LIBRARY OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE SOURCE. iuaAcl? SB 355 15 e.- --+1U3ACL5... v.\ ^;^ INTERNATIONAL LIBRARY OF TECHNOLOGY A SERIES OF TEXTBOOKS FOR PERSONS ENGAGED IN THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS AND TRADES OR FOR THOSE WHO DESIRE INFORMATION CONCERNING THEM. FULLY ILLUSTRATED AND CONTAINING NUMEROUS PRACTICAL EXAMPLES AND THEIR SOLUTIONS ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE VARIETIES OF APPLES APPLE CULTURE APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING PEAR CULTURE CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES SCRANTON: INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY 124 G34-. 2. V. / Essentials of Fruit Culture: Copyrigrht, 1912, by International Textbook Company. Varieties of Apples: Copyright, 1913, by International Textbook Company. Apple Culture: Copyright, 1913, by International Textbook Company. Apple Pests and Injuries: Copyright, 1913, by International Textbook Company. Apple Harvesting, Storing, and Marketing: Copyright, 1913, by International Textbook Company. Pear Culture: Copyright, 1913, by International Textbook Company. Cherries, Apricots, and Quinces: Copyright, 1913, by International Textbook Company. Copyright in Great Britain. All rights reserved. ..^™cs=s?s^. 25901 124 PREFACE The International Library of Technology is the outgrowth of a large and increasing demand that has arisen for the Reference Libraries of the International Correspondence Schools on the part of. those who are not students of the Schools. As the volumes composing this Library are all printed from the same plates used in printing the Reference Libraries above mentioned, a few words are necessary regarding the scope and purpose of the instruction imparted to the students of — and the class of students taught by — these Schools, in order to afford a clear understanding of their salient and unique features. The only requirement for admission to any of the courses offered by the International Correspondence Schools, is that the applicant shall be able to read the English language and to write it sufficiently well to make his written answers to the questions asked him intelligible. Each course is com- plete in itself, and no textbooks are required other than those prepared by the Schools for the particular course selected. The students themselves are from every class, trade, and profession and from every country; they are, almost without exception, busily engaged in some vocation, and can spare but little time for study, and that usually outside of their regular working hours. The information desired is such as can be immediately applied in practice, so that the student may be enabled to exchange his present vocation for a more congenial one, or to rise to a higher level in the one he now pursues. Furthermore, he wishes to obtain a good working knowledge of the subjects treated in the shortest time and in the most direct manner possible. iii iv PREFACE In meeting these requirements, we have produced a set of books that in many respects, and particularly in the general plan followed, are absolutely unique. In the majority of subjects treated the knowledge of mathematics required is limited to the simplest principles of arithmetic and mensu- ration, and in no case is any greater knowledge of mathe- matics needed than the simplest elementary principles of algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, with a thorough, practical acquaintance with the use of the logarithmic table. To effect this result, derivations of rules and formulas are omitted, but thorough and complete instructions are given regarding how, when, and under what circumstances any particular rule, formula, or process should be applied; and whenever possible one or more examples, such as would be likely to arise in actual practice — together with their solu- tions— are given to illustrate and explain its application. In preparing these textbooks, it has been our constant endeavor to view the matter from the student's standpoint, and to try and anticipate everything that would cause him trouble. The utmost pains have been taken to avoid and correct any and all ambiguous expressions — both those due to faulty rhetoric and those due to insufBciency of statement or explanation. As the best way to make a statement, explanation, or description clear is to give a picture or a diagram in connection with it, illustrations have been used almost without limit. The illustrations have in all cases been adapted to the requirements of the text, and projec- tions and sections or outline, partially shaded; or full-shaded perspectives have been used, according to which will best produce the desired results. Half-tones have been used rather sparingly, except in those cases where the general effect is desired rather than the actual details. It is obvious that books prepared along the lines men- tioned must not only be clear and concise beyond anything heretofore attempted, but they must also possess unequaled value for reference purposes. They not only give the maxi- mum of information in a minimum space, but this infor- mation is so ingeniously arranged and correlated, and the PREFACE V indexes are so full and complete, that it can at once be made available to the reader. The niimerous examples and explan- atory remarks, together with the absence of long demonstra- tions and abstruse mathematical calculations, are of great assistance in helping one to select the proper formula, method, or process and in teaching him how and when it should be used. In the present volume, the fundamental parts of the subject and the culture of apples, pears, cherries, apricots, and quinces are treated. The factors affecting the fruit industry are discussed, and the many methods of propagation and pruning of fruit plants, of the preparation of fungicides and of poi- sonous and contact insecticides, and of the handling of spraying machinery are described explicitly. Apples, the most impor- tant fruit commercially, are taken up first and treated in great detail. The different systems of planting, the methods of man- agement, including tillage, cover crops, sod culture and mulch culture, pruning, thinning, fertilization, the renovation of old apple orchards, the prevention of injury from low temperatures and from insect pests and diseases, the harvesting, picking, grading, packing, storage, marketing, and the profitable utiliza- tion of inferior fruit, are discussed in a clear, comprehensive manner. Pears, cherries, apricots, and quinces receive similar •treatment. The different varieties of fruits are handsomely illustrated in colors. This volume, together with the succeed- ing volume on this subject, forms an eminently practical and up-to-date work on fruit growing. The method of numbering the pages, cuts, articles, etc. is such that each subject or part, when the subject is divided into two or more parts, is complete in itself; hence, in order to make the index intelligible, it was necessary to give each subject or part a number. This number is placed at the top of each page, on the headline, opposite the page number; and to distinguish it from the page number it is preceded by the printer's section mark (§). Consequently, a reference such as § 16, page 26, will be readily found by looking along the inside edges of the headlines until § 16 is found, and then through § 16 until page 26 is found. International Textbook Company CONTENTS Essentials of Fruit Culture Section Page Introduction ] 1 -Factors Affecting Fruit Growing 1 3 Natural Factors 1 3 Market Factors . ; 1 10 Propagation of Fruit Plants 1 13 Natural Propagation 1 13 Artificial Propagation 1 14 Propagation by Cuttings 1 . 14 Propagation by Layering '1 17 Propagation by Grafting •■ 1 20 Propagation by Budding 1 28 Pruning of Fruit Plants 1 31 Principles of Pruning 1 31 Method of Pruning 1 37 Tools for Pruning 1 42 Dressings for Wounds 1 47 Sprays and Their Preparation 2 1 Poisonous Insecticides 2 1 Contact Insecticides 2 6 Fungicides . 2 21 Combined Insecticides and Fungicides ... 2 28 Spraying Machinery 2 29 Hand Sprayers 2 30 Power Sprayers 2 35 Accessories for Spraying Outfit 2 40 Varieties of Apples Terms Used in Describing Varieties .... 3 1 Description of Varieties 3 6 Summer Varieties 3 6 Fall and Winter Varieties 3 9 vi CONTENTS Apple Culture Section Page Establishment of an Apple Orchard .... 4 1 Selection of Site 4 6 Selection of Varieties 4 11 Selection of Nursery Stock 4 15 Planting of Apple Trees 4 19 Systems of Planting 4 24 Use of Fillers : 4 31 Methods of Planting . 4 35 Management of Apple Orchards 5 1 Tillage of Young Apple Orchards 5 2 Tillage of Bearing Apple Orchards 5 4 Catch Crops 5 6 Cover Crops 5 10 Sod Culture 5 14 Mulch Culture 5 17 Pruning of Apple Trees 5 18 Types of Heads 5 21 Pruning for Pyramidal Head 5 27 Pruning for Open Head 5 29 Thinning of Apples 5 35 Fertilization of Apple Orchards 5 37 Renovation of Old Apple Orchards .... 5 41 Apple Pests and Injuries Injuries Due to Low Temperature 6 ' 1 Injuries During Dormant Period of Plants . 6 1 Injuries During the Period of Visible Activity of Plants 6 3 Prevention of Frost Injuries 6 6 Insects Affecting the Apple 6 23 Apple Diseases 6 61 Miscellaneous Injuries 6 77 Apple Harvesting, Storing, and Marketing Harvesting of Apples 7 1 Picking 7 1 Grading 7 14 Packing 7 21 CONTENTS vii Apple Harvesting, Storing, and Marketing — Continued • Section Page Storing of Apples 7 40 Marketing of Apples 7 48 Retail Marketing 7 48 Wholesale Marketing 7 49 Miscellaneous Information About Marketing 7 52 Utilization of Inferior Apples 7 56 Pear Culture Introduction • 8 1 Classification of Pears 8 7 Botanical Classification 8 7 Commercial Classification ........ 8 8 Varieties of Pears 8 10 Pear Pests and Injuries 8 28 Diseases 8 28 Insects 8 33 Miscellaneous Injuries 8 40 Pear-Orchard Establishment 9 1 Size for a Pear Orchard 9 1 Location for a Pear Orchard 9 3 Choosing of Varieties 9 9 Procuring of Trees 9 10 Planting of Trees 9 14 Pear-Orchard Management 9 23 Tillage of Pear Orchards 9 23 Pruning of Pear Trees 9 26 Spraying of Pear Trees 9 34 Harvesting of Pears 9 35 Storing of Pears 9 40 Marketing of Pears 9 40 Cherries, Apricots, and Quinces Classes and Varieties of Cherries 20 1 Cherry-Orchard Establishment 20 10 Size, Location, and Site 20 10 Selection of Varieties 20 11 Cherry Nursery Stock 20 12 viii CONTENTS Cherries, Apricots, and Quinces — Continued Section Page Planting of Cherries 20 14 Orchard Operations 20 15 Handling of the Cherry Crop 20 18 Cherry Pests and Injuries 20 20 Varieties of Apricots 20 24 Apricot Nursery Stock 20 25 Apricot Orchard Operations 20 26 Apricot Pests and Injimes 20 28 Harvesting of Apricots 20 28 Marketing of Apricots 20 29 Quinces 20 31 Important Varieties of Quinces 20 32 Quince-Orchard Establishment 20 36 Management of Quince Orchard 20 39 Harvesting and Marketing of Quinces ... 20 41 Quince Pests and Injuries 20 42 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE (PART 1) INTRODUCTION 1. The growing of high-grade fruit requires special skill and training, as it calls for an intimate acquaintance with and an understanding of the individual fruit-bearing plants. Many of the general agricultural crops, for example, com, wheat, oats, timothy, and clover, are grown in the mass and are usually observed as fields of plants, not as individual plants. Little attention is given to the isolation of the plants in such crops except to sow a given quantity of seed per acre in order to regulate, in a general way, the number of plants that occupy a given area of ground. And, further, in the growing of grain or grass crops, there is usually no selection of the best plants or weeding out of the poor ones. The seed is sowed, the crops are harvested, stored, and subsequently handled by machinery. Fruit trees, vines, and berry plants, on the contrary, are planted a certain distance apart, and the plants are pruned and managed individually. The nurseryman dis- cards and burns those plants that are not of a given grade or standard; and the manager of an orchard or of a fruit planta- tion still further carries out the selection of desirable plants by choosing in the nursery the grade of trees that he desires to plant and by discarding, when he comes to planting the trees, those that do not please him. The product of fruit trees is gathered individually and thus the grower has opportunity to observe which plants produce the best grade of fruit and which the inferior grade. COPYRIGHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED §1 248—2 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1 Thus, it is seen that all this experience with individual fruit- producing plants gives the grower a more intimate acquaint- ance with and an understanding of the activity of fruit-bearing plants than a farmer obtains of the general field crops that he grows. Another important factor that has contributed to rendering fruit growing a specialized business is the development of special fruit-growing centers. Formerly the fruit consumed in a given region was grown locally, largely because transpor- tation facilities were such that it was impossible to ship fruit over long distances. If a community were to be supplied with fruit, it was necessary that it be grown in the immediate vicinity whether the soil or climate were especially favorable to that fruit or not. Modem methods of transportation and refrigeration, however, enable growers to ship fruit over long distances and to hold it on the market for periods of several weeks, and on account of these changed conditions, it is possible for the fruit grower of the present time to select locations where the soil, climate, and other conditions are especially favorable to the growing of a given kind of fruit. Each decade the consuming public is demanding a finer product; competition is becoming very keen in a.n attempt to produce the best; and insects and diseases have spread from former local areas to large general areas throughout most fruit-growing sections. This means that the fruit grower must be awake to methods of preventing injury to the fruit crop by insects and fungous diseases. In fact, to be abreast of the times today, the fruit grower must put forth intelligent effort in every direction. § 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE FACTORS AFFECTING FRUIT GROWING NATURAL FACTORS 2. In considering the natural factors that affect the growth of fruit plants, it should be borne in mind that a fruit tree, shrub, or vine is a growing, living thing; that it is a plastic, shapable, living organism; and that it is modified by every influence of its surroundings. The pruning, cultivating, spray- ing, or other treatment given to a fruit plant makes it different from what it otherwise would have been, and whenever any- thing is done to a tree or a plant, it does something in return as a resiilt. For this reason, to iinderstand fruit culture, the grower must consider very carefully every phase of the environ- ment in which a plant lives, for every change either favors or opposes its development. 3. Influence of Temperature. — Of all the natural fac- tors affecting the growth of fniit plants, temperature is the most important. Temperatiu"e very largely determines the area over which a given species of fruit plants can be successfiilly grown. Toward the north a limit is reached beyond which only the hardiest species of fruit survive, and a little farther north even these cannot endure the winter cold. On the other hand, temperature just as definitely sets a southern limit beyond which a given species does not flourish. The apple, pear, and plum, for example, thrive generally throughout the larger part of the United States. The peach cannot withstand so low a temperature and, therefore, unless influenced by modifying conditions, the northern limit of successful peach culture is somewhat farther south than that of the previously mentioned fruits. The citrus fruits thrive only adjacent to the semi- tropical districts, such as are found in Florida and California. It is important for a fruit grower, in determining the location of a plantation or orchard, to know something of the limits of 4 * ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1 temperature which the species of fruit that is to be planted will endure, and also to know that varieties of each species differ in their climatic adaptations. For instance, some varieties of apples reach their best development toward the northern portions of the United States ; other varieties, needing a slightly warmer temperature, find their most congenial place in the southern half of the country. Usually, a given variety reaches its best development within comparatively narrow limits of temperature, and certain varieties smted to one extreme of climate are usually correspondingly unsuited to the other extreme. Wherever winter temperatures fall too low or summer temperatures rise too high for the best development of a given variety, that variety should not be grown. 4. Influence of Altitude. — The altitude of land also has an effect on the growth of fruit plants. The greater the altitude at any latitude the lower will be the temperature, and plant growth will be affected the same as by a more northern latitude. The effect of an increase in altitude on the growth of vegetation may be observed by ascending a mountainside. At the base of the mountain will be found trees that are common for that latitude, but as a higher altitude is reached low, dwarfed, and scrubby specimens of this same species of trees occur, and a little farther up the slope this species disappears altogether and another species is found. It is clear, therefore, that the limit of altitude beyond which a given variety of fruit wiU not thrive cannot be definitely given. As a general nile, a high altitude in a southern latitude is very similar in regard to temperature as a much lower altitude at a more northern latitude. At extremely high altitudes in any latitude the climate is too cold and bleak for most fruits to thrive. A study of elevations, however, is of great importance to the fruit grower. One of the most important things to be con- sidered in connection with elevation is atmospheric drainage, that is, the drainage, or passage, of air over the surface of an area. During the growing season, the atmosphere at the sur- face of the earth is cooled rapidly at night. Cold air, being heavier than warm air, settles to the earth, flows into low § 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 5 places, down slopes into ravines and valleys and over water courses. This draining away of air is just as real as the draining away of water from areas of land, but unlike water drainage, the air removed is immediately replaced by other air. Air drainage is much less generally understood, however, than water drainage, because air drainage is not visible like water drainage. A practical conception of air drainage may be gained by walking over an area of uneven ground on a summer night. On the higher elevations the atmosphere is usually warm, but in the ravines a stream of cold air is encountered which is flowing off from higher elevations. On passing up the opposite side of the same ravine, the observer can feel his head rise above the layer of cold air. Wherever such a condition occurs, the area into which the cold air settles is generally frosty and unsafe for fruit growing. The first frosts of autumn most often occur in ravines and low places, and it is in such places that tender plants are first killed; the same varieties often remain unharmed on higher elevations in the same general locality. The depth of cold, frosty atmosphere that will collect in low places depends on the area of the country drained, the area over which the cold air collects, and the position and size of outlets, just as definitely as the size of streams, ponds, and lakes depends on the territory that they drain and the location and size of their outlets. 5. Provided there is still lower land in the adjacent valley into which the cold air may drain, fruit trees or plants may often be planted with safety well toward the base of a slope. The wider the low valley, the more the cold air can spread out and the less likelihood of its rising upwards on the adjacent slope. A low place or a basin that has no outlet is usually a dangerous place for fruit, as the cold air cannot flow away. A concrete example of the need of atmospheric drainage will serve to illustrate the above point. A long, gentle slope was cleared for a peach orchard. Toward the lower edge of this slope a dense forest with luxuriant vines and undergrowth was left standing. When the peach orchard came into bearing age, 6 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1 the lower one-fourth of it adjacent to the standing forest in the valley had the blossoms killed in two successive springs by- late frosts. This frosted area at its upper border formed almost a perfect contour line of given elevation. At its higher edge some of the trees had the fruit buds killed on their lower limbs, and those toward the top of the trees escaped injury. Apparently the cold air at night, flowing down the slope, failed to flow off readily through the standing forest; the latter, with its tangle of vines and undergrowth, formed a dam that held a pocket of cold, frosty air in the lower portion of the orchard. Finally, this adjacent woodland was cut down, thus making it possible for the air to flow into the valley at the bottom of the slope. As a result, the frost line was lowered and in subsequent springs the entire peach orchard escaped injury from frost. If it is found necessary to utilize low-lying areas for fruit culture, late-blooming varieties should be planted, as they are less liable than early varieties to be injured by spring frosts. 6. Influence of Bodies of Water. — The presence of a large or a very deep body of water tempers the atmospheric conditions of the surrounding region, and for this reason has a very pronounced influence on its fruit-growing interests. Especially is this true if the fruit trees or plants are grov^Ti on that side of the water toward which the prevailing winds blow after passing over the body of water. The reason for this influence is that a body of water absorbs very slowly a large quantity of heat during warm weather and gives up this heat just as slowly during cold weather. Among the many regions so affected by bodies of water may be mentioned a strip of land along the west side of the southern peninsula of Michigan overlooking the east shore of Lake Michigan. The effects of this lake are felt at various points for a distance of from 3 to 20 miles inland, the width of the favored fruit area depending on the lay of the land. Where the land adjoining the lake arises somewhat abruptly to a good height, its influence does not extend inland much beyond the top of the adjacent hills; but where the land rises gradually, thus making a wide slope facing the lake, the influence extends inland over the § 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 7 entire slope. It is interesting to contrast conditions on the west side of this southern peninsula with those on the east side adjacent to Lake Huron. Cold winds, which come mostly from the west and the northwest, are devastating in their effect on the western side of Lake Michigan; in passing over this large body of water, which does not usually freeze over in winter, the winds are so tempered that their effect on the fruit trees on the eastern side of the lake, along the western side of the peninsula, is not damaging; in passing over the peninsula, the winds again become very cold and as a result are dam- aging to the trees on the eastern side of the peninsula, adjacent to Lake Huron. As a result of the tempering effect of Lake Michigan, the peach can be grown safely even as far north as the Grand Traverse Bay district, on the eastern shore of Lake Michigan, but it cannot be grown with any degree of safety at that latitude in the eastern part of the state. A section in the southern part of Ontario adjacent to the Great Lakes is affected much the same as is the western part of the southern peninsula of Michigan. Peaches and other tender fruits can be grown much farther north in this section than they can with safety in any of the distinctly inland sections of Canada. Fruit trees growing on the bluffs overlooking the Mississippi and Missouri rivers in the central part of the United States frequently are not injured by severe winters, but the same varieties of trees growing a few miles inland from the river bluffs have their fruit buds killed. Even small inland lakes, especially if they are deep, may produce a pronounced local effect in tempering the climate of the surrounding slopes. This tempering effect on the climate has a tendency to prevent early autumn frosts and to retard the development of fruit buds in the spring so that they do not open sufficiently to be damaged by late spring frosts. .7. Influence of Winds. — A certain degree of atmospheric circulation is desirable for fruit plantations, because frosts are less liable to occur where the air is in motion than where it is still. Most fruit-producing plants are not often seriously ,8 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1 injured by moderate winds, but may be badly injured by severe winds. In regions subject to strong prevailing winds or in sections where wind storms are common much imma- ture fruit is blown off the trees. The trees tend to lean or tip in a direction opposite to that from which the prevailing wind comes ; the branches of the trees have a more spreading, branching top on the leeward side of the tree than on the windward side; and it is not uncommon for cold, dry winds of winter to cause evaporation of moisture from the twigs and branches of the trees to such an extent that they suffer from winter killing, or killing back, purely as a result of the drying- out process, and in some unprotected sections there is danger of the fruit trees being more or less uprooted by the wind. To prevent loss of fruit and injury to trees in exposed sections, some orchardists advocate the planting of a row or several rows of trees on the windward side of the orchard to act as a wind- break. Some of the advantages of such windbreaks are that they lessen the quantity of windfalls; prevent the whipping and breaking of branches, especially while they are frozen; the rubbing off of fruit buds; and the lopsided growth of trees. Some of the arguments against the use of windbreaks are that the roots of the windbreak trees encroach on the outer row of fruit trees and absorb plant-food and moisture from the soil; that the trees occupy land that might be used for other purposes; that they sometimes prevent cold air from being drawn off, thus causing frost pockets on the leeward side as well as on the windward side of the windbreak; and that they often harbor insect and fungous pests. In the bleak districts of the United States, especially those districts adjacent to the prairie regions, where windbreaks might seem to be needed if they are needed anywhere, perhaps a majority of the fruit growers are of the opinion that wind- breaks are not necessary, provided certain methods of orchard management are practiced. Some of the methods recom- mended are as follows: (1) The trees may be headed low so that the wind will cause less bending and shaking of the trees and fewer windfalls than if they are headed high. (2) They may have somewhat denser heads in sections where the § 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 9 atmosphere is much in motion than in more quiet localities, because trees with low heads with many branches seem better adapted to resisting wind than tall trees having a straight cen- tral trunk, or leader. (3) Some notably successful orchardists claim that, regardless of other methods of avoiding the effects of winds, a few more rows of fruit trees planted around the windward side of the orchard are more profitable than are forest trees planted as windbreaks. If this plan is followed, trees on the windv/ard side of the orchard shotdd be planted so that the rows of trees are not continuous across the orchard; that is, two or more systems of planting, as explained in another Section, should be employed. 8. Suita,t)illty of Soil.— Fruit is grown on a great variety of soils, varying from a light, sandy loam to a heavy clay. The soil of some of the important fruit-growing districts is very sandy, such as exists in the peach-growing district of the lower peninsula of Michigan; the soils of many of the fruit- growing regions in New England, New York, and Pennsylvania are rocky, gravelly clays or clay loams ; and on the bluffs along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers the soil is a loose, fine, rich, mellow loam. Although soils of varying physical condition may be well adapted to fruit growing, experience has demonstrated the fact that, for fruit-growing purposes, they must be well drained. A porous soil not only affords sufficient drainage for the rapid development of the roots of fruit plants but it enables the roots of the perennial plants to reach down and anchor themselves at a good depth. Fruit trees usually succeed in a soil in which they can take deep root, but they often fail to thrive in soils in which their root system is confined to a shallow soil. The character of the subsoil is as important as the character of the surface soil; in many places fruit trees thrive well in very inferior, thin surface soil, provided the subsoil is suffi- ciently mellow and deep to admit of the development of a good root system. In fertility, fruit soils vary from those that will not produce general farm crops abundantly without a liberal addition of 10 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1 fertilizer to those that are naturally rich enough to support for decades continued cropping to general farm crops. It has been determined by authoritative investigations that a mature apple orchard in full bearing removes, in its leaves, new wood growth, and crop of fruit, a larger quantity of plant -food from the soil than is used in the production of a crop of com or of wheat. Inasmuch as only the richest soil will bear cropping for several successive years to com or wheat without liberal applications of fertilizers, it would seem that fruit crops could not be produced on the same soil year after year without a similar resort to keep up the fertility of the land. As a matter of fact, many orchards located on comparatively poor soil have yielded without being fertilized abundant crops of fruit throughout the life of the orchard; on the other hand, liberal applications of fertilizer to soils of moderate fertility have not increased the yield from mature bearing orchards sufficiently to pay the expense. It seems safe to believe, therefore, that an orchard located on soil of medium fertility will produce without fertilization abundant crops from the time the trees begin bearing until they die; but distinctly poor soil should receive applications of fertilizer, although the actual fertility of the soil is of minor importance as compared with its physical character. MARKET FACTORS 9. Location in Respect to Population. — In selecting a location for a fruit plantation, a fruit grower should consider the proximity of the location to centers of population. First of all, a large center of population furnishes consumers and insures a ready market for a large quantity of fruit. Growers that are able to place their fruit in prime condition on the large markets are sure of a ready sale. However, it is necessary, if the fruit is to be marketed at a profit, that it be placed on the market at a reasonably low cost of production, transporta- tion, etc. It is important that abundant labor should be secured for picking, packing, and preparing the fruit crop for market. Ordinarily, such labor is readily available in large § 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 11 centers of population. Formerly, when fruit was marketed locally, large fruit plantations were practically out of the question, except where much additional labor could be secured at the time of harvesting. In recent years, however, in certain isolated sections, itinerant labor may be secured for handling the crop at the ripening period. For instance, pickers and packers in large groups frequently traverse the country from south to north, following the ripening of the strawberry crop, or the peach crop, or both. For example, as the strawberry crop begins to ripen in Texas, pickers and packers are available who camp adjacent to the plantations and harvest the crop. As the southern strawberries are harvested, these same people move northwards through Arkansas and Missouri and camp in the various strawberry districts until the late strawberry crops of the north have been put on the market. Peaches are harvested and handled in a similar manner and often by the same crew that picked the strawberry crop. The grower who lives on the line of migration of such a body of fruit pickers and packers may readily handle his crop, even though it is grown at considerable distance from a center of population. 10. Shipping Facilities. — ^Formerly, the fruit supply of the country was, for the most part, grown adjacent to the district in which it was consumed. Even the less perishable fruits like apples were rarely shipped any considerable distance. There might be an excess of fruit in one section of the country and a dearth of it in another section, but a lack of proper facilities for shipping prevented proper distribution and the surplus of the one district was not available to meet the needs of another district. In recent decades improved methods of packing, cooling, shipping, refrigeration, etc., have rendered it possible to distribute fruit over large areas. It is possible, therefore, to grow fruit profitably a long distance from market, provided shipping facilities are good, and growers are enabled to select locations where soil or climatic conditions particularly favor the growing of a given kind or variety of fruit. As a result, special fruit-growing centers are developing almost regardless of their proximity to large markets. For example, 12 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1 certain areas in the western part of the United States are famous for their fruit, which is shipped to the eastern markets; early strawberries produced in the Gulf States are shipped to the northern centers of population; and the citrus fruits of California reach the eastern markets and those of Florida are sent practically to any part of the United States and Canada. Although it is possible to transport firm fruit over long distances, and even perishable fruits over distances which the grower, 20 years ago, did not even contemplate could become possible, at the same time adequate transportation facilities should be considered in the selection of a fruit plantation. Transportation to exceedingly distant markets is expensive and should be balanced either by cheap land or by soil and climatic conditions that are exceptionally favorable to the production of fruit. A grower should be near a shipping point because it is highly important that he avoid, as far as possible, long hauls of fruit over bad country roads. Every mile traveled on a bad coimtry road, especially with perishable fruits, adds greatly to the injury of the fruit by bruising. In fact, it is more important to be near a shipping point than it is to be near the market where perishable fruit is consumed. The strawberry growers of the central part of the United States who are located from | to 1 mile from their shipping station may be better able to deliver berries in good condition to eastern markets than are the growers who live 5 miles from the markets but on a bad country road. Peach growers realize that it injures peaches more to draw them 2 miles over a rough country road than to ship them hundreds of miles by railroad. This is one of the reasons that fruit-growing interests group about definite centers or shipping points. § 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 13 PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS NATURAL PROPAGATION 11. Increasing the number of plants of any species is known as propagation. Plants propagate naturally in two distinct ways ; namely, by seeds and by plant division, and from these natural methods certain artificial methods of propagation have been developed and are now commonly practiced in fruit culture. 12. Propagation by Seeds. — All varieties of fruit plants originally produced seed and the majority do so at the present time, but as the seed in most cases is produced by the union of elements from flowers of two plants, the new plant will have some of the characters of both parent plants and may resemble neither of them very closely. For example, a flower on a Northern Spy apple tree growing in an orchard will very proba- bly receive pollen from a tree other than a Northern Spy; if the seeds from the fruit produced by this flower are planted they will produce trees that will probably have some of the char- acters of the Northern Spy and some of the characters of the tree from which the pollen came; and it will be impossible to know in advance what the fruit will be like. For this reason fruit plants are not usually grown from the seed except for experimental purposes; propagation by division in one of its various forms is generally employed for propagating fruits. 13. Propagation "by Division. — Certain plants have the habit of reproducing by offshoots from the parent plant, which is known as propagation by division. Many of the fruit plants propagate naturally in this way. For example, the red raspberry produces an underground stem, known as a root stock, which extends some distance from the original plant; roots and sprouts are formed at intervals along the stem, pro- 14 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1 ducing new plants; the strawberry sends out on the surface of the ground long trailing branches known as runners that take root at intervals and form new plants; and the black raspberry produces long, drooping canes, which take root when the tips touch the ground and are then called stolons. As soon as offshoots sent out in this way have become rooted they may be separated from the parent plant and transplanted. A plant produced by any method of division, being simply a part of the original plant, has the characters and produces the same kind of fruit as the parent plant. ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS 14. A detached portion of a plant containing a growing point or bud placed in soil or water for the purpose of pro- ducing a new plant is called a cutting. The fruit plants most commonly propagated by the use of cuttings are the grape, the currant, the gooseberry, and the cranberry. Cuttings, so far as fruit propagation is concerned, may be divided into two classes; hardwood cuttings and root cuttings. 15. Hardwood Cuttings. — The majority of fruit-plant cuttings belong to the class of hardwood cuttings, which are cuttings from the ripened wood of a deciduous plant of the present or previous season's growth. The common kinds of hardwood cuttings are simple cuttings, heel cuttings, mallet cuttings, and single-eye cuttings. These are shown respectively in Fig. 1 (a), (b), (c), and (d). A simple cutting is the most common form of hardwood cutting and consists of a straight part of a shoot or cane con- taining two or more buds. A simple cutting is usually cut off at the lower end just below a bud, because at this point roots will develop most readily; at the top it is cut off. some distance above a bud. A heel cutting consists of the lower part of a branch con- taining two or more buds and is cut off in such a way that a ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 15 small part of the parent branch remains on the cutting, forming what is known as the heel. A mallet cutting is produced by cutting through the parent branch above" and below a shoot containing two or more buds, leaving a section of the parent branch at the base of the cutting. An advantage in the use of heel and of mallet cuttings is a somewhat greater certainty of developing roots. There is, however, one disadvantage, which is that only one cutting can be made from each lateral branch. Fig. 1 A single-eye cutting consists of a small part of a branch containing only one bud. Such cuttings are sometimes made when it is necessary to get the largest number of cuttings possible from a Hmited supply of stock. Single-eye cuttings are commonly started under glass either in a greenhouse or in a hotbed where bottom heat can be supplied, and the cuttings are placed in the ground at such a depth that the bud will be about an inch below the surface of the soil, which must be kept moist. 16 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §1 16. Hardwood cuttings should be made during the fall or early winter while the wood is dormant. As fast as made they should be tied in bundles of from twenty-five to fifty, with the butts all one way, and the bundles should be buried in a trench with the butts up and be covered with 2 or 3 inches of soil or sand. The top buds are thus protected from freezing and the butts are near the surface where the sim will warm (a) (b) (c) Fig. 2 them in the spring and stimulate root growth. Cuttings may be buried in sand, sawdust, or moss and kept over winter in a cool cellar. In the spring the bimdles are taken up and placed in a trench dug as shown in Fig. 2. They are set about 3 inches apart, with only the topmost bud or buds above the surface of the ground, and the soil is then replaced in the trench and thoroughly packed. In Fig. 2 (a) are shown simple cuttings 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 17 and in (b) mallet cuttings set in place in a trench; in (c) is shown the position of the cuttings after the soil is replaced in the trench. During the summer the cuttings, if all conditions have been favorable, develop roots and leaves, and in the fall or the following spring are ready to be transplanted to a per- manent location. 17. Root Cuttings. — Cuttings made from either roots or root stocks are called root cuttings. Roots as large as a lead pencil or larger are ordinarily selected, although cuttings from smaller roots will grow. Of the fruit plants, blackberries and some of the raspberries are frequently propagated by root cuttings. The cuttings should be made from 2 to 4 inches in length. They are cut in the autumn after the leaves have fallen and before severe frost, and are stored in moss in a cool place until spring. In the spring they are planted horizontally about 2 inches apart in a well-prepared bed and covered with about 3 inches of well pulverized soil. One summer's growth will produce good plants for setting out. PROPAGATION BY LAYERING 18. Placing a branch in contact with the earth in such a manner as to cause it to throw out roots and shoots while it is Fig. 3 still attached to and nourished by the parent plant is called layering, and the branch so placed is called a layer. There are 24S— 3 18 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1 several methods of layering, which differ simply in matters of Fig. 4 detail adapted to the nature of the plant to be propagated. A form known as tip layering is illustrated in Fig. 3. A branch, or cane, is bent down to the ground and the tip covered with soil. Roots and sprouts will then be thrown out forming young plants, which may be separated from the parent plant. The black raspberry is an example of a fruit plant that may be prop- agated in this way. What is known as vine layering is shown in Fig. 4. A vine is ifjG 5 bent to the ground and 'iii^^W^M^'^'Si^^-: §1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 19 covered with earth in such a way as to leave a small part exposed at intervals. Sprouts will form on the exposed parts and roots on the covered parts. After the young sprouts are thoroughly rooted they may be separated from each other and from the parent plant. In some cases the vine is buried throughout its entire length in a shallow trench. Grapes are often propagated in this way. Branch layering is shown in Fig. 5. In this case a suitable branch is bent over and a portion near the outer end buried in the earth and fastened with a forked pin; the outer end of the branch is then bent to an upright position and fastened to a stake. A notch or ring is often cut in the bark where the branch is under the surface of the ground. This seems to encourage the production of roots. Apple trees have been propagated in this way. A method known as mound layering is often used for the propagation of plants that stool — ^that is, send up many stems or shoots from a single root. This method of layering is illustrated in Fig. 6. The soil is mounded up to cover the base of the stems, which throw out roots as shown in (a) ; when roots have formed the sterns may be removed from the original plant and set out in a permanent location. A plant is often cut back close to the 'Mm. Fig. 6 20 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §1 ground the season before it is to be mound layered to cause it to send up a large number of shoots, as shown in (6). The soil used in layering shoiild be fertile and moist. Plants are most often layered in the spring; by the following spring, or in some cases by midsummer of the same year, they are ready to be transplanted. PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING 19. A method of propagation commonly used for many of the tree fruits is known as grafting. It is the causing of a twig, called a scion, cut from one plant to become part of another. The plant to which the scion is joined is called the stock. The different kinds of grafting may be classified, in Fig. 7 respect to the place where the scion is attached to the stock, as root grafting, or the insertion of the scion on the root of the stock; crown grafting, or the insertion of the scion in the stock at the surface of the ground; stem grafting, or the insertion of the scion in any part of the main stem or trunk; and top grafting, or the insertion of the scion in the top or branches. Grafting is also classified, in respect to the way in which the union between the scion and the stock is made, as cleft grafting, kerf grafting, hark grafting, whip grafting, splice grafting, and veneer grafting. 20. Cleft Grafting. — The method commonly used for renewing the tops of mature trees is known as cleft grafting. §1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 21 A branch is severed with a saw, care being taken not to loosen the bark from any part of the stub; the exposed end is then spHt with a broad, thin chisel or with a grafting tool such as shown in Fig. 7 (a), and the cleft is spread as illustrated in (6) with a wedge or the wedge-shaped prong on the grafting tool so that the scion may be inserted. Scions should contain two or three buds and should be of the previous season's growth. They should be cut during the late fall or early winter and stored in a cellar or other cool place where they will be per- fectly dormant. The grafting is done in the early spring before the buds start. The scion is cut to a wedge shape at the butt end as shown in Fig. 8 (a), one edge of the wedge being thicker than the other, and is set into the stock with the thickest edge of the wedge to the outside; this will hold the sdon firmly in place and the greatest pres- sure will come at the outer edges, where growth takes place. The lowest bud on the scion shoiild be just above the upper edge of the wedge so that it will come close to the top of the stock, when the scion is in- serted. In order to have growth there must be contact between the growing tissue of the scion and of the stock so that there may be an interchange of sap between the two parts. The growing part of a stem is the outer part of the wood just underneath the bark. In order to be sure that the growing tissues come in contact, the scion is sometimes set at a shght angle so that the growing wood of the scion must cross that of the stock at some point. In making a cleft graft, two scions are set in one stock, one at each edge of the cleft, as shown in Fig. 8 (&). If both scions grow, the least desirable one may be cut off. To complete the graft all cut surfaces are covered with grafting wax, as shown in (c) ; this is pressed closely on to the surfaces so that on ■cooling it will form a covering impervious to air and moisture. Fig. 8 22 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 1 Good grafting wax can be made of the following ingredients: Resin, 4 pounds; beeswax, 2 pounds; tallow or linseed oil, 1 pound. If it is desired to have the wax of a greater hardness than will result from this formula, the resin may be increased to 5 pounds and the beeswax to 2| pounds. The resin and bees- wax should be broken into small pieces and melted with the tallow or in the linseed oil. When thoroughly melted, the liquid should be poured into cold water, and when cool enough Tic ) to handle should be pulled and worked until it is light-colored and grained. The hands should be well greased before the wax is handled. In applying the wax, the heat of the hand is sufficient to soften it; it may be melted and applied with a brush, but care in this case is necessary to avoid getting the wax heated enough to cause injury 21. Formerly, much emphasis was placed by orchardists on the idea that only branches not exceeding 1| inches in §1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 23 diameter should be cleft grafted. This may have been due to the supposition that the young scion coiild not, in growing, completely cover over the end of a large stock. However, a number of successful orchardists at the present time claim that scions may be grafted with excellent results on stocks up to 6 inches in diameter. Fig. 9 shows an old tree top worked by the usual method of cleft grafting. As seen from the illustration, this method of renewing an old tree requires a large number of scions, and in order to secure stocks not over 1| inches in diameter the branches must be cut off at a consid- 24 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §1 erable distance from the ground. This leaves opportunity for a large number of small lateral branches below the graft. These must be pruned off after the scions start or the tree will bear some of its own fruit. This method of top working large trees necessarily produces high tops, which is a disadvantage in spraying and in gathering the fruit. Fig. 10 illustrates a large tree top worked by cutting off large limbs, leaving stubs 5 or 6 inches in diameter in which the scions are set. One limb is left uncut to furnish foliage for nourishing the roots. When the scions are well started Fig. 11 this limb should be cut off and the stock grafted if desired. This method of top-grafting large trees has the advantage of producing a lower tree than can be produced by the preceding method mentioned, and the entire top will be of the desired variety, as all water sprouts that spring from the branches below the graft may be easily reached and removed. Orchard- ists who have used this method of top renewal claim that scions grafted on stocks from 5 to 6 inches in diameter are just as likely to live as those grafted on small stocks and will have a much more rapid growth. 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 25 22. Kerf Grafting. — In connection with the grafting of large stocks, a method of setting the scion that has been used successfully in Europe for many years and is known as kerf grafting, has been introduced into America. By this method, the stock is not split, but a kerf, or notch, as long as the part of the scions to be inserted is cut with a pruning saw as illus- trated in Fig. 11 (a); the edges of the notch are then carefully smoothed with a sharp knife as shown in (b). The scion is cut to fit the notch and is driven into place as shown in (c); the cut surfaces are then covered with grafting wax as illus- trated in (d). It is claimed as an advantage of this method of grafting over the cleft method that the wound will heal over more quickly and tjiat the probability of growth is just as great as in the case of the ordinary cleft graft. A disad- vantage of this method is that the scion is not held so firmly by the notch as it is by the cleft. However, orchardists who have tried this method seem to prefer it to the ordinary cleft method. 23. Bark Grafting. — A method of grafting that does not injure the stock so much as cleft grafting is illustrated in Fig. 12. This method is known in America as bark grafting and in England and France as crown grafting. The lower ends of the scions are cut to a very thin wedge and are inserted betv\reen the bark and the wood of the stock after the branch has been cut off as for the cleft graft. After the scions have been inserted the bark is securely bound with raffia or waxed string and grafting wax is used as in the cleft graft. The raffia used in binding many forms of grafts is a product of an oriental palm and may be pur- fig. 12 chased at a very reasonable price. It is customary to lay the raffia on the ground or in some other damp place over night before using, in order to soften it so that the operator may flatten out the strands, which should be cut to the desired length before the work of wrapping begins. After 2 or 3 weeks the raffia bands are cut, so that they will not interfere with the 26 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §1 growth of the stock. Waxed string is prepared by putting a ball of No. 18 knitting cotton into a kettle of melted grafting wax. In 5 minutes it will be thoroughly satiu^ated and may be kept indefinitely. When waxed string is used for binding it is not often necessary to cut the bands, as the string will soon decay and will not interfere with the growth of the stock. 24. Whip Grafting. — The method almost universally used for root grafting and occasionally used for grafting small limbs is known as the whip grafting. This method of grafting has an advantage in that it can be used on very young stocks — those only 1 or 2 years old. In making a whip Fig. 13 graft, one long, smooth, slanting cut is made at the top of the stock with a sharp knife. The knife is then placed on the cut surface near the top and the stock is split in the direction of its longest axis, forming a tongue, as shown in Fig. 13 (a); the same form of cut is made in the lower end of the scion, as shown in (6). The two parts are then forced together as illustrated in (c). The tongues aid by locking the stock and scion together. Some difference in diameter of the stock and scion may be disregarded, but in order to bring the growing part of the root and the scion in contact, the edge of the scion and 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 27 stock must be even on one side. After the stock and scion have been united they should be wrapped with five or six turns of waxed string to hold the parts together, as shown in {d) . When roots are whip grafted, it is not necessary to use wax, because the soil will keep out air; but when tops are whip grafted the wound must be thoroughly waxed. The roots for grafting are dug and the scions are cut in the fall and the work of grafting is done during the winter. As the grafts are made they are packed in moss, sawdust, or sand in a cellar at a temperature of about 40 degrees, where they remain until spring. In making the graft, the roots are sometimes cut into two or three pieces and each piece grafted to a scion; this is known as piece -root grafting; or the top half or two-thirds of the root only may be grafted, which is known as a wliole-root grafting. Ordinarily, in making the whip graft, the scion is cut with three buds and the stock to nearly the same length as the scion, and the graft is planted so as to bring the union not far below the surface of the ground. When it is desirable to produce very hardy trees and the scions to be used are of known hardiness and the roots are of unknown hardiness, the scions are cut from 6 to 12 inches long and the roots only from 2 to 4 inches long and the graft is planted deep enough to cause roots to spring from the lower end of the scion. The piece of root simply acts as |S: a nurse until roots have started from the scion. When these young trees are removed to an orchard the original root is often cut off; this is not done when the root is strong and the union good. fig. u 25. Splice Grafting. — A method of grafting known as splice grafting is illustrated in Fig. 14. This is the same as whip grafting, except that no tongue is cut. The sloping surfaces of the stock and scion are brought together and the two pieces are bound with waxed string. 26. Veneer Grafting. — A method of grafting known as veneer grafting, which may be used for root or stem grafting, 28 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §1 is illustrated in Fig. 15. The top of the stock is removed with a slanting cut and a notch cut in it as shown in (a) ; a corre- sponding notch is cut in the scion as shown in (b), and the two parts are brought together and bound with raffia or waxed string as shown in (c). The joint of a stem graft must be thoroughly covered with wax; this is not necessary in the case of a root graft. PROPAGATION BY BUDDING 27. A method of propaga- tion much used for stone fruits and to some extent for apples and pears is known as budding. This consists of inserting a single Fig. 15 detached, bud under the bark of a stock. The operation of budding may be performed at a time when the bark can be loosened easily, and when mature buds can be obtained. These conditions are found to exist in the early spring and again in the late summer or early fall. The buds for use in the spring are taken from the previous season's growth, and those used in the late summer or early fall are taken from the growth of the season. It is possible to insert buds in the tops of young trees in place of scions in order to change the variety; in some cases buds have been inserted in limbs 2 or 3 years old, but a better practice is to cut back the tree rather severely the season previous to budding, in order to get a growth of suckers in which to set the buds. The important use of budding, however, is on 1-year-old stocks for transplanting. The operation of budding is simple and with a little experience may be performed very rapidly. When a nimiber of stocks are to be budded the operator first prepares a bud stick, which is a twig of the species desired to propagate containing a number of buds. When the budding is done in the early spring the bud stick will be of the previous year's growth ; if the budding is done in the late simimer or early fall the bud § 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 29 stick will be a twig of the current year's growth. When the work of budding is done during the period of active growth, the leaf that grows just below each bud is severed just as soon as the bud stick is cut, leaving the petiole, or stem, of the leaf attached to the stick to serve as a handle to aid in pushing the bud into position. All of the buds on a stick are usually cut before any of them are placed, but they are allowed to hang to the stick by one end until they are needed, when the final cut that severs them from the stick is made. A bud is first cut by inverting the twig and then placing the edge of a sharp, thin-bladed knife a little above the bud and the thumb of the hand in which the knife is held just below the bud and giving a quick, sharp turn with the blade. Fig. 16 In Fig. 16 is shown the manner of making the first cut in removing a bud from the stick. Fig. 17 represents a bud stick, showing in outline the cuts that should be made for removing the buds. The knife will cut into the wood a little just under the bud, leaving a small part of the wood attached to the under side of the bud. Some budders remove this wood, although this is not necessary; however, there is a little more certainty of a union if the wood is removed. The stock for budding should be at least as thick as an ordinary lead pencil. The peach will reach this size and may be budded the first season after the seed is planted; apples and pears will not be of sufficient size before the second 30 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §1 season. The stock is first prepared by removing all buds and twigs from the area to be budded. The leaves should not be removed more than a day or two before the budding is done or the bark may set — that is, grow fast to the wood — and interfere with the operation of budding. The bud is usually placed on the stock not over 2 or 3 inches above the surface of the ground and in most cases is placed on the north side of the stock so that the bud may be shaded somewhat from the direct rays of the sun. For the reception of the bud, a T-shaped incision is made just through the bark as shown in Fig. 18 (a). The cross-cut is usually made first, and after making the last cut the knife blade is turned to the right and to the left to loosen the flaps of bark as shown in (6) . A bud is then placed imder the flaps and pushed firmly into place imtil the tmder surface is entirely in contact with the body of the stock. A bud in place is shown in (c). The bud must now be tightly bound into place, for which purpose bands of raffia from 8 to 10 inches long are most convenient. A few turns should be taken below and above the bud and the strands may Pig. 17 be held by drawing them under one of the wraps. A stock with bud inserted and wrapped is shown in (d). (a) (b) (c) (d) Fig. 18 To prevent girdHng, the band should be cut as soon as the §1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 31 bud has united to the stock, usually about 2 or 3 weeks the setting of the bud. It is very import- ant that all sprouts that spring from the stock after the budding should be removed so that the plant food that they would consume may be utilized by the bud. When growth starts in the bud, the entire top of the tree is removed just above the bud, which wiU then grow rapidly, being nourished by the entire root system of the tree. When the bud is set late in the season it does not start growth that fall, but simply grows fast to the stock ; growth starts the next spring, at which time the top of the tree is removed. Spring bud- ding of fruit trees is seldom practiced. In Fig. 19 the removed top a and grow- ing bud h are shown. after Fig. 19 PRUNING OF FRUIT PLANTS PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING PURPOSES OF PRUNING 28. Some of the purposes of pruning fruit plants are to thin out the branches in order to allow the remaining branches sufficient room and light; to keep the plants in manageable shape; to regulate the size of the plants to the place they occupy; to establish a proper balance between wood and leaf growth and the production of fruit ; to remove injured or dis- eased parts; and to facilitate spraying and other work in the orchard. Most plants tend to produce a surplus of branches. In nature, many of these branches are gotten rid of by a self- pruning process; that is, they die from being crowded by other branches or by adjacent trees. The fruit grower usually 32 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1 prunes out the branches that would die from being crowded and any other branches that are no longer advantageous to the tree. The thinning of branches is like killing weeds in a garden. In killing weeds, the gardner gets rid of certain plants in order to give more room to those that remain. In pruning, the fruit grower gets rid of certain branches in order that those that remain may have more space, more sunlight, or better shape, and a large quantity of plant-food. On many fruit plantations branches grow so densely that it is inconvenient to get to the parts of the tree or plant in order to pick the fruit or to perform some work in caring for them. For each species of fruit tree or plant the grower usually has a pretty definite ideal of proper distribution of parts or branches, and he prunes out the branches so that the tree or plant con- forms to his ideal. The fruit grower frequently prunes plants that are weak or trailing on the ground in order that they will grow stockier and straighter and will stand up better than they grow or stand normally. Branches that would trail on the ground if allowed to grow their fuU length are shortened so that the fruit produced on them will be better supported by the plant. This practice is particularly common in the management usually accorded grapes, raspberries, and blackberries. Some fruit trees normally grow very tall. The fruit grower may cut back the top on the main stem of such plants in order to secure a lower and a more spreading form of top, which will enable him to take care of the tree and to gather the fruit more readily than if the top were high and upright. 29. Trees or other plants growing at regular distances apart may be kept from interfering with each other by pruning back certain parts. Many species of fruit, the peach, for example, tend to bear much of their fruit on the new wood, or periphery, of the tree, and, if allowed to grow unpruned, the tree eventually bears fruit only toward the tips of tall or wide-spreading branches. In many such cases, it is economy to cut back the branches from time to time, thus keeping the fruit-bearing area nearer the main support, or trunk, of the tree. § 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 33 Certain varieties of fruits in certain soils or climates may tend to set more fruit than they can mature properly, that is, they may tend to overbear. In certain other locations these same varieties may tend to produce wood and leaf growth and to set very little fruit. If a plant or tree sets a larger number of fruit buds than it can support fruit, it will be economical to thin the fruit crop by pruning out some of the fruit-bearing twigs and branches, even before the tree blossoms. This removal of a part of the fruiting area may allow the tree to give its entire vigor and strength in support of the fruit that remains. If a plant produces but little wood and leaf growth, pruning at the proper time of year may do much toward invigorating the wood and leaf growth of those parts that remain. Just as dwarf or standard plants may be chosen to suit the purpose of the grower, so any plant, by the pruning that it receives, may be dwarfed or made to grow larger than an unpruned plant. The tree may be pruned so as to reduce its stature, thus making it suit better a given position, or on the other hand, it may be pruned solely with the idea of invigorating the wood grovvTth of the parts that remain, thus sometimes accelerating its growth and enabling it to reach a larger size than it would ordinarily attain. 30. Many of the diseases of fruit plants, such as blight, canker, black knot, etc., are due to fungi or bacteria that multiply rapidly and spread through a plantation, and these diseases may often be checked by the removal of the disease- infected parts by modern methods of pruning. As a rule, diseased or injured parts of trees or plants should be removed and no chances taken on the spread of the organism that causes the disease. The general practice of spraying, in combating insects and fungous diseases of plants in recent years, has had much to do with stimulating careful pruning. In spraying, it is essential that all parts of a tree be covered with spray, but it is not feasible to get a spray to the body of a tree or to all of its branches unless the tree is well pruned and its branches well thinned. Trees need proper pruning, therefore, not only 34 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1 after they have reached bearing age but while the framework of the young trees is immature, so they may be formed in such a way that they can be most readily sprayed when fully matured. EFFECTS OF PRUNING- 31. By judicious pruning branches or plants may be prop- erly thinned, plants kept in proper shape and confined to the desired space, the proportion of wood and leaf growth to fruit production regulated, the spread of disease prevented, and the work of spraying facilitated. But pruning is the direct cause of other effects, some of which are desirable and some of which are undesirable. Cutting back or thinning out the branches of a tree, especially during the winter, induces a more rapid growth of wood the following year on the remaining branches than if the pruning had not taken place. And, although a tree that has received much pruning may not, at maturity, be so large as a similar tree that has not been pruned, the former may, and in all probability will, have healthy, vigorous wood, and the unpruned tree, although larger, may contain many dead, dying, diseased, and undesirable limbs and branches. Thus, one of the impor- tant effects of pruning is the securing of a healthy, vigorous growth of the tree or plant. The pruning of some of the fruit-bearing branches and the shortening of others is one of the best methods of preventing fruit trees from setting more fruit than they can fully mature, or, in other words, from overbearing. Thus, judicious pruning not only stimulates the wood growth of the subsequent season but, at the same time, leaves enough fruit buds on a tree to furnish such a crop of fruit as the tree can most economically produce; whereas, the unpruned tree may produce more fruit than it can mature and may make a very meager growth of wood that is often weak and diseased. 32. Pruning at different times of the year produces a different effect on the production of wood and fruit. There is an old adage that runs, "Prune in winter for wood and in § 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 35 summer for fruit production." This statement is based on experience that has demonstrated the fact that excessive wood growth is usually developed at the expense of fruit production, and vice versa. In this connection, the fruit grower should keep in mind the distinction between the growth of wood and leaves, known as vegetative activity, and the production of blossom and fruit, known as reproductive activity. A fruit plant, to be in its best condition, should make enough vege- tative growth to be healthy and yet produce such a quantity of fruit as is feasible without reducing the vitality of the tree. In such cases vegetative activity and reproductive activity are said to be in balance. Whenever, through injudicious pruning or any other phase of mismanagement, a plant makes more than normal vegetative growth, its tendency is to pro- duce a small quantity of fruit. This is fru-ther emphasized by the fact that fruit trees that make abnormally rapid growth often fail to come into bearing at the expected time; they delay bearing until their excessive wood growth begins to wane. Also, pruning that results in an excessive growth of water sprouts, which are purely vegetative growths, results in no formation of fruit buds on these water spouts until their vegetative growth wanes. These facts should be contrasted with the well-known fact that an injury to a tree that checks its wood growth often results in an abnormally early fruitful- ness or in a too abundant setting of fruit ; a young tree affected by borers or accidently injured by a cultivator or girdled by rodents may, by such an injury, be forced into excessive fruit- fulness, although the vegetative growth of the tree is much weakened by the injury. It is, therefore, a generally con- ceded fact that the checking of wood and leaf growth often increases the production of fruit, and on the other hand, excessive fruit production, or overbearing, tends greatly to reduce the vegetative growth of the tree. 33. Pruning during the winter usually results in strong wood growth the following summer, and if excessive pruning is done during the winter it may prevent young trees from coming into bearing as early as they would without such 36 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1 pruning and may reduce the fruitfulness of old trees. The probable reason is that a tree stores up a reserve supply of food and energy during the summer and that the early growth during the spring no doubt depends more on this stored food and energy than on immediate root action to supply plant- food. In fact, in cold soils, a tree often comes into leaf and bloom before its roots are warm enough to become really active in supplying food for the tree. If parts of the plant are removed in winter, then the stored food and energy of the tree is diverted into the fewer parts that remain. These remaining parts get the entire food supply that otherwise would have been dis- tributed among the larger number of buds and branches, and the result is a stiraulation of the wood growth on a tree pruned during the winter. Pruning in summer, especially if the pruning is excessive, is likely to result in diminished wood growth. The probable reason is that after the early growth of spring has used up the available stored food and energy accumulated in the tree, subsequent growth depends on the food that is supplied by the roots from day to day. However, it should be borne in mind that the sap taken from the soil through the roots of the tree is not immediately in a condition to promote growth or the building of tissue. The sap is first carried from the roots into the leaves where, in the presence of the green coloring matter, it is elaborated, or digested, and is then transported to all the growing parts of the tree where it promotes growth. Regardless of how much sap the roots are taking from the soil, no more plant-food can be utilized for growth than is elaborated in the leaves. As pruning in summer removes leaves, or a part of this elaborating surface of the tree, the quantity of plant -food that is elaborated is reduced. As a result, vegetative activity is in a measure checked, and, if not carried too far, may result in a tendency to reproductive activity and throw the trees into bearing. 