions of oolitic struc-. ture. The foraminiferal fauna is meager, but it differs from that of specimens 1-4 and the underlying bed represented by specimen 8. It seems safe to draw the inference that this division of the lme- stone is in part, at least, a chemical precipitate. Specimen 8 (341-383 feet) represents an impure, foraminiferal, earthy limestone, or a calcareous marl, in which there may be some chemically precipitated material. This bed is the uppermost in which the Nummulites reported by Cushman occur. It was also found in the underlying bed No. 9, 383-393 feet. ‘ Probable geologic age of the limestone in the Bermuda well. ° [Height of well mouth above sea level, 135 feet.] Samples. Probable geologic age. Hromp—o4itieet? (2). -- seie .gueait Jag: Recent and Pleistocene. Hrome241—286 feet. 4 2.328 2 = epi a Es Pliocene or Miocene. Bamaaol— stl SCCt eo oe.: qn ate he i Nothing determinable. Pye STTENG 21) 3-H 6 a 122) ed age ea Oligocene or Eocene (Nummulites). romps )s 4160 Teete 2 eos 22 Poe Eocene? (no Nummulites). An outline of the geologic history of the Bermudas subsequent to the volcanic activity seems to be as follows: Doctor Cushman’s identification of the Foraminifera from the Bermuda well shows the presence of an undetermined species of Polystomella between 393 and 480 and between 480 and 485 feet. These depths are well down in the oxidized zone and indicate marine conditions which persisted throughout the deposition of the super- incumbent material. Other Foraminifera occur between 383 and 393, one of them being a species of Nummulites, which was also obtained from the basal bed of limestone at a depth of 341 feet. As the genus Nummulites is, according to our present knowledge, confined to the upper Eocene and Oligocene formations in the southeastern United States and the West Indies, the inference may be drawn that the Bermuda samples between 341 and 393 feet probably represent a geologic formation of either Eocene or Oligocene age, and that those from 393-485 feet represent a formation of probably Eocene age. 37149—19—Bull. 1083——8 296 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Until the specimens of Nummulites from the Bermuda well have been identified with species of known stratigraphic position a more definite statement can not be made. It appears safe to assign an Hocene or pre-Hocene age to the Bermudian volcanic activity. The calcareous sediments, therefore, began to accumulate on a submerged volcanic basement in Eocene or lower Oligocene time, and the submergence progressed until the basement, in probably Miocene time, was entirely blanketed by calcareous deposits 100 feet thick, which differ in their physical aspect both from the under- lying nummulitic rock and the overlying organic limestone. This rock is probably in considerable part a chemical precipitate. The well samples indicate no stratigraphic break at either its top or it base. The limestone from a depth of 241 feet to the surface is a shoal- water, organic deposit, in which living species of Foraminifera are abundant. Its age is probably Pleistocene, although the lower part may prove to be Pliocene. The shoal-water nature of the limestone indicates continued slow subsidence. The subsidence which apparently had been interrupted by no period of emergence since Oligocene time was succeeded in Pleisto- cene time by uplift to an amount of probably more than 100, feet. All the surface rock of the Bermudas except some in areas of low elevation is considered by the geologists who have visited the islands to be eolian deposits. However, certain of the published illustra- tions suggest that in some exposures there are in the bedding hori- zontal planes intersecting the inclined layers. Cross-bedding between horizontal planes is a structure characteristic of shoal-water or beach deposits but not of eolian deposits. A more critical study of the bedding of the Bermudian rocks may discriminate elevated cross- bedded water-laid and eolian deposits. However this may be, the period of uplift under consideration was the time of the Greater Ber- muda, which has been admirably described by William North Rice, A. Agassiz, and A. E. Verrill. According to the latter, the area of Greater Bermuda was somewhat more than 230 square miles, or about 11 times that of the present land surface, which is estimated as hay- ing an area of 19} square miles.1 The evidence indicates that the elliptical area inclosed by the outer reefs was entirely above sea level, - as perhaps also were the surfaces of Challenger and Argus banks. The last important change in the relations of sea level was, as Verrill has so ably shown, submergence to an amount of about 100 feet, reducing the land area from that of 230 square miles during the period of Greater Bermuda to that of 19$ square miles, the present 1Conn. Acad. Arts and Sci. Trans., vol. 12, p. 52, 1905. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 297 area. The evidence is not decisive as to there haying been a slight emergence, of 6 to 10 feet, since the great submergence. As Verrill has shown, the Bermuda limestone is composed not of coral débris, except in a subordinate proportion, but is made up Of broken, more or less triturated, calcareous tests, largely of mollusks. He designates the material as “shell sands.’”’ The Bermudas are, therefore, inappropriately called ‘‘coral islands.” The recent corals are growing on a foundation of older lime rock, brought into its present relation to sea level by submergence. In that the last dominant change in the position of its strand line was by submergence, Bermuda accords with the Florida coast, the Bahamas, Cuba, and most of the smaller West Indian islands. FLORIDA. Strand-line oscillation in Florida has attracted the attention of many geologists, among whom may be mentioned Shaler, Heilprin, and Dall of the earlier investigators, and Matson, Sanford, Sellards, Shaw, and myself of the later ones. Shaw and I have recently reviewed the subject. That subsequent to formation of the Pleis- tocene barrier reef of Florida, the reef tract was elevated to a height about 50 feet above its previous stand and that this elevation was followed by submergence to an amount of about 30 feet is shown by (1) a submerged cave at Miami; (2) submerged solution well below sea level, near East Bahia Honda Key; ? (3) submerged peat bed at Key West; (4) submerged indurated, cemented, recrystallized oolite under the Marquesas; (5) submerged wave-cut terrace front at Tortugas. : In addition to this evidence Shaw and I say in the paper cited: Additional deductions of importance may be made from the submarine physiography at depths beyond 10 fathoms. Although the investigations are at presert only in a preliminary stage, it may be said that along the sides of the Gulf Stream from opposite Miami to Satan and Vestal Shoals, just west of Sand Key, the Coast and Geodetic Survey charts indicate fairly uniform slopes from 10 to 100 fathoms, but there may be narrow terraces which are not brought out by the soundings. West of Vestal Shoal the sea bottom drops suddenly from 10 to 20 fathoms, with a flat or gently sloping surface between 21 and 28 fathoms. South of Coalbin Rock there is an escarpment between 10 and 30 fathoms, a flat or gentle slope between 30 and 40 fathoms, and another flat or gently sloping area between 40 and 50 fathoms. The soundings are not sufficiently numerous to trace surfaces with a feeling of confidence, but the scarp from 10 to between 25 and 30 fathoms is clear cut and can be followed for 25 miles to the west end of the Quicksands. Westward in the vicinity of Tortugas there are, besides, the bottom of Tortugas lagoon and the surface of the shoal 7 to 10 miles west of Loggerhead Key, two undersea terrace plains, one at a depth of 15 to 17 fathoms, the other, which is a large plain west of Tortugas, ranges in depth from 28 fathoms on its landward to 36 fathoms on its seaward edge, and has an east and west width of 10 miles. The 15 to 18 fathom flat is especially well developed south and southwest of Tortugas. It is 1 Vaughan, T. W., and Shaw, E. W., Geologic investigations of the Florida coral-reef tract, Carnegie Inst. Washington Yearbook No. 14, pp. 232-238, 1916. i 2 Oral communication of Mr. Samuel Sanford. 298 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. separated by a scarp from the 28 to 36 fathom flat, and by another scarp from the shallower levels in Tortugas. The presence of the continuous scarp from Coalbin Rock to off the west end of the Quicksands, with a depth of 25 to 30 fathoms at its foot, and the presence of a terrace 28 to 36 fathoms deep, 10 miles wide, and bounded on its land- ae "oh 3y at” 53 5 Sk Vird. 3 oer ae a Sean oe ee 80°10 FROM UNITED STATES COAST AND Fic. 18.—CHART OF NORTHERN END OF FLORIDIAN BARRIER REEF. GEODETIC SURVEY CHART NO. 165. ward margin by a similar scarp, suggest that the portion of the Florida reef tract west of Key West at one time stood some 20 fathoms higher than now, while the 15 to 18 fathom terraces suggest another, shallower stand of sea level. Although the tracing of the oscillations of the Florida reef tract can not now be made in detail, it seems probable that it at one time stood more than 120 feet higher GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 299 than at present (and has been submerged to a similar amount). Besides the suggested larger swing there have been intermediate stands of sea level and numerous minor oscillations. The last movement of importance was one of submergence, but subse- quent to it there has been a minor uplift of some 10 feet or slightly more in the vicinity of Miami. The accompanying figure (fig. 18) shows that the flat that the hving barrier-reef margins or above which coral-reef patches rise extends beyond the northern reef limits, near Fowey Rocks. The living bar- rier reef has developed seaward of the Pleistocene barrier near the edge of a previously prepared platform, for the continuity of the platform irrespective of the presence of the reefs shows that its origin is inde- pendent of them. CAMPECHE BANK. The best known reef on the Campeche Bank is Alacran Reef, which was described by A. Agassiz in considerable detail in 1888." (See pl. 73, photograph of model.) MHeilprin in 1891? said regarding Yucatan, ‘the evidence is all but conclusive that there has been recent subsidence”; but I am unable to discover in his article the basis of this opinion. Dr. C. W. Hayes orally informed me shortly before his deeply lamented death that there is clear evidence of recent submergence around Terminos Lake at the base of the penin- sula on its west side. The lagoons between Progreso and Holbox Island are strongly suggestive of submergence. There is a steeper slope between about 20 and 28 on the outer edge of the bank, indi- cating change in position of sea level by submergence, similar to the change already recorded for St. Thomas and other West Indian islands. In this connection the following quotation from Alexander Agassiz will be introduced :*. In fact, what I have seen so far in my exploration of the coral reefs of the West Indies would show that wherever coral reefs occur, and of whatever shape, they form only a comparatively thin growth upon the underlying base, and are not of great thickness. In Florida they rest upon the limestones which form the basis of the great peninsula. On the Yucatan Bank they are underlain by a marine limestone. In Cuba they abut upon the Tertiary limestones of its shore. Along Honduras, the Mosquito Coast, and the north shore of South America they grow upon extensive banks or shoals, parts of the shore plateau of the adjoining continent, where they find the proper depth. I doubt if there is any one bold enough to claim that Campeche Bank has been formed by infilling behind a barrier reef, for it is too obviously due to a large gentle flexure of the earth crust or some other kind of broad structural uplift, and that in suitable places coral grows on the surface of the submarine plateau formed in the manner indicated. E. W. Shaw‘ collected a few bottom samples 6 to 1 Agassiz, A., Three cruises of the Blake, vol. 1, p. 71, 1888. 2 Heilprin, A., Geological researches in Yucatan, Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci. Proc. for 1891, p. 148. 3 Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 26, p. 172, 1894. 4 Shaw, E. W., Oral communication. 300 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. 8 miles off shore at Progreso, and in these he found only two fragments of coral, the main mass of the samples being shell fragments. HONDURAN REEFS. Although this is an important barrier reef, its length being 125 sea-miles, I know of no adequate published description of it, nor of any published account of the shore line or of the oscillations of the strand line behind it. The configuration of Honduras Bay and of the Gulf of Dulce, which lies inland from it and is connected with it by a waterway, as well as that of Chetumal Bay, points clearly to submergence. The reef occupies the outer edge of a platform 10 to 22 miles wide and is separated from the shore by a channel from 11 to 33 fathoms deep. This is a remarkably continuous barrier reef, but it shows discontinuity at its southern end and therefore evidence of superposition. 5; MOSQUITO BANK. Hayes, although he was not giving particular attention to coral reefs, has made one of the finest studies of a shore line in a coral- reef area as yet published.t The following is quoted from his article :? 7. In middle Tertiary time the region was elevated and subjected to long-continued subaerial degradation, and the narrower portion of the isthmus was reduced to a pene- plain, with monadnocks at the divide near the axis. There is no evidence that open communication has existed between the two oceans across this portion of the isthmus since the middle Tertiary uplift. 8. In post-Tertiary time the region was again elevated and the previously developed peneplain deeply trenched. 9. A recent slight subsidence has drowned the lower courses of the river valleys, and the estuaries thus formed have subsequently been filled with alluvial deposits. J. KE. Spurr furnished me a note* confirming Hayes’s deduction regarding the submergence of the lower courses of the streams on the east coast of Nicaragua. Subsequently I had profiles drawn across Mosquito Bank (see text fig. 11, page 275).4 These indicate submergence to an amount of about 20 fathoms. As on Mosquito Bank there is a submerged terrace front between about 20 and 25 fathoms in depth, the bank had to exist previous to formation of that feature, and as the living reefs grow on the shallower flats, which according to available evidence was out of water during at least a part of Pleistocene time, they are necessarily superposed on an antecedent basement. Furthermore, the enormous area of the flat and the relatively small areas occupied by living reefs, lead to the same conclusion—that is, the living reefs are merely growing on parts of a submarine plateau where conditions favor their life. 1 Hayes, C. W., Physiography and geology of region adjacent to the Nicaragua Canal route, Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., vol. 10, pp. 285-348, pls. 30-32, 1899. 2Tdem, p. 348. 3 Amer. Geog. Soc. Bull., vol. 46, p. 429, 1914. 4 Wash. Acad. Sci. Journ., vol. 6, pp. 57, 62, 1916. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 801 The shore-line phenomena of Panama and Costa Rica have been carefully described by D. F. MacDonald in his forthcoming report on the physiography and geology of the Canal Zone and adjacent areas. His conclusions in general accord with those I have expressed for other areas. SOME OTHER WEST INDIAN ISLANDS. R. T. Hill in 1899 * pointed out “that Jamaica was once a more extensive land than now, with benched and terraced margins which were submerged by subsidence,’ and that ‘similar submerged plains are now occupied by the growing reefs around the island.” Hill appears to hold the view that the reefs were formed during uplift, after submergence, and as regards the elevated fringing reefs I believe he is correct. In fact, Mr. Meinzer and I make a similar interpretation of the conditions under which the coral-reef terraces of Cuba were formed. But, it seems to me that the barrier reef off Morant Point, Jamaica, has been formed after an episode of sub- mergence. The pouch-shaped harbors of Jamaica suggest that considerable stretches of the Jamaica shore line have undergone recent submergence. I have compiled information on the shore lines of other West Indian islands, but to present more seems unnecessary. Possibly except a reef off the southeast side of Barbados, all the off-shore West Indian reefs on which I have obtained information have formed on preexisting flats or plateaus during or after an episode of submergence. BRAZIL AND ARGENTINA. Herbert M. Smith,? it seems, was the first to recognize evidence of submergence on the east coast of South America, and Rich ® has made a pertinent application of Smith’s observations and deductions to the coral-reef problem. Smith says: Such an estuary as I have described could only have been formed by the subsidence of the land over a great area, and the encroachment of the sea on some former Amazons and its tributaries. During late geologic time there is in the region of the Amazon evidence of a higher followed by a lower stand on the land. Branner has made the most careful study of the shore line of Brazil, and summarizes his conclusions as follows: * 8. Although no changes of level are known to have taken place within the historic period, there are evidences of both elevation and depression of the Brazilian coast in late Geologic times. 1 Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 36, pp. 99, 100. 2 Smith, Herbert M., Notes on the physical geography of the Amazon Valley, Amer. Naturalist, vol. 19, pp. 27-87, 1885. 3 Rich, John L., The physiography of the lower Amazon Valley as evidence bearing on the coral-reef problem, Science, new ser., vol. 45, pp. 589-590, June &, 1917. eae 4 Branner, John Casper, The stone reefs of Brazil, their geological and geographical relations, with a chapter on the coral reefs, Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 44, pp. 168, 169, 1904. 302 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. 9. The evidences of depression consist of: (a) The open bays: Rio de Janeiro and Bahia. (b) The partly choked-up bays, such as Santos and Victoria. (c) The coast lakes formed by the closing of the mouths of estuaries such as Lagoa Manguaba, Lagoa do Norte, Jiquia, Sinimbu, etc. (d) Embayments altogether filled up. (e) The islands along the coast are nearly all close in shore and have the appearrance of having been formed by depression of the land. (f) The buried rock channels at Parahyba, now filled with mangrove swamps and mud, show a depression of at least twelve metres since those channels were cut. (g) Wind-bedded sand below tide level on Fernando de Noronba. 10. The evidences of elevation consist of: (a) Elevated sea beaches especially well shown about the Bay of Bahia, and along the coast of the State of Bahia. (6) Marine terraces about Ilheos in the State of Bahia. These are about eight metres above tide level. (c) Horizontal lines of disintegration about one metre above high tide in granites and gneisses at and about Victoria, State of Espirito Santo. (d) Burrows of sea urchins so far above low tide that sea urchins can not now live inthem. These are well shown at Pedras Pretas on the coast of Pernambuco. 11. Of the two movements the depression has been much the greater and was the earlier. 12. The great depression probably took place in early Pliocene times. Additional evidence in support of the submergence of the Brazilian coast is given by O. P. Jenkins.1 That the last dominant shift in the position of the strand lime in eastern Brazil was by submergence, it seems to me, is incontrovertible, and that the Brazilian reefs are merely growing on the surface of a submerged continental shelf is too obvious to need defense. In these relations the Brazilian reefs accord with all other American offshore reefs, perhaps with the exception of the Barbadian reef specially mentioned on page 301. Professor Branner dates the submergence whereby the Brazilian harbors were brought into being, as Pliocene; whereas the submergence in the other areas discussed is clearly Recent. Without definite evidence I should not be justified in giving the drowning a later date than that assigned toit by Professor Branner}; but I now know that I assigned too great antiquity to some physio- graphic features I considered about the same time that he was engaged on his work on the Brazilian stone reefs; for instance, the higher Cuban terraces are Pleistocene and not Pliocene, as I said in the Cuba report previously cited. May not the antiquity of the submergence of the Brazilian coast be less than Professor Branner inferred? May not both the submergence and the minor uplift following it be post- Pleistocene in age? Should the two events mentioned be geologically Recent, the shore-line history of Brazil would parallel that of eastern Central America. -1Jenkins, O. P., Geology of the region about Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil, Amer. Philos. Soc. Proc., vol. 52, pp. 431-465, 1913. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 303 Willis has directed attention to two areas of submergence by down- warping along the Argentine coast, namely, the embayment of the Rio de la Plata and Bahia Blanca; but Barrell is of the opinion, from the character of the submarine profiles, that there has been sub- mergence of the coast subsequent to the warping. That there has been in late geologic time a rising of ocean level on the Argentine coast seems a justified deduction. ATLANTIC COAST OF THE UNITED STATES NORTH OF FLORIDA. That the last shift in position of strand line from the Georgia- Florida line at least to Narraganset Bay has been by submergence is so clearly shown by drowned stream mouths, resulting in estuaries and harbors, is so well known to geologists that no detailed presenta- tion of evidence is necessary. Northward from near Boston there has been subsequent to submergence, emergence, probably due to crustal rebound after deglaciation and relief of the pressure exerted by the superincumbent continental glaciers. ; TYPES.OF WEST INDIAN AND CENTRAL AMERICAN LITTORAL AND SUBLITTORAL PROFILES AND THEIR RELATIONS TO CORAL REEFS. In my paper on littoral and sublittoral physiographic features of the Virgin and northern Leeward islands,* I pomted out that there are four types of sublittoral profiles in the West Indies (see fig. 19) as follows: (1) That found off volcanic islands, such as Saba, into the sides of which the sea has cut relatively narrow platforms; (2) fault plane profiles, such as the north side of St. Croix; (3) wide undersea flats, where planation agencies have long been active, as off Anguilla and north of St. Thomas; (4) submarine banks, such as Saba, Pedro, and Rosalind, which have no bordering land, and whose upper sur- faces lie between 9 and 30 fathoms below sea level. All of these areas have undergone geologically Recent submergence. Where do the offshore reefs occur? — There is no barrier reef on the fault slope on the north side of St. Croix. No reef started as a fringing reef, then increased in thick- ness and grew seaward so as to form a prism of coral-reef rock and material caught behind the reef, so as to become converted according to the Darwinian hypothesis into a barrier reef; but tnere is a barrier off the south side of the island, where gently dipping lime- stones pass below the sea and produce a platform on the surface of which at the proper depth a barrier reef has formed. Off the fault shore of the south side of Oriente province, Cuba, there is no barrier reef, but farther west, between Cape Cruz and Trinidad where there 1 Willis, Bailey, Geologic notes, in Hrdlicka, A., Early man in South America, Bur. Amer. Ethn. Bull. 52, pp. 16-18, 1912. 2Barrell, Joseph, Factorsin movements of the strand line and their results in the Pleistocene and post- Pleistocene, Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 40, p. 6, 1915. 3 Washington Acad. Sci. Journ., vol. 6, pp. 53-66, 1916. 304 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. is a submerged flat underlain by gently dipping limestones there are offshore reefs, some of which have the barrier form. Where there are extensive offshore flats at the proper depths, if the other ecologic conditions are favorable, reef corals grow upon the surface of the flats and form either patches, stacks, or barriers. A - 4 B-B” SABA ISLAND Sea /eve/. soy LLL ALLL zi a a WE AOR OANGE shorted Gat oe NORTH SIDE OF ST.CROIX — Dal eee ehrannicen GEN svn ini 8 : ° 2 Pia hei Nautical miles Nautical miles. Sea /eve/ i GGO/=>"]—>[|;tae;oaowMMM'/—@#C@T EEE EAST COAST OF ANGUILLA (0) 1,000 FEET Sea/éev WM —<————$ue—— 13272 eee PEDRO BANK 0 Sea. /eve/ ? Shae Sea;/evel. 000 : \ 2,000 3,000- - <—__—\£_ 65 miles ————> ———— 4% miles > ROSALIND BANK FUNAFUTI ATOLL FIG. 19.—TYPES OF WEST INDIAN SUBLITTORAL PROFILES AND PROFILE OF FUNAFUTI ATOLL. _ It seems that no one would try to explain Saba, Rosalind, or Pedro Bank as the result of infilling behind barrier reefs. They are subma- rine plateaus, leveled by planation agencies, which almost certainly were both subaerial and submarine, and they have been submerged in Recent geologic time. There is a rather meagre growth of reef corals on their windward sides; but these banks are scientifically of great importance, for, except that the coral growth is not so luxuriant, they essentially duplicate the great atolls in the Pacific. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 305 SUBMERGED BANKS NORTH OF THE CORAL REEF ZONE IN THE WESTERN ATLANTIC OCEAN. That there are off the Atlantic coast of Central and North America, north of the temperature zone in which coral reefs now exist, sub- marine banks at suitable depth below sea level for the growth of reef- forming corals, has been stated in several of my papers.!' There are six submarine banks projecting seaward from the eastern part of Central and North America. Named in order from the south north- ward these banks are, first, three on which there are coral reefs, namely, Mosquito Bank off Nicaragua and Honduras, Campeche Bank off Yucatan, and the Floridian Plateau; and, second, three on which there are no coral reefs, namely, Georges Bank, the banks off the coast of Nova Scotia, and the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. The presence of such banks is entirely independent of corals, but corals will grow on the surface of such banks where the necessary ecologic conditions prevail. SUMMARY OF THE CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH THE AMERICAN FOSSIL AND LIVING CORAL REEFS FORMED. 1. The elevated Pleistocene fringing reefs of the West Indies are separated by erosion unconformities at their bases from the geologic formations that they overlie, but they were usually, if not invariably, formed during intermittent uplift following considerable depression. 2. The offshore reefs, whether forming parts of more or less bedded formations or forming patches, stacks, or barriers of living reef, were formed during or after submergence, as is shown in the case of the fossil reefs by unconformable basal contacts wherever basal contacts could be studied, and in the case of the living reefs by a great variety of evidence indicating geologically Recent submergence. 3. The offshore reefs grew upon or are growing upon antecedent flats, only a small part of the surface of which was or is covered by reefs. The flats existed prior to the submergence during or after which the reefs developed. Corals are constructional geologic agents and help build up the sea bottom, but the large flats on which they grow would exist were there no corals. Such flats are not confined to the temperature zone in which corals live. 4, The submergence of the basements of the fossil reefs seems more reasonably explained as the result of differential crustal movement; but the development of the living reefs seems in large part a result of geologically Recent rise in the stand of ocean level, for nearly the entire eastern shore of the Americas from Argentina on the south to Cape Cod on the north exhibits evidence of Recent submergence, after which there has been in some places minor emergence by differential crustal movement. The amount of the submergence usually seems 1 Science, new Ser., vol. 41, pp. 508, 509, April 2, 1915; Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., vol.-26, pp. 58-60, 1915; Amer Journ. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 41, p. 184, 1916; Carnegie Inst. Washington Yearbook No. 14, p. 238, 1916. 306 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. to be about 20 fathoms, but in places some facts indicate that the maximum is between 30 and 40 fathoms. Although more accurate investigations of the amount of the submergence are needed, the available evidence accords with the hypothesis that glacial control is one of the important factors in bringing about the formation of living coral reefs. CoRAL REEFS OF THE Paciric OCEAN. It is manifestly impracticable to consider in this chapter more than a few of the important reefs of the Pacific Ocean. Those selected for discussion are the Great Barrier of Australia, the barrier reef off New Caledonia, and those off the Fiji and Society islands. Finally a few paragraphs will be devoted to atolls. GREAT BARRIER REEF OF AUSTRALIA. The literature on the Great Barrier Reef is very extensive, and includes contributions from numbers of investigators, among whom Jukes, Saville-Kent, H. B. Guppy, Alexander Agassiz, A. C. Haddon, Wood Jones, E. C. Andrews, C. Hedley and Griffith Taylor, Edge- worth David, W. M. Davis, and A. G. Mayer may be mentioned. R. A. Daly and I have based statements regarding it upon carto- graphic studies. No attempt will here be made to review all the literature, and attention will be mostly confined to those papers that, in my opinion, correctly interpret the relations of the reef. Andrews in 1902 published a remarkable paper ' on the shore line of Queensland and the platform on which the Great Barrier Reef stands. This paper contains an excellent account of the physiog- raphy of the Queensland coast, applying the deductions based upon the physiographic study to the conditions under which the reef developed, and in it is recognized the significance of a continuous platform and an interrupted reef. Because of the embayed shore line Andrews correctly inferred submergence of the Australian con- tinental shelf, and he makes the important statement: * %* * the continuance in width of the shelf southwards of the limits of reefs (coralline), and the great shoals thereon, points to a minor part only of the shelf being formed of coral growth.” A few years later Hedley and Griffith Taylor published a valuable paper on the same subject. They accepted Andrews’s deduction 1 Andrews, E. C., Prelininary note on the geology of the Queensland coast with references to the geography of the Queensland and N. 8. Wales Plateau, Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, Proc. for 1902, pt. 2, pp. 146-185, 1902. 2Tdem, p. 177. 