FRUIT

FRUIT AND ITS
CULTIVATION

FULL OF PROMISE.
A Hush Apple Tree in Blossom.

FRUIT

AND ITS

CULTIVATION.

THE CULTIVATION OF ALL KINDS OF HARDY
FRUITS IN GARDEN AND ORCHARD, INCLUD-
ING PLANTING, PRUNING, TRAINING AND

PROPAGATION, SELECTIONS OF VARIETIES,

AND DESCRIPTIONS OF INSECT AND FUNGOID

PESTS, WITH REMEDIES FOR THEIR

ERADICATION.

BY

W. SANDERS, F.L.S., F.R.H.S.

(Knight of First Glass of the Royal Order of Vaaa, Sweden).
Editor of "Amateur Gardening"; Author of "Allotment and Kitchen
Gardens," " Amateur's Greenhouse," " Vegetables and their
Cultivation," "The Flower Garden," Etc.

ILLUSTRATED.
[SECOND EDITION.]

LONDON :

W. H. & L. COLLINGRIDGE,
148 & 149, Aldersgate St., E.C

LONDON !

PRINTKO BY W. H. AND L. COLUNGRIPQR,
148 AND 149, ALDERSGATB STREET, K.C.

FOREWORDS.

THE cultivation of hardy fruits in gardens, orchards, and
plantations is a fascinating, and, in favourable seasons, a
profitable pursuit. During the last century it engaged
the attention of many distinguished men, such as the late
Thomas Andrew Knight and Dr. Hogg among amateurs,
and Mr. Thomas Rivers and others among trade growers,
to whom we owe many of the most popular varieties of
fruit grown at the present day. To them also we owe
the introduction of the dwarfing stocks by means of which
apples and pears especially can be grown as cordons or
bushes in a more limited space than was possible in former
times. Hence we find dwarf fruit trees now being grown
extensively and profitably in small gardens, as well as in
large plantations, these coming into bearing at a much
earlier period of their life than the erstwhile standard-
trained trees of generations ago.

There are few small gardens indeed in which it is not
possible to grow luscious and useful fruits successfully.
The Blackberry and the Loganberry, for example, may be
easily and profitably grown on fences, walls, or on arches ;
horizontally-trained cordon apples and pears may form a
pleasing fringe to the garden paths ; vertical and obliquely-
trained cordon plums, cherries, apples, pears, gooseberry,
and currant trees clothe an archway or pergola, or cover a
low wall or fence profitably; bush-trained apple's, pears,
plums, cherries, gooseberries, and currants grown around
the margins of paths or in small plots ; in each case, if
intelligently cared for, producing an annual crop of deli-
cious fruits. In far too many instances owners of small
gardens have failed to obtain satisfactory crops of fruit

FOREWORDS.

through planting such unsuitably trained trees as espaliers
against low walls or fences, or standards where the space
available for the natural extension of roots and branches
has been too circumscribed. Severe pruning has conse-
quently had to be resorted to, with the inevitable result,
rank growth and no fruit. Had such low walls or fences
been planted with cordons, or the open garden with bush-
trained trees, the result would have proved .more suc-
cessful.

The cultivation of ihardy fruits is likely to be carried
on in a more extensive manner in the near future. It
has been realised, as the .result of the late European
War, that iwe must cultivate food crops more largely
than ever, so as to endeavour to make this sea-girt island
more independent of imported food supplies in the future
than in the past ; and next to vegetables, hardy fruits, such
as the apple, plum, etc., form an important and essential
part of our daily dietary.

Thousands of men who are in process of being de-
mobilised from the Army and Navy are apparently keen
upon settling down on the land, and hence, we shall see
in due course a great extension of small holdings, and
the more general cultivation of fruit and vegetables
throughout the kingdom. May it be so. Such men will
need guidance and counsel in the carrying out of so laud-
able and patriotic an enterprise, if they desire to obtain the
most successful results, and we think we can modestly
say that they could not obtain the information needed
from a better, more reliable, or more practical source than
t/he pages of this volume.

The old axiom saith : "Good wine needs no bush."
Thus we need do no more than state that the present
edition, which has been carefully brought up to date, will
speak for itself. In its pages the fruit grower will find
sound, practical guidance on the cultivation of hardy
fruits in all its various phases.

1919. T. W. S.

CONTENTS.

PART I.— HARDY FRUITS. PAGE

Chap. I. THE APPLE — History — Soils — Propagation — Planting —
Pruning — Modes of Training — Storing Fruit —
Varieties, Etc 9

„ II. THE APRICOT — History — Propagation — Soil — Planting
— Pruning — Summer and Winter Pruning — Varieties,
Etc. ... 39

„ III. THE BARBERRY — Culture and Varieties... 47

,, IV. THE BILBERRY— Propagation and Culture 48

,, V. THE BLACKBERRY — History — Culture — Pruning — Feed-
ing and Propagation, Etc ... ... 49

„ VI. THE BULLACE AND DAMSON — History — Propagation —

Soil— Planting — Pruning — Varieties, Etc 51

„ VII. THE CHERRY — History — Soil — Planting — Modes of

Bearing — Pruning — Varieties, Etc. 56

,, VIII. COBNUTS AND FILBERTS— History— Mode of Bearing —

Propagation — Planting — Pruning — Varieties, Etc. ... 67

„ IX. THE CRAB — Culture and Varieties 75

,, X. THE CRANBERRY — Culture and Varieties 77

,, XL THE CURRANT — History — Propagation — Methods of

Culture — Planting — Pruning — Varieties, Etc 78

,, XII. THE FIG — History— Mode of Bearing— Propagation —

Soil — Planting— Pruning — Varieties, Etc 88

„ XIII. THE GOOSEBERRY — History — Propagation — Soil and

Situation — Planting — Pruning — Varieties, Etc. ... 94

,, XIV. THE GRAPE VINE — History — Propagation — Soil— Plant-
ing—Pruning— Training— Varieties, Etc. 107

„ XV. THE LOGANBERRY, LAXTON BERRY AND LOWBERRY —

Culture and Propagation, Etc 114

„ XVI. THE MEDLAR— History — Propagation— Mode of Train-
ing—Planting—Varieties, Etc 118

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Chap. XVII. THE MULBERRY — History — Propagation — Soil —

Planting— Pruning, Etc 121

,, XVIII. THE PEACH AND NECTARINE — History — Propagation —
Modes of Training — Soil — Planting — Pruning —
Disbudding — Varieties, Etc 125

„ XIX. THE PEAR — History — Propagation — Soil — Modes of
Training — Planting — Pruning — Storing Fruit —
Varieties, Etc. 136

„ XX. THE PLUM — History — Propagation — Soil — Modes of
Training — Planting — Pruning — Storing Fruit —
Varieties, Etc 158

„ XXI. THE QUINCE — History — Propagation — Culture — Prun-
ing—Varieties, Etc ... 175

„ XXII. THE RASPBERRY — History — Propagation — Soil and
Situation — Methods of Culture — Planting — Pruning —
Varieties, Etc 178

,, XXIII. THE STRAWBERRY — History — Propagation — Soil and

Position — Planting — Varieties, Etc 187

,,XXIV. STRAWBERRY-RASPBERRY — History and Culture ... 196

„ XXV. THE WALNUT- History — Propagation — Soil, Situation —

Planting — Pruning — Varieties — Storing the Nuts, Etc. 197

„ XXVI. THBWINEBERRY — History — Propagation — Culture, Etc. 201

PART II.— PRACTICAL WORK.
Chap. I. PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES— By Seeds— Budding —

Grafting — Cuttings — Layering and Suckers 202

„ II. PLANTING — Choosing the Site — Shelter — Sites for

Planting— Drainage— Depth for Planting— Staking, Etc. 217

„ III. PRUNING— Principles and Object of Pruning— Summer

and Winter Pruning— Disbudding— Root Pruning, Etc. 226

„ IV. TRAINING FRUIT TREES — Cordons — Pyramids — Bushes

— Espaliers — Fan-trained and Standards 242

„ V. MANURING GARDEN TREES — Mistakes in Manuring —
Main Elements of Plant Food— How to Apply Manures
— Special Manures for various Fruits, Etc 252

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Chap. VI. STORAGE or FRUIT— When to Gather Fruit— The Fruit

Store— General Hints, Etc 260

,, VII. FRUIT ENEMIES — Description of, with Up-to-date

Remedies 268

,, VIII. FRUIT DISEASES — Description of, with Remedies for

their Eradication ... 295

„ IX. CAUSES OP UNFRUITFULNESS — Sterility of Blossoms —

Frost— Faulty Pruning— Damage by Pests — Conclusions 301
,, X. PROTECTING FRUIT BLOSSOMS — Glass Copings — Canvas

Blinds— Fish Netting— Orchard Trees, Etc 305

PART III.— MARKET CULTURE.

Chap. I. ORCHARDS — Site — Shelter — Soil — Arrangement of

Mixed Orchards — Planting — Pruning — General Culture 308
„ II. FRUIT PLANTATION — Aspect — Shelter — Soil— Planting

— Distances — Examples of Plantations, Etc 323

,, III. PACKING FRUIT FOR MARKET — Grading — Packages —

Methods of Packing ... ... .^ ... ... 329

,, IV. SPRAYING FRUIT TREES — Winter and Summer Spraying

— General Hints on Spraying, Etc 337

TABLES FOR FRUIT GROWERS ... • 346

INDEX ^ , .,. ..,. 35f

LIST OF PLATES.

APPLE :

ALLINGTON PIPPIN -facing page 32

BEAUTY OF BATH ,, 33

BLENHEIM ORANGE ,, 41

CHARLES RV>ss ... „

Cox's ORANGE PIPPIN ,, 40

FRUITS ATTACKED BY THE SCAB

DISEASE „ 288

KING'S ACRE BOUNTIFUL „ 240

MRS. PHILLIMORE ,, 305

NEWTON WONDER „

PEASGOOD'S NONSUCH ... ... ,,

WORCESTER PEARMAIN ... ,, 33

APPLE TREE:

BUSH, FULL OF PROMISE Frontispiece

FAN TRAINED, A (Cox's ORANGE

PIPPIN) .facing £age 17

FRUITFUL BUSH

GRIDIRON TRAINED, A ,,

THREE- YEAR-OLD BUSH TRAINED ... ,, 224

CHERRY :

BlGARREAU t»

GOVERNOR WOOD ... ,,

MORELLO ,» 5?

CRAB:

JOHN DOWNIE „ 73

CURRANT :

WHITE DUTCH, THE

DAMSON :

FARLEIGH PROLIFIC OR CLUSTER ... ,, 49

LIST OF PLATES.
FILBERT: THE RED .facing page 72

GOOSEBERRY :

GOLDEN BALL „ 105

LANGLEY BEAUTY „ 97

LEADER, THE 96

STOCKWELL, THE , „ 81

WILMOT'S EARLY RED 104

GRAPE :

BEFORE AND AFTER THINNING .... „ 113

BLACK HAMBURGH ... ... ... „ 112

LOGANBERRY: , 120

LOWBERRY: ... .M „ 121

NECTARINE :

VIOLETTE HATIVE .„

PEACH :

HALE'S EARLY ,, 128

SEA EAGLE „. ,, 1,37

TREE, A WELL-CROPPED , 129

PEAR:

BEURR*: ALEXANDRE LUCAS ... ,, 273

BEURR* CLAIRGEAU „ 272

BEURR& HARDY ,, 352

BEURRt RANGE ... ... ... 321

BEURR& SUPERFIN \\\ ',' 145

CONFERENCE 289

DOYENNfe DU COMICE .'" ,',' 208

DURONDEAU ... ... ... 65

FERTILITY ... ... ... ,\\ \\ 153

GENERAL TODLEBEN 336

KNIGHT'S MONARCH ,, 320

MARGUERITE MARILLAT 144

MARIE LOUISE „ 337

NOUVELLE FULVIE ,, 209

TRIOMPHE DE VIENNE 152

LIST OF PLATES.

PEAR TREES:

CORDON TRAINED facing page 225

PLUM:

AUTUMN COMPOTE ... „ 161

COE'S GOLDEN DROP ,, 169

Cox's EMPEROR ,, 176

GRAND DUKE ... ,, 353

OULLIN'S GOLDEN GAGE ,, 168

POND'S SEEDLING ... ... ... ,, 257

PRINCE ENGLEBERT ... ,, 256

VICTORIA 160

QUINCE: 177

RASPBERRY :

CARTER'S PROLIFIC ,, 184

DEVON, THE ,, 304

OCTOBER RED ... 241

STRAWBERRY :

AUGUSTE NICAISE ,, 192

ELEANOR „ 193

ROYAL SOVEREIGN ,, 185

WATERLOO „ 200

WALNUT: .. 201

ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.

