_. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
rege eee _ BUREAU OF FISHERIES
|) HUGH M, SMITH, Commissioner |

ae _ FRESH WATER TURTLES: A SOURCE OF

Pl By H. WALTON CLARK
; ae hiss " Scientific Assistant ;
an ‘ & Beet Tyee GF Hi { ie AND
ey sea Tas sf: - JOHN B. SOUTHALL
4 TE >) Shell Expert, U.S. Fisheries Biological Station, F airport, Iowa
ny _ APPENDIX VII TO THE REPORT OF THE U. S. COMMISSIONER
8 OF FISHERIES FOR 1919
uM
ae ie ae Pee veer Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 889
a -
"PRICE, 10 CENTS
“Sola aly by the Ss yrs of Documents, Government Printing Office
Washinton, D.C, i
ee Ba WASHINGTON |
£0 \ GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE —
| en ages 1920 - | :
J; Wonograph
4 s . dé

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

BUREAU OF FISHERIES
HUGH M. SMITH, Commissioner

FRESH-WATER TURTLES: A SOURCE OF
MEAT SUPPLY

By H. WALTON CLARK

Scientific Assistant
AND

JOHN B. SOUTHALL
Shell Expert, U. S. Fisheries Biological Station, Fairport, Iowa

APPENDIX VII TO THE REPORT OF THE U. S. COMMISSIONER
OF FISHERIES FOR 1919

Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 889

PRICE, 10 CENTS

Sold only by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C.

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1920

CONTENTS.

Introduction. ==2-=-=+ GRU ef init SELMA SOUR Ete eGR Ee PS EIN LNs Uy 2) 2 ie
MHEXSH APPIN SUT Pees we a ee ull ee i le ee
DistribuGion andi abuses Rae eee See eee ge ep
SYERIS(OLASY rave lanvsielavovolsy (ue CeBy OUR Le a
Shipment andifstoragess 0 sere Ne aes eee ee
SOUnCES HOES Wp yee eee ee
Market conditions and prices ________ Bia ee eh ee
BrODOLEIOMNAO LOWES TCS srs tee oe oa es 2 ee eee
Qualhiivsotenlesin 2 ee ee ee Pieters pean ear NO =
Rhe Palio atOr SMe Wei es Nee eS ae OR ee eee
Whe rEreshawa leriterraplas as 2. Sees Th se iy eS eee
Commercials significance: tie. aes he ee ee ee
MethodsSvomsea pire ssl ae Mere: Miele bei eed eS el
ShiMmmMeningstora ses and Marke tinge Sse ee eee
MHexsont-shelimcunilese see he Te ia Se ee
Commerxncialssicninican ce, =2- ees ae ee eee
aViethodsyotcantures 280 = eed: Mite) Dae St Pe ee
SIA TIA See Le NE ee le eee
EATIETINLES ROM NGUIEULES ees en SN re ees ee Se

D. of b.
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FRESH-WATER TURTLES: A SOURCE OF MEAT SUPPLY.

By H. Watton Crark, Scientific Assistant, and JoHN B. SouTHa.y, Shell
He«pert, Fisheries Biological Station, Fairport, [owa.

INTRODUCTION.

Among the aquatic food resources of the United States to which
but little attention has as yet been given are the several species of
edible turtles and terrapins of the rivers and lakes. One species
of turtle, the famous and much-sought-after diamond-back terra-
pin, has indeed long been utilized to the fullest extent consistent
with the preservation of the species; and in recent years its propaga-
tion on privately controlled farms has been inaugurated. The green
turtle of the sea has also for a long time been so generally esteemed
and extensively fished as to have been brought into actual danger
of extinction. It is worthy of note that, while these two species
have been regarded as delicacies of a high order, their relatives of
the interior waters have been comparatively little utilized, at least
under their proper names. It seems quite probable, however, that
certain species of fresh-water terrapin have been rather widely used
as an illegitimate substitute for the diamond-back terrapin. Within
the last year or two a more general interest in the subject of the use
of fresh-water turtles as food appears to have developed, and the
Bureau has received many inquiries for information in regard to
methods of capture of turtles and the preparation of their meat for
the table. It is the aim of the present paper to supply answers to
these inquiries, so far as the information is at present available.
The data herein presented have been secured by the authors through
correspondence with dealers in turtles and by personal visits to many
markets in the larger and smaller cities of the Middle West and to
various points of commercial fishery, principally on the Mississippi
and Illinois Rivers.

THE SNAPPING TURTLE.
DISTRIBUTION AND HABITS.

Commercially speaking, by far the most important species of the
Mississippi Basin is the snapping turtle, Chelydra serpentina (Linn-
wus) (Pls. I and IJ), known also in different localities and under
different conditions as the snapper, mud turtle, and mossback. Its
position in the market and in the consciousness of the people, the
methods of its capture, and the like, are so closely bound up with
its natural history that, in order to properly estimate its economic
status, it is necessary to give in some detail the main facts regarding
its habitat and habits.

3

4 FRESH-WATER TURTLES.

In the first place, it has a broad geographic distribution, its range
extending from Nova Scotia to the Equator and westward to the
Rocky Mountains. It is, therefore, one of the most widely known of
turtles; and the New Englander who has migrated to the banks of the
Wabash, the Ohio, or the Mississippi, or to the prairies of Hlinois,
recognizes it at once as an old acquaintance. This wideness of dis-
tribution indicates a hardiness and an ability to live under greatly
varying conditions.

Not less important than its wide geographic distribution is its
varied habitat. It is found in a great many different situations—
in lakes, ponds, rivers, creeks, marshes, and bogs, and often travels
overland a considerable distance from water. Only those familiar
with the faunas of woodland ponds know the pretty, speckled tor-
toise; only the travelers along shaded creeks know Blanding’s turtle;
and to those who dwell afar from the larger lakes and rivers the
soft-shell is known, if at all, only through the medium of books or
museums. There are few, however, to whom the snapping turtle
is a complete stranger.

In addition to its great variety of habitat, the leisurely habits of
the snapper make it familiar. When approached it does not beat a
hasty retreat, as do most other animals, but holds its ground against
all comers. Many who are fairly familiar with the pond turtles
and terrapin know them principally as a sudden splash from a log,
and many who visit the sand bars where the soft-shells love to bask
know them principally as a streak over the sand, as a splash at the
water surface, and as a wake like that made by a big fish. The snap-
per, however, is the living embodiment of the status quo. He is will-
ing to wait for the closest and most scrutinizing inspection; and,
closely gazed upon, his appearance may have much to do with his
being used as an article of food. One could not exactly call him
handsome; a better statement would be that he looks good enough to
eat. His corpulent, bulging body, projecting in rolls from his inade-
quate shell gives above all else the impression of meatiness. The
rough skin, not greatly unlike that of a freshly plucked chicken, and
the narrow cartilaginous bridge and small plastron all suggest easy
preparation, much edible material, and little waste.

All the other details about this species—manner of capture, the
peculiarities of the market, and, finally, the methods of cooking—
are, aS will be observed, closely connected with its life history and
habits.

