. . . UC-NRLF . ., - •• \ § ' , • - - . : •• RJ LU CL Buckland Sweetwater. Black Alicante. Blood Orange. Tangierme. 3 > '• CL Mrs. Pince's Muscat Chasselas Vibert. Mrs. Pearson. Gros Maroc. Alexandra Noblesse (Rivers; Royal George. Crimson Galande. THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE BY JOHN WRIGHT, F.R.H.S. EDITOR OF THE "JOURNAL OP HORTICULTURE"; EDITOR OF "GARDEN WORK" MEMBER OP THE FRUIT COMMITTEE OP THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY AUTHOR OF "PROFITABLE FRUIT CULTURK," THE GOLD MEDAL PRIZE ESSAY OP THE FRUITERERS' COMPANY AND LECTURER ON HORTICULTURE FOB THE SURREY COUNTY COUNCIL WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY MISS MAY RIVERS NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIVE DIAGRAMS BY WOKTHINGTON G. SMITH AND GEORGE SHAYLEK DIV. III. LONDON VIRTUE AND COMPANY CITY ROAD. THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE APPLES.* MODES OF TRAINING. /CULTIVATED trees require management in training. If left to nature they assume lorms not pleasing and proportions exceeding the limits available for them in tertain positions, and the growths become crowded and unfruitful. For insuring fruit- fulness the branches must be disposed so as to admit light and air freely, and they must be regulated so as to cause an equal distribution of the sap, or some branches will be much too strong and others correspondingly weak. It is an axiom in gardening that sap flows most readily in free upright channels, and most tardily in the crooked, oblique, and horizontal branches. An equal diffusion of sap or food should be the object of the cultivator. Several methods of training are adopted in the management of apples, some positions being better adapted for one form than for another. The principal are the pyramidal, and bush ; the fan, horizontal, upright and diagonal cordons, with modifications of these for adaptability to positions and the tastes of individuals. We propose to give examples from the smallest planting trees, or maidens, to trees of fruiting size. Pyramidal Trees. — These occupy less space than other forms and are much in request for planting in borders along the sides of paths in gardens. They should be planted about 3 feet from the edging, and 6 feet apart. At this distance they may remain permanently, if subjected to root-pruning, but if they are desired to grow into largo trees every other must be removed before they touch, and those remaining set back 3 feet so that they will stand 12 feet apart in the rows and 6 feet from the path. A row of pyramids 12 or more feet in height on each side of the paths of large gardens have an imposing appearance. The trees can be planted 6 feet from the path in the first instance, if preferred, for obviating the necessity of re-planting^ * Continued from Vol. L VOL. II. B .'. 5 ' V r» f'^'r, : -V* '.*': THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. which cannot well be done after a lapse of six or seven years without giving a cheek more or less prejudicial to the cropping for a year or two after the removal. It is, however, usually desirable to put in temporary trees between those intended to be permanent with a view to early produce and profitable employment of the space. In the formation of pyramid trees a few sketches will be elucidatory. Fig. I.— A is a maiden tree a year from the bud or graft. The term "maiden" is applied to an untrained fruit tree. The first year's growth from the point of junction Fig. 1. FORMING PYRAMID TBEES. (Scale: £ inch. == 1 foot.) References: — A, budded maiden tree : a, junction with stock ; 6, extremity ; c, stake ; d, roots ; e, heading point, B, one-year-trained tree : /, leading shoot ; g, stake ; h, point of shortening leader ; t, side shoots ; bars, point of shortening. C, two-years-trained tree : j, point of shortening leader ; k, blossom buds ; bars, places of pruning ; cutting roots at the upright dotted lines gives severe, at I slight, check only with the stock (a) to its extremity (b\ has been secured to a stake (c) ; the young tree is about 3 feet in height, sturdy and healthy, well furnished with roots (d). After the leaves have fallen such a tree is most eligible for transplantation, and by inserting the spade 9 inches from the stem, as shown by the dotted lines, it can be lifted •*" V * with little loss of roots. If these are kept moist whilst out of the ground, and the tree is quickly, yet properly, planted, it will scarcely feel the effects of removal, but will emit roots early and grow freely during the ensuing season. It is not, however, APPLES— TRAINING. 5 M tlie usual practice to purchase and plant such young trees, but whether they remain in the nursery or are moved, they must be headed or cut back to e. For this purpose a knife with a keen edge must be properly used. It is used properly by placing it at the back of the shoot and bringing it through with a slanting cut upwards, a little above the bud to which the tree is pruned, as is shown by the full bar ; the sloping cut is then away from the bud, and if any water lodge or any decay of bark take place it will be on that side opposite to the bud ; whereas, by making the cut from the same side as the bud, also upward, the water will fall to the bud, and any decay occurring will be to its prejudice. B (page 2) shows the tree one year trained, or with seven shoots and a leader. The maiden tree was shortened back to 15 inches. The leading shoot (/) having had due support from a stake (g) will be perfectly upright and should be cut back to 18 inches if vigorous, as shown (A), or if not more than that length, it may be cut back about one- third, alike to strengthen its subsequent growth, and to induce side shoots to push freely. All the side shoots (i) should be cut back, in the manner indicated by the full bar, upwards. The tree is still in good condition for removal, and by lifting with a radius of one foot from the stem, as indicated by the upright dotted lines, there is little loss of roots. C (page 2) shows the tree three years from the bud or graft, 4 feet 6 inches high when cut back to/, and well furnished to the base, or what the nurseryman delights to supply his customer with, namely, a tree with a foundation, and not only that but with blossom buds (k) on the two-year-old wood. It is in fact a bearing tree, the branches extending beyond the dotted lines of the pyramid, only needing to be shortened back as shown by the bars and the leader (/) to secure the requisite shoots in the ensuing season. The growths where closer together than 9 inches in the interior of the tree should be cut away to an inch or less from the point of origin as indicated by the bars. The lower shoots are not shortened, as from their position they will not grow so vigorously as the upper ; besides, the fruiting state being induced, they will have the vital forces con- centrated thereon instead of expended in the production of wood. The tree is yet in good order for removal, but the roots having extended considerably would be seriously reduced by taking out a trench at the dotted lines, and a severe check thus given to the aftergrowth ; but by going 6 inches further away all around (/) in lifting there is not much loss of roots, or not more than corresponds to the branches removed in pruning ; and with care in preventing the roots drying, and in planting, the tree will B2 4 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. make sufficient growtli in the following season to preserve its symmetry, and instead of being injured will be benefited by the removal. The great fault in some trees lies in their not having been originally cut back low enough, and hence they are badly furnished with shoots near the base. Some have no shoots on one side for a distance of 2 feet from the ground, whilst there are plenty on the other side : this is owing to their stand- ing too closely together. Those, therefore requiring symmetrical trees, which when in full foliage jiud fruit are the admiration of all, must take care to secure them with the requisite foundation, or rear them according to the instructions. r> v w a H Fig. 2. PYRAMID TRAINING — GOOD AND BAD PRACTICE. (Scale : | inch = 1 foot.) References : — Z>, grafted maiden tree : m, upright shoot ; n, side shoot ; o, point of inserting spade in lifting, or shortening long roots ; p, place of digging around tree for lifting. E, tree properly planted, and cut hard back through loss of roots : r, leader shortened to two buds ; 5, side shoot shortened to one bud. F, wrongly planted and pruned tree : *, leader pruning — t, u, and v, growths resulting ; w, side shoot pruning—?/ and x, growths following ; z, proper point to shorten leader ; a, right point to shorten side shoot. G, tree in first growth after pruning : ft, upright shoot ; c, spur ; d, surface roots ; e, point of autumn pruning. H, tree in second year after close heading : /, side shoots ; bars, points of cutting back in autumn ; g, spur with blossom bud ; dotted lines, extent of roots cut off in lifting. Fig. 2. — Pyramidal training from the grafted and planted maiden D. This has been worked with a scion having two buds, and made two shoots, an upright (m), and a side growth (n). It is lifted in two ways, first, by thrusting in the spade around the tree so as to cut the straggling roots clean off, ox, second, by digging around at (p\ and in with- drawing the soil, breaking the long roots somewhat after the manner represented. These broken roots should be cut off as shown at the bars 0, and the ends must be pared smooth with a sharp knife before planting. They must be spread out and have soil worked in between them so that when completed they are as represented in E ; then in good soil APPLES— TRAINING. s und with manure spread on the surface as far as the roots extend, or a little more, the tree will flourish. It need not be pruned until March, but should be secured to a stake to prevent the stem being twisted by the wind. If this is allowed, a hole is made in soft weather, the air and frost enter, and fresh root action is arrested. The rains wash the virtues of the manure into the soil, and encourage the production of surface roots. These are a characteristic of trees on the dwarf stock and conducive to fruitfulness. During mild weather after the middle of February and not later than early March the side shoot (n) is cut back to one eye or bud (, received and planted with its roots broken, and sunk some inches deeper than they were in the nursery, as if to induce them to strike into the subsoil as quickly as possible. That is entirely wrong. The top is shortened a little, and the side growth also. The leader (s) is cut off where shown. This gives rise to the growths #, u, and v ; the side growth cut to w, giving rise to the shoots x and ^, the remaining buds lying dormant. What is the result ? — a one-sided, top-heavy tree, which is no credit to the cultivator. How can this bad tree be made into a good one ? The desirable change can be effected by cutting it boldly back to z, and the side growth to «, the following season; also replanting and spreading out the roots just under the surface, after trimming off the broken parts as in E. Though a year is lost in the operation, it is the quickest method of restoring a wrongly planted and mismanaged tree. G is the first growth of E after pruning, namely an upright shoot (b) and a short stubby side shoot — a spur — (c), and the tree has emitted roots freely. The roots have increased near the surface (d), thereby showing their appreciation of the manurial dressing ; the growth should be secured to a stake with a soft ligature against damage <'rom wind, In the autumn after the leaves fall, the stem is headed back to e, in 6 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. no case deferring the pruning later than March, and never pruning in sharp frosty weather. H is the tree advanced a year and it will occasion little trouble, but the leader must have due support, and all side shoots other than/, be pinched to three leaves in the first instance, and to one subsequently as growth is made. In the autumn it has the leader and side shoots (/) cut back to the bars, and is a well-furnished and promising tree. The spur (g) has formed a round fruit bud, which is larger than a wood bud, and is surrounded by a whorl of small leaves, and the tree is in admirable condition for lifting, if dwarf culture is the object. This means restriction of growth, and so keeping the tree small by detaching some roots, but not to a greater degree than shown by the dotted lines, and as lifting means moving with soil adhering to the roots its chief effect is to further the production of fibres, which favour the formation of fruit buds. Assuming that restricted culture has been decided upon, the tree H (page 4) is lifted in the early autumn, with perhaps some leaves remaining on the parts last to ripen and we have it replanted and leafless, as shown in 7, Fig. 3 (opposite), in the same place or new quarters. The tree should have a stake 4 feet 6 inches out of the ground, and pegs put in as shown, with tarred string from the pegs to the upper part of the stake or 4 feet from the ground. Bamboo stakes are excellent and durable. The shoots (h) which correspond to (/) in the preceding sketch (Fig. 2), are brought down, as shown by ttie dotted lines, to a nearly horizontal position, and secured to the strings, a light mulching of any spent material being placed on the surface a little farther from the stem outwards than the roots extend. Fresh rootlets will push during the winter as circumstances favour, and good growth will be made by midsummer. If not lifted the tree would have made quite as much growth as shown to the right of the stem in J (Fig. 3). The scale is here doubled, alike to show the tree in leaf and to give our juvenile readers an idea of proportions, as well as the difference in growth as influenced by lifting and replanting. Unlifted the tree will have made shoots several inches in length before midsummer, as shown on the right in the figure* During June stop all the leading side shoots to six leaves, not counting the small base leaves as shown by the dotted lines (J), also the leader (k) ; all other shoots not required for extension to be pinched at the third leaf. Fresh growths will be made, but leave them until September, then cut them back to three leaves, and pinch those which pushed after the previous stopping to one leaf, and the leader at the full bar. This will admit the late summer sun, and, if the autumn is favourable to the maturity A PPLES—TRA INING. of the wood and buds, we may calculate on some fruit from the unlifted and large tree in the season following. Now turn to the other side, or left of the tree. In the two lower branches we have the result of replanting, namely, lessened vigour, yet stout, short-jointed shoots, with abundant rather small but thick leaves. Instead of the shoots extending the length of Fig. 3. ADVANCED PYRAMIDS. (Scale : small tree, \ inch ; large trees, 1 inch = 1 foot.) References : — /, two-years-trained tree, staked, and side growths, h, adjusted to strings. J, tree in third year after heading, showing non-restriction on right: i, spurs; j, side shoots pinched at dotted bare; k, point of pinching leader ; restriction on left, n, unrestricted length of growths, pinched as shown ; o, result of pinching ; full bars, autumn pruning. K, restricted tree in bearing. those on the opposite side (w), or to the extent of the dotted lines («), they are short as shown at 0, and terminated by a large oval bud with leaves clustered around it. Lifting and replanting is followed by fruit spurs (l\ but should they elongate, it is prevented by pinching as shown by the bars, by which process fruit buds will assuredly be formed and perfected. One of these, on a spur of the previous year, has blossomed and produced a fruit (i). 8 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. In the autumn the second tier of side shoots are brought down from the dotted lines to the position they occupy in JST(page 7), and any priming that may appear necessary should be done. Little of this, however, will be needed if summer pinching has been attended to. A surface dressing of manure will make all complete for the winter, and in spring the tree will be a source of considerable interest from the expanding blossom, and as- summer advances it will appear as shown in the figure, only more fruits may form. Those on the tree have been reduced to twenty-one, and it is only a little over 2| feet wide at the base, and 4 feet high when summer pruned. It is sturdy and fruitful because it has been made to produce an abundance of fibrous roots near the surface of the ground, where the soil is the most fertile, and was kept moist there by the covering of manure, which is termed mulching; and the thin disposal of the branches, with summer pinching, induced the formation of blossom buds. Had no care been taken to secure roots near the surface by keeping it moist and fertile, the result would have been very different. With dry and poor surface soil the roots strike downwards in search of water, making few fibres till they reach it,, and the growth is then correspondingly strong, watery, spurless, hence fruitless in character. It may be useful to show the difference between good and bad management in the same figure. Fig. 4. — L represents a tree the right side of which indicates good manage- ment, the opposite side neglect. Observe the fibrous roots and the growth of the tree. Fruit is being produced on the right side, yet the tree is becoming too vigorous as. is evidenced by the strong shoots pushing at jo, after the leader was stopped at q, also by the extension of the leader (r), and the axillary shoot (s). These are shortened at the bars towards the end of summer, and the ends of the longer shoots are also taken off where shown. In addition, some of them are cut out to within two or three leaves of the base. This is to prevent overcrowding, and to admit the sun and air to the leaves on the longer branches. This is absolutely essential for rendering them fruitful ; but if the tree is to be kept dwarf, its vigour must be checked by root pruning as soon as the leaves fall. The roots cut at the dotted lines (t) across them will arrest growth and increase the fertility of the tree. It is a handsome pyramid 7 feet high and 4 feet through at the base. Now turn to the left of the figure. The roots have been driven down to the clay •ubsoil for the moisture they could not find near the surface, and the branch growth is •appy accordingly, as indicated by the dotted lines, and the leader is apt to be broken by the equinoctial gales. No extent of branch pruning alone can render such gross shoots APPLES — TRAINING. Fig 4. A ROOT AXD BEANCH LESSON. (Scale : f inch — 1 foot.) References ; — 7,, pyramid tree showing sterility on the left, fruitfulness on the right : p, strong shoots resulting "from stopping the leader at q ; ?', leader extension ; s, axillary shoot ; t, cutting roots to check growth. Dotted outlines on the left indicate gross growth ; full bars show the extent of root and branch pruning. VOL. II. 18 FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. fruitful ; the only remedy is to carefully dig up the tree, retaining all the small fibrous roots, with as much soil adhering to them as possible, cutting back the strong roots where they are marked across, then replant carefully and well. The roots must not be allowed to get dry when out of the ground, which, if wet, must be drained, and a quantity of dry mortar rubbish from old buildings should be mixed with the soil ; this, with a little fresh loam and wood ashes, to be worked well amongst the roots, which should be spread out, made firm, and covered 3 or 4 inches deep, a similar thickness of manure to be spread on the ground over them and for a foot .beyond their extension. At the same time the branches must be cut back to the bars. Little growth may be made the first year, but eventually fresh fibres will form, and the tree will become fruitful through having roots and branches similar to the right side of the figure, and the following year • — the third after replanting — it may be laden with excellent fruit. The columnar form of training is only applicable to a few upright-growing varieties of apple ; therefore will be treated under " Pears." Bush Training. — Bush apple-trees are the simplest and most easily managed of all forms, The chief consideration is thinning the growths to prevent overcrowding, and to insure a free exposure of the interior parts to the weather. They are especially adapted for small gardens, generally very productive, and require but little space, affording much interest, and enjoyable, profitable occupation. For planting in borders along the sides of paths they are ornamental and readily accessible for manipulating the growths and supplying all cultural necessities. They may be planted as close as 6 feet apart, and kept as mere pigmies for a lifetime if desired, by root restriction and summer pruning, but larger bushes are more useful. In maintaining health and fruitfulness fibrous roots must be abundant in the surface soil ; leaves comparatively large, stout, and leathery in texture ; and branches thinly disposed for the free admission of light and air, as then only can the crude matter imbibed by the roots be converted into fruit-producing material, and stored in the stems. Close planting, however, is not generally advisable, as, without strict adherence to well-conducted routine, the trees become too large for the space. Six feet should be the ultimate minimum of bush trees under dwarf culture, increasing the distance according to the habit of varieties, for while such as Cellini, Margil, and Manks Codlin may be accom- modated at 6 feet, strong growers like Lord Grosvenor, Lady Henniker, and others indicated in the lists, Vol. I., page 334, will require 9 feet between the trees. This is mentioned, as crowding the trees is as fatal to free cropping as is crowding the branches of individual APPLES— TRAINING. ii trees. It also destroys their symmetry. There are matters not always taken into account at planting, namely, ultimate issues. Trees are planted in a border or borders, which they ultimately outgrow and cannot be set back on account of other trees, nor brought forward without encroaching on paths. Crop as such trees may, they are an eyesore, and this is a primary point to avoid in fruit culture. First counting the cost before com- mencing to build is worth many after-considerations. Where restricted culture is not intended bush trees may be planted 6 feet apart with the view to early profit. Every alternate row can ultimately be removed, also alternate trees in the rows remaining ; the permanent trees will then be 12 feet Fig. 5. FORMING ORDINARY BUSH APPLE TREKS. References : — M, tree in first growth (t) from the bud : u, latent bud growths ; v, lateral ; w, pruning point. N, tree in second year's growth : x, side shoots ; y, leader ; a, stakes. 0, tree in third year's growth : b, spurs ^ P, cutting off roots ; d, root liable to be broken at fork e ; /, root subject to break at junction with stem g. asunder. They may be safely transplanted up to the sixth year, or longer, if they have been root pruned. If they have not it is desirable to dig a trench round each, about the same distance from the stem as the branches extend, and detach all the roots; this will cause fresh fibres to form in the undisturbed part next the stem, and the trees may be removed with a mass of soil the autumn following. If this is done early, or as soon as the leave* can be shaken off, the trees will scarcely show any effects of the removal, as fresh rootlets will be quickly produced for the support of the expanding blossom and fresh growths in spring. Ordinary Bush- — M (Fig. 5) is a tree with the first growth (£)from the bud, which is c2 IZ THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. usually inserted not more than 9 inches from the ground nor nearer it than 6 inches, in July. In this instance it had been inserted 6 inches from the ground, and the distance is suitable, as it allows sufficient space for surface dressings without burying the stock, so that rooting from the scion (or bearing portion) is prevented, for trees are not better under all circumstances on their own roots. Sometimes growths appear from latent buds on the stock : these (u) must be rubbed off, and any lateral (v) irom the tree pinched at the first leaf and subsequently. In autumn, or by early March, the maiden tree is headed back to five buds (w). The following year a tree, indicated by N, is produced, having four side shoots (x) and a leader (y). If side growths push from these have them pinched at the first leaf, following this out through the season, and cutting them away in the autumn below the first stopping. This will leave some small base buds scarcely discernible, though they will ultimately form fruiting spurs. If the main branches are irregular one stronger than another, the strong should be depressed, securing them to stakes (a). Weaker growths should be raised. The leader is left 15 inches long at the winter pruning, and the side shoots have the points removed, as shown, by the bars, the lower branches being as long as the leader. This tree is in admirable condition for removal, as indicated by the dotted lines. The object in all cases should be to obtain trees with as many fibrous roots as possible, but as most purchasers like much for their money, nurserymen often have to keep such trees another year. They are then quite as good as represented at 0, namely, full branched and well furnished, with some fruit spurs (b). Now if the spade in lifting is driven in at the dotted lines (c) there is a loss of two-fifths of the roots, or if dug round it is possible such roots as d are broken off at the fork 0, the equally important / being detached at g ; other mutilations may also occur, so that when received the tree has as good as lost half its roots. It is better to cut the roots towards their extremities with a sharp spade than to tear them as above suggested. When a tree is taken up as advised it is not in the power of man to retain all the fibres, and some must be left in the ground. Now turn to the branches. These are long and many ; yet some persons advise leaving them unpruned a year. The roots in their undisturbed state would certainly meet all demands of the foliage. But when a tree is removed the roots, as is apparent, are of necessity reduced, and cannot meet the demands of the tree with the branches unshortened. It may keep alive after it is planted, and even put forth a few short growths in a moist season, but through the evaporation from so much branch exposure during a dry summer, and so few roots to maintain the supply, the tree may collapse. By shortening the branches APPLES— TRAINING, evaporation is lessened, and better growth follows in consequence. If a tree is planted in the autumn, shorten the branches in the spring ; if planted in the spring, prune it at once as indicated by the bars. The bush in this instance is only a low form of the pyramid, compact and symmetrical. Goblet-shaped Bash. — The maiden tree, P (Fig. 6), which is to be trained in this shape, should be pruned to within one foot of the ground in winter (h). During the ensuing spring, three shoots should be selected from those which push as nearly as possible on the same level, rubbing off all the rest. Train the shoots at an angle of 45 degrees, but if they grow unevenly, depress the over-vigorous, raising the weakest, thereby securing three shoots of equal strength. In autumn cut each shoot back to Fi, resulting in wood extensions from the upper buds or those immediately below the priming, and the formation of spurs (c\ some with fruit buds, the whole tree being as shown in the figure in the autumn of the third year. At the winter pruning the season's growths arc thinned where too crowded or crossing others, some being cut to within an inch of their origin (d) to form spurs. Shoots advancing in the right direction merely have the immature points shortened to firm wood and a bold bud, pointing in the direction the growth from it is required to take the ensuing season. If outwards the bud must be outside the shoot, or if inwards, towards the stem of the tree. These; may be termed extension shoots, as e, and any required to furnish shoots for filling vacant space should be cut back to five or six buds (/), not counting the small basal buds. Closer pruning of some of the lower shoots would have been necessary, but growths have been produced from latent buds at the base of the tree, which have lain dormant, not pushing until the tree had, by thorough estab- lishment after planting, more sap transmitted than required, therefore causing the growths (g). These, cut back two-thirds their length, afford growths serviceable for furnishing the tree at the base, where it was hitherto rather naked. These trees are chiefly employed for commercial purposes. The principles upon which they are managed are, first, allowing varieties to assume their natural forms; second, reducing pruning to a minimum, confining it to thinning out the shoots in June or early July where they cross, crowd, or otherwise interfere with each other, or impede the free access of light, air, and rain to the fruit and foliage, also shortening in September the shoots that have grown long to half their length, and those not required for extension to four or six good-sized leaves, for assisting the ripening of the wood and the development of fruit buds ; and third, to reduce expenditure in manu- facture to as low a figure as is consistent with placing such fruit in the market in a con- dition to command purchasers, and return as much interest as possible on the capital invested. Winter pruning is confined to shortening shoots not required for extension to three or four buds, and thinning where necessary so as to leave the primary branches 9 to 12 inches apart. The result of the treatment described is fairly pourtrayed in the fruiting tree, £7 (Fig. 8), the third year after planting. Such trees are equally adapted for garden and field culture. They are excellent for cottagers and persons generally who are not skilled in the art of training, and who cannot devote a great amount of time to their trees. Horizontal Training (Fig. 9). — Select a maiden tree, K, with a clean, straight stem i6 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. moderately strong, as such \s preferable through the buds not being too widely distributed. Cut it back to 1 foot from the ground as shown by the barf: this should be done from the fall of the loaf to the middle of February or beginning of March, during mild weather. Shoots will be produced in spring from the three uppermost buds The highest of these (j) train upright, the other two respectively to the right and left, and at an angle of 45°, as shown at k and / in the second tree ( W). If one grow stronger than the other, as kj depress it to m or lower, and raise the weak / to o or higher, so that shoots as nearly as possible of equal strength may be produced. In autumn the upright shoot should be cut Fig. 9. HORIZONTAL TRAINING. (Scale: i- inch=l foot.) References: — V, maiden tree: i. point of heiuling. IV, tree in first \ ear's training ; j, leader ; /.