34. So long as all available plant-food is being directed toward the tips of rapidly growing twigs, it cannot be used for fruit-bud formation. Fruit buds of practically all fruit-pro- § 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 37 ducing plants are usually formed the season before the blossoms and fruit are produced. In spring, so far as is known, all the buds on the new growth start ahke, as wood buds. If excessive vegetative activity continues throughout the season to carry all available food to make growing points and leaves, these buds will remain as wood buds. However, if part of the plant food that is being elaborated in the tree can be directed in early summer, perhaps in June, to storage in some of these buds, they may be transformed into fruit buds. The setting of fruit buds is, therefore, apparently due to the storage of an abundance of available plant-food, so that buds which started as wood buds can receive a sufficient share to develop into flower or fruit buds. These fruit buds continue to develop more and more throughout summer and autumn. If the storage of plant -food in and adjacent to the fruit buds is abundant, they shotild be thoroughly developed by autumn, pass the winter safely, produce flowers in spring, and the flowers should be followed by a fruit crop. But anything that tends to divert available plant-food during the summer away from the fruit buds oppose fruitf illness for the coming year. The fruit-bearing parts of certain kinds of plants, especially the grape, blackberry, and raspberry plants, are so weakened by bearing a crop of fruit that they are not. desirable for sub- sequent fruit production. In such cases, regular pruning is particularly necessary to remove those parts that have once borne fruit and to shape new parts for the production of the next fruit crop. METHOD OF PRUNING 35. In various parts of the world numerous forms and heights of heads of trees have been advocated and maintained by fruit growers. In the United States, one of the most important classifications as to shape of tree is based on the height of the head. In Europe, fruit trees are often trained to grow open heads of wine-glass, or vase, form in order to expose all parts of the head to sunlight. Also, they are often trimmed and trained so that the branches spread out fiat against a trellis or the south side of a wall. An apple tree 38 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §1 pruned and trained to grow on the side of a wall is illustrated in Fig. 20, and another one pruned to two horizontal branches Fig. 20 that are trained to grow on a horizontal support only 2 feet above the ground is shown in Fig. 21. In regions with very severe climate, fruit plants are some- times laid down and protected during the winter. In such ^"■■^aiffl^^ <^^ «fsar^ ,cW«f>-_..=_ ^--- ^^^^^fm^^_ Z''''- ^P^ '-•-^f^T^r- "■ KHUiiWO" W'"l;••■• Fig. 21 cases a special form of pruning is given to the plants to adapt them to the winter protection. Thus, the trees may be grown § 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 39 in a more or less flattened form ; the branches on the north and south sides are pruned very short and those on the east -and west sides are allowed to grow long. The root system is also cut back more or less on the two flattened sides of the tree so that the main brace roots extend laterally in the same directions as the spread of branches. This form of pruning admits of laying down tender trees for winter protection without breaking either the essential roots or the essential branches. 36. High-Headed and Low-Headed Trees. — In the early settled regions of the United States where orchards were first planted it was usually customary to grow very high heads on fruit trees. Often the heads were started 7 or 8 feet above the ground, so that persons could walk upright below the branches and teams could be driven under them to till the soil. But, at the present time in many parts of the United States and Canada, heads so low as to stand very close to the ground frequently prevail. The reason for the difference in the position of the heads of fruit trees in regard to the height of the head is that the character of the head of a fruit tree bears an intimate relation to its adaptation to a given climate and to the management that may be given to an orchard. In Europe, where most of the fruit -producing plants grown in the United States were formerly obtained, a' comparatively foggy climate prevails. Practically all of Europe and the adjacent islands ,has a much more humid climate than has the United States. Europe has a less changeable climate, especially with respect to devastating winds than most parts of the United States. In a section where sunlight is inadequate to the best develop- ment of fruit trees, a high, open head will best admit sunlight to all parts of the trees and allow the ground to become warm and dry under the trees. But in most sections of the United States, where the sunlight is intense, and especially in those sections where drying winds prevail, low heads are grown. Choosing the height and character of the head is, therefore, one important way of adapting fruit trees to the climate of the locality in which they are planted. Where the maximum 40 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1 sunlight is needed by the trees and to warm and dry the earth beneath the tree, high heads are probably best; where it is desirable to shade the ground, protect the trunk and main branches of the trees from sun scald and to resist the force of strong winds, low, compact heads are desirable. In practically all parts of the United States in recently planted orchards low heads have been almost universally adopted. Typical high-headed trees are found only in old orchards. A tree headed low can be brought into bearing earlier than one headed high, because very high heads are secured only by cutting off annually the side branches that fonn diiring the first 2 to 4 years of the growth of the trees, and this pruning delays the times when branches shall be old enough to produce fruiting parts. Low-headed trees are stocky. There is usually a correlation between root growth below ground and branching above ground. An unsuually large limb above ground is ordinarily balanced with a similarly large root below. The same strands of woody fibers that foim the roots extend upwards to help form the branches, and, as the roots spread from the base of a tree, an enlargement of the trunk is produced. Frequently large roots form flanges that broaden rapidly as they enter the ground; a similar broadening effect occurs where the branching system begins at the top of the trunk; and the nearer together these two points are, the larger will be the diameter of the trunk of the tree at a given age. Measurements of the diameter of the trunks of low-headed and high-headed trees show that the lower the head the thicker will be the trunk. In one 8-year-old orchard where a compari- son of the two methods of heading was made, the low-headed trees with trunks only 18 inches high were 50 per cent, greater in diameter at their smallest point than were the trunks of high-headed trees of the same variety. In sunny climates low-headed trees tend better to shade the trunks and main branches and thereby to avoid sun scald than do high-headed trees. Winds do not damage low-headed trees so much as high-headed trees nor blow the fruit from them so readily. The fruit on low-headed trees can to a large § 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 41 extent be picked from the ground, and the pruning and spraying may be more conveniently done than if the trees were high headed. High heads may, in moist, foggy chmates, allow the sun more quickly to warm and dry the soil and decomposing material beneath the trees. The moist, decomposing material and the moist condition of the soil favor the development of such fungi as may cause disease. Certain orchard tools can be used more conveniently in high-headed orchards than where the branches come down close to the ground. Also, high heads admit of a better growth of any crop that may be grown in the orchard. It seems safe to say, however, that the advantages of low heads so largely outweigh the advantages of exceedingly high heads that it is probably wise to adopt as low heads for fruit trees as are compatible with the character of soil and the pre- vailing climatic conditions. 37. Styles of Pruning. — The style of pruning that eventually allows a fruit tree or plant to develop to its largest possible size is known as extensive pruning. It consists of a thinning-out process rather than a cutting-back process and is particularly adapted to such trees as the apple and the pear, that bear fruit on short fruit spurs all over the tree, rather than to such trees as the peach, that bear fruit on the new, growing parts. The style of pruning that tends to dwarf plants or trees is known as repressive pruning. It is accomplished by cutting back new growth and may or may not be accompanied by thinning out the branches. Repressive pruning is commonly practiced on plants that bear, fruit toward the extremities of new growth, such as the peach, raspberry, blackberry, and grape. If this style of pruning is not practiced on such trees as the peach, the limbs are very likely to become long and to break under a heavy load of fruit and the trees will occupy more space in an orchard than is necessary or desirable for them to occupy. Repressive pruning results in a stocky, strong tree or plant, prevents limbs from breaking down with fruit, keeps 42 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §1 the trees within desired limits, causes the fruit to be produced where it can be picked easily, and produces plants and trees that are easily sprayed. TOOLS AND MATERIALS FOR PRUNING TOOLS FOR PRUNING 38. The tools to be used in pruning operations depend somewhat on the character of the plant to be pruned. For small Fig. 22 plants such as grape and berry plant, whose parts are flexible, shears are most largely employed. For young orchard trees whose branches are small, the pruning knife is preferred by most fruit growers. For old orchard trees where large limbs or diseased parts are to be removed, the pruning saws are indispensable. Ladders may also be necessary in the case of trees that have reached large size. 39. Pruning Shears. — The shears most commonly used in pru- ning operations are hand shears of the type shown in Fig. 22. The shears illustrated have a ratchet nut on the side, ^ device that prevents the cut- ting part from binding or from becom- ing loose. In different shears there are often slight differences in the kind of spring between the handles and the attachment for fastening the handles together while the imple- ments are not being used. For the pruning of mature trees, such implements as are shown in Fig. 23 are often found to be Fig. 23 (b) (e) Fig. 24 43 44 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1 very convenient. They are equipped with wood handles about 2 feet long and are especially useful in young orchards where many limbs and branches are to be removed that are too large to be cut off with ease by means of the hand shears shown in Fig. 22. The shears shown in Fig. 24 (a), (6), and (c) are known as long-handled, or extension, shears and are almost indispensable in pruning mature orchards. These shears can be equipped with handles 4, 6, 8, or 10 feet long. The cutting part is operated by means of a wire extending from one end of the cutting part to a hand lever that is fastened to the long handle near its free end. A plain, single pair long-handled shears is shown in (a), and combination shears and saw, in (b) and (c). Either of these latter implements are of especial value in removing branches that are too large to be cut off by the shears. The implement shown in (b) is of such a size as to clip off limbs f inch in diameter and the saw is the ordi- nary type of hand saw. The shears of the implement shown in (c) will only clip off branches ^ inch or less in diameter, and the saw is of a special curve shape, the teeth of which are so made that they cut most while the saw is being pulled rather than pushed. 40. Pruning Saws. — ^Among the implements of the fruit grower should be found one or more desirable pruning saws, several types of which are shown in Fig. 25. That type of saw with a thin, slender blade held rigidly in a steel frame that bows backwards several inches from the blade is a very popular saw, although many orchardists prefer the common type of saw. The implement shown in (a) is attached to a long handle and fastened to one end of the saw frame is a chisel. The chisel attachment is very convenient for punching off small branches such as water spouts close to the large limbs. Care, however, must be exercised in the use of the chisel or the limb from which the small branches are cut will be wounded. The saw illustrated in (b) is of a special tapering shape, and the blade, which is very narrow, is fastened by means of a swivel at each end to the frame, so that the plane of the saw Fig. 25 46 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1 blade may extend in one direction and that of the frame in another direction. This arrangement, it is claimed by some orchardists, makes this saw especially desirable to use in narrow places such as in the forks of limbs. The saw is equipped with a socket handle into which may be fitted a long handle or without the handle it may be used as a hand saw. The saw shoAvn in (c) is similar to the one shown in (b), in that the former has a slightly tapering frame and a narrow blade with a swivel at either end. The saw is equipped, however, with a regular type of saw handle that makes it more serviceable for close work than the saw shown in (b). The saw shown in (d) may be used as a hand saw or a pole may be fitted into the socket handle. An arrangement is provided so that the handle may be adjusted for sawing at different angles. The saw shown in (e) is equipped with a handle that may be hooked over a small limb or over a round of a ladder. The saw shown in (/) has teeth on both edges and by many orchard- ists is claimed to be a very convenient saw, but care must be exercised that one edge of the saw does not scratch one hmb while another one is being sawed off. A curved saw preferred by many pruners is shown in (g) . The teeth are made so that they cut while the "saw is being pulled backwards rather than while it is being pushed forwards. 41. Pruning Baiives. — Any good strong pocket knife may be used as a pruning knife, but knives made especially for pruning purposes, such as the one illustrated in Fig. 26, usually have a hook blade and a handle sufficiently large and of such a shape as to allow the pruner to get a firm grip. t-^ Fig. 26 42. Ladders for Pruning. — Ordinarily, the ladders that are used in the picking of any kind of fruit are the best suited for use in pruning the trees bearing the fruit. Step ladders are very commonly used. § 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 47. DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS 43. All wounds, whether they are the result of pruning or of accident, should be protected from the entrance of the germs of disease or of decay. Many infectious diseases, such as various cankers and blights as well as certain species of insects, may frequently find entrance to trees through wounds. To protect the tree from infection by disease or from rotting of the wood, all cuts larger than ^ inch in diameter should be promptly covered by paint or other dressing. Of the numerous preparations that have been tried or recommended for the dressing of wounds, probably common white lead and oil paint is the most desirable. It can always be secured at any paint shop, is convenient to apply, and protects the wounds or the bare wood of the tree as well as most other dressings. Ordinarily, wounds should be painted as soon as they occur; at any event, the paint should be applied within 24 hours or as soon as the surface of the wound is dry. If it is desirable, for the sake of appearances, the paint may be colored the same general color as that of the bark of the trees. Grafting wax is also a most excellent dressing for wounds. Where wounds are made for the insertion of scions, grafting wax is imdoubtedly the best covering for the naked parts of the wood. It prevents the evaporation of moisture through wounds better even than paint; and, although it is more expensive and more troublesome to apply, there may be instances where it is desirable to use grafting wax to prevent evaporation or to secure greater protection to wounds than is given by paint. ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE (PART 2) SPRAYS AND THEIR PREPARATION INSECTICIDES 1. An insecticide is defined by the law passed by the United States Congress in 1910 as "any substance or mixture of substances intended to be used for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any insects which may infest vegeta- tion, man, or other animals, or households, or be present in any environment whatsoever." In the ordinary usage of the term, however, any substance that kills insects is an insecti- cide. All insecticides may be divided into two general classes, poisono^is insecticides and contact insecticides. POISONOUS INSECTICIDES 2. Insecticides containing a poison that will kill insects are known as poisonous insecticides. They are used for insects that have mouth parts for biting and that feed on the surfaces of plants. The poisonous insecticides generally used are arsenate of lead, Paris green, arsenite of lime, and London purple, all of which contain arsenic in some form. Hellebore is a poisonous insecticide not containing arsenic that is occa- sionally used. 3. Arsenate of lead is at the present time the most valuable poisonous insecticide for spraying purposes. A great COPYRIGHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED §2 2i8— 5 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2 advantage this poison has over other arsenical poisons is that it contains very little soluble arsenic — ^that is, arsenic soluble in water. Soluble arsenic is injurious to fruit and foliage and for this reason must be guarded against as spray material. The advent of arsenate of lead as a spray has made spraying for insect enemies of the peach possible, as no other arsenical poison can be used on peach trees because of burn- ing the foliage. Arsenate of lead is more effective than other arsenic insecticides, because it can be used in large quantities. Another advantage is that it stays in suspension well, and thus a uniform mixture can be sprayed. In addition, it adheres to the foliage well, not being easily washed off by rain. Also, it has some value as a fungicide — a property that increases its value to the orchardist. Arsenate of lead is generally sold in the form of a paste containing about 50 per cent, of water. In this form it is used at the rate of 2, 3, or 4 pounds to 50 gallons of water, the exact quantity depending on the species of tree to be sprayed and the pest to be controlled. Some companies man- ufactiire, also, a dry form of arsenate of lead, of which only one-half as much should be used as of the paste form. Arsenate of lead can be made at home possibly for a little less than it would cost if purchased, but it is not possible to be so certain , of the strength of the home-made preparation, and unless a very large quantity is needed it will generally be found more satisfactory to purchase the material. Arsenate of lead is made by combining arsenate of soda with acetate of lead. When the insecticide is to be made in any considerable quantity it is well first to make up stock solutions of the two substances. For the stock solution of arsenate of soda, 31 pounds 4 ounces of arsenate of soda should be dissolved in 50 gallons of water. The solution can be made most satisfactorily by suspending the arsenate of soda in a burlap bag or some other porous container just below the surface of the water near the top of the containing barrel. In another barrel, 78 pounds 2 ounces of acetate of lead shoiild be dissolved in 50 gallons of water by suspending it in the same way. After a thorough stirring of both solutions, 1 gallon of each with sufficient water added § 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 3 to make 50 gallons will form a spray solution of the same strength as 2 pounds of arsenate-of-lead paste in 50 gallons of water. The arsenate-of-soda and acetate-of-lead solutions should be poured simultaneously into a spray barrel contain- ing the required quantity of water. In making the spray mixture with the manufactured prepara- tion, either the paste or the powder, the required quantity of poison should be weighed out and water added a little at a time, the mixture being stirred until a thin, milky liquid is formed. This liquid is then poured into sufficient water to form a spray mixture of the required strength. If the mixttire is not prepared in this way it will not become uniform for several hours. A large quantity of the milky liquid may be conveniently prepared by using an old stone chum or a keg with a dasher for doing the mixing. A purchaser of arsenate of lead in the United States may be reasonably sure of getting an honest brand, as the specifi- cations of the United States insecticide law already referred to are exacting. Sec. 7 of the law specifies that arsenate of lead shall be deemed adulterated: "First, if it contains more than 50 per centtim of water; second, if it contains total arsenic equivalent to less than 12| per centum of arsenic oxide, AS2O5; third, if it contains arsenic in water-soluble forms equivalent to more than -^^ per centum of arsenic oxide, ^.^205; fourth, if any substances have been mixed and packed with it so as to reduce, lower,- or injuriously affect its quality or strength. Provided, however, that extra water may be added to lead arsenate if the result- ing mixture is labeled lead arsenate and water, the percent- age of extra water being plainly and correctly stated on the label." 4. Paris green is probably the best known insecticide on the market. It was the material most largely used as a poisonous spray before arsenate of lead came into general use. Paris green can be easily recognized by its beautiful green color. It contains much more soluble arsenic than does arsenate of lead, and is, therefore, much more injurious to foliage and 4 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2 should not be used on tender-leaved plants such as peaches, cherries, or plums. For a spray compound 1 pound of Paris green is generally added to from 75 to 150 gallons of water. When used in pure water, 2 or 3 pounds of freshly slaked lime should always be added to 50 gallons of the spray, as this will combine with any free arsenic that may be present and so lessen the liability of injuring fruit and foliage. Paris green does not stay in suspension well, and for that reason when it is used as a spray thorough agitation is necessary. Although cheaper than arsenate of lead, it is doubtful whether, under present conditions, the use of Paris green for spraying fruit plants is advisable. If it is used it should first be mixed with a little water to form a thin paste and then be poured into the spray tank or barrel; if it is poured into the spray barrel in a dry form, it wiU remain on top of the water without mixing. Sec. 7 of the United States insecticide law specifies that Paris green shall be deemed adulterated: "First, if it does not contain at least 50 per centum of arsenious oxide, second, if it contains arsenic in water-soluble forms equivalent to more than 3| per centum of arsenious oxide; third, if any substance has been mixed and packed with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength." 5. Arsenlte of lime, an insecticide that may be easily, made at home, consists of a combination of arsenic and lime. This poison has the advantage over arsenate of lead and Paris green of being much less expensive. Also, it is lighter than Paris green, and for this reason remains in suspension much better. The great disadvantage of arsenite of lime as an insecticide is its injurious effect on foliage, which is much greater than that of either arsenate of lead or Paris green. One of the best methods of making arsenite of lime is to boil 1 pound of white arsenic and 2 pounds of good stone lime in 2 gallons of water for 40 minutes. Water should then be added to make this mixture up to 300 gallons. As a spray the mixture will be as effective as one consisting of 1 pound of Paris green to 150 gallons of water. § 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 5 Another method of making arsenite of lime is to boil in an iron kettle 1 pound of white arsenic and 4 pounds of sal soda in 1 gallon of soft water until the arsenic dissolves. A small quantity of muddy sediment will usually be found in the bot- tom of the vessel; this should be discarded. The product thus made is arsenite of soda, which is one of the ingredients to be used in making the arsenite of lime. The arsenite of soda should be kept in a tightly closed jug until needed for use. To make the arsenite of lime, 2 pounds of good stone lime is slaked and diluted with 2 gallons of water; to this is added 1 pint of the arsenite of soda, and the mixture is stirred until thoroughly combined, when water should be added to make 40 gallons. This solution will be equivalent in strength to a solution of 1 pound of Paris green to 160 gallons of water. The arsenite of soda must never be used alone as a spray, because it will kill all foliage with which it comes in contact. 6. London purple is a by-product obtained in the manu- facture of aniline dyes. This substance contains poison in the form of arsenite of lime. London purple varies greatly in composition and is thus likely to be ineffective, or, if used in effective quantities, is likely to injure the foliage badly; it is, therefore, not used to any extent in orchard work. 7. Hellebore is a poison made from the powdered roots of white helleboro and it is sometimes recommended as a sub- stitute for arsenical poisons where insects must be combated on nearly ripe fruit. This poison may be mixed with from 5 to 10 parts of flour or of lime and applied dry, or it may be diluted with water, 1 ounce of hellebore to 1 gallon of water, and used as a spray. Hellebore is reasonably effective against insects and is practically harmless to man in the quantities recommended; it is, however, too expensive to be used except on small home plantings. ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §2 CONTACT INSECTICIDES 8. Substances used to kill insects simply by coming in contact with them are called contact insecticides. They can be used successfully as sprays against many soft-bodied insects, such as plant lice, and also against those that are stationary during the greater part of their lives, as, for exam- ple, the San Jose scale. Insects that have sucking mouths instead of biting mouth parts cannot be destroyed by poisoning their food but must be killed by contact insecticide sprays. Among the most important contact insecticides are lime- sulphur, self-boiled lime-sulphur, miscible oils, distillate oils, kerosene emulsion, and tobacco extracts and decoctions. 9. Lime-sulphur, a combination of lime and sulphur, has during recent years come into '^general favor as a contact insecticide and has also been found to have some value as a fungicide. It may be purchased from a number of chemical manufacturing houses or may be readily made at home. When sulphur and lime for making this solution are purchased in large quantities, the materials necessary to make a barrel of the concentrated solution will cost between $2 and $3.50. The entire cost, including fuel and labor, will be much less than the cost of the commercial solution. Many different formulas have been recommended for the making of lime-sulphur, but the one at present considered most satisfactory is as follows : 1 pound of the best stone lime and 2 pounds of flowers of sulphur or of ground sulphur, which are boiled in enough water to make 1 gallon of solution. To make 50 gallons of solution, about 10 gallons of water is placed in a kettle, the fire started, and 50 pounds of lime added; after the slaking is well started, the dry sulphur is added and thoroughly mixed with the slaking lime, enough water being added to maintain a thin paste. A stick graduated so that a certain depth of liquid in the kettle measured by this stick will be 50 gallons is convenient for determining the quantity of liquid in the kettle. After the slaking is complete and the lime and sulphur are thoroughly mixed, enough water is added § 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 7 to bring the liquid in the kettle to about 55 gallons, and the boiling is continued until the quantity is reduced to 50 gallons. The material must be kept well stirred, especially during the earlier stages of the boiling, and any lumps of sulphur must be thoroughly broken up. The liquid should generally be boiled for an hour, but a variation of 10 minutes either way is not harmful. 10. Another satisfactory method of combining the lime and sulphur with the water is to place about 45 gallons of water in the kettle over the fire and put in the lime. While the lime is slaking 15 or 20 pounds of sulphiir should be placed in a large wooden pail or small butter tub, 1 gallon of water added, and the compound worked to a smooth paste with a paddle; if another gallon of water is now added and thoroughly stirred into the sulphur a very thin paste will be formed which may easily be poured into the kettle. Another quantity of sulphur should then be prepared in the same way and the process continued until all of the sulphur has been added. In using this method, it will probably not be necessary to put more water into the kettle after the sidphur has been added, because of the quantity of water used in making the paste. Dry sul- phur should never be added to a large quantity of water, because the sulphur will form into lumps and it is then very difficult to get it combined with the lime. When the boiling is finished, the solution should be poured or strained into a barrel or settling tank. When a steam boiler is available a wooden or metal tank may be used with steam turned in to do the cooking; if the steam is turned in at the bottom of the tank less stirring will be necessary. 11. Before lime-sulphur is placed in the spray barrel or tank it should be carefully strained, because it always contains considerable sediment that will not pass through the spray nozzle. Several forms of strainer have been devised for this work, but in all cases where the solution passes down through the strainer the screen soon becomes clogged with sediment and causes much trouble. To obviate this difficulty, a strainer ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE has been devised at the Pennsylvania State College Experi- ment Station so arranged that the liquid is forced to rise through the screen. This strainer is illustrated in Fig. 1 and a sectional view with dimensions is shown in Fig. 2. The liquid is poured into the strainer at a, passes up through a removable wire screen b held in place by revolving cleats c, and passes out through the facuet d. The screen may be of either tinned iron wire or brass. Tinned iron is preferable for lime-sulphur, but if the strainer is also to be used for Bordeaux mixtiure, brass screening should be used. The screen should be fine, having a mesh of from 30 to 40 to the inch. Fig. 1 Fig. 2 The small quantity of solution that remains -in the strainer may be saved by allowing water for the next boiling to run through the strainer. 12. Lime-sulphur should be stored in closed barrels, because exposure to air causes a crust of crystals to form on the top; this crust, however, can be brought back into solu- tion readily by dipping it off and boihng it for a short time. If the barrel is not closed, a very good method of preventing the formation of these crystals is to pour a layer of parafifin or of oil of any kind over the surface of the liquid. 13. The question of a convenient method of cooking lime- sulphur is worthy of some consideration. When only a small quantity of the concentrated solution is required, very simple means for cooking may be employed, and even when a large quan- §2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 9 tity is required it is not necessary to have elaborate or expensive apparatus. A simple apparatus is shown in Fig. 3. It consists I 1 1 1 1 Fig. 3 of galvanized-iron wash tubs of large size supported over a fire on iron rods. The tubs must not be full, because the solution is' likely to boil over. About 5 gallons of con- centrate can be cooked in a large-sized wash tub. In Fig. 4 is shown a cooker often used for cooking feed, making soap, etc. Such a cooker may be used for making lime-sulphur. It should not be filled much more than half full on account of the hkelihood of boil- ing over. An inexpensive tank for boiling 50 gallons of solution is illus- trated in Fig. 5. The sides and one end are made of 2-inch Fig. 4 10 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §2 plank 12 inches wide and the bottom and one end are made of sheet iron. The plank for the one end is 1 foot 10 inches long; the side planks are 7 feet long, and are cut to a slant at one end from a point a 1 foot from the end to the comer .b, Fig. 5 as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 6. The sheet iron for the bottom and one end is 7 feet 7 inches long and 2 feet 7 inches wide. These dimensions provide for turning over the edges 2| inches all around. The sheet iron should be well nailed to the planks and the crevices filled with white lead. This tank was set on a fireplace built of stone, as shown in Fig. 5. A view of the other end of the tank and the smoke vent of the fireplace is shown in Fig. 7. The cost of the tank, not inclu- ding the labor, was about $3. All the labor, with the exception Fig. 6 of the cutting of the comers of the sheet iron and the turning over of the edges was done by the farmer himself. 14. A more elaborate cooking plant for lime-sulphur is shown in Fig. 8. The tank, which is of sheet iron, is set between Fig. 7 12 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §2 cement walls. These walls form the sides of the fireplace, and at the rear is a smokestack to give a good draft. The grate in the fireplace is made of iron rods built into the side walls 6 inches above the ground. Fig. 9 is a closer view of the front end of the cooker and shows the fireplace and the pipe connections from the tank to the barrel. Fig. 9 This cooking plant is of sufficient capacity for boiling 100 gal- lons of lime-sulphur and was built for $37. The following is an itemized statement of the cost: 145-gallon sheet-iron tank, second hand $17.00 Smokestack, second hand 5.00 Cement and sand 5.00 Labor and sundries 10.00 Total $37X)0 It may be possible in some cases to secure a tank and smoke- stack for less than the amount named, and the cost of the other items will no doubt vary somewhat with the locality. 13 14 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2 15. In Fig. 10 is shown a very convenient lime-sulphur cooking plant. This plant is situated on a side hill convenient to the source of water supply, and the arrangement is such that no dipping of water or spray solution is necessary. The bank is excavated in such a manner that a ledge is formed on which the cooking tank, scale, and strainer are set and where wood, sulphur, and lime may be placed convenient for use. The top and sides of the ledge are faced with concrete. A driveway is excavated so that a wagon containing a barrel may be backed up under the strainer faucet. The cooker consists of a cast- iron firebox 5| feet long and 18 inches high and a boiling tank made of galvanized iron, of the same size as the firebox. In this tank 100 gallons of solution can be cooked at one time. 16. Concentrated lime-sulphur will not freeze at a tem- perature much above 5° F., and slight freezing does not seem to injure it greatly, especially if the liquid is stirred well before it is used. However, the solution should be protected against severe freezing. When used for spraying dormant trees, lime-sulphur solution should be diluted to a density of about 1.03, although the dilution will vary somewhat, depending on the kind of plants to be sprayed. To determine the quantity of solution to use in a given quantity of water for a spray of the required density, it is necessary to have a hydrometer, an instrument used to measure the specific gravity of liquids. Hydrometers are inexpensive and can be purchased from dealers in orchard supplies. The hydrometer used should be made for liquids heavier than water, and may be secured with what is known as the Baume scale, with which a table is necessary to find the specific gravity, or may be secured with the specific-gravity readings direct on the scale; the latter type is best for the orchardist. 17. Fig. 11 shows the method of testing the density of a lime-stdphur solution with a hydrometer. The glass a is nearly filled with the solution to be tested and the hydrometer b on which specific gravity is marked is placed in it. The hydrometer will float and the specific gravity will be shown by the reading of the graduated scale at the surface of the §2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 15 liquid. The following examples will illustrate the method of procedure in making a solution of any desired density from a more concentrated solution. Suppose a spray having a density, or specific gravity, of 1.03 is desired, and on testing the concentrated liquid with a hydrometer the specific gravity, or density, is found to be 1.30. The number of volumes of water to be added to form the dilute solution may be found by dividing the decimal part of the number representing the specific gravity of the concentrate, .30, by the decimal of the dilute liquid desired, .03. The result being 10, the concentrate contains 10 times the quantity of combined lime and sulphur that is desired in an equal volume of the dilute solution; therefore, 1 volume of the concentrate must be added to 9 volumes of water. Suppose the specific gravity of the concentrate is 1.27 ; then, .27 -4- .03 = 9, and 1 volume of the concentrate must be added to 8 voliunes of water. The division of the decimal to determine the number of times the solution must be diluted is easily explained. The readings of the hydrometer scale gives the specific gravity of the liquid, which is the weight of the liquid as compared with the weight of an equal volume of water. In this comparison the weight of water is taken as unity, or 1. Because lime-sulphur solution is composed only of water and the combined lime and sulphur, a specific gravity of 1.30 means that the .30 represents the combined lime and siilphur in the solution. Since .03 is the amount desired in the dilute solution, dividing the .30 by .03 gives the ninnber of volumes of water that must be added to the concentrated solution to form the required dilute solution. The dilution for commercial products is generally given on the container, but experience shows that they vary from the figures given, and for this reason it is best to use a hydrometer Fig. 11 16 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE for testing solutions whether they are home-made or commercial products. Table I shows the specific gravity of liquids heavier than water for different Baume degrees up to 36. TABLE I COMPARISON OF BAUME AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY HYDROM- ETER READINGS FOR LIQUIDS HEAVIER THAN WATER Baume Degrees Specific Gravity Baume Degrees Specific Gravity Baume Degrees Specific Gravity I 1.007 19 1-151 28 1.239 2 1. 014 20 1. 160 29 250 3 1.02 1 21 1. 169 30 261 4 1.028 22 1. 179 31 272 4-3 1.030 23 1. 188 32 283 15 1. 115 24 1. 198 33 295 i6 1. 124 25 1.208 34 306 17 I-I33 26 1. 218 35 318 i8 1. 142 27 1.229 36 330 18. Self -boiled lime-sulphur is a compound used to some extent as an insecticide against oyster-shell scale and other summer scale insects. It is used more largely, however, as a fungicide, and for this reason it will be discussed under the heading Fungicides. 19. After treatment with certain chemical substances, certain oils may be combined with water to make a uniform mixture. Oils that have been so treated are known as mis- cible oils, and in combination with water are used exten- sively as contact insecticides. There are a large niimber of brands of miscible oils on the market, most of which will prove satisfactory to the orchardist. When water is added to some of thes'e commercial miscible oils, a milk-white emulsion is obtained; in other cases, a dark emulsion. It is very easy, however, to determine in all cases whether or not there is a good mixture: if any of the oil comes to the top it shows that §2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 17 part of the oil is not combined with water. Such a mixture should never be used, as the uncombined oil is very likely to injure the trees. The average fruit grower should purchase miscible oils ready made, as the making of these oils is attended with considerable difficulty. However, if the orchard to be sprayed is very large and the manager has some chemical knowledge, it may be economical to make the miscible oil. 20. For convenience in the discussion of the making of * miscible oil, the term emulsifier will be applied to the chemicals used to bring the oil into such a condition that it will mix with water ; the oil after being chemically treated will be termed the miscible oil, and the combination of the mis- cible oil and water will be termed the emulsion. The materials and directions for making the emulsifier are as follows: Liquid crude 100- per-cent. carbolic acid, 2 quarts; menhaden fish oil, 2| quarts; granulated caustic potash, 1 pound. Heat to 300° F., remove from the fire, and immediately add 3| quarts of kerosene and 5 quarts of water. These quantities will make about 3 gallons of emul- sifier, which is sufficient to make from 19 to 20 gallons of miscible oil. The carbolic acid, fish oil, and caustic potash shordd be placed in a kettle and the fire started. The mixture requires stirring until the potash is thoroughly dissolved. A cover should then be placed on the kettle to prevent loss from evaporation. An iron kettle is suitable for making the emul- sifier. It should have a cover, which may be of wood or metal with a small opening that will accommodate a perforated 248— G Fig. 12 18 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2 stopper through which a thermometer can be inserted into the hquid and kept in place. A special thermometer graduated to read as high as 300° F. must be used, and the temperature should be brought very gradually from around 260 degrees to 270 degrees, since at this point the mixture tends to foam badly. If steam under 60 pounds pressure is available, the mixture may be boiled in a jacketed kettle similar to the one shown in Fig. 12. The steam is allowed to enter through the pipe a into the jacket that surrounds the kettle; the liquid after being boiled may be let out from the kettle through the faucet h; a vent for drawing off the condensed steam is shown at c; d is a thermometer inserted through the hole in the cover. The emulsifier should never be made near a building, as the mixture is inflammable when hot and tjie carbolic acid gives off disagreeable fumes. When a temperature of 300° F. is reached, the kettle should be removed immediately from the fire, or the fire should be quickly quenched with sand or soil. The hot mixture may then be transferred to a larger vessel and the kerosene added at once and then the water. It is dangerous to add the water before adding the kerosene, and the temperature of the mixture shoiild not be higher than 212° F. when the water is added, or steam will form and throw the liquid out badly. This emulsifier will remain in a good condition indefinitely. 21. The second part of the process of making miscible oil does not require the application of heat. A moderately warm day should be selected so that the oil will not be too thick, and if possible the emulsifier should be placed in a warm room for a day or two before being mixed with the oil. The emul- sifier should be thoroughly stirred and the ingredients of the mixture brought together in the following order: Emulsifier, 8 parts; paraffin oil, 35 parts; rosin oil, 5 parts; water, 1 part. This mixture should be vigorously stirred; if there is a large quantity, a garden hoe will be found convenient as a stirrer. At first the mixture appears thin, but becomes thicker as it is stirred; when smooth, it should be tested by pouring a few § 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 19 drops in a glass of water; a milk-white appearance resulting indicates a satisfactory miscible oil. If the milk-white appear- ance does not result, the stirring should be continued. All that is necessary in order to form the emulsion for spray- ing is to add water to the miscible oil. To make a spray solu- tion for use when the trees are dormant, from 10 to 15 parts of water should be used with 1 part of oil; and for a summer spray, 25 to 40 parts of water to 1 part of oil should be used. 22. Kerosene emulsion, an insecticide similar in nature to miscible oil, is made from kerosene with soap as an emul- sifier. The most suitale soap for this purpose is either whale- oil soap or some vegetable soap, although common laundry soap will suffice. The following formula is most generally recommended for kerosene emtdsion: Hard soap, 1 pound; kerosene, 2 gallons; soft water, 1 gallon. The soap should be cut into fine pieces and thoroughly dissolved by heating in the gallon of soft water. The vessel of boiling soap solu- tion should be removed far enough from the fire that there will be no danger of explosion, and the 2 gallons of kerosene added with a small spray pump that has the nozzle arranged to throw a stiff stream. After all the kerosene has been added, the pump should be placed in the vessel containing the mixture and a stiff stream should be pumped back into the solution until the liquid is thoroughly emulsified. After a few minutes of agitation the liquid begins to have a milky appearance and at last thickens to a butter-like mass, in which condition it will remain for a considerable length of time. This stock solution should be diluted with 17 gallons of water for use as a spray. If the weather is cold, the stock solution may not mix readily with water, but can be made to mix by warming. Pumps used for spraying kerosene emulsion should have metal or marble valves, since the oil destroys rubber valves very quickly. 23. Distillate oils are used considerably as insecticides in the western part of the United States. Distillates are made from oil taken from wells in the West, and those com- monly used for spraying have a specific gravity of .89, or 20 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2 28° Baiune for liquids lighter than water, although occa- sionally those having a specific gravity of .90, or 26° Baume, are used. It is well to explain here that there are two Baume scales, one for liquids heavier than water and one for liquids lighter than water. These oils are used as insecticide sprays in two forms; in the form of an emulsion and in the form of a mechanical mixture. Emiilsions are made in the same way that kerosene emulsion is made, but more water is used for diluting. One formula for the emulsion is: soap, | pound; water, 1 gallon; oil, 2 gallons; when these are thoroughly emulsified, 30 gallons of water is added. However, the distillate oils do not emulsify so readily as kerosene, and for this reason they have not proved entirely satisfactory when applied in the form of an emulsion. The mechanical mixture is made • by rapid and thorough agitation of the oil and water in the spray tank or barrel at the time of spraying. This agitation breaks the oil into fine particles and mixes it with the water, producing a spray that has a milky appearance. The use of this mixture is also attended with some danger unless used in a very dilute form, as the oil will sometimes enter the stoma of the leaves or a place where an injury to a leaf has occurred and from such places will penetrate and kill the surrounding cells. It has been found in California- that a stronger spray can be used on the upper side of the leaf -than on the lower side. In that state, since the scale, which is hard to kill, is located on the upper side of the leaf, and the red spider, which is easily killed, is located on the under side of the leaf, it has been found prac- tical to spray the upper side of the leaf with a strong mixture of distillate, and at the same time to spray the lower side of the leaf with a solution in which twice as much water is used. The upper side of the leaf should be sprayed with what is known as the undershot nozzle — that is, a nozzle that directs the spray altogether downwards; and for the under side of the leaf a nozzle that directs the spray upwards should be used. It is possible to have a pump so arranged that two spray liquids containing different percentages of oil can be sprayed at the same time, and thus with the same sprayer one man can be § 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 21 using an undershot nozzle that throws the strong spray mixture and another be using an uppershot nozzle that throws a weaker spray mixture. 24. Tobacco extracts and decoctions are good sprays for use against plant lice and some other sucking insects, pro- vided they contain a large proprtion of tobacco. Many proprietary tobacco decoctions are on the market and these, when applied in accordance with the directions that accom- pany the package, will no doubt prove more satisfactory than decoctions made at home. It is possible, however, to make a tobacco decoction at home that is reasonably good. For making this decoction, tobacco stems or tobacco refuse may be used; 1 pound of tobacco should be placed in 1 gallon of cold water and the water heated to the boiling point and boiled for a few minutes. After cooling and straining, the decoction is ready for use. FUNGICIDES 25. Diseases of plants result from the growth of fungi, which are small plants that feed upon the tissue of larger plants. The sprays used for controlling the growth of fungi are known as fungicides. These sprays will not kill fungi after they have secured a firm footing on a plant, but are effective in killing the germinating spores, which are the reproductive bodies of fungi and correspond to the seeds of higher plants. Therefore, to be of any benefit, the fungicides must be applied before or at the time of germination of the spores. Solutions containing some form of copper are among the most valuable fungicides in use at the present time. It has been found that as small a quantity as 1 part of copper to 400,000 parts of water will entirely prevent the germination of the spores of certain fungi, and until recently practically all of the fungicides used contained copper. However, copper in a soluble form is very injurious to foliage and fruit, and, as it is difficult to make a spray solution containing copper in which none of the copper is in a soluble form, more or less injury is often done by these sprays. For this reason sprays 22 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §2 that do not contain copper have been in demand by fruit grow- ers during recent years for use as fungicides, and a number of such sprays are now used to a considerable extent. Most of the fungicide sprays that do not contain copper have some form of sulphur in their composition. These have, been found to con- trol many fungous diseases very satisfactorily without injuring fruit or foliage. There are, however, a few fungous diseases that, up to the present time, have not been successfully con- trolled by any spray that does not contain copper. Fig. 13 26. Bordeaux mixture is the most important and best- known fungicide in use at present. It is made of water, lime, and copper sulphate, which is sometimes called bluestone, or blue vitriol, enough lime to precipitate aU of the copper sul- phate being used. Bordeaux mixture was first discovered by Professor Millardet, of Bordeaux, France; hence the name. A mixture of lime and bluestone had been applied to grapes along ^ 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 23 the roadway to keep the passers-by from bothering them. Some of this was sprinkled on the leaves and it was found that these leaves did not become diseased and fall off as did the leaves on the rest of the vines. Professor Millardet, observing this, began to experiment with a mixture of copper sulphate and lime as a fungicide and discovered the valuable qualities of the spray that has since been known as Bordeaux mixture. The following formula is one often used for making Bordeaux mixture to be used as a spray for trees that are dormant: Copper sulphate, 6 pounds; fresh stone lime, 6 pounds; water, 50 gallons. The following formula is recommended when the spray is to be used on fruit trees during the time they are in foliage : Copper sulphate, 3 pounds ; fresh stone lime, 3 pounds ; and water, 50 gallons. The first of these is known as a 6-6-50, and the second as a 3-3-50 Bordeaux mixture. 27. The first step in making Bordeaux mixture is to prepare stock solutions of copper sulphate and of lime which may be kept indefinitely. Fig. 13 represents a simple plant that may be easily constructed for making Bordeaux mixture. The platform a should be of sufficient height that the spray tank may be driven under the strainer b for filling. The barrels shown are kerosene barrels holding 50 gallons. To make the stock solution of lime, 50 pounds of good stone lime should be placed in the barrel c and sufficient water added to slake the lime and form a thin paste. When the lime is thoroughly slaked the barrel should be filled with water and the contents thoroughly stirred. The liquid will then contain 1 pound of lime to 1 gallon of water. 28. To make the stock solution of copper siilphate, the barrel d should be filled with water and 50 pounds of copper sulphate should be placed in a burlap bag and be suspended in the water near the surface, where it will dissolve in about a day. If the copper sulphate is placed in the bottom of the barrel it will not dissolve for many weeks. When it is all dis- solved the solution will contain 1 pound of copper sulphate to 1 gallon of water. 24 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2 To make the dilute solution, used for spraying, from these stock solutions is a very simple matter: After thoroughly stirring the stock solution of lime in barrel c, 6 gallons for the dormant spray mixture, or 3 gallons for the summer spray mixture, should be transferred to barrel e and water added to half fill the barrel, making 25 gallons of the solution. In barrel / should be placed either 6 gallons or 3 gallons of the copper-sulphate solution, depending on the spray required, and water added to half fill the barrel, making 25 gallons of the copper-sulphate solution. These two solutions shoiild now be allowed to run together through the strainer h into the spray barrel or tank and will form 50 gallons of mixture ready for use. To connect the barrels with the strainer a 1^ inch hole may be bored into the barrels near the bottom and pieces of gas pipe about 6 inches long, inserted and connected with the strainer by pieces of rubber hose. When desired to prevent the liquid from flowing from the barrels, the open end of the rubber hose may be placed in the top of the barrel, or a spigot may be used in place of the gas pipe. The copper sulphate and the lime solutions should not be combined until just before the spray is to be used, as the mix- ture is unsatisfactory after it stands for a considerable time. 29. Bordeaux mixture before being applied shotdd be tested to make sure that enough lime has been used. This test is made by taking a small sample of the Bordeaux mixture and adding a few drops of potassiiim ferrocyanide. If no change in color takes place there is sufficient lime in the mixture ; if a brownish color is shown more lime should be added. Potassium ferrocyanide may be purchased from any druggist, but it is a deadly poison and must be handled with caution. Ten cents worth dissolved in a pint of water will be enough to test all of the Bordeaux mixture ordinarily required in a season. Another and more simple method of testing Bordeaiix mixture, although one that is possibly not so accurate as that just given, is simply to hold a clean, bright knife blade in the mixture for at least 1 minute. If the blade, on removal from the liquid, shows a trace of copper color, more lime should be added. Bordeaux § 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 25 •mixture may be easily and completely cleaned from the hands by the use of a little vinegar. 30. During past years great damage has been done to the apple crop by the use of Bordeaux spray. If there is any copper uncombined with lime in the solution, serious injury will be caused to the leaves, which are turned brown by the copper. There is more liability to this injury if the mixture is applied diuing damp weather than if the weather is dry. It has also been claimed that Bordeaux mixture sometimes causes leaves to turn yellow. Serious injury has also been done to the fnut by causing the russeting of apples, which is the result of a corky tissue forming to heal spots where the skin was killed by the mixture. It is thought that this injury occurs while the apples are small and still retain plant hairs; a weak solution consisting of 2 pounds of copper sul- phate, 3 pounds of stone lime, and 50 gallons of water has therefore been recommended for the first two sprayings of apples. 31. Ammoniacal copper carbonate is a solution some- times used as a fungicide with fairly good results. It is made from copper carbonate, 6 ounces; ammonia of about .90 specific gravity, or 26° Baume, 3 pints; water to make 50 gallons. The copper carbonate is dissolved in the ammonia and the solution kept in a tightly corked bottle or jar imtil needed. For spraying, the solution is made up to 50 gallons by the addition of water. This solution does not stain fruit as Bordeaux mix- ture does and for this reason its use on ripe fruit, especially in the case of bitter rot of apples, may sometimes be advisable; but it is much more injurious to the tree than Bordeaux mix- ture, and is not so effective. 32. Copper-sulpliate solution consisting of from 1 to 3 pounds of copper sulphate to 50 gallons of water is some- times used as a fungicide spray. This is not a desirable spray for fruit plants, since it is very injurious to foliage; however, it does not leave any stain on the fruit. 26 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2 33. Sulphur dust is another substance that has con- siderable value as a fungicide. This dust is used to combat powdery mildew of some fniits and also some other plant diseases. 34. Potassium sulpliide is sometimes used in a spray that is of some value as a fungicide. The spray is made by dissolving potassium sulphide, sometimes called liver of sulphiu:, in water, at the rate of 1 oiuice to 2 gallons. This solution deteriorates rapidly and* should not be prepared until needed for spraying. It is of value principally for powdery mildew on berry plants. 35. Lirue- sulphur, which has been discussed under the heading Insecticides, is being used as a summer fungicide to replace Bordeaux mixture. It is used at a strength indicated by a specific gravity of from LOOT to 1.01, or from about 1 to 1|° Baume, the exact dilution depending on the kind of plant to be sprayed. It should always be carefully tested with a hydrometer. The number of times it is necessary to dilute the concentrate solution is found in the same way as for the insecticide. Lime-sulphur as a fungicide has the advantage over Bordeaux mixture that it does not cause russeting of fruit. Lime-sulphur has been found to control apple scab about as well as Bordeaux mixture, but does not control either apple blotch or bitter rot. Although lime-sulphur is less injurious than Bordeaux mixture, it has shown some injurious effects, especially to foliage, and should never be used as a fungicide with a specific gravity greater than 1.01. Although lime-sulphiu" is a promis- ing fungicide spray, it cannot be unhesitatingly recommended until it has been used longer. Bordeaux mixture was used for a number of years before injury to fruit was observed and it may be that succeeding seasons will. tend to bring conditions resulting in greater injury from the use of lime-sulphur than so far observed. 36. Self-hoiled lime-sulphur has in recent years come into general use as a fungicide. This material is especially valuable for spraying peaches and has some value also as a § 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 27 spray for some other fruit. It is merely a mechanical mixture of lime and sulphur, only an exceedingly small quantity of the sulphur being in solution. In making the mixture, no heat is applied except the heat of the slaking lime. The mixture is practically harmless to fruit and foliage. Different quantities of lime and sulphur have been recom- mended for making this mixture, but in all probability a strength of 6 pounds of sulphur, 6 pounds of lime, and 50 gallons of water is most desirable; in case of a very serious infestation of fungus 8 poiuids of sulphur, 8 pounds of lime, and 50 gallons of water may be used. This mixture can best be prepared in rather large quantities, say enough for 200 gallons of the spray. The required quantity of lime, for example, 24 pounds, is weighed, placed in a barrel, and enough water to nearly cover it is poured in. The same quantity of sulphur should have been previously weighed and sifted, and when the lime begins to slake well the sulphur is added and the mixture thoroughly stirred; water is added as fast as possible without reducing the vigor of the slaking. A hoe will be found convenient for use in stirring the com- pound. The mixture will at first be a thick paste, but water should be gradually added until a thin paste is formed. As soon as slaking ceases, enough water to cool the mixture is added. This stops all further change and is very important, since, if it is neglected, chemical combination may continue until injurious compounds are formed. Cold water should be used for slaking the lime. When cool the mixture is ready to be strained into a spray tank and diluted with water to the required 200 gallons. A mixture of the strength given is practically harmless to foliage when the directions given are followed; it is very effective for spraying peaches, because the down of the peach holds the mixture on the fruit ; it is not so effective for spraying smooth fruit, since the mixture is rather coarse and is readily washed off by rain. 28 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2 COMBINED INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 37. The season when the most common orchard diseases must be combated is also the season for combating the most serious summer orchard insect pests, and it is possible to com- bine insecticides and fungicides and make the one spraying answer for both purposes. If fungicides and insecticides are combined they should be known to have no injurious chemical effect on each other. Experience has proved that Bordeaux mixture and the most common poisonous insecticides, arsenate of lead, Paris green, arsenite of soda, and arsenite of lime, may be combined without making either the fungicide or the poison more injurious to the foliage or less effective. In combining arsenite of soda and Bordeaux mixture, it is not necessary to add the excess of lime that is added when arsenite of soda is used without Bordeaux mixture, since the Bordeaux contains excess lime. When lime sulphur is combined with the arsenate of lead, it has been found by laboratory experiments that both the lime-sulphur and the arsenate of lead change in compo- sition rapidly. However, by experience in the orchard it has been found that this combination spray is less injurious to foliage than is lime-sulphur alone, although the efficiency of the arsenate of lead seems to be somewhat reduced. Lime-sulphur • combined with Paris green has been used as a spray in a few cases and no injurious results observed, but the combination has not been used enough to justify positive conclusions. Experience in the orchard has proved that lime-sulphur com- bined with arsenite of lime is much more injurious than lime- sulphur combined with arsenate of lead. In fact, arsenate of lead is the only poisonous insecticide that can be fully recom- mended for combination with lime-siilphur. §2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 29 SPRAYING MACHINERY 38. Many forms of spraying outfits, from the small knap- sack sprayer to be car- ried on the back of the operator to the power out- fit or even the large cen- tral compressed-air outfit are on the market . Each type of sprayer will be discussed separately; the accessories, such as hose, nozzles, etc., will be dis- cussed under oneheading, since the description will apply to accessories for any form of sprayer. It may be said that in all spraying apparatus the parts with which Bor- deaux mixture, ammo- niacal copper carbonate, or other copper sprays come in contact should be lined with brass or enamel or should be of wood, since the copper corrodes iron or other metals. No part of an outfit that is to come in contact with lime-sulphur Fig. 14 should be made of copper. 30 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §2 HAND SPRAYS 39. Bucket Spray Pump. — ^For a few small trees or bushes, a bucket spray pump, a type of which is shown in Fig. 14, may be used. This pump has a removable nozzle a and is made entirely of brass and has a small air chamber b that helps to equalize the pressure and cause the spray to flow more steadily. The foot rest c helps to hold the pimip while it is being operated. A part of the pump is shown removed, Fig. 15 exposing the lower valve d and the valve e in the plunger. Both of the valves are made of brass. A strainer shown at / is placed in the bottom of the pump to prevent the entrance of particles that would injure the pump or clog the nozzle. 40. Knapsack Sprayer. — The outfit illustrated in Fig. 15 consisting of a brass force pimip surrounded by a copper or a galvanized-iron tank, is known as a knapsack sprayer, and may be used for small trees or bushes. The tank holds §2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 31 about 5 gallons and is made to fasten to the back by means of the straps c. The material of which the tank should be made depends on the spray solution to be used. If lime-sulphur is to be used, the tank should be of galvanized iron, as the solution will very quickly destroy copper. If Bordeaux mixture is to be used, the tank should be of copper, as the Bordeaux mixture has a somewhat injurious effect on iron. The tank is shown in (a) with a portion broken away to expose the pump to view. The ptmip is operated by means of the handle a, which is attached to the lever ex- tending forwards over the shoulder, as the outfit is carried on the back. The pump is operated with one hand, and the spray rod, with nozzle, attached to the hose h is controlled with the other hand. In (6) is shown a sectional view of the pump removed from the tank. As the plunger d is raised the liquid is drawn up into the chamber e through the strainer /, the ball valve g being forced up and allowing the liquid to pass through. As the plunger is moved down the valve g closes and the liquid is forced up through valve k into chamber i. As the pumping continues and more liquid is forced into chamber i the air in the chamber is compressed and a steady stream of liquid is forced by the pressure out through tube / and through the spray hose, which is attached at k. The nozzle shown attached to the spray rod at the end of the hose may be removed and any other form of nozzle desired may be substituted. Fig. 16 32 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §2 41. Compressed- Air Hand Sprayer. — A convenient fonn of small sprayer is shown in Fig. 16. This is a com- pressed-air hand sprayer made to be carried by means of a strap a placed over the shoulder. The sprayer holds about 4 gallons and after being nearly filled with the spray solution air is pumped in on top by means of the air ptimp h, which works on the same principles as a bicycle pump. The spray- ing may then be done by simply opening and closing the shut- off at the nozzle until the air pressure is exhausted, when more air must be pumped in. («) Fig. 17 ('') 42. Barrel Spray ers.^-Two very satisfactory types of hand sprayers for use in small orchards are illustrated in Fig. 17 (a) and ih). These are known as barrel sprayers. The pump, which should be of good workmanship, is mounted on a good-sized barrel in which the spray solution is placed. These barrel sprayers may be mounted on a wagon or sled as preferred. The type shown in (a) has all of the heavy parts of the pump in the barrel and is not so easily upset as the type shown in (6), which has the pump and air chamber on top. 248—7 34 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2 43. Double -Action Spray Pump. — Fig. 18 shows a double-action spray pump to be used with a tank . or large barrel. This pump has a long leverage and for this reason is more satisfactory than barrel sprayers of large capacity when much spraying is to be done. View (a) shows the entire pump, which has two cyHnders a and b. The spray solution enters the pump from the barrel or tank through a hose attached to the inlet c and is discharged through the spray hose attached to the outlet d; an air chamber e equal- izes the pressure and causes a steady flow of the liquid. View (6) is an enlarged view of the pump with part of the out- side removed to expose to view some of the valves and the lower part of one of the pistons. As the piston / rises the piston g descends, the valve h closes, and the valve i opens, allowing the liquid to flow into the cylinder a. As piston g rises and piston / descends, valve h opens, allowing the liquid to flow into cylinder b, and valve i closes, preventing the Hquid in cylinder a from flowing back through the inlet. A sec- tional view of cylinder a is shown in (c) . When the piston / descends the valve i closes, the liquid is forced up through valve / into the lower part of the chamber e, and when the piston / rises as shown in the illustration, valve / closes, pre- venting the liquid from passing back out of chamber e. As the pumping continues and more liquid is forced into e the air in the chamber is compressed and causes a steady stream to flow out through the hose attached at d. Plugs, which should be removed to allow the liquid to drain out of the pump after spraying, are shown at k. The packing around the piston that prevents leakage is shown at /. This may be replaced by remov- ing the cap m and may be tightened by ttiming the cap down. Caps that may be removed to give access to the valves are shown at n. §2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 35 POWER SPRAYERS 44. Traction Sprayer. — The simplest form of power sprayer is one in which the pump is operated by power trans- mitted from the wheels of the truck by means of cams, eccen- trics, chains, or gears. The pump has nearly always a large compressed-air chamber so that the power may be accu- mulated for tirnes when the truck is not moving. Traction sprayers are often used in vineyards and are very satisfactory for spraying certain truck crops, but they have not proved entirely satisfactory for orchard work; one of the reasons for this is that the size of orchard trees varies so much that there can be no certainty as to whether or not the movement of the truck will be great enough to generate sufficient power for spraying during the time the outfit is standing still. 36 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §2 In purchasing a machine of this kind, it should be carefully examined in respect to workmanship, because only a good one will give satisfactory results. A traction sprayer is illustrated in Fig. 13. 45. Gas-Power Sprayer. — In one class of sprayers the power for producing the spray is furnished by . compressed carbon-dioxide gas, which may be procured from supply houses in metal drums such as are used in bottling works. The spray Fig. 20 tank used with one of these outfits must be air-tight to retain the gas, which enters the spray tank from the long drum shown in Fig. 19. This outfit can be mounted on a light wagon and is very easily operated, since all that is necessary to keep up the pressure in the spray tank a is to turn the valve h -and let in gas from the dnmi c until the desired pressure is reached, as shown by the pressure gauge d. The safety valve e allows the gas to escape and thus prevents bursting of the tank in case too much is admitted from the drum. The spray solu- §2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 37 tion is forced out through pipe / and into the hose g. The pipe h may be opened for filHng the tank with the solution. The gauge glass i indicates the height of the liqtdd in the tank. The handle / is attached to an agitator in the bottom of the tank by means of which the liquid is kept stirred. By remov- ing the cover k the tank may be cleaned. An advantage of the gas-power sprayer is that it is very simple in construction, is light, and can be used in places where it is difficult to use a gasoline-power sprayer. However, because of the cost of the gas, it is somewhat expensive to oper- ate. When an outfit of the type shown is used for spraying Fig. 21 lime-sulphur combined with arsenate of lead, the passage of the carbon dioxide through the mixture precipitates some of the lime and also seems to cause a change of the arsenate compound in the mixture that may produce injurious effects. 