3 Hedley, C., and Taylor, T. Griffith, Coral reefs of the Great Barrier, Queensland: A study of their structure, life distribution, and relation to mainland physiography, Australasian Assoc. Adv. Sci., Ade- laide Meeting, Jan. 1907, pp. 394-413, 3 pls. 1908. — \ UVEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 307 regarding submergence and devoted particular attention to the effects of wind-induced currents in shaping atolls. They also say: It may be allowed, though Darwin deprecated the idea, that the continental shelf was ready prepared with numerous banks representing eroded islands, just reaching to within the required distance of the surface, when the first coral builders came. ! On a subsequent page they add: Whatever the history of the Great Barrier Reef was, the reefs of the Coral Sea, such as Lihou Reefs, Flinders Reefs, and Herald Cays, shared in it. ” I have stated in one of my papers? An inspection of the admiralty charts for the eastern coast of Australia shows con- clusively that the platform on which the Great Barrier Reef of Australia stands has Sea /eve/ | Sea level 38 miles Sea /eve/ 300 é - 96% miles 4 Sea /evel Fritzroy Reef 42/2 miles 5 : Bramble Reef Sea /eve/ Trunk Reef 56 miles Fic. 20.—PROFILES ACROSS CONTINENTAL SHELF, EAST SIDE OF AUSTRALIA. THE LATITUDE AT THE INTER- SECTION OF EACH PROFILE WITH THE SHORE LINE IS FOLLOWED BY A STATEMENT OF THE DIRECTION OF THE PROFILE FROM THE SHORE. SOUTH OF THE SOUTHERN END OF THE GREAT BARRIER REEF: ; 1, FROM SHORE EAST OF LEADING HILL, S. LAT. 25° 26’ 15’’, SouTH 82° HAst. 2. FROM BASE OF SANDY CAPE, S. Lat. 24°, 53’ 40’, NorTH 68° East. : 3. FROM TOOWONG HI, S. Lat. 24° 22’ 4’’, NorTH 45° EAST, PASSING BETWEEN LADY ELLIOT AND LADY MUSGROVE ISLANDS. ACROSS THE GREAT BARRIER REEF: 4. FROM RODD PENINSULA, S. Lat. 24° 0’ 0’, NortH 50° East. 5. FROM GEORGES POINT, HINCHINBROOK ISLAND, S. LAT. 18° 25’ 40’’, NoRTH 72° 30’ EAST. an existence independent of the Great Barrier Reef, and that corals have established themselves on this platform where the conditions favorable for their life are realized. Daly has given cross-sections of the Australian shelf both south of and across the Great Barrier Reef in two of his papers,‘ and I have presented a series of cross-sections in one of mine,’ both of us basing our profiles on the British Admiralty charts. There is one important fact shown by both Daly’s and my profiles, but which Daly seems not to have emphasized. It is that the platform not only continues 1 Coral 1eefs of the Great Barrier, Queensland, p. 406. 2Tdem., p. 413. 3 Washington Acad. Sci., Journ., vol. 4, p. 32, 1914. 4 Daly, R. A., The glacial-control theory of coral reefs, Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. 51, p. 197, figs. 21-24, 1915; Problems of the Pacific Islands, Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 41, p. 179, figs. 26-29, Feb. 1916. 5 Washington Acad. Sci. Journ., vol. 6, p. 64, profiles Nos. 1-5, 8-14, 1916. 308 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. southward from the reef limits, but in many places the barrier reef stands not on the margin of the shelf but miles landward from the edge. (See text-fig. 20.) There is also a significant terrace front at depths somewhat deeper than 120 feet. These profiles should be compared with those for the West Indies (fig. 11, p. 275). They tell essentially the same story. The platform can not be due to the presence of the Great Barrier Reef, for in many places it projects beyond the reef. I state in my paper cited: The evidence in favor of a shore line between 25 and 30 fathoms below present sea level is strong, if not conclusive, and supports the deduction that the living barrier reef is growing on what was a land surface in Pleistocene time, an interpretation essentially that proposed by E. C. Andrews in 1902.1 NEW CALEDONIA. I have seen no good account of the coast of New Caledonia, off whose shores is one of the most important barriers known. According to P. Marshall, ?‘the northeast coast is practically straight, but many inlets that form excellent harbours penetrate the southwest coast.” The chart shows indentations in the north coast, although they are not so deep as those on the south. I find references to the shore-line features in two of Professor Davis’s papers,? and from them. certain information may be obtained. The shore line is embayed, there are deltas mostly contained in the embayments between headlands that are strongly cliffed on the sea front. The present barrier reef has developed subsequent to the truncation of the headlands and subsequent to the submergence that has caused the embayment of the coast. Just how much of the platform surmounted by the 1W. M. Davis has published since the manuscript of this paper went to press an article entitled: The Great Barrier Reef of Australia (Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 44, pp. 339-350, Nov., 1917), in which he criticizes me arid others because we have not “satisfactorily explained”’ the origin of the form of ‘‘the continental mass.”” Among the statements of Professor Davis is “Vaughan’s view is based on the physiographic investigations of parts of the eastern coast of Australia by Andrews (1903); * * *”, after he had intro- duced two quotations from my paper on the littoral and sublittoral physiographic features of the Virgin Islands, etc., as given in abstract (Amer. Geolog. Soc. Bull., vol. 27, pp. 41-45, 1916). Professor Davis has drawn an erroneous deduction regarding my cartographic studies of the Great Barrier Reef. They could not have been based on Andrew’s work, because Andrews neither published nor made comment on a series of profiles across the Australian platform, such as those I had prepared. Furthermore, my emphasis of the fact, which it seems I was the first to point out—namely, that the present Great Barrier Reef in places stands some miles landward from the margin of the continental shelf—and my deduction therefrom, that the platform can not be attributed to infilling behind the reef, do not warrant the inference that “Vaughan * * * has excluded coral-reef agencies from any part in forming the platform itself * * *? J not only do not know how the Australian continental shelf was formed, but Ido not know how any one of a number of hypothesis can be tested. I, therefore, endeavored to confine my discussion to matters on which evidence is procurable, and said nothing regarding the origin of the platform. Professor Davis advances the hypothesis that the platform on which the present Great Barrier is growing is a ‘‘mature reef-plain”, formed in a previous physiographic cycle, and that it has been recently sub- merged. Whether reefs in past geologic time formed a rampart on the edge of the Australian continenta | shelf and a plain resulted from infilling behind the barrier can at present be neither proved nor disproved and on this subject I have expressed no opinion. 2“ Oceania,’’ Handb. regionalen Geologie, vol. 7, Abt. 2, p. 23, 1912. 8 Davis, W. M., Shaler Memorial study of coral reefs, Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, vol 40, pp. 232, 233, 240 243,245, 270, 1915; Problems associated with the study of corals, The Scientific Monthly, vol. 2, fig. 15 on p 25, p. 27, 1916. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 309 Caledonian barrier is due to the cut and fill process of marine planation at and below sea level during the cliffing of the promontories and to the sediment deposited in the sea, derived through the erosion of mature valleys, I can not say with cer- tainty, but that so much material deposited in the sea would under the influence of waves and currents form a submarine plain is a warranted deduction; and as the barrier reef is crossed by gaps and is discontinuous at both the southeast and northwest ends, the deduction seems safe that it is superposed on a submerged plat- form of antecedent existence. FIJI ISLANDS. That the barrier reefs off the Fiji Islands have developed during or after submergence of their basements is obvious from an inspec- tion of the charts to anyone familiar with the physiography of shore lines. The numerous reproductions of British Admiralty charts in A. Agassiz’s volume on the Fiji Islands‘ is valuable and convenient for such a cartographic study. That the indentations of the shore line in the Fijis are due to the drowning of the lower parts of subaerially formed valleys has been pointed out by many geologists, the first of whom appears to have been Dana, who says? There is, further, not merely probable but positive evidence of subsidence in the deep coast indentations of the high islands within the great barriers. The long points and deep fiordlike bays are such as exist: only where a land, after having been deeply gouged by erosion, has become half submerged. The author was led to appreciate this evidence when on the ascent of Mount Aoraion Tahiti, in September of 1839. Sunk to any level above that of five hundred feet the erosion valleys of Tahiti would become deep bays, and above that of one thousand feet, fiordlike bays, with the ridges spreading in the water like spider’s legs; and this is a common feature of the islands and islets within the lagoons of barrier islands. The evidence of subsidence admits of no doubt. It makes the conclusion from the Gambier group positive; and equally so that for Raiatea and Bolabola represented on the charts in Darwin’s ““Coral Islands;’’ the Exploring Isles and others of the Fiji group; and that for islands, great and small, in the Louisade Archipelago and in other similar groups over the ocean. This statement was misinterpreted by Davis as being confirmation of Darwin’s theory of coral reefs,? which, as is more than once pointed out in the present paper (see especially p. 249), carries with sub- mergence an hypothesis of platform building. Evidence of sub- sidence does not prove that the flat lying between a barrier reef and the shore has been formed by infillmg behind the barrier. Daly made a definite statement in 1910 in a list of “‘maximum depths recorded for the drowned portion of these valleys,” in which 1 Agassiz, Alexander, The Islands and Coral Reefs of Fiji, Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 33, pp. 167, 112 plates, 1899. 2 Dana, J. D., Corals and coral islands, ed. 3, pp. 273, 274, 1890, 3 Davis, W. M., Dana’s confirmation of Darwin’s theory of coral reefs, Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 35, pp. 173-188, Feb. 1913. 310 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. he includes Mbengha and Moala of the Fiji group.t Subsequently Davis, in several of his papers, cited and others have similarly inter- preted the estuarine character of the lower ends of the valleys. Were the platforms on which the Fijian reefs stand, or which they margin, formed by infilling behind barriers or are the reefs merely superposed on antecedent platforms? In 1914 I published the following statement: Having presented criteria for recognizing the relations of continental and large insular platforms supporting barrier reefs to the presence of the reefs, islands such as those in the Society and Fiji groups may be considered. * * * A study of the charts of barrier reef islands, as Viti Levu, Fijis, and Tahiti, Society Islands, shows that the platforms are independent of the presence of reefs, and therefore the rela- tions in these islands are similar to those indicated for barriers off continental shores, for here the reefs are also superimposed on platforms antedating their presence. Plate 7 of Agassiz’s work on the Fiji Islands, already cited, shows the continuity of the platform northward and westward from Ovalau without any margining barrier reef. In my opinion these relations clearly show that the reef, where it is present, is merely superposed on an antecedent platform, and that the suggestion of Davis, that the entire platform is due to infilling behind a reef which in pisces has ceased to grow, is farfetched. Recently E. C. Andrews and W. G. Foye have published impor- tant papers on the Fijis. Andrews in his paper says: The Viti Levu salt water arms, therefore, with their contained deltas, suggest the submergence of the Viti Levu coastal lowland in recent time, with the consequent drowning of the lower portions of the river courses. The island is girt with a Great Barrier Reef, several hundreds of miles in length, broken here and there by passages. The present Great Barrier Reef, which rises to the level of the sea, has thus, in all probability, been built up by coral-reef organisms upon the submerged lowlands of Viti Levu.? Andrews similarly interprets the conditions of development of the barrier reef off Vanua Levu. The interpretations advanced by Andrews essentially accords with mine; that is, the reefs are super- posed on a depressed platform that was previous to its submergence a coastal lowland. Foye ? makes the following statement regarding Viti Levu: In general the present coral reefs are developing on platforms which originated during the deposition of the coastal series.* Regarding Vanua Levu he says: I visited only the eastern and central portions of Vanua Levu. The modern fringing reefs are here developing either along the shore line of recently submerged volcanic rocks or on coastal flats formed of the fine ash swept from the elevated hills of sub- 1 Daly, R. A., Pleistocene glaciation and the coral reef problem, Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 30, p. 306, November, 1910. 2 Andrews, E. C., Relations of coral reefs to crust movements in the Fiji Islands, Amer. Journ. Sc1., ser. 4, vol. 41, p. 138, 1916. 3 Foye, W. G., The geology of the Fiji Islands, Acad. Nat. Sci. Proc., vol. 3, pp. 305-310, April, 1917. 4 Idem. p. 306. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 311 marine tuffs. The most recent movements have been differential, and while uplift has taken place at the southeastern side of the island, subsidence has occurred to the east and north. The modern barrier reef occurs where subsidence has taken place either due to tilting or faulting during uplift.! Concerning the Lau Islands, he states: Within quite recent times the islands have subsided 50 to 90 feet and the modern coral reefs are developing on the eroded and submerged platforms.? One paragraph of Foye’s conclusions is as follows: The data assembled by Daly and Vaughan convince the writer that Pleistocene platforms exist very generally throughout the coral seas. Yet while this is true, the platforms in Fiji are post-Pleistocene in their development. The writer was unable to discover any evidence of Pleistocene wave-cut platforms.’ The second one of Foye’s papers‘ contains the following signifi- cant statement: There is another method by which atolls develop. The limestone islands are rapidly eroded to sea level by atmospheric solution. Evidence of this process may be seen in the diminishing limestone masses within the lagoons of many of the Lau islands. By tidal scour and wave action platforms are developed slightly below sea level. Examples of such platforms may be seen about Fulanga and Ongea. It is significant, however, that most of these islands have lagoons 10 to 15 fathoms in depth. Such depths can not be ascribed to erosion, but must be the result of recent submer- geneerA Yd tot The information bearing on the Fijis may be summarized as fol- lows: 1. The fringing reefs have unconformable basal contacts, as do those of the West Indies. 2. The barrier reefs are superposed on antecedent PASE of diverse origin during or after submergence. 3. The submergence is concomitant with, if not actually due to, differential crustal movement. 4. In that they were formed during or after submergence and are superposed on antecedent platforms, the offshore reefs of the Fijis accord with all others, perhaps except a Barbadian reef, so far considered. SOCIETY ISLANDS. TAHITI. That Tahiti had undergone subsidence is implied in statements by Dana,® the occasional harbors bemg mentioned in two places in his book. W. M. Davis says:° The cliff-rimmed island of Tahiti, the largest and youngest of the group, has suffered moderate subsidence after its cliffs were cut, but its bays are now nearly all filled with delta plains; hence a pause or stillstand has followed its latest sinking. 1 The geology of the Fiji Islands, Acad. Nat. Sci. Proc., p. 308, April, 1917. 2 Idem, p. 309. 3 Idem, p. 309, 310. 4 Foye, W. G., The geology of the Lau Islands, Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 43, pp. 343-350, May, 1917. 5 Corals and coral islands, ed. 3, pp. 149, 158, 246, 247, 1890. 6 Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 40, p. 271, 1915. 37149—19— Bull. 103——9 312 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. The condition of the reef between Taunoa Pass and Point Venus is interesting in this connection. Alexander Agassiz has given a good description of this part of the reef and reef platform and has reproduced the British Admiralty chart of it... Agassiz says: Reef patches, the remnants of a former barrier reef, extend westward from Venus Point parallel with the shore of Matavai Bay, forming the chain of Toa Tea reefs, but they are merely patches of Nullipores, with here and there diminutive coral heads which have taken no part in the building of these reefs. There is along the Toa Tea Reefs a great break in the continuity of the reef, but the platform continues, irrespective of the presence or absence of a margining barrier. The depths in Matavai Bay, 16 to 17 fathoms, seem to be the maximum, are about the same as in Papiete Harbor, outside which there is a well-developed reef crossed by Papiete Pass. These reefs, also, seem to me to have grown up dis- connectedly on a submerged coastal flat. SMALLER ISLANDS OF THE SOCIETY GROUP. Alexander Agassiz has described each of these islands in his coral reefs of the Tropical Pacific,? and P. Marshall has made the observa- tions and deductions recorded in the following quotation :3 This reef marks the edge of the platform of marine erosion as described by Agassiz, but the original margin of the land L belore depression as described by Darwin and Danae ayy It is evident that if the coral reef rises on the edge of a platform of marine erosion this very erosion would have worn the spurs back in such a way that they would terminate in steep cliffs. In no instance at Huaheine, Raiatea, or Tahiti that the author observed, did the spurs have an abrupt termination. The lower slopes of the islands are in all cases notably less steep than the upper slopes. The deep inlets that intersect the coast line of Huaheine, Tahaa, and Raiatea are clearly due to stream erosion. Prolonged marine action would have shallowed or filled them up or at least would have built up bars of coastal débris across the entrances. The author is therefore strongly of opinion that the absence of cliffs at the termina- tion of radiating spurs, the presence of deep water in the lagoon, and of far-reaching inlets, prove that marine erosion has not had any influence on the form of these islands at the present sea level. * * * Finally the deep inlets appear io be drowned stream valleys and their nature strongly supports the belief that they have been subjected to an important movement of subsidence. Mehetia is interesting in that it is a young volcanic island, with a strongly cliffed shore, a very narrow or no platform, and no coral reefs around it, only a few coral patches. That the other islands, Murea, Huaheine, Raiatea, Tahaa, Bora-Bora, and Maupiti have undergone geologically Recent submergence and that the barrier reefs have developed during or after submergence, can not be controverted. Is the reef flat due to marine planation and to terrigenous sediments 1 Agassiz, Alexander, The coral reefs of the Tropical Pacific, Mus. Comp. Zool. Mem., vol. 28, pp. 152- 154, pl. 209, 1903. 2Idem, pp. 140, 141, 156-167. 3 Marshall, P., Oceania, Handb. regionalen Geologie, vol. 7, Abt. 2, p. 13, 1912. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. oto earried by the streams to the sea prior to the submergence after which the living reefs have formed? Unless sediment was delivered to the sea so rapidly that a coastal plam pushed forward beyond the interstream divides as to protect them from attack by the sea, their seaward ends should have been cliffed, should the flat have been formed in the manner suggested. What are the submarine profiles off the spur ends? Are there submerged cliffs at the divide tips? One of Agassiz’s illustrations! represents a cliff of considerable height at one place on the shore of Maupiti. In my opinion sufficient evi- dence is not available to establish how the reef flats of these islands were formed, and they may be made to accord with whatever theory of reef-flat formation an author may prefer. Should it ultimately be proved that these barrier reefs accord with the Darwinian hypothe- Prevailing wind Fic. 21—DIAGRAM TO SHOW HOW A LINEAR REEF LYING ACROSS THE WIND IS FORMED INTO A HORSESHOE. (AFTER HEDLEY AND GRIFFITH TAYLOR.) ‘sis, a few instances in which that hypothesis applies will have been discovered. ATOLLS. There are two kinds of atolls: Those of the first kind rise above relatively shoal-water platforms, and are represented by the atolls of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, those of the Floridian reef-tract, and the faros of the Maldives. That there was never any central land area for these atolls is perfectly obvious. Hedley and Griffith Taylor, in their paper, cited on pages 245, 251, have shown how the atolls along the Great Barrier have been shaped by the prevalent, mostly wind-induced, currents; and I have shown in my papers on the Mar- quesas and Tortugas atolls that precisely the same principles apply to them. The principles involved are illustrated by the accompany- i The Coral Reefs of the Tropical Pacific, p!. 104, fig. 4. 314 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. ing diagram (fig. 21), which is copied from Hedley and Griffith Taylor. Stanley Gardiner has given good descriptions of the faros of the Mal- dives... He says in a footnc’e on the page referred to: The technical term atoll is der-v..d from the Maldivan atolu, signifying a province for governmental purposes. There are 13 of these in the Maldives, and many consist of the islands on separate banks, mest of which have distinct encircling series of reef reaching the surface. Many of the individual reefs are themselves ring-shaped with pools of water several fathoms deep in their centers. There are obvious disadvantages in using diminutives of the terms atoll and lagoon as applying to such. They are situated on shallow banks, and many are actually larger than some of the isolated ring- shaped reefs of the Pacific, which arise separately in the deep basin of that ocean. I therefore propose to borrow further the Maldivan terms, faro and velu, the former signifying such a small ring-shaped reef of an atoll or bank and the latter its central basin. I, further, following the Maldivan use of the term velu, apply it to deep pools even in the long, linear, circumscribing reefs of many of the banks, as I conceive that such pools have in all these reefs on banks the same mode of origin. On page 171 of the same work, Gardiner says: Each large reef on the bank is a separate entity that has grown up and pursued its history by itself, influenced it is true by the reefs in its vicinity but never directly connected with them. It is only now that the bank is at all approaching the condi- tion -£ the perfect atoll. Having seen how small faro may be formed from their earliest beginnings, we now see in North Mahlos the further fortune of such atolis. their joining together where possible to form long linear reefs with the loss perhaps of the whole inner part of their own reefs. The second kind of atolls more or less margin and more or less completely encircle the flat summits of eminences rising from oceanic depths. -The Darwinian explanation of the formation of such atoll rings is illustrated by figure 5, page 242, of this paper. Have these atolls formed in accordance with the postulates of the Darwinian hypothesis, or have more or less perfect rings developed on the edges of submarine flats, with or without submergence ? The origin of the first kind of atolls has been ascertained with so high degree of probability that it amounts to certainty. They have been formed on relatively shoal submarine flats, during or following. submergence, and have been shaped by the prevalent currents. But a basement platform for the second kind of atolls can not be traced beyond the atoll limits, at least in our present state of knowl- edge. However, in case of atolls of an area so large as Rangiroa, in the Paumotus, for instance, the presumption is against their deriva- tion from barrier reefs according to the Darwinian hypothesis. They are too large, and, as Wharton long ago pointed out, their bottoms are too nearly level. If the Darwinian explanation were true, lagoon floors should be concave, more or less bowl shaped. That small, flat, summit areas may result from subaerial degradation and marine planation is known in many instances. That volcanic 1 Gardiner, J. Stanley, The fauna and geography of the Maldive and Loccadive Archipelagoes, vol. 1, pt. 2, p. 155, 1901-1903. 315 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. "CT ‘ON LUVHO ATAUOS OLLACOAY GNV ISVON’S*QH WOUT “UNVA ATW LVIVS AO LUVHD——'Z *OLT aro 06 .6L 008 AE 08 cg We py 9 . rep "yak 2 a yaa) e Pee ba 7 OTE ate J 08. “86 SOU OR, 3 L sppay Ay a 9 a : L sop um aut fc erie hye 8 ze ¢ og fo See qi } ig 9 ft tp re ‘ig te 8 fe iv te ¢ 48 if te é te iF syooyy svaapuninT “te ie ks Sm Y ra fe soar ates tp punoul-49 oe aT N. Dp | tr ol spprdruogp F - s z $¢ eS 4 Sey Aya shou 1098 M eer ab G x os + 9 Fe tea Oraa tere ¥ 3 git ¢ 08 GL : 308 “06.08 Gf 316 . BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. piles may be cut to wave base is known, and on page 311 of this paper Foye is quoted on a process by means of which reduction of limestone masses to sea level or slightly below sea level is accomplished. In this connection Salt Key Bank, which lies between the Straits of Florida, Santaren Channel, and Nicholas Channel (text-fig. 22), is interesting, as it is 61 nautical miles long by 37 nautical miles wide. Except a few marginal islets and elongate keys, it ranges between 34 and 8 fathoms in depth. Alexander Agassiz visited and described this bank! and says that it is composed of eolian rock similar to the 64 63° 200 a oN 150 407 A ee ‘ _ 123, 39 i A . ys Orangetownts “BA 19 23 20 is «( SABA BANK (clear white coral sand ) E Gi — = 0 gag it Qs Lo re—--- —— Z 60 oP as This 1ed-9? er pe 408 rock which. ¢ 504 533 ey 64 : 63° Fig. 23.—CHART OF SAN SABA BANK. FROM U.S. HYDROGRAPHIC CHART NO. 2318. Bahamas. The bank looks as if it were once a part of the Bahamas and was dissevered by faulting between it and the Bahamas. Whether that suggestion is or is not true, there is here a large level bank, obviously not formed according to the Darwinian hypothesis, that might serve an atoll foundation. Saba, Pedro, and Rosalind banks in the Caribbean Sea have been mentioned on pages 303, 304. Figures 23-25 illustrate them. It is not practicable to work out the geology of the foundations of the Paumotuan and the Maldive and Laccadive stolls, but the 1A reconnaissance of the Bahamas, etc., Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 26, p. 81, pls. 1 and 31, 1894, GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 317 probability seems distinctly in favor of their being submerged pla- teau surfaces, upon which coral reefs, mostly marginal, have estab- lished themselves during and subsequent to moderate submergence. I will revert to Admiral Wharton’s emphasis of the levelness of the floors of atoll lagoons (depth 24 to 26 fathoms), to his statement, ‘inside the low rim of growing coral which encircles their edges in various degrees,’”’ and to his question ‘‘What causes this remarkable similarity of depth and this extraordinarily even surface over these large banks?’’ As I believe this short article by Admiral Wharton -is one of the truly great contributions to our knowledge of coral reefs, 80 W. Riage 10) 18° 7 es IT” “240 0° Nuev ae bore) M4 Fig. 24.—CHART OF PEDRO BANK: FROM U.S. HYDROGRAPHIC CHART No. 1290. SCALE 1 INCH = 48 NAUTICAL MILES. the temptation to quote all of it is great. In it he points out one of the fundamental defects of the Darwinian hypothesis, namely, that the lagoon floor is not basin shaped as it should be if the atoll is due to the upgrowth of a reef that began on the slopes of a volcanic cone. He says: ‘‘I have no hesitation in saying that a flat floor is an invariable characteristic of a large atoll, and I can not find his ‘deeply concave surface’ in any large atoll. On the contrary, a flat surface is found in all of these, whether the rim be above or below the surface.”’ Daly in his two papers cited has made an elaborate study of the depths of atoll lagoons of the Pacific.and Indian oceans and has com- pared the depths 1 in them with the depths in the lagoon channels of the same region. As the data compiled by him can not be repeated 318 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. here, his later discussion in his paper on the Glacial-control theory may be consulted. Daly says: ‘Since probably not more than 5 m. to 25 m. can be allowed for the thickness of the post-glacial calcareous veneer in the wider lagoons, the accordance of platform depth for the wider lagoons and reefless banks seems clear. Their range of 60-90 m. represents magnitudes of the same order as the depths computed for the Pleistocene wave-formed benches.” I have pointed out the similarity in the depths on Saba, Pedro, and Rosalind banks, to those on the atoll-lagoon floors of the Pacific and Indian oceans—that is, the depths are between 20 and 30 fathoms. ci aes om ie 18-16 Se, 30, @ ATE Dine ssh. ws 1516 7y5 16 ° 6 5 14 5 16 16°. Sage Bd = ee eee ae sch. IT any li $227 15 fiw.seyy 1 (2a Bp 102/ i 5 Thunder yy itt Knoll P1319, 3g) Cj 1 3 ai : : “7p ag Webrk sa, 2 10 is G3 NS 2 Meee 65; 120 1°12 2D, iG si ‘: <8 BB brkish. sent. lA : 37 a 12, 7 Re pHal3s yo) = 225 12 16 3 310:-° ae oie rvs a He TS VE sale 59. 1g 12 13 13 7 ld 43 maNiio 6 ‘, JN 18 176,433! We. aT! tp ple Mc 1 22 ert. 72 #n : ih SERRANILLA. BANE. 14 WW ' 95 120 puusy, . Fig. 25.—CHART OF ROSALIND AND SARRANILLA BANKS. FROM U.S. HYDROGRAPHIC CHART NO. 364. The possibility of the formation of atoll lagoons by submarine solution was eliminated in the discussion on page 250 of this paper. Atoll rims are formed by constructional processes. That the greater abundance and luxuriance of reef-forming organisms on the periphe- ries of atolls is due mostly, if not solely, to the intolerance of such organisms to sediment, is shown by certain of my experiments. If the colonies are protected from sediment, the growth of corals within a lagoon may exceed that of corals on the outside. It is my belief that the coral reefs forming atoll rims are superposed on platforms that antedate the formation of the living reefs, and which have undergone a moderate submergence in Recent geologic 1 Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. 51, pp. 178-199, 1915. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 319 time. It is reasonable to ascribe this submergence to rise in ocean level because of deglaciation, because the order of magnitude of the submergence is the same as the order of magnitude expected from deglaciation. Marginal wave-cut benches should exist, or should have existed around the atoll banks. Perhaps more accurate hydro- graphic surveys and more detailed studies of the submarine profiles will discover them. CONCLUSIONS. The results of an examination of the Tertiary, Pleistocene, and living coral reefs and reet corals of the West Indies, Central America, and the Southeastern United States are as follows: 1. The fringing reefs have formed usually, if not invariably, during periods of intermittent uplift, following considerable submergence. 2. All the important offshore reefs, both fossil and living, possibly except the reefs off the southeast coast of Barbados, have devel- oped during or following submergence after the subaerial erosion of their basements. 3. Most of the fossil offshore reefs, all of those on which informa- tion has been obtained, and all of these living reefs are superposed on antecedent flattish basements or platforms. Where there are no platforms, as off fault shore lines and young volcanic islands, there are no offshore reefs. 4. Although corals are constructional geologic agents, they are subordinate to other limestone forming agencies, and none of the American platforms were formed by infilling behind a barrier. 5. Submarine flats and plateaus at proper depths below sea level to have furnished basements for offshore reefs are not confined to the temperature zone suitable for coral growth. Such extralimital | banks are Georges Bank, the banks off the coast of Nova Scotia, and the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Reefs form on such banks where the proper ecologic conditions for the life of reef building corals prevail. 6. The submergences during and after which the fossil reefs were _ formed were almost certainly due to differential crustal movement; the submergence of the basement of the living reefs is probably due to complex causes, for there was differential crustal movement in the area under consideration during Pleistocene time, also at some places within it during Recent time, and, in addition to these more or less local movements, there seems to have been during Recent time a general submergence of the eastern coast of America from Argentina to New England. The amount of the general Recent sub- mergence lies between 40 and slightly more than 20 fathoms; an amount of the order of magnitude that would be expected to result from the effect of deglaciation in raising sea level. The principal wave-formed Pleistocene plain now lies between 26 and 36 fathoms 320 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. in depth, and is separated by an escarpment from a shallower plain that now ranges between 17 and 20 fathoms in depth. What appear to be marginal hanging valleys north of St. Thomas and on the St. Martin Plateau, and solution wells, in the Bahamas, 33 to 38 fathoms deep, suggest that there may have been a short stand of sea level about 40 fathoms below its present stand. 7. The fact that the terrace flat between 17 and 20 fathoms in depth is cut away on promontory tips on the windward side of St. Thomas, while it is preserved in protected areas, indicates that the higher flat is older than the lower, and that it has been resubmerged after the development of the lower flat. The general similarity of the submarine profiles off Antigua, on the St. Martin Plateau, and on Mosquito Bank favors the inference that there was in those areas a similar lowering and subsequent rise of sea level. The submerged channel within the channel at the mouth of Habana Harbor, and similar phenomena at other localities around the Cuban coast, show that during later Pleistocene time Cuba stood more than 100 feet higher than immediately previous to the cutting of these valleys within older valleys, and that after the valleys-within-valleys were formed there was submergence to an amount of about 100 feet. Fall of sea level during Pleistocene time and rise during Recent time is indicated for the Bermudas, the Bahamas, Florida, Central America, and the mouth of the Amazon, as well as for the areas just mentioned. These phenomena are in essential accord with the demands of the Glacial-control hypothesis. 8. The principal living West Indian and Central American reefs are superposed on submarine flats or plateaus of pre-Pleistocene age, that were dry-land areas during at least a part of Pleistocene time, and while they were dry land they were wave cut and remodeled around their margins by submarine planation. 9. There are two kinds of atolls, namely, (a) those that rise above relatively shoal-water platforms and were shaped by the prevalent currents, which are largely wind induced; (6) those that more or less . completely encircle the flat summits of eminences that rise from ocean depths. These rings are formed by constructional geologic agencies, because, as submarine solution by sea water in such areas and at such depths is chemically impossible, a lower, flat area, sur- rounded by a higher rim can not be formed by submarine solution or by any other known destructional agencies. The depths on such banks as Saba, Pedro, Rosalind, etc., indicate that they were in large part, at least, above water during part of Pleistocene time, and that the flat summits are largely due to processes operative in pre-Pleistocene time. What the processes were that caused the leveling of the summits is a matter of pure speculation, but it seems probable that they were subaerial erosion and submarine planation. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. EVAL The living coral rims on the banks enumerated have formed during and subsequent to Recent submergence. A review of the conditions under which the principal barrier reefs in the Pacific Ocean were formed leads to essentially identical con- clusions. Those of the Australian Great Barrier, of New Cale- donia, the Fiji Islands, and Tahiti are superposed on antecedent platforms that have been submerged in Recent geologic time. The submergence of the Australian continental shelf apparently can be assigned to Recent rise of sea level because of deglaciation, as it seems that most of the surface of the platform was exposed as a dry- land area by withdrawal of water from the ocean during at least a part of Pleistocene time. The submergence of the Fijian platforms is concomitant with, if not entirely due to, differential crustal move- ment. ‘The superposition of the barrier reefs off the shores of the smaller Society Islands on antecedent platforms is not proved. Evidence sufficient for the basis of an opinion is not available. The absence of reefs around Mehetia, where there is no shore platform, is significant. That the barriers off the other smaller islands were formed after the submergence of their basements is clear. The small cliffs at the spurs ends, in my opinion, do not constitute evidence against the presence of shore platforms, flats, or lowlands, ante- cedent to submergence. That ocean level in the Indo-Pacific, because of deglaciation, in Recent time has risen to an amount of about 60 meters (about 33 fathoms) as postulated by Humphreys and Daly, and that this rise of ocean level had influenced the development of living coral reefs, is, 1 believe, so well established as to be almost if not quite incontrovertible. The rims of the large atolls, and perhaps of the smaller ones also, are growing, in my opinion, on the surfaces of, mostly the edges of, flat summit areas that have undergone geologically Recent submerg- ence. These flats, I believe, were mostly formed in pre-Pleisto- cene time, and it is my opinion that they were largely out of water, or were very near the surface of the water, during Pleistocene time. _ If they projected above the water for an appreciable time, they should have been wave cut around their edges by the lowered Pleistocene sea, and evidence of such benching should be sought. I believe the evidence will not be found on the hydrographic charts at present available, for the object of the published charts is to guide navigators rather than to serve as a basis for physiographic studies of the sea bottom in depths where navigation is safe. From what precedes I believe it is clear that I consider that there are two factors that determine the vigorous development of offshore reefs, which under the most favorable conditions form barriers or atoll rims, the other proper ecologic conditions also being present. The first factor is the existence of an offshore flat, which may have 322 BULLETIN 108, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. a land area on one side and open ocean on the other or which may be the top of an oceanic eminence. The second factor is gradual sub- mergence. The vigor of offshore reefs where these conditions pre- vail can be correlated with certain ecologic demands of reef-forming corals. Reef corals thrive on offshore flats, near or against ocean water, because they are there removed from the deleterious effects of both land-derived and other sediment. Some of these rela- tions are well exemplified in the barrier reef off the east side of Andros Island, Bahamas. This reef grows on the outer, windward, edge of a small shallow flat, against the deep water of the Tongue of the Ocean. As the winds set landward across the reef no oceanic or land-derived sediment is deposited on the reef, it is bathed by the purest ocean water, and receives the largest amount of animal plankton that that part of the sea can supply. On the great shoals of the Bahama Banks and in the shoal waters of Florida behind the reefs the winds stir up the mud on the bottom; the sediment while in suspension kills the plankton; when it settles it kills those bottom- living organisms that can not endure being covered by mud. Onsuch flats reef-forming corals can not live. On shallow banks coral reefs therefore thrive best on the windward sides. However, if the flat extends far enough offshore for land-derived sediment not to reach the reef and if the depth is sufficient for waves under ordinary conditions not to stir up the mud on the bottom, but not too deep for the growth of reef corals, barriers may develop on the leeward sides of islands. A land area to the windward may actually favor coral growth, as it breaks the force of the winds. A position on an offshore flat, particularly on the windward edge of a flat, insures a supply of the purest ocean water and an abundance of animal plankton. The gradual submergence of an offshore flat perpetuates the favor- able conditions for the life of reef-building corals, and gives an opportunity for continual growth upward. With upward growth during slow submergence of the basement the ecologic conditions for the life of reef-forming corals are made better, ot the deleterious effects of sediment are minimized. As regards the life of corals, the method of bringing about these conditions is of no importance. Whether the flat was formed by marine planation, by alluviation and the building of a coastal flat, by base-leveling through subaerial erosion, by the formation of a submarine plain of deposition, or by any other special process, is unimportant, provided the flat be formed. Whether the submerg- ence be caused by differential crustal movement, local or remote, or by rise in ocean level due to the melting of glaciers, is unim- portant, provided there be gradual submergence of the basement. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. a28 The manner of producing the result is subordinate to the result. However the conditions may be brought about, preexistent flats and gradual submergence are two factors needed to supply continu- ously favorable conditions for the growth of reef-forming corals. The importance of deglaciation on modern coral-reef development consists in its having caused a gradual and moderate increase in the depth of the ocean, thereby eS ot submergence both in rate and amount favorable for the growth of ee corals, The general conclusions aes expressed are sauna to those pre- viously published in a number of my papers. Before discussing the bearing of my conclusions regarding the formation of coral reefs on the theories advanced by others, I will give brief attention to some remarks by Prof. W. M. Davis. The following paragraph is copied from a paper by him entitled: The origin of coral reefs.! Similar remarks occur in others of his papers. Reefs and Reef-Platforms. A modification of Darwin’s theory has lately been proposed by Vaughan, who regards recent submergence proved by the embayments of the central islands as the determining cause for the upgrowth of existing barrier reefs but who interprets the deeper and larger part of the entire reef mass as an independent “platform” of earlier origin. As this investigator has not yet published his views regarding the origin of the reef-platforms his modification of Darwin’s theory will not be here discussed further than to note that it seems inapplicable to many barrier reefs in the Fiji and Society groups; that the discontinuity of certain barrier reefs seems to be explicable on the assumption of imperfect upgrowth during and after a recent and rapid subsidence as well as on the assumption of independent origins for the reefs and their platforms; and that, while the extension of reef-platforms outside of the coral zone as in the case of the Great Barrier reef of Australia, truly suggests a ‘dual origin of reef masses, this does not exclude the contemporaneous growth of plat- form and reef within the coral zone during long-continued but irregular or intermittent subsidence. Most of the objections raised by Professor Davis have been an- swered on preceding pages of this paper. It will be obvious to those who have read what ! have said that my inferences as to submergence are by no means confined to the evidence of embayments in shore lines. In fact, many submerged areas show no clear-cut shore-line embayments. It will also be obvious that the interpretation I am making did not originate with me. EH. C. Andrews, in 1902, after his work on the Great Barrier reef of Australia, put forward in essential principles the same explanation. In answer to Professor Davis’s statement ‘‘regarding the origin of the reef platform,’’ I will say that the recognition of the fact of super- position does not require knowledge of the constitution or origin of the basement on which an object or structure has been superposed. We may recognize the fact that a book lies on a table without knowing the kind of material of which the table is composed or the process of its Nat. Acad. Sci. Proc., vol. 1, pp. 146-152, March, 1915. 324 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. manufacture; there is controversy as to the origin of the Sunderland terrace in Maryland and Virginia, but no geologist will deny that certain houses have been built on the surface of the Sunderland terrace flat; although the geologic history of the pre-Cambrian formations in Michigan and in other areas adjacent to the Great Lakes may be inadequately known, no one is justified in denying for such a reason that glacial deposits overlie the geologically old rocks, as it is obvious that the overlying material has in some way been placed on the underlying. The superposition of a geologic formation on another may be recognized without knowing the complete history of either the upper or the lower. The oligocene coral reef along Flint River near Bainbridge, Georgia, rests on the eroded surface of an _ upper Eocene limestone now designated the Ocala limestone. That knowledge of the Ocala limestone may not be adequate does not invalidate the recognition of the facts that the fossil reef overlies it and that an erosion period intervened between its deposition and the growth of the reef, which obviously formed during or after the sub- mergence of its basement. To ascertain the origin of the submarine flats on which offshore reefs stand is important in the advancement of our knowledge of geologic history, and I have acquired as much information on the subject as I could. I am completely convinced that there is no one explanation that can be applied to all of them. The following kinds have already been recognized: (1) Slightly tilted bedded tuff, as in the fossil reefs of Antigua; (2) slightly tilted bed of limestone, as off the south coast of St. Croix and Cuba; (3) submerged coastal flats, as in the Fiji Islands; (4) submerged peneplained surfaces, as in the fossil reefs of Porto Rico; (5) submarine plains due to uplift of con- siderable areas of the ocean bottom and to the deposition of organic deposits on such a surface, as the Floridian Plateau previous to the formation of the middle and upper Oligocene reefs of Florida and southern Georgia; (6) flats of complex and not definitely known origin, such as those of the Antigua-Barbuda Bank, the Virgin Bank, and the continental shelves of tropical America and Australia. Plains suitable for the growth of corals have been formed by subaerial and submarine deposition, and by both subaerial base-leveling and sub- marine plantation. Nearly every, if not every, plain-producing process operative in tropical and subtropical regions has taken part in the formation of plains on which corals have grown or are growing ~ where the plains have been brought below sea level and where the other ecologic conditions for offshore reef formation obtain. I will revert to this subject in discussing the Glacial-control theory and in making suggestions as to future research. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 325 BEARING OF THESE CONCLUSIONS ON HyYpoTHESES OF THE FORMATION OF CORAL REEFs. How do my results compare with the theories and hypotheses advanced by others? Before considering my conclusions in their relation to those reached by other investigators, I wish to make a few ' general remarks on the literature appertaining to coral reefs. It is a_ subject that, in order to be properly treated, requires a considerable diversity of knowledge, as biologic, oceanographic, and geologic problems are involved. Very rarely has it been practicable for a man to be a specialist in all of these fields. Usually, as any investigator has been specially qualified in only one or two of them, he has paid particular attention to those subjects with which he was familiar, and nearly always did good work in those subjects; but in those fields in which he has been only casually engaged, his work is nearly always amateurish, and his conclusions are in many instances erroneous. Should we expect a indn who is primarily a biologist to be an expert in geology, especially when he attempts geologic work after he arrives at the place where he expects to conduct his investigations, without having had previous experience? Should we expect a man who has riveted his attention on dry-land physiography, and who has not thought of biologi: problems or of the physiography of the sea bottom to take information from those branches of science? In reading the many publications on coral reefs, I am impressed with the particular, personal interests of the investigators, but what strikes me more forcibly is the excellence of nearly all the papers. I know no paper by a serious scientific man on a coral-reef area that does not contain records of valuable observations and correct conclusions. I have had the wish to write an account of the very gradual growth of the knowledge we now have of coral reefs, and point out how each of the successive workers has contributed toward making that knowl- edge what it now is. It would be a record of honorable achievement. In the short review to follow I trust I may point out some of the substantial additions to be ‘credited to those whose opinions I shall discuss. 1. The Darwin-Dana hypothesis, in my opinion, is correct as regards the formation of offshore reefs during and after submergence; but as regards the formation of a prism of reef material, the upper surface of which forms a flat behind the barrier, their theory is wrong for every area on which we have definite information. Although the theoretic possibility of the conversion of a fringing reef into a barrier and a barrier into an atoll may not be denied, no instance of such conversion has yet been discovered. The inferences of Darwin as to areas of subsidence and of elevation, as shown on plate 3 of his work, are largely in error, for barrier reefs are present where there is not general crustal subsidence, as Foye points out in his paper on the 326 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. geology of the Fiji Islands, where “since the Pleistocene period the algebraic sum of the movements has been positive and uplift has resulted.’’! Very many similar instances, the Bermudas, the Bahamas, Florida, and Cuba among them, can be given. The criticisms of the Darwin-Dana hypothesis apply to the recent publications of W. M. Davis. 2. Semper, Alexander Agassiz, and others, who have maintained that barrier coral reefs have formed in areas of uplift, are correct, if the sum total of the movements since some date back in Tertiary time be considered, and their observations and deductions are valu- able in that they emphasize these facts; but they are in error in that they failed to take into account that in many areas there is incon- trovertible evidence showing submergence of the basements of the now-living reefs. Semper made astute observations on currents, but his deductions as to the formation of lagoons by destructional proc- esses are not warranted. 3. Sir John Murray invented a very stimulating hypothesis, and correctly emphasized the necessity of taking submarine planation into account in studies of the basements of coralreefs. He, however, overlooked important facts clearly proving Recent submergence in coral-reef areas, and his theory of the formation of atoll lagoons and lagoon channels through submarine solution by sea water is entirely disproved, and there are no other known destructional processes whereby lagoons may be formed, for lagoons are areas of sedimentation in which filling predominates over removal of material. 4. Guppy is correct in his interpretation of offshore reefs being superposed on submarine platforms or “ledges,’’ and he made nu- merous valuable contributions to our knowledge of coral reeis, but he failed to take into account evidence showing Recent submergence. 5. Admiral Sir W. J. L. Wharton made one of the greatest con- tributions to our knowledge of atolls when he discovered the flatness of the floors and the uniformity of depth in atoll lagoons, and he pointed out the inadequacy of the Darwinian hypothesis to explam these phenomena. He emphasized the importance of submarine planation in leveling the top of peaks that reach or almost reach sea level, and definitely suggested the superposition of coral patches and atoll rims on flats produced in that way. He not only did not oppose the subsidence of such flats, but he thought that they frequently do ‘“‘subside and that some of the deeper lagoons may owe their depths of 50 fathoms or so to such a movement, quite apart from subsidence of large areas which we know occurs.’’ The only emendations of these statements that I can suggest is that the probable effects of glacia- tion and deglaciation might have been considered. 1 Nat. Acad. Sci. Proc., vol. 3, p. 309, 1917. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 327 6. Alexander Agassiz correctly observed the superposition of the living coral reefs of the Bermudas and the Bahamas on older lime- stone foundations that stood above sea level previous to the sub- mergence which made possible the formation of reefs in the places where they now grow. He also pointed out the superposition of the Floridian, Cuban, and Central American living reefs on antecedent platforms or older limestone. He showed that in several areas in the Pacific the sum total of local crustal movements since some time in the Tertiary period had been upward. But he failed to take account of Recent submergence in Florida, the West Indies, and Central America, and he advanced the hypothesis that the living offshore reefs of the Pacific are superposed on wave-cut platforms without change of sea level by submergence of the land. I believe Agassiz correct in his emphasis of the need of an antecedent plat7orm for the vigorous growth of offshore recfs; hut he did not recognize the clear evidence of Recent submergence of the shores of the recf-encircled islands, and unfortunately tried to explain the formation of lagoons by submarine solution and scour. 7. E. C. Andrews, I believe, is incontrovertibly correct in the essentials of his interpretation of the conditions under which the Great Barricr Reef of Australia has formed; that is, it is superposed on that part of the recently submerged Continental Shelf of Australia that lies within the temperature zone favorable for the life of reef- forming corals. 8. Stanley Gardiner, who has made great contributions to our knowledge of Indo-Pacific corals and coral reefs and whose work on the oceanography of the Indian Ocean is justly rated as classic, com- mitted the same crrors in interpreting the geologic relations of coral recis as did Murray and Agassiz. He failed to infer submergence from shore line characters and advocated the formation of lagoons through submarine solution by sea water. 9. Hedley and Griffith Taylor agreed in all the essentials of Andrews’s interpretation of the conditions under which the Australian Great Barrier formed; they opposed Murray’s solution hypothesis for the formation of lagoons, and correctly emphasized the importance of currents, largely wind induced, in the shaping of the atolls along the Great Barrier. 10. Daly -did not originate the Glacial-contiol theory of coral reefs, but he is its principal exponent. The following ascertained relations of living offshore coral reefs conform to the demands of this hypothesis: (4) They are superposed on antecedent basement flats; (b) the amount of recent submergence, between 30 and slightly more than 20 fathoms, without deducting the amount of Recent up-build- ing of the sea bottom, which probably is as much as a few fathoms, is of the order of magnitude expected from deglaciation; (c) the 37149—19—Bull. 103——10 328 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. rate of growth of corals is known to be of such an order of magnitude as to account for the thickness of any known living coral reef by the growth of coral-reef organism since the disappearance of the last great continental glaciers. As Daly is not a specialist on corals, he has made some errors in his discussions of the geologic history and ecology of corals, but these errors do not affect the validity of glacial control being one of the dominant factors in modern coral-reef development. The only important point on which I am not in agree- ment with him is the evaluation of Pleistocene marine planation. I have shown that the Floridian Plateau has existed as a plateau at least since late Eocene time, and there have been extensive submarine flats in certain West Indian areas since late Eocene or Oligocene time. The submarine profiles that I have drawn for the West Indies, Central America, and Australia indicate Pleistocene benching in depths between 26 and 36 fathoms, without deducting anything for Recent upbuilding of the sea bottom. Certain West Indian and Central American reefs and the Australian Great Barrier, I, therefore, believe are growing on what were dry-land areas during at least a part of Pleistocene time. It, therefore, seems to me that many of the flats discussed by Daly are of pre-Pleistocene age, and that he has over-evaluated Pleistocene marine planation. Daly admits that there has been local crustal movement in some coral-reef areas. 11. Wood Jones is undoubtedly correct in attaching great im- portance to the effects of sediment on the formation of coral reefs. No one who has had actual experience with coral reefs can for a moment doubt it. He also correctly accepts the interpretations of Andrews and of Hedley and Griffith Taylor for the Great Barrier of Australia, joing with the latter two in their opposition to the solution hypothesis and in their emphasis of the effects of wind- induced currents in shaping the segments of a reef. He, however, appears not to have appreciated the importance that, in my opinion, should be attached to submergence as factor in coral-reef formation. 12. My own opinions can be very simply stated: (a) Fringing reefs seem always to have unconformable basal contacts; they may beformed after submergence that is not followed by uplift or durmg intermittent uplift that follows submergence; that is, they may form during periods of either emergence or submergence of land areas. Are the basal con- tacts really significant? Must not these contacts in the very nature of the case be unconformable? If the basement has moved up with reference to sea level and a reef begins along the strand line, the basement of the reef will certainly be different from the reef itself and there will be an obvious unconformity. If the land mass sub- sides and a fringing forms along shore, the base of the reef will surely exhibit unconformable relations. I am unable to imagine a fringing without an unconformable basal contact. I never saw one that did GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 329 not have such a contact. (b) Offshore coral reefs, barriers, and atolls, form on antecedent flattish basements during and after sub- mergence in areas where the general ecologic conditions are suitable for coral growth, as stated on page 240. This generalization applies to fossil as well as to living reefs. (c) Recent rise of sea level because of deglaciation has made conditions favorable for coral-reef formation over enormous areas, and it is one of the important factors in causing the great development of coral reefs at the present time. But in some areas, as in the Fijis, the flats on which the reefs are growing are coastal flats that have been brought below sea level by tilting, as described by Andrews and Foye. (d) The theoretic possibility of the progressive change of a fringing reef into a barrier and later into an atoll, according to the Darwin-Dana hypothesis, may not be denied, but no instance of such a transformation has as yet been discovered. (e) The coral-reef investigation is of value to geology, not so much because of what has been discovered regarding corals as it is that. it has led to the study of a great complex of geologic phenomena among which corals and coral reefs are only incident. Further inves- tigations of the phenomena associated with coral reefs are among the great desiderata of geologic research. SUGGESTIONS AS TO FUTURE INVESTIGATIONS. Before closing this discussion I will present a few suggestions that to me appear pertinent. 