-, strong shoot to- be depressed ; I, weak shoot to be raised ; m, strong shoot depressed ; o, weak shoot raised ; y, point of shortening leader. X, tree in autumn of second year's training ; a, point of cutting back leader ; 6, shortening laterals to two buds ; c, stubby shoots or spurs. to within 1 foot of the point to which it was first shortened, or as near that as a bud, with two others below it, eligible for horizontals will permit. As 1 foot is the distance to be allowed between the horizontals, the buds left to produce them should be a little below the line along which they are ultimately to be trained. This will be readily understood on reference to TF, in which y is the place where the upright shoot is cut to the horizontal line. As the side, particularly the lower, branches cannot be too strong they should not be depressed or brought to the horizontal line for another season. In the second year of training the leaders of the main branches are not to be stopped, but any side snoote should be pinched at the third good sized leaf,, not counting the one APPLES— TRAINING. t 7 or two small leaves at the base of the growths. There may push what are known as sub- laterals, and if so pinch them to one leaf, and subsequently as growth is made. This will throw all the vigour which would otherwise be expended in useless wood into the leaders. Those originated through cutting the leader to y the previous autumn or winter are to be taken respectively to the right and left, and that of the upright in a vertical direc- tion ; the side shoots at an angle of 45° as in the first season. Other growths may appear on the central stem besides the three required ; they should be pinched in the season of origination, and afterwards as directed for growth from the side branches. This pinch- ing of the side growth will increase the vigour of all the extension shoots, particularly the upright leader, which if allowed to grow unchecked may push laterals from its upper part through excessive vigour consequent on the restriction of the side growths from last year's wood. There are two ways of utilising the vigour, first to let the side and other lateral growths extend with a view to the increase of roots and corresponding increase of growth the following year ; or second, to pinch the leader at a point where it would be necessary to cut it back to in autumn to originate the next pair of horizontals and a fresh leader. The latter is advised, as by it a year is gained, and if effected in July or earlier the leader and side growths will have time to make and mature a good growth before the fall of the leaf. If more growths result from the topping of the leader than those named, pinch them at the first leaf. In the autumn of the second year's training, the tree treated as stated, will, when the growths are brought down to the positions they are to occupy, somewhat resemble X. To effect the proper training of the growths, upright stakes must be put in with horizontal pieces lashed at the crossing, so as to form an improvised trellis for tying the growths to as required, as is shown in the figures. The leader should be cut back to a, and the laterals (b) shortened to two buds, or to be not more than an inch in length. Short, stubby shoots or spurs (c) are not to be shortened, as they are the parts from which the fruit is chiefly produced, some already having formed fruit buds. The following year's treatment is simply a repetition of that of the preceding year, only it is not desirable to train the side branches at an angle of 45° as they will have acquired sufficient vigour ; therefore, they may be trained horizontally, and if the leader is also strong, two sets of horizontal branches may be originated each year. The above is undoubtedly the simplest mode of forming horizontal trees for walls or espaliers, as once the branches are started there can be no doubt in training them. The growth is easily under command, the sap equally distributed, the branches are exposed to the light, and TOL. II. D lg THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. though the distance of 1 foot between them may seem great at first, it is not more Kg. 10. HOBIZONTAL PALMETTE WITHOUT HEADING. (Scale : \ inch=l foot.) References :—Y, tree in summer following depression of pliable maiden tree to right, a growth being taken from the bend to the left as shown by dotted lines and depressed as represented. Z, tree in second year of training ; d, outline of first and second growth. Z Z, third year of training. than is ultimately necessary for the full development of the leaves and spurs, their due exposure to light and air, and the proper maturation of the fruit. Horizontal Palmette (Fig. 10).— To form a Horizontal Palmette, select a vigorous APPLES— TRAINING. I9 well-situated shoot from the bend of a young tree which has been trained as shown for forming horizontal cordons on page 22, E (but without heading), and now represented as growing (F), training the new growth upward, as is indicated by the right-hand dotted line, d, in Z. Continue the extension from the end of the right-hand branch, pinch all side-shoots beyond three or four leaves, and suppress subsequent growths to one leaf till September. The upright shoot will then make strong growth, and having extended 2 feet, depress it to the horizontal line 1 foot from the ground, as represented in Y. The following spring take a shoot from the bend, and when it has grown 2 feet, depress it ; then if this is done in June, or not later than early July, a shoot or shoots will push from the buds at the bend, in the direction of the left-hand line, d. Select the best, rubbing off any others, and the season being favourable, it will make a foot or more of growth, and mature the wood and buds to the extremity, If the growth is brought to the horizontal line in September, the tree will have two pairs of branches. If the upright has not grown sufficiently long to depress by midsummer, allow it grow upright until the autumn ; then bring it down to form the second right-hand branch, originating that to the left the following spring, similar to that of the preceding year. Assuming, however, that the upright shoot has sufficient vigour, another pair of lateral shoots may be originated. With proper attention to summer pruning, preceded by disbudding, the rubbing off of probable gross shoots and those unwise to retain, the tree will have the promising appearance represented in Z Z in the autumn of the third season after planting. The object of training in this form is to dispense with the knife as much as possible, not allowing parts to be formed that must afterwards be removed as unnecessary, and even useless for the production of fruit. Espalier trees, formed in either of the two methods described and eventually trained to wires as shown, are easy to manage, fruitful, ornamental and suitable in divisional lines in gardens. Upright Six-branched Training (Fig. 11, next page). — .4 represents a maiden tree, with the first growth secured to part of the stock left above the junction of the stock and scion, which part is to be cut away to the dotted line in the autumn, and the tree shortened to 1 foot from the ground at the bar. In spring the shoots from the uppermost buds should be examined, and the two most promising and situated nearest to each other selected for training, all others being rubbed off. Train the pair upright, with a curve at the base, leaving about 18 inches between them. If one grow stronger than the other depress it, whereby the weaker one will gain strength. They should, as far as possible, have an equality of vigour as shown in B. D2 20 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. In the autumn of the first year's training, the shoots, if more than 3 feet long, as they should be, are to be depressed to a horizontal position, taking care not to break them, and shorten each to 2 feet 6 inches. When the buds break in spring, the most pro- mising nearest to the points at which the uprights are required, as well as one from each extremity, are to be retained. All others are to be pinched to three leaves, and to one subsequently as fresh growth is made. Thus for furnishing six uprights three shoots on each side of the stem should be allowed to grow, the first 6 inches from the stem, the next a foot from it, and so on as shown in C. The growths reserved should be trained upright at the proper distances,— a foot apart. If one grow stronger than another, stop it when it has extended 13 inches, and the sap will be diverted into the weaker Fig. 11. UPBIGHT SIX-BRANCHED TEEB. (Scale: f inch =1 foot.) References : — A, maiden tree. B, tree in second year. (7, tree in third year. D, tree in fourth year ; lines indicate training diagonally. dotted shoots and they will gain vigour. Shoots will result from the stopping ; train the leaders upright and pinch all others at the third leaf, cutting these further back in autumn after the leaves fall to within an inch of their base, and shorten the uprights to 13 inches. Growths will proceed from the upper parts of the shoots the spring following. Train the leaders upright, and pinch all others at the third leaf, and to one afterwards of subsequent growths as in the preceding year ; a tree of uniform vigour will then be secured, well fur- nished with spurs as well as a little fruit, all being represented in D, the fourth year's growth from the bud. If trees with less than six branches are desired, the two shoots may be cut back to 2 feet each for originating others to form a five branched tree, a most undesir- APPLES— TRAINING. «i able form, as the central one is vertical with the stein, and the sap flowing most freely in the first upright channel the shoot receives more than its due share, whereby the two on each side of the stem are proportionally weakened. For a four branched tree the two shoots in the first autumn after their production may be cut back to 18 inches on each side of the stem, taking up two shoots on each side of it, treating those and other growths similar to those of the six-branched tree. The distance between the uprights should be 1 foot. Oblique six- branched trees only differ from the upright in having the branches aslant, usually at an angle of 45° from the perpendicular or base line. This is shown by the dotted lines in D. It allows a greater extension of the principal branches, and the de- pression insures distribution of sap more equally than in trees with the branches trained upright. All the forms mentioned are good as espaliers, secured to trellises, or as wall trees. Cordon Training. — The cordon system of training fruit trees has been long practised on the Continent. It was introduced into this country by the late Mr. Thomas Eivers nearly half a century ago, and has been since improved and perfected by his son, Mr. T. Francis Rivers, and other cultivators. The main feature of the system is its simplicity, and its chief characteristic consists in admitting of a large number of trees being cultivated in a comparatively small space. These are considerations that weigh with those not acquainted with intricate forms of training, and not having a large extent of ground that can be devoted to fruit trees. The cordon system is there- fore particularly suitable for small gardens, especially suburban ; but similar trees trained on this method are equally eligible for gardens of any extent. Wherever there is wall, paling, or rail area required to be covered, or means of erecting trellises for the support of trees, the cordon system commends itself to all growers of fruit. Horizontal Cordons (Fig. 12, next page).— The form under notice is very appropriate for training along the sides of walks, or to form an edging or boundary to fruit-tree quarters. To form the Single Horizontal Cordon, select a maiden tree, moderately strong, and without side-growths. Such as is received from a nursery will be similar in stem and roots to E. Shorten the tree one-third of its length, calculating from the bud or graft, and cut away the radical or tap root, so as to prevent deep penetration and encourage the formation of fibres near the surface. Cut the other large roots, which were bruised and broken in lifting back to sound parts, when the tree will appear as in F and Cr after planting. In F the tree is upright ; this occasions a sharp bond in bringing the ^^ THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. stem down to the horizontal line and is not good, as, irrespective of probable damage to- . the bark and wood tissues, it has a tendency to encourage shoots from that part, whereby Fig. 12. HORIZONTAL COBDONS. (Scale : J inch— 1 foot.) References : — E, maiden tree as received from a nursery. F, the tree, root pruned, shortened, and planted upright. G, maiden tree planted diagonally. H, tree in first year's training : g, shoot trained diagonally in summer. /, training the end tree : h, direction of terminal shoot in summer ; i, terminal shoot depressed. J, terminal tree in third yaar's training. K, tree in third year's training, showing overlapping. the horizontal part is impoverished. By planting at an angle of 45°, or diagonally, £, the objectionable bend is dispensed with, and the sap flows freely in unimpaired APPLES— TRAINING. channels. The stem may be brought down to the horizontal position, as indicated by the dotted lines, when the buds commence swelling. The spring after planting shoots will grow from the stem ; all of these to the height of the training wire should be rubbed off, a strong leading shoot from the upper part being trained forward diagonally, (g) and all others, making five or six joints of wood, pinched to three or four leaves, as shown by the bars in H and /. Exception must be made of a shoot in rubbing off those on the stem, when the tree is near the end of the wire (/), selection being made of one well disposed for training in the direction of the terminal post, but training it upwards (h) until the end of summer, when the *' "\- % UL ir : xxg%-jL> K.^ ILltX. Fig. 13. SINGLE VERTICAL COBDON TRAINING. RESULTS nr DBPEESSION. References :—A, pruned maiden tree. B, tree in leaf, second year. C, same tree, pruned in the autumn. 1\ fruiting tree, third year. E, trees planted 18 inches apart, for depressing diagonally so as to be 1 foot between branches. F, trees showing difference. (See pages 24 and 25.) > trees are to have their proper position, as shown in the figures. At the winter pruning the continuation shoot is shortened one-third of its length, cutting at the bar, whilst the terminal shoot («') merely has the point cut off near the post. Stopped sido shoots are at the same time cut back to the nearest good bud of the base of each stem. In the September of the third year's training the trees will have grown and overlap the space allotted to each, 6 feet, as shown in J and K. The extension shoot of the former, where it overlaps the latter, should be grafted on it the following spring, whereby a continuous cordon line of trees will be secured. Single Vertical and Diagonal Cordons (Fig. 13). — A is a rather weak but clean healthy 1110 THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE. \den-tree, pruned to half the length of the scion growth, root pruned and planted. In spring shoots will push from the uppermost buds. The strongest must be retained as a leader, securing it to a stake to prevent breakage, and when it has grown a foot, pinch out its point. If this is effected by or before midsummer it will push again. Keserve the strongest growth, training it upright, pinching the others to the third leaf. Shoots on the previous year's wood treat similarly. The tree so treated will have in September the appearance of the figure B. When leafless and winter-pruned it will be similar to Cj sturdy and furnished with blossom buds on the two-year old wood. In late summer of the second year after planting we have a tree bearing a few fruits, furnished more than two-thirds of its height with bearing wood, and a good continu- ation of the extensions, the treatment exactly corresponding to that of the previous year. This is represented in />, wherein the summer pruning is shown, and the winter pruning is the same as that of the year previous. If the tree does not make more than 12 inches of extension in each year, the midsummer stopping will not be required, and the leader must be cut back to about a foot, a few buds more or less not being of consequence, provided we make sure of a bud likely to push a good shoot. Summer shortening the leader is, however, desirable for assisting the buds below the stopping, and insuring their development into blossom buds the following season. Under good management the tree will advance about 2 feet in height each year, unless it shows undue precocity in bearing. After the first two or three years any excess of vigour will be overcome by fruit production, or it can readily be restrained by lifting, whereby fruit-fulness will be induced. The trees may be kept at 6 feet in height, or allowed to grow to any altitude desired, the needful support being afforded by stakes, trellises, or walls. Trees in this form may be planted 1 foot apart against walls, but in the open they are best grown 18 inches asunder, and may be in -lines 4J feet apart, trained to rails or wires 6 feet in height, thus presenting a fruiting surface four times greater on the same space of ground than horizontal cordons. Although upright cordon trees may be planted 1 foot apart for covering walls and «ther opaque surfaces, it may be as well to point out the difference between the upright and diagonal. In the trees F, page 23, the distance is 1 foot and the full height 6 feet. The trees have reached the height of the trellis, and are growing vigorously. The grower, to secure further extension, brings them down to the dotted diagonal lines and gains 2 feet, or a length of 7 feet instead of 5 feet. This is satisfactory in one way, but it cuts the other most disastrously, inasmuch as the trees in the diagonal lines are . I />/>/. ES--TRAINING. 2 r */ only 9 inches asunder. This is fatal to successful cropping, as the trees have not sufficient light and air through the crowded growths. What is gained in length is lost in breadth, so that trees trained with the branches at equal distances have an identity of fruiting surface whether trained upright or diagonally. If the trees (Et page 23) are planted 18 inches asunder it admits of 1 foot between the lines when brought down to the diagonal position, or an increase in length of 2 feet each, but a decrease of 6 inches between the branches. This holds good in all diagonal training, a geometrical term indicating a line extending from one angle to another of a quadrilateral figure, and Fig. 14. SINGLE DIAGONAL COEDON TRAINING. (Scale: £ inch=l foot.) References :—G, terminal tree. 7/, maiden tree, pruned. /, tree in second year of growth. J, same tree, pruned in the autumn. K, tree In i'ruit, third year. dividing a square into two equal parts, the perpendicular and base line being equal, consequently the angle is 45°. Oblique training differs from the diagonal in that the line of branches may be at any angle, but decreasing the width between the branches as they are elevated from a horizontal, or depressed from an upright position. Diagonal is a definite term, oblique indefinite, meaning any deviation from a right line, not direct, not perpendicular, not parallel, but, in plain English, aslant. Single Diagonal Cordons. — Trees trained in this form (Fig. 14) have the sap more equalised than in the upright, consequently have more vigour imparted to the lower parts VOL. II. E K THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. than obtains with the vertical, which are liable to become bare or weak at the bottom and have a superfluity of shoots at the top of the trees. The equalisation of vigour is the main feature of diagonal training. The trees require to be planted 18 inchea asunder for walls, but for espaliers the trees should be planted 2 feet apart. G is a terminal tree pruned and planted, the dotted lines indicating the direction of the shoots the ensuing year. H is a similar tree, also branch and root pruned, and planted diagonally. The treatment does not differ materially from that of the vertical, only the necessity for stopping the leader is not so great, but it is well to practise it in view of ^p Fig. 15. Low STANDAED TEEE. (Scale: \ inch = 1 foot.) References : — L, maiden tree. M, tree in second year : p, point of stopping leader ; q, point of shortening in autumn. N, tree in third year : r, point of shortening in autumn. 0, tree in fourth year : s, point of winter pruning. well developed buds. The summer treatment is shown by /, and the tree after the winter pruning by J, and in the early autumn of the second year after planting the general resemblance of the tree will correspond to K. This is a very desirable method of training^ insuring early bearing, with productive crops of the choicest fruit under favourable climatic conditions. If it is desired a cordon may have two branches from the main stem. If these are trained upright it is known as a double vertical cordon ; if slantingly, as a double diagonal cordon. The references are to figures on the preceding page. Low Standard Trees (Fig. 15). — L is a maiden tree with foliage. It is necessary to APPLES— TRAINING. zj secure the growth to a stake to prevent damage from wind, and a perfectly straight upright stem. Heading is not advisable as it causes a kink in the stem more or less unsightly. The second year the tree should have a stout stake to the height of p, in M, and as the growth will extend beyond it, the top of the tree may be pinched off to not less than six leaves from where the winter pruning is to take place, at the bar, q, to originate the shoots for the head of the standard the following year. Stopped at p. ^arly in June, or when sufficiently advanced, laterals will be formed as indicated by the dotted shoots and leaves. These can be pinched at the fifth or sixth leaf if the growth exceed that length. Side shoots will also form on the stem, and may remain, as they will help to thicken it, and in September be shortened to four or six leaves according to their length. These at the winter pruning are to be cut away close to the stem, and the head cut off above three good buds at the bar q. In the following, or third, year three shoots will issue from the buds immediately below ; encourage those by rubbing off all others for a time, but when the three are well in advance any that proceed from the stem may grow, keeping them subordinate to the others, for forming the head, yet present to use up any excess of sap, which at the same time strengthens the stem and prevents the head growths from becoming unduly vigorous. This is represented in N. It is essential that the three shoots be as nearly as possible equal in strength. If one have more vigour than another it should be depressed, which can readily be effected by a bent stick secured to the stem, whereby the growth can be regulated through depression or elevation as strength or weakness necessitate. Growths from the stem should be pinched to five or six leaves in June, still closer in September, and cut clean away at the winter pruning; each growth of the head (r) to be cut back to three good buds at the same time. In the fourth year take two shoots from each shortened branch, rubbing the others off, with all growths from the stem, and a tree will be formed as in figure 0. Any laterals pushing from the shoots stop at the first leaf. Shorten each shoot to 6 inches at the winter priming (s), observing to make sure of two good buds as the termination of each. In the fifth year two growths should be encouraged from each shoot on a level with each other, sideways, rather than one above the other. The direction of the growths is shown by the dotted lines. The treatment of these, and the side shoots, is the same as is stated for Open Bush Trees (page 14), both in the current and subsequent years. These low-stemmed, compact-headed standard trees are by some preferred to pyramid or dwarf forms, as being better adapted for intermediate cropping E2 28 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. with vegetables or bush fruits between the trees. In three more years the tree will be in the satisfactory condition represented (Fig. 1C). It is productive, because the branches Fig. 1C.— Low STANDARD IN BEARING. are thinly disposed, thus admitting the sun and air to the leaves right down to the base of the branches. The stem is 4 feet high, the head, or bearing part, about the samer and nearly 7 feet in diameter. APPLES— PRUNING. 2g Other Forms of Trees. — Apple trees are shaped and trained in various other ways besides the foregoing. They will, however, be found modifications only, and, as a rule, offer no material advantage. Exception may be taken to trees that grow too luxuriantly : then pendulous or downward training may induce fruit-fulness ; also trees that grow weakly may produce finer fruit by training the branches upright. The Palmetto Vcrrier, or a combination of both the horizontal and vertical forms of training, originated with the French, and is considered to offer certain advantages over horizontal training. This and other modifications of fan and horizontal training will receive attention under some other fruits. "We would, however, impress on all cultivators that the secret of fruit- fulness is not to be found in fanciful systems of training, but at the roots of trees, with the thin disposal of their branches. Expedients in training are of little avail where the more important points of selecting stocks, root management, and correct methods of pruning are ignored. GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF APPLES. Pruning. — Manipulations require to be performed according to the individual con- dition of the trees as influenced by soil, climate, space, and mode of culture. Growers should study the trees they cultivate. Some trees naturally grow compactly, whilst others that grow rampantly are made sturdy by firm soil, also summer and root pruning, and it should be borne in mind that pruning always produces certain effects, namely — 1, close pruning in winter induces growth; 2, judicious summer pruning causes the tree to throw out spurs and blossom-buds; 3, root-pruning arrests growth and pro- motes fruitfulness ; 4, thinning crowded spurs and blossom-buds favours a good set of fruit. Prune in winter for wood ; prune in summer intelligently for fruit. Some apples bear at the tips of the branches, such as Ashmead's Kernel, Cornish Gilliflower, Golden Noble, Harvey's Wiltshire Defiance, Russian Transparent, Irish Peach, Northern Spy, and Yorkshire Beauty. Prune such sparingly, thinning the growths preferably to shortening them, unless interfering with the symmetry and strength of the tree. The essential pruning a tree requires depends, other conditions being favourable, on the mode of culture. This is given under the different forms of trees, and these are what is termed — 1, restrictive ; 2, extension. The restrictive system comprises trees trained in pyramid, bush, goblet, fan, horizontal, upright, and cordon form. The summer pruning of these forms of trees is given in Vol. I., pages 163-165, illustrations, page 164 ; winter pruning, pages 169, 170; pruning spurs, pages 170-172, illustration, 30 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. page 171. Lifting fruit trees, pages 172, 173, has special application to trees on dwarf- ing stocks, and those limited to space. Extension (so called) forms consist of cup, Vol. I., pages 179, 180 ; forked, pages 180-183 ; open bush, and half -standard, also standard. The principles upon which these trees are pruned will be found under " Open Bush," present Vol., page 14, and root-pruning as applicable to these forms is given in Yol. I., pages 174-178. , Manuring. — Cogent remarks on this subject are given in Vol. I., page 51, commenc- ing "Applying Manures," and following on to page 56, and have particular application to apple trees. Eeference may be made to the artificial manure alluded to under " Canker," Vol. I., page 234. Generally apple trees do not require such liberal supplies of manure as some other fruits do, but when grown in poor soils, or \vhen they bear too profusely so as to exhaust themselves, some decomposed manure, about 6 bushels per square rod, should be spread on the surface in autumn and left there, or be merely pointed in early in spring. This is almost a necessity annually in light, shallow soils, and where the trees yearly bear heavy crops of fruit. Manures, however, are of no use without a due amount of moisture in the soil. The rainfall in most localities and seasons is sufficient to render solid manure and artificials available as food in soluble or fluid form. Mulching (Vol. I., page 57) assists apple trees immensely in light, shallow soils. It should be applied soon after the fruit is set, and be added to from time to time through the summer up to September. An inch or two in thickness at once is all that is necessary, and heavy soils only require mulching on the setting in of dry, hot weather to preserve the moisture in the earth and prevent parching and cracking. Good friable loams, having a surface of good tilth, do not usually need mulching. Liquid manure (Vol. I, page 56) aids trees carrying full crops to perfect them, the fruit becoming larger and more juicy. To benefit the swelling, liquid stimulants should be applied in the early stages, and continued as occasion requires, until the fruit is full grown. Liquid manure should, when possible, be given after rain ; it is simply wasting rich liquid when it is poured on parched and cracked soil ; but the soil having its inter- stices closed by a thorough watering, liquid manure may then be applied advantageously. It may also be given to weakly trees whilst dormant, as a means of soil enrichment. One or two good soakings of strong liquid in winter assist trees to swell their crops in summer, but continual applications of slops and liquid manure render the soil sodden and sour. APPLES—GROWING UNDER GLASS. 