PAGE

APPLE BRANCH, furnished

with Fruit Spurs 230
„ Shoots, Types of ... 25
,, Tree, A Four. year-
old 12

A Maiden 10

A Standard 24

An Espalier 17

An Established ... 15
Before Pruning ... 244
Side Branch of an 229
Three-year-old ... 11
Two-year-old ... 10
Trees, Horizontal

Cordons 19

Oblique Cordons... 23

,, Summer-pruning 227

Vertical Cordons... 21

Apricot Shoots, Types of ... 43

BLACK CURRANT, Modes of

Training 246, 247, 248

Brown Currant Scale 282

CHERRY TREE after Pruning 63

„ Before Pruning 62

Cherries, Summer-pruning

Morello 60

„ Summer-pruning

Sweet 59

Cobnut Bush, A Kentish ... 71

,, Fruiting Branch of 70

Codling Moth and Grub ... 269

Currant, A Two-year-old... V9

,, Clearwing Moth and

Larva 278

„ Cutting of a Bed ... 79
„ Fruiting Branch of

Bed 231

„ Sawfly and Larvae... 281
„ Winter - pruning a

Bed 231

Tree, a Maiden 79

An Established ... 82

PAGE

Currant Tree, Mode of Train-
ing a Standard ... 83
,, A Four-year-old ... 82
A Three-year-old 80
„ Trees, Standard ... 85
Winter - pruning a
Black 233

DAMSON SHOOTS, Types of ... 32

FILBERT, Flowering Branch

of 68

Fruit Protector for Walls... 306
,, Boom a Lean-to ... 263

A Span-roof 265

„ Store, A Handy ... 262
,, Trees, A Lesson in

Pruning 224

GRAFTING, Cleft 212

„ Crown or Bind 211

„ Old Trees 213

Besult of 214

„ Saddle 212

„ Side 214, 215

„ Whip or Tongue ... 211

Goat Moth and Larva 273

Gooseberry Cuttings 95

„ Properly Pruned ... 233
„ Tree, A Maiden ... 96
An Established ... 101
A Three-year-old 99
A Two-year-old ... 97
Four - stemmed

Cordon 105

„ Ill-grown 96

„ Trees, Cordon 103

LABEL, The "Acme" 223

Lackey Moth and Larva ... 272

OIICHAKDS, Modes of Plant-
ing ;U2, 313, 314

ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.

PAGE

Orchard Trees, Pruning,

316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321

PEACH FRUITS, Thinning... 132
,, Shoot with Fruit

Buds 132

,, Shoot, Winter-
pruning 147

,, Shoots, Types of 144

Shoots, Stopping ... 129

Training 130

,, Tree, A Fan4rained 127
Pear Tree, A Bush-trained 137

,, A Maidnn 137

„ A Palmette Verrior-

trained 140

„ A Pyramid 138

„ after Pruning 145

r An Espalier 142

, , before Pruning . . . 145
,, Summer-pruning ... 144
Plantations, Modes of Plant-
ing 327

Planting, Bight Way of ... 220

Wrong Way of ... 220

Plum Shoot, A Worthless ... 162

Shoots, Types of ... 161

Winter Pruning... 164

,, Summer-pruning ... 163

,, Tree, A Fan-trained 249

,, after Pruning ... 165

„ before Pruning ... 165

FAGS

Plums, Thinned 169

„ Unthin/ned 168

Pruner, Barrow's Patent... 2b6

BASPBERRT, A Badly-grown

Plant 161

„ A Year-old Plant... 179

„ Beetle, The 291

„ Bight Method of

Pruning 181

Baspberries, Maiden Plants 179
,, Pruning Trained . . 183
Wrong Mode tf

Pruning 181

Boot Pruning, Bight Way .. 238

„ Wrong Way 237

Boots, Pruning 240

SCIONS FOR GRAFTING 209

Shears, Pruning 235

Shoots, A Lesson in Pruning 234

Social Pear Sawfly 286

Strawberries, Layering ... 182
„ Planting 191

TOOLS, Pruning .' 236

Tree, a Properly Staked ... 222
,, Preserving a Newly-
planted 224

A Badly-staked . . 2kl

VINE LATERAL, A .... 112

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FRUIT and its CULTIVATION.

Part I.— HARDY FRUITS.

CHAPTER I.
The Apple.

THE Apple is one of the oldest, most highly esteemed, and
most valuable of our hardy fruits. It has been- cultivated
from time immemorial. The ancient Greeks and Romans
were well acquainted with it, and grew many varieties.
It is said that we owe its introduction to this country to
the Romans, but there are strong reasons for believing
that it was cultivated here prior to the Roman Conquest.
It is true the Romans may have introduced some of their
favourite kinds, but there is little doubt that the ancient
Britons cherished the apple both for food and beverage
purposes. In proof of this we have the fact of the Romans,
when visiting Somerset, discovering a town bearing the
name of Avallonia, which existed on the site of Glaston-
bury. The meaning of this ancient British word is
" apple orchard,*' and hence it is assumed that orchards of
apples existed in the district. We further learn that when
the Britons retreated before their conquerors to Wales, and
thence to Brittany, they esteemed their apple trees so highly
that they carried them with them.

10

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

Cider, the well-known beverage made from apples, is
reputed to have been first introduced into Britain by the
Phoenicians, who traded in tin with the Cornish folk. The
name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon ** sieder. " Apples
would, no doubt, be largely grown for producing this
beverage, and hence came the planting of orchards in
Devon, Somerset, Gloucester, Hereford, and Worcester

Fig. 1.
A "MAIDEN" APPLE TREE.

First year's growth after grafting.
A, where to prune in winter.

Fig. 2.
A TWO-YEAR-OLD APPLE TREE.

Result of pruning Fig. 1. m The bars
(B) show where to prune in winter.

on a large scale. Then, when monasteries were estab-
lished, the monks, being keen gardeners, would naturally
grow apples and other hardy fruits, including the vine,
extensively.

One of the oldest varieties grown in this country was the
Costard. It is the first to be mentioned in ancient records,
and appears to have been largely grown for sale in the
thirteenth century. The modern name of " costermonger,"

THE APPLE.

11

applied to hawkers of fruit and vegetables, is derived from
this apple. In earlier times the person who sold apples

Fig. 3. THREE-YEAR-OLD APPLE TREE.

The shoots C and D are the new prowths developed from the preceding
year's shortened wood (B Fig. 2). E E are fruit buds. Bars indicate where
to prune.

was known as a "costard-monger.'* Chaucer refers to
this apple in the following line:

"Your chekes embolmed like a mellow costard."

12 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

The Pearmain variety is referred to as early as 1200.
The Golden Pippin, a famous apple in the reign of King
Henry VIII. , was raised in Sussex. This was held in such
high esteem for its exquisite flavour that it is said Catherine
of Russia used to have annual consignments of its fruit
sent from England for her own table. The Devonshire
Quarrenden, Juneating, and Golden Russet are examples
of the very old varieties grown in our orchards and gardens
at the present day.

Propagation. — Apples trees may be increased by seeds,
cuttings, layers, budding, and grafting. By seeds is only
advised for the purpose of rearing new varieties. By cut-
tings, again, is a slow process, and serves no useful
purpose. Layering is not recommended for a similar
reason. The usual methods practised in this country are
shield budding in July or August and grafting in March.
Budding and whip grafting are suitable methods for young
stocks, and rind or crown grafting for large stocks. (See
article on 4< Propagation.")

Stocks. — For budding and grafting purposes it is essen-
tial to have young trees reared from seed or layers, to serve
as stocks for the buds or grafts. The stocks generally
used for apple trees are the Crab, the Seedling Apple, or
"Free" stock, and the various forms of the Paradise Apple.
The Crab is the wild apple of our hedgerows and woods,
and seeds or pips of this, collected from the ripe fruit, and
sown in due course, produce Seedling Crab trees, which are
available for budding or grafting. Moreover, the Crab is
the hardiest of all stocks, and hence is specially adapted for
exposed positions, orchard culture, and the poorer and
lighter classes of soil.

The Seedling Apple is any kind of cider or Codling Apple
reared from seed. Such stocks naturally vary much in
habit, and hence do not produce* trees so uniform in growth
as the Crab. Apples worked upon such stocks grow away
freely, and are better suited for culture in rich soils than

THE APPLE.

13

the Crab. The roots of the Crab and the Seedling Apple
are strong and deep-rooting; hence they are not suited
for small trained trees, but only for standards, half-

Fig-. 4. FOUR-YEAR-OLD APPLE TREE.

Bars show the amount of pruning1 each shoot requires in winter.

standards, pyramids, and espaliers, that do not require
to be restricted in growth.

For bush trees and cordons the most serviceable stock
is the Paradise. In England the Broad-leaved and the
Nonsuch Paradise stocks are chiefly used. These were

14 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

originally obtained from seedling forms of the Paradise
apple, and subsequently by means of layers. The latter
are distinguished from the Crab and Free stocks by their
mass of fibrous roots and their dwarfer growth. Cordon
and bush trees worked upon these stocks make a sturdier
and more fruitful growth, and come into1 bearing when
two to three years old. Moreover, their fibrous root
growth enables them to be easily lifted and replanted
without unduly affecting their future growth.

Forms of Trees. — The chief forms of trees grown in
Britain are the standard (Fig. 10), half-standard, pyramid,
bush (Fig. 5), espalier (Fig. 6), and cordon (Figs. 7
and 8). Standards have a main stem, or trunk, about
6ft. high, with branches at the apex. Such trees
are suitable for orchards or single specimens in gar-
dens where there is ample room for growth. Half-standards
have stems 3 to 4ft. high, with branches at the top, and
they are best suited for gardens or mixed plantations.
Being of dwarfer stature than the standards, they can be
more readily pruned, and the crop also gathered with less
difficulty.

Pyramids are dwarf trees with a clear main stem one
foot in height, and with branches radiating from a con-
tinuation of the stem, the upper ones gradually diminishing
in length. They are suitable for gardens. Bush trees
are a kind of miniature standard, with a clear stem of
one foot or so, and a head of branches. These worked on
the Paradise stock are the best form of tree for large or
small gardens, because they make a neat, compact growth,
and fruit freely. Espalier trees are to be had in various
forms, but the most popular one is the horizontal espalier.
This has a central main stem, with lateral or side branches
growing at right angles on each side. This form of tree
can be trained to trellises by the side of garden paths, or
to walls or high fences. Another type of the espalier is
the gridiron. This has a short main stem, then a branch
trained horizontally on each side, and from these vertical

THE APPLE.

15

shoots are trained up i8in. apart, the tree ultimately being
of the shape of a gridiron. Suitable for walls only.

Fig. 5. AN ESTABLISHED PYRAMIDAL-TRAINED APPLE TREE.

The branches have been kept well thinned out, and the trees lifted and root
pruned periodically so as to maintain a well-balanced and fruitful growth.

Oblique or fan-trained trees are sometimes met with, the
main branches being trained at an angle of 45 deg. These
are adapted for lofty walls.

1C FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Last of all, there is the cordon, a most useful form of
tree for growing against low fences, walls, arches, or on
trellises. The tree is of French origin, and its culture is
so simple that anyone may grow apples with great success
in any of above positions. The tree consists of a main
stem, with side spurs, and no branches. This is known
as the " single cordon," and it can be trained vertically or
at an angle of 45 deg. There are also double and triple-
stemmed cordons, but the single one is the best. Then
there are also single and double-stemmed horizontally-
trained cordons. These have a main stem about one foot
high, with a lateral stem trained at right angles, or two
lateral stems, one trained each way. These are suitable
for planting by the side of a garden path, the lateral
branches eventually meeting each other, and forming a
continuous rope of growth. They are ideal trees for small
gardens, and are capable of bearing exceptionally fine
fruit.

Distances for Planting.— Standard trees should be
planted not less than 24ft. apart each way ; 3oft. would
be better. Half-standards may be 20 to 24ft. ; pyramids
and bush-trained trees, 12 to i8ft. ; espaliers, i8ft. ; double
horizontal cordons, 2oft. ; single horizontal cordons, loft. ;
single cordons, i8in. to 2ft. ; and bush trees on the Paradise
stock, 6 to 8ft. apart.

Soil. — The ideal soil for apple trees is a marly loam ;
but, as everyone cannot have this, they must make the best
of such soil as naturally exists in their gardens. Chalky
and gravelly soils are most unsuitable, as the trees soon
get stunted in growth, are subject to canker, and also
unfruitful. Damp, waterlogged soils are also unsuitcd
to successful apple culture. Clay soils, if well drained,
will grow apples well, and so will rich alluvial soils. Light,
sandy soils rarely produce good growth or induce fruit-
fulness. Where soils are of a chalky or gravelly nature,
holes should be dug out at least 6ft. wide and 3ft. deep

A GRIDIRON-TRAINED APPLE TREE.
See Chapter on Training, page 242.

THE APPLE.

17

for each tree, and filled with good loam. Clay soils should
be trenched 3ft. deep, and have plenty of grit, decayed
refuse, and a little lime mixed with them. Soils of a
light character would be benefited by the addition of clay
and lime. Soils of a loamy nature will require no special
treatment, since they are well suited to the growth of the
apple.

Aspect. — The main point in this connection is shelter
from north and east winds. This is especially necessary

Fig. 6. AN ESPALIER-TRAINED APPLE TREE.

The tree is four years old. Note the fruit spurs forming1 on the lower
branches. The short cross line on the main shoot shows where to prune to in
winter to secure two more new branches the next season.

during the flowering period, as the blossom being some-
what tender is easily injured by cold. The apple usually
thrives best on land that slopes to the south, south-east,
or west, and sufficiently elevated to be out of the frost
line. Low-lying positions do not suit either the setting
of the fruit or the ripening of the wood.