SEASONS AND METHODS OF CAPTURE.

During the summer the snappers are rather unsocial. They are
solitary in habits, the individuals being widely scattered, so that it is
difficult to take an accurate census of them. Because of these solitary
summer habits, there is, generally speaking, very little fishing for
this species in that season. There may, of course, be local exceptions ;
thus it was reported that throughout at least part of the summer of
1913, along the Grand River, Mich., there was an active turtle fishery,
both snappers and soft-shells being caught in seines and shipped to the
large near-by cities, such as Detroit and Chicago. In general, how-
ever, the summer is a dull season for turtles. One market man re-
marked that “the turtle is like the oyster, only in season when the

FRESH-WATER TURTLES. 5

name of the months contains an ‘r.’” Nearly all the other market men
explained the situation by saying that “practically all the turtles are
used for soups, and few people eat soups during hot weather.” The
situation is perhaps a little more complicated; it may have to do also
with capture and storage. In summer occasional snappers are picked
up while on their migrating trips; a few are now and then caught on
set lines; and fishermen sometimes catch them in their seines or in
baited hoop nets set for fish. It is doubtful whether any of these
occasional summer-caught snappers get into the general market.
The greater number are released, and a few are locally consumed.

During the autumn and early winter the snappers collect in con-
siderable numbers and hibernate in suitable locations. In the vi-
cinity of Muscatine, Iowa, it was stated that a favorite place for
turtles to hibernate is in muskrat holes. According to report, as
much as 5 tons of turtles have been taken from the various muskrat
holes in one season. Our informant also stated that as many as 26
individuals have been found in one muskrat burrow, while at another
time 1,420 pounds were obtained in one run. From 500 to 1,000
pounds of turtle were estimated as a recent catch for one day.

Along the sloughs of the Mississippi they congregate about and
_under old logs. A specific instance was cited of a fisherman who
obtained 20 snappers, weighing from 10 to 20 pounds each, under a
log in one of the sloughs of the Mississippi River.

Along the Illinois River, the Cedar River of Iowa, and, indeed,
wherever there are springy places near large bodies of water, the
snappers “mud up” for the winter.

Jt is from their hibernating places that the greater number of
snappers found on the market are taken, and the captors are usually
fishermen or trappers. The methods of capture employed for the
various forms of winter quarters—whether muskrat holes, old logs,
or springy places—are all, so far as could be learned, very much the
same. The implement used is a stout hook, made by bending an
iron rod at one end, sharpening the short or hook end, and leaving the
other as it is or driving it into a wooden handle to make it better to
manipulate during very cold weather. If there is much ice, it is
cut and the hook probed or prodded about until a turtle, which feels
much like a chunk of wood, is encountered. It is then pulled out by
the hook. It issomewhat difficult to land large turtles, although they
are benumbed and offer little resistance. The turtle catchers rely
upon their hunting instinct to discover the turtles, and when a good
place is found many can be taken from it, as indicated in the account
given above.

Activity in snapper catching may be stimulated or depressed by
widely different circumstances. .The general wage scale probably
has little infiuence, since fishermen and trappers are as much at-
tracted by the fascination of their calling as by its emoluments and
are not likely to desert their profession for a better-paying job. A
high price for pelts and furs may divert greater attention to trap-
ping. One fisherman said that the existence of saloons greatly
helped the turtle market, as they dealt extensively in turtle soup.
Under favorable conditions the turtle catcher can make very fair
wages and still sell the meat at a reasonable price. During the
winter of 1918-19 a market man reported: “Turtle meat is the
cheapest meat I can buy.”

6 FRESH-WATER TURTLES.
SHIPMENT AND STORAGE,

Generally speaking, the men who catch the turtles make no
attempt to hold or store them but ship them to market as soon as
they can collect a sufficient quantity.

The turtles are usually shipped in barrels with holes bored through
the bottom and through the sides for ventilation and with burlap
nailed over the top. In this condition, of course, the contents are
not open for observation, and a thriving turtle fishery may be in
active operation in a particular region unknown to the general
public. Since barrels have become expensive, the catches are some-
times shipped in crates similar to those used for chickens.

Upon arrival at the larger markets the containers may simply be
stored in a cool place, where the turtles will remain in hibernation,
ready for disposal by wholesale or retail as the market demands.
It is with the return of warm weather that the storage question be-
comes important.

A good many dealers do not attempt to hold turtles at all but
pass them to the consumer as rapidly as possible. In the basement
of a large wholesale market at Chicago, a cool moist situation, there
is a large turtle pen, or, rather, a series of pens, which will hold
about 24 tons of the living animals. They do very well here until
summer arives, when the loss is considerable. Here the snappers are
washed off occasionally, but the problem of feeding them has not
been satisfactorily solved.

It might do much toward stabilizing the market if the intermedi-
ate buyers along the rivers, in order to be ready for early fall deliv-
ery, would establish large pounds to retain the spring catch, as well
as the occasional turtles taken during the summer. It was stated
that there was formerly a storage pen at Clear Lake, Dl, where
25,000 or 30,000 turtles could be satisfactorily kept; but that in
recent years, owing to changed stream conditions, together with
the consequent diminution in abundance of the animals, the pen
has been abandoned. At Grafton, Ill., a pound was observed which
has been in existence about four years and which was originally
designed to retain carp, as well as turtles and terrapin. It is located
near the river and comprises a pond supplied by seepage from the
river and by rainfall. The size of the pond varies, therefore, accord-
ing to weather and stream conditions, but at the time observed -its
dimensions were about 207 by 135 feet. This pond, having banks
of considerable steepness, occupies nearly the entire area of the pen.
The walls are riprapped with stone and surmounted by a wire fence
of 1-inch-square mesh. The pound was said to contain 4,000 or
5,000 terrapin and 2 tons of snappers. It was observed at Grafton,
as elsewhere, that quantities of terrapin are always estimated by
number, and snappers by weight. Two kinds of terrapin were dis-
tinguished; the river terrapin described as “rough,” which proved
upon examination to be Graptemys lesueurii, and the “pond ter-
rapin,” described as “striped,” which proved to be Pseudemys
elegans. The former was regarded as much superior to the latter.
During the summer, according to information furnished the authors,
the turtles had been fed on fishery waste and on hog lights, of which
they appeared to be very fond. They were being shipped to the
markets of Boston and Philadelphia.

Sy

FRESH-WATER TURTLES. a
SOURCES OF SUPPLY.

Dealers at Chicago mentioned their source of supply as the Central
States—Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Indiana, South Dakota, and
Michigan—although they also received snappers and terrapin from
Kentucky. Specific localities mentioned were Winona, Minn., and
Guttenburg and Muscatine, Iowa. At*one time the Llinois River
was an important source of supply during the winter, and parts of
it, especially toward the mouth, continue to be so. Kofoid states :¢
“The Illinois River and its backwaters, under present conditions,
contribute annually * * * 15,000 dozen turtles” (probably in-
cluding both snappers and terrapin). During the progress of the
investigation of the Upper Illinois in June, 1918, there was no fishing
at all on account of the closed season on fishes and, naturally, no cap-
ture of turtles.