3, Watering (Vol. I., page 57) judiciously in periods of heat and drought may save the foliage from red spider, and the fruit from becoming mealy. Watering outdoor fruits, especially the apple, is not commended as a rule of practice; but it is an excellent plan to apply water before the soil becomes too dry for healthy growth, never waiting until the tree shows signs of distress. Hot and shallow soil require careful attention in respect of watering. Apple trees prefer a cool and moist soil, and soils not naturally retentive must have natural deficiencies made good by artificial waterings and mulching. This particularly applies to trees growing against walls and fences. Syringing the trees in the evening during dry periods saves them from many disasters incidental to their growth in hot soils, namely, small fruit, rusty foliage, dying back at the tips of the branches, and blossoms annually cast without setting fruit. Clean and healthy foliage is indispensable to perfect bud formation. Trees suffering from drought at the roots, and having their leaf juices abstracted by parasites, always form imperfect blossom buds. The following subjects have received a legitimate share of attention, and need only referring to as applicable in essential points to apples : birds and buds, Vol. I., pages 190, 191, the bullfinch being the chief destroyer of apple tree buds ; preserving buds, Vol. I., pages 191-192, the means needing to be applied later than for most other fruit trees, as apple buds are taken last; protecting blossom, Vol. I., pages 193-197, seldom carried out effectively, but well repaying the trouble; thinning fruit, Vol. I., pages 197-200, to which attention should be given, as many trees that produce indifferent fruit would have their crops greatly improved both in appearance and quality by judicious thinning ; perfecting and protecting fruit, Vol. I., pages 200-202. These matters are of the greatest importance, for the choicest specimens may be deteriorated in value by attacks of wasps, and the crops imperilled by the onslaughts of the blue titmouse, and in some cases blackbirds commit great havoc on the tender-fleshed apples, such as Worcester Pearmain and Peasgood's Nonesuch. Tests for gathering, with instructions, are given in Vol. I., pages 202, 203, and special attention is given to apples in remarks on storing and fruit-rooms, Vol. I., pages 203-214. GROWING APPLES UNDER GLASS. In cold, wet, exposed, and elevated localities the choicer varieties do not attain the size, colour, and clear skin in their fruits that is desirable. Indeed, apples grown under 32 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. "lass are much larger, higher-coloured, and clearer- skinned than those of similar varieties grown against walls, and other aids to climate. Exhibitors take advantage of this in producing many handsome specimens seen at shows. The choicer tender-fleshed Ameri- can varieties grown under glass in this country are superb, excelling imported fruit in size, colour, bloom, and quality. Tender-fleshed, richly-flavoured apples, grown in a glass-house are particularly suited for persons inconvenienced by a hard-fleshed fruit, and this mode of culture is specially applicable to localities that are subject to smoke and dusty deposits near towns, also where the fumes of factories and chemical works have a bad effect on vegetation. Varieties of apples suitable for growing under glass, named in order of succession, to insure a supply of fruit from August to April inclusive : — Red Astrachan. Williams' Favourite. Benoni. Cardinal. Washington. Emperor Alexander. Peasgood's Nonesuch. American Mother. Gravenstein. Wealthy. Bismarck. Beauty of Waltham. Melon Apple. Cox's Orange Pippin. Buckingham. Sandringham. Ribston Pippin. Gascoi pile's Seedling. Reinette de Canada. Baumann's Reinette. King of Tomkin's County. Peck's Pleasant. Northern Spy. Calville Malingre. Houses. —Simple inexpensive structures, as span and three-quarter span, answer when the trees are grown in pots, but when planted out it is advisable to have the roof lights movable. This admits of the trees being exposed to the invigorating influences of the autumn rains, and ensures complete rest in the buds during the winter. Severe frosts do not injure the trees provided their growths are well matured. The timber used in constructing the house should be sound, thoroughly-seasoned red deal, and the roof lights glazed with 21 ounces sheet glass, thirds, in panes not less than 10 inches wide, 15 ounces, thirds, answering for the side lights. The top and side lights need not be removable, but the roof lights (b, Fig. 17) must be portable. The trees for furnishing the house may be cordons — single or with from two to six branches, planting them at the sides of the house, as in Q, and training them to a wire trellis 1 foot from the glass, with the branches not less than 1 foot apart. This arrange- ment affords the finest, but not the most fruit. The borders need not be wider at first than between the outside walls (t) and the pillars (#). Another plan of furnishing the house consists of cordon tr£es disposed along the sides, trained part of the way up the roof, as in $, with vertical trellises cross-wise of the house between the pillars (d\ one trellis under each rafter, 4 feet apart. Cordons, upright APPLES— GROWING UNDER GLASS. ^ •ix-branched, fan, and horizontally -trained trees are suitable for the cross trellises. One iiu or horizontally-trained tree suffices for each trellis, or two upright six-branched •ordons. By this method four times the extent of bearing surface is obtained than by the roof trellis system. Excellent fruit for general use is borne by the cross-trellis trees, whilst the cordon trees trained part of the way up the roof produce handsome specimens. In a third scheme bush trees occupy the sides of the house, as in F, with pyramids Fig. 17. SECTION OF SPAN- ROOF APPLE HOUSE, TEEES PLANTED our. (Scale : £ inch.) References: — t, 9-inch brick wall ; u, 4^-inch brick walls, built in cement ; v, sill, 4| inches, bevelled ; w, side lights, opening whole length of house ; x, head, 4| by 3 inches, bevelled ; y, rafters, 7 by 3 inches ; z, top lights, opening whole length of house ; a, capping, projecting over joints of top lights ; b, movable lights, 2 inches thick ; c, 1-inch iron tie bar ; d, pillars, l|-inch iron tube ; e, batten paths ; /, border, 2 feet deep ; g, 9-inch brick pillars ; h, rubble, 1 foot thick ; ?', 4-inch tile drains. Q, cordon apple tree trained to wire trellis, 1 foot from glass. Bt •ingle vertical cordon. S, double vertical cordon. T, four-branched vertical cordon. U, columnar pyramid. V, bush apple tree. in the central part, two rows of trees 6 feet asunder, or three rows of columnar trees 6 feet apart in the lines, arranged in " opposite vacancy " order. Yet a fourth arrangement merits attention, namely, half-standard trees in the centre of the house, planted 6 feet apart, thinning to 12 feet, with low-stemmed trees 6 feet from the sides of the house, the position of the lines of trees being indicated at the crosses (Fig. 17). The trees are trained with round open heads so that light penetrates- VOL. II. F 34 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. to the base of the branches, and, having advantage of every ray of sun, the crops are abun- dant and fine. Borders. — Drains with proper fall and outlet are essential where the site is not natu- rally dry. A foot in depth of rubble over the drains, covered with 3 inches thickness of old mortar rubbish or chalk, prevents the border becoming stagnant. The soil may consist of turfy loam, rather strong, chopped up roughly, with one-tenth of quicklime incorporated with it. If deficient in calcareous matter, add a sixth of old mortar rubbish or one-tenth of chalk weathered by frost; if too light, add a fourth of clay marl, dried and pounded ; if too stiff, add a fifth of sharp road- scrapings well weathered. Mix well when the compost is rather dry, and put together rather firmly in the border. Planting. — Select trees coming into bearing. Lift carefully, preferably with balls of earth adhering to the roots, and plant firmly directly the leaves fall afford a good watering, cover the soil 1 to 2 inches in thickness with short, rather lumpy stable manure from the stem outwards beyond the spread of the roots, and secure the trees loosely to the trellises or stakes, deferring proper adjustment till spring. Winter Treatment. — Remove the roof lights after the fruit is gathered and the foliage down. If the roof lights are removed while the trees have immature leafage, and sharp frosts occur, they suffer injury from the sudden chill and deprivation of leaves. Per- form the needful pruning, cleanse the trees and house, remove the remains of mulchings without much disturbance of the surface roots, scraping off the loose soil, supplying an inch of fresh loam, and over that sprinkle 4 ounces per square yard of this mixture : — steamed bone-meal, 5 pounds ; kainit, 2 pounds, mixed. If the trees need vigour, spread a light dressing of short manure on the soil, leaving it there to decay. The roof lights need not be replaced until the buds of the trees commence swelling in the spring ; yet the lights should be put on the house before the leaves and blossoms appear. Summer Treatment. — Leave an inch of ventilation by the top lights constantly, except when frost prevails. Open the top ventilators when a shaded thermometer indicates be- tween 40° and 45°, the side lights at 50°. Close the house at 50°, and when the blossoms show colour and until the fruit is set, admit about an inch of ventilation by the side lights as well as by the top lights, having regard to the exclusion of frost. Up to the fruit set- ting too much air cannot be admitted, never allowing the temperature to exceed 50° with- out full ventilation in the first half of the day, and not closing so early as to raise the temperature over 65°. After the fruit commences swelling and the first leaves are of full size, close the house at 3 P.M. on days which, from cloud alternating with gleams of sun, APPLES— GROWING IN POTS. 3S are not calculated to raise the temperature over 80°, but when the weather is hot and the sun powerful, close about 5 P.M. Damp the house well at closing time, syringing the trees on fine days, always sufficiently early to allow of the foliage and fruit becoming fairly dry before nightfall. Sprinkle available surfaces early in the day, avoiding morning syringing, unless necessary for freeing the trees of red spider ; then operate early and admit air before the sun acts powerfully. Foliage long kept dripping wet turns brown, and water resting on the fruit any length of time causes the skins to be rough and often to crack. Air should be admitted early in the morning, not later than 7 A.M., and occa- sionally an hour sooner. It is a safe plan to admit some air all night by the top venti- lators. This allows the pent-up moisture to escape and the atmosphere to gradually cool, thus inducing rest in the trees, but sharp currents of air are highly prejudicial ; therefore, when strong wind prevails, admit air on the opposite side of the house. These matters, though apparently small, are important. Husbanding sun heat by early closing secures the finest possible fruits, whilst judicious ventilation insures the elaboration of their juices, and these conditions, combined with full exposure to light, impart high colour and superior quality. From June to September, inclusive, the house should have the ventilators opened between 6 and 7 A.M., and closed between 3 and 5 P.M., admitting air at night by opening the top lights a few inches about 6 P.M. After September, air must be freely admitted at night, husbanding the sun heat by day, if necessary, to mature late fruit and ripen the growths. Though water must be kept off fruit advanced towards maturity, the soil must be healthfully moist, or the apples become mealy. Apple trees are impatient of drought ; therefore afford thorough soakings of water, always before they are distressed by lack of it. Dribblets are ineffective. Feed as re- quired with liquid manure, affording dressings of superphosphate or other artificials occasionally, but be careful in using these, for apple trees abhor strong salts. Soot forms a good all-round food for apple trees, and nothing benefits them more than an occasional dusting of quicklime. Culture in Pots. — Apple trees answer well in 9 and 10-inch pots. They may be raised from cuttings and layers, or established on Paradise stocks. On their own roots the trees become compact, and, with care in cropping, are serviceable. Trees, however, on Paradise stocks afford the best results ; they may be grown in bush, pyramid, or low standard form. Young trees ought to be potted in autumn, and become thoroughly established in the pots before allowing them to bear fruit. The trees will produce fruit over a number of years, without change of pots, but the soil must be removed from the F 2 36 THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE. surface, also partly round the sides of the pots, annually, and fresh added, making it firm; while rich surface-dressings may be given during growth, along with liquid manures as needed. Trees may be shifted into larger pots when the fruit is gathered, and before the leaves fall. Freshly-potted trees should be stood on a well-drained base imper- vious to worms, in a sunny, open, yet sheltered situation outdoors, and be plunged in coal ashes over the rims of the pots, during the winter. During the first year the trees may remain outdoors, keeping them well supplied with water and nourishment till they arrive at a promising bearing state, when they may be placed under glass in the spring. As a rule and in most places it is advisable to keep them under glass until their growths are sufficiently matured in bud and wood for the succeeding year's fruit production, when they may be placed outdoors. In favourable localities many trees are placed outside sooner and there mature their crops. The trees should be placed in the house in March, or before the buds are far advanced in swelling, and it should be remembered that they succeed only in light, airy structures, with plenty of room. Great attention must be paid to the watering when the fruit is swelling. If the supply is inadequate, firm-fleshed apples may be gritty, and the tender- fleshed mealy. After a tree has parted with its fruits, and the growths are firm, stand it outside in the quarters already alluded to, watering as needed, and protect the roots in winter by plunging the pots. Pruning consists in pinching irregular growths and thin- ning to prevent overcrowding of the leaves. Strict attention must be given to cleanli- ness, thinning the fruits, watering, and feeding, then the produce of apple trees in pot* repays the trouble — not otherwise. ENEMIES OP APPLES. Canker (Nectria ditissima) is the most disastrous malady to which apple trees are liable, and has been fully treated in Vol. I., page 229. Mildew (Oidium farinosum) attacks the young leaves and blossoms, and has had attention, Vol. I., page 245. Scab (Cladosporium dendriticum) infests the leaves, young growths and fruit. In destructive effects it is second only to canker. Its treatment is propounded, Vol. I., page 238. Speck (Oidium (Monilia) fructigenum) (Link). — This fungus affects the fruits of the apple, apricot, cherry, pear, and plum, also the fruit of rosaceous trees generally. It first appears on half-grown fruit in the form of small yellowish- white, round, convex tufts, composed of densely -packed erect filaments. These patches are generally grouped in the apple in concentric form, as represented in Fig. 18. APPLES— SPECK. 37 The mycelial threads penetrate the epidermis, and through that the filaments break, together forming the raised patches on the surface of the apple. The patches have ft yellowish-white appearance, becoming brown or black through the destruction of the tissues, and the fungus appears to be checked in its growth by drought ; hence it flourishes on fallen fruit, as such receives moisture from the earth. It, however, becomes most pronounced on ripening or ripe fruits. Though not so prevalent nor so injurious to the fruit as scab, yet specks on apples detract from their appearance and using quali- ties. One noticeable feature about this fungus is that, instead of causing the fruit to Fig. 18. SPECKS ON APPU (OiDiuic FRTTCTIGENUM). References : — Specks on half-grown apple, showing the size and form of the patches occasioned by the fungus, natu- ral size. On the right is seen the mycelium at the foot, and springing from it the erect filaments, branching along the side and near the tips ; greatly magnified. decay, it actually makes apples keep longer, but at a great sacrifice of juiciness and quality. Its attacks may be prevented by spraying with the ammoniacal carbonate of copper solution, as described for apple scab, Vol. I., page 241, when the fruit is half or not more than three-parts grown. Autumn and winter fruit may be sprayed as late as August, but it is desirable that fruit treated with the solution so late in the season be well washed by rain or artificially before use or storing. When these measures are taken, Oidium fructigenum does not appear on fruit in stores. The fungus is taken 3g THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. into the fruit room, often on fallen fruit, in a more or less developed stage, and finding the essential moisture in the air of the room, the patches become abundant and con- spicuous. All affected apples should be rigorously excluded from the store, and those in it attacked by the disease promptly removed and destroyed. The best means of eradicating fungi is to prevent the spread and germination of their spores. Lichens and Mosses.— These enfeeble the trees, cause ill-health, unfruitfulness, and death of the branches. Their treatment will be found in Vol. I., page 250. Mistletoe (Viscum album).— This plant is a true parasite, appropriating the sap of infested trees to its own use. Though prized for Christmas festivities, its growth inju- riously affects the branches infested, preventing their thickening and impairing the value of crops of fruit. Where apples are the primary consideration, mistletoe should be cut off close to the stem or branch. Insects. — The apple tree supplies food to numerous insects. Some have already been treated in Vol. I., therefore only need enumeration and reference. American Blight (Schizoneura lanigera), page 253, attacks the roots, stems, branches, and growths. Apple- bark Beetle (Xyleborus dispar), page 263, bores holes through the bark, forming tunnels in the stem, injuring and destroying the trees. Apple-blossom Weevil (Anthonomus pomorum), page 282, destroys the fructifying organs of the blossoms by its larvae. Codlin Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella), page 266, greatly injures the fruit, its larva? burrowing in the flesh of the apple, destroying its pips. Green Fly (Aphis mali), page 257, infests the unfolding buds, tender leaves and blossoms, subsisting on the juices of the young wood and foliage. Mussel Scale (Mytilapsis pomorum), page 272, fixes on the- bark and extracts the juices of the tree, greatly to the prejudice of the crops. Red Spider (Tetranychus telarius), page 269, attacks the leaves and tender shoots, abstract- ing their sap, and injuring the current as well as prejudicing future crops. Orchard pests, including Figure-of-Eight Moth(Diloba coeruleocephala ), page 284 » Lackey Moth (Bombyx neustria), page 285 ; Small Ermine Moth (Hyponomeutapadella), page 286 ; Vapourer Moth (Orgyia antiqua), page 286 ; Mottled Umber Moth (Hybernia defoliaria), page 287 ; Pale Brindled Beauty Moth (Hybernia polosaria)— syn. : March Moth (Anisopteryx ascularia), page 288 ; and Winter Moth (Cheimatobia brumata), page 289 — all by their caterpillars feed on the foliage of the apple, doing immense mischief. Ants, page 255 ; Earwigs, page 267 ; and Wasps, page 279, prey on the fruit. Apple Chermes (Psylla mali). — Though a small and beautiful creature, the apple- APPLES— ENEMIES. 39 sucker, or chermes, is very destructive, sucking the sap from the leaves and young shoots, whilst their secretions fall on and clog the surfaces of the leaves and wood. The insects pair in September, and the females lay their eggs singly in rows, or several together, usually in the furrows of the knots and spurs, also on the previous year's growths. The eggs are white, pointed at both ends, a line and a half long, and the fourth of a line thick, and become yellow before hatching. The larvae emerge from the eggs from early March to early April, according to season, and at once commence gnaw- ing the scales of the nearest bud, and, gaining access to the blossoms, fasten on the stems of the flowers before they expand, depriving them of sap, and causing the flower- buds to shrivel. In a few days the larva throws out an immense number of very fine entangled threads or small hairs, which it turns up over its back, and with them entirely Fig. 19. APPLE CHERMES (PSTLLA KALI). References: — 1, larva, enlarged; 2, pupa, magnified: natural size, line beneath; 3, chermes on apple shoot, magnified : natural length of body below ; 4, insect on wing, much enlarged. covers its body and head. Thus armoured, the chermes defies ants and other insect attacks, and after passing through various transformations of skin the insect retires to a part of the leaf which it selects, fixes itself there, and from the nymph, by split- ting the back of the case, a beautiful winged chermes appears. The back of the thorax is of a light green, the abdomen is marked with yellow rings, and the membranous wings with strongly -marked snow-white veins. They may be found in small parties on a yellowing leaf in September. The perfect insects appear in June. This pest is a very old and not very generally noticed enemy of apple buds and young growths, being confounded with aphides and American blight on account of its downy covering. From the aphides it may be known by its rather larger size, rounded wings, harder body, and jumping when disturbed ; and chermes are readily dis- tinguished from woolly aphis, Vol. I., page 253, by their metallic lustre and wings. The illustration will assist growers to identify apple-suckers. 40 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. Thorough cleanliness and open growth and letting air and light have free access inimical to chermes. Trees liable to their attacks and crowded in growth should be thinned directly the fruit is gathered, burning the trimmings, and when the leaves have fallen, the stems and larger branches of old trees should be scraped and thoroughly cleansed, as advised under " Lichen and Moss," Vol. I., page 250. Then spray the trees with the caustic soda and potash solution, Vol. I., page 251, and again early in March or before the buds swell with a solution of sulphate of copper, 1 pound to 35 gallons of water, for the destruction of the germs of fungi. The remedies advised under " Aphides," Vol. I., page 257, are also efficacious against chermes. Apple Weevil (Rhynchites bacchus). — The purple weevil of the apple is J-inch long, purplish-red, coppery on the wing-cases and back of the neck ; antennaB, beak and legs bluish-black. The female bores holes into the smooth side of the fruit during June and July, depositing one to four, generally two, eggs in each ; and these hatch out small whitish grubs in a few days, which feed on the flesh three or four weeks, and then penetrate the core, causing the fruit to fall, when the grubs quit the apple and burrow in the soil, there to become pupse, and from these the weevils emerge in May. This insect is not restricted to apples, but attacks pears and other fruits. The best preventive is to remove all cover under which the weevils may hide, and place a sticky band round the stem of each tree in May, continuing it until mid-July. Gas liquor diluted with three times its bulk of water may be used in orchards in grass in late spring. The most effective remedy, however, is to spread cloths beneath the trees, shaking the latter sharply early in the morning during June and July, sweeping the fallen weevils together, and then killing them with boiling water, or they may be shaken into rough wood trays gas-tarred inside. All perforated fruits should be collected and destroyed. Other species of Rhynchites also feed on the apple tree. R. Alliaria? is ^--inch long, deep blue, with a greenish lustre. The female weevil deposits, in May or June, one or two eggs in the footstalk and midrib of a leaf or young shoot, and in about a week a amall whitish grub emerges, which feeds inside the stalk and midrib of the leaf, causing it to wither and fall. The larvae live in the stalks and midribs of the leaves of many other fruit trees, cutting them off when they are ready to enter the soil, there to become pupse. R. conicus is -^-inch long, deep shining blue, with a yellowish hue. The female pierces the young shoots in May and June, and lays eggs in them, gnawing each shoot partly through below the eggs, which causes it to droop, and the grubs gain APPLES— ENEMIES. 4I access to the pith, in which the larvee feed. This pest infests other fruit trees. Removal of the injured leaves and shoots must bo promptly attended to, burning them ; and the weevils should be captured as advised for those of R. bacchus, but during May and June. Apple Sawfly (Tenthredo testudinea). — The name sawfly refers to the female possessing a minute double saw at the hinder end of the body, which is a modified ovipositor. By means of this the apple sawfly deposits its eggs in the setting apples, during May or early June, the eggs hatching out tiny white grubs, and these feed upon the flesh of the young fruit. The Iarva3 become full-fed at the end of June or early July, and the apples fall to the ground when about a quarter grown ; the grub then eats its way out, enters and forms a cocoon in the soil, where it remains in the pupa state until the following spring. The fruits of many apple trees are cast in great quantities, from attacks of the apple sawfly larvae, when about the size of a walnut or less. Such fruit should be collected and burnt. Pointing the surface of the soil in autumn aids the destruction of the pupa3 by exposing the cocoons to the keen eyes of birds, and dressings of quicklime, also soakings of diluted gas liquor and liquid manure, are useful. Canker Worms. — These are slim caterpillars of different colours, having a looping gait, and noted for defoliating apple and other fruit trees early in the season. The term is an American one, but is sometimes used in this country, and applies to " looper caterpillars." The canker worm (Anisopteryx pometaria) of America belongs to the same genera as our Pale Brindled Beauty or March Moth, and the Canadian and United States pomologists include all winter moth caterpillars in the general term canker worms, because they cause the trees infested to have a rusty, cankerous appearance. The preventive and remedial measures against them are the same, namely, banding the trunks of the trees with paper on which is spread a mixture of printers' ink and molasses, to prevent the wingless moths from ascending the trees to deposit eggs on the twigs. The bands are put on in autumn and maintained through the winter, and for destroying caterpillars the trees are sprayed with Paris-green. The caterpillars of the Brown- tail Moth (Liparis chrysorrhcea), Gipsy Moth (Liparis dispar), and Gold-tail Moth (Liparis auriflua) attack apple trees, the last-named moth being the most common. The eggs are laid on the branches and covered with hairs. The caterpillars form a slender web, and as soon as the fruit trees show flowers or leaves they commence feeding, retreating to the web at night and when rainy. When there is no food on the first branch, they shift their quarters, and in a short time form a new web on a fresh leafy branch. After their last moult the caterpillars disperse over the VOL. ii, a 42 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. tree, and in June or July spin a soft greyish cocoon between the leaves, in the forks of the branches and in crevices, and become chrysalids, from which the moths emerge in a few weeks. Treatment for their larvae should be directed to the destruction of the nests in their early stages. Garden Chafer (Phyllopertha horticola). —This beetle is -f- of an inch long, and ^ of an inch broad. Its wing-cases are reddish brown, shining, and shorter than the body ; abdomen and head dark green or blue-black, with long, erect, paler hairs on some parts ; antenna3 reddish, with a shining, green club at their ends. The beetle feeds on the leaves of the apple and other fruit trees, gnawing them full of small holes, but it does most harm by devouring the stamens and petals of the blossom. The female enters the soil at the end of July and deposits her eggs a few inches below the surface, placing them in heaps containing eighty and ninety. They hatch in a fortnight, and the grubs feed on tender roots, becoming full-siaed in two to three and a half years, and then are dirty white, with brown heads and blackish tails. The larva then takes the pupa form, passes the winter, and the perfect garden chafer emerges in spring, when the starlings are ready to receive it. Starlings are the very best destroyers of the beetles. There may also be captured by spreading cloths under the trees and shaking the latter sharply at night, when the beetles fall, feign death, and can be destroyed. Rooks and (near the coast) sea gulls use their strong beaks effectively in unearthing the grubs ; tame ones may be utilised in gardens. Ammoniacal liquor from the gasworks, diluted with not less than three times its bulk of water, may be employed in grass orchards, distributing in autumn with a liquid-manure cart. Turning over ground that has been mulched exposes the grubs, as they come near the surface to feed on the roots encouraged by the rich soil, and should be picked out. Gas-lime kills the grubs, but it must not be used over the roots of fruit trees. A dressing of soot, 40 bushels, in March, and 2 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre, a month later, have a good effect on larva? and trees, especially poverty- stricken orchards on grass. Bare ground may be sown with rape, and when there is a good crop turn it under by spade or plough. This is useful on ground infested with larva?, and in course of preparation for planting with fruit trees, especially bush fruits and strawberries. Apple-tree Blister Moth (Tinea corticella). — This minute moth appears in May and June, and deposits its eggs on the stubby shoots and spurs. The larva? emerge from the eggs in a few days, penetrate beneath the bark and cause brownish blisters. They live on the substance between the bark and wood, and in September the grub lets itself down A PPL ES— EXEMIES. 