When to Plant.— The best time to plant apples is during
October and November, whilst the soil still retains the
remnants of summer warmth. The roots then take kindly
to the soil, and soon establish themselves. But planting

a

18 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

may take place any time up to March, provided there is
no frost, and the soil is not too wet. Many amateurs
make the mistake of planting as late as March. If a long
spell of hot, dry weather should follow, the buds will
start to grow, and feed upon the reserve sap in the wood
before new roots have a chance of forming and replenishing
the supply. The result will be a cessation of growth, the
young growths and foliage will be stunted, and the tree
be either severely crippled or it will die. If such late plant-
ing cannot be avoided, a heavy mulch of manure should
be placed on the soil around the tree, some haybands
twisted around the lower branches, and the latter, as well
as the upper part, be well syringed morning and evening
until new roots are formed, and the tree can make healthy
growth.

What Age of Tree to Buy. — This is an important ques-
tion. If standards, half-standards, pyramids, or espaliers,
the best age would be three to four years. If bushes or
cordons, then two to three year old trees would be a suit-
able age. Maiden — i.e., one-year-old trees — are pre-
ferred by many growers, because they are easier to estab-
lish in their new quarters ; but these are not recommended
to those who have had a limited experience in fruit culture,
for the simple reason that technical knowledge is essential
to prune them in such a way that they shall make good spe-
cimens in future. Tree's that have been trained by experts
for three or four years usually have their future shape
properly determined, and their after-training consequently
becomes easier.

Treatment of Newly-bought Trees.— When the trees
arrive from the nursery they should be unpacked and the
roots examined. If any of the roots are bruised, the in-
jured portions should be cut back to healthy tissue, so as
to make a clean wound ; otherwise, when planted, the
bruised parts will decay and canker follow. If the roots,
moreover, are dry, immerse them for a few hours in water.

THE APPLE.

19

If they cannot be planted at once, open a trench, and place
the roots in this, covering them with soil. Should frosty

weather prevail when the trees arrive do not unpack them,
but place them in a cool shed, and keep the packing
material moist.

c 2

20 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Preparing the Site.— The first thing is to get the site
ready for the reception of the trees. If they are to be
grown in a special plot by themselves the soil should be
trenched 3ft. deep. This deep cultivation serves the two-
fold purpose of draining the surface soil and encouraging
a free and healthy root action. Where, however, only
single trees are to be planted, dig out holes 6ft. in diameter,
and, if the soil is naturally good, ift. deep. Break up the
subsoil to a depth of ift., and then replace 6in. of the sur-
face soil, and tread it moderately firm. If the soil is not
very good, fork into the subsoil some grit, decayed vege-
table refuse, or old manure; then add 6in. of surface soil,
mixing a small quantity of decayed manure with it, and
treading down as before. Where the subsoil is heavy
clay, dig out the hole 2ft. deep, put in about 6in. of stones,
and well ram these down. On this place i8in. of good
soil containing grit, old manure, and burnt earth, and make
it firm. These sites are now ready to receive the trees.

In the case of sites for wall trees, like espaliers, dig out
holes 4ft. wide and long, and prepare them in the same
way. For cordons against walls or fences, either trench
the soil 3ft. wide and deep, or prepare it as advised for
other trees. The object of placing stones in the holes is
to serve the purpose of drainage, and to prevent tap-roots
descending too deeply. Wherever possible it is well to
connect the base of such holes with a drain, so that there
is no risk of water accumulating and flooding the roots.

Planting. — It will be observed that we have advised the
sites to be made 6ft. wide. This is done so that the roots
can be spread out to their full length, not twisted nor curled
round. The far too common practice of just digging out
a small, deep hole, and ramming the roots into this, is re-
sponsible for so many trees failing to thrive. In the case
of standard trees, a stake not less than 2in. in diameter
and 6 to 8ft. long should be driven 2ft. deep into the centre
of each site. For half-standard trees the stakes should

THE APPLE.

21

be 4 to 6 ft. long ; and for pyramids and bushes 3 to 4ft.
long.

Next comes the actual planting. Place the tree in the
centre of the hole, and if its main roots — as would be pro-
bable in the case of Crab or Free stocks— have a downward

Fig-. 8. VERTICALLY-TRAINED CORDON APPLE TREES.

The left-hand tree is a single-stemmed Cordon ; the middle one a double-
stemmed one; and the third a zig-zag one.

habit of growth, and not spreading, take out a little soil
to admit them; but if they are horizontal and spreading,
then arrange them horizontally on the surface. Sprinkle
enough fine soil, free from manure, over the roots ; then
give the tree a gentle upward jerk to settle the mould about
them. . Add more soil, and gently tread this down. Con-
tinue adding more soil and firming it until the hole is filled.

22 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

As a general rule, 6in. is an ample depth of soil to place
over the roots. A safe guide, however, is the soil mark
on the base of the stem. Plant so that this mark is level
with the soil, and then the grower will not do far wrong.
Some growers recommend, in the case of very heavy soils,
to plant on the surface and cover with a mound of soil.
In such a case firm staking is necessary.

The planting completed, wrap a narrow piece of sacking
around the stem of the tree, and then bring this and the
stake together, and loosely secure them with a ligature
of stout twine. These ties should be examined from time to
time, and readjusted, as, owing to the sinking of the soil,
the tree would otherwise get " hung," so to speak, on the
stake. Where trees are grown against walls or fences
they should only be temporarily secured, the permanent
fastening being deferred till spring. During the winter
it may be necessary now and then to tread the soil in fine
weather only, to render the surface firm. On light soils,
too, a mulching of manure will be beneficial.

Labelling the Trees.— It is well at planting time to see
that good permanent labels, bearing the name of each
variety, is attached to the tree. Nothing is more disap-
pointing than to find that later on the name is lost. The
best of all permanent labels is the " Acme," made of iron,
with white raised letters on a black ground. These', secured
by lead wire, will last a lifetime.

Manuring Apple Trees.— This subject is dealt with in
a separate article in Part II. of this book.

Mode of Bearing. — Fruit is borne on naturally-formed
spurs on the older wood. Such spurs may be easily
recognised in summer by their stubby appearance, and by
their being surrounded by a whorl of leaves. Further,
fruit is also borne on artificially-formed spurs created at
the base of shoots which have been summer and winter
pruned. Fruit buds are usually globose in shape, whereas

THE APPLE.

23

growth buds are narrow and pointed. In the case of shoots
that are not pruned, as in that of standard trees, fruit

buds form naturally at their base, and thus a constant
succession of fruit buds is maintained on each healthy
tree. (See Fig. n.)

24 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Summer Pruning. — Summer pruning is practised on
trained trees, as pyramids, bushes, espaliers, and cordons,
but not standards. It is usually done in July and August,

Fig1. 10. A TYPICAL STANDARD-TRAINED APPLE TREE.

Pears, Plums, Cherries, and Walnuts are grown in a similar manner. Note
the tree has a well-balanced head with an open centre.

and again in September. In the first instance all leading
shoots — i.e., those that grow at the ends of the branches —
should be permitted to grow about a foot in length, then

A FRUITFUL BUSH APPLE TREE.
A four-year-old tree grafted on the Paradise Stock.
Variety : Ailing-ton Pippin.

W o
>-) <'
D-

> s

K C/3

<

£

THE APPLE, 26

have their points removed. Should any secondary shoots
develop from these, shorten them to one leaf. All other
shoots that develop from the side branches shorten to
four leaves. Any subsequent growths that form should
be shortened to one leaf. In September any growth*
made since the July pruning should, In the case of laterals,

Fig. 11. APPLE SHOOTS.

The right-hand shoot is one year old and furnished with wood buds.
That on the left is two years old and bearing: fruit spurs.

be shortened to six leaves, and leading shoots to about
a foot. By summer pruning thus, trees are encouraged
to make fruit buds freely, and to form better specimens
than if left unpruned.

Summer pruning should be done a little at a time, not all
at once. It is a very great mistake to remove a lot of
foliage at one time. We have already intimated that
standards do not require summer pruning, except in the
first year or two, and the same remarks apply to half

26 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

standards. Such trees, growing as they are on free
stocks, are best allowed to grow naturally; then they
will develop fruit spurs freely at the base of their shoots.
The pernicious system of cutting back the young growths
in summer only leads to the production of a mass of weak
lateral growths and few fruit buds.

Winter Pruning.— When apple trees have been judi-
ciously summer pruned, the winter pruning is a compara-
tively simple matter. Summer pruning is practised with
the view to promoting the formation of fruit buds, and
winter pruning for the encouragement of future healthy
new growth, and improving or maintaining the symmetry
of the tree. Thus in winter, in the case of bushes or
pyramids, all lateral shoots that were shortened in summer
to four leaves will require to be pruned to the third bud
from their base. Leading shoots — i.e., those growing
at the extremities of the branches, and which were sum-
mer pruned to a foot — will need to be cut back according
to their vigour, and to such an extent as will maintain
the symmetry of the tree. Thus, one shoot may only
need shortening to six or eight buds, another to four
buds, and so on. Again, shoots that are very vigorous
require less shortening than a weak one. To cut back
severely a very strong shoot would encourage excessive
growth the following season ; and to fail to prune a weak
shoot sufficiently would tend to promote still weaker
growth another season. All weak growths in the centre
of a tree should be entirely removed.

Cordons and espaliers require all lateral growths to be
pruned to three buds, and the leaders left untouched until
the tree has reached its allotted height or length. Stan-
dards and half-standards merely require to have their
branches thinned out where crowded, and the centre of
the tree kept well open. There should be no shortening
of the shoots ; they should be left to grow unrestrictedly.
For further details, see article on " Pruning " elsewhere.

Root Pruning. — This is a most important phase of fruit

THE APPLE. 27

culture. It is practised only in the case of trees that are
making a too-vigorous growth and producing too few
fruit buds. Such trees are benefited by having their
strongest roots shortened, so as to preserve a more even
balance between root and branch. Thus, in the case of
pyramids, standards, half-standards, etc., grown on the
Crab or Free stock, the roots have a tendency to grow
large, produce few fibrous roots, and to form vertical or
tap roots which descend deeply into the soil. To shorten
these judiciously, therefore, is to encourage the develop-
ment of a more fibrous root growth and the production
of less vigorous branch growth, with a corresponding
greater increase of fruit buds. A tree that is not making
strong growth, and yet not forming fruit buds freely, does
not require root-pruning. What it requires is careful
lifting and replanting in richer soil, to encourage a freer
growth. Trees worked on the Paradise stock rarely re-
quire root-pruning, and then only in a moderate degree.
Fuller details are given in the chapter on " Pruning " in
Part II.

Unfruitful Trees. — There are thousands of trees grow-
ing in gardens and orchards that fail to yield satisfactory
crops of fruit. Many of them yield an abundance of blos-
som, but fruit fails to form. This failure is due to the
overcrowding of fruit spurs, this preventing the blossoms
expanding fully, or so crippling their growth that they
become sterile. Another cause is a too exposed or too
damp position, the organs of fructification being injured
by frost or damp. The remedy in the first case is freely
thinning out the spurs in early spring, so as to give the
remainder more room to develop ; and in the second to
plant in a more sheltered position, and in a more elevated
spot.

Trees, again, that produce few fruit buds, have either
been over or insufficiently pruned both in root and branch.
The wholesale removal of shoots at one time in summer
is another fertile cause of unfruitfulness. If trees are

28 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

planted, pruned, and otherwise properly managed on the
lines laid down in this chapter, they will not fail to yield
good crops. Unfruitful, neglected, and sickly trees should
not be tolerated, but consigned to the fire. No art or skill
can ever render such trees fruitful or healthy in growth.

Trees on Walls and Fences.— In small gardens the mis-
take is too frequently made of planting unsuitably-trained
trees against the usually low boundary walls and fences.
As a rule, these do not exceed 6ft. in height, and to plant
espalier or fan-trained trees against them is sheer folly.
In three or four years the trees reach the top, and then
severe pruning is resorted to to keep growth within bounds.
The result is a thicket of useless growth at the top, and
no fruit. Espaliers and fan-trained trees are only suitable
for lofty walls, 8 to i2ft. or more in height. For walls
and fences only 6ft. high cordon trees are a more suitable
type of tree to grow. These can be kept within due
bounds without any sacrifice of fruitfulness.

Thinning the Fruit. — It is especially necessary in the
case of apples grown on cordon trees not to allow too
many fruits to develop. Overcropping seriously cripples
future growth ; and, besides, the individual fruits do not
attain their full size, nor develop their proper flavour. As
a general rule, one to two fruits to a spur are ample.
Therefore thin out the fruits as soon as it can be seen
which are the most promising ones to retain. If this
course be pursued, trees will bear every year ; whereas, if
the fruit is not thinned, they will fail to yield the next
season. (See Figs. 12 and 13.)

Gathering and Storing the Fruit. — A good deal of judg-
ment is required in gathering fruit, more especially varie-
ties that have to be stored. If gathered too soon the fruit
will shrivel and lose much of its flavour. Early sorts
should not be gathered until they begin to fall from the
tree, and later ones not until they part readily from the

THE APPLE.