46. Gasoline-Power Sprayers. — ^For full-bearing orch- ards of 15 acres or more, gasoline-power sprayers, two types of which are shown in Figs. 20 and 21, have generally given the best satisfaction. As the name would indicate, the power for these sprayers is furnished by a gasoline engine. The structure of gasoHne engines cannot be discussed here; how- 38 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §2 ever, in buying a gasoline outfit the construction of the engine should be carefully examined and the purchaser should be certain that it is durable before buying. Since the engine must be hauled around, generally, with one team, it is impor- tant that it be reasonably light, and durability may be sacri- ficed to lightness to some extent. It should not be assimied, however, that a heavy engine is always more durable than a lighter one, since workmanship figures very largely in the durability of engines. In spraying with a gasoline engine, probably two of the most essential though the simplest items of care are to keep all parts. Fig. 22 especially the cylinder, oiled with good oil, and to keep all the bolts tight. The small engines generally used with spraying outfits must run rapidly and if any bolts are loose the engine is rapidly worn. In case the engine fails to work, the batteries should first be tested to see whether the spark produced is sufficient to ignite the gasoline. The gasoline tank should next be examined to see whether it is empty. Then the spark plug should be examined, for it often becomes gimimed or soaked with oil, and instead of a spark being produced, a con- tinuous current is given that does not ignite the gasoline. The gasoline used should be perfectly pure, as the presence of water or dirt in the gasoline gives much trouble. When § 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 39 back-flaring — that is, an explosion with a jet of flame from the carbureter — occurs, there is not a proper mixture of air and gas, or the spark occurs at the wrong time. An improper mixture is also indicated by smoking; in this case there is not enough air. 47. Compressed- Air Sprayer. — A type of compressed- air sprayer that involves the same principle as that of the gas-power sprayers is illustrated in Fig. 22. The air com- pressed in one tank is admitted to another containing the spray solution, and forces the solution out through the spray hose. The air is compressed at a central plant, usually with a large gasoline engine. The great difficulty with this type of sprayer is insufficient agitation. In some of the com- pressed-air sprayers, no provision is made for agitation, and in others the air is admitted to the spray tanks in jet that will stir the liquid ; and in still others the tank containing the liquid is above the one that contains the compressed air, so that before the liquid is sprayed out it must run down from the liquid tank into the air tank, thus giving considerable agita- tion if the liquid is sprayed out rapidly. This type of sprayer has advantages only where large orchards are to be sprayed, in which case only one engine is necessary to compress the air to do the spraying rather than several engines, as would be necessary in case gasoline-power sprayers were used. The engine for compressing the air can naturally be larger and gen- erally of a type that will give less trouble than in the case of the gasoline-power sprayers, and the plant will be large enough that a man who is something of an expert with gasoline engines can be employed to run the engine while at the same time he looks after the mixing of spray solution. However, added to the difficulty of agitation is another important disadvantage; that is, with one large gasoline engine compressing air for a number of sprayers, should the engine get out of order all of the spraying must stop, while if the work were being done with separate gasoline-power outfits, an engine out of order would interfere with the work of but one outfit. In general, com- pressed-air outfits have not been found satisfactory. 40 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2 ACCESSORIES FOR SPRAYING OUTFIT 48. Nozzles. — The nozzle is one of the most important items of a spraying outfit. During the past 15 or 20 years great change in the adjustment of nozzles has taken place, and only three types of nozzles most used at the present time are discussed here. The nozzle probably longest in use of these three is the Bordeaux nozzle, illustrated in Fig. 23. The spray in this case is formed by a straight stream striking a lip. The fineness of the spray is governed by the width of the aperture. If the hole is entirely open, a straight stream will be thrown and a mist will be formed, varying in fineness with the degree to which the hole is closed. At best, this nozzle can give only a rather coarse mist, and it, therefore, was being Fig. 23 Fig. 24 discarded until the fact was discovered that it is important to have a coarse spray for the first spraying for the codling moth of the apple, and the Bordeaux nozzle seems to fill the purpose best. In using this nozzle with power sprayers, it is well to have two connected with a Y similar to that shown in Fig. 24, so that a large quantity of spray can be thrown at one time. Another of the three important nozzles is the Vermorel, which is shown in Fig. 25, (a) being a perspective view and (b) a sectional view. The liquid enters the nozzle through the tube a into an eddy chamber where a whirling motion is given to the stream by the spiral deflector b, and passes out through the opening c in the center of the cap. This nozzle is rather trouble- some about clogging, but it is provided, with a needle d for §2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 41 pushing out the obstruction. The needle is held back when not in use by a spring. A disadvantage of the needle is that (a) (h) Fig. 25 the spring catches on limbs and twigs and gives some trouble. The third of the important nozzles is what may be called a disk nozzle. It has no needle for removing obstructions, as the opening in the cap is large enough that there will be no obstruction if the spray is properly made. A nozzle of this type is illustrated in Fig. 26 (a). The spray liquid is forced to pass through two holes in a brass plate shown separately in view (6) ; these holes slant in opposite directions and give the liquid a whilring motion. A sectional view of the nozzle is shown in (c). In this view h is the brass plate shown in (6) ; above this is a leather washer c which separates the plate h from a thin metal 42 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §2 disk d and forms a chamber. The Hquid enters this chamber with a whirHng motion and is forced out through the small opening a shown in view (a) . The parts are held in place by a Fig. 27 Fig. 28 brass cap e. Practically all power sprayers are provided with a nozzle of this class. Usually one of these nozzles to each line of hose will be sufficient, but two may be used to advantage by a person who has had considerable experience in spraying. When two are used they are connected with either a U or a Y, so as to have the least possible projection for catching on limbs. Nozzles should practically always be attached to the rod so that a line projected from the hole in the center makes an angle of about 45 degrees with the rod. This can be secured by such a nozzle as is shown in Fig. 27 or by a bent tube called an elbow at the end of the rod, as shown at a, Fig. 28. 49. Extension Rod. — The rod for spraying shotdd gener- ally be from 8 to 10 feet long. Rods are made much longer than this, but the very long ones are difficult to manage, especi- ally when the liquid is sprayed out under high pressure. These rods may be made of ordinary |-inch gas pipe as illustrated in Fig. 29 (a), or they may be made of brass strengthened ' by bamboo, as illustrated in (h). The brass-bamboo rods are more commonly used than the others on account of beins: §2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 43 lighter, and as they are larger in diameter they fit the hand better. . A rod of this kind should always have a ferrule pro- jecting over the bamboo at the lower end to unite the frail Fig. 30 Fig. 31 brass rod with the stronger bamboo and thus put the weight of the rod on the bamboo instead of on the brass. Rods made without this ferrule wiU not generally last very long. 50. Cut-Off . — At the lower end of the spray rod should be placed a cut-ofiE that can be operated by a quarter turn. A cut-off of this kind is much more economical in saving the spray mixture than one that must be turned completely around to open or close. A good type of cut-ofiE is shown in Fig. 30. 5 1 . Hose . — The hose to which the extension rod is attached and through which the spray is pumped, should be first-class five-ply hose or stronger, and there is no advantage in having it large and heavy, since the small amount of friction developed by the passing of the liquid through a small hose will hardly be noticed in the working of the outfit. Fig. 32 52. Hose Clamp. — ^Fig. 31 shows a hose clamp, a supply of which, together with some pliable wire, should be kept on hand for mending hose. 44 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §2 53. Agitators. — All insoluble spraying mixtures should be thoroughly agitated. There are various types of agitators, for both barrel and tank sprayers. The most common types of barrel agitators are shown at a, Fig. 17 (a) and {h). The most satisfactory agitator for the power sprayer is the propeller agitator, shown at a, Fig. 32. This runs with a uniform strain on the engine and gives thorough agitation from the bottom, where agitation is most beneficial. The swinging agitator Fig. 33 shown in Fig. 33 is also used with success in many power spray- ers and is the type used with hand-power tank sprayers. 54. Tower. — In spraying large trees, a tower from 5 to 7 feet high should always be attached to the top of the spray tank or to the wagon, so that the sprayer can stand on this and direct the spray downwards into the tree. Such a tower is shown in Fig. 34. 45 VARIETIES OF APPLES TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING VARIETIES 1. Terms Applying to Tree. — In describing any variety of apple it is necessary to tell something about the kind of tree on which the fruit is produced. The trees of different varieties vary considerably in size, vigor, form, type of twig produced, and habit of bearing, but those of any particular variety are very uniform in these respects. In size, the trees of a variety may be habitually large, like those of the Northern Spy, or small, like those of the Olden- burg. They may be characteristically vigorous or they may tend to be weak. In form, the trees of a variety may be habitually spreading or habitually upright; the trees of a num- ber of varieties tend to be upright, however, until loads of fruit cause them to be spreading; on the other hand, the trees of some varieties have the upright habit so strongly fixed that even after many years of bearing they still remain upright. In the case of some varieties the twigs are exceedingly slender, and in the case of other varieties they are strong and stocky; between these conditions there are many gradations. The trees of some varieties are uniformly heavy bearers; those of other varieties tend to bear heavily on alternate years; and those of still other varieties are light bearers. The location has considerable influence on the bearing habit of a variety, and in the descriptions that follow the trees of each variety will be discussed with reference to the section to which that variety is best adapted. 2. Terms Applying to Fruit. — Among the terms used in describing the fruit of a variety are: size; form; color of COPYRIGHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED §3 VARIETIES OF APPLES Q O skin; color, texture, flavor, and quality of the flesh; form of the cavity; and form of the basin. Size in fruit is expressed in terms of very large, large, above medium, medium, below medium, small, and very small. These terms are, of course, relative; consequently, they are Fig. 1 incapable of being defined. The Wolf River is an example of a very large apple. The Baldwin and the Jonathan are exam- ples of medivmi-sized apples. In describing the foiTn of an apple, the terms round, oblate, conical, ovate, oblong, truncate, and oblique are used in refer- ence to the appearance when the apple is held with the ver- tical axis perpendicular to the line of sight. A round apple is one that appears roundish, as shown at a. Fig. 1. An oblate § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 3 apple is one that is slightly flattened, as shown at 6. A con- ical apple is one that narrows considerably toward the blos- som end, as shown at c; if the apple is round, as shown in the illustration, it may be designated as round conic to distinguish it from other forms of conical apples. An ovate apple is one that is egg-shaped — that is, one contracted toward both the stem and the blossom ends, as shown at d. An oblong apple is one in which the length from the stem end to the blossom end is greater than the transverse diameter. At e is shown an oblong apple that is conic toward the blossom end ; this form is known as oblong conic. A truncate apple is one that is abruptly flattened at the end, as shown at /. An oblique apple is one in which the vertical axis slants obliquely, as shown at g. The terms regular and irregular are used to describe the form when the apple is viewed at right angles to the transverse diame- ter. If the form is nearly circular the apple is said to be regular ; if it is elliptical or angular, the apple is said to be irregular. The color of the apples of a particular variety will vary with the conditions under which the fruit was grown. However, the fruit of a given variety usually has certain characteristics of color that distinguish the variety from others. In descri- bing the color of an apple, distinction is usually made between what is known as the under color and the over color. The under color of an apple is the ground, or basic, color; it is often a yellow or pale green. The over color is the color that, in some varieties, is spread over the under color in the form of blushes, stripes, or splashes; it is usually some shade of red. The term blush is used to indicate that the surface is overspread with a reddish tint that is not much broken. The color of apples is also affected by dots found on the skin. These dots may be prominent or submerged, that is, they may stand out, conspicuously or they may be barely perceptible ; in color they may be white, gray, or russet. If the dots are star shaped they are said to be stellate; if they shade from one color in the center to another on the outside they are known as areolar. The color of the flesh is another distinguishing variety char- acter. The flesh may be white, as in the Mcintosh and the 248— S VARIETIES OF APPLES §3 Fanieuse; it may be tinged with yellow, as in the Jonathan and the Baldwin; or it may be greenish white, as in the Rambo. In a few varieties the flesh is streaked with red, as in the Wealthy. Fig. 2 The texture of the flesh of apples varies considerably, being fine grained or coarse grained, and firm or soft. In addition, the flesh may be juicy, as in the Jonathan, or it may lack in juiciness, as in the Ben Davis. § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 5 In flavor, the flesh of apples may be acid, as in the case of the Red Astrachan; subacid, as in the case of the Jonathan; or sweet, which means that the acid is almost entirely wanting. In describing the quality of the flesh, the terms poor, fair, good, very good, excellent, and best are employed. As used by horticulturists, however, these terms designate qualities higher than would generally be understood by the layman. For example, an apple described as good is one of only medium quality. The cavity, that is, the depression around the stem, differs somewhat in different varieties of apples. If the angle formed is wide, as shown at a. Fig. 2, the cavity is said to be obtuse; if the angle is sharp, as shown at b, the cavity is said to be acuminate; if the angle is intermediate, as shown at c, the cavity is said to be acute. The terms wide, medium, and narrow, referring to the spread, or width, of the cavity, and deep, medium, and shallow, referring to the depth, also are used. At d is shown a wide cavity; at e, a medium wide cavity; at /, a narrow cavity; at g, a deep cavity; at /i, a medium deep cavity; and at i a shallow cavity. The form of the basin, or the depression at the blossom end of an apple, is also a variety character. The basin may be shallow, medium deep, or deep; it may be narrow, medium wide, or wide. The basin whose sides show a sudden slope, as illustrated at /, Fig. 2, is termed abrupt; if the sides slope gradually, as shown at k, the basin is said to be obtuse. VARIETIES OF APPLES DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES 3. A great many varieties of apples are offered to the fruit growers of the country by nurserymen. To describe all of these would be neither possible nor advisable for the present purpose. The varieties described in the following pages are important ones that every orchardist should know. The specimens from which the illustrations were made were col- lected from different regions and although each is fairly char- acteristic of the variety to which it belongs, it should be remem- bered that the same variety when grown in different sections may assume somewhat different characters. In other words, varieties of apples are susceptible to change of environment. SUMMER VARIETIES 4. Yellow Transparent. — The Yellow Transparent is a variety of Russian origin that was introduced into this country in 1870. It is now grown commercially in many sections and is a good variety for home orchards. The tree is rather a slow grower and in some parts of the West suffers considerably from twig blight, a disease described in another Section. The tree bears at an early age; often 2- or 3-year-old trees will set considerable fruit. The fruit, when mature, is above medium in size and of a beautiful, clear, yellowish-white color. The flesh is white, juicy, and of a pleasant flavor. The skin is somewhat tender and for this reason the fruit must be picked almost every day during the ripening season in order to reach the market in good condition. In New York the apples begin to ripen in July and continue to be in season until the last of August or early in September. 5. Red June. — The Red June variety has been in cultiva- tion for a long time and is widely distributed. The tree is §3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 7 fairly vigorous, upright, and rather dense. It is productive, but does not come into bearing at an early age. The fruit is small to medium in size; when it is well colored almost the entire surface is a deep red. The flesh is tender and juicy, and the quality is good to very good. This apple, like the Yellow Transparent, is somewhat tender in skin and must be handled carefully. In Virginia it ripens in late June or early July; in New York the season is from late July to early winter. 6. Early Harvest. — The Early Harvest is one of the oldest and most widely disseminated varieties of summer apples in America. The tree is vigorous and healthy, and comes into bearing rather young. The fruit is medium in size, pale yellow in color, pleasant in flavor, and of very good quality. The fruit has the fault of being irregular in size and shape and there are many poor, knotty specimens, so that in general the variety is hardly to be recommended for commercial planting, although it is desirable for a home orchard. In Virginia the Early Har- vest apple ripens about the last of June; in New York the season isfrom late July to August. 7. Red Astrachan. — The Red Astrachan is a widely known summer variety. The tree is of medium size and fairly vigorous, although in some sections it is not very productive. The fruit is mediimi to large in size; the under color is greenish or greenish yellow, and the over color, which nearly covers the apple, is deep crimson, either shaded or in splashes. The fruit is a little too sour for dessert purposes, but is excellent for cooking. The apples mature unevenly and several pickings are necessary. In addition, they are very perishable and con- sequently not well suited for long-distance shipment; the fruit is generally sold locally. In Virginia the Red Astrachan ripens early in July; in New York the season is from late July to September. 8. Oldenburg. — The Oldenburg, or Duchess of Oldenburg, is a Russian variety that is adapted to a cool climate. It is widely disseminated and is considered to be one of the most 8 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3 important of summer apples. The tree is a rather slow- grower and medium in size, but comes into bearing young, and bears well in most localities. The fruit is medium to large in size and roundish to oblate in form. The under color, which is yellowish, is almost completely covered with irregular splashes and stripes of red shaded with crimson. The fruit is rather too acid for dessert use, but is especially good for cooking purposes. The Oldenburg is a valuable commercial apple, as it stands shipment fairly well and is generally in demand on the market. In Virginia the fruit ripens about the last of July; in New York the season is from late August to September. 9. Beiioni. — The Benoni is an old Massachusetts variety of apple. The tree is a mediimi grower but comes into bearing rather young and bears fairly well. When the tree begins to get old it has a tendency to bear crops in alternate years rather than each year. This fault can be corrected, however, by good cultivation and heavy pruning. The fruit is excellent in qual- ity but as commonly grown is rather too small to be of general market value. With heavy pruning and good care, however, the Benoni is a valuable market apple. The color is yellowish, oversplashed with red and striped with crimson. Although the ripening season of the fruit is rather long, the entire crop can, as a rule, be harvested in two pickings. The young fruit is resistant to severe cold and for this reason the variety bears in some sections where most others are killed by frost. The Benoni seems especially well adapted to the Ozark section of Missouri. In New York the fruit begins to ripen about the first of August and the season extends into September. 10. Maiden Blusli. — The Maiden Blush is one of the best known summer apples. The tree is vigorous and hardy and comes into bearing rather early. The fruit is above medium in size; the color is a pale yellow with a crimson blush on one side; and the quality is fairly good. The apple is suitable for both dessert and cooking purposes and is a standard market variety. The Maiden Blush is desirable for either commer- cial or home orchards. In Virginia the fruit ripens late in § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 9 July or early in August; in New York the season is from July to September. 11. Gravenstein. — The Gravenstein is a summer variety that is fairly well known in most sections. The tree is a strong, vigorous, spreading grower, and under proper culture it pro- duces crops nearly every year. However, under ordinary culture it has a tendency to produce only in alternate years. The fruit is mediimi to large; the form is roundish oblate; and the color is yellowish, striped and splashed with red; the flesh is yellowish and firm and the quality is very good. In Vir- ginia the Gravenstein ripens in early August; in New Jersey the fruit may be allowed to remain on the trees until Septem- ber; in New York the season is from late September to early November. FALL AND WINTER VARIETIES 12. Fall Pippin. — The Fall Pippin is a desirable fall apple that is grown commercially in some parts of the East. The trees attain a large size, are moderately vigorous, are strong growers, and live for many years. The fruit is large, and when ripe is of an attractive yellow color. The flesh is tender and good in quality, being prized for both dessert and culinary purposes. The crop ripens unevenly, the first apples often being ready in September and the last not until a few weeks later. The fruit and foliage are very susceptible to apple scab, and for this reason good orchard treatment is necessary when the variety is grown. Coming as they do in the fall before winter apples, and being of good quality, the apples are generally in demand on the market. The variety is very desirable for home orchards as well as for commercial orchards. The fruit ripens very unevenly; it can be kept in ordinary storage until December, and in cold storage until January or February. 13. Sops of Wine. — The Sops of Wine variety is grown to some extent in home orchards. The tree is medium in size and rather vigorous. The fruit is medium to large in size 10 VARIETIES OF APPLES §3 and of roundish form. The skin, which is slightly rough- ened, is a greenish yellow in color, almost entirely overspread with purplish red, mottled, irregularly splashed, and some- times indistinctly striped with dark carmine; the skin is over- spread with thin white bloom. The flesh is yellowish, often stained with pink; in flavor it is aromatic, juicy, and of good quality. The season of the Sops of Wine apple is from August to October. 14. Alexander. — The Alexander is a fall, or in some sec- tions a late summer, variety that is grown commercially in many apple-growing regions. The tree is a strong grower and comes into bearing at an early age. The fruit is round conic or oblate conic, very large in size, but coarse in texture and only fair in quality; it is better suited for cooking than for dessert purposes. However, the apples are very attractive in appear- ance, being greenish yellow or pale orange and overlaid with stripes and splashes of bright red. The fruit usually brings a good price on the market. In Virginia the season begins early in July; in. New York it continues until September or November. 15. Wolf River. — The Wolf River apple is similar in many respects to the Alexander ; in fact, it is supposed by some authorities to be a seedling of the latter. The tree is fairly vigorous, attains large size, is spreading in habit, and comes into bearing rather late. The fruit is large, broad, fiat at the base, round, and slightly conic. In color, the fruit is yellow- ish or greenish, mottled and blushed with deep red, and splashed and striped with bright carmine; the surface is covered with ntunerous large to medium-sized areolar pale or russet dots. The basin is usually deep, narrow, abrupt, and rather smooth. The cavity is acuminate, fairly deep and wide, and heavily russeted. Fig. 3 shows a Wolf River apple that was grown in Northwestern Pennsylvania. The flesh is yellowish, some- what coarse, juicy, but only fair to good in quality. Largely on account of the high color and large size, the apples are in demand on the market. As a commercial variety of late sum- mer apple, especially in the Western fruit-growing regions. 11 Fig. 3 12 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3 the Wolf River is more widely grown than the Alexander. Recently, numerous commercial orchards of the variety have been planted in the East. In New York and Pennsylvania the Wolf River ripens in September, but the apples may be kept until December in cellar storage or until January in cold storage. 16. Wealthy. — The Wealthy is an important fall apple that is extensively grown in the Central States and to some extent in the Eastern States. The tree is hardy and a thrifty grower when young, but with maturity it becomes a rather slow grower. The fruit is from medium to large in size, roundish oblate, fairly uniform in shape, and of very good quality. The under color is yellow or greenish, heavily overlaid with stripes of red and marked with numerous small inconspicuous pale or russet dots. The flesh is white, sometimes tinged with red. The quality is very good and the fruit is desirable both for dessert and for cooking. In New York the fruit begins to ripen about the last of September or the first of October; it can be kept in ordinary storage until about November 1, and in cold storage until the middle of January or later. As a commercial variety the Wealthy has proved profitable in many sections. 17. Twenty Ounce. — The Twenty Ounce variety, known also as the Cayuga Redstreak, the Wine Apple, and the Lim- ber twig, seems to do particularly well in favorable locations in the apple-growing belt south of Lake Ontario. It is highly esteemed for home-orchard planting. The tree is upright, moderately vigorous, and dense. The fruit is very large, and is usually roundish or roundish conic in form, sometimes broadly ribbed. The skin is thick and tough; in color it is greenish at first, but gradually becomes rather yellow, washed, mottled, and splashed with bright red, and striped with carmine. The flesh is whitish, somewhat tinged with yellow, coarse, moder- ately tender and juicy. The fruit is good for culinary use but only second rate for dessert. The season is from late September to early winter. § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 13 18. Fameuse. — The Fameuse, an old variety, is decidedly a northern apple, being one of the most important com- mercial varieties in the Champlain district in New York and in Southern Canada ; it is extensively grown also in Wisconsin and Minnesota. The tree is of mediiim size and is a moderate grower, fairly healthy, and long lived; however, trees of this variety are, unless well sprayed, likely to be seriously injured by apple scab. The fruit is beautiful in appearance and excel- lent in flavor; it is very desirable for dessert purposes and usually sells at prices above the average for apples, being in strong demand for the Christmas trade. The fruit is about mediiun in size; in form it is roundish and somewhat conic. The skin is of a light bright-red color that deepens to purplish black in the best colored specimens, with a striped appearance toward the apex. The flesh is white and often streaked or tinged with red. The quality is very good. In New York the season of the Fameuse is from October to midwinter. 19. Mcintosh. — The Mcintosh apple is similar to the Fameuse but is adapted to a wider range of climatic conditions. The tree varies in growth and productivity according to the region where it is grown; in some localities it is considered to be a slow grower and not very productive ; in other localities it is considered to be a strong grower and to be hardy and productive. It comes into bearing fairly early and, as a rule, yields good crops. The fruit is medium to large in size ; roundish to oblate in form ; and whitish yellow or greenish in color, deeply blushed with bright red and striped with carmine; ripe, highly colored specimens become a dark, purplish red. The flesh is white or slightly yellowish and, like that of the Fameuse is often tinged with red. The quality is very good and the fruit is highly prized for dessert purposes. In New York the Mcintosh ripens during the last of September and can be kept until about the last of October in ordinary storage, or until about January in cold storage. The Mcintosh lacks sufflcient firmness to stand much handling, and consequently is more often sold locally than otherwise. However, in the Bitter Root Valley of Montana, and other high sections of the West, the 14 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3 variety is grown rather extensively and the fruit is shipped long distances to market. 20. Hubbardston. — The Hubbardston is a desirable apple that ripens between the fall and late winter apples. It is grown commercially in parts of New York and Northern Pennsylvania, and in most cases has proved to be a profitable variety. The tree is vigorous and generally of good size, but tends to overbear; unless it is carefully pruned and otherwise cared for, however, it is likely to be only moderately vigorous and of medi-um size. The tree is susceptible to apple canker, and for this reason it is well to top work the variety on some such variety as the Northern Spy. The fruit is medium to large in size and generally roundish ovate in form. The skin is either smooth or roughened with dots, flecks, or veins of russet. The color is yellowish or greenish, blushed and mottled with red that varies from a dull brownish red to a bright, clear red. Large, regular dots are conspicuous on the surface, espe- cially on the red portions of the fruit. The prevailing effect of a well-colored specimen is red mingled with yellow or green. In Fig. 4 a well-colored Hubbardston apple is shown at the top of the page; this apple was grown in Northern Pennsylvania. The flesh of the Hubbardston is whitish, slightly tinged with yellow, and the quality is very good to best. The season is from October to January. 21. Puxnpkin Sweet. — The Pumpkin Sweet, often known as the Pound Sweet, is an early-winter variety that is well known in New England, New York, and Northern Pennsylvania. By many it is esteemed- as one of the best sweet apples for baking, but generally it is not valued for dessert because it is rather coarse and has a peculiar flavor. The fruit is sold in local and special markets and has a limited demand in the general market. The tree is medium in size, is rather vigorous, and tends to be upright in habit. The fruit is large to very large; the form is globular to roundish conic; and the skin is rather thin, tough, and smooth. In color the skin is green, eventually becoming clear yellow, marbled with greenish yellow stripes of white scarf skin radiating from the cavity. In Fig. 4 the apple Fig. 4 §3 24909 Fig. 5 §3 24909 § 3 VARIETIES OE APPLES 15 at the bottom of the page is a Pumpkin Sweet that was grown in Western New York. The flesh of the Pumpkin Sweet is tinged with yellow, and is firm and mediiun in texture; the quality is good. The season of this variety extends from October to January. The Pumpkin Sweet is grown commercially only to a limited extent, but is often found in home orchards. 22. Northern Spy.- — The Northern Spy, more commonly known perhaps as the Spy, is a widely known winter variety of apple that is grown commercially and in home orchards in about the same localities that produce Baldwins and Rhode Island Greenings. The tree is large, vigorous, and upright, but is a slow grower and comes into bearing rather late. When mature, however, the trees are good yielders. The fruit is usually large to very large in size and generally roundish conic in form. The under color, in the case of well-matured speci- mens, is a clear pale yellow, which is nearly concealed by a pinkish red splashed with carmine. The prevailing color effect is red or reddish striped. In underripe apples the yellow color may predominate, but such fruit is often of inferior quality. In Fig. 5 a Spy is shown at the top of the page; this apple was grown in Pennsylvania. Among the disadvantages of the Spy for commercial planting are its slow maturity and the fact that in some seasons it is not a reliable cropper. To offset these disadvantages, however, are the facts that the Spy is well and favorably known on the market and can generally be depended on to bring a good price. The season is somewhat shorter than that of the Baldwin or Greening, as the fruit, particularly if bruised, is susceptible to rotting in storage. Usually in ordinary storage the apples cannot be kept much later than February or March, and in cold storage they are likely to deteriorate if left longer than March. 23. Tompkins King. — The Tompkins King, or King, one of the highest quality apples produced, is grown in about the same region as the Baldwin, the Northern Spy, and the Greening. The tree is rather vigorous but is seriously subject to injury from sun scald, canker, and an injur}^ that occurs to the trunk near the surface of the ground, which is generally spoken of as 16 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3 collar rot. The lateral branches are rather slender and some- what drooping. The fruit is large to very large and in form is romidish to somewhat oblate, sometimes inclined to conic. The skin is smooth or in some cases is roughened with russet dots. The color is yellow, mottled and washed with orange red that often shades to deep red and striped and splashed with bright carmine. Numerous white or russet dots are con- spicuous on the surface. The prevailing color is an attractive red with a small amount of yellow. In Fig. 5 the lower apple is a Pennsylvania-grown King of excellent color. The flesh of the King is a rich yellow in color, tender, aromatic, and juicy; in quality it is very good to best. The King does not keep well in late storage; in ordinary storage its limit is Decem- ber or January ; in cold storage, about February. It is probably at its best about Christmas. The King is much in demand on most markets, and sells for good prices. It is very attractive in appearance, and being of excellent quality, is well adapted for fancy trade. However, the fact that the trees are so subject to disease makes the planting of the variety commerically a questionable practice. Some orchardists have found that by top working the King on some variety that is less susceptible to collar rot better results can be obtained than by growing the trees on their own stocks. 24. Yellow Bellf lower. — The Yellow Bellflower is one of the oldest of American varieties. The tree is large in size, vigorous, a good grower, and fairly hardy, but often does not produce satisfactory crops. The fruit is variable in size and roundish oblong in form. The skin is thin and smooth. In color, the fruit is a pale lemon yellow, often becoming brownish yellow where exposed to the sun. The apples are very attract- ive and are excellent both for dessert and for cooking purposes. The flesh is white, tending slightly toward yellowish; the quality is good. By some the flesh is thought to be somewhat too acid early in the season. The season for this variety is about the same as that of Tompkins King, the cold-storage limit being about January. The YeUow Bellflower is grown § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 17 extensively in home orchards, but on account of the tendency of the trees to bear poorly it is not grown on a very large scale in commercial orchards. 25. Ortley. — The Ortley is a pale-yellow apple of the Yellow BeUflower type that has long been under cultivation. The tree is moderately vigorous, medium in size, and roundish or spreading in form. The fruit is large or medium in size and oblong conic varying to roundish conic in shape. The skin is moderately thin, smooth, waxy, and of a pale whitish-yellow color, varying to rich yellow in well-developed fruit. The flesh is whitish tinged with yellow, crisp, juicy, and of good flavor. The season of the fruit is from October to February. The Ortley is severely subject to attacks of various insects and of the scab fungus, and requires thorough treatment to protect it from these troubles. 26. Jacobs Sweet. — The Jacobs Sweet variety has about the same season and is grown in about the same localities as the Tompkins King. As a home-orchard variety it has con- siderable merit, but for commercial planting it is not particu- larly desirable. The tree is vigorous, attains good size, comes into bearing young, and, as a rule, yields crops annually. The fruit is large to very large and is of roundish form inclined to conic, sometimes slightly oblate. The skin is tough, slightly waxy, and glossy, and in color is clear yellow or greenish, often with a blush of red. Fig. 6 shows a Jacobs Sweet apple that was grown in Northern Pennsylvania. The flesh is whitish, tinged with yellow, juicy, and very sweet. The quality is good, the apples being especially desirable for baking. In New York the season is from October to March or April. 27. Blue Pearraain. — The Blue Pearmain is an old variety that was at one time extensively planted in home orchards in the East. It is rarely grown in commerical orchards. The tree is rather large, spreading, and moderately vigorous. The fruit is above mediimi to large in size; it is roundish inclined to oblate in form. The skin, which is rough, is yellow, washed and mottled with red, often deepening on one side to nearly solid red, splashed and striped with deep purplish carmine, Fig. 6 IS Fig. 7 § 3 24909 § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 19 and overspread with an abundant blue bloom, from which the variety derives its name. The flesh is yellowish, rather coarse, decidedly aromatic, and of good quality. The season of the Blue Pearmain is from about October to March; often, however, the apples begin to shrivel if kept longer than January. 28. Banana. — The Banana, or Winter Banana, variety is grown commercially in some sections of the Northwest. It does fairly well also in parts of the eastern and central apple- growing regions. The tree is medirmi in size, vigorous, and a fair grower; it comes into bearing early and yields moderate crops, being, in most cases, an annual bearer. The fruit is medium to large in size, and roundish conic to oblong conic in form, often oblate and flat at the base. The skin is smooth, ■ fairly thick, tough, and waxy. In color, the apples are a bright pale yellow with a dark pinkish blush. In Fig. 7 a Banana apple is shown at the top of the page; this apple was grown in Pennsylvania. The apples, being yellow, show bruises readily. The flesh is whitish, tinged with yellow, moderately firm, tender, and juicy; the quality is good to very good. The apples are better for dessert than for cooking, being too mild in flavor for the latter purpose. They command a good price on the market, being of an attractive appearance and of good dessert quality. They will keep in cold storage until about March, but as they show bruises readily it is generally desirable to market them earlier in the season. 29. Baldwin. — The Baldwin is by far the most important commercial winter apple grown in America. It is grown exten- sively in New York, Pennsylvania, New England, parts of Northern Ohio, Southern Canada, Michigan, and in some of the high mountain sections of Virginia and West Virginia. The Baldwin is a standard fruit in both American and foreign markets, and is one of the principal varieties handled in cold storage. In sections where the Baldwin is especially adapted, the tree is a strong grower, long lived, and vigorous. However, the tree is somewhat slow in coming into bearing, but when it reaches maturity it bears very abundantly. As generally 248—9 20 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3 grown, the tree bears biennially rather than annually. The fruit, if grown properly, is usually above medium in size, and is rather uniform; in form it is roundish, inclined to conic, or sometimes roundish oblong. The cavity is acute and medium to rather deep; the calyx is small to rather large; the basin is abrupt, and varies in different specimens from narrow to moderate in width. The skin is tough and smooth; the color is a light yellow or green, blushed and mottled with bright red and striped rather indistinctly with carmine. The prevail- ing color effect is red, as may be seen in Fig. 7, which shows a Pennsylvania-grown Baldwin apple at the bottom of the page. Whitish or grayish dots are conspicuous, as a rule, being some- what numerous and smaller toward the basin than toward the cavity. The flesh is yellowish in color, moderately coarse in texture, and the quality is good to very good; the fruit is suitable for both dessert and cooking purposes. In New York the season extends from November to March in ordinary storage, or to May or June in cold storage. Among the advantages of the Baldwin as a commerical apple are its good quality, its red color, its good shipping qualities, its good keeping qualities in cold storage, and the fact that it is well known by consinners. These qualities make it in demand on the market. A disadvantage of the variety is that it is likely to be troubled with Baldwin spot, a disease that manifests itself in small brown flecks in the flesh of the fruit. This disease is a physiological one and no remedy is known. Other disadvantages of the Baldwin are that it tends to be a biennial bearer and that unless it has proper culture the apples are likely to be small in size. 30. Smokehouse. — The Smokehouse is an early- winter variety that is grown rather extensively in Southern Pennsyl- vania, Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey. The tree is vigorous, healthy, and hardy; it comes into bearing rather young, and is a good yielder, usually producing crops annually. The trees are likely to form dense heads, and for this reason should be kept well pruned to insure highly colored fruit. The fruit is from medium to large in size and generally roundish oblate -m^ 21 Pig. 8 Fig. 9 22 § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 23 in form; sometimes, however, it approaches oblate conic. The skin is thin and tough, and is either smooth or shghtly roughened with russet hnes and russet dots. The color is yellow or greenish, mottled with rather dtdl red, sometimes deepening to solid bright red, indistinctly mottled, striped, and splashed with carmine. Fig. 8 shows a Smokehouse apple that was grown in Maryland. The flesh is lightly tinged with yellow, and is rather firm, crisp, and juicy; the quality is good. The Smokehouse is especially prized for dessert. Its season is from October to February in storage. 31. Black Gilllf lower. — The Black Gilliflower apple is well known in the markets of America. The tree is mediiun in size, a vigorous grower, and generally a reliable cropper. The fruit is medium in size, and very characteristic in form, being long ovate to oblong conic. The skin is thick, tough, and smooth. The color is yellowish or greenish, generally covered with red, which, in highly colored specimens, becomes a dull purple. Fig. 9 shows a Black Gilliflower apple. The flesh is whitish or yellowish and becomes mellow on standing. The Black Gilliflower seems to be in considerable demand in southern markets. It is grown commercially to some extent, largely on account of being a v/ell-known variety that will bring fair prices on the market. The season is frorn October to January or February. 32. Missouri. — The Missouri, or Missouri Pippin, is a well-known market apple of the Middle West, especially of Mis- souri, Kansas, and Illinois. The tree is moderately vigorous, irregular in outline, and rather short lived; in the Mississippi Valley the trees usually do not live to be more than 20 years old. The trees come into bearing young, however, and for this reason they are much used for fillers in commercial orchards. The fruit is medium to small in size, and roundish inclined to conic in form. The skin is thick, tough, smooth, glossy, and thinly coated with a grayish bloom. The color is a pale green overspread with bright red and striped with purplish red. Highly colored specimens are almost solid red, except for conspicuous russet or pale-gray dots. A Missouri apple is Fig. 10 24 25 Fig. 11 Fig. 12 26 § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 27 illustrated in Fig. 10. The flesh is yellowish or greenish, firm, medium to rather fine grained, rather tough, and not very juicy. The quality is fair to good. The season in common storage extends to January, and in cold storage to about April. 33. Rambo. — The Rambo is a northern apple that has been under cultivation in America for a long time. Its origin is unknown. The tree is of medium size, moderately vigor- ous, and susceptible to winter killing. The wood is brittle and for this reason the branches are easily broken. The fruit is medi-um in size and roundish or somewhat oblate in form. The skin is thin and rather tough; in color it is a pale greenish yellow, mottled with red and striped with carmine. The pre- vailing color is a red with contrasting yellow. Fig. 11 shows a Rambo that was grown in Southern New York. The flesh is white, tinged with yellow or green; it is juicy, rather fine grained, and of good to very good quality, particularly for dessert. The variety is recommended for home-orchard plant- ing, but it is not especially desirable for commercial orchards. Niunerous small Rambo orchards are found in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and some of the Central States. In ordinary storage the apples keep imtil November, and in cold storage until February. 34. Ribston. — The Ribston is an apple that is in season about with Hubbardston and Tompkins King. It is an old variety, having originated over 200 years ago in Yorkshire, England. It is grown commercially in Nova Scotia and Onta- rio, and much of the fruit is exported to England. , The tree is medium in size, hardy, vigorous, healthy, comes into bear- ing young, and is usually an annual bearer. The fruit is medium in size and is roundish in form, often somewhat flat- tened at the base. The skin is either smooth or slightly rough- ened with russet ; in color it is a deep yellow or greenish yellow, overspread with a dull red. Fig. 12 shows a Ribston apple that was grown in Nova Scotia. The flesh is tinged with yel- low, is firm and juicy, and the quality is very good. The season extends from September to December or January or later. ^; I? Fig. 13 28 29 Fig. 14 30 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3 35. Tolman. — The Tolman, or Tolman Sweet, is a yellow, rather attractive sweet apple that is grown to a limited extent in New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Southern Canada, and in the prairie regions of the Central States. The tree is moderately vigorous, a good grower, long lived, and very hardy. The fruit is about average in size, and is nearly glob- ular in form. The skin is tough and in many specimens is marked by a suture line that extends out from the cavity and sometimes reaches as far as the basin. The color is a pale yellow, sometimes slightly blushed. Fig. 13 shows a Tolman apple. The flesh is white, firm, and rather hard; in quality it is very good. The taste is decidedly sweet. The variety is not planted to any extent in commercial orchards; but often the fruit from small orchards can be disposed of locally to a special trade. In ordinary storage the apples will keep until about January 1 and in cold storage to about March or April. 36. York Imperial. — The York Imperial, known locally as the Hillside apple, is a widely known variety that is grown commercially in Southern Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, and westward into Missouri and Kansas. When grown in regions farther north, the fruit is likely to be deficient in size, color, and quality. This variety originated as a chance seedling near York, Pennsylvania, and largely on account of its excellent keeping quality when kept in ordinary storage, it soon became distributed to the near-by regions and later was adopted for commercial planting in the Central States. The tree is vigorous, a thrifty grower, a good cropper, and bears biennially, or, in some cases, annually. The fruit is medium to large when grown under favorable conditions. In form it is roundish oblate and distinctly oblique, or lop- sided, as shown in Fig. 14, which illustrates a York Imperial apple from Southern Pennsylvania. The lopsided form is a distinct characteristic of the variety. The skin is tough, bright, and smooth. The color is a green or a yellow blushed with a pinkish red and sometimes striped indistinctly with carmine. The flesh is yellowish, firm, and fairly juicy; in quality it is generally good, but in some cases only fair. The 31 Fig. 15 Fig. 16 32 § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 33 fruit varies as to the length of time it will keep in storage. In cellar storage it will sometimes keep until April or later and at other times it may last only through January. In cold storage it seems to scald badly, and may last only through February. 37. Smith Cider. — The Smith Cider apple is well known in Southeastern Pennsylvania and Northeastern Maryland and is grown to some extent in Western Ohio and Eastern Indiana, principally in home orchards. The tree is moderately vigorous and has long, stout, straggling branches. The fruit when well grown is from medium to large in size, but under average conditions it is below medium. The form is round, sometimes oblate inclined to conic. Occasionally, the sides are unequal, as in the York Imperial. The skin is thin and tough and either smooth or slightly roughened with russet lines about the basin. The color is a pale yellow or green, mottled and shaded with pinkish red, and splashed and striped with a bright carmine. The prevailing color effect is a striped pinkish red. Fig. 15 shows a Smith Cider apple that was grown in Maryland. The flesh is whitish in color and firm in texture. The apple is juicy, of good flavor, and especially desirable for cooking purposes. It will keep in cellar storage until January or February and sometimes longer. In cold storage it can be kept until March. 38. Cranberry.- — The Cranberry is a fall or early- winter variety that is well known in parts of New York and Southern Canada. The tree is large, vigorous, hardy, and, as a rule, productive. The fruit is large in size and roundish oblate in form. The skin is smooth and glossy; in color it is a clear yellow, overlaid, in the case of well-colored specimens, with blushes, splashes, and stripes of scarlet. Fig. 16 illustrates a Cranberry apple that was grown in Ontario. The flesh is white or sometimes slightly yellowish, firm^ juicy, and of fair to good quality. The fruit is more desirable for cooking than for dessert. The season varies according to the locality where the fruit is grown. In Ontario and Northern New York the 34 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3 apples will keep until midwinter; in Southern New York they will last onh^ until about the first part of December. 39. Esopus. — The Esopus, or Esopus Spitzenburg, com- monly known simply as the Spitzenburg, is an apple of the Bald- win type, but is of better quality and more highly prized as a fancy dessert fruit than the latter. It is also a good-qual- ity cooking apple. The variety is grown commercially to a limited extent in New York and other of the Eastern States, but its importance as a commercial apple is greatest in the northwestern fruit-growing section of the United States. The tree of the Spitzenburg is rather a slow grower and gen- erally rated as a moderate cropper. The fniit ranges from medium to large in size; the form is rather broad and flat at the base, varying from oblong to roundish ovate or roundish conic. The skin is tough and often waxy, and is roughened by russet dots. The under color is yellow and is overlaid with bright red inconspicuously striped with a darker red. In well- colored specimens the red assumes a purplish tint and the sur- face is marked with pale yellow and russet dots. In Fig. 17 a fancy Washington-grown Spitzenburg apple is shown at the top of the page. The flesh of the Spitzenburg is yellowish in color, crisp, and tender in texture, and of very good to best quality. The season extends from November to February or March in ordinary storage and to May or June in cold storage. The advantages of the Spitzenburg are high color, good quality, and uniformity of shape. When packed in attractive packages the apples bring a fancy price on the market. The disadvantages of the variety are that the tree is a slow grower and is subject to canker, and that the fruit is subject to apple scab. These troubles can largely be controlled, however, by careful spraying, pruning, cultivating, and fertilizing. 40. Arkansas Black. — The Arkansas Black, a seedling of the Winesap, is a beautiful apple, is a good keeper, and brings good prices on the market, but it has the disadvantage of being rather non-productive. The tree is only moderately vigorous. The fruit is medium in size, and nearly round in form. The skin is smooth and waxy, and in color is yellow Fig. 17 § 3 24909 Fig. 18 § 3 24909 § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 35 overlaid with a bright red that on the side exposed to the sun becomes a purpHsh red. In Fig. 17 an Arkansas Black apple is shown at the bottom of the page; this apple was grown in Washington. The flesh of the Arkansas Black is yellowish, firm, crisp, and fairly juicy; in quality it is good to very good. In cold storage the fruit will keep until April or May. On account of its non-productivity the variety is not recommended for extensive planting. 41. Westfield. — The Westfield, or Westfield Seek-No- Furihsr, commonly known simply as the Seek, is an old favorite dessert apple. In some sections it has proved to be a reliable cropper, but in other sections it has not been very productive. The tree is mediimi to large in size, spreading, and moderately vigorous to vigorous. The fruit is usually about medium in size and roundish conical in form. The skin is tough and smooth; in color it is rather a deep yellow tinged with green, shaded and splashed with dull red, and striped with deep carmine. The flesh is slightly tinged with yellow; it is firm, crisp, aromatic, and of good to best quality. The season of this variety in ordinary storage is late fall and early winter, but when properly handled it may be held in cold storage about as late as the Baldwin. 42. Jonatlian. — The Jonathan is a variety produced from a seedling of the Esopus Spitzenburg. However, it is more hardy, productive, and shows more health and vigor, and is adapted to a wider range of territory than the Spitzenburg, but the fruit is smaller and is somewhat more deficient in keep- ing quality. The Jonathan does fairly well in New York and Northern Pennsylvania, but it seems better adapted to the apple-growing regions of Southern Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the Central and Western States, where it is of considerable commercial importance. The tree is medium in size, is a fairly reliable cropper and comes into bearing rather early. The fruit ranges from small to- medium in size; it is from roundish conic to roundish ovate in form. The cavity is acute to acuminate, deep and wide, and is sometimes slightly furrowed. The basin is deep, abrupt, 248—10 36 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3 and varies from wide to moderately narrow. The skin is thin, tough, and smooth; the under color is yellowish overlaid with a lively red that is indistinctly striped with carmine. Often a splash of yellow is seen near the cavity where a twig or a leaf has shaded the fruit. This condition can be seen in Fig. 18, which shows a Jonathan apple at the top of the page; this apple was grown in Pennsylvania. The flesh of the Jonathan is yellowish or whitish, often marked with red. The apples are juicy and spicy, and the quality is very good to best. The season of the Jonathan is from October to some time in January if kept in ordinary storage, and to February or March if kept in cold storage. The fruit is highly desirable for the Christmas trade. 43. Delicious. — The Delicious is a rather new variety of apple that is very promising for commercial planting, espe- cially in the fruit-growing regions of the Northwest. The Fig. 19 tree is a strong grower and produces a large quantity of pollen; the latter quality makes the Delicious useful for planting with Fig. 20 § 3 24909 § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 37 varieties that are deficient in the quantity of pollen produced. The fruit is large to very large and oblong conic in shape. The skin is thin and smooth, almost polished; in color it is a pale yellow overlaid with splashes and stripes of different shades of red. The prevailing color effect is a pleasing red. In Fig. 18 a Delicious apple is shown at the bottom of the page. A characteristic of the fruit is five points that project from the basin, as shown in Fig. 19. The flesh of the Delicious is a pale yellow, tender, and moderately juicy. The quality is of the best, especially for dessert. , 44. Rliode Island Greening. — The Rhode Island Green- ing, commonly known simply as the Greening, is the best known green apple in America. It is an important commercial variety in New England, New York, Northern Pennsylvania, Southern Canada, and parts of Ohio and Michigan. In fact, it is about as well known and in as great demand on the market as the Baldwin. The tree, when properly managed, is a reliable cropper, yielding fruit annually. It is large in size, spreading in habit, and has dense foliage. The fruit is above medium to large in size; it is grass green in color in autumn, later developing a slightly yellowish tinge. The apples are never striped, but occasionally they develop a rather bright cheek. In form they are roundish oblate. The skin is rather thick, tough, and smooth, and is covered with grayish white or russet dots that are more numerous toward the basin than elsewhere. In Fig. 20 a Rhode Island Greening apple is shown at the top of the page. The flesh of the Rhode Island Greening is yellowish, firm, fine grained, and juicy; in quality it is very good. The Greening is highly prized for cooking, and by many is thought to be an excellent dessert fruit notwithstanding the fact that it has a rather peculiar flavor. The Greening is a good shipper, is well known to consumers, and, where the location is favor- able, is a profitable variety to grow. Its season is about the same as that of the Baldwin. 45. Northwestern, — The Northwestern, or Northwestern Greening, is similar in some respects to the Rhode Island 38 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3 Greening. The Northwestern, however, is hardier than the Rhode Island Greening, and for this reason has been planted in districts where the climate is too severe for the latter. The tree is hardy and vigorous, and, although it is likely to come into bearing late, is a good cropper, yielding fruit, as a rule, biennially. The fruit is large to very large in size, generally roundish in form, and greenish or yellowish in color. The dots vary from small to large and are conspicuous. In Fig. 20 a Northwestern apple is shown at the bottom of the page; this ■ apple was grown in Iowa. In quality the fruit of this variety is inferior to that of Ihe Rhode Island Greening, ranking only fair for both cooking and dessert. The variety is best known in Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota, where it is grown commercially to some extent. The fruit will keep fairly well in cold storage until April or May. 46. Green Newtown. — The Green Newtown is very simi- lar to the variety known as the Yellow Ne^vtown, which is described later; in fact, it is thought by some horticulturists that one is a strain of the other, and it has not been determined which was the parent and which was the seedling. Green Newtown trees are rather slow of growth, attain fair size, and under favorable conditions come into bearing young; they are good yielders. The tree is slightly drooping in habit. The fruit ranges from moderate to very large in size; it is usually roundish oblate in form; the skin is rather tough and may either be smooth or slightly roughened. The color is generally grass green when the fruit is picked, but the apples are likely to become yellowish on standing. The flesh is either yellov/ish or tinged with green according to the color of the skin, and the quality is of the best. The apples are highly prized both for cooking and for dessert. The season may extend anywhere from February to April, or May, depending on where the fruit was grown and the method of storage. The Green Ne^vtown variety is markedly influenced by environment, and the locations where it can be grown success- fully are limited. The lower part of the Hudson River Valley in New York, the Piedmont and mountainous regions of Virginia § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 39 and North Carolina, and certain localities in California, Oregon, and Washington are favorable for the production of the variety. 47. Yellow Newtown. — The Yellow Newtown variety differs in but a few particulars from the Green Newtown. The tree of the former is slightly more vigorous and in habit it is more erect than that of the latter. The fruit is like that of the Green Ne^vtown, except in color of the skin and in color and flavor of the flesh. At harvest time the apples are yellow, and often there is a pink blush spread over a part of the surface. The flesh is yellowish and the flavor is mild and aromatic. As a commercial variety, the Yellow Newtown is highly profit- able. Like the Green Newtown, it is susceptible to environ- mental conditions and grov/s well only in certain localities. Its area of production is about the same as that of the Green Newtown. In Albemarle County, Virginia, the Yellow Newtown grows exceedingly well, and formerly it was thought that the apples produced in this region were a distinct variety, and they were known as Albemarle Pippins; this term is still frequently applied to fruit of the Yellow Newtown variety. Hundreds of barreh of so-called Albemarle Pippins are exported to England annually. The beginning of the demand for this fruit can be traced to a peculiar incident. During the first year of the reign of Queen Victoria of England, Andrew Steven- son, a resident of Albemarle County, was Minister to the Court of St. James, and from among the Albemarle Pippins he had shipped to England for his Ovvn use, he presented several barrels to Queen Victoria. She was much pleased with the fruit and out of courtesy to him removed from Albemarle Pippins the tax levied on fruit. From that time to the present the demand for Albemarle Pippins has grown steadily in English markets. 48. King David. — The King David is a new variety of considerable promise. It is thought to be a cross between the Jonathan and the Arkansas Black. The tree greatly resembles that of the Jonathan but is said to be more vigorous and hardy. The fruit also resembles that of the Jonathan but 40 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3 is larger and of a deeper red color. In flavor, the fruit is very rich and spicy. The season of the King David is said to be a little longer than that of the Jonathan. This is a good variety for planting where fruit is wanted for fancy trade or for export. 49. Ben Davis. — The Ben Davis is probably grown over a wider area than any other variety. In fact, it is thought that more Ben Davis trees are grown than those of any other apple. The section best suited to the production of this variety is Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, Illinois, and Arkan- sas ; however, it has been found to succeed fairly well wherever it has been planted, and many Ben Davis orchards are found in New England, New York, Pennsylvania, and parts of Canada. The tree of the Ben Davis is medium in size a,nd is rather a rank grower when young; it has coarse, strong wood that will stand under heavy crops. The form tends to be upright and roundish, becoming rather spreading in old trees. The fruit is usually above medium to large in size and roundish conic to somewhat oblong in form. The skin is tough, waxy, bright, sm^ooth, and glossy. The color is clear yellow or greenish, mottled and washed with bright red, and striped and splashed with dark carmine, which gives the prevailing effect of bright deep red or red striped. In Fig. 21 a Ben Davis apple is shown at the top of the page; this apple was grown in Virginia. The flesh of the Ben Davis is whitish, slightly tinged with yellow, firm, and moderately coarse, tending to be slightly tough. The quality, as rated by horticulturists, is good, but to the lay- man it is only fair or even poor. The principal advantage of the Ben Davis is the heavy crop it bears. When other varieties are on the market it sells for a low price, but often late in the season dealers get a good price for the fruit. From the standpoint of the apple market it is doubtful whether the planting of Ben Davis should be increased. The season extends as late as June or July if the fruit is kept in cold storage. 50. Gano.^ — The Gano is an apple of the Ben Davis type, but it is somewhat superior to the latter in quality. It is thought to be a better apple for northern regions like New Pig. 21 § 3 24909 § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 41 York and Northern Pennsylvania than the Ben Davis. The tree is usually vigorous and of the same upright spreading habit as the Ben Davis. The fruit is medium in size and roundish conic in form. Often the cavity is slightly furrowed. The skin is smooth and waxy, and is light yellow in color, overlaid with light pinkish or purplish red obscurely striped. Often the red is almost a solid color. The general color effect is a fine clear red. In Fig. 21 a Gano apple is shown at the bottom of the page; this apple was grown in Pennsylvania. The flesh of the Gano is whitish, slightly tinged with yellow, firm, and coarse in texture. The quality is, perhaps, a little better than that of the Ben Davis. The season of the Gano is about the same as that of the Ben Davis. 51. Winesap. — The Winesap apple is one of the oldest grown in America. It is what may be termed a middle-latitude apple and is well known in Virginia, Maryland, West Virginia, Arkansas, Missouri, and some of the Western States. The tree is of medium size, rather vigorous, comes into bearing early, and is usually an annual cropper. The fruit tends to be small, although when grown under favorable conditions it attains a good size. The form of the Winesap is usually roundish, slightly conical, and truncate at the base. The skin is medium thick, tough, smooth, and glossy. The ground color is yellow, or greenish, overlaid with deep red indistinctly striped and blotched with a dark purplish red. The prevailing effect is a bright deep red. In Fig. 22 a Winesap apple is shown at the top of the page; this apple was grown near Selah, Washington. The flesh of the Winesap is yellowish, and sometimes veins of red can be .seen running through it. The apples are juicy and crisp, and the quality is good to very good. The ordinary limit in cold storage is April. 52. Black Ben Davis. — The Black Ben Davis is an apple of the Ben Davis type, but is resembles the Gano more than the Ben Davis. The Black Ben, as it is often called, is grown to a considerable extent in the Central and Western States. The tree, when young, is upright, but on reaching maturity it becomes rather spreading and dense. The fruit 42 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3 is medium to large in size, and roundish ovate to roundish conic in form. The skin is thin, tough, smooth, and glossy. The under color is a clear pale yellow, but it is, on well-matured specimens, covered with a brilliant red that becomes a dark purple on the side exposed to the sun. The season lasts until April and May if the fruit is kept in cold storage. In Fig. 22 a Black Ben Davis apple is shown at the bottom of the page; this apple was grown in Washington. 53. Rome Beauty. — The Rome Beauty is an old vari- ety that is commonly grown in the latitude of New Jersey and Southern Ohio; it is grown also in parts of Missouri, and in some of the Pacific Coast States. The tree is not particularly vigorous but attains medium size and comes into bearing early. The fruit ranges in size from medium to very large; in form it is roundish to roundish conic, sometimes slightly oblong. The skin is thick, tough, and smooth. The color is greenish or yellowish mottled v/ith bright red that, on well-colored specimens, deepens to almost a solid red on the exposed cheek. The prevailing color is red mixed with yellow. In Fig. 23 a Rome Beauty apple is shown at the top of the page; this apple was grown in Washington. The flesh of the Rome Beauty is nearly white, with a slight tinge of yellow or green; it is juicy, crisp, of an agreeable taste, and of good quality. The fruit is used for both dessert and cooking purposes. The season of the Rome Beauty extends to about April or May, if the apples are kept in cold storage. 54. Stayman Winesap. — ^A seedling of the Winesap, known as the Stayman Winesap, is considered by many to be better for general cultivation than its parent. The variety was originated in 1866 from the seed of the Winesap by Dr. J. Stayman, of Leavenworth, Kansas, from whom it derives its name. The tree is fairly vigorous and the form is spread- ing and rather open. The fruit is from medium to very large in size and is roundish conic to globular in form. The skin is smooth, rather thick, and tough. The under color is greenish or yellowish, often almost completely covered with a dull red over color that is rather indistinctly striped with carmine. Fig. 22 § 3 24909 Fig. 23 § 3 24903 Fig. 24 § 3 24909 § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 43 The prevailing effect is a pleasing red. In Fig. 23 a Stayman Winesap apple is shown at the bottom of the page; this apple was grown in Washington. The flesh is yellowish or greenish in color, crisp, and juicy; in quality it is good to very good. The range for planting is about the same as that of the Wine- sap. The fruit will keep in storage until April or May. 55. Salome. — The Salome variety originated about 1852 in Illinois and has become rather widely disseminated. The tree is vigorous, attains a large size, and is a good cropper, but tends, to yield in alternate years. The fruit is usually below medium in size, and is roundish oblate and often elliptical in form. The skin is thin, tough, and smooth; the under color is rather a pale yellow or green, being overlaid with carmine stripes and a blush. Often the apples are marked toward the cavity with whitish bloom. In Fig. 24 a Pennsylvania-grown Salome apple is shown at the top of the page. The flesh of the Salome is yellowish, firm, and moderately fine grained; it is of good to very good quality. The season extends from November to March. 