MARKET CONDITIONS AND PRICES.

The amount of turtles handled by the markets of the large cities
does not, of course, indicate the quantity which is consumed locally.
As stated above, the winter is by far the most active market season.
However, along the rivers the turtles are eaten the year around,
whenever they can be obtained, fried soft-shells being especially con-
sumed during the summer. The wholesale’market in Chicago pre-
viously referred to handles about 10,000 snappers a year, valued at
$5,000. Its buyer thinks he could handle a ton a week. Another
market handled 1 to 14 tons a month. The snappers on the Chicago
market range in weight from 5 to 25 pounds each. At Peoria they
were said to reach a weight of 30 pounds, the average being 7 or 8
pounds. According to the census of 1908, the Mississippi River Basin
produced 713,000 pounds of turtles and terrapin, with a value to the
fishermen of $25,000.

In these days of uniform prices for standard commodities ,a strik-
ing feature of the turtle market is the variety of prices. A turtle
catcher at Muscatine, Iowa, stated that he could get 5 cents a pound
live weight or 10 cents a pound dressed at Davenport. He said there
was more money selling them alive, as they dressed off more than
half, and also the trouble of dressing them had to be considered.
One dealer in Chicago sold in wholesale lots at 8 cents a pound and
retailed at 10 cents. A buyer quoted them at 6 to 7 cents a pound
live weight. At St. Louis it was said that “turtle meat is selling
higher than ever before, it being now (June, 1918) about 18 cents;
whereas it used to be from 12 to 15 cents a pound.”

A published commercial price list (Chicago, 1918) quoted live
snapping turtles, usually 10 cents per pound, falling to 9 cents for the
week of June 8, to 14, and rising to 11 ¢ents July 20 to 26, 1918, and
turtle meat, strictly fresh, 16 to 17 cents, rising during the progress
of the summer. In the early part of the season frozen turtle meat
was listed at 15 cents.

Many of the points covered above regarding source of supply,
prices, and amount handled can best be illustrated by quoting from

« Kofoid, C. A.: Plankton studies. IV. The plankton of the Illinois River, 1894-1899,
p. 562. Bulletin, Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, Vol. VI, 1901-1903,
Art. II. Champaign.

8 FRESH-WATER TURTLES.

a letter received June 4, 1918, from a fish company in La Crosse, Wis.,
which goes into the subject with unusual fullness of detail:

We receive turtles from all of the commercial fishermen of the Mississippi,
no one in particular fishing for them especially, as usually they are caught in
such small lots that the average fisherman does not make much of an effort
to gather them up. Usually the price this last year has been from 3 to 4
cents, and, getting them in such small quantities, the fishermen figured not
money enough in them to bother with them.

We also get quite a few from the Indians who are moving about up and
down the river. The general selling price has been (Philadelphia) from 7
to 12 cents, the high price being in the extreme cold weather, and usually the
wholesale price runs from 43 cents f. 0. b. shipping stations, and the average
quotation from the wholesale houses in Chicago and other places is from 7 to
9 cents.

The following is the amount that we have handled since November, 1917, and
conditions were such that we have had to carry quite a lot of this stock on
hand, as we were unable to sell it at all times or very readily:

Pounds.

INOVember 22228 2s seo ee ee ee aS 13, 166
SCOT Cr aa oe ALE ES Se ee ee a 2. bd!
Jannaty 2 ee ee eo eee ee ee ee 1, 689
INEDEUALY pe Se ee ee ee een eee ae 90
Misr Gisele io eee Dt Set Ee ee be et ee 1, 496
PAP So ae ee Be ee a ee is ee 5, 206
UY See is eee rs ek ee ee eS 5, 411
Totaleot =e See ee ee eee 29, 609

The demand has been diminishing from year to year. Ten years ago we
used to handle them by the carloads and could always find a ready market in
New York, whereas at present there is very little demand in New York; in fact,
practically none.

The kind of turtle we are handling is what is known locally as the mud or
snapping turtle. There is some demand for the-soft-shell turtles, but not
enough to warrant our handling them.

At Grafton, Ill., it was stated that Boston afforded the best
market for terrapin and Philadelphia for snappers.

PROPORTION OF WASTE.

In the consideration of any article to be used for food the item of
waste is an important feature, since this must be accounted for
somewhere between the producer, or im this case the captor, and the
consumer. The opinion of dealers differed somewhat as to the
amount of waste in the snapping turtle. It varies considerably ac-
cording to the manner of cleaning. One dealer thought the turtles
would dress off more than half, large ones dressing off less than
small ones. Another thought a 12-pound turtle would dress off to 6
pounds, and a 5-pound one to 3 pounds. A dealer at Fort Madison,
Iowa, said that by discarding the shell they would dress off two-
thirds, but that the shell could be used in making soup, serving as a
soup bone. One dealer added that “ in making | soup the liver and
eggs are used, so there is not so much waste.” In the Washington
market some snappers were seen dressed for sale. The epidermis hav-
ing been scalded off, and the scutes or epidermal plates of the shell
removed, the remaining portion presented a very attractive appear-
ance. Along the backbone of the turtle is a considerable mass of
flesh known as “tenderloin,” which in rapid or “shop” cleaning is
discarded with the shell, but in careful cleaning is saved, thus re-
ducing the waste. At Pekin, Il., where turtles were cleaned rapidly,
discarding tenderloin, liver, and eggs, as well as shell, a 14-pound

FRESH-WATER TURTLES. 9

snapper furnished 6 pounds of meat. At Fairport, Iowa, one which
weighed 11 pounds produced 54 pounds of meat when carefully
dressed, with tenderloin saved, but shell, liver, etc., discarded. The
relatively small difference in market prices between live turtles and
turtle meat among practiced dressers and dealers (10 cents alive, 17
cents dressed) does not account for so much waste. since one must
also consider the labor of dressing the meat.

In considering the subject of waste it may be of interest to com-
pare turtles with other familiar objects, such as fish and poultry,
which may be bought either whole or dressed to suit the wishes of
the buyer. The proprietors of some of the fish markets on the
Mississippi (Muscatine, Iowa, and New Boston Ill.) and on the
Illinois (Peoria), who have much experience weighing fish, since
they buy them living from the fishermen and sell most of them
dressed, were consulted in this regard, and their reports agreed
very closely. Carp were reported to dress off about 30 per cent, or
from 30 to 40 or 45 per cent, the higher percentages applying to the
females full of roe, which is usually discarded. Buffalofish were re-
ported to dress off somewhat less than carp. Catfish differ greatly,
according to kind and condition, but dress off on the average 60
pounds to the 100. At the Fairport biological station two ripe male
carp weighting 5 pounds 8 ounces were dressed. The head, scales,
and entrails weighed 1 pound 3 ounces and the milt 8 ounces, leav-
ing the weight of the dressed fish 3 pounds 12 ounces, a waste of
31.8 per cent. In looking through publications at hand devoted to
poultry, under the subject of waste, cocks were reported to dress off
23.4 per cent, cockerels 26 per cent, hens 24.2 per cent, and pullets
25.8 per cent of the live weight. These wastes, of course, leave bones
out of consideration. For fuller estimates and comparisons of the
absolute amount of wastes of various fishes the reader is referred to
a publication by Dr. W. O. Atwater, published as an appendix to the
report of the United States Commissioner of Fisheries for 1880.2
Unfortunately our data on the flesh of turtles are not in such a condi-
tion that they can be compared with the fish discussed in that article.