43 to the ground, spins a cocoon on a fallen leaf, and becomes a chrysalis, from which the moth emerges early in summer. The larva) cause the spurs and growths infested to have a sickly appearance, and they usually collapse in winter. All dead leaves should be removed in autumn, and burned, pointing the ground over, and giving a surface dressing of short manure. Washing the trees with soapsuds when the fruit is set, hinders egg-laying, and that is the best method to adopt. Goat Moth (Cossus ligniperda), — Willow and poplar trees are the favourite food of the caterpillar of this moth, but apple and other fruit trees suffer from its attacks, par- ticularly young trees growing in alluvial soils in low situations, probably due to the trees having soft wood and large pith. The caterpillar is the largest produced by any moth in this country, measuring when full-grown 4 inches long and having the thickness of the little finger. Its odour is so powerful and foetid that its presence in a stem is easily detected. The body of the caterpillar is smooth, except a few scattered hairs ; back and spiracles (breathing apertures) dark red, and head black. It has strong jaws, and can cut through the hardest wood. The moth's forewings are ashy-brown> and measure 3 inches across, hind wings brown and reticulated, and when the wings are folded the moth is difficult to espy on a branch in the day-time. The female secures her eggs well in the bark by means of her powerful ovipositor, or in crevices of rough bark down to living substance, so that the larva has nothing to do when hatched but eat away to the heart of the tree. Prevention is best effected by capturing the moths. Where willows, poplars, and elms abound, and they are infested with goat moth larvse, the stems of fruit trees should be coated, early in June, with a mixture of clay, cow-dung, and tobacco juice, forming into a cream, and applying with a brush, to prevent egg-laying. If" the trees are sprayed at the same time with the petroleum emulsion the moth's loathing of such nesting-places is complete. To destroy the caterpillar, a wire may be thrust into the hole in the stem ; if this is done when the castings are first made, it may be reached. Sulphur fumes kill them in their furrows. The nozzle of a fumigator should be held over the hole, and a damp cloth placed around it and held tight by one person, whilst another drives in the deadly fumes. Similar measures may be resorted to for destroying the caterpillars of the Leopard Moth (Zeuzera JEsculi). Apple-borer (Saperda bivittata). — The beetle is about | an inch long, dusky-black, with grey stripes. The female deposits its eggs in June or July, in the collar of young apple trees, and the resulting grub eats its way through the bark, and lives on the albur- Q 2 44 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. nous wood, passing round the tree, and destroying it by its perforations. So far as we have observed, the attacks of this beetle are confined to trees in wet soils. The best preventive is to smear the stems of the trees at the collar in June with Davidson's Composition, Wilson's Sticky Oil, or the mixture advised for borers generally, Vol. I., page 262. The grub may be destroyed by pushing a wire into the burrow, and a solution of soft soap and petroleum ejected into its tunnels destroys the pest. Wceberian Moth (Tortrix Wceberiana). — This moth appears in May and September ; it is brown, with golden and silvery markings. Eggs are deposited on the stem and branches, and the tiny caterpillars, greenish-yellow with red heads, by degrees work their way to the inner bark, where they feed till mature, causing swellings which may kill the tree. These swellings are sometimes so considerable as to resemble canker, and have been an alleged cause of that disease in old trees. Associated with the wounds is a species of mite, Acarus pyri, attracted by ^^ retreat and soft tissues. The mites readily succumb to washing out the wounds with a solution of soft soap, 2 ounces to a gallon of water. Spraying the trees in May and September with soapsuds and petroleum pre- vents the "Wreberian moth laying its eggs. Some of the short-beaked weevils occasionally prove destructive to the young growths of apple trees, especially grafts, cutting a number off in a single night. The most hurt- ful are the Eed-legged Garden Weevil (Otiorhynchus tenebricosus) and Clay-coloured weevil (0. picipes), both general feeders, and they will be treated under other fruits. The Ked-bud Caterpillar attacks the blossom and leaf buds. The Eed-belted Clearwing Moth (Sesia myopceforme) larvso live in the pith or wood, mining in the shoots of the current year. Bark beetles (Scolytus species) attack apple trees, yet rarely when quite healthy, and affected trees may be managed as advised for Bostrichus dispar, Vol. I., page 262. It will be seen the apple grower has many enemies to combat, but by close observa- tion and prompt action he may to a large extent either prevent or subdue them. Abso- lute prevention may not be possible, but it is possible and practicable to prevent the enemy gathering in countless thousands, and so become a devastating plague. In contests with insects it is necessary to be on the alert and strike quickly, and those who do so will be the victors. APEICOTS. rilHE Apricot (Armeniaca vulgaris) was introduced into Europe from Asia more than three centuries before Christ, and into England in the first half of the sixteenth century, during the reign of Henry VIII. "John Tradescante," records Parkinson, "brought theAlgier and many other sorts with him returning from the Algier voyage, whither he went voluntary with the Fleete that went against the Pyrates in the yeare 1620." Its specific name is due to the belief that it is a native of Armenia; but M. Eegnier asserts that it has not been found wild either in that district or in any of the neighbouring provinces, and expresses his belief that it is a native of Africa. It is said by travellers to flourish in the African oases in such abundance that the fruit is dried and carried to Egypt as an article of commerce. Dr. Hogg states, in his Vegetable Kingdom, that, " In the East, the fruit is dried in the same way as figs are, and used as an article of food." Also that, " It has been cultivated in this country since the time of Henry VIII., whose gardener, named Wolfe, a Eoman Catholic priest, introduced it from Italy." The apricot is a low tree, somewhat crooked and ungainly in its growth, deciduous, and not hardy in the northern parts of the kingdom. The hardiest varieties, however, succeed fairly well as standards in the southern counties, but in most localities the trees require the protection of a wall or of a glass structure. The leaves are convolute when young, ovate or subcordate when full-grown, smooth, and glandularly serrated. Flowers sessile, pinkish white, appearing before the leaves, usually in February or March. Fruit round or ovate, fleshy, rich, and delicately flavoured, being less acid than most stone fruits. Apricots are used for tarts both green and ripe; also preserved with sugar in both these states ; candied, when ripe ; and sometimes dried as a sweetmeat. The best examples of the choicest kinds are esteemed at dessert, alike for their beauty, richness, and delicacy of flavour. Large quantities of fruit are imported annually from France and more southerly climes, but these do not equal the best home-grown produce, either in appear- ance or flavour. The kernels of apricots have a pleasantly-bitter flavour, and are said to answer as well as almonds for several purposes in confectionery. They contain a sweet oil, and the gum that issues from the tree is similar to that of the cherry, peach, and pluui. THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE, SELECT VARIETIES. The two varieties first named ripen their fruit on standard trees in warm positions in the south of England, but usually better against walls, which all the others require and deserve. ALBERGE. — Fruit small, flattened ; skin deep yellow, with reddish spots ; flesh deep orange, firm, not very juicy, but vinous, with a somewhat brisk acidity ; kernel bitter. End of August. The tree is a strong grower, hardy, and an abundant bearer. BREDA. — Fruit small, roundish ; skin deep orange, dotted with brown and red ; flesh deep orange, juicy, and well flavoured ; kernel sweet. Middle of August on walls, September on standards. EARLY MOORPARK. — Fruit medium, roundish, inclined to oval ; skin yellow, mottled and dotted with crimson ; flesh orange, very juicy, rich, and vinous ; kernel bitter. Middle of August. HEMSKERK. — Fruit large, round ; skin yellow, reddish next the sun ; flesh orange, juicy, and richly flavoured ; kernel bitter. Middle of August. This is a variety of Moorpark, very nearly allied, and a little, but very little, hardier. KAISHA. — Fruit medium, roundish ; skin pale yellow, reddish next the sun, tinged and mottled ; flesh transparent, yellow, juicy, and rich ; kernel sweet. The tree is an excellent bearer, not a strong grower, but healthy. LARGE EARLY. — Fruit above medium size, rather oblong ; skin pale orange, brighter on the sun side, spotted red ; flesh orange, juicy, and rich ; kernel bitter. Beginning of August. The tree is not liable to gum. LARGE RED. — Fruit large, oval ; skin, deep orange ; flesh reddish yellow, juicy, and rich ; kernel bitter. End of August and beginning of September. MOORPARK.— Fruit large, roundish ; skin orange yellow, with brownish red on the sun side ; flesh reddish orange, very juicy, rich, and vinous ; kernel bitter. One of the best, but very liable to gum. End of August and beginning of September. NEW LARGE EARLY (Rivers).— Fruit rather large or above medium size, oval ; skin pale yellow or whitish yellow, flushed red, with a few crimson spots ; flesh yellowish, juicy, very rich ; kernel bitter. Early in August. OULLINS EARLY PEACH. — Fruit large, oval ; skin pale yellow, tinged with red on the sun side ; flesh yellow, delicate, juicy, rich and delicious ; kernel bitter. Early in August. The tree is very healthy and a great bearer. PEACH.— Fruit large, oval; skin pale yellow, tinged with red ; flesh reddish yellow, tender, juicy, rich and slightly perfumed or musky ; kernel bitter. End of August and beginning of September. It is one of the finest, and though similar to Moorpark in fruit, is dissimilar in its foliage and habit. POWELL'S LATE. — Fruit large, roundish ; skin yellow, deepening to orange on the sun side ; flesh reddish orange, juicy, rich and vinous ; kernel bitter. Middle of September. ROYAL. — Fruit large, oval ; skin yellow tinged with red ; flesh pale orange, firm, juicy, and richly fla- voured ; kernel bitter. Beginning to middle of August. Healthy and hardy. ST. AMBROISE. — Fruit large, compressed at the sides, pointed ; skin deep yellow, reddish next the sun ; flesh orange, juicy, rich, and agreeably flavoured ; kernel bitter. Middle to end of August ; tree healthy and an abundant bearer. SHIPLEY'S or BLENHEIM. — Fruit medium to large, oval ; skin deep yellow, deeper on the sun side ; flesh yellow, juicy, moderately rich ; kernel bitter. Beginning to middle of August. Tree hardy, healthy, and a good bearer. MOXTGAMET (Alberge de Montgamet). — Fruit small, oval ; skin pale yellow, tinged with red ; flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, and agreeably acid ; kernel bitter. Beginning of August. ROMAN. — Fruit medium to large, oblong ; skin pale yellow ; flesh yellow, and agreeably acid ; kernel bitter. Middle to end of August. TURKEY. — Fruit medium, roundish ; skin deep yellow, brownish orange on the sun side ; flesh pale yellow, firm, juicy, sub-acid ; kernel sweet. Middle to end of August. The three last-named varieties are sub-acid, and therefore considered specially good for preserving. Alberge, Kaisha, Moorpark, and Shipley's are also suitable for the same purpose as well as for dessert. APRICOTS IN ORDER OF SUCCESSION.— New Large Early, Early Moorpark, Oullins Early Peach, Kaisha, St. Am- broise, Moorpark, Peach, and Powell's Late. Three good varieties ;— New Large Early, Oullin's Early Peach, and Powell's Late. One :— Moorpark. One for moderate space :— Kaisha. Varieties for covering large surfaces such as house walls, gables, and buildings in not very favourable localities :— Eoyal, Shipley's, Large Red, and Powell's Late. For cold localities :- Breda, Shipley's, and Royal. APRICOTS— RAISING TREES. 47 PROPAGATION. The apricot is raised from seed, also increased by budding, and sometimes by grafting. Seed. — Some varieties reproduce themselves, or with slight variation, from the stone. The Peach and Moorpark may be mentioned as possessing that characteristic, and Oullins Early Peach was raised from the former; Early Moorpark, Hemskerk, and Powell's Late are of Moorpark origin. Mr. Thomas Eivers raised the New Large Early from Large Early, and Shipley's was raised by Miss Shipley, the daughter of a former gardener to the Duke of Marlborough, at Blenheim. This has a decidedly hardier constitution than the Peach and Moorpark Apricots, though it is not equal to them in quality, and all the others named have better constitutions than their parents, with little if any depreciation in the quality of the fruit. It is, therefore, desirable to seek new varieties by cross fertilisation from acclimatised parents. Varieties are wanted with the hardiness of the Breda and Shipley's, and the size, colour, and quality of the Peach and Moorpark. In raising trees from seed, stones of the best varieties and most perfect fruit should be selected. They may either be kept till spring in flower-pots in alternate layers with damp sand, or sown as soon as the fruit is ripe, in light, moderately rich soil in a warm situation. Place the stones 6 inches asunder in drills 2 inches deep, and the rows 1 foot apart, covering with sandy soil, and in the autumn spread 2 or 3 inches thickness of dry litter or cocoanut fibre refuse on the surface as a protection against frost. In the following autumn the seedlings should be taken up, the tap root cut back to about 6 inches, then planted in rows 1 yard apart and 2 feet between the trees. A more desirable plan of testing seedlings is to treat them as single cordons trained to walls with suitable aspects, lifting the trees annually so as to induce early fruiting. They will also fruit in the third or fourth year after budding on plum stocks, grown as upright cordons in pots in orchard houses, or trained diagonally to walls. For trees to be grown in pots, or planted out under glass, seedling apricots answer admirably as stocks. Budding. — Seedling stocks do not answer for apricots in any but warm soils, and plum stocks on which apricots are budded are advised to be raised from stones as more healthy than stocks increased by layers. The Brussels stock is the best for trees that are to cover large surfaces, also for those to be budded for standards to occupy the upper part of high walls. The Peach, Eoyal, and Blenheim succeed on that stock, but Moorpark and other varieties named do not. The Moorpark grows best on the Mussel 48 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. stock; all other sorts on the Black Damask or St. Julien. All apricots " take " on the Brompton stock, but it is liable to canker and is not lasting. Budding is usually done from the middle to the end of July, when the bark with the bud can be readily detached from the wood. For dwarf trees the buds should be inserted 6 inches from the ground, never more than 9 inches, as when budded at 1 foot, the trees have too long stems, occasioning a loss of wall surface. Standard or rider trees should be budded at the height required. The buds selected for insertion must be wood buds. Grafting. — Success depends entirely on the selection of scions with wood buds, ripe wood, and keeping the buds dormant until the sap rises freely in the stocks. Scions should be detached in January, and inserted half their length in moist sand at the foot of a wall with a north aspect. Whip-grafting is the most eligible method. In preparing the scions the wood should be well thinned away, and, after insertion, binding, waxing, or claying, success will be better assured by wrapping the stem of the stock and covering the pigment with damp moss, or placing soil against the stem as high as the top of the clay. This will cause the sap to rise freely, and when the scion has united with the stem, the wrapping or earthing can be removed. Grafting is seldom practised, budding being a much safer and better method to pursue. SITUATION AND ASPECT. Except in specially warm soils and situations, apricots do not succeed as standards or bushes in the open. The blossom, though comparatively hardy, is liable to be destroyed by spring frosts, and the tender fruit is even more susceptible of injury from cold. In late springs the blossom and incipient fruits have a better chance, through the foliage being more advanced and protective, but the chief cause of failure is imperfectly developed buds and immature wood. Crops on standard trees can only be relied on in exceptional situations and seasons, those occurring favourably to the apricot " about twice in seven years " (Eivers). The great bane to the apricot is damp. It seems to take every opportunity of showing its detestation of moisture-laden air. Sheltered nooks it may grow in, but it is there marked by a luxuriant crop of leaves and soft spray. On farmhouses and detached cottages trees may be seen covered with golden fruit, whilst those on the warm, sheltered walls of gardens are strong in growth and gum, but sparse in fruit. Indeed, the apricot loves air and light ; the situation can hardly be too open, yet it must be exposed to the sun. APRICOTS—SOIL. 49 Tn the southern parts of England, walls with western aspects are often advised ; but our experience teaches that eastern aspects with a southerly inclination are the most suitable. Western aspects are too moist. South-east aspects answer as far north as the Ilumber. South-west aspects are more moisture-laden than easterly, and thus contribute to earlier development of blossom, late growth, and immature wood. Easterly winds are proverbially cold and dry, and as they prevail most in spring, they retard the flowering and assist the blossom. The fruit also ripens more evenly because sheltered from the rain, which is most prevalent from the west in summer, and often beats forcibly against ripening apricots. Objections to the fruit ripening on one side on south aspects, whilst the other side is hard and unripe, will continue to be heard where the sun acts directly on the fruit whilst the other side is shaded. This can bu obviated by a better disposal of foliage, or light shading material, when the crops are ripening, which to some extent also lessens the liability to dry ness and mealiness in the fruit, but that is not due to aspect so much as to neglect in supplying the requisite nutriment to the roots of the trees. North of the Thames south aspects arc the most desirable. North of the Ilumber south or south-east aspects are essential, and in some few places in the north, flued and heated walls with a southern aspect are found necessary to insure full and properly matured crops of this valuable fruit. SOIL. Where the wild plum flourishes there the apricot will do so. In soils that give luxuriance to rhododendrons the apricot would languish, whether it be peat or strong clay. It likes a friable loam, whether that is caused through silicious or calcareous matter. The finest trees we have seen were growing in silicious earth of good depth, over sand and gravel. Silicious and calcareous substances are essential to the successful cultivation of this and all stone fruits. There are few soils that do not contain lime, and still fewer that are devoid of sand ; the point is to have them soluble and available for the building up of healthy fruitful trees. This is effected by judicious applications of manures, which, whilst directly furnishing nutriment, act on the inorganic elements, and liberate enough silicious and calcareous matter to give stability to the growth. Good friable loam suits the apricot. If it be light through an excess of sand, clay marl, dried and smashed, can be added to the extent of one-fourth to one-sixth; if strong, road-scrapings and old mortar rubbish will, in similar proportions, give it the required consistence. Soil deficient of calcareous matter should have lime YOL. II. H 5o THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. rubbish added to it if strong; if light, chalk is better, but clay marl is the most suitable for light soils. The first requisite in apricot culture is drainage. No water must lodge within 3 feet of the surface. This is particularly necessary in deep loams, for in these the trees grow luxuriantly, and in dry seasons the roots penetrate deeply, through lack of moisture near the surface. Drainage must be efficient, but some soils are naturally drained. The soil should be stirred or trenched to a depth of 2 feet, and have the bottom broken up. If it has long been under cultivation, some fresh turfy loam mixed with it in trenching will be a desirable addition, employing strong fibrous loam for light soils, and light loam for heavy. Stratified soils are best broken up ; the most fertile are those naturally or artificially blended. Forming Borders. — Where the soil is a stiff clay, or its opposite extreme, namely, a brash of gravel, or sand, it is cheapest to make a proper border. The width need not exceed 4 feet in the first instance, and never need be wider than two- thirds the height of the wall the trees are to cover. It should be excavated to a depth of 3 feet, the bottom to fall to drains a foot lower, and 1 foot 6 inches from the wall. The drains should not be covered with soil, but with stones. Brickbats or other rough clean material not of a nature destructive to vegetation should be placed 6 inches thick at the bottom of the border for drainage, and on this 3 inches of finer, preferably old mortar rubbish, freed of pieces of wood. The border may then be filled 6 inches above its intended height with the top spit of a pasture where the soil is a good loam, sandy rather than heavy. Chalk, in pieces from the size of a hazelnut to a hen's egg, or clay marl to the extent of a sixth, may be added in silicious soils ; for strong loam substitute old mortar rubbish or sandy marl. Avoid manure. All operations in connection with border making are best done in dry weather, and with the soil in good working order. The work should be done a month or six weeks in advance of planting. PLANTING. Choice of Trees. — See that the trees are budded, if maidens, at the right height, and for other description of trees the rule before given applies. Make sure that the junction of the scion with the stock is complete, that there is a clean healthy bark on the stock as well as the tree, the latter not strong and gross, yet sturdy, short jointed, and the wood firm. If there be any exudation or trace thereof, reject the tree, whether the gum be on stem or branch. Two or three years' trained trees are suitable ; also older that have APRICOTS— PLANTING. 5, been properly attended to in transplanting, so as to insure moving with good roots plenteously furnished with fibres. Those with two principal branches of equal strength, one on each side of the stem, are best. Trees that have strong central growths and weak side branches should be avoided. Selected trees cost more, but the difference between these and the inferior is trifling when compared with the advantages of the former. All trees should be carefully lifted, and all the roots practicable preserved. It is wise to see to this personally, or pay a little extra to have the work done well, also for having the trees properly packed, so that their roots will not be dried or their branches damaged in transit. Distances. — Apricots do not succeed against low walls, unless the trees are subjected to lifting and root-pruning. Cordons are the best for low walls, restricting the roots to prepared borders of about a yard in width, and selecting varieties that are of moderate growth, and free in bearing. Kaisha may be taken as a model of a cordon apricot tree. Cordons should be planted 2 feet apart. For trees that are to be trained in the fan shape against a 9-feet wall, 25 feet apart is not too great a distance to plant; on a 10-feet wall, 23 feet may be allowed ; on one of 11 feet, 21 feet ; 12 feet, 19 feet ; and 2 feet closer for every additional foot in the height of the wall. Against walls more than 10 feet in height, a trained standard or rider tree should be planted midway between the dwarfs. Standard trees in the open should be planted 20 feet apart, or 24 feet where the soil is deep. These are seldom planted in England, but this work will find its way to the colonies, where what may be termed orchard apricots can be grown. Procedure. — Apricot trees are best planted in the autumn, as soon as the wood is matured, and the leaves commence falling. This varies with the seasons and the con- ditions under which the young trees are grown. Those with their growths trained to walls mature better and earlier than trees trained to stakes in the open ground. Trees of home growth may safely be moved at the end of September or early in October, but it ought not to be attempted until the oldest leaves are ripe, and some falling. Those from nurseries will not be much later in coming to hand if orders are given early, with instructions to forward the trees as soon as they are safe for removal. This secures the best trees which have matured their growths early. A few lateral growths with immature wood and leaves are not of consequence at planting, but may act beneficially in inciting roots, yet it is absolutely essential that the leaves on the wood to which the trees are to be shortened be ripened, or the wood and buds will suffer from their premature loss. H 2 52 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. In planting, an excavation should be made sufficiently wide to allow of the roots being spread out at full length. It is a good plan in newly trenched borders to firm the soil well where each tree is to be placed, as wide as the roots when spread out will extend. This is better than planting in loose soil, as the compressed soil at the bottom will induce fresh roots to extend nearer the surface of the border. No tree should be planted deeper than will admit of the roots where they start from the stem being covered with 2 to 3 inches of soil. If the trees have been planted deeper or shallower, correct the error. Having cut back any long fibreless roots, and pared smoothly any bruised or broken ends, place a little mound of fine soil for the tree to rest on ; disentangle the roots and spread them out evenly in layers with soil between, so that they will be regularly distributed through it, and not jammed together. The uppermost roots ought not to be covered deeper than 3 inches ; all should have a slight inclination from the stem outwards, while the soil should be compressed about them. A little fine, rather rich, compost will assist in filling up the interstices in planting, and further the early and free formation of roots, but it must not be made rich with fresh manure. The best is the debris of the rubbish heap — vegetable mould — which has had the woody portions charred or burned, and quicklime added some weeks prior to its employment. It should be passed through an inch sieve to rid it of pieces of wood. Avoid leaf-soil that contains sticks or beech mast. The woody matter encourages fungus. Ordinary loam with a sixth part each of old mortar rubbish, sweetened horse-droppings, as used for mushroom beds, and wood ashes answer perfectly, incorporating well, These and the soil must be in a free working state, for it should be well consolidated. This is essential in the cultivation of all stone fruits, but trampling on it when wet is ruinous. Loose rich soil causes the roots to run riot, and the branches to become long and sappy, whereas it is firm, short-jointed wood that insures a maximum of health and large, juicy, full-flavoured fruit. A good watering may be given if the soil is somewhat dry, not otherwise. Mulch the surface with 2 to 3 inches thickness of stable litter, the coarser portions of straw having been removed. If rather lumpy all the better, but avoid manure in a close, soapy state. Secure the growths loosely to the wall to prevent damage from winds, not affixing them closely till the soil has settled. Trees that have been properly attended to, and annually or biennially lifted, move with balls of soil. If they have not been so prepared, a trench may be taken out as deep as the roots, and one-third the distance from the stem that the trees cover of wall or APRICOTS— MANURES. S3 trellis, severing the roots and leaving the trench open ten days to a fortnight. This may be done the third or fourth week in August, or if the tree have fruit, as soon as it is gathered. If the leaves flag, afford a slight shade, but this is seldom necessary when care is taken to keep the soil inside the trench duly supplied with water, yet none should be given unless the foliage becomes limp. The trench may be filled after remaining open the time named. The detaching of the long roots causes others to push and permeate the undisturbed soil, whereby the tree can be safely moved at the end of September. This check to prolonged growth assists the wood to ripen, the buds to develop, and assures speedy and certain rooting. This is essential where the trees are expected to make a good start in the following year. It is also one of the best preventives of gumming, by inducing a thoroughly-matured condition of the wood, so essential in the main branches of a tree through which the sap is to flow ; therefore, see that the trees have their wood well matured in their early years. It is the best way to insure longevity and fruitfulness with a modicum of disease. A slight shade may be necessary after planting, before the leaves fall, damping the foliage if it droop, in preference to soaking the soil. That, however, must be kept moist ; a good watering a few days before moving, and again at planting, with the mulching above advised, being mostly all that is necessary to insure speedy re- establishment and complete success. MANURES. No fruit tree subsists better in hungry soils than the apricot, and none derives greater benefit from manures judiciously applied. Silica and lime are inseparable from its successful cultivation, for both enter largely into the constituent elements of the fruit, but phosphatic matter is absolutely essential also. Where there is a pre- ponderance of lime and sand, the trees are dwarfed in growth, and the fruits contain more stone than flesh, but when the phosphatic, potassic, and sodic elements corres- pondingly prevail, there is an increase of substance in foliage, wood, and fruit. When they do not, there is an excess of foliage and wood, and an absence of fruit through blossom buds not forming, or if forming, not setting, or if setting, not stoning. This excessive use of stable and farm-yard manure in gardens has made many victims to gum and branches dying off suddenly, giving apricot trees a rueful appearance ; whilst, on the other hand, neglect of stimulating manures has banished from cottages apricot trees, which, when healthy, often yielded sufficient fruit for paying the rent. Steamed bone ineal or ground coprolites are excellent for apricots. Half a peck to 54 THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE. the rod (30| square yards) is a proper quantity to use, preferably in February or March, and being durable, need only be applied every second or third year, stable or farm-yard manure being used as surface dressings. Where bone meal, which is slow but sure in action, is not supplemented by surface dressings of manure or stimulating liquid, recourse must be had to manures that act directly or soon after their application. Superphosphate of lime, 3 J pounds, and muriate of potash, 1^ pound, mixed, per rod, form a suitable manure for the apricot. If the tree to which the manure is to be given produces small leaves and weak wood, add 1 pound of nitrate of soda. This, however, will only be necessary in the case of silicious soils deficient in humus. A first dressing of the manure should be given early in March, and the second early in May. Half quantity only should be applied each time, distributing the mixture evenly on the surface as far as the roots extend, in no case digging it in. Trees that grow with sufficient freedom may have an increased quantity of superphosphate, omitting the potash, especially where they are disposed to make much wood. Four ounces is a suitable quantity of superphosphate to apply to a square yard. The borders in which apricot trees are planted should have the surface neatly forked over in autumn, not going so deep as to injure the roots, or even to disturb them, and the whole border covered with short stable or farmyard manure an inch or two thick. In March the top dressing may be neatly pointed in, merely mixing it with the surface soil. This will allow air and rain to enter freely, also the sun's warmth. Feeding. — In addition to the top dressings, two or three heavy waterings, supplied during dry periods in May, June, July, or the early part of August, will contribute to the health of the trees and the size of the fruit. The drainings of stables and cow-byres, also house sewage, properly diluted with water, are excellent aids in the production of apricots ; and in the case of trees against cottages and farm buildings, house slops mixed with soapsuds, given after rain or when the soil is moist, are of great benefit. These give off no offensive smell, or need not if a little dry soil is sprinkled on the surface after the liquid has soaked in. To assist the application in hard ground, or even walks or pavements, holes may be made with a crowbar, not going so near the stem as to injure the main roots, repeatedly filling these with the liquid until the soil is thoroughly moistened, then pressing in rich soil firmly. This will not only do immediate good, but aid the passage of subsequent applications. These supplies may be continued till the fruit gives indications of ripening, after which clean water only should be used, APRICOTS— WATERING AND MULCHING. 