1. It is my belief that, although ecologic notes are of much value in systematic work, not a great deal more advantage will result from such ecologic investigations in areas where corals are luxuriant as those conducted by Gardiner, Wood Jones, and others, including myself. We need to know more of the physiology of corals, but such researches must be conducted by expert physiologists. There is great need for ecologic work in the waters northward and southward from the coral-reef zone. Within the coral-reef zone there are three faunas delimited by depth and temperature. What happens outside the coral-reef zone? Do the deeper-water forms live in shallower water as the high latitudes are attained? Is it depth or temperature that causes the vertical faunal distribution within the Tropics? More knowledge of the ecologic relations of the deeper-water faunas in the Tropics and of the faunas in both shoal and deep water in the temperate zones of the ocean is of great importance to geologists, for such knowledge would furnish a basis for interpreting the physical conditions under which some of the fossil faunas lived. For some years I have wished to make an investigation of the kind outlined, but other duties have prevented the fulfilment of my desire. There is a large amount of morphologic work needed, both on the skeletons and on the soft parts of corals, but particular consideration of this subject is scarcely in place here. 330 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. 2. The study of sediments in coral-reef areas has scarcely been initi- ated. Accurate determination of the source of the constituents of calcium-carbonate bottom-depositsshould be made, the deposits should be classified according to their constituents, at least the area occupied by each kind of deposit should be ascertained as nearly as is practi- cable, and an endeavor should be made to ascertain the rates at which the different kinds of sediments accumulate. The results from investigations of this kind are of vital importance to geology, for only by firmly basing our inductions on wide and accurate knowledge of what is now happening in the ocean can we hope to make reliable deductions concerning the origin of and the conditions under which older sediments were formed. The quantitative evaluation of the work done by the different agents cooperative in the production of the different kinds of sediments should be an object constantly in mind. Although this is essentially a new field cf research, during the past few years a number of investigators have notable achieve- ments to their credit. 3. Detailed studics of the general geology of tropical islands and con- tinental areas adjacent to tropical and subtropical waters should be undertaken wherever possible. These investigations should include consideration of the stratigraphic and structural geology, the petrog- raphy of both the igneous and sedimentary rocks, very detailed work on the stratigraphic paleontology, and the physiography of the land areas. We now know that, by combining knowledge gleaned from the study of many relations, it is possible not only to recognize for an area the succession of rocks, their age equivalents in other areas, and their deformational history, but that it is also possible to ascertain the successive physiographic stages and other physical conditions throughout at least a considerable part of the history. The structural relations of the successive formations, the nature of the contacts of formations, and the character of the sediments, are among the criteria to be used in making the latter kind of deductions. Of how many tropical areas are there topographic maps on ascale of 1 : 62,500 or of 1 : 125,0002 Many areas, where the geology is very complicated, should be mapped on a scale of at least 1 : 20,000. The very detailed studies of a few carefully selected areas would supply keys for other areas and thereby accelerate work in other areas. Detailed work of the kind suggested should be done in Antigua, St. Bartholomew, St. Martin, and Anguilla, in the West Indies, for cach of these islands typifies certain phenomena that are critical in elucidating the history of the West Indies, Central America, the southern United States, and northern South America. : 4, Biogeographic investigations supply a basis for deductions regard- ing former land connections and the dates of the separation of islands that may have been parts of large land masses. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. Boi 5. Shore-line history is obviously an essential part of the study of coral reefs. But the entire story can not be deduced from the infor- mation furnished by all of the lines of investigation above suggested. The configuration of the sea bottom needs to be studied, both in plan and profile. Notwithstanding the grgat amount of work that has been done on oceanic hydrography, close attention to the minor configuration of the sea bottom and attempts to draw inferences from such studies are of very recent date. Since most hydrographic charts were not intended to serve as a basis for such researches, we are fortunate that we can extract so much information from them. Although it is probable that a much larger amount of data is on the charts than has as yet been utilized, that additional hydrographic research is needed is obvious. What are submarine slopes off the: divide ends in reef-encircled islands? What is the character of the slopes off both the reefs and the breaks in the reefs? The problem of submerged terraces, flats and fronts, has barely been touched. How extensively are such features present, and what is their signifi- cance? These considerations lead to inquiries regarding wave base, the rate of motion of the water, the erosional and transporting power of the water while in motion at different rates, and the relations of erosion and transportation to depth. Although the factors men- tioned are among those that determine the profile of subaqueous equilibrium and must be considered in their relation to it, there are other factors, among which are the initial slope of the bottom, the hardness and degree of consolidation of the material for:ming the bottom, and the attitude, height, and hardness of the rocks at the shore. More information on this complex of problems is urgently needed. Sea level rises or falls with reference to the land, or the land rises or falls with reference to the sea level. That there have been many shifts in the position of the strand line since the beginning of Pleisto- cene time is known to every geologist. He also knows that in many areas shifts have been caused by tilting or flexing of parts of the earth’s crust, and that there must have been lowering of sea level while there were great continental ice sheets, followed by rise of sea level when the ice sheets melted. How much of the geologically Recent change in the position of strand line is to be attributed to chmatic causes and how much to differential crustal movement ? More accurate and areally more extensive studies of shore-line his- tory should enable a more precise evaluation of the effects due to each than is now possible. Such investigations must not be confined to tropical and subtropical areas—they must be world wide. Then there is the problem of Pleistocene wave cutting. I believe, for reasons stated elsewhere, that Daly has overevaluated the effects of Pleistoceme marine planation. Has either of us really enough 332 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. information to be convincing? Should answers to the questions raised in the preceding two paragraphs be forthcoming, and if we can make reliable estimates of the duration of the Pleistocene, the amount of marine planation while sea level was lowered in the Pleis- tocene might be more nearly approximated. In conclusion, I wish to say that the questions and suggestions con- tained in the foregoing remarks have grown out of a study of corals and coral reefs and the phenomena associated with them; and al- though it may have been shown, that corals are not so important as they were once considered to be, geolgists should be grateful for the romantic interest inspired by these lowly animals, for this interest has led us into the presence of some of the profoundest problems of geology. Perhaps the interest will endure and it may lead us to a better understanding of the world of which we form a part. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 333 SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF THE FAUNAS. Class ANTHOZOA. MADREPORARIA IMPERFORATA. Family SERIATOPORIDAE Milne Edwards and Haime. 1849. Seriatoporidae Mitne Epwarps and Harme, Comptes Rend., vol. 29, p. 262. 1869. Pocilloporidae VeRRILL, Essex Inst. Proc., vol. 6, p. 90. 1870. Stylophoridae VeRritu, Conn. Acad. Arts and Sci. Trans., vol. 1, p. 514. In a recent publication’ I have stated that while I seriously doubted the propriety of placing Stylophora and Pocillopora in separate families, the traditional usage was followed. Additional study since that statement was written has convinced me that Stylo- phora, Serratopora, and Pocillopora all belong to the same family. In fact, it seems that both Seriatopora and Pocillopora are derived from Stylophora, mostly through retrogression in the development of the septa. Itis hoped to present in a future paper the evidence on which this suggestion is based. Genus STYLOPHORA Schweigger (emend. Milne Edwards and Haime). 1819. Stylophora ScHWEIGGER (part), Beobacht. auf Naturf., pl. 5. 1820. Stylophora ScuweriaceER, Hand. Naturg., p. 413. 1830. Stylophora and Sideropora DE BLAINVILLE, Dict. Sci. nat., vol. 60, pp. 319, 351. 1835. Anthopora Gray, Zool. Soc. London Proc. for 1835, pt. 3, p. 86. 1846. Sideropora Dana, U.S. Expl. Exped. Zooph., p. 517. 1850. Stylophora MitnE Epwarps and Harme, Ann. Sci. nat., ser. 3, Zool., vol. 13, p. 102. 1857. Stylophora MinnE Epwarps and Harme, Hist. nat. Corall., vol. 2, p. 133. 1861. Stylophora pr FROMENTEL, Intr. Polyp. foss., p. 179. 1884. Stylophora Duncan, Linn. Soc. London Journ., Zool., vol. 18, p. 45. Type-species.— Madrepora pistillata Esper. Duncan in his papers on the Fossil Corals of the West Indies either describes as new or lists the following species: From the Eocene of Jamaica: Stylophora contorta (Leymerie) + 1 var. From the Eocene of St. Bartholomew, Cleve collection: Stylophora compressa? Duncan. distans (Leymerie). 1 Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 213, p. 73, 1918. 2 Although I have studied the collection rom St. Bartholomew submitted to Duncan, I could recognize only one species which I have divided into our varieties. 334 ° BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Stylophora conferta Reuss. tuberosa Reuss. affinis Duncan (described from Santo Domingo). granulata Duncan (described from Bowden, Ja- maica). From Santo Domingo: Stylophora affinis Duncan. var. minor Duncan (a valid species). raristella (Defrance). From Bowden, Jamaica: , Stylophora granulata Duncan. From St. Croix, Trinidad: Stylophora minuta Duncan. raristella (Defrance). mirabilis Duncan (not Duchassaing and Michelotti). I described in 19001 Stylophora ponderosa from the Oligocene of Salt Mountain, near Jackson, Alabama, and Stylophora minutissima from the Oligocene of Blue or Russell Spring, near Bainbridge, Georgia. I recognize as valid the six species described as new by Duncan and the two later described by myself. Duncan’s identifications of West Indian specimens with European species: are all discarded as they are probably erroneous. In addition to the six species here described as new, I have de- scribed six other species in manuscript not yet published making a total of at least 20 species of Stylophora known to me from the American Tertiary formations. The stratigraphic range of the genus in America is from the upper Eocene to Miocene. STYLOPHORA IMPERATORIS, new species. Plate 74, figs. 1, la, 2, 3, 4, 4a, 5. Corallum attaining a rather large size, the hasal part of some colonies as thick as a man’s wrist. The cross-section of branches ranges in form from subelliptical to curved lamellate. The following are the diameters of the broken ends of the specimen, which is 62.5 mm. long, represented by plate 74, figure 1. Diameters in millimeter s of branches of Stylophora imperatoris. | Lesser Greater diameter. diameter. IB ASAT Gare ra tier Sn hs Us 15 2 A ea I ON een 14.5 27.0 Smaller branchos cece ieee wan koe ee ag 17.5 Wider branch] * 2 see ek Se) Sas iri se ee ae Ate aye rs tire ea 9.5 to 16 34 1U.S. Geol. Survey Mon. 39, p. 132, 1900. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 835 The branch terminals are compressed and often form sinuous plates. Thickness just below the summits about 3 mm.; width very variable, ranges from 6 or 7 up to 25mm. Nodule-like growths are frequent on the sides of older branches. Calices on older parts of the corallum from 1 to 1.3 mm.in diameter, therefore rather large and conspicuous; intervening walls from 0.75 to 2 mm. across, usually about 1.25 mm. Near and on the branch summits the calices are usually crowded and slightly less than 1 mm. in diameter. Upper margin of the calices usually more prominent than the lower, sloping slightly downward, externally finely costulate. Septa, 6 primaries distinct, well developed, extending to the col- umella, the directives more prominent than the other primaries; secondaries are small or obsolete, if they were present they usually have been destroyed in the type and paratypes of the species. Columella, a small, only slightly prominent style. Coenenchyma dense; its surface beset with pointed granulations. Localities and geologic occurrence.—Canal Zone stations 6016, in the Emperador limestone, quarry, Empire, where some hundreds of specimens were obtained; 60240, lower end of culvert, Panama Railroad (relocated line), on Rio Agua Salud, in the upper bed, col- lected by T. W. Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald. Station 6026, in the Culebra formation, 24 miles south of Monte Lirio, Panama Railroad (relocated line), collected by T. W. Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald. Anguilla, station 6894, bluff, south side of Crocus Bay, in the lower 50 feet of the exposure, collected by T. W. Vaughan. (See pl. 74, figs. 4, 4a.) Doctor MacDonald obtained the specimen represented by plate 74, figure 5, at station 1863 of the canal commission, on the west side of Gaillard Cut, between points opposite Cucaracha and Paraiso, station 5853 of the United States National Museum locality register. - The specimen came from a layer, about 23 feet thick, consisting of pebbles, gravel, and tuffs cemented with calcareous material; below the layer is gray, flaggy sandstone and tuff beds; above it is gray, flagey sandstone, in thin layers separated by partings of carbonaceous black shale. The geologic horizon therefore seems to be in the Culebra formation, probably nearits top. The specimen appears to be a form of Stylophora imperatoris in which the calices are more crowded than usual, as it agrees with that species in all other characters. Type.—No. 324752, U.S.N.M. Paratypes.—Nos. 324753, 324754, U.S.N.M. STYLOPHORA PANAMENSIS, new species. Plate 75, figs. 1, la. Corallum, branches more or less contorted plates (see pl. 75, fig. 1). The thickness of the lower end of the type is 12.5 mm.; width, exceeds 28 mm.; length from base to summit, 38 mm. 336 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Calices small, apertures from 0.5 to 0.75 mm. in diameter; crowded, maximum distance apart 1 mm., usually less than 0.5 mm.—that is, less than a calicular diameter apart. Margins very slightly or not at all elevated; upper wall in places forms an obscure upper lip. Septa, the six primaries distinct, fuse in the calicular axis, directive plane well marked; secondaries not recognizable in the type-speci- mens and appear to be absent, but it is possible that they were present and have been destroyed by fossilization. Columella a compressed style, not prominent. Coenenchyma, surface badly worn in the type, but some granula- tions may be distinguished. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Canal Zone, station 6016, in the Emperador limestone, quarry, Empire, collected by T. W. Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald. Type.—No. 324763, U.S.N.M. S. panamensis has smaller and more crowded calices than S. amperatoris. STYLOPHORA AFFINIS Duncan. 1863. Stylophora affinis DuNcAN, Geol. Soc. London Quart. Journ., vol. 19, p. 436, pl. 16, fig. 4. 1866. Reussia affinis DucHAssAING and MicHE.orti, Sup. Corall. Antilles, p. 70 (of reprint). 1867. Stylophora affinis DuNcAN, Geol. Soc. London Quart. Journ., vol. 24, p. 25. 1870. Reussia affinis DucHAssAING, Rev. Zooph. Antilles, p. 26. Origunal description.—‘Corallum branched, large; branches nearly cylindrical, leaving the stem at an acute angle, slightly flattened on one side. The largest stem is four-fifths inch in diameter. Blunt, aborted, branchlike swellings exist on some of the larger stems. ' Corallites radiating from the center of the stem and branches, sepa- rated by about their own width of dense coenenchyma, which is seen, in the larger specimens, to be very slightly cellular. Walls not distin- guishable from the coenenchyma in the substance of the mass, but slightly raised into a very shallow crateriform edge on the surface. Calices circular, a very little raised as crateriform elevations, very numerous, disposed irregularly, but very nearly equidistant in some places and less so in others; margins sharp. Diameter one-thirtieth inch [0.83 mm.], rarely larger. The calicular margin, when well pre- ‘served, looks like a little ring placed on the intercalicular space, and the small styliform columella renders the appearance very distinct. Interealicular spaces marked by a continuous and rigid line, which, being in the part of the spaces at the base of the calicular eleva- tions, and being continued round each calice, is, from its general straightness, formed into irregular polygons. The line is sensibly , raised, convex, and now and then dentated. Between the line and the calicular margin there are distinct papillae, one row at the very GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 337 marginal edge, the other corresponding to it a little lower down the calicular wall; a third is sometimes seen; and in places where there is an unusual distance between the calices, and when the ‘line’ is wanting, the papillae are numerous, distinct, and a little smaller. The line and the papillae form a very marked distinction. Between some calices there are faint elevations. Septa whole, not exsert, but little visible in perfect calices, but very distinct when the coral is worn. Upper margin perfect and concave upward, the septa ap- pearing festooned to the columella; they are delicate, very little thicker at the wall than elsewhere, and join the columella high up near its point. The papillae at the calicular edge extend a little on the wall, and may be considered as rudimentary septa and costae; if so, there is a second cycle, and also a third in half of each system. The persistence of six septa, nearly all of the same size, is very re- markable. Columella styliform, large and dense in the corallite, and forming a rounded-off cylinder with a sharpish rounded tip, which is very distinct halfway down the calice. Calicular fossa shallow, about half as deep as broad. Endothecal dissepiments stout, trans- verse, numerous. The walls and columella do not fill up the lower parts of the corallites. Increase by extracalicular gemmation. _ “From the Nivajé shale. Coll. Geol. Soc.” Duncan reports the species from the Nivajé and Cerro Gordo shales, Santo Domingo. I have received 22 specimens labeled Stylophora affinis from the Museum of Comparative Zoology, and 6 from the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences. I have separated four of the specimens be- longing to the former institution and have described them as a new species. Six specimens are S. affinis, 9 are worn but probably are S. affinis, 2 seem to be different and possibly belong to a different species, 1 I refer to Duncan’s S. granulata. I think that two of Philadelphia Academy are referable to S. affinis, the four others are probably worn specimens of the same species. In the specimens that I have referred to S. afinis the upper margin of the calice is more prominent than the lower forming a small, pro- jecting lip. Duncan’s description in other respects is satisfactory. As the surface of specimens is easily worn by rolling, the upper lip of the calice and the surface ornamentation being destroyed, the positive identification of many specimens is rendered impossible. On the tips of the branches, which are blunt and rounded, the calices are crowded, with no development of intervening coenenchyma. Miss Maury obtained in Santo Domingo a single specimen, a piece of a small branch, of this species, on Rio Gurabo, zone D, associated with Madracis decactis (Lyman), Pocillopora crassoramosa Duncan, Stephanocoenia intersepta (Esper), Orbicella limbata (Duncan), Orbicella cavernosa var. cylindrica (Duncan), and Syzygophyllia dentata (Duncan), 338 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. I collected at station 3446, in the La Cruz marl, first deep cutting east of La Cruz, near Santiago, Cuba, casts of the surface of a species of Siylophora. Squeezes of the surfaces of these casts agree com- pletely with specimens from Santo Domingo identified by me as S. afinis. I am therefore attaching that name to the specimens. It is probable that similar casts from other localities in Cuba repre- sent the same species. STYLOPHORA PORTOBELLENSIS, new species. Plate 76, figs. 1, la. Corallum ramose, branches compressed, more or less contorted flabellate at the terminals. Growth form, therefore, similar to that of Stylophora wmperatoris. The type is 37.5 mm. long; smaller diameter of basal end 10 mm., width of base about 13 mm.; maximum width of branch in horizontal plane about 22 mm., thickness at same level 10 mm. Calices shallow, diameter averages about 0.75 mm. or slightly less; distance apart approximately equals the calicular diameter, in places less, 0.25 to 0.5 mm.; margins flush with the coenenchymal surface, in places slightly elevated on the upper side, but not enough to form a distinct upper lip. Septa, six primaries distinct, rather thin, extend to the columella ; no vestige of secondaries was observed. Columella, a pointed style, moderately prominent, fhiekened below the bottom ot the calice. Coenenchyma dense or costulate with an intercalicular ridge and cells on its sides. The surface is worn, but vestiges of small granu- lations may be recognized. Axis of the corallum spongy. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Panama, probably from near Porto Bello, collected by D. St. Clair; geologic horizon unknown. Type.—No. 324762, U.S.N.M. This coral has considerable resemblance to Stytophora goethalsi, but its calices are distinctly larger, and their upper margins are in some places slightly raised. Stylophora vmperatoris has larger calices with distinct upper lips. Stylophora portobellensis appears most closely related to Stylophora affinis Duncan, from the Nivajé shale of Santo Domingo. STYLOPHORA GOETHALSI, new species. Plate 75, figs. 2, 3, 4. Corallum ramose, with branches subelliptical or much compressed in cross-section, in this character resembling S. imperatoris. Branch summits frequently or usually with digitiform protuberances (see Dla fee! 2) Calices shallow, decidedly small, 0.5 to 0.75 mm. in diameter; and relatively distant, from a calicular diameter up to 1.5 mm. apart. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 339 Calicular margins obscurely or not at all elevated; without a pro- tuberant upper lip. Septa, six distinct primaries, about equal in size, extend to the columella; secondaries much smaller, but can be distinguished in the better preserved caiuices. Columella a small, sightly compressed, fairly prominent style. Coenenchymal surface closely set with pointed graaulations. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Canal Zone, at stations 6016, quarry in the Emperador limestone, Empire, Canal Zone, collected by T. W. Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald; 6026, in the Culebra formation, 24 miles south of Monte Lirio, Panama Railroad (relocated line), collected by T. W. Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald. Ootypes.—No. 324767, U.S.N.M. (3 specimens). Stylophora goethalsi resembles the Santo Domingan species, S. minor Duncan, which is ramose and has small calices, from 0.5 to 0.75 mm. in diameter. The end of the branches in S. goethalsi are more com- pressed than in S. minor, its catices are slightly larger, and its secondary septa are better developed. Although closely related, they appear to belong to distinct species. STYLOPHORA MACDONALD, new species. Plate 75, figs. 5, 5a, 6, 6a, 7, 7a. Corallum composed of elongate, slender, curved branches and branchlets, with bluntish, rounded summits. The only branch terminal that is perfect is represented by plate 75, figure 5. The following are measurements of four broken branches: Measurements in millimeters of branches of Stylophora macdonaldi Diameter of | Diameter of Branch No. Length. smaller end. | larger end. 13 GASSES SA SENS SSE ieee ioe et Ea aera RN ea Sees 1525 3.5 by 5.0 5.0 by 5.3 Finis Adin | 4OS ac dao SEBO Gat bee ee ee 2 ee Soe Ot cee 19.0 4.0 by 6.5 5.5 by 7.5 BS oie SES ae ee a tea rere eee eae 21.5 | 4.5 by 5.9 5.0 by 6.5 got Bee SBS SAE OC OGEE De DELS Sen Ota SEAS arte epee aenane mel tae ares 23% 4.0 by 4.0 4.5 by 5.5 Just below the place of bifurcation the parent branch is consider- ably compressed; in one branch the greater diameter below a fork is 12 mm., while the lesser diameter is only 6.5 mm. Calices rather shallow, but distinctly excavated; diameter, 1 mm.; distance apart from 0.5 to 1.5 mm., usually less than the calicular diameter; margins usually slightly or not at all raised, but knots correspond to the outer ends of the septa. There is no upper lip to the calices. Septa, six well-developed, strong, subequal primaries extend to the columella; secondaries small but usually distinct. Subequal knots correspond to the outer ends of the two cycles of septa, and a 340 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. smalier knot with no corresponding septum usually occurs between each paic of larger knots. Columella, a distinct, round, moderately prominent style, very slightly compressed in the directive plane. Coenenchymal surface roughly granulated, from 1 to 4 rows of granules between calices, depending on their distance apart. Localities and geologic oceurrence.—Canal Zone, in the Emperador limestone at stations, 6016, quarry, Empire; 60246, lower end of cul- ~ vert, Panama Railroad (relocated line), on Rio Agua Salud in the upper bed, collected by T. W. Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald. Cotyupes.—No. 324769, 324770, U.S.N.M. (7 specimens). Of other species of Stylophora with which I am acquainted S. mac- donaldi seems to resemble most S. granulata Duncan from Bowden, Jamaica. S. granulata has deeper calices, less developed secondary septa, and in some specimens the upper lip of the calices is more prominent than the lower. STYLOPHORA GRANULATA Duncan. 1864. Stylophora granulata Duncan, Geol. Soc. London Quart. Jour., vol. 21, p10; pl 2, fe. |3. 1867. Stylophora granulata Duncan, Geol. Soc. London Quart. Jour., vol. 24, p. 25. 1873. Stylophora granulata Duncan, Geol. Soc. London Quart. Jour., vol. 29, p. 551. . Original description.—‘‘The corallum is ramose; the branches are nearly cylindrical, often flattened on one side, and leave the stem at an acute angle. The calices are placed irregularly, and are separated by a coenenchyma, which is sharply granular, and which has very rarely any grooves or continuous ridges on its surface. The calices are circular, not inclined, very deep, and are surrounded by a raised ring formed by the septa and costae. The columella is situated. deeply ; it is cylindrical below, and sharp where free, but it does not reach the level of the calicular margin; it is delicate, and six large septa are attached to it low down. The septa are in two sets. The superficial septa are from eighteen to twenty in number; six are con- tmuous with the large septa, and the rest taper finely internally and externally, the spindle-shaped process being one-half septum and the rest costa. The processes are close, radiate, and horizontal. Diam- eter of calices, one-thirtieth inch [0.8 mm.]. ‘“‘Localities: Bowden and Vere, Jamaica.” Duncan, in 1873, cites this species from St. Bartholomew, but this, I am convinced, is an erroneous identification. There are two small broken branches of this species in the collec- tion of Mr. T. H. Aldrich, obtained at Bowden, Jamaica, and pre- sented to the United States National Museum. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 34] Specimen No. 1.--Small branch, 16 mm. long, diameter of lower end 4 mm.; upper end flattened, bifurcating, greater diameter 5.5 mm., lesser 3 mm. Diameter of calices very slightly less than 1 mm., separated by about the same width of coenenchyma. The margin is usually a very slightly elevated rim without an elevated lip around which are 12 to 18 small costae. In a few instances the costae continue from one calice to the next, but usually the intercalicular coenenchymal sur- face is merely granulate. There are from two to six indefinite zones or wavy lines of granulations between two calices. The granula- tions are subconical, round-pointed. Limits of zooids sometimes faintly indicated by a slightly raised granulated line. Calices mod- erately deep. Six principal septa, the second cycle represented by small short septa, variable number of rudimentary members of the third. The upper margins are slightly exsert. Columella does not reach to level of calicular margin, sharp- pointed. Specimen No. 2.—A small somewhat compressed, broken branch, 16 mm. long; greater diameter of lower end, 6.5 mm., lesser, 5 mm.; greater diameter of upper end, 6 mm., of lesser,4mm. Diameter of calices very slightly more than 1 mm. Width of intervening coenen- chyma averages about the same as the diameter of the calices. Calicular rim a little elevated, and slightly swollen around the base. -Costae longer than in No. 1. Granulations about the same in both specimens. Elevated line between zooids usually distinct. There is in this collection a third specimen which is probably only a variation of the same species. It is a fragment of a branch 14 mm. long. The diameter of the calices is about 0.75 mm.; the calicular rims are not elevated but usually tend to be depressed. The coenen- chymal surface is very densely and minutely granulate. The limits of adjoiming zooids are indicated either by a very fait raised or by an impressed line. Localities and geologic occurrence.—Besides occurring in the Bowden marl of Jamaica, Stylophora granulata is also found in Cuba at sta- tions 3476, Baracoa, and 3461, gorge of Yumuri River, Matanzas, collected i EAN Vaughan. Santo Domingo, station 7781, Rio Cana, zone H, collected by Miss C. J. Maury. STYLOPHORA CANALIS, new species. Plate 76, figs. 2, 2a. Corallum of type, a small, nodular mass, 42 mm. long, 23 mm. tall, and from 10 to 14 mm. thick (see pl. 76, fig. 2, for view, natural size, of the upper surface). 342 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Calices shallow, fairly large, 1 mm. in diameter; usually 1 mm. apart. Margins not elevated; the walls barely distmguishable from the surrounding coenenchyma. Septa in two distinct cycles; only the six primaries reach the columella, but the secondaries are well developed. Columella, a pointed style. Coenenchymal surface crossed by costules, along which are rela- tively coarse granulations. In places the coenenchyma appears cel- lular, as the costules are not solidly fused but have cellules developed between them. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Canal Zone, station 6016, in the Emperador limestone, quarry, Empire, collected by. T. W. Vaughan and D. F. Macdonald. Type.