56» Wagener. — The Wagener is an apple of the Northern Spy type, and is much used in New England, New York, and Northern Pennsylvania as a filler in commercial orchards. The reason for this is that the tree is dwarfish in size, and although a rather slow grower, comes into bearing at an early age. The trees are vigorous when young, but on reaching maturity they become rather weak and are short lived. But these qualities do not detract from their use as fillers. The fruit is medium to large in size and roundish oblate in form. The skin is thin, tough, smooth, and glossy. The color is pale yellow covered with a bright pinkish red, striped with bright carmine. The prevailing effect is a bright, light red. In Fig. 24 a Wagener apple is shown at the bottom of the page ; this apple was grown near Scranton, Pennsylvania. The flesh of the Wagener is whitish, slightly tinged with yellow, juicy, and tender. Its quality is very good to best, being similar to the Spy in this respect. The season extends from October to February or later. Wageners are in demand on the market Fig. 25 44 § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 45 and command a good price, largely on account of their color and quality. Often they are sold as Spys by unscrupulous dealers. 57. Arkansas. — The Arkansas, known also as the Mam- moth Black Twig, another apple of the Winesap class, is distinct from the Arkansas Black. The tree is rather large and vigorous, but is inclined to be a shy bearer. The fruit is from mediiim to large in size, and roundish and often slightly oblate in form. The color is greenish or yellowish overlaid with a dull, deep red, often obscurely striped with darker red. Fig. 25 shows a well- colored apple of the variety. The flesh of the Arkansas is yel- lowish, firm, and fairly juicy. The apples are good keepers, lasting in cold storage until about May. The variety has been extensively planted in some of the Southern and Southwestern States, but is has not proved to be commercially successful, largely on account of being a poor bearer. 58. Ralls. — The Ralls, also known as the Geniton and Genet, is a middle-latitude variety that does especially well in the Missouri apple-growing section. The tree is a heavy crop- per in alternate years, and alternates probably more distinctly than most other varieties. It is long lived in the Missouri section and does well not only on thin land, but also on heavy bottom land. Its greatest value for the section to which it is adapted is its late blooming habit. Even in the most unfavorable areas it is practically never killed by late freezes; thus even in low bottoms it is almost a sure cropper in alternate years. The fruit ripens very late, and is generally below mediimi in size, although on young trees it is often above medium; the form is roundish oblate, varying, to roundish. The skin is smooth with a yellow or greenish under color that is blushed and mottled with pinkish red and indistinctly striped with dull carmine. This is overspread with a light bloom and broken stripes of whitish scarf skin, which gives the apple a rather dull appearance. The flesh is whitish, firm, and moderately fine grained. The quality of the fruit where grown in Missouri is very good, but when grown in northern latitudes the apples ripen so late that the quality is only medium. In ordinary storage the season is from December to April. c Fig. 26 46 *♦+ ** *f ** ** ***i? i« 47 Fig. 27 48 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3 59. Ingram. — The Ingram, a seedling of the Ralls, origi- nated about 1850 on the farm of Martin Ingram, near Spring- fieid, Missouri. The tree blooms nearly as late, bears fruit of better quality and much better color, is a more rapid grower, and has stronger branches than that of the Ralls; the trees tend to bear in alternate years, but not to such a marked extent as the Ralls. The tree is adapted to conditions such as those found in Missouri; on account of the trees blooming so late, the fruit requires a long season for development and for this reason the variety is not adapted for culture in northern lati- tudes. The tree is vigorous, with moderately stout branches. The fruit is below medium to medium in size, and roundish conic to roundish oblate tending to be oblique in form. The skin is thick, tough, and smooth. The color is a bright greenish yellow or pale yellow washed, mottled, and striped with two shades of red. In regions where it can reach its best develop- ment it is almost entirely overspread with a rather dark red. An Ingram apple that was grown in Missouri is shown in Fig. 26. The flesh of the Ingram is tinged with yellow; it is firm and hard but becomes crisp and tender late in the season. The quality is very good. In Missouri, the season of the Ingram is from December to June. This is one of the best of cold-storage apples, specimens having been kept in fairly good condition for 2 years. It is probably the safest variety that can be planted in the Ozark section, and if the tree is kept pruned rather heavily the fruit will attain a good market size. 60. Roxbury. — The Roxbury is a russet apple that is grown commercially in some sections where the Baldwin, Spy, and Greening are grown. The tree is medium to large in size and fairly vigorous. When grown on rich soil in favor- able locations it is generally a reliable cropper. As a rule, this variety is a biennial bearer. The fruit is of about medium size and oblate or oblate conic in form. The skin is some- times smooth but usually is roughened with a greenish to yellowish-brown russet. Dots of russet or gray are conspicuous on the surface. A Roxbury of good size and form is shown in Fig. 27. The flesh of the Roxbury is yellowish or greenish 49 Fig. 28 50 VARIETIES OF APPLES §3 and the quality is good to very good. A particular advantage of the variety is that it is a good keeper. The season of the fruit, when it is kept in cold storage, extends from December to as late as July. 61. Golden Russet. — The Golden Russet variety is grown commercially in some sections of the Eastern States. It is an excellent storage variety, sells well in the general mar- ket, and is particularly in demand for shipment to north- western and southern markets. The tree is from medium to large in size, and from moderately vigorous to vigorous. The fruit varies from below to above mediiim in size. The skin is thick and moderately tender; it is usually almost entirely cov- ered with a greenish or yellowish russet, which, in highly col- ored specimens, becomes a golden russet with a bronze cheek. The flesh is yellowish, rather fine grained, tender, juicy, and very good. The Golden Russet is valuable as a cider apple. The season is from December to April or later. 62. Pewauliee. — The Pewaukee is a northern-grown variety that was originated by crossing the Oldenburg and the Northern Spy. The tree is vigorous, medium to large in size, and a strong grower. It bears at a fairly early age and with good care is a reliable cropper; it usually bears bien- nially, but sometimes annually. The fruit is from medium to large in size, and is roundish oblate to roundish ovate in form. The cavity is often very small and shallow. The skin is smooth and rather tough, and is of a grass green or yellow- ish color that is mottled with orange red and striped and splashed with carmine. The prevailing effect is a mixture of red and yellow, or red and green. Fig. 28 illustrates a Pewaukee apple that was grown in New York State. The flesh of the Pewaukee is whitish, tender, and rather coarse. The quality is fair to good either for cooking or dessert. The season varies some- what. Often the fruit may be kept in cold storage until April; again it may go down in January or Februar^^ For commer- cial planting, the Pewaukee is not particularly desirable, largely because it is not well known by consumers and there- fore is not in much demand on the market. Fig. 29 § 3 24909 § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 51 63. Grimes. — The Grimes, or Grimes Golden, apple is adapted to middle latitudes and is one of the best quality apples produced. In West Virginia, Ohio, and Indiana many com- mercial orchards of this variet_v are proving very profitable. The tree is moderately vigorous, the branches are short, curved, and crooked. It bears biennially, although in some cases annually, and is a good cropper. The fruit is medium to large in size and roundish oblong, often truncate in form. The skin is tough and slightly roughened. The color is deep yellow with scattering pale yellow or russet dots. In Fig. 29 a Grimes Golden apple is shown at the top of the page; this apple was grown in Southern Ohio. The flesh of the Grimes is yellow, firm, tender, and of very good to best quality. The fruit loses some of its quality and is likely to scald in storage. How- ever, the apples can be kept until January or February in cold storage. The Grimes is recommended for commercial plant- ing in the districts mentioned and is worthy of trial in home orchards in these and other similar sections. 64. White Pearmain. — The White Pearmain, or White Winter Pearmain, as it is sometimes called, is a favorite dessert apple in some parts of the Central and the Western States. The variety is not grown extensively in commercial orchards, but is much prized for home orchards. The tree is vigorous and wide spreading. In size the fruit is from medium to large, and in form is roundish ovate to oblong conic. The skin is tough and smooth. The color is a pale yellow or greenish shaded with brownish red. In Fig. 29 a White Pearmain apple is shown at the bottom of the page. The flesh is yellow- ish, tender, and juicy; in quality it is Yerj good to best. The White Pearmain can be kept in storage until about March. 65. Huntsnaan. — The Huntsman variety, commonly known among growers as the Huntsman Favorite, is grown to a considerable extent in Missouri and Kansas. The Huntsman is a dessert apple of high quality, but it is more often found in home orchards than in commercial plantings. The tree is vigorous, and is a late but regular bearer and generally prolific. The fruit is of mediimi to large size and is roundish oblate 248—11 Ftg. 30 53 Fig. 31 i Fig. 32 § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 55 and slightly conic in form. The skin is thick but tender, and the color is yellow, slightly greenish, often having a red blush. Fig. 30 shows a Huntsman apple that was grown in Missouri. The flesh is yellowish, rather firm, and juicy; in quality it is good to very good, especially for dessert. The apples can be kept in cold storage until April. 66. Willow. — The Willow, or Willow Twig, variety is grown largely in the Mississippi Valley. The tree is large, vigorous, and of upright habit. The fruit is large to medium in size, and roundish inclined to conic in form; sometimes it is roundish oblate. The skin is smooth and rather glossy. The color is a yellowish green, blushed and miottled with red, and striped and splashed irregularly with a deeper red. • The general effect is a dull red. Fig. 31 shows a Willow apple that was grown in Missouri.' The flesh of the Willow is either yellowish or greenish, firm, coarse, and juicy; the quality is only fair to good. The season extends to May if the fruit is kept in cold storage. The apple is susceptible to scab, blight, and bitter rot, and for this reason fruit growers are not plant- ing it as extensively as in the past. 67. Mann. — The Mann variety is grown on a small scale commercially in New York, the New England States, and Ontario. The tree is medium, to large, vigorous, hardy, a reliable cropper, and a good yielder. The fruit is mediimi to large in size, and roundish inclined to oblate in form. The skin is thick and tough. The color is a deep green that becomes yellow as the- season advances. Fig. 32 shows a Mann apple that was grown in Ontario, Canada. The flesh of the Mann is yellowish and coarse; at first it is hard and firm, but becomes tender on standing. The quality is fair to good, being inferior to that of the Rhode Island Greening. The fruit can be kept until May in cold storage. 68. Stark. — The Stark is a late winter apple that is widely disseminated throughout the United States and Canada. The tree is vigorous, and ranges in size from large to moderately large. It is a reliable cropper and very productive. The fruit is large to medium in size; sometimes it is very large. Fig. 33 56 § 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 57 In form it is roundish, inclined to conic, varying to slightly oblate or roundish ovate. The skin is either smooth or slightly roughened with russet dots. In the fall the color is a pale green; as winter advances the color becomes a yellow more or less blushed and mottled and rather indistinctly striped with red. The prevailing color effect is a dull green or yellow mixed with red. Fig. 33 illustrates a Stark apple that was grown in Ontario, Canada. The flesh of the Stark is yellowish and firm; in quality it is fair to good. The apples can often be kept in storage until May; if held until late in the year they are likely to bring good prices. APPLE CULTURE (PART 1) ESTABLISHMENT OF AN APPLE ORCHARD GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 1. Size of Or chard. — One of the first questions that comes up in planning an apple orchard is that of the size of the orchard. Before this question can be settled in a satisfactory manner it is advisable to know something of the factors that will determine how many acres of orchard one man can care for, doing the work in accordance with approved methods. It is obvious that in practically all cases it will be desired to make the planting as large as feasible in order that the incom.e may be correspondingly large. At the same time it is evident that there is a limit to the size of orchard that one man can work, and if it is intended that the owner will merely supervise there is also a limit to the acreage he can oversee. Som.e authorities on orcharding speak of the size of orchard a man can care for advantageously as a unit, and there has been considerable discussion as to what acreage constitutes an apple-orchard unit. It is apparent that the question is not one that can be answered definitely, because there are many factors that must be taken into consideration in each case. If a man with limited capital is undertaking to establish an orchard and at the same time to raise grain or vege- table crops sufficient to make a living until the orchard comes into bearing, it is evident that he will be obliged to restrict his planting of trees more than will the man who has capital enough to carry him through the non-productive period of the orchard. COPYRIGHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED . §4 2 APPLE CULTURE § 4 Under some conditions a man may be able to put out a large acreage of trees, employing laborers to do the necessary work; under other conditions labor may be so scarce or expensive that such a plan is not feasible. If good orchard land is abundant in a given locality one man can superintend a much larger acreage than would be possible in a section in which suitable orchard sites are scarce and widely separated. Spraying and harvesting are two orchard operations that require the most labor, and it is imperative that they be performed at the right time. Failure to give them attention at the proper time may result in a heavy loss to the grower. This being the case, it is easy to see that a larger force of men will be required to spray and harvest in an orchard planted to a single variety or to varieties that bloom and ripen at approximately the same time than in another of the same area in which varieties that bloom and ripen in sequence are planted. These and other factors operate to make the question of what constitute an apple- orchard unit so complex that no attempt to lay down certain definite figures can be satisfactory. The prospective apple grower must investigate carefully the conditions that prevail in his locality and in his individual case and decide for himself what size of unit he is warranted in establishing. 2. Som.e orchardists undertake to determine the size of unit by the capacity of a power spraying outfit, since this is one of the most expensive items of the orchardist's equipment. One power sprayer should handle 30 or 40 acres of orchard in ftill bearing, except in cases in which the trees have been allowed to reach enormous size and in sections where the land is very hilly. But here again the question of whether or not the orchard is planted with varieties that bloom and ripen in sequence will determine to a large extent the size of unit. As a general rule, a larger orchard unit of summer and winter apples mixed can be handled than of winter varieties alone, not only because there is a wider range of blooming period under the former con- ditions but also because fewer sprayings are required for the former. In an orchard made up of 10 to 15 acres of summer apples, 15 to 20 acres of fall apples -like the Jonathan and §4 APPLE CULTURE 3 10 acres of very late bloomers like the Ingram that are also late in ripening, the time available for giving any one spray- ing of the orchard is greatly extended, and as fewer sprayings of the summer apples are necessary, a large orchard can be covered with one sprayer. Furthermore, in such a case the picking would be prolonged through a longer season and there would be less trouble about getting sufficient labor to harvest the crop, so an orchard of this kind could be considerably larger for the same equipment than one made up of varieties blooming and ripening at about the same time. If considerable other farming is being done, 20 acres would perhaps be an average unit for an apple orchard. With an orchard of this size, the danger that the spraying could not be done at the proper time because of other crops that need atten- tion would probably not be great. The estimates set forth here are based on the labor required to care for an apple orchard in full bearing. Before the orchard is in full bearing a larger unit probably could be managed with the same equipment. 3. Capital Required.- — It is a common mistake among beginners in apple orcharding to overlook the fact that capital is necessary in estabhshing an orchard. Probably more orchards are failures because of lack of capital than lack of knowledge on the part of the owners. In estimating the capital necessary for the establishment of an orchard, it is best to consider it independent of the cost of the land, since the latter item is so variable that no estimate that will be of much value can be given. The beginner in orcharding should have, first of all, money enough to secure the land required and the necessary equipment. To this must be added the cost of caring for the orchard each year until it comes into bearing, which may be estimated at about $20 an acre. In some sections it will be more than this, and in some sections and especially with a man who is exceedingly industrious and a good manager, it will be less. This estimate includes the cost of trees at about 15 cents each, the cost of breaking the ground, planting, and caring for the trees each year. In some sections 4 APPLE CULTURE §4 the orchard will come into steady bearing at about 6 years of age, in others at 8 or 9 years of age; thus the necessary capital in addition to the equipment would be, for 40 acres, $800 a year for 5 years, which would be $4,000, and for 8 years would be $6,400. If the orchard is located in a section where the cost of maintenance cannot be made from crops grown between the trees, the orchardist should have this amount of capital avail- able in addition to the cost of equipment, except where he does the work himself and can live and keep his team on a smaller income than $800 a year. If the orchard is in a section where the use of orchard heaters is necessary, about $2,000 for 40 acres should be added. The following summary of the cost of equip- ment and maintenance of an orchard of, say, 40 acres will per- haps be of some assistance by suggesting the approximate capital required. Power sprayer $ 200 to $300 Team 300 to 400 Harness, wagon, plows, harrows, and small tools 200 Packing shed, boiling plant, picking and packing utensils 200 to 300 Orchard heaters (if required) .... 2,000 Maintenance to eighth year 6,400 $9,300 to $9,600 This outlay would in most cases be sufficient for a larger unit if other conditions are such that they will permit of the handling of a large one. At least two men can be kept busy the year round on a 30- or a 40-acre unit and generally an extra man and an extra team will be required at times. The labor required for picking will vary so much that it is impossible to estimate the number of men necessary. Before the orchard comes into bearing one man with a team could probably maintain it when no special problems like irrigation, etc., are involved. It will be noted that the estimate given does not include the cost of land or irrigation, neither does it make an allowance for any return that may be secured from crops between the §4 APPLE CULTURE 5 rows. As mentioned, these may often be made to yield the $6,400 for maintenance. In some cases, as for example in sections where apple grow- ing has been uniformly profitable or when the orchardist has the confidence of a money-lending institution or a person of means, it miay be possible to borrow a part or all of the capital required. But unless some such favorable condition is pres- ent it is not likely that he will be able to obtain an advance of money sufficient to meet his requirements when he has nothing but orchard land and equipmicnt for security. If the orchard is located in a section where crops between the rows can be grown with a reasonable certainty of a profit before the trees come into bearing, a smaller capital at the beginning m.ay be sufficient than if the growing of crops between the trees is som.ewhat hazardous. In scm-e sections the soil is so poor that the cost of growing crops between the rows is almost equal to the returns, and in such sections it may be that the only crops that can be at all profitably grown are the small fruits like strawberries, raspberries, etc. These are crops that are somewhat hazardous and in them.selves require a considerable outlay of capital, so where they are to be used as a catch crop, miore capital for the orchard should be avail- able than where some cheaply grown crop like sweet com or potatoes can be handled profitably. If a small orchard is being put out and there is a good demand for labor in the com-mu- nity a man m.ay be able to earn enough to care for his own orchard by working for other people and in this case his labor becomes equivalent to capital. If he does not have oppor- tunity or inclination to derive an income from such a source the only way that he could be justified in beginning with a very small capital is to have a certainty of making running expenses for the orchard from crops grown between the rows or on other land. 4. Increasing the Size of tlie Orchard. — Doubling or trebling the unit for an apple orchard would approximately double or treble the equipment and expenses, except that in some cases five men could probably handle 80 acres of 6 APPLE CULTURE §4 bearing orchard as readily as three men could handle 40 acres. This would not always be true, and it is not likely that further multiplying the unit would reduce the expense per imit, since with additional men working in different places without a fore- man they would not likely do as much work. The experience of practical growers has been that doubling and trebling the unit does not generally reduce the cost per unit. SELECTION OF SITE 5. Soils Suitable for Apple Orchards. — The selection of a soil suitable for commercial apple orcharding is a matter that should receive careful considera,tion from the grower. It is of course true that apple trees thrive on a great variety of soils. The man who is planning only a sm^all home orchard may be justified in selecting for this purpose a soil that is not altogether suitable or in making some experimental plantings with a view to determining what the possibilities of a certain soil are with respect to apple production. On the other hand, the man who is putting out a commercial orchard will not, as a rule, care to accept a soil that is defective in any essential requirement nor will he find it advisable to make extensive experimental plantings. In general, authorities agree that the apple tree thrives best on a deep, well-drained, gravelly or even stony soil. Prof. F. A. Waugh, an orchardist who has made a careful study of the subject, states that as a rule a gravelly loam that is fairly rich in plant-food is the ideal apple soil. Gravelly and stony soils are usually well-drained soils and it seems likely that it is because of this fact that apple trees thrive well on areas in which loose broken stone is abundant; there are, however, sections in which the apple tree does extremely well on sandy loams and silt loams and on almost every other type of soil that is deep and well drained. Depth of soil is a particularly important requirement in selecting a site for a commercial apple orchard. Although a good, deep soil is desirable for almost any crop, it is all but indispensable for growing apple trees. The chief objection to § 4 APPLE CULTURE 7 a shallow soil is that it affords an inadequate reservoir for the storage of moisture. In the case of annual plants the injury done by a dry year is, as a rule, confined to the year in which the drought occurs, but in the case of trees the injury done on a dry year may destroy the work of a large number of years. The growth of the trees during a given year depends so much on the condition in previous years that the tree is not able to adapt itself to withstanding drought, and therefore is more seriously injured by a drought than annual plants. On a mature tree practically the entire leaf surface is attained within a few weeks after the leaves begin to open and before any one season's drought can shorten the growth. A drought then in a shallow soil would cut short the water supply for the tree with a full leaf surface, so that injury would be much greater than to an annual plant, because the latter would make slower growth during a drought and therefore have smaller leaf sur- face and would be thus adjusted to withstand the adverse condition. Furthermore, the effect of severe cold seems to be less in a deep soil and the fruit is almost always larger. For the same reason that a soil should be deep, it should be well drained. Tree roots will go no deeper than the depth to which the soil is well aerated. Further, if the soil at times tends to be mucky near the surface, experience indicates that the tree is much shorter lived. In the Ozark region the red clay subsoil makes ideal conditions for tree roots. The loess soil found along the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers is also excel- lent. This loess soil is considered by some to be the most nearly ideal fruit soil there is. It is rich in plant-food to a very great depth. It is made up of very small particles and yet it drains well, since it contains very small quantities of clay. Although apple trees take away large quantities of soil fertility, the trees will do exceedingly well on a soil that is not considered fertile soil from the standpoint of farm crops. This is prob- ably because of the deep-rooting habit of the trees. 6. Elevation of Orchard Site. — One of the most impor- tant factors in determining the success of an apple orchard is ' the effect of late spring frosts, and the location of the orchard 8 APPLE CULTURE §4 with reference to the prevention of damage from this influence is an important consideration. It will be much better to have to ship the apples several hundred miles from a section where failures on account of frost are rare than to be in a section where frosts are so common that the crop will be lost so often that no profit will be left after maintaining the orchard, or where great expense is entailed in heating the orchard. The elevation of an orchard site will determine to a large extent the degree to which late spring frosts will injure the blossoms. Although it is true that, as the elevation of a large area increases the average temperature for the given section decreases, at the same time in any given section on a still, clear night the higher points will be warmer. This is because cold air is heavier than warm air and tends to settle into low places. Thus, in a broken country there are almost always elevated areas where there is less danger from killing frosts than in a level country. On the other hand, in a. broken country the valleys are in m.ore danger than the hills because of this settling of the cold air into the valleys. Experience indicates, however, that a wide valley is not likely to be of any benefit in carrying away the cold air, since the wind is likely to stir the cold air up and prevent settling; in the narrow val- leys, where the wind must blow across rather than up and down, there will be settling even when there is a good deal of wind. However, on a very windy night there is not a great settling of the cold air and the temperature on the hill top is likely to be nearly the same as that in the valley. 7. Slope of Land . — In another Section it has been shown that the slope of the land may have something to do with the susceptibility of an orchard to injury from spring frosts by affecting the time of blooming. If the slope is rather steep and the trees are large, the trees may bloom later on the north slope than on the south slope, for the reason that every tree will throw a shadow on the tree next north of it, and thus the twigs will not be warmed up by receiving the direct sunlight on warm sunny days. However, if the slope is not steep enough for one tree to throw shadow on another, there will be little § 4 APPLE CULTURE 9 if any difference, since the cold soil on the north is not likely to have much influence on the time of blooming, for it is the temperature of the twigs and not that of the roots that largely determines the time of blooming. The soil remains colder on the north than on the south slope, because each ray of sunlight is spread out over more surface, but if the trees stand erect each one will receive jus't as direct sunlight on one slope as on the other provided one tree does not cast a shadow over another. In general, a north slope is considered better than a south slope for the reason that the soil on the former is generally richer than that on the latter. Other considerations that are objectionable on a south slope are that the thawing on warm days in winter causes a slipping down the hill of the soil, and further that since the soil is warmer on the south slope the humus is burned out faster in such areas than on a north slope. 8. Exposure of Site. — In choosing a site the exposure may be important in its effect on the temperature, on evapora- tion, on the number of windfalls, and on the breaking of the trees by winds. The only time that a windward exposure will affect the tem- perature of an orchard is when the orchard is in a location like that near a body of water. When the temperature of the water is higher or lower than that of the surrounding country the wind may bring a lower or a higher temperature than that of the orchard. In some cases protection from wind might actually make the orchard colder by deflecting the wind from over the soil of the orchard; and in the late spring when the water is colder than the surrounding country, protection frorn. wind wotild leave the orchard warmer. In sections where the trees are frozen up for a long time in winter, protection from wind might prevent winter killing by lessening the rapid evaporation from the twigs during the time they are frozen up and cannot secure moisture from the soil to replace that evaporated. Thus, in a climate like that of Western Nebraska or the Dakotas a windbreak may be bene- ficial in preventing the drying out of the twigs. 248—12 10 APPLE CULTURE § 4 In any climate where there is danger of serious winds in summer, a windbreak would be beneficial in preventing wind- falls, and the splitting of trees, but many orchardists prefer to have this windbreak simply an additional two or three rows of fruit trees than to have a windbreak of forest trees near. A windbreak made of forest trees is sometimes trouble- some in bringing and harboring insects and making still-air pockets that increase the danger from spring frosts, and in weakening the growth of the trees near the windbreak. In a region where high winds prevail, a windbreak of forest trees may be desirable, but in the average fruit section it probably is not. 9. Proximity to Markets. — ^Accessibility to markets is an important factor in determining the success of an orchard, and in selecting a location this should always have careful consideration. In locating for the summer apple business, the distance from market will be of particular importance, since the apples may have to be shipped in refrigerator cars and thus transportation become rather expensive, and of course in supplying any local market the distance that the fruit must be hauled wiU be of great importance, because haul- ing by wagon is expensive, and, as a rule, there will be more or less injury to the fruit unless the roads are very good. A difference of a few hundred miles from market, however, amounts to less in determining the success or failure of an orchard enterprise than adaptability of the section to fruit growing. It would be much better to be 1,000 miles from_ a large market like New York City in a good apple-growing section than to be only 500 miles away where the soil and climatic conditions are not so well adapted to apple growing. However, shipping is one of the greatest expenses of the orchard business and the distance the fruit must be shipped will of course have considerable to do with the net profits. Thus the market in cities in Texas and other southern points where apples are not grown is generally better than the northern markets, and a location in Southern Missouri and Northern Arkansas or other good apple-growing sections near these § 4 APPLE CULTURE 11 markets is desirable on this account. If it is intended to supply a local market, the quantity of apples grown in the neighbor- hood will be of importance, since the local demand will be lim- ited and the market might be easily oversupplied. In this case a locality in which only a few growers are in the business may be preferable, but where the apples are shipped to the general market it is particularly desirable to be in a section where a great many apples are grown, since a large number of the best buyers will be likely to come into the district and there will doubtless be an opportunity for cooperative marketing. It is also likely that in such a section certain supplies for the orchard, especially the oil for heating if this is necessary, will be some cheaper, because larger quantities will be used. SELECTION OF VARIETIES 10. The selection of varieties to be planted is one of the important questions the man who plans to establish an orchard is called upon to decide. If the orchard is largely for home use and it is not expected to make it a revenue producer to any great extent, the owner is undoubtedly justified in humoring personal preferences, in planting many different varieties, and in doing considerable experimental planting. Such a course is, however, extremely unfavorable to the best success of a commercial orchard. In the latter case it is particularly important that a proper selection of varieties be made. The important points to be borne in mind in connection with this selection are the growing of varieties suitable to the market available and the growing of varieties adapted to the section in which the orchard is located. It is obvious that market requirements should be considered in selecting varieties for an orchard, for to attempt to force one variety on a market that calls for and is willing to pay a premium for other varieties is to work at a distinct disadvantage. It is, of course, true that if a given variety is not in demand in one market it is always possible for the grower' to ship to another market, but it is also true that such a course is likely to involve a more or less heavy transportation charge. Occasionally there are special 12 APPLE CULTURE § 4 considerations that may justify the additional expense, but as a general rule the orchardist will find it advisable to cater to general markets that are reasonably close at hand. 1 1 . The selection of varieties that are adapted to the locality in which the orchard is located is perhaps even more impor- tant than the question discussed in the preceding article. It is no more possible to name a best variety of apples or a most profitable variety of apples than it is possible to say that a given soil is best. A variety of apples that does well in one section may be entirely unsuited to another section, hence suggestions for the selection of varieties must be along general 'lines. Unless the orchardist is already posted as to what varieties are being grown successfully in his section, one of the first steps should be to obtain this information. This may be done by visiting successful orchards in his locality, by correspondence with horticulturists and horticultural asso- ciations, and by a study of periodicals devoted to orcharding. 12. In the following paragraphs some general suggestions with reference to standard varieties suitable for various apple- growing sections are offered, but it should be understood that they are, as stated, general suggestions, and that it is expected that the grower will consider them in connection with the other sources of information already enumerated. Throughout the United States and Canada there is, of course, a wide diversity of soil and chmatic conditions, but it is pos- sible to divide this area into sections in which these conditions are, to a greater or less extent, uniform. Different authori- ties on apple growing make somewhat different divisions of the territory, and it is obvious that the lines of division between two sections cannot be sharply drawn. The classification of sections given herewith is offered merely as a general indication of localities in which approximately similar conditions as to apple growing exist. The varieties mentioned in connection with the different sections are not strictly limited to those sections, and there are likely to be restricted areas in any or all of the sections in which the conditions will differ from the gen- eral average of the region. Notwithstanding these departures, § 4 APPLE CULTURE 13 however, the general facts set forth in the classification will serve as a guide to an orchardist in selecting varieties to meet his conditions. 13. Varieties for the New York Section. — By far the most important apple-growing section in North America is what may be designated the New York section which com- prises, in addition to the state of New York, the New England states, Pennsylvania, and parts of Ohio and Michigan. The leading variety of the New York section is the Baldwin and two other varieties that are extensively planted and successfully grown in the section are the Northern Spy and the Rhode Island Greening. A very large percentage of the crop is made up of the varieties mentioned, but there are, of course, many other varieties that do well and yield satisfactory returns. Among these may be mentioned Tompkins King, Roxbury, Golden Russet, Hubbardston, Esopus, Spitzenburg, Ben Davis, Tolman Sweet, Twenty Ounce, Seek-No-Further, Fameuse, Yellow and Green Newton, Oldenburg, Wealthy, Mcintosh, Alexander, Blue Pearmain and Rome Beauty. In a considerable portion of Michigan the apples grown are similar to those grown in New York, though a number of Michigan seedlings have come to be of considerable importance, and in the sandy region of Northern Michigan the Oldenburg is grown very largely for marketing in the summer. Wealthy, Fameuse, and Mcintosh are also good apples in this section, as they are in Wisconsin and parts of Minnesota. Even in extremely cold regions like the Dakotas these varieties do fairly well, but some hardy Russian varieties like the Wolf River and Alexander are perhaps better for such localities. 14. Varieties for the Virginia Section. — The region to which some authorities have given the name Virginia sec- tion comprises New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, and parts of Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana. Some of the varieties most extensively grown in the Virginia section are the Ben Davis, Jonathan, Grimes Golden, Rome Beauty, York Imperial, Green and Yellow Newton, Albemarle, and the Winesaps. In the higher moimtain regions of this 14 APPLE CULTURE § 4 section the Baldwin and other apples that are popular in the New York section are extensively grown. The Grimes Golden is said to reach its best development in the" Virginia section. A part of this section, especially Delaware, Virginia, Mary- land, and adjoining localities is particularly noted for the pro- duction of summer apples. 15. Varieties for tlie Missouri Section. — The Missoiiri section includes Missouri, Arkansas, part of Illinois, Kansas, and Oklahoma, and some regions adjacent to these states. The Ben Davis is the predominant variety in the section, and some of the other more important varieties are Jonathan, the Winesap group. Grimes Golden, Ingram, and York Imperial. Probably the best winter apple for this section is the Ingram. The Ben Davis group includes varieties known as Gano, Black Ben, and Ben Davis. Of these, the latter is probably most extensively planted, but it is possible that the Gano or the Black Ben is more valuable. The Winesap group includes the Winesap, Stajmian, Arkansas, Arkansas Black, King David and others. New varieties that are promising in this section are King David, Delicious, Stayman Winesap, and Magnate. In Southern Illinois summer apples have come to be exten- sively grown. Yellow Transparent, Benoni, Sops of Wine, Early Harvest, Maiden Blush, and Wealthy are grown. The Wealthy is also grown extensively in Missouri. Apparently the best siimmer apple for the Ozark region in Missouri and Arkansas is Benoni, since it seems to be adapted to that soil and withstands spring frosts. 16. Varieties for the Colorado Section. — In the Colo- rado section, which includes the state from which it is named and adjoining regions in which conditions are similar, there is a very wide range of varieties. The Bellflower is extensively grown, as well as Wealthy, Alexander, Mcintosh, Jonathan, Rome Beauty, and the Winesap class. The Wealthy and Alexander are especially well adapted to the higher mountain regions. § 4 APPLE CULTURE 15 17. Varieties for tlie Northwest. — In the Hood River district of the Northwest, the most important varieties are the Spitzenburg and Newtown. The Ortley is also coming into prominence in this region. In other sections of the Northwest, the Spitzenburg, Newtown, and Ortley varieties are important, as are also the Jonathan, Grimes Golden, Winter Banana, Arkansas Black, Winesap, King David, and Delicious; and the Ben Davis is also a common variety. The Winesap type of apples is grown more in the warmer valleys of the Northwest. In the Bitter Root valley only the hardiest varieties are grown successfully, the two most important being Mcintosh and Alexander, though Wealthy and Fameuse are also grown. SELECTION OF NURSERY STOCK 18. Buying of Nursery Stock. — In most cases the man who is putting out an orchard will find it advisable to buy his nursery stock directly from a nursery, and it is, of course, well to know something of the honesty and reliability of the nursery- man. If it is planned to order from a nursery in any large quantity, it will always be advisable to ask for the wholesale price list and to get quotations from more than one firm, since considerable may be saved in some cases by so doing. The practice of buying from agents and accepting their advice as to varieties, age of trees, and other details is not one that is likely to prove satisfactory. No nursery trees should be accepted that do not bear a certificate from a state or a national nursery inspector showing that the nursery is free from danger- ous insects and diseases. The buyer should also insist on get- ting the varieties he orders. Some nurserymen take the liberty of substituting in case they are unable to supply the variety ordered, and for this reason it is a good plan to specify on each order that no substitution will be accepted. 19. Appearance of Nursery Trees. — ^A good rule for guidance in the selection of nursery stock is to choose trees that have made a good, vigorous growth in the nursery. Trees that have made a slow, weak growth in the nursery may be as likely to live as those that have made a more vigorous growth, 16 APPLE CULTURE but the former will probably be a year or two later than the latter in coming into bearing, and, as a rule, the mature trees will scarcely be as good. The roots of a good nursery tree should be strong and well developed, and there should be, for best results, four or five large rather than a lot of small roots clustered around the old root that formed a part of the graft. In Fig. 1 (a) is shown a desirable 1-year-old tree; in (6) is shown a good 2-year-old tree; and in (c) is shown a 2-year-old tree that has made a slow, weak growth, probably due to a poor soil in the nursery. §4 • APPLE CULTURE 17 20. Age of Nursery Trees. — Beginners frequently make the mistake of selecting 2-year-old trees, regardless of their quality, in preference to 1-year-old trees. A good-sized, healthy 1-year-old tree is better under some conditions than a 2-year-old tree, and some orchardists declare a strong prefer- ence for the former. The location and spacing of the branches on a 2-year-old tree will be determined by the condition under which the tree was grown in the nursery. Usually there will be a dense growth of limbs beginning about 1| or 2 feet up on the main stem, then a space containing no limbs, then another dense growth of young limbs. Such a condition often makes it difficult for the orchardist to start branches exactly where it is desired to have them. A large 1-year-old tree, say 4 feet in height, can be cut back a little before planting, and still be left long enough that the four or five limbs desired can be spaced so chat none of them will be closer than 5 or 6 inches from its nearest neighbors. However, a good 2-year-old tree will usually withstand more adverse conditions, especially severe cold if planted in the fall, than will a 1-year-old tree. 21. Northern- Grown and Soutliern- Grown Trees. Some difference of opinion exists among orchardists as to whether or not northern-grown trees are hardier than southern- grown trees. It may be said, however, that most authorities are agreed that a tree is hardy or tender according to the vari- ety rather than according to where the tree was grown. For example, each Ben Davis tree is a part of the original Ben Davis tree and its ability to withstand cold is determined by hereditary qualities that existed in the original Ben Davis tree rather than by the climatic condition under which a tree was grown in the nursery. Of course, if trees are grown in a southern nursery and continue to grow so late in the fall that the wood does not have time to ripen before freezing weather, they are in no condition to withstand winters farther north. The best plan is to insist on trees that are well matured rather than on trees that have been grown in a certain section. 22. Value of Trees Propagated by Various Methods. Some nurservmen claim that a tree made from a whole-root 18 APPLE CULTURE § 4 graft will be permanently a better tree than one made from a piece-root graft. They base this claim on the fact that a tree from the whole-root graft will have a tap root — that is, a root running straight down from the body of the tree — and will tend to grow deep; with a piece-root graft, the tap root will have been lost and the roots will tend to spread out in the soil. From the description of grafting operations as detailed in another Section, it will be seen that this claim is ridiculous, since in both cases the tap root has been cut; the only difference is that in one case the root has been cut a little shorter than in the other. As a matter of fact, the only advantage of the whole- root graft is to the nurseryman. Sometimes he is able by the system of grafting whole roots to secure a larger percentage of trees that will grade, say, 4 feet or over when they are 1 year old. Actual experience with whole-root and piece-root trees shows no difference in bearing qualities or ability to root deep in the soil. At the Missouri Experiment Station there are a nimiber of Jonathan trees, one-fourth of which were secured from piece roots taken from the first piece at the top, one-fourth from piece roots taken from the second piece from the top, one-fourth from piece roots taken from the third piece from the top, and one-fourth were from whole roots, the roots being actually whole roots and not large piece roots such as are commonly spoken of as whole roots. In every case the piece-root trees are as profitable as the whole-root trees. Some nurseries claim better results from budded trees than from grafted trees, the theory being that there is not a per- manent union between che stock and the scion in the case of the grafted trees. These claims are usually made by agents who, in many cases, have with them a portion of a grafted tree cut through lengthwise in such a way that the original graft shows and they often emphasize strongly the fact that this has never permanently united but has only been grown over with new wood. As a matter of fact, if a budded tree were cut through to show where the bud was inserted, it would be found that the old dead end of the stock is there just as it is in the case of the grafted tree, and it may be said that there is absolutely no fundamental difference between budded and § 4 APPLE CULTURE 19 grafted trees in this respect. Of course, if the budded tree were budded on a 2-year-old root instead of a 1-year-old root, it should be larger at the end of the first year, and a very large, strong, stocky whip is the most ideal tree to set; but if these can be secured from grafted trees they are equally as good as from budded trees. 23. Home Propagation of Apple Trees. — If a man is sufhciently acquainted with the niursery business, it may at times be profitable for him to propagate his trees, especially if he has limited capital and is doing his own work on the farm. The stocks and scions can be secured much more cheaply than the trees, and he can care for them at odd times or by working overtime. But, as a rule, it is only in case of a man who has had considerable experience in this work that this course would be advisable, and then it will not pay unless he has a soil that will grow a strong, young tree. If a man is hiring his work done it wiU certainly not pay, for the reason that by growing them on a small scale the work will have to be done in a less efficient manner or more expensive manner than if they are grown on a large scale as in a nursery. Further, if there is lack of skill on the part of the workmen so that only a small percentage of the trees grown make good trees, home propa- gation is likely to be extremely unsatisfactory. PLANTING OF APPLE TREES 24. Time of Planting'. — ^Apple trees may be planted in the spring or in the fall, and there has been much discussion as to whether spring planting or fall planting is best. In Can- ada and the northern part of the United States away from the Great Lakes, spring planting will probably always be most advisable, for in such climates there is likely to be consider- able winter injury to the young trees planted in the fall. Trees planted in the spring escape some adverse conditions that must be endured by trees planted in the fall, and unless there are some distinct advantages in fall planting, spring planting is usually preferred. However, it is well known that soil at a 20 APPLE CULTURE §4 depth of a few inches remains warm in the fall long after the air becomes too cold for plant growth. Then, unless the roots have a rest period like the tops, it woiild be expected that some root growth would be made in the fall and thus the trees would be ready to start off into a more rapid growth in the spring. This matter has not been tested as extensively as it should be, but a few tests have indicated tmquestionably that in a mild climate such as that in Missouri, Illinois, Virginia, etc., there may be root growth in the fall. The Missoiiri Botanical Garden, cooperating with the Nebraska Experiment Station, foimd that in some cases root growth was made by apple trees in the fall when the trees were planted early in the fall, and the Missouri Experiment Station has confirmed this finding. The important test of fall planting, however, is the growth • made by the trees the season following as compared with spring- planted trees. As the result of the experiment at the Missouri Botanical Garden, the following figures v/ere given for the growth of the roots and top: The trees were dug on July 2 and top and root growth measured. In the case of Ben Davis apples the average top growth for fall-planted trees was 14 inches, and the root growth 8 inches; for spring-planted trees the top growth was 12 inches and the root growth 5 inches. In the case of fall-planted Shackleford trees, the top growth was 17 inches and the root growth 5 inches; for spring-planted trees the top growth was 7 inches and root growth 9 inches. In the case of fall-planted Winesap trees the top growth was 12 inches and the root growth 8 inches; for spring-planted trees the top gro^vth was 7 inches and the root growth 6 inches. In the case of fall-planted Oldenburg trees the top growth was 7 inches and the root growth 7 inches; for spring-planted trees the top growth was 10 inches and the root growth 8 inches. 25. In experiments conducted at the University of Missouri beginning in 1908, the twig growth was measured and the diameter of the trees was determined by means of calipers in the fall of 1909 after all growth had ceased! The average linear growth of the fall-planted trees was 224to inches per tree, and the average increase in diameter was yf inch; the § 4 APPLE CULTURE 21 average linear growth of the spring-planted trees was 124 inches, and the average increase in diameter was if inch. In the season of 1910, the total linear growth of the fall-planted trees was 80j feet and the average increase in diameter was 1^ inches; the average linear growth of spring-planted trees was 63iV feet, and the average increase in diameter was IJ inches. It will be seen from this that the fall-planted trees showed remarkably better growth than the spring-planted trees. In the latter experiments the trees planted in the spring had the best of conditions through the winter, which was a very mild one; the trees came through in excellent condition, were left standing in the nursery where they grew, and were trans- planted from the nursery to the orchard, so that there was the least possible shock from the transplanting. Such a course as this is seldom if ever practicable in the case of an orchardist buying trees from a nursery. Trees pur- chased for spring planting are almost always those that have been dug by nurserymen the preceding fall and stored in bins, cellars, or storehouses through the winter. Although this method of handling trees is absolutely necessary in any nursery that does a large business, it is objectionable for the reason that the trees are kept at a comparatively high temperature during the winter and the process of respiration that goes on under this condition tends to use up the plant-food stored up in the tree, and in this way the food available for spring growth is reduced. In this respect fall planting is preferable to spring planting, for fall-planted trees do not pass the winter in stor- age but in the orchard, where the temperature is not favorable ■ to respiratory action, hence the supply of plant-food is not materially reduced. However, it is never advisable to plant in the fall if the soil is very dry. Under such conditions there is a risk that the soil will contmue dry and in this case the trees are likely to die during the winter. If the soil is in moist condition at the time of planting, however, there is little danger that it will become too dry for the trees during the winter, since the soil does not dry out greatly through the winter. 22 APPLE CULTURE §4 26. For spring planting, which will in most sections "of the United States and Canada be more satisfactory than fall planting, nursery stock should be ordered the preceding fall, and it is likely that in most cases fall deHvery of the stock will also be advisable. In extreme northern sections fall delivery may not be advisable, because where winter temperatures are extremely low there is a better chance of the trees enduring them without injury in the nurseryman's storehouse than in a cellar or improvised storehouse belonging to the orchard- ist. However, in fruit sections where the winters are not so rigorous, the trees can usually be kept through the winter in better condition outside than in the nurseryman's store- house. Furthermore, by ordering in the fall, the buyer is more certain to get the trees grown by the nursery from which he is ordering, and can thus know something about the conditions under which they are grown; in the spring the nursery is lilcely to be out of certain varieties that may be desired and in such cases the trees would perhaps be secured from some other nursery. 27. Some special precautions in the storage of nursery stock between the time of delivery and the time of planting is usually necessary. In most cases trees will be received from the nursery all the way from one week to several weeks before it is desired to begin planting. But even if the orchardist is ready to begin planting the very day the trees are received it will probably be necessary to store some of them while others are being planted, and unless this storage is under suitable con- ditions great injury may be done to the young trees. Orchard- ists commonly resort to what is known as heeling-in as a means of preventing injury to nursery stock when it is not possible or advisable to plant it immediately on its receipt from the nursery. To heel-in trees, a trench is dug with a straight side against which the roots are placed and a slanting side on which the tops lie, as shown in Fig. 2 (a). This trench should be dug approximately 1 foot deep, in a well-drained place. All bundles of trees should be opened and the trees distributed along the APPLE CULTURE 23 trench so that the earth can be packed firmly around each tree. The soil should be fiUed in over the roots and up at least 6 or 8 inches on the trunks. A row of nursery trees heeled-in according to the plan described is shown in Fig. 2 (b) . It has been observed that few men will take as much care to heel-in trees as should be taken, and doubtless many trees (aj m are seriously injured in this way. If a tree is thus injured it may, in time, recover from the effects, but it can scarcely make as good a tree as if proper attention had been given to the details of heeling-in. 28. Sometimes, when the trees are secured in the fall and well-drained soil is available, it pays to cover both the roots and the tops of the trees. The advantage of this is not alone 24 APPLE CULTURE §4 in preventing freezing, but also in preventing the starting of the trees into growth by warm days in winter. Heeled-in in this way they do not reach a temperature above that of the soil, which, during the winter, is never high enough to start growth. This is a very desirable method in southern apple- growing sections to prevent starting growth during winter if the trees are not set in the fall, and is also very desirable in extreme northern sections as a means of preventing winter injury to the trees. But, as stated, it is not permissible except in localities where well-drained soil is available. 29. Distance for Planting Apple Trees. — The ques- tion of proper distance for planting apple trees is one that deserves careful consideration by the man who is putting out an orchard. Undoubtedly many beginners rnake the mistake of getting the trees close together. With average varieties, 25 feet apart each way may be considered the minimiim dis- tance, and 50 feet apart each way is about the maximum, but this latter distance is certainly too great if it is intended to keep the trees down to manageable size. In rich soils probably 35 feet may be taken as an average distance for planting, although in many soils this may be a greater distance than is necessary if the trees receive the proper repressive pruning. It is unquestionably a serious matter to get trees planted too close. It is not uncommon to see orchards in which the trees are so close that most of them fail to set good bloom, and in sections in the same orchard where a few trees are missing the trees that had more room may have set a good crop of bloom. Just what the distance should be under good system of repres- sive pruning has not been carefully determined, but experience indicates that an average of 25 feet for thin hill soil will give desirable results; for a soil where trees make a rather vigorous growth, 30 or 35 feet may be taken as a more desirable distance. SYSTEMS OF PLANTING 30. A number of different systems of planting with refer- ence to the number of trees per acre, the spacing of trees in the rows and the rows in the orchard, are in use among practical APPLE CULTURE- 25 orchardists. The most important systems will be described in succeeding paragraphs, but no attempt will be made to enumerate aU of Lhe various modifications of these systems that are made to meet special conditions. It is well for the beginner to study the plans outlined and determine for himself which is best suited to his conditions, for it cannot be said that any one is unqualifiedly best. Of the planting systems that are described subsequently some permit the planting of a greater number of trees on a given area than others. In Table I are given figures that will enable an orchardist to determine approximately how many trees may be planted on a given area by the various systems. In the case of small plantings or plantings on plots of irreg- ular shape it may not be possible to get the full number specified in the table, but except under such conditions the figures are accurate enough for practical purposes. TABLE I NUMBER OF TREES TO PLANT PER ACRE BY VARIOUS SYSTEMS Distance Apart Square System Quincunx System Hexagonal System 16X16 170 303 196 18X18 134 239 154 20X20 108 192 124 22X22 90 148 104 24X24 76 132 87 25X25 70 125 80 26X26 64 114 74 28X28 56 100 64 '30X30 48 85 55 32X32 43 76 49 33X33 40 71 46 36X36 34 60 39 40X40 27 48 32 45X45 22 39 25 248—13 26 APPLE CULTURE 31. Square System. — Doubtless the system most com- monly used is what is known as the square system, in which the trees are arranged in squares. In Fig. 3 is shown a small tract laid out for planting trees by the square system, with some of the trees in place at a. The distance between the trees in a row is the same as the distance between rows. As before stated, this system of planting is extensively followed, and its simplicity makes it well adapted for inexperienced orchardists. Never- theless, it has its disadvantages, one of the chief of which is the fact that it does not distribute the trees evenly over the area planted. The trees are all the same distance apart in the rows -@:7— 1/ ■/.■Kk Fig. 3 and cross-rows, but in a diagonal direction the distance between trees is considerably greater. For example, in Fig. 3 if the trees are planted 30 feet apart in the rows, the rows will also be 30 feet apart but the distance between alternate trees in two adjacent rows will be somewhat in excess of 42 feet, and if the trees are planted 40 feet apart in the rows the diagonal distance between trees will be upwards of 56 feet. If fillers, which subject is discussed elsewhere in the Section, are used in the square system of planting, one plan is to alter- nate fillers with permanents in each row. Thus, in Fig. 3 the trees marked / would be fillers. When the fillers are removed §4 APPLE CULTURE 27 the permanent trees are still in the square system but the rows and cross-rows will run diagonally with the original rows and the distance between rows and trees will be the diagonal of the original squares. Other methods of planting fillers in the square system are discussed under the subject of fillers. 32. Quincunx System. — ^A plan of orchard planting known as the quincunx system is in favor with some orchardists, but it cannot be said that the system is extensively used. As sug- gested by the prefix quin, m.eaning five, the trees are planted in fives. Four trees are planted in a square as in the square system and a fifth tree is placed in the center of the square. Fig. 4 is a diagram of a field partly lined off to indicate the ■mm Fig. 4 points at which trees are to be planted. When this plan of planting is followed the usual course is to set permanent trees in the comers and a filler in the center of the square. It will be seen from the diagram that after the removal of the fillers the remaining trees are in the square system. The distance between trees in the square will be the same and the distance between the filler and the trees in the square will be one-half of the diagonal of the square. Thus, if the trees are 30 feet apart in the square, the diagonal will be about 42 feet and 28 APPLE CULTURE §4 the center tree will be a little more than 21 feet from each comer tree. 33. Hexagonal System. — ^Another plan of orchard plant- ing is known as the hexagonal system. By this system the trees of the second row alternate or break joints with those of the first row and those of the third row alternate with those of the second. The trees are all the same distance apart, but the distance between the rows is less than the distance between trees in the rows. The diagram in Fig. 5 will show how this condition is brought about. In this case it is assumed that the trees are planted 30 feet apart in the row. The first tree in the second row is set opposite a point midway between the first and the second trees in the first row and 30 feet from each of them . The second tree of the second row is set opposite 30 Feei- Firsi- ffoM Fig. 5 a point midway between the second and the third tree of the first row and 30 feet from each of them, and the same plan is continued throughout the orchard. Each tree is 30 feet from adjacent trees in the same row and also 30 feet from adjacent trees in adjoining rows, but the distance between the rows them- selves is a little short of 26 feet. This system permits the plant- ing of about 15 per cent, more trees on a given area than the square system. The hexagonal system of planting is desirable for the reason that it distributes the trees evenly over the field, which is not the case in either of the systems previously described, but it is objectionable if fillers are to be used, because in this case it is difficult to place the fillers in such positions as to leave the per- manent trees in a desirable arrangement after removing the APPLE CULTURE 29 former. One of the plans that will leave a regular arrangement is to make each alternate row all fillers and alternate fillers with permanent trees in the remaining rows. Such an arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 6, in which the large trees represent per- manent ones and the small trees are the fillers. An examination of the diagram will make it clear that the removal of all the fillers sacrifices such a large percentage of the trees in the orchard that such a plan is obviously objectionable. As a means of avoiding this sacrifice different methods of thinning the trees are frequently resorted to and often the result is that S5--^s— -t.#— ^- .I.J- ■ft" s-j-p- i—i - «S — I - ■ ■S3— j-- Fig. 6 some fillers are allowed to remain so long that many of the trees are seriously injured by crowding. 34. Combination Systems. — Not infrequently a com- bination of two of the systems described is found to be better adapted to the needs of the orchardist than any one of them alone. One such combination plan is described herewith, but others may be worked out. The plan referred to is illustrated in Fig. 7, from which it will be seen that the planting is in the square system, with trees 20 feet apart. In the odd-numbered rows, that is the first, third, fifth, etc., fillers are alternated with permanent trees. In the even-numbered rows fillers and half fillers are alternated, the temi half filler' signifying a tree 30 APPLE CULTURE that is to remain in the orchard longer than a filler but is iilti- mately to be removed in order to give the permanent trees room. In the diagram, permanent trees are indicated by p, half fillers by h.f., and fillers by/. The fillers may be taken out — eo'-o'- -I- eo'-o" 4 (St 43h- cu- ^^ W (-: '^. - <3 ® ® @ © © 0 © e Q © Q <^ CS ^3 © Q> <§ @ 0 9 ® ® @ © @ © & @ © & © © ^ © © ® © ® @ © @ & Q © © ® C& 0? © <2> ® © a> & G £2 & ^ e> © @ 0 ■ Fig. 10 should carefiilly consider whether it will be better to cut out some of the trees or cut all of them back severely and keep them dowti in size. It is not advisable to attempt to grow trees too large on a thin soil. Small trees can be more prof- itably handled than large ones, provided there are enough trees on the ground to make up for the lack of size. In any soil a distance of 25 feet each way is sufficient if the trees are APPLE CULTURE 45 kept down in size. However, in many cases it is unquestion- ably necessary to cut out some of the trees. If the orchard is set in hexagonal form it is usually a good plan to cut out every other row; if the trees are set in the square form it may be better to cut out alternate trees in each row, as indi- cated in Fig. 10, in which r designates the trees that are to be removed. In shaping the remaining trees, if they are young and it is desired to prune them to an open head, the center Fig. U may be cut out say 8 or 10 feet high and all the weaker limbs and some of the superfluous stronger ones cut out so as to leave only six or seven limbs that are well spaced around the body of the tree. Usually five or six limbs will be sufficient, and these should be shortened back a little to make them stocky and to make them push out new growth further down the limb. 4G APPLE CULTURE §5 In Fig. 11 is shown a tree in which five hmbs have been retained and the points to which these limbs are to be cut back are indicated at a. Old and badly neglected trees should be cut back rather severely. A tree of this kind is illustrated in Fig. 12, and the extent to which it may be advisable to cut it back is shown by the white line drawn through the head. It will also be advisable to thin out the limbs considerably in the center to form, to some extent, an open head. *'..i«iiiillli ■■'■iiiriiiSiiiiiH Wm Fig. 12 67. As an illustration of the severe cutting back that was necessary in a certain old orchard, the views shown in Figs. 13 and 14 are of interest. Fig. 13 shows the orchard before prunning and well illustrates the extreme height and undesira- ble form commonly assumed by neglected apple trees. In Fig. 14 is shown a view of the same trees after they were pruned. It will be seen that the high limbs have been shortened back and much of the thick, bushy growth removed. In the case 47 48 §5 APPLE CULTURE 49 of such trees as are shown in Fig. 14 it would undoubtedly be advisable to still further reduce the length of the highest limbs, but to avoid injury to the trees from excessively severe pruning the latter work may be delayed 2 or 3 years or until the trees have somewhat recovered from the shock of the first pruning. Severe pruning should be done somewhat gradually; that is, it is better to do a part of it each year for 2 or 3 years than to do it all in a single season. In the case of trees that require very severe pruning, it is often advisable to leave more of the lower limbs than will be desired in the renovated tree. Later, when the tree has put out new top growth, the super- fluous lower limbs may be removed. Another point to be avoided in severe pruning operations is the making of numerous large wounds close together. If this is done the effect is somewhat the same as girdling the tree. If it is found necessary to remove several large limbs that join the trunk close together, the danger of girdling may be avoided by cutting some of them in such a way as to leave a stub 1 or 2 feet long. Later, when the wounds on the trunk have healed or are nearly healed the stubs should be sawed off close to the trunk. All large wounds made in this work should be painted each year until entirely healed. 68. Soil Treatment for Renovated Orcliards. — In working over an old orchard, the owner should bear in mind the practices that have been recommended for the general care of an apple orchard. If the soil is badly run down, prob- ably the most desirable thing would be to grow a crop of cow- peas or vetch or some other leguminous crop for the sake of its beneficial effect on the soil. The use of orchard fertilizers may in some cases be resorted to and in all probability there is no time when fertilizing will pay better than at the beginning of the spring after the trees have been cut back in winter; especially is the use of barnyard manure or nitrog- enous fertilizer to be recommended then. In a soil very low in any other essential material, as potassium or phos- phorus, these should be applied to secure best results from 50 APPLE CULTURE §5 the nitrogen. In many cases, resorting to winter cover crops will show very marked benefits, especially in the case of a soil on a south hill slope, and the use of cover crops should certainly be part of the system of management if the orchard is located on a hillside. 69. Spraying Metliods for Renovated Orchards. — It will generally be profitable to give a dormant spraying for old, neglected trees in a renovated orchard. When serious pests such as San Jose scale are present they should be com- bated as directed in another Section. A very heavy dormant spray should be given for insects that will be nestled in the bark, and for spores of fungi. This will be beneficial also in clearing the bark of algse and lichens that grow on it. Even after an orchard has been cut back so severely that no crop is expected, at least one spraying to keep apple scab and other fungous diseases off the foliage might be made to give the orchard the very best opportunity to make a good growth the first summer. Even if the orchard does not have a crop, it should have the same care the second summer after renova- tion as would be given to any bearing apple orchard. 