UC-NRLF 1 B IS Lane's Prince Albert. Chelmsford Wonder. i — v E I Alpine Strawberries. VOL. III. J. S. VIRTUE & CO., • • • " .»* .*»•*• • **•»•••» .." *•••.••.»* . • «••• •••*• • Bellegarde. Grosse Mignonne Barrington Goshawk. m p Count Althann's Gage Doyenne du Cornice. Souvenir du Congrbs. O <5 O <•" , -v . (o MAIN PLUMS AND DAMSONS— SELECTIONS OF VARIETIES. '77 Twelve for south walls. * E.-irly Favourite. 'tDenniston's Superb. De Montfort. Early Transparent Gige. * P.oddaert's Green Gage, t Jefferson. * Purple Gage. Transparent Gage. * Kirke's. Btyraiton Gage. *fCoe's Golden Drop. Ickworth Impe'ratricp. Twelve for east or west walls. * Czar. 'tBelgian Purple. Belle de Lou vain. Prince of Wales. "I Victoria. Prince Engelbert. * Pond's Seedling. * White Magnum Bonum. Washington. 'tMonarch. Blue Imperatrice. Grand Duke. Twelve firr north walls. 'tEarly Prolific. Czar. Heron. * Belgian Purple. Sultan. 'fGisborne's. Pershore. * Victoria. "fMitchelson's. * Prince Engelbert. Diamond. Monarch. Twelve for dessert as pyramids . * Oullins Golden. 'tDenniston's Superb. Early Transparent. * McLaughlin. Gage Green. Purple Gage. * t Jefferson. Decaisne. •fKirke't, Bryanston Green Gage * Eeine Claude de Bavay. Irkworth Imperatrice. Twelve for culinary as pyramids. 'tEarly Prolific. Czar. *1 Belgian Purple. Belle de Louvain. 'tVictoria. * Prince Engelbert. Washington. * Diamond. Belle de Septembre. * Monarch. Archduke. Grand Duke. Twelve for standards in gravelly or calcareous soils. •tEarly ProliBc. Early Orleans. Goliath. Prince of Wales. "fGisborne's. Denbigh. "•(•Victoria. * Mitchelson's. Jefferson. * Winesour. White Magnum Bonum. * Wyedale. Twelve for standards in strong soil.-, 'tCzar. Heron. Perdrigon Violet Hatif. * Denniston's Superb. 'tBelgian Purple. Sultan. Belle de Louvain. 'tPrince Engelbert. * Diamond. * Monarch. Archduke. Grand Duke. Twelve for standards in tie north. 'tCzar. Denniston's Superb. Belgian Purple. Sultan. 'tGisborne's. "tMitchelson's. Prince Engelbert. * Victoria. Diamond. * Winesour. Monarch. * Wyedale. * Six of preceding twelve. t Three of preceding twelve. Six damsons. Rivers' Early. Frogmore. "tCrittenden. White. * Prune. "tBradley's King. * Three of preceding six. t Two of preceding six. PROPAGATION. This is effected by seeds, suckers, layers, budding, and grafting. Seed. — It is not desirable to raise trees from stones for perpetuating varieties. Mr. Knight raised Ickworth Imperatrice from the Imperatrice Violette, pollenised with Coe's Golden Drop, and Mr. Rivers originated Czar from Prince Engelbert, crossed with VOL. Ill, A A T: f, ; a;» .'• , .,*..-.- . > 178 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. Early Prolific, a seedling from Precoce de Tours. These are instances of artificial cross- breeding having good results, and this method should he practised for raising superior varieties. Care must be taken to prevent self-fertilisation, by enveloping the flowers in gauze bags. Remove all the stamens before the pollen is ripe and apply the farina of the desired variety carefully to the stigmas. Propagation by seeds is the ordinary method followed to provide stocks for budding and grafting. The Mussel is generally employed for standards ; St. Julien and White Pear plum for other forms of trees, and these are raised by layers or suckers from stools, but those raised from seed are less liable to produce suckers. The Myrobalan plum also is used as a stock (seepage 112, Yol. I.). The stones may be sown when taken from the fruit, or stratified in sand till early in the spring, sowing them in rich sandy soil in drills 3 inches deep, allowing an inch between the stones, and the drills 9 inches apart. The seedlings will be ready for transplanting by the following autumn and strong enough to bud or graft in the third year. Suckers. — Plum trees, as a rule, produce too many of these, and it is not advisable , encourage them by employing suckers of the common kinds for stocks from the pre- disposition of such to produce them. It is, however, an easy way of obtaining stocks. Layers. — Trees raised by this method produce fibrous roots, and have been recom- mended for pot culture. It is only necessary to bend a branch down to the ground, partially cut it through on the under side below a bud, peg it about 3 inches in the ground, keep moist, and detach the following autumn, afterwards treating as separate trees. To prevent the pushing of suckers the buds on the part placed in the soil must be carefully cut out. Budding. — July is the best season for performing this most desirable method of per- petuating and increasing esteemed varieties. Care must be taken to use well-developed buds, and to operate when the bark parts freely from the wood ; also to insert wood buds only. Shield budding is the most approved mode (see Vol. I., pages 115 — 120). The buds are best inserted about 6 inches from the ground, and even for standards the scion should be allowed to make its own stem. Grafting. — The scions must contain wood buds and be taken off in December or January, keeping them in earth behind a north wall or fence until the sap rises in the stocks, as will generally be the case early in March, sooner or later according to season. At that time the stocks should be headed down near to where the scions are to be attached. Either whip or cleft grafting may be practised, but there is less danger of gum PLUMS A.\J) DAMSONS— SITUATION AND SOIL. 179 ensuing by the former method (see Yol. I., pages 120 — 128). Except for special purposes, grafting piuins is not generally advisable. SITUATION AND SOIL. Situation. — Wherever cereal crops are capable of successful cultivation, it is practic- able to utilise sites not fitted for tillage with the hardier varieties of plums. The site must be open to every ray of light. Shelter, such as that of hills or woods at a distance, aid .s the cultivator immensely in the production of the choicest plums, slopes being better than flat ground, and ridges superior to hollows, but the chief consideration is the free access of light and air. Provided the atmosphere is dry, plum blossom and the tender fruit suffers little from spring frosts, but in low damp sites the crops are ruined by night dews congealing in spring on the blossom and foliage, causing the former to fall and the latter to " silverleaf." Plenty of light, abundant air, with shelter from bleak points, are the essentials of a site for plums. Soil. — The success of one kind of plum in one district and its comparative failure in another points to the cultivator having strict regard to the soil as well as to the climate. Damsons seem to be at home everywhere. Gisborne's plum succeeds in a strong chalky clay, and it is equally at home in light soil. Pershore seems to like a " holding " staple as it hardly fruits in sandy soil. Winesour is of little use without limestone. Wyedale delights in the semi-vegetable loams and irony soils of Cleveland ; this plum is a step from the damsons to the plums. Orleans and its descendants- Cox's Emperor, Prince of "Wales, and Goliath like warm soils. The Czar and Sultan are equally at home in any ordinarily good medium, and the Victoria appears thoroughly cosmopolitan, thriving almost everywhere, yet best on a chalky strong loam or clay. Early Prolific loves calcareous clay interspersed with gravel. Belgian Purple and Prince Engelbert, with Coe's Golden Drop, are less fastidious as to soil ; also Pond's Seedling, Diamond, and Monarch — these, with Jefferson, Kirke's, and White Magnum Bonum, thriving in light loams as well as those verging on clay. Gages prefer a calcareous loam — the blending of brick-earth and limestone (Kentish Hag). Twelve to 15 inches' depth of good soil, incumbent on a calcareous clay, and well drained, is the soil par excellence for plums, for it is of a sustaining nature, and holds the manures applied for the benefit of the trees. This is important, for they carry at times such enormous crops as to require more support than other fruit trees to prevent exhaustion. A deep and rich soil is prolific of wood rather than fruit, and favours A A 2 r8o THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE. gumming or damage to the young growths from frost. Firming loose rich soils answers better than stirring them. Clayey marl mixed with light soil renders it unctuous and with top-dressings of manure, good plums follow. It is not desirabk to add manure to the ground at first and in stirring or trenching, the good soil should be kept on the top. In breaking up grass land for plum trees it is not advisable to bury the turf at the bottom of the trench ; it should not be covered deeper than is necessary to destroy the herbage and insure clean cultivation. Aspect. — The finest plums require the best aspect. South walls facilitate the ripen- ing and enhance the quality of the fruits, and, therefore, such should be utilised for early supplies of the choicer varieties. On west aspects the fruit is more liable to crack than on east walls ; consequently varieties not liable to be influenced pre- judicially by prolonged wet should be chosen, such as the Czar, Sultan, Prince Engelbert, Pond's Seedling, White Magnum Bonum, Yictoria, Monarch, Autumn Compote, and Blue Impe'ratrice. East walls suit all the gages, and the richly flavoured Jefferson, Kirke's, and Coe's Golden Drop. North walls answer for free-bearing plums, for supplying fruit for culinary purposes. Similar remarks apply to trees trained to fences. AEBAKOEMENT or TBEES. Orchards. — The plum does not make a large and lofty tree. For orchards in grass, where calves, poultry, and sheep are kept with mutual benefit, the free-growing varieties, such as the Czar, Green Gage, Gisborne's, Victoria, Jefferson, Monarch, and damsons, should be planted 21 feet apart. In good soils the distance may be increased ; in firm and shallow mediums it may be lessened. Orchard standards should have clear stems of 6 feet. For fruit plantations where the soil is firm the trees may be arranged in lines 15 feet apart for the moderate growers, and 18 for the more robust. In low standard form (4-feet stems), with gooseberries and currants in the intervening spaces, the trees may be planted 12 feet apart in rows 15 feet asunder. Low standards are convenient and easily managed. Bushes and Pyramids. — These are excellent for fruit plantations; 10 feet every \\-.\\ is not too great a distance to allow in good soil ; in a firm medium 9 feet from tree to tree answers well. If only free bearers are grown, and root-pruning is practised on unruly trees, they may be 6 feet apart in rows 9 feet asunder. Pyramidal trees are prodigies of fruitfulucss under the lifting treatment ; they may be planted in borders PLl'MS AXI) DAMSOXS— PLANTING AND TRAINING. 181 of the same width the trees are apart — 6 feet. Vigorous growers require 9 feet, and at 12-t'eet distance they make large handsome trees. Cordon, Espalier, and Wall Trees. — Upright cordons : plant 15 inches, diagonal 18 inches apart. These forms must have firm soil and be lifted to keep them fruitful. Espaliers : strong-growing kinds plant 21 feet apart, moderately vigorous 15 feet from tree to tree. Excessive vigour must be checked by root-pruning, and it is advisable to thin out the crowded spurs. Against walls 12 feet high plant the trees 15 feet apart; walls 10 feet, trees 18 feet; walls 8 feet, trees 21 to 24 feet apart. Plum trees succeed admirably against low walls or fences, when the soil is firm and the roots are not mutilated by digging. PLANTING AND TRAINING. Planting —November is the best time for planting, as the trees then immediately commence re-establishing themselves. Young trees move more safely and break far more freely and strongly than those of several seasons' growth, but old trees will bear removal provided they have been frequently transplanted previously. Spring planting answers very well if the roots are not dried and the work is done during mild weather, with the ground in good working order. In planting, keep the trees slightly above the ground level, as the soil is sure to settle down. Stake securely, and mulch from the stem to a little farther all round than the roots extend with partially decayed manure. Cut the heads closely back before the buds break in the spring, only leaving three or four buds on the young shoots. In the summer some of the small shoots must be removed to keep the trees open, the best growths being so disposed as to form a well-balanced head, sun and air having free access to every part. Under good management on the lines indicated the trees will bear fruit abundantly the third year. Training. — The fan method (present volume, page 135) is the best for walls, as, should any of the branches die, others can be trained in their places. If the tree is a maiden, it should be cut down in the autumn or early spring to 12 inches from the ground, and three to seven shoots trained in from the upper 6 inches of the stem, equidistant on opposite sides, and disposed regularly, like the spokes of a wheel, over the wall surface. The growths must be secured as they advance, leaving sufficient room in the ligatures to prevent contraction. If laterals push, they may be pinched at every leaf. The inclination of the shoots should be such that, when they have grown 3 feet, they will be 9 to 12 inches apart, the lowest shoots being 1 foot from the ,82 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. ground. By the procedure represented in Fig. 35, Q, R, present volume, page 135. the tree will cover a large extent of wall surface by the third year, and commence bearing fruit. Cordon. — This form, whether against walls or for espaliers, is carried out in the same manner as detailed for apricots (Vol. II., pages GO — 62), as regards upright and diagonal, horizontal cordon training being treated on pages 21 — 23, Vol. II. This only applies to the leading growths or branches, for the mode of bearing in plums is somewhat different from that of apricots and apples and will be treated under " Pruning." Espaliers — The trees may be in fan form or oblique cordons. Horizontal training, as applied to the apple and pear, is not suitable for plums, and cordon training often necessi- tates root-pruning to check excessive growth. With proper attention to lifting, keeping • the soil firm and the surface mulched, the trees are very fertile. Bushes and Pyramids. — These very desirable forms for gardens may be shaped from the maiden by the methods described under " Pyramid Training," Vol. II., pages 1 — 10 ; "Bush Training," Vol. II., pages 10—15 ; or that detailed under "Apricots," Vol. II. , pages 79 — 80. These forms answer for gardens with the essential pruning for plums. Growers for market do not practise close pruning after shortening to secure the necessary number of branches, but the trees are allowed to assume their natural form and the branches are thinned when necessary, to prevent overcrowding. PRUNING. To operate successfully it is essential to have a right knowledge of the mode of bearing. The fruit is produced on the shoots of the preceding year, and on spurs. Characteristic summer growths are represented in the illustrations, Fig. 47, M—R. Summer Pruning. — It may be a wise saying that the less pruning the better for bearing. Terse advice, however, may lose force through its exclusiveness, and not to prune at all can only apply to trees which have passed the vigour of youth. When a tree has its growths confined to short stubby shoots, pruning would practically mean cutting off the following season's crop more or less. A tree bearing as in Fig. 47, M, does not admit of the use of the knife. The fruit of such tree may, however, be improved by a judicious thinning of the spurs and the removal of weak parts immediately the crop is gathered — by far the best time for the work. When a tree makes vigorous summer growth, 0 n, it is at the expense of fruit pro- duction, and by shortening such shoots at the winter pruning wood formation is still further augmented. By leaving the tshoot 0 n its full length it will usually form PLUMS AND DAMSONS— CHARACTERISTIC SUMMER GROWTHS. '83 Fig. 47. ClTABtCTEBISTIC SuMMEE GEOWTH8. References: — M, bearing at the point of the branch : /, stubby shoot ;g, spur. N, bearing on one-year-i.Ll wood : h, continuation branch growth ; i, secondary growth from the extremity of previous year's shoot ;j, stubby shoot ; k, spurs. 0, summer growths from one-year-old wood : I, natural spur ; ra, artificial spur ; n, vigorous extension shoot ; o, point of shortening at the winter pruning to originate growths for training in. P, result of leaving a vigorous shoot its full length : p, bearing on one-year-old spur ; q, bearing on an artificially-formed one-year-old spur ; r, spur? ; «, growth of the current year. Q, result of shortening a vigorous shoot at the winter pruning: t, natural spurs; u. shoots pinched to form spurs ; v, subsidiary growths for forming branches to cover the space ; «', continuation shoot of main branch. R, shoot pinched at the third leaf (x), not counting the basal leaves (y) ; z, laterals pinched to one lent ; a, sub-laterals pinched to one leaf ; ?>vpart desirable to be pinched off ; c, point of winter pruning. »84 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. spurs P r as shown, but the extension shoot P s will be of a more fruitful character, form- ing some blossom buds and semi-spurs. That is the way to secure the most fruit, and is the practice generally followed with wall and other trees. It is sometimes necessary to shorten a vigorous extension shoot to originate growths at certain places for the proper furnishing of the tree with branches and the profitable occupation of the space. If the shoot 0 n be shortened to about half its length 0, at the winter pruning, wood growth will follow, as shown in Q, a strong shoot (tv] from the extremity, two subsidiary shoots (v), of nearly equal vigour, while the growths (M) would have extended to about the length shown by the outlines, had they been let grow instead of being pinched to form spurs. Such are the principles upon which pruning plum trees must be carried out. Prune closely for the production of wood, or to multiply the growths and secure vigorous shoots at the right place ; then shorten little or not at all, as in P s. Eepressiug vigour by pinching is a useful aid to fruit production, but stopping strong shoots too closely causes the basal buds to start, and the result is a quantity of soft useless spray. Instead of this hard pinching to a certain number of leaves, it is better to omit counting the small bract-like basal leaves R y, and pinch off the point of the shoot above the third good leaf x. If the growth be only moderately vigorous, laterals may not push ; then there will be a profusion of blossom buds formed in the axils of the leaves, but if vigorous laterals issue from the uppermost buds, pinching them to one leaf z. Sub-laterals (a) should be pinched to one leaf as made. At the winter pruning the shoot may be shortened to firm wood immediately below the laterals c, thereby keeping the spur short. Disbudding must not be overlooked in plum trees. Strong young shoots often spring from various parts of the tree. If not required for laying-in, these may be rubbed off when quite small, while some of the less robust may be pinched. In the case of old trees it is desirable to remove some of the older branches to make way for younger wood. The best time to remove such as are weakly or undesirable growths is from June to September, as the wounds heal quickly then and the sap is diverted into other channels before the fall of the leaves. When a tree becomes enfeebled by any cause, it frequently pushes a number of erratic growths, which accelerate the destruction of the weaker branches. To prevent this it is necessary to cut out many weakly and some over-strong shoots. The safest plan is to remove some of the weaker and rub off those likely to be over- vigorous while they are small ; also the vigour of the young shoots retained may be subdued by the removal of part of each leaf. This weakens the growth, while not hindering the formation of the PLUMS AND DAMSONS— WINTER PRUNING. 185 buds, but the practice must not be too freely indulged in and cultural judgment should be exercised in the matter. Winter Pruning. — Where the growths have been properly manipulated in summer, u Pig. 48. SHOOTS AND SPURS OP THE PLTTM— WINTER FRUNINO. References : — S, natural one year's spur. T, stubby shoot, or long natural spur. U, short shoot : d, point of shortening. V, one-year shoot : e, blossom buds ; /, point of shortening to originate growths. IF, one and two- year wood : g, blossom buds on spurs ; h, point of shortening a spur ; »', extension shout, left entire or shortened to originate growths;.;', subsidiary shoot, left entire or cutout. X, three-year wood: k, point of shortening a long spur. Y, elongated spur : I, point of shortening. Z, result of shortening an elongated spur : m, point of shortening a pinched growth. the autumn or wintc r pruning will be confined to finishing anything then overlooked, and to do this in the right way it is necessary to have a certain knowledge of the VOL. III. B B i8t, THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. different growths. Those on one to three years old wood are shown in Fig. 48. The natural spur 8 has blossom buds, also terminal and basal wood buds : it must not be shortened, for to prune at the outline would be to cut off the prospect of fruit. For the same reason the long spur T may not be shortened to the outline, but left entire. The shoot Z7, overlooked at the summer pruning or purposely then left to prevent the lower buds starting, should be cut back to . a wood bud above or on a level with a blossom bud, as at d. An extension shoot ( V), or one trained in to form a subsidiary branch may be left entire, and fruiting spurs will push from the buds e in the following year. If more branches are needed for covering the space regularly, the shoot must be shortened to /, or at the basal outline above the wood buds, according to the place the branch requires to be divided. In the case of a branch extending, W, the extension i may be left its full length, also the subsidiary shoot/; but if more growths are needed at a certain place shortening can be done at any point, as all the buds are wood buds. If the subsidiary shoot is not required it should be cut clean out, instead of being shortened to the outline, which would result in spray difficult to restrain, while its entire removal concentrates the vigour on the main branch. When there is a reciprocal action between the roots and branches and the extensions are left their full length, say i, spur growth will issue from every wood bud the, following year and resemble the promising condition shown on the two-years' wood at g. Only long spurs may be shortened, as at h ; if the stubby fruitful spurs (g) were shortened to the wood buds near the base, fruit would be prevented, and wood growth incited. The spurs should be kept close to the branches as represented in the three-years' wood X. To prevent the undue elonga- tion of spurs, shorten any having that tendency at Jc. If this is neglected the spur will become impoverished at its base, as shown at Y. This should not be allowed and if it occur cut boldly off at I ; this will impart vigour to the spurs left and enable them to form blossom buds as at Z. When an elongated spur is shortened in the way described, some of the growths may push strongly ; these should be pinched in summer and shortened in autumn as at m. These principles apply to all forms of trained trees. The object is to maintain equal vigour in the branches and admit light and air freely to every part of the tree ; then it will be brought into the best condition for bearing full crops of fruit. Bush, pyramid, and low standard trees need very little priming after they are shaped and have arrived at a bearing age, for with firm soil, surface feeding and judicious cropping, they bear enormously. The removal of enfeebled parts and cross branches PLUMS AND DAMSONS—ROOT PRUNING AND MANURING. .87 before the leaves full, for the admission of light to those remaining, is about all the pruning required. If it be thought a little subsequent pruning is desirable, the sooner it is done after the leaves fall the better (page 165, Vol. I.). Root Pruning. — This method, if practised for checking exuberance, must be carried out with great care and judgment. Severe root pruning may cause the loss of a con- siderable part of the branches. When the shortening of strong roots is necessary, let it be done early in the autumn. Be careful to cut the ends smoothly, and not to bruise or damage other parts of the roots, or a profuse crop of suckers may follow. EOUXINK OPERATIONS. Manuring. — Manures applied from the fall of the leaf in autumn to the swelling of the buds in the spring should be of a durable nature. 1. Chemical manures host suited for the plum are ground bones or coprolites, and kainit; say three parts bone meal and two parts kaiuit, by weight, mixed and applied in the autumn as soon as the leaves have fallen and the pruning is completed. After the prunings have been burned and the ashes sprinkled on the ground, the mixture may be applied at the rate of 5 hundredweights per acre, 3^ pounds per rod, 2 ounces per square yard, pointing in very lightly. The mixture accelerates root formation, and sustains the crops, for it lasts more than one year. 2. Stable or farmyard manure, reduced to a workable condition, but not to a close soapy mass, may be applied in the autumn, or before the end of February, at the rate of 20 tons per acre, 2£ hundredweights per rod, 9 pounds per square yard. It should be distributed evenly and left on the. surface where the roots are matted, otherwise pointing in lightly early in the spring. These manures supply nutrient elements, and encourage surface roots. 3. Liquid manure from cesspools that receive the drainings of stables and cow- houses enriches the soil when applied in the winter, at which season the liquid may be used stronger than in summer. It should be well stirred. If thick and strong it may require twice its bulk of water, that is, one part thick liquid and two paits water. If applied to an orchard during the winter it makes a difference in the growth and crop of the trees the following summer. About 3 gallons may be applied to each square yard. Although it is often convenient to apply manures in the winter season, it is more economical to afford the needful nourishment when the trees can make the best use of the elements for building up their structures, and in the swelling of their crops. B B 2 1 88 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. Where bone meal and kainit have been supplied in the autumn or late winter, and the trees promise well for fruit, nitrogenous manure must be given in the spring, say nitrate of soda, 2£ hundredweight per acre, If pound per rod, 1 ounce per square yard. Instead of giving this dressing all at one time it is better to divide it into three, one when the buds are sufficiently advanced to show what the crop is likely to be, another when the fruit commences swelling after setting and the third when about half its full size. Protecting the Blossoms. — Trees against south and west walls have the blossoming accelerated and may require protection from frost ; also those in the open in warm situations and early seasons. Various methods of affording the needful shelter will be found on pages 193 — 197, Vol. I. The plum, being the hardiest of stone fruits, does not require so much protection as the apricot and peach and the materials casting the least shade, also admitting the most air, are the best, fish nets generally affording the needful shelter. Opaque material may only be used when the weather is so cold as to threaten the safety of the blossom or young fruit and it must be withdrawn immediately the frosts are gone. Dryness at the roots hinders the swelling of the fruit and prejudicially affects the health of the trees ; therefore regard must be had to the proper maintenance of moisture, affording the needful supplies to trees in dry positions. Feeding with liquid manure or sewage, properly diluted, is an absolute necessity for trees carrying heavy crops in dry seasons and sites. It is most important to supply liquid nourishment before the trees become distressed, and if the surface is covered with short manure the moisture will be conserved for some time. Syringing. — A forcible washing of the foliage occasionally with a hose or garden- engine is valuable in freeing it of insects and cleansing it from dust. It is best done in the evening. For dislodging insects the force of the water must be directed against the under side of the leaves ; for removing dust the water should be disti-ibuted over the tree. An occasional syringing in the evening of hot days greatly refreshes the trees and keeps red spider in check, but it must cease before the fruit changes colour for ripening. Thinning the Fruit. — The set of fruit in some years is several times greater than the trees can possibly bring to full size, high quality and profitableness. Some varieties are far more prolific than others, but most kinds bear excessively in what are called plum seasons — about every third year. This is mainly due to indulging in over-burdening crops and the result is temporary exhaustion — sterility for one or two years, often accompanied by loss of health and sometimes the collapse of the trees. Thinning the PLUMS AND DAMSONS— PERFECTING THE FRUIT. 189 fruit freely secures tne best results in the current crop and favours regular bearing. Thinning should commence about a fortnight after the flowers fade and be completed as soon as the fruits commence swelling, say a month or six weeks after setting. This is decidedly advantageous, for it is the stoning that taxes the energies of the trees. Cultivators must exercise judgment in thinning, always reducing the crop to what the tree appears able to bring to maturity. Perfecting the Fruit. — To secure fruit of the largest size, highest colour and best quality, it must, after being well thinned in the early stages of swelling, be duly exposed to light and air. Trees against walls often suffer from drought. Liquid nourishment must be supplied to the roots, followed by a good mulching, and the fruits must not be shaded by superfluous growths. Jefferson plums are green when ripened in the shade and Victorias pale red, whereas the first is mottled with pink on a rich yellow ground and the latter is brilliant red when exposed to the sun. Hexagon netting affixed to exclude bluebottle flies and wasps is necessary when choice plums are ripening, and in wet weather a light waterproof covering will prevent the fruits cracking. Gathering. — Plums for dessert must be evenly ripe, gathered by and with the stalk, then placed carefully in a shallow basket or tray to preserve the bloom and present the fruit at table without bruise or blemish. It should be gathered dry, but when this cannot be done the fruit may be placed after gathering in a vinery of ripe grapes or a sweet room, with a gentle circulation of air. Culinary plums cannot be too carefully handled nor be gathered too dry. Careless gathering means ruin to the trees by breaking off the spurs, and bruised fruits become partially or wholly decomposed after a few hours. They are not profitably disposed of, nor are they wholesome as food. Storing. — With careful handling and storing, some plums, such as the Golden Drop and Ickworth Imperatrice, will keep sound and excellent in quality a long time. They should be gathered before they are dead ripe, exposing them to dry air for a few days till they shrivel slightly ; then they may be laid singly on clean paper in boxes. They will keep for several weeks in a dry frost-proof room. CULTIVATION UNDER GLASS. Plums are more impatient of a forcing atmosphere than are any other stone fruit, yet with properly constructed and well-managed houses, they may be grown successfully under glass. iqo THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. Cool Hotises. — Simple lean-to houses against south-east, south, or south-west walls answer admirably. The main points to attend to are thorough ventilation, well-drained borders, and adequate supplies of water. The roof lights should be moveable, and the front and top lights open the whole length of tiie house. What are termed wall cases, (i feet in width, accommodate trees on the wall, and others on a lo\v trellis in front, say to the extent of one-third the distance up the sloping roof. These may be cordons and if properly restricted at the roots, they bear satisfactorily. It is better, however, to have trees with stems the height of the front lights or side of the hoiise. and train the bearing parts to a trellis fixed 9 to 12 inches from the glass. This gives less space, but the fruit is much finer than that produced by trees trained to the wall. When the house is 10 feet or more in width, bush, pyramid, or low-stemmed trees with round heads may be grown with great advantage, either planted out, or in pots or tubs at the tront, and so arranged as not to deprive the trees on the back wall of too much light. Span-roofed houses, with the ends north and south, or between north-east and south- west, are unquestionably the best for trees in standard form, a row of tall trees being dis- posed up the centre, and dwarfer on each side of the house. If grown in pots, it matters little what form the trees are in, nor what height or width the house, provided it is light and airy in the broadest sense ; the chief objects of growing plums under glass are to ensure crops independent of the weather, and to have a prolonged supply of superior fruit. A simple orchard house, with boarded sides, hinged boards opening the full length of the house, and the roof glazed with large panes of glass answers admirably for growing plum trees in pots. Varieties. — With a proper selection of varieties, a supply of fruit may be had from an unheated house from the beginning of July to November. Some of the culinary plums attain to a great size under glass, and are useful for dessert, exhibition, or kitchen use. A dozen varieties of each class, named in their order of ripening, are : — Dessert : Early Favourite, Oullins Golden, De Montfort, Denniston's Superb, Early Transparent Gage, Jefferson, Green Gage, Purple Gage, Transparent Gage, Kirke's, Coe's Golden Drop, and Ickworth Imperatrice. Kitchen : Early Prolific, Czar, Heron, Belgian Purple, Prince Engelbert, Washington, Victoria, Pond's Seedling, White Magnum Bonum, Monarch, Archduke, and Grand Duke. Culture. — Whether the trees are planted out or grown in pots, they require similar general management. The soil should bo rather stiffer and richer for pots than for PLUMS AND DAMSONS— TREES IX POTS. iqi borders. Strong calcareous loam, interspersed with flints or stones, needs no admixture for borders. Efficient drainage is necessary. Three parts of stiff maiden loam and one part of decayed manure, with a 9 -inch potful of bone meal and a quart of soot added to every 3 bushels of the mixture, make a suitable compost for potting. If the soil is deficient both in grit and lime, add a fifth part of sifted mortar rubbish ; if turfy, use Thomas' phosphate instead of bone dust. Drain the pots thoroughly with crocks or oyster-shells. Pot firmly and allow sufficient room above the soil for the large quantity of water required in the summer. Place the trees on a bed of rough ashes in a sheltered situation outdoors, surrounding the pots up to their rims with finer ashes. After a year's growth outside they may be placed under glass for fruiting. When trees two or three years from the bud or graft can be had established in pots it is better to purchase such than to rear them, as they will fruit the first year. Trees of that age, carefully lifted and placed in 10- or 12-inch pots early in the autumn, will produce some fruit the first season, but they are better established a year or more in pots. Trees' that are wintered outdoors should be returned to the house before the buds are so far advanced as to show colour, allowing each plenty of room for development. Each pot may stand on two bricks on the flat, with a little space between them, so that the roots will not pass into the soil, whilst there will be a free escape for water. When trees are kept under glass constantly the ventilators should be wide open during the winter, whenever the temperature is above the freezing point. The trees should start naturally in the spring and a circulation of air, except in severe weather, must always be maintained by leaving the ventilators open, more or less, day and night. Abundance of air and a dry atmosphere are essential to secure a proper set of fruit. By the time the fruits are swelling the sun will have considerable power and may be taken advantage of to accelerate growth by reducing the ventilation in the afternoon, airing early each fine morning on the sheltered side, when the wind is sharp and cold. In the summer the ventilators should be left open day and night, wire netting being placed over the openings to exclude birds. The trees must never suffer by lack of water. Flagging of the leaves ruins the crops. The soil should always be kept moist — trees in pots require water twice, some- times three times a day in the summer ; also surface dressings of rich compost, pieces of turf preferably, to encourage surface roots plentifully, which can be fed to any extent by liquid and sprinklings of chemical manures occasionally. Trees in borders require water less frequently, but there must be no deficiency ; yet over-watering should be 192 THE FRUTT GROWER'S GUIDE. avoided, the plum being impatient of extremes. As the fruit advances in ripening lessen the supplies of water and withhold liquid manure, but the foliage must not be •allowed to become limp through lack of moisture at tho roots. From the time the fruit is set, the trees should be syringed morning and afternoon until it changes for ripening, except on dull, cold days, when a genial atmosphere may be secured by clumping the paths and borders as they become dry. Syringing the trees must cease when the colouring of the fruit commences, and the atmospheric moisture be gradually reduced, but moderate humidity is necessary for the health of the trees. Hexagon netting is necessary to exclude wasps. After the fruit is removed recourse must be had to syringing, watering, and proper supplies of nourishment for the perfecting of the wood and buds for next year's crop. The trees should be placed outside as soon as the fruit is gathered, assigning them a sunny position, and duly attending to them in watering and syringing. Ke-potting or top-dressing is best done before the leaves fall. The object of these operations is to secure fresh roots in new material ; therefore, remove as much old soil as possible without excessive root disturbance — not carrying the reduction too far, and ram the soil firmly. In top-dressing trees in borders the old mulching should be removed, and fresh supplied after loosening the surface. If the trees are growing too freely, a few of the stronger roots may be severed and removed ; if exuberantly, they should be carefully lifted and root-pruned, re-planting with the roots near the surface and well firming the soil. If the trees are weakly or unsatisfactory, lift them, remove the old soil and re-plant in fresh over good drainage. As to the training and pruning of the trees, there is no material difference between those under glass and outdoors. Bush, pyramid, and round-headed trees on stems are the best both for pots and planting out on the natural system. A pyramid is easily formed by pinching the side shoots and topping the leader to secure the requisite branches, and the side shoots from these should be stopped at three leaves, taking care to avoid overcrowding. Pruning may be done in the spring, as the buds are then better distinguished by the inexperienced, but as soon as the fruit is gathered is the best time. Trees on trellises or walls require the pruning advised for fan-trained outside The trellises, as before advised, must be near the glass, for on back walls the trees are not very satisfactory, unless the house be a mere wall case — narrow and light. Those on trellises 18 inches from the glass are best treated on the alternative system. AV .LVD DAMSONS— ALTERNATIVE SYSTEM OF TRAINING. 