29

branch on being grasped by the hand. Fruit that requires
to be twisted or pulled hard from the branch is not fully
ripe. Gather the fruit only in dry weather, and place
carefully into the basket or tray so as not to bruise the
skin. Apples should always be stored in a cool, damp
place, not in hot, dry positions. Cellars or outhouses,
where there is no risk of frost entering, are the best store
places for apples. They will keep very well in boxes or
barrels ; but choice sorts are best stored in single layers
on open trays, such as Orr's, these being placed one on

Fig. 12.

CLUSTER OF APPLES
UNTHINNED.

Fig. 13. CLUSTER OF APPLES THINNED.

the other so as to form a kind of nest. Dry cupboards
or rooms are unsuitable, as they cause the fruit to shrivel.
Fruit rooms specially constructed, and described else-
where, are, of course, the best positions for storing
fruit.

Pests.— The chief pests that do damage to the apple
are the Codlin, Winter, March, Mottled Umber, Brown
Tail, Small Ermine, Pith, Bud, Lackey, and Tortrix Moth
Caterpillars ; Apple Blossom Weevil ; Apple Sawfly ; Apple
and Woolly Aphis (American Blight); Apple Sucker; and

30 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

the Mussel and Oyster Shell Scales. These are referred
to in detail, together with remedies for their eradication,
in a special chapter further on.

Diseases. — The apple is subject to attack by the follow-
ing diseases : Mildew, Scab, Canker, Brown Rot, Coral
Spot, and Leaf Scald. These are also dealt with further
on in this volume.

Varieties. — We shall confine ourselves to giving a selec-
tion rather than a complete list of the varieties grown in
this country. There are over 2,000 varieties in cultiva-
tion, and to enumerate all these would, indeed, be a for-
midable task. We .have not the space, if we had the
inclination, to do so; and hence we shall limit our list of
varieties to the following selections, believing, as we
honestly do, that these will give the reader an ample
choice of really good sorts to grow either in the garden or
orchard.

Dessert Apples.

Adam's Pearmain. — An attractive apple. Size, large.
Shape, conical. Colour, pale yellow, green, and russet
on the shady side, and reddish on the sunny one. Flesh,
sugary and richly flavoured. Very fertile. Moderate
grower. Season, January to March. Self-fertile.

Allen's Everlasting.— A good late apple. Size, medium.
Shape, flat. Colour, yellow, streaked with red. Flesh,
juicy and aromatic. A neat grower. Season, April to
May. Gather fruits in November. Self-fertile.

Allington Pippin. — A similar apple to Cox's Orange
Pippin, but hardier. Size, medium. Shape, round to
conical. Colour, yellow, flushed with scarlet, sprinkled
with russet. Flesh, firm and richly flavoured. A very
fertile variety. Season, November to February. Self-sterile.

THE APPLE. 31

Beauty of Bath. — An excellent early apple. Size,
medium. Shape, round. Colour, bright red with white
spots. Flesh, greenish-white, and of pleasing flavour.
Most prolific. Season, July and August. Self-sterile.

Blenheim Orange.— -Good for dessert or cooking. A

favourite old apple. Size, large. Shape, round. Colour,

golden yellow, flushed with red. Flesih, richly flavoured.

Season, November to February. Rather slow in coming
into bearing. Self-sterile.

Charles Ross. — A seedling from Cox's Orange Pippin.
Size, large. Shape, round. Colour, yellow, flushed
with crimson. Flavour, rich. Season, October to Nov-
ember. Good. exhibition apple. Self-sterile.

Christmas Pearmain. — One of the best dessert .apples
for small gardens. Size, .medium. Shape, round or coni-
cal. Flavour, brisk and pleasing. Colour, orange, with
silvery and russet markings, flushed crimson on sunny
side. Season, December. Self-fertile.

Cox's Orange Pippin. — The premier dessert apple. A
descendant of the famous Ribston. Size, medium. Shape,
round. Colour, rich orange and bronzy-red. Flavour,
juicy and very rich. Should not be gathered till quite
ripe to ensure fruit keeping well. Requires a warm, rich
soil. Season, November to February. Self-sterile.

Devonshire Quarrenden. — An old, but good early apple.
Size, small. Shape, flattish round. Colour, purplish-red.
Flesh, crisp and juicy. Heavy cropper. Season, August
to September. Self-fertile.

Duke of Devonshire. — A fine late apple. Size, medium.
Shape, round. Colour, greenish-yellow, marked with
black spots and russety patches. Flavour, sweet and
aromatic. Season, March to May. Self-fertile.

Ellison's Orange.— A good October apple. Size, me-
dium. Shape, round. Colour and flavour similar to Cox's

32 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Orange Pippin. Vigorous grower and free bearer.
Season, October. Self-sterile.

James Grieve.— A variety resembling Cox's Orange
Pippin, but hardier. Size, medium. Shape, round.
Colour, primrose, striped red, with white spots and rus-
sety patches. Flavour, sweet and very refreshing. A
first-rate cropper. A grand sort for small gardens. Sea-
son, September and October. Self-fertile.

Kerry Pippin. —An old Irish apple. Very hardy, and a
prolific bearer. Size, small. Shape, round. Colour,
yellow, 'marked or striped with brownish-red. Flavour,
brisk, sweet, and pleasing. Season, September and
October. Self-fertile.

King of the Pippins.— An old favourite, suitable for
warm districts and light or medium soils. Size, medium.
Shape, conical. Colour, rich golden-yellow. Flavour,
sweet and pleasant. Season, October to January. Liable
to canker on heavy soils. Self-fertile.

King's Acre Pippin. — A good late apple. Size, medium.
Shape, round. Colour, brownish-orange, splashed with
silvery-russet, and with a pretty red cheek. Flavour,
juicy and rich. Season, January to March. Self-fertile.

Lord Hindlip. — A delicious late apple. Size, medium to
large. Shape, conical. Colour, yellow, scarlet, russet,
and crimson. Flavour, delicious and rich. Season
January to May. An excellent bearer. Self-fertile.

Mrs. Phillimore. — A very fertile late apple. Size, large.
Shape, round or comical ; ribbed. Colour, primrose,
marked with russet and dull red. Flavour, very sweet and
aromatic. Season, November to February. Good for
cordons or bushes. Self-fertile.

Peasgood's Nonsuch. — A very large and handsome
apple, good alike for dessert or cooking. Size, extra
large. Shape, round. Colour, pale yellow, striped with

TWO DESSERT APPLES.

Upper variety : Charles Ross (October to November) ; lower one :
Allington Pippin (November to February).

TWO DESSERT APPLES.

Upoer variety : Beauty of Bath (July and August) ; lower variety
Worcester Pearmain (September).

THE APPLE, 33

crimson. Flavour, sweet. Season, October to Decem-
ber. Fine for exhibition ; also for cordons an walls.
Ratiher .slow in coming into bearing. Self-sterile.

Ribston Pippin. — The finest flavoured apple in cultiva-
tion. Size, medium. Shape, round, angular. Colour,
brown with russet. Flavour, delicious. Flesh, crisp.
Season, November to January. Requires a warm, medium
soil. Moderate bearer. Self-fertile.

Ross's Nonpareil. — Another old Irish apple. Size, small.
Shape, round. Colour, russety, marked with bronzy-
crimson. Flavour, sugary iand aromatic. A very prolific
variety. Season, November and December. Self- sterile.

Scarlet Nonpareil. — A very excellent dessert apple.. Size,
small. Shape, round. Colour, yellowish, .streaked with
red o<n the shady side, and .with deeper red on the sunny
side; also speckled witih russet. Flavour, rich, juicy, and
sugary. Season, January to March. Self-fertile.

Stunner Pippin. — A grand late apple. Size, medium.
Shape, roundish and flattened. Colour, yellowish-green,
tinged with dull red on the sunny side, and covered freely
with russet. Flavour, juicy, brisk, and sugary. Season,
March to June. Self-fertile.

Summer Golden Pippin. — A delicious summer apple.
Size, very small. Shape, round. Colour, bright yellow,
tinged with russet, orange, and brownish-red on the sunny
side. Flavour, very rich, juicy, and sugary. Season,
September. Good for a small garden. Self-fertile.

William Crump. — A comparatively new apple — a seed-
ling from Cox's Orange Pippin. Size, large. Shape,
round. Colour, rich red. Flavour, rich and sugary.
Season, December. Self-sterile.

Worcester Pearmain. — A popular early apple. Size,
medium. Shape, conical. Colour, yellowish and bright
scarlet. Flavour, sweet and very pleasing. Season,

34 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

September. A good bearer, and a first-rate sort for small
gardens. Partly self-fertile.

New Dessert Varieties. — Two new varieties recerntly
placed in commerce and full of promise as a distinct ad-
vance on older kinds are : Bedford Pippin, a variety of the
Ribston type with yellow, red-streaked fruit and yellowish,
firm, sweet, juicy flesh (September to October) ; and Beauty
of Bedford, a cross between Lady Sudeley and Beauty of
Bath, bright red, streaked with yellow, fleslh yellowish,
firm, juicy and sweet (September).

Culinary Apples.

Alfriston. — One of the best culinary apples. Size, large.
Shape, roundish and angular. Colour, greenish-yellow,
netted with russet. Flavour, sweet and juicy. Season,
November to March. A free bearer, and good for light
soils. Fruit must not be gathered until early in Novem-
ber. Self-sterile.

Annie Elizabeth. — Another good culinary apple which
also possesses some merit as a dessert fruit. Size, large.
Shape, round and ribbed. Colour, bright yellow, streaked
with deep red. Flavour, crisp and juicy. Season,
December to April. Bears freely when established. Self-
fertile.

Bismarck. — A really good late cooking apple for all
forms of culture. Size, large. Shape, round. Colour, a
rich crimson. Flavour, a trifle acid. Free bearer, and
splendid cooker. Season, October to February. Self-
sterile.

Bramley's Seedling. — A good apple for small gardens
or for growing in heavy soils. Size, large. Shape,
round and flattish. Colour, green. Flavour, sub-acid.
Season, December to May. Prolific cropper. Self-fertile.

Cox's Pomona. — A handsome apple. Size, medium.
Shape, round to flat. Colour, yellow, striped crimson.
Flavour, juicy and acid. Season, October. Self-fertile.

Duchess of Oldenburgh. — A handsome early apple.
Size, medium. Shape, round ; ribbed. Colour, yellow,

THE APPLE, 35

streaked with crimson. Flavour, sharply acid. Season,
August and September. A prolific variety, doing well on
bushes or cordons. Self-fertile.

Early Victoria. — A very early and prolific apple. Fruits
freely when quite young. Size, medium. Shape, round
to conical. Colour, yellow. Flavour, briskly acid. Sea-
son, July to September. Self-fertile.

Ecklinville Seedling.— One of the Codlin type, and a
free bearer. Size, very large. Shape, round, flattened.
Colour, greenish-yellow. Flavour, moderately acid. Sea-
son, September to November. Good cooker. Self-fertile.

Edward VII.— A late variety, resembling Golden Noble.
Size, large. Shape, round. Colour, clear bright yellow.
Flavour, similar to that of Blenheim Orange, one of its
parents. Season, January to June. A remarkably free
bearer and good keeper. Self-sterile.

Golden Noble. — A good sort for small gardens. Size,
large. Shape, round. Colour, yellow. Flavour, sweet.
Season, November to January. Good cropper. Self-fertile.

Golden Spire. — A fine hardy, free-bearing apple, not
subject to canker. Size, large. Shape, co-nical. Colour,
golden-yellow. Flavour, sweet and pleasing. Season,
October to December. Good cooker, and splendid for
small gardens. Self-fertile.

Grenadier. — A variety of the Codlin type, whidh rarely
fails to yield good crops. Size, very large. Shape, round
and flat. Colour, yellow. Flavour, briskly acid. Season,
September and October. Self-sterile.

King's Acre Bountiful. — A comparatively new apple of
sterling merit. Size, large. Shape, round or conical.
Colour, yellow, with a pink flush. Flavour, excellent.
Season, September to November. Self-fertile.

Lane's Prince Albert. — One of the best late apples.
Size, large. Shape, round. Colour, greenish-yellow, with
a pale red tint. Flavour, briskly sub-acid. Season,
November to March. Heavy cropper. Self-sterile.

36 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Loddington. — A popular market variety. Size, very
large. Shape, round. Colour, greenish-yellow. Flavour,
acid. Season, August to December. Self-fertile.

Lord Derby. — A fine variety for heavy soils, and a free
bearer. Size, very large. Shape, round ; ribbed. Colour,
greenish to golden. Flavour, sweet and pleasing. Sea-
son, November and December. Self-fertile.

Lord Grosvenor.— One of the Codlin type. Good for
small gardens. Size, very large. Shape, conical. Colour,
yellow. Flavour, juicy, .moderately acid. Season,
August and September. Self-fertile.