55 and one good soaking then will be sufficient to perfect the crop. After the fruit is gathered, water or liquid manure may be given if the weather continue dry, to help the trees to perfect the wood and buds, too dry soil causing many failures or thin crops of fruit on trees against buildings. When trees blossom with great freedom, but rarely set more than a thin crop of fruit, the cause may often be traced to dryness at the roots, which have descended in quest of moisture into the subsoil. When this becomes really dry it is seldom moistened throughout by rain or surface-waterings, especially in soils that have not been properly trenched and rendered more moisture-holding by an admixture of suit- able materials. It is well in such cases to break up the surface in autumn, without much disturbance of the roots, and throw the soil up in ridges running parallel with the wall, preventing damage from frost to the roots by a light covering of litter. The subsoil may during the winter become moistened, but if, upon examination in March, it is still found dry, the hollows between the ridges should be thoroughly soaked with water, renewing as it is absorbed until the subsoil has been moistened. When the water has fairly settled from the surface level the ridges and enrich the soil, then, by keeping it duly moist afterwards the roots will be attracted upwards, and more healthy growth will follow. Where the surface may not be broken up much can be effected by making holes with a crowbar, as advised for trees against cottages, and leaving them open during the winter, charging them occasionally with liquid manure, and before closing making sure that the soil is thoroughly moistened to a deplh of 2 feet or more, rain being supplemented by water as is necessary. Mulching. — For insuring a moist surface and encouraging the roots to spread and keep active, a covering of short, but not spent manure, is highly commended. Heavy mulchings are not advisable, but a thin covering of the surface with short, sweet, rather lumpy manure, saves labour in watering, and, whilst not depriving the soil of air and rain, preserves a genial condition, uniformly, highly favouring the swelling and perfect- ing of the fruit. A couple of inches in thickness of stable manure, freed of the coarser strawy portions, applied at the end of May or early in June to the whole surface of the border, will prevent it " baking," and great benefit will be derived from the appli- cation. It should be added to from time to time, as is necessary, and as it does not answer to allow the soil to crack after the fruit is gathered, the mulching should be allowed to remain and become wasted, as it will by autumn, by washing into and amalgamating with the soil. s 6 THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE. TRAINING. Owing to the liability of apricot branches to die off, fan-training is the most generally adopted, and it is a system which enables the cultivator to fill wall vacancies that occur by a redistribution of the branches ; also it enables old parts to be removed and new summer growths retained. Apricots produce fruit both on spurs and on firm annual wood, but the finest fruit is usually borne on well-ripened shoots of the previous year, similar to the nectarine and peach. Therefore it is essential to lay in young growths thinly, as well as to reserve a goodly amount of older wood in view of obtaining a plentiful crop of fruit from spurs should blossom buds not form freely en the new wood. This last, in some seasons, and under all cases of luxuriant growth, does not mature sufficiently early for perfecting blossom, whilst the flowers are more liable to injury from cold on gross young wood than those produced on spurs through the greater succulence of the former. .Bearing in mind those characteristics, it will be apparent that no form of training is better than establishing a certain number of primary branches, and from these encouraging a series of subordinate parts, chiefly composed of bearing wood. The leading branches should not be numerous, but well defined, equal in strength and regularly disposed. Side branches should proceed from the primaries at an acute angle, in order that the sap may pass freely into them in its upward course, and be equally distributed, for it is not desirable that these side growths should rival the leading branches in vigour, unless it be found necessary to displace a worn-out or diseased branch by a younger and healthier one. Trees against farm houses, cottages, and other buildings having doorways and windows, are usually trained on the fan system, modified to suit circumstances. The branches are not infrequently taken upright, while some are trained horizontally, strong growths in the latter being always chosen, and the subsidiary branches always taken from them at an acute angle. By these means surfaces are covered very efficiently with bearing wood. Indeed, as previously indicated, the trees on farm houses and cottages are often more productive than trees in gardens, where the soil is richer, and a formal method of training pursued. Of late years single-cordon apricot trees have been recommended, both for covering wall space quickly, and preventing great loss ensuing should several branches or a tree collapse through gumming or the borer, a worm-like creature that penetrates the wood. If by trees trained as cordons, diagonally, or even upright, with the side branches radiating at an acute angle, a given wall space can be occupied with fruit- APRICOTS— TRAINING. 57 bearing wood in a fourth of the time needed by fan training, the grower not adopting the former system must be purblind to its advantages ; but there is this to be said and remembered— the trees must be lifted and root-pruned as their condition requires. This entails labour, culture, but of a kind that pays, in enabling the tree to ripen its wood, bear uninjured the vicissitudes of our climate, better resist gum, and produce the best of fruit. Modified Fan.— A maiden apricot tree, A (Fig. 20), consists of one upright shoot with a number of subsidiary growths or laterals. Let such have its roots severed with a spade 12 inches from the stem, at the end of September, to arrest late growth and assist in ripening the wood. When its leaves begin falling lift it carefully and plant in the position it is to occupy against a wall, cutting off the laterals close to the stem to the height of a foot, and when the leaves fall cut the tree down, to within Fig 20. FOBMING FAN-SHAPED TREES. Rejerences: — A, first ; B, second ; C, third pruning for producing branches. 9 or 10 inches of the ground, as shown by the bar. The following spring encourage two shoots (B), equal in strength, and as nearly on the same level as possible, training them as represented. Laterals will push more or less ; pinch them at the first leaf and to one of sub- sequent growth, but if one shoot be weaker than the other, allow it to make three to five leaves, keeping the strong shoot closely pinched, and seek, by apportioning the foliage, to obtain an equality of vigour in both. Towards the end of September detach the roots 15 inches from the stem, and when the leaves commence falling, lift and replant, shortening each shoot to 6 inches, as indicated by the bars, directly the leaves fall. In the spring encourage two shoots from each branch, rubbing off others disposed to grow too strongly, and pinch those not likely to interfere with the main growths to three leaves. Through lifting each autumn the shoots will not generally push VOL. n. I 58 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. laterals, but form short-jointed firm wood, thorough exposure insuring its complete maturation. When the leaves fall shorten the lower branches on each side of the stem to 15 inches, and the upper two to 9 inches each. This and the disposal of the branches are represented in C. The following season take two of the best shoots from each of the four branches) training these eight leading growths equi- distantly, and lay-in young shoots between them. One on each side of the several branches will usually be sufficient each year, for there must be no overcrowding of the foliage, and any side growths that are not wanted pinch to three leaves. Short stubby shoots of an inch or less with the leaves disposed closely will be produced on the previous year's wood ; these are natural spurs and must be preserved. With care in regulating the growths, so that the leases of one Fig. 21. TRAINING APRICOT TREES. Reference : — D, result of three primings. branch do not overhang those of the others, removing gross and stopping out-growing shoots, the tree will be evenly balanced, the wood firm and well ripened to the points of the shoots, and fruit-buds bristling in the axils of the leaves by the end of August, under favourable conditions of soil and season. The tree, as it ought to be the first summer after shortening the four main branches, is represented in D, Fig. 21. If a tree does not complete its growth by the third week in August, the points of the shoots being sappy, a trench should be made as deep as the roots, one-third the distance from the stem that the branches extend, leaving the trench open a fortnight, then fill it in firmly. The soil inside the trench must, if necessary, be watered, and shade afforded from bright sun to prevent severe flagging of the leaves. Directly the leaves fall, lift the tree carefully, and replant it firmly. In apricot culture it is APRICOTS— TRAINING. 59 imperative that the tree have thoroughly matured wood each year of its growth from the maiden if it is to be healthy and fruitful. Under the conditions described the tree will be well furnished with branches and not require any pruning in the w Fig. 22. APRICOT TREE, FOURTH YEAR'S THAINING. autumn. In the fourth year from the maiden it should be in the condition shown in E (Fig. 22), bearing a good crop of fine fruit, the treatment having been the same as in the preceding year. Fig. 23. ESTABLISHED FUI,T.-S:ZED TREE. Fan-trained trees generally have three primary branches — a leader and two side growths — from which the subsidiary branches emanate. The objection to trees in this I 2 60 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. form is the difficulty of securing equal vigour in the side branches as in the central one or leader, and eventually the lower part of the wall is liable to become unoccupied. The abandonment of that stereotyped method of preparing apricot trees is strongly advised in favour of the method shown and advocated, as more appropriate to the peculiar character of the trees, and therefore calculated to give the greater satisfaction. As the branches extend they naturally diverge, and as often as there is a distance of 15 inches between them another growth should be trained in, not otherwise. The principal branches will then be evenly disposed, with sufficient space for the leaves to develop, and the young wood to ripen. A full-sized tree, trained as advised, is represented in F (Fig. 23), with the main branches disposed as they should be, and young wood laid in between them, or as weak worn-out parts are cut out in the course of intelligent prun- ing. Standards on tall stems for walls require to be pruned and trained the same as advised for dwarf fan-trained trees. Cordon Training. — The maiden tree intended to be trained in this form should have its roots severed in September, and be planted in the position it is to occupy as soon as the leaves fall. It should be planted aslant for training diagonally, cutting it down to 15 inches of the ground when the leaves fall. In spring select the most promising shoot to train as leader, rub off foreright shoots or those in front of the stem, lay in a well-situated shoot on each side, and pinch the rest at the second or third leaf to form spurs. Train the leader its full length without stopping, and pinch the laterals from it at the first joint, and to one of subsequent growth throughout the season. The first year's training is shown in G (Fig. 24, next page), the tree having been headed at the dotted bar. At the end of August the tree must be carefully examined, and if there is a tendency to push strong side growths its roots must be severed at 12 inches from the stem, lifting and replanting in October. Cut the laterals off nearly close to the stem, and shorten the leader to about 2 feet, or one-third of its length. The following year the leading shoot is selected, similar to that of the preceding year, and side shoots are encouraged on the previous year's wood, 9 to 11 inches apart on both sides of the stem, stopping them as advised for the younger tree. From the base of the bearing shoots a growth must be trained to bear in turn, when the fruiting part is cut away, as it should be directly the fruit is gathered. This is shown by the bars in the figure ( H) as well as the second year's training, the full bar showing the current, and the dotted bars the previous year's, heading back. The third year's management of the cordon tree (1) is only an extended repetition of previous years' routine. The chief APRICOTS— CORDON TREES. 61 points to be kept in view are the origination of side shoots whilst the tree is extending, and insuring a succession of bearing wood by training in a young shoot from the base of that bearing, so as to displace it without prejudicing the crop. Over luxuriance and late growth must be prevented by judicious lifting. Upright cordons differ from diagonal in requiring the leading shoot of each tree Fig. 24. FOEMINO CORDON TREES. References ; — G, first ; H, second ; 7, third year's pruning and training. pinched at 13 inches of growth to strengthen its base, selecting from the shoots produced the best as leader, pinching the rest, and all laterals at the first leaf and to one of sub- sequent growth. These laterals often form fruit buds, when they may be left full length or be cut back to one joint in autumn, the leader then being shortened to 15 inches as favourable pruning buds offer. When the leader, however, is left a considerable length, 62 THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE. there is danger of the buds at the base of the shoot not pushing with sufficient vigour to originate side shoots, but the growth of these may be assisted by depressing the upper part of the shoot to the horizontal line or lower, until the lower buds push strongly, when the branch should be trained upright. BEARING. Fruit is produced by the apricot on the preceding year's wood, and on spurs of one or many years' growth. The finest fruit, however, is borne on shoots a year old. A few illustrations will be elucidatory. Fig. 25 represents several growths of the apricot. J is part of a branch of last year's growth, showing fruit bearing and growth extension. K shows bearing on spurs, with a continuation of their growths. L shows various characteristic growths of the apricot; #, two-years-old wood; #, leader or terminal growth of a branch ; cy side shoots ; d, spur ; e, a pinched shoot ; /, fruit buds, scaled ; #, wood buds, unsealed ; and h, the terminal bud of a spur, which is always a wood bud. Apricot growths are invariably terminated by a wood bud, even when there is one or more fruit buds at the same joint, stout wood having several fruit buds disposed around a wood bud in the centre of the socket. M shows a full-sized piece of apricot wood and buds at the end of August. The lowest joint has three fruit and one wood bud, the largest in the centre of the socket ; «, a wood bud ; /, two fruit buds, with a wood bud in the centre ; and £, a wood bud on the left, and a blossom bud on the right, side of the leaf axil. N shows part of a branch ; /, side branches ; m, spurs on two years' wood ; n, spurs on wood more than two years old; 0, two years' wood, cut out at the bars after bearing ; p, shoots of one year's growth for the succeeding year's bearing ; all the bearing wood is of one year's growth, except q, which is a two-year-old shoot, and the spurs, m and n. On the right-hand side of the main branch the branches and shoots are shown pruned and properly adjusted. 0 shows part of a branch of a cordon apricot tree on the short pruning system ; r, spurs ; s, side shoots, closely pinched during growth. P indicates the condition of blossom requiring protection ; and Q shows blossom fully expanded, when protection is imperative. APRICOTS— CHARACTERISTIC GROWTHS. P Q Fig . 25. VAEIOUS GBOWTHS OF APRICOTS. (For references, see text.) 64 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. ROUTINE OPERATIONS. Protecting Blossom. — Apricot blossoms, from their early production, are frequently damaged or destroyed. In mild winters they unfold in February, and the foliage is not produced until a later period to afford shelter. Damp is almost as inimical to a good set of fruit as is prevailing frost. A slight frost will not prove injurious, par- ticularly if the blossom is dry, but a continuance of cold and wet does mischief that might have been prevented had due regard been paid to the protection of the blossom ; at the same time harm may result from covering trees during mild weather, for it renders the blossoms more liable to injury from frost in those periods of cold which very often follow. Protection is only required against frost, and to be efficient it must be adequate. Apricot blossoms against cottages, farmhouses, and similar buildings are often uninjured by a severe frost, whilst those on trees trained on garden walls are so damaged that the crop is poor. In trees against a building the dew does not fall on the blossoms to the same extent as in the case of a garden wall, because the overhanging roof of the building affords shelter. In addition to that, the walls of buildings, from the air they enclose, are warmer and drier than garden walls, and, small as the difference may seem, it often leads to important results. Covering apricot trees too early is highly inimical to the blossoms. Therefore protection should be deferred as long as possible. When the blossoms are so far expanded as to show their white petals, then the protection ought to be applied whenever there is a likelihood of a frosty night. The protection should remain over the trees by day when the weather is cold, wet, and frosty ; but on fine days it should be removed by 8 A.M., and not replaced at night unless there is a prospect of frost, and not sooner than half-past five o'clock. The protection should be continued until the trees are plentifully furnished with leaves, for the young fruit is as liable to injury from frost as the blossom is, if not more so. The fruit is not safe until spring frosts are over, and though it would be most injurious to employ protection when the nights are not frosty, neglecting to afford it when they are may result in the fruit falling when the size of horse-beans or larger. The protecting material should, therefore, be in readiness in case of an emergency. An hour's extra attention on a cold night may save a good crop of fruit from destruction. Disbudding. — As the apricot produces its fruit upon spurs and on the wood of the preceding year, shoots ought to be trained in between all the principal and extending APRICOTS— DISBUDDING AND PINCHING SHOOTS. 65 subsidiary branches, but not too thickly, 12 to 15 inches being a good distance to leave them. A reservation of the best-situated growths for training in must be made in dis- budding so as to insure a succession of bearing wood. The shoots retained should be laid in rather close to the branch from which they take their rise, each shoot being kept in its proper position by a twig of privet or hazel placed across it with the ends inserted under the adjoining branches. This is better than nailing in the young shoots, which, however, must be practised on extensions, but plenty of space must- be allowed in the shreds for the swelling of the shoots. All shoots springing from the front of the branches should be rubbed off closely and early, so that no knife will be required. The best time to disbud is when the shoots are sufficiently large to be taken hold of by the finger and thumb. Beyond this disbudding of the tore -right and of gross ill-placed shoots everywhere, which result in useless breast- wood and cause crowding, no other disbudding is required for the apricot. If the work is deferred too long, or till they become woody, the bark is apt to be torn, and in that case they should be removed with a knife. Stopping HIQ Shoots. — After the disbudding there are always more shoots than are required for laying-in and for the extension of the tree ; the points of these should be taken out at the third or fourth leaf, and subsequent growths -stopped at the next leaf, repeatedly throughout the season. These will form spurs, or be plentifully sprinkled with fruit buds by autumn, and upon them fruit may be produced the following year. They should not be allowed to extend too much, but be kept close to the wall. Besides the shoots described there will be a number that do not grow longer than an inch or two, and produce a number of leaves. These are natural spurs, and ought not to be pinched or interfered with, except where they are very close together, when they may be thinned. All gross, unnecessary, and attenuated growth should be removed during the summer, and the earlier it is done the more benefit the parts left will receive from the diverted sap and the increased light. From the natural spurs no long shoots will arise, or very rarely, but neither from these, nor the young shoots that are stopped to induce spurs, should long growths be encouraged. They must be removed before they do mischief by shading the one- and two-year-old bearing wood and the spurs. Shoots of the current year trained in to replace those bearing fruit may, if the growth exceeds 12 inches, be shortened to prevent overcrowding, full exposure of the leaves on each branch to light and air, by curtailing those extending unduly, being essential to fruitfulness. Thinning the Fruit. — This is an important operation, as upon it depends the size and VOL. II. £ 66 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. quality of the produce, and the present and after well-being of the tree. When young apricots set very thickly it is well to go over them as soon as the properly-fertilised fruits can be distinguished by their taking the lead in swelling, and relieve the tree of some of its superabundant crop. The smallest and ill- shaped should be first removed, and those which are likely from their position to become squeezed between the wall and the branches, or in some of the angles of the latter. Trees that are crowded with young fruit should be gone over three times, removing a quantity each time : first, when the fruit is the size of horse-beans ; second, when as large as a hazel-nut ; and third, when the size of a cob-nut or small walnut, leaving but few more at the last thinning than are necessary for the crop. Nothing is so detrimental to the health and sustained fertility of a tree as allowing a superabundance of fruit to remain until it is well advanced in stoning, then removing all at once a peck of fruit which, if thinning were done early, as advised, might be put in a quart measure or less. Weak trees ought not to be allowed to bring to perfection so many fruits as those that are vigorous, but strong branches may be allowed to carry more fruit than those which are weak, as the extra cropping of the vigorous branches will prevent their becoming too strong. One fruit of the large kinds to every half superficial foot of surface is sufficient to leave upon a vigorous tree to insure produce of the largest size and highest quality. Medium-sized varieties may have the fruit left 5 inches asunder, whilst the small sorts ought to have the fruit thinned to 4 inches apart to secure representative fruit for preserving. Each fruit must be allotted the square of the distance ; large kinds having four, medium-sized varieties about seven, and the small sorts twelve fruits respectively to the square foot. Those are full crop quantities for vigorous trees ; none should be overburdened, but have the fruit left proportionate to their strength. General Summer Treatment. — In addition to matters already treated, there are others of detail largely influencing results. Securing the growths as they advance is essential to prevent breakage ; give them the required inclination, and insure against their inter- ference with the fruiting parts. Sufficient space should be left in the ligatures for the swelling of the shoots, and the trees ought to be examined at short, regular intervals for the needful regulation of the growths. A sharp look-out must be kept for enemies, assailing them upon their first appearance by the prompt application of an insecticide or fungicide as circumstances occasion. When a solution is used, leaving a deposit on the foliage, it should be thoroughly cleansed by a forcible syringing with clear, soft water. Beyond that, and an occasional washing to cleanse the foliage of dust? no syringing is APRICOTS— Si'MMER MANAGEMENT. 