To one who has not watched the process it might appear that
turtles would be difficult to dress. There is not nearly the labor
involved in cleaning a snapper, however, that there is in plucking
and dressing a chicken, and a novice would acquire the knack even
more quickly with the reptile than with the fowl. The bones and
joints are not so thoroughly ossified in the turtle and offer less
resistance to the carver. Along with economical considerations it
may be mentioned that one dealer remarked that “8 pounds of
turtle will make soup for 50 people.” Another phase of the subject
which has to do with economy, but which is more closely related
to the subject of cooking, will be discussed in that connection.

QUALITY OF FLESH.

The value of turtle flesh as a food and the extent to which it can
be used as a substitute for other meats is a question to be solved

a Atwater, W. O.: Report of progress of an investigation of the chemical composition
and economic values of the fish and invertebrates used for food. Appendix D, Report
of the Commissioner, U. 8. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, for 1880, pp. 231-286.
Washington. :

10 FRESH-WATER TURTLES.

by nutrition experts, by chemists who can compute its value in
terms of calories, carbohydrates, proteins, digestibility, etc., and
by experiments with “ diet squads.” This is fundamentally the most
important question. Certain it is that the white and the deep-red,
dressed meat as displayed in the fish markets is very attractive in
appearance.

Scarcely less important, however, is the question of its gustatory
qualities; for whatever gives zest to our necessary foods is by no
means to be despised. References in literature to the relative merits
of different species of turtle are rather few. Nash® says of the
common soft-shelled turtle (Amyda spinifera) : “ The flesh of this
turtle is considered a delicacy; ” and of the snappers: “ Their flesh
is considered good and in some localities they are much sought after
for making into soup.”

The fiavor of the snapper, like that of other sorts of game or
meat, varies somewhat according to the habits of the individual
animal and according to the method of preparation. Perhaps the
best method of approach to this phase of the subject is a consideration
of the habits of the turtle.

The snapper is very voracious, feeding on frogs, fishes, crayfish,
young water birds, etc. It has been accused of catching and eating
young ducks. Those examined at Lake Maxinkuckee, Ind., had been
eating snails (Vivipara contectoides), and seven individuals exam-
ined at the Pekin (Ill.) market, caught at Fort Madison, Iowa, in
June, 1918, contained solid masses of mud. Two had fragments of
crayfish in the mud, one a piece of wood, and another the bones of a
frog. <A large one caught at Fairport, Lowa, a good deal earlier
in the season had its stomach practically empty.

In the summer the snappers may be caught far from water, in
grassy places, or in mudholes and puddles, and those caught in one

lace would doubtless differ in flavor from those caught in another.

he turtle from the mud puddle would taste differently from the one
caught on the grassy sward, just as beef from cattle and milk from
cows grazing in a garlicky meadow differ from the products of a
blue-grass pasture; just as the canvasback duck well fed on wild
celery is the delight of epicures, while the same species feeding on
the fetid Chara is as distasteful as any coot and the celery-fed coot
excellent eating, and as a carp from a warm, muddy puddle is soft
and rank, while one from a cool clear stream or pond is firm and
excellent. Doubtless, the hibernating turtles taken from their winter
quarters have approached a uniformity of flavor.

Still, taking the snapper by and large, it is sufficient to say that it
has been exceedingly difficult to find, either spoken or printed, any
words of disparagement. At Lake Maxinkuckee, it is true, the opin-
ion was expressed that old snappers have a rank flavor and are
tough; but the animals were there taken in summer from the beds
of fetid Chara, which, when fed upon, will give even the choicest
waterfowl a rank flavor. In addition to this, they naturally haunted
the muddier parts of the lake, and, as has been said, subsisted on
snails. Also, the delicious soft-shells were very abundant in that
region, and the snapper would naturally suffer by comparison. In

« Nash, C. W.: Manual of the vertebrates of Ontario. Published by Dept. of Education,
Toronto. 1908. :

FRESH-WATER TURTLES. ual

most other places the snapper met with praise on every hand. Many
had eaten no other kind of turtle but snapper, and it was liked in
a great variety of ways.

In many respects, indeed, the eating of turtles may be well com-
pared to the consumption of mushrooms. They are looked upon as
a viand rather than as a food. Unknown or untried kinds are re-
garded with suspicion. The flesh of the box turtle is reported on
pretty good authority to be unwholesome, and one man along the
Mississippi asserted, but probably without reliable evidence, that “ the
striped turtles are poisonous.”” The general use of the snapper ismuch
like that of the morel, or sponge mushroom. Persons who eat turtle
at all eat this particular kind because they know it and are not so
certain about the others. Those who had had experience with vari-
ous scrts of turtles would always compare the snapper with other
species. Some, but rather few, and these usually people fond of a
pronounced gamy flavor, liked the snapper best. One man inter-
viewed said: “ The meat of the snapper is more like beef, while that
of the soft-shell is more like chicken.” An almost universal opinion
was that the snapper contains several kinds of meat. One man said
it contains 6 or 7 kinds; another, 7 to 9 kinds; and still another, 14
kinds.

The living snapper has a somewhat musky odor, but this may dis-
appear or be diluted to a pleasant aroma by cooking, since no one
complained of it. The meat of old snappers is said to be rather
tough. One man said it was rendered stringy by cooking too long,
and in making soup should be cooked only until the flesh left the
bones. It may, indeed, be these two qualities—gaminess and tough-
ness—that have made the snapper preeminently a soup turtle. Per-
sons who discussed the matter of turtle soups asserted that “ ali turtle
soups are really vegetable soups in which turtle takes the place of
other kinds of meat.” Some of these soups are highly spiced and
flavored. One dealer reported that “restaurants are the only ex-
tensive users of turtles, and the snapper is used only for soup, which
is not in much demand during hot weather.” In the markets of the
large cities there is little or no family buying of turtles, and the
citizen who is accustomed to buying live chickens and either having
them delivered or carrying them home would not think of doing
the same with a snapper. Even the dressed meat is rarely bought
for individual or family use. In the small river towns, however,
there is more individual buying and a greater number of methods of
cooking are in vogue. In one instance, at Pekin, Ill., when a half
barrel of snappers, 10 in number, was received, 7 were immediately
dressed for local sale. Usually, however, the people prefer soft-shells
when they can get them.

THE ALLIGATOR SNAPPER.