Newton Wonder. — A Derbyshire apple, which originated
as a seedling in the Hardinge Arms garden, at King's
Newton, Melbourne, Derbyshire. One of the best late
apples in cultivation. Size, medium. Shape, round.
Colour, brownish-yellow, marked with russet and crimson,
with black dots. Flavour, sub-acid and pleasing. Sea-
son, November to April. A free cropper. Self-fertile.

Pott's Seedling. — An excellent second early cooking
apple, good for small gardens. Shape, round to conical.
Colour, yellow. Flavour, slightly acid. Season, August
to October. Liable to canker on heavy soils. Self-fertile.

Red Victoria. — A showy early apple. Abundant bearer.
Size, large. Shape, conical. Colour, brilliant crimson.
Flavour, excellent. Good for small gardens. Self-fertile.

Rev. W. Wilks. — A new apple of promising merit.
Size, very large. Slhape, round. Colour, greenish-yellow.
Flavour, good. Season, October. Self-fertile.

Royal Jubilee. — Good late-flowering and free-bearing
apple. Size, large. Shape, conical. Colour, yellow.
Flavour, briskly acid. Season, October to February.
Good sort for Northern gardens. Self-fertile.

Sanspareil.— One of the most prolific apples in cultiva-
tion, and handsome withal. Size, large. Shape, conical.
Colour, lemon-yellow, striped with carmine. Flavour,
sweet and spicy. Season, February to April. Self-fertile.

THE APPLE. 37

Stirling Castle.— A grand apple for small gardens. A
prolific bearer. Size, large. Shape, round and flattened.
Colour, yellow. Flavour, juicy and briskly acid. Season,
October to December. Self-fertile.

The Queen. — A very handsome apple. Size, large.
Shape, round and flattened. Colour, yellow, streaked
with red. Flavour, sweet and pleasing. Season, October
to December. Self -sterile.

Tower of Glamis. — A hardy and prolific variety, much
grown in Scotland. Size, large. Shape, conical and an-
gular: Colour, yellow. Flavour, sweet. Season, Novem-
ber to February. Self-fertile.

Warner's King. — A very hardy and prolific apple. Fruit
attains an immense size. Shape, round and angular.
Colour, greenish-yellow. Flavour, sub-acid. Season,
November. Self-sterile.

Selections for Various Purposes.

Dessert Apples for the North. — Allington Pippin,
Beauty of Bath, Devonshire Quarrenden, James Grieve,
Kerry Pippin, Ribston, Lord Hindlip, Charles Ross, Elli-
so'n's Orange, William Crump, Worcester Pearmain,
Sturmer Pippin, Cox's Orange Pippin, and King of the
Pippins. The last two would do best on a south or south-
west wall.

Culinary Apples for the North.— Bramley's Seedling,
Early Victoria, Golden Spire, Golden Noble, Lord Derby,
Newton Wonder, Pott's Seedling, Stirling Castle, Royal
Jubilee, Annie Elizabeth, Lane's Prince Albert, and
Warner's King.

Dessert Apples for the Midlands. — Allington Pippin,
Adam's Pearmain, Cox's Orange Pippin, Allen's Everlast-
ing, Kerry Pippin, King of the Pippins, Scarlet Non-
pariel, Ellison's Orange, Duke of Devonshire, Sturmer
Pippin, Peasgood's Nonsuch, Worcester Pearmain, and
James Grieve.

38 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Culinary Apples for the Midlands.— Lord Grosvenor,

Warner's King, Ecklinville Seedling, Golden Noble, New-
ton Wonder, Golden Spire, Pott's Seedling, Bnamley's
Seedling, Alfriston, Annie Elizabeth, Grenadier, and
Tower of Glamis.

Dessert Apples for the South. — Any of the varieties
named in the list of twenty-five, especially including Cox's
Orange, Ribston Pippin, and King of the Pippins.

Dessert Varieties Suitable for Standards. — Beauty of
Bath, Kerry Pippin, Scarlet Nonpariel, Cox's Orange
Pippin, Duke of Devonshire, Sturmer Pippin, King of the
Pippins, Allen's Everlasting, Blenheim Orange, Summer
Golden Pippin, Charles Ross, and William Crump.

Culinary Varieties to Grow as Standards.— Duchess of

Oldenburgih, Pott's Seedling, Stirling Castle, Lane's
Prince Albert, Golden Spire, Ecklinville Seedling, Alfris-
ton, Golden Noble, The Queen, Warner's King, Bram-
ley's Seedling, and Lord Derby.

Dessert Varieties to Grow as Cordons.— Adam's Pear-
main, Beauty of Bath, Charles Ross, Christmas Pearmain,
James Grieve, Allington Pippin, Scarlet Nonpariel,
Sturmer Pippin, Cox's Orange Pippin, King of the
Pippins, Ribston, and William Crump.

Culinary Varieties to Grow as Cordons.— Annie Eliza-
beth, Bismarck, Bramley's Seedling, Duchess of Olden-
burgh, Early Victoria, Golden Spire, Lord Derby, Pott's
Seedling, Lane's Prince Albert, Sanspariel, Tower of
Glamis, and Warner's King.

Any of the fifty varieties described may be grown as
bushes, pyramids, or espaliers.

THE APRICOT. 39

CHAPTER II.
The Apricot.

THE APRICOT (Prunus Armeniaca) is one of the most deli-
cious of our hardy fruits. It is said to have been first
introduced into this country from Italy by one Wolff,
gardener to King Henry VII. The Chinese are reputed
to have cultivated it for some 3,000 years before the
Christian era; and we learn also that it has long been
grown in Northern India and Thibet. It was known to
the ancient Greeks and Romans. Dioscorides, a Greek
writer, refers to it under the name of Armenica; and
Pliny, the Roman naturalist, also mentions it under that
of " Praecocia " in the first century of the Christian era.
The latter states that the Apricot had then been intro-
duced into Italy about thirty years.

The Apricot does not appear to have been grown very
largely for some time after its introduction. Quaint old
Parkinson, in his " Paradisi in sole Paradisus Terrestris,"
published in 1629, describes six sorts as being grown in
his day. He says, <c The great Apricocke, which some
call the long Apricocke, is the greatest and fairest of all
the rest." Of this he gives an illustration. Philip
Miller, in his " Gardener's Dictionary " of 1731, describes
eight varieties as grown at that period. These were
the Masculine, Orange, Algiers, Roman, Turkey, Trans-
parent, Breda, and Brussels. Some of these sorts are
still cultivated and enumerated in nursery lists — as, for
example, the Breda, Roman, and Turkey.

It was not, perhaps, till the last century that the Apri-
Cot began to be generally grown. Then it seems to have
become very popular, even cottagers growing it largely
on their house walls. The great drawback, however, to the
cultivation of the Apricot in our climate is its early-
flowering character. Blooming, as it does, in March,

40 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

its flowers are so apt to be injured by frost unless the
trees are afforded some protection. Still, the fruit is
luscious, not only for eating in a ripe condition, but also
for preserving whole or making into jam.

Propagation. — The Apricot may be reared from seed or
increased by budding in July upon either the Brussels
Apricot, the Mussel, Damask, or St. Julien Plum stocks.
Apricots come fairly true from seed. The stones should
be taken from the best-formed and fully ripe fruits, and
buried in soil until February, then plant them about 2in.
deep and Sin. apart in sandy soil in a south border. In
autumn cover the bed with 6in. of litter as a protection
from frost. After the seedlings have made one year's
growth, lift and shorten the tap-roots, and then replant
3ft. apart against a west or a south-west wall, and train
them as advised in the chapter on ' 'Pruning and Training"
elsewhere.

As regards the stocks for budding, the Brussels Apricot
is the best for trees that are required to cover a large
space, and the Mussel and St. Julien Plum for smaller
sized trees. The buds should be inserted in the main stem
of the stock, fairly close to the ground.

Soil. — The ideal soil for Apricots is a good friable loam
and a well-drained subsoil. Heavy, damp soils are quite
unsuitable. Very light, sandy soils, again, do not suit
the Apricot. In the latter case add some heavy loam
to make the soil more compact. It is advisable in all
cases to mix some old mortar with the soil, as Apricots,
like all stone fruits, love lime. No manures should be
mixed with the soil for planting; these are best applied
when the tree comes into bearing.

Aspect. — Experience has demonstrated the fact that
Apricots succeed best on east walls in the South of Eng-
land ; south walls in the Midlands ; and south-east in the
Northern Counties. Apricots cannot be relied upon to
ripen their crops in the open in Scotland. In the extreme

ll

O fe

o

X fc

81

si

d, ..

Cu e

DESSERT APPLE, BLENHEIM ORANGE.
Season : November to February,

THE APRICOT, 41

South Apricots are sometimes grown as standards in the
open, but the trees are very unreliable in cropping.

Sites. — The site for each tree must be properly pre^-
pared before planting. Dig out holes 2ft. deep, and if
the subsoil is inclined to be damp put in 6in. of broken
bricks and old mortar, and ram this down tightly. If
the subsoil is well drained no drainage need be added;
simply mix old mortar or small chalk nodules with the
soil, and refill to within Gin. of the surface. Tread down
firmly. Each site should be prepared thus, 2ft. deep,
4 to 6ft. long, and the same in width.

Forms of Tree. — Apricots are grown in three forms —
dwarf fan-trained, tall fan-trained, and cordons. The first
form is suitable for walls 8 to i2ft. high; the second for
those 12 to 1 4ft. ; the third for those 5 to 7ft. or 8ft. high.
The dwarf trees have main stems about 6in. to gin. high,
and branches radiating therefrom. The tall trees, called
standards or riders, have main stems 3 to 5ft. high, with
branches at the apex. Cordons consist of a single stem
furnished with spurs and no branches.

Distance to Plant. — Dwarf trees should be planted 25ft.
apart. Between every two dwarf trees a tall standard
tree may be planted, the object being to cover the wall
quickly. The space between the dwarfs may be utilised
by planting cordons 2ft. apart, or they may be planted
by themselves.

When to Plant.— From the middle of September to the
end of November is the best time to plant Apricots.

Planting. — When the trees arrive from the nursery
examine the roots, and cut off any bruised portions.
Should they have become dry in transit, immerse them
in water for a few hours. In planting spread out the
roots evenly, and slightly cover them with fine soil ; give
the tree a shake to settle the soil ; then add more soil
and tread it down firmly, finally filling the hole and mak-

42 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

ing the surface firm. The upper roots should not be
buried deeper than 3in., and the soil be made firm. Loosely
secure the branches to the wall, and mulch the soil with
rotten manure.

Mode of Bearing. — The Apricot bears its fruit on shoots
of the preceding year's growth ; also on spurs on the older
growths. To ensure fruit, however, being borne on
the last year's growths, they must be well ripened or wood
buds only will be the result. (See Fig. 14, p. 43.)

Summer Pruning. — This is more important than winter
pruning, and upon the success with which it is carried
out will depend the future bearing condition of the tree.

The first step in summer pruning is technically called
*' disbudding," and means the removal of superfluous
shoots. Thus, for instance, any young shoots a couple
of inches long or less which grow cut of the front of the
branches, and are called " foreright shoots," are of no ser-
vice to the tree, and these must be pulled off with the
finger and thumb. Then, on the sides of the branches,
any young shoots which have a weakly appearance, or
are likely to overcrowd promising stronger ones, should
be similarly removed. Later on, the young shoots re-
tained will have to be carefully examined. Select the
strongest of these to form future branches, and lay them
in between the older growths, fixing them in position by
means of a twig rather than nailing them to the wall.
Those not so promising should have their points removed
at the fourth leaf, and any subsequent growths from these
shortened to one leaf to form fruiting spurs,

Those shoots laid in must not be shortened. It is im-
portant to bear in mind that the latter should not be
reserved at lesser intervals than a foot apart, otherwise
overcrowding would result. Sometimes very strong, gross
shoots will develop, in which case remove these entirely,
retaining only the sturdier growths. In the case of cordons,
all young shoots, except the leading one, should be shortened
to the fourth leaf to form fruiting spurs.

THE APRICOT.

43

Winter Pruning. — This requires considerable judg-
ment. In the first place, a judicious thinning out of the
older growths should be done. First of all, cut away
all weak or exhausted wood ; then remove the two-
year-old wood to the base of the young growths, so as
to give the latter more room, as it is essential that the
shoots laid in during the summer should not be over-

Fig. 14. APRICOT SHOOTS.

The left-hand shoot is freely furnished with fruit buds, while
the right-hand one has wood buds only.

crowded. The terminal shoots of branches, too, may
often be removed with advantage to the nearest young
growth, in order to keep the tree compact. Besides, this
thinning out of older growths encourages the tree to put
forth a succession of new shoots annually, and the tree
is consequently kept in a healthier bearing condition. The
shoots that were laid during summer must next be short-
ened. Those two or more feet long shorten one-fourth ;
those only a foot long cut back half way. The spurs,

44 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

too, often need a little thinning out, removing the central
portions. Those young growths that were pinched back
to three or four leaves shorten about an inch.

Thinning the Fruit.— As soon as the young fruit has
attained the size of walnuts, thin them out to 3in. apart ;
otherwise the crop will be puny in size and wanting in
flavour. If the fruit appears in thick clusters, it is well
to thin them out earlier, removing the smaller ones by
degrees.