70. Top Working of Trees. — In many cases the varie- ties found in an old orchard will not be those that are profi- table. In other cases the orchard may be made up of a single variety that is self-sterile, so that the introduction of some other variety for cross-fertilization is necessary. There are undoubtedly many orchards that are failures because of lack of proper pollination, and in going over an old orchard the varieties should be carefully studied with reference to this question. If necessary, varieties should be selected that are known to be satisfactory for the cross-pollination of the varieties predominating in the orchard, and the former should be top-worked into the latter. The time for doing this will vary from late winter, say the latter part of February or any time in March, up to possibly the middle of May, in the northern section of the country, though early spring grafting is usually considered best. § 5 APPLE CULTURE 51 In working over the trees the grafts should be set in stubs that are directed outwards and will form desirable limbs. The limbs in the center that are not wanted may well be left temporarily as sap pullers — that is, for the purpose of furnishing foliage to supply nourishment; they should be cut out when they have served the purpose. The first season after the grafts have been set they should make a large growth. Many water sprouts will come from the old stubs ; those at the end of the stub should be carefully rubbed off so they will not interfere with the growth of the grafts. Part of those along the side of the limb may also be rubbed off; it is often desira- able to leave some of the water sprouts and either to bud them in the summer with the same varieties as the grafts inserted or to whip-graft on them the winter following. If more than one of the grafts on the end of a stub live, probably some of them should be kept cut back to give one the advantage, and usually after a few years when the stub is about healed over all except one may be cut off. The tree should then be kept pruned as much as it would be in the case of a good open-headed tree ; it should be kept from becom- ing too dense in the center, and after the grafts have made con- siderable growth, say after 3 or 4 years, it should be clipped back a little each year to keep it from getting too tall and to to keep the growth down on the tree. APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES INJURIES DUE TO LOW TEMPERATURE INJURIES DURING DORMANT PERIOD OF PLANTS 1. Killing of Fruit Buds. — Severe, winter weather may cause various degrees of injury to fruit buds. The degree of the injury depends on the temperature, the prevalence of winds, whether the air is dry or moist, the condition of the tree at the beginning of cold weather, and probably other factors or con- ditions that are not known. If the injury is very severe the fruit buds and the fruit spurs, of those trees that bear fruit spurs, may be killed. In less severe cases the fruit buds only are entirely killed. In the latter cases the buds turn brown throughout and do not open at the time for blossoming. In other cases the injury is less severe and the buds open into blossoms, but many of the pistils, or the central portion of each blossom which, if uninjured, matures into the fruit, are killed. In Fig. 1 are shown several blossoms, two in cross- section, one of these having a small brown or black pistil a which has been frozen, and the other a healthy green pistil b. 2. Killing of Twigs and Large Stems. — The killing of the wood of trees, like the killing of the buds, depends on various factors, the most important of which are the condition of the tree at the time that cold weather arrives, intense cold, very wet soil, and the heaving of land by frost. Dead wood is darker than live, active wood and usually can be easily recognized. If the wood is killed during the early COPYRIGHTED BY INTERNATIONAU TEXTBOOK COMPANY. AUU RIQHTS REeERVED §6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 6 part of the winter the injury is probably caused by cold weather coming before the trees have reached a sufficiently dormant state to withstand the cold. At the time the leaves fall, espe- cially if they are killed by frost, the trees cannot withstand nearly so low a temperature as they can a month later. That is, the trees must be allowed several weeks after the leaves fall in which to attain a dormant condition so that they can with- stand severe cold without injury. In those regions of the United States and Canada where severe cold weather is likely to occur in the early part of the winter, it is advi- sable for the fruit grower to resort to methods of culture that will force the trees into an early dormant condition. This end is usually obtained by stop- ping cultivation and by planting, usually in August, a cover crop that ^^* will make a rapid growth during the autumn. If the wood is killed during the latter part of winter, the injury is pro- bably caused by a very cold period that lasts for several weeks, during which time the twigs and limbs lose much mois- ture by evaporation, and as the branches are frozen they can- not take up moisture to replace that which was evaporated. It has been observed that the greatest injury from winter- killing of fruit trees occurs in orchards that are not well drained and to those trees that stand in low or wet places in orchards that are otherwise well drained. In such cases the trees are kept in a growing condition until late in the fall and do not attain a sufficiently dormant condition by the time cold weather arrives. A very wet soil in an orchard can usually be bene- fited by thorough and proper drainage. Fig. 1 § G APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 3 3. Killing of Roots. — The roots of fruit trees will gener- ally not survive a temperature lower than from 25° to 22° F. Therefore, if the roots are exposed to the air they will be killed by the winter temperature in almost any apple-growing section in the United States or Canada, but the temperature of the soil does not fall nearly so low as that of the air and rarely becomes low enough to kill tree roots. In fact, it is desirable that a few inches of the surface soil be frozen during the winter, as such freezing has a tendency to force the trees into a dormant condition. It has been observed that if a heavy fall of snow occurs before the soil freezes the soil does not become frozen, and more trees are killed than if the soil freezes. However, there is more danger from winter-killing of the roots if the soil freezes several feet deep than if only from 4 to 6 inches at the surface becomes frozen, because the deeper the ground freezes the colder the frozen portion becomes. INJURIES DURING THE PERIOD OF VISIBLE ACTIVITY OF PLANTS 4. The injuries that occur to plants while they are in a noticeably active condition, that is, after the buds have begun to swell in the spring and until the plants have assumed a dor- mant condition in the fall, are commonly known as frost injuries, although injuries that are caused by freezing temper- ature but without the deposits of frosts may occur at this time of the year. 5. Frost Dijury to Apple Buds. — Ordinarily, fruit buds are not injured by the low temperatures that usually accompany spring -frosts. However, if spring frosts are accompanied by such low temperatures that it is customary to speak of them as freezes, rather than as frosts, the unopened buds may be killed. Apple buds, even after they are open far enough for the white color of the petals to show at the tip of the buds, are not often seriously injured by a temperature of 25° F. However, instances are on record where a temperature as low as 18° F. has occurred after the color of the petals was APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 6 distinguishable without seriously injuring the buds. But, in such cases, a combination of unusual conditions may have existed that prevented the killing of the pistils of the fruit buds. It is safe to say, however, that apple buds, after the white begins to show at the tips of the buds, are nearly always killed, or at least seriously injured, by a temperature of 20° F. or less. 6. Frost Inj ury to Apple Blossoms . — It is not definitely known exactly how low a temperature apple blossoms will endure without injury. But a careful observer and investi- gator states that while blossoms are fully expanded a com- FiG. 2 paratively light frost will kill them and that a temperature of 28° F. is nearly always fatal. Apple blossoms are more easily killed than are peach blossoms, although the peach crop is more often killed by spring frosts than is the apple crop. This is due, however, to the fact that peach trees usually bloom earlier in the season than do apple trees. Sometimes there is apparently a second crop of apple blossoms that appears after the first crop has been killed by frost. In many cases, however, the so-called second crop of blossoms is simply those blossoms that would normally have come out a little late. In other cases the late blossoms develop from those buds that formed in the axils of the leaves the previous year. G APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES .3;^,, 7. Frost Injury to Young Apples. — After the blossoms have fallen and the young apples have set, the fruit may not suffer from severe freezes. The claim has even been made by some observers that fruit shortly after it has set will not be seriously injured by being ^ frozen solid. Recovery ^k from such freezes certainly cannot always be the case, because it is a fairly well- established fact that the injury such as is shown on the young apples in Fig. 2 was caused by frost. Such apples often continue to grow, but the mature apples will show a russet, corky zone, as illustrated in Fig. 3. Other observers and investi- gators claim that very young apples, that is, apples imme- diately after the blossoms have fallen and the fruit is said to have set, are more easily injured by frost than are the blossoms. Newly-set apples are certainly very likely to be killed by a temperature of from 30° to 28° F. Fig. 3 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES §6 PREVENTION OF FROST INJURIES 8. More or less moisture always exists in the atmosphere in the form of an invisible vapor. When this invisible vapor is condensed by a falling temperature, clouds, or fogs, are formed; if the moisture in the clouds is further condensed at a temperature above the freezing point rain is formed; and if condensed at a temperature at or below the freezing point snow is formed. If the moisture of the atmosphere that is in imme- diate contact with the surface of the earth is condensed at temperatures above the freezing point, dew is formed, and if this moisture is con- densed at or below a freezing temperature frost is formed. Frost is, therefore, the moisture of the air condensed at or below 32° F. on the surface of the earth or on plants or other objects. 9. Prediction of Frost. — The conditions under which damaging frosts may occur are so nimierous and varied that it is very difficiolt to tell when frosts will occur and when they wiU not. However, frost may be expected during the HI I III ^^^^^ ^' ^^ nightfall, the dew point is 42° F. or less. The dew point is the temperature of the air at which dew is deposited. And when the dew point falls to 32° F. or lower, frost will occur. The dew point is determined by means of wet- bulb and dry-bulb thermometers and a specially prepared table known as a dew-point table. The most accurate kind of an instrument for the determina- tion of the dew point is shown in Fig. 4 (a), and is known as a sling psychrometer. This instrument consists of a wet- bulb and a dry-bulb thermometer, securely fastened to a §6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES support, which, in turn, is attached to a handle in such a way that the thermometers and their support may be whirled on one end of the handle. A case in which the sling psychrometer may be kept while not in use is shown in (6) . The bulb of one of the thermometers is covered with a thin piece of cloth and just before it is used this bulb is dipped in a cup of water and TABLE I DETERMINATION OF THE DEW POINT Difference in the Reading of the Dry- and Wet-Bulb Thermometers Degrees F. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ID II 12 13 14 15 Reading of Dry-Bulb Thermometer. Degrees F. 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 Degrees of Temperature F. at Which Dew is Deposited II 16 22 27 32 38 43 48 53 58 63 6 12 18 24 30 35 41 46 52 57 62 7 14 21 27 33 39 44 50 55 60 I 10 17 24 30 36 42 48 53 59 4 13 20 27 33 40 46 51 57 7 16 24 30 37 43 49 55 I II 20 27 34 41 47 53 5 16 24 31 39 45 51 II 20 28 36 43 49 4 16 II 4 25 21 17 II 5 33 30 27 23 18 12 40 38 35 32 28 24 47 45 42 40 37 34 69 67 66 64 62 61 59 57 55 53 51 49 47 45 42 the cloth covering thoroughly saturated; hence, the name wet bulb. Care must be used to avoid getting water on the naked, or dry, bulb. The instrument is then whirled rapidly for from 15 to 20 seconds and the temperature of the wet-bulb thermometer noted; the whirling and the noting of the tem- perature of the wet -bulb thermometer is repeated until the 248—18 8 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES § 6 temperature is the same at two consecutive readings. This temperature, unless the air is saturated, will be less than that of the dry-bulb thermometer, and the difference between the reading of the wet-bulb and that of the dry-bulb thermometer should be accurately determined. After these data are secured, the dew point may be determined by the aid of Table I as follows : If the temperature of the dry-bulb thermometer is 49° F. and the temperature of the wet-bulb thermometer is 41° F., the difference in temperature is 8° F. The dew point will be found in the table at the intersection of the horizontal row in which 8 occurs in the column of figures at the left side of the table and the vertical column headed by the number nearest the tempera- ture of the dry-bulb thermometer, 50°. The dew point in this case would be 31° F., and frost should be expected to occiu" that night. 10. Average Dates of tlie Occurrence of Frosts. Table II, which is taken from the United States Weather Bureau reports, shows the date of the latest recorded killing frost in spring, the date of the earliest recorded killing frost in autumn, the average date of the occurrence of the last killing frost in the spring, and the average date of the occurrence of the first killing frost in autumn at various points in different states in the United States. 11. Factors Affecting tlie Occurrence of Killing Frosts. — Certain factors such as the altitude, the latitude, the topography of the land, the position in relation to large or deep bodies of water, and the motion of the air all exert their influence on the occurrence of frosts in any locality. The humidity of the air is also a factor that exerts an influence on the occurrence of killing frosts. If the air is saturated, that is, if it contains all the moisture it will hold, there is little danger from frost so long as the temperature of the air remains above the freezing point. If the temperature is at or below the freezing point, a saturated atmosphere may retard frosts to a certain extent, but just how much is not known. The reason that saturated air may prevent injury from frosts is that evaporation of moisture from a plant takes place readily TABLE II DATES OF LATE SPRING AND EARLY AUTUMN FROSTS Station Alabama : Mobile Montgomery Arizona : Phoenix Yuma Arkansas : Fort Smith Little Rock California: Eureka Fresno Los Angeles Red Bluff Sacramento San Diego San Francisco San Luis Obispo . . Colorado : Denver Grand Junction. . . Pueblo Connecticut : New Haven District of Columbia Washington Florida: Jacksonville Jupiter Pensacola Tampa 9 Date of Latest Recorded Killing Frost in Spring Mar. 28 Apr. 5 Mar. 31 None Apr. 6 Apr. 14 May I Apr. 14 Apr. 8 Apr. 25 Apr. 26 None Apr. 20 Apr. 8 June 6 May 15 May 23 May 30 May II Apr. 6 Apr. 7 Apr. 6 Mar. 19 Date of Earliest Recorded Killing Frost in Autumn Oct. 31 Oct. 21 Nov. 9 None Oct. 15 Oct. 22 Nov. 7 Nov. 18 None Nov. 15 Oct. 28 None Nov. 18 Nov. 19 Sept. 12 Sept. 27 Sept. 12 Sept. 15 Oct. 2 Nov. 12 Nov. 18 Nov. 12 Nov. 28 Average Date of Last Killing Frost in Spring Feb. 24 Mar. II Feb. 18 None Mar. 4 Mar. 20 Apr. 2 Mar. 4 Apr. 8 Feb. 26 Feb. 16 None Jan. 8 Feb. 20 May 6 Apr. 14 Apr. 26 Apr. 20 Apr. 7 Feb. 14 Feb. 14 Feb. 23 Feb. 8 Average: Date of. First Killing- Frost in Autumn Nov. 30 Nov. & Dec. 7 None Nov. 4 Nov. 10 Dec. 8 Dec. 15 None Dec. 6 Nov. 15 None Dec. 26 Dec. 27 Oct. 5 Oct. 21 Oct. 5 Oct. 17 Oct. 21 Dec. 6 Dec. 29 Dec. 5 Jan. 9 TABLE H — (Continued) Station Georgia : Atlanta Augusta Macon Savannah . . . Illinois : Cairo Chicago Springfield . . Indiana : Evansville . . . Indianapolis . Iowa: Davenport . . Des Moines. Dubuque. . . . Keokuk Sioux City. . Kansas : Concordia. . . Dodge Topeka . . Wichita Kentucky : Lexington . . . Louisville . . . Louisiana : New Orleans Shreveport . . Maine : Eastport Portland Date of Latest Recorded Killing Frost in Spring Date of Earliest Recorded Killing Frost in Autumn Average Date of Last Killing Frost in Spring Apr. 15 Oct. II Mar. 24 Apr. 17 Oct. 8 Mar. 20 Apr. 18 Nov. 5 Mar. 15 Apr. 5 Nov. I Feb. 27 Apr. 19 Sept. 30 Mar. 29 May 29 Sept. 18 Apr. 18 May 22 Sept. 25 Apr. 20 Apr. 21 Sept. 30 Apr. 10 May 21 Sept. 21 Apr. 16 May 22 Sept. 18 Apr. 22 May 22 Sept. 12 Apr. 28 May 21 Sept. 27 Apr. 20 May 4 Sept. 18 Apr. 13 May 2 1 Sept. 13 May I May 19 Sept. 27 Apr. 24 May 27 Sept. 23 Apr. 17 May 19 Sept. 28 Apr. 8 May 15 Sept. 23 Apr. 6 May 20 Sept. 30 Apr. 18 May 14 Sept. 24 Apr. 6 Mar. 27 Nov. 19 Jan. 24 Apr. 2 Oct. 20 Mar. 4 June 19 Sept. 8 Apr. 28 May 31 Sept. II Apr. 14 Average Date of First Killing Frost in Autumn Nov. 7 Nov. 9 Nov. 14 Nov. 26 Oct. 28 Oct. 15 Oct. 16 Oct. 30 Oct. 19 Oct. 14 Oct. 8 Oct. 13 Oct. 15 Sept. 27 Oct. 14 Oct. 15 Oct. 13 Oct. 19 Oct. 23 Oct. 29 Dec. 15 Nov. II Oct. 12 Oct. 18 10 TABLE II — {Continued) Station Maryland : Baltimore Massachusetts : Boston Nantucket Michigan : Alpena Detroit Escanaba Grand Haven . . . . Marquette Port Huron Sault Ste. Marie. Minnesota : Duluth Minneapolis Moorhead St. Paul Mississippi : Meridian Vicksburg Missouri : Columbia Hannibal Kansas City Springfield St. Louis Montana : Havre Helena Nebraska : Lincoln North Platte Date of Latest Recorded Killing Frost in Spring Date of Earliest Recorded Killing Frost in Autumn Average Date of Last Killing Frost in Spring May 3 Oct. 6 Apr. 4 May II Sept. 30 Oct. I Apr. 26 Apr. 24 iVpr. 10 June 9 Sept. 6 May 14 May 31 Sept. 21 Apr. 30 June 16 Sept. 9 May 14 May 28 Sept. 23 Apr. 28 June II Aug. 22 May 15 June 6 Sept. 22 May 8 May 29 Sept. 5 May 16 June 8 Sept. 15 May 3 May 20 Sept. 13 Apr. 27 June 8 Aug. 25 May 14 May 25 Sept. 20 May 6 Apr. 10 Oct. 8 Mar. 20 Apr. 6 Oct. 19 Mar. 6 May 9 Sept. 28 Apr. 14 May 14 Sept. 30 Apr. 14 May 4 Sept. 30 Apr. 10 May 19 Sept. 30 Apr. 16 May 22 Sept. 30 Apr. 2 June 6 Aug. 27 May 14 June 9 Sept. 5 May 10 May 10 Sept. 12 Apr. 18 May 23 Sept. 10 May I Average Date of First Killing Frost in Autumn Nov. 4 Oct. 22 Nov. 5 Sept. 26 Oct. II Oct. I Oct. 10 Oct. 2 Oct. 9 Sept. 24 Oct. 5 Oct. 8 Sept. 22 Oct. 5 Nov. 2 Nov. 12 Oct. 15 Oct. 15 Oct. 24 Oct. 13 Oct. 27 Sept. 13 Sept. 25 Oct. 9 Sept. 28 TABLE II — {Continued) Station Nebraska — Continued Omaha Valentine New Mexico: Santa Fe Nevada: Winnemucca New Jersey : Atlantic City New York: Albany Binghamton Buffalo New York Oswego Rochester North Carolina: Charlotte Hatteras Raleigh Wilmington North Dakota: Bismarck Williston Ohio: Cincinnati Cleveland Columbus Sandusky Toledo Oklahoma : Oklahoma Date of Latest Recorded Killing Frost in Spring May 19 June 21 May 18 June 20 Apr. 25 Date of Earliest Recorded Killing Frost in Autumn Apr. 30 Sept. 18 Sept. 12 Sept. 27 Aug. 22 Oct. I May 30 Sept. 23 May 21 Sept. 16 May 29 Sept. 23 Apr. 30 Oct. 5 May 29 Sept. 25 May 30 Sept. 26 Apr. 26 Oct. 8 Apr. 19 Nov. 7 May 6 Oct. 8 May I Oct. 16 June 7 Aug. 23 June 10 Aug. 18 Apr. 24 Sept. 30 May 22 Oct. 2 May 17 Sept. 21 May 17 Oct. 8 May 29 Sept. 9 Average Date of Last Killing Frost in Spring Oct. 7 Apr. 15 May 9 Apr. 15 May 15 Apr. II Apr. 24 Apr. 27 Apr. 25 Apr. 10 Apr. 27 May I Apr. I Feb. 28 Apr. 5 Mar. 27 May 15 May 18 Apr. 14 Apr. 16 Apr. 16 Apr. 14 Apr. 24 Apr. 2 Average Date of First Killing Frost in Autumn Oct. 12 Sept. 18 Oct. 19 Sept. 24 Nov. 4 Oct. 17 Oct. 6 Oct. 16 Nov. 6 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Nov. 4 Dec. II Nov. 4 Nov. 15 Sept. 21 Sept. 14 Oct. 25 Oct. 31 Oct. 16 Oct. 26 Oct. 15 Oct. 31 12 TABLE H — (Continued) Station Oregon : Baker City Portland Roseburg Pennsylvania : Erie Harrisburg Philadelphia. . Pittsburg Rhode Island: Block Island . . Narragansett . . South Carolina: Charleston Columbia South Dakota: Huron Pierre Rapid City. . . Tennessee : Chattanooga. . Memphis Nashville Knoxville Texas : Abilene Amarillo Corpus Christi El Paso Fort Worth... Galveston Palestine San Antonio . . 13 Date of Latest Recorded Killing Frost in Spring June 24 May 9 May 16 May 17 Apr. 26 Apr. 29 May 29 May II May 30 Apr. 2 Apr. 17 June 8 May 19 May 21 May 14 Apr. 16 May 14 Apr. 24 Apr. 16 May 23 Mar. 19 Apr. 22 May I Mar. I May 30 Mar. 20 Date of Earliest Recorded Killing Frost in Autumn Sept. 4 Oct. 13 Sept. 25 Oct. 12 Oct. 3 Oct. 3 Sept. 25 Oct. 30 Sept. 21 Nov. 9 Oct. 19 Aug. 23 Sept. 12 Sept. 13 Sept. 30 Oct. 2 Oct. 8 Oct. I Oct. 24 Oct. Nov. 16 30 Oct. 23 Oct. 22 Dec. 4 Oct. 20 Nov. 9 Average Date of Last Killing Frost in Spring May 25 Mar. 17 Apr. 15 Apr. 22 Apr. 10 Apr. 8 Apr. 26 Apr. 12 Apr. 23 Mar. I Mar. 23 May 13 Apr. 30 May I Apr. 2 Mar. 24 Apr. 2 Apr. 3 Mar. 15 Apr. 16 Feb. 27 Mar. 20 Mar. 18 Feb. 5 Mar. 13 Feb. 25 Average Date of First Killing Frost in Autumn Sept. 27 Nov. 16 Oct. 30 Oct. 29 Oct. 24 Oct. 30 Oct. 19 Nov. 16 Oct. 16 Nov. 30 Nov. 8 Sept. 20 Sept. 30 Sept. 20 Oct. 26 Oct. 28 Oct. 24 Oct. 27 Nov. 15 Nov. I Dec. 25 Nov. 10 Nov. 19 Dec. 25 Nov. 13 Nov. 30 u APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES §6 TABLE II— (Continued) Station Utah: Salt Lake City. Vermont : Northfield Virginia : Lynchburg .... Norfolk Wytheville Washington : Seattle Spokane Tatoosh Island Walla Walla.. West Virginia : Elkins Parkersburg . . . Wisconsin : Green Bay. . . . La Crosse Madison Milwaukee Wyoming : Cheyenne Lander Date of Latest Recorded Killing Frost in Spring June 1 8 June 7 May 7 Apr. 26 May 26 May 27 June 8 Apr. 19 May 12 May 24 May 22 May 30 June I May 13 May 29 June 1 1 June 18 Date of Earliest Recorded Killing Frost in Autumn Sept. 22 Aug. 27 Oct. 4 Oct. 15 Sept. 14 Oct. 18 Sept. 7 Nov. I Sept. 28 Sept. 28 Sept. 24 Sept. 16 Sept. 21 Sept. 29 Sept. 25 Aug. 29 Aug. 23 Average Date of Last Killing Frost in Spring Apr. 23 May 13 Apr. 14 Mar. 27 Apr. 23 Mar. 21 Mar. 23 Mar. 14 Apr. 4 May 18 Apr. II Mays May 2 Apr. 21 Apr. 29 May 22 May 19 Average Date of First Killing Frost in Autumn Oct. 18 Sept. 16 Nov. I Nov. 12 Oct. 7 Nov. 22 Oct. 17 Dec. 15 Nov. 7 Oct. 10 Oct. 17 Oct. 4 Oct. 8 Oct. 17 Oct. 10 Sept. 16 Sept. II if the air is dry, and this evaporation lowers the temperature of the plant. If, however, the air is saturated, evaporation of moisture from plants cannot take place. The degree of protection will, of course, depend on the degree of saturation, or of humidity. § 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 15 12. Means of Preventing Frost Injuries. — ^In almost every section of the United States there is some danger of loss in the business of fruit growing from injuries to the fruit crop due to frosts. In fact, the killing of the fruit crop by frosts is an important factor in determining whether or not fruit growing in any locality will be a success. The preventing of a fruit crop from being killed by frost not only saves the value of the crop for the current year, but makes the fruit-growing industry in the community more stable and enables the business to be more easily carried on in succeeding years; because most, or at least some, fruit growers, desire to borrow money occasion- ally, and loans are more easily secured if the fruit growing business is a well-established industry in the community. 13. Mulching with such crops as winter vetch or rye grown in an orchard has a tendency to keep the soil cool, and by so doing may tend to retard the time of blooming. This action, however, is very slight, as it is largely the temperature of the twigs and buds and not that of the soil that determines the time of blooming. 14. Whitewashing of fruit trees may have the effect of slightly retarding their blooming period. However, the retardation is so little that the whitewashing of the trees for this purpose is not generally considered to be practical. The principle involved in the use of whitewash is that the white surface of the bark, twigs, and buds, after they are whitewashed, will not absorb the rays of the sun and consequently will not attain a temperature as high as the surrounding atmosphere. 15. Irrigation is used as a means of preventing frost injuries in irrigated regions when the temperature gets so low that frost is expected. The water used in irrigating gives off heat and usually prevents severe injury, provided the temper- ature does not go below 28° F. 16. Spraying of fruit plants with water is effective in preventing injury from frosts, but the spray must be applied as long as the low temperature continues. If the spray is stopped, the temperature of the plants is quickly reduced and 16 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES §6 wet plants will not stand without injury as low a temperature as dry plants. 17. Smudging, which is the burning of some material that will make a cloud of dense, moist smoke, is a means of preventing damage by frost. This is an old practice and is effective in preventing frost injuries where the conditions in and around the fruit plantation are such that a uniform, dense smudge can be retained as a blanket over the plantation until aU danger of frost is past. The fuel used should be of a kind that biHTLS slowly; it is claimed that better results will be obtained if damp fuel is used or if water is added to the fire so that a steam or vapor is formed than if the fire is allowed to blaze. Such material as damp leaves, old hay, straw, manure, sawdust, brush, grass, in fact, any slow-burning material may be used as fuel in the making of smudges. A mixture of 1 part of coal tar and 2 parts of sawdust has been recommended as a very desirable smudge fuel. The fuel should be on hand in the orchard so that the fires may be lighted as soon as indications of frost appear. Smudging is more often effective in preventing frost if the orchard is located on level land than if on a slope or on rolling land, because in the latter cases there are more likely to be air-currents, which prevent the smudge from settling like a blanket over the orchard. The principle involved in smudging is that the cloud of smoke and vapor acts as a blanket spread over the orchard and thus prevents the heat stored in the soil and in the trees of the orchard from radiating. 18. Orchard heating is warming the air of an orchard by means of fires kept burning at the time frost is likely to occur. Although this is an old practice, it has been gaining much favor in the past few years, and is now considered one of the most practical means of preventing frosts in orchards. The fuels used for orchard heating in the United States are the western oils, often spoken of as distillates, crude petroleum of the Mississippi Valley and the Eastern States, fuel oil obtained from the refining of petroleum, and coal, wood, straw, manure, and shavings; oil and coal are the important fuels used for the 6 APPLE PESTS. AND INJURIES 17 purpose. In burning, all of the fuels mentioned produce a dense, heavy smoke and in some sections the practice of orchard heating is known as smudging. If coal is used in orchard heating, it is generally necessary to have some sort of kindling to start the coal in the heaters, and it is also necessary to light the heaters a few hours before the temperature reaches the danger point; it is, however, impossible to know whether or not to light the heaters on some occasions. For this reason some grade of oil is most largely used for orchard-heating purposes, although coal may be used with success in regions where coal is relatively cheap and oil is relatively expensive. Wood may be burned in small heaps on the ground, but some kind of burners must be pro- vided if oil or coal is used as a fuel. The burners, or heaters, Fig. 5 in which the oil is burned are usually some form of galvanized- iron or of ordinary sheet -iron pots or vessels that will hold from 1 to 4 or more gallons of oil. The 2-gallon size is, probably, under most conditions, the most desirable size. A large num- ber of heaters for the burning of oil has been made with various shapes and devices that are supposed or claimed to make the heating more effective. Several oil-burning heaters are shown in Fig. 5, and a coal-burning heater is shown in Fig. 6. It is recommended that heaters of a simple form of construc- tion be used; that they be supplied with a lid that can be easily placed on the heater while the oil is burning and that 18 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 6 Fig. 6 cannot be blown off by the wind. The more desirable heaters are supplied with some appliance for reducing the burning surface, especially if the heater has a capacity of 2 or more gallons of oil. 19. The number of heaters required to pre- vent frost injuries to blossoms or very young fruit in an orchard will vary greatly, depending on the location of the orchard, the temperature, and the wind. If the orchard is protected from wind and has fair air drainage, fifty or sixty heaters to the acre may be sufficient. Experience indicates, however, that there should be in any orchard at least one heater for each tree and that an average of one hundred heaters to the acre is desirable. Also, the orchardist should have a torch for light- ing the oil in the heaters and a small gasoline can, such as the one shown in Fig. 7, from which a small quantity of gasoline may be placed on the oil in the heater to facilitate lighting. To be prepared to combat frost suc- cessfully by means of oil heaters the orchardist must provide for the storage of a sufficient quantity of oil for heating the orchard at least three times. The oil should be on hand before it is needed for the fighting of frosts. Assuming that 1^ gallons of oil is burned in each heater and that one hundred heaters are used per acre, it would require, therefore, 150 gallons of oil to the acre for each heat- ing of the orchard. Thus, for a 10-acre orchard it would be Fig. 7 ilil Wii ilii' ■ililfW"> 19 20 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES § 6 advisable to have on hand 4,500 gallons of oil; this should be stored in a large cement cistern or in large galvanized-iron tanks. In addition, there should be a good 400-gallon tank that could be readily mounted on a wagon and used for distributing the oil in the orchard. This tank should be equipped with one or two hose and nozzles, such as the outfit shown in Fig. 8. 20. The cost of the equipment necessary for fighting frost by means of heating the air will, of course, vary with the cost of labor and material. Approximately, the cost for the orchard-heating equipment for a 10-acre orchard may be siunmarized as follows : 1,000 orchard heaters $150 to $400 1 storage tank for oil 75 to 175 1 hauling tank 40 to 75 2 torches and gasoline cans 2 to 3 Total $267 to $653 The cement storage tank will last indefinitely, but the other equipment will, in time, have to be replaced. Therefore, in estimating the annual cost of the equipment for heating a 10-acre orchard, the depreciation of equipment should be considered. Assimiing that the permanent equipment other than the cement storage tank will last for 10 years, the annual cost of heating a 10-acre orchard may be summarized as follows : Depreciation of equipment $ 19.20 to $ 47.80 4,500 gallons of oil (usually less oil is used) . . 112.50 to 225.00 2 men placing and fill- ing heaters, 1 day $3.00 to $ 4.00 1 team placing and fill- ing heaters, 1 day 1.50 to 2.00 2 men lighting and tending heaters . . 3.00 to 4.00 Total for one heating $7.50 to $10.00 Labor for three heatings 22.50 to 30.00 Hauling oil from railroad station to farm .... 16.00 to 24.00 Approximate total annual cost for 10-acre orchard $170.20 to $326.80 Approximate total annual cost per acre $ 17.00 to 32.70 § 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 21 In addition to the equipment mentioned, a few good tested thermometers should be provided. It is necessary to have them tested, because thermometers of fair grade often vary from 2 to 5 degrees; such thermometers should be checked with some tested thermometer and the corrections, if any, made for each one. These thermometers may then be placed at various places throughout the orchard. There are on the market thermometers equipped with an alarm bell that rings when the temperature drops to a dangerous degree. These alarms cannot always be depended on; therefore, too much reliance should not be placed in them, however convenient they may be. 21. Heaters may be placed in an orchard and filled any time after the buds have begun to swell and are in danger from injury by frost; but they should be in place and ready for use before the time for their use occurs. They should be placed under the trees but not so near them that the trunks will be injured by the blaze from the burning oil. If coal is used as a fuel, a small quantity of kindling must be placed under the coal. The fires are lighted by means of a torch usually made of a bunch of waste fastened to the end of a wire and saturated with oil. This torch is lighted and placed, partly submerged in the oil heater, and immediately under the kindling in the coal heaters. If a small quantity of gasoline is poured on the surface of the oil from a small can firing takes place very quickly. The use of the gasoline, however, is dangerous unless care is exer- cised in using it. Its use should not be entrusted to children or to persons -who will not use care in keeping the gasoline can and the torch separated as far as possible. If a dangerous temperature is expected, one man should remain in the orchard during the night and carefully note the temperature as indicated by the thermometers. If a frost is imminent, other men should be wakened to help in lighting the heaters. During the heating the attendants should care- fully watch the rise or fall of the temperature and regulate the fires accordingly. If the temperature rises beyond the danger point, the fires shoiild be put out and thus save fuel. The :iiS'&^: ^M-, W' —^^....^^ i m£ ■ "^ '« l^ft"":/' ^ : ;T*f ■■ . ■ ■ " ■ 1- M- ■.>-:^-i.:y-"-: ■ - ; : 'J •;•"*■" '^ - /. « § 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 23 heaters may, if necessary, be refilled while they are burning by running oil into them through a hose attached to a tank, such as that shown in Fig. 8. An orchard in which the fires are burning is shown in Fig. 9. To prolong the usefulness of orchard heaters, they must be well cared for throughout the year. Most orchardists collect the heaters after all danger from frosts is past and store them in a shed in or near the orchard. Any shed or building that will keep out the rain and snow will answer this purpose. Other orchardists, after they have finished using their oil heaters for any season, fill them with oil and place them near the trunks of the trees. This method of storing saves time and does not necessitate so large a storage tank for oil as where the heaters are stored in a shed, and if the heaters are of galvanized iron and are provided with neatly fitting lids they will remain in good shape for several years. INSECTS AND DISEASES OF THE APPLE INSECTS AFFECTING THE APPLE 22. It is estimated that over $700,000,000 is annually lost from the work of insects in the United States. Probably no crop suffers greater from the ravages of insects than does the apple crop. It is estimated that in New York State alone an annual loss from the codling moth, including the expense of spraying, is at least $3,000,000. Although there are a great number of insects that may at times infest apple orchards, most of these insects are controlled by spraying the trees with an insecticide. It is important, therefore, that a fruit grower become acquainted with each of the more common apple insects and the means of combating them. 23. Apple-Tree Borers. — The apple tree is attacked by three species of borers, the round-headed apple-tree borer, the spotted apple-tree borer, and the fiat-headed apple-tree borer. 248^19 24 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES §0 Fig. 10 The adult round -lieaded apple-tree borer, shown in Fig. 10 (a), is a long-homed beetle with two white stripes down its back and is from f to neariy 1 inch in length. The adults vary a month or so in the time they emerge from the pupal stage, but they usually come out about the last of May. Due to the fact that the adiilts may emerge during a period of from 1 to 2 months, the eggs are de- posited during a period ex- tending for nearly 2 months from about the last of May. The eggs are pale rusty brown in color, |- inch long, about one-third as wide as long, and about one- third as thick as wide. They are deposited at night, usually in the bark of the trunk near the ground, but they are sometimes deposited higher up. A side view of the larva is shown in Fig. 10 (b) , and a view from above is shown in (c). During the first year after hatching these larvas, or borers, burrow into the sap wood and downwards. The second year a borer usually works more or less into the hard wood and upwards; the third year it gnaws out to the bark, where a cocoon is made and from which the adult emerges. It is, therefore, 3 years from the time an egg is deposited until the insect hatching from that egg develops and emerges as an adult. A single borer seldom kills a tree, but if several borers, as is often the case, are in one young apple tree, it is very likely to be killed. Another insect that closely resembles the round-headed apple-tree borer is the spotted apple-tree borer, the adult of which is illus- trated in Fig. 11. As may be seen by comparing Fig. 10 (a) with Fig. 11, the chief difference in the appearance between the round-headed and ^'^- ^^ the spotted apple-tree borers is that each of the two white stripes on the back of the former insect are represented by three white 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 25 spots on the latter insect. The eggs of the spotted apple-tree borer are laid in pairs about ^ inch apart along the trunk and large branches of the tree, and as soon as these eggs hatch the larvas, which in appearance can scarcely be distinguished from the larvas of the round-headed apple-tree borer, work in oppo- site directions around the branch. Like the round-headed apple- tree borer, the spotted apple-tree borer spends the first year in the sap wood, the second year in the hard wood, and the adult insect emerges the third year. The adiilt flat-headed apple- tree borer is illustrated in Fig. 12 (a) and the larva in (b). The adrdts are about | inch in length and appear during the spring, at about the time the adtdts of the round-headed apple- tree borer appear, and deposit their eggs diuing the daytime on the bark and limbs of the trees. The larvas of the fiat-headed apple-tree borer usually mine into the sap wood only. They hibernate on the approach of cold weather and in late spring form pupas within the infested trees. The adults emerge from the pupas and eat their way out. The work of the flat-headed apple-tree borer can be told from that of the round-headed apple-tree borers by the shape of the holes that they mine ; the hole of the round-headed apple- tree borer is round and that of the fiat-headed apple-tree borer is oblate. Fig. 12 24. Although apple-tree borers are not particularly numer- ous, they do exist in considerable numbers in some sections. And from the fact that they cannot be killed by spraying, their work seriously weakens the trees of apple orchards, and if they are not successfully combated they will eventually destroy many trees, especially young trees. The presence of the insects in the trees may be detected by the injured appearance of the bark near the ground. If the insects are in the tree, there may be present at the surface 26 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES § 6 of the bark sawdust-like cuttings of the borers; the bark may- present a dead, shriveled appearance; jelly-like secretions may be present on the surface of the bark; or it may present a bruised or injured appearance. Borers are combated by two general methods: (1) By pre- venting them from getting into the trees, and (2) by destroy- ing them after they get into the trees. The preventive method consists in attempting to keep the adult insects from depositing their eggs in the bark of the trees. This may be accomplished by placing mechanical barriers around the trees or by washing them with some solution that has a tendency to repel the insects. One of the most common barriers consists of from two to four thicknesses of newspaper loosely wrapped around the trunks of the trees. The paper should be tied in place by a cord, or string, that will yield or break with the expansion of tree as it grows. A small mound of earth should be thrown around the outside of the paper at the bottom of the trunk of the tree and the paper at the top of the trunk should be tied rather tightly with the string so that the beetle cannot get down behind the paper and obtain access to the tree. Wood veneer or wire netting may be used instead of the paper to place around the trees. That part of the trunk immediately above the wrapping and the lower limbs of the tree should be treated with some deterrent. A wash made by reducing soft soap or fish-oil or whale-oil soap to the consistency of thick paint by the addition of washing soda or of caustic soda in solution has been recommended as a successful repel- lant to the adult insects of the apple-tree borers. Clean cultivation around the trees is one of the best means of preventing injury from borers. Grass, weeds, or water sprouts should not be allowed to grow and accumulate around the base of the trees, as the accumulation of such material forms a suitable place for the insects to lay their eggs. If a tree is found that is injured beyond recovery it should be taken out and destroyed by fire, so that the larvas that it may contain will be killed before they have an opportunity to develop and infest other trees. The insects in slightly infested trees may be cut out and destroyed. 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 27 25. San Jose Scale. — The one insect that has probably caused more damage to apple orchards than any other insect is the San Jose scale. The insects proper are very small and yellowish in color. For a short time after their birth the young insects may be seen crawling about. They have six legs; and a head with eyes, antennae, and a long, thread-like beak through which they take their food. But in from 12 to 36 hours after their birth the young insects attach themselves to the bark, fruit, or leaves of a tree and secrete from their bodies waxy filaments. This waxy secretion soon forms a scale over the insect and it is this scale that the orchardist usually sees and not the insect proper, which, after the scale is formed, loses its legs, eyes, and anten- na, and only the thread-like beak and an anal plate are dis- tinct and these only under a high -power microscope. In fact, the insects become only masses of organ- ized protoplasm and present but little resemblance to the young crawling insects. The insects, when they attach themselves to leaves, fruit, and smooth young bark, cause a reddish color to appear around the scales, and their presence is usually easily recognized by this red-colored tissue. The immature San Jose scales are most easily recognized by orchardists, because the immature scales are circular, almost black, have a nipple-like prominence near the center of the scale, and the nipple is surrounded by one, two, or three depressed circular rings. A section of an apple limb that is Fig 13 28 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES § 6 infested with San Jose scale is shown magnified several times in Fig. 13. The reason that the San Jose scale is so damaging in an orch- ard is that the insects are very small and to unobserving per- sons are not noticed until they are present by the millions and the trees have begun to die from the damage done by the insects. It is estimated that there are from two to five and possibly more generations of the insects each year, and that the progeny of a single female insect in the latitude of Washington, D. C, may be almost three and one-quarter billion insects in a single year. It is easy to understand, therefore, why it is that a tree with only a few San Jose scale on it in the spring may be alraost covered with them by fall. On apple trees, San Jose scale usually infest the small twigs; rarely are the scales found on the thick, rough bark, and the leaves and fruit are infested only on very badly infested trees. The old scales are of a grayish color and in badly infested orch- ards the scales give a gray, ashy color to the limbs of the trees. San Jose scale is pretty generally distributed over the United States, and those sections where it has not been found have no assurance of immunity. There are several ways of distributing the pest, probably the most common of which is by means of nursery stock. Young trees should be purchased only from a nurseryman that can show a certificate of inspection. Orchardists should learn to recognize San Jose scale and to examine carefully each tree received from a nursery. During the crawling stage of the life of the insects, that is, from their birth until they attach themselves, they may crawl from tree to tree where the branches touch; the young insects may crawl onto the feet of birds and be carried several miles and crawl off onto another tree; the young insects may be blown from tree to tree by the wind; and they may also be distrib- uted on infested fruit, but this means of distribution is not considered to be of great importance. 26. If an orchard is found to be infested by San Jose scale, it should be sprayed thoroughly. The most popular spray is lime-sulphur, although miscible oils are used extensively. § 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 29 The miscible oils are less disagreeable to apply than lime-sul- phur but there is a slightly greater danger of injuring the twigs with the former than with the latter. Lime-sulphur of a specific gravity of about 1.03 should be applied in the fall soon after the leaves have fallen or in the spring before the buds begin to swell noticeably. If commer- cial brands of lime-sulphur are used, it is usually necessary to dilute 1 gallon of the concentrate solution with 9 gallons of water to secure a solution with a specific gravity of 1.03, but to insure the proper specific gravity of the spray mixture a hydrometer should be used. Although the spring spraying has been found a little more effective than the faU spraying, some orchardists recommend and practice fall spra3dng. The reason for this practice is that if anything should prevent the completion of the spraying during the fall the work could be finished in the spring, whereas, if something should prevent spraying the entire orchard in the spring, the spraying with a strong spray solution would have to go undone. However, lime-sulphur with a specific gravity of from 1.007 to 1.01 may be applied to the trees dur- ing the summer months without injury to the foliage and may check the increase of San Jose scale. Miscible oils are used principally as winter sprays in com- bating San Jose scale. Commercial brands should be used as directed by the manufacturer, but if home-made miscible oil is used it should be diluted from ten to twelve times, that is, from 9 to 11 gallons of water should be added to each gallon of miscible oil to make from 10 to 12 gallons of the emulsion, or spray. 27, Oyster-Shell Scale. — ^Perhaps the most common scale insect that is found in apple orchards is the oyster-shell scale, also known as the oyster-shell bark louse. The character- istic appearance of a part of an apple limb infested by this insect is illustrated in Fig. 14 (a), and a single female, with a section of the scale removed to show the eggs, is sho^vn enlarged in (b). The scales that cover the female insects are dark brown or grayish in color, about | inch in length, and shaped 30 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 6 somewhat like an oyster shell. The scales of the male insect are much smaller than those of the female. In the latter part of August the female insects lay from forty to one hundred small, reddish eggs; these remain over winter under the scale, and during the latter part of May hatch into small lice-like insects, which crawl out from under the scale and move slowly over the bark for a few hours, when they attach themselves to the bark and remain there for the rest of their lives. In the first molting, the insects lose their eyes, legs, and antennae, and immediately begin secreting the mate- rial of which the scale is formed. The females die soon after Fig. 15 laying their eggs, and, as there is only one brood in most parts of the United States, the oyster-shell scale does not multiply anything like so rapidly as the San Jose scale. As is the case with the San Jose scale, the oyster-shell scale insects may be carried from tree to tree during the period that they are crawling, by birds or by the wind. Although the oyster-shell scale is very widely distributed throughout the United States, it does not often occur in suf- ficiently large numbers to do great injury to orchards. How- ever, if orchards are neglected, oyster-shell scale may become somewhat serious. § 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 31 The same methods of control are recommended for the oyster-shell scale as for the San Jose scale, and if spraying is practiced for the destruction of San Jose scale little need be done for the oyster-shell scale. 28. Scurfy Scale. — Scurfy scale are illustrated in natural size in Fig. 15 (a). The larger scales are the females and the smaller scales are the males. An enlarged female scale is shown in (6) and a male scale in (c) . Scurfy scale, although very common in apple orchards, is not considered a serious pest ; in fact, it has never been reported to have caused serious damage to apple trees. The life history of the scurfy scale is practically the same as that of the oyster- shell scale, and the methods of control are also the same. 29. Codling Motli. — The insect that causes wormy apples is known as the codling moth. This insect exists in practically all parts of the world in which apples are grown. The mature codling moth, shown in Fig. 16, is about f inch across the ex- panded wings, which have some- what the appearance of grayish- brown watered silk, and emerges from 1 to 3 weeks after apples blossom. Within a few days after emerging the moths begin to deposit their eggs, most of them on the foliage of the tree. In from 5 to 10 days after being laid the eggs hatch into small whitish worms, or larvas, about yg i^ch long. If the eggs are hatched on the leaves, the larvas usually feed a little on the tender leaves and then crawl to the nearest apple. Most of the larvas enter the apples through the calyx, within which they feed for a short time and then eat their way into the core of the apple. Here the larvas usually consume a portion of the flesh of the apple and the apple seeds, and, becoming fully grown at from 3 to 4 weeks of age, eat their way out through the sides of the apples, leaving round exit holes. Full-grown larvas, which are about f inch long and are whitish or pinkish in color, find a convenient place to spin their cocoons in which they ^J*^ ■^. ;|i % 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 33 transform into pupas and usually emerge as mature moths in about 8 weeks from the time the eggs were laid. The charac- teristic appearance of the interior of an apple injured by codling moth larvas is shown in Fig. 17. Under certain conditions, a few of the larvas of the first brood hibernate during the winter, but in most parts of the United States only the larvas of the second brood of moths hibernate over winter. A rminber of cocoons are often found on the under side of a piece of bark as it is pulled from an apple tree. The larvas of the second brood of codling moth usually enter the apples from the side or from the stem end. 30. Codling moths are combated by the use of arsenical poisons and by destroying the hibernating larvas. All loose bark on the trunk of apple trees in an infested orchard should be removed from the trees and burned so as to destroy the larvas that may be attached to the under side of the bark. ft') X Fig. 18 As practically all the larvas of the first brood of codling moths enter the young fruit by eating through the blossom end, or calyx, of the apple, it has been found that the most effective way to kill the young larvas is to place poison in the calyx of 34 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES § G the youiig apples. As the calyx of the apple closes about 10 days after the blossoms faU, it is necessary to make the first spraying while the calyx of the young apple is open as shown in Fig. 18 (a). It is difficult, though possible, to force a spray into a calyx in the condition shown in (6), but it is too late to spray effectively for codling moth when the calyx has closed to the extent shown in (c). Sometimes the trees are treated with a spray in from 3 to 4 weeks after the blossoms fall, and with a third spraying in from 8 or 9 weeks after the blossoms faU to kill the larvas of the second brood. Therefore, to successfully combat codling moths, it is advisable that the orchardist spray the trees with an arsenical poison within a week or 10 days after the blossoms fall and again in from 2 to 3 weeks and a third time in from 4 to 5 weeks after the second spraying. The poison most often used is arsenate of lead. About 2 pounds of the paste form or 1 pound of the powder form are used to make 50 gallons of spray. About | pound of Paris green or 1 quart of stock solution of arsenite of lime may likewise be used to make 50 gallons of spray. It is a very com- mon and commendable practice to use 50 gallons of lime- sulphur solution with a specific gravity of from 1.007 to 1.01 with which to add the poisons mentioned. A lime-sulphur solution of the strength mentioned is usually obtained by adding from Ij to I5 gallons of a standard concentrate lime- srdphur solution to 50 gallons of water. However, if the codling moth alone is to be combated, the arsenical poisons may be added to water. 31. Lesser Apple Worm. — ^An insect that closely resem- bles the codling moth is the lesser apple worm, and as the work of the two insects are strikingly similar, the same m.ethods are used in combating them. 32. Apple Maggot. — A small, yeUo wish-white, footless maggot about ^ inch long when full grown and known as the apple maggot, or the apple railroad worm, is shown in Fig. 19 (a). The adult form of this insect is a blackish colored fly shown in (6). It is a little smaller than the common house fly and APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 35 may be distinguished from other flies that may be seen on apples by the four rather distinct black bands across each wing and by the three or four white bands across the abdomen. This insect causes much damage to summer and faU apples in the New England States and has been found in many other sections of the United States. The female fly deposits its eggs just beneath the skin of the apples ; sometimes twelve or fifteen eggs are deposited in a single apple and from 300 to 400 eggs are deposited during a season. The young larvas, or maggots, on hatching, immediately begin eating into the apple. They burrow around through the flesh of the apple, and if several of them are present in the same apple it is likely to be eaten Fig. 19 Fig. 20 full of small brownish burrows and present an appearance such as is shown in Fig. 20. The apple maggots reach fiill growth about the same time that the apple in which they are living ripens. Then the maggots work out of the apple, and, if in the orchard, work about 1 inch into the ground, where they pupate. If the apples are stored in a box the brownish pupas may be ■ found in the bottom of the box. As the apple maggot does all its eating entirely within an apple, there is no chance for the orchardist to poison this pest. However, a large part of the infested apples drop from the trees, and if these apples are gathered up and destroyed twice a week the damage of the apple maggot will not be great. If 3G APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 6 hogs are allowed to run in the orchard they will eat the fallen apples and thus destro}^ the maggots. Fig. 21 33. Plum Curculio. — In Fig. 21 is shown the plum cur- culio, which often gnarls and disfigures the apple by depositing its eggs on the inside and by eating small portions from the surface of the apple. The female beetle cuts a small hole in an apple and then deposits her egg, after which she cuts a crescent-shaped wound around the puncture. The characteristic crescent-shaped wound of the plrmi curculio is illustrated at a in Fig. 22. The scar caused by the beetle eating the apple is illustrated at b. The insects begin depositing eggs in the apples when they are not over j inch in diameter and con- tinue until August. The eggs hatch in from 4 to 6 days and the young larvas immediately burrow in the fruit, causing it to fall within a few days. The larvas mature in about 3 weeks and crawl from the apple and pupate in the ground or under rubbish and emerge in about 4 weeks as adult insects. Many of these insects hiber- nate during the winter and lay eggs the following year. In young orchards, where the trees are small, the in- sects may be jarred from the trees during the latter part of May and during June onto a sheet spread beneath the tree. This practice is suc- cessful only as long as the trees are small and easily jarred. Frequent sprayings with arsenical poisons reduces the injury but Httle. Probably the most effective method of combating the plimi curculio is to keep the orchard free from weeds and to cultivate it frequently during May and June. Fig. 22 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 37 Fig. 23 34. Apple Curculio. — In Fig. 23 (a) is shown the adult form of the apple curculio and in (b) the larval form. This insect is about J inch long and on the wing covers are four prominent humps. These insects lay their eggs in the apples for about 2 months after the blossoms fall. A scar on the fruit similar to that shown at a in Fig. 24 is caused by the insect deposit- ing an egg. The mature beetle eats sparingly of the apple and the scar caused *by its feeding is shown at b. The eggs hatch within a week after being laid and the larvas develop in about 3 weeks and pupate within the apple. The mature insects emerge in about 1 week after the larvas pupate. These insects eat very sparingly of the apples, hibernate during the winter among rubbish, grass, or leaves, and deposit eggs the following year. The methods of controlling the apple curculio are the same as those suggested for the plum curculio. However, the apple curculios eat so little of the apples that the spray- ing with arsenical poisons is practically useless. 35. Apple-Tree Tent Caterpillar. — The adult moth of the apple-tree tent caterpillar, shown in Fig. 25 (a) is of a reddish-brown color, and has two nearly parallel, oblique, light-colored bands across the front wings. These moths appear from May until July, depending on the latitude, and in from 5 to 6 weeks after apple trees blossom they deposit their eggs in clusters of from 200 to 300 eggs each. The eggs Fig. 24 38 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 8 are packed closely together in a grayish-brown, knot-like band around, or nearly around, a twig, as shown in (b). Each egg mass is covered with a frothy, glue-like material that gives a 'yMi^«^*wSiiLiL^. glistening surface to the entire mass. These eggs remain throughout the summer and winter and hatch the next spring just about the time the leaf buds are expanding. The young larvas soon begin to feed on the opening buds and leaves, and, § 0 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 39 working in colonies, they pass down the twigs to a fork, where they spin a silken web, or tent, as shown in (c) . The caterpillars live in their silken tent during the night and stormy weather, but if the day is clear they crawl out to eat. The tent is enlarged from day to day as the caterpillars increase in size. A tent with several one-third grown caterpillars is shown in (d). A full grown caterpillar, as shown in (e), is about 2 inches long and is black in color ; it has a white stripe down its back, a pale, oval, blue spot on each side of each segment of the body, and is sparsely covered with yellowish hairs. When fiill grown the caterpillar seeks some sheltered place, spins around itself a thin cocoon of tough white silk, transforms to the pupa, and in about 3 weeks emerges as a mature moth. The apple-tree tent caterpillar may be effectively combated by spraying the trees just before they blossom with a spray containing | poimd of Paris green or from 2 to 3 pounds of arsenate of lead in each 50 gallons of spray solution. Or, the insects may be destroyed by applying a torch to their nests during a cloudy or cold day. 36. Fall Web Worm. — ^A caterpillar that is often mistaken for the apple-tree tent caterpillar is the fall web worm. This caterpillar is so named because it spins a large web over the twigs and foHage on which it feeds. The web of the fall web worm is distinguished from that of the apple-tree tent cater- pillar in that the web of the latter is always woven aroimd a fork of a small limb and does not include foliage in its meshes, and the web of the former is always spun over the leaves on which the caterpillars live, as shown in Fig. 26 (a) . The mature moth, shown in (6), is from 1 to 1| inches across the expanded wings, is white or white with a ntimber of black spots, and emerges late in June or in July. These moths lay eggs in clusters of from 400 to 500 eggs each on the leaves of the trees. The eggs hatch in about 10 days, and the young caterpillars begin spinning a web over the foliage on which they feed. The young caterpillars appear to be nearly all head and hair, but the full grown caterpillars, two of which are shown in (c), are about 1 inch long, somewhat woolly, and are thickly covered 248—20 40 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 6 with long hairs, some black and some white, that project from numerous black or black and yellowish tubercles. In color, the caterpillars vary from light yellow to almost black. They become full grown in from 4 to 6 weeks and seek a secluded spot, where they spin a cocoon in which they spend the winter in the pupal stage and emerge as mature moths in June or Jtdy. In some parts of the United States there seems to be two broods Fig. 26 of the fall web worm. The first brood of moths appears in April and May, and the second brood in August and September. Spraying with any of the sprays recommended for the codling moth when the young caterpillars first appear will prevent the fall web worm from doing much damage. In fact, if sprays have been applied in combating the codling moth, but little trouble will develop from the fall web worm. 37. Canker Worms. — One of the most important of the leaf-eating caterpillars that attack apple trees is the canker worm. There are two species of this worm, the spring canker 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 41 worm and the fall caiiker worm. The female of both species is wingless, as shown in Fig. 27 (a). The moths of the spring species emerge from the ground and crawl up the trunks of the trees. This occurs from January until May, but usually during March and April. Here they lay their eggs in irregular masses. The eggs, in about 1 month, hatch into caterpillars that are cominonl}^ known as measuring worms or as loopers. The young caterpillars at first eat holes through the leaves, but the full-grown caterpillars, one of which is shown in (6), devour the entire leaves. The caterpillars have, in addition to three pairs of true legs, one pair of prolegs, or leg-like appendages, near the rear of the body with which they hold to a twig. The caterpillars, especially the young ones, Fig. 27 have the habit of suspending themselves on fine threads of silk from trees. The caterpillars become full grown in 4 or 5 weeks and enter the soil, where they pupate and remain until they emerge the following spring as mature moths. The faU canker worms differ from the spring species in that the mature moths emerge from September to December and lay their eggs, which do not hatch until the following spring; that the eggs are laid in clusters of about one himdred each and are deposited in straight rows; and that the caterpillars have two pairs of prolegs. Orchards that are cultivated annually or that are sprayed annually for codling moth are seldom troubled with canker worms. Wherever canker worms are troublesome, however, they should be combated by preventing the female moths from climbing up the trees to deposit their eggs, or the caterpillars. 42 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES () while they are feeding on the leaves, may be poisoned by spray- ing with any of the arsenical sprays that have previously been recommended for combating the codling moth. The female moths may be trapped as they crawl up the trunks of the trees by placing a band of some sticky substance, such as tanglefoot fly paper, around the trees. 38. Yellow-Necked Apple Caterpillar. — During late simimer the tips of apple-tree limbs are sometimes defoliated by Fig. 28 a cluster of yellow-necked apple caterpillars, such as shown in Fig. 28 (a). That part of the caterpillar immediately back of the jet-black head and commonly spoken of as the neck is of a § 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 43 bright orange-yellow color; it is from this yellowish-colored band that the insect, gets its name. If one of these caterpillars is touched or if the limb to which it clings is jarred the insect raises its head and tail in the air and holds on to the limb by means of its abdominal prolegs. The characteristic position assumed is shown in Fig. 28 (b) . If the colonies of these caterpillars are abundant it is best to spray the trees with an arsenical poison, say 3 pounds of arse- nate of lead to 50 gallons of water. If only a few colonies are to be destroyed, this can best be accomplished by swabbing the cater- pillars off the limb with a rag or a handful of waste saturated with kerosene, or the tip of the limb on which the insects are clustered may be cut off and the caterpillars crushed or burned. 39. Red-Humped Apple Caterpillar. — ^A species of caterpillar whose habits are very similar to the yellow-necked apple caterpillar is shown in Fig. 29 and is known as the red-htmiped apple caterpillar. The caterpillar received its name on account ^ „„ Fig. 29 of the red hump made by the fourth segment of its body. This hump and the head of the insect are of a bright coral red and makes its identification comparatively easy. The same measures are recommended in combating the red- humped apple caterpillar as for the yellow-necked apple cater- pillar. 40. Brown-Tailed Moth. — In some of the New England States the brown-tailed moth is very destructive to apple orchards. The moth, which emerges during midsummer, is white except at the tip of the abdomen, which is in the form of a tuft, or bru-sh, and has a golden-brown color. Egg masses consisting of from 300 to 400 eggs are deposited late in Jrdy, usually on the terminal leaves of the branches, and are covered with fine, brown hairs from the tip of the abdomen of the female u APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 6 moth. The eggs hatch in about 3 weeks from the time they were laid and the young larvas feed on the surfaces of the leaves, but do not eat the web -like framework of the leaves. The young cateipillars soon begin to bind adjoining leaves together, and by fall have several leaves completely siuroimded by a tough web and firmly fastened to a twig. This leaf nest, if viewed from a little distance, presents the appearance of a couple of dead leaves. The interior of the nest consists of from forty to sixty small pellets of silk, in each of which are wrapped from three to twelve young caterpillars. The caterpillars come out of their winter nest at the time the buds open in the spring and feed Fig. 30 on the unfolding foliage. The caterpillars mature in from 5 to 6 weeks and pupate in white silk cocoons spim among the leaves of the tree, and emerge as mature moths in about 3 weeks. Control of the brown-tailed moth consists in pruning off and burning all winter nests and in spraying with about 4 pounds of arsenate of lead in 50 gallons of water about the time the eggs hatch. 41. Gipsy Moth. — In the United States the gipsy moth is, so far as known, confined to the New England "States, but it is a serious pest and there is danger of its spread into other states. The male moth, shown in Fig. 30 (a), is of a brownish-yellow to greenish-brown color; it is about 1| inches across the 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 45 spreaded wings, and flies during the day with a peculiar zigzag flight. The female moth, shown in (b), is neariy white with numerous black spots; she has a wing expanse of about 2 inches, but fortunately is unable to use her wings for flight; and, in a few days after emerging lays, on the bark of the trees, from 400 to 500 eggs in a mass covered with yellowish hairs from her body. In the following spring, about the first of May, the eggs hatch, and the caterpillars live on the foliage of the trees until about midsummer, when they pupate. The pupal stage lasts only about 10 days. The mature caterpillar, shown in (c) Fig. 31 (c), is of a dusty, sooty color, and has a pair of blue spots on each of the first five segments of its body and a pair of red spots on each of the next six segments. The caterpillars are readily distinguished by means of these blue and red spots. To control the gipsy moth in the apple orchard, the egg masses should be painted in winter with creosote and the trees sprayed in the spring when the eggs are hatching with 5 pounds of arsenate of lead in 50 gallons of spray solution. 42. Tussock Moths. — The tussock moths are common pests of shade trees, and where they are abundant the cater- pillars prove to be destructive of foliage on apple trees. In 46 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 6 Fig. 31 (a) is illustrated the mature caterpillar of the willow tussock moth ; in (b) is shown the caterpillar of the rusty tussock moth, the most common and injurious of the tussock moths; and in (c) is shown the caterpillar of the white-marked tussock moth. Tussock moths emerge from the middle to the last of June. The females are wingless and bear no resemblance to the winged male moths; in fact, the females look more like fat spiders than moths and usually lay their eggs on the cocoons from which they emerge. These eggs hatch early in July and the cater- pillars mature during the late summer and pupate and emerge as mature moths during the fall. The female moths of this second brood lay eggs that remain over winter and hatch about the first of May, thus making two complete broods each year. The destruction of egg masses during the winter months Fig. 32 and spraying as for the codling moth or for the gipsy moth will prevent serious damage from tussock moths. 43. Climbing Cutworms.- — A dozen or more species of cutworms make a practice of climbing apple trees and other fruit plants at night, feeding on the opening buds and young tender foliage, and then returning to the soil, where they remain in hiding during the day. Because these insects work during the night only, the first knowledge that an orchardist may receive of their presence is that certain young trees fail to put forth leaves or that young foliage from a whole branch or of an entire tree suddenly disappears. Three of these cutworms are shown in Fig. 32. When the presence of cutworms is sus- pected the orchardist should visit the trees at night with a dim §'6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 47 light and he may be able to see the pests at work. The climb- ing cutworms are usually most numerous when the orchard is in sod or when the sod has been plowed under just before the planting of the trees. To prevent attacks from cutworms, the soil in which the young trees are to be planted should be plowed late in the fall the year before the young trees are planted. When the pests are very numerous they may be poisoned by spraying the trees with almost any of the arsenical sprays that have been recom- mended for combating other caterpillars. 