—No. 324775, U.S.N.M. This species most closely resembles a species from the base of the Chattahoochee formation, on Flint River, 44 miles below Bainbridge, Georgia, but it differs from the latter species in two characters, namely, the outer ends of the principal septa are not produced mto prominent teeth, and in places the coenenchyma is distinctly cellular. STYLOPHORA PONDEROSA Vaughan. 1900. Stylophora ponderosa VAUGHAN, U.S. Geol. Survey Mon. 39, p. 182, pl. 1s shes 16: pl 14, ties) lla, lb: One of the specimens obtained by me in Antigua seems referable to this species. The upper surface has four nipple-shaped elevations on it; the largest is about 15 mm. in diameter at the base, about 5 mm. tall, and about 5 mm. in diameter just below the rounded summit. Except such protuberances, the surface is flattish, with some undulations. The size of the calices and the septal characters are as in the cotypes of S. ponderosa. ‘Localities and geologic occurrence.—Alabama, Salt Mountain, 6 miles south of Jackson, just above the top of the Vicksburg group, collected by T. W. Vaughan. ; Antigua, station 6854, Rifle Butts, in the Antigua formation, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Genus POCILLOPORA Lamarck. 1816. Pocillopora LAMARcK, Hist. nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. 2, p. 273. 1918. Pocillopora VauGaAN, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pud. 213, p. 75. Type species.—Pocillopora acuta Lamarck. Duncan described two fossil species of Pocillopora from the West Indies, P. crassoramosa! from the Nivajé shale of Santo Domingo, and Pocillopora tenuis? from Antigua. I have seen good suites of 1 Geol. Soc. London Quart. Journ., vol. 20, p. 40, pl. 5, figs. 2a, 2b, 1864. “Idem, vol. 24, p. 21, pl. 1, figs. 5a, 5b, 5c, 167. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 343 specimens of P. crassoramosa, but have seen none of P. tenuis. P. crassoramosa has thickish branches on which verrucae may be well developed or obsolete; P. tenuis appears to be of more or less massive growth-form and has across the corallite cavities thin tabulae, the spaces between which are not filled by steroplasmic deposit. I have specimens representing four additional American fossil species of the genus. They are all branching forms. I collected one of the species at Willoughby Bay, Antigua, in the Antigua forma- tion; and another in the upper Oligocene marl at Baracoa, Cuba. The specimen at the latter locality was obtained in association with Stylophora granulata Duncan, which was originally described from the Bowden marl of Jamaica. Miss Carlotta J. Maury obtained P. crassoramosa in Santo Domingo in what she designates zone D, which is above the horizon of the Bowden marl. The geographic range of the genus in the West Indies is, therefore, from the Antiguan Oligocene to a horizon appreciably above that of the Bowden marl. POCILLOPORA ARNOLDI, new species. Plate 76, figs. 3, 3a, 3b. The type, which is a fragment of a branch, is 28 mm. long, diameter of lower end 6.5 by 12 mm., diameter of upper end 5.5 by 9 mm. The cross section of the branch is strongly compressed, and one side near and at a place of bifurcation is concave instead of being convex. There are no verrucae. Calices slightly oblong, lesser diameter about 0.75 mm., longer diameter, parallel to the axis of the branch, from 1 to 1.25 mm. Cavities rather deep, about 0.5 mm., and steep-walled. Intercorallite areas flattish, arched, or slightly crested in profile, of unequal width, from 0.8 mm. to 1 mm. across. Coenenchymal surface granulo- costulate, granulations fairly coarse. Septa rudimentary, occur as low, blunt- topped, perpendicular ridges on the inside of the calicular walls. In some calices 12 of these ridges may be distinguished. The bottom of the calice is flat or very gently concave; no vestige of a columella could be found. Coenenchyma solid; cera. cavities solidly filled except a few in the axis of the renee Locality and geologic occurrence.—Canal Zone, station 6444, quarry in the Emperador limestone, Empire, collected by Dr. Ralph Arnold, whose name I take pleasure in attaching to this well-marked species. Type.—No. 324782, U.S.N.M. Of the other five fossil species of Pocillopora known from the Tertiary formation of the West Indies and Central America, the unnamed species from Antigua, previously mentioned, is the most similar. The latter species is composed of small, more or less com- 37149—_19— Bull. 1083——_11 344 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. pressed branches, it has no verrucae, the calices are rather deep, the septa are perpendicular ridges down the inside of the calicular walls, and there is no trace of a columella. In these characters the two are similar. The species from Antigua differs from P. arnoldi by having larger calices, lesser diameter 1 mm. or more, usually more than 1 mm., and the calicular margin is rather persistently marked by a slightly raised acute rim. A description of the species from Baracoa, Cuba, follows. S POCILLOPORA BARACOAENSIS, new species. Plate 77, figs. 1, la. This species may be characterized as follows: The corallum is branching; it has no verrucae and no columellar tubercle. The branch is regularly subcircular or broadly elliptical in cross section, 10.5 mm. in diameter at lower end. The calices are very shallow and are subcircular in outline, about 0.75 mm. in diameter, distance apart usually slightly more than the calicular diameter. Thick short septa join the columellar plug to the wall. Coenenchyma very dense. These characters are different from those of any of the other known American species. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Cuba, station 3476, in yellow, argillaceous marl, Baracoa, associated with Stylophora granulaia Duncan, collected by T. W. Vaughan. The geologic horizon of this species is that of the Bowden marl. Type.—No. 324783, U.S.N.M. POCILLOPORA GUANTANAMENSIS, new species. Plate 77, figs. 2, 2a. Corallum composed of irregularly shaped, more or less compressed and contorted branches, among which there is considerable anas- tomosis. The branches may be as much as 27 mm. wide, 7.5 mm. thick near the summit, and 12 mm. thick at the base. The branch on which these measurements were made is 41 mm. long. Verrucae entirely absent on the type. Calices from 0.75 to 1.25 mm. in diameter; usually less than or about their diameter apart. They are deep pits without any trace of septa, except that in a few calices what appear to be thick direc- tives are recognizable on the plug forming the calicular floor. Calicu- lar margins usually even with the coenenchymal surface; in some calices they are somewhat tumid and slightly elevated. The columella is only a plug. Stout, horizontal tabulae present. Coenenchyma very dense. Surface in type worn, but apparently beset with spines or granulations and not costulate. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Cuba, station 7514, about 5 miles nearly due east of Monument H4 on the east boundary of the GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 845 U.S. Naval Reservation, Guantanamo, altitude about 400 feet a. t., in beds of the age of the Antigua formation, collected by O. E. Meinzer. Type.—No. 324784. U.S.N.M. This species differs so markedly from the other West Indian species of Pocillopora that comparisons with the other species seem unnecessary. Genus MADRACIS Milne Edwards and Exaime. 1849. Azhelia MinNE Epwarps and Harme, Comptes Rend., vol. 29, p. 69. 1849. Madracis Minne Epwarps and Haime, Comptes Rend., vol. 29, p. 70. 1861. Reussia DucHASSAING and MicneLorti, Mém. Corall. Ant., p. 63 (of reprint). 1871. Pentalophora SavitLe-KeENt, Proc. Zool. Soc. London for 1871, p. 283. 1884. Madracis Duncan, Linn. Soc. London Journ., Zool., vol. 18, p. 45. 1900. Madracis VaucHAN, U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 39, p. 128. 1901. Azhelia VauGHAN, U.S. Fish Commission Bull. for 1900, vol. 2, p. 294. 1902. Madracis Verritt, Conn. Acad. Arts and Sci. Trans., vol. 11, p. 108. Type-species.—Madracis asperula Milne Edwards and Haime. MADRACIS MIRABILIS (Duchassaing and Micheloiti). 1861. Stylophora mirabilis DucHAssaInG and MicHE.orti, Mém. Corall. Ant., p. 62 (of reprint), pl. 9, figs. 6, 7. 1901. Azhelia mirabilis VAUGHAN, U.S. Fish Commission Bull. for 1900, vol. 2, p. 295, pl. 1, figs. 3, 3a. A single fragment of a branch from Limon, Costa Rica, is 23 mm. long, 2 mm. in diameter at the lower end, and 3 mm. in diameter just below trifurcation at the upper end. The fragment is slightly arcuate in form, not quite straight, and is not so crooked as is usual in the specimens of M. mirabilis with which I have compared it. The septa are less exsert around the calicular margins then is usual in the species. Although there are the differences indicated, they are of the kind that may be produced by vegetative causes. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Costa Rica, hills of Port Limon, No. 669 of H. Pittier collection; geologic horizon not known. Cuba, station 3461, gorge of Yumuri River, Matanzas, 19 frag- ments collected by T. W. Vaughan in a marl of lower Miocene (Bowden) age. These fragments perhaps should be referred to a new species; but they appear more probably to be only a variant of M. mirabilis. Family ASTROCOENIIDAE Koby. Genus ASTROCOENIA Milne Edwards and Haime. 1848. Astrocoenia MILNE Epwarps and Hate, Comptes Rend., vol. 27, p. 469. 1900. Astrocoenia GREGoRy, Palaeontol. Indica, ser. 9, vol. 2, pt. 2, p.59. (Syn- onymy and elaborate discussion.) Type-species.—Astrea numisma Defrance. Besides the five species of Astrocoenia recognized in the present paper, I have described one under the name of Stylocoema duerdeni 346 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. from the Eocene of Jamaica,! which also occurs in the upper Eocene of St. Bartholomew. I describe as new the species from Antigua (A. decaturensis), to which Duncan applied the name Astrocoenia ornata.” This species is also found in the coral reef at the base of the Chattahoochee formation on Flint River, near Bainbridge, Georgia, and near Guantanamo, Cuba. More critical study may lead to the recognition of one or two additional species. The names of all Kuropean species applied by Duncan and others to West Indian forms probably should be dropped from the literature. ASTROCOENIA D’ACHIARDH Duncan. Plate 78, figs. 2, 2a. 1873. Astrocoenia d achiardii Duncan, Geol. Soc. London, Quart. Journ., vol. 29, p. 554, pl. 20, figs. 7, 7a. 1899. Astrocoenia d’achiardit VAUGHAN, Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 34, p. 229. Dr. C. W. Hayes obtained in Nicaragua, ‘‘on or near the Pacific coast,” a specimen of Astrocoenia (pl. 78, figs. 2, 2a) that seems referable to A. d’achiardu. The corallum is ramose; branch somewhat compressed, lesser diameter of lower end 10.5 mm., greater diameter only slightly more than the lesser. : Calices from 2 to 3 mm. im diameter, measured between thecal summits; the diameter of the largest calice is 3 mm. Maximum thickness of walls between adjoining calicular cavities, 1 mm. Depth of calices about 1 mm. Hight prominent septa reach the columella, with a small ae between each pair of the larger. The large septa are narrow above the bottom of the calice, where they widen and fuse to the columella, around which they Show decided thickening. The calicular cavity, therefore, is steep-sided and relatively flat-bottomed. The columella is a slightly promiment, compressed style. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Nicaragua, on or near the Pacific coast, in the Brito formation, collected by C. W. Hayes. Dr. Hayes says regarding the Brito formation.’ The greater part of the Brito formation is apparently barren of organic remains, The only location at which fossils have been found are on or near the Pacific coast. This, however, may be due to the fact that the rock exposures are not elsewhere of such a character as to facilitate the discovery of fossils, and the latter may possibly be more generally distributed than present knowledge would indicate. The fossils are confined almost wholly to the limestones and marly beds. They consist of corals, molluscan, and foraminiferal remains. The Foraminifera, according to Dr. ng A. Cushman, indicate m Eocene age. 1 Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 34, p. 235, pl. 37, figs. 1-4, 1899. 2 Geol. Soc. London Quart. Journ., vol. 19, p. 425, pl. 14, fig. 7, 1863; Idem., vol. 24, p. 23, 1867. 3 Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., vol. 10, p. 312, 1899. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 347 Astrocoenia @achiardu was described from the upper Eocene of St. Bartholomew. Finding it on the Pacific coast of Nicaragua is addi- tional evidence in favor of connection between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans across Central America during upper Eocene time. ASTROCOENIA GUANTANAMENSIS, new species. Plate 79, figs. 1, la, 2. Corallum massive, with a rather uniformly rounded or more or less tuberose surface. Type 55 mm. long, maximum width about 31 mm., height 38 mm. The corallum may be much larger. Calices polygonal, shallow, almost superficial, small; maximum size about 1.75 mm. in diameter, 1.5 mm. usual; smallest calices about 1 mm. in diameter, measured between thecal summits. Inter- corallite walls acute or flattish, usually less than 0.25 mm. wide, maximum width 0.5 mm.; crossed by subequal costae corresponding to all septa unless very narrow, when the edge of the wall is dentate instead of costate. Septa 16 m number, 8 reach the columella; 8 small, about half the length of the prmcipals; im most instances they are thicker in the wall than at their imner ends. Margins of the longer with about three dentations on each. Septal faces with sharp granulations. Columella, a small, erect, central style. Localities and geologic occurrence.—Cuba, station 7522, Mogote Peak, 0.5 mile east of east boundary of United States Naval Reser- vation, Guantanamo, south side of peak, altitude about 375 feet a. t., collected by O. E. Meinzer (type). Antigua, station 6865, Jackass Point, St. John, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Panama, station 6587, Tonosi, collected by D. F. MacDonald. Type.—No. 324794, U.S.N.M. Astrocoenia guantanamensis is most nearly related to Astrocoenia wncrustans (Duncan) which is from the upper Eocene St. Bartholo- mew limestone, and is the next species here described. The calices of A. incrustans, a description of which follows, are rather deep and the intercorallite areas are flattish and costate. ASTROCOENIA INCRUSTANS (Duncan). 1873. Stephanocoenia incrustans Duncan, Geol. Soc. London Quart. Journ., vol. 29, p. 553, pl. 20, fig. 6. 1899. Stephanocoenia incrustans VaucHAN, Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 34, p: 229. Original description.— ‘The corallum is low in height, and imcrusts rocky surfaces. The corallites are united by their rather thick walls, and are parallel. The calices are quadrangular or pentangular, and their margins are marked by the septa of the adjacent corallites. 348 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. The septa are subequal at the wall, and 16 in number; but only eight reach the small and deep styloid columella; the others project very slightly, and are moniliform on their free edge. The pali are attached to the eight larger septa. “Height of corallum, one-tenth inch [=2.5 mm.]. Breadth of calice, one-twentieth inch [=1.25 mm.].” The following notes are based on the type-specimen: It is a small thin fragment, 17.5 mm. tone 8 mm. wide, and 4mm. thick. ‘The calices are moderately deep polygonal, many are elongate, the smaller ones measure 0.9 mm. in diameter, an elongated one is 1.2 mm. wide and 2mm. long. The walls are thin, about 0.2 mm. wide; however, the upper edges of the septa are flattened and somewhat expanded. No mural styles. Septa, 16 in number, equal in thickness at the wall, thicker than the spaces between; 8 extend to the columella, the laminae thinner between the portions surrounding the columella and the outer ends. The other 8 septa are short. The margins are finely dentate. Dis- tinct pali absent. Apparently dissepiments are present. Columella styliform, rather prominent, compressed. This coral can not be referred to Stephanocoenia because there are no pali and the septal margims are dentate, mstead of being entire. However, it exhibits all the characteristics of Astrocoema. In the size of the calices, number of the septa, and character, of the septal margins it resembles A. duerdeni (Vaughan), but differs from that species by the apparent absence of mural spmes Notwithstanding this, it is not impossible that the type-specimen could be a portion of a corallum of A. duerdeni, the styles bemg absent from the area whence it was derived. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Island ae St. Bartholomew, P. T. Cleve, collector; subsequently collected by T. W. Vaughan; in the upper Eocene St. Bartholomew hmestone. Type.—University of Upsala. ASTROCOENIA DECATURENSIS, new species. Plate 78, figs. 3, 3a, 4, 4a. 1863. ? GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 451 ' Synapticulae in three or four vertical rows—in the outer portion of the interseptal loculi, there may be even more. Very thin, nearly horizontal dissepiments present. The wall is similar to that of S. phocenica, but thinner. Columella, papillary. The papillae are fine, more delicate than in S. pliocenrea. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Florida, station No. 3300, Shell Creek, collected by F. Burns (type); station 2094, Caloosa- hatchee River, Florida, collected by W. H. Dall; Phocene. Type.—No? 325196, U.S.N.M. (pl. 119, figs. 1, 1a). Paratype.—No. 325195, U.S.N.M. This species is separated from S. pliocenica by its generally more delicate structure, more numerous septal dentations, and more numerous septa. It differs from S. sederea (Ellis and Solander) by its larger and shallower calices and its more numerous septa. The closely crowded, transversely compressed, and finely frosted septal dentations of S. dalla give it an appearance very different from any other American species of Siderastrea. The number of septa is in corallites of the same diameter about the same as in specimens of S. silecensis. 11. SIDERASTREA CONFERTA (Duncan). Plate 117, fig. 3; plate 120, figs. 1, 2, 2a, 3, 4; plate 121, figs. 1, la, 2, 2a. 1863. Isastraea conferta DuNcAN, Geol. Soc. London Quart. Journ., vol. 19, p. 422, pl. 14, fig. 2. 1867. Isastraea conferta DuNcAN, Geol. Soc. London Quart. Journ., vol. 24, p. 25. The original description of Jsastraea conferta is as follows: ‘“Coral- lites very close, tall, slender, straight, and prismatic; a transverse section shows the wall to be very thin. The breadth of the corallites varies from three-tenths to one-tenth inch [=7.5 to 2.5 mm.,]. Septa very numerous; linear; the primary extend to the centre of. the corallite, the secondary less so, and the-others join the larger septa at a very acute angle; all are very slender and excessively crowded. There are eighty-two septa in the larger corallites, sixty in the smaller. The septa of one corallite do not join those of the next, but end sharply at the wall. Hndotheca plainly exists, linear, appearing, in transverse section, to divide the interseptal loculi ‘mto several cells. The reproduction is by submarginal budding. The sclerenchyma has been replaced by dark homogeneous silica, and the interspaces by porcellanous and opaline silica. ‘From the Chert-formation of Antigua. Coll. Geol. Soc. “This is a very remarkable form. Unfortunately no calices exist; but the transverse view of the corallites is excellent. If the specimen 452 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. had been found in Oolitic rocks, it would have passed for a small variety of Jsastraea tenuistriata.” I examined the type of this species in the Geological Society of London collection (No. 12,929), and it is represented by plate 120, figure 1. It belongs to the genus Siderastrea. There are more than four cycles of septa. The septal trabeculae are narrow, and produce fine dentations on the septal margins. The estimated number of teeth on the margins of the longer septa is about 20; the synap- ticulae are fine and are crowded in two or three rings near the wall, which is narrow and continuous. The columella is weakly developed and evidently had a finely papillary upper surface. I collected in Antigua, station 6888, one-half mile north of McKin- non’s mill, in the Antigua formation, one satisfactory specimen of this species. It is of massive, subcolumnar growth form, is about 105 mm. tall, and is 82 by 92 mm. in diameter near the top. The basal part is appreciably narrower than near the summit. The calices are shallow; corallite walls thin. A calice 4.5 by 8.25 in diam- eter has about 80 septa. Septa composed of small trabeculae and correspondingly have finely dentate margins. Synapticulae delicate and crowded. This species is very abundant in the Oligocene deposits of the West Indies and the Canal Zone. Description of or notes on specimens from the different localities follow. The next specimen to be de- scribed is essentially typical, and as it is in a better state of preserva- tion than the one from Antigua, it is more satisfactory for purposes of illustration. Description of a specimen from near Lares, Porto Rico (pl. 120, fig. 2, 2a).—Corallum massive, rounded above, basal portion some- what expanded. Greater diameter of base, 106 mm.; lesser diameter of base, about 65 mm.; height, 65 mm. Calices polygonal, rather large, diameter (measured from summit to summit of wall) from 4.7 to 7.4 mm., 5 to 6 mm. the usual diameter. Near the edges the calices are shallow, higher up on the corallum they are excavated and moderately deep. The outer ends of the septa are arched on the upper part of the corallum, may be somewhat flattened near the wall; lower down they may be depressed across a wide area, with a very shallow calicular cavity; in a few instances a depression corresponds in position to the upper edge of the wall. Wall usually distinct, narrow, zigzag. Septa very crowded, thin and numerous, 70 in a calice 4.6 by 7.4 mm. in diameter, 76 in one 5.75 by 7.6 mm., 74 in one 5.5 by 6.3 mm. in diameter. They are so crowded that it is difficult to make out the cycles. The primaries appear to be free, the other septa form groups around the secondaries. Septal margins finely beaded; about 26 dentations on a large septum, an actual count for an entire GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 453. septal length could not be made, but 6 teeth within 0.7 mm. were counted on the outer part of a septum. This would be more than & teeth to 1 mm. Synapticulae abundant. Columella not greatly developed; upper surface finely papillary. I collected at Crocus Bay, Anguilla, a suite of 22 specimens very closely similar to the Porto Rican specimen. Several of these are illustrated by plate 117, figure 3; plate 120, figures 3, 4; and plate 121, figures 2, 2a. The calice represented by plate 117, figure 3, is 4.25 by 6.6 mm. in diameter, and has 68 septa; the larger calice illus- trated by plate 120, figure 3, is 7 by 9.5 mm. in diameter, and has 91 septa; the calice illustrated by plate 120, figure 4, is 5.5 by 7.3 mm. in diameter, and has 64 septa; and one of those figured on plate 121, figure 2a, is 4.5 by 6.3 mm. in diameter, and has 75 septa. Specimens of what seem undoubtedly to belong to the same species were collected in the Culebra formation, station 6020c, near Las Cascadas, by Doctor MacDonald and me. Some specimens are as much as 14 inches (about 36 cm.) tall, and over 12 inches (about 31 em.) thick. A part of the surface and an enlarged view of the calices are represented by plate 121, figures 1, la. A calice 4 by 5.7 mm. in diameter has about 72 septa. A specimen collected by Gabb in Santo Domingo and identified by Pourtalés as Siderastraea siderea' belongs to this species. The speci- men has numerous thin, crowded septa; there are about 82 septa in a calice 4.5 mm. wide and 6.5 mm. long. It is the property of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University. Localities and geologic occurrence.—Island of Antigua, Antigua for- mation, Duncan’s type; station 6888, one-half mile north of McKin- non’s Mills, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Porto Rico, Pepino formation, station 3191, 4 miles west of Lares, collected by R. T. Hill. Canal Zone, Culebra formation, station 6020c, at Las Cascadas, collected by T. W. Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald. Island of Anguilla, Anguilla formation, stations 6893, 6894, 6966, lower and middle beds, south and west sides of Crocus Bay, collected by T. W. Vaughan. As has been remarked, S. silecensis Vaughan from Georgia and Florida is very close to S. conferta. In calices of the same size there are more septa and the septa are more finely dentate in S. conferta than in S. silecensis. Family OULASTREIDAE, new family. Fungid corals with the superficial aspect of the genera belonging to the family Orbicellidae. Corallites with distinct margins, usually separated by intercorallite areas that are crossed by confluent or 1 Geol. Mag., new Ser., dec. 2, vol. 2, p. 545, 1875. 454 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. alternating septo-costae. Septa lamellate but irregularly more or less perforate. Both synapticulae and dissepiments present. Columella trabecular. Asexual reproduction by intercalicular gemmation. The coral genera represented by Oulastrea Milne Edwards and Haime, Diploastrea Matthai, and Cyathomorpha Reuss appear to me to deserve recognition as a group of family value. The latter two of these genera have been confused with Orbicella, as will be made evident in subsequent remarks. It is unfortunate that the validity of neither Cyathomorpha nor of Diploastrea can be established at present. The reasons for the uncertainty will appear in discussions to follow. Oulastrea crispata (Lamarck) Milne Edwards and Haime, the type species of Oulastrea’ is represented in the United States National Museum by 30 specimens from Puerto Princesa, Palawan, collected by J. B. Steere, and from near Mariveles, Luzon, collected by Albert M. Reese, Philippine Islands. The description and figures given by Milne Edwards and Haime are really excellent, but they did not rec- ognize that the genus belongs to the Madreporaria Fungida. The — septa are mostly solid, but there are some perforations, especially in the smaller septa. The walls of the corallites are synapticulate and perforate around the periphery of the corallum, but those of the interior corallites are continuous, with few or no obvious perforations. There are synapticulae between the peripheral septo-costae ; within the corallite cavities synapticulae mostly occur near the inner edges of the septa, but some occur between the wall and the inner septal edges. Thin dissepiments are abundant. The septal teeth usually make two fairly definite, in some very definite, palar crowns that stand a little higher than the columellar papillae. These specimens are stained black and do not bleach when boiled with caustic potash. As Oulastrea is the only genus referred to the family of the validity of whose name I can be reasonably certain, notes on the generic char- acters are given in some detail. Genus CYATHOMORPHA Reuss. 1868. Cyathomorpha Reuss, K. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien., Mat.-Naturwiss. Cl, Denkschr., vol. 28, p. 142, pl. 2, figs. 6a, 66, 6c. 1884. Cyathomorpha Duncan, Linn. Soc. Lond. Journ. (Zool), vol. 18, p. 105. 1889. Cyathomorpha Reis, Bayer. geognost. Landesuntersuch. Geognost. Jahresh., Jahre. 2, p. 147, pl. 3, figs. 17-19. Type-species.—Cyathomorpha conglobata (Reuss) Reuss = Astrea rochettina Michelin = Oyathomorpha rochettina (Michelin) Reis, fide Reis.” 1 Comptes Rend., vol. 27, p. 495, 1848; Ann. Sci. nat., ser. 3, Zool., vol. 10, pl. 9, figs. 4, 4a, 1848; Idem vol. 12, p. 116, 1849. : 2 Bayer. geognost. Landesuntersuch. Geognost. Jahresh., Jahrg. 2, p. 147. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 455 As the validity of this genus name is in doubt the following remarks will be made on genera that appear to be either closely related or synonymous. Brachyphylhia Reuss: type-species, B. dormitzert Reuss. In the first of the publications cited in the footnote' below Reuss described and referred the following species to Brachyphyllia: Bb. depressa, B. dormitzerr, and B. glomerata. In the second paper ” cited Reuss proposed the name Agathiphylha, referred Brachyphylha depressa to it, and said ‘‘der Typus der Gattung Brachyphyllia bleibt mithm fortan Br. dormitzerr Rss. * * * Sie wird durch die viel klemeren Zellensterne, die diinneren, am obern Rande gleichmassig fem gezihnelten Radiallamellen und die wenig entwickelte, sehr femkérnige Axe charakterisirt.”’ Agathiphyllia Reuss: type-species, A. explanata Reuss. Reuss originally referred three species to inch [2.5 mm.]. Columella + inch [5 mm.] in diameter.” It is See that Duncan had no really good specimens on which to base his original description of this species. I was fortunate in obtaining more than 60 specimens in Antigua, and have selected 14 474 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. of these as the basis of the following notes. Of Duncan’s varieties, it seems to me that magnetica, pulchella, and nobilis should be com- bined with the typical form of the species; that his varieties minor and nugenti should be combined under one name, nugenti, preferred by me as it is desirable to preserve the record of the part Doctor Nugent played in making known the fossil corals of Antigua; and that variety magnificea should be retained without any important change. DIPLOASTREA CRASSOLAMELLATA (Duncan) Vaughan, typical. Plate 135, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 4a, 5, 5a, 5b; plate 136, figs. 1, la, 1b; plate 137, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 4a, 5. Plate 135, figure 1, illustrates, natural size,‘a polished surface of a typical specimen in Duncan’s original sense; and plate 135, figure 2, illustrates natural size, a polished surface of Duncan’s variety nobilis. Duncan did not recognize that the septa in such specimens are perforate and that synapticulae are abundant. These two figures will serve to validate the identifications here made, as reference to Duncan’s original figures will show. As I collected a series of specimens ranging from a solitary corallite to a fully developed corallum, the development of the corallum will be described. Specimen No. 1.—The only solitary corallite I collected (pl. 135, fig. 3) is inversely sub-conical in shape, the apex broken. It is 28.5 mm. tall, and is 16 by 18 mm. in maximum diameter. The older calice was damaged and a smaller calice has formed above the older. On the outer surface is an incomplete, finely striate pellicular epitheca; subequal or alternately larger and smaller, more or less interrupted, beaded costae are seen in the areas not covered by the epitheca. The costal ends are joined by synapticulae, between which are perforations. The wall originally is synapticulate. Septal margins coarsely beaded. Primary and secondary septa solid for the most part; tertiaries more perforate; quaternaries de- cidedly perforate. | Columella well developed; surface coarsely papillary; fossa shallow. As the structural characters of this speci- men are essentially identical for all other typical specimen of the species, descriptions of the epitheca, costae, and intercostal synapti- culae need not be repeated: Specumen No. 2.