Protecting the Blossoms— Early in March two or three
thicknesses of fish-netting should be fixed to the top of
the wall, and allowed to hang down over slightly slanting
poles, to break the force of cold winds and keep off severe
frost. This may be left on permanently till warmer
weather arrives. Or a sheet of tiffany may be fixed in
the same way, and allowed to remain at night and during
cold, windy, or frosty days. Glass copings are some-
times used, but they are expensive.

General Details — From May onwards, till the fruit has
ripened, copious supplies of water must be given in hot,
dry weather. Mere sprinklings are useless. A thick
mulch of rotten manure should also be spread on the sur-
face of the soil to keep it cool and moist. Spraying the
foliage with water, except when the fruit is ripening, on
the evenings of hot days is also beneficial. The roots may
also be fed with fertilisers, as advised in the chapter on
" Manures." Always gather the fruit early in the morn-
ing, whilst the dew is upon it, to have it in its best per-
fection.

Pests. — The chief pest is the larva of the Apricot Moth.
Wasps and flies are also fond of the fruit.

Diseases.— The Apricot Brown Rot attacks the fruit,
and Gummosis the branches. Canker, Mildew, and
another unnamed disease often cause the branches to die
suddenly. See chapter on " Diseases," further on.

THE APRICOT. 45

Varieties.

Following are the leading kinds in cultivation:

Breda. — A hardy variety, which may be grown as a
standard in the open in the South of England. Size,
small. Shape, roundish. Colour, orange on shady side,
reddish-orange with brown dots on sunny side. Flavour,
very rich and juicy. Season, early August.

Early Moorpark. — An early and good variety. Size,
medium. Shape, roundish. Colour, yellow, mottled with
crimson. Flavour, juicy and rich. Season, mid-August.

Frogmore Early. — Very early sort. Size, small. Shape,
roundish. Colour, yellow, blotched with crimson. Fla-
vour, melting, juicy, and rich. Season, July.

Hemskirk. — A hardy variety. Size, large. Shape,
round. Colour, yellow and red. Flavour, juicy and rich.
Season, mid-August. Heavy cropper.

Kaisha. — A good bearer of moderate growth. Size,
medium. Shape, roundish. Colour, pale citron, marbled
red on sunny side. Flavour, most delicious and sugary.
Season, mid-August.

Large Early. — A variety not subject to gumming. Size,
large. Shape, oblong. Colour, pale orange, spotted red.
Flavour, rich and juicy. Season, early August.

Large Red.— A very hardy and free-bearing variety.
Size, large. Shape, oval. Colour, deep orange-red.
Flavour, rich and juicy. Season, early September.

Moorpark. — A variety of great excellence, but liable
to have its branches suddenly wither and die. Size, large.
Shape, roundish. Colour, orange-yellow, brownish-red on
sunny side. Flavour, superb, very juicy, and rich. Sea-
son, early September.

46 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

New Large Early.— An improvement on Large Early.
Size, large. Shape, oval. Colour, yellow, flushed red,
and spotted crimson. Flavour, very rich. Season, early
August.

Oullin's Early.— A healthy, free-bearing variety. Size,
large. Shape, oval. Colour, yellow, tinged with red.
Flavour, deliciously rich and juicy. Season, early August.

Peach. — An old and very fine variety. One of the best.
Size, large. Shape, oval. Colour, yellow, with a reddish
tinge on sunny side- Flavour, juicy, rich, and highly
perfumed. Season, early September.

Powell's Late.— A fine hardy late variety. Good crop-
per. Size, medium. Shape, roundish. Colour, yellow
to orange. Flavour, very juicy and rich. Season, mid-
September.

Shipley's.— A good variety for preserving. Hardy and
a free bearer. Size, large. ShapCj oval. Colour, deep
yellow. Flavour, juicy. Season, early August.

St. Ambroise. — A hardy, free-bearing variety. Size,
large. Shape, roundish. Colour, yellow, reddish next the
sun. Flavour, juicy, rich, and sugary. Season, mid-
August. The most prolific variety grown.

THE BARBERRY. 47

CHAPTER III
The Barberry.

THE COMMON BARBBRBY (Berberis vulgaris) is a deciduous
shrub, growing 8ft. to loft, high, and exists in a wild
state in this country, as well as in other parts of Europe
and in North America. It is now grown chiefly in gardens
as a flowering shrub.

The flowers are yellow, borne in pendant racemes in
spring, and the stamens possess the peculiar property of
striking themselves against the pistil when touched. The
flowers are succeeded by oblong, narrow berries, which
when ripe are of a brilliant scarlet hue. They ripen in
the autumn. The berries are too acid to eat in a raw
state, but when made into a jelly they make a most deli-
cious preserve. The green berries, too, may be pickled
in vinegar, and in this form make an excellent appetiser
for use with cold meats.

Culture. — One or two bushes grown in the shrubbery
or in any odd corner will give an ample supply of berries.
Ordinary soil will suffice. Plant in autumn or winter.
The shrub is easily increased by seeds sown when ripe
in the open ground, or by suckers or division of the roots
in autumn. To ensure plenty of fruit, grow the shrub
with a single main stem, and keep all suckers removed ;
also prune back any straggly branches in winter.

Varieties. — The best kind for general cultivation is the
Common Barberry. There is a stoneless or seedless form
of it, but this only occurs in the case of old plants.

48 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

CHAPTER IV.
The Bilberry.

THE BILBERRY, Blaeberry, or Whortleberry (Vaccinium
myrtillus) is a native deciduous shrub, growing only ift.
to 2ft. high, in peaty woods, and on heaths in various
parts of the country, particularly in the North. In days
gone by the purplish berries found a ready market in our
large towns, especially London, and were highly esteemed
when cooked in tarts, eaten with cream, or made into
jelly. The flowers are small, urn-shaped, and pinkish in
colour, and the berries purplish when ripe, and about the
size of a black currant berry.

The Cowberry (Vaccinium Vitis-Idaea) is a near rela-
tive, and is a low evergreen shrubby plant bearing red
berries. It is common in peaty woods and on heaths.
Large quantities of this fruit used to be imported in water
from Sweden and sold as cranberries.

Culture. — Although a wild plant, the Bilberry may be
easily grown in a mixture of peat and leaf-mould in a
bed in a sunny position. Plant in autumn 2ft. apart each
way. They require no special attention beyond keeping
the plants free from weeds. Increased by layering the
shoots in summer.

DESSERT APPLE PEASGOOD'S NONSUCH.
Season : November to New Year.

Si

THE BLACKBERRY.

CHAPTER V.
The Blackberry.

THE COMMON BLACKBERRY or Bramble (Rubus fruticosus)
of our hedgerows is well known. Everyone knows how
fruitful these plants are in a wild state; and many, no
doubt, have observed their g-reat variation in habit and
growth. But good as they are, it is not worth while
attempting their culture in gardens when fruit can be so
plentifully obtained in a wild state.

Some years ago several kinds were introduced from
America that were reputed to be worth growing in gar-
dens, and that were far superior in every way to the wild
kinds. These, however, have signally failed to justify
such high expectations. .The only kind worth growing in
gardens is the Parsley-leaved Bramble, a seedling variety
raised from Rubus laciniatus (Cut-leaved Bramble). This
has handsome foliage and richly-coloured stems, and also
bears large berries in profusion. There is also a hybrid
between the Blackberry and the Raspberry, called the
"Mahdi." It is similar in growth to the Blackberry, and
bears nearly black raspberry-like fruits, which are of sweet
flavour. The plant is a prolific bearer, and requires simi-
lar culture to the Blackberry.

Culture. — The Parsley-leaved Bramble will thrive in any
good ordinary soil. Heavy, damp soils are not suitable.
Light or poor soils should be liberally enriched with
manure before planting. It is advisable to trench the
soil 2ft. deep at least. Blackberries prefer an open, sunny
position, sheltered from cold winds. The plants may be
grown singly over an arch, or against a fence facing east,
or in a row in the open garden, placing the plants 5 to 6ft.
apart, and training half the shoots one way and half the

50 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

other to a rough trellis work. If more than one row
be desired, then the rows should be gft. apart. Plant in
early autumn.

Pruning. — The Blackberry requires, in this respect, to
be treated like the Raspberry — i.e., when first planted, to
have its shoots cut off close to the ground. Thus no fruit
is borne the first year. The following autumn cut back
close to the ground again all weak shoots, and retain the
strongest only, which shorten to 3 or 4ft. The next sea-
son there should be plenty of vigorous growth and fruit.
About July cut away any weak new growths. Later on,
when the plants have finished fruiting, cut away those
shoots that have borne fruit, and leave those of the current
year to bear fruit the following season. Shorten these in
autumn to 5, 6, or 8ft., according to their vigour, and
train them to the trellis. Follow this rule in subsequent
years. Should any laterals form, pinch these back to the
third leaf.

Feeding. — When established and in full bearing Black-
berries will be greatly benefited by frequent supplies of
liquid manure from cesspools, house slops, or draimngs
from the stable. Heavy mulchings of manure will also be
beneficial.

Propagation. — The best way to propagate the Black-
berry is by rooting the tips of the strong shoots in the
following manner. Remove the point of a strong young
shoot when 2 to 3ft. high. In due course laterals will
form, and when these are 6in. long, bend the shoot down
to the soil and peg each lateral firmly on it. Each lateral
will then emit roots in about six to eight weeks, and it
can 'then be severed and planted elsewhere. Even strong
shoots, if their tips are bent down to the soil and secured
there, will root in a month or so, and form tiny plants.

THE BULLACE AND DAMSON. 51

CHAPTER VI.
The Bullace and Damson.

THE BULLACE AND DAMSON belong to the Plum family, but
they possess sufficient distinctive characteristics to be
treated in a separate chapter. The Common Bullace (Pru-
nus insititia) is a native tree, but is not very common
in a wild state. It forms a medium-sized tree, and
bears small roundish, yellow-green or white fruits, which
are excellent for tarts. As a rule, Bullaces are free crop-
pers, and well suited for planting in hedgerows. The
Bullace must not be confounded with the Sloe, or Black-
thorn (Prunus spinosa). This grows in bush form in
hedges, etc., and has its branches covered with spines.
The Damson derives its name from Damascus, where
the fruit was grown before the Christian era under the
name of " Damascenes." It seems to have been intro-
duced from thence into Italy about 114 B.C. When they
were introduced into this country we are unable to say.
The earliest reference to Damsons we can find is in Parkin-
son's " Paradisi in Sole, Paradisus Terrestris," published
in 1629. There he mentions two or more varieties.
The Damson was formerly cultivated very largely in cot-
tage gardens in Shropshire, Cheshire, Worcester, and
Hereford, and we have known individual trees to yield
fruit of the value of £$ in one season. High prices were
realised for the fruit forty years ago, it being in great
demand for yielding liquor for dyeing purposes. The
latter having been superseded by chemical substitutes,
there is nowadays less demand for the fruit, its chief use
being for bottling and preserving. Many people also
make an excellent wine from the ripe fruit.

Propagation.— Both the Bullace and the Damson are
propagated by seed and by suckers. The seeds, or stones,

E2

52

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

are taken from perfectly ripe fruit, and buried between
layers of sand outdoors. They are left thus till the fol-
lowing spring, then sown 3in. deep and 6in. apart in rows
2ft. asunder early in March in the open garden. In the
autumn of the second year lift and replant the seedlings
2ft. apart in rows 3ft. asunder, and let them remain for
two years, then plant out permanently. Suckers are shoots

Fig. IS. DAMSON SHOOTS.

Rig-ht-hand shoot, one year's growth and carrying- wood buds only.
Left-hand shoot, two years old and furnished with fruit buds.

that spring from the roots. These, lifted in the autumn
and planted in nursery beds, will in time make nice trees,
but the great drawback to Damsons reared thus is their
natural tendency to produce farther suckers from their
roots, and thus prove a nuisance. - The amateur, how-
ever, is strongly advised to purchase ready-trained trees
from a nursery rather than attempt to rear them at home.

THE BULLACE AND DAMSON. 53

Soil and Situation. — A somewhat moist loam or medium
clay will suit the Damson. As a rule, however, it will
succeed on most soils that are not too dry and light. The
Bullace, like the Plum, does best in a good loam which is
well drained. Calcareous or chalky soils also suit the
growth of the Bullace. Damsons are hardier than the
Bullaces, and may be grown in hedgerows or exposed
positions. The Bullace requires a more sheltered situation.

Forms of Trees. — Both may be grown as standards,
half-standards, and pyramids. The two former are suit-
able for orchard culture or large gardens, and the pyra-
mids for small gardens. The former should be planted
18 to 2oft., and the latter loft, apart.

Planting. — Do this in autumn, as soon as the leaves
fall. Keep the upper roots fairly close to the surface,
as they do not descend very deeply into the soil. After
planting mulch liberally with manure. Standard trees
should be firmly staked at planting time, as, owing to
shallow planting, they would be liable to injury by strong
winds. Pyramid trees should be lifted and replanted
every three or four years to check exuberant growth and
cause them to be fruitful.

Pruning. — Standard trees require no pruning beyond
an occasional thinning out of overcrowded branches.
Pyramids should be summer and winter pruned, in the
manner advised for Plums, which see.