67 required by the apricot. It is, however, impatient of dryness at the roots. Rain often falls copiously without having much effect in the immediate vicinity of the wall against which the trees are growing. This must not be overlooked. From lack of moisture at the roots of the trees, the fruit not unfrequently drops, or is prejudiced in its swelling. The fruit must be watched during its swelling, nails cleared out of the way, and injury by any cause prevented. It must not be overhung with spray, but kept well exposed to light. Shaded fruit is poor in colour and quality. "When ripening, the fruit should be kept dry. Glass copings answer well, and some light netting, suspended in front, and adjusted to the wall at the bottom and ends, but clear of the trees, not only saves the fruit from winged creatures, but insures its ripening equally on the shaded and on the sun side. Birds are very fond of ripening apricots, and must be excluded. Earwigs, ants, woodlice, and slugs also attack the fruit, and should be dealt with as advised on pages 255, 262, 267, and 276 in Yol. I. The fruit should be gathered if possible dry and cool. It is absolutely necessary that it be dry and not over-ripe for preserving, yet for that purpose it should be fairly matured on the shaded as well as on the sun side. For dessert the fruit cannot be too ripe. It looks more tempting, perhaps, in its brilliant orange or golden yellow than when the skin is slightly shrunk and cracked with lusciousness, but then it is at its prime, and has been fairly described as " one of the finest fruits in the world." The fruit must be handled carefully as it is easily bruised. For packing it should be gathered when it is fairly soft on the sun side and the ripening colour pervades the shaded. Unfruitful Trees. — Those making much breastwood, late growths, or not maturing should have a trench taken out, so as to detach all roots beyond a radius of two -thirds the distance from the stems the branches cover of wall surface. This should be done from the third week in August to the first week in September, according to season and locality, observing to water the soil well inside the trench if the leaves become Irmp, not otherwise. After remaining open a fortnight to three weeks, the trench should be filled in and the tree pruned, leaving no more spurs or wood than are necessary for next year's bearing, and furnishing the wall. Lift carefully when the leaves commence falling, and rectify any error or neglect of drainage, soil constituents, looseness of staple, or unfavourableness of subsoil. Lime rubbish 6 inches thick is admirable for placing at the bottom of stations. Shorten long bare roots, preserve all the fibrous, pare broken ends smooth, lay the roots near the surface, working good soil well between them, making all firm, and do not cover the uppermost roots deeper than 3 inches. Afford a K 2 68 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE, good watering, and mulch the surface as far as the roots extend with 2 inches of littery manure. It is not desirable to remove very old trees, but those of ten or twelve years' growth, notwithstanding that they cover a high wall, may be raised and replanted with perfect safety. Winter Treatment. — Untying or unnailing the trees after the leaves fall must be attended to. The wall and trees may be washed with a soft-soap solution, 4 ounces to the gallon of water, as a preventive of insect and fungoid enemies, and all holes in the wall should be stopped with good mortar, or, where the wall is wired, with cement, to close the lurking-places of predatory vermin. Eearrange and adjust the branches and shoots, securing as far as possible a symmetrical and even distribution as best calculated to equalise the sap in the several parts. Allow plenty of space in the ligatures, using soft material, and avoid damage to the bark by bruising or nails. Permitting fruit trees to remain untended until the buds swell gives insects an advantage, and those cultiva- tors attain the greatest success who are well in advance with all necessary opera- tions. PRUNING. This is necessarily determined by the system of culture pursued. Fan-trained trees are pruned on the long, and cordon trees on the short system. These systems have been alluded to under " Training," but further instructions on pruning are needed by the inexperienced. Long Pruning. — By this system the fruit is produced on shoots of the preceding year from a main branch, such as shown (R) Fig. 26. It is not stopped unless it exceeds 15 inches, then it is pinched, causing laterals to push. These are stopped at the first leaf and to one of subsequent growth, and cut away in autumn when the wood is well ripened, as indicated by the bars ; but if the wood is not ripe at the extremity of the shoot it is cut back, leaving 12 inches of firm wood, as shown by the bar across the shoot. The following year the shoot just mentioned produces fruit as represented in ($) ; its current growths are closely pinched to one or two leaves as produced, some growths being necessary to attract the sap to the fruit. From the base of the fruit-bearing branch a shoot is encouraged and laid-in along it, and the young shoot is treated simi- larly to that of the previous year. The bearing branch is cut out after the fruit is gathered, immediately above the current year's shoot, which is to produce fruit the following season, and so on from year to year. A PRICOTS—PR UNING. 69 Where space requires filling between the main branches, an eligible side shoot is allowed to extend, and another on the opposite side, which are to form the bearing parts the following year. A branch of the kind described is shown in (I7), and is termed a Fig. 26. LONG-PBUNIXG APEICOTS. (For references, see text ) subsidiary branch, to distinguish it from a main branch. No autumn pruning is required for a subsidiary branch in its second year, unless the side shoots have been stopped, when they are pruned as advised for (S) j and if the extremity or leading shoot exceed 7o THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. 2 feet in length, and is not well ripened at its point, it may be shortened one- third of its length at the autumn pruning. In the following year the side shoots from the subsidiary branch produce fruit, as represented in ( U). A shoot is origi- nated from the base of each to displace them in bearing next year, with others at 12 to 15 inches distance above them, and the leader continued. When its limit is reached a shoot is taken from its base, and the part above cut out after bearing, and so a succession of fruiting wood is maintained. A subsidiary branch in its fourth year is shown on page 69 ( F), branch extension, the origination of side growths, the maintenance of a successional supply of bearing wood, and the treatment of spurs being clearly indicated. Subsidiary branches are, equally with main branches, liable to collapse, and a young shoot should always be kept in reserve as near the main branch as possible to replace old with young wood. A shoot of this description is shown at the base on the left-hand side of the branch, and where there is space it may be allowed to extend preparatory to supplanting the subsi- diary branch ; but the tree must not be crowded with wood, and all the shoots and leaves must have full exposure to light and air, or it will be futile to expect healthy, fruitful trees. There is sometimes a difficulty in obtaining the successional basal shoot advised, and then suitable contiguous growth must be trained in for insuring a successional supply of young bearing wood from the main branch, as shown in the illustration, Fig. 27. As it is always advisable to remove enfeebled parts, vigorous growth should be encouraged from the extremity of the lower left-hand side shoot, uy as shown by the dotted extension lines ; then the whole of the subsidiary branch may be cut boldly back to the dotted bar at the base, and new growth encouraged from the main branch, to be properly disposed as shown on the right-hand side of the figure. Short Pruning. — The principle is to originate side shoots from a stem or main branch, and by pinching these at 6 inches of growth to induce blossom buds to form abundantly. A shoot stopped as suggested is shown by the bar in X (Fig. 28, p. 72), and all the subsequent pruning needed is shortening the soft lateral growths to the extent shown by the dotted bars. The following year bearing follows, as shown in Y, a young shoot being at the same time produced for the succeeding crop, after the old bearing portion is cut out at the bar as soon as the fruits are gathered. The two figures referred to are illustrative of well -managed trees, those to which attention is next directed pertaining to trees in an unsatisfactory condition, "When the root action of a tree is too powerful, and no attempt APRICOTS— PRUNING. is made to arrest it, the growths are similar to that represented in Z, namely, exuberant but sappy, with the laterals long jointed and thin. In June or later the foliage suddenly flags, and one more instance is pointed out of branches "dying off without cause." The fact is, the cultivation is at fault. The sap had become vitiated, the whole of the tissues were soft through imperfect elaboration and assimilation, and the germ tubes of the fungus Coryneum Beijerincki found entrance, producing an exudation, gum, the branch collapsing with its fruits, as represented in A. The over-luxuriance—plethora—might have been prevented by root-pruning at the end of the preceding August, and firmer, healthier growth induced. One great advantage of short pruning is the facility it offers for controlling the roots by lifting, and correct- ing errors of soil constit- uents, or staple. So pro- nounced is the free cropping of trees on this system that it is often abused by the grower. Because a one- year's branch is well fur- nished with spurs when the Fi^. 27. APEICOT BRANCH — TYPICAL GUOWTHS AND PEUNINO. ITUlt IS gathered, It IS left, References: — W, part of a main branch, showing side growth and tubsi- instead of beino- Cut Out diary branche9 > ** two-year-old wood cut away to the bars ; «, one year's wood for next year's bearing ; v, extremity growth of subsidiary branch not pushing There WOuld be no harm side shoots to be cut away to the bar ; w, a refractory or neglected spur • J.-L j. -f J.T- shortened to the bar ; x. a promising shoot to be encouraged ; y, shoot in that if there were space , , , pushed from a latent bud. for it and the successional growths ; but mischief results in allowing growths to be made, without cutting any away, for the growths become crowded and attenuated, deriving little, if any, benefit from the wall. No growth ought to remain after the second or third year, then the side branches would never get into the unsatisfactory condition shown on the upper side of the main branch in the figure (B\ Fig 29. THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. A Fig. 28. SHOUT PETJNTNO. (For references, see text.) APRICOTS— PR I \\ING- 73 When apricot growths are in that plight they should be cut back to the shoots nearest the branch, as shown by the bars, and those retained must be thinned and regu- Fig. 29. APRICOT SPUES AND PRUNING. C, natural spur of one year's growth ; D, two years' spur, to be shortened to the bar ; E, three-years-old spur ; F, stopped shoot ; G and H, resulting spurs, all marked for pruning. lated, as on the lower side of the branch, wherein is shown a maximum of growths suited to this method of culture in aged trees. VOL. II. L 74 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. Spurs. — Two descriptions of spurs are produced by apricot trees : natural and artificial. A natural spur is a short, stubby shoot, the leaves disposed in a cluster, in the axils of which buds form, mostly blossom-buds, but always terminated by a wood bud. The different spurs will be readily recognised on comparing the figures with the growths on apricot trees. The three-years-old spur E (page 73), shows the rate of increase in growth, it not having been shortened in the second year, but ought to be in the third year to the bars. Treated as advised, the spurs are kept thin, close to the stem, and fruitful. Neglected spurs become crowded, long, and barren. Artificial spurs are formed by pinching shoots that are not required for extension to a few leaves, and stopping all growths subse- quently at the first leaf throughout the season. In the illustration, F, a shoot is stopped at the second leaf, with the lateral pinched at the first leaf, and pushing again at the next. Blossom-buds having formed at the two lower joints, the shoot is shortened to the bar. The result is shown in 6r, and part of the growth is marked for pruning after the fruit is gathered. H shows the growth from an artificial spur in the third year, with a shoot (Z) from a latent bud at the base of the spur, pinched at the second leaf. This is not shortened., blossom-buds bristle at every joint, and the wood is hard, but after fruiting the following year it is shortened to the dotted bar. Short stubby growths of the spur character often show blossom and perfect fruit in adverse seasons, when other parts of the tree are fruitless, especially when the growths have full exposure and are kept short, so as to derive benefit by the warmth from the wall ; therefore, encourage such growths, but they must not be t >o numerous. Eeductions of wood, whether in shortening and thinning spurs, or cutting out growths no longer required, ought to be completed not later than early September. The increased light and air thereby admitted assist the wood to mature, and assure the buds perfecting. The final pruning should be performed in October. This will be a light affair, as where summer pruning has been properly attended to, and there is a reciprocity of action between the roots and the branches, little further pruning will be required. If an apricot tree does not ripen its annual growths to their tips, and produce blossom -buds at almost every joint, it is growing in too rich, moi3t, or loose soil. No amount of branch pruning will overcome difficulties of that nature, as the spade, not the knife, is the immediate agent that is needed. Many failures occur through mismanagement, but climate has great influence over apricots. In some localities their culture is pronounced a failure ; but the real cause of failure may often be traced to excessive vigour and excessive pruning. APRICOTS— UNDER GLASS. 7S When properly managed, lifted aiid root-pruned trees have proved as remarkable for health and fruitfulness as they were conspicuous before for dying branches and sterility. AIDS TO MATURATION. Flucd Walls. — In some elevated and exposed situations in the north apricots were formerly grown successfully against walls artificially heated. They are rare nowadays, due, perhaps, to the cheapness of glass, but where they exist, in addition to the blossoms of the trees being protected by canvas, a moderate fire may be kept going when the nights are severe, yet under no circumstances must the wall be kept more than warm, as violent heating may prove disastrous. With due care heated walls answer admirably for apricots, not only in preserving the blossoms from frost, but by causing the earlier and better ripening of the fruit. A gentle fire, kept going night and day, will cause the fruit to ripen as well upon the side next the wall as on the side exposed to the sun. A partial shade of netting when the sun is powerful prevents premature ripening on the exposed side. With a gentle warmth in the wall apricots ripen three weeks in advance of those against ordinary walls, the fruit is finer, and the trees are healthier. APRICOTS UNDER GLASS. Practically the apricot resents confinement, and revels in sun and air. Wall cases with a south, south-east, or south-west aspect are necessary in the north and in elevated and exposed situations; those with east and west aspects are suitable in and south of the Midlands. Structures designated wall cases vary in construction and dimensions. Some have upright front lights and short, narrow, sloping roofs, the glass but a little distance from the trees, or sufficient to allow of cultural operations. Other structures have short upright fronts of glass, long roof lights at a sharp angle, short top lights much less inclining, and admit of a path inside. The front and top lights are hinged, opening outwards ; the roof lights not available for ventilation. Now, ventilation is vital in apricot culture under glass. A house or wall case with an opening 11 inches wide in front, and a light opening here and there at the top, is useless. The front lights must not be less than 2 feet 6 inches wide or deep, and the top lights must have the same proportion, and both must open outwards by crank and lever, or some other approved mechanism, half their breadth and the whole length of the structure. L 2 76 THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE. The structure may be 7 feet 6 inches wide, in which trees can be trained to the wall. The front trellis should not be more than 6 feet high for a structure 7 feet 6 inches wide, the trellis 9 to 1 2 inches from the glass. Walls are best wired, the wires not more than 6 inches apart, fixed J to f inch from the wall. A structure of a suitable description is represented in Fig 30. No plants must be grown in the case, but the whole space ought to be devoted to the trees. A border of 2 to 3 feet, not more, should be kept clear in front of the structure, into which the roots may pass. It is best to train the trees entirely to a roof trellis instead of the wall, which will only be useful as a source of heat absorp- tion and radiation, and in that respect be of great value. Where walls exist they may be utilised, but they are not needed for glass structures in which fruit is to be grown, as warmth in cold periods is better afforded by hot- water pipes; and houses that enclose a larger amount of air than do wall cases are safer in cold periods. Wall cases, how- ever, are useful aids in the culture of Fig. so. A WALL CASE FOR APRICOTS. apricots, and under judicious manage - References :—a, drain ; 6, drainage ; c, border ; d, meni} satisfactory Crops are grown in them 9-inch brick pillars at every upright or rafter, other space open to allow roots to pass outside ; e, 9-inch brick pilinr even when unheated. In that case protec- at every joint of hot-water pipes, about 9 feet ; /, flow and ^ mugt be provided. Nothing answers return 4-inch hot-water pipes on the pillars ; g, front trellis ; 7i, back or wall trellis ; i, top lights with venti- better than frigi-doniO or WOol netting, /ating gear ; ?', front lights showing ventilation ; Jc, batten , ., . , •••• -TTTU ± ; , , , but other materials answer well. Wnat- pathway ; and 6, trees. ever is used must be in two pieces, one to cover the top ventilating lights, the other to place over the remaining portion of the roof. None is required for the front lights. Both pieces should have rings at the corners and along the sides for placing over hooks fixed in the roof to prevent displace- ment. When the material gets wet it must be dried, and always ready for an emergency. APRICOTS— VENTILATION AND PROTECTION. 77 The border may be prepared as advised for trees against walls, and it is essential that the roots be under complete control. Trees trained three or four years and lifted annually are the most suitable for planting in glass structures. This should be done early in the autumn, transferring them, if possible, with soil adhering to the roots. The roof lights should be removed when the trees have shed their leaves. Thoroughly cleanse the house, prune the trees, adjust them to the trellis unless the border has not settled, mulch this with manure, as advised for outdoor culture, and nothing more will be needed by the trees until the buds commence swelling in the spring. Eain or snow will soak the soil through to the drainage. If not, repeated waterings must be given to thoroughly moisten the whole border. "When the first blossoms show colour, replace the roof lights, opening the top and bottom ventilators to their full extent, and keep them so when the external temperature is 40° or more. Eeduce the ventilation to a chink about an inch wide at the top and bottom when the temperature outside falls below 40°; if it fall ,to 35° close the front lights, but leave the top lights open not less than half an inch, and they must always remain so, except when the house temperature is below 35°. A still atmosphere is then desirable, and the top lights may be closed, but they must be opened again when the temperature has risen to 35°. Open the front ventilators as well as the top when the temperature inside is 40° ; increase the ventilation between 40° and 45° ; do not allow the heat to exceed 50° without full ventilation, and close with the reservation of top and front air before named for the day between 40° and 45°, yet not so early as to raise the tem- perature above 50°, as indicated by a shaded thermometer. When a sharp frost is apprehended, the protective covering should be placed over the roof. This will only be needed in severe weather, but it is not safe to dispense with it when there is likely to be 6° or more of frost. In case of frost by day the protection may remain ; never in mild weather or when the sun is not obscured, for the blossom cannot have too much light. In case of continued frosty nights the light covering need not be removed daily from the top lights, and in no case must it be withdrawn until the temperature has risen to a safe degree — 35°. Then air must be admitted, so that the heat of the house will rise gradually with that of the external .air, before the blossoms are exposed to the full influence of light. After the blossoms are fully expanded a gentle rapping of the trellis will insure the dispersion of the pollen, or it may be distributed with a camel's-hair brush and applied gently to the flowers, or the blossoms may be brushed over with a bunch of 78 THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE. feathers, a plume of pampas grass, or a rabbit's tail mounted on a small stick. When the fruit is set a light syringing should be given, taking care that the moisture is dissipated before nightfall. A sharp look-out must be kept for caterpillars and other insect pests. Until the fruit attains the size of marbles the temperature should not exceed 50° without full ventilation, having it free at 40° and 45°. Eeduce the ventilation at 50°. There must not, however, be any closing of the house, such as is practised with peaches and vines. The apricot is impatient of sudden fluctuations of temperature. With care, however, it is not difficult to manage ; air is its chief requisite, and of this it requires more than is good for many fruits. To allow the temperature to rise to 60° or 65° before increasing the ventilation, and then admit a volume of air, brings the fruit off in showers, and a close atmosphere has the same effect. The apricot loves a hot day and cool night ; its foliage detests the perpetual washing accorded to the peach and the stewing granted to the vine, but an occasional cleansing of the foliage by syringing with clear rain water greatly benefits the trees, if they become dry before nightfall. From the fruit attaining the size of marbles to stoning observe 50° as the point at which to increase and reduce the ventilation, affording enough at night and in dull periods to insure a circulation of air, but never allow the temperature to exceed 55° without full ventilation. After the fruit has stoned, which is usually in six weeks from its attaining the size of marbles, the temperature may be kept at 55° at night with ventilation, and 65° by day, not allowing that heat to be exceeded without the maximum supply of air. The fruit will ripen three weeks ahead of that grown against walls. When changing, a thin shade over the roof lights will prevent its ripening unevenly. It should be allowed to remain until quite ripe, even until it shrinks on the side next the sun ; then it is simply an unequalled sweetmeat. Water will be required during growth at fortnightly intervals, more distantly in the early stages, and more frequently during the heat of summer. Liquid manure and surface dressings should be given, as advised for trees against walls ; mulching, also, must be attended to, and the border, with other available surfaces, should be sprinkled in the morning and afternoon after the foliage becomes full-sized, up to which stage an occasional damping only is required. Avoid syringing unless red spider appear, but then dislodge it promptly, and supply water or liquid manure more adequately to the roots. When ripening, the fruit cannot be kept too dry, but an occasional damping of the house greatly benefits the foliage, and although less water is desirable at the roots APRICOTS— POTTIXG TREES. 79 when the fruit is ripening, it must not be withheld to the extent of causing the foliage to ripen prematurely, but be given as necessary to maintain it in health. After the fruit is gathered thoroughly cleanse the trees by a few forcible sy ringings, admit air to the fullest extent, supply water as needed, remove the roof lights when the leaves commence falling, then put all into order for a fresh start when the time comes round. The treatment of trees under glass as regards training does not differ from that of trees grown against walls. FORMS OF TREES. Apricots are the least cultivated of fruit trees in the shape of pyramids, bushes, and standards. This arises from their moderate and uncertain cropping when grown with other fruit trees. The apricot is an autocrat, it admits no rival, and few have the means to devote a house specially to its culture. Yet a separate house is required ; then apricots can be grown successfully, both in pots and planted out. Small houses, however, are very little better aids to culture than walls, and no certainty can be expected from either without means of protection. Glass structures have, if anything, the advantage, by insuring dryness for the blossom, and husbanding the sun heat, whereby better-ripened fruit, firmer wood, and plumper buds are secured. Pyramids. — A maiden apricot tree should be placed in an 11 -inch pot directly the leaves have fallen. The pot should have four side and one bottom apertures, each 1J inch in diameter. Place one large crock over the bottom, then other large pieces, so as to bring the drainage up level with the top of the side holes, and over these place a layer of steamed half-inch bones. Three parts of good turfy loam laid up sufficiently long to destroy the herbage, torn into pieces the size of a walnut to an egg, one part of sweet- ened horse-droppings, and one part of old mortar rubbish, mixed, form a suitable compost. Shorten the strong roots, so that the tree can be placed in the pot, with the uppermost roots 1J inch below the rim, and the side roots 1 inch from the side all round. Place some rough soil at the bottom of the pot, ram it firm with a stick, have the tree per- fectly upright, and press the soil well about its roots, which should be spread out evenly, fill up all the interstices, and finish with the upper roots just covered with soil, one inch below the rim. Water at once, moistening the soil through to the drainage. Arrange the trees in front of a south wall or in a cool house, in either case protecting the roots from frost with dry material placed around and over the pots. Head each tree down to 12 inches of the soil within a fortnight of potting, cut off the laterals close to the stem, So THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. if there be buds on the stem ; if not, cut them back to one joint, and let the trees be assigned their summer position in a light airy house by early February. Several shoots will push by or before May ; reserve four of the best as side shoots, and one as a leader, rubbing off the rest. Stop the side shoots at 6 inches, and the leader at 9 inches of growth, which will cause them to thicken and push laterals. Select the uppermost from each side branch as a continuation, and pinch all others at the first leaf, treating subsequent growths similarly ; stop the extensions at the third and the second growths to one leaf. If the leader after stopping push three or four shoots, select the best or uppermost for elongation and take out its point at 6 inches, and stop the side shoots originated at the same time at 6 inches of growth, pinching shoots from these at the first leaf. Should the leader push again, pinch it at the third leaf, and to one afterwards. In autumn the tree will have four, perhaps seven, side branches studded from base to apex with blossom-buds, the stem or leader promising fruit. No pruning is required. A pyramid 2 to 2| feet in height, and half as much through at the base, trained in the manner described, is represented in <7, Fig. 31 on the next page. The following year's treatment is a repetition of the last as regards the leader ; but the side branches are doubled in number by taking two shoots from each, allowing them to extend 6 inches, then treating as before advised. All other shoots are stopped to one leaf, and so on ; shoots of an inch, or not more than 2 inches, are not pinched. No knife is used until it is necessary to thin the branches and spurs, or cut back elongations. Pyramids of any desired size can in that way be formed. Under good cultivation, the trees will fruit in the second year after potting, and be supported by rooting from the pot, as shown in the illustration. Bush apricot trees are formed in a similar way to pyramids ; the only difference is that there is no central stem from which the branches emanate at regular distances, the trees being lower and more spreading. Standard Trees. — These may have stems of any height, but 3 feet is suitable for growing under glass. A maiden tree, intended to be grown as a standard, should be planted in a light, airy house in autumn, or it may be potted. Cut the tree down 12 inches from the soil. Take the most promising shoot that pushes in spring, and rub off the others. Pinch the laterals to one leaf as produced, not cutting them off until autumn, as they assist the stem to thicken ; but it must be secured to a stake to keep it straight. Shorten the tree to 3 feet in the autumn, making sure of growing buds imme- diately below the cut. If there be no buds on the stem, then the upper laterals must be left. APRICOTS — FORMING TREES. 8r In the spring, select three of the most promising growths for forming the head, rubbing off the rest. Pinch the three at 6 inches of their growth, encourage two shoots from each, and pinch these at 9 inches, stopping all laterals from them, or wherever produced, to one leaf; but if the shoots stopped at 6 inches do not pusn. Fig. 31. PYRAMID TEEES IN POTS. References :—J, one-year pyramid apricot ; K, fruiting pyramid ; m, 6-inches in thickness of rich compost, in which the pot is placed 1 inch over the side holes ; n, 3 inches of old mortar rubbish ; o, 6 inches in thickness of rubble ; p, drain. strongly, one growth only should be taken from each, pinching them at 6 inches, and to one leaf afterwards, and so on throughout the season. In autumn, the branches having been forked, and not extending more than 12 inches beyond the first stopping, VOL. II. M THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. no pruning is required ; but if the branches are not forked at 6 inches from the stem, they should be cut back to 7 inches ; then two shoots will issue from each branch the following year, and if these are stopped at 9 inches, the tree will be in the state represented in Z, Fig. 32. The following year take two shoots from the extremity of each branch, and stop them at 9 inches of their growth, pinching all others, wherever produced, at the first leaf. Fig. 32. STANDARD APEICOTS. (For references, see text.) Short, stubby growths of an inch, or not more than 2 inches, need not be pinched. In that way the tree is kept well furnished with spurs, and will produce fruit in the second or third year as shown (M). In subsequent years a distance of 9 to 15 inches must be left between the branches for the proper development of spurs. When the trees are as large as desired, they may be kept closely stopped ; but it is well to allow some extension each year, even if it be had by shortening some of the branches. Shoots 6 inches in length, originated annually, APRICOTS— FORCING. 