—In this specimen the primary corallite has given rise to one lateral bud (pl. 135, figs. 4, 4a), between which and the parent corallite is a slightly depressed intercorallite area. Diameter of parent corallite, 24 mm. Septo-costae more or less confluent and continuous, interrupted with perforations, joined to one another by synapticulae; margins coarsely, rather irregularly beaded. Specumen No. 3.—There are seven corallites, separated by wide intercorallite grooves, in this specimen. Five corallites are shown GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 475 on plate 135, figure 5.- The lesser diameter of the three larger coral- lites is 19 mm.; the greater diameter ranges from 21 to about 23 mm. The calices of this specimen are shallow. In the calice represented by plate 135, figure 5), it will be seen that the primary and secondary septa are subequal and are thicker than the members of the higher cycles. There are about 86 septa in this calice—that is, there are 4 complete cycles and 38 quinaries. The primaries and secondaries are solid for the most part; the tertiaries are somewhat thinner and near the columella they are represented by only partially fused septal tabeculae. The quaternaries are thinner and more perforate than the tertiaries, to which they fuse by their inner ends rather near the columella. The quinary septa are still thinner and very perforate; they tend to fuse to the sides of the included quaternary. On. the inner part of the largest septa are indefinite lobes or teeth, some of which simulate partially developed paliform lobes. Synap- ticulae are greatly developed, between both the costae and the septa; and there are endothecal dissepiments. Specumen No. 4.—This specimen is composed of seven corrallites, plate 137, figure 1. It differs from specimen No. 3 principally by haying deeper calices and on some of the large septa there are fairly well-developed paliform lobes. Specumen No. 5.—Plate 136, figures 1, 1b, are two views, natural size, of a specimen that is essentially typical variety nobilis of Duncan. It differs from the typical form of the species by having somewhat smaller corrallites and consequently less numerous septa. Specimens bridging the slight gap between specimens Nos. 4 and 5 might be described, but to do so seems unnecessary. The foregoing descriptions apply to the typical form of the species; some variants will now be considered. Specumen No. 6.—Plate 137, figure 3, represents a calice and inter calicular areas in a specimen that differs from specimen No. 3 chiefly by the nonexsert calicular margins. Specumen No. 7.—The calices represented by plate 137, figures 4, 4a, are of a specimen that practically intergrades with specimen No. 6. The calices illustrated are smaller and the septo-costae coarser than in specimen No. 6. Plate 137, figure 5, illustrates a closely similar specimen from the base of the Chattahoochee formation, on Flint River, about 4 miles below Bainbridge, Georgia. The calices of the Bainbridge specimens are excavated, thereby differing from specimen No: 7: Specimen No. 8.—This specimen, plate 137, figure 2, has corallites that are more prominent and more isolated than in the other specimens described, and the costae on the free corallite limbs are mostly subequal. 476 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. ~ Localities and geologic occurrence.—Island of Antigua, in the Antigua formation, at stations 6854, Rifle Butts; 6856, Friar’s hill; 6881, Willoughby Bay; 6888, one-half mile north of McKinnon’s Mill, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Previously collected by Robert T. Hill and by J. W. Spencer, in addition to the material originally studied by Duncan. | Island of Porto Rico, Lares road, associated with corals, represent- ing the Pepino feemeion of Hull, epiletred by Bela Hubbard of the New York Academy Scientific Soca of Porto Rico. Cuba, station 3481, Rio Canapu, Manassas trail, collected by Arthur C. Spencer. Station 7506 west side of Ocul Spring, near Guantanamo, Cuba, altitude between 200 and 250 feet, «at contact with underlying conglomerate, collected by O. E. Meinzer. Frag- ments from station 7522, Mogote Peak, one-half mile east of east boundary of United States Naval Reservation, Guantanamo, eleva- tion about 375 feet, a. t., collected by O. E. Meinzer, probably should be referred to variety poe ae (Duncan). Georgia station 3381, 4 miles below Bainbridge, Flint River, in the base of the Chattahoochee formation, collected by T. W. Varn Panama, station 6587, Tonosi River! collected by D. F. Mac- Donald. and which I made under the latter name, the type species of Multicolumnastraea,® deserves mention here. The intercorallite costae in Duncan’s Heliastraea cyathiformis are more or less vermiculate and are joined one to another by synapticulae, between which there are openings. This species is very close to Actinacis, but the coarse columellar tubercles or pillars may warrant generic separation. The species, according to the stratigraphic data supplied by Mr. R. T. Hill, occurs in his Blue Mountain Series, of Cretaceous age, and his Catadupa beds, of Eocene age.’ It seems to me that the Catadupa beds are probably of Cretaceous age, for they contain no species of corals in common with the Richmond and Cambridge formations, while two of the five species recorded from them are common to the Blue Mountain Cretaceous. ACTINACIS ALABAMIENSIS (Vaughan). Plate 149, figs. 3, 3a. 1900. Turbinaria (?) alabamiensis VAUGHAN, U.S. Geol. Survey Mon. 39, p. 194, pl. 23) figs]; 2) 135) pl. 24: The type-specimen (Cat. No. 158482) and the paratypes (Cat. Nos. 158480 and 158481, U.S.N.M.) clearly belong to the genus. Actinacis, to which I suggested they might belong in the original account of the species. The following is the original description: ‘‘Corallum massive, the masses may be more than 20 cm. across and 7 cm. thick, upper surface apparently convex or concave. Gen- 1 Beitrige zur Charakteristik der Kreideschichtenin den ostalpen, K. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Math. - Naturw.-Cl., vol. 7, pl. 24, figs. 12-15, 1854. 2 Geol. Soc. London Quart. Journ., vol. 29, p. 561, 1873. 3 Idem, vol. 21, pp. 7, 8, 11, 1865. 4K. K. Akad. Wissensch. Wien. Math.-Naturw. Cl., Denkshr. vol. 7, p. 114. 5 Geol. Soe. London Quart. Journ., vol. 21, pp. 7, 8, pl. 1, figs. la, 1b, 1865. 6 Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 34, pp. 235-237, pl. 37, figs. 5, 6, 7; pl. 38, fig. 1, EES 7 Vaughan, T. W., Mus. Coe Zool., vol. 34, p. 231, 1899. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 487 eral appearance of the corallum is as if composed of superimposed laminae. Calices shallow (?), crowded; diameter, 1.5 mm.; distance apart, quite constantly 1 mm. Coenenchyma, of superimposed irregularly perforate laminae. Wall, perforate. Septa, perforate, in three complete cycles; 12 septa reach the columnella ; the members of the third cycles usually fuse by pairs to the sides of an included septum (the first and second cycles can not be distinguished from each other, and therefore it can not be known whether the septa of the third fuse to the sides of the first or second). Sides granulate. Pali are probably present, but no detail could be made out. Columella very well developed, spongy. “Locality.—Salt Mountain, 6 miles south of Jackson, Alabama. “Creologic’ horizon.— ‘Coral limestone,’ above Vicksburg beds.” “TI have not been able to decide positively whether this is an Acti- nacis or a Turbinaria. It probably belongs to the latter genus.” The following is a description of a species of Actinacis, referred to A. alabamiensis, from Flint River, near Bainbridge, Georgia: Corallum forming large explanate masses, a foot or more across and 70 to 75 mm. thick. The perpendicular section shows a thinly Jamellate structure. Calices small, 1.3 to 1.5 mm. in diameter, usually separated by less than their own diameter of coenenchyma. The coenenchyma is composed of flexuous, perforate, granulated costae, which are fused into a reticulum by abundant synapticulae. The calices are dis- tinctly differentiated from the coenenchyma, but a definite wall is only poorly developed; where it is present, it appears to be due to a zone of peripherally disposed synapticulae. The costae often lead directly across the coenenchyma from one calice to the next, thus joining the septa of adjacent calices. Septa slightly less in thickness than the interseptal loculi. The usual number is about 20, the third cycle as a rule is incomplete, arranged with reference to a plane of symmetry. The presence of a directive plane and the grouping of the septa into pairs or groups of threes is characteristic. Pati occur at the junctions of the inner ends of the septa—it seems that the full number is 12. The inter- septal loculi are conspicuously open; if any synapticulae are present, they are rare. Columella well developed, composed of septal processes. A species of Actinacis, apparently the same as A. alabamiensts, was collected by me in Antigua. It is represented by a small piece 61 mm. long, 33 mm. wide, and 25 mm. in maximum thickness. The upper surface is nodose; calices from 1.25 to 1.5 mm. in diameter; coenenchyma composed of a fine trabecular mesh work. This speci- men seems to me to belong to the same species as the specimens from near Bainbridge, Georgia, that I am identifying as A. alabamiensis. 37149—19—Bull. 103: 20 488 | BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Localities and geologic occurrence.—Alabama, Salt Mountain, 6 miles south of Jackson, in the ‘‘coral limestone” above the top of the Vicksburg group, collected by T. W. Vaughan (the type). Georgia, station 3381 and 3383, on Flint River, respectively 4 and 7 miles below Bainbridge, in the base of the Chattahoochee formation, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Antigua, West Indies, station 6854, Antigua formation at Rifle Butts, collected by T. W. Vaughan. This species is of a high order of importance in the correlation of American Oligocene deposits. The septal arrangement in A. alabamiensis is similar to that of Porites in the presence of a plane of symmetry and the tendency of the septa to fuse by their inner ends in pairs. The septa them- selves, however, are very different, being lamellate, almost imper- forate, and sharply differentiated from the surrounding coenenchyma. Professor Felix in his Anthozoen der Gosauschichten in den Ostalpen' has redescribed and figured A. hawert Reuss and A. martiniana d’Orbigny. He does not speak of the bilateral symmetry of the calices but both of his figures indicate such a condition, as in each there are two opposite elongate septa that connect with each other through the columella. I take it, then, that the calices of A. martiniana are bilaterally symmetrical with the septa grouped not very definitely in two’s, three’s, four’s, or five’s on each side of the median plane. ) It seems probable that Actinacis may be intermediate in character between the families Acroporidae and Poritidae. These notes and suggestions are made in the hope that some one with the requisite material may make a more careful study of the Cretaceous species of the genus to determine the relations of those two families. Family PORITIDAE Dana. Genus GONIOPORA Quoy and Gaimard. 1833. Goniopora Quoy and Garmarp, Voyage de |’ Astrolabe, Zool., vol. 4, p. 218. Type-species.—Goniopora pendunculata Quoy and Gaimard. GONIOPORA HILLI, new species. Plate 142, figs. 1, la. Corallum composed of flattish plates, which may be more than 20 em. wide and 4 cm. thick and appear to have grown in a subhori- zontal position. The calices are a ae kt from 3 to 4 mm. in diameter, from 1 to 1.5 mm. deep, separated by walls from 0.75 to 1.25 mm. thick. The walls are crossed by rather low costae, and in places there is some 1 Palaeontographica, vol. 49, pp. 176-178, figs. 2, 3, 1903. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 489 intercalicular reticulum, but it usually does not well up and form peaks, ridges, and crests between the calices. Septa of the normal gonioporid number and arrangement, outer parts thick and subequal, all relatively narrow in their upper parts, and either fall steeply or slope to the level of the large columella tangle, which is joined by the primaries and secondaries and the ter- tiaries fuse to the secondaries near it. Usually 3 or 4 teeth on the margins. Paliform lobes not greatly developed. Columella tangle large, about 1.5 mm. in diameter, more than one- third the diameter of the calice; its upper surface forms the flattish or gently concave bottom of the calices. Localities and geologic horizon.—Canal Zone, stations 6015 and 6016, quarries in the Emperador limestone, Empire, T. W. Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald, collectors. Type.—Figured specimen No. 325058, U.S.N.M. Paratypes.—No. 325057, U.S.N.M. GONIOPORA PANAMENSIS, new species. Plate 142, figs. 2, 2a, 2b. ‘ Corallum forms thick plates, which may be more than 17 cm. wide and as much as 5 cm. thick in the center, thin on the edges. Growth form similar to that of Goniopora hill. Calices large, but irregular in size and distribution, because of the large development of intercorallite reticulum, which in some areas wells upward and forms nipple-shaped peaks in the angles between the entirely circumscribed calices or forms ridges with calices on each side. The diameter of the calices ranges from 2.5 to 3.5 mm.; the intervening walls or ridges range up to 2.5 mm. thick, their length ranges up to 13 mm., where as many as three calices occur in a single valley, their- height ranges up to 2mm. Costae can be traced across the intercorallite walls and the ridges between calicinal series. Septa rather thick, about 24, arrangement indefinite, but according to the gonioporid plan; they slope to the bottom of the calice or their outer part is narrow and falls steeply to the level or the columella tangle, to which the primaries and secondaries extend. Three or four dentations on the margin of each large septum. Paliform knots present, but lobes are not conspicuous. Columella tangle well developed, but not so large as in G. hill. Localities and geologic horizon.—Canal Zone, stations 6015 and 6016, quarries in the Emperador limestone, Empire, collected by T. W. Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald. Anguilla, station 6894, Crocus Bay, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Type.—Figured specimen, No. 325053, U.S.N:M. Paratypes.—No. 325054, U.S.N.M. 490 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. GONIOPORA DECATURENSIS, new species. Plate 148, figs. 1, la. Corallum lamelliform, the lateral expansion far exceeding its thickness. The specimen selected as the type is a portion of a coral- lum, 90 mm. across and about 23 mm. thick. Another specimen is 49 mm. long, 35 mm. wide, and 7.5 mm. thick. The upper surface is plane or undulate. When the corallum is foliaceous, it may be irregularly flexed. Calices polygonal, shallow, superficial or only slightly excavated. Usual diameter 2.5 to3mm. The wall, when somewhat worn, usually has a membraniform appearance, being almost continuous, inter- rupted in places, but forming a quite distinct boundary between ad- jacent calices. In other instances there may be no well-defined boundary to the calices. Two rows of synapticulae frequently rein- force the wall in the peripheral portion of the interseptal loculi Septa of variable thickness on the same specimen, usually mod- erately stout; on the thinner lamellae they are thick. The thickness of the septa seems to be correlated with the thickness of the colony. When the corallum is thick the septa are thin and vice versa. The normal number is 24, although there are in some places a few less, in others afew more. The usual arrangement is six primaries extending directly to the axis, with a triplet group of a secondary and two ter- tiaries between each pair. A directive plane could be observed in some calices, but the septa are too much damaged to permit discov- ering all the details of the arrangement. ‘The margins are dentate, five to seven dentations on each longer septum. The faces with the usual granulations. Synapticulae rather abundant, but not greatly crowded, variable in thickness. Columella tangle well developed. The texture of the corallum is of variable firmness, depending upon the thickness of the septal trabeculae, the synapticulae, etc., how- ever, it seems never to be especially dense. Localities and geologic occurrence.—Georgia, station 3381, Blue Springs, 4 miles below Bainbridge; and station 3383, Hale’s Landing, 7 miles below Bainbridge, Flint River, Decatur County, in the base of the Chattahoochee formation, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Cuba, station 7523, Mogote Peak, 250 feet a. t., 4 mile east of U.S. Naval Reservation, Guantanamo, Cuba, collected by O. E. Meinzer. Type.—No. 325031, U.S.N.M. Besides the lot of specimens referred to the species in the fore- going description, three other types or kinds of Goniopora occur on Flint River at Blue Springs and Hale’s Landing. , It is impossible with the material at hand to decide whether they are distinct species or only varieties or forms of G. decaturensis. However, as it seems GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 491 very probable that two of these are only varieties of G. decaturensis, they are named and described as such. GONIOPORA DECATURENSIS var. SILICENSIS, new variety. Plate 143, figs. 2, 2a. This is a specimen 113 mm. long, 54 mm. wide, and 20 mm. thick. The upper surface is slightly undulated, there is one deep depression, but it may have been caused by a burrowing animal or the surface may have been corroded. Calices 2.5 to 4mm. in diameter, larger than in typical G. decaturen- sis. Septa decidedly thin; texture light and fragile. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Georgia, station 3381, Flint River, Blue Springs, 4 miles below Bainbridge, in the base of the Chatta- hoochee formation, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Type.—No. 325026, U.S.N.M. GONIOPORA DECATURENSIS var. BAINBRIDGENSIS, new variety. Plate 143, figs. 3, 3a. _ Two small, inflated, rounded specimens are referred to this variety. No. 1, length 26.5 mm., width 25 mm., thickness 13.5 mm.; No. 2 (type), length 33 mm., width 24 mm., thickness 19 mm. Calices superficial, about 3 mm. in diameter. Septa moderately thick. These specimens are separated from typical G. decaturensis solely on the growth form. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Georgia, station 3381, Flint River, Blue Springs, 4 miles below Bainbridge, in the base of the Chatta- hoochee formation, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Type.—No. 325029, U.S.N.M. GONIOPORA REGULARIS (Duncan). 1863. Alveopora daedalaea var. reqgularis DuNcaN, Geol. Soc. London Quart. Journ., vol. 19, p. 426, pl. 14, figs. 4a, 4c. 1867. Alveopora dacdalaea Duncan, Geol. Soc. London Quart. Journ., vol. 24, p. 25. 1901. Alveopora regularis VauGHAN, Geolog. Reichs. Mus. Leiden Samml., ser. 2, vol. 2, p. ‘71. Dunean’s material of this coral is very poor, consisting of casts and mineral replacements of the original skeleton; and, as I pointed out ’ inmy paper cited in the synonomy, he incorrectly gave the dimensions of the corallites. The diameter is not “4 line” [=about 1 mm.] as stated by Duncan, but is usually 2 mm., with a range from 1.5 to 2.5 mm. I have three photographs of Duncan’s type (No. 12949, Coll. Geol. Soc. London), and after having made a large collection in Antigua identify with certainty the species represented by Duncan’s poor specimen. It is aspecies of Goniopora and is one of the common- est corals in Antigue, where I obtained about 30 good specimens. @ 492 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. The corallum is usually more or less turbinate in shape, rising from a narrow base, expanding upward, with a lobulate, but somewhat flattish upper surface. The dimensions of the largest: specimen are as follows: Least diameter of fracture on basal surface, 5 cm.; height 18.5 cm.; diameter of upper surface 22 by 25.5 cm. Some specimens are more or less columniform; others are glomerate. The calices are from 2 to 2.5 mm. in diameter and are separated by distinct, straight walls, or there is some costate intercorallite reticulum. The septal formula is normal for Goniopora, but the septa are more distinctly lamellate than is usual. There is a wide, detached, septal granule, that is usually compressed in the septal plane and is plate- like. Pali well developed; plate-like in many calices. This species will be described in detail and figured in a forthcoming report. Localities and geologic occurrence.—Antigua, at nearly every expo- sure of the coral reef in the Antigua formation, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Porto Rico, zone C, near Lares, collected by Bela bard of the New York Aoadines Bare Rico investigations. Arube, Serro Colorado. GONIOPORA REGULARIS var. MICROSCOPICA (Duncan). 1863. Alveopora microscopica Duncan, Geol. Soc. London Quart. Journ., vol. 19, p. 426, pl. 14, fig. 5. 1867. Albeanene mucrasco pica Dune Geol. Soc. London Quart. Journ., vol. 24, p. 20. Duncan based Alveopora microscopica on a silicified specimen (No. 12951, Coll. Geol. Soc. London), of which I have a photograph. This is a small calicled species of Goniopora, with rather strikingly lamellate septa. I obtained in Antigua three specimens that I identify with Duncan’s species, which probably is only a variant of Goniopora regularts. G. microscopica has a more regularly rounded corrallum and smaller calices, 1.25 to 1.5 mm. in diameter; other- wise I detect no important differences. Locality and geologic occurrénce.—Antigua, stations 6856, Friar’s Hill, and 6881, Willoughby Bay, Antigua formation, collected by T. W. Vaughan. GONIOPORA JAGOBIANA, new species. Plate 144, figs. 1, la, 2, 2a, 3, 3a. A description of the type (pl. 144, figs. 1, 1a), is as follows: Coral- lum obtuse, columniform. Horizontal diameter 160 by 165 mm.; height 133 mm. +, top damaged, when perfect probably about 210 mm. tall. Successive shells of skeletal substance are recognizable. Calices shallow, polygonal in outline, usual diameter slightly more than 3.5 mm. Intercorallite walls rather narrow, with some reticu- lum, septa traceable through it, in places about 1 mm. wide. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 493 Septa thin, formula complete, arrangement typical. Margins with an average of 5 or 6 delicate teeth between the columella and the wall, 8 teeth were counted on each of a few septa. There is no con- spicuous palar crown. . Columella tangle weakly developed; apparently a central tubercle was present in a number of the calices. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Cuba, station 3446, La Cruz marl, first deep cutting east of La Cruz near Santiago, collected by T. W. Vaughan (type). Florida, station 6775, White Springs, Alum Bluff formation, col- lected by T. W. Vaughan and C. W. Cooke. Type.—N 0. 325077, U.S.N.M. There are two undescribed species of Goniopora that are nearly related to G. jacobiana. One of them is from the Chipola marl mem- ber of Alum Bluff formation, Chipola River, Florida. Its calices are of the same size and its septa are fragile as in G. jacobiana, but the intercorallite reticulum is a more curly mesh-work in which the radial skeletal elements are obscure or are less conspicuous than in G. jacohiana. This difference in the reticulum seems to constitute a valid specific distinction. The other closely related species is from the Bowden marl, Bowden, Jamaica. As the calices of the Bowden specimen average about 2.3 mm. in diameter, they are distinctly smaller than in G. jacobhiana. The radial elements are obvious in the intercorallite reticulum, but it is somewhat flaky.. The Bowden specimen may belong to G. jacobiana, but with the small amount of material for comparison, it must, for the present be considered distinct. In addition to the two species mentioned, there is a somewhat similar species found abundantly in the calcareous marl of Anguilla, where I collected about 50 specimens of it. This species forms columniform or gibbous masses, composed of successive caps. It is not so massive as G. jacobrana, the columns are more slender, and its calices are more excavated. | The only observed difference between the type of. G. jacobiana and the specimen from White Springs, Florida, identified with that species, is that the calices of the White Springs specimen may be somewhat deeper. To refer specimens so simllar in habit and struc- tural detail to different species appears unjustifiable. GONIOPORA IMPERATORIS, new species. Plate 142, figs. 3, 3a. Growth form as a compressed, lobate column, 54 mm. tall, 22 mm, thick, 37 mm. wide (excluding a lateral lobe which is about 13 mm. long). 494 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Calices sunken between a rather regular mural network, diameter of calicular openings 1.5 to 2.5 mm., diameter measured between mural summits 2.5 to 3.5 mm., depth about 0.75 mm., separating walls from 0.75 to 1.25 mm. wide. The walls are rather flat-topped and are composed of costal prolongations of the septa joined together by synapticulae. In places there is considerable intercorallite reticu- lum, but it does not form protuberances between the calices; where the surface is well preserved, subequal costae extend across the walls. Septa of normal gonioporid arrangement, in the typical formula; above the bottom of the calices they are narrow, extending down the insides of the walls as short ribs, which bear about three inwardly projecting dentations; at the bottom of the calice they widen and the primaries and secondaries extend to the columellar tangle. Well developed paliform lobes occur just inside the junction of the ter- tiaries with the secondaries and form a crown around the periphery of the columellar tangle. Width of interseptal loculi less than the thickness of the septa. Columellar tangle weil developed, large, forms a flattish bottom to the, calices, width about one-half the calicular diameter. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Canal Zone, station 6016, quarry, in the Emperador limestone, Empire, collected by T. W. Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald. Anguilla, stations 6893, 6894, 6966, 6967, all coralliferous beds at Crocus Bay; station 6969a, bottom bed, Road Bay, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Type.—No. 325049, U.S.N.M This species really should ere been based on the Anguillan mate- rial, of which J collected 34 identifiable specimens. In fully devel- aed colonies the branches are subcircular or elliptical in cross section, and range from 30 to 55 mm. in diameter. The distance between mural summits ranges up to 4.5 mm. but is usually less. GONIOPORA CANALIS, new species. Plate 146, figs. 1, 2, 3. Corallum composed of compressed branches. The following are measurements: Dimensions of branches of Goniopora canalis. Greater di-| Lesser di- . Branch No. Length. | ameter of | ameter of. ea ower end. | lower end. Tum mm mm. mm. Ysjcpss se Wide Sp kisi IST Mae Ue ee a Agree LE en aa 41) 20 6.5 | 30 SIA EN RR NEEM Re MRS Ver aU ne os Dene Ime 41 20 12 28 Bea BG ere ee el AIT MIRA GA Oe PAUL NCH a 8 22 8 35 BETAS GTI DIRT TRY et at Aen Eee URE cass en rT eee INC c Let eGR eee eto 7.5 20+ GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE GANAL ZONE. 4.95 The lower end of each specimen and the tops of Nos. 3 and 4 are broken. Some coralla are evidently formed of rather thin, branching plates. Calices polygonal, usual diameter 3 mm., young calices about 2 mm. in diameter, an occasional large one as much as 4 mm.; depth from 1 to 1.25mm.; separated by walls from 0.75 to 1.25 mm. thick. The walls are crossed by costae and usually form a fairly regular network around the calicular cavities, but in places there is con- siderable intercalicular reticulum. In places there are low, rather indefinite ridges which may extend the length of as many as four calices. The tops of the walls are rounded or subacute. The septa are normal gonioporid in number and arrangement; they are thick at the wall, becomes thinner toward the center; their upper part narrow, gradually sloping to the columella tangle, which is joined by the primaries and secontaries; margins with about 6 fine dentations. Columella tangle not very conspicuous. Locality and geologic horizon.—Canal Zone, station 6016, quarry in the Emperador limestone, Empire, collected by T. W. Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald. Q Anguilla, station 6966, middle bed, Crocus Bay, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Cotypes.—Nos. 325052, U.S.N.M. (3 specimens). I am not certain the (@. canalis is really different from G. impera- toris. GONIOPORA PORTORICENSIS, new species. Plate 146, figs. 4, 5. Corallum ramous, branches rounded in cross section or very com- pressed, a branch of the latter form is 34 mm. wide with a maximum thickness of about 9 mm. Calices polygonal, shallow, usual diameter 2mm. The outer ends of the septa are flattened and fused together, separating the calicular depressions by a wall about 0.5 mm. thick. Septa, delicate, very perforate, in three complete cycles. Margins finely and delicately denticulate; about five small thin teeth on a long septum. Pali appear to be poorly developed, not specially differentiated from the ordinary septal dentations. Columella weakly developed. Locality and geologic occurrence——Porto Rico, station 3191, 4 milés west of Lares, Pepino formation, collected by R. 'T. Hill. Antigua, stations 6854, Rifle Butts; 6881, Willoughby Bay, in the Antigua formation, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Type.—No. 325061, U.S.N.M. Paratype——No. 325060, U.S.N.M. 496 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. This species resembles compressed specimens of Goniopora clever Vaughan, from which it is distinguishable by its thin septa, with delicately dentate margins. GONIOPORA CLEVE, new species. Plate 145, figs. 1, 2, 2a, 3, 4, 5, 5a, 6, 6a. Corallum branching. The type (pl. 145, figs. 2, 2a) is an irregu- larly shaped portion of a branch, selected because it permits the septal arrangement to be definitely determined. It is 44 mm. long; greater diameter of lower end, 12 mm.; of bulged portion, 15.5 mm. Probably some of the irregularity of form may be caused by erosion. Another broken specimen, a paratype, is econ ree by plate 145, figure 1. m@uliecs shallow, circular, or subcircular, 2 to 2.4 mm. in diameter. They may be close together or separated by reticulate and costate coenenchyma, as much as i mm. across; usually in the type, which is worn, they appear distinctly separated from the bounding coenen- chyma and sharply defined by a peripheral zone of synapticulae. There are 12 large lamellate septa with typical poritid arrangement, solitary directive, four lateral pairs, and a directive triplet; the inner ends of the laterals in the triplet are directed toward, but not actually fused, to the inner end of the principal directive. The outer ends of these larger are often bifurcated, or costae (these are to be considered rudimentary septa) exist between them, in some instances bringing the number up to 24. Pali well developed, six in number. Columella tangle rather dense, with an axial tubercle. Locality and geologic occurrence.