193 It may be carried out very successfully on the "U " system, and as it is applicable to pears as well as to plums, an object lesson (Fig. 49) will be useful to beginners. The principles upon which this system is carried out differ only from long- pruning in the peach in that the bearing branches are triennial instead of biennial. E g. 4fl. ALTERNATIVE SYSTEM OP BEARING IN THE PLUH. References : — A , current year's shoots : ra, point of stopping ; o, unpinched shoot. B, one-year-old shoots or branches : p, point of shortening. C, growths and fruit from one-year-old branches. D, two-years' branches : q, point of shortening laterals. E, two-years' branch in bearing : r, point of cutting off after the fruit is gathered. V, three-years' branch after bearing : s, point of shortening to a dormant basal bud ; dotted outline— growth from basal bud. G, alternate system on short-pruning: t, one-year branches; it, two-years' branches — cut out after bearing; v, spurs. The branches are originated about 1 foot apart on opposite sides of the main stem and are trained in their full length unless likely to exceed the limit, when they may be pinched as at U n, say at 14 inches' length, the laterals being stopped as already advised. These must be cutback at the winter pruning ( V p). In the following VOL. IIT. c c IQ4 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. year the branch produces some fruit and forms spurs, either naturally or by pinching, the latter giving rise to a shoot from the base, as shown in W. At three summers' growth the branch is in full bearing ( F), and, being cut away to a basal growth or bud after the fruit is gathered, it will push a shoot the following spring to take its place and bear a full crop in the third year. The system can also be adopted on short-pruning principles, the shoots being stopped and blossom buds or spurs formed by close pinching, and after bearing these are cut to make room for others originated from their bases. This is applicable to all formal trees, including bushes and pyramids. The principle is shown in A, and may be denned " bearing on young wood instead of old weak spurs." It can be modified according to circumstances. Plum trees in pots are effective from a decorative point of view, when laden with showy fruits. Those with red fruit tell the best by artificial light, but yellow plums are very beautiful. Pyramids in 9- or 10-inch pots and carrying five dozen fruits, are also useful. One of the best for this purpose is the Czar, its bluish hue rendering the fruit singularly attractive (Fig. 50). Forcing. — Plums are impatient of artificial heat, yet they may be accelerated so a A to ripen in May or June. Three good dessert varieties for forcing are : Early Favourite, De Montfort and Early Transparent ; the Czar, Belgian Purple and Victoria also being useful. These afford a succession of fruit over six weeks. Instead of long successional supplies from one house it is better to divide the varieties into sections and plant each in separate houses or compartments, say (1) Early Forcing : Early Favourite, Oullins Golden, Czar, Belgian Purple; (2) Midseason: Early Transparent, Jefferson, Prince Engelbert, Victoria ; (3) Late : Transparent, Coe's Golden Drop, Kirke's, and Monarch. These naturally afford a supply of fruit from the end of July to the close of September. By forcing, the season can be accelerated two months ; by retarding, excellent fruit can be had in November ; by storing, fruit can be had till the end of the year. Temperatures. — In forcing to time, about five months are required from starting to the fruit being ripe, but the early varieties need less time than the midseason and those ripen several days before the late varieties under the same conditions. These matters must have due consideration. One example of the forcing routine will suffice, namely, a house containing early varieties started at the new year to afford ripe fruit in May and June. If the trees have not been forced before, the house should be closed by the middle of December, air being freely admitted, only employing fire heat to exclude frost; on January 1 maintain a night temperature of 10 , 40° to 45° by day, artifi- PLUMS AND DAMSONS— TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION. 195 cially, 50° in mild weather, ventilating and closing at that temperature. In a fortnight increase the day temperature a few degrees, with a little air, 55°, closing at 50°, and maintain 40° at night by artificial means. Continue this treatment, bringing the trees into flower gradually, with a night temperature of 40° to 45U, increasing 5° by day, Fig. 50 CZAK PLCM TKF.E IN A POT. (From the Journal of Hortirult ure, March 16th, 1893, page 215.) admitting air at 50°, more at 5">°, not allowing 65° to be reached without full ventilation, closing at 55°. "When the flowers are expanded, allow 5° more all round in mild weather; otherwise adhere to the temperatures named. This is sufficient and safe till the plums have set and commence their first swelling, when the temperature may be raised to c o 2 i g6 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. 50° at night, 55° by day, and 65° from sun heat, it being better to enhance the growth of the foliage aiul fruit by a comparatively high temperature from sun heat than to increase the artificial heat until the stoning is completed. When the plums have stoned the temperature may be gradually raised to 60° at night, 65° on dull days, and 70° to 75° from sun heat, with a free circulation of air from 05°. After the fruit is ripe gradually lower the temperature, admit air freely, yet maintain a minimum of 50°. Trees in pots answer well for very early forcing, but the same trees should not be forced year after year as it is an exhausting process. DISEASES AND ENEMIES. Diseases. — Numerous fungi infest plums, but few do much injury to any part of the tree, except in seasons and localities favourable to their growth. Bladder Plums. — These are marked by the abnormal size of the young fruits, their pointed elongated form, greyish bloom or coat on the surface and by their being hollow (bladder like). This* condition is produced by a fungus named Exoascus pruni, the mycelium of which lives all the year round in the twigs, and from these it extends into the flowers, spreads through and lies immediately below the skin of the ovaries, through which the stalk-cells burst and stand erect. Each long cell is an ascus, containing eight globular spores, which are set free about the time the affected fruits turn a dirty yellow colour and wither. The spores are scattered by the wind and, failing on young twigs, reproduce the fungus under favourable conditions. Twigs showing traces of the disease and the infested fruits should be cut oft0 and burned. Gum. — Winter and spring pruning have a tendency to induce exudation from Ihe wounds and chronic gumming frequently follows, for which there is no cure but the removal of the branch or tree. Gummosis, however, is sometimes common and fatal in orchard trees. Cutting out the affected parts and dressing the wounds with an anti-fun- gal and wet-excluding composition is the only available remedy. (See " Gum," Vol. I., page 234.) Inducements to gumming — too rich soil, overfeeding, low sites, loose deep soils, and stagnant water at the roots ; these, with everything tending to exuberance, late growth, and immature wood, must be avoided. Thorough drainage, good firm soil, careful planting, judicious pruning and skilful management all round are the best means of preventing gum. Mildew. — The flowers and young leaves of plum trees are sometimes thinly coaled with whitish powder, composed of the filaments and conidia of an early stage (Oulium) PLUMS AND DAMSONS—DISEASES AND ENEMIES- "97 of a fungus named Podospheera tridactyla, and occasionally also by Podosphsera oxy- acanthee. It is the Oidium or mildew stage of these fungi which proves hurtful to the fruit setting, and cripples the young growths. The best remedy is to dust the affected parts with flowers of sulphur, or syringe them with potassium sulphide, \ ounce to a gallon of water. (See " Mildew," Vol. L, page 245.) Orange Fungus. — This parasite produces thickened, fleshy, orange-red spots, of irregularly rounded outline, on the leaves, as shown in the upper figure of the illustra- tion (Fig. 51). A section of the leaf (lower left-hand figure) passing through these spots shows the flask-shaped spaces, each containing eight oval spores, which escape from the apex, as shown enlarged, and, falling on a suitable nidus, reproduce the fungus in the summer. It is the mycelium of the fungus (Polystigma rubrum) that take nourishment from the leaves and cause them to fall prematurely, sometimes before the crop is perfected, when the fruit shrivels, becomes discoloured, and unwholesome. Spraying the trees with a 1 per cent. Bordeaux mixture when the leaves are fairly formed is the only effectual preventive. It is recom- mended to collect the diseased leaves, also those which have fallen, and burn them. The ground should be dug early in spring, before the young loaves appear, to prevent them being infested. Rot. — One of the worst fungoid diseases in plums is caused by Oidium fructigena, and is figured and described under "Apple Diseases," Vol. II., page 36. Happily its attacks are not common in this country, but at times the diseased patches spread over a large portion of the fruits and cause them to become almost entirely whitish yellow. It is most prevalent while the fruit is ripening, but it has been noticed on half-grown fruit. The tufts of yellowish white, however, do not usually appear until the fruits are ripe or nearly so. The mycelium appears to have the property of causing the flesh to shrivel and render the fruits unfit for use. There is no cure, and preventives have not Fig. 51. OBANOB Fuuous (POLYSTIOJU. ETJBEUM) ox PLUM. '98 THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE. proved effective, probably from their being applied too late, the fungus naving gained access to the. internal tissue. It is recommended to spray the trees before tho fruit is half grown, with Bordeaux mixture, first ascertaining a safe strength at which to apply it, removing and burning the affected fruits, as the disease is almost certain to re-appear where the infected fruits are left. Enemies. — Though the plum is infested by many insects they are not particularly hurtful, except in peculiar climatic conditions and seasons. Aphides. — Yarious species of green flies infest the growing points and young leaves of plum trees, causing the tips of the twigs to become fleshy, wrinkled and distorted, large colonies of the insects living on the under-sides of the leaves. Aphis pruni is one of the most destructive, and A. (Myzus) persicoe sometimes cause considerable distortion of the young growths and clog the foliage and fruit with their secretions. The Hop Aphis (Phorodon humuli, var. Mahaleb) also infests plum and damson trees in the spring —as late as May and June— and returns to them in the autumn for egg-laying on the terminal twigs, from which the parthenogenetic generations are produced on the plum in the spring and early summer. The life history of aphides is given, with means for their destruction, on pages 257 — 262, Yol. I. As a preventive it is recommended to spray the trees in the autumn with the petroleum mixture described on page 261 , Vol. I. Some growers have found dusting the trees with quicklime in the winter, as advised for the destruction of lichen and moss, to act beneficially against the recurrence of aphid attacks. The caustic soda and potash solution named on the same page (251, Vol. I.) has been found very effectual as a preventive of insect infections. Caterpillars. — The larvae of a number of moths feed on the young growths, foliage and tender fruit of the plum, especially those of the March, Mottled Umber and Winter Moths. These are fully treated on pages 283 — 297, Yol. I. Paris-green mixture, same volume, page 293, has been found an effectual remedy. Mites. — Two or three forms of mite galls are produced on the leaves of the plum. The most noticeable are .the irregular patches of closely-set hairs, white at first, but turning rusty on the lower surface of the leaf; there soon appear on the upper surface little club-shaped galls about the size of hempseed, first pale green, then red, later brown, and inside these live the mites (Phytoptus pruni). The mites also attack the leaves near the margins, causing them to thicken, crippling their development. The greatest mischief is uone to the young shoots by the small galls produced in the bark, which singularly do not induce gum, but a dry gangrene, and the growth suffers in conse- PLUMS AND n.\MSO\S— ENEMIES OF. igq quence. Early spraying with Paris-green mixture, 1 ounce to 20 gallons of water, is the best preventive; removing the affected leaves and burning them is the only effectual remedy. Red Grubs. — These are the larvae of the plum Tortricina (Tortrix nigricana and Carpocapsa funebrana). The moths are seldom seen, as they are only about \ inch in expanse of wings. When the fruit is nearly half grown the females lay eggs on it, and the larvae eat their way into the flesh. The grubs are reddish above, with a few soft hairs on the body, paler beneath and a brownish-black head. The attacked fruits ripen prematurely and fall, when the larvae crawl out, spin cocoons in selected places in crevices of the bark, pass into the pupa stage, and the moths emerge in May and June. Spray- ing with Paris-green when the fruit is about a quarter grown is advised in CLISC of frequent recurrence of the attack, but it suffices in most cases to collect the prematurely fallen fruits promptly and burn them. R(d Spider. — These pests attack plum trees in hot and dry seasons. Though water- ing and feeding at the roots are the best preventives, with occasional washings, it is necessary at times to apply an insecticide in good time, otherwise the current crop will be seriously impaired and the succeeding one imperilled. For an account of these mites see "Red Spider," Vol. I., pages 269—272. Sawfly. — The female sawfly (Tenthredo morio) appears to deposit its eggs in the blossom ; as soon as hatched the larvae eat their way to the centre of the fruit, causing it to swell rapidly ; then suddenly turning yellow, it falls from the tree, the larvae crawl out, burrow into the ground, become pupae and emerge as sawflies the following spring. The attack of these insects is one of the causes of plums falling in their early stages. Remedies must be directed to destroying the larvae, collecting the fallen fruit promptly and burning it ; also removing the soil, as advised for " Slug- worms," Vol. II., page 150, so as to destroy the pupae. Slug-worm. — Considerable damage is sometimes done to plum trees by the larvue (slug-worms) of Selandra atra, described and figured, with remedial measures, on pages 148—150, Vol. II. The larvae feed on the leaves. Thrips. — Those insects are similar in their attacks to red spider, and do not infest plum trees except when the atmosphere and the soil are too dry. For description and remedies see pages 274 — 276, Vol. I. < Wceberian Moth, — This insect and its larvae are described on page 44, Vol. II. It. is alleged that the larvae cause gumming by penetrating the inner bark, but this is 200 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. far from being proved ; boring insects or their larvse neither cause sap to exude nor gum to form. Nevertheless, considerable damage is done by their tunnels and it is desirable to prevent the moths depositing their eggs in the crevices of the bark, by spraying the trees in May and September with petroleum emulsion (Vol. L, page 261). Weevils. — A number of weevils feed on the young buds and leaves. Rhynchites alliarise injures the young shoots by the female laying her eggs on the buds near the end of the young shoots, gnawing the part a little below, causing it to han? down and wither, the larvee feeding on the pith. K. cupreus deposits its eggs in the young fruit and the larvas burrow into it, its early fall being accelerated by the weevil gnawing the footstalk partly through. The only remedies are to catch the weevils, and to collect and burn the fallen fruit, as described under "Apple Weevil," Vol. II, page 4U. Some weevils feed as larvae in winding galleries below the bark, especially of weakly trees, but the greatest mischief is done by the Scolytida? or Bark Beetles ; Magdalinus pruni, a beetle about ,-2 to ^ inch long, black, with reddish antennae, being the most partial to the plum. Xyleborus dispar also attacks the stems and limbs of plum trees. See " Borers," Vol. I., pages 262 — 265, for description and remedies. White Scale. — A small scale, probably Diaspis rosee, occasionally attacks the twigs and stems and may be destroyed by the means given on pages 272 — 274, Vol. I. "Woodlice and other enemies. — Earwigs (Vol. I., page 267), beetles, and woodlice (Vol. I., page 262) are fond of ripe plums, but the worst pests of all are the wasps (Vol. L. page 279), aided by hornets and bluebottle flies. Preventive and remedial measures against these depredators are given on the pages quoted. Mice and rats (Vol. I., page 298) sometimes take to feasting on plums ; squirrels are partial to gages and all richly flavoured plums, carrying them off wholesale (see Vol. I., page 300 ). QUINCES. rTlHE Quince (Cydonia vulgaris) is a low-spreading deciduous tree, and is said to have been introduced from the ancient town of Cydon, in Crete, to the other parts of Europe. It is a native of Northern Persia, but is naturalised in the Mediterranean, region. As a fruit tree, it is cultivated throughout Europe, in many parts of America, and at the Antipodes. The leaves are alternate and entire, flowers large, white, sometimes with a blush of rose ; the fruit is somewhat pear-shaped, yellowish, and cottony, internally containing five cartilaginous cells, in each of which the seeds are arranged in two series to the number of eight and upwards, covered with a mucilagin- ous substance. The fruit emits a powerful and rather peculiar perfume when ripe ; it is hard and austere in a raw state, but becomes excellent when boiled and eaten with sugar, or preserved in syrup, or made into marmalade or jelly. When mixed with other fruits, especially apples, in cookery, quinces communicate a pleasant flavour, and a wine may be made from them, adding a pound of sugar to a quart of juice, and fermenting. SELECT VARIETIES. APPLE-SHAPED OR ORANGE. — Frait large, roundish ; skin fine golden yellow ; flesh excellent when, cooked ; ripe in August and September ; tree a free bearer. Eea's Mammoth is said to be a very large and fine variety of the Orange (or Apple- shaped) ; a strong grower and very productive. West's Mammoth is also stated to lie "of the Orange quince family ; round, clear yellow, very large, fine flavour, and for the class a very good keeper." Both are American varieties. CHAMPION. — Fruit very large, round (apple- shaped) ; skin bright yellow, handsome; flesh cooks as tender as the apple, and without hard spots or cores ; flavour delicate, imparting an exquisite quince taste and odour to any fruit with which it is cooked ; tree very productive, and be rs abun- dantly when young. An American variety, which is highly recommended. PEAR-SHAPED. — Fruit large, pyriform ; skin yellow and somewhat woolly; flesh dry, and fairly good ; ripe in September ; tree hardy, and a good bearer, most commonly grown, and the best for most situations. PORTUGAL. — Fruit very large, pyriform, but widest in the middle ; skin golden yellow, covered with grey wool ; flesh tender when cooked, juicy, and with a fine delicate flavour ; turns purple or crimson in cooking ; ripe in October ; tree larger and less hardy than the other varieties, and requires a warm situation. PROPAGATION AND MANAGEMENT. Seeds of the quince seldom ripen in this country and seedlings are only used for stocks on which pears are to be established. Seedlings are raised similar to those from VOL. III. D D FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. apple or pear pips. Cuttings of the current year's wood, with a heel of two your old, inserted in the open ground early in the autumn, soon root. This and layering are the- usual methods of increasing quinces. Layers are generally made from an old stool — that is, a tree cut down to the ground and the young shoots springing therefrom pegged into the soil in autumn, detached and planted in nursery rows the following autumn. Grafting may be performed in March or April, and budding in July. The quince seldom perfects its fruit in the extreme north, but it succeeds in an open, sunny, sheltered situation as far as York and thrives as standards in the southern counties. In gardens it may be grown as a bush or low standard, and in orchards as a standard. Low standards on a clean ground are the best for commercial purposes. The quince thrives in soil which can be easily worked — a light, free, moist alluvial soil. It does not succeed in heavy clays nor in dry sandy soils. The chief consideration is a warm sunny site ; then, with the trees standing above the line of stagnant water, as on the bank of a pond or rivulet— high and dry, they produce charming flowers and useful fruit. Autumn is the best time to plant quinces. Bushes and pyramids may be planted 6 to 9 feet apart and they can be kept compact by lifting. Low standards — 3 to 4^-feet stemmed trees are accommodated at 12 feet apart; tall standards with 6-feet stems may be planted 15 feet asunder. After the principal branches have been originated very little pruning is required. Summer pruning, however, may be practised on garden trees, after the manner described for pears. Standard trees only need over-luxuriant shoots, which start up in different parts, cut out at an early period of their growth and an occasional removal of any overcrowded or weakly growths — all best done in the summer. Undue vigour is counteracted by root-pruning, sturdy and well-ripened growths producing the most and best quinces in this country. Tne fruits ripen in October and November, according to variety. They should be gathered dry before they are frozen, or as soon as they give off' a powerful aroma. In a cool yet frost-proof place they will keep six to twelve weeks, but should not be stored with other fruits, as quinces impart to them a flavour not their own. Many quinces are imported, and a few English growers find the crops profitable. RASPBERRIES. E Easpberry (Eubus Idneus) is found wild in Great Britain and most European countries. It is a deciduous shrub, with a creeping perennial rootstock and a biennial stem — that is, it produces shoots one year, which boar fruit the following season and then die. The fruit is valued for dessert and in great demand for cooking and pre- serving. It is used in various ways, fresh or preserved in ices, extensively in jellies, and confections, imparting its pleasing flavour and peculiar perfume to spirits and liqueurs. A capital wine is made from the fruit, from which a strong spirit may be distilled. Vinegar is also made from the fruit, and considered a wholesome and refreshing summer beverage. SELECT VARIETIES. I.— SUMMER BEARERS. BARNET. — Fruit large, roundish ovate, bright purplish red ; flavour good ; canes sturdy, moderately vigo- rous, bearing freely. It is larger than Eed Ant- werp, and a popular variety for market purposes. BAUMFORTH'S SEEDLING. — Fruit large, roundish, in- clined to conical, dark crimson ; flavour excellent ; canes vigorous producing frnit abundantly. One of the best for general culture. CARTER'S PROLIFIC. — Fruit large, round or roundish ovate, deep red ; flesh firm and preserves well ; canes stout, very productive ; hardy, and one of the best of all for general cultivation. FASTOLF. — Fruit large, roundish conical, bright purplish red ; Ik'.sb moderately firm, flavour excel- lent ; canus sturdy and vigorous, bearing abun- dantly. An old but still useful variety. HORNET (Rivers'). — Fruit large, roundish ovate, deep red or crimson ; flesh firm, rich, well flavoured ; canes very sturdy ; a great bearer. Awarded first-class certificate by the Royal Horticultural Society in 1889. LORD BEACONSFIELD. — Fruit large, roundish ovate, handsome, purplish red ; rather firm, but juicy and well flavoured, with a fine perfume ; canes robust and long, very free-bearing ; excellent for espaliers. A new variety, of promise. MCLAREN'S PROLIFIC. — Fruit large, roundish conical, deep crimson ; flesh thick, juicy, brisk, and of ex- cellent flavour ; canes strong, bearing abundantly, often freely, on the young shoots during late summer. NORTHUMBERLAND FILLBASKET. — Fruit large, roundish ovate, deep red or crimson ; flesh rather firm, juicy, and well flavoured ; canes vigorous, healthy, hardy, even in cold districts, and an abundant bearer ; a popular variety in the north, where it succeeds well. RED ANTWERP. — Fruit large, roundish conical, deep crimson ; juicy, briskly and richly flavoured, with a fine bouquet ; canes sturdy, very productive. Of this old favourite variety there are several forms : the best is that with strong smooth canes and large trusses of fruit ; excellent for dessert. SEMPER FIDELIS. — Fruit large, roundish conical, bright deep red ; flesh firm, briskly flavoured, useful for preserving, the fruits being said to retain their shape ; canes vigorous, and producing fruit over a long period. SUPERLATIVE. — Fruit large, conical, deep red ; flesh firm, juicy, rich, sprightly flavour ; canes stout, self-supporting, free in growth, and a heavy cropper ; excellent either for preserving or dessert. D 2 204 Till': /'AT//1 GROWERS WHITE MAGNUM BONUM. — Fruit large, roundish conical, pale yellow ; flesh juicy, sweet, and plea- santly flavoured ; canes moderately vigorous, spiny, and free-bearing ; useful for variety at dessert. YELLOW ANTWERP. — Fmit large, conical, pale yellow ; flesh juicy, sweet, and well flavoured ; canes moderately vigorous, spiny, productive ; useful for dessert and jellies. II. — AUTUMN BEARERS. BELLE DE FONTENAY. — Fruit large, round, deep red ; well flavoured ; canes sturdy, and free-bearing. CATAWISSA (Veitch). — Fruit large, round, very dark red ; borne in very large clusters. Supposed to be of American origin. NOIRE D'AUTOMNE. — Fruit large, deep purplish crim- son, almost black ; flesh firm, juicy, and excellently flavoured, with a smack of blackberry ; canes stout and prolific. OCTOBER RED. — Fruit medium to large, bright red ; flesh firm, brisk and well flavoured ; canes vigorous, bearing in spikes often 12 to 18 inches long. OCTOBER YELLOW. — Fruit medium, pale to deep yel- low ; flesh tender, juicy, and sweet ; canes mode- rately vigorous, bearing freely. ORANGE D'AUTOMNE. — Fruit large, sometimes very large, clear bright orange ; flesh rather firm, juicy, and richly flavoured ; canes sturdy and prolific. PERPETUEL DE BILLARD. — Fruit very large when well thinned, dark red, almost black ; flesh abundant, juicy, with a brisk, rich, agreeable flavour ; canes sturdy, and free-bearing. SELECTIONS OF THE FOREGOING VARIETIES. — Summer Bearers .-—Three varieties of moderate growth : Barnet, Fastolf, and Red Antwerp. Three varieties of strong growth : Baumforth's Seedling, Lord Beaconsfield, and Super- lative. Two varieties for cold localities : Carter's Prolific and Northumberland Fillbasket. One variety for general purposes : Carter's Prolific. For a long succession of fruit : McLaren's Prolific and Superlative. For dessert : Rod Antwerp and White Magnum Bonum ; also any of the preceding. Autumn Bearers .-—For general purposes : October Red and October Yellow. For dessert : Noire d'Automne and Orange d'Automne. SITUATION AND SOIL. Though the raspberry thrives in sheltered and partially shaded places in woods, it produces the most abundant crops, also the finest and best-flavoured fruits, in open positions. In hot gravelly soils partial shade is unquestionally beneficial. The finest natural plantation); of raspberries we have seen, the produce rivalling that of varieties grown in gardens, were located in the open parts of a wood in north Yorkshire, 500 feet above sea-level. The soil was light, deep, damp, peaty and incumbent on a ferruginous gravelly clay, through which superfluous water passed away into the freestone rock beneath. This is mentioned as there are many sheltered spots in hilly districts that might be profitably utilised for raspberries. The raspberry has two sets of roots : 1, those of a fibrous nature running near the surface and benefited by the debris of fallen leaves in nature and by mulching in cultivation ; 2, the anchor roots, which are much stronger, more woody, and strike much more deeply into the soil. Therefore, alluvial, sandy earth is the best, because it meets the claims of the raspberry for deep rooting, and admits of free rooting to a depth of 2 to 2J feet. Yet it does not greatly matter whether the soil be RASPBERRIES— SOIL AND ARRANGEMENT. 205 peaty, loamy, or calcareous, for good crops of this native fruit may be grown on most soils if deeply stirred and liberally enriched during the operations with stable, farm- yard manure, vegetable refuse, leaf-mould, compost, or other humus-forming substances. A deep sound loam on a clayey subsoil is, however, more substantial and economical in labour and manures, needing little beyond draining, cleaning and digging or trenching. Strong calcareous loams, especially those interspersed with flints or gravel on a gravelly clay, free from stagnant water, are also suitable, the canes growing sturdily and producing fruit abundantly. Even clays, with a foot or more in depth of ameliorated soil, will grow excellent crops of this popular and wholesome fruit. In shallow, sandy, gravelly soils it is only a matter of loosening, deepening, adding and mixing manure or compost of an enriching, cooling, moisture-holding nature to fit them for the production of raspberries. Arrangement. — This depends upon the mode of culture and the varieties. 1. If grown without stakes, as in field culture, dwarf varieties must be chosen, such as Carter's Prolific, Fastolf, and Eed Antwerp, disposing the plants in rows about 5 feet apart and 2 feet asunder in the rows, which should run from north to south. This is the con- tinuous row system, but some growers prefer the stool method, that is. arranging the plants in rows 5 feet asunder, three together in what is termed a "hill" at every 4 feet in the rows, the plants being set in a triangle about 6 inches apart. Both the continuous row and the stool methods answer for large cultures. 2. In the upright staking plan the plants are sometimes placed in squares 4 to 5 feet apart every way, and occasionally in stools, three plants together ; but the usual method is to arrange the plants in rows varying from 4 to 6 feet asunder and from 3 to 4 feet from plant to plant. A fair average and usually a sufficient distance, is 5 feet between the rows and the plants 3 feet apart. Strong-growing varieties require 6 feet from row to row and 4 feet from plant to plant in rich deep soils. 3. Where it is intended to arch the cones from stool to stool, they should be planted in rows 4| to 6 feet asunder and 4 to 5 feet apart in the rows. Some growers prefer planting in squares at the distances last named according to the variety and in hot situations have the line of arched canes running north and south, so that the young screen the bearing-canes from the midday sun. In cold localities the arches should run east and west. 4. For espaliers, the rows of plants running north and south, 4 feet distance should 206 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. be allowed between the rows for the dwarf-growing varieties, 5 feet for the vigorous, and 6 feet for the robust. Some cultivators have the rows farther apart, and intercrop with vegetables. It is better to utilise the whole of the ground, allowing the raspberries sufficient space and no more than is needed for the perfecting of the crops and for facili- tating cultural operations. Plants for espaliers may be placed 1 to 2 feet apart, but it is generally preferable to arrange them at the distances before named. PROPAGATION AND PLANTING. Propagation. — This is effected by seeds, cuttings, and offsets or suckers. Seeds ger- minate readily, and the plants bear fruit in the second or third year. The seedlings are very sportive : a few may equal the parents, while occasionally a variety may prove superior to them, but the majority bear small worthless fruits. There is, however, a chance of securing an improved variety by sowing carefully selected seeds from the choicest fruits. The seeds should be washed to separate them from the pulp, afterwards drying a little, and either sown at once in shallow drills 1 foot apart in light rich soil in an open situation, or kept until the spring, when they will germinate, and the seed- lings be fit for transplanting the following autumn. The rows may be 2^ feet apart, and the plants 18 inches asunder in them. If kept clea11, mulched, and moist at the roots, they will make vigorous canes the first season. If they do not, cut the seedlings down to the ground in the autumn, reduce the growths in the following spring to one or two on each plant; then stout well-matured canes will be made that will produce characteristic fruit in the third year. A selection can be made and promising seedlings improved by cultivation. Cuttings may be made of the well-ripened canes, about 9 inches in length, severing them transversely below a joint, inserting nearly their whole length in light rich soil, also moist and shaded from the midday sun. Most of the cuttings will root, but it is a mode of propagation only had recourse to for increasing scarce varieties. Root cuttings — underground stems — especially those running near the surface, cut into 3-inch lengths, and placed in pans of sandy soil in the autumn, wintered in a cold frame, develop one or more growths in the spring, and as soon as these can be handled they may be planted in rows as advised for seedlings. In suitable soil, each root cutting will form a good cane the first season. Offsets or suckers are produced freely from the creeping root in some varieties, others expend their forces on a few canes springing from the base of the rootstock. RASPBERRIES— PROPA GA TING— PLANTING. 207 Those issuing from tho creeping mots, and at a distance from the rootstook, are the best, as they lift with abundance of fibres, and are well furnished with buds on the under- ground part of the stem for pushing stout suckers the following season. These are the kind of offsets sold by nurserymen, who strive more after a number of well-rooted, moderately vigorous than strong and sparsely rooted canes. Offsets or suckers springing at such distance from the parent plant as to admit of their being detached at the proper time, with abundance of fibrous roots, are the only canes, likely to transplant well and come into early and profitable bearing. These, care- fully lifted and planted early in the autumn, will produce some fruit the following year, but the canes must be shortened, the strong to 2 feet and the medium 12 to 18 inches. Those, too small to bear, though well rooted, should be cut down to the ground. When the canes have to be sent a distance, the roots must be exposed as little as possible to the air and be packed in damp material. Planting. — This should be done as soon as possible after the leaves have fallen, for the soil is then warm and the plants commence rooting at once. It may, however, be carried out in mild weather during the winter, and until the plants commence growth in the spring. Cut away any damaged roots to sound parts, and let them be spread out to their full length. Place good soil under and above them, firming it well. As the tendency of the crown is to rise, the rootstock buds should be covered about 3 inches deep and never less than they were before removal. Where the soil is heavy or thin, the plants may be placed on the surface, and good soil taken from the intervening spaces used for covering the roots, forming a flat-topped low mound. This will give the plants a start ; tho stubborn soil can be ameliorated by exposure to the weather, and permanently improved by adding opening materials. Fine soil or compost should be used for planting in, as rough is not favourable to root formation, and a mulch of short manure around every plant or stool is highly desirable Stake the canes after planting to prevent their swaying about, for this moves the roots and hinders them from getting established. Short canes will not need stakes, and in large cultures long canes are shortened at planting. PRUNING AND TRAINING. It is not advisable to prune immediately after planting, but defer it until February. If the weather has been moderately mild, and the planting is completed eaily, root action will by that time have commenced and the buds be moving; then, or soon after, 208 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. the pruning may be done with safety. The chief object of shortening is to get strong young shoots from the base instead of fruiting the old canes the first season. The extent of the pruning must accord with the vigour of the canes and the condition of the roots. This will be made clear by the illustrations (B — Et Fig. 52). A short well-rooted cane (B) cut down to the ground (w) and only the strongest cf the spring growths retained, will produce a sturdy, well-ripened cane, which (G), with the top cut off, (b), will afford fruit the following year, also two or three \ Fig. 52. PLANTING KASFKERKY CANES, SHORTENING, AND RESULTS. References :—B, short well-rooted cane : w, point of shortening. C, medium-sized cane, with bad roots, to be cut down to the ground, x. D, small-fruiting cane with good roots : y. point of priming, 6 to 12 inches from the ground. E, fruiting cane with good roots : z, shortened at about 2 feet. F, bearing cane with abundance of roots : a, tip of cane only cut off. G, result of shortening B to the ground : b, point of shortening for bearing. H, growth from C : c, point of pruning bearing cane. /, growths from D : d, shortened last year's cane to be cut off at the bar near the ground ; e, young cane for bearing, pruned at the bar. /, result of pruning E at z : f, bearing cane cut away at the bar after the fruit is gathered ; g, canes for bearing in the following season ; h, points of shortening. K, result of leaving long cane in the first year, as G : i, fruited cane to be cut off at the lowest bar ; j, weak young canes must be shortened to k. vigorous suckers for bearing in the succeeding eeason. When the cane is poorly rooted (C), though of medium .size, it also is best cut down to the ground (x) to secure a strong cane (H) ; if not so shortened, feeble canes only would be produced, as shown in outline in <7, and a year wasted. Fibrous- rooted medium-sized canes push suckers much more freely when shortened to from 6 to 12 inches (Z>), and may give a " taste " of fruit the first year, the extra growth strengthening the rootstock ; the young cane is encour- aged correspondingly by cutting away the old parts in its favour when the truit is gathered. This is shown in /: d — D shortened to y in the spring ; r, young cane. A RASPBERRIES— PRUNING. 209 bearing or fruiting cane (E\ with abundance of fibry roots, should be shortened half its length (2), the result ( glass 18 inches wide ; e> iron tie bars. 1| inch, which must be nailed to the ridge- board, 7 inches by lj inch, at the apex of the roof, placing the rafters 20 inches apart, that is, to receive glass that width. The sides and ends should be formed of f -inch deal boards. For ventilation a shutter 18 inches wide, made into 15-feet lengths and opening on hinges downwards, the lower edge 18 inches from the ground, should be placed on each side ; and for top ventilation an aperture 1 foot deep at each end just under the apex of the roof, and to this a shutter on hinges should be fixed ; these shutters ought to be kept open from the beginning of June till the end of September. The roof should be supported and kept rigid either by light " collar beams " of wood to every sixth rafter, by iron rods, so disposed as to tie the roof securely, or, best of all, by two rows of iron pillars formed of 2-inch gas pipes, G feet from each side, the lower ends let into a small square of brickwork and cement in the ground, the upper ends let into the purlin. These pillars should be about 10 feet apart. A house built after this method THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. is a plain but useful structui'e, for its sides, ends, and doors (there should bo one at each end in the centre) are all of boards, and its roof only of gla and k> toP veiltilation- 40° by artificial means in the winter, or the peach and nectarine trees will be prejudiced. CULTURE IN ORCHARD HOUSES. There are two modes : 1, planted-out trees ; 2, potted trees. By planted-out trees is not meant those trained to trellises, but trees in bush, pyramid, or standard form, similar to plantation and orchard trees, the latter giving the name to this system through the first trees being grown as low standards in pots and allowed to form round heads. Trees in the centre of a house 12 feet from the surface to the ridge should have the branches start from the stem 4 feet 6 inches from the ground ; this will give about 6 feet for the head, which should always be kept 12 to 18 inches below the glass. Half- VOT,. III. K K a a a Fig. 62. AMATEUB'S OECSABD HOUSE. (Scale J inch = 1 foot.) 25o THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. standards (3 feet stems) answer for the next row on each side, and quarter- standards (18 inch stemsj for the sides. Peaches and nectarines succeed admirably in this form, but the roots of the trees must be restricted to borders of firm soil over thorough drainage, for the tendency of planted-out trees is to excessive growth, until checked by fruit production. Judicious root -pruning is better for accelerating fruitfulness than rigorously stopping exu- berant shoots. The great point is to prune so as to admit sun and air through the trees, then sturdy, well-ripened wood will be secured, and fruit follow in abundance. The soil for the trees should be a calcareous clay, and firm, then a surface dressing of manure in the spring, supplemented by chemical manures, with a sufficiency of water, and the usual syringing will meet their requirements. Potted trees have the advantage of providing a great variety of fruit from a given space. A supply of apples, apricots, cherries, figs, grapes, nectarines, peaches, pears, and plums can be produced by trees in pots in one house, that is suitable for the purpose ; but this cannot be effected in similar space by planted- out trees. Moreover trees in pots are portable and can be removed whenever desired. When the pots are stood on bricks placed flat, and a little distance apart to leave the drainage openings clear, the trees have the advantage of the warm air of the house for the roots and are completely under control. Success or failure with these trees depends entirely on the management— due attention to watering, syringing, and applying top- dressings of rich compost, supplemented by chemical or liquid manure, in order to sustain health and fertility. In these respects potted trees entail much work as compared with those planted out. The latter, however, are not suitable for the majority of amateurs, who must confine their cultures to the least room, and many of these enjoy the occupation of growing fruit trees in pots. A few cultural remarks on the mixed house system of growing fruit will be useful. The trees may consist partly of fruits requiring to be kept constantly in the house, such as apricots, figs, grape-vines, nectarines, and peaches; and partly of those only needing to be placed in the house for the security of the blossoms and young fruits from spring frosts, such as apples, pears, and plums, these being given a favourable position outdoors from June to February inclusive. Cherries come within the latter category of fruits, but the trees must be continued under glass until the fruit is ripe and till removed from them, then they may be stood outdoors. This will admit more light and air to the kinds first named. Early varieties of the apricot, nectarine, and ORCHARD HOUSES— FRUITS FOR, AND PROCEDURE. 