Pests and Diseases. --See chapter on the " Plum."

Varieties of Bullaces.

The following are good sorts:

Black. — A late variety. Fruit small. Shape, round.
Colour, black, covered with a white bloom. Flavour,
somewhat austere. Should not be gathered till subject
to early frosts. A favourite Essex variety.

54 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Royal Bullace. — A remarkably free bearer. Fruit large.
Shape, round. Colour, yellowish-green, covered with a
greyish bloom. Flavour, brisk. Ripens in October.
Grand for pyramids or standards.

Shepherd's. — Good sort for tarts or preserving. Fruit,
large. Shape, round. Flavour, good. Colour, greenish.
Ripe in October.

Veitch's Langley Black.— A new variety, and a great
bearer. Fruit, medium-sized. Shape, round. Colour,
black. Flavour, rich. Good for pyramids. Ripe in
November.

White Bullace. — An immense bearer. Fruit, small.
Shape, round. Colour, yellowish-white. Flavour, sweet.
Ripe in October and November.

Varieties of Damsons.

Following are the best kinds of damsons :

Blue Prolific. — A free cropper. Fruit, medium-sized.
Shape, roundish-oval. Colour, purple. Flavour, juicy
and rich. Ripe early September. Good for pyramids or
half-standards.

Bradley's King.— The best of the Damsons. A profuse
bearer. Excellent for standards. Fruit, large. Shape,
oval. Colour, deep purple. Flavour, delicious and sweet.
Suitable for dessert or cooking. Ripe, end of September.

Farleigh Prolific, or Crittenden.— A most prolific crop-
per, bearing its fruit in clusters. Largely grown for
market purposes. Fruit, medium-sized. Shape, roundish-
oval. Colour, black. Flavour, juicy and rich. Ripe,
September. Suitable for standards.

THE BULLACE AND DAMSON. 55

Rivers' Early. — A very early variety, ripening in
August. Fruit, medium-sized. Shape, oval. Colour,
black. Flavour, excellent. Ripe, August. Suitable for
pyramids or standards.

Shropshire Prune. — A large-fruited Damson, much
grown in Shropshire, Cheshire, Worcester, and Hereford.
Fruit, very large. Shape, oval. Colour, black. Flavour,
juicy and rich. Suitable for standards. Ripe, October.

The Merryweather. — A very fine Damson, and a sure
and heavy bearer. Fruit, very large. Colour, black.
Flavour, delicious. Trees begin to bear when three years
old- Suitable for pyramids or standards.

66 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

CHAPTER VII.
The Cherry.

11 THIS beautiful fruit," says Phillips in his " History of
Fruits," " was procured and brought into Europe by the
overthrow of Mithridates, King of Pontus, when he was
driven from his dominions by Lucullus, the Roman
general, who found the cherry-tree growing in Cerasus,
a city of Pontus (now called Keresoun, a maritime town
belonging to the Turks in Asia), which his army destroyed,
and from whence it derived the present name of Cherry."
The date, therefore, of its introduction into Europe would
be about 67 B.C.

According to Pliny, the Roman naturalist, the Cherry
was introduced into Britain in 42 B.C. Other authorities
state that the date of its irttroducion here was in the reign
of Nero — A.D. 55. Eight varieties of Cherries were known
to Pliny early in the Christian era, so that the Romans
were evidently well acquainted with the fruit. Cherries
were hawked about the streets as early as 1415; they
were mentioned in a list of fruits in the reign of Henry VII.,
and Parkinson, a writer early in the seventeenth century,
alludes to the fact of1 thirty-six varieties being grown in
his time.

Cherry orchards existed in Kent in the sixteenth
century, since it is recorded that one orchard realised the
sum of ;£i,ooo. It is therefore evident that Cherries have
been extensively grown in England for some centuries.

Propagation. — The Cherry is usually increased by seed
in the case of rearing new varieties only; by budding in
June and July ; or by whip grafting in late March or early
April. Grafting, however, is not so generally practised
as budding, which is a much more successful and easy
method than the former in the case of all stone fruits.
See chapter on " Propagation " for details.

CULINARY CHERRY, THE MORELLO.

Season : August to October.

THE CHERRY. 57

Stocks- — The principal stock is the Wild Cherry, or
Gean (Prunus avium). As, however, some varieties do
not succeed so well on this stock as others, the Common
Cherry (Prunus Caproniana), a native of Europe ; and the
Mahaleb Cherry (Prunus Mahaleb), a dwarf South Euro-
pean species, are also used as stocks for cultivated Cher-
ries. It appears that the Heart and Bigarreau sorts do
best on the Wild Cherry ; the Duke and Kentish ones on
the Common Cherry ; while the Mahaleb, which is a more
fibrous and shallow-rooting stock than the others, answers
best for such sorts as Governor Wood, May Duke, Late
Duke, Early Rivers, Black Eagle, and Royal Duke for
culture on sandy subsoils. All have to be reared from
seed, as advised in the chapter on " Propagation " in
Part II.

Forms of Trees. — Cherry trees are grown as standards,
with sterns 6ft. high, and branches at top ; half-standards,
with stems 3ft. high ; dwarf fan-trained trees, with stems
6in. high; tall standard fan-trained trees, or riders, with
stems about 7ft. high ; pyramids, with a short main stem
from which side branches radiate in the form of a cone;
and cordons with single stems furnished with spurs and
no branches. Standards and half-standards are suitable
for orchard culture ; pyramids for garden culture ; dwarf
and tall fan-trained for lofty walls; and cordons for low
walls, fences, or trellises in the open garden.

Soil. — The Cherry requires a deep, well-drained soil.
Heavy clays and light soils overlying gravel or chalk are
quite unsuitable. A good rich loam is the ideal soil for
Cherries. In gardens, therefore, that are situated on
heavy clay, or light soils over gravel or chalk, it will be
necessary to prepare special sites for the trees, if it is
intended to grow Cherries successfully. Clay soils must
be drained, dug deeply, and have plenty of old mortar
or grit freely mixed with them to render them porous.
In the case of gravelly or chalky soils, dig out holes 4ft.

58 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

deep and 6 to 8ft., or even ioft. wide, for pyramid or
wall trees. Such holes must be filled with good turfy
loam, plentifully mixed with old mortar, or a little lime.
No manure should be added.

Aspect. — Standard and pyramid trees succeed best in
an open ' position on land sloping southwards. Fan-
trained and cordon trees may be grown on east, west, or
south walls. Of the three aspects the south is the best
for early sorts, and the east and west for the later ones.
Morellos do best on north walls. Cordons may also be
grown against low fences ; also on arches or trellises in
the open garden. Standard trees are not recommended
for garden culture, only for orchards where the soil is of a
good loamy nature.

Distances to Plant. — Cordons should be planted i85n.
to 2ft., pyramids 1 2ft., fan-trained trees 15 to 2oft. , and
standards 3oft. apart.

Planting' — The best time to plant is as soon as the
leaves have fallen — i.e., from the end of October to the
end of November. See that bruised ends of roots are cut
off, and that the roots are moist before planting. Spread
out the roots evenly and to their full length in the holes,
and cover them with fine soil. Give the tree a gentle
shake to settle the soil about the roots; then add more
soil, and tread this down firmly. Add more soil, and
again tread; and so on, until the hole is filled. The roots
should be not deeper than 6in. The best guide to depth,
however, is the soil mark, or stain on the trunk showing
the depth the trees were in the ground when growing in
the nursery. Pyramids or standards should have a stout
stake fixed to each tree at the time of planting, and the
stem firmly secured to this. In the case of heavy
soils it is well to use some lighter mould for covering the
roots, thus encouraging young roots to form more quickly.
Finish off with a mulching of rotten manure.

THE CHERRY.

59

Mode of Bearing. — The Cherry produces its fruit on
spurs on the older wood ; also on buds formed at the

base or along the greater part of the shoots of the pre-
vious year's growth. In the case of the Morello, in fact,

-

60

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

fruit buds are formed plentifully along the last year's
growth, the terminal one often being the only wood bud.
The same remarks apply to standard trees that are not
pruned. A spur is a cluster of fruit and leaf buds, and
may be readily distinguished by its whorl of leaves and
the absence of shoots.

Fig. 17. SUMMER PRUNING MORELLO CHERRIES.

(K) Shoots reserved and laid in on the upper side of the branches, (i) Shoots
laid in on the underside, the wrong- way. (j) Leading: shoots, which must not
be summer pruned. Bars indicate where to prune in winter.

Summer Pruning. — This is usually practised only in
the case of trained trees — i.e., pyramids, fan-trained, and
cordons. , It would be difficult to summer prune tall stan-
dards, at any rate, when they attain a large size. In their
younger stage a little judicious summer pruning is Bene-

THE CHERRY. 61

ficial for ensuring well-balanced growth and fruitfulness.
Summer pruning is best done in July and August. (Fig. 16.)
The young lateral shoots on fan-trained trees— i.e., those
growing at the sides of the branches, should then be
shortened to the fourth or fifth leaf, say about 3m. from
their base. The leading shoots at the ends of the branches
must not be shortened, but allowed to grow their full
length. It will probably happen that the shoots which
were shortened will produce furthei shoots, in which case
shorten them to one leaf. Shoots that grow out of the
front of branches should be rubbed or pulled off in May ;
this is termed disbudding. The Morello, as already ex-
plained, bears its fruit along the whole length of the previous
year's shoots. These, therefore, must not be summer
pruned, but nailed or otherwise secured to the wall. If
~a Morello promises to make too many young growths, it
is advisable to disbud the weakest early in May. (Fig. 17.)
Cordon tree* simply need to have all side shoots shortened
as advised, and the leader left untouched. Pyramids require
their lateral shoots to be shortened to three leaves, and
the leaders to eight or twelve leaves, according to their
vigour. Subsequent growths resulting from these, shorten
to two leaves.

Winter Pruning.— This is a simple business, and con-
sists of cutting back any leading shoots to a wood bud
where it is necessary to do so to improve the contour of
a pyramid tree; or laterals so that new shoots may be
induced to form next year. Fan-trained and cordon trees
need no winter pruning if the summer pruning has been
properly carried out. In older trees, much crowded with
old spurs, the latter may with advantage be thinned out.
The Morello, too, needs a certain amount of winter prun-
ing. For instance, those shoots that have borne fruit during
the summer should be cut right out, leaving the young
growths to take their place. This should be done in
October or November. In the case of standard trees prune
the first and second year's .shoots to i8in. from their base,

62

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

with a view to encouraging about six main branches to
develop. Any laterals which may develop shorten to about
three inches. In subsequent years the only pruning re-
quired will be the removal of branches which show a ten-

Fig. 18. A PYRAMIDAL CHERRY TREE BEFORE PRUNING.

The succeeding: Illustration (Fig. 19) shows the amount of winter pruning
required. Cherries are also grown as fan-trained, standard and cordon trees.

dency to overlap, or to crowd the centres of the trees. If
a tree is predisposed to form too many laterals during the
first few years, it is advisable to disbud the superfluous
growths in early spring. (Figs. 18 and 19.)

THE CHERRY,

63

Lifting and Root Pruning.— Pyramids and wall trees
that are inclined to make too much wood should be lifted
and root-pruned in October. 'This will check a too
luxuriant growth, and make the trees more fruitful. See
chapter on " Pruning " further on.

Fig. 19. A PYRAMIDAL CHERRY TREE AFTER PRUNING.

Showing1 how to shorten the shoots in winter so as to maintain the tree in
perfect shape.

General Details. — Trees grown against walls should,
when in blossom, be protected with fish-netting, as ad-
vised for Apricots. In dry seasons wall-grown trees
should be given copious supplies of water, with occasional

64 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

applications of liquid manure. Heavy mulchings of
manure, too, will be beneficial for keeping the soil moist
and cool. Cherries are very apt to oast their fruit if the
roots become dry.

Pests. — The chief insect pests attacking the foliage of
the Cherry are the larvae of the Winter, Lackey, and
Mottled Umber Moths; the Cherry Slugworm, Cherry
Black Aphis, and the Cherry Bug. The Cherry Fruit
Moth attacks the fruit. See chapter on " Pests " further
on.

Diseases. — These are the Cherry Leaf Scorch, Leaf
Spot, Cherry Mildew, Cherry Leaf Blight, and Gum>mosis.

Varieties.

Following is a list of the best Cherries in cultivation :

Archduke. — A fine-flavoured Cherry suitable for walls
or cordons. Size, miedfum to large. Form, heart-shaped.
Colour, dark red or black. Season, mid-July. Self-fertile.

Bedford Prolific. — A very free-growing and free-
bearing sort. Good for standards or high walls. Size,
large. Form, heart-shaped. Colour, black. Season,
early July. Flavour, good. Self-fertile.

Belle d'Orleans. — Good .grower and free bearer. Suit-
able for standards or high walls. Size, medium to large.
Form, roundish. Colour, yellowish-white. Flavour, juicy
and rich. Season, mid-June. Self-fertile.

Bigarreau. — Very hardy, strong grower, and free
bearer. Good orchard tree. Size, very large. Form,
heart-shaped. Flavour, delicious. Colour, pale yellow,
marbled red. Season, end of July. Self-sterile.