—I\sland of Anguilla, West Indies, P. T. Cleve, collector (type); stations 6893, 6894, 6966, Crocus Bay, and 6970, 130 to 140 feet above sea level, east end of Road Bay, Anguilla, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Conall Zone, station 6016, in de Emperador limestone, collected by T. W. one taa and D. F. MacDonald. Antigua, station 6854, Rifle Butts, Antigua formation, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Type.—University of Upsala. Paratype.—University of Upsala. Paratypes.—Nos. 325111 (3 specimens), 325115 (1 specimen), U.S.N.M. It was decidedly difficult to decide whether this species should be referred to Porites or Goniopora. Bernard says: ‘‘These fossils with 12 central rays might almost be considered as transition forms toward Porites having to all appearance only 12 septa; but whenever it can be distinctly seen that a certain number of these septa fork before they reach the wall, I assume that the forking is the vestige of the fusion of the septa characteristic of Goniopora, and that therefore there are more than 12.” ? 1 Brit. Mus., Cat. Madrep. Corals, vol. 4, Gen. Goniopora, p. 21. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. A97 While in Anguilla in 1914 I collected about 40 identifiable speci- mens of this species, and am illustrating a series on plate 145, figures 3, 4,5, 5a. The branches are thickish and blunt-ended, having some resemblance in growth form to the thicker-branched forms of Porites porites, such as are common on the reefs on the east side of Andros Island, Bahamas. The calices of these specimens are not perfectly preserved, but in many a third cycle of septa is clearly recognizable. I therefore am convinced that the species is referable to Goniopora. Doctor MacDonald and I collected in the quarries at Empire, Canal Zone, a number of specimens that seem completely to agree with the Anguillan specimens. One of these is represented by plate 145, figures 6, 6a. | Flattened specimens of G. clevei resemble specimen of G. portori- censis, but the latter has thinner and more delicately dentate septa, and in-it the tertiary septa are more developed. - GONIOPORA CASCADENSIS, new species. Plate 146, figs. 6, 6a, 6b, 7, 8, 9. - Corallum composed of relatively slender, subterete branches. A branch segment 40 mm. long is 9 by 10 mm. in diameter at the lower end and 8 by 9 mm. in diameter at the upper end, showing 1 mm, decrease in diameter for 40 mm. in length; but branches may be thicker, up to as much as 15 mm. in diameter. Calices slightly excavated, polygonal, from 1.75 to 2.5 mm. in diameter, separated by more or less discontinuous. walls, in some places a straight or zigzag wall ridge is traceable, but in other places there seems to be none. Where there is a wall ridge, rather coarse mural denticles corresponding to the outer ends of the septa are present. In places mural reticulum is present and coarse radial skele- tal structures are clearly traceable through it. There are 12 large septa which extend to the columellar tangle, and about 12 small! septa which fuse in pairs to the sides of an included septum (assumed to a secondary) about halfway between the wall and the columellar tangle. The septal granules seem to be arranged according to the following scheme: A ring of outer granules which are adherent to or only slightly detached from the wall, a ring of intermediate granules which correspond in position to the place of fusion of the small (tertiary) septa to the sides of the secondaries, and an inner ring of granules which form paliform knots around the periphery of the columella tangle. The intermediate and inner rings seem constantly recognizable, but the outer ring is not always defi- nitely developed. The interseptal loculi are about as wide as the thickness of the septa. Columella tangle well developed; width more than one-third the diameter of the calice. In some calice a central styliform process is distinguishable. 498 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Canal Zone, station 6020c, in the Culebra formation at Las Cascadas, collected LAdWe Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald. Anguilla, station 6967, Crocus Bay, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Antigua, station 6854, Rifle Butts, Antigua formation, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Type.—No. 325072, U.S.N.M. (pl. 146, figs. 6, 6a, 60). Paratypes.—No. 335074, U.S.N.M. © spac bacdey This species is one of anyse that is termediate betweeu Posten and Goniopora. As there are short tertiary septa within the wall, according to Bernard’s treatment of such forms, it is referred to Goniopora. The types are from Las Cascadas, Cana] Zone. The calices of the specimens from Anguilla are not so well preserved as those of the cotypes, but the identifications seem reasonably certain, as there is agreement in all general characters and in the observed detail. Genus PORITES Link. 1807. Porites Link, Beschreibungen der Naturaliens Sammlungen, Rostock, p. 162. 1918. Porites VauGHAN, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 213, p. 138. Type-species.— Madrepora porites Pallas. PORITES PORITES (Pallas). 1766. Madrepora porites PauLas (part), Elench. Zooph., p. 324. 1901. Porites porites forma clavaria VauGcHAN, U. S. Fish Com. Bull. for 1900, vol. 2, p. 316, pl. 29; pl. 31, fig. 2 , 1902. Porites porites VauauAN, Biol. Soc. Washington Proc., vol. 15, pp. 56-58 (with references to literature and history of the name). 1909. Porites porites var., VAUGHAN, Carnegie Inst. Washington Yearbook No. 7, . 135. 1912. Deritss clavaria VAUGHAN, Carnegie Inst. Washington Yearbook No. 10, pp. 148, 152, 156, pl. 4, fig. 4c; pl. 6, figs. 3, 4. 1915. Porites clavaria VAuGHAN, Washington Acad. Sci. Journ., vol. 5, p. 597. 1916. Porites clavaria Vauauan, Nat. Acad. Sci. Proc., vol. 2, pp. 95, 98. 1916. Porites clavaria VauGHAN, Carnegie Inst. Washington Yearbook No. 14, p. 228. This is one of the species of corals to which most attention was given during my studies of the Floridian avd Bahamian reef corals, and it is never d to in most of my reports in Yearbooks No. 7-14, inclusive, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, usually as Porites clavarva, because that is the more generally kcown name. Localiives and geologic occurrence.—Recent throughout the coral- reef areas of the West Indies, the eastern side of Central America, Florida, and the Bermudas. Pleistocene, in the elevated West Indian reefs. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 499 Miocene, Santiago, Cuba, in the La Cruz marl, at station 3441, east of La Cruz, near crossing of the road from Santiago to the Morro over the railroad, collected by T. W. Vaughan. As these specimens agree in all details that I can discover, with the thicker-branched forms of P. porites, I am referring them to that species. This adds another to the considerable list of living species recognized in the La Cruz marl. PORITES FURCATA Lamarck. 1816. Porites furcata Lamarck, Hist. nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. 2, p. 271. 1887. Porites furcata Ratupun, U.S. Nat. Mus. Proc., vol. 10, p. 261, pl. 15, figs. 1-3; pl. 17, fig. 1. 1901. Porites porites forma furcata VAUGHAN, U.S. Fish Com. Bull. for 1900, vol. 2, p. 316, pl. 30; pl. 31, fig. 1. 1902. Porites polymorpha Verriy (part), Conn. Acad. Arts and Sci. Trans., vol. 11, p. 158. 1913. Porites furcata VaucHan, Carnegie Inst. Washington Yearbook No. 10, p. 156, pl. 5, figs. 5c, 6c, 7, 8; pl: 6, figs. la, 1b, 2a, 2b. 1915. Porites furcata VauaHAN, Washington Acad. Sci. Journ., vol. 5, p. 597. 1916. Porites furcata VauGHAN, Nat. Acad. Sci. Proc., vol. 2, p. 95. 1916. Porites furcata VAUGHAN, Carnegie Inst. Washington Yearbook No. 14, p. 228. — Localities and geologic occurrence.—Canal Zone, Pleistocene at sta- tions 5850 and 6039, Mount Hope, and 6554, dug out of mud flat, about 1 foot above ordinary high-tide level, Colon, collected by D. F. MacDonald. Costa Rica, Moin Hill, Niveau a, H: Pittier collection. Porites furcata is 2 common Pleistocene species. It is usual in the material behind elevated, sea-front reefs of the West Indies and east- ern Central America, and it is one of the most abundant corals on the flats inside the living coral reefs in the same region and Florida. It has not been found in Bermudas. PORITES BARACOAENSIS, new species. Plate 147, figs. 1, la. Corallum composed of slender branches. The type, a fragment of a branch, is 26 mm. long; lower end, subcircular in cross section, 6.25 mm. in diameter; 8.5 below upper end, the diameter is 6 by 8 mm., showing some flattening just below a bifurcation. Calices polygonal, excavated but rather shallow; diameter from 1.25 to 2.25 mm., about 1.75 mm. usual. Wallstraight, acute or with rather coarse knots corresponding to the outer ends of the septa; a distinct mural shelf is present in all or nearly all calices. Septa arranged into a solitary directive, four lateral pairs, and a ventral triplet. There is a circle of septal granules detached from the wall and fused by their bases, forming a mural shelf on the inner margin of which the granules stand up as compressed knots or as 1 See Verrill, Conn, Acad. Arts and Sci. Trans., vol. 11, p. 158, 1902. 500 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. plates. Usually there are six pali; that is, normally there are pali before the lateral pairs, the solitary directive, and the triplet. Ina few calices there is a palus before each member of the triplet, making eight pali in all; and in a few calices there is no recognizable palus before the solitary directive, the total number of pali being only five. The pali are solidly fused in the bottom of the calice one to another and to the columella tangle. No columellar tubercle was seen in any calice. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Miocene, Cuba, station 3476, marl, Baracoa, collected by T. W. Vaughan (type). Miocene, Jamaica, Bowden marl, Bowden, received from Hon. T. H. Aldrich. Type.—No. 325069, U.S.N.M. There is no other previously described species of Porites, fossil or living, in tropical or subtropical America’ closely resenbling P. baracodensis. Superficially it looks like the living P. furcata Lamark or P. dwaricata Le Sueur; but the definite mural shelf, above which the wall stands at its distal edge and the special granules on its inner edge, is distinctive. PORITES BARACOAENSIS var. MATANZASENSIS, new variety. Plate 147, figs. 2, 2a, 3, 4. Corallum composed of attenuate branches of small diameter. A fragment 15 mm. long is 3 mm. in diameter at one end and 3.25 mm. in diameter at the other. The maximum diameter of a branch seems to be about 3.75 mm., except where there is some flattening just below a bifurcation. The length of branches exceeds 20 mm., and probably is as much as 40 to 50 mm., or even more. Calices polygonal, very shallow or even surficial; diameter from 2 to 2.75mm. Wall slightly elevated, continuous and acute or with knots corresponding to the outer ends of the septa. Usually there is a distinct mural shelf. The septal characters are the same as those of P. baracodensis, ex- cept that the pali are less conspicuous and the septa in the upper half of the calice are usually elongated and have between three and five -teeth on their margins between the wall and the columella tangle. But in some calices the upper septa are not produced, and in these the septal characters are the same as in typical P. baracodensis. Be- cause of the presence of calices presenting the same characters as those of typical P. baraocodensis, a varietal designation seems all that is justifiable. | Locality and geologic occurrence—Miocene, Cuba, station 3461, marl, gorge of Yumuri River, Matanzas, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Type.—No. 325067a, U.S.N.M. (pl. 147, figs. 2, 2a.). GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 501 Paratypes.—Nos. 3250676, U.S.N.M. Apparently the specimens from Yumuri gorge lived in deeper or quieter water than those from Baracoa, for the differences are of the kind incident to such differences in ecologic conditions. The speci- mens of Stylophora granulata from the Yumuri gorge are decidedly more attenuate than those from Baracoa; and the specimens referred to Madracis mirabilis ave very slender and fragile. PORITES DOUVILLEI, new species. Plate 149, figs. 2, 2a; plate 151, figs. 1, la. Corallum composed of compressed, more or less coalescent branches. Plate 151, figure 1, represents a part of a corallum 66 mm. long, 15 mm. in maximum thickness, and.40 mm. wide; the specimen, represented by figure 2 of plate 149, is 35.5 mm. long and 11 mm. In maximum thickness. Calices shallow, polygonal, 1.25 to 2 mm. in diameter, 1.5 mm. probably about an average; separated by usually continuous, straight, membraniform walls, along the top of which are a few mural denticles corresponding to the outer ends of the septa; where the septa are distally forked there may be a denticle for each fork. Septa forming four lateral pairs, two on each side of the plane of symmetry, a solitary directive, and a ventral triplet with the inner ends of its members free from each other. A ring of thickish septal granules is detached from the wall, standing about half way between it and the palar ring; the outer ends of a number of septa fork between the septal granule and the wall. Pali well-developed, formula complete or suppressed on one or more members of the triplets, suggestions of trident formation in some calices. Synapti- culae in two rings, the outer corresponds in position with the septal eranules and is usually incomplete, the inner is the palar synapticular ring and normally is complete. Columella tangle consists of a central tubercle joined by radu to the pal. Locality and geologic oceurrence.—Canal Zone, station 6016, quarry in the Emperador limestone, Empire, collected by T. W. Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald. Cotypes.—Cat. No. 325106 (2 specimens), U.S.N.M. PORITES TOULAI, new species. Plate 150, figs. 1, la, 2, 3, 4. Corallum composed of elongate, rather slender, subterete, or only slightly compressed branches. The following measurements of broken branches indicate the shape and size. 502 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Measurements of branches of Porites toulai. . Diameter of | Diameter of Specimen No. Length lower end. «| upper end. ; mm. | mm. mm. Wee eee ROSSER ARE dad Bhs MARTE AS ee NR de eed 40.5 Tby 8 6.75 by 7.5 CIEE CISC SEIS RSE CEE Be tee MU qa eS ee Ne cst IE 46 | 13.5 by 14 12 by 14 Oe SM OSes Sere DA IGIN De ES OATS Sst oe SIE Ae Sdsios MA 1l by 17 8 by 10.5 Specimen No. 3 has been somewhat compressed by pressure. Calices shallow, diameter about 1.75 mm., a few large calices have a greater diameter of as much as 2.5 mm. There is a pronounced tendency for the calices to occur in rather short, longitudinal series. One series is 5.5 mm. long and contains 4 calices, one of which is immature; another series, which is slightly curved, is 7.5 mm. long and contains 5 calices. The calices within a series are separated by indistinct walls; in fact, between some no definite wall is recogniz- able, the distal ends of septa from one calicinal center being continu- ous with the distal ends of the septa belonging to the next center. Such series are formed by fission. The walls between adjacent series are definite; a wall-ridge is usually but not invariably recognizable, it is interrupted and straight or somewhat zigzag. There is in places a considerable development of intercalicular or interseria! reticulum, in which the radial (costal) skeletal elements are conspicuous. The septal arrangement is irregular as would be expected in a coral in which asexual reproduction is largely by fission. Groups of calices from two specimens are shown on plate 150, figures la, 4. The scheme where complete seems to be a solitary directive, two lateral pairs on each side of the plane of symmetry, and a ventral triplet in which the inner ends of the lateral members converge toward the included directive and join it by synapticulae, but such a schematic arrangement is rarely recognizable. ‘Phere are usually from 10 to 14 septa fusing in pairs or in threes, with a solitary septum, the directive plane being indicated in many calices by an elongate septum, to the inner end of which the columellar tubercle may be attached. Usually coarse septal granules slightly detached from the wall form a ring, and the pali form a ring surrounding the columellar tangle. There is indefiniteness and irregularity in the pali as there is in the septa; the normal number seems to be five or six. There are an outer ring of synapticulae, more or less fused to or detached from the wall, and an inner palar ring. There is a well developed, rather prominent columellar injbarule which is jomed by radii to the inner ends of the septa. Localiiy and geologic occurrence.—Canal Zone, station 6016, quarry in the Emperador limestone, Empire, collected by T. W. Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald. Type.—Cat. No. 325105a, U.S.N.M. pl. 150, figs. 1, 1a. Paratypes.—Cat. No. 325105), U.S.N.M. (8 speciniene)- GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 503 PORITES ASTREOIDES Lamarck. 1816. Porites astreoides LAMARCK, Hist. nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. 2, p. 269. 1887. Porites astreoides RataBun, U.S. Nat. Mus. Proc., vol. 10, p. 354. 1901. Porites astreoides Vauauan, U.S. Fish Com. Bull. for 1900, vol. 2, p. 317, pl. 32; pl. 33; pl. 34, figs. 1, 2. 1902. Porites astreoides VeRRILL, Conn. Acad. Arts and Sci. Trans., vol. 11, p. 160, pl. 31, fig. 4. 1902. Porites verrillt Verritt, Conn. Acad. Arts and Sci. Trans., vol. 11, p. 161, pl. 31, fig. 5. 1903. Porites astraeoides DuERDEN, Nat. Acad. Sci. Mem., vol. 8, p. 550, pls. 3-5, figs. 23-42. 1912. Porites astreoides VAucHAN, Carnegie Inst. Washington Yearbook No. 10, pp. 148-156; pl. 4, figs. 3a, 3d, 3e; pl. 5, figs. 50, pl. 6, figs. 1c, 2e. 1915. Porites astreoides VauGHAN, Washington Acad. Sci. Journ., vol. 5, p. 597. 1916. Porites astreoides VauaGHAN, Nat. Acad. Sci. Proc., vol. 2, p. 98. 1916. Porites astreoides VAUGHAN, Carnegie Inst. Washington Yearbook No. 12, pp. 226, 227, 228, 231. This is one of the coral species to which I devoted much attention during my field studies in Florida and the Bahamas. The results of my observations and experiments have mostly been published in Yearbook Nos. 7 to 14, inclusive, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Localities and geologic occurrence.—Canal Zone, Pleistocene, station 6039, Mount Hope, collected by D. F. MacDonald. This species is general in both the living and the Pleistocene coral reefs of the Caribbean region and Florida. It is also found living both in the Bermudas and on the Brazilian reefs.1 I collected in the Miocene La Cruz marl in and near Santiago, Cuba, a number of specimens of a massive species of Porites that I can not distinguish from P. astreoides. The station numbers are 3436 and 3438, south side of the city along the trocha; 3446, first deep cutting east of La Cruz, along the railroad. . PORITES PANAMENSIS, new species. Plate 148, figs. 1, 2, 3, 3a. The type is the upper part of a plate, which is 90 mm. tall, 75 mm. wide, and 28 mm. in maximum thickness near the lower end. One side is nearly flat, while on the other there are two low gibbosities. (See pl. 148, fig. 3.) Calices excavated but not very deep, circumscribed, 1.5 to 2 mm. in diameter, or confluent in short series of about three calices. Wall coarse, rather ragged in appearance, forms a considerably interrupted, usually straight, occasionally zigzag, elevated ridge with coarse knots along its top. As asexual reproduction is largely by fission, there are no definite walls between many calicinal centers. 1 Verrill, Conn. Acad. Arts and Sci. Trans., vol. 11, p. 161, 1902. 3(149—19—Bull. 103——21 504 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. There is irregularity in the number and arrangement of the septa resulting from the formation of new calices by fission. They are usually rather thick and in many calices are bent in an irregular way. In fully developed calices there are 12 septa with the usual solitary directive, four lateral pairs, and a directive triplet. The laterals of the triplet are more or less free from the directive of the group, but usually appear to converge toward its inner end. Septal granules irregular in development, rarely forming a definite, clear-cut ring, more or less attached to the wall. Pali from six to eight in number, irregular in development. No definite outer synapticular ring, but a few synapticulae correspond in position to the septal granules; palar synapticular ring better developed. There is a columellar tubercle rising in the middle of an irregular columellar tangle. Locality and geologic occwrrence.—Canal Zone, stations 6015 and 6016, quarries in the Emperador limestone, Empire, collected by T. W. Vaughan and D. F. Macdonald. Type.—No. 325063, U.S.N.M. Paratypes.—Nos. 325064, U.S.N.M. (2 specimens). The type and three other specimens are plates with undulations or low gibbosities on the sides. This growth-form grades into nodose columns (see pl. 148, fig. 1, for growth habit, and fig. 2 for an enlarged view of the calices of another specimen of similar growth-form). As the good suite of specimens shows that these are only intergrading erowth-forms of the same species and as they occur together at sta- tion 6016, separate nomenclatorial designation appears unnecessary. PORITES ANGUILLENSIS, new species. Plate 149, figs. 1, la, 16 (type); plate 150, fig. 5. The following is a description of the type: Corallum composed of thin, more or less undulate, separate laminae, resting one on another. The underside epithecate to the edge, the epitheca minutely, regularly, and concentrically striate. The type-specimen consists of two such laminae, both broken. The greatest thickness of the two is about 15 mm., the greatest width 58 mm. One lamina is 5 mm. thick in its thickest portion, the edge is thinner. The calices are shallow, subcircular, 1.7 to 2.3 mm. in diameter, separated by flat coenenchymal walls, 0.8 to 1 mm. across. The coenenchyma is perforate, but rather compact and costate. Septa rather thick, normal number 12, with solitary directive, four lateral pairs, and the laterals on the sides of the principal direc- tive loosely fused to it or continued to the columella tangle. Pali, usually six in number, before the lateral pairs, on the ends of the solitary and principal directives. As a rule, there is a prominent dentation at the inner edge of the wall. Synapticulae well developed, 4 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 505 three rows in the wall, and a ring of thick ones, coinciding with the palar ring, around the axis of each corallite. Trabeculae of columellar tangle coarse; axial tubercle present. In longitudinal section there are in 3.5 mm. about 11 synapticulae; in the same distance about 10 vertical rods. The spaces of approximately the same thickness as the solid parts, except that the median portion of a synapticula is thinner than its ends. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Island of Anguilla, West Indies, collected by P. T. Cleve; Crocus Bay, Anguilla, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Canal Zone, station 6016, in a Emperador limestone, Empire, collected by T. W. Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald. Type.—University of Upsala. Duplicate specimen from the Cleve collection and other specimens in the United States National Museum. This is an abundant species at Crocus Bay, ele where I col- lected it in both the lower and the upper part of the exposure on the south side of the bay. The epitheca is not always distinct on the lower surface, but I can not be sure whether it has been worn off or was not developed. One of the two specimens from Empire, Canal Zone, is represented by plate 150, figure 5. The calicular characters are obscure but they seem to be the same as those of P. anguillensis. The general facies of the specimens is identical with that of P. anguillensis. Subgenus SYNARAEA Verrill. 1864. enced VERRILL, Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 1, p. 42. Type-species.—None was designated by Verrill; therefore I select as the type-species Porites erosa Dana, the first species in Verrill’s list of those referred by him to Synaraea. PORITES (SYNARAEA) HOWEI, new species. Plate 151, figs. 2, 2a, 3, 3a, 4. Corallum composed of rather small, slightly or greatly compressed, even subpalmate, branches, on some of which longitudinal carinae are well developed. Plate 151, figures 2, 3, 3a, are natural size illustra- tions of two specimens. The thickness of the lower end of the speci- men represented by figure 2 is 6 mm., of the upper end of the same specimen about 5.5 mm.; the width and length of the specimen are indicated by the figure. The calices are small, about 1 mm. in diameter, and occur more or less in series from 5 to 18 mm. long between reticular coenenchymal ridges, that range in thickness from a merely dividing partition up to 2 mm. wide, and in height up to a maximum of about 1 mm. Septa small, 12 in number, with the usual poritid arrangement. The laterals of the triplet converge toward the inner end of the direc- 506 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. tive and fuse to it at the periphery of the columellar tangle. A circle of fairly prominent septal granules distinguishable just within and more or less attached to the wall. Pali small, but distinct and relatively prominent, usually six in number, on the inner ends of the two directives and before the lateral pairs. The synapticular rings are very clearly distinguishable, apparently there are two, the outer of irregular development. Columellar tangle well developed, with a small, erect central tubercle. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Canal Zone, station 6016, quarry in the Emperador limestone, ae ae collected by T. W. Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald. Ootypes.—No. 325113, U.S.N.M. 3 specimens). PORITES (SYNARAEA) MACDONALDI, new species. Plate 152, figs. 1, 2, 3, 3a, 4, 5, 5a. Corallum begins growth as an explanate plate with humps and gibbosities on its upper surface, by continued growth the protuber- ances rise into crests and compressed sohumdicaan lobes. The series - of illustrations on plate 152, figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, indicate the growth- forms. Calices of moderate size, average about 1.5 mm. in diameter, occur separately or in series, usually in series which range in length from the diameter of two or three calices up to 18 mm. long with 11 calices. Within the series, although the calicinal centers are clearly demarked, the walls between adjacent calices are only slightly developed, but the series are separated by distinct fairly continuous walls, which are costate on top, or by coarsely reticular coenenchyma. In many places the reticulum rises upward between calices, especially at their corners, and forms papillae, similar to those in the papillate species of Montipora. Such papillae may be single, with a basal diameter of about 1 mm. and a height also of about 1 mm., or they may fuse and form ridges as much as 7 mm. long and 1.5 mm. thick at the base. The reticulum composing the papillae is of coarse texture. As new calices are largely formed by fission, the septal arrangement is not definitely schematic. Where it appears possible to recognize a ventral directive, the laterals of the triplet are joined to it by synapticulae at the periphery of the columeilar tangle. There is a ring of septal granules slightly detached from the wall, and corres- ponding to it in position is an incomplete ring of et pali are present, but usually indefinite in development, in one calice there appear to be eight; palar synapticulae indefinite. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. 507 Columellar tangle composed of indefinite, confused processes from the inner ends of the septa among which an axial plate is recog- nizable in a few calices. Locality and geologic occurrence.—Canal Zone, station 6016, quar- ry in the Emperador limestone, Empire, collected by T. W. Vaughan and D. F. MacDonald. Anguilla, station 68)3, Crocus Bay, collected by T. W. Vaughan. Cotypes.—No. 325046a, U.S.N.M. (4 specimens.) The identification of the specimen represented by plate 152, figures 5, 5a (No. 325046), U.S.N.M.), is not positive. Class HYDROZOA. Order HYDROCORALLINAE Moseley.’ Family MILLEPORIDAE L. Aggassiz. Genus MILLEPORA Linnaeus. MILLEPORA ALCICORNIS Linnaeus. 1758. Millepora alcicornis LinNaxEus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, p. 791. 1898. Millepora alcicornis Hickson, Zool. Soc. London Proc. for 1898, p. 256. 1901. Millepora alcicornis VauGHAN, U.S. Fish Com. Bull. for 1900, vol 2, p. 318, pls. 35-38. Locality and geologic occurrence-—Canal Zone, Pleistocene, stations 5850 and 6039, Mount Hope, collected by D. F. MacDonald. One of the two specimens is partly incrusted by Polytrema mineaceum (Linnaeus). Millepora alcicornis is found living on the West Indian and Floridian coral reefs nearly everywhere there are such reefs and in the Bermudas. According to Hickson, there is only one living species, which is Indo-Pacific as well as Atlantic in its distri- bution. EXPLANATIONS OF PLATES. PLATE 68. West Indian Shore Lines. ae neenne: islands: Harbor Antioud...... perie- Sie seeew eee eh eon eloes 273 Boer SOEMOCIa bay, pATND LOU As. - So ye' 0.5 erate Ste eecbac tea cy acs eR le Se LIA pa ait 273 €}Fubliken, Bay, St Bartholomew. --cehwas. sine - Pease. sis Oe eee ae 275 Meeot. sean Bay, ob; bartholomew .. .2...- 2. -.--.5s Bere ween - see aes ES 275 Pate 69. West Indian Shore Lines. AeePoinie BilaweherSt.- Martin.) >.<). - anise Rear .Aaaasd- 6 4o-6i?-.8- 276 B. East side of Crocus Bay, north side of Anguilla...............-.------+-.-- 276 C” Calls Pond; Aneuilla "> 2ebewee sees - se tnisseeree See Ons e- .24- set 242-3 277 D. Shore, south side of Anguilla, looking toward St. Martin...........--..-- 276 1 These organisms are not corals, but, as they are usually associated with corals and contribute calcium carbonate to reefs, accounts of them are frequently included in discussion-of Madreporia. 508 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. PLATE 70. West Indian Shore Lines. A. Looking into the mouth of Charlotte Amalia Harbor, St. Thomas... PRU iB. Clifis.on southern shore ol St wUhomas Seppe ee ee. cl ok fe. yee = 1s See C. Alluvial plain at head of an embayment, St. Thomas.............-..-.--- D. Mountains on north, limestone plain on south, St. Croix.................. PiatE 71. West Indian Shore Lines. A. Santiago Harbor, Cuba, looking into the harbor; slightly elevated coral reef rock im leltvereoroumd (h6 50). | Piha aeh, CON ee OEY i eres i ee B. Santiago Harbor, Cuba, looking seaward .through its mouth. ............-. C. 7Yumuny corse, Matanzas, Cubart Sr af. oe Go. See eles ee eee Di Yumurt, Valley abowe jhezcorse. yo 53) ues ee oe eee PLATE 72. Views of Isle of Pines, Cuba. A. The general plain 2 ean e, APRONS TE eee ie Nek. Pe BeyDaguilla: amonadnockol hardrock. 