251 peach may be removed to a warm situation outdoors as the trees are cleared of their crops, and the wood becomes sufficiently firm. By this procedure room will be provided for any plums or other fruits which it may be desirable to return to the house for perfecting and preservation in unfavourable weather. A great variety of fruits may, therefore, be successfully grown in one house, by good judgment and attention. After the blossoming is over, and the fruit set, the trees must have light and air right down to their base by standing them sufficiently distant from each other. Other fruits may be grown in the orchard house. Wilson Junior blackberry grown in pots and placed in the house after its fruits are set outdoors ripens fruit of large size, which is delicious with cream. The bushes may be placed outdoors after the fruit is gathered. Lady apple, a small-fruited and highly-coloured variety, is very prolific and ornamental ; it is esteemed for dessert, and may be used as a table plant on the French paradise stock, either as a pyramid or low standard. Crab apples, such as the Dart- mouth, John Downie, Siberian, and Tradescant, produce attractive blossoms and fruits in profusion, which are highly ornamental, and make a delicious preserve. All kinds of bush fruits succeed admirably in pots, as also do medlars and quinces, while straw- berries of the first size and quality may be grown on shelves or stood on the border where they receive abundance of light, introducing them to the house in March and clearing them out directly the fruit is taken from them. All the fruits named have been grown in orchard houses near towns, and have been of such appearance and quality as to secure premier awards at exhibitions. Some business men find relaxation in cultivating fruit trees in pots, and derive considerable advantage from the pursuit. With no more ground in a sunny position than suffices for the erection of an orchard house, and a corresponding space left outside whereon to stand plants, persons may secure a supply of fruit of their own growing, and a display of chrysanthemums in the autumn from one house. The fruit trees in this case being placed in the house at the end of February, or when the buds commence swelling, and remain until October, when they may be placed outdoors, except such as are specified to be kept inside, and with the pots protected they will be perfectly safe for the winter, especially if a wire cage is provided to exclude birds. The chrysanthemums grown outdoors during the summer will take the place of the fruit trees in October, and afford a display of bloom of great interest until Christmas. The arrangement for using the orchard house for chrysanthemums as well as fruit trees necessitates provision for artificial heat. This is not really necessary for fruit trees in K. K 2 »5* THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. favoured localities, but it is imperative in cold districts to insure safety for the blossoms and young fruit in the spring, as well as for the ripening of late fruits and the matura- tion of the wood. The need for heating is much greater in small or narrow houses than in large and wide ones, but a 4-inch hot-water pipe in front and at the back of a lean-to, or both sides of a span-roof house, will suffice for widths of 12 to 18 feet, and two rows of similar piping are ample for houses of 24 feet breadth. This command of artificial heat is a great advantage in the spring, especially when the blossoms in an early season may not be sufficiently protected by a glass roof should severe frosts occur. A little warmth, moreover, assists the setting of the fruit and the swelling of the crop. Artificial heat ought not, however, to be used for more than the exclusion of frost at night, and a day temperature of 50° ought not to be exceeded by artificial means, with a free circulation of air. An attempt at forcing a number of fruits in one house means the failure of some, but absolute safety only from frost, cold, and damp, will ensure the success of all. Abundance of heat is furnished by the sun in the summer ; it should be utilised in cold districts by closing the ventilators somewhat early on fine afternoons after the fruit is set, and fire heat ought only to be employed when it becomes really necessary, and then a little air at the same time is desirable, except when severe frost prevails. Artificial heat to the extent of excluding frost is advised for orchard houses in all but the warm, parts of this country ; in the north or cold localities it is absolutely essential for securing crops of fruit. Routine treatment has been given under the respective fruits, but a few further hints applicable to trees in orchard houses will be useful to beginners. Potting and Re-potting. — The pots may range in size from 10 to 18 inches, according to the age and size of the trees. The necessary compost should be prepared beforehand, and allowed to remain several days or weeks after it has been well mixed. Two-thirds rather tenacious loam, and one-third well-decomposed manure answers for all the fruits. Some sifted brick and mortar rubbish or chalk may be added for stone fruits. A 9 -inch potful of bone meal may be added to each barrowload of the compost ; if the loam be turfy, use Thomas's phosphate instead of bone dust. The compost shouhl be placed under cover to become workable — that is, neither too wet nor too dry. Trees in a healthy con- dition only need the removal of loose surface soil and a little from the sides of the ball with a pointed stick, placing in fresh compost and ramming it firmly. This should be performed in October. Trees that require a shift should be taken out of the pots, have the drainage removed, the sides of the ball loosened, long roots shortened, and be placed in clean ORCHARD HOUSES— POTTING THE TREES. 253 properly drained pots a size larger, making the soil firm with a hand rammer. When trees are in an ill-conditioned state through defective drainage, and consequently sour soil, they should be taken out of the pots, the drainage and soil cleared away, and placed in clean well-drained pots of the same size or smaller. Sufficient space must in all cases be left below the rims of the pots for holding water. This must be given sparingly until the roots are working freely in the new soil ; yet this must be properly moist until the leaves fall, and during the next season not allowed to become parchingly dry. Ventilating. — The trees must be stood apart from each other in the spring, before the blossoms unfold, for it is impossible to separate entangled branches without destroying many flowers. In the winter, the house should have the ventilators wide open whenever the temperature is above the freezing point, but a still air is desirable when the weather is severe. This will cause the trees to start naturally in the spring, even when they are kept in the house during the winter, yet somewhat earlier than those which are outside ; these being introduced before the flower buds have cast their scales, and they must not be unduly excited. From the first indication of growth a circulation of air should be maintained day and night by leaving the ventilators open more or less, according to the weather. After the blossoms show colour they are susceptible of injury from frost, and fire heat, if at command, should be used to exclude it, but a temperature of 40° is ample, or even less in severe weather ; the chief essentials are a dry atmosphere, free ventilation, and safety from frost. If the weather be cold and dull, a little fire heat will prove of great advantage by day, if only to ensure a circulation of air, yet it must be applied carefully, say to maintain the temperature at 40° to 45° — never more than 50° without full ventilation. After the fruit is set, and the weather becomes warmer, growth may be accelerated by closing early in the afternoon, but too much air cannot be given in the early part of the day, avoiding sharp currents, and a little should always be admitted at night. In the summer the ventilation must be attended to early, and be full during the hotter part of the day, modifying the amount where it is desired to make the most of sun heat. These remarks apply to orchard houses in cold localities, and for the tenderer fruits, such as nectarines and peaches ; in favourable localities and for the hardier fruits full ventilation is required day and night during the summer months, or from the end of May to the close of September, but the cultivator must exercise judgment in the admission of air at all times. No fixed rules can be laid down for following under all circumstances. What each kind of fruit requires has been given under its heading, and the only 254 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. general maxims for ventilating a house of mixed fruits are : — 1, during the winter— from the leaves falling to the buds commencing to swell — ventilate fully day and night, closing only in severe weather ; 2, from the blossoms being visible to the fruit setting, allow a little air constantly between 40° and 45°, then admit full ventilation at 50°, closing for the day at that temperature, subject to the condition just named, and close the house entirely only in case of a prospect of frost and during its prevalence ; 3, from the fruit setting and to the early part of June observe 50° as the point at which to open and close the house, always subject to leaving a little air on constantly, except when frost prevails, and modify the amount of ventilation to prevent the temperature falling below 50° during the daytime ; 4, from the early part of June the ventilators may remain wide open day and night till October, when it will be necessary to moderate the ventilation for the benefit of late fruits, and prevent the sudden collapse of the foliage in case of sudden and severe frost, otherwise ventilating freely in order to secure the thorough ripening of the wood. Syringing. — This must be practised from the time the fruits are safely set until they commence ripening, each tree receiving attention, both early in the morning and in the after- noon, except when the weather is cold and dull, for the trees must not be kept constantly dripping with water. One good syringing does more to free the trees of insect pests than many light dampings, therefore apply the water with force after the foliage becomes able to bear it, but the leaves must not be damaged by applying the water too forcibly. The water used should be of a similar temperature to that of the house. When it is not possible to syringe the trees, the application of water about the house will maintain a genial atmosphere, provided the floor be of earth and the pathway ashes or gravel, which are not only more economical but far better than flagged or cemented floors, on account of the constant evaporation of moisture and gases escaping from the soil charged with liquid passed through the pots. After the fruits are gathered the trees must receive proper attention in respect of syringing as before, but it suffices to keep them free from insects and dust. In smoky and dusty localities the glass should be frequently washed, keeping it as clear as possible during the growth of the trees, and some woollen netting, 4-inch mesh, tacked tightly over the ventilating openings, will sift the air, and collect sooty and dusty matter that would otherwise enter the house and settle on the trees. FRUIT-GROWING FOR PROFIT. "1 TE. WILLIAM PAUL, F.L.S., in a paper read at a meeting of the Society of Arts, truly says: "Fruit-growing as a recreation, or for one's own use, is one of the most fascinating and diverting of occupations, and may be pursued with satisfaction by the uninitiated. But fruit-growing for profit is a different thing. Here knowledge is wanted. The possession of it, rightly applied, will be attended with success ; the absence of it with failure." This knowledge it has been our endeavour to impart in the preceding pages, so as to meet the requirements of different classes — 1, growers of fruit mainly for private consumption ; 2, growers for exhibition ; 3, growers for market. In the first-named section tastes differ, yet all agree in wanting the best variety of fruits to last in succession over as long a season as possible, and to meet all require- ments for dessert or cooking. Many persons do not look at the cost of production so long as they can have fruit of their own growth ; but some grow more fruit than is required for family use, and dispose of the surplus in the markets. This class includes amateurs, cottagers, farmers, tradesmen, private gentlemen, and noblemen, all of whom possess, either personally or through those employed, some preliminary instruc- tion and training. Growers for Exhibition or Pleasure. — These like to have (and will have at any cost) handsome dishes or collections of fruit for showing at exhibitions or on their tables, whether the trees are good croppers or not, or the fruit of the first quality for dessert or cooking. Beautiful fruit gives much pleasure to this class of individuals, who advance the art of fruit-growing more than is generally credited by testing new or little-known varieties, and so bring their qualities to light. The growers who make a hobby of fruit- growing, and take pleasure in seeing the variations in colour, size, and quality of the different varieties, who like to test sorts which arc new or unknown to them, and find out their suitability for their soil or climate, without thought of profit, are the most advanced pomologists. These, as a rule, pronounce fruit-growing a failure. Mr. R. D. Blackmore's testimony is significant upon this point. He says : " I have been engaged 256 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. iii that pleasant pastime [fruit-growing] since the year 1857, having bought some 12 acres of land for the purpose. Tor many years I gave my entire attention to it, sparing neither money nor labour. But during all those years I have not succeeded in securing proceeds enough to cover the wages alone, except for two golden seasons, and those two just met their expenses. The land is well suited for the purpose, but I have lost many thousands [of pounds] by this insane investment." Groivers for Market must have knowledge and something more. Henry Dethicke, in the "Gardeners' Labyrinth," published more than 300 years ago, says: " Not sufficient is it to a gardener that he knoweth, or would the furtherance of the garden, without any cost bestowed, which the works and labour of the same require. No. The will, again, of the workman, in doing and bestowing of charges, shall small avail, without he have both art and skill in the same. For that cause it is the ohiefest point in every faculty and business, to understand and know what to begin and follow." This view has been endorsed by every subsequent writer up to the present time, and implies that no vocation or profession can be made profitable without special knowledge, industry, and business aptitude. True it is that some men appear to be natural fruit-growers, because they see " what to begin and follow." But Avhoever may fail in the attempt it is a great mistake to suppose that intelligent farmers, labourers, or mechanics cannot grow fruit profitably, for many grow sufficient to supply their own needs, and the sale of the surplus pays the cost of production ; whilst most owners of land, good in staple and location, find the returns in rents considerably more from land under a well-conducted system of fruit culture than from that under ordinary agricultural tillage. This signifies knowledge of a particular order, for all fruit growers must be good cultivators, also characterised by " patient perseverance, untiring application, a timely seizure of offered opportunities, and thrifty regard for occasions upon which available resources should be called into united co-operative activity." — (Mr. E. J. Baillie, F.L.S.) Work, business tact, commercial enterprise, and intuitive or acquired market methods, are the essentials required in fruit growing for profit. The opposites of these — dread of work, inaptitude •for business, lack of energy and perseverance, and ignorance in growing and marketing produce — lead to nothing but failure. Mr. Blackmore indulged in fruit-growing as a " pleasant pastime," and paid for it ; he did not work on commercial lines, but hundreds who did so work have succeeded and extended their operations enormously. Labourers and Fruit. — Practical knowledge of the land and its working fits the agricultural labourer for growing fruit. Many cottages have gardens attached, and in FRUIT-GROWING FOR PROFIT—LABOURERS AND FRUIT. 757 these fruit of a quality suitable for home consumption and for sale has been grown from time immemorial. Yet these gardens are often cumbered with old worn-out trees, and produce inferior fruit scarcely worth carriage to market. This state of things is unfortu- nately the rule rather than the exception, and demands a remedy. In some instances this can be effected by judicious pruning, thinning, and cleansing the branches of varieties worth retaining, by dusting them while damp with quicklime, also scraping the stems, but not into the live bark, and coating them with a mixture of quicklime and soot formed into a wash ; also extracting and burning perennial weeds with the prunings, spreading the ashes beneath the fruit trees; supplying solid manures, if obtainable, otherwise a mixture of bone meal and kainit in equal parts, 3| pounds per rod, in the autumn after the trees have been trimmed, pointing in lightly, and supplementing in the spring, when the buds unfold, with powdered nitrate of soda, 2 pounds per rod. If the varieties are not good, and the trees have healthy stems, the remedy is grafting with better kinds in the spring. This may be carried out so as not to interfere materially with the supply of fruit by operating on the least profitable trees first, following with others in two or three years, and so on until the whole are transformed into producers of excellent fruit. Many gardens that bring little profit to their occupiers may by the practices indicated be made remunerative. But some trees are so antiquated, and the varieties so inferior, as to be practically beyond useful renovation. It then becomes a question of having fresh land and trees, or going without fruit, and where new ground can be acquired in suitable positions, cottagers should be encouraged and taught to grow fruit for home use, also for their neighbours who have no trees. This would be from every point of view better than introducing so much foreign produce into country towns and rural villages. For small holdings, if not large, low standards on dwarfing stocks are the trees of the future, with currants, gooseberries, raspberries, and strawberries between the rows and in the lines, to secure a maximum of profit from the ground in the shortest time. Farm Gardens and Orchards. — The remarks on cottage gardens apply to farm gardens, in which 90 per cent, of the trees are comparatively worthless through age or variety. But the farmer has not the same difficulty in securing ground for a new garden or orchard, as land in most cases is available in near proximity to the home- stead. The great impediment to farmers becoming fruit growers for market is not so much lack of commercial enterprise as laying out capital from which they have only a remote prospect of securing a fair return. The farmer, under a yearly tenancy, VOL. III. L L *5* THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. •wisely refrains from fruit-growing as ,an industry. Even when the landlord provides the garden or orchard properly stocked, it is questionable whether he does not even- tually derive more benefit from it than does the tenant. But the advantages should be mutual. Much land has doubled and trebled in value for letting in fifteen years after planting it with fruit trees, and many landlords have shown a laudable desire to improve the circumstances of their tenants by adding orchards to farmsteads, often draining and fencing the land, finding, planting, staking, also pruning the trees for a year or two till well formed and established. Several instances could be pointed to where this has been done to the mutual benefit of landlord and tenant, both on large and small holdings. The large holder of land has perhaps been shown the more favour, though it is not such a vital question with him as it is to the small holder whether fruit-growing is made to pay or not, and the latter will perhaps have more attention in the future. Small Holdings. — Up to the middle of the present century, the principal supply of hardy fruits for the British markets was derived from market gardens near towns and small holdings in the country. This was mainly due to the efforts of the late Mr. T. A. Knight, and the Horticultural Society of London, in farthering the fruit-growing industry by experiments with varieties, and diffusing valuable information. The result was a full supply of fruit for a time, but the increased population demanded an enlarge- ment of the towns. Buildings took the place of market gardens, and the value of land was so enhanced that fresh plantations of fruit trees were practically prohibited in the vicinity of towns. Manufacturing industries also made such rapid strides as to render fruit-growing near them uncertain, and few fruit plantations were established to meet an increased demand. This made it possible and profitable to import fruit for the supply of the masses. The rural districts profited for a time by the obliteration of suburban fruit gardens, but eventually became inadequate, through neglect in form- ing new plantations for affording a supply of the best fruit in proportion to the requirements of the population. This lack of forethought marked the decadence of small holdings in many districts, and they were at length added to the adjoining farms. But the supply of home-grown fruit to the markets was only temporarily interfered with by the engulfing of small by large farms, for some enterprising persons secured land favourably situated for fruit-growing, and in plots proportionate to their capital. These have been the principal suppliers of fruit to the British markets in recent times. FRUIT-GROWING FOR PROFIT— SMALL HOLDINGS. 259 The situation of fruit gardens, farms, or orchards mainly in districts favouring produc- tion, points to the importance of being guided chiefly by the placing of the best produce in the markets at the least expense. Growers must consider that, because if they choose to raise more fruit in any locality than is needed by the towns in the immediate neigh- bourhood, the expense in disposing of the surplus must fall upon them. Eailway companies will not carry fruit at specially low rates to populous districts inadequately supplied by the gardens and orchards in their immediate neighbourhood. They act on commercial principles, so must growers of fruit, and if too much is produced in a locality to bo disposed of at a profit in its raw state, it must be dried or converted into jam, or otherwise dealt with. The railway companies have not produced the glut, and they will not clear it away for nothing. In the large fruit-growing counties — Hereford, Kent, Devon, Somerset, Worcester, Gloucester, and Cornwall, it may be a question whether it will be profitable to materially increase the acreage under fruit, though new plantations must be made from time to time, to maintain the efficiency of the supply of fruit as the older trees fail. In all the other counties of England and "Wales, except Shropshire, Dorset, Middlesex, Monmouth, Berkshire, and Buckingham, the area under fruit is totally inadequate to supply the needs of the towns within easy marketing distances, and it is in these that the best openings for the establishment of small holdings or fruit farms present themselves to those with capital. This decentralization — the re -establishment of small holdings, partly on fruit-growing lines primarily for the supply of the markets nearest them, would alike settle the questions relating to railway rates and importations of hardy fruits. In the counties north of the Humber and Mersey, it may not be possible to grow fruit in the immediate neighbourhood of the great centres of industry on account of the deleterious conditions of the atmosphere, but in most rural districts enough fruit could be grown to meet the demands of the consuming community of a quality and at a price securing for it preference over the imported. This is really the one thing needful to enable the British fruit-grower to regain and maintain command of the markets. Landowners' Gardens and Fruit Farms.— Many of the gardens of the nobility and gentry supply fruit for the market, though few of them produce sufficient to cover the cost of pro- duction, unless the large amount which is often required for home use is properly valued. In some cases, however, the ostensible private gardens are really fruit manufactories, especially as regards the output of choice fruits grown under glass. The superinten- dents of such establishments receive encouragement through being allowed to exhibit LI. 2 260 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. their choicest productions and gain prizes, if they can, at exhibitions. The growers are still further encouraged by commission on sales of produce, and the result is high- class fruit commanding remunerative prices, for there is always a demand for choice samples in moderate quantities. Some landowners devote a portion of their domains to growing hardy fruit for market. These fruit farms are occasionally managed in combination with, but, as a rule, separate from the private establishment. In the latter case the management devolves on men experienced in marketing methods, and who have been engaged in the cultivation of crops from youth upwards exclusively from a pounds, shillings, and pence point of view. It is simply transferring industrial energy and cultural skill from herbage, cereal, and root crops to fruit production. This class of cultivators — enterprising fruit farmers — have an immense advantage over small growers through their connections with tradesmen and salesmen, and thus effecting sales on the most advantageous terms. "What large growers do for themselves, small must do by co-operation, that is, combine in the purchase of trees, manures, and the conveyance of goods, so as to involve the least expense in production and distribution, and secure the best profits on the work. Tradesmen and Mechanics. — These classes of cultivators mainly devote their attention to growing fruit for their households. It would be a mistake, however, to conclude that their cultures have not some influence on the supply of the markets. Many buy a piece of land, build a residence, plant fruit trees against the walls, assign a portion of ground to bush and other kinds, with the result that more fruit is grown than the occupier requires for his own use. If the produce is high-class it is readily disposed of at good prices for fruiterers' windows, but if the grower keeps the best for himself and friends, and disposes only of the worst, he must be content with costermongers' prices, while he, at the same time, lowers the prestige of the home produce. These remarks apply chiefly to tradesmen and mechanics near towns with few manufacturing industries, where the soil and climate are as well suited for fruit production as in many rural districts where fruit is successfully grown. There are individuals in various stations of life, who may derive both pleasure and profit in fruit-growing, if they acquire knowledge to bring the land into a high state of cultivation, and send the result of their labours into the markets in an attractive and appe- tising manner, leading to the freer use of fruit as food to the improvement of the national health. What the sons and daughters of Britain effect in the lands of the West, and at the Antipodes, they may do at home by the exercise of musclos and brains ; but nothing FRUIT-GROWING FOR PROFIT— SUPPLY AND DEMAND. 261 short of educated heads and hands — business tact with intelligent persevering habits— will bring success in the fruit-growing industry. SUPPLY AND DEMAND. The natural outcome of the cultivation of the soil is food produce. Its value depends mainly on the demand. If the markets are overstocked the prices rule low ; if the supplies are short, prices rise in proportion. But under all circumstances there is a difference in the prices obtainable, and this is regulated by the quality of the article. Fruit may be divided into three grades — 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and these apply to every kind, variety, and the purpose it is to serve — dessert, kitchen, or preserving. These three grades represent all the qualities required by consumers — 1st, for those able to pay the highest price for a select article ; 2nd, for the use of the middle class, a good all-round commodity gener- ally acceptable at reasonable prices ; 3rd, for the lower classes requiring a combination of amount with quality on the easiest terms. In addition to these grades we have a vast quantity of inferior fruit that never ought to be offered in the markets, but kept at home and used for feeding pigs. The British fruit-grower must grade his produce and sell by sample. Improved market methods, central agencies, and increased facilities of convey- ance, with organisation, are the essential points upon which those connected with the fruit-growing industry must concentrate attention. Government aid is useful so far as it relates to statistics of importations of fruit, and might be of service in certain cases of fungal and insect-infested districts for limiting the plagues. But the fruit-growing industry must be founded on self-reliance. The population is ever-increasing and the demand for fruit is always growing. If home growers do not satisfy this demand, supplies must be drawn from beyond the sea. It is a question of the best article at the lowest price. Foreign competition must not be feared but faced. It need not cause alarm to cultivators in this country though it is formidable, as will be seen from the following summary: — IMPOETS IN 1892 AND 1893 OF FOREIGN AND COLONIAL FRUIT. January. February March. 1892. 1893. Difference. 1892. 1893. Difference. 1892. 1893. Difference. Apples . . . Cherries . . . Plums . . . Pears .... Bushels. 326,826 3 3 742 Bushels. 209,262 "l04 2 518 BuBhels. -117,564 '+101 1 224 Bushels 345,885 2 585 Bushels. 246,728 1 979 Bushela. -99,127 -606 Bushels. 351,814 i',754 Bushels. 332,724 1,100 Bushels. - 19,090 -654 O rapes . . . Unenumerated 334 10,995 523 16,852 + 189 -143 548 23,022 430 22,448 -118 -674 777 19,528 2,134 34,970 + 1,357 + 15,442 262 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. April. May. June. 1892. 1893. Difference. 1892. 1893. Difference. 1892. 1893. Difference. Apples .... Cherries .... Plums .... Pears Bushels. 147,635 5 1,096 Bushels. 198,351 8 10 660 Bushels. + 50,716 + 8 + 5 -436 Bushels. 01,608 8,613 125 143 Bushels. 98,442 92,126 1,036 3 Bushela. + 6,834 + 83,513 + 911 -140 Bushels. 71,672 115,918 6,103 23 Bushels. 39,857 196,213 28,053 4,732 Bushels. -31,815 + 80,295 + 21,950 + 4,709 Grapes .... Unenumerated 628 19,487 2,448 34,559 + 1,820 + 15,072 1,720 39,710 2,672 79,217 + 952 + 39,507 3,398 93,535 5,186 236,708 + 1,788 + 143,173 Imports. July. August. September. 1892. 1893. Difference. 1892. 1893. Difference. 1892. 1893. Difference. Apples . . . Cherries . . . Plums . . . Pears .... Bushel-. 83,914 60,948 70,721 58,559 7,406 205,873 Bushels. 114,589 52,928 337,755 221,884 34,051 245,749 BusheK + 30,665 -8,020 + 267,034 + 163,325 + 26,648 + 39,824 Bushels. 339,281 31,356 226,077 272,152 174,928 164,582 Bushels. 220,923 4,613 247,142 271,827 148,844 232,209 Bushels. - 118,358 -26,743 + 21,065 -325 -26,084 + 67,627 Bushels. 405,825 150 109,009 197,493 195,135 122,137 Bushels. 307,642 115,786 207,303 214,299 107,149 Bushels. -98,183 - 150 + 6,687 + 9,810 + 19,164 - 14,988 Grapes . . . Unenumerated October. Novembei December 1892. 1893. Difference. 1892. 1893. Difference. 1892. 1893. Difference. Apples .... Cherries .... Bushels. 859,658 .:. Bushels. 642,279 • »• Bushels. -217,379 Bushels. 901,959 Bushels. 602,210 Bushela. -299,749 Bushels. 558,653 BusheK 447,530 Bushels. -141,123 Plums .... 1,181 12,362 + 11,180 • •• 2 + 2 . ,. 90 + 90 Pears 72,776 107,715 + 34,939 19,268 43,170 + 23,902 7,620 14,075 + 6,455 Grapes .... 277,852 380,616 + 102,764 99,012 173,971 + 74,959 2,694 13,328 + 10,634 Unenumerated 78,671 71,076 -7,595 29,584 36,051 + 6,467 27,898 32,799 + 4,901 The figures show: 1, that we are laying out an immense sum every month on colonial and foreign fruits ; 2, that our home supply of such produce as the public needs is inadequate for consumptive demands. In favourable seasons our harvest of hardy fruits ought not only to meet the requirements of our own people, but we ought to have a large surplus of preserved fruit for shipping to other parts. In no country in the world can soft fruits be grown so well and preserved so cheaply as the United Kingdom. But it may be urged that our climate is fickle and full crops cannot always be relied on. Neither can they in other countries, as every year's statistics abundantly demonstrate. We are not handicapped by the weather to half the extent that is popularly supposed, and not nearly so much so as by habitual negligence or faulty routine in cultivation, FRUIT-GROWING FOR PROFIT— IMPORTATION OF FRUIT. 363 preservation, and distribution. Experienced and enlightened growers know the truth of this, and it is, in fact, proved by their successful practice and extensions of culture. Seasons affect the fruit-yield undoubtedly all over Europe and in America, as well as in England. In 1893 the fruit crops in England and most other countries were full, and produce of the larger kinds clear in the skin, highly coloured, and excellent in quality. Bush fruits generally suffered by the extreme heat and drought ; strawberries from Hampshire were in the London markets on the 4th May, fruits small, and crops of short duration. "Where strawberries occupied trenched and enriched land they gave good results, while the crop from old plants in exhausted soil was hardly worth gathering. The lessons to be drawn from the fruit crops of 1893 are: 1, neglected orchards do not produce profitable crops ; 2, only well-managed trees on cultivated land bear fruit fitted for present-day competition ; and 3, when the supply to the markets is inadequate or inferior, foreign fruit is largely imported. For comparison with 1893 — an unprecedentedly hot and dry season — the Board of Trade returns of raw fruits for 1889 and 1890 — a wet year — are subjoined : — Imports. January. February. March. 1889. 1890. Difference. 1889. 1890. Difference. 1889, 1890. Difference. Apples .... Bushels. 243,265 Bushels. 201,880 Bushels. -41,385 Bushels. Bushels. 370,785 192,866 Bushels. -177,919 Bushels. 347,398 Bushels. 89,746 Bushels. -257,652 Unenumerated 11,804 14,410 + 2,606 9,921 10,607 + 686 10,069 16,269 + 6,200 Imports. April. May. June. 1889. 1890. Difference. 1889. 1890. Difference. 1889. 1890. Difference. Apples .... Bushels. 272,258 Bushels. 40,059 Bushels. -232,199 Bushels. 63,554 Bushels. 29,148 Bushels. - 34,406 Bushels. 15,552 Bushels. 8,798 Bushels. -6,745 Unenumerated . 9,584 17,838 + 7,984 14,455 31,574 + 17,119 183,774 251,874 + 68,100 — July. August. September. 1889. 1890. Difference. 1689. 1890. Difference. 1889. 1890. Difference. Apples .... Bushels. 12,968 Bushels. 12,453 Bushels. -515 Bushels. 202,972 Bushels. 126,270 Bushels. -66,702 Bushels. 289,736 Bushels. 393,020 Bushels. + 103,284 Unenumerated . 345,697 402,392 + 56,695 656,592 675,893 + 19,301 358,216 1,181,256 + 823,040 264 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. Imports. October. November. December. 1889. 1890. Difference. 1889. 1890. Difference. 1889. 1690. Difference. Apples .... Bushels. 684,812 Bushels. 586,832 Bushels -97,980 Bushels. 688,068 Bushels. 600,648 Bushels. -87,420 Bushels. 426,629 Bushels. 283,237 Bushels. - 143,392 Unenumerated . 