44. Bud Moth. — As the buds of apple trees begin to swell and to open they are sometimes attacked by small, dirty white Fig. 33 caterpillars from i to | inch in length. These young cater- pillars make a nest for themselves by spinning a fine web around the unfolding leaves, causing them to assume a crumpled condition, as shown in Fig. 33. The caterpillars attain full size, which is about | inch long, during the early part of summer, when they pupate in small, silk-lined nests, from which the moths emerge in about 10 days. The moths 48 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 6 soon lay their eggs, which hatch in a few days and the young caterpillars feed on the under side of leaves until fall, when they spin on the twigs small silken cases in which they spend the winter; they finish their growth in the following spring. A solution of 5 pounds of arsenate of lead and 50 gallons of water sprayed on the trees just as the buds are bursting and again just before the trees blossom will destroy the caterpillars of the bud moth. 45. Pistol Case Bearer. — An interesting little cater- pillar that, in some sections, is a destructive pest in apple orchards, is shown enlarged several times in Fig. 34 (a) ; in (&) are shown several of the peculiar pistol-shaped cases in which the caterpillars live and in which they move from place to place on the twigs and leaves. The partly grown caterpillars are about I of an inch long; they hibernate during the winter and early in the spring feed on the unopened buds and young leaves, but later devour the entire leaves except the large veins and the midribs. The caterpillars become full grown, or about I inch long, during early simimer, when they attach their silken cases to twigs and pupate. In about 10 days the moths emerge 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 49 and lay their eggs on the under surfaces of the leaves. The eggs hatch within a few days and the very young caterpillars at first eat the tissue between the surfaces of the leaves. The pistol case bearer can be effectively controlled by spray- ing with an arsenical poison just before the buds open and again as soon as the leaves are out. 46. Cigar Case Bearer. — In Fig. 35 (a) is shown the caterpillar of the cigar case bearer, an insect whose habits and life history are practically the same as those of the pistol case bearer. The cigar case bearer has received its name on account of the resemblance of its covering case to that of a very small cigar. In (b) is shown the effects of the cigar case bearers and also several of the cases on the partly eaten leaves. Cigar case bearers are controlled by the same methods as the pistol case bearer. 50 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES §6 47. Fruit-Tree Leaf Roller. — ^An insect that sometimes causes a very great loss to the apple crop in some parts of the United States is the fruit-tree leaf roller. The moths emerge, usually during June, and lay their eggs in a mass on a twig or small limb and completely cover the eggs with a gimimy-like, brown substance that protects them from the weather. These egg masses remain on the trees until the latter part of the fol- lowing spring, when they hatch. An egg mass in which a part of the eggs have hatched and the young caterpillars have eaten out through the gummy covering is shown in Fig. 36 (a). The Fig. 36 caterpillars, one of which is shown in (b), are of a light straw color, with the head and first segment of the body sometimes almost black. The young caterpillars spin a few fine silk threads around a few leaves, drawing them into more or less of a loose cluster inside of which the young pests feed. As soon as the fruit has set, a caterpillar draws a few leaves around an apple and then feeds on the apple. It is by eating the young apples that the caterpillars cause the greatest loss. The fruit-tree leaf roller can be successfully combated by spraying the trees with a solution made by adding 4 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water. G APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 51 48. Apple Leaf Miner. — ^A very small caterpillar, known as the apple leaf miner, has occasionally caused considerable damage to apple orchards in certain parts of the United States. A small moth about ^ inch across its expanded wings deposits its eggs on the under side of apple leaves during April and May. The eggs hatch in about 10 days and the young caterpillars eat their way from the eggs directly into the leaves, where they live by eating small trumpet-shaped mines between the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves. An apple leaf, showing the character- istic mines of the apple leaf miner, is illustrated in Fig. 37. The caterpillars become full grown, or about I inch long, in about 3 weeks, when they pupate within the leaf. There are usually two and some- times iour or five generations a year. The caterpillars of the last brood pass the winter in the leaves, and because of this fact the most effective way to destroy the apple leaf miners is to collect and burn all apple leaves in the fall or to plow them under. 49. Apple-Tree Buccula- trix. — The larva, or caterpillar, of the tiny moth known as the apple-tree bucculatrix sometimes does considerable damage to apple trees by mining, or eating, practically all the tissue of the leaves except the upper sur- face. The caterpillars are scarcely ever more than I inch long, but when they occtu in large numbers the white cocoons, which are about | inch long and in which the caterpillars pupate, almost cover the twigs. There are usually two broods a year; the caterpillars of the second brood remain on the tree all winter in the little white cocoons. ■ Fig. 37 52 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES § 6 Spraying the trees during the winter with a lime-sulphur solution of a specific gravity of 1.03 will kill the hibernating pupas, and the arsenate-of-lead spray recommended for the codling moth will kill the caterpillars as they are eating the leaves. 50. Palmer Worm. — An insect that makes very irregular appearances in apple orchards is the palmer worm. These so-called worms, which, when full grown are about | inch long, are the caterpillars of smaU ashen colored moths. The cater- pillars vary in color from flesh to yellow, are tinted with green, and are sparsely covered with fine hairs. They appear in large numbers and at long intervals; sometimes as many as 50 years elapse between their appearances. They eat all the soft tissue of the leaves. When use is made of an arsenical spray as in combating the codling moth, little damage to an apple orchard will follow the appearance of the palmer worms. 51. Brown Mite. — The presence of brown mites, also known as clover mites, in an apple orchard is indicated by a sickly, faded appearance of the leaves. Although the mites feed on the leaves, they deposit their egg's on the twigs and limbs, and if the mites are particularly abundant their eggs often cause the twigs to present a red color, especially during the winter. Probably the best method of combating brown mites is to spray the trees during winter with lime-sulphur, of a specific gravity of 1.03, which will destroy the mite eggs. 52. Woolly Apple Aplils. — A very serious insect to young apple trees and apple trees in an unthrifty condition is a small plant louse known as the woolly apple aphis. The name woolly aphis was, no doubt, given to this insect from the fact that a bluish-white, cottony, waxy mass is secreted in threads from the abdomen of the insect. This cottony, or wool-like, secretion gives a colony of the insects a bluish-white, or mold-like, appear- ance. The life history of this insect is peculiar in many respects, and an understanding of its life enables orchardists better to combat the insect. The colonies are largely composed of 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 53 mature, wingless females, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 38 (a) . This form of the insect appears throughout the summer months and produces from two to twenty young wingless females each day; these mature in from 8 to 20 days and begin giving birth to young. In the fall, the wingless females produce a brood of winged females, one of which is shown in (6) . These winged females migrate to other trees and give birth to from four to six wingless males and females. The sexual male insect is shown in (c) and the sexual female insect in (d). The mouth parts of the sexual forms are very poorly devel- oped, and neither the male nor the female takes any food. They mate, however, and the female lays a single large black egg, which is usually deposited under a loose piece of bark somewhere on the lower part of the trunk of the tree. The female with the large egg extruded, but still attached to her body is shown greatly enlarged in (e) . This egg hatches in the 54 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES early spring into a wingless female like that shown in (a), thus completing the life cycle of the insect. The woolly apple aphis lives both on the limbs and on the roots of apple trees. It is most often found on young green twigs of the trees such as water sprouts and on the leaves and in wounds. A colony of these insects is shown in Fig. 39 (a) on a twig and in a wound in the bark of a small apple tree. Whenever these insects are found on the trunk and limbs of a tree, they are almost sure to be on the roots also, and it is Fig. 39 on the roots that the most damage is done. Roots of young apple trees infested with the woolly apple aphis develop knot- like galls, and if not relieved from the sucking of the insects, the roots will eventually die. As soon as a root dies the insects move to a fresh root, so that the absence of the insects on a badly galled root does not indicate that the insects have left the tree, but that they have simply moved to some other root. The galls, or knots, caused by the woolly apple aphis are shown in (6). 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 55 53. The insects on the twigs and fohage can be destroyed by spraying with a 7-per-cent. solution of kerosene emulsion, that is, a mixture of 1 gallon of the kerosene emtilsion and about 13 gallons of water; with miscible oil diluted from 30 to 40 times; with tobacco extract or decoction, diluted accord- ing to the directions on the package; or with a solution of 1 pound of whale-oil soap and 6 gallons of water. A winter spray of lime-sulphur of a specific gravity of 1.03 is effective in destroying any hibernating in- sects and the eggs. The insects on the roots of trees are not so easily killed as those on the twigs and foliage. It is recommended that the earth for a depth of from 4 to 5 inches and for a radius of about 2 feet around each tree be removed and from 1 to 5 pounds of tobacco dust, from 2 to 3 gallons of a 10-per-cent. kerosene emulsion, or a dilute tobacco extract be sprinkled over the area from which the earth was removed. The earth should then be re- placed. 54. Green Apple Aphis. In Fig. 40 is illustrated an apple twig that shows the character- istic effect of the common green apple aphis, or green apple louse. enlarged, is shown in Fig. 41 (a), and a colony is shown on the under side of a leaf in (b) . The insects feed usually on the under surface of the leaves, causing them to curl and crinkle and finally to drop off, but the insects also attack the tender tips of grow- ing shoots, especially grafts and water sprouts. The injury 248—21 Fig. 40 One of these insects, much 5G APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES §6 caused by the insects is mostly confined to young trees, but where they are excessively abundant the foliage of old trees and the young fruit may be injured. The latter will become stunted and misshapen. The first brood of the green apple aphis appears just before the leaf buds open. This brood is hatched from eggs that were laid the previous fall on the twigs, especially in forks, around the buds, and leaf scars. All the insects of this first brood are wingless females. They develop and give birth in about 6 weeks to the second generation of females, which are generally wingless. Each female gives birth to from fifty to one hun- dred young. The insects of the third generation, which appear in about 6 weeks after the second generation, usually develop Fig. 41 wings and migrate to other trees in the immediate vicinity. All the insects that are bom during the summer are females, but as soon as cool weather approaches in autumn, both males and females are bom, and the females lay the eggs from which the first brood is hatched in the spring. During the late fall all the insects are killed by cold. The same methods of control are applicable for the green apple aphis as for the woolly apple aphis above the surface of the soil. 55. Miscellaneous Aphides Affecting Apple Trees. Besides the woolly and the green apple aphis, which are espe- cially apple-tree pests, there are several species of aphides that at times prove injurious to apple trees. Among these occa- sionally injurious pests are the rosy apple aphis, the European 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 57 grain aphis, and the clover aphis. In respect to their effect on apple trees, these insects resemble very much the green apple aphis, but they vary in respect to color and character. The methods of combating them are the same as those recom- mended for the woolly apple aphis. 56. Leaf -Blister Mite. — ^Within recent years a micro- scopic mite known as the leaf -blister mite has attacked apple foliage. Leaf -blister mites, which are not more than to o" inch Fig. 42 in length, pass the winter in the buds, but on the arrival of wann weather they emerge and as the leaves unfold the mites burrow into them and feed on the tender tissue. Although the mites are too small to be easily seen by the unaided eye, their presence in the leaves is readily recognized by the reddish blisters that form on the young leaves. These blisters later turn almost black and present a corky appearance. If the mites are espe- cially numerous, a large number of the leaves may fall and the mites will attack the young apples. An apple twig on which 58 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES P) both the leaves and fruit are infested by the leaf-bHster mite is shown in Fig. 42. Leaf-bhster mites are kept under control by spraying as soon as most of the leaves have fallen in the autumn or just as the leaf buds begin to swell in the spring, with a 10-per-cent. kerosene emulsion, with miscible oil, or with lime-sulphur used the same as in combating San Jose scale. If an infestation of the mites is very serious, both the fall and the spring spraying are recom- mended; ordinarily, either spraying will be sufficient. 57. Buffalo Treeliopper. — The curious-looking insect illustrated in Fig. 43 (a) and known as the buffalo treehopper Fig. 43 is often the cause of considerable damage to small limbs of the apple tree. It is green in color and about f inch long. Buffalo treehoppers damage the small limbs of apple trees by depositing their eggs in two characteristic, curved wounds in the limbs from early in August imtil killing frost occurs. From six to twelve eggs are placed in each slit, or wound, and each female insect may make several of the double wounds. The bark 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 59 between the curved slits is cut entirely loose when the eggs are deposited and soon dies. If the wounds are numerous, as is shown on the twig illustrated in (6), the twig is necessarily badly stunted and may die. The eggs hatch during May and June, and the nymphs, or young insects, feed on all kinds of succulent vegetation. The orchards that suffer worst from the egg-laying injuries of these little pests are those that are grown up in weeds. To prevent the buffalo treehopper from causing any con- siderable damage to an orchard, all weeds should be kept cut down and trees that are badly injured by the insects should be well pruned and the limbs that are removed should be burned. 58. Periodical Cicada. — In Fig. 44 (a) is shown the mature periodical cicada, commonly known as the seventeen- year locust. In (b) is illustrated the skin cast by the full grown Fig. 44 nymph. Large ntimbers of the adults appear during May and June of every seventeenth year, although a few may appear during the sixteenth year, when large numbers of the nymphs may be found near the surface of the groimd. In about 3 weeks after the appearance of these insects the females begin deposit- ing their eggs in the trunks of small trees and in the small limbs and twigs of large trees. The female makes a wound in the wood in which she deposits several eggs; it is claimed that each one deposits from 300 to 500 eggs. The damage done to an orchard by these insects is caused by these wounds. The GO APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 6 effects of such wounds are shown in Fig. 45. On small branches the wound causes the branch to die from the point of the wound to the tip, and on large limbs the scars caused by the wounds are points of attack for borers and the wooly apple aphis. The adult cicadas do not eat but suck the juices of plants. It is, therefore, impossible to poison them. Many of the mature nymphs of the cicadas will be destroyed during April and May of the year that they are known to be due to appear, if hogs are allowed to run on land that is known to be infested by the cicadas. Young orchards should not be planted dur- ing the year or two just previous to the year that cicadas are to emerge in that vicinity; neither should budding, grafting, or pruning be practiced the year before they are to emerge. In July all twigs in which cicada eggs have been de- posited should be pruned off and burned. 59. Fruit-Tree Bark Beetle. In Fig. 46 (a) is shown, magnified many times, a little black beetle about ^ inch long known as the fruit-tree bark beetle and also as the shot-hole borer. The latter name has been given to the insect from the fact that the larva, which is shown in (6) , riddles the bark of infested branches with small holes, such as are shown in the upper part of (c). The lower part of (c) shows the galleries of the fruit-tree bark beetle as they appear under the bark of an infested apple twig. Three or four generations of these insects probably occur each year. In combating the fruit-tree bark beetle, it is recommended that all badly infested branches and even small trees that are Fig. 4.5 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 61 badly infested should be cut out and burned. The trees should be ciiltivated and placed in a healthful, growing condition, because the insects attack injured, dying, or dead trees. 60. Apple-Tree Pru- ner. — ^A long-homed, brown- ish beetle varying in length from I to f inch appears dur- ing June or July and deposits its eggs in small twigs. The larva, upon hatching, works its way down the small twig until it reaches a larger branch, from which it gnaws away so much wood that the first wind breaks off the twig. The larva then completes its development in the severed twig. This insect is comparatively easy to keep in control by simply gathering all broken twigs that may be found in the orchard during the autimm and burning them. Fig. 46 APPLE DISEASES 61. There are a number of diseases common to apples in most sections that are very serious, and a larger niimber that are less serious and are controlled by the same treatments that control the most important diseases. In sections where apple growing is a comparatively new industry, apple orchards may be reasonably free from diseases, but in most sections where the climate is suitable the diseases are likely to be intro- duced before apple growing has been carried on very long. Therefore, to grow apples successfully, the orchardist must learn to combat the diseases that attack the apple tree and its fruit. 62 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES §6 The effect of disease cannot be remedied ; that is, the leaves or fruit cannot be cured of disease after it has become estab- lished in the fruit or leaves. The only possible method of combating disease is by preventive measures; that is, by measures to prevent the growth on the fruit or leaves of the organisms that cause disease. The most important preventive measure is spraying with some substance that is sufficiently toxic to fungus or bacteria to prevent their growth and yet not seriously injure the foliage or fruit. The only other available method of fighting disease is by destroying injured parts so that there will be no source of infection. 62. Bitter Rot. — The most destructive apple disease in the leading apple-growing districts is claimed by many author- ities to be bitter rot, also known as ripe rot, and as apple Fig. 47 Fig. 48 anthracnose. The first two names are somewhat misleading, as the disease does not always cause the affected apple to become bitter, nor does the disease attack ripe fruit only; twigs and limbs are sometimes affected. The early stages of the disease are shown by small brown spots in the tissue of the apple just beneath the skin. As the disease advances these spots become larger and appear § 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 63 on the surface of the apple as soft, usually wet, brown, tan, or black, circular, rotten spots. As soon as the spots have attained a size of about | inch in diameter the center portion of the circle is sunken and the rotten part develops rapidly. That part of the fruit near the rotten spot is usually bitter, and it is this character that has caused the disease to be named bitter rot. The early stage of bitter rot is shown in Fig. 47. As the rotten spots increase in size, their surfaces become somewhat shriveled and wrinkled, as shown in Fig. 48, and near the center of the affected area appear very small spore-bearing pustules barely visible to the eyes without the use of a magnifying glass. X .'•v^ %- Fig. 49 Diseased apples usually fall from the tree, but sometimes an apple affected by bitter rot may remain on the tree and become dried and wrinkled, as that shown in Fig. 49. These dried and wrinkled apples are sometimes known as mummies. Bitter rot also attacks twigs and young branches, causing cankers, or rough spots, on the bark, as is sho^vn in Fig. 50. The first stages of bitter rot usually appear during Jtdy and August, but under exceptionally favorable conditions, such as sultry, warm, rainy weather, and in the southern part of the apple-growing section the disease may appear much earlier. During warm, sultry, rainy seasons bitter rot may G4 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 6 spread very rapidly and cause great loss of apples within a week. It has been estimated by persons who have made a careful study of the loss caused by bitter rot that some years this disease alone causes a loss of $10,000,000 to the apple growers of the United States. To keep bitter rot under control in an apple orchard, the orchardist should pick and destroy all diseased apples and cut out and bum all cankered limbs. In addition to these pre- cautions, it is recommended that the orchard be sprayed with 4-6-50 Bordeaux mixture, as lime-sulphur fails to control it. In sections where the dis- ease is well established, the first application should be made about 6 weeks after the blossoms fall ; a second appli- cation should follow within ^•'P¥''J^ 2 weeks if the disease is seri- W^W.P^ifW ous, or within 3 weeks if it '#.-'/.&. // IS only slight. Iwo more ap- plications at intervals of 2 or 3 weeks are necessary in sections where the disease is very serious. 63. Apple Scab. — The most widely distributed and one of the most damaging dis- eases of the apple is apple scab. It is more serious in a wet climate than in a dry one, and, as it is favored by cool weather, it is more serious in the northern part of the apple-growing section than in the southern part, although successfiil orchardists find it necessary to com- bat apple scab in all apple-growing regions. Apple scab is well described by its name. It is seen as scabby dark spots on the foliage and fruit. The newly infected areas on leaves are usually circular in form and have a greenish or light surface, but when older they turn black. Leaves Fig. 50 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 65 infected with scab are shown in Fig. 51. Badly infected leaves become distorted and finally may fall off. Spots on the fruit are also circular in form and similar in color to those on the leaves. The infected areas usually begin as small spots and as they enlarge they unite and form large, dark, irregular areas, which stop the growth of the apple at the point of infection and may very seriously distort the shape of the fruit. Sev- eral badly infested apples are shown in Fig. 52. Varieties of Fig. 51 apples vary greatly in their susceptibility to attacks of scab; some varieties are almost free from it and other varieties are very readily susceptible. The scab lives through the winter on the fallen leaves and spreads from them to the young leaves in spring. Usually the worst infection will be on the lower branches in very early spring. This disease can be controlled by the use of either Bordeaux mixture or lime-sulphur; in fact, it is one of the most easily controlled diseases. The trees should be sprayed, just before Fig. 52 Pig. 53 Fig. 54 66 § 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 67 the blossoms open, with a Bordeaux mixture of a strength of 4-4-50, and again just after the blossoms fall with litne-sulphur of a specific gravity of from 1.007 to 1.01, or with a 2-3-50 Bor- deaux mixture. In some sections where scab is very prevalent it may be necessary to spray again within 2 or 3 weeks, using either the weak Bordeaux mixture or the weak lime-sulphur. 64. Pink Rot. — Apples that are infested with apple scab are very likely to be infested during autumn, especially if the weather is wet and muggy, with a mold that grows on the scabby spots ; at first it is white, but later turns pink. The skin around and the flesh under the pink miold turns brown and bitter. The brown spots increase in size rapidly and the market value of the apples is soon destroyed. An apple badly infested with pink rot is shown in Fig. 53. Pink rot follows apple scab and by successfully spraying for apple scab the orchardist will have no losses from pink rot of apples in the fall after the apples are harvested. 65. Apple Blotcli. — ^A disease that is common in the southern part of the apple-growing region and that resembles apple scab in its effect on the fruit, leaves, and twigs is apple blotch. The first evidence of this disease on the fruit is a very small, inconspicuous, light-brown, somewhat star- shaped blotch. The blotch spreads radially until it attains a diameter of from | to § inch, and becomes darker in color. The margin of these patches always has a broken appearance. Sometimes the spots are so numerous that they join together and form large blotches, which may cover one-half or more of the apple. This disease sometimes causes the surface of infested apples to crack. These cracks, or cankers, often intersect, forming crosses. Several apples infested with apple blotch are shown in Fig. 54. Apple blotch appears on the leaves as very small, irregular-shaped, light-brown or yellow spots, very much smaller than those of the apple scab. On the twigs, especially on the fruit spurs and rapidly growing shoots, small cankers are produced that often show cracks in the dead bark as shown in Fig. 55. These cankers are gen- erally small, being about i inch wide and | inch or more long. OS APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES §<^> At first they appear as very small purplish-black blotches, but as they increase in size they become brown in the center and retain a purplish margin, although they may finally become gray. Apple blotch apparently lives through the winter on the twigs Mil m Pig. 55 Fig. 56 and it is from them that infection of the leaves and fruit takes place in the spring, about 4 or 6 weeks after the blossoms fall. The only remedy that has been found to control apple blotch is spraying with Bordeaux mixture; lime-sulphur has, so far as known, failed to control it. The first spraying should be given 3 or 4 weeks after the blossoms fall, so that the Bordeaux § 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 69 will be on the leaves and fruit at the time the infection usually takes place, and in sections where the disease is com- mon it may be necessary to apply two or three more spray- ings at intervals of 3 weeks. The Bordeaux mixture should be used at a strength of 4-4-50. 66. Black Rot. — A disease that causes reddish-brown spots to occur on apple leaves early in the spring is known as black rot. This disease resembles bitter rot in that both dis- eases attack the foliage, the fruit, and the limbs. Black rot probably causes the greatest injury to large limbs, on which it causes rough, black, wounded areas, or cankers, such as the one shown in Fig. 56. The bark on the cankered part of a limb is usually dead and the new bark and the wood growing around the dead part produces a sunken area that is characteristic of the disease. In badly infected orchards the cankers sometimes surround, or girdle, a limb and thus kill it. At first, black rot shows on apples as small reddish-brown spots, but as the spots increase in size the entire fruit becomes infected and assumes a very dark-brown or black color. Badly infected apples sometimes shrivel, but they do not take on the characteristic shriveled, wrinkled, mummified appearance of apples infected with bitter rot. The fungus that causes black rot also attacks the leaves and causes the disease known as leaf spot and as frog eye. The spots on the leaves caused by black rot are at first very small purplish spots, which, as they enlarge, .become reddish-brown and finally a grayish color. During the early part of the sum- mer the spots are circular, but during the latter part of the summer the spots may enlarge and become irregular in shape. The same treatment is recommended for black rot as for bitter rot. 67. Pacific-Coast CarLker. — ^A disease that causes much loss in apple orchards in the northwestern part of the United States and in British Columbia is known as Pacific-coast canker and as black-spot canker. This disease infects the bark and sap wood of the twigs and branches of trees and also the fruit after it has been placed in storage. 711 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 6 The cankers on the twigs and limbs are similar in general appearance to bitter-rot canker, although the Pacific-coast canker is somewhat more roimd, and, when old, the dead, diseased part is separated from the healthy part by a distinct fissure and may finally faU. out, leaving the wood exposed. Pacific-coast canker first appears on the fruit as smaU, light- brown, circular, rotten spots, which later turn very dark brown or black and become tough, wrinkled, and dry, with concen- tric circles of spore-bearing pustules. An apple partly rotted by this disease is shown in Fig. 57. 68. Miscellaneous Cankers. — Several different kinds of cankers are reported and described by various plant pathol- ogists, but, because of the fact that the twigs and branches infected by these cankers are so similar to those that are shown in Figs. 50, 55, and 56 that a microscopic examination of the fungus causing each disease is necessary for a determination of the par- ticular disease, and because practically all canker dis- eases are treated the same way, even a brief descrip- tion of several cankers, including the Illinois canker, the Euro- pean canker, and the hark canker, are not presented in this Section. 69. Soft Rot. — The rot of apples near the end of their keeping season is known as soft rot, also as bin rot and as blue mold. The trouble is known as soft rot, because the light tan- colored rotten part of the apple is soft and watery; as bin rot, because this rot does not usually attack apples until they are stored, usually in bins; as blue mold, because over all cracks in a decaying apple appear a very short fur-like growth of fungus. This fungous growth is white at first, but soon changes to a bluish green. The spores of this mold cannot force their v# ^ ' '.'t-'.* Fig. 58 § 6 24909 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 71 X way through the healthy skin of an apple, therefore, the best means of controlling soft rot is care to prevent bruising or breaking the skin of the apples. 70. Fly Speck and Sooty Blotcli. — The disease illustrated in Fig. 58 is known as fly speck, as sooty blotch, and also as cloiid. Although the disease is commonly spoken of as two dis- tinct diseases, authori- __^ ties are generally agreed J" j^ that both conditions, that is, the small black specks that closely re- semble fly specks and arranged in clusters and the black soot-like blotches, are caused by the same fungus . How- ever, some apples may show only the sooty blotches and other apples only the fly- speck spots. Both the small specks and the blotches appear about the time that the apples begin to maXvse and the specks or the blotches develop more rapidly during moist weather and in orchards with dense foliage than dur- ing dry weather or in an orchard where the trees are open headed and well pruned. The market value of apples that are badly discolored by fly speck or sooty blotch is often materially reduced. The disease is easily controlled by the sprays recommended for bitter rot. 71. Apple Rust. — Orchards in the vicinity of cedar trees are subject to a disease known as apple rust, also as cedar rust 248—22 Fig. 59 72 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES §6 and as ntst. This disease is usually easily recognized by the yellowish orange-colored spots on the leaves. Although the spots occur also on the fruit and the twigs, the spots on the leaves are by far more common and more noticeable than are those on the fruit or the twigs. The appearance of this disease on infected leaves and twigs is shown, in Fig. 59. The effect of the disease on the fruit is shown in Fig. 60. The fungus that causes this disease spends the winter on cedar trees, producing on them growths, or knots, known as cedar apples. In Fig. 61 are shown cedar apples in three stages of maturity. In (a) is shown a cedar apple as it appears during early winter; during the spring these cedar apples or gall-like growths appear as shown in (6) ; and in (c) is shown the large gelatinous growth Fig. 60 expanded by spring rains. From this latter form are pro- duced the spores that cause the rust on the apple leaves, twigs, and fruit during the summer. If rust is injurious to orchards, all cedar trees in the vicinity of the orchard should be destroyed. If this is impracticable, it is recommended that the orchard be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture as is recommended for apple scab. 72. Fruit Spot of Apples. — A disease that sometimes attacks apples grown in the eastern half of the United States is known as the fruit spot of apples. This disease appears from the first to the middle of August as small spots on the surface of the apples. On red apples the spots are of a deeper red than the rest of the apple and on light or green apples the spots are 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 73 of a darker green color. As the fruit ripens the spots appear more prominent and on red apples, such as the Baldwins, which are especially susceptible to the disease, often become brown or black. Also the flesh just beneath the spots on the skin Fig. 61 becomes brown and corky. The effects of this disease are confined to the skin and to the tissue immediately beneath it. The same treatment that is recommended for apple scab will effectively control fruit spot of apples. However, if only the latter disease is to be combated the sprays may be applied about 1 week later than when applied for apple scab. 7t APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES §G 73. Baldwin Spot . — The effects of a disease that somewhat resembles fruit spot of apples and is variously known as Baldwin spot, fruit pit, and hitter pit are numerous small, brown flecks throughout the diseased apples and especially in the outer I inch of the pulp. During the early stages of the disease small spots or slight depressions resembling small bruises appear on the surface of the apples. The color of the spots, or pits, is practically the same as that of the apple on which they occur. Later, the pits become more distinct, showing as sunken areas of from i to J inch in diameter. In fact, as the disease advances, several of the pits may join and form one large pit. Also, the surface of the pits becomes dark brown. Baldwin apples are supposed to be especially susceptible to this disease, although other varieties are known to be attacked. It is reported to be worst during warm, rainy seasons and in the fruit on limbs or trees that have been weakened by canker or by overbearing. Also, the disease is more apt to appear in large overgrown than in medium-sized apples. The cause of Baldwin spot is not known neither is there any known way to prevent it. 74. Apple Scald. — The skin of some apples changes while they are in storage to a brownish color. This change of color of apples in storage in known as apple scald, the first effects of which are the appearance of light-brown spots on the apples. These spots gradually enlarge until they finally cover the entire surface of the apple. The color changes to dark brown and finally may become almost black. At first only the skin and the outer part of the flesh of the fruit are discolored; later a large part of the flesh becomes discolored. The trouble is not definitely understood, but fruit that is grown and matured under favorable conditions will usually keep through its normal keeping season without injury. 75. Fire Blight. — The disease commonly known as fire blight, but also known as twig blight, is generally more serious on the pear than on the apple. The effects of the disease can be seen most readily in spring, about 3 weeks after the blossoming period, at which time many of the flower clusters shrivel and § G APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 75 die and the twigs turn black and dry up as if scorched by fire. During the winter the disease may be recognized by the leaves remaining on the diseased branches. This disease is caused by bacteria that gain entrance into the twigs either through the blossoms or through wounds. The disease travels down- wards through the twigs at a rate of 2 or 3 inches per day if conditions are favorable, but has been known to travel 1 foot or more in a single day. However, under conditions favorable to the healthful growth of a tree, fire bhght usually affects only a few inches of the tips of the branches. Many of the diseased twigs and branches die the first year of the infection and the bacteria in the branches die also; but a few, probably only a very few, of the diseased branches remain alive, and it is in these branches that the bacteria live during the winter months. As the sap begins to flow during the spring, the infected twigs become the centers of infection and from them exudes a milk-like fluid that teems with the bacteria that are the direct cause of the disease. Young apples some- times are infected and as a result become gorged with a slimy material that likewise teems with the bacteria that cause fire blight. Both the milk-like fluid in the twigs and the slime in the apples attracts insects, especially bees, which carry the bacteria to other parts of the tree or to other trees and thus spread the infection. Fire blight cannot be controlled by spraying. The only known means of successfully combating the disease is by cutting out and burning every twig that shows infection. All apple, pear, quince, wild crab apple, mountain ash, service berry, and hawthorn trees in or within | mile of the orchard should be examined and all twigs showing the effects of flre blight should be cut out and burned. The best time to cut out the diseased portions of the trees is probably during the fall, for the contrast between healthy and diseased twigs is readily seen at that time. In cutting out the diseased twigs the orchardist should remove the twig from 6 to 12 inches below the indication of the disease. If a cut should be made into diseased wood the knife or the cutting part of the pruning instrument used should be sterilized by wiping it with a cloth saturated with a 7(; APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 6 strong solution of bichloride of mercury, which is more com- monly known as corrosive sublimate. A solution having a strength known as 1 to 1,000 should be used. Directions for making a solution of this strength can be secured from druggists who sell the material. All large wounds made in cutting out diseased branches should be disinfected with the corrosive- sublimate solution. 76. Root Rot. — In certain apple-growing sections many apple trees die without any visible cause for the trouble, but on examination the root system of a dead tree will be found to be not only dead but partly decayed. Root rot is claimed to be most prevalent in orchards that have been planted on land that has recently been cleared of forest growth. Also, some investigators are in- clined to associate the mushroom fungi known as clitocybe with the disease, and because of this associ- ation the disease is sometimes called clitocyhose. As a matter of fact, it is reasonable to believe that there may be several diseases that affect the root system of trees and cause their death. As the first symptom of diseases that destroy the root systems of trees is the dying of the trees, practically the only means of control are those of prevention. It has been recommended Fig. 62 § 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 77 that all sttunps and roots shoiild be removed from the soil and one or two grain or other general farm crops be grown on it before apple trees are planted. All infected parts of diseased trees should be burned. 77. Crown Gall. — Growths such as the one shown in Fig. 62, and known as crown gall and also as plant cancer, are sometimes found on nursery trees. This disease is caused by bacteria and is very infectious. Apple trees should not be sectired from nurseries in which crown gall is known to exist, and aU trees showing this disease should be burned. 78. Mildew.— A dense, light-colored, felt-lilce fungous growth that sometimes occurs on the foliage of yoimg apple trees is known as mildew. This disease is common!}'- found on young apple trees in the nursery, but it sometimes attacks rapidly growing young trees in orchards. Mildew is easily kept from causing any considerable damage by spraying with Bordeaux or with lime-sulphur as recom- mended for any of the diseases that affect the foliage of the apple tree. If it is desired to treat the disease separately, as is sometimes the case in nurseries, an application of an ammoniacal copper-carbonate solution should be made as the leaves unfold and should be repeated every 2 weeks imtil time for budding. MISCELLANEOUS INJURIES 79. Sun Scald. — The dying of the bark usually on the southwest side of the trunks of trees is sometimes known as sun scald. Sometimes the bark cracks and falls away from the tree; in other cases it does not. In Fig. 63 is shown the trunk of a young apple tree injured by sun scald. This injury is caused by the unequal heating of different sides of the trunk of the tree during the winter. Sometimes injury similar to sun scald is observed on the northeast side of the tree. Injury in such cases is claimed to be caused by a freeze occurring in the fall before the northeast side of the tree has become accus- tomed to cold weather. The northeast side of a tree is the last part to become dormant in the fall. 78 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 6 Sun-scald areas are easily infected by the spores of fungi that cause the various cankers, and for this reason all sun-scalded areas should be scraped down to healthy bark and wood and be painted. Sun scald may be prevented by growing low-headed trees so that the branches may shade the trunk and by placing a tree protector around the tree during the winter. White- washing the tree trunk also tends to prevent the tree from becoming unduly heated on the side exposed to the direct rays of the sun. 80. Girdling of Trees. — Rabbits will eat bark from young trees and sometimes from trees 4 or 5 inches in diameter, from the surface of the ground to as high as they can reach. If the bark is eaten off entirely around the tree it will die, as plant-food cannot reach roots except through the live tissue of the bark. Mice often gir- dle small or even large trees near, or just below, the surface of the ground. One of the best ways to prevent rabbits from eat- ing the bark of trees is to kill the rabbits. If this is impracticable, a piece Fig. 63 of wood veneer or wire netting should be placed around the trunks. The wood veneer or wire netting shoiild extend from the ground upwards for from 18 to 20 inches. In some § 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 79 sections, instead of protecting each tree, the orchardist surrounds the orchard with a rabbit-proof fence. A wood- veneer protection around a tree with the soil banked up around the base of the protector is the best means of preventing injury from mice. However, if rubbish in which the mice may hide is not allowed to accumulate about the orchard but little injury will be caused by these pests. 81. Breaking of Trees. — The limbs of trees sometimes break under heavy crops of fruit in summer and under loads of ice in winter. To prevent the trees from being broken, the fruit should be thinned or the limbs should be held up by means of props. If small trees are heavily loaded with fruit the limbs on one side of the tree are sometimes tied by means of wire or cord to limbs on the opposite side of the tree. Sometimes a wire or cord is placed outside of all the principal branches and then drawn taut, thus supporting the branches of the entire top. If there is danger of the tree splitting down the trunk, a bolt should be placed through the body of the tree or through two opposite limbs in such a manner that they will brace each other. Probably the best means of preventing trees from being broken down by ice or by an exceptionally heavy crop of fruit is to keep the trees weU pruned. 82. Bark Binding. — The bark of trees sometimes becomes so tough and rigid that it prevents the natural growth of the body of the tree. This condition of the bark may be caused by various conditions, such as a sudden checking of the growth of the tree, thus reducing its vigor; the rubbing of hogs or other livestock against the bark of trees; and the growth of lichens and other parasites on the bark. Bark binding may be prevented by keeping the trees in a vigorous condition, by not pasturing hogs permanently in the orchard, and by spraying the trees sufficiently to keep the bark free from disease and in a healthy, growing condition. After the bark has become bound, possibly the best remedy is to thoroughly scrape off all dead, loose, and diseased bark and if necessary to slit tlie bark up and down the trunk of the 80 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES § G tree. Pruning the trees severely so as to produce a vigorous growth will often accomplish satisfactory results. 83. Rough. Bark. — On some trees the old bark breaks loose, keeping the body of the tree and main limbs very rough. This does not necessarily indicate an unhealthy condition of the tree, but the rough bark is a disadvantage in that it forms a sheltering place for insects like the codling moth, and is a possible host for some plant diseases. Many of the best orchardists scrape aU the rough bark from the trees. To do this, a triangular trowel with a strong handle is used. 84 . Spray Inj ury . — ^Although sprays are the most valuable remedies that orchardists can use in combating insects and fungous diseases that attack the apple orchard, the sprays some- times cause injury to the foliage and fruit of the sprayed trees. The principal spray injury is that caused by Bordeaux mixture. This injury is commonly known as Bordeaux injury, and affects both the leaves and the fruit. The injury is much worse during rainy, wet, muggy weather than during dry, bright weather; it begins to appear in a few days after the spray is applied and continues to increase in extent for several weeks. The injiu-y causes the leaves to become spotted; at first the spots are very small and circular, but later they enlarge and become irregular in shape and the leaves may turn yellow and fall. In some cases as many as one-half of the leaves have reported to have fallen as a result of Bordeaux injiu-y. The injury on the fruit first appears as very small brown or black specks. These specks enlarge and cause on the mature apple the characteristic corky russeting like that on a Rhode Island Greening, shown in Fig. 64. Badly injured fruit is nearly always distorted somewhat in shape. The russeted areas are more or less shrunken and sometimes the half -grown injiired apples are shrunken and cracked like those injured by scab, but they do not show the characteristic scabs. The late- keeping quality of apples is greatly reduced by Bordeaux injury, as is also the sale value of newly picked apples. If lime-sulphur causes injury or russeting to the fruit it is so slight that investigators cannot distinguish the injury from the Fig. 64 § 6 24909 § 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 81 natural russeting of maturing fruit. Lime-sulphtu does, how- ever, cause some injury to the foHage. This injury consists of brown spots or brown margins appearing on the leaves and is supposed to be caused by the lime-sulphur becoming more saturated as it dries. Sometimes the entire leaves are affected at once, but lime-sulphur injury is at its worst in a few days after the spray is applied. APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING HARVESTING OF APPLES PICKING 1. Picking Receptacles. — A picking receptacle that is often used for apples is the round half-bushel basket with a swing handle, a form of which is shown in Fig. 1. Such baskets are easy to handle and when they are used there is less likelihood of the fruit being bruised than when larger receptacles are used. It is a good plan to line the baskets with burlap or some sim- ilar material, as shown in the illustration; this has a tendency to prevent bruising of the fruit. An S-shaped wire hook is usually attached to the handle in order that the basket may be hung on a limb, thus allowing the picker to have free use of both hands for picking. In some sections, wide-topped 10-quart galvanized-iron pails are used as picking receptacles and are found to be very satis- factory. These pails are easier to handle than baskets, and, as COPYRIGHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED §7 Fig. 1 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, §7 a rule, will last longer, but they are somewhat more expensive. Burlap should be used for lining the pails to prevent bruising of the fruit. In Fig. 2 is illustrated a patented fruit-picking receptacle that has some excellent features. It is simply a bottomless pail that is lined with canvas, the canvas extending below the lower rim of the pail. When the receptacle is being used to hold fruit, the draw string, which can be seen in the illustration, is pulled taut and the ring is placed over the hook on the side of the pail. When the pail is to be emptied it is lowered into Fig. 2 the box or barrel, the draw string is released, and the fruit is allowed to pass out of the lower end of the canvas. By using the device in this way there is practically no bruising of the fruit. In Fig. 3 is shown a picking receptacle that is used to some extent in the western part of the United States. It consists of a metal container that is made in such a way that it will break apart at the middle, a wire frame and a clamp for holding the two halves together, and a web strap for carrying the device. When the container is to be emptied all that is necessary is to §7 AND MARKETING release the clamp, this allowing the container to break at the middle, as shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Apple pickers often make use of a two-bushel grain sack as a picking receptacle. The sack is carried by ineans of a small APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, §7 rope or strap, which is tied to a comer of the sack at each end and thrown over one shoulder of the picker, as shown in Fig. 5. Such a receptacle is convenient, as both hands are free to do the picking, but the fruit in the sack is almost sure to be bruised by the movements of the picker. For this reason, sacks 'are Fig. 5 Fig. 6 unsatisfactory for picking receptacles and careful orchardists will not sanction their use. In Fig. 6 is illustrated a receptacle known as the apron picking bag. This has been found to be a good picking receptacle par- ticularly for fancy fruit. Such bags can be purchased cheaply §7 AND MARKETING or they may easily be made at home. One of the principal advantages of this receptacle is that the fruit is not poured out but must be taken out carefully by hand. This may seem to be a disadvantage, but it should be remembered that fancy fruit must be handled without being even slightly bruised. Another Fig. 7 advantage of the apron picking bag is that it hangs in a con- venient position for the picker. In Fig. 7 is shown a patented picking bag that is extensively used in some sections. The bag is emptied by loosening a draw string; this allows the apples to pass out through the bottom of the bag, as illustrated in Fig. 8. 248—23 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, §7 A number of other patented picking receptacles that have more or less merit are on the market. Before purchasing one of these devices a grower should consider whether, by its use, there is a likelihood of the fruit being bruised. No form of picking receptacle that is likely to cause injury to the fruit should be used in an apple orchard. 2. Ladders. — It is important, when picking apples, to have a good supply of ladders available. The kind to use will depend - m^. Fig. 8 largely on the height of the fruit above the ground. Where the fruit is hanging near the ground, step ladders are suitable. Of these there are two general types, the common step ladders with four legs and the so-called fruit ladders with three legs. Several forms of the latter are shown in Fig. 9. These ladders are especially desirable for use on uneven ground, as they will stand steadily and are not troublesome to move about the trees. For fairly tall trees the so-called Japanese ladder, which is illustrated in Fig.. 10 (a), is satisfactory. Ladders of this kind Fig. 9 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, §7 are light, easy to handle, and are fairly stable on the groimd. In Fig. 10 (b) is shown a form of ladder that can be easily trans- ported from one part of the orchard to another. This ladder can be used with either the end a or the end b uppermost, as desired ; if the fruit is high, the ladder should be placed so that the end a is uppermost, but if the fruit is near the groimd, the ladder should be turned over so that the end b is uppermost. As a rule, ladders of this kind are made so that the end a, when uppermost. Fig. 10 is twice as high from the ground as the end b, when it is upper- most. The single-rail form of ladder, which is illustrated in Fig. ID (c), is sometimes used when the fruit is on taU trees. This ladder, although light and. easy to handle, does not stand very steadily. In Fig. 11 are shown three forms of .ladders that are used for picking fruit from high-headed trees. The form of ladder shown in (a) is termed regular ; the forms shown in (6) and (c) are Imown §7 AND MARKETING as pointed. The ladder shown in (c) is an extension ladder and is designed for picking fruit from very high trees. Reg- ular ladders are generally placed against the sides of the trees and for this reason are not entirely satisfactory, as such practice is likely to break the branches. The so-called pointed ladders are provided with a strip of wood a, which may be placed in crotches formed by limbs. When used in this manner there is little danger of the ladder injur- ing the trees. Another good form of picking ladder is the plat- form ladder, one of which c^^ ^^> c^^ is shown in Fig. 12. This ^'''- ^^ ladder consists of three Hght ladders that are hinged onto a common support a. Two of these platform ladders with a board laid across them through the tree form a very desirable scaffold for use when picking apples that are in the center of trees, the pickers being able to get through the trees without injuring the fruit spurs or limbs. 3 . Wagon for Use When Picking Apples. — ^Forhaul- ^^'^' -^^ ing fruit about an orchard during the picking season, a low-down wagon, such as the one shown in Fig. 13 (a), is desirable, as less lifting of the fruit 10 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, §7 packages is necessary than when an ordinary high-wheeled wagon is used. A frame of a size to hold a certain number of the packages being used shotild be built onto the wagon bed. When the distance between the trees will allow it, the frame should be made wide; if the trees are close together, the frame must, of course, be made^ narrow. It is important that the frame be strong in order that a large number of fruit pack- ages can be hauled at a load. Bolster springs, a form of which is shown in Fig. 13 (6), should be used on the wagon to prevent jarring of the fruit. 4. Receptacles for Orcliard Transportation of Fruit. For the transporting of apples from the orchard to the packing shed, crates such as those shown in Fig. 14 are convenient. The crates shown in (a) and (b) hold 1 bushel, and are light, easy to handle, and durable. Folding crates, such as those shown in (c) and (d), also are sometimes used for this purpose. Bushel boxes with a slot cut in each end, a form of which is shown in (e) , are used in some sections. Some growers use an especially con- structed box that holds about 1| bushels, made with the ends slightly higher than the side; such a box is shown in (/). §7 AND MARKETING 11 5. Methods of Picking. — Unless the crop is of poor quality, apples should be picked by hand, and each fruit, as it is taken from the tree, laid, not dropped, into the receptacle. The Fig. 14 dropping of an apple even a short distance will cause a bruise and thus injure the fruit. Apples should always, if possible, be picked with the stems on, especially those that are to be kepL for winter consumption; if the stem is pulled out, rot-producing organisms may get into 12 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, § 7 the fruit through the opening. A picker should exercise care, when picking apples, not to injure the fruit spurs. If the fruit is ripe enough to part from the spur readily when a slight twist is given to it, there is little danger of injury, provided the picker is careful. Shaking of the trees should be resorted to only when the apples are to be used for evaporating or for cider making, or are to be sold as culls. 6. Time for Picking. — In general, it may be said that apples are ready for picking as soon as they have acquired a good color and will part from the spur readily. A good test for deter- mining whether they are in condition to be picked is the color of the seeds ; an apple picked just as che seeds turn a light brown, but before they become dark around the edges, will have a good flavor and will keep much better than if more mature when picked. Still it may not always be good management to pick the fruit when the seeds and the color indicate that it is ready for picking. Summer apples that are valuable primarily for cooking are. of ten picked when they are not more than two- thirds ripe, and winter apples that are to be exported to a distant market, say from the United States or Canada to Siberia, are often, of necessity, picked rather green in order that they may be shipped early to avoid danger of freezing in transit. Some varieties of simimer apples ripen very unevenly and consequently it is necessary to make pickings at intervals of 2 or 3 days in order to get the fruit from the trees in the best condition. Other varieties, of course, ripen more evenly. In the case of fall and winter varieties, the fruit ripens more or less imevenly. Some progressive growers practice making two or three pickings and find that it pays. Most growers, however, follow the custom of picking all of the apples from a tree at the same time. Varieties differ considerably as to the length of time the fruit will hang on the tree after becoming mature. The fruit of some varieties, if allowed to become very ripe before being picked, will rot at the core in storage. The Jonathan is an example of this class. The grower should, therefore, consider the variety § 7 AND MARKETING 13 when deciding how mature the apples should become before they are harvested. 7. Management of Pickers. — In order that a large quan- tity of fruit may be harvested in a given time and that the fruit and the trees may be injured as little as possible, good executive ability is needed in managing apple pickers. Two general plans of hiring pickers are followed by growers, namely, hiring by the day and hiring by the bushel. Experience shows that there are advantages and disadvantages in both methods. As some pickers will do more work in a given time than others, there is likely to be dissatisfaction if all receive the same wages. It is possible, in a way, to overcome this diffictdty by paying different amounts to different laborers, but this also may cause dissatisfac- tion and will require tactful management. Under some condi- tions it is possible to arrange the pickers into different groups and pay a different rate for each group. Mr. A. I. Mason, of Hood River, Oregon, follows this plan and finds it practicable. He employs old men and women who cannot climb ladders quickly to pick the fruit from the lower limbs, these pickers standing on the ground while working. The second group is made up of young girls who pick from low, light step ladders that they can handle easily. The third group is composed of young men who pick from tall ladders and remove the fruit from the tops of the trees. The rate of wages is, of course, different for each group. If conditions are such thac only men are available as pickers, any arrangement whereby different wages is paid to different groups would be very likely to cause dissatisfaction. For this reason, growers who hire by the day generally have a standard wage scale, and when a, man is found to be doing poor work he is discharged. An advantage of hiring by the bushel is that it is usually less expensive than hiring by the day, but there is, however, likely to be much breaking of branches and spurs and bruising of the fruit. Often a picker is found who picks a large quantity of fruit in a day but is very careless about breaking the trees and injuring the fruit. Such a man is really less desirable than one 14 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, § 7 who picks an average quantity of fruit but is careful of both fruit and tree. The system of hiring to adopt should, of course, depend largely on conditions, but in most cases the wage system has proved to be the more satisfactory. GRADING 8. Profits in Grading. — Proper grading of the fruit is a detail of the apple business that no grower should neglect. In fact, it is difhciiLt to conduct an orchard profitably without careful grading of the product. Apples shoiild be graded as to quality, size, and color. It is poor business to mix apples that will rot quickly with those that will keep, say, for several months, because the infection of the inferior fruit is soon carried to the sound fruit. It is poor business also to mix fruit of dif- ferent sizes together in the packages offered for sale, for such fruit lacks much in appearance and will bring less on the market than fruit assorted to size. For box packing, which is described later, it is imperative that apples be very uniform in size. Those to be placed in the same box should not vary more than about I of an inch, as it is extremely difficult to secure a uniform pack if the variation is greater. It is desirable to grade apples as to color, as this greatly improves the appearance. The price received for a package of fruit of uniform color is usually much greater than that received for a package of fruit of the same quality and size that is not so graded. Even in the case of fruit that is not highly colored, careful sorting to color causes it to have an improved appearance and consequently to sell for a higher price. 9. Number of Grades. — In many sections apples are graded into three grades, which are known, respectively, as No. 1, No. 2, and culls. If, however, apples are marketed by an association, or if the individual orchard is a large one, or if the fruit is sold on a local market, grades better than No. 1, known generally as jancy and choice, are likely to be very profitable. The standard grades estabhshed by the United States govern- ment for apples packed in barrels and shipped or offered for § 7 AND MARKETING 15 shipment in interstate or foreign commerce or sold or offered for sale in the District of Columbia or the territories of the United States are as follows: Minimtim size 2| inches, 2| inches, and 2 inches. 10. Grade Standards. — The standards established by the National Apple Shippers Association are as follows : Requirements jor No. 1 Apples: The standard diameter size for No. 1 apples of such varieties as Ben Davis, Willow Twig, Baldwin, Greening, and others Idndred in size, shall be not less than 2| inches. The standard diameter size for such varieties as Romanite, Russet, Winesap, Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, and other varieties kindred in size, shall be not less than 2| inches. In order to be graded as No. 1, apples must, at the time of pack- ing, be practically free from worm injury, surface defacement, and broken skin; they must have been hand picked from the tree, and must be of a bright, normal color and shapely form. Requirements for No. 2 Apples: In order to be graded as No. 2, apples must be of a diameter size of not less than 2\ inches. They must have been hand picked from the tree, and must be free from broken skin and bruises. Apples of this grade must be packed with as much care as No. 1 fruit. No standards for apples better than those grading as No. 1 have been established by the National Apple Shippers Associa- tion. The standards in vogue for such fruit are simply personal standards of individual growers or are those adopted by various fruit-growing associations. The Hood River Apple Growers Union, of the Hood River district in Oregon, has adopted the following requirements for apples shipped as fancy and choice: Fancy Apples: The fancy grade consists of perfect apples only. They must be free from worm holes and stings; from scale, fungus, scab, rust, or any other disease; and from all insect pests, decay, and injury. They must be free from bruises and limb rubs, and the skin around the stem must not be broken. All apples must be clean, fully matured, and not deformed, and must have a healthy color. Spitzenburgs must have 70 per cent, or more of good red color. All red apples must be of good color. 16 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, § 7 Choice A pples : The choice grade consi sts of high-grade apples that are a little below fancy. Apples with worm holes or broken skin are not acceptable for this grade. Limb rubs must not be larger than a 10-cent piece. Only two stings will be allowed, and these are allowed only where neither sting has seriously broken the skin of the apple. No apples wiU be accepted that are infected with San Jose scale or dry rot, or that have an open or a black bruise. Apples having fungus spots larger than |-inch in diameter are not acceptable for this grade. The Yakima Valley Fruit Growers Association has adopted the following regulations with reference to the grades extra fancy, fancy, and C: Extra Fancy Apples: Extra fancy apples are perfect, well- formed apples that are free from all insect pests, worm holes, stings, scale, scab, sun scald, dry rot, water core, or other defects. Limb rub, skin puncture, bruises, or other evidence of rough handling shall be considered defects. All apples heavily coated with dirt or spray must be cleaned. All the apples must be well matured and of natural color characteristic of the vari- ety. Spitzenburg, Winesap, Jonathan, Arkansas Black, Gano, Lawver, and other solid-red varieties must have 75 per cent, of good red color. Ben Davis, Rome Beauty, Baldwin, Wagner, and other varieties of similar color must be 50 per cent. red. Red-Cheek Pippins and Winter Bananas must have a red cheek. Sizes smaller than 163 to the box should be excluded from this grade except that Winesaps may include sizes not smaller than 225. All apples of the extra fancy grade must be carefully wrapped and properly packed; the boxes should be lined with white paper, with cardboard on top and bottom only. Fancy Apples: Apples of the fancy grade must be free from all insect pests, worm holes, stings, scale, sun scald, dry rot, water core, or other defects. Skin puncture, bruises or other evidence of rough handling shall be considered defects. Slight limb rub will be permitted. All apples must be well matured. Fruit of this grade must be carefully wrapped and properly packed ; the boxes should be lined with white paper, with card- board on top and bottom only. § 7 ' AND MARKETING , 17 C Grade Apples: Apples of the C grade shall be merchantable apples not included in the extra fancy or fancy grades. The apples must be free from all insect pests, worm holes, and scale, but will include misshapen apples or apples having a limb rub or other similar defect. Apples of this grade may also contain two worm stings or have slight bruises. They need not be wrapped and cardboard need not be used, but all boxes should be lined. The United States government has enacted a law establishing standard grades for apples packed in barrels; this law applies, of course, only to apples that are shipped or offered for shipment in interstate or foreign commerce, or that otherwise are subject to federal jurisdiction. The following are extracts from this law: Sec. 2. That the standard grades for apples when packed in barrels which shall be shipped or delivered for shipment in interstate or foreign commerce, or which shall be sold or offered for sale within the District of Columbia or the territories of the United States shall be as follows: Apples of one variety, which are well-grown specimens, hand picked, of good color for the variety, normal shape, practically free from insect and fungous injury, bruises, and other defects, except such as are necessarily caused in the operation of packing, or apples of one variety which are not more than 10 per cent, below the foregoing specifications shall be "standard grade, minimum size 2^ inches," if the minimum size of the apples is 2^ inches in transverse diameter; "standard grade, minimum size 2 J inches," if the minimtim size of the apples is 2\ inches in transverse diameter; or "standard grade, minimum size 2 inches," if the minimum size of the apples is 2 inches in transverse diameter. Sec. 3. That the barrels in which the apples are packed in accordance with the provisions of this Act may be branded in accordance with sec- tion 2 of this- Act. 11. Methods of Marking Grades. — In the United States, the various grades of apples are generally marked No. 1, No. 2, fancy, choice, C, or culls. Unfortunately, however, No. 1 or No. 2 fruit is often marked fancy or choice. No. 2 is marked No. 1, or culls are marked No. 2. Such practice leads to confusion and is very unsatisfactory, especially when the fruit is offered on the general market or is exported, as the terms are likely to mean one grade in the case of one grower's fruit and another grade in the case of that of another grower. 18 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING § 7 The federal government has enacted a law regarding the marking of apples packed in barrels. Following are extracts from the law: Sec. 5. That barrels packed with apples shall be deemed to be mis- branded within the meaning of this Act — First. If the barrel bears any statement, design, or device indicating that the apples contained therein are standard grade and the apples when packed do not conform to the requirements prescribed by section 2 of this Act. Second. If the barrel bears any statement, design, or device indicating that the apples contained therein are standard grade and the barrel fails to bear also a statement of the name of the variety, the name of the local- ity where grown, and the name of the packer or the person by whose authority the apples were packed and the barrel marked. Sec. 6. That any person, firm, or corporation, or association who shall knowingly pack or cause to be packed apples in barrels or who shall knowingly sell or offer for sale such barrels in violation of the provisions of this Act shall be liable to a penalty of one dollar and costs for each such barrel so sold or offered for sale, to be recovered at the suit of the United States in any court of the United States having jurisdiction. In Canada, definite standard names have been designated by- law for each grade of fruit. This avoids confusion and has been a means of securing a good reputation in England for Canadian- grown apples. Following are given extracts from the Canadian Fruit Marks Act of 1901, which deal with this phase of the fruit business : 4. Every person who, by himself or through the agency of another person, packs fruit in a closed package, intended for sale, shall cause the package to be marked in a plain and indelible manner, before it is taken from the premises where it is packed: (a) with the initials of his Christian name, and his full surname and address ; (&) with the name of the variety or varieties; and (c) with a designation of the grade of fruit, which shall include one of the following six marks: for fruit of the first quality. No. 1, or XXX; for fruit of the second quality. No. 2, or XX; and for fruit of the third quaUty, No. 3, or X; but the said mark may be accompanied by any other designation of grade, provided that designation is not inconsistent with, or marked more conspicuously than, the one of the said six marks which is used on the said package. 