2) 2.8502 nare eee se Eee een C. Lower part of course of Santa Fe River......-....---------------- eee eee eee PLATE 73. Model of Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea............--......5..2-.-.---- PLaTE 74. Stylophora imperatoris, new species. Fries. 1, la. Two views of the type, from station 6016, Empire, Canal Zone. la. Calices, X 8. The slightly protuberant upper calicular margins arevat themacht inmtheph ene See ste ec eee alt ee eee 2-7 AVsecond specimen irom stadWoniGULor Ue SE nSSHelN, Wehbe) eee eeceeseceeemes ac sS6 cease oe es sooRosoecess 6. oll! NAC RTT COS: SCA hk REE SS eS 5 ce oe esi Lt See TUG EG tie SAN 351 2, 2a. Astrocoenia d’achiardii Duncan. Zepbranch. natibalest7@s a oc% aos oa! tee ths sae cee eee eae 346 Pie WaldCEsy, SS Dee eer meee sy ce. Scie cae cece ee ee aes 346 3, 3a, 4, 4a. Astrocoenia decaturensis, new species. 3. View, natural size, of the corallum; 3a, calices, X 5, of the type from layered e VBI OyesKO tgs) pela coma) le ol agen ele Mall dbf 348 4, View, natural size, of the corallum; 4a, calices, X 5, of a specimen ELOTVAMLISUAL s Svat ote osetia cores a oe eRe ew eee ef | O48 PLATE 79. Fies. 1, la, 2. Astrocoenia guuntanamensis, new species. 1. Corallum, natural size; la, calices, < 5, of type, from Guantanamo, CON OR etc 6 Surber ets) siethshtmnetyte eabeh teababid Ges xy i Racal Se diene 347 2. Specimen from Tonosi, Panama; calices, X 5.......-- Bers osea oie 347 3, 3a. Astrocoenia meinzeri, new species. oe Corallimaanaturalesizercscc jones ee ee eae cies coer ane 349 SUOMI CEN Ke Oe ate ea) oa eee. oat Ameer en AG 4, 4a, 4b. Dichocoenia tuberosa Duncan. Ara COPA IMM HN ALUTABIZObt He cist tae oc stow ce re ere cimrec cee 360 ACEMCOSULOND CA eee nea ae cis the ape p RIeIa nie chee so emma aoe cee 360 Bune ORIN SES SCI SES Sy Se MRSS ae Oe hs ao ee eS eral ee ae 360 510 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. PLATE 80. Fries 1, la, 1b, 2, 3. Archohelia limonensis, new genus and species. 1. Corallum, natural size; la, calice, X 4; 16, axial corallite, X 4, of 9 4, 5, 6, 6a. Asterosmilia hilli, new species. Ade Oorell lume Lees eee crys ooo ep reer ele peverey relive) se oqere ee octane oles 5. Corallum, x 2 SSE BE SR rans Seas OS UO e OMIT omer Sap Goce oc _6. Corallum, < 24, 6a, calice, X 3, of the same specimen...........- 7, 7a, 76. Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander), three views of the specimen identified by Milne Edwards and Haime as Heli- astraea stellulata (Ellis and Solander). 7. Corallum, five-sixths natural size.............. Te oh chean dys ocotge TGS ORY WEES SGP OE een BENE ONS SBS bos og abouasdaeasaccosos o> 7b. Longitudinal section of corallites, X 34...-.------------+++-+++--+- PLATE 81. Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander). Fias. 1, la. Two views of a typical specimen trom Tortugas, Florida. 1 Corallum, natural 1722. . 22.2. sc ln te - stein ler ttaiee -Gri Miia Ia oe Gs Caleesy SC Bacscsdsssccsedoacsoooadecsoudoonosasoacdooadensabsos 2. Variant with nodular surface, X 4, from Tortugas, Florida..........-. PLATE 82. Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander). Figs. 1, la. Variant from Mayaguez, Porto Rico. Mee oral: Xe ee ee ee cee nat ae Se ester ere ete la? Callicesi 18827 -o2ef. eee IERIE. NSS Eine See ara 2. Variant, discoidal in form, <4, from Fort Taylor, Key West, Florida. - Prats 83. Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander). Fig. 1. Calices of Verrill’s type of Orbicella hispidula, X3...----------+-----+- 2. Calices, X3, of a specimen from Port Castries, Saint Lucia........--.- 3, 3a. Two views of a specimen of Orbicella hispidula Verrill, from the reef east of Cocoanut Point, Andros Island, Bahamas. Se Worrall: Ge se cee ohio amr ey ic ae op oat aa 3a. Part of the surface, natural size.............-----------++--------- PuatTE 84. Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander). Fic. 1. Calices of the type of Echinopora franksi Gregory, X3...------------- 2. Corallum of columnar growth-form from Tortugas, Florida, natural size. 3, 3a. Two views of a variant with columnar growth-form from Westpunt, Curacao. 3. Corallum, natural size.........-.-.---- 2-2 eee eee eee eee Ser, altceneocan eee Ne eee rE ee DMT HE : Page. 366 366 367 368 368 368 368 369 368 368 371 367 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CANAL ZONE. ssa ha 8 PLATE 85. Orbicellu limbata (Duncan). Page. Fias. 1, la. Two views of an original specimen of Duncan’s Plesiastraca ramea. My OOPS MIM IATA SIZE. cnc. acne cn cy oy Seen iments elena aiarela gis’ 376 Gig CONICS Aho vets ae. een Rep eS ibe lees tenth el eaet ied args 376 2, 2a, 2b. Three views of the same specimen in the Museum of Compar- ative Zoology. 2. Honettudineal section, naturalisizes ses os2 022. ccs. enon ee neces 377 Ebon eatmaiial SeCtION, ->< 5s 2 i2uic-1) taaeeacticias sloise a tom creas mie 377 Bde CAMICGS. Ko. sho PPIs WIL Ra ee ie ai wom Saas sleieine 377 Gh ORICESa co. OL SNORE? SPECHMO care aera ioe alee cael te) =| erate sian Se 56" - 381 PLATE 88. Orbicella cavernosa (Linnaeus). Fic. 1. Marginal calices, natural size, of a specimen from 9 miles northwest of Reyes In snM Orica mrterts Sia ea AS fc 0 Cen rmcenet eee een nn 380 2. Calices natural size of a specimen from Tortugas, Florida............. 380 3, 3a, 3b. Three views of the specimen labeled Orbicella compacta Rathbun, from Brazil (lat. 12° 48’ 8.; long. 38° W.). This is probably a valid variety of O. cavernosa. Ss4Uipper suriace of coralium, natural sizes == 2250" SINE ee I te 384 SUP ASCECUDTOr CAlTCES! Pam = SARs * shea RNa ee 2 os hee ow ene ohare 384 36. Loneitudinal sectiom-or corallates, Sc2s Seth. 2 i ees eet 384 512 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. PLATE 89. Fies. 1, la. Orbicella cavernosa var. endothecata (Duncan); two views of one of Duncan’s original specimens. Page. 1. Outer surface; 1a, longitudinal section of corallites, each natural size. 384 2. Orbicella cavernosa var. cylindrica (Duncan); calices, natural size, of one oF Duncans oricimal specimens: a1 sere ier ine rr agte eee 385 3. Orbicella aperta (Verrill). Calices natural size ..............-.- meat: ASR Rd es i oe (Originals of figures 1-5a from Anguilla.) 6a. ‘Two views of a specimen somewhat flattened by pressure, from Em- pire, Canal Zone. Gy Nammre MACE esse see. LL, | Ue Oe eee a memes Puate 146. 2, 3. Goniopora canalis, new species. 1, (ompescorallum, natural size... ..2-ceeeebebeeeies - cae cus. = 2, .Seconaeonype,corallum, natural sizekee 2-2-2 sen. eee. wc a2 3 as MRE Ganype, CALIGES,. > cB. - < 52222255 itekeede cee 20. Oe do teed _ ee 2a, 3, 4. Porites baracodensis var. matazasensis, new variety. 2. Type, corallum, natural size; 2a, the same, X 5....22.0.0.0..000- $i (ParalypeGoetessotticfiss2s::5::: - 2 ee lie). 6. 4, Paratype, X 5, shows intergradation with the typical form of the SOCIETY a cies cei dS ea rime S.A oo a ca Puate 148. Porites panamensis, new species. Paratype cpralihumecnaimmnal “size. i) 3.2... 25s eee. onan s Calicess* Smonerpatangnee.'. 2.8... 2c 45 -ho. S oe eens. s So ce 3a. Two views of the type. Oo. Coral farmer SIAC ee... coc obs oo 5 a CES | oe a SQ-1C alic es copemmriece: 8... ek). ee ee PLate 149. la, 1b. Porites anguillensis, new species. Three views of the type. Peper curincemuiural SIZE; . c/s)... 2qee se eee eee ee Hae howemsunmace: maturalesize. . 2.5... .2. nee. 5 eels 2 Sane Hs Coma ene ae cm a I ag 2a. Porites douvillei, new species. Two views of a cotype. Poe VOTE i. MANURE 2 | 5 a EID on ie eye Cee | eae Zea OP ee NE ee 3a. Actinacis alabamiensis (Vaughan). Two views of a small specimen from Flint River, near Bainbridge, Georgia. Dey COA mammal italicize Sewer). aie) ee bint ele ieee SMA CE NESS. CGI. SSO SRR eA nO aR er gS 523 497 497 494 494. 494 495 495 497 497 497 A97 499 499 500 500 500 504 503 524 BULLETIN 103, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Puate 150. Fies. 1, la, 2, 3, 4. Porites toulai, new species. Page. 1, la. Type, natural size; 1a, calices, x 8, of the type...--..-------. 501 2. Paratype, natural’’size? -)hanam teeny eo 2 oars 15 eee 501 34 Seconds paratype} natural sizer seeps 35-252 fe eee 501 A* Calices! of acthird paratype, «Ose sie 6 are eae 501 5. Porites anguillensis, new species. Specimen from Empire, Canal Zone, TOE HRUUC GIST ACT MUNI CAR baa ee ci eel ear gas Ub Ula Go Calo Mero sic 505 PuaTe 10d]. Fias. 1, la. Porites dowvillei, new species. Two views of a cotype. it ‘Corallnm natural sizex: 74 “css * ae Bee ER Reno eee ee 501 las Calttces? 3o.8: 3 spre a3 PS Be Oe RD cel Sd See 501 2, 2a, 3, 3a, 4. Porites (Synaraea) howei, new species. Views of the three cotypes. 2. Branch, natural size; 2a, part of the same branch, X 3........--- 505 3, 3a. Two views, natural size, of the same branch.......-....-.--.- 505 4° Calhices, <8, of a! third branch!) 299752 Sane oe 2h \ gee ee 505 Puate 152. Porites (Synaraea) macdonaldi, new species. Brg. 1 Aveotype wmatural Shen. ees te eee reste eather ed 506 2. A second cotype, natural size........-....----------+----+----------- 506 3, 3a. Two views of a third cotype. Oe Naburalistze aaa eerie cei eters nice AO: Ree 2 ail BL Spa eER 506 Sah Part Ol SUMIACE XG Bea. oc 22 oe eerie Soe = elsmieiels lett eee ee 906 4, A fourth cotype, natural size.........-..2-.-2---- 2 e22- see eee eee 506 5, 5a. Two views of a specimen referred to this species. 5, Corallum\ natumalcize (22a s secs 2 coe se ese Ce ie eat 507 Ba WwAvealicera yur dit = ise Gre bie eaerelers) Ser aisprinseleyeisle e's Bracc> _ i PL. 96 Fossit CORALS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA AND WEST INDIES. FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 513. BULLETIN 103 PL. 97 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 4A X4 4a FOSSIL CORALS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA AND WEST INDIES. FoR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 513. PL. 98 103 BULLETIN NATIONAL MUSEUM S. U. ae e wwe \ e Ss \ “a par eN FOSSIL CORALS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA AND WEST INDIES. FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 613. 99 PL. 103 BULLETIN NATIONAL MUSEUM S. U. FOSSIL CORALS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA AND WEST INDIES. FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 513, U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 103 PL. 100 X6 FOSSIL CORALS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA AND WEST INDIES. FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 514, U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 103 PL. 101 FossiL CORALS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA AND WEST INDIES. FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 514, PL. 102 103 BULLETIN FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 514. a) Ww Q Zz im wn 3 a) Zz ¢ < 2 oc W = lee aeia as 433 weave key ic ya ee See ae sangsuds 214 IAD ATICUC AGL = jaa see sap seers tris: -leei-15 425 agaricites, Agaricia-.-..-.-...-........ 214, 232,426 MAT ODOLAS ss sica 2 = c/aaciiseis sss 427 var. crassa, Agaricia.....-... 225, 232, 427 var. gibbosa, Agaricia.......--.-.-- 427 var. purpurea, Agaricia.......--.- 232 var. pusilla, Agaricia... 225, 232,427, 428 QGa88i7t, MACAndnd.. ass ee eee rete eee eee 419 Weathiphiyillineessessecesnoscscecaccee 455, 456, 469 GUM URI Ane spaces Gousseecanc 455 Gepressa.2 4 ssee csc gte esse esos. 455 explanataense ces -eeeeeee cers 455 egelutinans, Textularias.c.----2s-e-secce es se 294 MICU METSIS \OCUUTIO wee teee ease esses oe 352 alabamiensis, Actinacis............-----.----- 201, 205, 206, 234, 486, 488, 523 J MOE IRC Ge eabeeeoee ae ee 486 alcicornis, Millepora..........-.----.-- 225, 236, 507 tA AT iChigemetae nee ie cee tec cee os 195 BdrICh i WATCH ONE atesreee essa eee sass <1 199 Oculing.cea---22-- Roane awe aS 353 Aldrichiella elegans............---..--------- 195 altissima, Heliastraea........-.--------- 375, 379, 380 Orbicellassse escheat. 230, 362, 363 Alveopora...........--..-- 201, 202, 203, 206, 211, 395 CHIC TT RSIS SS oe Se SEM rns es 491 var. regularis......-.-. 201,491 ODA USERS 8 == Reha Re ane 214 MUCTOSCOPICM ese seas sacis elie oes 492 MEGUIDTIS ce te eee ee oes ele ele 491 alveolaris, Antiguastrea....-..- NO Se Nae 230, 409, 410 PAISIT ED) 52 sree een eae 402, 409, 410 ATURE S 4 si caacsaddesenoeeeelse 409 alveolus, Placocyathus....-.---.------------ 212 americana, Astrangia (Phyllangia). ....----- 225 Orthophragmina...-......-------- 196 phy dllangiaeeaseeeer se sce eee et 409 AM DINISLOZIN Aa emee re coer seers aaa 294 NESSOMU Neen else seem === 294 CPPS AGRE G4 Sec Sous soo ede nesses ee 436 | anguillensis, Agaricia....-. 210, 232, 428, 429, 430, 515 Cyathomorpha... 210, 234, 460, 461, 519 Pironastraea....---------------- 204, 210, 232, 432, 433, 434, 516 Porites... 209, 210, 236, 504, 505, 523, 254 I II Page. angularis, Clavulina...--.------------------- 294 angulata, Antilloseris..-.-.--.--------------- 194 Seriatoporase ems -- 2-2

  • 192, 435 Sidenastracde.--eeeee eee eee 435 Manieima i ce ae ls ce nee Tata 421, 422 CNCOLMLC = eer eee 194, 214, 418, 419 SYTOSAs. sc wewseee 225, 232, 255, 265, 422, 423 intermediaeeesee spn sco seiceeiee 423 willoughbiensis... 200, 232, 422, 423, 514, 515 mariannensis, Orthophragmina..........-. 196, 197 var. papillata, Orthophrag- MING o/s ore'sjn's esse ne eee ee 196 martiniana, Actinacis...............--.-..- 486, 488 MAT YLANMAICO PAST CU s eee ace eee ence 411 Septastrea........ 211, 220, 226, 411, 412 matanzasensis, Porites baracoaensis Var. .-... 218, 236, 500, 523 INDEX. Page. matsoni, Septastrea...........- 211, 230, 411, 412, 511 Meandrina maeandrites..........-.---------- 255 MONTY GIG << a0 cleim otaiete ental e'n's' 5 nidate 421 megalazona, Astraca....-..- RE a ain «su uislele _ 862 meinzeri, Astrocoenia...-....-- 204, 228, 349, 350, 509 Trochoseris.......... 204, 207, 232, 426, 515 MICCeYUM, PAVIUGS. tena sence scenes eccenane 191 mendenhalli, Siderastrea.............--.-- 223, 436 var. minor, Siderastrea...... 223, 436 merriami, Dichocoenia.....-..-...-...-.-.+- 223 var. crassisepta, Dichocoenia...... 223 WMERVCDID DUS ae oee te wea teswewecdsenesccstaee 220 Mesocyon ? 1G0nensis'os sole l cece cweweoseee 220 INFESOIMION DH Aes wstsuu cs ctece ce cebe es eciad 202, 206, 212 MTGUBCHINGS!? wise clerics wewreees Ae te 194 mexicana, Favites...........-. 206, 230, 414, 415, 514 MUTI) SOLENMSUP ED « won Ube ane eee es eeee 398, 400 michelinii, Stephanococniad......-..+-+.+---+- 357, 359 michelottina, Heterastracd..........2------+-- , 402 miicrqconos, Hiydnophora:..-<)scisset 22 cer 191 micrommata, Siderastracd..-.....-.---------- 435 microphthalma, Cyphastrea.......-.-.---. 191,374 microscopica, Alveopord........-.-.-0-.-+-+-- 492 Goniopora regularis var.. 201,234, 492 MING pOTraL see tcc uo nsec e ciste weiss cama 192, 507 SICLCORMIS Ee ieee efasetie eee 225, 236, 507 GI GNOLOM Gee ei a ltojer ate miele a slejetesaiajela'e re 192 MIT COE ects Sic aisjsisiwe Sic .e/= Scie dlaja'a 479, 481 Mlavy pills ese seme i 192 IMT EPONA vee scrsa jen chic mice en eiste cm anivine 507 mineaceum, Polytrems....-.-.......-------- 507 minor, Astraca crassolamellata var.. 472,474,477, 478 Siderastrea mendenhalli var.......-.. 223, 436 Solenstrea fairbatiks1 var......-...--.- 223 Stylophovaer =n): jee cose ek 213, 215, 339 Stylophora aff nis var..-.....=--------- 334 MUM bay Ov LOPHOL Ae ce mee eiee e-iseineeee cai 334 minutissima, Stylophora............-- 205, 206, 334 Minwemn, WAdopaChiys-<- 1 asseee sees 196 NUT URIVS CARCI EL ester em aac elaeeialasicle sa iaisicinle 345 Madracis:- scseec cc. 218, 223, 228, 345, 501 SEYLOPLONU cee eee eee cece ease 334, 345 mississippiensis, Archohelia...........-..-.- 199 COX EIA IH (EA Ieee eee 352 monitor, Diplothecastraea...........-.-..--. 200 montgomeriensis, Trochocyathus lunuliti- FOLENS VALom eee come a tewe sem cnccisisiccssiceris 195 MOntipora scenic soc tccescectccmeceie cemisine 192, 506 COCOSENSISC An os ci-ee Jesieccerise yoo 192 POMOSS cmeice seinen cicictecicieie eis sere 192 | MEO MM She ttemete coe sinisicecimis isis ae 192 MN ASmanemrst sialic neietcicisisicinio sieisi= cisiate leis 192 TAIN OSatee es cto lcis is oeteyeiaiee sisi cleloiars 192 SDUMDSaee seere se j= ces se wcnescs 192 TORLWOSA see eramecic cece ac cece Se bsaSaoe asec cesncons 352, 353 nigrescens, Porites.........-..-----.--..----- 192 DO Whey UME IGE Ns aApereaocondoacoosbec occ 429, 430 Astraea crassolamellata var....----- 472,474 normalis Solenstrea fairbanksi var..--..--..- 223 nugenti, Astraea crassolamellata var....... 472, 474 Astraea crassolamellata var .....----- 477 Diploastrea crassolamellata var..... 201, 234, 477, 478, 521 TUTUAS TE PAIS CG eterna tae ese =e leet aaa 345 INfboo eNOS So Ae anagosdosesooeooS 197, 268, 294-296 oblita, Cyphastrea.....--..- Beediccs 373, 374, 398, 400 oblonga, Quinqueloculina.........--.----.--- 294 OCG At AMEN CLO POL aaa eleia =e te a oem) ele 192 Oculinidae- ...- Ce COCCOO EPR OBB AAEES Ones 352 @ewlin aes eee miele seem erates ete at 352, 369 OMI SIS © Sse aac ee obs ooscoosoE 352 WIGHiChime Pees ets sncieacine since 353 GUiRIEE)~ 5-265 cse555ec5cerSsc0- 225, 228, 352 GPyEM Me sens eset ode ss050e aos INU [Dot SCR SREB Sean anno Geers 352 MNASSISSI PICIUSS savas eal eee lal 352 QUA soo Sapa sn ase eosqos=705ee00e 352 USITUUAN IRS area ce eteiceeiein icicle a slsieie mine 'a's 353 VWECOSB a. 2 Sc soas-5s6058ce6 se 225, 228, 352 DICKSOULGETSIS = «tacos seine eos eeie ioe 352 Onhbicellaseseeeee eee ee eeereee 191, 202, 203, 362,378, 381, 395, 401, 407, 456, 464, 467, 468, 469 GER PO Pogunascadsesncdos 365, 372, 376, 380 Qltissimamwereeseee-e anes 230, 362, 363, 379 antillarum... 200, 230, 362, 363, 378, 379, 393 annularis......- 214,215,223, 228, 253, 254, * 255, 256, 362, 383, 364, 365, 366, 368, 369, 371, 372, 373, 374,375, 376, 380, 396, 398, 400, 420, 510 JAS TURAN Seanacaasence SoS 354 var. stellulata.......-.-- 365 PGW Gac-condosaae 230, 362, 363, 386, 512 DIGUSH Ree ere aaa eeenise ial 383 bainbridgensis.....--...-.--------- 205, 217, 230, 362, 363, 377, 386, 512 livalheyar yo soca soseraneesso sou see 383 brevis... 214, 215, 230,362, 364, 391, 392, 513 Grete segonosseeeouccucauesssesS 208, 210, 230, 362, 364, 389, 390, 394, 512, 513 Cavernosa....-------++----- 214, 215, 218, 230, 255, 362, 363, 379, 380, 381, 383, 384, 385, 386, 392, 393, 511 var. compacta. .......... 384, x INDEX. Orbicella cavernosa, var. cylindrica .......... 217, 223, 230, 337, 359, 362, 363, 377, 385,386, 512 var. endothecata-......- 223, 230, 362, 363, 384, 385, 386, 394, 512 Wane Virite seen ere ee eee 383 Var. SUecensisie «2-2-2206 390 var. tampdensis......... 390 COM ULOS Oe ek een eceeeee nse 403, 407 COMPO CE sacle ta selene eee 511 (AU DCU Me te SESE Cer. S6 SEC EOE OE 383 Costatas.. 2 aeeeiasae eee ee 200, 204, 208, 210, 211, 230, 362, 363, 387, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 460, 512 crassolameliata.............--.---.- 470 excelsa, A (Straea):-........-.--..- 395 EL CELS a teem conn Bee enya o0g 395, 396, 397 Hz1D Dldsodoecoaduedeion 230, 362, 363, 394, 515 RiSpig ulin ates 365, 368, 269, 510 Ry ades ar Eee DAT jee ore Se 396, 397 hyades, A (straea).......22..-2.-22-- 395 TIMP ETALOTISEs es soneee Nas ee te 208, 210, 230, 362 363, 378, 390, 511 TOSI STUISES eee ences EB 200, 207, 230, 362, 363 364, 392, 393, 394, 513 inbenmedias serene eee se eee S521200; 230, 362, 363 364, 390, 393, 394, 513 irradwams=ees a. secaeee 230, 391, 394, 395, 513 limbata......... 214,215, 217, 219, 228, 337, 359, 362, 363, 365, 375, 385, 387, 511 CRELENTOH AG HeatS SEIN 8 SD e e 383 Madrepora radiata................ 382, 383 SECU ALTO Ie Be fate oe Nc) SEAM 373 SCCLUUIGLGAISi7 CCOmeae etna ne 372 WAMUPACTISIS VS AO te hye cic cre oS 210, 230, 362, 364, 390, 391, 392, 395, 513 tempaensis var. silecensis.......... 210, 230, 362, 364, 390, 391, 513 ECTS CES wie Winn oe REN 407, 467, 468 thenresianass hee). Sees sane 190 VEISIPOLar eaten < eevee ne see ne ee eens 191 Orbicellidagsa Se ieee eee. Ste ee eae 362, 453, 455 Oxbiculinaladun cates se see beaeeereee ee 294 ornata, Astrocoenia............. 200, 346, 348, 349, 359 Astrocoenia......... a esias gr ae aes 350 SP ORIEES a tse Seles iG. PU Si ee OU Sa 350 OROSERTSIN SE Sond S ye layed US LCE pe EA 432, 433 GONNA INO TSe baes Seat RNN ae aR eee iu Ne OR 433 Orthavlaxpuemaxes seen seee ss sees 205, 210, 211 Orthophragminas. 222522220222 22- 196, 197, 205, 421 BIMenICAN A ee seeeeeece cece 196 flaintensisees as eeeeeeee .. 196, 197 Moridana vss. asseee ce ses 196 PCOTSIANI AN ae ase wek eee 196 mariannensis............. 196, 197 var. papillata. 196 Vaughante aye cesscmeeceec ce 196 Oulastreaen ioc See seein ere racine 454, 468 CrISPALA Sse seis occ ee sos omens 454 Qulastreidaess. 255 jee eee oloke jcssawsesaws 453 Oey Cac by Musee ee ee i AT Nha ape ea ea 220 Pachyseris 2203-2 ose sss ee ee ee Sune 432, 433 | Page. palifera;A(cropoga.- 2-2-2255. 22s 192 DaliatayeAcropora../--- +--- been eneeeeee sees 225, : 234, 253, 254, 480, 482, 483 ENG) 5HLOG) UT: ANP EES 220 Isoporg muricata forma-......-.....- 483 IMOdre pong ion sos 25 ae ee 353, 483 muricata forma-........-- 483 panamensis, Acropora.......-- 201, 209, 234, 480, 522 Goniopora........ 209, 210, 234, 488, 522 lee qyolaas 5 ewes seas 209, 232, 430, 515 IB OTILES See rise ie ose ae 209, 236, 503, 523 Stylangia......... 208, 230, 390, 410, 511 SuylOPHOrass cos 4ec ose 208, 228, 335, 508 monicea, -Alsineoponds.--- 25-2 e ees -. 194, 486 papillata, mariannensis Orthophragmina var. 196 Poaracyathus arcwatus........-.52J.sseeeee ese 354 henekeni... soe a eee 213, 214 Vaughan .. osccs eee eee eee 220 Parahippus leonensis..........2!2.....22222. 220 Parasmilig ss: viieSoccaa SSD eee 202, 203 ludovicianaysteee ieee see LEO OMTOA Retreod SNe Mahe es oa Become se QRONULLOT OSs a ee eee 436 . POT GSERCO eens ere IN fae a 436 (MOTION AIST COE one ee peer en eee 438 DIderastreameeere eee eee 232, 436-438 LEE OU ee GOS noMaens mae 200, 217, 222, 359, 430, 435 Clavius Hay oss ae eee 435 CCID ATH (7 al Se I CIS E UT SU yar A oul 430 Co Ra aV i pene Ais Salle RS TS nr 192 OMEN Gli rae SOMES SOR ER GS A 192, 435 DanamTensise eee eee eee 209, 232, 430, 515. VTLS oi ole c oe i ere me el a 192 PAQUONAG SULEN EG pene ee eae ee a 444 Becton. i: eee te oe Sah EASE kes oe ee 206 SUWANEENSIS 8300 Ss NN ea eee ean 206 SAY AMIS) 225 ce aE a rR 220 pendunenlata, Gonloporal 92222 e eee 488 © REMETODUSHDCKUUSUS Seer ecee cere ee eee ae 294 Pentalophora......-.=.--% Ree ee StS Badac 345 pertusus, Peneroplis-----.-.---.- NAR Sot 294 pharaonis\sAcropordes saseeae aces aceon eee 192 forma arabica, Acropora. .-...-..--- 192 PWareinas eum lee se ese eee eee eee 195 Pury Sia ueptOriaes Ges mee see cee ee 191, 421 IU CTA DOU AROS MAS OE SAU AG Ss oe S 421 Meananun aes yn hn ee 421 Phyllangiay sot ees eee nse 409 GIVECIORIS 2 Sage ee eee eee 409 americana 422 ih. 4s ee eee 409 Astrangia - oe ssee SOMERS 2% floridana. <2 52.152 ee asses 222 PRyllocoeniagn Pats ce see so. a2 eee 362, 395 MRAUONS a5 eee Coa 394, 395 lim bata eee eee 214, 365, 375, 376 valenbeeulla/ec ome eee 365 WRIA UME Bea ge soee ss — 365 SCULDEORM ON eis ate oon os pase 214 var. tegula..... 369, 375, 377, 511 Phyllosmillfarteeeen ce 2 oro ene 202 Phy SOSSLSAMSI SMG ee oe ce ee eee sel 194 PITONAStlaCa seen eee «oe cS o eee nas 432, 433 anguillensis.. 204, 210, 232, 432-434, 516 antiguensis....... 200, 204, 432, 434, 516 CISCOIdeS See ee eee ems ciate © 218, 214 ROTA OROSGTICS one mee oe Uns aia na cesee ns 433 PlenoRpuhinaWarvate = <2. 00h ancmiete xn es 294 Platycoenia jacksonensis..................--- 195 EM UGUT EL CLIVOSE sas & - os «yoaciennn cas coe 419 UAT TOTS a als 2 Dey Sire mt 2 ee 420 platyphylla, Millepora...... ae teiefaie Stas aie telat 192 PIPEMELES PAICET Ce ateeainicpae nuns iie'a area ceieeasiaes Os 400 PERLE SULSUN MEU soe oe tt cio ee'a Sag ciissicige = ose £ 359 CONDUCT ete ia areas ao cic ete 398, 400 ISTO S sa seat sao eene 214,398, 401 GLODOSO aan ee saa ee Ae 214,399, 401 QO00 Che. cae one eee Ree 359 MOM CD watrsceeem cee 214, 365, 375, 376, 511 Muncenica, Maeandta oc). .< cima sscsaiacceinee = = 229 BIGOLASLLOA =e ines = .saistsen be ammiseie = 222, 223, 232, 437, 441, 442, 450, 451, 517 ITO UREA en SB Oe nae Ieee CCRC TE OEE eens 203 AUNT CUNTIN Neer cee tate Da ee eee 195 DIAPALLOAUMINEC eee E sc eS Ss Saicicicoci ones te 333 IOCWIOPOLA: © <-/scseen 219, 222-224, 333, 342, 343,345 ACU Ar aiajwinieisic eosin sereicle stots 342 SrMOld <2. ema cce 208, 228, 343, 344, 509 baracofensis........... 218, 228, 344, 509 WU DO See scat ees eee ac 191 crassoramosa..-.....-.- 2135 215,217, 337; 342, 348, 359, 377, 385 GAMICOTNS see eres ese j= \- =< = 191 GIGPSTIS seems iae sac Sse ec wince 191 VCO TERaL ae Reon Mase Ne age et eee 191 guantanamensis.....-- 204, 228, 344, 509 HORUS) shis, Sante sewoaea sess 200, 342, 343 WERTUCOSA eit ass enpane iene Seeee 191 WVOUGIDNOSL aoe sen seem cic ee 191 PINLUGOTURUS VA SUROTIO® cacance es ery ect eiscate oe 415 He VIbeSe. soo a-2 seg saeae 200, 205, 230, 415 MOMMNON DNs te OTECS a icin oe Sins Suis) eens be aaas 499 Polystomella...-. B eee sce ci eeeee Rubi: ae 294, 295 Siniatopunetatazs -222..o05.45.¢ 294 Polytrema mineaceum..........22205--2.:-.- 507 MIOMMELOS@; “AN itseneaes vs 5e See TL se 214 Stylophora......... 200, 206, 228, 334, 342 HOLCdtas DO ICHOCOOMIA se nasen eas. osc nese 360 IPOTILOScoseee 202, 210, 211, 217, 488, 496, 498, 500 anguillensis.... 209, 210, 236, 504, 505, 528, 524 astreoides...... 211, 219, 223, 225, 236,253, 503 USTTIRCOULCS eee eoctn see oe esis 503 baraco#ensis....__. 212, 218, 236, 499, 500, 523 var. Matazasensis.. -...- 218, 236, 500, 523 CANIZEUSIS see mere pan “cement 223 CHEVORIO Roo o> See ee ee eee 498 COLLEGTIQMAS =< >. Sees cere ee 214 Reve Catay et 2 Seem ons eee 222, 500 UGengitleres S85 5-2. Sete 209, 236, 501, 523, 524 37149—19—Bull. 1083——23 XI Page IBOVIGES (OLOSA gem s.c 4:5 sjslaves majanis Neee eee 505 forma clavaria, Porites...............- 498 Jureata; Porites. sees =e 499 HUN C Atal sae ia saa 222, 225, 236, 499, 500° 111 Y2) cme Sy ... See ete A 192 CO C7 OF Can tte ees ere = ae See 498 MIPTOSCONS pce a a oe seemctcessance 192 ONTO co) cere aie cis nye) pe ten ss ayaiets 350 DANEMONSIS ee eemeeeaaemice 209, 236, 503, 528 MOUTON DIU ern mia rae ethan waned 499 DONVCSzas4- a Seeeeee 219, 222, 236, 497, 498, 499 LOUIS CLUUON Usama ei =) 498 SUN COLO ECs Nes crane eS 499 MUMUOS aa atn rails ota seep oes ae wi sete 194 SOWA ae eseemtels -isiteeeisieiemasias sie eee 192 SOMA]TONSIS Ma pemtes oes = Seo eee es 192 (Symaraea) 2 ste: acc aero 212 NOWOls ce cceae 209, 236, 505, 524 macdonaldiveeesssee sae 209, 210, 236, 506, 524 GOW alee ess oie 209, 236, 501, 502, 524 OTe Sear ecaccisc oan One sUroRenene ee 503 RWWA CO Melts crv ctela (Stele < mio'njap ots \cyateto Meo rai 211 IBOTAGIGAOH esas ysis ste wei wt aratelerteina Sep eae 488 portobellensis, Stylophora....-...- 211, 228, 338, 509 portoricensis, Astreopora...-.-...- 204, 234, 485, 521 PAS LROCOCHIA Eee eee eee 200, 204, 208, 228, 350, 509 Goniopora... 201, 204, 234, 495, 497, 523 IVODLOSETIS eas s2- se 204, 232, 431, 515 Maeandtan ness ssee 204, 230, 418, 515 pourtalesi, Asterosmilia-.................-- 194, 354 Did elasthedew aay ie seeses 232, 437, 440, 516: profunda, Asterosmilia....................-- 212: IMeDLOMa ue ae semis sei < see mya eee 194 PrOfUNCUS, DTOChOCYALNUS. .-2~ 22-2 aoe. = 354: DLOlMera eA CTODONA pan. -eeece ee aan aeece 480, 482: PAUSE GO SIU Cam a tarereet ya sane ee eras 354: DIOUfET OCMMLOCYOMUUS === ae) Nera ae 354 IPT ObETMMOSH eae la seinee see ee arate sc uae os 194 HSA O CORA ATMA eee oe ao eer ee 192: Muenas. Onthan| axes sey see sees. se 205, 210, 211. pulchella, Astraea crassolamellata var...... 472, 474 pulcher, Steriphonotrochus.................- 199 MulchTa WA CrOPOLA «+s eee EEE eeL Eee ne ree esas 192 Plyvanalina canariensiseesrserrereseeeeceeae 294 pum*pellyi, A SiTOcOCnit. =. . cs -'s' 212 BTL BEM EACLOD OLE. «.cialninetaintin = aisicisia wis aie =< = 192 splendens, Cyathomorpha........- 200, 234, 460, 519 spongiformis, Antillastraca......-.-.--- 218, 357, 359 MONG OTIMNIS, LO LESIISIT LCD = «nc wane n= n=. - 357 ADUIMOSH, MONEIDOLAw .. ceciec =< ese ni anecn sn 192 MELANOMA CLO POLS: co) aiuin s!o.c elm paocescosoogsRsecso6 200, 416 VGH 3 sondcsgsacsetooedoudes 201 SHG eS TNE Geese soso serosa co ssesa0e 202, 203 ASU DIUUPOMTPUN es 6 g5ac daeeseeso5sacsc5e0se0deC 203 Steriphonotrochus pulcher.....------------- 199 ‘Sstokesi, Dichocoenia-......-.--.--.----- 223, 229, 360 Striatopunctata, Polystomella...-....-.---..-- 294 strigosa, Maeandra.... 214, 222, 232, 253, 255, 256, 420 IV GB OUR Mis Sos SiS Sos JSOap eee geese 420 SAVIBING.. ne coon e nosereome secetsassoeasesese 410 elegans. . --- saccnodssSeCneeaoeEa eee 410 panamensis...--.--. 208, 230, 390, 401, 511 SU CUI0 LSS eo ee 202, 376 Mina ORE eagaoncdo oq eueesonseeeuaeae 375 Stylocoenia..--.-.-...----.---- 202, 203, 210, 212, 351 TUGRUA DIS «ooo 2oces cogs 2sonss265 194, 345 labato-rotundata....-------------- 200 pummpellyie:* ues = ee 200, 205, 228, 351 STN DOU OSS CE OdL oR oas ESO Ge SEU REDE enaues 333 SOO HE oo see + eecanadorssoteossoccase 202, 203 206, 210, 211, 213, 215, 217, 219, 222, 223, 224, 333, 338, 340, 359, 377, 395 | Hits. Saeasonosse 213, 215, 217, 219, 228, 334, 336, 337, 338, 359, 377, 385 VATE UDMAN Pos sesccoacuscese 334 GEVEIIS). - oe cosoeaesoner 208, 228, 341, 509 COMPFeSSHee een ses oet soar 194, 333 OTC Cee eee septs se iS 195, 334 contorta .....------------------ 194, 333 GIST S = Sajna ete Sees cee 195, 333 Socthalsin gece -----e 208, 228, 338, 339, 509 granulata....- 195, 212, 217, 218, 228, 334, 337, 340, 341, 343, 344, 377, 387, 501 | smperatonis.-.-> +e see ee eeeeee 294 Turnitellassncesnccces os csetewanacse sae csase AV winidiss Macandngeen sso. 6. saeco oe eee 420 Cio phiyliianna cnogun@eecnece cece acer eee =~ 194 | PUGHUGYT Ose ae wlieis oe see 420 ITA CUA WAI AIM ClO wariacnlepseis. a ai /esetctsieetecieetaaters 214 | wailesi, Flabellum cuneiforme var.........-. 195 LOLA RUSS baeeR eae OSC BEBC Oooo 426) | walli--Amtilliat eis... eee oe eee 212: undosa smepidocyelimaesss sees ceee seee ce 203 AMINA. soe ciis ails Sect cee eeee ee eee eee 224 LundulacaWepid oOeyclina we semaceeeeees cece 203 ciwwallcoxal Ponmteste sae ees se ee Eee eee 211 MALIA OUTS PACTOM OLA ze eeceeciceeeciceniaecerice 192") willeya, Dendrophyllian.- 4-2 ecee eee 192: Gronmuerintcns sede acquocaucaueconce 194,416 | willoughbiensis, Manicina. 200, 232, 422, 423, 514, 515 Placocyathus... 218-215, 217, 359, 361, 429 | woodjonesi, Pocillopora............-..------- 191 aN WS oe SR | al ee ee z — z Oe iad | NVINOSHLIWS | $3 fyvUug eM LIBRARI ES_ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION — NOI ’ = a ° oe ° Te re) = = ea = GL 3 = = m% > a =) bE Mad > RS y - > ad yt = ~ a Wei wy = a ra U7 nH | @ E a S\S ww" faa (7) ae 7 iw, — De ae Ce ee B = 5 SMITHSONIAN NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHUIWS S3IuvugI7 LIB ” z w z 2) 5 are = < = =< S Ye < = z a ae =| Zz z S \S : iS % a ea ae = ro} Tee ro} a0 = = zy = Z, E E a 8 2 : S 1 _NVINOSHLINS SJIYVYGIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN {INSTITUTION NOI Saye o > ” = w” ” = 7 a 77) ra a, oc =a © Ye a a ~ C e , = a = ‘ c Pe Oo » — Oo Tay oO -_ Fa wl = al =z ~ > SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLINS SSIYVYNSGIT LIB O t 2) — . 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