409,638 686,262 + 276,624 134,428 334,833 + 218,405 45,060 51,460 + 6,400 The apple and plum crops were almost everywhere deficient in England in 1890, also in America, yet 1,450,000 bai'rels of American and Canadian apples were imported into Great Britain in 1891. Fruit, like every other product, is consumed in proportion to its price. The advent of Free Trade somewhat lowered prices, and enormously increased importations of fruit, yet the supply did not keep pace with the demand for fruit of fine colour, shape, and quality. This is clearly shown both by the importations and the increase of the fruit- growing area in this country. In 1839 it was 90,000 acres; in 1872 it was 169,808 acres. In 1891 the fruit area had risen to 268,000 acres, 58,700 acres being devoted to small fruits, or double what it was five years previously. Notwithstanding the great increase, the demand, for apples especially, has exceeded the supply, for we find that during the ten years (1881—1891) the average quantity of apples annually imported into this country considerably exceeded 2,000,000 bushels, and in 1891 the quantity was 3,1 47,373 bushels. Statistics of the fruit acreage and importations as issued by the Board of Trade should be studied by British fruit growers. Exaggerated views as to the advantages to be gained by the extended cultivation of fruit would not then mislead on the one hand, nor pessimistic utterance on the British fruit grower's occupation being gone on the other. Fruit-growing in this country is profitable, or the area would not increase annually, while the importations show that the home produce has not yet reached suffi- cient development to satisfy the advancing taste and increased demand for fruit by the population of this country. Fruit culture under favourable circumstances by com- petent persons is likely, for some time to come, to be profitable on an average of seasons ; but we advise it to be commenced in a small way— in the garden of the cottage, small holding, and farm — and gradually extended as opportunities offer and experience warrants. This caution is imperative to prevent novices embarking on rash ventures in the hope of making fortunes in growing fruit. FRUIT-GROWING FOR PROFIT— CLIMATE AND SOIL. 265 LAND AND LOCATION. Certain districts are better suited by soil and climate for fruit production for profit than others, and it is by having regard to these conditions — the fitness of things — that success is achievable. Cultivators, therefore, who pay the most regard to the natural adaptability of fruits to the soil and position, obtain the best results with the least expenditure of labour and manures. It is not wise to assume that because there are thousands of acres of land, bringing little or no profit to owners or occupiers under ordinary agricultural crops, that such land, if planted with fruit trees, might be made to return good profit. Everything in cases of this kind depends upon circumstances — climate or location and soil. Climate. — A locality somewhat high, yet the site sheltered, and a pure atmosphere, should be chosen for fruit-growing. The bottoms of valleys offer great inducements in respect of soil, moisture, and shelter, but the blossom and young fruits are frequently destroyed in low situations by spring frosts, while they escape on slopes and uplands. In selecting a site give preference, therefore^ to ground above the line of fog and sheltered by hills or trees. Those conditions are absolutely essential for the production of apples, cherries, pears, and plums with certainty, and saleable at good prices. In many rural districts, there are parishes, estates, and farms — even those of 100 acres or less — which offer suitable sites for planting the trees. (See climate, page 58 ; situation and shelter, page 65 ; Vol. I.) Soil. — Aim at a good soil in a favourable situation, as these advantages secure an abundance of good fruit over a long period at the least outlay in manures and culture. A medium loam of good depth (2j to 3J feet), with a calcareous gravelly-clay subsoil, on gravel or rock, and naturally drained, is the most suitable for fruit trees. Such soil may only be found here and there, but there is far more fitted for fruit-growing than is generally credited. A good idea of the fitness of a site and soil may be gathered from the condition of fruit trees in the immediate locality. By taking note of those growing in gardens or orchards, and of the kinds of fruits best succeeding, useful information is obtained. Where there are no gardens or orchards, the condition of the herbage, crops, and forest trees form a good criterion of fitness for fruit-growing. Eich pasture land and that growing good crops of wheat will suit apples and pears ; clover land is suitable for cherries, plums, and other stone fruits. If elm trees flourish the soil and climate are not bad for fruit trees generally, whilst an apple soil is indicated by thriving crab trees, a cherry soil by gumless wildings, a pear soil by fruitful thorns, VOL. in. M M 266 THE FRl'IT GROWER'S GUIDE. and a plum soil by the vigour and productiveness of blackthorns and bullaces. Take all these things into consideration— make careful inquiry, secure the opinion of experts, and serious initial mistakes may be avoided. Further particulars in respect of the suitability of soils for fruit trees will be found under soils and subsoils, Vol. L, page 21, and a succinct account of the soils of this country for apple and fruit-growing generally on pages 340—343, Vol. I. Tenure. — As a rule, the fruit grower for profit ought to own the land, or hold it on a long lease, under definite and equitable terms. Practical landlords are as ready to grant as good tenants are to acquire long leases. In many cases trees are found by the landlord, the tenant paying for planting, but no compensation is allowed for unexhausted improvements. In several instances confiding tenants have engaged in fruit-growing without any security beyond that accorded by the extension of the Compensation for Improvements Act to fruit trees and glass structures. This should not be considered satisfactory. A special agreement is the best for both parties, as the cost involved in recovering compensation under Acts of Parliament chiefly benefits assessors at the expense of both landlord and tenant. There is no question of ownership being the surest guarantee of deriving profit from land by the growing of fruit, and it should be sought near railway stations or towns where produce may be disposed off and manure obtained on easy terms. Leases are generally framed in the interests of land-owners, as they naturally expect the land to be as good at the end of the lease as it was at the beginning. The tenant must act accordingly, and not indulge in expenditure from which he cannot benefit during the term. For orcharding standard trees on free stocks, with or without bush fruits between them, a thirty years' lease of good land is absolutely necessary to enable the tenant to derive a fair share of the profit, and even then he cannot benefit to any- thing like the same extent as the landlord, for when the term expires, the trees, in good fruit years, will yield as much as the land is worth. Ownership is the only condition of safety in orcharding, unless the tenant can command a renewal of the lease upon terms equitable alike to himself and the landlord. Land for planting with fruit trees on the dwarfing system — apple, cherry, pear, and plum trees in low standard, pyramid, or bush form — should be acquired under a twenty- one years' lease, and the cultures restricted to early and free-bearing varieties. This, or an agreement guaranteeing compensation for improvements, is essential, as the capital laid out is much greater than by either mixed culture or ordinary orcharding. Ground for FRUIT-GROWING FOR PROFIT— TENURE OF LAND. 267 bush fruits — currants, gooseberries, and raspberries — ought not to be taken for a less term than fourteen years. For a strawberry plantation a three years' terra for light soil, five years for medium, and seven years for heavy land will safeguard the grower. The conditions sketched may appear more favourable to tenants than to landlords. Such is not the case, for a landlord would secure a higher rental for land on lease for fruit-growing, and have ample security for his rent in the value of the trees, whilst the condition of the land is assured by the manures applied. Persons entering on fruit- growing as an industry must act strictly on sound commercial principles. Occupants of large fruit farms hold them on lease, and the same security must be extended to small holdings before fruit-growing for profit can be considered a safe investment, as it certainly is a source of income to those fortunate enough to obtain plots of good fruit- laud at a reasonable rent. M M 2 SYSTEMS OF CULTURE-ORCHARDING. rjlHBEE methods of growing hardy fruits for profit are practised in this country : — 1, simple orcharding: tall standard trees planted on grass; 2, similar trees planted on tilled ground with bush fruits as an undercrop, the ultimate object being an orchard on grass ; 3, cultivated plantations : low standard trees on dwarfing stocks, also pyramid or bush form, in association, or each fruit allotted a portion of ground to itself; no grass. Simple Orcharding. — This system is the oldest and still has its advocates, but it cannot be recommended to any but those owning land or holding it under long and renewable leases, in favoured situations and naturally good soils. Under these circumstances the fruit grown by cared-for trees is good and the crops often abundant. Each grower claims superiority ; the orchardist for fruit grown on grassland, the plantationist for fruit produced on cultivated land. Orcharding suits the farmer, as it entails the least first cost and subsequent maintenance ; while grass land has special attractions for poultry, the orchard being also useful for pigs, sheep (at lambing time) and young cattle ; the grassy bed is, moreover, favourable for wind-fallen fruit. The formation of an orchard of mixed fruits for home use or market having received attention in Vol. I. (pages 82 — 90), with a plan (Fig. 14, page 89), showing arrangement : also planting, pruning, and staking being illustrated (Fig. 31, page 149), it only remains to treat of orcharding solely for profit. The chief points to be kept in view are appropriate situations and good soil, making sure of tenure by purchase or lease, and proceeding on lines calculated to insure a fair remuneration on the sum originally invested, also in working the concern. If in a tenancy drainage, fencing, preparing the ground, purchasing trees, planting and protecting them be done by the landlord, he will be justified in advancing the agricultural rent 6 per cent., and letting it on a fourteen years' lease; at the expiration of the lease it may be equitably renewed for another fourteen or twenty-one years at a further advance of 6 per cent, on the rental. If the landlord fore- close at any time within the first term, or at the end of it, the tenant should be entitled to compensation for the full term (fourteen years) at the rate of 12 per cent. Simple conditions of this character are better for landlord and tenant thau the quibbling and SFSTEMS OF CULTURE— ORCHARDING— PREPARING THE LAND. 269 expenses attending valuation for unexhausted improvements. In making agreements it must be remembered that the interest of the tenant in the land exceeds that of the landlord, for the tenant has all risks to bear whilst the landlord is practically secured against loss. Draining.— The necessity or otherwise for this must be determined by the instructions given on page 33, Vol. I., and, if found necessary, be carried out according to the con- ditions there advised. The expense varies with the nature of the soil and subsoil, distance between the drains, price of pipes, and distance of carriage, the total outlay per acre for draining heavy soils ranging from £5 5s. to £8 ; medium soils from £4 5s. to £5 10s. ; and light soils from £3 5s. to £5 per acre. Fencing. — Quickset hedges are formed by planting strong thorns or quicks 4J inches apart ; price for strong quicks, £1 10s. to £1 15s. ; extra strong, £2 to £2 10s. per thousand. The ground for the hedge must be well prepared by trenching and levelling, this costing about 3d. per yard run. Forming a bank for the quicks, including ditch, costs about 6d. per yard run. Guard fences for quickset : 2 oak cleft rails with posts 9 feet apart, and a stake between, 4s. per rod ; 3 oak rails, 6s. per rod ; 3 oak rails and extra stout posts, 9s. per rod. Birds, insects, and fungi are encouraged by thorn hedges, which also abstract nourishment from the soil to a distance corresponding to their height. Pale fencing is durable and requires no attention; cleft oak pales, with 2 arris rails and oak posts 9 feet apart, fixed complete, per rod, 4 feet high, £1 17s. ; 5 feet, £2 6s. ; 6 feet, with 3 arris rails, £2 10s. 13arbed wire is employed in legitimate positions. Preparing for Planting. — Correct methods for this are given under Orchards, Vol. I., pages 82 — 90. Planting in grass land is often contracted for, and varies according to the size of the excavations and nature of the ground, as well as the rate of wages in different parts. In friable soils and for small trees the holes are frequently only 2 or 3 feet over, about l£ to 2 feet deep, and the bottom broken with a pick or mattock ; for good planting, the holes should be at least 3J feet in diameter, even where the soil is of a free nature, and not less than 6 feet across where the medium is close and stiff. The preparation of the stations is important and imist be well done (sec page 85, Vol. I.). It is false economy to make the holes so small that a cut with the spade has to be made to receive the roots extending beyond the excavations. The total cost of holing, planting, staking, protecting, and manure for mulching over the roots is per acre : — Small holes and mellow soil, £4 ; medium-sized holes and friable loam, £6 ; large holes and *7° THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. stubborn soil, £8. The respective sums have reference to apple trees planted 24 feet apart = 75 per acre. If the land to be employed for an orchard be in "seeds " or clover ley, or following a cereal crop, it should be well broken up and pulverised to an even depth. This may be effected by trenching two spits deep where the soil is good to that depth, or by double digging where the second spit of soil is much poorer and more stubborn than the top, for in this case the bottom spit should be merely turned over in its position, and the top spit turned over on it. Trenching or double digging adverse soils costs, per rod : Light soils, from lOd. to Is.; medium soils, from Is. to Is. 3d. ; heavy soils, from Is. 3d. to Is. 6d. Trenching strong gravelly loam, two spits deep, and loosening the bottom 10 to 12 inches deep with a fork or pick, f d. to Id. per square yard. General trenching in favourable fruit soils costs ^d. per square yard = £10 Is. 8d. per acre ; in heavy soil, f d. per square yard =: £15 2s. 6d. ; extra preparation by trenching 2 feet deep, loosening the bottom to a depth of 12 inches, and forming a level or even-inclining surface, Id. per square yard = £20 3s. 4d. an acre. Turning a deep furrow by an ordinary plough costs 10s. to 15s. or £1 per acre ; followed along each furrow by a subsoil plough cost 15s. per acre; total expense of pre- paring the land by subsoiling, £1 5s. to £1 10s. per acre. Breaking up land with the steam cultivator, passed twice through it in opposite directions to a depth of 15 to 18 inches, costs £1 5s. to £1 10s. per acre. The object of trenching, double digging, subsoiling, and steam cultivating land is to secure an open condition to allow the free filtration of water through the soil, followed by air with all its beneficial effects. Harrowing is necessary after subsoiling and steam cultivating to produce a level surface. A dressing of manure may also be required, say 20 tons per acre. When adequately manured and a root crop taken, the land is left in good condition for planting. Otherwise a moderate amount of manure may be thoroughly mixed with the soil, then after just covering the roots of the tree in planting, apply a thin layer of manure, and fill in with the remaining soil. The land may be cultivated beneficially for five years, not interfering with the roots of the trees, then be sown with grass seeds for permanent pasture, cost : £1 5s. to £1 10s. per acre. (See page 87, Vol. I.) Instructions on planting, pruning, and staking will be found on pages 147 — 153, with illustrations, Fig. 31, page 149, Vol. I. Staking is important; putting the stakes to the young trees at once and protecting them with straw or sacking from injury by the SYSTEMS OF CULTURE— ORCHARDING— APPLES. ligatures tied round them. These require to be examined at midsummer and in the autumn, to see that they are not too tight. Protection from sheep, hares, and rabbits is afforded by placing galvanised wire netting, 1^-inch mesh, 4 feet high and 8 inches in diameter, close round the trees at a cost of about Is. each. Thorn or briar boughs thrust into the ground and securely fastened around each tree, form a cheap protection against sheep and calves. Hares and rabbits will not touch the trees if the stems are coated with Tree Protective Composition (Dickson's Chester). Where cattle and horses are grazed a fence around each tree is imperative. It may be formed in two ways : — 1, setting larch posts to form a square, then nailing " slats " of split fence-rails horizontally, close enough at the lower part to exclude sheep and, higher up, the heads of cattle or Fig. 63. HOBIZONTAL AND UPEIOHT WoODEN GuABDS FOE FEUIT TKEE8. horses ; 2, driving 7-feet lengths of split fence rails, about 2 inches in thickness, into the ground, that part creosoted, and fastening them at the top with braces. The pro- tecting fences (Fig. 63) should be 5 feet high, and fixed about 3 feet from the tree. The remarks in respect of preparing the land, planting, staking, and protecting apply to all kinds of standard fruit trees for orcharding ; differing, however, in certain particulars. Eemarks on each fruit as regards soil, cost of trees, expense of main- tenance, and certain returns in produce or profit, are subjoined. Apples. — Standard apple trees require a good loamy medium and a deep subsoil. They do not thrive upon land a few inches deep even of fairly-good soil resting on chalk, gravel, sand, or stubborn clay. The trees should be on stocks raised from pips of apple ^^^ THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE. trees, or on crab stocks. Crabs are the hardiest and best stocks for orchard trees. At four to six years old from the bud or graft the trees are fit for planting. They should have straight, stout, clear stems, 0 to C| feet from the ground to the commencement of the head. This applies to all standard trees for orcharding. Standard apple trees, range in price from Is. to 2s. 6d. each. Stout, but not gross, trees with well-formed heads are the best, and can be purchased at Is. 6d. to 2s. each, 15s. to 21s. per dozen, £5 to £7 10s. per hundred. The distances they should be planted apart depends upon the variety and soil, and are given on page 336, Vol. I. In particularly favourable soils 3 feet more distance should be allowed for the "small growers"; C feet for the " medium " and " large growers." Good varieties for marketing purposes arc :— For planting at 18 feet apart = 134 trees per acre: dessert— Beauty of Bath, Devonshire Quarrenden, Benoni, Cox's Orange Pippin, Baumann's Red Winter Eeinette, and Braddick's Nonpareil ; dessert or culinary — Duchess of Oldenburg, Dutch Mignonne, and Lemon Pippin ; culinary — Domino, Potts' Seedling, Stirling Castle, Yorkshire Beauty, Winter Hawthornden, Betty Geeson, and Lane's Prince Albert. For planting at 24 feet apart = 75 trees per acre : dessert — Devonshire Quarrenden, Benoni, King of the Pippins, Cox's Orange Pippin, Brownlecs's Russet, and Scarlet Nonparicl ; dessert or culinary — Worcester Pearmain, Beauty of Hants, and Cox's Pomona ; culinary— Keswick Codlin, Warner's King, Grenadier, Lord Derby, Bismarck, Sandringham, Lane's Prince Albert, Alfriston, Newton Wonder and Dumelow's Seedling. For planting 30 feet apart = 48 trees per acre, if good pasture is desired : dessert— King of the Pippins, Cox's Orange Pippin, and Goldon Russet ; dessert or culinary — Gascoigne's Seedling, Blenheim Orange, and Ilormead Pearmain ; culinary— Lord Grosvenor, Warner's King, Tower of Glamis, Bedfordshire Foundling, Golden Noble, Tyler's Kernel, Merc de Menage, and Bramley's Seedling. A dozen good varieties for general orcharding are : — Lord Grosvenor, Duchess of Oldenburg, Worcester Pearmain, Warner's King, King of the Pippins, Gascoigne's Seedling, Cox's Orange Pippin, Blenheim Orange, Beauty of Kent, Lane's Prince Albert, Newton Wonder/and Bramley's Seedling. The average expense of forming an acre of apple-orchard in grass is — including 75 trees at Is. 6d. each (£5 12s. 6d,), holing, manuring, planting, staking, and bush pro- tecting (£5 18s. 6d.) = £ll lls. Trees and labour only : — Lowest — 75 trees at ls.= £3 15s., planting and staking 75 trees at 7id. = £2 6s. lO^d., total £6 Is. 10|d. ; medium —75 trees at Is. 6d. = £5 12s. 6d., planting and staking 75 trees at !)d. = £2 16s. 3d., SFSTEMS OF CULTURE— ORCHARDING— APPLES. 273 total £8 8s. 9d. ; highest — 75 trees at 2s. = £7 10s., planting and staking 75 trees at Is. = £3 15s., total £11 5s. The lowest price is for small trees and 3-feet holes ; medium for good trees and 4|-feet holes, and the highest for strong picked trees, 6-feet diameter holes, and double staking. Draining, subsoiling, and manuring costs about £10 per acre, and the total expense of forming an apple-orchard, on the most approved agri- cultural principles, ranges from £15 to £21 per acre. In some cases the orchard is formed of apple and plum trees at equal distances apart — 17 feet = 150 trees per acre; and the cost of manuring, ploughing, subsoiling, harrowing, trees, planting and staking amounts to £21 per acre. The trees are set in squares, apples and plums alternately in the row, and in the alternate rows the plums are placed opposite the apples in the adjoining rows. By this plan the returns are increased during the early part of the bearing period, the ground being cultivated for the first five years, then laid down in grass, and at fourteen years from planting the produce of the whole has realised £40 per acre. The plums are ultimately removed and the apple trees left 34 feet apart — not too great distance for strong-growing kinds, such as the Blenheim Orange, Newton "Wonder, and Bramley's Seedling— in good deep soils. Large trees at the distance named bear heavily at thirty to forty-five years from planting, sometimes producing 10 bushels of good fruit per tree = 370 bushels per acre, and have fetched 3s. 6d. per bushel, packed in buyers' baskets and put on rails = £64 15s. A tree at Faversham, in Kent, produced 60 bushels of apples in 1893. Standard apple trees on grass produce little fruit until the fifth season, and, as a rule, do not prove remunerative before the seventh year. Blenheim Orange requires ten to twelve years to arrive at profitable bearing. The direct loss of herbage is recouped by the fruit produced up to the seventh year, and the value of the grass about equals the rent of the land during the seven years. The cost of pruning, protecting the stems, adjusting the ties, and sticky banding, amounts to about £1 10s. a year = £10 10s. an acre; this, added to the cost of forming an apple-orchard of 75 trees, £11 11s., amounts to £22 Is., the total outlay up to the commencement of the remunerative returns. The value of the crop in the eighth year, season being favourable, is 2s. 6d. per tree = £9 7s. 6d. ; tenth year, 5s. = £18 15s. ; and in the fourteenth year, 7s. 6d. to 10s. = £28 2s. 6d. to £37 10s. per acre. If the site, soil, and varieties have been well chosen, and the cultivation good, the orchard will consist of 75 thriving trees per acre, each producing, in the fifteenth year from planting, 2£ bushels of good fruit =«= VOL. III. N S »7* THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. 168| bushels per acre. The average value of this quantity of first-class apples disposed off direct to consumers is, per bushel : Kitchen, 3s. 6d. = £29 10s. 7£d. ; cooking or table, 4s. 6d. = £37 19s. 4jd. ; dessert, 6s. = £50 12s. 6d. ; mean of gross returns, = £39 7s. 6d. per acre. Expenditure : pruning, sticky banding, and spraying trees, £3 15. ; gathering, storing, packing, and delivering fruit in grower's baskets, £8 15s. ; rent, £4 ; tithe and rates, £1 5s. ; interest (5 per cent, on outlay up to period of profit- able bearing, and constituting a vested interest in the land of £22 ls.)£l Is. = £18 16s. This, deducted from the gross returns, shows a profit of £20 11s. 6d. per acre for apples sold locally by a cottager, small holder, or farmer. When the apples are sold and delivered to fruiterers in the growers' baskets, the prices average, per bushel: kitchen, 2s. 6d. = £21 Is. 10|d. ; culinary or dessert, 3s. 6d. = £29 10s. 7£d. per acre. Expenditure (as above), £18 16s. = £10 14s. 7|d. profit per acre. The expenses allow for delivery to from 4 to 7 miles from the place of production ; if within 3 miles, add £1 10s. to the profit per acre. Sending produce packed in salesmen's baskets by road, water, or railway, has a varying result. Taking an average and transmitting by railway a distance of 50 to 100 miles, the returns (clear of railway, market, and salesman's charges) are, per bushel : Kitchen, 2s. = £16 17s. 6d.; cooking or eating, 3s. = £25 6s. 3d. ; dessert, 4s. = £33 15s. ; mean of gross returns, £25 6s. 3d. per acre. Expenditure, as before, less £1 10s. for baskets = £17 6s. ; and the profit is £8 Os. 3d. per acre. The rent, tithe and rates, cost of production and marketing in the cases cited are on the highest scale, and are necessary to secure the best returns, for low rents and out- goings signify indifferent land, and the returns are extremely variable. Nevertheless, fairly good profit is derived from land rented at £2 (including outgoings) per acre, planted with useful varieties of apple trees on grass, and left (beyond protection) to take care of themselves. Such trees in the fifteenth year have produced the quantity of apples before named — 75 trees, 2£ bushels each = 168f bushels per acre ; and been gathered, packed in salesman's baskets, and delivered on rail at a distance of 7 miles at a cost of £6 1 5s. (no-purpose journeys being made and only delays allowed for, as other goods were laden with on the return journeys). Sent 150 miles by rail, delivered in the market, sold by salesman, and after paying all charges for transit, toll and commission (this being done by the salesman), the returns averaged, per bushel: Kitchen, Is. 6d,= £12 13s. l|d.; cooking or eating, 2s. Od. = £21 Is. 10£d. ; dessert, 3s. \5d. = £29 10s. 7|d.; mean, £21 Is. 10£d. per acre. Expenditure, £8 15s.; profit, SYSTEMS OF CULTURE— ORCHARDING— APPLES. 775 £12 6s. lOjd. per acre. This is given as an example of how the profits to be derived from fruit-growing are sometimes calculated — that is, from the returns, as in this case from a good year, which only occurs, in most instances, every other season; and taking an average, as in the preceding cases, the profit is not more than half = £6 3s. 6^d. per acre, under the most favourable circumstances, and the crop is often seriously prejudiced by insect attacks, so that great risks are run by those planting fruit trees and leaving everything to chance. From the fifteenth to the thirtieth year the profits accruing from an apple-orchard in grass have been returned at £10 — £30 a year per acre. These variable amounts are seldom explained, but they may be accounted for by (1) indifferent land or situation, soft-fruited or inferior varieties = £10 ; (2) fairly good land and site, serviceable varieties = £20 ; (3) specially favouring soil and aspect, and choice varieties = £30 per acre. The actual produce of 75 trees on an acre of good land in grass is 240 bushels per annum between fifteen and thirty years from planting, and sound-keeping apples average 3s. 6d. per bushel = £42 per acre. But the expenditure increases proportionately with the bearin?, being one-third more ^£1 5s.) for pruning, sticky banding, and spraying ; similar addition (£2 18s. 4d.) being made to the gathering, storing, and packing account annually. Manure must also be applied to sustain the trees in profitable bearing, say, the following mixture early in the spring : — Pure dissolved bones (ammonia 2^-3, phosphate 30-35 per cent.), 5 cwt., £1 10s. ; kainit (potash 24 26 per cent.), 3 cwt., 6s.; nitrate of soda, 2 cwt., 18s. = £2 14s. Every third year twenty tons of stable or farmyard manure may be required, worth on the ground, £7 10s. ; one-third, £2 10s. ; collectively = £9 7s. 4d. This, added to the prior full expenditure (£18 16s.) = £28 5s. 4d. ; and the net profit is £13 14s. 8d. per acre annually. Standard apple trees on grass often give much better returns than those furnished in the preceding averages, both before and after thirty years from planting. The yield per acre for full-bearing apple trees is given at six tons for Kent, and the price per ton at £10 =£00 gross return. The period of best production in the apple as a standard in Kent is stated by Mr. Cecil Hooper to be the fifteenth year, 34/ bushels per tree = 240 bushels from 75 trees, and must realise 5s. per bushel to afford a gross return of £60 a year per acre. The best record in the Midlands at that age is £46 13s. 4d. in one year per acre, the purchaser gathering the crop. The trees in question do not attain their best period of production generally until the twenty-fifth year, and under judicious management they will continue to bear profitable crops until the fiftieth year, or longer. N N 2 *76 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. At twenty-five years from planting, a tree here and there may produce eight bushels of fruit in a year = 600 bushels, and be sold at 8s. per bushel = <£240 per acre. It must be remembered, however, that profits are not ruled by exceptional crops and prices, but by averages, which are affected by cankered and sparse fruiting trees, as well as the heavy- laden and constant bearing. To act on exceptionally favourable returns is wholly fallacious. The most that can be expected from fruit-growing for profit is fair remune- ration ; and those investing in standard trees on grass must be prepared to wait patiently for it. The way thereto has been pointed out as clearly as possible for safe guidance, and the experience will be useful in respect to other fruits. Cherries. — Standard trees succeed well only in some parts of the country, such as in Mid Kent on the Lower Greensand and on the loams, brick-earth, and other ddbris of the Tertiary series over chalk in East Kent, West Hertfordshire, and Buck- inghamshire. Cherry trees also thrive on the lias in the counties of Gloucester and Worcester, as well as in the deep sands of Bedfordshire. A dry subsoil is imperative, and a high or exposed situation essential, for the cherry blossom early in March is liable to suffer from spring frosts. Low sites and heavy clay- soils are unsuitable. The trees should be on the wild cherry (Cerasus avium) stock, and have stout, clean stems not less than 6 feet in height, and well-formed heads, free from gum. The prices of the trees range from Is. 6d. each or 15s. per dozen, to 2s. 6d. each or 24s. per dozen, and the highest-priced are usually the best worth the money. They should be planted 30 feet apart = 48 trees per acre, which, at 24s. per dozen = £4 16s. Suitable varieties : — Black— Early Eivers, Werder's Early, Waterloo, Black Eagle, Biittner's Black Heart, and Turkey Black Heart; light or red — Frogmore Early, Elton (does well in heavy soil), Governor Wood, Bigarreau, Bigarreau Napoleon, and Florence ; Duke cherries require a warm soil and situation : May Duke, Royal Duke, Archduke, Late Duke ; cooking or preserving — Flemish Red, Kentish, and Morello. The Duke and Kentish will be accommodated at 18 to 21 feet apart ; Morello at 21 to 24 feet apart. Plums are sometimes planted between the cherry trees, so that the cherries stand 30 feet and the plums 15 feet apart. The ground is cultivated about five years, then sown with grass seeds, or the spaces between the cherry and plum trees may be set with gooseberry and currant bushes, to remain ten years, then be taken out and grass seeds sown. The plum trees may remain about twenty-five years, when the cherry trees will require the whole of the space, as they are then vigorous and productive. Standard cherry trees require a little pruning the first seven or eight years, but it Sl'STEMS OF CULTURE -ORCHARDING— CIJ-F-knif-S: \. :••:. '•':'; '..-'--277 must be uone carefully and judiciously, preferably in October, with a view to securing well-furnished, evenly-balanced heads, and this without the branches being loo close or crossing each other. After the trees are shaped, pruning must be confined to removing cross-growths and irregularities, little being required after the first few years. About the seventh year from planting the trees will produce fruit ranging in value from 2s. to 5s. per tree up to the tenth year = £4 16s.— £12 ; average £8 8s. a year per acre. From this, the commencement of remunerative return, the trees increase rapidly in productiveness, and at fifteen to twenty-five years from, planting the period of best fruitfulness is reached, when the average price realised for the fruit on the trees is £12 10s. — £15 per acre annually, less 5 per cent, auctioneer's commission. The trees continue profitable for many years after attaining the period of best production, and the average yearly returns are about £30 per acre for thriving cherry orchards. Large orchards — 50 to 100 acres— average £15 a year per acre. Choice lots frequently sell for £42, and special lots sometimes reach £80 per acre. These prices are for the crops on the trees, the seller taking the entire proceeds of the sale, less the auctioneer's 5 per cent, commission. The grower gathering, packing, and sending the cherries to market may receive, in gross returns, about £100 per acre. Mr. Hooper puts the yield per acre in Kent at four tons, and the price per ton (in 1889) at £25 = £100. An acre of 48 thriving trees in full bearing produces about 372 half-sieves of 24 Ibs., or 186 sieves of 48 Ibs., and the average price per half-sieve is 5s. 4^-d., or 10s. 9d. per sieve = £99 19s. 6d. gross returns per acre. The lowest average price for cherries in the London markets, wholesale, in 1893, was 4s. 4d. per half-sieve = £80 12s.; highest average, 10s. 4d. per half-sieve = £192 4s.; and the mean, 7s. 4d. per half-sieve = £136 8s. per acre. These prices are significant, marking the difference in the returns for moderate, good, and first-class fruit ; but the bulk of the fruit only realises the lowest and mean prices, for the highest are only obtained for choice and comparatively few f-amples. It is safe, however, to take the average of the lowest and mean prices = £103 10s. per acre, not being guided by extreme crops and prices, for trees producing 16^ sieves each = 6 cwt. 20 Ibs., or 792 sieves = 16 tons 19 cwt. 1 qr. 20 Ibs. per acre are very exceptional, as also are prices ranging from 7s. to 15s. per half-sieve, mean 11s. = £204 12s. per acre, for when these prices are secured the trees do not carry more than half a crop, 98 sieves = £102 6s, per acre. The clear profit, when the grower bears all the expenses of gathering, packing, and " "* r ,** P'* ^..^as" ••» > * z?8 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. maiketiug, is variously estimated. Some set it at £30, others at £40, and a few at £60 per acre. In such cases of divergence it is wiser to take the mean of the first two = £35, than of the whole = £43 6s. 8d. It is easy, however, to account for the difference in the results through situation, soil, varieties, and management. Where the orchard grass is eaten off by lean, unfed sheep, the returns cannot possibly be so good as where the sheep are fed with cake or corn, nor where the orchard receives 30 or 40 tons of stable or farmyard manure, in addition to eating the grass off by cake- fed sheep and occasional applications of chemical manure. This liberal attention costs Kg. 61. UKCHABU CHERBT TEEE IN BLOSSOM. about £10 per. annum, and is returned with interest in mutton and cherries, some estimating the grass equal in value to the rent, but that is a fruit-grower's not a farmer's view ; therefore, putting the expenditure for all purposes at £25 per annum, and the gross returns at £49 19s. 9d. (half a full crop at mean average gross returns in good years to allow for bad seasons and losses), the clear profit is £24 19s. 9d. a year per acre = 50 per cent, interest on capital and cost of production. The illustration, Fig. 64, represents a cherry tree in blossom, from a photograph supplied by Mr. Walter Kruse, Leeds, near Maidstone, who gives the following dimensions of the tree: Diameter of head, 55 feet; circumference of trunk near the SFSTZMS OF CULTURE— ORCHARDING — PEARS. 279 ground, 7| feet; just below the graft, 6 feet; round the swelling where it has over- grown the stock, 12£ feet. The stock is the wild cherry, the bearing variety, the Black Heart. A hundred flowers have been counted in one bunch. The last crop was 7 half-sieves of 24 Ibs., value home, £1 Is. 6d. Since then the tree has been shattered by lightning. A more gigantic old tree in the orchard of Mr. A. J. Thomas, Rod- mcrsham, Kent, cnce gave as its heaviest crop half, a ton of fruit. Pears. — Standard trees on pear stocks with clean stems 6 feet in height are suitable for planting on grass, and are largely cultivated in East Kent, also in the counties of Gloucester, Hereford, and Worcester. They are somewhat extensively grown in Hert- fordshire, and flourishing trees may often be seen in various parts of the country where apple trees are complete wrecks through age or poorness of soil, for the pear is longer- lived and thrives in light soils over gravel, preferring sand to calcareous matter. It does well, however, on calcareous gravel in Hertfordshire where the chalk is several feet from the surface, on oolite where the soil is sandy or gravelly and deep, and on light soils where water does not lodge within several feet of the surface. Crawford, Lammas, Caillot Eosat, Jargonelle, Williams' Bon Chretien, Hessle, Beurre d'Amanlis, Eyewood, Beurre de Capiaumont, Fertility, Louise Bonne of Jersey, Bishop's Thumb, Althorp Crasanne, and Swan's Egg, are useful table varieties ; Catillac and Verulam for stewing. (See page 124.) The trees being more or less upright or pyramidal in habit may be planted a little closer than apple trees, but the better plan is to place the pear trees 30 to 36 feet apart, and plant plum or damson trees between them, then at twenty to twenty-five years from forming the orchard, the plum or damson trees should be removed, leaving the pears in good profit, with the sun shining on the ground between them, and the grass consequently far better for grazing as in parks. Pear trees require similar treatment to apple trees, and are later in coming to remunerative bearing. This is not reached until the fifteenth year, and the period of best production until the twenty -fifth to the thirtieth season from planting. The crops are less certain than those of apples, through pear trees blossoming early and being liable to suffer from spring frosts. Large trees of Lammas, Hessle, Fertility, and other free-bearing varieties sometimes produce enormous crops— 10 to 20 bushels per tree, and bring £1 10s.— £3 per tree = £72 per acre for 48 trees at £1 10s. per tree Stch crops and prices are exceptional. The gross returns in the best years reach an average of 20 half-sieves per tree = £84 at Is. 9d. per half-sieve — the actual gross return from z8o THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. a Covont Garden salesman, the fruit sent by railway a distance of 52 miles. But this only occurs once in three years, and the mean average gross return is £28 a year per acre. Sometimes a grower realises a large sum for a particular tree carrying a heavy crop of fine fruit, chronicles it, and thereupon calculations are made by optimists or sensationalists. Such records are, if interesting, certainly misleading, and the reason there is no counteracting statement of failures is suggestive of the special pleader — land to sell or let or trees for disposal. A widow woman cleared £3 a year every other year for the produce of a Hessle pear tree, and a gardener sold £3 15s- worth of Windsor pears from one tree in a season. Such records require dis- counting 75 per cent, for safe guidance in cultures by the acre and for an average of seasons. Taking an average of the production of the trees from the periods of remunerative bearing to the best production — 80 bushels =£18 gross returns annually per acre- orchard pear-growing is not favourable for those having to send the fruit over 50 miles to market. Mr. Hooper records a better average for Kent — placing the commencement of remunerative return in the twelfth and period of best production in the twentieth year, the yield per acre at 2 tons, and the price at £10 per ton = £20 gross returns per annum. Orchard pear trees, however, wax in productiveness with age, and the heirs of the planters certainly find the trees healthier and more profitable than apple trees of the same age, some, perhaps, producing 25 bushels each in a season. With plum or damson trees between the pears the returns are much better in a quarter of a century from planting, and afterwards the profits will surpass those of apple trees on a similar soil, for pear trees are to gravelly and sandy soils what the cherry trees are to deep calcareous gravels — long-lived, healthy, and in favourable seasons enormously pro- ductive. Plums and Damsons. — These succeed almost everywhere and in nearly every soil. The commoner varieties both of plums and damsons do well in garden or orchard fences, and may be planted in hedges near farm and other homesteads. They form capital screens and are advised for shelter. (See Orchard, Vol. I., page 89.) The following varieties— the Czar, Sultan, Belgian Purple, Gisborne's, Pershore, Jeiferson, Mitchelson's, Victoria, Prince Engelbert, Diamond, Pond's Seedling, Bush, Monarch, and Archduke plums are suitable for orchards. Early Eivers and Wyedale— the earliest and latest best plums— are dwarf growers ; Winesour forms a large tree and succeeds on the limestone. The best damsons are Fajleigh or Crittenden, Shropshire or Prune, and .S" / -.V TKMS OF C UL TURE— ORCHA RDIXG - PI. UMS. J 8 1 Bradley's King. The trees should be on common pluni stocks, and have clean stems 6 feet in height. Plums thrive in shallower soils than apples, cherries, or pears, as the roots run along the surface, and in such soils, also the lighter marls, may be planted 15 feet apart = 193 trees per acre, but in deep strong clay loams they should be set IS feet asunder = 134 trees per acre. Good trees cost Is. 6d. each, 15s. per dozen, £6 per 100 ; to 2s. each, 18s. per dozen, £7 10s. per 100. The distance of the trees and their prices must have due consideration in fruit-growing for profit, but good well- rooted trees are essential, and in the end the most economical. The trees should not be deeply planted. Only the damsons and small-fruited plums must be employed for shelter, as the branches of many plums are brittle and liable to break when laden with fruit in situations much exposed to the wind. Greengages are sometimes planted in orchards on grass, and do well in good soils and favourable situations, such as at Mentmore. Denniston's Superb, Green Gage or Heine Claude, and Eeine Claude de Bavay are good varieties. Standard pluni and damson trees do not require much pruning. Strong leading shoots must be shortened to ensure a well-furnished head, and the growths judiciously thinned to prevent crowding or the shoots crossing each other. A too free use of the knife results in sappy growths, and tends to gumming and decay in the branches. The trees should be attended to early in July for the removal of crossing and superfluous shoots, and the pruning completed early in October. This will only be required for a few years to keep the centre clear and secure an open, evenly-balanced tree, not mop- like by a multiplicity of twigs, nor straggling through neglect of pruning. After the heads are formed very little pruning is needed, but they must be cleared of dead twigs and spurs, keeping the growths sufficiently thin to allow free access of sunshine and air for ripening the crops and wood. Plum trees commence bearing profitably in five to seven years, and damsons at five or six years from planting ; but allowance must be made for the difference in soil and early fruiting proclivities of the different varieties. Strong growing varieties in rich, soils afford little fruit until the tenth year. At this age the produce of the orchard is about 65 bushels per acre = £13 nett. In the fifteenth to twentieth year the trees attain the period of best production, the yield occasionally reaching 261 bushels (about 60 Ibs. each), and brings in gross return 8s. per bushel = £104 8s. per acre. Such returns are, however, very exceptional. In ordinary seasons and on an average the crop rarely exceeds 261 bushels and the return nett 4s. per bushel = £52 4s. per acre. VOL. in. o o 282 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. Deducting all expenses, interest on capital, rent, tithe, rates, and working, the clear profit averages £20 — £30 per acre for trees in full bearing. This lasts from the fifteenth to the thirtieth year, for plum trees do not continue profitable nearly so long as those of the apple, cherry, and pear, hence plums are frequently put between them and removed when the permanent trees become large. This is necessary when the land is held on a long lease, but for standard plum trees on grass, a thirty years' lease will secure the tenant against loss. Very high prices are obtained for plums at times, £28 — £38 per ton, and then, the crop is scarce in most districts, but the fruits large. Quoting high figures and ignoring low is quite misleading, for very high prices only occur about every fifth year. Plum trees occasionally bear enormous crops, u glutting " the markets, the fruit scarcely pay ing the growers who have a good business connection, while those relying on local demands or sending erratically to market derive no profit, but incur loss in gathering and other expenses. In 1893, the average lowest price for plums was 3s. per bushel (sieve), and the highest 6s., mean average 4s. 6d. per bushel == £8 8s. per ton; but there is far more fruit sold at the lowest and mean than at the highest average prices, therefore it is safest to take the average of the first two — 4s. per bushel = £7 9s 4d. per ton = £52 4s. per acre. Some growers, however, averaged 5s. per bushel = £65 5s. per acre, and made from £20 — £30 per acre profit. Damsons usually sell well at prices ranging from 6s. — 10s. per bushel, and in years of scarcity they bring double these prices. Damson trees, however, are more certain croppers than plums, consequently give a heavier yearly return, and average about 3s. 6d. — 4s. 6d. per bushel nett = £52 4s. per acre. In 1893, damsons only realised 3s. — 5s. per bushel, and profits were considerably lessened through the earliness and shortness of the damson season. The yearly return for an acre of thriving trees in full profit ranges from £21— £35 clear of expenses. The whole of the returns relating to the several orchard fruits are based on the trees at the best period of production, and on the principle of their being of the most suitable marketing varieties, planted in favourable situations and soils, and from first to last accorded judicious and intelligent culture. Of the value of ordinary farm orchards we have no evidence. Few farmers keep account of such " trifles" as fruit, if they did they would find that 'most of the scraggy apologies for orchards are mere waiters of grass by the trees that cumber it, while the fruit is scarcely worth gathering. The farmers' salvation in whatever he grows rests in high cultivation, the greatest bulk of the SYSTEMS OF CULTURE— ORCHARDING -PROFITS. 