The alligator snapper, Iacrochelys temminchi (Harlan), which
is found principally in the southern part of the United States, is
similar in general habits to its smaller and more northern relative,
the common snapper. It is especially abundant in the swamps of
Louisiana, where an active fishery is carried on at certain seasons.
It reaches an immense size, examples weighing as much as 219

1? FRESH-WATER TURTLES.

pounds having been reported. Its sale is confined chiefly to southern
markets. As it is too large to ship in barrels, it is prepared for ship-
ment by drilling holes with a breast drill through the edge of the
upper and lower shells on each side of the neck and feet, running
wires through and fastening it so that the head and legs can not be
protruded. The shell of one reported to have been taken at Han-
nibal, Mo., was seen by the senior author in St. Louis. The turtle
was reported to have weighed 27 pounds.

THE FRESH-WATER TERRAPINS.
COMMERCIAL SIGNIFICANCE.

Within the Mississippi Basin the word “terrapin” is either a
book name or a commercial term applied by market men to such of
the hard-shelled turtles as find their way into the trade. Along the
upper Mississippi and Illinois Rivers the only terrapin likely to be
used is the Le Sueur terrapin, Graptemys lesueurit (Pls. IIT and
TV). Along the upper Ilinois a turtle, which from the description
was supposed to be this, was referred to as the “ Genetta.” In the
fish markets at Chicago lots of Le Sueur’s terrapin and the elegant
terrapin, Pseudemys elegans (Wied) (Pls. V and VI), were mixed
together in barrels, no market distinction being made between them.
Some of the edegans were said to be from Memphis, and they were
called “Texas terrapin.” In the turtle pen on the lower Hlinois
(Grafton) elegans was about as common as Jesueurii, and was known
as the “ pond terrapin,” the other species being the “ river terrapin.”
At St. Louis the only terrapin seen at the opening of the turtle season
in autumn was elegans. At Grafton lesueurii was the most highly
esteemed of the two. Throughout the area under discussion there
is another terrapin, the map turtle, Graptemys geographica (Le
Sueur), so very similar to the Le Sueur terrapin that anyone but a
specialist (and this includes both zoologist and fisherman) is likely
to confuse them. The map turtle is probably as good as the others,
but we saw none on the market. It apparently does not reach so
large a size, however, and this may help explain its absence.

Exceedingly few terrapin are used even by the dwellers along the
rivers, who are familiar with all sorts of aquatic food. This is prob-
ably due, not to their lack of excellence, but to the abundance and
well-known qualities of the snappers and soft-shells, which have the
additional advantage of larger size. The stimulus to the capture and
sale of the terrapin, which is as yet rather feeble, comes from a
demand in eastern cities, such as Philadelphia and Baltimore, where
the diamond-back has been long known and esteemed and where
the transition to other terrapin is easy. Along the Mississippi one
man, an old fisherman who had at one time been a restaurant pro-
prietor and famous for his cookery, said that they were most excel-
lent eating. One of the fish dealers on the Hhnois River said that
terrapin is as good as the soft-shell, and each when fried is superior
to chicken similarly prepared. In the Chicago market, unlike the
snapper, Which is sold by the pound, the terrapin are quoted by
the individual or by the dozen. At one market they were quoted at
from 25 to 30 cents apiece, and a fair sample weighed 2 pounds

ry

FRESH-WATER TURTLES. 133

and 11 ounces. Another dealer quoted them at 75 cents to $3 per
ozen.

Along the Illinois River a little more was learned about the
terrapin market. No actual fishing was in progress, but aturtle buyer
from Philadelphia had visited the various fish markets and had dis-
tributed some information about its pecularities and market require-
ments. He stated that the terrapin were used as a substitute, or par-
tial substitute, for diamond-back, and that for this purpose the males
were not desired. What was wanted was the ege-bearing or “ queen ”
terrapin. (At the Washington market in the autumn of 1917, when
the first western—Le Sueur’s—terrapin were coming on the market,
it was learned that one of the “egg terrapin” was mixed with several
diamond-back to make “ diamond-back soup.”) The river fishermen
were unable to distinguish the sexes; but the Philadelphia buyer
could do so, and readily picked out the “queens” from a lot of
terrapin at hand, discarding the rest. During the summer of 1918
“queen” terrapin were being quoted at that place at $1 each. At
St. Louis, in October, is was learned that the market men there dis-
tinguished the female of at least Pseudemys elegans by its much
longer claws. There was no opportunity to verify this by dissection ;
but some of the turtles—a numerically small proportion of those at
hand—had much longer and sharper claws than the others, and
there was no marked intergradation in this respect. This may be a
correlation with their habit of digging for the purpose of laying
their eggs. The long-clawed terrapin, assumed to be females, also
generally exhibited a different marking on the under side of the
plastron. Late in the autumn (1918) a barrel of elegant terrapin,
a few individuals of which possessed exceedingly long, sharp claws,
was noted at Chicago.

Both at Chicago and St. Louis the market men reported that the
only local buyers of terrapin were the Chinese, who are also buyers
of the diamond-back shipped from the east. One of the proprietors
of a fish market stated that the Chinese used the terrapin chiefly
medicinally, “to clear the blood,’ and that by calling at a Chinese
restaurant designated by him further information and a recipe could
be secured. Upon visiting the place a very accommodating Chinese
chef furnished the following information: “Turtles are good for
internal troubles, for the blood, and especially for tuberculosis.
They are cooked together with herbs imported from China and for
which there is no English name. According to one recipe, the bones
of the turtle are removed and the under part of the shell is boiled
two or three hours with the skeleton of a duck. According to
another, the meat is boiled in a double boiler with strong alcoholic
wines, whisky, gin, ete.” He added that he anaes of turtle in
this manner only a few times in a year, when he feels in need of a
tonic, stating that it makes him feel like a new man. Diamond-back
terrapin was said to be the best turtle to use for this tonic, but, as
it is very expensive, the hard-shell turtle, “Texas terrapin,” is used
as a substitute. Both from the remarkable similarity of the last
given recipe to that of ordinary diamond-back-terrapin soup, and,
from the statement of a native of China that the people of that
country do not eat turtle, we are inclined to suspect that the use of
terrapin is an American extension of the native bill of fare.

14 FRESH-WATER TURTLES.

The most probable reason for the exceedingity limited use, one
might almost say the nonuse, of the terrapin within the Mississippi
Basin is the unfamiliarity with them. They rarely stray any dis-
tance from considerable bodies of water and are not often seen by
the general population. To the frequenters of river and lake shores
they are, however, the most commonly seen of turtles.

Other features that have prevented their coming into use are
their relatively small size, 2 pounds being about the average, and the
amount and hardness of shell, making the percentage of meat rela-
tively small and difficult to get at. So long as there isa great
abundance of other forms of game and fresh food the only reason for
resorting to them would be the superior flavor of the flesh, and they
would be sought after as luxuries rather than necessities. Their
appeal would be to the taste rather than to the satisfaction of hunger.
There is, of course, the deep-seated feeling that nothing common can
be a luxury, as is indicated by the old contracts that servants should
not be fed shad too frequently and by the fable about the farmer
and crayfishes.