5. No person shall sell, or offer, expose, or have in his possession for sale, any fruit packed in a closed package and intended for sale, unless such package is marked as required by the next preceding section. § 7 AND MARKETING 19 6. No person shall sell, or offer, expose, or have in his possession for sale, any fruit packed in a closed package, upon which package is marked any designation which represents such fruit as of No. 1 or XXX, finest, best, or extra good quality, unless such fruit consists of well-grown speci- mens of one variety, sound, of nearly uniform size, of good color for the variety, of normal shape, and not less than 90 per cent, free from scab, worm holes, bruises, and other defects, and properly packed. 7. No person shall sell, or offer, expose, or have in his possession for sale, any fruit packed in any package in which the faced or shown surface gives a false representation of the contents of such package; and it shall be considered a false representation when more than 15 per cent, of such fruit is substantially smaller in size than, or inferior in grade to, or dif- ferent in variety from, the faced or shown surface of such package. 8. Every person who, by himself or through the agency of another person, violates any of the provisions of this Act shall, for each offense, upon summary conviction, be liable to a fine not exceeding one dollar and not less than 25 cents for each package which is packed, sold, offered, exposed, or had in possession for sale contrary to the provisions of this Act, together with the costs of prosecution; and in default of payment of such fine and costs, shall be Hable to imprisonment, with or without hard labor, for a term not exceeding one month, unless such fine and the costs of enforcing it are sooner paid. 9. Whenever any fruit in any package is found to be so packed that the faced, or shown, surface gives a false representation of the contents of the package, any inspector charged with the enforcement of this Act may mark the words "falsely packed" in a plain and indelible manner on the package. (2) Whenever any fruit packed in a closed package is found to be falsely marked, the said inspector may efface such false marks and mark the words "falsely packed" in a plain and indelible manner on the package. (3) The inspector shall give notice, by letter or telegram, to the packer whose name is marked on the package, before he marks the words "falsely packed" or "falsely marked" on the package. 10. Every person who not being an inspector wilfully alters, effaces or obliterates wholly or partially, or causes to be altered, effaced or oblit- erated, any marks on any package which has undergone inspection shall incur a penalty of forty dollars. The marking of packages of apples with various trade names is often practiced, and if used in addition to an honest mark of the grade such marking is often advantageous to a grower who sells his fruit on a local market or to a special trade, for the name may become an important factor in advertising the fruit from a particular orchard. In fact, it is likely to have much the effect of labels such as are described later. 20 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, §7 12. Method of Grading. — The grading of apples to size can be done by means of machines that are on the market or it can be done by hand. A convenient plan, when grading by hand, is to have a table arranged with receptacles for the fruit. Fig. 15 as shown in Fig. 15. A grading board, such as is illustrated in Fig. 16, will be found helpful, especially to an inexperienced grader. As shown in the illustration, this board has five holes of various dimensions. The board should be placed so Fig. 16 that apples can be dropped through the holes quickly. After a little experience in grading fruit has been acquired, a grader will find that a grading board is not needed, as it will be possible for him to judge the size of an apple simply by looking at it. AND MARKETING 21 PACKING 13. Packing House. — Some kind of a packing house or shed is almost a necessity if a large number of apples are to be packed. Growers sometimes pack the fruit in the open air, but, in this case, rainy or cold weather is likely to interfere with operations just at the height of the harvesting season. The packing house need not be an expensive affair, but it should be well lighted and be a comfortable place in which to work. The interior should be arranged conveniently with sorting and packing tables that will facilitate rapid and careful handhng of the fruit. 14. Barrels for Apples. — In America, the barrel is still used more than any other package for apples, and market quota- tions are generally given in terms of this package. In New York, the largest apple-producing state, the law specifies the following with reference to barrels : Barrels of Apples, Quinces, Pears, and Potatoes: A barrel of pears, quinces, or potatoes shall represent a quantity equal to 100 quarts of grain or dry measure. A barrel of apples shall be of the following dimensions: head diameter, 17|- inches; length of stave, 28^ inches; bulge, not less than 64 inches outside measurements. The United States government has enacted a law establishing a standard barrel for apples. Following are extracts from the la-v\r: Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the standard barrel for apples shall be of the following dimensions when measured without dis- tension of its parts: Length of stave, 28^ inches; diameter of head, 17 J inches; distance between heads, 26 inches; circumference of bulge, 64 inches, outside measurement; representing as nearly as possible 7,056 cubic inches: Provided, That steel barrels containing the interior dimen- sions provided for in this section shah be construed as a compliance therewith. Sec. 4. That all barrels packed with apples shall be deemed to be below standard if the barrel bears any statement, design, or device indi- cating that the barrel is a standard barrel of apples, as herein defined, and the capacity of the barrel is less than the capacity prescribed by section 1 of this Act, unless the barrel shall be plainly marked on end 248—24 22 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, §7 and side with the word or figures showing the fractional relation which the actual capacity of the barrel bears to the capacity prescribed by sec- tion 1 of this Act. The marking required by this paragraph shall be in block letters of size not less than seventy-two point 1-inch Gothic. In Canada, the law makes the following specification: All apples packed in Canada for export for sale by the barrel in closed barrels shall be packed in good and strong barrels of seasoned wood, having dimensions not less than the following: 26 J inches between the heads, inside measure, and a head diameter of 17 inches, and a middle diameter of 18^ inches, representing, as nearly as possible, 96 quarts. When apples, pears, or quinces are sold by the barrel, as a measure of capacity, such barrel shaU not be of lesser dimensions than those specified in this section. A barrel usually has two hoops at each end and either one or two half way between each end and the bulge. In Fig. 17 are shown the two types. Barrel heads can be had in from two to four pieces. Often the heads can be procured wi th the parts held together by means of wire staples. A head of this type is very convenient to handle. Large growers or associations often buy sawed-out mate- rial for barrels and put the parts to- gether on their own premises. This prac- tice saves freight charges and enables the grower to make use of labor in seasons when orchard work is not pressing. Barrels used for apples should always be new and clean ; the practice of using second-hand or soiled barrels is unsatisfactory, and is often the means of losing sales. 15. Boxes for Apples. — ^The bushel apple box, two forms of which are shown in Fig. 18, is coming into wide use, especially for the best grades of apples. Fancy apples that have been care- fully graded, for example, are often handled at a better profit Fig. 17 §7 AND MARKETING 23 in boxes than in barrels. The standard-sized box in Canada is 10 in. X 11 in. X 20 in., inside measurement. In the United States, some growers use a box 10 in. X 11 in. X 20 in., and others use one that is lOJ in. X 11| in. X 18 in. ; these are the two forms illustrated. In the northern part of the United States, thel0i"Xlli"X18" box is often termed by growers the stand- ard box, and the 10" X 11" X 20" box, the special box. In the making of apple boxes, f-inch material is used for the ends, f-inch mate- rial for the sides, and i-inch m_aterial for the top and the bottom. The sides need to be thick enough not to bulge, but the top and bottom should bulge easily, but not break. The ends need to be thick enough to hold the nails well and to Fig. 18 Fig. 19 give strength to the box. Cleats about f-inch wide are usually used across each end of the top and bottom. Spruce is a desir- able wood for apple boxes ; it is white, neat in appearance, and 24 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, § 7 does not split easily when nailed. The lumber for boxes is prac- tically always bought sawed to the right dimension, the boxes being made up at the orchard. This buying of the material knocked down reduces expense. In nailing a box, four 4-penny nails are generally used for each end of each side, and four for each end of the top and the bottom, the box thus requiring thirty-two nails. When a box is being put together it is well to have some kind of a form to hold the ends in place while the nails are being started. In Fig. 19 is shown a bench with a form for this purpose. The two ends for the box are placed in the grooves on the bench, and two pieces of the side nailed to them. The ends and the side are then turned and the other side and bottom are nailed in place. A good workman can put together from one hundred to two hundred boxes a day. 16. Busliel Baskets for Apples. — ^For a local market, the bushel stave basket, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 20, has been found to be fairly satisfactory. These baskets are light, diirable, inexpensive, and easy to pack and to handle. For use on a general wholesale market they are not satisfactory, however, because the trade is not accustomed to purchasing apples put up in this way. A further objection to their use is the fact that they cannot be piled more than four or five high without injury to the fruit in the bottom baskets. 17. Packing of Apples in Barrels. — The first operation in packing a barrel of apples is to fasten securely the end that is to be the top by driving four 5-penny nails into each piece of the head, as shown in Fig. 21. The nails should be driven obliquely through the upper hoop, the end of the stave, and into the wood of the head. Two liners — small, flexible strips of wood — are then nailed across the ends of the pieces of the head, the liners Fig. 20 §7 AND MARKETING 25 following the curve of the barrel. If the liners are not flexible enough to fit readily to this curve, they should be placed in water for an hour or so before being used. For the liners 3-penny nails should be used, the nails being clinched on the outside of the barrel. The next step is to nail the hoops — except the two on the end that will be uppermost while the barrel is being filled — ^to the staves of the barrel by driving two 3-penny nails through each hoop, one on each side of the barrel, as shown in Fig. 22. These T*T^ Fig. 21 Fig. 22 nails will go through the staves and, in order to prevent injury to the fruit, must be clinched later. The barrel is next reversed so that the end formerly at the top rests on the floor, the two upper hoops are loosened, the head is removed, and the nails that have been driven through the hoops are clinched. A circle of paper the size of the end is then placed in the bottom of the barrel. The barrel is now ready for filling, and in order that the pack- age, when opened, will make a good appearance, the apples that are placed in what is now the bottom are arranged in regular order, or faced. Fig. 23 shows the appearance of a well-faced barrel after being opened at the top. The face should be made 26 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, up of apples that are about an average of those that go into the package. It is unwise as well as dishonest to use better apples for the face than for the interior, as experienced buyers are not usually misled by such practices. The apples of the face are placed stem end down for two reasons: first, the face will be more attractive, and, second, the stem end usually presents a broader surface to come in contact with the head, and thus the skin of the apples is less likely to be bruised when the barrels are han- dled. In arranging the face, the packer secures several apples of uniform size and color and places them around the outer edge of what is now the bottom of the barrel; next he lays another circle of fruit just inside of the first one and so on until the face is completed; usually one apple is placed in the center, this com- pleting the layer. It is impor- tant that the apples be fitted in firmly, but not so firmly that the layer will tend to bulge badly, because in this case after the barrel is packed some of them may turn over on the side, or buckle, as fruit men say, and the barrel will show a disarranged face when opened. Packers generally place a second layer in the barrel by hand. Some make a practice of arranging this layer in the same manner as the first and thus really make a double face; others simply place the apples cheek downwards at the joints made where tliree apples of the face come together. After the placing of the second layer the barrel is ready for further filling. If the fruit has been sorted into baskets, or pails, these should be lowered one at a time into the barrel and the fndt emptied. In no case should the apples be dropped from a height of more than a few inches. Some oichardists, when packing apples, make use of a table like the one illustrated in Fig. 24. The fruit is allowed to run into the barrel from the table, the lower end being removable. Growers who use this table try to avoid bruising of the fruit by having a length of burlap extend into the barrel; they claim that the Fig. 23 AND MARKETING 27 apples, in falling on the burlap, will not be bruised. Such prac- tice is not to be recommended, for no matter how careful the packer may be, the frmt is likely to be bruised. The careful emptying of a pail or basket of fruit will require a little more Fig. 24 time than rolling the apples from a table of this kind, but fewer apples will be injured. When the barrel is about one-third full it should be racked, that is, jarred slightly in order that the fruit will settle. This is accomplished by rocking the barrel back and forth, being careful not to allow the edge to get more than about 2 or 3 inches off the floor. The filling is then continued until the barrel is about two-thirds full, when it is again racked. Following this racldng, it is filled to within an inch or two of the chime, the exact distance depending on the size of the apples and on the variety. A follower, one of which is shown in Fig. 25, is now placed on the apples and held there and the barrel racked for the last time. The follower is used to hold the apples in place and level the fruit preparatory to arranging the last apples in the barrel. ^i^- 25 This accessory is easily constructed, being simply two or three boards nailed together and cut to fit the shape of the barrel ; it is provided with a handle and is padded with burlap or other thick cloth. The arranging of the last apples in the barrel is knowTi as tailing, and is one of the most difficult operations of apple 28 APPLE HARVESTING. STORING, §7 barreling. The apples are placed with stems up and are arranged in regular order, much the same as in the face, although, as a rule, they are not placed in concentric circles, but are merely arranged in a level layer. The main object of tailing is to secure an even surface in order that the head, when placed in position, will hold all the apples in the barrel snug and firm. The top of this last layer of apples should extend to, or, in some cases, slightly above the ends of the staves. When the head is put on the barrel the apples will be forced down into the barrel, but this is necessary, or otherwise the barrel will become slack, as fruitmen say, and much fruit will be injured by rolling about in the barrel. Inex- (a) (b) Fig. 26 perienced packers often fail to have the apples far enough above where the head will be placed. It is surprising how much pres- sure a barrel of apples will stand without much injury to the fruit. Thick-skinned apples like Ben Davis and Gano will stand more pressure without injury than thin-skinned apples like Northern Spy and Mcintosh, but even thin-skinned varieties must be pressed down sufficiently to avoid slackness in the barrels. Above the last layer is generally placed a circle of paper similar to that used in the face end. After the tailing is finished, the barrel is headed. For this work, use is made of what is known as a barrel press, two fornis § 7 AND MARKETING . 29 of which are shown in Fig. 26, the one shown in (a) being a screw press, and the one in (b) a lever press. Both forms are in com- mon use among packers, some preferring one form and some the other. When a barrel is to be headed the upper hoop is removed, the one just below it is loosened by being driven upwards, the head is laid in place on the apples, and the lower part of the press is caught under the bottom of the barrel. But before the apples are pressed into the barrel, the top hoop is slipped onto the barrel so that it can be driven downwards to tighten the staves before the press is removed. When all of these details have been arranged pressure is exerted and the head is forced down to the chime. The hoops are then driven downwards to their proper position and the top is nailed and liners put in place, as was done in the case of the other end. To avoid splitting the hoops when driving them to place, it is well to make use of a hoop follower, a piece of hard wood shaped as shown in Fig. 27. After being headed the ^^'^' ^"^ barrel is turned over and the grade marked on the top. It is then laid on its side, as there is less likelihood of it becoming slack than if left on end. 18. Packing of Apples in Boxes. — Of recent years, the packing of apples in bushel boxes has come into vogue in many parts of the United States and Canada. This style of package is especially desirable for choice and fancy fruit, well-packed boxes of these grades often bringing excellent prices. One of the first requisites for good and rapid box packing is a properly constructed packing table. Fig. 28 shows an approved form of table that will hold three or four bushels of apples and accommodate two packers. It is simply a burlap-covered frame supported by legs and having boards arranged at the ends for supporting the boxes to be packed. The dimensions shown in the illustrations can, of course, be varied to suit the convenience of the packers. Two layers of burlap are used on the frame, the bottom one being nailed and the top one merely hooked in place so that it can be removed easily to enable the packer to shake off 30 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, §7 any leaves and dirt that accumulate. A piece of garden hose is nailed around the top edge of the table to prevent bruising of the Fig. 28 fruit. When being packed, the boxes are tilted as shown in the illustration and are prevented from slipping by the strip a. The hod h is for hold- ing sheets of wrap- ping paper, the use of which is discussed later. The hod, which is removable, is held in place by two right- angled hooks c and a bracket that supports it against the side of the box. The sides, bottom, and top of apple boxes are generally lined with white paper. Newspaper stock is extensively used for this purpose, although in some localities the growers prefer a glazed paper. The sheets of paper are cut so that they are Fig. 29 § 7 AND MARKETING 31 slightly narrower than the length of the box. Two are used for a box, each sheet covering a little more than half the bottom, all of the side, and about half of the top. To avoid tearing of the sheet where the bottom of the box is joined to the side when the bottom bulges after the top is nailed, the sheets are plaited at the place where they will come in contact with this part of the box. While the box is being filled, the paper that will cover the top hangs over the sides. Fig. 29 shows a box lined and ready for packing. At the top and bottom of the boxes, and sometimes between the layers of fruit, sheets of unglazed paper or cardboard are placed. This gives a neat appearance to the pack, and is useful in taking up inequalities between the layers, and in preventing rubbing of the fruit while the cover is being nailed. Box-packed apples are generally wiped before being placed in the package, especially if the fruit was sprayed late in the season with a spray mixture containing lime. But even if no spray that will whiten the fruit has been used, it is probably a good plan, on account of the improved appearance of the fruit, to wipe off the dust. A pair of cheap cotton gloves is better for wiping apples than a rag, as the operation is done more quickly and the gloves protect the hands from the cold. The Hood River Apple Growers Union instructs its members as to the wiping of fruit as follows : Wipe the apples just enough to make them clean and get off the spray. Do not polish them. Growers find, as a rule, that in box packing it pays to wrap each apple in paper. Wrapped fruit is easier to pack than unwrapped, it goes into the market looking fresher, there is no opportunity for decay to spread from one apple to another, and if the packing is well done there is little chance of the package becoming slack. On the other hand, wrapped fruit requires slightly more time for packing, there is a cost of 2 or 3 cents a box for paper, and when the box comes to market the fruit cannot be seen at a glance as can unwrapped fruit. Newspaper stock is good paper for wrapping fruit. The size of sheets to use will depend, of course, on the size of the apples, the average sizes of sheets being 8 in. X 10 in., 10 in. X 10 in., and 10 in. X 12 in. 32 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, § 7 Not much time is required to wrap an apple. The method is as follows: A sheet of paper is grasped from the holder on the pacldng table with one hand, and an apple from the table with the other hand, and the two brought together over the box, and as the apple is placed in the box, the paper is folded around the fruit, its ends being kept underneath by the weight of the apple. In order that one sheet of paper may be grasped at a time packers find it convenient to wear a rubber stole on the thumb or first finger of the left hand. The apples are placed in the box in layers, and for this reason it is imperative that they be uniform in size. The arrange- ment of the layers may be in one of three ways known, respectively, as the straight, the diago- nal, and the offset pack. 19. In the straiglit pack, the apples are placed in straight rows lengthwise and cross- wise of the box, as shown in Fig. 30. This is one of the most dif- ficult packs to make, especially if the fruit is not graded accurately to size. Each layer in the box is the exact duplicate of each other layer, containing the same number of apples placed directly over those of the preceding layer. Only apples of approximately the same size can be packed in this way, as otherwise the rows will not come out even. Packs of this land may be arranged in 5, 4, or 3 tiers, the arrangement depending on the size of the fruit. These packs are known, respectively, as 5-tier, 4-tier, and 3-tier packs. In a 5-tier pack there will generally be 8 cross-rows, or 40 apples to the layer, and 5 layers to the box, thus making 200 apples to the Fig. 30 AND MARKETING 33 box. A 4-tier pack has, as a rule, either 6, 7, or 8 cross-rows, or 24, 28, or 32 apples to the layer, and 4 layers to the box, making 96, 112, or 128 apples to the package. In a 3-tier pack, there are generally either 5 or 6 cross-rows, or 15 or 18 apples tothe layer, and 3 layers to the box, making 45 or 54 apples to the package. The straight pack presents a neat appearance, but there is likely to be considerable bruising of the fruit, as each apple is directly above or below some other apple. Fig. 31 20. In a diagonal pack, so named from the diagonal course of the rows, the apples are arranged as fehown in Fig. 31. Packers usually prefer this pack to the straight pack because it is easier to make and the apples can be packed with a little less careful grading. In (a) is shown what is called a 3-2, or 4|-tier, pack. The 3-2 has reference to the number of apples in the cross-rows, there being three in the first row, two in the second, and so on; the expression 4|-tier is derived from the fact that there are three complete and two incomplete tiers, which, if placed end to end, would make 4| solid tiers. The number of apples in a 4|-tier box ranges from 150 to 200. In (b) is shown 34 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, what is known as a 2-2 diagonal, or a 3|-tier, pack. As a rule, there are 64, 72, or 80 apples in a pack of this kind. To start a 3-2 diagonal pack, an apple is placed in each comer of one end of the box and a third midway between them. There will thus be left two open spaces, neither of them as wide as the diameter of one of the apples. These spaces will, however, allow the two apples of the second row to partly slip between those TABLE I DATA CONCERNING STRAIGHT AND DIAGONAL BOX PACKS No. of Apples per Box Tier Pack No. of Apples per Tier No. of Layers Size of Box Used 45 54 63 3 3 3 Straight Straight Straight 5 6 7 3 3 3 10|"XlirX18" 10 "Xll "X20" 10 "Xll "X20" 64 31 2-2 Diagonal 4-4 4 10i"Xlirxl8" 72 31 2-2 Diagonal 4-5 4 iorxiirxi8" 80 3f 2-2 Diagonal 5-5 4 lorxiirxis" 88 31 2-2 Diagonal 5-6 4 10rXlU"Xl8" 96 31 2-2 Diagonal 6-6 4 10 "Xll "X20" 104 31 2-2 Diagonal 6-7 4 10 "Xll "X20" 112 31 2-2 Diagonal 7-7 4 10 "Xll "X20" 120 31 2-2 Diagonal 7-8 4 10 "Xll "X20" 128 4 Straight 8 4 10 "Xll "X20" 144 4 Straight 9 4 10 "Xll "X20" 150 4-i 3-2 Diagonal 6 5 lov'xiirxis" 163 ^2 3-2 Diagonal 6-7 ■5 10i"Xll|"Xl8" 175 41 ^2 3-2 Diagonal 7-7 5 lorxiirxis" ISS 4| 3-2 Diagonal 7-8 5 10 "Xll "X20" 200 ^ 3-2 Diagonal 8-8 5 10 "Xll "X20" of the first row. The second row has three open spaces, conse- quently there will be three apples in the next row; in the next there will be two, and in the next three, and so on until the other end of the box is reached. Sometimes the last row will contain two apples and sometimes three, depending on the size and the shape of the fruit. In starting the second layer of a 3-2 pack, two apples instead of three are placed for the first row; these two apples will fit in the two spaces left by the three apples of the corresponding row in the first layer. The apples of the second §7 AND MARKETING 35 layer tend to fill up the vacant spaces of the first layer. The third layer is begun with three apples, and the fourth with two ; thus the odd-numbered layers are alike, and the even-numbered ones are alike. The 2-2 diagonal pack is used for apples that are too large for a 3-2 pack. It is started by placing an apple in one comer of the box and a second one midway between this first apple land the other side. The two apples of the second row are then placed to fit into the open spaces thus left ; the third row is then placed like the first one, and the fourth, like the second, and so on until the layer is finished. In starting the second layer, the apples are placed just the reverse of the way they were in the first layer, the first row coming over the opening between the apples of the first row beneath and the second over the opening in the second row of the first layer, etc. In Table I is given data concerning straight and diagonal box packs. This table is compiled from information published by Prof. C. I. Lewis, of the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station. 21. The offset pack resembles the diagonal pack in appear- ance but differs in the arrangement of the fruit. The two fonns 36 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, §7 of the offset pack that are most commonly used are shown in Fig. 32; in (a) is shown the form known as the 3-3, or 3|-tier, pack and in (6) is shown the form known as the 4-4, or 4|-tier, pack. The 3-3 offset pack is started by placing three apples in one end of the box so that they touch each other and one of them touches the comer of the box. This leaves a space at the oppo- site comer. The size of the apples should be such that the space at the side of the row is about equal to one-third or one-half of the diameter of each fruit. The second row of three apples is started on the opposite side of the box, the first apple fitting down partly into the open space of the first row. The third row is started on the same side as the first, and this alternating is continued until the layer is complete. The first row of the second layer is started on the opposite side of the box from the first roV of the first layer and the rows are alternate as in the first row. The third layer is like the first and the fourth like the second, and so on. The 4-4 offset pack is like the 3-3 pack except in the number of apples in a row. The offset pack is an easy one to make, but the large open spaces at the sides give much opportunity for the box to become slack. In addition, these spaces give the appearance of the box not being full, which is likely to injure its sale. 22. No matter which pack is used, the shape of the apples determines whether they shall be placed on the end or the side. As a rule, round or oblate apples are packed on end and oblong varieties on the side. However, to secure the proper bulge described later, some of the apples in a box may be turned one way and some the other way. It is obvious that to avoid bruising of the fruit the boxes must be packed so that they will not become slack in transit. Therefore, firmness of the pack is of prime importance. Each apple should be fitted snugly and tightly into place, but, of course, pressure enough to bruise the fruit should not be applied. Apples will shrink somewhat in storage and this makes firmness of the pack doubly important. To insure a firm pack, the fruit §7 AND MARKETING 37 should extend to the ends of the box. Often fruit is packed so that there is as much as a quarter of an inch of space at the end of the box but such practice should be avoided. If the packer finds that a layer is not coming out well he should repack a few rows choosing slightly larger apples, or turning a few on the side or on the end, as the case may require. By exercising judgment in selecting the apples as the packing is being done, a novice will soon learn to make a firm pack. A bulge at the top and the bottom of the box is necessary to avoid slackness in a packed box of apples, as the spring of the boards will keep the fruit firm even after it shrinks slightly. Most packers like a bulge of f inch on both the top and bottom. To get this bulge it is necessary that the apples be packed so that the last layer of apples comes out about flush with the two Fig. 33 ends at the top of the box, and about 1| inches higher than the side at the middle of the box, as shown in Fig. 33 (a). The box, when nailed, will then bulge at both top and bottom, as shown in (fe) . In order that the proper bulge may be secured it is neces- sary that the second, third, and subsequent layers be slightly higher at the center than at the ends. This is done by choosing slightly larger apples, or if the apples are oblate, by turning some of them on the side. In the case of very large apples it is sometimes difficult to get them to come flush with the ends, and to avoid crushing the fruit a cleat is nailed on top of the end of the box and the cover placed above this cleat. The Hood River Apple Growers Union, of Oregon, gives the following instructions about this matter to its members: 248—25 ra) Fig. 34 38 AND MARKETING 39 "Packers shotild. pack apples so that they will not be above the top of the box at either end. Growers will be allowed to refuse to nail a box unless so packed. If absolutely unavoidable in very large apples, the grower will be sure to put on cleats under the lid at both ends." To facilitate the nailing of covers on the boxes where a large number are packed, some kind of a nailing press that will hold the box securely while the cover is being nailed is necessary. Box presses for this work can be purchased from dealers in orchard supplies. Fig. 34 shows a de- sirable form. When the box has been filled and is ready for nailing, it is placed on the press, and the boards of the cover are placed on the top, as shown in (a). Cleats are then placed across the ends and the clamps a are forced down on these cleats by pressure on the foot-lever. The cleats are then nailed as shown in view (&) , after which the clamps are released and the box is removed from the press. The nails are held in the box b, where they are accessible to the one doing the nailing. In Fig. 35 is shown a press that is constructed of steel. The operation of this press is similar to that of the press just described, except that it is not necessary for the nailer to bear down on the foot-lever while the nailing is being done, the press locking itself until released by the lever shown at the bottom of the illustration. Fig. 35 40 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, §7 23. Packing of Apples in Baskets. — ^When apples are being packed in bushel baskets, a basket is filled about half full of fruit and is then racked slightly to level the pack. The basket is next filled to within a few inches of the top, and is again racked, this time a follower being used. The package is next faced by arranging the top apples in a level layer. This layer should extend above the edge of the basket for an inch or so, the exact height depending on the height of the rim of the cover. In order to give an attractive appearance, the apples of the face should be of uniform size and color. After the face has been completed, the cover is put in place and fastened. If the type of cover illustrated in Fig. 20 is used, a nail placed in the center of the strip that passes through the handle will keep the cover in place. STORING OF APPLES 24. The fact that apples, especially those of fall and winter varieties, can be kept for several months in storage before being used, very much lengthens the period during which this fruit can be consumed. Facilities for the storage of apples are almost indispensable, so far as the grower is concerned, for with them he is enabled to hold the fruit at times when there is a plentiful supply on the market and to dispose of it when the supply becomes less. One advantage of apple orcharding over the growing of many other kinds of fruits is the fact that the apple keeps well in storage. It is the nature of all fruits to ripen and then to disintegrate. The ripening process does not take place as rapidly at low tem- peratures as at high; therefore, the purpose in the storing of fruit in cold places is to prolong the ripening process. In the case of some varieties, ripening cannot be greatly prolonged; in the case of others, it can be retarded so that the fruit will keep in storage for as long as 2 years. The best temperature for storage rooms is the lowest it is possible to obtain without freezing the fruit. Experience has demonstrated that for apples this temperature is from 31° to 33° F.; at lower than 31° F. there is danger of apples freez- ing. It is important that apples be placed at a low temperature § 7 AND MARKETING 41 as soon as possible after they are picked; if left for a few- days in the orchard, especially if the weather is hot, they may ripen more than during a month or two in storage. The maturity of the fruit too, has something to do with its keeping quality in storage. Overripe fruit will disintegrate sooner than fruit that has just reached full development and attained good color. Closely associated with the length of time apples will keep in storage is the length of time they will keep when taken out of storage. If they have been stored for a long time, they will usually keep for but a short time after taken out of the storage room. Apples held in storage for a short time keep longer after they are taken out of storage, of course, than those kept in storage for a longer time. Varieties of apples vary greatly in the length of time they will keep in storage. Ben Davis, Mann, and some of the Russets are good keepers ; Wealthy and Wagener will' keep only until about January or February. Some varieties like the Jonathan, for example, are poor keepers in the cellar or a.t ordinary tem- peratures but are good keepers in cold storage; occasionally a variety, the York Imperial for instance, does better in cellar storage than in cold storage. It has been foimd, also, that a variety grown in a northern latitude or at a high altitude has better keeping qualities in storage than the same variety grown farther south or at a lower altitude. Fruit of good quality is necessary for successful storage. Apples that are partly decayed are sure to spoil if kept for any length of time, even at a low temperatiire, and wormy or other- wise defective fruit is not worth the cost of storage. Apples should be carefully sorted, therefore, before being placed in storage, and only those of the best quality reserved for the storage room; the second grade, or inferior fruit, should be disposed of at once for what it will bring. After apples have been placed in storage they should be undisturbed until ready to be moved, for excessive handling seems to injure the keeping quality. 25. Commercial Cold Storage. — In cities and towns apple growers can generally find commercial cold-storage houses 42 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, § 7 in which space is for rent. When contemplating the renting of space, a grower should ascertain whether the storage house in question has stored apples successfully in the past, for often plants are not conducted primarily as storage places for fruit, but rather for meat, eggs, and butter. These products require a lower temperature than fruit does; and if separate rooms of the proper temperattire ar« not maintained for fruit, it is likely not to keep satisfactorily. The price for commercial storage space varies in different localities. The usual rate for bushel boxes or baskets is from 15 to 25 cents from picking time to April 1, and for barrels is from 25 to 60 cents. There is usually an additional charge per month for fruit left in storage after April 1. 26. Farm Cold Storage. — Growers whose orchards are at a considerable distance from market or shipping stations, or who cannot find convenient or cheap facilities for storing fruit in commercial storage houses, often find it advantageous to maintain a storage house on the farm. Such houses can be used to hold the fruit temporarily, or if they are well constructed, during the whole season. Individual conditions will, of neces- sity, determine whether or not such a house is required or is practicable. Ice is often used as the cooling agent in storage houses of farms, but the principal disadvantage is the fact that it usually must be kept from winter until the next fall before being used in the fruit house. Therefoie, unless ice is plentiful and cheap, ice storage is not especially economical. When used in fruit- storage houses, the ice is placed in a room above the one where the fruit is stored, and cold air from this room is conducted by means of shafts to the lower part of the storage room and the warm air is conducted from the storage room through shafts that open at the roof. All of the walls should be built with dead- air spaces for insulation. 27. In the northern part of the United States and in the provinces of Canada, storage houses that are cooled by ventila- tion are much used. This plan of cooling is economical and if properly managed is very satisfactory. The cold air is admitted §7 AND MARKETING 43 near the bottom of the room, and is, of course, from the outside; the warm-air outlets are in the ceiling. The number of cold-air intakes and warm-air outlets will, of course, vary with the size of the building, but they should be ample to secure a good circu- lation of air when desired and should be provided with opening 2 Ce//i'n^^^^ Bu/Mi'nff Paper and closing devices that can be operated at will. Several cold- air intakes are preferable to one, and if the room is longer than, say, 14 to 16 feet, it is advisable to have two outlet ventilators in the ceiling. For a room 12 ft. X 12 ft. or 12 ft. X 14 ft., one outlet will be sufficient. The walls should be made with at least one dead-air space, and two such spaces are preferable. These 44 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, §7 provide against outside changes of temperature and are absolutely necessary for proper insulation. 28. In Fig. 36 (a) is shown a well-designed storage house of the type cooled by ventilation. It is 24 feet long, 14 feet wide, and 10 feet high at the ridge. The walls are made with two dead-air spaces. Two ventilators a and four intakes b, two in each side, are provided. In (b) is shown the wall construction of the house. The temperature changes in the house are secured by opening and closing the intakes and outlets. For several Fig. 37 days before the house is to be used, the doors and windows are closed, and on cool nights the air ducts are opened and in the morning before the sun gets high they are closed. This tends to cool the air on the inside. If a particularly cool day occurs, the doors and windows are opened. After the fruit has been placed in the house, the temperature is watched and the ventilators and intake ducts opened and closed accordingly. When freezing weather occurs, the doors and windows are opened during the warmest part of the day, or if necessary, oil heaters are used to reduce the temperature. §7 AND MARKETING 45 In Fig. 37 is illustrated a frame storage house of sufficient size to hold about 1,500 bushels of apples in bulk. The house is 16 feet wide and 24 feet long, outside measurements, and has 10-inch double walls that are packed with sawdust. Ventilation '-0~ ^I5'A (ft) Fig. 38 The is secured by means of ventilators a and intake chutes h. doors at the side and end are also used for ventilation. A concrete storage house that is suitable for use where from about 6,000 to 7,000 bushels of apples are stored annually is shown in Fig. 38. In (a) is shown the exterior appearance of the building. Four roof ventilators and two air intakes are provided. 46 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, §7 The first four pipes in the roof, or those back to a, are ventilators; the pipe at the back is an intake chute that extends downwards through the rear wall to a point near the floor. The other intake ■i^i^^^ng^f^ is shown at b. The dimensions and method of construction are shown in view (6). The apples are stored in bins arranged as illustrated. A house of this kind can be built for from $800 to $1,200, depending on the cost of material and labor. §7 AND MARKETING 47 In Fig. 39 is shown a storage house that is constructed of stone, concrete, and cement plaster. As in the house just described, there are four roof ventilators a, and two intakes, the pipe at the back being an intake, as in the house shown in Fig. 38 ; the other intake is shown at 6. In view (6) is shown the dimen- sions and method of construction of the house. The front of the house is constructed of concrete and over the roof is placed about 1 foot of earth. The interior is divided into two rooms, the front one being used as a packing room and the rear one as a storage room. The front room is 20 feet long and the rear room is 60 feet long. The apples are kept in bins, arranged as shown in the illustration. The storage room will hold between 6,000 and 7,000 bushels of apples. Such a house can be built for about from $1,200 to $1,500. When a good cellar is available, winter apples may be kept there in fairly good condition until January or February and often later. A cellar for apples must be frost-proof but at the same time it should be cool and somewhat moist. 29. When comparatively few apples are to be stored, they can be satisfactorily taken care of in pits dug in the ground. The size of the pit will depend, of course, on the quantity of fruit to be stored; as a rule, from 30 to 50 bushels is about as large a quantity as should be stored in one pit. The excavation may be about 3 or 4 feet obep, and a trench should be dug around it to provide drainage. A small quantity of straw is piled in the pit, the fruit is piled on this straw, then a layer of straw is placed over the fruit, and boards are placed over this. It is well to make the pile cone-shaped and to arrange a bottomless box of wood from the top to the outside air to provide ventilation. Above the straw and boards a thin layer of earth is piled, and as the weather becomes colder more earth is added. Apples will keep very well in such a pit, especially if the fruit is not often disturbed. Perhaps the best way is to take all of them out at the same time; however, it is possible to open the pit occasion- ally and remove a few apples, and still have the others keep fairly well. 48 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, MARKETING OF APPLES RETAIL MARKETING 30. When a grower sells apples at retail direct to consumers or sells to retail merchants who, in turn, sell to consumers, he has a personal acquaintance with his customers and is thus enabled to cater to their individual demands. This acquaintance gives him an opportunity to sell varieties that, although they have good qualities, are not well known on the general market. On a local market small quantities of fruit can be disposed of, and, as a rule, the margin of profit on the individual package is likely to be greater than if the fruit is sold at wholesale. In addi- tion, competition is likely to be less when fruit is sold at retail than when it is sold at wholesale, as special customers that will buy the grower's fruit year after year may be secured, whereas in the wholesale market the fruit is in competition with large quantities of the same kind and quality. Often, too, a grower who sells apples at retail can secure the profit that otherwise would go to commission men and wholesale merchants. In this case, however, he must, in a measure, do the work of these men, bearing the cost of collections, loss in bad debts, cost of delivery, etc. The grower who is selling apples to private customers can often save the price of the fruit package by delivering in bags, used boxes, crates, etc., leaving the consumer only the fruit. A grower selling at retail must keep in touch with the local demands for fruit and the prices as shown by market quotation, and make his prices accordingly. He is salesman as well as grower, and his success will depend largely on his ability to handle each operation. A good grower may be a poor salesman, and a poor grower a good salesman ; in the case of either success may not be attained. It is when a grower is good both at the production end and the selling end that he is likely to be a success at selling at retail. . § 7 AND MARKETING 49 WHOLESALE MARKETING 31. Apples sold on the wholesale, or general, market are handled in large quantities and the margin of profit on each package to the grower is usually smaller than if sold at retail. The fruit is generally handled by a commission man or other middleman, and hence the grower does not come into direct contact with the consumer. When apples are grown for the wholesale market, only a few varieties should be offered for sale and these should be of the standard varieties that are quoted on the general market. As a rule, only first-class fruit should be offered at wholesale, and it shordd be well packed and be in the type of package generally handled on the particular market to which it is shipped. Careful grading of the fruit is also a prime reqmsite, as the appearance of the produce has much to do with the price it will bring. A grower who sells at wholesale must study the market demands, for different markets desire different varieties of fruit. Boston, Philadelphia, New York, Chicago, St. Louis, and, in fact, all large markets differ somewhat as to market demands, and thus it is to the advantage of a grower to find out which market is likely to pay the best price for the variety or varieties he has for sale. 32. A grower usually has several methods by which he can dispose of his crop at wholesale. A buyer may come to the orchard and offer a certain amount for the crop as a whole, or may offer to take the crop at so much a barrel or box for the apples packed, or may contract for the fruit picked and delivered to the packing tables. Again, the grower may pack the fnut himself and ship it to commission men at market centers who will dispose of it and return the grower the balance due after they have deducted commissions and other expenses. Whether to sell direct to buyers or through commission men will depend largely on local conditions and on the grower's knowledge of market prices and market demands. No general rule as to which method is the better can be given; each grower will have to solve this problem for himself. 50 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, § 7 When about to sell a consignment through a commission man, the grower should find a dealer who has the reputation of being thoroughly honest and who knows the demands of the trade in the market in which he sells. Such a dealer is in a position to give the grower advice that, if heeded, will be the means of making him additional profit. All apples shipped to the commis- sion man shoiild be graded and honestly packed; a few poorly graded and dishonestly packed consignments will so injure the reputation of a grower that when his fruit comes to the market it is looked on with disfavor. When a commission man is found to be thoroughly reliable and satisfactory, he should be retained year after year. If a different commission man is retained each year it will be necessary for each one to learn the merits of the grower's fruit. 33. Cooperative selling of apples is perhaps the ideal way of disposing of them, provided all members and officers of the selling organization do their work faithfully and well. The greatest success in cooperative selling is attained when the fruit is put on the market under a brand that becomes known as a guarantee of an absolutely honest grade of goods. Such goods will have a reputation in the market that will cause them to sell for prices higher than is generally received for the same grade of produce. Cooperative selling of a certain brand of apples is, as a rule, better than the selling of a brand by an individual grower, for but few growers have fruit enough for sale annually to impress a market to an appreciable extent. 34. Many apples are shipped annually and sold at wholesale to foreign markets, principally to England. Many of the boxed apples from the West, including the Spitzenburg, Delicious, and Newtown Pippin, find a ready sale in England, as do the Northern Spy, King, Greening, Baldwin, Fameuse, and Mann of the Eastern States and Canadian Provinces. Apples that are to be shipped to foreign countries should be very carefully graded and securely packed, as only good fruit that reaches its destination in good condition will sell readily. As a large part of the apples exported go to Great Britain, it is well for a grower to know something of selling methods at §7 AND MARKETING 51 Liverpool, Glasgow, and London, the principal ports in Great Britain for the sale of apples. The fruit, as a rule, is sold at auc- tion. Each shipment n 1^ — Q L^ PACKEDAND ,, ^' jii'i'.i--'.- '-"P'^'/X^ ^, 'W"*™ YAKIMA SH1PPE08Y >]y;' desirable land sloping in different directions, a northern slope should be selected, as the opening of buds in the spring is retarded more than on other slopes. The proximity of large bodies of water also lessens the danger of late frosts. SELECTION OF VARIETIES 11. In selecting the varieties of cherries to be grown in a commerical orchard, a grower should select from the varieties that have been successfully grown in that section. In the Pacific Coast States, sweet cherries are grown practically exclu- sively, and the following varieties have been recommended for growth in that region: Black Tartarian, Napoleon, Windsor, Yellow Spanish, Rockport, Elton, Bing, Lam.bert, and Cen- tennial ; of these the Black Tartarian and the Napoleon varieties probably stand first in importance. In the Sierra Nevada Mountains in the eastern part of Oregon, the dukes are widely planted, as they are more hardy and stand the winters better 12 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20 than the varieties just mentioned. In the Central West, sour cherries are planted almost entirely. The varieties most widely- grown are Dyehouse, Early Richmond, Montmorency, English Morello, and Wragg. In the Eastern States, sour cherries are largely grown, although some sweet cherries are also grown. The state of Michigan leads the other Eastern States in pro- duction of sweet cherries, and here about 1 acre of sweet to 10 acres of sour cherries is grown. The sweet cherry most grown in Michigan and in other sections of the East is the Windsor, which is better adapted to clay loam than is any other variety of sweet cherry. The Napoleon and Yellow Spanish varieties, as well as the Magnifique and Montreuil, varieties of the dukes group, are also grown. The principal sour cherries grown in the Eastern States are Montmorency, Early Rich- mond, Ostheim, English Morello, and Wragg. X ijOC'}^ ai ■thiol CHERRY NURSERY STOCK 12. Propagation of Cherry Trees. — The usual method of propagating cherries is by budding. Seedlings 1 year old are planted and are budded the following summer as soon as buds are ripe on the parent, which is sometime in August in the Northeastern States, and somewhat earlier in sections having a warmer climate. Two kinds of stock are used for propaga- ting cherries, the mazzard, a seedling sweet cherry, and the mahaleb, a seedling sour cherry. Trees grown on mahaleb stock are more dwarf in habit and are said to be more hardy in the West than are trees grown on mazzard stock. For some years the Eastern nurserymen have been budding both sour and sweet cherries on the mahaleb, but there is now a demand for the sweet cherries on mazzard roots to be planted on light soils, and some experiments in New York seem to indicate that even on fairly heavy soils the mazzard is the better root for sour cherries, but even in that locality the mazzard stock sometimes suffers severely during hard winters. 13. Nursery Trees. — It is best to order 1-year-old cherry triges for planting as trees of this age may be headed as low as 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 13 desired. They will also have a greater proportion of their roots remaining upon them than will trees which have been Fig. 5 allowed to grow longer in the nursery. Another advantage of 1 -year-old trees is that being small they are much easier to handle and less expensive to ship. In preparing the trees for 14 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20 planting the same precautions should be observed as in the case of plums. A No. 1 grade 2-year-old sour cherry tree of the Montmorency variety is shown in Fig. 5 (a) ; it measured 5 feet 6 inches above the bud and 9 inches below the bud, and calipered | inch. A No. 1 grade sweet cherry tree of the Napoleon variety is shown in (6) ; it measured 6 feet 3 inches above the bud and 9 inches below the bud, and calipered 1 3^ inches. PLANTING OF CHERRIES 14. Methods of Planting. — The methods of planting cherry trees are the same as those already outlined for other fruit trees, with the possible exception that when cherry trees are planted in the cold parts of the Prairie States and north of the 41st parallel, it is deemed to be good practice to plant them 6 to 12 inches deeper than they stood in the niu^sery row, and this is of special importance on the high, rolling land that is the most suitable for cherry orchards. As a rule, it is wise in any section to plant cherry trees somewhat deeper than they stood in the nursery. 15. Time of Planting. — A large proportion of cherry trees are dug in the fall, and since a great many plantings are made in the fall, nurserymen, to rush the work, strip the foliage, frequently three or four weeks before it would fall naturally; this tends to weaken the trees and increase the loss, which is usually charged to autumn planting. In the judgment of some experienced growers, fall planting, made just as soon as the leaves drop naturally, is preferable to spring planting, as trees well planted in the fall are generally in better condition than trees in the nursery ceUar. The advantages of fall planting are that a better callus of the injured surface of the root is secured and some roots develop before winter. The soil being warmer in October than at any other time of the year, the growth of roots is encouraged more at that time than in spring. When trees are spring planted, the growth of foliage is made largely at the expense of the food § 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 15 stored in the truiik, and it is some time before the roots can develop marked activity. In fact, it is frequently June before new growth can be seen on the roots. If spring planting is practiced, it should be done as early as possible. 16. Distance for Planting. — Sour cherries are set as close as 10 feet or 12 feet apart; 18 feet by 18 feet is a common distance. The sour varieties would be better planted 20 feet by 20 feet, and sweet cherries should be planted 30 feet apart each way, for in favorable locations the sweet cherry will make a large tree 40 to 50 feet high. ORCHARD OPERATIONS 17. Cultivation. — The soil for cherries is prepared in the same way as that for plums. A cultivated crop, such as com, potatoes, beans, etc., or garden truck, is frequently grown between the trees for the first 3 or 4 years, if Ihe soil is sufficiently rich. If intercropping is not practiced and the land is entirely given up to the trees, shallow cultivation is maintained until the middle of July or thereabouts. At this time cultivation ceases and a cover crop of some kind, for example, Crimson clover, oats and barley, buckwheat and rape, or one of various other crops is planted. The important point is to have a good mat of material on the ground to hold snow and afford pro- tection to the roots. In addition, these crops have some value as fertilizers. Many successful growers contend that it is absolutely necessary for a successful cherry orchard that it have good cultivation during its early life and that the trees be developed to a good size before bearing. A little more care must be taken in growing sweet cherries than in growing sour cherries. The sour cherry will stand forcing, but the sweet cherry may be made to grow too rapidly, in which case most of its energies will be devoted to the production of wood gro^vth and little to the production of fruit. When the trees come into bearing it is generally advisable to maintain good cultivation in the case of the sour cherries, but in some cases it is profitable to sow clover in the sweet-cherry orchard and let it remain for IG CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20 two or three seasons, especially if the trees are making much growth. Each grower will have to decide for himself as to the best method to pursue. It is safe to say that on sandy land cultivation should be maintained for both sweet and sour cherries. It is very important that cultivation be started as soon as possible in the spring, in order to retain as much mois- ture as possible in the soil. The tillage implements are those usually used in other orchards. 18. Priming. — Compared with most other trees, the cherry should receive little pruning, especially after the first 2 or 3 years. During the first year just sufficient wood should be removed to give the tree a spreading habit. The head should be started within 18 inches of the ground and according to some of the most successful growers should consist of from three to five main branches with a leader. Low-headed trees are secured by allowing siifficient distance between the trees and by heading in from the first year. It may be necessary to cut back the growth one-half each year until the tree comes into bearing. If this is done there must also be judicious thinning of the shoots, which are induced to grow because of this method of cutting back. After the trees reach bearing age little other pruning than to take out interfering or diseased wood is needed. 19. Fertilizing. — The question of the desirability of fertilizing cherry orchards depends largely on local conditions. In general, however, where Crimson clover or Red clover can be grown as a catch crop and turned under in the spring, there will be little need to apply nitrogenous fertilizers. It is stated by some growers that the application of phosphate fertilizers, especially in the form of acid phosphate, tends to aid the trees in maturing their wood. Some growers recommend the appli- cation of 3 pounds of muriate of potash and 15 pounds of acid phosphate per tree, and in some cases the application of from 100 to 250 pounds of muriate of potash and from 300 to 500 pounds of acid phosphate per acre is recommended. From 300 to 400 pounds of muriate of potash and an equal quantity of ground § 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 17 bone have been applied per acre with good results. Wood ashes, when obtainable, may be applied at the rate of from 50 to 100 bushels per acre in place of the muriate of potash. In each case the nitrogen is to be secured by plowing under legtuninous crops. Some growers use a 2-8-10 complete fertilizer at the rate of 400 to 800 pounds per acre. 20. Spraying. — The first spray shoiild be applied to cherries before the buds break and should consist of lime- sulphur of a specific gravity of 1.03, or 32° Baiime diluted 1 to 8. The second spray should be applied just before the fruit buds open and should consist of lime-sulphur of a specific gravity of 1.007, or 32° Baume diluted 1 to 40, and containing 1| to 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of liquid. This spray may be repeated as soon as the fruit sets and may be followed by two or three subsequent sprayings if necessary. Some growers use Bordeaux mixture in place of lime-sulphur for all sprays except the first. Self -boiled lime-sulphur is some- times used as a ftingicide spray after the fruit forms. 21. Renovation of Old Ciierry Orciiards. — The cherry, especially in the Eastern States, grows to a good size and lives to a great age, some trees being over a hundred years old, but there are few old cherry orchards. There has been no great cherry business, and it is difficult to state how long an orchard will continue to be profitable. One authority states that probably 30 years is the limit of the most profitable age, for after that time the trees are so large that the expense of pick- ing the fruit and taking care of the trees becomes too great. Before renovating an old orchard, an individual should consider these factors and determine whether it would not be better to plant a new orchard. Cherry trees may be expected to bear at 5 years of age and at 10 years to be making handsome returns; and generally it will take 2 or 3 years to get an. old orchard into shape even if it can be accomplished at all. 18 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20 HANDLING OF THE CHERRY CROP 22. Harvesting." — ^The labor of picking has been a serious problem in cherry growing, as the fruit matures very rapidly and must be quickly removed or it will spoil. For this reason, a grower should not plant a large cherry orchard unless he is sure he can secure pickers at the proper time. The fruit should be harvested in two or three pickings, as it does not ripen uni- formly. The pickers should use ladders and should not be allowed to climb around in the trees, as this is liable to injure the bark and also to break the branches. Pickers are usually paid from f to 1 cent per pound, although some growers prefer to hire by the day, because of the greater care exercised by the pickers. Fruit for shipping should be picked with the stems on, but at the same time care must be taken not to remove the fruit spur to which the stem is attached. When the fruit is picked for a short haul to a cannery, it is allowed to become more mature than when it is to be shipped. It is also picked without the stems, which is much easier for the picker and less injurious to the tree. One of the most successful growers in Michigan harvests all of his cherries by spreading sheets under the trees and per- mitting the pickers to clip the fruit off with scissors and allow it to fall on the sheet, leaving about | inch of the stem on the cherry. Fruit picked in this way sells at a higher price than that which has long stems attached. Cherries should be picked while dry. As soon as the fruit is picked it should be placed in the shade or removed to the packing house. 23. Grading and Packing. — The fruit is poured from the picking baskets onto the packing table. If it can be allowed to cool before it is graded it can be handled much better. Gra- ding and packing usually constitute one operation. The fruit should not be shipped in large bulk, as for example in half- bushel packages, as the fruit is easily crushed. Baskets holding not more than 8 or 10 pounds are used. Some growers pack cherries in berry boxes and use the 16-box berry crate as a carrier. Very fancy fruit packed in 1- or 2-pound packages § 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 19 and shipped in carriers will often bring a much higher price than if put up in larger packages. When cherries are to be shipped in small boxes, the tops of the boxes are nailed on and the bottoms left off, and the box is packed from the bottom. Cherries are placed in rows on the inside of the top, with the stems all turned into the box. After the inside is covered, forming the facing, the box is filled and the bottom nailed on and the box turned and marked on the faced side. Lace-edged paper is often placed in the box before the fruit is put in. If baskets are used for packing, the fruit is put in and faced on top. For fancy fruit, facing pays. If the fruit is to be sent to the canner it is not graded so closely and. is usually shipped in 8-pound baskets without facing. 24, Storing. — Cherries are regarded by cold-storage men as extremely perishable. The way in which the fruit is handled before it is placed in storage has much to do with its keeping. Cherries that have been properly picked and handled and covered with a layer of cotton batting have been kept in good condition for a month at a temperature of 30 degrees, which is the temperature found best for storing cherries. Cherries as well as plums have been held in storage frozen at a temperature of from 5 to 12 degrees for several months. They must, however, be used immediately on being taken out of storage. Little has been done thus far in holding cherries in storage for commercial purposes. 25. Marketing. — The problem of marketing is similar to that of all other perishable fruits, but by cooperation a number of small growers can dispose of their crops to as good advantage as the large grower can. Generally speaking, Eastern-grown fruit will not stand up quite as well as that grown in California ; there is, therefore, more risk in handling. California cherries can be placed on Eastern markets in April when Eastern trees are in bloom and remain in the market until July. The Eastern grower is hardly warranted in going into the business unless he has a near-by market such as a canning factory that will take large quantities of fruit at very short notice. Such a factory constitutes one of the best markets for a large grower. 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20 If the price is determined before the fruit is consigned to the market the grower is not subject to the risk that is taken when fruit is consigned on commission, as the market may be glutted when the fruit arrives. There is a large and insistent demand on the part of canners for white cherries, that is, the sweet, light-colored cherries, and for red cherries, especially the Montmorency. The price ruling during the last few years has been about 5 cents per pound. CHERRY PESTS AND INJURIES INSECTS 26. The black cherry aphis is an insect that so far as known attacks only the cherry and does serious injury only to the sweet chferry. Beth the winged and the wingless forms of this aphis are shining black. The insects assemble in large numbers on the young shoots or limbs near the base, before spreading to the rest of the tree. If careful watch is kept the insects may easily be destroyed while so clustered and thus may be prevented from spreading to other parts of the tree. The presence of the insects is indicated by a large amount of honey dew on the foliage. The infested leaves soon begin to curl and form a protection for the insects. The black cherry aphis should be controlled by the use of contact insecticide sprays, which should be applied before the leaves curl. 27. The San Jose scale and other scale insects that have been discussed in connection with the growing of other fruits sometimes attack cherries. The remedy is the same as already given for these insects. The sour cherry does not stiff er as severely from the attack of San Jose scale as does the sweet cherry. 28. The plum curculio sometimes injures cherries. The remedy is to spray with arsenate of lead as described for plums. 29. The cherry fruit fly is an insect native to America. The adult insect is a fly slightly smaller than a house fly; it is § 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 21 black in color and has a yellowish head and legs and three or four white bands across the abdomen. This insect deposits eggs just under the skin of the cherry. The eggs hatch in a few days into little maggots, similar in appearance to the apple maggot ; these burrow through the flesh of the cherry, leaving a rotting cavity. When full grown the maggots leave the cherry and pupate just below the surface of the ground, under rubbish, or in the bottom of baskets in which the fruit is packed. Little has been done toward controlling this insect. A similar fly has recently been controlled in South Africa by spraying the foli- age with arsenate-of-lead solution sweetened with brown sugar. The sugars,' attracts the flies, which ase -]3^.. Fig. 6 killed by the poison. This remedy is worthy of trial if the cherry fruit fly should become a very serious pest. Early spring flowing will no doubt bury many of the pupas and prevent the flies from emerging. All fruit that falls or that remains on the trees after harvest should be destroyed. Fig. 6 represents the cherry fruit fly. FUNGOUS AND CLIMATIC INJURIES 30. The fungous disease known as black knot that causes the black, irregular knotty growth on plum trees also attacks cherry trees. The remedy is to cut out and bum the affected branches as soon as they are discovered. Fig. 7 shows cherry branches affected with black knot. 31. Brown rot is the most serious fungous disease with which cherry growers have to contend, and some varieties of sweet cherries are especially subject to its attack. Fruit that cracks is especially liable to be attacked. Hot, moist atmos- pheric conditions, when occurring at the time the fruit is CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20 ripening, are favorable to the spread of this disease. Bordeaux mixture has been used with partial success to control the fungus, but the foliage of the sweet cherry is very susceptible to injury by Bordeaux. Some growers believe that self-boiled lime-sulphur will prove to be an excellent remedy for the disease. Injury from this fungus may be lessened by picking 2 ^^^ j^ /j^^m^^M^^- A 5 ^^^^^^^^^ "' ^ ''^ W:=^&^'_^wM: ^^~2^^^"^^^^^^^^^^ ^ K^f^ "^ /k ^ ^^-^^'^^^^sL^^r-^^^^^^k Fig. 7 the fruit before it is fully ripe and when it is perfectly dry. Fig. 8 shows Montmorency cherries affected with brown rot. 32. Powdery mildew sometimes attacks the fruit and leaves of the sour cherry. The description and remedy for this fungus has been given in a previous Section. 33. The shot-liole fuiigus described in another Section also affects cherries. The remedy is the same as in the case of plums. § 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 23 34. An injury known as sun scald is frequently seen on cherry trees, and especially on sweet cherry trees. This injury is prevalent in the West and South and as far north as Massa- chusetts. It occurs usually in the late winter or the early spring on the south or the west side of the trunk or of the larger branches. It is caused by alternate freezing and thawing, Fig. 8 causing contraction and expansion, which bursts the bark on the side of the tree toward the sun. The injury is most prev- alent on trees that are growing rapidly. If trees are headed low so that the trunks are shaded there is less danger of this injury occurring. In some of the Western States the trunks are shaded with netting, matting, or a board to prevent this injury. 