783 best produce, and unless those desirous of engaging in fruit growing for profit are able and willing to act on that principle, it would be wisest to have nothing to do with it, but go on struggling with adversity to the end. Taking the whole life of the fruits, from planting the trees to the cessation of useful production, the profits are not more than to warrant a safe investment of capital, and afford a fair living by hard working, and something for old age. Fortunes accrue onlv to the few growers possessed of energy, enterprise and business aptitude in a superior degree, others secure a fair livelihood, while several fail. So is it with the trees, some prove thrifty and profitable where others become wasted by " canker " or "gum " ; many bear profusely for a time, but cease to be profitable when others are remunerative and will afford good returns for many years. The precocious varieties are not nearly so long-lived as those slow in arriving at a profitable bearing state. The first are more fitted for cultivated plantations than orchards on grass, and have been disregarded in the following approximate estimate of the periods of remunerative bearing and the yearly values from planting the trees to their ceasing to be profitable : —Apples, 40 — 60 years, profit £10— £20 ; cherries, 60—75 years, profit £15— £30 ; pears, 75—100 years, profit £10 — £20 ; plums, 30 — 40 years, profit £15 — £30 per acre. These estimates, based on the doings of trees in favourable situations and soils, also subject to 25 per cent, dis- count, to allow for losses from spring frosts and invasions of fungi and insects, are fairly representative of the best British orchards. FRUIT PLANTATIONS. time elapsing before substantial return is made by standard trees of tardy bearing, the inadequacy of the supply of fruit of home growth for the demand of British markets, and the depressed state of agriculture, have given an impetus to the cultivation of fruit trees calculated to afford early and heavy crops. This implies the growing of apples (cherries are only partially amenable), pears, and plums in low standard, pyramid, and bush form, with the selection of early, free, and constant bearing varieties. The estimates of profit to be derived from this system are extended from the yield of a few trees to several acres, and made to show returns of £50— £120 a year per acre. Major Hambling, of Dunstable, grew 50 bushels of apples on 10 poles of calcareous soil in 1893 = 800 bushels per acre, which at 2s. 6d. per bushel = £100. A plantation of dwarf pear trees at ten years old gave a return of £ 1 20 per acre. An acre of Early Rivers' plum is credited with a return of £200 in one year. Fruit crops of exceptional bulk and value are highly worthy of record as showing what can be accomplished under specially favourable circumstances by the exercise of high cultural skill, but they are very far from being representative of what can be attained by the great majority of cultivators. In the plantation method of growing fruit low standards are employed instead of tall ones as in orchards. This is an immense advantage in most situations through the lessened danger of damage from wind. Moreover, the trees being of compact growth and quick bearers, they can be planted closer, early and heavy yields being obtained. The fruit is also of finer quality from superior cultivation, while the operations of spraying, pruning, thinning, and gathering the crops are greatly facilitated. Bush fruits are often grown between the lines of the large trees, for the utilisation of all the ground, and afford good returns for a time, or until the permanent trees enlarge, the bushes then ceasing to bear profitably. From the third year the plantation affords good returns, both from the low standards and bushes ; the first commencing to bear profitably in the fifth season after planting, and reach their period of best production from the tenth to the fifteenth year. This period endures for a similar length of time, though there FRl'IT PLANTATIONS— PLAN— LAYING OUT. 4-.+ • 4-- 4--4-.4-.4-.4-.4-.4- +-.4-.4-.4--4-.4---I-.4-. .4-.-f-.4-.4-.4--4--4--4-.4- 4-.4-.4-.4-.4-.4-.4--4-.4-- •4-.4-.4--4-.4--4-.-t-.4--4- 4.. + .4.. + .+ .+ . + .4.. 4. Fig. 65. PLAN OF FBUIT PLANTATION. (Scale 1 inch = 108 feet.) References:— A, standard trees (o) in " opposite vacancy " order, 18 feet apart, with currants, gooseberries, or raspberries (.) between the rows, 6 feet apart. B, low standard apple, cherry, pear, or plum trees (o) in squares, 12 feet asunder, with currant or gooseberry bushes (.) between the rows, 6 feet apart. C, large pyramid or bush trees ( + ) in "opposite vacancy'' order, 18 feet apart ; compact early-bearing trees (.). D, pyramid or bush trees (.) at 6 feet apart ; every alternate tree and row temporary. E, red currant bushes (.) in squares, 6 feet asunder. F, gooseberry bushes in " opposite vacancy " order, 6 feet apart. G, black currant bushes (.) in squares, 6 feet asunder. H— I, damson trees (o) next the fence, 18 feet apart, with temporary ones (not shown) between 7— /, damson or hardy plum trees (.), 18 feet apart, with temporary ones between if the plantation consists of dwarf trees in A and B, not otherwise. // — J, compact-growing plum trees (.), 18 feet apart, with temporary ones betw ;eu, if exposed on the south side, but not adjoining a road and standard trees are not planted in A. The shaded part roada or avenues. z86 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. are many exceptions. Some trees do not make good progress through canker or gumming, while the enormous bearing of others in their early years causes their speedy collapse, as compared "with less precocious sorts of hardier constitution. The plantation system also applies to fruit trees in pyramid or bush form ; in fact, it is a general term signifying any fruit in cultivated ground, examples of which are shown in the plan (Fig. 65) of a plantation of about 10 acres. In laying out a fruit plantation sufficient distance should be left between the trees and fence to allow a conveyance to pass along without coming in contact with the trees when full grown. Parallel avenues should also run through the plantation, if large, dividing it into convenient plots. This can be done by leaving out one row of trees in the case of standards, or such number in other cases as will allow a team of horses to pass along and turn at the ends. Manure can then be readily applied, fruit collected and placed on conveyances, either on the avenues or along the line of the fence, without carrying by hand an inconvenient distance. The drainage of the land, preparation of the ground, and planting the trees are prac- tically the same as advised for orchards and gardens ; and the particular requirements of each fruit in respect of situation, soil, manures, pruning, and general management having been treated, it is only necessary to refer to the several kinds for marketing purposes to enable intending growers to acquire information that may be of service. Apples. — Standard trees are sometimes 20 feet apart =108 per acre, cost Is. 3d. each =£6 15s., with currant or gooseberry trees 5 feet apart each way= 1,634 per acre, cost 12s. 6d. per hundred =£10 4s. 3d., total cost of trees = £16 19s. 3d. per acre; planting, staking, trimming, and manuring = £9 Os. 9d., = £26 for trees and planting per acre. In three years from planting the trees commence bearing, and increase in value yearly, so that the return for fruit sold in the seventh year may reach £40 per acre. Deduct from that amount £15 for expenses of cultivation and marketing the fruit £2 11s., also 5 per cent, interest on capital (£0 in draining, £20 trenching, £26 in trees and planting = £o 1), and rent, tithe, and rates £-5 us. =£22 16s., and the clear profit is £17 4s. per annum. This average will be sustained, for when the bushes are no longer serviceable the permanent trees will have increased in size and profit. "When the bushes are removed the open spaces can be utilised for various crops — bulbous and other flowering plants; but this is alien to fruit-growing, as also is the taking of onion and other crops between the rows of trees during the first and second years of the planta- tion, though some growers, not allt find the association profitable. FRUIT PLANTATIONS— APPLES— " FEATHERED" 1 REES. Plantations are frequently formed of low or half-standard trees, grafted on the Paradise or Nonesuch stocks, which promote early bearing. These stocks are worked near the ground, the scions are allowed to grow with a single stem to the height required, then topped to form the heads of the trees (see "Low Standard,'' Figs. 15 and 16, pages 26 — 28, Vol. II.). The price of this form of tree of a size fit for planting ranges from £4 to £7 10s. per hundred, bv.t many large growers prefer two-year "feathered" trees — unprtined of that age from the graft ; these are shortened, the side Fig. 66. iiiATHKRKD ArpiE THVES. : — K. upright-growing tree pruned (bars) to form head and feathered stem : a, leader ; b, side shoots to form head ; c, side shoots shortened to form spurs and strengthen the stem. L, tree of spreading h:ibit : d. leader ; e, side shoots tipped to form head ; /, side shoots cut off close to the stem. M, tree forming head naturally : y, leader shortened to throw vigour into the head ; h, side shoots shortened to underside buds to cause growths to spread. N, the tree A", in its second season after planting. growths tipped or removed at the lower part, leaving the upper two or three for form- ing the head (Fig. 66, K—M). By shortening the side growths not required to form branches instead of cutting them off closely, fruiting spurs form along the stems and produce useful fruit, as shown in j.V. These stem spurs may remain until the head of the tree is well formed and com- mences bearing freely, and then be gradually removed. Two years feathered trees cost £3 15s. to £6 per hundred, the price varying according to variety and character ; the best feathered trees are nearly as costly as half-standards. Either may be planted 12 feet apart— 302 trees per acre, average cost half- standards = £17 17s.. feathered = £15 12s. 6d. per acre. Between the trees and rows currant or gooseberry trees are 288 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. planted 6 feet apart = 908 per acre, price strong, £1 5s. per hundred = £11 7s ; good, for planting with smaller apple trees, 12s. 6d. per hundred = £5 13s. 6d. ; total cost of trees, £29 4s. and £21 6s. respectively per acre. These added to the cost of draining, trenching, planting the trees and manuring => £35, amount to £64 4s. and £56 4s. pei acre respectively, and represent the expenditure of forming a plantation of half-standard apple trees in the most approved manner. The trees and bushes of a profitable size when planted come into profit in the second year, poor trees and bushes iu the third or fourth, and about pay expenses in the first year of bearing. From this, if due regard is given to thinning the fruit, so as to have it fine and prevent stunting the trees by overbearing, the crops will increase annually, reaching £60 for fruit sold about the seventh year. This sum will continue to be realised annually for a number of years, for when the bush fruits fail the apple trees will be at best period of production. If £25 —expenses of cultivation, rent, tithe, rates, and interest on capital — is deducted from the return for fruit sold, a clear yearly profit of £35 is shown. This is not reliable, for the crops of fruit vary according to seasons, and are not full oftener than once in three years, and about 2.5 per cent, off the profit of the best seasons ought to be set aside to meet the deficiencies of bad years. Bushes and pyramids are fashionable. Their advantages are : (1), the trees come quickly into bearing, as they produce fruit the second year from planting; (2), they may be set closely ; (3), the fruit is finer and the trees well under the control of the culti- vator for applying the preventive and remedial measures against fungal and insect attacks ; also for facilitating cultural operations. Its defects are: (1), the trees seldom sustain in their late years the prospect they give at the commencement of bearing; ^2), after the best period of production is reached the trees bear indifferently at the lower part or near the ground ; (3), the blossoms are more liable to injury from spring frosts than those of standard trees. This method of culture is, as a rule, best suited to gardens or sheltered plantations. Th% trees should be on the English or Nonesuch Paradise stocks. Varieties to sell direct from the tree : Dessert. — Mr. Gladstone, Devonshire Quar- renden, Duchess of Oldenburg, Yellow Ingestrie, Lord Lennox, and Worcester Pearmain. Kitchen. — Improved Keswick Codlin, Lord Grosvenor, Potts' Seedling, Yorkshire Beauty, Stirling Castle, Grenadier, Manks Codlin, and "Warner's King. For storing: — Dessert. — King of the Pippins, Beauty of Hants, Coz's Orange Pippin, Wyken Pippin, Baumann's Reinette, Court Pendii Plat, and Sturmer Pippin ; Kitchen.— New Hawthorden, Small's Admirable, Queen Caroline, Lord Derby, Bismarck, New FRUIT PLANTATIONS— APPLES. 289 Northern Greening, Lane's Prince Albert, Newton Wonder, Dumelow's Seedling, and Brumley's Seedling. The trees should he planted 6 feet apart— the permanent ones at 12 feet, with early hearing varieties between the trees and rows = 1,210 per acre, price Is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. each ; bearing trees £6 per hundred = £72 12s. per acre. Bearing trees are cheaper than maidens, as they are formed and come into profit in the second year. Cost of draining and preparing the ground, manuring and planting the trees, £35 — total expense of forming a plantation of bush or pyramid apple trees, £107 12s. per acre. The most useful form of tree is the Open Bush (page 14, Vol. IT.), the management Fig. 67. BUSH APPLE THEE WITH SHORT STEM. of which is given on page 15. Vol. II., and is the shape advised for trees of upright growth and popularly termed pyramids. The Cup-shaped Bush is shown on page 179, and Fork-branched on page 181, both Vol. I., but in most cases little regard is had to shaping the trees, the maiden tree being usually cut down to a foot from the ground or even less, and the branches are therefore close to the ground, which impedes manuring and cleaning. (See Fig. 67.) The trees ought to have 12 to 18-inch stems, be cut to form any of the above shapes, and after that be allowed to grow freely, merely shortening the tips of the shoots to VOL. in. P P jgo THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. secure evenly balanced heads, and taking out any crossing growths. When the trees produce a crop, mulching may be carried out in June, the fruit thinned in due course, and liquid manure applied for swelling the fruit. Manuring is best done in the winter. Farmyard manure, rags, fur-waste, shoddy and fish manure are used for plantations. Superphosphate of lime, kainit and nitrate of soda may also be used with advantage as supplementary of the solid manures. In seven years the return for fruit sold may reach £60 per acre, and double this amount in another seven years; but everything depends ou the situation, soil, season, culture, and progress of the trees, such varieties as Cox's Orange Pippin and Baumann's Reinette having occasionally brought £120 per acre. When the temporary trees are encroached on by the permanent ones, they must be removed to other ground, and if carefully lifted they will transplant safely in the autumn with a partial loss of crop for one year, an abundant yield following if the season be favourable. Allusion may be made to planting trees at 18 feet apart of large growing varieties, such as Lord Grosvenor, Blenheim Pippin, Tyler's Kernel, Newton Wonder, and Bram- ley's Seedling, for developing into natural bushes, with early-bearing varieties between, as shown in Fig. 65, at (7, page 285. This method answers admirably in good deep soils, and the cost of trees — 537 at £6 per 100 = £32 — is considerably less than for bushes at 6 feet distance. The advantages are the trees get abundance of light and air, so essential in free soils for sturdy and well-ripened growth, and the lessened need of interference with the roots, while the returns after seven years are more satisfactory. Cherries.— Standard, half-standard, pyramid, and bush trees succeed in plantations on the Mahaleb stock. Only certain varieties are healthy on this stock. Six sweet cherries suitable for this mode of culture are Early Elvers, Empress Eugenie, Governor Wood, May Duke, Archduke, and Duchesse de Palluau. The trees and blossom of these varieties are rather tender, and require sheltered (not low) situations. Standards should be planted 12 feet apart, with two gooseberry bushes between each pair of cherries in the rows, and the spaces between the rows occupied with strawberries ; these should be removed after bearing two or three full crops and their place taken by strong gooseberry or currant trees at 6 feet apart. The plantation will afford good annual returns from the second year. Half-standards may be planted 9 feet every way, with a gooseberry bush at every 4| feet. This method is only suitable for shallow soils. Pyramidal and bush cherries may be planted G feet apart, as they grow compactly by summer pinching and FRUIT PLANTATIOXS— CHERRIES— CURRANTS, RED. 291 judicious root-pruning, and bear enormously, especially the Morello and Kentish. These varieties should be planted alternately, as the Morello is more vigorous than the Kentish, and the advantages are mutual. At 6 feet distance the cost of trees for planting an acre is considerable— 1,210 maidens, £6 per 100 = £72 12s. per acre; three-years-old coming into bearing — £7 10s. per hundred = £90 15s. per acre. Maiden trees produce some fruit in the third, and three-years-old trees a profitable amount in the year after planting. In the seventh year of bearing the trees average 7 pounds of fruit each = 352 half-sieves, which at 4s. each = £70 8s. per acre. In the twelfth year the trees average double the amount of fruit named, and return £140 8s. per acre. When the fruit is fine through thinning and high cultivation, also attractively packed in boxes, high prices are realised, occasionally doubling the price of sieve fruit = £280 16s. per acre. Cherries are profitable fruit, but the trees thrive only in certain districts, and the sweet varieties suffer most of any fruit from birds. Morello and Kentish are far less liable to devastation. Standard Morellos at 12 feet and Kentish at 9 feet distance on the Mahaleb attain their best period of production about the twelfth year, and the plantation proves remunerative from the second by growing bush fruits between the cherry trees. Half standards, however, afford greater facilities for pruning and picking the fruit. The returns from them are even better than from pyramids and bushes from the twelfth year. The trees should be kept cleared of dead spurs, cutting away worn-out branches in favour of pro- mising growths. This applies particularly to the Morello. Currants— Red. — A rather light or free working soil, preferably a little damp rather than dry, grows red currants well. Short stemmed (6 inches) are better than 12-inch stemmed bushes. They should be two years old from the cutting. Profitable varieties are Cherry (Scotch Bed, Knight's Early), Eed Dutch (New Eed Dutch), with Raby Castle [Victoria] as suitable for gardens. The ground requires to be well prepared and liberally manured if in poor condition. In ordinary soils the bushes should be allowed 5 feet, or 6 feet in good soils. The trees may be bought at 10.s. per hundred, but parsimony is often costly afterwards, and it is cheaper in the end to procure stout well-formed bushes at £1 5s. per hundred than mere "scrags" at 6s. By taking a number a reduction is generally made in the price. At 5 feet distance apart, 1,742 bushes are required to plant an acre, cost at 10s. per hundred = £8 15s. ; at £1 per hundred for bearing bushes == £17 10s. ; at 6 feet apart — 1,210 bushes = £6 Is.— £1 2 2s. The bushes should be kept cup-shaped, the leading shoots shortened at from 6 to 10 inches, and laterals cut back to form spurs. Summer pruning is imperative to p p 2 19* THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. secure fine fruit. In the fourth year from the cutting the bushes commence bearing and increase yearly, being in full bearing about the fifth to seventh year from planting, and produce about 1 ton = 2,240 pounds per acre, average prices l^d. — 3d. per pound = £14 — £28 per acre. From this period to the twelfth or fifteenth year the average yield is 2 tons = 4,480 pounds — £28 — £56 per acre. Double the crop named is realised in some seasons, but red currants are very susceptible of damage to the blossom from frost, and to have the fruit ruined by wet weather. The expenses of cultivation, picking and marketing, range from £17 — £20 per acre yearly. This is exclusive of rent, tithes, and rates of the land. Currants — Black. — These require a fairly deep soil, retentive of moisture, and thrive in the better descriptions of clay land. On strong land the bushes grow stout and vigorous. Bushes with stocks close to the ground are the best. (See Fig. 50, Y, page 155, Vol. II.). Black Naples, Baldwin's, and Lee's Prolific are good sorts. The bushes should be set 6 feet apart in good land ; 5 feet asunder suffices on ground in moderate condition. They can be purchased at 10s. to £1 5s. per hundred from nurserymen. Some growers prefer bushes with the buds removed from the part of the cutting inserted in the ground, but remove no buds on the part above ground, cutting off the top at the third bud. This gives three good stems close to the soil, and suckers do not come from the root part. It is an excellent practice. Shortening the leading growths is hardly necessary, but it must be done to prevent a loose habit. As the fruit is borne on wood of the previous year and on spurs, no general pruning of the extremity growths must be performed, confining the manipulations to shortening old or elongated parts to successional branches, and thinning where crowded. The bushes produce remunerative crops when four years old, and in full bearing — about the eighth year — average 2,240 pounds (1 ton) per acre annually, price 2d. — 3d., average 2|d. per pound = £23 6s. 8d. per acre. After this, up to the eighteenth year or longer in good land and under liberal treatment, the average yield is about 3 tons per acre = £70 annually, and the expenses of cultivation, picking, packing, carriage, and commission, are about £30, net profit £40. This represents the highest cultivation in good land. The general results average a produce of 1| tons = 3,360 pounds at 2^d. =£35, and the expenses £17 — £20 per acre. Extraordinary crops are recorded of 800 bushels (48 pounds each) = 38,400 pounds, at 2£d. per pound = £400 per acre, but the price actually realised was 7s. 6d. per bushel = £300, and the calculation based en a selected ^ acre from a large plantation. That is how large profits are FRUIT PLANTATIONS— BLACK CURRANTS— GOOSEBERRIES. made to appear (in print), and as obtainable by general cultivators — a stupid fallacy. Mulching in hot seasons is necessary. Gooseberries. — These succeed on porous land, but not hot and dry, in good loam, and properly drained clayey land. For affording green or ripe berries select : Keepsake, Whitesmith, Whinham's Industry, Queen of Trumps, Antagonist, Crown Bob, Lancashire Lad, and Warrington. Every plantation should comprise a good proportion of the last-named variety for supplying late ripe berries. Early Sulphur is valuable for affording early ripe fruit ; Bifleman is good for late use. Monarch is also a fine variety for plantations. Eed Champagne bears enormous crops of small, highly flavoured berries for dessert or preserving, but it only "takes" with the better class of buyers. Speedwell, Leader, Leveller, Companion, Lion's Provider, and Careless are special va- rieties to supply early green berries and ripe fruit in punnets for the shops. They are more suitable for the garden than the plantation. At two years old from the cutting the best plants are ready to set; pi-ice from fruit farms 6s. — 12s. per hundred ; prepared shapely bushes from nurseries 12s. 6d.— £1 5s. per hundred. The land ought to be steam-cultivated, deeply worked with a subsoil plough, or bastard trenched, and liberally manured. The bushes should be planted 5 feet apart on ordinary soils, 6 feet asunder in rich ground, average distance 5 1 feet = 1,440 per acre. Pruning is performed from October to the end of January, and is confined to cutting away rank growths, shortening irregularities, thinning (yet leaving a moderate supply of young wood), and keeping the centre fairly open. A bearing tree partly pruned is shown in Fig. 68. The ground is dressed with stable manure, every autumn in some cases, biennially in others, while some growers only apply solid manure every third year. The amount given varies according to the vigour and cropping of the bushes. Twenty tons per acre is a minimum dressing for trees in good holding soils, fairly vigorous, and bearing average crops; double or treble that amount is applied where the ground is lightish and free, the growth very moderate, and the crops annually abundant- Rags, shoddy, Fig. 68. GOOSEBERRY BUSH. LEFT HAND UNPRUNBD — RIGHT HAKD PKUNED. »94 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. and other refuse substances are largely used in Kent at the rate of 1 to 2 tons per acre, and being of a slow decomposing nature they are applied at somewhat distant intervals, a portion of the plantation receiving a dressing in turn. Where solid manure is only occasionally used stimulants are given in the intervening years. Nitrogenous manures are essential to enable the trees to sustain heavy crops and secure early berries. Soot — 80 bushels or more per acre — is used in some districts, applying it early in the spring. This dressing may follow farmyard manure in the second year. In the third season superphosphate and kainit in equal parts may be supplied just before digging tho ground, spreading the mixture under the branches and for a foot beyond, at the rate of 3| pounds per rod, and when growth begins in the spring, sprinkle powdered nitrate of soda similarly on the ground at the rate of 2 pounds per rod — rather less where naturally damp. This method of manuring applies to all plantation fruits, and is recommended as efficient and economical. The ground should be dug with a four- pronged fork in the winter, extracting perennial, and burying annual, weeds with the manure. This insures a loose surface that rain can enter freely, and facilitates hoeing, which should be done during the summer as necessary. Liquid manure and mulching are of great benefit, particularly in shallow soils. This applies to all bush and plantation fruits, for trees often fail to swell their crops properly in hot and dry seasons for lack of liquid nourishment and mulching to maintain uniform moisture in the soil. It is best to gather the fruit in its green state from recently planted gooseberry bushes for the first few years, as this enables them to recuperate each season, and make free progress, which is not the case when heavy crops are allowed to ripen. After the bushes become well-established and vigorous, a portion of the berries are picked directly they are large enough for sending to market. A few of the earliest green gooseberries for puddings and tarts sometimes bring 8d. per pound or Is. per quart. Sheltered situations are necessary to secure berries for very early gathering. As much as £120 per acre net has been cleared in one season for green gooseberries between standard plum trees, the gooseberry bushes being 5 feet, the plum trees 20 feet apart, and the value of the plums was returned at £80 == £200 per acre. This is recorded as a feat in cultivation. The price for early green gooseberries usually commences at 4d. per pound or 6d. per quart, but the general price soon reaches the average of lid. to 2d. per pound, or 2d. to 3d. per quart. Gathering the berries green insures a heavier constant yield than would be the case were all the crop left to ripen. Some growers recuperate any weakly or overborne bushes by gathering the whole crop while green. FRUIT PLANTATIONS— COB-NUTS AND FILBERTS. J95 "With healthy bushes about one-third is often left to ripen, two-thirds removed as green, but it is entirely a matter of judgment. Those left to ripen should be -well clear of the ground. In seasons of scarcity of cherries and plums, it is a good plan to gather all the green fruit at the base of the bushes and thin the others moderately, to insure a heavy crop of large ripe berries. Early mulching in such cases is necessary to assist the berries to swell, and enable the bushes to bear a crop the following season. An average crop of gooseberries after the seventh year is 2J tons = 5,600 pounds, to 3£ tons = 7,840 pounds, and the prices l|d. to 2d. per pound — mean 6,720 pounds, price Ifd. = £49 per acre. All expenses in connection with an average crop amount to £20 = £29 profit per acre, exclusive of rent, tithe, rates, and interest on capital. Taking an average of ten years, from the fifth to the fifteenth year, the yearly returns range from £12 10s. on moderately good land and culture to £25 on the best soil and under the best management. Better returns are had from bushes in gardens under special culture, averages of a peck per bush being recorded, or Is. per bush clear profit = £87 2s. with the bushes at 5 feet, and £72 with the trees at 5£ feet apart per acre respectively. Nuts, — Cob-nuts and filberts require a moderately light soil, but they thrive well on heavy land interspersed with calcareous gravel or flints, also " stone-shattery " soil in Kent, and gravelly mediums with a goodly admixture of loam of a holding nature. A situation sheltered from high winds is essential. Standard apple, pear, plum, or damson trees, planted at two -thirds the distance the nuts are apart, afford protection from spring frosts. Apple or pear trees should be employed on deep loams, plum or damsons on strong or shallow soils. Prepared basin-shaped nut bushes can be purchased from 30s. to 50s. per 100. A typical tree has a stem \\ to 2 feet in height, from which the branches are trained laterally, so as to form a centre of a saucer shape. The trees ultimately attain a diameter of 8 to 12 feet and a height of about 6 feet. Cob-nuts are more grown than filberts because the trees are hardier, the nuts larger and more saleable. Lambert Filbert or Kentish Cob and "Webb's Prize are good for plantations. Cosford is a free bearer and the profusion of its catkins renders it valuable for fertilising other varieties, fled, "White, and Prolific filberts, with Merveille de Bollwyller and Pearson's Prolific cob-nuts are suitable for gardens. Standards (4 feet stems; on Spanish hazel-nut stocks are appropriate for the non-pruning system. The trees are planted 12 feet apart = 302 per acre, less the number of standard trees employed for top-growth. ?9.6 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. Currant or gooseberry bushes are set between the trees and rows. These render the plantation profitable from the second year, and are taken away when the nut trees require the space. At four or five years from planting, sturdy shaped trees produce some fruit, and about the eighth year a paying crop. In exceptionally fine seasons the crop may reach 1 ton or more, but 8 to 10 cwt. per acre is an average yield. The price ranges from 3d., in very abundant, to 3s. per pound in very scarce years. The prices are entirely ruled by the supply, but the higher prices in a scarce year compensate for light crops. The average price is 7d. for moderate and Is. 4d. for high quality nuts — £26 2s. 8d. for 8 cwt, at the first, and = £59 14s. 8d. at the latter price per Fig. 69. FILBEBT TREE AFTKB PRUNING. acre. The gooseberry or currant bushes more than pay expense* up to the twelfth or fifteenth year. The best nut crops are obtained where the trees are not overtopped by others, but this is only practicable in sheltered situations. The ground in Kent is manured every other year with 1 to l£ tons of rags or shoddy, and dug in the winter with pronged forks. It is kept clean by hoeing once or twice during the summer. Pruning is done in late winter or early spring, care being taken to keep the trees in cup form and the centre clear. The finest and most promising bloom-bearing young wood is retained and tho older and coarser branches cut away, leaving some growths bearing catkins on the same branches. The trees are mere skeletons after pruning (see the right-hand side of Fig. 69). Standard trees merely require the dead or worn- FRUIT PLANTATIONS— PEARS— PYRAMIDS AND BL'SHES. 297 out branches cut away, irregularities shortened, and the growths judiciously thinned where too thickly placed. Pears. — Half- standards on quince stocks or double-grafted are worked near the ground, the pear taken up to form the stem, and the head originated at the height required. Yarieties of spreading habit succeed at 12 feet apart, with columnar ones between them 6 feet asunder. Bushes or pyramids to be root -pruned may be planted 6 feet apart. These being root-pruned will lift to other ground safely when the permanent trees require the whole space. Instead of temporary pear trees, currant or gooseberry bushes can be set 6 feet apart between the pears. This is a good plan when it is not intended to extend the plantation. Pear trees on quince stocks thrive on all good soils, also on light land, but on these mulching and liquid nourishment must be given in the summer. Heavy wet soils are unsuitable, but clayey loams kept open by gravel or flints, and having a fair depth of ameliorated surface, produce heavy crops of large, bright, juicy, well-flavoured pears. The situation must be sheltered. Crawford may be planted in two lines, 6 feet asunder, the trees in " opposite vacancy " order, 9 feet apart, on the exposed sides as screens. Being a regular bearer and of compact growth it will pay in fruit and in affording pollen for fertilising other varieties. Suitable varieties for a plantation are : — Summer Doyenne", Beacon, Clapp's Favourite, Beurre Giffard, Jargonelle, Williams' Bon Chretien, Triomphe de Vienne, Madame Treyve, Dr. Jules Guyot, Fondante d'Automne, Beurre Supcrfin, Beurre d'Amanlis, Jersey Gratioli, Louise Bonne of Jersey, Doyenne Boussoch, Eyewood, Marie Louise, Pitmaston Duchess, Bishop's Thumb, Durondeau, Comte de Lamy, Duchessc d'Angoulcme, Beurre Hardy, Beurre* Bosc, finale d'Heyst, Beurre Clairgeau, Marie Louise d'Uccle, Marechal de Cour, Princess, Beurre Bachelier, Beurre Baltet Pere, Doyenne du Cornice, Beurre d'Anjou, Marie Benoist, Josephine de Malines, Olivier des Serres, and Easter Beurre*. Yarieties for stewing: — Yicar of Winkfield, Bellissime d'Hiver, Catillac, and Yerulam. Low standard, or two to three years' pyramid or bush trees, cost 15s. per dozen, £G per hundred. At 12 feet apart = 302 trees = £18 2s. Gd. ; gooseberry trees 6 feet apart = 908, at £1 per hundred = £9 Is. 6d. ; planting, staking, and manuring £10 = £37 4s., total cost per acre, exclusive of draining and trenching the land. The bush fruit about pays expenses in the second year ; in the third the pear trees may yield Is. each in fruit, and the gooseberry bushes Gd. each = £37 10s., or a profit, after deduct- vot,. in. u Q 2g8 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. ing £17 for cultural expenses and £5 5s. for rent, &c. — £15 5s. per acre. In th« fifth season the trees and bushes are in remunerative bearing, and increase in value yearly, reaching their best in the tenth or twelfth year, by which time the soft fruit bushes will have been reduced in size or removed then or soon afterwards. When the pear crops are full the trees should be heavily mulched and supplied with liquid manure, or top-dressed with quick-acting fertilisers, washed in after the fruit is well set, thinning the fruit carefully — leaving two or three fruits of the large, or four or five of the medium, fruited varieties to every foot run of branch well furnished with foliage, and keeping superfluous spray well in hand, to expose the fruit to the sun for colouring. Good even- sampled fruits readily fetch 5s., and choice 10s., per bushel. Each tree produces a bushel when in full bearing = £75 10s. and £151 respectively, per acre. The low standard trees, as a rule, give better returns than pyramid, and both continue profitable for as long after as in attaining the period of best production. Superior exhibition fruits are had by severe thinning and extra feeding. These bring fancy prices, but fine, clear, highly- coloured, even-sized specimens at 9d. to is. per dozen pay better than a few of double or treble their size fetching 6d. to Is, each. Pyramids or bushes at 6 feet apart cost — 1,210 at £6 per hundred = £72 12s.; or, including draining and preparing the ground, planting, staking, and manuring, £107 12s. per acre. In the second or third year the trees will bear half to a dozen specimen fruits each, worth 9d, to Is. per dozen, if carefully and showily packed in boxes =£22 17s. 3d., £45 7s. 6d., £30 5s., or £60 10s. respectively (according as the trees bear), per acre. It does not pay nearly so well to grow pears on pyramids or bush trees to sell by half-sieve as by the dozen ; also bear in mind that the return to the grower is seldom more than half that realised by fruiterers, often not more than one- third, and fruit sold in the shops at 3d. — 6d. each may only bring Id. — 2d. to the grower. From the fifth to the seventh year trees of the large fruited varieties will produce 2 to 3 dozens, and the medium size 3 to 5 dozens of " boxable," averaging 2s. 6d. per tree = £151 5s. per acre. Assuming the trees to be root-pruned and kept 6 feet apart, they reach the period of best production in the tenth to twelfth year, and give an average return of 3s. to 4s. per tree = £181 10s.— £242 respectively per acre. To secure this result the blossoms must be protected from frost in the spring, and the cultivation be high = £50 per annum ; but this method of growing choice pears should not be attempted by those unskilled in fruit-growing, for it requires a thorough know- ledge of the several varieties to be carried out successfully. FRUIT PLANTATIONS— PLUMS. 299 Up to the seventh year the trees have ample room at G feet apai-i on the free system — that is, merely shortening irregular growths, and keeping the heads open by the removal of needless spray and crossing shoots ; then every other tree and row must be removed. These will form 3 acres of plantation at 12 feet apart, and if denuded of blossom the following spring, will recuperate so as to bear crops the year succeeding. At this distance the sun shines on the ground between them, and, with judicious prun- ing, on every branch to its base. From the twelfth year such trees will bear a bushel of fruit each for selling by the bushel, or G to 10 dozen specimens for packing in boxes holding 1 dozen each. The pruning of pyramid and bush trees at 12 feet apart consists in shortening the side shoots in June, removing superfluous branches during the summer, leaving the leading growths intact, unless unduly long, until October, then shortening to secure sturdiness and growths in the right direction, cutting the side shoots to three or four buds. Aged trees should have the growths thinned where crowded. Every autumn, if the trees crop well, apply a top dressing of stable or farmyard manure, about an inch thick, to a foot beyond the spread of the branches and leave it there, pointing lightly in the spring, or if the roots are matted at the surface, cover with a little soil from between the trees. Kainit and superphosphate in equal parts may be sprinkled on the soil in February at the rate of 3£ pounds per rod, and when the fruit is set, supply powdered nitrate of soda similarly at the rate of 2 pounds per rod. Soot and guano are useful stimulants, either as top-dressings or in liquid forms. It must always be remembered that the early blossoming of pear trees endangers the crop of fruit. Plums. — These thrive on loams, clayey loams, ferruginous gravelly marls, and calcareous clays. They grow well in soils too shallow for apples and pears. Shelter from exposed points is necessary ; this may be provided by damson trees set to form a semi-hedge. The trees may be half-standard, open bush, or pyramid. Suitable varieties are : — Early Prolific (Rivers'). Czar, Goliath (requires a warm soil), Sultan, Victoria, Belgian Purple, Mitehelson's. Prince Engelbert, Pond's Seedling, White ^Magnum Bonnm, and Monarch. Gages: — Denniston's Superb, Early Transparent, Green Gage, Golden Transparent, Bryanston, and Eeine Claude de Bavay ; also for dessert :— De Montfort, Jefferson, and Coe's Golden Drop. Iluli'-'sfandards or pyramids may be planted 9 feet apart in firm soils, in friable and rich 12 feet. Good trees— half-standards with 3 or 4 feet stems, or pyramids or bushes, two or three years old — cost £Q per hundred — £32 Gs. 3d. for 537 trees at Q Q 2 300 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. 