83 keep up a free circulation of the sap, which it is always desirable to maintain. This can readily be effected by allowing young wood from the base of a branch to extend, and then a worn-out branch can be cut away in its favour. In that way standard apricot trees may be kept healthy and fruitful for many years, if crowded spurs are thinned and elongations shortened. By judicious feeding, fine fruit is produced abundantly. Over-luxuriance may be checked by occasional lifting and root-pruning, whilst weakly trues can be invigorated with fresh soil. ra a Fig. 33. A SPAN-ROOF HOUSE FOK Ai EICOTS. References : — a, drain ; 6, nibble ; c, border ; d, 4-inch hot-water pipes ; e, batten pathway ; /, iron pillars ; g, front lights; h, top lights ; i, movable roof lighte, upper lights opening as shown ; j, trees on 18-inch stems ; k, trees on 3>-feet stems, ends of structure north and south. Although the finest fruit is borne on trees trained to trellises near the glass, the apricot succeeds admirably grown as dwarf standards planted out, or in bush, pyramid, or standard forms in pots or tubs. Trees grown in these shapes present a great extent of surface to light, and if they receive it unobstructed through clear glass they produce large crops of good fruit. FORCING APRICOTS. Wall cases with the trees trained to the wall are not suitable for early forcing ; K 2 84 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. but when the trees are grown on a trellis 9 to 12 inches from the glass they are very eligible. The structure figured on page 76 and furnished with a flow and return 4-inch hot- water pipe its whole length, as Shown, answers well. Apricot trees succeed better on a roof trellis than against a wall several feet from the glass, and a structure with a sharp inclining roof affords a larger extent of trellis than a com- paratively flat roofed structure, the width being equal, and presents the glass at a better angle for light passing through it. Two lean-to cases (page 76) joined together, back to back, minus the wall, form a suitable span-roofed house for forcing apricots trained under the roof. Varieties for Forcing. — New Large Early, Oullins Early Peach, Early Moorpark, Hemskerk, Kaisha, Moorpark, Peach, and Powell's Late are suitable for growing under glass. In a house accorded fire heat to the extent of excluding frost, which is a forcing structure, the varieties named ripen in the order assigned. New Large Early ripens its fruit at midsummer ; Oullins Early Peach and Early Moorpark at the middle of July ; Hemskerk and Kaisha at the end of July ; Moorpark and Peach early in August, and Powell's Late about the middle of August, as influenced by the season. All flower and set their fruits together, but ripen at different times. This must have consideration in calculating the time for starting the trees to have fruit by a given period. In a house started at the new year New Large Early ripens its fruit in May, Oullins Early Peach in June, Moorpark and Peach about midsummer. For early forcing : New Large Early ; for second-early forcing : Oullins Early Peach ; for succession : Moorpark and Peach. All grown together afford a supply of fruit over six weeks or more. Kaisha is very suitable for low trellises. Trees. — For trellises trees trained three or four years to walls, and periodically lifted, are most suitable for planting. They should be moved when the leaves begin falling, transferring to the structure with balls of soil, and all the roots practicable, affording a good watering. Young trees answer, but entail a needless waste of time. Pyramid, bush, and standard trees in pots should be planted early in September. Disentangle the roots at the side of the ball, remove the drainage, plant firmly, and apply water copiously. Trees moved early will become established quickly, and may be forced the following year, but it is better to bring them on very gently the first year. Starting. — To have fruit in May the house should be closed at the new year ; for a June supply commence in February, and for July fruit the house must be closed early in March. The trees must be thoroughly established, the roof lights removed when the APRICOTS— TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION. 85 leaves begin fulling, and everything then put in order. Eains will have moistened the soil through to the drainage ; if not, afford water to effect it. In case the blossom - buds swell before the time arrives for starting, the lights must be replaced, ventilating to the fullest extent, closing during frost, and affording heat only to prevent the tem- perature falling below 35°. For advancing growth follow generally the instructions given on page 77. In forcing apricots the first time the trees must not be brought too rapidly into flower, but the buds should be allowed time to swell and develop bold flowers steadily, or, in other words, the forcing ought to bo slow, particularly in the early stages. This is absolutely essential, and reliance should be mainly placed on the heat of the sun, affording no more artificial aid than is sufficient for the steady progress of the trees. No acceleration of the ripening must be attempted until the fruit is stoned, and then the artificial tem- peratures stated are high enough, but with the crops advancing the apricot will endure any amount of sun heat, with the important proviso, full ventilation. To summarise, in forcing trees started at the new year, the temperature during the first fortnight should be kept at 35° to 40° at night, and 40° to 45° by day, ven- tilating fully at 50°. In the second fortnight a temperature of 40° to 45° at night and 50° by day should be maintained. When in flower the night temperature should be 45° to 50°, and 50° to 55° by day, ventilating freely at 50°, and on cold nights the temperature should be 5° less, also 5° less by artificial means on cold dull days. By early March the fruit will be the size of horse-beans or hazel-nuts, and advanc- ing rapidly in swelling. The night temperature may then be 50° to 55°, and the day 60° to 65°. In favourable seasons the stoning of the early varieties will be completed early in April, when the temperature at night may be raised to 60°, falling 5° by early morning ; 60° to 65° on dull days ; but with sun, 70° to 75° may be allowed, with full ventilation. Attention must be given to watering and damping. An occasional syringing up to the time of the fruit changing colour is beneficial, but when ripening commences syringing the trees must be discontinued, damping the floors, walls and border in dry weather instead. When the fruit is gathered the trees must not be subjected to a low temperature suddenly, but the heat should be lowered gradually, then full air admitted constantly* When the wood is ripe and the blossom-buds prominent, over-maturity should be prevented by taking the sashes off the roof. 86 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. DISEASES. Though the apricot is subject to few diseases, it suffers more from that termed " branch- dying " than do most fruit trees. Grown under glass or against walls outdoors, apricot trees lose branches suddenly, often when laden with fruit ; leaders collapse in young trees, main branches perish here and there in trees just coming in to profit, while those having covered their allotted space lose one branch after another till the trees are spoiled. Sometimes the disease is seen to be gum ; in other cases there is no outward indication of that disease beyond shrinkage in the branch and smallness of foliage above the point of collapse ; while in some instances there is no visible sign of damage except a few small holes in the branch where it dies off. These symptoms, how- ever, equally with the first, afford evidence of gum disease closing the channels of the wood and thus preventing the nourishment of the branch above the point of infestation ; in fact, 99 per cent, of the cases of "branch-dying " are due to gum disease, caused by the fungus Coryneum Beijerincki. The cultural inducements to gumming are planting in over-rich soil, the production of gross wood, the severe cutting back of the growths in summer so as to suddenly expose the branches to the sun whereby the bark is hardened, and a sappy condition of the wood which then suffers from frost, combined with severe winter pruning. Careful culture is the best means of preventing the evil in question, and to this end the cultural instructions have special reference. Gum disease, Coryneum Beijerincki, is fully treated on page 234, Vol. I. Clean culture is recommended with the removal jof infested parts, spraying before the buds swell with a solution of sulphate of copper, 1 pound to 25 gallons of water; and subsequently with carbonate of copper in suspension, 1 ounce first well stirred in a- small quantity of water, and the mixture thus formed added to 12 1 gallons of water, spraying first when the fruit is the size of horse-beans, next in 12 to 15 days, and again, if needed, 15 to 21 days after the second application. Ammoniacal carbonate of copper solution, Vol. I., page 241, or modified Eau Celeste, Vol. I., page 242, may be used for spraying, first ascertaining, by experiment on a small scale, the safe strength at which to apply them to the whole tree without injury to the foliage and fruit. Mildew (Oidium Species). — The Oidium of the apricot is probably an early condition of a fungus named Podosphoara clandestina, or P. oxyacanthse, a common parasite of the hawthorn. It is a powdery mildew, with a life history similar to that explained under "Mildew," Vol. I., page 245. It infests the leaves and young growths of the apricot, causing the former to curl and the latter to be distorted. Culturally mildew APRICOTS— BLISTER AND FUNGUS. 87 may proceed from a confined and damp site, over-wetness of soil, or their opposite extremes of exposure, poverty, and dryness. Thorough syringings wash off the fungus spores, and dusting every affected part well by flowers of sulphur checks the parasite ; two dressings at intervals of a few days, followed by two or three copious syringings, generally suffice for removing the mildew throughout the season. The bisulphide of calcium solution, Vol. I., page 248, is more efficacious than dry sulphur ; as also is sulphide of potassium, j ounce per gallon of water, applying these as advised in the article, " Mildew," referred to on the preceding page. Blister. — Apricot leaves sometimes curl up and present a similar appearance to peach leaves that are affected with the disease called "blister," but we have not found any fungus on apricot growths, except the mildew already alluded to, and this is the cause of apricot growths being crippled in cold springs where efficient protection is not afforded. Projecting wood or glass copings, affixed to walls, with canvas in front of the trees, not only safeguard the blossoms and tender fruit against the injury from cold, but practically prevent fungus spores from gaining a seat on the growths. Trees against buildings are seldom affected with mildew, because the projecting eaves, and consequently drier and warmer wall surface, keep the foliage dry, also the blossoms and fruit safe from frost. Trees against garden walls, unprotected and without projecting copings, are often fruitless, and the foliage infested with mildew, because they are saturated at night with dew, or coated with frost in the spring, both remaining long into the day and catching fungus spores. Efficient protection without " coddling " is the best preventive of leaf curling and shoot distortion in apricot trees. Spot in Fruit. — A fungus (Glaeosporium leeticolor) causes the pale salmon-coloured depressed mouldy patches on half-ripe apricots and many other fruits. It will be more fully treated under " Peach Diseases." The fungus attack first appears as a small speck, generally at the apex of the fruit, and, spreading rapidly, destroys it for use before it is ripe. It is recommended to spray the trees whilst quite dormant with a sulphate of copper solution, 1 pound to 25 gallons of water, or sulphate of iron solution, 1 pound to 15 gallons of water, as a preventive. All affected fruit should be collected and destroyed by fire. ENEMIES. Though the apricot is the first to open its flower-buds and push growth, it is less liable to suffer from attacks of aphides than other fruit trees ; in fact, it is rarely infested 88 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. by aphis, red spider, thrips or scale, and infestation by those insects is due to extreme neglect in management. Aphides are easily destroyed by tobacco water, or dusting with snuff or tobacco powder. Eed spider succumbs to the bisulphate of calcium solution, but occasional thorough syringings with water, generous treatment at the roots, and avoiding over-cropping are certain antidotes against the pest. Thrips perish under tobacco smoke, or tobacco water, but where cleanly culture obtains there will be no thrips. The apricot is sometimes beset by a boat-shaped scale, Lecanium species, nearly J inch long and \ inch wide, brown, darker in the centre, lighter at the edges, and when reaching maturity, somewhat rounder and wrinkled. The eggs hatch in May, and the brood is produced in a few weeks. The best remedy is the resin compound, Vol. I,, page 261, applied with a small brush to the scale whilst young. If allowed to become hard the scale should be removed with a knife, collected and destroyed, washing the place with a solution made by dissolving 3 or 4 ounces of soft soap in a gallon of hot water. Red-Bud Caterpillar Moth (Spilonotaocillana; syn. : Pyralis luscana).— Insect narrow- winged, grey, with whitish band, dotted with grey ; it appears at the end of summer, and lays eggs upon the buds. These hatch early in spring, and the caterpillar, fleshy red, black head, with a dark line down the back, attacks the blossoms or the leaf- buds, preferring the former, and feeds inside the bud, some trees having the greater part of the buds destroyed by the tiny caterpillar. Its presence in a bud is indicated by a sticky exudation, and Kollar recommends lifting out the caterpillar by using the point of a penknife, as it cannot be reached and destroyed by a wash. This is an excellent plan to pursue with apricot, plum, pear, and apple buds, making a patient examination of them when swelling, and should the edge of the calyx be sticky, the enemy may be suspected. After feeding four or five weeks on the buds, and full fed, the caterpillar spins a whitish cocoon upon some twig, becomes a chrysalis, from which the moth emerges towards the end of summer. Spraying the trees whilst quite dormant with the caustic soda and potash solution, Vol. I., page 251, detaches, if not destroys, the eggs. Dusting the trees, whilst damp, with freshly- slaked lime when the buds commence acts as a preventive, and if repeated occasionally, hinders the migration of the caterpillars swelling from bud to bud. Those are the only remedies, except catching the moths. Apricot Moth (Tortrix (Ditula, Pcedisca) angustiorana). — This insect is also called the Vine Moth, because its larvae occasionally infest grapes in vineries, first eating the skin of the berries, and then wrapping them in a web. The caterpillars, however, APRICOTS— THE APRICOT MOTH. 89 usually feed on the foliage of fruit trees, especially the apricot and pear. They appear during May and June, and are £ to f inch long, yellowish-green with brownish head, and a few hairs scattered over the body. It is a very active creature, wriggling about in varied contortions when disturbed, crawling backwards or forwards with equal facility, and lets itself down by a fine thread from its mouth. It ties two or more leaves together by their extremities, causing them to curl, but is sometimes content with a single leaf, in which it encases itself. If the first-seen rolled-up leaves are pinched, the caterpillar within each roll is destroyed, but other rolled-up leaves appear Fig. 34. APRICOT MOTH (TORTRIX AXGUSTIORAXA). References: — 1 , larva, natural size ; la, larva, enlarged ; 2, pupa, magnified : line on side, natural length ; 3, moth enlarged : lines below, natural length of body, and expanse of wings. successionally, indicating that the hatching of the eggs continues for some weeks. When full-grown the caterpillar fastens some remnants of leaves together, and passes into a brown shining chrysalis, and from this the moth emerges in July and later. The moth is £ inch long, and TV inch in expanse of fore-wings, which are ochreous in the males, reddish-brown in the females, both having darker markings and spots irregularly scattered over the outer half of the wings. The eggs are deposited upon twigs towards the end of summer, some later than others, where they remain till hatched. The cater- VOL. u. N go THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE. pillars appear with the leaves of the apricot, and cause them to fold over. This rolling of the leaves is shown in the illustration. By causing the leaves to curl and feeding upon them the caterpillars do considerable injury. Winter dressing trees that are liable to be attacked is the best preventive. The following mixture may be used : — Sulphur vivum, 7 pounds ; quicklime, 7 pounds. Slake the lime, and place it in an iron pot along with the sulphur and 3 gallons of water. Mix and boil 15 minutes, then add soft soap 2 pounds, strong shag tobacco 1 pound, and, after adding 9 gallons of water, boil all together 30 minutes, stirring well all that time. Strain and, when cool, pour the clear liquid into stone bottles, keeping them well corked in a dark place. Loose the trees from the wall or trellis while dormant, and in mild weather apply the mixture with a brush, reaching well into every angle, cavity, and crevice of the bark. The mixture may be used as a winter dressing for all kinds of fruit trees, also as a wash for walls. Pinching the rolled-up leaves, as previously suggested, between the thumb and finger, so as to crush the caterpillars, is a speedy means of destruction, and not more injurious to the trees than unfolding the leaves and capturing the Iarva3. Laying a sheet on the ground and brushing the trees over sharply with the hand or a broom causes many cater- pillars to leave their retreats, when a keen eye and active hands may destroy numbers, some suspended, other wriggling about on the branches or wall, and possibly not a few on the sheet. These are, perhaps, the best remedies. The trees, however, may be syringed with a solution of the mixture last named, | pint to 3 gallons of water, and it is good against mildew and all insect pests. Paris green, 1 ounce to 20 gallons of water, may be used as a spray in the early stages of attack, but it is not recommended as a remedy after the fruit is the size of marbles, and trees sprayed with it must have their fruit thoroughly washed before being used for tarts or allowed to ripen. Apricot trees are occasionally infested with the larvse of various other moths, but these are not common, and it is only when food of a special kind fails that caterpillars migrate, or moths deposit eggs on alien trees. Apricot Weevil; syn. : Red-legged Garden TFd. May Duke. Elton. Black Eagle. Bigarreau tie Mezel. Reine Hortense. Tradescant's Heart. Bigarreau Napoleon. Florence. Cherries for exhibition. All the above ; and Werder's Early Black. Bigarreau Noirde Gueben. Bigarreau de Schreken. Bohemian Black Bigarreau. Belle de Clioisy. Mammoth. Nouvelle Royale. Twelve hardy andfree-btariny. Early Rivers. Werder's Early Black. Bedford Prolific. Governor Wood. Waterloo. May Duke. Black Eagle. Elton. Biittner's Black Heart. Bigarreau. Late Duke. Bigarreau Napoleon. N/,<- useful. Early Rivers. Governor Wood. May Duke. Elton. Black Eagle. Bigarreau Napoleon. Three useful. Early Rivers. Waterloo. Late Duke. For pies and preserving. Kentish. Morello. SELECTION OF CHERRIES FOR VARIOUS MODES OF CULTURE. COMPACT PYRAMIDS OR BUSHES. Early Rivers. Empress Eugenie. Early Red Bigarreau. Frogmore Earty. Governor Wood. May Duke. Royal Duke. Duchess de Palluau. Nouvelle Royale. Archduke. Late Duke. Coe's Late Carnation. LARGE PYRAMIDS OR BUSHES. Werder's Early Black. Waterloo. Belle de Choisy. Biittner's Black Heart. Ludwig's Bigarreau. Reine Hortense. Black Eagle. Elton. Mammoth. Bigarreau de Mezel. Bigarreau. Bigarreau Napoleon. Emperor Francis. COOKING. Kentish (compact). Belle Magnifique. Morello. FOR ORCHARDS. Early Rivers. Werder's Early Black. Governor Wood. Waterloo. May Duke. Black Eagle. Elton. Biittner's Black Heart. Bigarreau. Turkey Black Heart. Bigarreau Napoleon. Late Duke. COOKING. Kentish. Morello. FOR WARM SOILS AND SITUATIONS. Belle d'Orleans. Bedford Prolific. Florence. SOUTH WALL. For earliness and quality. Early Purple Geau. Belle d'Orleans. Early -Jaboulay. Early Red Bigarreau. Empress Eugenie. Frogmore Early. Bigarreau de Schreken. Governor Wood. Black Tartarian. Bigarreau de Mezel. Bohemian Black Bigarreau. Florence. EAST WALL. Early Rivers. Werder's Early Black. May Duke. Waterloo. Royal Duke. Ludwig's Bigarreau. Black Eagle. Mammoth. Archduke. Nouvelle Royale. Coe's Late Carnation. Late Duke. CHERRIES— PROP A GA TION. 119 HIGH WALLS. South or East. Elton. Belle de Choisv. Reine Hoi-tense. Bigarreau. Tradescant's Heart. Bigarreau Napoleon. WALL. Bedford Prolific. ISelle Mugnifique. Morello. FOR LONG HANGING. mack. Black Tartarian. Black Eagle. Tradescant's Heart. White. Wood. Bigarreau Napoleon. Florence. FOR EARLY FORCING. Trellises. Marly Elvers. Black Tartarian. Governor Wood. Later — Houses, May Duke. Elton. Mammoth. FOR POTS. Compact Growers. Belle (VOrleans. Marly Rivers. Early Red Bigarreau. Empress Eugenie. Bigarreau de Schieken. (iiivernor Wood. May Duke. Black Eagle. Archduke. Nouvelle Royal. Florence. Late Duke. Large Growers. Early Jaboulay. Black Tartarian. Bohemian Black Bigarreau. Elton. Reine Hortense. Bigarreau. Bigarreau de Mezel. Mammoth. Duchess de Palluau. Bigarreau Napoleon. Belle Magnifique. Tradescant's Heart. PROPAGATION. The cherry is raised from seed to originate new varieties and obtain stocks, layering being occasionally practised to secure stocks of particular kinds, and .fit some varieties for special mode of culture, and the finer varieties are perpetuated and increased by budding and grafting. Raising New Varieties. — Mr. T. A. Knight has stated that the cherry sported more from seed than any other fruit subjected by him to cross-fertilisation, and expressed his belief that it was capable of higher perfection than cultural effort had yet attained ; he originated the fine varieties Black Eagle, Elton, and Waterloo. Excellent sorts have at various times been introduced from the Continent, and some new varieties have been raised in England, the finest of all early cherries by Mr. T. Eivers, namely, Early Eivers. Yet there is room for improvement, particularly in those essential require- ments of our climate, hardiness of constitution in the tree, and endurance of wet in the fruit. These are characteristics of English-raised varieties, none, perhaps, equalling Waterloo in its endurance of wet weather, and raisers must not lose sight of those desiderata in seeking to originate improved varieties. Some varieties reproduce them- selves more or less certainly from seed, but there is no reliance to be placed upon any of them to do so with accuracy. Even the wild Gean varies in its seedlings, but the further removed from the type the parents are, the less becomes the danger of reversion in the seedlings. 120 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. The stones resulting of fertilised flowers may be treated as advised for raising stocks from seed, but for proving the seedling trees by planting, they require to be planted farther apart, lifting them annually after the first transplantation, and increasing the distance so as to expose them fully to light and air until they form blossom buds. Curtailing the roots and inducing a fibrous habit conduce to early puberty, while budding or grafting the seedlings on older trees accelerates the fruiting of the varieties. Stones of the Gean and Mahaleb cherry may be stratified in sand or light soil till early spring, or, preferably, sown as soon as the fruit is ripe and can be separated from the pulp, placing them, rather thinly, in drills 1 foot apart, and 1| inch deep, covering with fine soil. Every fifth row may be left out, thus forming beds with alleys between for facility of cleaning. In two years the seedlings will be fit to transplant 18 to 24 inches apart, in lines 36 to 42 inches asunder, and the following summer are fit to bud, or graft after a year's growth. Layering. — Though sometimes practised to induce a dwarf fruitful habit, this method of increase is not generally applicable to the cherry, for the wood is too brittle to admit of bending, and, except for trees to be grown in pots, is not a desirable mode of pro- pagation. Instructions on layering are given in Vol. I., pages 102-105, the ringing method being the most eligible for the cherry. Pigmy trees laden with ripe fruit are attractive for table decoration, and charming for juvenile parties. Stocks.