That the terrapin is of excellent flavor would appear from the
testimony of those who have tried it and from the fact that it can be
successfully substituted for the diamond-back. As a rule, it inhabits
clean waters. The different species of terrapin differ in their food
and feeding habits, and doubtless in their flavor, to a corresponding
degree.

METHODS OF CAPTURE.

Because of their habits, the manner of the capture of the terrapin
is entirely different from that of the snapper. They do not crowd
together in hibernating places during the winter and can not, there-
fore, be taken in numbers during that season, as the snappers are.
In the summer they are gregarious, crowding together in great
numbers on projecting logs and banks. They can be easily taken in
traps, a number and variety of which are known along the Illinois
River. By simply sinking a box in a place full of snags and brush,
a goodly number of terrapin will manage to drop in. A fish dealer
reported that one man had a waterproof box sunk in water by weight-
ing it with stones. He visited it daily, removing 30 to 40 turtles.
Another form consisted simply of a box with an inclined board for
a slide leading up to it. The turtles climbing up the slide to bask
crowded the end ones into the box. <A still more complicated form
had the slide so placed on a pivot that if one or more turtles got
beyond the pivot and overbalanced the lower end they were dumped
into the box. The success with which an old sunken boat on a bar
in Lake Maxinkuckee was observed to catch terrapin indicates the
effectiveness of any of these devices. The gunwale of the boat would
be crowded with the basking terrapin; and upon anyone’s approach
they would plump at once into the water, about half of them landing
in the boat. The boys in the region, out of sport, caught 50 or 60
of the animals in one afternoon in this manner.

A method used in trapping the “slider,” a species of terrapin in
the southeastern part of the United States, doubtless would also
prove efficacious. A projecting log is chosen and a heavily leaded

FRESH-WATER TURTLES. 105%

net placed entirely around it, except at the lower or entering end.
The turtles climbing up on the log to bask keep pushing the foremost
one off, and, if anyone approaches, all but one or a few at the lower
or entering end of the log drop into the net. By this means great
numbers can readily be taken.

SHIPMENT, STORAGE, AND MARKETING.

The shipment, storage, and marketing of the terrapin are the same
as that of the snapper, except that, as has been said, practically all
are sent to eastern markets. In the local markets they are sold by
the individual or by the dozen instead of by weight.

THE SOFT-SHELL TURTLES.

Among the possible aquatic resources of the country an important
place is occupied by the soft-shell turtles, of which there are two
common species—the spiny, or common, soft-shell, Amyda spini-
fera (Le Sueur) (Pls. VIL and VIII), and the smooth soft-shell,
or leatherback, Amyda mutica (Le Sueur). These turtles are gener-
ally northern in their distribution. They are confined chiefly to the
larger streams and lakes and are therefore rather unfamiliar objects
to the general population. They never stray far from the water’s
edge and are very timid in disposition, taking to the water with
exceeding swiftness when alarmed, so that even those who spend a
great deal of time along rivers and lakes rarely get a very good view
of uncaptured specimens. They are gregarious, assembling in con-
siderable numbers on banks and sand bars.

COMMERCIAL SIGNIFICANCE.

The soft-shell turtles are seldom found in the markets. None was
seen in the Washington market nor in Chicago, where it was re-
ported that “they could not be given away, much less sold.” And
yet, where well known, the soft-shell is regarded as the most delicious
of turtles. It is, indeed, a species of soft-shell turtle which is reared
in Japan, much as the diamond-back terrapin is beginning to be
raised in this country.

One reason for the absence or rarity of soft-shell turtles on the
market is that they are too little known at the great market centers
and too well known at the place of capture. No general demand
has been created, and no special efforts are made to capture them.
Numbers are incidentally caught by various forms of fishermen’s
gear, such as set lines, seines, and hoop nets, especially baited “ fid-
dler nets” (the nets used to catch channel catfish). These inci-
dentally caught turtles are not usually allowed to get beyond the
fisheman who catches them; they are consumed mostly in the imme-
diate locality where caught. In the small towns along the Missis-
sippi and Illinois Rivers they are the favorite food turtles. The
snappers are shipped to market and the soft-shells consumed locally.
The dealers attribute their absence from the markets to several rea-
sons. They do not stand shipment as well as other turtles, being of
a more delicate nature. They are flatter and not so meaty as the

16 FRESH-WATER TURTLES.

snapper; so there is more waste. The soft-shells, therefore, rank
with those “ home-consumption” delicacies, the famous honey
banana, the emerald-gem muskmelon, and the fall pippin apple,
which are too good for the market place and can not retain their
original flavor after passing through the hands of the middlemen.
The fish dealer at one of the towns visited shipped out a barrel of
snappers, but when visited later it was found that he had a goodly
number of soft-shells on hand. “They do not get beyond me,” he
explained.

The soft-shells are prized, not only for soup, but for frying; and
for this purpose the younger individuals, weighing from 1 to 14
pounds, are preferred. In making soup the shell may either be used
or discarded.

The soft-shell loves the clear water over sandy bottoms and
prefers a good current. Its principal food, to judge from a few
specimens examined, consists of crayfishes. Both its habits and habi-
tat are therefore conducive to an excellent flavor of flesh.

METHODS OF CAPTURE.

On account of their habits, the soft-shells can not be taken in
quantities by the methods used for either the snapper or terrapin.
They are gregarious, like the terrapin, but, as a general thing, they
do not seek elevated positions in basking, any good sand bar proving
satisfactory. They would not drop in numbers into boxes, and they
do not “mud up” in large numbers, as do the snappers during the
winter. They are rather hard to get in an ordinary seine. During
the summer of 1907 several hundred were seen basking on one of the
sand bars of the upper Mississippi not far below St. Paul. The sand
bar was surrounded by a long net, with the expectation of bagging
several barrels of turtles. These all took to the water and the net
was drawn in. Only two turtles were obtained, the net having
passed over the others, which had, no doubt, simply flattened down
close to the bottom.

As previously stated, most of the soft-shells are captured inci-
dentally on set lines or in hoop nets operated for fish. They can
readily be caught in baited hoop nets, and one fisherman said that it
was easier to get them, when desired, than it was to capture snappers.
The nets must be visited at least-every 12 hours, especially in warm
weather, as the imprisoned turtles soon drown. Prof. Jacob
Reighard in Ward and Whipple’s “ Fresh-water Biology,” page 66,
gives the following description of a turtle net :*

Turtles are best taken in a turtle net, which is a form of fyke net. It should
be of heavy twine and coarse mesh and, if it is desired to keep the turtles alive,
should be modified as follows: The terminal section of the pot is made ey-
lindrical or the whole pot may be made with square hoops. <A circular opening
is cut in the upper side of the terminal section of the pot and to this is attached
the lower end of a cylinder of netting which extends to the water’s surface.
The upper end of this cylinder is attached to an opening cut in one side of a
wooden box, provided on the opposite side with a hinged lid fastened with a

hasp. The box is supported at the surface of the water on poles set in the
bottom. When turtles reach the terminal section of the pot, they are able to

“Reighard, Jacob: Methods of collecting and photographing. Chap. III of Fresh-
water Ppiologys by Henry B. Ward and George C. Whipple. John Wiley & Sons, New
ork, D

—

FRESH-WATER TURTLES. VG

enter the box through the cylinder of netting and are thereby saved from
drowning, which would ensue if they could not reach the air. They may be:
removed through the lid at the convenience of the collector.