9 feet, and £18 2s. Gd. for 302 trees at 12 feet apart, per acre. Gooseberry bushes may be planted between the trees and rows when the distance is 12 feet, and is more economical and quite as satisfactory in returns as planting pyramid plums at 6 feet and thinning for the permanent trees to stand 12 feet apart, unless it is proposed to extend the plantation. If the trees grow too vigorously they should be taken up early in November and replanted. In this way the trees become, and are kept, fruitful at 6 "feet distance for some years without crowding. The trees come into remunerative bearing about the seventh year, and are in the best production about the twelfth. Root-restricted trees come sooner into bearing than free half-standards or pyramids. Good culinary plums from trees at the best period of production return about £100 per acre, even in " glut " years if the fruit is thinned to swell to a large size ; thinning can be done on low trees and it pays. The finest culinary and dessert plums packed in small boxes fetch much more than the above return per annum. Farleigh and Bradley's King damsons sueceed admirably as half-standard or pyramid trees. Pruning trees at 9 or 12 feet apart should be confined to tipping irregular and removing crossing and superfluous growths in June or July, finally regulating the trees for securing an open and evenly-balanced head in October. Trees planted G feet apart should have the growths pinched in the summer, thinning and shortening them in the autumn. When the pruning is completed, spread about an inch thickness of stable manure or rich compost on the soil, from the stems to a foot beyond the spread of the branches, pointing it in very lightly, or if the roots are matted at the surface cover with a little fresh soil from the open spaces, which should be manured and dug without damage to the roots This will be required every your when the trees crop heavily, supplementing in February with superphosphate and kainit in equal parts, at the rate of 3^ pounds per rod. The rains will wash this in, and it should be followed by a dressing of powdered nitrate of soda when the fruit is well set for a full crop. Plum trees on the plantation system are worn out sooner than standard trees, not being profitable after twenty-five years — some earlier and some later. Rn*pberries. — A fairly good soil, with a cool or moist base (not water-loggod ) is necessary for securing full crops, for if too light and porous the fruit does not swell satisfactorily. It should be deeply dug or subsoil ploughed. The canes are placed in rows ranging from 3 to 12 feet apart. When 3 feet, that distance is allowed between the plants =- 4,840 per acre. Strong canes cost 12s. per hundred = £28 19s. 4d. per acre. When the rows are 4 feet apart the canes are placed 2 feet asunder — 5 feet FRUIT PLANTA TIONS — STRA WBERRIES. 30 1 18 inches, u leet 15 inches in the rows. In rows of greater width the plants are set 15 inches apart, the ground between being cropped for a time and in turn occupied with raspberries as the others wear out. This is an excellent method, as the raspberry is only profitable a few years under plantation culture. Some growers prefer stools or hills of three canes each, 4, 5, or 6 feet apart, according to soil and variety. Red Antwerp, Fastolf, and Carter's Prolific are popular varieties, but Baumforth's Seedling and Superlative are being extensively planted. The canes are shortened to about 2 feet at planting, and the result is strong suckers for ripening and fruiting in the second year. An average crop is 1| ton = 3,360 Ibs. per acre, price (wholesale) 2£d. — 5d. a pound, according to locality, season, or crop = £35 — £70. There is a great demand for this fruit for jam, raspberry vinegar, and confections. In full bearing the crop in some cases averages 2 tons per acre, and the prices vary from £18 to £45 per ton. The crop is more liable to suffer from wet than any other, hence it is uncertain ; yet raspberries are largely grown, some persons having plantations of from 20 to 40 acres. The canes should be thinned each spring to the number required for the succeeding year's crop, and the spent fruiting canes removed as soon as the crop is taken. In late autumn the canes are shortened to 2 to oj feet long according to their strength, and to be self-supporting, for they are not staked in plantations ; but it is a good plan to wind yarn round the top of the canes so that they do not hang down under the weight of fruit and thus become spoiled in showery weather. A top dressing of manure or litter is needed in the summer before hot weather sets in, especially in light soils and those liable to bake, the crop also paying for applications of sewage or other liquid nourishment in drv seasons. A dressing of manure in the autumn is imperative, pointing it in, and an application of nitrate of soda in the spring assists the swelling of the crop. The durability of the plantation in profit ranges from eight to twelve years or longer, this being greatly influenced by the soil and management. Strawberries. — The strawberry succeeds on sandy soils with liberal manuring, on loams and in the freely worked clays. The land should be deeply ploughed, subsoiled if necessary, and well manured. Early potatoes may precede the strawberries, so as to have an enriched soil, clean and in good tilth. The runners are taken from the best plants directly the fruit is picked, put in nursery rows, and thence planted in the fruiting quarters in the autumn, or left on the plants till the autumn, then either planted permanently or placed in a nursery bed and set in the spring. It is better to layer the runners in pots, 302 THE FRUIT GROWER' 8 GUIDE. turves or soil, and plant in the fruiting quarters as soon as well rooted, so as to secure a good crop the following year. Market plants are commonly planted in March, but they produce nothing the first year. Varieties grown are : — Noble, Keen's Seedling, Alice Maud, President, Sir Joseph Paxton, Elton Pine, Eleanor, and British Queen (where the ground is suitable). (See selections, page 224.) The rows are usually 30 inches apart and the plants 18 inches in them, though some are set 30 inches apart every way and the ground horse-hoed both ways. Plants in small pots range in price from 10s. to 15s. per hundred ; those from the ground, 2s. 6d. to 5s. ; 30 inches apart every way an acre requires 6,970 == £34 15s.— £52 2s. 6d. for plants from small pots ; and £8 14s. — £17 8s. for those from the ground. If the plants are set 15 to 18 inches asunder in the rows, for every other to be taken out after the first year of bearing, the cost of plants would be doubled. This is an important consideration, and points the difference between garden and field culture. With the plants from pots 30 inches between the rows, and 15 inches apart in the rows, so as to get a full crop the first year, and calculating them at £6 per thousand delivered — say 14,000 — the cost for plants alone would be £84 per acre. Calculate the produce the first year at half-pound per plant, and the price 4d. per pound, the return per acre is £1 16 6s. 4d. Double the weight has been obtained from small plots in gardens, but the average is not more than that stated. The price would be higher for first-class early produce in the first year, while in the second season the land with half the number of plants would bear their fullest crop — say 6,970 pounds = £116 3s. 4d. This from small plots has been doubled, and the net return given at the rate of £150 per acre, or taking the three years (the duration of the plantation), £100 per annum clear of all expenses. The plants in this case were raised on the premises, and the annual cost of production given at £50, exclusive of rent, rates, and interest on capital. The field plantations give nothing the first year, in the second year a full crop, averaging half-pound per plant = 3,485 pounds, which at 4d. per pound is £58 Is. 8d. per acre ; cost of production and marketing, £20 ; profit, £38 Is. 8d. per acre, exclusive of rent, rates, and interest. This, be it remembered, is far the best year, and the average of three years would bring down the profit to £25 an acre, even when the seasons are favourable. Much higher averages have been recorded, but they prove more or less exceptional as influenced by seasons and prices. The chief factor in success is heavy manuring with the intelligent culture bestowed. The first year's plants have the runners picked off by hand, and the land is kept free from FRUIT PLANTATIONS— STRAWBERRIES. 303 weeds horse-lioeing being the cheapest method. Stable, farmyard, or town manure is applied in late summer, when the runners are removed, to stimulate the growth of stout crowns, from 20 to 80 tons being used per acre. Digging is not practised in light soils, but the plants are moulded up with a plough to keep the crowns warm and dry in midwinter. Where the ground is rather heavy, the alleys are lightly dug between during the winter. A dressing of soot is applied in March or early April according to season and locality, 40 to 80 bushels per acre, this tending to keep down slugs, as well as to stimulate and sustain growth and crop. Powdered nitrate of soda. 2 pounds per rod, may be employed instead of the soot. Mulching should be done early in June. Clean stable litter or barley straw is used at the rate of about \\ ton per acre. As soon as the crop is gathered, the runners are cut off with a hook, the land broken between the rows with a horse-hoe and cleared from weeds, runners, and mulching. On light soils two crops, or with heavy manuring, three only pay ; on deep rich loams, also marls and greensand formations, the plants bear profitably for five or six years. UTILISATION OF WALLS AND BUILDINGS. I LL walls may be used for fruit-growing, and will bring a good return if the trees are properly attended to. Walls arc valuable in absorbing heat and yielding it by radiation for the benefit of trees trained against them. A low wall is not so favourable for fruit-growing as a higher one, because it accumulates less heat during the day, and parts with it more quickly when the surrounding air is colder. There is considerably more heat concentrated on a 12-feet wall, and the ground in front, than is the case with a 6-feet one, and where peach trees fail on a 6-feet wall they may succeed against one 12 feet in height. Eegard, therefore, must be had to the height of walls as well as to location in respect of their value for fruit production. Walls running east and west have one surface to the south, which is the best aspect, the other face is necessarily presented to the north, and this is of the least importance, but the superior results obtained from the southern side more than counterbalance the loss. Walls running north and south have each an east and west aspect, and the latter is the more desirable. Whatever point of the compass a wall presents its surface to at right angles, that is the aspect thereof. &outh Walls. — Apricots, cherries, figs, grape-vines, peaches, and nectarines are appropriate for the south and favourable positions generally, but in cold districts pears or plums should be planted. Similar remarks apply to trees for south-east and south- west walls in warm and cold localities. West Walls. — Apricots and peaches succeed on these, in districts south of the Thames ; north of London pears or plums ought to be planted. East Walls. — Pears and plums. North-east and north-west walls answer in the southern parts of the country for the same fruits, but in the northern and cold districts, the Morello cherry succeeds better and is more profitable. North Walls. — Although the Duko race of cherries succeeds on north walls, the fruit UTILISATION OF WALLS AND BUILDINGS— APRICOTS - CHERRIES. 305 does not pay so well as that of the Morello ; pears and plums are not good enough from sucli an aspect for market. * Apricots. — Varieties : Hemskork, Moorpark, Powell's Late, Breda and Shipley's should be planted in cold districts. The apricot requires a calcareous soil, but it suc- ceeds in firm siliceous or stony ground. The fruit meets a ready local sale at the resi- dences of the opulent for preserving at prices ranging from Is. 6d. to 3s. per do.'.en, according to size and season. Sometimes 4s. per dozen is realised for fine fruit. If sent to market the fruit should be packed in boxes, but only good returns can be expected from first-class fruiterers and for high-class fruit. Cottagers have been known to sell enough fruit from one tree on the south side of their house to pay the rent. Dwarf trained trees cost from 5s. to 10s. 6d. each. These have from twenty to thirty shoots and come into bearing in the second or third year from planting. In the seventh year the trees cover a large extent of wall, bearing freely on well-ripened young shoots and spurs. Maiden trees range in price from Is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. each, and one year trained trees can be had of the principal nurserymen for 3s. 6d. to 5s. each. Maiden trees ought not to be allowed to bear much fruit until the fourth or fifth year. Cherries. — Varieties : Early llivcrs and Governor Wood, grown on a south wall, come in very early and briug good prices at first-class shops if neatly packed in boxes. Empress Eugenie, May Duke, Archduke, and Duchesse de Palluau succeed well in most districts against a north wall, enhancing their value by prolonging the season. Morello succeeds admirably against north or west walls, gables, and the sides of houses, stables, or barns. Cherries prefer a calcareous or firm sandy soil. Dwarf trained trees cost from 2s. 6d. to 5s. each, standards for buildings to which cattle have access (the stems being protected), 3s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. each. They commence bearing about the third year and become profitable in the seventh or eighth season. Burdening the trees with heavy loads of fruit in their early years causes them to become stunted. The produce has reached 1 pound per square foot of surface covered, but a fourth of that amount of fruit is nearer the average. Only fine fruit pays in punnets or boxes, price from 3d. to Is. per pound. Figs. — Varieties : White Marseilles, Brown Turkey (the best), and Brunswick (for large areas, gables, and walls of buildings). Calcareous soil or a firm gravelly stratum is necessary. Dwarf trained trees cost from 3s. 6d. to 5s. each ; standards, 5s. to 10s. 6d. each. The trees commence bearing as soon as well established. If they VOL. III. ft B 306 THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE. grow too freely root-pruning must be performed and the soil made firm. Standard trees must have the stems protected with hay-bands in severe weather. The i'ruit brings from 3s. to 12s. per dozen, according to size and season. Warm localities, especially near the sea-coast in the southern parts of the country, should be chosen for figs. Grape Vines. — Yarieties : Black July, Black Prince, Black Hamburg (in warm soils and localities only), Chasselas Vibert, and Eoyal Muscadine. Soil free and well-drained, warm, siliceous, or gravelly. Plants (called canes), cost 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. each. Bearing commences in the second or third year. About half pound per foot run of rod is a good average annual yield, price 3d. to Is. per pound. Well thinned and cultivated grapes are superior to much imported produce and make excellent wine. Peaches — Varieties : Alexander or Waterloo, Dymond, Violette Hative, Barrington, and Gladstone ; fruit ripe from the middle of July to the end of September. Nectarines for which there is an increasing demand : Lord Napier, Hardwicke Seedling, Dryden, and Victoria (in warm situations only). Dwarf maiden trees cost Is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. each ; dwarf trained with seven to thirteen branches, 5s. to 7s. 6d. each ; standards : maiden, 3s. 6d. ; trained, 7s. 6d. to 10s. 6d. each. Peach trees require strong soil, with a free admixture of calcareous gravel ; light soils must be made very firm and be well mulched in the summer. Trees planted as maidens commence bearing in the third year ; trained trees in the second year after planting. One fruit per square foot is a good average crop to have fruit of the first size and the best quality. The price ranges from 2s. to 10s. or 12s. per dozen, according as it is poor or extra fine, abundant or scarce, average price, 3s. to 4s. per dozen. Extra fine late fruits command more money than do early and midseason sorts. Pears. — Varieties : — Jargonelle, Williams' Bon Chretien, Madame Treyve, Souvenir du Congres, Triomphe de Vienne, Beurre Superfin, Louise Bonne of Jersey, Marie Louise, Pitmaston Duchess, Duchess d'Angouleme, Beurre Diel, Doyenne du Cornice, Princess, Glou Morceau, Beurre' d'Anjou, Marie Benoist, Nouvelle Fulvie, Bern-re" Eance, and Easter Beurre. The above cover the season August to April. Beurre Clairgeau grown against a wall attains great size and brilliant colour, and fancy prices are sometimes given by fruiterers for the imposing appearance, not the quality, of this pear. For large areas and light soils the trees should be on pear stocks. Upright trained trees are best for chimney stacks and high narrow spaces, dwarf horizontal trained for UTILISATION OF WALLS AND BUILDINGS— PLUMS. 307 house ends and sides, standard horizontal trained for buildings to which cattle have access, protecting the stems. "Upright trained trees cost 3s. 6d. to 5s. each ; dwarf horizontal trained, 3s. 6d. (two tiers) to 5s. (three tiers) ; standards trained, 5s. to 7s. 6d. Trained trees commence bearing the year after planting, if then of good size, and they are in good bearing at six or seven years from planting. One pound of fruit per square foot is a full average crop, price Id. to 3d. per pound for summer and autumn fruit; 3d. to 6d. for winter fruit. Boxed fruit brings from 9d. to 9s. per dozen, extra large fruits realising 12s. or more per dozen. The average price for specimen fruit is 9d. to Is. 6d. in the summer and early autumn ; Is. 6d. to 3s. for winter ; and 3s. to 6s. per dozen in the spring. Extra fine fruit is eagerly sought after by fruiterers, and they will give special prices for choice specimens. Small or ill-shaped pears are only fit for packing in sieves, and do not pay nearly so well as the best fruit. For garden walls, cordon trees on quince stocks are the most quickly profitable. Maiden trees cost Is. to Is. 6d. each — 8s. to 12s. per dozen. They may be planted 18 inches to 2 feet apart, and trained diagonally. Double-grafted trees may be pur- chased at 2s. to 2s. 6d. each (1 year old) ; older trees cost 3s. 6d. to 5s. each. Trees planted as maidens come into bearing in the second or third year afterwards. They produce the largest and highest-coloured fruits. The fruit must be thinned, and the trees mulched and well supplied with water or liquid manure in the summer, especially in rather light soils during hot seasons. Plums. — Varieties : Denniston's Superb, Early Transparent, Green Gage, Bryan- ston Gage, Golden Transparent, Eeine Claude de Bavay — these gage plums require to be well thinned when the trees bear heavily, so as to have the fruit fine. Jefferson, Kirke's, and Coe's Golden Drop — all dessert plums of the first order; Czar, Victoria, and Monarch — good for eating or cooking ; White Magnum Bonum, and Pond's Seedling — for compotes and preserving. Plum trees succeed in any good soil, prefer- ably strong and stony. Light soils should be well firmed. Dwarf maiden trees cost Is. each ; good dwarf fan trained, 3s. 6d. to 5s. each ; standard fan trained for high walls or buildings, 5s. to 7s. 6d. each. Maiden trees commence bearing in the third year after planting ; trained trees in the first or second year. When six or seven years old they become profitable. Half to a pound of fruit per superficial foot is a full crop. Overbearing must be guarded against by judicious early thinning, so as to secure large fruit; for, unless much superior to plantation fruit, it will not pay (as it ought) for packing in boxes. Good fruit sells for 9d. to Is. per dozen, and sometimes double K B 2 3o8 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. those prices. If it has to be packed in baskets, the price realised will range from Is. 6d. to 3s. 6d. per stone. Aim high, secure large, well-coloured fruit with a good bloom, carefully preserved, temptingly packed, and the best prices will be obtained. Unsatisfactory Trees against Buildings. — Trees often fail to prosper through being roughly planted in stones or gravel, the roots then strike down into the subsoil, and sappy unfruitful growths follow. Where the ground adjoining a building is composed of rubble it should be taken out or moved 2 feet deep, and not less in width than one-third the height of the wall. If the loam to be placed in is of a close nature, one-third of the finer particles of the rubble may be mixed with it. This, made firm, will be more suitable for fruit trees than a border formed of rich loam and manure. Fruit trees against walls often suffer from dryness at the roots, the fruit dropping instead of swelling, or ripening prematurely. Soakings of diluted house slops along the side of the wall and a few feet outwards during late autumn or early spring to render the soil thoroughly moist, would do much to prevent the misfortune. If a gravel path or causeway runs alongside the wall, liquid manure poured into holes made with a crowbar, until the ground became thoroughly moistened, then filled with rich compost, greatly assists weakly trees in swelling their crops. But trees against walls oftentimes grow too luxuriantly through the soil being heavily manured and cultivated. The remedy will be found in root pruning — severing perpendicular roots — firming the ground, and leaving it undisturbed for a radius from the stem of one-third the height of the wall. "When the trees have reached the limit of space, they often produce spray in abundance, but fruit sparingly. Boot-pruning and a judicious thinning and shortening of the spurs afford growth more calculated to produce fruit ; but the better practice is to lay young wood in from the base of the branches, and cut away the old as the new extends for furnishing the space profitably. Space on low walls of almost any aspect can be attractively and usefully occupied with currants and gooseberries. FETJIT FOR SALE-UNDER GLASS CULTURE. comprises two methods : one in wall-cases or orchard houses, unheated in warm situations or heated in cold districts — so as to have fruits with certainty and in per- fection at their natural seasons ; the other in heated structures, called forcing-houses, for having the fruits ripe at given times. Various structures essential to attain these objects have been illustrated and described under the different fruits, therefore a few observations on the cultivation of fruit for sale, according to the methods under notice, only remain to be made. COOL TREATMENT. Wall- Cases. — A glazed cover, supported on iron standards, with a sloping roof, movable roof-lights, 6 feet wide, fixed against a wall 10 feet in height, costs 16s. 6d. per foot run. Such a structure allows space for a narrow walk inside, fruit trees being trained to the wall and cordon trees in front, thinly disposed and extending about one- third up the sloping lights. If the wall be 12 feet in height, and a lean-to or three- quarters span-roofed house is erected against it, 12 feet in width, with boards and front lights, on the principle of an orchard hduse, the cost is about -£1 5s. per foot run. Trees can be grown on the wall, and others in front in bush form, affording, when in full bearing, twenty-four peaches per foot run of house, worth 6s. to 12s. The wider structure costs relatively only one-third more than the case, but the returns are doubled. Growers must take matters of this kind into consideration. As regards the cost of construction, some persons assert that a house constructed of the best materials in the most approved style is the cheapest in the end. An elaborate span-roofed structure, 30 feet long and 20 feet wide, appropriate for a gentleman's garden, costs £80, exclusive of brickwork, internal fittings, and cartage ; a market fruit-growing house of the same dimensions — 30 feet long, 20 feet wide, 10 feet from floor to ridge, sides 5 feet 6 inches high, 2 feet 6 inches glass below the eaves, with boards below, costs £50 complete, about half the expense of the noble house. As for profit, there is little or none in structures costing twice as much as is necessary to produce fruit of the largest size and greatest excellence. 3io THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. Fruit grown under glass is more showy than that grown outdoors, and, therefore, commands better prices. There is also less danger of damage from inclement weather, but taking a run of seasons, and disregarding local requirements, outdoor fruits may pay better than those grown on the cool treatment system under glass, for the simple reason that it meets the pockets of the greater number of consumers. Growers of fruit for sale must study the local or general demand, and meet it in the best way. If peaches cannot be grown without covering the wall with glass, calculate the difference between the cost of their production with the glass, and of pears on the wall without the expensive covering, then decide on what is likely to pay the best. Apples. — Only the choicest Continental and American varieties, or special coloured and home-raised sorts, can possibly pay for growing under glass. If the trees are grown in pots, the house will be at liberty from November to March inclusive. Apricots. — These succeed better in wall-cases than in span-roof houses, planted-out trees being more economically managed and more certain in cropping than those in pots. The fruit clashes with imported produce, but choice British-grown apricots command the highest prices, as they are much fresher and superior in quality to the foreign. Cherries. — By husbanding the sun heat after the fruit has stoned, the early varieties are ripe with the first consignments from abroad. Packed attractively in boxes, they command 8d. to Is. per pound ; they are in every way superior to foreign cherries. Late cherries, such as Emperor Francis and Florence, bring remunerative prices. The trees succeed well in pots, and the house is available for other purposes from October to February inclusive. Figs. — Unless the climate be warm, and there is a special demand for the ripe fruit, figs are not profitable in wall-cases or cool houses, as only one crop can be ripened of the large-fruited varieties in a season. Grapes. — In warm sites grapes ripen in unheated houses, but means of affording artificial warmth is a great aid in preserving the crop or ripening it in unfavourable seasons, and it is absolutely necessary in cold districts. Grape-vines are often trained over the pathways in cool houses in which other fruit is grown, and sometimes on the roofs, at 10 feet or more apart, without prejudice to the trees beneath. The grapes realise from 3d. to Is. per pound. Peaches and Nectarines. — These comprise the most prized cool-house fruit. Planted- out trees are best for wall-cases and the roofs of cool houses, trees in pots answering in light positions. The prices are occasionally as low as 2s. per dozen, and the best FRUIT FOR SALE— UNDER GLASS CULTURE. 311 fruit seldom brings more than 6s. per dozen from mid July to the middle of September, while large well-grown late fruits may realise 8s. to 12s. per dozen in some seasons. Pears. — Fruit from trees grown under glass is, as a rule, more imposing in appear- ance than superior in quality. In cold districts the fruit from trees kept under glass is large, highly-coloured, and well flavoured, but in most localities it is better to grow the trees in pots, place them in the house for blossoming and setting the fruit, and transfer them outdoors at the end of May or early in June. The method is shown in Fig. 70. PEAE TBEES IN Pore. (From the Gardeners' Magazine.) the illustration (Fig. 70), from a photograph taken in Mr. Rivers' nursery, and which we are enabled, by the courtesy of the proprietors of the Gardeners' Magazine, to repro- duce. Grape-vines may then be grown beneath the roof in the summer, making the most of the sun-heat. The combination has proved remunerative — a crop of pears being secured on the removed trees, while the grapes cover the expenses of cultivation, and sometimes leave a margin of profit. Large, highly-coloured, clear-skinned pears bring from Id. to Is. or more each. 3i z THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. Plums. — Only the gage and large dessert plums grown under glass bring prices likely to prove remunerative, at first-class shops or at the residences of the wealthy. The fruit clashes with imported, but the home grown is much superior in size, colour, bloom, and quality ; attractive boxes containing a dozen choice fruits selling from Is. to 3s. each. The trees succeed admirably in wall-cases ; also in pots in light houses. Strawberries. — Where shelves can be fixed without interfering with the light, or not producing drip on the trees, strawberries in pots may be grown successfully in wall-cases or cool houses, and good fruit, ripe a fortnight before that in the open air, brings 2s. per pound, more or less, according to size and quality. La Grosse Sucree, Noble, Sir Joseph Paxton, and Royal Sovereign are good varieties for the purpose. British Queen usually commands good prices at first-class shops. FORCED FRUITS. The fruits usually forced for supplying the markets are figs, grapes, melons, nectarines, peaches, pineapples, and strawberries. Apricots, cherries, and plums are seldom forced, the process being considered uncertain, and the fruit not in great request. Early fruit, however, is greatly prized for banquets, and brings good prices. Apricots. — When these are forced so that the fruit is ripe in May or June, and the specimens are large and well coloured, they bring from 6s. to 12s. per dozen, moderate examples realising only 3s. per dozen. The demand for this fruit is, how- ever, limited, and it is only the fruiterers in a large way of business that are able to dispose of it on terms satisfactory to the grower, who must consult the salesman before speculating in forced-apricot culture. Cherries. — English cherries are the finest in the world. Trees started at the new year ripen the fruit towards the end of April or early in May. Early Rivers, Governor Wood, and Black Tartarian are good varieties, either for trellises or in standard form for pots. By the potted system the house is set at liberty from July to December, as the cherry trees are better outdoors after the crop is gathered and the growths ripening. The uses to which the house can be put compensates for the extra labour the system entails as compared with planted-out or trellis trees. One pound boxes of ripe cherries bring fancy prices in April, good fruit realising 2s. per pound during May, but the prices soon drop to Is., or less when imported cherries, come to hand. As very little forcing is necessary to have cherries ripe in May and early in FRUIT FOR SALE— UNDER GLASS CULTURE. 3«3 June, it is worth the attention of growers as to whether this fruit would pay for early forcing; it is a question of cultural skill and arrangement with first-class fruiterers. They can always sell the first and the best of every kind of fruit. Figs. — It is only in a few establishments, where growing figs for home use has been diverted to marketing, that this fruit is forced for sale. Only a moderate demand exists for figs at any time. Brown Turkey is one of the best varieties. White Mar- seilles is earlier, but white figs do not sell so well as the black or brown. Negro Largo is large and forces well. Planted-out trees restricted to narrow borders give the best results. Started at the New Year, the fruit ripens in May or early in June, and brings from 6s. to 12s. per dozen. Three fruits per superficial foot of trellis is a full early first crop. The second-crop figs ripen in August, and bring 2s. to 3s. per dozen. It ia only at first-class fruiterers that figs can be disposed of to advantage. Grapes. — No other forced fruit is so popular as the grape ; the supply being mainly from forced vines. The chief varieties grown for early and summer use are : — Black Hamburg, Madresfield Court, Foster's Seedling, and Buckland Sweetwater. These afford a supply from April to December, and of the varieties named, Black Hamburg produces fully two-thirds of the summer grapes. Of winter grapes, grown for market, quite two-thirds are Gros Colman. Black Alicante is also still grown largely for the early winter supply, but it is rapidly giving place to Gros Colman. Lady Downes, though the best of late grapes, is of little value for marketing. Indeed, Black Hamburg for early and summer use, and Gros Colman for late autumn and winter supply, are the chief black grapes grown for sale. Muscat of Alexandria is the prin- cipal white grape cultivated for summer, autumn, and winter use. Its season is from June to December inclusive, for though it may be kept longer, the losses are consider- able. Duke of Buccleuch is grown to a limited extent for early, and Trebbiano for late supplies. Canon Hall Muscat requires the same high temperature and careful management as Muscat of Alexandria, and, well represented, brings the highest prices of all. In growing grapes for market one variety only should be grown in a house, so that it may receive appropriate treatment. Market growers generally use the soil most con- venient. "When the soil is very porous, farmyard manure is freely used, as by Mr. Ladds, of Bexley. Others use fish refuse, giving potash and calcareous matter in the form of oyster shells, or brick-field rubbish for drainage. All aim at a fairly porous soil, resting on a well- drained base. A somewhat heavy, yellow loam, freely interspersed with VOL. III. 8 • ji4 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. gravel or gritty matter, is unquestionably the best soil fcr vines. Large, low, span- roofed houses are extensively employed, so that the vines may be attended to without ladders, and vary in length from 100 to 300 feet, the width being about 24 feet. These vineries are of cheap construction, costing about Is. per superficial foot, including heating. The vines are planted both in outside and inside borders, as is most con- venient, and the houses are utilised for growing tomatoes whilst the vines are young Fig. 71. HOUSE OF MABKBT GRAPES (GROS COI.MAN). Some growers employ rather lofty, well-constructed houses, costing about 2s. per super- ficial foot of area, including heating, paths, and roof wires ; plant the vines inside, the front or side walls being so constructed as to allow the roots to pass outside, and employ supernumerary vines or tomatoes until the permanent vines become remunera- tive. Grape-growing for market is practically identical with that for home use. The vines sometimes come into remunerative bearing the second year, but usually the third FRUIT FOR SALE— UNDER GLASS CULTURE. 315 season after planting. The yield of a house, 100 feet long and 24 feet wide, is 800 pounds under early forcing, worth about 2s. per pound =: £80 ; for summer crops about 1,600 pounds, which at Is. per pound amounts to the same sum. The cost of production is about equal, for the forced vines cost more for fuel but less for thinning, manures, also watering, generous support being requisite to enable the vines to carry heavy crops of fruit. With the rods 4^ feet apart, Muscats are produced by market growers early in June at the rate of 1 pound per foot run of rod = 530 pounds at 4s. per pound = £106 ; summer Muscats (July to September) yield about 2 pounds per foot run of rod = 1,060 pounds, bringing the same amount of money (at 2s. per pound) as the early forced ; late Muscats (October to December inclusive) produce about 1| pounds per foot run of rod = 795 pounds at 3s. per pound = £129 5s. These are gross returns for grapes from structures of equal size — 100 feet long and 24 feet wide each. Alicante and Gros Colman produce 3| pounds per foot run of rod with the rods 4| feet apart, or f pound per foot of area, which for a house 100 feet by 24 feet is 1,800 pounds, and the gross return is Is. 6d. to 2s. per pound = £135 for Alicante and £180 for Gros Colman. The woodcut (Fig. 71), reproduced from a photograph, represents a house of Gros Colman grapes grown for market by Mr. Stephen Castle, at Messrs. A. and J. Quertier's establishment, Fordingbridge. The distances of the rods vary with different growers, some following the spur and others the extension system, but the object is the same in all — namely, a maximum crop consistent with its maturing properly. This is imperative at all seasons, and never more so than when prices are low. The consumption of grapes has increased fifty per cent, in the last decade (1880 — 1890), because the supply has been good as well as cheap. Sensational prices cease with the increase of consumers, for the production receives its incentive from the demand, and it has become a question of producing the heaviest crops of the first quality at the lowest price in order to maintain a supply at all times. Channel Island and English grapes were sold by public auction in the open market at 3d. per pound in 1893. The lowness of prices was due to the enormous supplies of excellent quality consequent on the tropical summer ; yet the chief market growers, with regular business connections, managed to realise from Is. 6d. to 2s. per pound for the best produce of varieties that could be held back without prejudice until the markets were less congested. It was only by business tact and heavy crops that grape-growing could be made remunerative. Market grape-growing is based on the highest culture, heavy manuring, and 8 8 2 316 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. maximum cropping. Money is not wasted in expensive borders, costly structures, and the fancies that may be indulged in in private gardens. All that is needed to grow grapes profitably is comprised in a favourable rooting fertile medium, cheap yet useful and appropriate houses, getting the vines quickly into bearing, cropping them as heavily as possible for colouring well, feeding highly, and managing well all round. Thus the most profit is got out of the vines in the shortest time at the least cost, and when the vines give indications of exhaustion they are cleared out, young ones planted, and tomatoes grown with them to afford a return for the outlay whilst the vines are becom- ing established. Melons. — Early fruit cannot be grown without artificial heat, and late summer fruit has to compete with imported, of which specimens of 3 pounds or more are offered in the shops at Is. each. There is a good and steady demand for melons in May and June, but their production is somewhat costly, as a high temperature is requisite over a period of three months, or from the time of planting to the ripening of the fruit. Whore a sufficiency of leaves and stable litter can be readily obtained it is not difficult to produce melons in frames by June. They may also be grown in low houses or pits which in the autumn, winter, and spring are used for plants or forcing strawberries. This is better than allowing the structures to remain empty, for good melons will bring from Is. to 2s. each up to and including August, and as the eost is comparatively little, it is questionable whether the fruits do not pay as well as those ripe in May and sold at 4s. to 6s. each, or as June fruits at 2s to 3s. each. Where a number of structures are heated from one boiler the cost of production is materially reduced, and melons may be grown to pay well ; indeed, some expert cultivators find them as remunerative as any other fruit. The varieties must be handsome, well coloured, and of high quality. Nectarines. — This fruit is not nearly so popular as the peach. Whether this is due to lack of knowledge of the nectarine, or to its somewhat different flavour, it would be difficult to determine. The nectarine is certainly a more beautiful and richer fruit than the peach, but it is also much smaller, and less melting. Still nectarines are increasing in favour, and some growers for sale find them quite as profitable as peaches, especially early in the season. Early Kivers is the best nectarine for early forcing, and after it Lord Napier, a heavy and regular bearer. It is liable to shrink and become dis- coloured at the apex of the fruit, probably due to over-syringing or continuing it too long. This greatly detracts from its marketing value. Goldoni, Darwin, Pine Apple, and Stanwick Elruge, are also favourite varieties. Nectarines bring about one-third less FRUIT FOR SALE— UNDER GLASS CULTURE. 