24 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20 APRICOTS 35. The apricot tree is a vigorous grower and produces fruit both on the spurs and on the last season's twigs. The fruit ripens in advance of the peach and plum and has the general appearance of the peach, but its pit, which is broad, smooth, and somewhat fiat, is more like that of the plum. The earliness of the blooming period of the apricot has been the greatest drawback to its being planted in almost all sections where the peach thrives. In many of the sections where the apricot has been tried, the fruit is nearly always killed by late spring frosts. In many cases the failure of the plants to thrive and to produce fruit has been due to the planting of wrong varieties. With a better knowledge of frost conditions and of methods of protection from frosts, the area over which apricots can be grown has recently increased very rapidly. The demand for apricots is so great that they will always bring good prices. The same general statements that have been made in regard to the selection of a location for a peach orchard are applicable to the selection of a location for an apricot orchard. It should be remembered, however, that apricots bloom earlier in the spring than do peaches and, therefore, cannot be grown with as much safety in localities that are subject to late spring frosts as can peaches. 36. Varieties of Apricots. — Brief descriptions of some of the best commercial varieties of apricots are as follows : The Moorpark is one of the latest-ripening varieties. The fruit is large and uniform in size, nearly round in shape, and in color is orange with a deep orange-colored cheek. It is a free- stone and the flesh is bright yellowish orange in color, is firm and juicy, has a rich, high flavor, and the quality is good. The Royal is a leading variety for canning and drying. The fruit is large, roundish in shape, the color is a dull yellow § 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 25 with an orange cheek and a faint blush, and is a freestone. The flesh is Hght orange in color, is firm and juicy, has a vinous flavor, and is classed as good in quality. The Peach variety is one of the best. It ripens in mid- season and dries to a deep golden-yellow color. The fruit is very large, has flattened sides, and a well-marked suture, and is of an orange color. The flesh is orange yellow in color, is juicy, rich, and highly flavored. The Tilton variety resembles the Peach variety in respect to size, shape, and time of ripening, but it is more deeply colored. It dries well and is a good canner and shipper. The fruit of the Newcastle variety is of mediimi size and is valuable for supplying the early market. The fruit of the BlerLheim variety is above mediimi in size and is of an oval shape and an orange color. The flesh is deep yellow in color, juicy, and has a rich flavor. This variety is in great demand for canning and drying. 37. Selection of Nursery Stock. — The apricot may be grown on either peach, apricot, almond, or plum stock. The peach seedling is used most as stock on which to graft apricot scions. The plimi should be used as stock for heavy soils, and the peach or the bitter almond should be used as stock for light soils. The almond root should not be used as stock in sections troubled by gophers, as these animals are very fond of it and often destroy large orchards of trees grown on this root. The pits from which the stock is to be grown are usually obtained at canneries and kept from drying out until the follow- ing spring, when they are planted in rows 3| feet apart, and the pits 3 inches apart in the row and are covered 3 inches deep. The planting can also be done in the fall. The pits may be kept from becoming dry by placing a 2-inch layer of pits in a bottomless box placed on the ground and on top of the pits a 2-inch layer of sand. This operation is repeated until all the pits are covered. A good nursery tree should be 1 year old and from 4 to 5 feet high. Branches or well-developed buds should be well dis- tributed along the trunk to within 10 inches of the roots. 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20 The trunk, or stem, must be stocky, the roots weU developed, and have numerous small branching rootlets. A tree with only a few large roots will start growth very slowly. Nursery stock should be purchased from well-known nursery firms, and if possible from a nursery located in the district in which the orchard is to be grown. 38. Planting of Apricot Trees. — As soon as the trees are received from the nursery they should be heeled-in until they are to be planted. Apricots are planted from 20 to 30 feet apart. The suggestions in regard to the preparations of the soil for peaches and to the planting of peaches are applicable to apricots. 39. Priming of Apricot Trees. — The time that elapses between the setting of trees and the time that they begin bearing is the period of formation of the trees and will cover the first 3 years of their existence in the orchard. The first year the tree should be headed back to within 15 inches of the ground, and as the apricot is a very rapid grower there will be many more shoots than are required. As soon as the twigs reach a length of 6 inches all on the stem, from the groimd up to a point 8 inches above the surface, shoiild be removed, above this point only five branches should be left and these well placed aroimd the stem. After the trees have become dormant, pre- ferably along toward spring, the remaining branches should be cut back from one-half to two-thirds of their growth and the side shoots on them thiimed to from three to five shoots on each branch and each shoot should be cut back to spurs of three buds. This pruning leaves stubs of about 1| feet in length as a foundation on which to build the tree. The pruning for the next 2 years should be such as to make the tree as stocky as possible. To accompHsh this the pruning the second and the third year should be almost as severe as that given the first year. The sprouts on the trunk and all drooping branches should be removed to allow Hght and air to get into the head of the tree, otherwise the twigs and spurs in the center will be smothered out. All main branches should be cut back about one-half. § 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 27 From the fourth year good crops of fruit shoiild be expected, and as the habit of the tree is gradually to extend the bearing wood farther and farther away from the trunk and the spurs near the body to break off or die, a rather vigorous heading back must be practiced. Heading back favors new growth on the trunk and on the large branches near the body, thus keeping the fruiting surface more evenly distributed. The extent of the pruning depends on the growth of the trees. A vigorous growth may be cut back one-half and a light growth one-third, but the branches should be kept thinned and cut back so that the sunshine can get to the center of the head to ripen and color the fruit. 40. Renovating Apricot Orchards. — The first step in renovating an old orchard is to give the land a thorough plow- ing, preferably during the faU. The orchard should then receive a thorough pruning. All suckers from around the base of the trees and all broken and diseased branches should be removed and the head cut back very severely. If the orchard has not been pruned for some years, at least one-half the length of aU branches should be removed. The orchard should then be sprayed thoroughly with lime-sulphur, 1 gallon of stock solution of 30° Baimie test to 7 gallons of water, making a spray of a specific gravity of about 1.03. 41. Fertilizing. — The most common fertilizers in use for apricot orchards are dried blood, bone meal, nitrate of soda, muriate of potash, and superphosphate. If the leaves of the trees are of light color and the growth of the trees is poor, the application of from 150 to 200 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre sown broadcast and cultivated luider will have a beneficial effect. If the fruit is not up to standard as to flavor and texture, an application of from 400 to 500 pounds per acre of a mixture consisting of 1 part of acid phosphate, or superphosphate, and 2| parts of muriate of potash will be beneficial. If a complete fertilizer is desired about 500 pounds per acre of the following mixture can be used: Nitrate of soda, 150 28 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20 pounds; muriate of potash, 250 pounds; acid phosphate, or superphosphate, 100 pounds. A chemical fertilizer should be applied during the spring. Cover crops or green maniire are valuable in improving the fertility of orchard soils. 42. Apricot Pests and Injuries. — The apricot tree is one of the healthiest of fruit trees. There are but few insect pests and fungous diseases that seriously injure the tree or its fruit, but the tree is very susceptible to injury from frost. In fact, it is climatic conditions more than anything else that curtails the production of apricots. The principal insect enemies of the apricot are the plum curculio, the peach borer, and the San Jose scale. The worst disease that affects the apricot is the shot-hole fungus, which causes considerable damage by perforating the leaves with small holes similar to shot holes and by causing numerous small scars on the fruit that materially reduce its value. These pests and injuries are combated by the same methods that have been recom- mended elsewhere. 43. Harvesting of Apricots. — The stage of maturity at which apricots should be picked depends on whether the fruit is to be shipped, canned, or dried. For shipping or for canning purposes, the fruit should be well colored and ripe, but only ripe enough to be firm; that is, it should not be ripe enough to be in the least soft. Fruit that has begun to soften will not stand shipping and should be dried. An orchardist should have a good supply of picking buckets of the 12-quart, wide-mouth type, and field boxes, which should be of uniform size and hold about 1 bushel. Good step ladders are a necessary part of a picking equipment. All fruit that is ripe enough to ship should be gathered at one picking. One or two apricots should be picked at a time and laid, not dropped, into the receptacle. A number of apricots should not be held in the hand at one time, as they are very apt to be squeezed and bruised. All the lower fmit should be picked and placed in the boxes and the fruit in the top of the tree picked from the step ladders and placed in the buckets. The § 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 29 boxes or buckets should not be heaped, as there would be too much weight on the fruit in the bottom of the box or bucket. The fruit should not be emptied out of the boxes or buckets, but taken directly to the packing house and picked out. Every time the fruit is handled its shipping quality is impaired. All the fruit should not be picked at one picking, because it does not all ripen at the same time. The trees should be gone over several times before all the crop is removed. 44. Grading and Packing of Apricots. — ^Part of the grading can be done as the fruit is being picked by leaving all deformed or diseased specimens in the orchard. The final grading is done by the packers. All soft, broken-skiimed, undersized, and otherwise blemished fruit is culled out by the packers as the fruit is sorted according to size and packed. Apricots are packed in carriers containing four baskets 8 in. X8 in. X4 in. in size. Paper is used to line the baskets and to place between each layer of fruit. The style of pack that is used depends on the size of the fruit. When it is possible, some form of the diagonal pack, as described for apples, is used. The diagonal pack allows fruit to be so distributed that each fruit bears a part of the pressure and weight of other fruits in the pack. Also, the fruit in diagonal packs sirffers less from ship- ping than it does in other forms of packs, especially the straight pack. However, small fruits are usually placed in straight packs because it is easier to bring the fruit to the top of the basket by using the straight pack than by using the other forms of packs. 45. Marketing of Apricots. — The apricot is one of the most perishable of tree fruits, the season for it in the fresh state ending almost with the last picking. As a result, the larger number of apricot consumers are more familiar with the canned or dried product than they are with the fresh. Shippers realize that the only limit to the consumption of the fresh fruit is its keeping qualities, and that anything that will lengthen its season will also increase the profits. At present careful attention is being given to precooling and to shipping the fruit in refrigerator cars. It has been found that by cooling the 30 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20 fruit before loading and then carefully icing the cars, apricots can be put on all the large markets in America in carload lots and then distributed from there to the near-by small towns. If the shipper has access to a good cold-storage plant at the receiving station, the shipment can be unloaded right into the storage room. This will give him a chance to hold his fruit for a better market. Some of the most difficult problems that are found in the marketing of the apricot is to get the grower educated to pick and to pack his crop properly. A poor shipment is nearly always due to the fruit being roughly handled, to having stood in the sun after it was removed from the trees, to having been packed in a dirty packing house, or to poor packing. 46. Drying of Apricots.— At the present time the bulk of apricot drying is done in the sun on a small plot of ground set aside for the purpose. When the drying season approaches, the drying yard is cleaned up and the trash removed. The fruit is allowed to get riper than that used for shipping. In many orchards the fruit is shaken off of the trees. However, it is a much better plan to pick the fruit. The fruit is taken to a shed where it is cut, never torn, in half and the pit shaken out. The halves are spread, skin side down, on a tray and subjected to the fimies of burning sulphur, from | an hour to 2 hours, depending on the condition of the fruit. This is done in order to make the fruit dry to a light amber color. The length of time in the sulphur box required to give this color can be learned only by experience. The trays containing the fruit are then placed in the sunshine for from 3 to 6 days, the exact time necessary to dry the fruit completely varying with the climatic conditions and also with the condition of the fruit. A few apricot growers dry their fruit in evaporators. About 6 pounds of green fruit will make 1 pound of dried fruit. 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 31 QUINCES INTRODUCTION 47. The quince is grown commercially less extensively than any of the other tree or bush fruits, and although a compara- ■ tively limited quantity of this fruit is offered for sale, experience proves that when a grove is rightly taken care of it can be made very profitable. One of the best examples of the truth of this statement is the history of a neglected quince grove of | acre in New York State. The trees were about 30 years old and had been practically abandoned. No fruit had been secured for 4 or 5 years, but it was thought by the owner that the trees were worthy of renovation. Accordingly he pruned out the dead wood, cultivated the land, and sprayed the trees. The first year after the renovation no fruit was grown, but the succeeding years showed good results, the returns for the next 6 years being as follows: $112.50, $119, $150, $138.20, $138.75, $185.25. When it is remembered that these returns were from | acre of trees that had been neglected for 30 years, they seem sur- prisingly large. Quince trees generally begin to bear a small quantity of fruit the third or the fourth year after being planted. They should be in full bearing in 10 years after being planted, when an annual yield of a bushel to a tree can be expected. The life of a tree after coming into bearing averages from 30 to 40 years. The demand for quinces would undoubtedly increase were more fruit of good quality offered for sale. Quinces are very acceptable for canning, evaporating, and the making of jelly, marmalade, and. preserves, and when boiled and served hot with cream or butter they are an excellent dessert ; another use is to bake them with Pound Sweet apples to be served as baked apple and quince. The Chicago market will take a large 32 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20 quantity of fruit for this last-named purpose; in fact, they are used to such an extent for this purpose that the supply of quinces has an influence on the price of Pound Sweet apples. The price of apples of this variety is likely to be low, if but few quinces are offered on the market. Among the points that can be given in favor of growing quinces commercially are: (1) The trees are almost sure to bear regularly if they have the proper care ; (2) as the trees are small, seldom averaging over 15 feet in height, they are easily sprayed and pruned, and the fruit is easily thinned and har- vested; (3) quinces are late bloomers, usually not coming into blossom until all danger of frost has passed ; (4) the fruit is not very perishable, being about like apples in this respect; (5) the prices received for first-class fruit have in the past been large, and it is to be expected that, even with a marked increase in acreage, the prices will continue to be large, as there would be a tendency to increase the consiunption if enough quinces were offered for sale to let consimiers learn of the many good qualities of this excellent fruit. IMPORTANT VARIETIES OF QUINCES 48. Descriptions of some of the important varieties of quinces suitable for planting in the United States and Canada are given below. Several other varieties are sold by nursery- men, but those described are the most important ones for both home and commercial planting. The Orange, or as it is also known, the Apple quince, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 9, is probably the most important commercial variety. The tree is a moderately vigorous grower and has wide, spreading branches. The fruit is variable in size and shape and may be pear shaped or be flattened on the end like an apple. The color of the fruit is a pale orange and the surface is moderately covered with down. The flesh is very firm and of a good flavor. When grown under the most favor- able conditions, the fruit of this variety can be kept until February. It ripens about mid-season. § 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 33 The Champion is an American variety of quince of rather recent origin. The tree is an upright grower and usually attains a somewhat greater height than trees of the Orange variety. The fruit is large and pear shaped and is furrowed about the stem. The color is generally a greenish yellow, and the fruit is covered with a prominent fuzz. The quinces are late in matur- FiG. 9 ing and in some sections do not ripen well, but when grown under good conditions the fruit is said to be one of the best keepers. The fruit of the Rea, is from a third to a half larger than the fruit of the Orange variety. The tree is small, as a rule, only about two-thirds the size of trees of the Orange. 248—34 34 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES §20 The fruit is large to very large. The color is orange and the surface is generally smooth, lacking the pronounced fuzz of the varieties previously described. The fruit is of good quality and ripens early but does not keep as well as fruit of the Orange. Fig. 10 The trees need good cultivation for the best success. A quince of this variety is illustrated in Fig. 10. The tree of the Meech, also known as the Meech Prolific, variety of quince is something like that of the Orange variety. The trees have the spreading habit well developed. They bear young and are usually good croppers. The fruit is of good appearance but is inclined to be small, and largely for this reason it is not as valuable for market purposes as the fruit rx 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 35 of some of the other varieties. In some sections it is claimed to be one of the most productive of varieties, but in other sections this claim has not been borne out. The Missouri, or Missouri Mammoth, is a variety of quince that is generally regarded as being very prolific. The tree is large, in fact, the largest of any of the varieties of quinces Fig. 11 described. The trees bear reasonably young, and, as a rule, give fair crops. The fruit is of fair size and is rich and aromatic. The Bourgeat is a variety of quince that can be held in storage until spring. The tree is a strong grower and is regarded as being a very good bearer. The fruit is large in size, of a bright yellow color, and has a very small core; its keeping qual- ity is of the best. The Van Deman variety of quince is a recent introduction of Luther Burbank, of California, and by some it is claimed to 36 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20 be one of the hardiest and surest bearers in existence. The fruit ripens throughout a comparatively long season, and it is claimed to have excellent keeping qualities. The Pear variety of quince, illustrated in Fig. 11, is grown to a limited extent in quince-producing regions. The trees are of average size and are considered to be moderate bearers. The fruit ranges from medium to large in size; the skin is a diill reddish yellow, covering a firm, tough, and rather dry flesh. The flavor is good but slightly inferior to that of the Orange variety. The fruit ripens late and has excellent shipping qualities. QUINCE- ORCHARD ESTABLISHMENT 49. Selection of Location. — In selecting a location for the establishment of a quince orchard, about the same factors should be considered as with any of the other tree fruits, except that, on account of the late blooming habit of the trees, a location somewhat more subject to early spring frosts, may be chosen if desired. The best type of soil for quinces is generally conceded to be a clay loam that is fairly retentive of moisture, but one that is well drained. On very light soils the trees grow quicldy, but they are short lived and usually unproductive. 50. Selection of Varieties. — Although but few varieties of quinces are found in cultivation, in establishing a grove it is generally a good plan to plant several varieties that mature at different times during the season, in order that the fruit may be had in succession. As with other fruits, it is well to ascertain, if possible, from growers in the vicinity which varieties do best in the locality where the trees are to be planted. 51. Propagation of Quinces. — The quince can be propa- gated in one of four ways: (1) By budding, (2) by mound layering, (3) by root grafting, and (4) by cuttings. The budding method is the one most often employed by nursery- men. Seedlings of a variety known as Angers which are imported from France, are. used as stocks, and after budded they are trained either in a tree or a bush form, according to § 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 37 the ideas of the nurseryman. If they are received from the nursery as bushes, the head being formed within 6 or 7 inches of the ground, the orchardist can form a permanent head at whatever height he desires. If, on the other hand, the nursery- man trains the young plant in the tree form, the head will be formed when the grower receives the trees, and he will have no opportunity to form the head according to his own desires. When quinces are propagated by mound layering an old plant is cut back to encourage a growth of sprouts, and when these are well started a mound of soil is thrown over the crown. After the sprouts have taken root they are detached and sold as young quince plants. A disadvantage of mound-layered plants is their tendency to form numerous sprouts after being planted. In root grafting, the quince scions are grafted on apple-tree roots. After being allowed to grow for a year the roots are dug and if the quince scions have formed roots the apple roots are removed and the young quince replanted. Nurserymen who have light soils sometimes propagate the quince by hardwood cuttings. These cuttings are placed in the soil and after they take root are transplanted. 52. Purchasing of Young Quince Trees. — When pur- chasing young quince trees, it is important that a grower visit the nursery and select the trees himself. He should aim to get thrifty, vigorous specimens, preferably those not older than 2 years from the time of budding. They should be headed low, not more than 10 inches from the ground. Too often pur- chasers try to get as large a tree as they can for a given price. This is a mistake, for such trees are usually headed too high, and they are likely to be 3 or 4 years old and to be culls from previous years. The young trees should be examined carefully for borers, and any that show signs of injury from this insect should be discarded. Trees showing evidence of fire blight should also be discarded, for they will not only be practically worthless themselves but will carry infection to other trees. The purchaser should guard against getting seedling trees — that is, those on which the buds of the cultivated variety did 38 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES §20 not take. Often as high as 30 or 40 per cent, of the buds fail to grow, and unless the young trees are carefully examined a large percentage are very likely to be seedlings. With a little practice, however, it is not difhcult to tell the seedlings from the cultivated varieties, for the distance between the buds on the twigs of the seedlings is usually much less than in the case of cultivated varieties. In view of the fact that there is such a likelihood of getting seedling stock, it will pay the grower, when purchasing quince trees, to deal with a reliable nurseryman, one from whom redress can be secured if the trees prove to be untrue to name. 53. Planting of Quince Trees. — Quince trees may be planted either in the spring or the fall, but probably the major- ity of growers prefer spring planting. When planting in the spring, it is advantageous to get the trees from a near-by nursery so that they can be placed in the ground a day or so after being dug, preferably the next day. Experience shows that trees planted soon after being taken from the nursery make a much more satisfactory growth than those dug the faU. previous and stored during the winter. With fall-planted trees it is also an advantage if the trees are planted soon after being taken from the nursery row. When the quince is planted soon after being taken from the nursery row and if it has a good head started within a few inches of the ground, all the pruning necessary at the time of planting is to remove any excess of limbs, not even cutting back the terminal. However, if the tree has become dried in shipment and the tips of the limbs are dead, all such parts shoiild be pruned ofif. The preparation of the soil, the laying out of the grove, and the setting of the trees are the same for the quince as for other tree fruits. It is especially important in the case of quince trees, however, that the soil be tamped well about the roots. For commercial planting, quince trees should be placed about 15 feet apart each way. The trees will then have suf- ficient room in which to develop a low, spreading head. Too close planting is as unadvisable as for other kinds of fruit trees. 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 39 MANAGEMENT OF QUINCE ORCHARD 54. Pruning. — The question of how much or how httle to prune quince trees is one on which growers do not agree. Some prune their trees severely, as much as one-half of the new growth each year, but such men are usually those who force the trees with nitrogenous fertilizers, and who must therefore prune severely to keep the trees within bounds. Other growers allow the trees practically to grow at wUl from the time they are planted until they come into bearing, pruning only enough to keep the fire blight in subjection and to keep them headed back slightly. Most growers agree, however, that after the trees come into bearing, some annual heading in and cutting back of fruit-bearing branches is desirable in order to improve the size of the fruit. This cutting back of fruit-bearing wood has the same effect as thinning, for the quince, like the peach, bears fruit on wood of the previous year's growth. Pruning should not be so excessive, however, as to cause a large growth of tender sprouts, for such growth is subject to attacks of fire blight. 55. Spraying. — ^As with other fruits, combined fungicidal and insecticidal sprays are used for quince trees. Following is a system that is in use by several successful growers: 1. Just before the blossoms open, spray with Bordeaux mixture (6 pounds of copper sulphate, 6 pounds of lime, water slaked, 50 gallons of water) ; Bordeaux mixture appears to be well adapted to the requirements of the quince. Arsenate of lead (2 or 3 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of fungi- cide solution) should also be used with the fungicide spray at this time. This spraying is for the control of leaf and fruit spot or black spot, rust, and curculio. 2. Immediately after the blossoms have fallen, or even while the last of the petals are falling, spray with Bordeaux mixture (3 pounds of copper sulphate, 4 pounds of lime, water slaked, 50 gallons of water) and arsenate of lead (2| or 3 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of spray solution) . This spray- ing is for the control of the same troubles mentioned in para- graph 1. 40 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES §20 3. From three to four other sprayings at intervals of 10 days after the spraying described in paragraph 2 will be sufficient to keep the fruit and foliage in excellent condition. 56. Cultivating and Cover Cropping. — ^A quince grove should be kept well cultivated until some time in July, when a cover crop should be sown, and as the quince is comparatively shallow rooted, cultivation should be shallow. The kind of cover crop to use will depend largely on the richness of the soil. If the soil is deficient in nitrogen, a legimiinous crop should be sown, but if the trees seem thrifty and not in need of new wood growth, some non-legimiinous crop should be used. The non-legumes recommended as cover crops for plum and cherry orchards are applicable for quince groves. 57. Intercropping of a Quince Orchard. — ^While the quince orchard is young, beans or some other cultivated crop may be grown between the trees, but owing to the short dis- tance between trees there is usually little profit in the extra crop. The better plan seems to be to keep all the space between the trees well cultivated until the cover crop is sown in July. 58. Fertilizers for Quince Groves. — In many of the best commercial quince groves, barnyard manure is applied each year, enough being used to keep the trees in good but not excessive growth. In other orchards, commercial fertilizer containing phosphoric acid and potash is used, the nitrogen supply coming from legimiinous cover crops. The quan- tities that have been used by some successful growers in New York State are from 300 to 500 pounds of acid phosphate and from 200 to 300 pounds of muriate of potash per acre. Other growers use from 200 to 400 pounds of ground bone and from 200 to 300 pounds of muriate of potash per acre. If a com- plete mixed fertilizer is desired, it shoiild analyze 2 per cent, nitrogen, 8 per cent, phosphoric acid, and 10 per cent, potash. From 400 to 800 potinds per acre is the usual range of applica- tion. An excessive wood growth should not be encouraged for quince trees, and for this reason fertilizers excessively rich in nitrogen should be used sparingly, if at all. § 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 41 59. Treatment of Winter-Killed Quince Trees. — Fre- quently young quince trees, and sometimes mature trees, are injured by winter killing. If the lower part of winter-injured trees is covered with snow there is likely to be life left below the snow level. In such a case, if the top is removed before growth starts in the spring, the tree may form a new head. The dead parts should be removed early in March so that growth can start early. 60. Protecting Quince Trees From Mice. — Mice fre- quently injure the trunks of young quince trees, and to guard against them it is well to provide the trees with wire guards, especially during the winter months. Painting the trunk with white paint is often advised for this trouble, but it is less effective than the use of wire guards. HARVESTING AND MARKETING OF QUINCES 61. The quince is ready for harvesting as soon as the fruit has turned a good color. Picking is done in the same manner as for apples. Great care should be taken not to bruise the fruit, because each bruise soon becomes a dark- brown spot that detracts greatly from the appearance of the product. The fruit should be carefully graded, and at the time grading is done each quince should be wiped with a cloth to remove the fuzz adhering to the surface. The removal of this fuzz causes the fruit to have a better appearance than otherwise. Most growers make three grades of quinces, besides the culls. Each grower generally has his own standard of grading, but as a rule the first-grade fruit will consist of quinces of the largest size and best color. That placed in the second grade will be somewhat smaller in size, and some of the quinces may be slightly off color. The third-class fruit wiU be made up of small sized but sound fruit and some poorly colored specimens of fair size. The first and second grades are usually packed in small con- tainers, the very best often being placed in peck-size climax 42 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20 baskets, and the second grade in kegs holding about a bushel, or sometimes in half barrels. The third-grade fruit is usually packed in standard apple barrels. Quinces are not often held in storage, as there is generally a sufficient demand in the fall to induce growers to sell at that season of the 3^ear. The fruit can be kept in cellar storage as late as January or February. The temperature recommended for quinces in cold storage is 35° F. The problems involved in the marketing of apples are applic- able also to quinces. The demand is, as a rule, very good, and growers have practically no difficulty in disposing of their crops. When possible to do so, it seems that the retailing of quinces locally is a good method of marketing. A small pack- age can be used, and consumers will soon learn of the merits of the fruit and buy accordingly. QUINCE PESTS AND INJURIES 62. The quince is subject to attack by the San Jose scale, the codling moth, borers, and the quince curculio. Although the San Jose scale attacks quince trees, it does them but little harm, as the trees seem able to withstand the effects of this insect without appreciable injury. However, since the scale can be spread from one species of plant to another, it is sometimes well to spray dormant quince trees with lime- sulphur solution in order to prevent the scale from spreading. 63. The codling moth injures the quince in the same manner that it injures the apple and pear, and can be con- trolled in the same way — that is, by spraying with an arsenical poison. 64. The round-headed apple-tree borer causes con- siderable injury to quince trees unless precautions are taken to remove the insects, which are found from a point about 2 or 3 inches below the ground level to 1 or 2 feet above the ground. They excavate burrows in the trunk and crown and can be destroyed by digging into the burrows with a sharp knife or wire, § 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 43 after which the wounds should be disinfected with mercuric- chloride solution of a strength of 1 to 1,000, and if a serious wound has been made it shoiild be covered with grafting wax. 65. The quince curculio is a snout beetle somewhat larger than the plum curculio, and is broader shouldered and has a longer snout. Two views of this beetle are shown in Fig. 12. The size is indicated by the vertical line. The beetles are ashy gray in color, mottled with ocher yellow and white. On the wing covers are seven narrow longitudinal elevations with two rows of dots between each. The beetles appear some time during June, when they puncture the imma- ture fruit, making cylindrical holes in which they deposit their eggs. The eggs hatch in a few days and the larvas make burrows into the fruit near the surface, not penetrating the core. In about a month the larvas become full grown and leave the fruit and bury themselves in the ground, where they remain until May, when they pupate. In a few days the beetles appear and soon begin to puncture the fruit and deposit their eggs. This in- sect is combated by spraying the foliage with an arsenical poison, sometimes by jarring the trees as described for plums, and also by collecting the fruit that falls prematurely to the ground. 66. The bag worm, known also as the basket worm, described previously as affecting apples, also attacks the quince. It can be combated by gathering and destroying, during the winter, the cases that contain the eggs for the next brood. 67. Among the most destructive diseases affecting the (Quince are fire blight, or pear blight; fruit spot, or leaf blight; rust; black rot; ripe rot; pale rot; and quince rust. 68. Fire blight, or pear blight, is the most destructive dis- ease of the quince, and as in the case of the pear can be combated u CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 20 only by preventing infection and by destroying infected parts. The grove should be gone over once or even twice a week during the growing season; every leaf and twig that shows infection should be removed and the cut surfaces dis- infected with a solution of mercuric chloride of a strength of 1 to 1,000. This solution may be applied with a swab. It is advisable to cut off the limb about 8 to 10 inches below the Fig. 13 point of apparent infection. All parts removed from the trees must be taken from the orchard and burned to prevent fur- ther infection of the trees. Any trees growing wild in the vicinity that show evidence of the blight should be removed and burned. The wild haw is very likely to carry this disease. 69. Fruit spot, or leaf blight, affects both the leaves and the fruit of the quince. The leaves become spotted and drop 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 45 prematurely, causing the tree to lose vigor and vitality. The fruit becomes covered with small brownish spots that gradually increase in size and turn black. Fig. 13 shows quinces affected with fruit spot. The disease is controlled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture or lime-sulphur. The first spraying should ^' Fig. 14 be made just before the blossoms open, and the second soon after they fall. Two more sprayings at intervals of 10 days or 2 weeks will be found beneficial. 70. Black rot and ripe rot are similar to these diseases of the apple, and are combated in the same manner as for the apple. The same treatment is also effective for pale rot, which is often a very destructive disease of the quince. This rot begins as a pale almost colorless soft spot on the skin of the fruit. The spot soon wrinkles and turns a pale blue and 46 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20 the skin becomes ruptured. The disease spreads rapidly and soon destroys the fruit. 71. The disease known as quince rust is similar to apple rust, and, like the latter, comes from adjacent cedar trees and produces swellings or the so-called cedar apples. The trouble affects both the fruit and the leaves of the quince. Fig. 14 illustrates the effects of the quince rust. The remedy for the trouble is to remove, if possible, all cedar trees from the neigh- borhood of the grove. Another method of control is to spray the affected trees with Bordeaux mixture or with one of the sulphur compoiinds at the time the gelatinous horns are pres- ent on the cedar apples. INDEX Note. — All items in this index refer first to the section (see the Preface) and then to the page of the section. Thus, "Anjou pear, §8, p21," means that Anjou pear will be found on page 21 of section 8. Advertising of fruit, §7, p56 Age of apple nursery trees, §4, pl7 Agitator, Propeller,' §2, p44 Swinging, §2, p44 Air drainage for pear orchards, §9, p9 Albemarle Pippin apple, §3, p39 Alexander apple, §3, plO Altitude, Influence of, §1, p4 Amarelle cherries, §20, pi Ammoniacal copper carbonate, |2, p25 Angouleme pear, §8, pl7 Anjou pear, §8, p21 Anthracnose, Apple, §6, p62 Aphides affecting apple trees. Miscellaneous, §6, p56 Aphis, Black cherry, §20, p20 Clover, §6, p57 European grain, §6, p57 Green apple, §6, p55 on pears, Green apple, §8, p39 Rosy apple, §6, p56 Wooly apple, §6, p52 Apple anthracnose, §6, p62 aphis. Green, §6, p55 aphis on pears. Green, §8, p39 aphis. Rosy, §6, p56 aphis, Wooly, §6, p52 barrel. §7, p21 baskets, §7, p24 blossoms, Frost injury to, §6, p4 blotch, §6, p67 box presses, §7, p38 boxes, §7, p22 buds. Frost injury to, §6, p3 butter. §7, p60 caterpillar. Red-humped, §6, p43 caterpillar. Yellow-necked, §6, p42 cider. §7, p61 crates and boxes, §7, pll Apple curculio, §6, p37 diseases, §6. p61 Insects of the, §6. p23 jelly, §7, p60 leaf miner, §6, p51 louse. Green, §6, p55 maggot, §6. p34 nursery stock, Selection of. §4. pl5 nursery trees. Age of, §4, pl7 nursery trees. Dipping of. §4, p39 nursery trees for planting. Preparation of, §4, p38 nursery trees. Handling of, §4, p44 nursery trees propagated by various methods. Value of, §4, pl7 ^.orchard. Establishment of an, §4, pi ^-orchard, Soil suitable for, §4, p6 ^_prchards. Fertilization of, §5, p37 orchards. Management of, §5, pi -erchards. Renovation of old, §5, p41 ..,orchards. Tillage of bearing, §5, p4 jDrchards, Tillage of young, §5, p2 . packing table, §7, pp27. 30 pests and injuries, §6. pi ) quince, §20. p32 ' "' railroad worm. §6, p34 rust, §6, p71 scab, §6, p64 scald, §6, p74 Shippers Association, National, §7. pl5 storage houses, §7, p43 Terms applying to fruit of, §3, pi -tree borer on quinces, Round-headed. §20, p42 -tree borers, §6. p23 -tree bucculatrix, §6, p51 -tree pruner, §6, p61 -tree tent caterpillar, §6, p37 ' trees, Fertilization of young, §5, p41 trees. Framework of, §5, p26 248—37 IX INDEX Apple trees, High-headed, §5, p21 trees. Home propagation of, §4, pl9 trees. Low-headed, §5, p21 trees. Miscellaneous aphides affecting, §6, p56 trees. Open-headed, §5, p23 trees. Planting of, §4, pl9 trees. Pruning of, §5, pl8 trees. Pruning of bearing, §5, p31 trees. Pyramidal-headed, §3, p23 ti-ees, Terms applying to, §3, pi trees, Top working of, §5, poO vinegar, §7, p61 worm. Lesser, §6, p34 Apples, Advertising of, §7, p56 Canned, §7, p60 Cedar, §6, p72 Evaporated, §7, p56 Fall and winter varieties of, §3, p9 for the Colorado section. Varieties of, §4, pl4 for the Missouri section, Varieties of, §1, pl4 for the New York section, Varieties of, §4, pl3 for the Northwest, Varieties of, §4, pl5 for the Virginia section. Varieties of, §4, pl3 Frost injury to young, §6, po Grading of, §7, pl4 Harvesting of, §7, pi in barrels. Packing of, §7, p24 in baskets. Packing of, §7, p40 in boxes. Packing of, §7, p29 Marketing of, §7, p48 Method of grading, §7, p20 Methods of planting of, §4, p35 Packing of, §7, p21 Packs for, §7, p33 Picking of, §7, pi Selection of varieties of, §4, pll Storing of, §7, p40 Summer varieties of, §3, p6 Thinning of, §5, p35 Varieties of, §3, pi Wagon used in picking, §7, p9 Apricot nursery trees, §20, p25 orchards, Fertilization of, §20, p27 orchards. Renovating, §20, p27 pests and injuries, §20, p28 trees, Planting of, §20, p26 trees. Pruning of, §20, p26 Apricots, Drying of, §20, p30 Grading and packing of, §20, p29 Harvesting of, §20, p28 Marketing of, §20, p29 Varieties of, §20, p24 Arkansas apple, §3, p45 Black apple, §3, p34 Arsenate of lead, §2, pi • Arsenite of lime, §2, ppl, 4 Artificial propagation, §1, pl4 Association, National Apple Shippers, §7, pl5 Yakima Valley Fruit Growers, §7, pl6 Autumn frosts. Table of dates of late spring and early, §6, p9 B Bag worm on quinces, §20, x>43 Bags, Picking, §7, p4 Baldwin apple, §3, pl9 cherry, §20, p3 spot, §6, p74 Bamboo extension rod. Brass-, §2, p42 Banana apple, §3, pl9 Bark beetle. Fruit-tree, §6, p60 beetle on pears, Fruit-tree, §8, p39 binding, §6, p79 binding of pear trees, §8, p43 grafting, §1, pp20, 25 louse, Oyster-shell, §6, p29 Rough, §6, pSO Barrel sprayers, §2, p32 Barrels, Apple, pear, quince, and potato, §7, p21 Packing of apples in, §7, p24 Barry pear, Patrick, §8, p25 Bartlett pear, §8, pl3 Basket worm on quinces, §20, p43 Baskets, Apple, §7, p24 Packing of apples in, §7, p30 Picking, §7, pi Baume and specific gravity hydrometer read- ings for liquids heavier than water. Table of comparison of, §2, plG Bearing apple trees, Pruning of, §5, p31 Beetle, Fruit-tree bark, §6, p60 on pears, Fruit-tree bark, §8, p39 Belle de Montreuil cherry, §20, p6 Ben Davis apple, §3, p40 Benoni apple, §3, p8 Bigarreau cherries, §20, p2 Bin rot, §6, p70 , Binding of apple trees. Bark, §6, p79 of pear trees. Bark, §8, p43 Bing cherry, §20, p6 Bitter pit, §6, p74 rot, §6, pp62, 70 Black Ben apple, §3, p41 Ben Davis apple, §3, p41 cherry aphis, §20, p20 . Gillifiower apple, §3, p23 knot of cherries, §20, p21 rot, §6, p69 rot of quinces, §20, p45 -spot canker, §6, p69 Tartarian cherry, §20, p7 Blenheim apricot, §20, p25 Blight, Fire, §6, p74 of pear trees. Crater, §8, p43 INDEX XI Blight of pears, Fire, §8, p28 of quinces, Leaf, §20, p44 on quinces, Fire, or pear, §20, p43 Pear-leaf, §8, p32 Twig, §6, p74: Blister mite, Leaf-, §6, p57 mite on pears. Leaf-, §8, p37 Bloodgood pear, §8, pll Blooming period of different varieties of pears, Table of, §9, pl7 Blossoms, Frost injury to apple, §G, p4 Blotch, Apple, §6, p67 Sooty, §6, p71 Blue mole, §6, p70 Pearmain apple, §3, pl7 Bon Chretien pear, Williams, §8, pl3 Bordeaux injury, §6, p80 mixture, §2, p22 nozzle, §2, p40 Borer on quinces. Round-headed apple-tree, §20, p42 Shot-hole, §6, p60 Borers, Apple-tree, §6, p23 on pears, §8, p40 Bosc pear, §8, p20 Bourgeat quince, §20, p35 Box presses, Apple-, §7, p38 Boxes, Apple, §7, ppll, 22 Packing of apples in, §7, p29 Branch layering, §1, pl9 Breaking of pear trees, §8, p42 of trees, §6, p79 Brown mite, §6, p52 rot of cherries, §20, p21 rot of pears, §8, p33 -tailed moth, §6, p43 Brusseler Braune cherry, §20, p3 Bucculatrix, Apple-tree, §6, p51 Buckeling of apples in barrels, §7, p26 Bucket spray pump, §2, p30 Bud moth, §6, p47 Budding, Propagation by, §1, p28 Buds, Frost injury to apple, §6, p3 Killing of fruit, §6, pi Buffalo treehopper, §6, p58 Butter, Apple, §7, p60 Canker, Black-spot, §6, p69 European, §6, p70 Illinois, §6, p70 Pacific-coast, §6, p69 worms, §6, p40 Canned apples, §7, p60 Capital required for an orchard, §4, p3 Case bearer. Cigar, §6, p49 bearer, Pistol, §6, p4S Catch crops, §5, p6 crops for pears, §9, p26 Caterpillar, Apple-tree tent, §6, p37 Red-humped apple, §G. p43 Yellow-necked apple, §6, p42 Cayuga Red Streak apple, §3, pl2 Cedar apples, §6, p72 rust, §6, p71 Centennial cherry, §20, pC Chambers pear, §8, plO Champion quince, §20, p33 Cherries, Amarelle, §20, pi Bigarreau, §20, p2 Classes of, §20, pi Duke, §20, p2 Fertihzation of, §20, pl6 Fungous diseases of, §20, p21 Grading of, §20, pl8 Harvesting of, §20, pl8 Heart, or gean, §20, p2 Marketing of, §20, pl9 Mazzard, §20, p2 Morello, §20, pi Packing of, §20, pl8 Pruning of, §20, pl6 Sour, §20, pi Spraying of, §20, pl7 Storage of, §20, pl9 , Subacid, §20, p2 Sweet, §20, p2 Varieties of sour, §20, p3 Varieties of subacid, §20, p.5 Varieties of sweet, §20, pG Cherry aphis. Black, §'20, p20 fruit fly, §20, p20 nursery trees, §20, pl2 orchard. Size, location, and site of a, §20, plO orchards. Cultivation of, §20, pl5 orchards. Renovation of old, §20, pl7 pests and injuries, §20, p20 trees. Planting of, §20, pl4 Chretien pear, Williams Bon, §8, pl3 Cicada, Periodical, §G, p59 Cider, Apple, §7, p61 Cigar case bearer, §6, p49 Cincincis pear, §8, p27 Clairgeau pear, §8, p20 Clamp, Hose, §2, p43 Clapp Favorite pear, §8, pl3 Cleft grafting, §1, p20 Climatic conditions on pears. Influence of, §9, p6 injuries of cherries, §20, p23 Climbing cutworms, §6, p44 Clitocybose, §6, p76 Cloud, §6, p71 Clover aphis, §G, p57 xu INDEX Clover mite, §6, p52 Codling moth, §6, p31 moth on pears, §8, p39 moth on quinces, §20, p42 Cold storage of apples. Commercial, §7, p41 storage of apples. Farm, §7, p42 Colorado section, Varieties of apples for the, §4, pl4 Columbia pear, §8, p23 Combination systems of jJlanting, §4, p29 Comice pear, §8, p20 Compressed-air hand sprayer, §2, p32 -air sprayers, §2, p39 Contact insecticides, §2, ppl, 6 Cookers, Lime-sulphur, §2, p9 Copper carbonate, Ammoniacal, §2, p25 -sulphate solution, §2, p25 Cover crops, §5, plO crops for pears, §9, p26 crops for quinces, §20, p40 crops, Leguminous, §5, pl3 crops. Non-leguminous, §5, pl4 crops. Time of sowing, §5, pll crops. Time to plow under, §5, pl2 Cranberry apple, §3, p33 Crater blight of pear trees, §8, p43 Crates, Apple, §7, pH Crops, Catch, §5, p6 Cover, §5, plO Leguminous cover, §5, pl3 Non-leguminous cover, §5, pl4 Time of sowing cover, §5, pll Time to plow under cover, §5, pl2 Crown gall, §6, p77 gall on pears, §8, p33 grafting, §1, pp20, 25 Cultivation of cherry orchards, §20, pl5 of quinces, §20, p40 Curculio, Apple, §6, p37 on cherries. Plum, §20, p20 Plum, §6, p36 Quince, §20, p43 Cut-off, §2, p43 Cutting, §1, pl4 Propagation by, §1, pl4 Cuttings, Hardwood, §1, pl4 Heel, §1, pl4 Mallet, §1, ppl4, 15 Root. §1, ppl4, 17 Simple, §1, pl4 Single-eye, §1, ppl4, 15 Cutworms, Climbing, §6, p44 D Danas Hovey pear, §8, p21 Dehcious apple, §3, p36 Deman quince. Van, §20, p35 Dew point, §6, p6 point. Table of determination of the, §6, p7 Diagonal pack for apples, §7, p33 Diel pear, §8, p23 Dipping of apple nursery trees, §4, p39 Diseases, Apple, §6, p61 of cherries. Fungous, §20, p21 of pears, §8, p28 Disk nozzle, §2, p41 Distillate oils, §2, pp6, 19 Districts, Pear, §8, pi Dormant period of plants. Injuries during, §6, pi Double-action spray pump, §2, p34 Drainage for pear orchards, Air and water, §9, p9 Dressings for wounds, §1, p47 Drouard pear, §8, pl9 Drying of apricots, §20, p30 Duchess d' Angouleme pear, §8, pl7 of Oldenburg apple, §3, p7 Duke cherries, §20, p2 cherry. May, §20, p6 Dwarf pears, §8, p8 Dyehouse cherry, §20, p3 E Early Harvest apple, §3, p7 Harvest of Kentucky pear, §8, plO Richmond cherry, §20, p5 Easter Beurre pear, §8, p25 Elevation for pear orchards, §9, p8 of orchard site, §4, p7 Elton cherry, §20, p6 Emulsion, Kerosene, §2, pp6, 19 English Morello cherry, §20, p3 Esopus Spitzenburg apple, §3, p34 Essentials of fruit- culture, §1, pi; §2, pi Eugene cherry, §20, p5 European canker, §6, p70 grain aphis, §6, p57 group of pears, §8, p7 group of pears. Varieties of, §8, plO Evaporated apples, §7, p56 Exposure for pear orchards, §9, p9 of site, §4, p9 Extension rod, §2, p42 Extensive pruning, §1, p41 F Facing of apple barrels, §7, p25 Fall and winter varieties of apples, §3, p9 Pippin apple, §3, p9 web worm, §6, p39 Fameuse apple, §3, pl3 Fertilization of apple orchards, §5, p37 of apricot orchards, §20, p27 INDEX Xlll Fertilization of cherries, §20, pl6 of pear orchards, §9, p32 of quinces, §20, p40 of young apple trees, §5, p41 Fertilizers, Time of applying, §5, p40 Fillers in apple orchard, Use of, §4, p31 Peaches as, §4, p33 Pears as, §4, p33 Removal of, §4, p34 Small fruits as, §4, p33 Fire blight, §6, p74 blight on pears, §8, p28 blight on quinces, §20, p43 Flat-headed apple-tree borer, §6, p25 Flemish pear, §8, pl3 Fly speck, §6, p71 Forelle pear, §8, p23 Framework of apple trees, §5, p2G Frog eye, §6, p69 Frost, §6, p6 injuries. Means of preventing, §6, pl5 injuries on pears, §8, p40 injuries. Prevention of, §6, p6 injury to apple blossoms, §6, p4 injury to apple buds, §6, p3 injury to young apples, §6, p5 Prediction of, §6, p6 Frosts, Table of dates of late spring and early autumn, §6, p9. Fruit, Advertising of, §7, p56 buds. Killing of, §6, pi culture. Essentials of, §1, pi; §2, pi fly. Cherry, §20, p20 growing, Market factors affecting, §1, plO growing. Natural factors affecting, §1, p3 of apple. Terms applying to, §3, pi pit, §6, p74 plants, Propagation of, §1, pl3 plants, Pruning of, §1, p31 spot of apples, §6, p72 spot of quinces, §20, p44 -tree bark beetle, §6, pGO -tree bark beetle on pears, §8, p39 -tree leaf roller, §6, p50 Fungicides, §2, p21 and insecticides. Combined, §2, p28 Fungous diseases of cherries, §20, p21 Gall, Crown, §6, p77 on pears. Crown, §8, p33 Gano apple, §3, p40 Garber pear, §8, p27 Gas-power sprayer, §2, p36 Gasoline-power sprayers, §2, p37 Gean, or heart, cherries, §20, p2 Genet apple, §3, p45 Geniton apple, §3, p4.5 Giffard pear, §8, pll Gipsy moth, §6, p44 Girdling, §6, p78 of pear trees, §8, p41 Glout Morceau pear, §8, p21 Golden Russet apple, §3, p50 Russet pear, §8, p28 Governor Wood cherry, §20, plO Grading, Importance of careful. §7, p55 of apples, §7, pl4 of apples, Method of, §7, p20 of apricots, §20, p29 of cherries, §20, plS of pears, §9, p37 of quinces, §20, p41 Grafting, §1. pp20, 27 Bark, §1, pp20, 25 Cleft, §1, p20 Crown, §1, pp20, 25 Kerf, §1, pp20, 25 Piece-root, §1, p27 Propagation by, §1, p20 Root, §1, p20 Splice, §1, pp20, 27 Stem, §1, p20 Top, §1, p20 wax, §1, p22 Whip, §1, pp20, 26 Whole-root, §1, p27 Grain aphis, European, §6, p57 Gravenstein apple, §3, p9 Green apple aphis, §6, p55 apple aphis on pears, §8, p39 apple louse, §6, p55 Newton apple, §3, p38 Greening apple, §3, p37 Grimes apple, §3, p51 Growth, Pruning to regulate vigor of, §5, pl9 Grubbing hoe, §4, p44 H Hand sprayer. Compressed-air, §2, p32 sprays, §2, p30 Hardwood cuttings, §1, pl4 Hardy pear, §8, pl5 Harvest of Kentucky pear. Early, §8, plO Harvesting of apples, §7, pi of apricots, §20, p28 of cherries, §20, pl8 of pears, §9, p35 of quinces, §20, p41 Head, Pruning for open, §5, p27 Pruning for pyramidal, §5, p27 Heads, Types of, §5, p21 Heart, or gean, cherries, §20, p2 Heating, Orchard, §G, plG XIV INDEX Heel cuttings, §1, pl4 Hellebore, §2, ppl, 5 Hexagonal system of planting, §4, p28 High-headed apple trees, §5, p21 -headed trees, §1, p39 Hillside apple, §3, p30 Hoe, Grubbing, §4, p44 Hold-over blight of pears, §8, p29 Home propagation of apple trees, §4, pl9 Hoop follower, §7, p29 Hortense cherry, §20, p5 Hose, §2, p43 clamp, §2, p43 House, Packing, §7, p21 Houses, Apple storage, §7, p43 Hovey pear, Danas, §8, p21 Howell pear, §8, pl7 Hubbardston apple, §3, pl4 Huntsman apple, §3, p51 Hydrometer, §2, pl5 readings for liquids heavier than water. Table of comparison of Baume and specific gravity, §2, pl6 Illinois canker, §6, p70 Ingram apple, §3, p48 Injuries, Apple pests and, §6, pi Apricot pests and, §20, p28 Cherry pests and, §20, p20 during dormant period of plants, §6. pi during the period of visible activity of plants, §6, p3 on pears, Frost, §8, p40 Pear pests and, §8, p28 Prevention of frost, §6, p6 Quince pests and, §20, p42 Injury, Bordeaux, §6, p60 Lime-sulphur, §6, pSl Spray, §6, p60 Insecticides, §2, pi and fungicides. Combined, §2, p28 Contact, §2, ppl, 6 Poisonous, §2, pi Insects attacking cherries, §20, p20 attacking pears, §8, p33 of the apple, §6, p23 Intercropping of quinces, §20, p40 Irrigation to prevent frost injury, §6, pl5 Jacobs Sweet apple, §3, pi 7 Japan Golden Russet pear, §8, p28 Jelly, Apple, §7, p60 Jersey pear, Louise Bonne de, §8, pl9 Jonathan apple, §3, p35 Josephine de Malines pear, §8, pl9 K Kentucky pear. Early Harvest of, §8, plO Kerf grafting, §1, pp20, 25 Kerosene emulsion, §2, pp6, 19 Kettle, Steam-jacketed, §2, pl7 Kieffer pear, §8, p25 Killing frosts. Factors affecting the occurrence of, §6, p8 of fruit buds, §6, pi of roots, §6, p3 of twigs and large stems, §6, pi King apple, §3, pl5 David apple, §3, p39 Knapsack sprayer, §2, p30 Knives, Pruning, §1, p46 Knot of cherries; Black, §20, p21 Koonce pear, §8, pll Labels for apple packages, §7, p52 Ladders for pruning, §1, p46 Picking, §7, p6 Lambert cherry, §20, p7 Lawrence pear, §8, p23 Layer, §1, pl7 Layering, Branch, §1, pl9 Mound, §1, pl9 Propagation by, §1, pl7 Tip, §1, pis Vine, §1, pl8 Lead, Arsenate of, §2, pi Leaf blight of quinces, §20, p44 blight. Pear-, §8. p32 -blister mite, §6, d57 -blister mite on pears, §8, p37 miner, Apple, §6, p51 roller. Fruit-tree, §6, p50 spot, §6, p69 spot. Pear-, §8, p32 surface. Pruning to reduce, §5, pl8 LeConte pear, §8, p27 Leguminous cover crops, §5, pl3 Lesser apple worm, §6, p34 Limbertwig apple, §3, pl2 Lime, Arsenite of, §2, ppl, 4 -sulphur, §2, pp6, 26 -sulphur cookers, §2, p9 -sulphur injury, §6, p81 -sulphur. Self-boiled, §2, ppll, 16. 26 Lincoln pear, §8, pl7 Locust, Seventeen-year. §6, p59 London purple, §2, ppl, 5 Long-stemmed Montmorency cherry. §20, p3 Louis Philippe cherry, §20, p4 Louise pear, §8, pl9 Louse, Green apple, §6, p55 Oyster-shell bark, §6, p29 INDEX XV Low-headed apple trees, §5, p21 -headed trees, §1, p39 M Machinery, Spraying, §2, p29 Mackintosh apple, §3, pl3 Maggot, Apple, §6, p34 Magnifique cherry, §20, p5 Maiden Blush apple, §3, p8 Malines pear, §8, pl9 Mallet cuttings, §1, ppl4, 15 Mammoth Black Twig apple, §3, p45 Mann apple, §3, p55 Market factors affecting fruit growing, §1, plO Marketing of apples, §7, p48 of apricots, §20, p29 of cherries, §20, pl9 of pears, §9, p40 of quinces, §20, p41 Markets, Proximity to, §4, plO Mattock, §4, p44 May Duke cherry, §20, p6 Mazzard cherries, §20, p2 Meech quince, §20, p34 Mice, Protecting quince trees from, §20, p41 Mildew, §6, p77 on cherries. Powdery, §20, p22 Miner, Apple leaf, §6, p51 Miscible oils, §2, pp6, 16 Missouri apple, §3, p23 quince, §20, p35 section. Varieties of apples for the, §4, pl4 Mite, Brown, §6, p52 Clover, §6, p52 Leaf-blister, §6, p57 on pears. Leaf-blister, §8, p37 Mole, Blue, §6, p70 Montmorency cherry, §20, p3 Ordinaire cherry, §20, p3 Montreuil cherry, §20, p6 Moorpark apricot, §20, p24 Morceau pear, Glout, §8, p21 Morello cherries, §20, ppl, 3 Moth, Brown-tailed, §6, p43 Bud, §6, p47 Codling, §6, p31 Gipsy, §6, p44 on pears. Codling, §8, p39 Moths, Tussock, §6, p45 Mound layering, §1, pl9 Mount Vernon pear, §8, p23 Mulch culture for apples, §5, pl7 culture for pears, §9, p26 Mulching to prevent frost injuries, §6, pl5 Mummies, §6, p63 N Napoleon cherry, §20, p7 National Apple Shippers Association, §7, pl5 Natural propagation, §1, pl3 Neck ringing on pears, §8, p40 Nelis pear. Winter, §8, p25 Newcastle apricot, §20, p25 New York section. Varieties of apples for the, §4, pl3 Non-leguminous cover crops, §5, pl4 Northern-grown apple nursery frees, §4, pl7 Spy apple, §3, pl5 Northwest, Varieties of apples for the, §4, pl5 Northwestern apple, §3, p37 Nozzle, Bordeaux, §2, p40 Disk, §2, p41 Vermorel, §2, p40 Nursery stock. Selection of apple, §4, pl5 trees. Age of apple, §4, pl7 trees. Apricot, §20, p25 trees, Cherry, §20, pl2 trees for planting. Preparation of apple, §4, p.38 trees. Procuring of pear, §9, pl2 trees propagated by various methods. Value of apple, §4, pl7 trees, Quince, §20, p37 O Offset pack for apples, §7, p35 Oils, Distillate, §2, pp6, 19 Miscible, §2, pp6, 16 Oldenburg apple, §3, p7 Olivet cherry, §20, p6 Open head. Pruning for, §5, p29 -headed apple trees, §5, p23 Orange quince, §20, p32 Orchard, Capital required for an, §4, p3 establishment, Quince, §20, p36 heating, §6, pl6 Increasing the size of the, §4, p5 Location for a pear, §9, p3 management, Pear, §9, p23 site. Elevation of, §4, p7 Size for a pear, §9, pi ■ Size of, §4, pi Soil suitable for apple, §4, p6 Orchards, Management of apple, §5, pi Renovation of old apple, §5, p41 Soil treatment for renovated, §5, p49 Spraying methods for renovated, §5, poO Tillage of bearing apple, §5, p4 Tillage of young apple, §.5, p2 Oriental group of pears, §8, p7 group of pears, Varieties of, §8, p25 Ortley apple, §3, pl7 Ostheim cherry, §20, p4 XVI INDEX Oyster-shell bark louse, §6, p29 -shell scale, §6, p29 -shell scale on pears, §8, p40 Pacific coast canker, §6, p69 Packages for apples. Use of clean, §7, p55 Packing house, §7, p21 Importance of careful, §7, p55 of apples, §7, p21 of apples in barrels, §7, p24 of apples in baskets, §7, p40 of apples in boxes, §7, p29 of apricots, §20, p29 of cherries, §20, pl8 of pears, §9, p37 of quinces, §20, p41 table, Apple, §7, pp27, 30, 32 Pale rot of quinces, §20, p45 Palmer worm, §6, p52 Paris green, §2, ppl, 3 Patrick Barry pear, §8, p25 Peach apricot, §20, p25 Peaches as fillers, §4, p33 Pear barrel, §7, p21 blight on quinces, §20, p43 culture, §8, pi districts, §8, pi -leaf blight, §8, p32 -leaf spot, §8, p32 -orchard management, §9, p23 orchard, Location for a, §9, p3 orchard. Size for a, §9, ppl, 7 orchards. Air drainage for, §9, p9 orchards. Elevation for, §9, p8 orchards. Exposure for, §9, p9 orchards. Fertilization of, §9, p32 orchards. Renovation of neglected, §9, p33 orchards. Site for, §9, p7 orchards. Tillage of bearing, §9, p25 orchards. Tillage of young, §9, p23 orchards. Water drainage for, §9, p9 pests and injuries, §8, p28 psylla, §8, p34 quince, §20, p36 ■ rust, §8, p33 scab, §8, p31 slug, §8, p38 thrips, §8, p35 trees. Planting of, §9, pl4 trees, Procuring of, §9, plO trees. Propagation of, §9, plO trees, Spraying of, §9, p34 Pears as fillers, §4, p33 Botanical classification of, §8, p7 Catch crops and cover crops for, §9, p26 Commercial classification of, §8, p8 Pears, Diseases of, §8, p28 Dwarf, §8, p8 European group of, §8, p7 for different states, Varieties of, §8, p2 Grading of, §9, p37 Harvesting of, §9, p35 Influence of climatic conditions on, §9, p6 Insects attacking, §8, p33 Marketing of, §9, p40 Oriental group of, §8, p7 Packing of, §9, p37 Sod and mulch culture for, §9, p2.5 Standard, §8, plO Storing of, §9, p40 suitable to a location. Varieties of, §9, p9 Table of blooming period of different vari- eties of, §9, pl7 Thinning of, §9, p33 Varieties of, §8, plO Varieties of European group of, §8, plO Varieties of Oriental group of, §8, p25 Periodical cicada, §6, p59 Pests and injuries, Apple, §6, pi and injuries. Apricot, §20, p28 and injuries. Cherry, §20, p20 and injuries. Pear, §8, p28 and injuries. Quince, §20, p42 Pewaukee apple, §3, p50 Philippe cherry, §20, p4 Pickers, Management of, §7, pl3 Picking apples. Wagon used in, §7, p9 ladders, §7, p6 Methods of, §7, pll of apples, §7, pi of pears, §9, p35 receptacles, §7, pi Time of, §7, pl2 Piece-root grafting, §1, p27 Pink rot, §6, p67 Pippin apple. Fall, §3, p9 Pistol case bearer, §6, p48 Planting board, §4, p41 Combination system of, §4, p29 for apple trees. Time of, §4, pl9 Hexagonal system of, §4, p28 of apple trees, §4, pl9 of apples. Methods of, §4, p35 of apricot trees, §20, p26 of cherry trees, §20, pl4 of pear trees, §9, pl4 of quince trees, §20, p38 Preparation of soil for, §4, p36 Quincunx system of, §4, p27 Square system of, §4, p26 Tools used in, §4, p44 Plum curculio, §6, p36 curculio on cherries, §20, p20 INDEX xvii Poisonous insecticides, §2, pi Population, Location in respect to, §1, plO Potassium sulphide, §2, p26 Potato barrel, §7, p21 Pound Sweet apple, §3, pl4 Powdery mildew on cherries, §20, p22 Power sprayers, §2, p35 President Drouard pear, §8, pl9 Presses, Apple box, §7, p38 Price of apples. Maintaining the, §7, p54 Propagation, Artificial, §1, pl4 by budding, §1, p28 by cutting, §1, pl4 by division, §1, pl3 by grafting, §1, p20 by layering, §1, pl7 by seeds, §1, pll Natural, §1, pll of apple trees. Home, §4, pl9 of cherry trees, §20, pl2 of fruit plants, §1, pl3 of pear trees, §9, plO of quinces, §20, p36 Propeller agitator, §2, p44 Pruner, Apple-tree, §6, p61 Pruning, Details of, §5, p33 Effects of, §1, p34 Extensive, §1, p41 for open head, §5, p29 for pyramidal head, §5, p27 knives, §1, p46 Ladders for, §1, p46 Method of, §1, p37 of apple trees, §5, pl8 of apricot trees, §20, p26 of bearing apple trees, §5, p31 of cherries, §20, pl6 of fruit plants, §1, p31 of pear nursery trees, §9, pl8 of pear trees, §9, p26 of quinces, §20, p39 Principles of, §1, p31 Purpose of, §1, p31 Repressive, §1, p41 saws, §1, p44 shears, §1, p42 Styles of, §1, p41 Time of, §5, p20 to control shape, §5, pi 9 to control size, §5, pl9 to reduce leaf surface, §5, pl8 to regulate vigor of growth, §5, pl9 Tools for, §1, p42 Psylla, Pear, §8, p34 Pump, Bucket spray, §2, p30 Double action spray, §2, p34 Pumpkin Sweet apple, §3, pl4 Pyramidal head. Pruning for, §5, p27 headed apple trees, §5, p23 Pyrus communis, §8, p7 sinensis, §8, p7 Q Quince barrel, §7, p21 curcuUo, §20, p43 nursery trees, §20, p37 -orchard establishment, §20, p36 pests and injuries, §20, p42 rust, §20, p46 trees from mice, Protecting, §20, p41 trees, Planting of, §20, p38 trees. Winter-killed, §20, p41 Quinces, Commercial possibilities of, §20, p31 Cover crops for, §20, p40 Culcivation of, §20, p40 Fertilization of, §20, p40 Grading and packing of, §20, p41 Harvesting of, §20, p41 Marketing of, §20, p41 Propagation of, §20, p36 Pruning of, §20, p39 Selection of varieties of, §20, p36 Spraying of, §20, p39 Storage of, §20, p42 Varieties of, §20, p32 Quincunx system of planting, §4, p27 K Railroad worm, Apple, §6, p34 Ralls apple, §3, p45 Rambo apple, §3, p27 Rea quince, §20, p33 Red Astrachan apple, §3, p7 -humped apple caterpillar, §6, p43 June apple, §3, p6 Reine Hortense cherry, §20, p5 Renovated orchards, Soil treatment for, §5, p49 orchards. Spraying methods for, §5, p50 Renovating apricot orchards, §20, p27 Renovation of neglected pear orchards, §9, p33 of old apple orchards, §5, p41 of old cherry orchards, §20, pl7 Repressive pruning, §1, p41 Reproductive activity, §1, p35 Retail marketing of apples, §7, p48 Rhode Island Greening apple, §3, p37 Ribston apple, §3, p27 Richmond cherry, §20, p5 Ringing on pears. Neck, §8, p40 Ripe rot, §6, p62 rot of quinces, §20, p45 Rockport cherry, §20, p7 Rod, Extension, §2, p42 Rome Beauty apple, §3, p42 XVlll INDEX Root cuttings, §1, ppl4, 17 grafting, §1, p20 grafting, Piece-, §1, p27 grafting, Whole-, §1, p27 rot, §6, p76 stock, §1, pl3 Roots, Killing of, §6, p3 Rosy apple aphis, §6, p56 Rot, Bin, §6, p70 Bitter, §6, p62 Black, §6, p69 of cherries. Brown, §20, p21 of quinces, Black, §20, p45 of quinces. Pale, §20, p45 of quinces. Ripe, §20, p45 on pears. Brown, §8, p33 Pink, §6, p67 Ripe, §6, p62 Root, §6, p76 Soft, §6, p70 Rough bark, §6, p80 bark of pear trees, §8, p43 Round-headed apple-tree borer, §6, p24 -headed apple-tree borer on quinces, §20, p42 Rows, Planting of trees in straight, §4, p40 Roxbury apple, §3, p48 Royal Ann apricot, §20, p24 cherry, §20, p7 Runners, §1, pl4 Russet pear. Golden, §8, p28 Rust, Apple, §6, p71 Cedar, §6, p71 Pear, §8, p33 Quince, §20, p46 S Salome apple, §3, p43 San Jose scale on apples, §6, p27 Jose scale on cherries, §20, p20 Jose scale on pears, §8, p39 Jose scale on quinces, §20, p42 Saws, Pruning, §1, p44 Scab, Apple, §6, p64 Pear, §8, p31 Scald, Apple, §6, p74 on cherries. Sun, §20, p23 on pears, Sun, §8, p41 Sun, §6, p77 Scale on apples. Scurfy, §0, p31 on cherries, San Jos6, §20, p20 on pears. Oyster-shell, §8, p40 on pears, San Jose, §8, p39 on pears, Scurfy, §8, p40 on quinces,^ San Josd, §20, p42 Oyster-sheli. §6, p29 Scale, San Jose, §6, p27 Scion, §1, p20 Scurfy scale, §6, p31 scale on pears, §8, p40 Seckel pear, §8, plS pear. Winter, §8, p21 pear, Worden's, §8, pl5 Seeds, Propagation by, §1, pll Seek apple, §3, p35 Self-boiled lime sulphur, §2, ppl, 16, 26 Setting of pear trees, §9, p22 Seventeen-year locust, §6, p59 Shape, Pruning to control, §5, pl9 Shears, Pruning, §1, p42 Sheldon pear, §8, pl7 Shipping facilities, §1, pll Short-stemmed Montmorency cherry, §20, p3 Shot-hole borer, §6, p60 -hole fungus on cherries, §20, p22 Simple cuttings, §1, pl4 Single-eye cuttings, §1, ppl4, 15 Site, Elevation of orchard, §4, p7 Exposure of, §4, p9 for a cherry orchard, §20, pll for a pear orchard, §9, p7 Selection of, §4, p6 Size, Pruning to control, §5, pl9 Slack in apple barrels, Prevention of, §7, p28 Slope of land, §4, p8 Slug, Pear, §8, p38 Small fruits as fillers, §4, p33 Smith Cider apple, §3, p33 Smokehouse apple, §3, p20 Smudging to prevent frost injury, §6, pl6 Sod culture for apples, §5, pl4 culture for pears, §9, p25 Soft rot, §6, p70 Soil for planting. Preparation of, §4, p36 Suitability of, §1, p9 suitable for apple orchard, §4, p6 treatment for renovated orchards, §5, p49 Soils for pear orchards, §9, p7 Sooty blotch, §6, p71 Sops of Wine apple, §3, p9 Sour cherries, §20, pi cherries. Varieties of, §20, p3 sap of pear trees, §8, p42 Southern-grown apple nursery trees, §4, pl7 Spade, §4, p44 Spanish cherry, §20, p7 Specific gravity hydrometer readings for liquids heavier than water, Table of com- parison of Baume and, §2, pl6 Spitzenburg apple, §3, p34 Splice grafting. §1, pp20, 27 Spot, Leaf, §6, p69 INDEX XIX Spot of quinces. Fruit, §20. p44 Pear-leaf, §8, p32 Spotted apple-tree borer, §6, p24 Spray injury, §6, p80 pump. Bucket, §2, p30 pump. Double-action, §2, p34 Sprayer, Compressed-air hand, §2, p32 Gas-power, §2, p36 Knapsack, §2, p30 Traction, §2, p35 Sprayers, Barrel, §2, p32 Compressed-air, §2, p39 Gasoline-power, §2, p37 Power, §2, p35 Spraying machinery, §2, p29 methods for renovated orchards, §5, p50 of cherries, §20, pl7 of pear trees, §9, p34 of quinces, §20, p39 outiit. Accessories for, §2, p40 to prevent frost injury, §6, plo Sprays and their preparation, §2, pi Hand, §2, p30 Spring and early autumn frosts. Table of dates of late, §6, p9 Spy apple, §3, pl5 Square system of planting, §4, p26 Standard pears, §8, plO Stark apple, §3, p55 Stayman Winesap apple, §3, p42 Steam-jacketed kettle, §2, pl7 Stem grafting, §1, p20 Stems, Balling of large, §6, pi Stock, §1, p20 Stolons, §1, pl4 Stool, §1, pl9 Storage houses, Apple, §7, p43 of apples, §7, p40 of cherries, §20, pl9 of pears, §9, p40 of quinces, §20, p42 Straight pack for apples, §7, p32 Straight rows. Locating trees in, §4, p40 Strainer, §2, p8 Subacid cherries, §20, pp2, 5 Suda cherry, §20, p5 Sugar pear, §8, plO Sulphur dust, §2, p26 Lime-, §2, p6 Summer varieties of apples, §3, p6 Sun scald, §6, p77 scald on cherries, §20, p23 scald on pears, §8, p41 Suwanee pear, §8, p27 Sweet chen-ies, §20, p2 cherries. Varieties of, §20, p6 Swinging agitator, §2, p44 Table, Apple packing, §7, pp27. 30 of blooming period of different varieties of pears, §9, pl7 of comparison of Baume and specific gravity hydrometer readings for liquids heavier than water, §2, pl6 of data concerning straight and diagonal box packs, §7, p34 of dates of late spring and early autumn frosts, §6, p9 of determination of the dew point, §6, p7 of number of trees to plant per acre by vari- ous systems, §4, p25 Tailing of apples in barrels, §7, p27 Tartarian cherry, §20, p7 Temperature, Influence of, §1, p3 Injuries due to low, §6, pi Temperatures for storage of apples, §7, p40 Tent caterpillar. Apple-tree, §6, p37 Terms applying to apple trees, §3, pi applying to fruit of apple, §3, pi Thinning of apples, §5, p35 of pears, §9, p33 Thrips. Pear, §8, p35 Tillage of bearing apple orchards, §5, p4 of bearing pear orchards, §9, p25 of quinces, §20, p40 of young pear orchards, §9, p23 Tilton apricot, §20, p25 Time of planting for apple trees, §4, pi 9 Tip layering, §1, plS Tobacco extracts and decoctions, §2, pp6, 21 Tolman apple, §3, p30 Tompkins King apple, §3, pl5 Tools for pruning, §1, p42 used in planting, §4, p44 Top grafting, §1, p20 working of apple trees, §5, p50 Tower, §2, p44 Traction sprayer, §2, p35 Treehopper, Buffalo, §6, p58 Trees, Age of apple nursery, §4, pl7 Apricot nursery, §20, p25 Breaking of, §6, p79 Cherry nursery, §20, pl2 High-headed and low-headed, §1. p39 Home propagation of apple, §4, pl9 in straight rows. Locating, §4, p40 Planting of appk, §4, pl9 Propagation of pear, §9, plO Pruning of apple, §5, plS Quince nursery, §20, p37 Selection of apple nursery, §4, pl.5 Terms applying to apple, §3, pi Trout pear, §8, p23 Trunk, §5, p21 XX INDEX Tussock moths, §6, p45 Twenty-ounce apple, §3, pl2 Twig blight, §6, p74 Twigs, Killing of, §6, pi Tyson pear, §8, pl3 V Van Deman quince, §20, p35 Varieties of apples, §3, pi of apples. Description of, §3, p6 of apples. Fall and winter, §3, p9 of apples for the Colorado section, §4, pl4 of apples for the Missouri section, §4, pl4 of apples for che New York section, §4, pl3 of apples for the Northwest, §4, pl5 of apples for the Virginia section, §4, pl3 of apples. Selection of, §4, pll of apples. Summer, §3, p6 of apricots, §20, p24 of cherries. Selection of, §20, pll of European groups of pears, §8, plO of oriental group of pears, §8, p25 of pears, §8, plO of pears for different states, §8, p2 of pears suitable to a location, §9, p9 of pears. Table of blooming period of dif- ferent, §9, pl7 of quinces, §20, p32 of quinces. Selection of, §20, p36 of sour cherries, §20, p3 of subacid cherries, §20, p5 of sweet cherries, §20, p6 Vegetative activity, §1, p35 Veneer grafting, §1, pp20, 27 Vermont Beauty pear, §8, pl7 Vermorel nozzle, §2, p40 Vine layering, §1, pl8 Vinegar, Apple, §7, p61 Virginia section, Varieties of apples for, §4, pl3 W Wagener apple, §3, p43 Wagon used in picking apples, §7, p9 Water drainage for pear orchards, §9, p9 Influence of bodies of, §1, p6 Wax, Grafting, §1, p22 Wealthy apple, §3, pl2 Web worm, Fall, §6, p39 Westfield apple, §3, p35 Seek-No-Further apple, §3, p35 Whip grafting, §1, pp20, 26 White Pearmain apple, §3, p51 Whitewashing to prevent frost injury, §6, pl5 Whole-root grafting, §1, p27 Wholesale marketing of apples, §7, p49 Williams Bon Chretien pear, §8, pl3 Willow apple, §3, p55 Wind break, §1, p8 Winds, Influence of, §1, p7 Windsor cherry, §20, p7 Wine Apple, §3, pl2 Winesap apple, §3, p41 Winter Banana apple, §3, pl9 -killed quince trees, §20, p41 Nelis pear, §8, p25 Seckel pear, §8, p21 varieties of apples, Fall and, §3, p9 Wolf River apple, §3, plO Wood cherry, §20, plO Wooly apple aphis, §6, p52 Worden pear, §8, pl5 Worden's Seckel pear, §8, pl5 Worm, Apple railroad, §6, p34 Fall web, §6, p39 Lesser apple, §6, p34 on quinces. Bag, §20, p43 Palmer, §6, p52 Worms, Canker, §6, p40 Wounds, Dressing for, §1, p47 Wragg cherry, §20, p5 Yakima Valley Fruit Growers' Association, §7, pl6 Valley Fruit Growers' Association grades for pears, §9, p37 Yellow Bellflower apple, §3, pl6 -necked apple caterpillar, §6, p42 Newton apple, §3, p39 Spanish cherry, §20, p7 Transparent apple, §3, p6 York Imperial apple, §3, p30 . :\>^^v^ ':sw m^i