SHIPMENT,

In the upper Mississippi and in some of the glacial lakes in the
northern part of our country the soft-shell is exceedingly abundant
and if made use of would offer a considerable amount of meat to the
inhabitants of those regions. The market men say that it can be
beheaded and rough cleaned—that is, with just the viscera removed—
and shipped on ice. In this condition it keeps as well as fish similarly
treated. Frozen, they say, it remains in perfect condition and is as
good when thawed as when fresh. Handled in this manner, it could,
if there were a sufficient demand, furnish a considerable meat supply
to a large area.

Taking the country at large, the turtles are much more scarce than
formerly. From along the upper Illinois River comes the complaint
that the turtles, especially appreciated there, are “ becoming very

_ scarce” or “ practically exterminated ” and that the local market de-

mand is greater than the supply. This exhaustion is attributed to
the draining of the feeding areas of the turtles and the building of
levees. The State law of Illinois protects both turtles and terrapin
of any size under a 7-inch shell. All that has saved the turtle to this.
day is probably the fact that it has remained more or less unap-
preciated.

ENEMIES OF TURTLES.

In spite of the various means with which nature has endowed the
turtles for their welfare—the protecting shell of all of them; the
timid disposition of the terrapin, which prevents them from wander-
ing afar from safety and causes them to drop into the water at the
first sign of alarm; the inconspicuous colors of most of them; the
timidity and swiftness of the soft-shells; and the longevity of such
as have passed the vicissitudes of early life—they are subject to many
dangers and, on the whole, seem to be scarcely holding their own.
A good many young appear to perish during the first winter. Musk-
rats kill a few of the smaller species, but do not appear to molest
those of larger size. Leeches often accumulate on turtles in con-
siderable numbers, and, though they may never directly kill them,
they doubtless greatly lessen their vitality. In the Japanese breeding
establishments old turtles devour their young, and this may oc-
casionally happen in nature. Doubtless carnivorous animals often
dig up the nests and devour the eggs, as one often finds eggs scattered
about and evidence of digging where the turtles make their nests.

By far one of the most important enemies is man. Fishermen:
finding turties in their nets or on hooks often kill and discard them,,
instead of either releasing or using them. Many persons make it
a practice to rob turtle nests by the wholesale, either for so-called
sport or to use their eggs for fish bait. By digging into the sand
bars used for nesting places hundreds of eggs can be taken and de-
stroyed in a short time. Many turtles, especially soft-shells, are.
drowned in hoop nets used by fishermen.

178909°—20——2

18 FRESH-WATER TURTLES.

PREPARATION OF TURTLES FOR THE TABLE,

KILLING THE TURTLE.

Notwithstanding the formidable appearance offered by the shell,
the killing and dressing of turtles is a comparatively easy matter,
and the men at the fish markets soon become expert at it and can
kill and clean them with surprising rapidity. The first step is to
get the animal to protrude its head. In the case of the snapper, this
is easily accomplished by presenting to its head a stick of suitable
size for the reptile to snap. It takes tenacious hold, and the head
can readily be pulled out. The heads of the other species may be
made to protrude by applying pressure, as with the foot, to the back
or upper part of the shell. After the neck is well stretched out the
turtle can readily be decapitated. At fish markets, where many
turtles are dressed, the cleaners usually have a killing plank with
a sharpened spike driven through at an angle, and the spike is thrust
through the chin during the process of stretching.

Once beheaded, a sharp knife is run around the edges of the skin
where it joins the shell and the skin pulled back over the legs to the
feet, which are then disjointed. The lower part of the shell or
plastron is then removed by cutting through the bridges which
join the upper and lower shells, cutting close to the lower part of
the shell. With snappers and soft-shells, in which the bridges are
rather soft and cartilaginous, this can be done with a sharp knife.
With the terrapin the bridge may be cut with a hatchet or saw.
Having cut the bridges, the plastron or under shell may be readily
removed by inserting a sharp knife just under it and lifting it off.
This done, the entrails may be extracted with very little trouble, and
the four quarters easily taken out from the carapace or upper shell.
If one wishes to save the tenderloin in the upper part or “ceiling”
of the carapace, the ribs may be cut with a hatchet. To the reader
this may appear to be a lengthy and complicated process; but, as
stated above, it is a simpler process than killing, plucking, and dress-
ing a chicken.

A visit to a place where turtles are being dressed by professionals
would prove very instructive. It need hardly be said that each has
his own method as regards the smaller details. Some cut off the
feet before skinning; others skin down to the feet and then dis-
joint. Some even cut off the feet before decapitation, but this is un-
necessarily cruel. The smaller turtles and terrapin are often killed
by dropping the living animal into boiling water just as lobsters
and crayfishes are killed. This is a convenient method and not
especially cruel, as death is practically instantaneous. With a large
kettle the same method might be used for the soft-shell and snapper.

RECIPES.

Doubtless one reason for the general nonuse of turtles for food
is the lack of knowledge as to just how to prepare them for the
table and the lack of experience with turtles properly cooked. To
meet this deficiency, the following recipes, which have been obtained
from various available sources, are offered. A few have been gleaned
from cookbooks, but most of them have been procured from per-

FRESH-WATER TURTLES. } 19

sons noted locally for their preparation of turtles. Special thanks
are due to Henry Lemm, of Pekin, Il., and to Mrs. Saunders, of
the Saunders Fish Market, St. Louis, Mo., for choice recipes.

SOUPS.

These recipes apply especially to the snapper, which is the great soup turtle
of the Mississippi Basin. They could, doubtless, be applied to terrapin and
soft-shell also, as they are as good for soups as the snapper.

In making soups, cook the turtle only until the bones leave the flesh. Many
cook too long, which makes the flesh stringy.

1. Turtle soup—aA favorite way to cook snapper is to make the soup like
old-fashioned beef soup, with any assortment of vegetables desired, with the
turtle meat cut up into small pieces.

2. Turtle soup—Make up a soup stock, without vegetables, but add egg.

3. Turtle chowder.—One-half pound turtle meat, 2 medium-sized potatoes, 3
onions, 8 carrots, any other vegetables wanted, as parsley, all diced into the
pot; add % pound of salt pork diced, 1 teaspoonful pepper, 1 level teaspoonful
of butter, and cook about 2 hours over a slow fire. This is fine, a regular
mle chowder. With soft-shell turtle cut up the shell also, and cook for 4
hours.