3'7 money than peaches, but the trees perfect about one-third more fruit on a given area of surface. Peaches. — Alexander ("Waterloo is very similar) is the best variety for very early forcing ; Bale's Early for succeeding ; Stirling Castle, Royal George, Dymond, and Grosse Mignonne for mid-season forcing. (For other varieties, see page 63). Some growers prefer the trees trained to trel- lises, 1 foot from the glass, wonderful fruit being so produced ; others prefer the trees in low standard form and planted out, while a few growers consider the orchard- house system — cultivation in pots or planted out — shows better results. Where water is abundant, trees in pots (see illustration, Fig. 72), afford good crops, otherwise it is a more costly means of production than the others. The tree represented is one of many grown by Mr. Rivers, and is reproduced from a photograph. The plan ted- out low stan- dard method is the simplest, and in light roomy structures it has been found the most profitable. The trees are allowed to grow freely for the first two or three years, cropping them moderately ; then permitted to carry two or three fruits per foot of area, or as many as the trees will perfect ; and when they commence falling off in bearing, are rooted out and others planted. Fruits 18 ounces in weight have been grown on low standard planted-out trees, but such weights are exceptional. Alexander peaches have realised £2 2s. per dozen at the end of March and early in April. The cost and risk of production is not greater to have Alexander, Waterloo, or Early Louise peaches ripe in April than to have Fig. 72. PEACH TREE is POT. 3i8 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. Stirling Castle, Dymond, or Boyal George ripe in May — in fact, the expense is one- fifth less. Except the very early varieties, peaches cannot be forced to pay before the begin- ning of May or the middle of that month, when good fruits of Hale's Early, Stirling Castle, Dymond, or Royal George bring from 6s. to £1 per dozen. At the end of May or early in June the prices have receded 3s. to 12s. per dozen, because fruits of the Fig. 73. PEACH HOUSE AT BEXLEY HEATH. very early varieties are forthcoming from trees started at the New Year with moderate assistance from fire heat. As the season advances prices rapidly decline, so that mid- season forcing, to have the fruit ripe in July, is not so profitable as it was before the introduction of the very early varieties, the fruit from which is easily had in unheated houses in the south of England early in July, and from walls by the middle of that month. The cost of production is cheapened about one-fourth by these very early FRUIT FOR SALE— UNDER GLASS CULTURE. 319 peaches, and their value when outdoor fruits are plentiful is very low, as in 1893, when they were Is. per dozen, whilst good fruits of the standard varieties : Dr. Hogg, Dymond, Koyal George, Grosse Mignonne and Noblesse, brought prices up to 6s. per dozen. Only very early, and very fine peaches pay for early and mid-season forcing, for from the middle of July the markets are over-stocked with fruit from the Continent, the southern parts of England, and private gardens. Late peaches and nectarines pay better than mid-season forced fruits, as they come in when imported and wall fruit is over. Mr. F. Burton has grown peaches for market very successfully at Bexley Heath, the photographic illustration (Fig. 73), showing the interior of one of his houses when the trees were in flower. Mr. J. "Walker grows them with equal success, the trees trained to roof wires in very large houses, at Ham. Pine- Apples. — The demand for this fruit has greatly fallen off of late years, and the prices have been so reduced through the consignments from St. Michael's, which arrive in excellent condition, that it is considered unprofitable to grow the pine-apple in quan- tity at the present day. Nevertheless, first-class English- grown fruit is in moderate request at about 2s. per pound for fruits of from 4 to 6 pounds weight each. It is only from first-class fruiterers, who have to supply select desserts, that remunera- tive prices can be obtained for English-grown pine-apples, and their principal supplies are drawn chiefly from private establishments. At these places oak or beech leaves are plentiful, so that the pine plants cost nothing beyond labour for bottom heat, and by utilising the available space by the sides of the pathways, or the pit-edges, for French beans, and shelves for strawberries, the expenditure for fuel is considerably reduced. Under these conditions the cost of producing a summer pine-apple is about 2s. 6d., and that of a winter one 3s. 6d. The great difficulty to be overcome in pine-apple growing is the limited demand for the fruit, yet there has of late been an increasing sale of the best home-grown pines (which excel all imported fruits), and some persons have found their culture profitable, Strawberries. — These are produced largely in private establishments, where there is ample room for the plants outdoors in the summer, and adequate means of forcing them in low, light, airy, well-heated houses, also on shelves in peacheries, vineries, and wall- cases or orchard houses. Some market growers also make a speciality of forcing straw- berries, employing the structures for other crops when not occupied with strawberry plants, such as tomatoes, cucumbers, or decorative plants. The varieties selected are generally those with high-coloured, glossy fruit, which must also be of good size, 3*0 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. well shaped and properly finished. John Euskin is one of the best first-early, then La Grosse Sucre"e, followed by Vicomtesse Hericart de Thury, Noble, Royal Sovereign, President, Auguste Nicaise, Sir Charles Napier, and Sir Joseph Paxton. British Queen meets with favour corresponding to its value at first-class fruiterers, while Waterloo as a late forcer is esteemed for its large size and rich glossy crimson colour. Good ripe strawberries at the end of February or early in March bring Is. to Is. 6d. an ounce, but are comparatively rare, and not generally profitable, as the crop is one-third only of that of similar plants ripening in April, when the prices range from 2s. 6d. to 6s. per pound. Though April and May are the chief months for forced strawberries, tho.ce which ripen later bring good prices. When outdoor fruit is forthcoming in abundance, the prices soon drop to a level at which strawberries cannot be grown under glass to pay. PACKING AND MARKETING FRUIT. "VTOTHING is more lamentable than to see the loose, thoughtless, and reprehen- sible manner in which much fruit is packed and sent to market. In numbers of instances no care whatever is taken in selection, but small, specked, and partially decayed fruits are included with others which, if kept to themselves, would form a creditable sample. Also it is pitiable to see good fruit of the softer kinds, such as grapes, plums, and peaches, spoilt in transit either through over-ripeness when sent off, or loose packing — the fruits shakiug to and fro till they are rendered worthless by bruising. It has been stated that in many agricultural districts less care is taken in sending fruit to market than potatoes. This is true, because the potatoes are sorted but the fruit is not — large and small, good and bad, being all sent together, and all consequently branded us " bad " in the market. It is not so much the superiority of the imported hardy fruit itself as convenient careful methods of packing which has given it such a firm position in our markets. Tho best fruit in the world may be spoiled in a railway journey, and vast quantities are so spoiled every year — the labour and expense of months being prejudiced, and to a large extent wasted, by neglect in sorting and errors in placing the produce on sale. It may be useful to refer to packing different kinds of fruit for market. Apples. — Early apples should be gathered when large enough or sufficiently matured for the early season's markets, as they usually bring the best prices. The soft-fleshed kinds, such as Lord Suffield, Ecklinville Seedling, and others, travel badly if left on the trees to become fully ripe, but if gathered under-ripe they must be marketed as soon as possible. If the trees are heavily cropped a third, or even half, may be picked for immediate sale, and those left will grow much finer than if the full crop had been left to ripen. Apples for late storing are best left on the trees as long as possible, without incurring danger from frost. Storing has been fully treated on pages 203 — 214, Vol. I. Choice fruit is best laid in single or double layers on shelves in a fruit room; large quantities may be laid on a dry floor, and covered after sweating with straw. The fruit must be kept secure from frost. VOL. in. r x 3" THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. Although the best fruit pays the best for growing, there may be a proportion of second and even third-class produce from the same trees. American and Australian tipple growers find that only the best sorted samples pay for exportation, and they utilise the seconds and thirds for cooking, drying, or cider- making at home. Grading, therefore, is imperative, for there is a market for "firsts," another for "seconds," and one for "thirds." If the fruit is sent unsorted to the market it may only realise a third-rate price, whereas if this fruit had been properly graded the firsts would make the best price in the market, the seconds a fair price, and the thirds realise their pro- portionate value ; or if the markets were fully supplied without the thirds, they could be realised for cider-making, converting into jam or jelly, drying, or feeding stock. It is better to do this than mix thirds with the better fruit ; indeed, it pays better to throw inferior fruits away than to mix them with good. All windfallen or bruised apples should be kept by themselves, and be marketed separately. Tack fairly— even-sized fruits in one package, and have them the same throughout— not the best only on the top and inferior beneath. Only place one sort in a package- mixing sorts is a stamp of inferiority. Brand the packages so that they can be disposed of by sample, then buyers can purchase as many as they like, and, finding what they buy the same all through and reliable, will come again. Choice apples should be packed in small packages, second quality fruit can be marketed in greater bulk. Extra choice apples may be packed in boxes in layers, other best fruit in flat baskets with lids (Fig. 7-t, A), or round ones without lids (Fig. 74, B). Common sorts can be offered in the prevailing package of the market to which the fruit is sent. Pots, holding from 84 to 112 pounds, are mostly used in the West of England ; in the northern provincial large towns, as Manchester, Sheffield, and others, apples are sold by the stone of 14 pounds, and it is not important whether they are packed in boxes or baskets, provided they are easily lifted by one or two men. Those for London markets are usually packed in "sieves" holding about 1 bushel. (When a half-sieve is mentioned it signifies half-bushel, and a sieve 1 bushel.) These baskets are round, and when filled with apples appear as in the engraving (Fig. 74, B). Salesmen supply them in some cases, and in others the growers find their own. The sides of the baskets should be lined with clean paper, called "fruit paper," costing about Is. 6d. to 3s. per ream for whitey-brown, and 3s. 6d. for blue paper. It ought to stand over the sides sufficiently for folding over the fruit. Some clean straw or coarse hay is placed over the papi-r, the whole secured by two sticks— a hazel about as thick as the thumb split PACKING AND MARKETING FRUIT— APPLES. 32) lengthwise, pointed at the ends, and stuck into the upper rounds of the basket. These sticks rise slightly above the fruit and protect it from the weight of the other baskets ; this being important, as they are packed on the top of each other, and the bottoms being slightly hollow they pack firmly. In summer time long green grass is generally used, and in winter mixed litter or pea-haulm. In using those or other baskets take care to pack the fruit firmly. The baskets must be well filled, arranging the top layer to present an attractive appearance. Fruit loosely packed always travels badly. American apples are packed in barrels, each containing 2^ bushels. A piece of thin paper is placed over the bottom, the fruit packed tightly, and a lever employed to press Fig. "4. FLAT BASKET (A) AND BOUND BASKKT (I?) FOR PACKING APPLES. it into the barrels. This causes slight indents in the fruits, but indentation from pres- sure merely impacts the juices, and decay is less likely to occur than is the case from the bruises inflicted by loose packing. One great advantage of packing apples in barrels is their becoming the property of the purchaser of the fruit. Greengrocers like them because they take xip little room, and there is not the trouble of keeping an account of and returning empties to the senders of the fruit. Packing in barrels is a great boon to the salesmen and buyers. The system deserves the attention of home-growers, especially those sending large quantities of apples long distances. The barrels must be clean or new, and each stamped at one end with the brand of the grower or consigner as a guarantee tnat the contents are what they are described (Fig. 75). Old oil-cake casks T T 3*4 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. or flour barrels must not be used for packing apples for market, but these and sacks are generally employed for sending apples by the ton to jam factories. Care should be taken to send good weight and good fruit, then there will be no difficulty in finding purchasers. Apricots. — These should be gathered as soon as they are well coloured and before they get soft. The fruit must be carefully packed in small shallow boxes, just deep enough to hold one layer, lining the sides and ends with lace-edged paper standing up about £ inch so as to fold over the fruit and form a fringe. Paper shavings, woodwool, or dry, clean, soft moss may be used on the bottom to raise the fruit to the required level, just even with the edges of the box, and some blue or pink tissue paper be placed between them, so as to leave the upper part bare when the box is opened without disturbing the fruit. A sheet of clean white paper being placed over the fruit, the fringe turned down, and fitting evenly and tightly with- out crushing the fruit, affix the lid lightly with one or at most two tacks at each end. Apricots for preserving or crystallising maybe packed in boxes: (1) capacity 10 pounds, inside measurements — length 16J inches, width lOf inches, depth 2J inches ; (2) capacity 22 pounds, inside measurements — length 18| inches, width 11| inches, depth 4-f inches. The boxes must be lined with clean paper, the fruit packed tightly (without crushing) to prevent its shifting and being damaged in transit. Preserving apricots should be evenly coloured, but not soft, when gathered. Soft apricots travel badly and only keep sound three or four days. Cherries. — These are mainly gathered in Kent by women, but elsewhere boys and men are employed. The fruit must be ripe, evenly coloured, and free from damage. Cherries are usually packed in half-sieves, holding 24 pounds. Early and choice Bigarreau and other kinds are placed in quarter-sieves, holding 12 pounds. The baskets are lined with clean paper, folded over the fruit, a little grass or similar material placed on the paper, and then secured with split hazel sticks in the form of a cross. All cherries must be gathered when perfectly dry. Choice fruit may be packed in boxes, capacity 10 pounds; inside measurements — length inches, width lOf inches, depth 2£ inches. Very fine cherries may be Fig. 75. BAKEBT, OF BBITISH APPLES. PACKING AND MARKETING FRUIT— CHERRIES, CURRANTS, FIGS- us placed in 2-pound boxes or baskets (unreturnable), or be packed in 1 pound punnets. Morellos sell best by the box, two layers only being placed in each, and the weight of the fruit written on a card in each box with the name, as well as on the outside. Choice cherries should be cut off the trees with scissors. Morellos, especially, require this care, and they must have assumed a dark red colour when picked. Cardboard boxes are often used for packing cherries, two layers being placed in each, with the stems cut to about | inch in length. .For sending great dis- tances the fruit should be packed in wood boxes, and growers must open communica- tions with dealers abroad, for English cherries ripen when the fruit in Southern Europe is over, and are superior to them in flavour. Similar remarks apply to plums and other soft fruits. Currants. — Both black and red currants are generally gathered by women, black currants at the rate of 4d. to 8d. per half-sieve, according to the crop, and red at the rale of 3d. The fruit must be coloured, yet not soft, before gathering, otherwise it will smash and be almost useless when delivered in the market. The half-sieves should be lined with paper, the fruit even in sample, sound, and free from leaves. A sheet of paper should be placed over the fruit, taking care to have the nett weight 24 pounds — any lack of weight, or baskets inferior to sample, lowering the price enormously. The pack- ages are finished with long green grass, kept firm with crossed sticks, the ends pushed through the top of the baskets, and cut even. Each basket then only requires a label, and is ready for the market. Salesmen generally supply baskets, and the requisite •^-number should be ready in time, and as needed, otherwise picking may be delayed and losses considerable, especially when the weather is critical. These remarks apply to all soft fruits. Large, well-ripened red currants may be packed in 1 -pound punnets, or small, neat boxes or baskets (not returnable). White currants may be packed similarly for dessert. There is only a limited demand for small packages of currants. Figs.— The fruit should be gathered before it is thoroughly ripe, but sufficiently so for ripening in the course of two or three days. Figs should be placed in shallow boxes 2 or 2£ inches deep, on a layer of soft, clean, dry moss, or woodwool, then tissue paper, laying each fruit in a soft fig (or vine) leaf, with the stalk uppermost, stopping the spaces between the fruit with coloured tissue paper, to make firm. Cover the fruit with a few vine leaves, then tissue paper, and over this enough packing to keep the whole tight when the lid is tacked down. The box should be large enough to hold 1 dozen fruits in a single layer. When opened, and the upper packing removed, the 326 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. fruit will have an attractive appearance, provided the side lining paper has a neat fringe, and is turned over about | inch all round. Where large quantities of figs have to be packed, two-layer boxes are sometimes used. These are 20 inches long, ends 12 inches by 31 inches, and hold about 20 pounds. A one-layer fig box is the same length and width, but 2 inches in depth, and holds about 10 pounds. Gooseberries. — Green gooseberries are gathered by women and boys at the rate of Id. per stone or 2d. per half-sieve, the price varying in different parts of the country, and according to the crop. For the London markets the baskets contain 28 pounds of fruit. The sides are lined, the paper being sufficient to allow of the two sheets lying over one another when turned down, to screen the fruit and keep it clean. Some pea haulm, or rough green grass, is then placed over the paper, the whole secured with two sticks. Eipe gooseberries for market must only just have assumed their colour when gathered. If soft they are not only apt to split in damp weather, but will not travel well nor stand handling. Warrington may be riper than most other kinds, but even this variety is liable to suffer damage. Ripe gooseberries are packed in half-sieves, similar to green. They are also packed in upright punnets, this extra care and labour being well repaid. Choice gooseberries packed in chip punnets, holding \ pound or 1 pound, find ready customers in the shops. The punnets are supplied by salesmen at the rate of 5s. to 8s. per gross. Larger quantities of ripe gooseberries may be packed in chip baskets with handles, the handle lying flat during transit. Grapes. — Large quantities of grapes are sent to market in small baskets, holding from 8 to 16 pounds, first lining the baskets with tissue paper, then placing the bunches close together, covering with a sheet of paper, and finally putting this basket into a larger one, termed a " flat." This description of package is shown in Fig. 76. Fig. 76. GBAPES PACKED IN BASKET AND PLACED rtr A " PLAT." Referencis: a, basket for grapes ; 6, tissue paper ; c, "flat." PACKING AXD j/,i A'AV-.TAYG: FRUIT— GRAPES. 327 Some packers place a little clean, soft, dry moss over the bottom of the basket, cotton wadding being objected to, and over this a layer of tissue paper reaching up and over the sides. The grapes are placed as cut in the basket, stem upwards, and quite close, to prevent rubbing. The more attractive the grapes appear when packed the better. Place the basket of grapes in the square shallow basket ("flat"), cover the fruit with a sheet of tissue paper, close the lid of the hamper, and secure it with string. Attach a card to the lid outside on which " Grapes — with care. Please keep this side up," is legibly written or printed. Then affix a label with the contents written on the top line — say " Madresfield Court Grapes, 16 pounds," then the address of the salesman or fruiterer to whom the package is to be forwarded, and below that the name of the sender — " From A. B." Such package will travel safely by rail, and if displayed for sale with as good a bloom as when cut from the vine they realise best prices. Cross handle baskets are used for enormous quantities of grapes, especially from the Channel Islands. Each basket (Fig. 77) is lined with paper, the grapes placed in stalk end upwards and closely together, weighing the basket before and after they are put in, then a stick is placed across about midway of the distance between the handle and each end, and over these sticks a sheet of paper, so as to cover the whole top, securing it with string. The sticks keep the paper from the grapes, the handle serving as a guard, and preventing other packages from being placed on the grapes. This method of packing grapes is recommended by salesmen. The baskets hold from 10 to 12 pounds of grapes. Growers having only small quantities of fruit to dispose of will find their best customers in fruiterers within easy reach, and these prefer the grapes packed in from 2 to 4 pound split baskets. These are boat-shaped, lined with paper, covered with stouter paper after the grapes are packed, and the baskets sent in crates. Grapes so packed travel safely, and are very handy and acceptable to many purchasers. The baskets also suit dealers and buyers, because " free " — not returnable. For distant shipment, say to the United States of America, where English late grapes realise good prices in the large cities, boxes are generally employed, capacity 25 Fig. 77. HANDLE BASKET OF GUAPKS r.M-KKi> FOR MARKKT. References : » »» »» • • • Newtown Pippin, Northern Spy, and Golden Russet . x x 2 340 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. FECIT. APRIL. 1th, 1892. 6th, 1893. 14th, 1892. 13th, 1893. 21st, 18l«. HOth, 1893. 28th, 1892. B. d. s. d 2 6 to 60 12 0 ,, '28 0 12 0 „ 20 0 27th, 1893. s. d. a. dt 2 0 to 60 •15 0 „ 28 0 10 0 „ 18 0 a. d. s. d. 4 6to 6 6 18 0 13 0 „ 16 0 8. d. 8. X 26to 6 0 15 0 „ 88 0 12 6 „ 16 6 8 d. s. d. 4 6 to 60 16 0 10 0 „ 16 0 s.d s.d. 2 etc « 0 16 0 ,. 28 0 12 0 „ 2-2 0 a. d. 8. d. 4 tito « 0 + 140 ,, I1' I'- ll! 0 „ 15 0 B. d. 8. d. 4 6 to 60 12 6 „ 18 0 12 0 „ 18 0 „ American, per barrel . . Newtown Pippin, Northern Spy, and Golden Kusset. Nonpareil. FRUIT. MAY. 6th, 1892. 4th, 1893. 12th, 1892. llth, 1893. 19tb, 18a2 18th, 1893 26th. 1892. 25th, It93. s. d. s.d. 2 6to 60 •16 0 „ 30 0 12 0 „ 20 0 Bushel. 6 Oto 8 0 s.d. s.d. 4 6to 6 0 11 0 „ 20 0 10 0 „ 20 0 10 6 B. d. s. d. 8. d. 8. d. 2 6to*100 5 Oto 10 0 16 0 „ 28 0 17 6 „ 20 0 12 0 „ 22 6 12 0 „ 20 0 Bushel 8 0 to 12 6 9 6 „ 10 6 s.d. «.d 5 Oto 10 0 15 0 „ 28 0 12 0 „ 20 0 6 6 „ 10 6 8 d. s. d. 17 Oto 26 0 8 0 „ 90 46,, 60 s. d. P. d. 6 0 to 10 0 16 0 ,, 28 0 12 0 „ 20 0 6 6 ,, 10 6 8. d. 8. d 17 0 to 20 0 8 0 „ 10 0 36,, 60 „ American, per barrel . . „ Tasmanian, per case . . Gooseberries, per half-sieve . . . Nonpareil. FRUIT. JUNE. 2nd, 1892. 1st, 1893. 9th, 1892. 8th, 1898. 16th, 1892. 15th, 1898. 23rd, 1892. 22nd, 1893. s. d. s. d. 6 Oto 100 15 0 „ 28 0 8 0 „ 12 6 s. d. s. d. 17 Oto 20 0 7 0 „ 10 0 s. d. 8. d. 6 0 to 10 0 12 0 „ 20 0 86,, 96 8. d. 8. d. 14 Oto 16 0 7 0 „ 12 0 46,, 66 26,, 36 26,, 36 s d. s d. 6 0 to 10 0 12 0 „ 20 0 6 0 „ 12 0 s. d. s. d. 18 Oto 24 0 9 0 „ 12 0 60,, 60 46,, 5 li 40,, 46 s. d. s. d. 5 0 to 10 0 12 0 „ 20 0 6 6 „ 10 0 •39,, 40 s. d. s. d. 8 Oto 11 0 40,, 60 46,, 60 39,, 46 16,, 29 +2 6 +2 6 36,, 46 „ American, per barrel ,, Tasmanian, per case Cherries, per half-sieve ... Currants, black, per half-sieve „ red „ Gooseberries, per half- sieve . Apricots, per box 10 pounds . Greengages, per box 1 9 20,, 26 2 6 19,, 26 20 „ 33 60 „ 80 40,, 46 6 „ 4 6 * Imported, per box of 16 pounds. t Imported. FRUIT. JULY. 7th, 1892. 6th, 1893. 14th, 1892. 13th, 1893. ; 21st, 1892. 20th, 1893. 28th, 1892. 27th, 1693. s. il s.d. 6 0 to 10 0 12 0 „ 20 0 60., 80 40,. 60 8 6 „ 10 0 B. d. s. d. 3 0 to 46 s.d. B.d. B. fl. B d. 30 ... 2 Oto 8 0 s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d . 2 Oto 8 0 s. d. 8. d. 4 0 to 60 B. d. s. il. 2 0 to 60 ,, American, per barrel . . „ Tasmanian, per case . . . 4"b „ e"o 30,, 46 6 Oto 7 0 30 ,,70 40 ,,70 6 Oto 7 0 SO,, 50 6 a „ 56 60,, 69 23,, 40 40 „ 80 20,, 26 16,, 30 46,, 76 30,, 46 46,, 60 30,, 86 26,, 30 40 ,,60 Currant*, black, per half-sieve . . ,, red „ „ . . 30,, 40 Gooseberries, per half-sieve . . . „ ripe, per half-sieve . 2 0 „ 3 0 29,, 33 2" 9 „ S's 16,, 20 20 „ 26 20,, 82 0 3 30 ... 1 8 „ 80 36 ... 36 2 0 „ 2 6 2 6 „ 3 0 03 3 0 „ 4 6 •20 03,, 0 3J 16,, 29 16,, 26 20,, 36 60 ,,70 16,, 26 20,, 36 Plums , I • Imported, per box of 8 pound*. PRICES OF FRUITS— PROVINCIAL MARKETS. 34' FatrtT. AUGUST. 4th, 1892. 3rd, 1893. lith, 1892. 10th, 1893. 18th, 1892. ITtb, 1893. 25th, 1892. 24th, 1893. s. a. s. a. 4 Oto 60 60,, 66 46,, 50 36,, 40 26,, 36 60 ,, 70 s. d. B. d. 30 4 0 to 50 i"e „ z'o so,, so s. d. 8. d. 2 9 to 66 29,, 40 40,, 50 26,, 30 2 0 46 „ 6 0 8. d. B. d. 2 0 to 36 8. d. B. d. 2 6 to 6 0 s. a. B. d 1 6to 3 6 8. d. B. a. 2 6to 6 0 8. d. B d. 2 6to 6 0 Cherries, per half-sieve Currants, black, per half-sieve . . n red, ,, Gooseberries, „ „ . . 46,, 56 46,, 60 2"b '.'.'. 2 0 30,, 36 t2 0 „ 30 •40,, 70 20 ,,26 20,, 26 30,, 36 20,, 30 40,, 70 ri's „ s' e 16,, 86 Victoria, 4s. to 5s. ; Orleans, 6». to Is. ; Gisborae, 3s. + Duchess, 3s. per box of 70. i Hessle, 4s. ; Williams', 6s. per bushel on August 31st, 1893. FBUIT. SEPTEMBER. 8th, 1892. 7th, 1893. 15th, 1892. 14th, 1893. 22nd, 1892. 21st, 1898. 29th, 1892. 28th, 1893. s. a. B a. 2 6 to 40 26,, 40 •2 0 „ 3 6 30,. S3 s. a. s. a. 1610 40 26,, 60 16,, 36 10,, 19 s. a. s. a. 2 Oto 4 0 30,, 60 20,, SO 20,, 30 s. d. s. d. 2 0 to 80 '26,, 90 16,, 26 16,, 20 8 d. s. d. 2 Oto 4 0 20,, 36 i2 0 20,, 26 8. d. B. d. 2 0 to 80 26,, 90 16,, 30 1 6 8. d. 8. d. 2 9to 6 0 50,, 90 19,, 26 26,, 30 B d. B.d. 2 6 to 80 SO,, 40 16,, 30 16., 20 „ Damsons, per half-sieve . . * Gisborne, 2s. to 2s. 6d. ; Victoria, 2s. 6ORATOB No. 3. method is very simple, there is a certain skill required that is acquired only by practice. The several steps in the process are about as follows : — " First, the same care in selecting and grading the fruit should be taken as for canning ; that is, the fruit should be all of one size, and as near the same ripeness as possible. The exact degree of ripeness is of great importance, which is at that stage when fruit is best for canning. Peaches, pears, and other large fruits are pared and cut in halves, as for canning ; plums, cherries, and small fruits generally are pitted. The fruit having thus been carefully prepared, is put in a basket, or a bucket with a perforated bottom, and immersed in boiling water. The object of this is to dilute and extract the juices of the fruit. The boiling — length of time the fruit is immersed — is the most important part of the process. If left too long, it is overcooked and becomes soft ; if not immersed long enough, the juice is not sufficiently extracted, which prevents a perfect absorption of the sugar. " After the fruit has been thus scalded and allowed to cool, it can be assorted as to softness. The next step is the syrup, which is made of white sugar and water. The softer the fruit the heavier the syrup required. Ordinarily, about 70*, Balling's saccharoineter, is the proper weight for the syrup. 35<> THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. " The fruit is then placed in earthen pans, and covered with the syrup, where it is left to remain about a week. The sugar enters the fruit and displaces what juice remained after the scalding process. " The fruit now requires careful watching, as fermentation will soon take place, and when this has reached a cer- tain stage the fruit and syrup are heated to a boiling degree, which checks the fermentation. This heating process should be repeated as often as necessary for about six weeks. " The fruit is then taken out of the syrup, and washed in clean water, and it is then ready to be either glaced or crystallised, as the operator may wish. If glaced the fruit is dipped in thick, sugar syrup, and left to dry quickly in the open air. If to be crystallised, it is dipped in the same kind of syrup, but is made to cool and harden slowly, thus causing the sugar which covers the fruit to crystallise. The fruit is now ready for boxing and shipping. Fruit thus prepared will keep in any climate and stand transportation." (Prize Essay, State Board Horticulture, 1888, by Mr. J. J. Pratt, of the Yuba City Cannery, California.) Crystallised fruit sells well ; most of that sold in this country is imported from France, and obviously a great deal of it might be displaced by British, if the same knowledge were acquired here and taste exercised in its pro- duction. Fruit Drying. — This has been recommended as a panacea for the low prices of fruit in great abundance years. The arguments in favour of the practice were mainly Fig. 88. IMPEOVED COTTER OF APPLE RINGLETS, " SIMPLEX." derived from American sources. In California, 12,150,000 pounds of various fruits are dried annually. Of that amount 100,000 pounds are sun-dried, and 250,000 pounds evaporated apples ; 200,000 pounds of sun-dried, and 40,000 pounds of bleached plums ; and 25,000 pounds of sun-dried pears. These represent the fruits likely to be " evapor- ated " (if at all) in this country. Of the principal fruits dried in California (and it is similar in other countries exporting dried fruits) there is not a golden prospect of drying profitably in this country, for the raw material is worth more relatively than the manu- factured goods. Mr. Pidgeon's (" Royal Agricultural Society's Journal," for March, 1890), states that in the western portion of New York State, a district lying within a radius of forty miles around the city of Rochester, produced in 1888, 37,750,000 pounds of evaporated fruit (all but 750,000 pounds of which were apples) of the value of ,£297,000. Mr. Pidgeon states that to produce this amount, 250,000,000 pounds (111,000 tons) of green applet, and 250,000 quarts of fresh raspberries were operated on ; 19,000 tons of coals were burnt in 1,500 drying houses (each containing one FRUIT PRESERVATION. — DRYING APPLES, 351 or more evaporators of various sizes), and 45,000 hands were employed during the four months of the year, bringing about, the result quoted above. Passing from the foregoing approximations, we find that in the year 1888 apples in the dried state were exported from the United States to the extent of 11,803,161 pounds, of the value of 812,682 dollars. In that year 489,570 barrels = 61,196,250 pounds of green apples, were exported by the United States, of the value of 1,876,801 dollars. The importance of dried fruits to an exporting country is immense, but England is not an exporting, but an import- ing country. In 1886, 3,261,460 bushels of apples were imported into this country, and .£857,095 paid to exporters. Of that amount the United States contributed 1,647,052 bushels, value £478,895, and the remainder came from Canada, Belgium, Holland, and France. In the season 1888-89 the United States and Canada supplied 1,401,382 barrels of apples to British markets. In face of the facts adduced, it has been urged that there ought to be some means of dealing with the surplus fruit which in excess-crop years remains ungathered or is otherwise wasted. In October, 1892, trials with evaporating machines were conducted at Chiswick in the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society. Drying fruits is an old industry that was somewhat general in Kent about half a century ago, plums being dried in ovens or on trays over fires, but the custom ceased as French prunes were found to be cheaper and better. The experiments at Chiswick confirm this fact — the variety Italian Prune (Fellemburg), a large, dark, oval plum with firm flesh giving the best results. It is good for dessert and preserving, and hangs till it shrivels, but it can only be grown satisfactorily in many parts of this country against a wall. The small plums, such as Rivers' Prolific, are too small for drying, too little flesh and too much stone. Diamond, Monarch, and other large, dark, tough- skinned, firm-fleshed plums dry well, and are quite equal to French cooking prunes, which are sold retail at 5d. per pound. The soft -fleshed and tender-skinned plums, as Victoria, do not dry well. Preserving plums by converting them into jam in cases of surplus is, therefore, more generally applicable than drying them in this country. In the case of apples a special variety seems as imperative as in plums, and it appears hopeless to make any profit out of drying soft apples in which there is most waste in excess- crop years. This is made clear by Mr. Barron's report of the Chiswick experiments : — " Fruit drying. — During the operation a temperature from 175° to 200° is required for apples, and the time occu- pied is about three hours. 10 pounds of fresh fruit of Cellini gave 1 pound 8£ ounces when dried. 10 , New Hawthorden .,1 11 " 10 10 10 10 10 Blenheim Orange „ 1 Frogmore Prolific „ 1 Lord Suffield „ 1 Small's Admirable „ 1 Beauty of Hants „ 2 12 9 2 3 4 The parings and cores have to be added to the weight of the dried fruit when calculating the exact reduction by evaporation. For plums the temperature required is about 250°, and the time required is from eight to ten hours." JS« THE FRUIT GROWERS GUIDE. Dried apples in tins, about 3 pounds each, are retailed at 5d., or 4s. 9d. per dozen tins ; 1 gallon, Is. ; 1 dozen 1 gallon tins, 11s. 6d. ; rings 6cl. per pound, to produce which 5 pounds of raw fruit is required. Of the success of drying apples there can be no question, as the object is to drive out the water and retain the more digestible and nutritious components of the fruit, but it is not so much with the principle as with the commercial aspect of the pro- duct we are concerned. It has been tried in Kent and Worcestershire, ami, though the consensus ol opinion is conclu- sive that apples and plums can be thoroughly dried by evaporators, all the saccharine matter being retained, and the produce remarkably good when stewed or made into pies, the practice has not yet been much adopted for commercial purposes. The mode of preparing apples for drying in an evaporator is, first to pare them, then to remove the core, and finally to cut them into slices or rings (Fig. 88). The pared apple is submitted to the fumes of sulphur before slicing, this is called " bleaching," and the object is to prevent the discoloration of the fruit. It improves the appearance and does not injure the flavour. Paring, coring, and slicing is done very rapidly by machinery. Tl:e prepared fruit is then placed on wire trays, made to fit inside the drying chamber of the evaporator, and Fig. 89. MAYFAETH'S APPLE PABEB, COBEE, AND SLICEB. there remains until the whole of the moisture has been abstracted. The time occupied in doing this varies from two and a-half to four or even five hours, according to the kind of apples operated on. After passing through the evaporator, the next thing is to pack the dried fruit in neat boxes which hold 25, 50, or 75 pounds. These boxes are lined with paper. Fifty-pound boxes are those mostly used. They are 24 inches long, 12 inches deep, and 12 inches wide, they are made of £-inch stuff (with ends 1 inch), poplar wood being preferred. The evapo- rated fruit, before being used for making pies, larts and compotes, is soaked in water for a sufficient length of time (say twelve hours) to swell it to nearly its normal bulk. There are a number ot evaporators, eome intended for home use, the size recommended for small farmers being the "American" Evaporator No. 3 (Fig. 87, page 349), manufactured by Ph. Mayfarth and Co., London Office, 16, Mincing Lane, E.G. Size, 9g feet long, 28 inches wide. Can be set up in a few minutes. Adapted to burn wood, coal, or coke. Extreme height 6 feet. Consumes about 80 pounds of coal, or equivalent, per day. Capacity, 400 — • 500 pounds of apples per day of twenty-four hours. Trays, piping, fire-irons, and improved furnace complete, 22 trays, FRUIT PRESERVATION.— DRYING APPLES. 