— These were treated in Yol. I., page 111, but we reiterate the statements that seedlings of the wild cherry or Gean are suitable for the Gean, Heart, and Bigarreau varieties. The common or dwarf, which are seedlings of the Kentish and Morello, are adapted for the Duke, Kentish, and Morello varieties. The Mahaleb is the principal dwarfing stock, though its influence is not great, and it is not suited to the Gean, Heart, and Bigarreau races, for, though they take and thrive on it for a few years, they soon become unhealthy, yet those fine black and light coloured varieties, Early Eivers and Governor "Wood, succeed admirably, and probably others of the cross- bred varieties would thrive on this stock. Seedlings from the red cherries afford greater immunity from gum, because the bark is slightly thicker and more elastic. Indeed, seedling Morellos are the best free stocks for garden trees. Budding. — "No bud takes more surely and quickly than that of the cherry if the pre- caution is taken to operate before the buds become too plump, and when the sap flows freely. This usually occurs about midsummer, and maybe performed up to mid- July in CHERRIES— GRAF7 L\G. , 2 • late seas 3ns Cloudy weather should be chosen for the operation, and cave taken to select wood buds. For instructions on budding, see Vol. I., pages 115-120. Budding is the best mode of propagating the cherry. Grafting. — Should the buds fail, the stocks may be grafted the following spring, proceeding by whip-grafting, Vol. I., pages 122-128. Particular care must be bestowed on the selection of scions, choosing those with firm wood and having wood buds. Vigorous shoots with large pith may succeed when taken off in good time, but they are not so desirable as the moderately strong shoots. Some contain only blossom buds with a wood bud at the extremity. This must be retained, for success depends upon the presence of a wood bud or buds in the scion. The shoots for scions should be cut off and inserted in the soil during the first mild weather in January or soon afterwards. This is important, because scions cut off when wanted for grafting often fail, whilst shoots cut off early in the year and kept in the soil in a shady place until the stocks have begun to grow, nearly all succeed when grafted. The end of March or beginning of April is the proper time to operate. The sap is then sufficiently active to effect a speedy union of stock and scion, and that without danger of gumming, provided the cuts are clean, and the wounds covered without delay with grafting- wax. Claying is not n,early so good as plastering the wounds with grafting- wax, which stops any exudation and prevents gumming. Whether budding or grafting is practised, stocks for dwarf trees should be worked at 6 to 9 inches from the ground, quarter standards at 18 inches, half standards at 3 feet, three-quarter standards at 4 feet 6 inches, full orchard standards at 6 feet in height. Eiders or trees on tall stocks are sometimes employed for covering the upper part of high walls, or buildings where cattle have access to the lower parts, the stems there being protected, and are usually 7 feet 6 inches in height. The seedling or stock cherries grow faster and straighter than the cultivated sorts ; therefore, it is advisable to form the stems of the stocks. Double grafting is a desirable method of securing the Gean, Heart, and Bigarreau cherries on Mahaleb roots for garden trees. The seedling Morello forms an excellent intermediary. Double grafting is exemplified in Vol. I., pages 128-130. Budding, however, is preferable to grafting. SITE AND SOIL. Situation. — The cherry does not succeed everywhere; at least, its cultivation in VOL. II. B 122 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. orchards is not practised in all districts. The principal counties in which cherries are produced in large quantities are Kent, Hertfordshire, and Buckinghamshire, where the ground is undulating. Perhaps the best possible site is a gentle southern slope, above the fog-line of the valleys and hollows of the neighbourhood, for cherry blossom rarely suffers from frost, except in low and level tracts. Dampness of soil or site is the cause of more gummed and wrecked cherry trees than unfitness of our climate for cherry production ; it may be observed that cherries, however, succeed in favourable sites and on every aspect from Cornwall to Morayshire. Cherries in gardens require the most open situations. They never succeed in low, damp parts, and detest still air. They thrive in borders at the sides of walks in bush, pyramid, or espalier forms, and trained to walls. The earliest varieties should be planted against south walls ; all varieties succeed on east aspects, also against west walls, but we do not advise west aspects when the fruit requires to be preserved some time on the trees after ripening, for there is there the greatest loss in cracked cherries than on any other aspect. North walls suit all the varieties of the Duke and Morello races. May Duke and others succeed there, and afford supplies of fruit until September, but the quality is not so good as that from sunnier aspects. The Gean, Heart, and Bigarreau varieties do not produce well on north walls. Soil. — The Kent cherry- orchards, especially those noted for producing the finest cherries seen in the world's greatest market ever since the time of Henry VIII., namely, those in the Sittingbourne, Newington, and Teynham districts, are on a deep loam, over- lying a calcareous sandstone (Kentish Rag). West Hertfordshire and Buckingham cherry- orchards are on deep loams, resting on silicious or calcareous strata. Cherries thrive on the soft sandy soil of Middlesex and Surrey, between Esher and Hampton Court ; they luxuriate on the dry, high, Epping plain, and the May Duke, which does not fruit well everywhere, bears abundant crops on the Woburn Sands, near Bedford. Fine cherries are also produced on the rather heavy soils of the flinty (calcareo-silicious) lands of East Kent ; and splendid trees, bearing abundant crops of Heart and Bigarreau cherries, are occasionally seen on the silicio-calcareous soil, overlying chalk, in some parts of Hertfordshire, many trees having a spread of over 60 feet, and being nearly as much in height. In these orchards on chalk, the Duke race are gummed wrecks, profitless skeletons. The cherry fails completely on a clay subsoil ; and only flourishes for a time on shallow loam overlying gravel, eventually gumming to death before attaining a great size or age, and it will not A CHERRIES— SOIL AND P/.AXJ/XG. 123 thrive ill shallow soils overly iiig chalk. Nor will it succeed in peaty soils without calcareous matter. In rich alluvial soils it thrives ouly on knolls having an unknown depth of sand below, in which water does not lodge. A free, deep soil suits the cherry. It prefers rain-wash — detritus worn from hill- sides, incumbent on rock ; soft, sandy loam, underlaid by sand ; light, melloir soil, over- lying sandstone; deep loams, interspersed with calcareous matter; and loams com- mingled with flints. All soil for cherries must be sweet, water not standing within several feet from the surface ; indeed, naturally drained soils only are suitable for large cultures. In gardens, any good loamy soil will grow cherries. If the soil be not suitable it can be made so by draining 4 feet from the surface, and appropriate blendings. Clay soil may be rendered sufficiently friable by the addition of one-third of light loam, or road scrapings, and a tenth of quicklime, mixed and left a few mouths to sweeten, then incorporated with the clay to a depth of 2 feet, loosening the bottom ; drift or sharp sand also renders the soil more porous. Old mortar rubbish may be added to soils deficient in calcareous matter, and those rich in humus, or vegetable matter, should also have a good liming. Where the soil is totally unfitted for the growth of the cherry, proper borders must be made, instructions for which will be given under " Culture under Glass." Deep stirring of natural soils is necessary for cherries on free stocks. Rank manure ought not to be mixed in the soil in preparing it for planting, but charred refuse, burnt clay, old mortar rubbish, and broken sandstone are valuable additions. Where the soil is unsuitable for trees on the wild cherry stock, such as strong, white, upland clays, or thin soils on chalk, or on gravel, trees on Mahaleb stocks may be chosen, then by mulching, top-dressing, and general good management, success may be expected, except in low, wet localities. PLANTING. Trees for their respective purposes should be selected from the nurseryman's stock, clean in bark, straight in stem, free from gum, and moderately strong in growth, with the wood firm, and the buds plump. They should be lifted carefully, the roots kept from the drying influences of the air, and the pernicious effects of frost. Planting may be performed as soon as most of the leaves have fallen, always in mild weather, and when the ground does not form into a puddle in working. The roots must be spread out evenly and straight, using some tolerably rich free soil under, amongst, and over * 2 iH THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. them, after cutting all broken ends smooth, proceeding in the manner detailed in the chapter on planting, pages 137-154, Yol. I. Distances for the Trees. — Trees on wild cherry stocks of the Bigarreau and Heart varieties as standards for orchards should he planted 30 feet apart, or 36 to 4.0 feet in rich soil ; those of the Duke and Morello races of the upright-growing sorts, such as May Duke, will be accommodated at 18 to 21 feet apart ; and the spreading kinds, such as Morello, at 21 to 24 feet apart. Wall trees, of the Bigarreau and Heart varieties, may be placed 24 feet apart, against walls of 12 feet or more in height ; May Duke and similar varieties 15 to 18 feet apart, allowing an increase of distance between the trees of double that of the decrease in walls below the above-mentioned height. Espalier trees should be planted at the distances named for walls, that is, 24 feet apart for the strong, and 15 to 18 feet apart for the moderate growers, having recourse to root-pruning if the trees grow too luxuriantly. Bushes and pyramids should be 12 feet asunder for the free-growing Bigarreau varieties ; May Duke and similar kinds answer at 9 feet ; but at those distances the trees must be subjected to root-pruning, of which trees on wild cherry stocks are impatient ; indeed, cherries on these stocks are only suitable for standards in orchards, and for covering large wall or trellis areas in good soils, or where root-pruning will not usually be necessary. The trees should be 3 feet further apart between the rows than in the rows. For espaliers, bushes, pyramids and cordons, cherry trees are most serviceable on Mahaleb stocks. The strong growers (double worked), for espaliers or walls, should be planted 15 to 18 feet apart; Duke and Morello races 12 to 15 feet apart; bushes and pyramids 6 feet apart in the first instance, thinning to 12 feet for the strong-growing sorts ; moderate growers 4J feet apart, thinning to 9 feet. If the trees are to be sub- jected to root-pruning, 3 feet less distance suffices for permanent trees, namely, 9 feet for the strong, and 6 feet for the moderate-growing kinds, at which distance they may be planted at first, or at half- distance, taking out every other tree when the permanent trees require room. Cordon trees : — single upright, 18 inches apart ; single diagonal, 2 feet apart ; strong growers, 6 inches more. Upright, three to six branched trees may be planted at the distance in feet corresponding to the number of branches. TRAINING. The forms usually employed are : 1, standard for orchards ; 2, bush and pyramid j — TRAINING. , 25 3, fan and horizontal for espaliers, walls, and trellises ; 4, cordons. The requisite details for producing these forms, generally from the maiden to the fruiting tree, have been given under their respective headings (pages 1 — 25), but a few remarks on each, having special reference to the cherry, are imperative. Standards.— This shape will be found under " Apple," page 26. It is impor- tant that the stem be sturdy and tapering so as to insure its supporting the head erect. This is effected by encouraging side-growths moderately, but not allowing tin -in to interfere with the leader, and they must not remain beyond the autumn, but be cut close to the stem in October, and the wounds dressed with shell-lac solution. In forming the head, the first three growths should be originated as far apart as is consistent with the object in view, taking them at an angle of not less than 45° to the stem, for when the branches come out at an acute angle, gumming is often engendered ; therefore, select those to remain that start nearly at a right angle. This is more necessary to be observed with the upright-growing varieties than those which are spreading and pendulous. Spring is the best time to shorten the growths of young cherry trees, just when the buds commence bursting. Upright growers should be pruned to outside buds ; spreading growers may be shortened to inside buds. Strong growers should be left longer at the first pruning than the moderate-growing sorts, shortening Bigarreau and similar vigorous kinds to 15 to 18 inches, taking one shoot at the end, and the other 3 or 4 inches lower on each branch, thereby allowing room for the branches to swell without colliding. Other shoots may be rubbed off, preferably pinched. After the six principal branches are originated, pruning will be limited to keeping the head open, preventing the growths crossing each other, and maintaining equal vigour as nearly as possible in the principal branches. Fan-trained trees. — These may be originated as described for that form on page 184, Vol. I., starting the growths about 6 inches apart on the stem, and afterwards forking them so as to cover the space equally with branches at 9 inches asunder for Duke cherries, and 1 foot for the Bigarreau, and similar strong-growing sorts. A few illus- trations will explain this mode of training the cherry. The maiden tree, A (Fig. 40), is cut down to 1 foot from the ground in autumn or early spring, as shown by the bar. This causes several shoots to push the following summer ; three only of the sturdiest and best situated ought to be retained, as indicated by the dotted lines, C. If all the shoots were allowed to remain the branches would ultimately become jammed, and gum disease follow as the consequence. This ought to be guarded I2D THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. against by rubbing off the superfluous growths whilst quite young, as shown in the detached foliate shoots in B. The tree is then prevented wasting its energies on worse than useless shoots, as indicated in dotted outline, and the shoots retained benefit by the sap concentrated upon them, and the wood thereby becomes stouter, with freer channels, also thicker and more elastic bark. These are important considerations in laying the foundation of the future tree ; therefore remove all the growths that push in the first year of training, except the leader />, and side shoots q. Train the side shoots at an angle of about 45°, depressing the strong and elevating the weak, so as to insure equal vigour in both. If any laterals are produced, pinch them at the first leaf, and to one joint of sub- sequent growth. When the leaves fall, or preferably in early spring, shorten each branch Fig. 40. OBIGINATING FAN-SHAPED CHEERY TREE. References : — A, maiden tree, headed. B, one-year-trained tree, showing disbudding and shortening ; p, leader ; q, side shoots. C, two-years- trained tree, indicating pruning. to 6 inches from its base. This for the Duke and Morello races ; the Bigarreau and similar strong-growing sorts should have the branches shortened to 9 inches, always to plump well-situated buds. The second pruning is represented by the bars in B. In the second year of training ( C) a leader and two side shoots are taken from the leading branch, reserving the side growths near the upper part so as to obtain a good distance between them and the first side branches, rubbing off all others on the stem, as shown by the detached growths. The side branches will push several growths. Two only must be retained for extension on each, and as near as practicable at their extremities, pinching the remainder at the fifth leaf (or third, not counting the basal leaves), and subsequent growths from them at the first leaf. Some of the growths on CHERRIES— TRAIXfXG. i*7 the side branches will not elongate beyond a few leaves. These may be spurs, and will form blossom buds for fruiting another year. The temptation is strong to retain them all, but that is not wise, because more are produced than there is ultimately room for; therefore some of the growths ought to be rubbed off, leaving the shoots for stopping or spurs about 4 inches apart, and removing all those on the side next the wall. This is apt to be overlooked in the training of the young tree, and the consequences are the branches are formed on the wrong side, and have to be cut away, or brought into position at an acute angle when the tree is planted in its permanent place. Be careful to retain no more growths than those absolutely necessary to form the framework of the tree and furnish the branches with spurs. Keep the stem clean and the branches duly provided, yet not overcrowded, with spurs. The tree marked for its third pruning is shown in C. The leader is shortened to G inches, the upper side branches to 9 inches each, and the pinched growths are cut back to an inch of their base. The lowest side branches, which have been forked, need not be shortened, because they are the proper distance apart, and from their position will push essential growths their entire length, consisting mainly of spurs, with an extension shoot at the extremity of each. In the third season the tree will produce some fruit, generally more than is represented in the illustration (Fig. 41), for fruit is generally borne on the preceding year's wood. If the tree is intended for a low wall or espalier two growths only need be encouraged from the leader, and two from each of the upper side branches and a continuation growth from each of the four lowest branches. This is portrayed in the right side of the tree, Fig. 41, the disbudding and stopping being identical with those of the preceding season. If the tree, however, is intended for training to a high wall, a leader must be encouraged, and this shortened to 12 inches at the next winter pruning, as indicated by the line across the shadowed leader. Three growths should be taken from the leader the following year, as shown in the dotted lines. The other branches will not need shortening, for they will push growths vigorously, and two should be encouraged from the extremity of each as required for covering the space with branches at the proper distance apart. This is ample for furnishing the lower part of the wall, and the upper part can easily be clothed by shortening the leader for originating the requisite number of branches. It is usual by this method to train the bottom pairs of branches horizontally, keeping these longer than the others as growth is advancing, so that the entire wall or trellis space may be covered with fruitful wood, 128 THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE. Assuming the tree (Fig. 41) to be intended for training to an ordinary wall or trellis, the two central branches only will need shortening to the extent indicated by the bars, the remaining eight being left intact. In the fourth year two shoots should be taken forward from each of the cut-back branches, and two from the end of each of the next two branches on both sides of the tree, the two lowest branches being continued as in the previous year. With proper attention the tree will be well furnished with branches of equal vigour and not require any winter pruning, except shortening lateral growths, which will be treated presently. Fig. 41. FAN-SHAPED CHERRY TREE, THREE YEARS FROM THE MAIDEX. In the fifth year two growths should be encouraged from the extremity of each of the four branches originated by shortening the two central growths at the fourth pruning, but a continuation of the growth of the remainder will only be necessary for giving the requisite number of branches at the proper distance apart. The tree will then be in the form of a semicircle by the end of the fifth year's training, and in a healthy, fruitful condition, as represented in the engraving, Fig. 42. After the tree is fully furnished, as depicted on the opposite page, the branches only need continuing and forking as required to cover the space equally with bearing wood CHERRIES— TRA IN ING. 129 until the limit is reached; then all growths must be treated as detailed under " Spurs." The numerals indicate the year's growth of the tree. For espaliers and low walls the branches are often trained horizontally after being originated in fail fashion, taking them up with a gentle curve to their respective positions on the wall or trellis, then continuing them without branching. This method is superior to horizontal training from the first, because the lower branches are more or less inclined upward, and any vacancy occurring through accident is easily filled by training in fresh growths. This is impracticable in true horizontal training ; hence fan training is most appropriate for all kinds of stone fruit trees. Two distinct systems of Fig. 42. FAN-SHAPED CHEHRY TREE, FULL TRAINED. training, however, are practised on the cherry. The plan described, or modified forms of fan training, is that usually followed with the Gean, Heart, Bigarreau, and Duke varieties: those producing fruit on spurs over an indefinite period from the principal branches ; but the Morello cherry requires a different mode of training, owing to its bearing most profitably on the shoots of the preceding year's growth. Therefore, we proceed to give instructions in pruning those varieties that produce their fruit on spurs when full trained. Mode of Bearing. — The cherry produces its fruits on spurs, and on young wood of the preceding year. This applies to all the races and varieties without distinction when grown in natural form, namely, as standards, and not restricted to space by pruning. VOL. II- S THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE. The branches extend annually, and some of the buds formed on the shoots made each year are blossom buds, often all, except one or two at the extremity, arid a few at the base. In some cases there is a sprinkling of wood buds along the shoots ; those develop into spurs the following year. An illustration (Fig. 43) will enable the un- initiated to distinguish the different growths and buds. Summer Pruning. — Whilst the tree is young and foliage is required to accelerate root action, the summer shoots may be allowed to make more growth before short- ening than is desirable after it becomes thoroughly established. The side shoots, how- ever, must not be allowed to interfere with the leaders, but be kept subservient to them by pinching when they are likely to compete for vigour with the leading growths. In the first few years the side shoots may be allowed to grow until midsummer or later, say to a length of 1 foot, and then be shortened to five leaves — or about 3 inches in length, pruning those on the upper branches a week or ten days before those on the lower parts of the tree. This will tend to equalise vigour, imparting it to the lower branches and causing the leader to make more progress. Subse- quent growths from the shortened shoots should be pinched at the first leaf as made. The leading shoots, those at the ends of the branches, or emanating from the stem to form branches, need not be shortened where space admits, for they will form wood buds throughout their length whilst young, these for the most part developing into spurs the following season ; or when the flush of youth is past, and they are not made to push strong growths by shortening, they will set fruit buds in the year of formation, with some wood buds interspersed, yet not always, as shown in the above illustration, E, and the finest cherries are produced from such young shoots the following year, Fig. 43. CHEEKY SPUES, FETTITING BEANCH, AND ONE YEAE'S WOOD. References: — D, spurs from last year's wood, with blossom buds clustered at their ends and a wood bud at the extreme points, r, and at their bases, s. E, one year's shoot ; t, wood buds ; «, blossom buds. F, fruiting branch ; v, current year's shoots ; w, spurs on last years' wood ; x, two-years' spurs, fruiting ; y, fruit produced from blossom buds on preceding year's wood. CHERRIES— PRUNING. 131 The foregoing procedure applies to standard as well as espalier or wall trees whilst extending. The summer pruning of standard trees is not attended to so much as they require to keep the heads open and let the sunshine right down to the base of the branches. Standard cherries may be as conveniently primed in their early years as wall or other form of trees. This consists in removing ill-placed and superfluous shoots, and shortening those desirable for converting into spurs. A tree is then reared with sturdy branches, not crowded but with space between them for the head and shoulders of a man for performing cultural operations, also for admitting light, air, and heat to the centre of the tree. Disbudding, alluded to in forming the trees, is preferable to removing superfluous growths after they become strong and woody, as there is less danger of gumming ; and in removing, or thinning and shortening the spurs, which are apt to form on old trees in clusters, it is best to operate in summer after the fruit is gathered, thinning them neatly out, cutting away the parts furthest from the branch, and retaining those nearest to it, in order that the sun may have free access, and the fruit benefit by its influence. The treatment of the summer growths and spurs will be made clear to the inexperienced by the engravings on the next page. Summer pruning should be performed in June and July, full-grown trees having all the growths pinched at the fourth or fifth leaf. This includes the basal leaves, and is represented in the illustration, Fig. 44, G, also the subsequent pinching. These growths should be shortened early in October to an inch of their base, or just above the second or third joint, counting the basal buds, which in favouring circumstances will have been converted by the stopping into semi-spurs, namely, prominent double or triple buds, and one a wood bud. If the last is not present, the shoot must be cut back to the first wood bud beyond the fruit buds, for it is essential that all pruning be made at a wood bud, or to a spur having one or more wood buds, so as to provide for future growth and crops. Spurs ought to be thinned or shortened from the middle to the end of August, or as soon afterwards as the fruit is gathered, and all pruning needed by the cherry should be completed in October. The Guignes and Bigarreaus are very impatient of pruning, and should be allowed to extend as much as possible until their vigour becomes subdued by bearing; then they are nearly as tractable as the May Duke and Morello races. Winter pruning will not be required, except for shortening shoots in young trees to originate growths for furnishing them with branches in proper places. This is best done in October, or in spring when the buds are swelling. s 2 jji THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE, Training Morello Cherries. — Eeference has already been made to the Morello class of cherries. Some of these are cross-bred with the Duke race and produce fruit freely on spurs, but others, especially the Morello itself, produce slender shoots, and bear on those of the preceding year's growth; all the buds along the shoot are often blossom buds, with a wood bud only at the extremity, and one or more at the Fig. 44. CHEERY.— SUMMER PRUNING, SPUR FORMATION, SHORTENING SPURS. References: — G, shoot pinched, namely, z, first at fifth leaf; a, lateral to one leaf; b, sub-lateral at first leaf; c, point of shortening at winter pruning ; d, wood buds j e, blossom buds ; there is a wood bud on the other side of buds, but it is not shown. H, last year's formed spur, producing fruit and forming spurs /; g, growth from basal wood bud, pinched at fifth leaf, point of shortening in autumn indicated by the bar. I, spur become crowded, extent of shortening needed represented by the bar ; /, attenuated spur requiring shortening to the bars ; K, spurs on branches of standard trees ; ft, two-year spurs ; iy three- year spurs ; j, four-year spurs ; k, thinning indicated by the bars ; I, shortening by the bars. base. This is a characteristic of all varieties grown as standards. The Duke and its cross-bred varieties make stubby growths, and are more amenable to spur pruning than varieties which make long and less sturdy shoots; the latter are pruned into sterility, or produce less abundantly than on the spur system. Thus we find the —TRA 1X1XG. '33 Bigarreau, Guigne, and Heart varieties in the freer growers almost sterile as close pinched bushes and spur-pruned against walls, whilst trees of the same varieties in orchards are borne down by their weight of fruit. Those, therefore, that do not produce large fruit freely on the spur system should be treated as advised for the Morello, making allowance for the increased size of growth and foliage. The fruit of Morellos being produced on young wood, the summer growths ought to be thinly disposed but not shortened. A suc- cession of such young wood must be maintained, and whilst some shoots are bearing others should be trained in to replace them, •for at the end of the year the bearing part must be cut away. The most advantageous method of training the Morello Cherry is the fan, originating the principal branches as described under Mg' 45' T™-™» SB^AK-TB^ MOBELLO CHBBET. References : — m, leader marked for pruning ; n, side shoot not shortened. ApriCOt modified Ian, ^ extension branches bearing fruit on previous year's growth ; o, leaders of but the growths must be extension branches ; p, side shoot from end of preceding year's wood ; q, side shoots from base of previous year's growth ; r, side shoot of previous year treated in the manner shown bearing fruit ; s, successional shoot from base of current bearing shoot, to fruit ,, . -,-,. ,- the following year. M, leafless sub-branch ; t, extension shoot ; u, side shoots in the engraving, Fig. 45, , . , . , , . , , , , „ . , , . bid-IB near end of previous year s wood for following year a bearing ; v, basal in which is shown an shoot for future year's bearing ; w, side shoot, fruited, cut away ; -, .. was pruned the former year, and it follows in shoot ; L, grab, enlarged ; M, pupa, enlarged ; 2v, moth, enlarged : lines on the left, natural expanse and the pith downwards, eating until full-fed J then, after gnawing an exit hole to the outside of the branch, it turns into pupa in the stem. The caterpillar is fleshy, whitish, with a brown head. Its attacks are most prevalent in black, red, and white currant bushes, but it also infests gooseberry bushes. Preventives consist in catching the moths, either when settled on currant leaves, or flying around the flowers of lilac and other shrubs. Spraying the bushes early in June with the petroleum emulsion or resin compound (page 261, Vol. I.) renders them obnoxious to the moths, which consequently deposit their eggs elsewhere. Shoots or branches becoming sickly should be cut off just above a joint with healthy growths, and burned. If the wood is split the grub will be found in the pith. Sickly branches must not remain longer than pruning time, nor suffered to lie about in gardens and orchards. CURRANTS— ENEMIES. ,67 Woolly Currant Scale (Pulvinaria ribesire, Signoret).— This pest occurs on black, red, and white currant bushes, also on some species of Ribes and Pyrus. It has infested currant bushes for many years, but has not spread to any great extent ; yet it recurs at intervals, and appears to have been acclimatized since 1880. It was introduced from the Continent, and has increased more of late years than formerly through increased com- mercial intercourse. The scale resembles that of the vine, but is smaller, thicker, and more heart-shaped, longer in the embryo state, and with more cottony matter, which is drawn out by the young scales in all directions, extending from branch to branch in web-like order. They appear about midsummer, and are then readily destroyed by spraying with Coates' wash (page 260, Vol. I.), or resin compound. In winter spray the bushes with the above-mentioned caustic solution, or dress them thoroughly with Taylor's composition (page 191, Vol. I.). Trees against walls and in warm situations are the most liable to infestation. Red spider and thrips occasionally infest currant bushes, and should be destroyed by the remedies prescribed for each in Vol. I., pages 269 and 274 respectively. Lichen and moss weaken the growths and harbour insect pests. We have only to repeat that a dusting with quicklime in winter whilst the bushes are damp with mist or fog destroys the incrustations, and is a good preventive of birds taking the buds. EUGENIA. TjlUGrENIA (Myrtus) Ugni has not proved equal to the high commendations lavished I/ upon it when first introduced as a fruit-bearing shrub said to be adapted to the milder situations of this country. It is not sufficiently hardy to succeed against south walls, except in the south of England. It is a native of Chili (Valdivia), where the fruit is much esteemed ; it is the size of a large black currant or small cherry, somewhat flattened, globular, and crowned with persistent calyx teeth, brownish-red or glossy black, with an agreeable aroma. The pulp is light-coloured, soft, and juicy, with a sweet and spicy flavour, which is very pleasant to the palate. The juice expressed from the fruit, and mixed with water, furnishes a refreshing drink, with an aromatic odour. Eugenia Ugni is an evergreen greenhouse shrub of myrtle-like appearance, and bears white flowers on axillary pedicels, from the well-ripened wood. It is raised from cuttings of half- ripe shoots, or those becoming firm at the base, inserted in sandy soil, under a bell glass, or in a close frame. The young plants should be placed in 3-inch pots and grown with a single stem, in a light airy position in the greenhouse, pinching off the point of the shoot when 6 inches high, and the resulting growths at 3 or 4 inches ; they will then form thrifty bushes if transferred to larger pots. They grow well in a mixture of three parts fibrous loam, one part each of fibrous sandy peat and leaf soil, with one part of crystal sand and charcoal in equal proportions, to maintain sweetness and porosity. The soil must be pressed down firmly whether the plants are grown in pots or planted in borders. Fig. 54. EUGENIA UGNI. YE 093-'r7 G1S502 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UBRARY