4, Soft-shell turtle soup.—Use turtle meat same as for beef soup, adding a
slice of bacon and onien to modify the flavor. (Soft-shell turtle meat is also
good with noodles.)

5. Turtle soup @ la creole-—This is the ancient recipe for turtle soup, and
it is safe to say that when once eaten after this delightful way no other will
seem quite so savory. Cut the turtle meat into small pieces. Let it brown
in a pot with a little lard, cut up several onions, a slice of ham, and a little
garlic, and stir and mix with the turtle meat. Then let the mixture brown
well. Put in some flour and mix, pour a quantity of the soup stock into the
pot, let it cool, and add a knee joint of veal. Let it simmer for an hour, then
put in some thyme, laurel leaf, parsley, shallots, and when everything is cooked
add more parsley and a couple of slices of lemon chopped fine. Just before serv-
ing add a wineglassful of Madeira wine, or, in lieu of this, 3% that amount of
lemon juice.

6. Terrapin soup.—uUse the meat and eggs from 1 terrapin, put into a stew-
pan with 2 tablespoonfuls of butter, and let it simmer until quite hot through-
out, keeping the pan closely covered. Serve with the following sauce: 1 beaten
egg yolk flavored with nutmeg and mace, % cup currant jelly, 1 pinch of
cayenne, salt to taste, 1 tablespoonful of butter.

FRIED TURTLE.

Although the turtles generally preferred for frying are medium-sized soft-
shells weighing from 14% to 8 pounds, many like fried snapper. For frying, the
younger and more tender snappers are to be preferred, although the older ones
ean be used by cooking correspondingly longer. 2

7. Fried turtle-—Cut the turtle meat into small pieces, add salt and pepper,
roll in flour, and fry in one-half lard and one-half butter until brown, then
add a little water, cover'up, and steam until done (about 4% hour).

8. Fried turtle-—Fry as above; when browned add some catsup, a few mixed
spices, a glass of wine, or, in lieu of this, 2 tablespoonfuls of vinegar and a
little water ; cover, and steam until done (about % hour).

9. Fried turtle-—Some cooks prefer to fry dry, without steam; in this ease
ene must cook slowly, and of course oid turtles must be cooked longer than
young ones.

10. Fried turitle-—Simply parboil the turtle meat and fry in butter.

11. Fried turtle—Put the turtle meat into salt water for a short time, re-
move and wipe dry, sprinkle with corn meal, and fry in hot grease, or use
butter, salt, and pepper, and thicken with barley. (The person who furnished
this recipe generally preferred snapper to other turtles, and had this species
in mind.)

12. Fried snapper.—Put the turtle meat into salt water overnight, take out,
wipe dry, sprinkle with flour, and fry in plenty of grease. Fry slowly until
brown. This is said to be better than fried chicken. For this old turtles are
said to be as good as young.

20 : FRESH-WATER TURTLES.

MISCELLANEOUS.

The following recipes were obtained at St. Louis and apply to the native
turtles used there. They were meant to apply especially to the snapper; it is
believed, however, that they could be applied to the more delicate soft-shell,
where procurable, with even better results.

13. Steamed turtle-—Take fresh turtle meat, fill with black pepper and a bit
of butter, steam until the flesh separates from the bores, then add black sauce
(the soy-bean sauce to be found in Chinese restaurants) or Worcestershire
sauce.

14, Turtle cutlet.—Take lean turtle meat, pound until like hamburger steak,
dip into egg, roll in meal, and fry in hot fat. This tastes like veal cutlet.

15. Simmered turtle-—Take 1 pound turtle meat, wash, cut into cubes, brown ~
in fat (lard or butter) with 1 large or 2 medium-sized onions, simmer until
tender, add Chili pepper while simmering. To serve, pour over boiled rice.

16. Curry of turtle—Take 1 pound of turtle meat, brown as above, with 1
large or 2 medium-sized onions. Put into the pot 1 medium-sized potato, 1
carrot, the onions which have been cooked with the turtle, a small piece of
parsley, 1% teaspoonful of pepper, 1 teaspoonful of salt, and 4% teaspoonful of
curry powder. Add the browned turtle meat to the mixture in the pot and let
simmer until tender. Make molds by hollowing out cups of boiled rice and
serve in the molds. This tastes like curry of chicken or curry of veal.

17. Turtle rivola—(a) One-half pound turtle meat, best chopped through
a food chopper, add 2 onions, cook until tender, add %4 pound of cheese and
salt and pepper. \

(b) Take 1 cup flour, 1 egg, %4 teaspoonful salt, make a thick batter, roll out
thin into a sheet of noodle dough, and cut into 2-inch dice.

(c) Take 1 spoonful of minced turtle meat, lay on the diced noodle dough,
fold over 3 corners and inclose the meat, cook like noodles in the water that
the turtle meat was cooked in, to which a spoonful of butter has been added.

18. Turtle sausage.—Cook 2 pounds of turtle meat until tender, run through
a food chopper, add 2 eggs, drop into hot fat or fry right off the spoon until
brown.

While the following recipe was originally intended to apply to the diamond-
back terrapin, it would doubtless serve very well for the fresh-water species,
and possibly for snapper or soft-shell turtle also:

19. Stewed terrapin with cream.¢—Place in a saucepan 2 tablespoonfuls of
butter and 1 of rice flour, stir over a fire until it bubbles, then stir in a pint
of thin cream, 1 tablespoonful salt, 4% tablespoonful white pepper, 4 table-
spoonful grated nutmeg, and a very small pinch of cayenne, next put in 1 pint
of terrapin meat, and stir it all until scalding hot. Move saucepan to back
part of stove, where contents will keep hot, but not boil, then stir in 4 well-
beaten yolks of eggs. Do not boil, but pour immediately into tureen contain-
ing 1 tablespoonful lemon juice. Serve hot.

«From the ‘‘ White House Cook Book,”

O

U.S. B. F.—Doc. 889. PLATE I.

SNAPPING TURTLE, CHELYDRA SERPENTINA (LINNAEUS),

U.S. B. F.—Doc. 889. PLATE II.

SNAPPING TURTLE, CHELYDRA SERPENTINA (LINNAEUS).

U.S. B. F.—Doc. 889. PLATE PII.

LE SUEUR TERRAPIN, GRAPTEMYS LESUEURII.

U.S. B. F.—Doc. 889.

PLATE IV.

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LE SUEUR TERRAPIN, GRAPTEMYS LESUEURII.

U.S. B. F.—Doc. 889. PEATIEM\

ELEGANT TERRAPIN, PSEUDEMYS ELEGANS.

U.S. B. F.—Doc. 889. PLATE VI.

ELEGANT TERRAPIN, PSEUDEMYS ELEGANS.

PLATE VII.

U.S. B. F.—Doc. 889.

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SHELL TURTLE, AMYDA SPINIFERA.

SOFT

U.S. B. F.—Doc. 889. PLATE VIII.

SOFT-SHELL TURTLE, AMYDA SPINIFERA.

IBRARY OF CONGRESS

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