353 pattern A, £19 10s. ; 33 trays, pattern 15, £21 15s. ; 55 trays, 22 pattern A and 33 pattern B, £26 10s. ; thermometer 3s., packing 5 per cent, extra of the price. An apple-parer, corer, and slicer fur small concerns costs 18s., but for industrial establishments a more powerful machine is required. May faith's " Electra " (Fig. 89) pares and cores the apples, and cuts them into a spiral, but the Made which cuts the spiral can be removed for making whole apples— that is, without the skin and the core ; price £3 15s. Whole ringlets are prepared by a machine called the "Simplex" (Fig. 88), supplied with nine blades arranged in the form of steps, and dispenses with the cut required to transform the spiral cut into ringlets ; price £1 7s. 6d. Large evaporators are made for drying apples and other fruit for export. The cost of drying apples is given by Mr. Fidgeon in the " Eoyal Agricultural Society's Journal," March, 1890, as follows : — " A bushel of green apples, weighing about 50 pounds, can be dried at a cost of from Gd. to 7£d. The total cost of the dried product is from 3d. to 5d. per pound, and of the average selling price from 3|d. to 6d. per pound. One bushel of green apples produces about 6 pounds of dried apples. One pound of coal is consumed in evaporating enough green fruit to yield a pound of dried fruit. Before drying, the apples are pared and cored by one of the many ingenious contrivances in use for that purpose. The pares and cores are dried and sold for jelly making, realising about £4 per ton. A bushel of apples yields about 30 pounds of ' meat ' and 20 pounds of refuse (cores, etc.). The 30 pounds of ' meat' are reduced to 6 pounds by evaporation, and the 20 pounds of refuse to 4 pounds." The apples evaporated are reduced from 50 to 10 pounds weight ; this is an important consideration for export, much of the dried product being imported into France for cider-making, simply because it is richer in saccharine matter than green, and also cheaper in price and transit. As to the profits of drying apples, the Zimmerman Machine Company give the following particulars: — "A bushel of green apples weighs about 50 pounds, is worth from T^d. to 10d., and will produce 65 pounds of evaporated fruit. It will cost 5d. to do the work, and the market value of the evaporated fruit will be from 5d. to 7£d. per pound. Assuming these figures to be correct, then the 6^ pounds of evaporated fruit at the lowest price (5d. per pound) will realise 2s. 8|d. Deduct the value of the fruit at highest price (10d.), cost of evaporating, 5d. = Is. 3d., leaving a gross profit of Is. 5Jd., or about 2Jd. per pound, from which carriage and salesman's commission will have to be deducted. The net profit will be over and above the value of the apples as gathered from the trees." The same company give the following figures to show the result of one month's run, working day and night, of a No. 3 evaporator : — " Produce 2,700 pounds evaporated apples at 7id. [more by IJd. per pound than they can be purchased for retail] = £84 7s. 6d. Cost : 470 bushels apples at lOd. [two-thirds less than the price in England when the markets are glutted] = £18 15s. ; fuel, 30 days at Is. O^d. per day =£1 11s. 3d. ; labour, 30 days, £8 6s. 8d. = £28 12s. lid. This deducted from the value of the produce shows a gross profit of £55 14s. 7d." It only remains to point out that as with dried plums or prunes, the conditions in America for producing and drying apples are very different from those in England. Land is much easier, climate favours growers on the American, African, and Australian Continents, also European more than in this country. Nevertheless, there would be abundance of work for evaporators in prolific seasons. Best fruit, however, realises the most money when marketed as fresh. Second-rate fruit in excess-crop years might be converted into good evaporated, the price for which would probably yield a larger profit than if marketed in the green state. The abundant years occur so infrequently, and the waste then occurring being mostly confined to fruit of inferior quality, it would be inadvisable for every English fruit-grower to invest in an evaporator, but there is no reason why one should not be set up in large fruit - growing districts, for drying the fruit in seasons of great plenty, which otherwise would VOL. III. 2 Z 354 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. be wasted, either by buying it outright, or evaporating it for others at a reasonable charge. In the important matter of packing fruit, also in the several methods of preservation and distribution referred to, cultivators in Great Britain, as a body, have been too long content to let their rivals in other lands "hold the field" ; but there are exceptions, and as those persons who adopted the best methods in all things that bear on the pro- duction and presentation of fruit, have, as they ought, achieved the greatest success, so it is hoped that others will follow in their steps and persevere, till the stigma of inferiority, in the great industry in question, is removed from our land. To aid in the realisation of this object has been the earnest desire of all who have shared in the pro- duction of THE FKUIT GROWER'S GUIUK INDEX A. APPLES, i. 309 Historical notes, i. 309 Hygienic value of, i. 311 Constituents of, i. 313 Varieties, i. 315 Dessert, i. 317 Small fruited, i. 317 Medium fruited, i. 318 Selections in order of ripening, i. 320 Dessert or Culinary, i. 321 Early and mid-season varieties, i. 321 Mid-season and late, i. 322 Culinary, i. 324 Early, fruit medium, i. 324 Medium and late, i. 324 Early, medium to large, i. 325 Mid-season, medium to large, i. 325 Late, fruit large, i. 326 Selections in order of ripening, i. 32? Crabs, or ornamental apples, i. 327 For different parts, i. 330 Southern Counties, i. 330 Eastern and Midland Counties, i. 330 Northern Counties, i. 331 Eastern, Midland, and Southern Counties of Scotland, i. 332 Suitable for various soils, i. 333 Shallow loam on gravel and sand, i- 333 Strong loam, i. 334 Peaty soil, i. 334 For various modes of culture, i. 334 Bushes or pyramids, i. 334 Low standards, i. 335 Tall standards, i. 336 Espaliers, i. 337 For borders and walls, i. 337 Propagation, i. 338 Seeds, i. 338 Cuttings, i. 338 Layers, i. 338 Suckers, i. 339 Budding, i. 339 Grafting, i. 339 Inarching, i. 339 Stocks, i. 339 Soils, i. 339 Planting, i. 344 Forms of trees, i. 344 Methods of training, ii. i Pyramidal trees, ii. I Bush trees, ii. 10 Ordinary bush, ii. ii Goblet-shaped bush, ii. 13 Open bush, ii. 14 Horizontal, ii. 15 Horizontal palmette, ii. 18 Upright six-branched, ii. 19 Cordon, ii. 21 Horizontal cordons, ii. 21 Single vertical and diagonal cordons, ii. 23 Single diagonal cordons, i. 25 Low standards, ii. 26 Other forms, ii. 29 General management, ii. 29 Pruning, ii. 29 Manuring, ii. 30 Watering, ii. 31 Syringing, ii. 31 Under glass culture, ii. 31 Suitable varieties, ii. 31 Structures, ii. 32 Borders, ii. 34 Planting, ii. 34 Winter treatment, ii. 34 Summer treatment, ii. 34 Culture in pots, ii. 35 Potting, ii. 35 Top-dressing, ii. 35 Watering, ii. 36 Pruning, ii. 36 Feeding, ii. 36 Enemies, ii. 36 Apple chermes, ii. 38 Weevil, ii. 40 Sawfly, ii. 41 Canker worms, ii. 41 Garden chafer, ii. 42 Blister moth, ii. 42 Goat moth, ii. 43 Apple borer, ii. 43 Waeberian moth, ii. 44 Diseases, ii. 36 Canker, ii. 36 Speck, ii. 36 Mildew, ii. 36 Lichens and Mosses, ii. 38 For Sale, iii. 271 Orcharding, iii. 271 Distances to plant, iii. 272 Cost of planting, iii. 272 Suitable varieties, iii. 272 Value of crops, iii. 273 Manuring, iii. 27; Plantations, iii. 286 Cost of trees, iii. 286 Feathered trees, iii. 287 Bushes and pyramids, iii, 288 Suitable varieties, iii. 288 Distances to plant, iii. 289 Profits, iii. 290 Culture in wall cases, iii. 310 Packing and marketing, iii. 321 Grading, iii. 322 Suitable packages, iii. 322 Flat and round baskets, iii. 323 Barrels, iii, 323 Covent Garden prices, iii. 336 English, iii. 336 American, iii. 336 Tasmanian, iii. 337 Cider varieties, iii. 342 Drying the fruit, iii. 350 In America, iii. 350 APPLIANCES, i. 301 Dusting, i. 122 APRICOTS, ii. 45 History, ii- 45 Select varieties, ii. 46 In order of ripening, ii. 46 Propagation, ii. 47 Seeds, ii. 47 Budding, ii. 47 Grafting, ii. 48 Situation and aspect, ii. 48 Soils, ii. 49 Forming borders, ii. 50 Planting, ii. 50 Choice of trees, ii. 50 Distances to p'ant, ii. 51 Procedure, ii 31 Root-prunir .ii. 53 Manures, ii. 53 Feeding, ii. 54 Mulching, ii. 55 Training, ii. 56 Modified fan, ii. 57 356 INDEX. Cordon, ii. 60 Mode of bearing, ii. 62 Routine operations, ii. 64 Protecting blossoms, ii. 64 Disbudding, ii. 64 Stopping the shoots, ii. 65 Thinning the fruit, ii. 65 General summer treatment, ii. 66 Unfruitful trees, ii. 67 Winter treatment, ii. 63 Pruning, ii. 68 Long, ii. 68 Short, ii. 70 Spur, ii. 74 Aids to maturation, ii. 75 Flued walls, ii. 75 Under glass culture, ii. 75 Structures, ii, 76 Ventilation, ii. 77 Protection, ii. 77 Temperatures, ii, 78 Watering, ii. 78 Syringing, ii. 79 Forms of trees, ii. 79 Pyramids, ii. 79 Standards, ii. 80 Forcing, ii. 83 House for, ii. 83 Varieties, ii. 84 The best trees, ii. 84 Starting, ii. 84 Temperature, ii. 85 Ventilation, ii. 85 For Sale, iii. 310 Growing on walls, iii. 305 Forcing, iii. 312 Packing, iii. 323 Diseases, ii. 86 Branches dying, ii. 86 Mildew, ii. 86 Blister, ii. 87 Spot, ii. 87 Enemies, ii. 87 Red-bud caterpillar moth, ii. 87 Apricot moth, ii. 88 Apricot weevil, ii. 90 Ants and earwigs, ii. 92 AXE, i. 221 B. BANANAS, ii. 93 Uses of, ii. 93 Varieties, ii. 93 Cultivation, ii. 94 Propagation, ii. 94 Compost, ii. 95 Culture in pots and tubs, ii. 96 Planting, ii. 97 Feeding, ii. 97 Surface dressing, ii. 97 Moisture, ii. 98 Temperature, ii. 98 Ventilation, ii. 98 Fruiting, ii. 98 Perfecting, ii. 98 BARROW, i. 222 BERBERRIES, ii, 100 Uses of, ii. 100 Varieties, ii. too Propagation, ii. 100 Soil, ii. loo Pruning, ii. 100 Fungus on, ii. 101 BILBERRIES AND CRANBERRIES, ii. 102 Varieties, ii., 102 Cultivation, ii. 104 BLACKBERRIES, ii. 105 Species and varieties, ii. 105 CulUval notes, ii. ;o( Propagation, ii. 106 Situation, ii. 107 Soil, ii. 108 Planting, ii. 108 Trellises, ii. 108 Training, ii. 108 Bush training, ii. 109 Manuring, ii. 109 Durability of plantations, ii. no Growing under glass, ii. no Enemies, ii. no BUDDING, i. 115 When to bud, i. 116 How to bud, i. 118 Apples, i. 339 Apricots, ii. 47 Cherries, ii. 120 Peaches and Nectarines, iii. 66 Pears, iii. 126 Plums, iii. 178 Walnuts, iii. 43 BUILDINGS, UTILISATION OF, iii. 304 South walls, iii. 304 West walls, iii. 304 East walls, iii. 304 North walls, iii. 304 Apricots, iii. 305 Cherries, iii. 305 Figs, iii. 305 Grapes, iii. 306 Peaches, iii. 306 Pears, iii. 306 Plums, iii. 307 Unsatisfactory trees on, iii. 308 o. CAPE GOOSEBERRY, ii. in Varieties, ii. Ill Propagation, ii. in. Compost, ii. in Cultivation, ii. 112 Insect enemies, ii. 112 CHERRIES, ii. 113 History, ii. 113 Select varieties, ii. 1 14 Dessert, in order of ripening, ii. 117 Culinary, ii. 117 For various modes of culture, ii. 118 Pyramids or bushes, ii. 118 Orchards, ii. 118 For warm soils and situations, ii. 118 For south walls, ii. 118 For east walls, ii. 118 For high walls, ii. 119 For north walls, ii. 119 For long hanging, ii. 119 For forcing, ii. ng For pots, ii, ng Compact growers, ii. 1 19 Large growers, ii. 119 Propagation, ii. 119 Raising new varieties, ii. 119 Layering, ii. 120 Stocks, ii. 1 20 Budding, ii. 120 Grafting, ii. 121 Situation, ii. 121 Soil, ii. 121 Planting, ii. 123 Distances to Plant, ii. 124 Training, ii. 124 Standards, ii. 125 Fan-trained, ii. 125 Mode of bearing, ii. 129 Summer pruning, ii. 130 Morellos, ii. 132 Disbudding and stopping, ii. 134 Winter pruning, ii. 134 Bush and Pyramid trees, ii. 136 Cordons, ii. 137 Manures, ii. 137 Thinning the flower buds, ii. 138 Protecting the blossom, ii. 138 Fruit-dropping, ii. 138 Thinning the fruit, ii. 139 Watering, ii. 139 Feeding, ii. 139 Top-dressing, ii. 139 Washing the foliage, ii. 140 Protecting the fruit, ii. 140 Gathering, ii. 140 Culture under glass, ii. 141 Structures, ii. 141 Potted trees, ii. 141 Planted-out trees, ii. 142 Forcing, ii. 143 Borders, ii. 144 Compost, ii. 145 Starting, ii. 145 Forcing to time, ii. 146 Pruning, ii. 147 For sale, iii. 276 Orchard culture, iii. 276 Suitable varieties, iii. 276 Distances to plant, iii. 276 Pruning, iii. 276 Profits, iii. 277 In plantations, iii. 290 Forms of trees, iii. 290 Varieties, iii. 290 Distances to plant, iii. 290 Cost of trees, iii. 291 Profits, iii. 291 On Walls, iii. 305 Varieties, iii. 305 Cost of trees, iii. 305 Under glass culture, iii. 312 Forcing, iii. 312 Varieties, iii. 312 Packing, iii. 324 Diseases, ii. 147 Enemies, ii. 147 Aphides, ii. 148 Caterpillars, ii. 148 Red Spider, ii. 148 INDEX. 357 Scale, ii. 148 Slug worms, ii. 148 CIDER, iii, 342 Apples for, iii. 342 - Making, iii. 343 CHISELS, i. 222 CURRANTS, ii. 151 Black, ii. 151 Varieties, ii. 151 Propagation, ii. 152 Situation, ii. 152 Soil, ii. 153 Arrangement, ii. 153 Planting, ii. 153 Training, ii. 154 Natural bushes, ii. 154 Pruning, ii, 155 On walls and fences, ii. 155 Feeding, ii. 156 For sale, iii. 292 In plantations, iii. 292 Suitable varieties, iii. 292 Form of bushes, iii. 292 Mulching, iii. 293 Profits, iii. 292 Packing and marketing, iii. 325 Red and white currants, ii. 156 Select varieties, ii. 157 Site, ii. 157 Soil, ii. 157 Arrangement, ii. 158 Training, ii. 158 Pyramids, ii. 159 Standards, ii. 159 Upright bushes, ii. 159 Cordons, ii. 160 Pruning, ii. 160 Winter culture, ii. 162 Mulching, ii. 163 Thinning the fruit, ii. 163 Protecting the crop, ii. 163 Gathering, ii. 163 Keeping the fruit, ii. 163 Forcing, ii. 164 For sale, iii. 292 In plantations, iii. 292 Varieties, iii. 292 Distances to plant, iii. 292 Cost of trees, iii. 292 Pruning, iii. 292 Profits, iii. 293 Diseases, ii. 164 Enemies, ii. 164 Aphidas, ii. 164 Caterpillars, ii. 164 Gall mites, ii. 165 Currant shoot grub, ii. 166 Woolly currant scale, ii. 167 Ked spider, ii. 167 Thrips, ii. 167 CLIMATE, i. 58 Dew, i. 58 Frost, i. 59 Light, i. 60 Heat, i. 60 Temperature, i. 61 Ventilation, i. 61 Syringing, i. 62 Rain water, i. 64 Softening water, i. 64. Ammonia vapour, •. L.-J CRANBERRIES, ii. 102 Varieties, ii. 102 Cultivation, ii. 104 D. DAMSONS, iii. 175 Varieties, iii. 176 Propagation, iii. 177 Seeds, iii. 177 Suckers, iii. 177 Layers, iii. 177 Budding, iii. 177 Grafting, iii. 178 In orchards, iii. 180 Planting, iii. 181 Training, iii. 181 Pruning, iii. 182 Summer, iii. 182 Winter, iii. 185 Root, iii. 187 Manuring, iii. 187 Protecting blossoms, iji. 188 Syringing, iii. 188 Thinning, iii. 188 Perfecting, iii. 189 Gathering, iii. 189 Diseases, iii. 196 Enemies, iii. 198 In plantations, iii. 299 Packing, iii. 331 Marketing, iii. 331 DISEASES OF FRUIT TKEES, i. 226 Fungi, i. 227 Canker, i. 229 Gum, i. 234 Apple scale, ii 239 Mildew, i. 245 Lichens and Moss, i. 250 DUSTING APPLIANCES, i. 122 E. EDGED TOOLS, i. 217 Budding knives, i. 218 Pruning knives, i. 218 Scissors or hand shears, i. 218 Secateurs, i. 219 Tree primers, i. 2;o ENEMIES, i. 252 American blight, i. 253 Petroleum, i. 254 Spirits of wine, i. 255 Ants, i. 255 Aphides, i. 257 Beetles and woodlice, i. 262 Borers, i. 263 Cockroaches and crickets, i. 265 Codlin moth, i. 265 Earwigs, 1. 267 Millipedes, i. 268 Red spider, i. 269 Scale, i. 272 Thrips, i. 274 Slugs and snails, i. 276 Wireworms, i. 277 Wasps, i. 279 Weevils, i. 282 Caterpillars, i. 283 Figure of 8 moth, i. 283 Lackey moth, i. 285 Small ermine moth, i. 286 Vapourer moth, i. 286 Mottled umber moth, i. 287 Pale brindled beauty moth, i. 288 Winter moth, i. 288 Birds, i. 296 Hares and rabbits, i. 297 Mice and rats, i. 298 Moles, i. 300 Squirrels, i. 301 EUGENIA UGNI Uses of, ii. 168 Propagation, ii. 168 Compost, ii. 168 Pruning, ii. 169 Culture, ii. 169 Watering, ii. 169 Temperature, ii. 169 Ventilation, ii. 169 FIGS, ii. 170 History, ii. 170 In Sussex, ii. 171 Select varieties, ii. 172 Black or purple, ii. 172 Brown or tawny, ii. 173 Green, yellow, or white, ii. 173 In order of ripening, ii. 174 For various modes of culture, ii. 174 For pots under glass, ii. 174 For planting out under glass, ii. 174 For outdoor culture, ii. 174 For walls, ii. 174 For forcing, ii. 174 Propagation, ii. 175 Seeds, ii. 175 Offsets, ii, 175 Layers, ii. 175 Cuttings, ii. 175 Eyes, ii. 175 Budding, ii. 176 Grafting, ii. 177 Cultural directions, ii. 177 Situation, ii. 177 Soil, ii. 177 Arrangement, ii. 177 Planting, ii. 178 Forms of trees, ii. 178 Characteristics of bearing, ii, 181 Pruning, ii. 182 Winter, ii, 183 Summer, ii. 184 Root, ii. 184 Preparing borders, ii. 184 Composts, 185 Manures, ii. 185 Top-dressing, ii. 186 Mulching, ii. 186 Watering, ii. 186 Protecting in winter, ii. 186 Under glass culture, ii. 187 Structures, ii. 187 Temperature, ii. 188 3S« INDEX. Ventilation, ii. 188 Atmospheric moisture, ii. 189 Trees casting their fruit, ii. 190 Thinning the crops, ii. 190 Protecting the fruit, ii. 191 Gathering, ii. 191 Potted trees, ii. 191 Pinching, ii. 192 Potting, ii. 192 Forcing, ii. 193 Varieties, ii. 174 Structures, ii. 194 Routine work, ii. 194 For sale, iii. 305 On walls, iii. 305 Suitable varieties, iii. 305 Cost of trees, iii. 305 Prices of fruit, iii. 306 Forcing, iii. 313 Varieties, iii. 313 Selling the crops, iii. 313 Packing and marketing, iii. 325 Diseases, ii. 199 Canker, ii. 199 Spot, ii. 199 Enemies, ii. 199 Thrips, ii. 199 Mealy bug, ii. 199 Red spider, ii. 199 Brown scale, ii. 199 Fig scale, ii. 200 Remedial measures, ii. 199 FLOWERS, i. 18 Formation of, i. 19 Fertilisation of, i. 19 FRUIT GROWING FOR PROFIT, iii. 255 Classes of fruit growers, iii. 255 For private consumption, iii. 255 For exhibition, iii. 255 For market, iii. 256 Labourers and fruit, iii. 256 Farm gardens and orchards, iii. 257 Small holdings, iii. 258 Landowners' gardens and fruit farms, iii. 259 Tradesmen and mechanics, iii. 260 Supply and demand, iii. 261 Imports of fruit, iii. 261 Land and location, iii. 265 Climate, iii. 265 Soil, iii. 265 Tenure, iii. 266 FRUITS FOR SALE, iii. 309 Cool treatment, 309 Wall cases, iii. 309 Cost of eraction, iii. 309 Apples, iii. 310 Apricots, iii. 310 Cherries, iii. 310 Figs, iii. 310 Grapes, iii. 310 Peaches and Nectarines, iii. jjo Pears, iii. 311 Plums, iii. 312 Strawberries, iii. 312 Forced fruits, iii. 312 Apricots, iii. 312 Cherries, iii. 312 Figs, iii. 312 Grapes, iii. 313 Melons, iii. 316 Nectarines, iii. 316 Peaches, iii. 317 Pine apples, iii. 319 Strawberries, iii. 319 On walls, iii. 304 For south walls, iii. 304 For west walls, iii. 304 For east walls, iii. 304 For north walls, iii, 304 Apricots, iii. 305 Cherries, iii. 305 Figs, iii. 305 Grapes, iii. 306 Peaches, iii. 306 Pears, iii. 306 Plums, iii. 307 Unsatisfactory trees against build- ings, iii. 308 Packing and marketing, iii. 321 Apples, iii. 321 Apricots, iii. 324 Cherries, iii. 324 Currants, iii. 325 Figs, iii. 325 Gooseberries, iii. 326 Grapes, iii. 326 Melons, iii. 328 Nuts, iii. 328 Peaches and Nectarines, iii. 329 Pears, iii. 330 Pine apples, iii. 331 Plums, iii. 331 Raspberries, iii. 332 Strawberries, iii. 333 Sending fruit by post, iii. 335 Fruit plantations, iii. 284 Laying-out, iii. 285 Apples, iii. 286 Feathered trees, iii. 287 Varieties, iii. 288 Distances to plant, iii. 289 Profits, iii. 290 Cherries, iii. 290 Varieties, iii. 290 Cost of planting, iii. 291 Currants — Red, iii. 291 Varieties, iii. 291 Cost of bushes, iii. 291 Currants — Black, iii. 292 Gooseberries, iii. 293 Varieties, iii. 293 Cost of trees, iii. 293 Dressing the ground, iii. 294 Profits, iii. 294 Nuts, iii. 295 Cost of trees, iii. 295 Varieties, iii. 295 Profits, iii. 296 Pears, iii. 297 Soil, iii. 297 Varieties, iii. 297 Cost of trees, iii. 297 Planting, iii. 298 Pruning, iii. 299 Plums, iii. 299 Varieties, iii. 299 Cost of trees, iii. 299 Pruning, iii. 300 Raspberries, iii. 300 Profits, iii. 301 Strawberries, iii. 301 Varieties, iii. 302 Cost of plants, iii. 302 Profits, iii. 302 Attention required, iii. 303 FRUIT PRESERVATION, iii. 342 Cider-making, iii. 342 Apples for, iii. 342 Perry making, 344 Pears for, iii, 344 Making jam, iii. 345 Steam pan, iii. 345 Prices of jam, iii. 346 Canning fruits, iii. 346 American methods, iii. 347 Home canning, iii. 347 Crystallised fruits, iii. 348 Fruit drying, iii. 350 Useful appliances, iii. 350 Chiswick experiments, iii. 351 FRUIT GARDENS, i. 70 Form of, i. 70 Plan of complete, i. 71 Fruit garden and orchard, i. 77 Cottagers', i. 76 Renovating old gardens, i. 77 Plantations, iii. 342 Orcharding, iii. 268 FRUITS, i. 21 Formation of, i. 22 Stone fruit, i. 23 Pippin fruit, i. 23 The splitting of, i. 25 FRUITS, PERFECTING, i. 200 Protecting, i. 201 Gathering, i. 202 Storing, i, 203 Rooms for, i. 204 Grading, i. 214 FRUIT TREES, i. 72 Borders for, i. 72 Digging amongst, i. 80 Hoeing, i. Si Raising, i. 97 Seedlings, i. 97 Cuttings, i. 99 Layers, i. 102 Suckers, i. 105 Runners, i. 106 Stocks and their influence, i. 107 Planting, i. 137 Laying out, i. 137 Planting in squares, i. 138 Opposite vacancy order, i. 140 Markers for planting, i. 142 Hillsides, i. 143 Choosing trees, i. 144 Lifting trees, i. 146 Time of planting, i. 147 Adjusting roots and branches, i. 148 Pruning and staking, i. 149 Forming stations, i. 151 Against walls and fences, i. 153 Preserving the names of trees, i. 154 Suitable labels, i. 155 Pruning (see " Pruning ") Lifting, i. 172 Shaping, i. 178 Cup form, i. 179 Forked form, i. 180 Training, i. 183 Disbudding, i. 186 INDEX. 359 Protection, i. tm Bird; and buds, i. i>,v, Preserving buds, i. 191 Cages, i. 192 Protecting blossom, i. 193 Thinning the fruits, i. 197 Diseases, i. 226 Fungi, i. 227 Canker, i. 229 Gum, i. 234 Apple scale, i. 239 Mildew, i. 245 Lichens and moss, i. 250 Enemies, i. 252 Insects, i. 252 American blight, i. 253 Petroleum, i. 254 Spirits of wine, i. 255 Ants, i. 255 Aphides, i. 257 Beetles and Woodlice, i. 262 Borers, i. 263 Cockroaches and crickets, i. 265 Codlin moth, i. 265 Earwigs, i. 267 Millipedes, i. 268 Red spider, i. 269 Scale, i. 272 Thrips, i. 274 Slugs and snails, i. 276 Wireworms, i. 277 Wasps, i. 279 Weevils, i. 282 Caterpillars, i. 283 Figure of eight moth, i. 283 Lackey moth, i. 285 Small ermine moth, i. 286 Vapourer moth, i. 286 Mottled umber moth, i. 287 Pale brindled beauty moth, i. 288 Winter moth, i. 288 Birds, i. 296 Hares and rabbits, i. 297 Mice and rats, i. 298 Moles, i. 300 Squirrels, i. 301 Systems of culture, iii. 268 Orcharding, iii. 268 In plantations, iii. 284 On walls, iii. 304 FUMIGATION, i. 301 G. GOOSEBERRIES, ii. 201 Uses of, ii. 201 Select varieties, ii. 201 Small and medium sized, ii. 201 Large-sized, ii. 202 In order of ripening, ii. 204 Lancashire prize, ii. 205 Propagation, ii. 206 Seeds, ii. 206 Layering, ii. 206 Suckers, ii. 206 Cuttings, ii. 206 Cultivation, ii. 206 Situation, ii. 207 Soil, ii. 307 Arrangement, ii. 207 Planting, ii. 208 Training, ii. 208 The Lancashire system, ii. 210 Upright, ii. 211 Standards, ii. 213 Pruning, ii. 214 Summer, ii. 216 Winter, ii. 216 Protecting the buds, ii. 216 Preserving the blossoms, ii. 217 Thinning the fruits, ii. 217 Protecting the crops, ii. 217 Forcing, ii. 218 Diseases, ii. 218 Gooseberry fungus, ii. 218 Gooseberry mildew, ii. 219 Rust, ii, 220 Enemies, ii. 220 Aphides, ii. 220 Caterpillars, ii. 220 Magpie moth, it. 221 V-moth, ii. 222 Gooseberry saw-fly, ii. 222 Red spider, ii. 225 In plantations, iii. 293 Packing and marketing, iii. 326 GRAFTING, i. 120 Tongue or whip, i. 122 Double, i. 128 Wedge, i. 130 Working large stocks by, i. 130 Cleft, i. 131 Rind or crown, i 131 Improved crown, i, 132 Notch, i. 132 Side, i. 134 Wax for, i. 135 Clay for, i. 135 GRANADILLAS, ii. 226 Varieties, ii. 226 Propagation, ii. 226 Drainage, ii. 227 Soil, ii. 228 Management, ii. 228 Watering, ii. 228 Temperature, ii. 229 Syringing, ii. 229 Fertilisation, ii. 229 GRAPE VINES, ii. 230 History, ii. 230 Large, ii. 232 Cumberland Lodge, ii. 232 Hampton Court, ii. 232 Sillwood, ii. 232 Kinnell House, ii. 233 Speddoch, ii. 233 Manresa House, ii. 233 Large bunches, ii. 234 Varieties, ii. 236 Chasselas or Muscadine, ii. 237 Frontignan, ii. 237 Muscats, ii. 238 Sweetwater, ii. 239 Late, ii. 240 For various purposes, ii. 242 Propagation, ii. 243 Seeds, ii. 243 Layers, ii. 244 Cuttings, ii. 244 " Eyes," ii. 244 Inarching, ii. 246 Budding, ii. 246 Grafting, ii. 247 Soils and borders, ii. 249 Preparation of soil for outdoor vines, ii. 250 Borders for vines indoors, ii. 251 Raised borders, ii. 255 Agrated borders, ii. 256 Heated borders, ii. 256 Site, ii. 256 Border dimensions, ii. 256 Drainage, ii. 257 Making borders, ii. 258 Planting, ii. 259 Distances, ii. 262 Outdoor culture, ii. 263 Vineyards, ii. 263 Arrangement, ii. 264 Planting, ii. 264 Training, ii. 264 Pruning, ii. 264 Chaintre or extension system, ii. 264 On 6pen walls, ii. 265 Training, ii. 265 Modified Thomery, ii. 266 Upright, ii. 266 Horizontal, ii. 267 Informal, ii. 267 Protection, ii. 268 Culture under glass, ii. 268 Ground vineries, ii. 268 Unheated houses, ii. 270 Temperatures, ii. 271 Greenhouses, ii. 272 Vineries, ii. 273 Structures, ii. 273 Lean-to, ii. 273 Three-quarter span, ii. 275 Span-roof, ii. 276 Training, ii. 276 Long-rod, ii. 279 Extension, ii. 281 Pruning, ii. 282 Spur, ii. 282 Long, ii. 284 Combination, ii. 285 Early, ii. 285 Bleeding after, ii. 286 Management in heated structures, ii. 286 Manures and manuring, ii. 286 Covering borders, ii. 289 Resting period, ii. 290 Forcing, ii. 290 Time required from starting, ii. 290 Watering, 291 Temperature, ii. 293 Ventilation, ii. 294 Moisture, ii. 295 Mulching, ii. 296 Spring and summer management, ii. 296 Disbudding, ii. 296 Stopping, ii. 296 Tying, ii. 296 Tying-down, ii. 298 Setting, ii. 300 Thinning, ii. 301 360 INDEX. Scorching, ii. 305 Scalding, ii. 306 Rust on the berries, ii. 306 Warts on leaves, ii. 307 Colouring, ii. 307 Exhibiting, ii. 308 Stands for, ii. 308 Fruiting in pots, ii. 310 Compost, ii. 311 Position, ii. 311 Temperature, ii. 311 Ventilation, ii. 311 Moisture, ii. 311 Training, ii. 312 Early forcing with bottom heat, ii. 313 In pots for table decoration, ii. 316 Keeping, ii. 316 Bottling, ii. 318 Cracking, ii. 322 Renovating, ii. 322 Aerial roots, ii. 324 Diseases, ii. 325 Mildew, ii. 325 Shanking, ii. 327 Spot, ii. 329 Root-rot, ii. 330 Insects, ii. 330 Mealy-bug, ii. 330 Mite, ii. 331 Moths, ii. 332 Louse, ii. 333 Red spider, ii. 334 Scale, ii. 334 Thrips, ii. 335 Weevil, ii. 335 Wireworms, ii. 335 On walls, iii. 306 For sale, iii. 310 Forcing for market, iii. 313 Packing and marketing, iii. 326 GUAVAS, ii. 336 Varieties, ii. 336 Propagation, ii. 336 Training, ii. 337 Soil, ii. 337 Potting, ii. 337 Planting, ii. 337 Watering, ii. 338 Feeding, ii. 338 Thinning, ii. 338 Pinching, ii. 339 Pruning, ii. 339 General management, ii. 339 I. IMPLEMENTS, i. 214 Spades, i. 215 Shovels, i. 216 Forks, i. 216 Pickaxe, i. 216 Pick-mattock, i. 216 Mattock, i. 216 Drag, or Canterbury hoe, i. 216 Pick-fork, i. 217 Rakes, i. 217 Trowels, i. 217 Hoes, i. 217 INLAYING, i. 136 INARCHING,!. 136 INTRODUCTION, i. i Historical notes on fruit culture, i. i Roots, i. 12 Branches, i. 12 Leaves, i. 14 Flowers, i. 15 Fruit, i. 21 The splitting of fruit — Osmosis, i. 25 IRON, uses of, i., 47 LADDERS, i. 225 LEAVES, i. 14 Nature of, i. 15 Functions of, i. 15 LEMONS, iii. 48 Varieties, iii. 48 Culture, iii. 48 LIMES, iii. 48 Varieties, iii. 48 Culture, iii. 48 LIME, i. 43 As a manure, i. 43 For destroying moss on trees, i. 94 LOQUAT, ii. 340 Propagation, ii. 341 Soil, ii. 341 Mode of bearing, ii. 341 Routine work, ii. 342 M, MAGNESIA, USES OF, i. 47 MALLETS, i. 222 MANURES, i. 41 Lime, i. 43 Phosphates, i. 45 Potash, i. 46 Magnesia, i. 47 Iron, i. 47 Soda, i. 48 Silica, i. 48 Nitrogen, i. 48 Nitrate of soda, i. 49 Sulphate of ammonia, i. 50 Farm yard, i. 50 Refuse, i. 51 Applying manures, i. 51 Surface dressing, i. 52 Summer dressing, i. 52 Mulching, i. 57 Watering, i. 57 Liquid manure, i. 56 MEDLARS, ii. 343 Select varieties, ii. 343 Propagation, ii. 343 Soil, ii. 343 Situation, ii. 343 Planting, ii. 343 General managemen ii. 34 Gathering, ii. 344 Storing, ii. 344 MELONS, iii. i History, iii. I Varieties, iii. 2 Propagation, iii. 3 Soil, iii. 5 Season of fruiting, iii. 5 Culture in frames and pits, iii. 6 Site for hotbeds, iii. 6 Fermenting materials, iii. 6 Beds, forming, iii. 7 Soil for, iii. 7 Planting, iii. 8 Training, iii. 8 Cropping, iii. 9 Pruning, iii. 10 Maintaining the heat, iii. 10 Economising heat, iii. 12 Ventilating, iii. 12 Adding soil, iii. 12 Fruit setting, iii. 13 Watering, iii. 13 Second crop, iii. 14 Lean-to for, iii. 14 Houses for, iii. 15 In heated pit and houses, iii. 14 Training-cordon, iii. 17 Alternate system of, iii. 17 Setting, iii. 18 Mode of bearing, iii. 19 Supporting the fruit, iii. 20 Feeding, iii. 21 Cracking, iii. 21 Ripening, iii. 22 Diseases, iii. 22 Enemies, iii. 23 For market, iii. 316 Packing and marketing, iii. 328 MISTLETOE ON APPPLES, ii. 38 MONSTERA DELICIOSA, iii. 2J MULBERRIES, iii. 27 MULCHING, i. 57 N. NITRATE OF SODA, i. 49 NITROGEN, USES OF, i. 48 NUTS, iii. 29 Chestnuts, iii. 29 Varieties, iii. 29 Propagation, iii. 29 Situation, ii: 30 Soil, iii. 30 Planting, iii. 30 Pruning, iii. 31 Gathering, iii. 31 Storing, iii. 31 Cobs and Filberts, iii. 31 Varieties, iii. 32 Selection in order of ripening, iii. 32 Propagation, iii. 33 Situation, iii. 33 Soil, iii. 33 Planting, iii. 34 Training, iii. 34 Pruning, iii. 36 Culture, iii. 39 Gathering, iii. 39 Storing, iii. 39 Enemies, iii. 40 Walnuts, iii. 41 Varieties, iii. 42 Propagation, iii. 42 Management, iii. 42 Mode of bearing, iii. 44 INDEX. Diseases, iii. 45 Enemies, iii. 45 Packing, iii. 328 Marketing, iii. 328 o. ORCHARDS, i. 82 Plan of, i. 89 Renovating old, i. 90 ORCHARD HOUSES, iii. 244 The first, iii. 244 Construction, iii. 245 Lean-to, iii. 245 Improved, iii. 246 Span-roofed, iii. 246 A cheap, iii. 247 For private gardens, iii. 248 Amateurs, iii. 249 Ventilation by drain pipes, iii. 249 Culture in, iii. 249 Peaches and Nectarines, iii. 250 Mixed fruits, iii. 250 Blackberries, iii. 251 Crabs, iii. 251 Bush fruits, iii. 251 Arrangement, iii. 251 Temperatures, iii. 251 Soil, iii. 252 Potting and re-potting, iii. 252 Ventilating, iii. 253 Syringing, iii. 254 ORANGES, iii. 46 Varieties, iii. 47 Propagation, iii. 48 Management, iii. 48 Compost, iii. 49 Mode of culture, iii. 49 Potting, iii. 50 Tubbing, iii. 50 Top-dressing, iii. 52 Training, iii. 52 Pruning, iii. 53 Temperatures, iii. 54 Watering, iii. 55 Feeding, iii. 55 Ripe fruit, iii. 55 Diseases, iii. 55 Enemies, iii. 56 P. PACKING AND MARKETING FRUITS, iii. 321 Apples, iii. 321 Apricots, iii. 324 Cherries, iii. 324 Currants, iii. 325 Figs, iii. 325 Gooseberries, iii. 326 Grapes, iii. 326 Melons, iii. 328 Nuts, iii. 328 Peaches and Nectarines, iii. 329 Pears, iii. 330 Pine-apples, iii. 331 Plums, iii. 331 Raspberries, iii. 332 Strawberries, iii. 333 Sending by post, iii. 335 PRICES OF FRUITS, iii. 336 Covent Garden Market, iii. 336 PEACHES AND NECTARINES, iii. 58 History, iii. 58 Varieties of Peaches, iii. 59 Very early, iii. 59 Second early, iii. 59 Early mid-season, iii. 60 Main mid-season, iii. 60 Late, iii. 61 Latest, iii. 61 For a south wall, iii. 62 For a cool house, iii. 62 For a wall-case, iii. 63 For forcing, iii. 63 Varieties of Nectarines, iii. 63 Earliest, iii. 63 Second early, iii. 64 Mid-season, iii. 64 Late, iii. 65 For a south wall, iii. 65 For a wall-case, iii. 65 For an unheated house, iii. 65 For forcing, iii. 66 Propagation, iii. 66 Seeds, iii. 66 Budding, iii. 66 Grafting, iii. 66 Stocks, iii. 66 Out-door cultivation, iii. 67 Wall aspects, iii. 67 Soil, iii. 67 Borders, iii. 68 Distances to plant, iii 69 Planting, iii. 69 Training, iii. 70 Cordon, iii. 70 " U " shaped, iii. 71 Fan, iii. 72 Seymour's method, iii. 74 Mode of bearing, iii. 76 Pruning, iii. 77 Long, iii. 77 Winter, iii. 78 Summer, iii. 80 Protecting the blossoms, iii. 81 Disbudding, iii. 81 Thinning, iii. 81 Routine management, iii. 82 Syringing, iii. 82 Mulching, iii. 83 Manures, iii. 83 Feeding, iii. 83 Exposing the fruits, iii. 84 Gathering, iii. 84 Cultivation under glass, iii. 85 Structures, iii. 85 Bush trees, iii. 86 Pyramids, iii, 87 Standards, iii. 87 Pruning, iii. 88 Cluster growths, iii. 90 Routine work, iii. 92 Resting period, iii. 92 Flowering stage, iii. 92 First swelling, iii. 94 Storing, iii. 95 Last swelling, iii. 95 Ripening, iii, 96 Forcing, iii. 96 Structures, iii. 96 Varieties, iii. 98 Trees, iii. 98 Arrangement, iii. 99 Time of starting, iii. 100 Temperatures, iii. 101 Ventilation, iii. 101 Casting buds, iii. 103 Fruit not setting, iii. 103 Not stoning, iii. 103 Splitting, iii. 104 Lifting trees, iii. 104 Diseases, iii. 105 Canker, iii. 105 Excrescences on roots, iii. 105 Fungus, iii. 106 Sunburn, iii. 106 Blister, iii. 106 Gum, iii. 107 Mildew, iii. 107 Spot, iii. 108 Yellows, iii. 108 Enemies, iii. no Aphides, iii. no Brown Scale, iii. no Caterpillars, iii. no Red Spider, iii. no Thrips, iii. in Weevils, iii. in Ants, iii. in Earwigs, iii. in Woodlice, iii. ill For sale, iii. 310 In wall cases, iii. 310 Forcing, iii. 316 Varieties, iii. 317 Management, iii. 317 Prices, iii. 317 Packing, iii. 329 Marketing, iii. 329 PEARS, iii. 112 History, iii. "2 Uses, iii. 113 Varieties, iii. 113 For dessert, iii. 113 In order of ripening, iii. 120 Selections for quality, iii. 121 For various modes of culture, iii. 122 Baking and stewing, iii. 125 Propagation, iii. 126 Seeds, iii. 126 Cuttings, iii. 126 Layers, iii. 126 Budding, iii. 126 Grafting, iii. 126 Stocks, iii. 126 Soil, iii. 127 Situation, iii. 129 Planting, iii. 130 Distances, iii. 130 Training, iii. 132 Pyramids, iii. 132 Bushes, iii. 132 Columnar trees, iii. 132 Fan-shaped, iii. 133 Horizontal, iii. 135 Toasting-fork, iii. 135 Candelabra, iii. 136 Palmette-Verrier, iii. 136 INDEX. Upright, iii. 137 Cordons, iii. 137 Walks of, iii. 137 Arbours of, iii. 138 Pruning, iii. 138 Summer, iii. 138 Winter, iii. 138 Spur, iii. 138 Manuring, iii. 140 Mulching, iii. 142 Watering, iii. 142 Syringing, iii. 142 Preserving buds, iii. 142 Protecting blossoms, iii. 143 Thinning the fruits, iii. 143 Protecting, iii. 143 Gathering, iii. 144 Storing, iii. 144 Cultivation under glass, iii. 145 In pots, iii. 145 Structures, iii. 146 Varieties, iii. 147 Diseases, iii. 147 Canker, iii. 147 Spot, iii. 148 Cracking, iii. 148 Specking, iii. 149 Enemies, iii. 150 Aphides, iii. 150 Blister moth, iii. 150 Chermes, iii. 150 Gall mite, iii. 150 Saw fly, iii. 152 Scale, iii. 152 Tortricina, iii. 152 Caterpillars, iii. 152 Weevils, iii. 152 Beetles, iii. 153 Moths, Goat, iii. 153 Leopard, iii. 153 Red-belted clearwing, iii. 153 Ants, iii. 153 Woodlice, iii. 153 Wasps, iii. 153 Earwigs, iii. 153 In orchards, iii. 279 Plantations, iii. 297 On walls, iii. 306 For sale, iii. 314 Packing, iii. 330 Marketing, iii. 330 Perry making, iii. 344 PHOSPHATES, USES OF, i. 45 PLUMS AND DAMSONS, iii. 171 History, iii. 171 Varieties, iii. 171 Gages, iii. 171 Dessert, iii. 173 Culinary, iii. 174 Bullaces, iii. 175 Damsons, iii. 176 In order of ripening, iii. 176 Walls, iii. 177 Soutbi iii. 177 East or West, iii. 177 North, iii. 177 Dessert, as pyramids, iii. 177 Culinary, as pyramids, iii. 177 Stan lards in gravelly soil, iii. 1 77 In strong soil, iii. 177 Propagation, iii. 177 Seeds, iii. 177 Suckers, ii. 178 Layers, iii. 178 Budding, 178 Grafting, iii. 178 Stocks, iii. 178 Situation, iii. 179 Soil, iii. 179 Aspect, iii. 180 Arrangement of trees, iii. 180 Orchards, iii. 180 Bushes, iii. 180 Pyramids, iii. 180 Cordon, iii. 181 Espalier, iii. 181 Wall trees, iii. 181 Planting, iii. 181 Training, iii. 181 Pruning, iii. 182 Summer, iii. 182 Winter, iii. 185 Root, iii. 187 Characteristic summer growths, iii. 183 Manures, iii. 187 Protecting the blossoms, iii. 188 Syringing, iii. 188 Thinning, iii. 188 Perfecting the fruits, iii. 189 Gathering, iii. 189 Storing, iii. 189 Cultivation under glass, iii. 189 Structures, iii. 190 Varieties, iii. 190 Culture, iii. 190 Trees in pots, iii. 191 Watering, iii. 191 Re-potting, iii. 192 Top dressing, iii. 192 Trees on trellises, iii. 192 Alternative system of bearing, iii. 193 Forcing, iii. 194 Temperatures, iii. 194 Diseases, iii. 196 Bladder plums, iii. 196 Gum, iii. 196 Mildew, iii. 196 Orange fungus, iii. 197 Rot, iii. 197 Enemies, iii. 198 Aphides, iii. 198 Caterpillars, iii. 198 Mites, iii. 198 Red grubs, iii. 199 Red spider, iii. 199 Sawfly, iii. 199 Slug worm, iii. 199 Thrips, iii. 199 Waeberian moth, iii. 199 Weevils, iii. 200 White scale, iii. 200 Mice and rats, iii. 200 Squirrels, iii. 200 Woodlice, iii. 200 In orchards, iii. 280 Plantations, iii. 299 On walls, iii. 307 For sale, iii. 312 Packing, iii. 331 Marketing, iii. 331 Preserving, iii. 351 PINE APPLES, iii. 154 History, iii. 154 Varieties, iii. 155 Propagation, iii. 156 Seeds, iii. 156 Crowns, iii. 156 Gills, iii. 156 Dormant buds, iii. 156 Suckers, iii. 156 Structures, iii. 157 Lean-to pit, iii. 158 Lean-to house, iii. 158 Span roof, iii. 159 Top and bottom heat, iii. 159 Arrangement, iii. id Ground plan, iii. 161 Soil, iii. 162 General cultivation, iii. 162 Potting, iii. 163 Temperatures, iii. 164 Ventilation, iii. 165 Starting, iii. 166. Fruit ripening, iii. 167 Winter fruiting, iii. 167 The planting-out system, iii. 168 Diseases, iii. 169 Enemies, iii. 170 Brown scale, iii. 170 White scale, iii. 170 Mealy bug, iii. 170 For sale, iii. 319 Forcing, iii. 319 Packing, iii. 331 Marketing, iii. 331 POTASH, USES OF, i., 46 PRESERVATION OF FRUITS, iii. 342 Cider, iii. 342 Perry, iii. 344 Jam making, iii. 344 Canning, iii. 346 Crystallised fiuits, iii. 348 Drying, iii. 350 PRUNING, i. 156 Importance of, i. 156 Methods, i. 157 The cut, i. 157 Right and wrong practice, i. 159 Summer, i. 163 Effects of, i. 166 Winter, i. 169 Spur, i. 170 Root, i. 174. Q QUINCES, iii. 201 Varieties, iii. 201 Propagation, iii. 201 Seeds, iii. 201 Cuttings, iii. 202 Layers, iii. 202 Grafting, iii. 202 Budding, iii. 202 Management, iii. 202 Situation, iii. 202 Planting, iii. 202 Pruning, iii. 202 Gathering, iii. 202 Storing, iii. 202 INDEX. 363 R. RASPBERRIES, iii. 203 Uses of, iii. 203 Varieties, iii. 203 Summer bearers, iii. 203 Autumn bearers, iii. 204 Situation, iii. 204 Soil, iii. 204 Arrangement, iii. 205 Propagation, iii. 206 Seeds, iii. 206 Cuttings, iii. 206 Offsets, iii. 206 Suckers, iii. 207 Planting, iii. 207 Pruning, iii, 207 Training, iii. 207 Espalier, iii. 213 Pruning autumn bearers, iii. 214 Summer treatment, iii. 214 Mulching, iii. 215 Watering, iii. 215 Winter treatment, iii. 215 Manures, iii. 216 Growing large fruits, iii. 216 Protecting the fruits, iii. 216 Gathering, iii. 216 Duration of plantations, iii. 217 Diseases, iii. 217 Fungoid, iii. 217 Enemies, iii. 217 Raspberry beetle, iii. 217 Mite, iii. 218 Moth, iii. 218 Weevil, iii. 219 Sawfly, iii. 219 In plantations, iii. 300 Packing, iii. 332 Marketing, iii. 332 ROOTS AND BRANCHES, i. 12 Functions of, i. 12 s. SILICA, USES OF, i. 48 SITUATION AND SHELTER, i. 65 SODA, USES OF, i. 48 SOILS AND SUBSOILS, i. 27 Bases of, i. 28 Sandy, i. 28 Clay, i. 29 Marly, i. 29 Calcareous, i. 29 Peaty, i. 29 Improving, i. 31 Draining, i. 31 Tools for, i. 36 Preparing, i. 36 Making stations, i. 41 STRAWBERRIES, iii. 220 Uses of, iii. 220 Varieties, iii. 221 Early, iii. 221 Midseason, iii. 222 Late, iii. 223 In order of ripening, iii. 224 Propagation, iii. 224 Seeds, iii. 224 Division, iii. 225 Runners, iii. 225 Soil, iii. 227 Situation, iii. 227 Planting, iii. 228 Distances, iii. 228 Proper methods, iii. 229 Routine management, iii. 230 Summer treatment, iii. 230 Second or fruiting season, iii. 230 Methods of keeping fruit clean, iii. 230 Watering, iii. 231 Feeding, iii. 231 Thinning, iii. 231 Protecting the fruit, iii. 231 Gathering, iii. 232 Trimming, iii. 232 Manures, iii. 232 Winter treatment, iii. 232 Hautbois varieties, iii. 233 Propagation, iii. 233 Culture, iii. 233 Alpine varieties, iii 233 Cultivation, iii. 233 Forcing, iii. 234 Varieties, iii. 234 Plants for, iii. 234 Compost, iii. 235 Potting, iii. 235 Situation, iii. 236 Watering, iii. 236 Feeding, iii. 236 Removing side crowns, iii. 236 Wintering, iii. 236 Structures, iii. 237 Starting, iii. 238 Temperatures, iii. 238 Ventilation, iii. 239 Syringing, iii. 239 Watering, iii. 240 Feeding, iii. 240 Thinning the flowers, iii. 240 Weights of fruits, iii. 240 Retarding the crop, iii. 240 In autumn and winter, iii. 240 Diseases, iii. 241 Parasitic fungi, iii. 241 Mildew, iii. 241 Enemies, iii. 242 Mice, iii. 242 Millipedes, iii. 242 Eelworm, iii. 242 Spotted garden gnat, iii. 242 Caterpillars, iii. 242 Weevils, iii. 242 Cuckoo-spit, iii. 242 Aphides, iii. 242 Red spider, iii. 243 In plantations, iii. 301 For sale, iii. 312 Forcing, iii. 219 Packing, iii. 333 Marketing, iii. 333 STRUCTURES. Apples, span roof for, ii. 33 Apricots, wall case for, ii. 76 Span roof, ii. 83 Bananas, house for, ii. 95 Cherries, 1 span for, ii. 143 Figs, j span for, ii. 189 Lean-to, ii. 189 Span roof for forcing, ii. 195 Grapes, ground vineries, ii. 269 Lean-to, ii. 274 3 span roof, ii. 275 Span roof, ii. 276 Pit for pot vines, ii. 313 Grape rooms, ii. 318 Peaches and Nectarines, Steep span roof, iii. 85 Lean-to for forcing, iii. 97 Lean-to, iii. 98 J span roof, iii. 98 Lean-to, iii. 99 Pine apples, Lean-to pit, iii. 158 Lean-to house, iii. 158 Span roof, iii. 158 3 span roof, iii. 159 Span roof, iii. 159 Strawberries, Span roof, iii. 237 3 spap roof, iii. 237 Lean-to, iii. 237 Orchard houses, Improved lean-to, iii. 246 Small span roof, iii. 247 Large span roof, iii. 248 Amateurs, iii. 249 SULPHATE OF AMMONIA, i. 50 SYSTEMS OF CULTURE, iii. 268 Orcharding, iii. 268 Simple, iii. 268 Cost of draining, iii. 269 Fencing, iii. 269 Preparing for planting, iii. 269 Cost of planting, iii. 269 Guards for trees, iii. 271 Apples, iii. 271 Distances to plant, iii. 272 Cost of planting, iii. 272 Varieties, iii. 272 Value of crops, iii. 273 Cherries, iii. 276 Varieties, iii. 276 Distances, iii. 276 Value of crops, iii. 277 Pears, iii. 279 Varieties, iii. 279 Profits, iii. 279 Plums and Damsons, iii. 280 Varieties, iii. 280 Cost of Planting, iii. 281 Value of crops, iii. 281 u. UTILISATION OF WALLS AND BUILD- INGS, iii. 304 South, iii. 304 West, iii. 304 East, iii. 304 North, iii. 304 Apricots, iii. 305 Cherries, iii. 305 Figs, iii. 305 Grape-vines, iii. 306 Peaches, iii. 306 Pears, iii. 306 Plums, iii. 307 Unsatisfactory trees on, iii. 308 THE END. THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE. VOL. I. THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE BY JOHN WRIGHT, F.R.H.S. EDITOR OF THK " JOUKNAL OF HORTICULTURE " ; EDITOR OF " GARDEN WORK" MK.MBKR OF THE FRUIT COMMITTEE OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY AUTHOR OF " PROFITABLE FRUIT CULTURE," THE GOLD MF.DAL PRIZE ESSAY OP THE FRUITERERS' COMPANY AND LECTURER ON HORTICULTURE FOR THB SURREY COUNTY COUNCIL WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY MISS MAY RIVERS NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIVE DIAGRAMS 13Y WORTHINGTON G. SMITH AND GEORGE SIIAYI.ER IN THREE VOLUMES VOL. I. LONDON VIRTUE AND COMPANY, CITY ROAD LONDON : PRINTED BY VIRTUE AND COMPANY, CITY KOAD. is Brtiicatrt! (BY PERMISSION) TO THE WORSHIPFUL COMPANY OF FRUITERERS IN RECOGNITION OF THE ACTIVITY AND INFLUENCE OF AN ANCIENT CITY GUILD IN PROMOTING THE EXTENDED AND BETTER CULTIVATION OF FRUIT IN THIS COUNTRY. PREFACE. " It must never be forgotten that fruit is the product of cultivated soil and cultivated talent" SHIRLEY HIBBEBD. TN the production of this volume it has been no small advantage to have had the privilege of consulting the eminent poinologist, Dr. Eobert Hogg, who obligingly glanced through many of the proof pages, and bestowed on them, where needed, the delicate touches of a master's hand. For matter supplied I am indebted to Mr. George Abbey, a gardener of long experience and great knowledge. Without his valuable co-operation, the subjects, especially tho fungoid and other enemies of fruit, could not be so complete as they are, while elucidatory plans, sections, and sketches have enhanced the measure of my obligations to him. All the routine cultural teaching is presented in consonance with my own experience, and I hold myself wholly responsible for the soundness, or otherwise, of the practices advocated, especially tor those that may be deemed faulty in character ; and the greatest favour that discriminating readers, experienced in fruit culture, can confer will be in pointing out what they may consider defective, with the view to subsequent recti- fication. I desire to thank Mr. G. Bunyard, Maidstone ; Mr. A. H. Pearson, Chilwell, Notts ; Mr. T. Francis Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, Herts ; Mr. A. J. Thomas, Sittingbourne ; and Messrs. James Veitch & Sons, Chelsea, for supplying the specimens of fruits which are portrayed in this volume by Miss May Rivers. It should be explained that the Late Black Bigarreau and Bigarreau de Gueben Cherries (facing page 190) were gathered from trees in pots in an unheated house at Sawbridgeworth ; and the fine Cox's Orange via Pippin Apple (feeing page 312) was grown in a similar way : nil the were produced by trees in the open ground. Works that hare been consulted in the preparation of the volume are— Wkkson s "Califoroian Fruits " (Dewey, San Francisco); Thompaon's '-Gardeners Assistant'' and the "Popular Encyclopedia'' (Blackie); Xkhoison's "Dictionary of Gardening" (Upcott Gilij; Hogg's - Vegetable Kingdom " (Kent & Co.); Miss Onnerod's "Manual on Injurious Insects" (Simpkin, Marshdl, Hamilto* ft Co.); Griffith's '• Manure*," Fream's "Soils," and Johnson's "Gardener's Dictionary" (Bell & Sons), with the Gardemen1 ChrvneU and the J