Bigarreau de Schreken. — A splendid Cherry for a south
wall. Size, large. Form, roundish. Colour, jet black.
Flavour, juicy, rich. Season, end of June. Self-sterile.

Bigarreau Napoleon.— A thoroughly hardy, free-grow-
ing, and free-bearing Cherry. Splendid for orchards or

si

THE CHERRY. 65

lofty walls. Size, very large. Form, heart-shaped.
Colour, yellow, mottled with red. Flavour, juicy and most
delicious. Season, early August. Self-sterile.

Black Eagle. — A first-rate Cherry to grow as a pyramid,
cordon, standard, or wall tree. Free bearer. Size, me-
dium to large. Form, roundish to heart-shaped. Colour,
black. Flavour, rich. Season, early July. Self-sterile.

Black Tartarian.— A good Cherry for a south wall ; does
well as a cordon. Size, very large. Form, heart-shaped.
Colour, black. Flavour, juicy and rich. Abundant
bearer. Season, early July. Self-sterile.

Early Rivers.— A lhardy, free-bearing Cherry, adapted
for walls, pyramids, cordons, or standards. Size, large.
Form, heart-shaped. Colour, black. Season,' middle of
June. Self-sterile.

Florence. — An excellent late Cherry. Good for walls,
particularly to grow as cordons. Size, very large. Form,
heart-shaped. Colour, bright red. Flavour, juicy, sweet,
rich, and delicious. Season, mid-August. Self- sterile.

Frogmore Early Bigarreau.— Good Cherry to grow as
pyramids or on walls. Size, large. ' Form, heart-shaped.
Colour, yellow, marbled with red. Flavour, juicy, sweet,
and rich. Season, early July. Self-fertile.

Governor Wood. — Splendid sort for pyramids, cordons,
or walls. Free grower and free bearer. Size, large.
Form, heart-shaped. Colour, yellow, mottled light red.
Flavour, juicy and rich. Season, early July. Self-sterile.

Kentish. — A popular culinary variety, much grown in
Kentish orchards. Good for jam-making. May be grown
as a pyramid or standard. Size, medium. Form, round.
Colour, red. Flavour, juicy and acid. Season, end of
July. May be grown on a north wall. Self-fertile.

Knight's Early Black. — Does well as a standard in
orchards or as a cordon or fan against walls. Size, large.
Form, heart-shaped. Colour, purplish-black. Flavour,
juicy and rich. Season, early June. Self-fertile.

66 FRUIT AND ITS CUTIVATION.

Late Duke. — A good Cherry to grow as a standard or
on walls. Size, large. Form, roundish. Colour, amber.
Flavour, rich, slightly acid. Season, August. Self-fertile.

May Duke. — Good Cherry to grow as a pyramid, or as
a fan or cordon against walls. Size, large. Form,
roundish. Colour, red. Flavour, juicy and rich. Season,
July. Good bearer. Self-fertile.

Morello. — The best of all Cherries for tarts or bottling.
Does well as a pyramid or standard ; also excellent for a
lofty north wall. Size, large. Form, heart-shaped. Colour,
purplish. Flavour, juicy and acid. Season, August to
October. Self-fertile.

Royal Duke. — A fine late Cherry. Free bearer. Suit-
able for pyramids, cordons, or fans. Size, large. Form,
roundish. Colour, dark red. Flavour, juicy and very
rich. Season, end of July. Self-fertile.

Heine Hortense. — A very productive Cherry, and a free
grower. Size, large. Form, roundis'h. Colour, bright
red. Flavour, juicy, sweet, and slightly acid. Season,
end of July. Self-fertile.

Selections for Special Purposes.

Cherries for Walls. — To grow as fans or cordons:
Belle d 'Orleans, Frogimore Early, Early Rivers, Governor
Wood, Black Tartarian, May Duke, Royal Duke, Bigar-
reau de Schreken, Florence, Archduke, Late Duke, and
Black Eagle.

Cherries to Grow as Pyramids. — Early Rivers, Frog-
more Early, Governor Wood, May Duke, Late Duke,
Archduke, Royal Duke, Reine Hortense, Black Eagle,
Bigarreau, Bigarreau Napoleon, and Morello.

Cherries to Grow as Standards. — Belle d 'Orleans, Black
Eagle, Bigarreau, Bigarreau Napoleon, Florence, Gover-
nor Wood, Kentish, Knight's Early Black, May Duke
Reine Hortense and MoreMo.

COBNUTS AND FILBERTS. 67

CHAPTER VIII.
Cobnuts and Filberts.

COBNUTS AND FILBERTS are varieties of the Common Hazel
Nut (Corylus Avellana) of our hedgerows and woods.
The Filbert derives its name from " full beard," in allu-
sion to the length of its husk. It appears that this nut
was introduced from Greece into Italy by the Romans,
and the nuts were known there as Avellana Nuts, from
the fact of their being largely cultivated at Avelino.
From Italy the Filbert apparently found its way into
France, and thence into England. The nuts are long
and slender, and covered entirely with a fringed husk,
which extends beyond the apex of the nut. They were
formerly known as "Full-beards."

The Cobnut is said by Phillips to have been first cul-
tivated in this country in 1665, a Mr. John Ray having
introduced them from Constantinople. The Barcelona
Nut, which is imported extensively into this country from
Spain, is almost identical with our Cobnut. The Cobnut
has a shorter and rounder nut than the Filbert, and the
husk also does not quite cover the nut. Since the first
introduction into this country, both the Filbert and the
Cobnut have been greatly improved, there now being
several varieties of each.

Mode of Bearing. — The male and female flowers are
distinct, and borne separately on the shoots. The male
blossoms are -borne in the form of catkins, or drooping
tassels, and appear early in the winter. The female
flowers are' small and somewhat inconspicuous, and do
not appear till February or later. They consist of small
plump buds, in the centre of which are borne crimson
thread-like styles — the female organs- The tiny flowers
are fertilised with the pollen of the catkins, which is con-

p2

68 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

veyed to them by the agency of wind or smafl insects.
To ensure nuts forming, therefore, it is essential not to
prune away the catkins until it is seen that the female
blooms have been fertilised. Female blooms are borne,
as a rule, on lateral shoots of the previous year's growth,
or on spurs of older growth. (See Fig. 20.)

Propagation. — Both may be reared from seed, the nuts
being gathered when quite ripe, removed from their husks,

Fig. 20. FLOWERING BRANCH OF FILBERT.

and then placed between layers of moist sand in any cool
place. The following March sow the nuts in drills 2in.
deep and ift. apart in good light soil in the open garden.
In the autumn of the following year transplant the seed
lings i ft. apart in rows 2ft. asunder. Leave them thus
for two years, then plant out permanently.

Seedlings, however, are not to be relied upon to fruit
freely. A much better plan is the Kentish one of lifting

COBNUTS AND FILBERTS. 69

strong suckers from the base of the tree in autumn, and
planting these ift. apart in rows 2ft. asunder. Each
sucker must be furnished with roots, and when planted
be shortened to about ,ift. In two years' time these
suckers may be planted out permanently.

They may also be increased by layering two-year-old
shoots in autumn, severing these from the parent the
following autumn, and planting them out as advised for
the suckers. Choice sorts may also be whip grafted on
seedling plants in March.

Soil and Situation. — Cobnuts and Filberts thrive best
on stony, brashy soil, on sloping or hilly land. On such
soils the trees make a sturdy, fruitful growth. Heavy,
damp, or very rich soils encourage a too rank growth and
a paucity of female flowers. So many people fail to
get nuts to fruit well because the soil is too rich, too
damp, or too heavy. It is useless to plant Cobnuts or
Filberts except in well-drained loamy or stony soils. The
situation, too, must be an open and sunny one, and shel-
tered from north or north-east winds.

Planting.— The best time to plant is in October, and
the bushes should be placed 10 to i2ft. apart. If the
soil be poor, mix some well-rotted manure with it to give
the roots a fair share of nourishment when they start to
grow. Mulch the surface of the soil also when the plant-
ing is finished, and see that each tree is properly staked.

Pruning and Training. — There are two ways of train-
ing nuts — one, the rough-and-ready way so often prac-
tised, namely, as a bush ; and the other, the more
profitable method, growing them cup-shaped — i.e., with
open centres, a main stem ift. high, and six branches.
Nuts are also grown as low standards, but this is a
method more ornamental than profitable.

The first method does not permit sufficient light and
air to get among the branches, consequently the crop of
nuts is usually a sparse one, and the nuts individually

70

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

are small. Still, assuming such bushes do exist in gardens,
the pruning should consist of the removal of all suckers
that grow at the base of the bush, and the thinning out
of branches that crowd the centre. Do this early in
winter.

Further pruning consists of shortening the lateral shoots
of the previous year's growth as soon as the tiny crimson

JtQWffNt GROWTH IS CffCOV RACED

Fig-. 21. GROWTH OF COBNUTS.

Showing: the kind of shoots which it is essential to obtain to ensure a
g-ood crop of nuts.

female flowers can be seen close to the latter. In some
cases a female flower will form at the apex of a short
sturdy shoot, in which event no shortening should be
done. This operation must not be done until the female
blooms are fully opened in February or March. Such
laterals as are bearing male flowers may be shortened to
the first tassel, as soon as it is well formed. Later, when
the female flowers have been fertilised, and embryo nuts

COBNUTS AND FILBERTS.

71

have begun to form, again shorten such shoots to the
first female bloom, if there should be one on the same
shoot ; or, if none, then prune the shoot to the second
bud from its base to form a spur. Readers will then find
their nut bushes will be'ar more freely. (Figs. 21 and 22.)

Trained Bushes. — The Kentish system of growing Fil-
berts and Cobnuts is to so train the tree or bush that it
has a main stem ift. high, with six main branches radiat-

Fig. 22. A TYPICAL KENTISH COBNUT BUSH.

Observe the centre of the bush is kept open, the branches spreading well outwards.

ing from its apex. Commencing with an established
sucker, all side growths are cut clean away to i8in. from
the base. Any lateral growths above this, including the
leading shoot, should be pruned back to one bud. If
there are no lateral growths, then shorten the main shoot
to i8in. The three or four buds will then in due course
produce the same number of shoots, of which the three
strongest only should be permitted to grow. Each of
the three shoots must be cut back the following winter
to the fourth bud, and the latter should be one growing

72 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

outwards, not inwards. The next season allow two
lateral shoots only to develop on each. These will there-
fore provide the necessary six main shoots required.

A stake should be placed to each shoot so as to train
it outwards and at an even distance from its neighbour.
In winter shorten these shoots according to their vigour —
the nearest, say, two-thirds, and the stronger ones one-
third. The next year allow one leader shoot to grow on
each branch, and summer prune any laterals that form to
four or five leaves. Proceed thus each year until the main
branches are 4ft. to 6ft. long, then summer prune the
leaders to four leaves. During the summer all lateral
growths should have their points snapped off at the fourth
or fifth leaf.

Winter pruning consists of shortening each leader to
a couple of buds, the laterals to the first male blossom, or,
if no male blossom, then to the first female flower. Shoots
that bear male flowers only can, after the female flowers
are fertilised, be shortened to two buds. Should young
lateral shoots form too freely, disbud the weakest in early
summer, and if any new growth should be inclined to
grow too strongly remove it entirely.

It will now be seen that the nut bush is shaped like
a cup or basin, has its centre open, and six branches
trained outwards at equal distances apart. Light, sun,
and air have easy access to all parts, and the result is a
good crop of nuts annually.

General Details. — Trees in full bearing are greatly
benefited by copious supplies of liquid manure, also heavy
mulchings of stable manure in summer. It is also advis-
able to dig in some rotten dung annually in winter. When
the female flowers are in full blossom, give the trees an
occasional shake to distribute the pollen ; and, should
there be a shortage of male catkins, cut some hazel
branches laden with catkins and place these among the
trees early in March.

CRAB APPLE, JOHN DOWNIE

COBNUTS AND FILBERTS. 73

Gathering and Storing the Crop. — Gather the nuts only
when the husks are quite brown, and spread them out in
some dry, airy space till they have lost their moisture. It
is most important to have the husks thoroughly dry before
they are stored away. The nuts may be stored in jars
or casks, sprinkling a little salt over each layer, and then
storing in a cool cellar, etc., till required for use. Others
store them in hermetically-sealed tins. Should the husks
become discoloured, place the nuts in a sieve over a char-
coal fire on which sulphur has been placed. This will
restore the husks to their natural brown colour.

Pests. — The foliage is liable to injury by the larvae of
the Winter, Mottled Umber, Buff-tip, and Nut-leaf Blister
Moths, Leaf Weevils, Nut Aphis, Nut Sawfly, and Leaf
Hopper Fly; the buds by the Nut Bud Mite; and the
fruit by the Nut WTeevil. See chapter on " Pests."

Varieties of the Cobnut.

There are many varieties, but the following are the most
prolific and best flavoured ones :

Cosford. — An abundant bearer. Shell very thin, with
a husk nearly the length of the nut. Nuts roundish, and
borne in clusters of six. Flavour, sweet and good.

Kentish Cob. — The best sort to grow on a large scale.
Nuts, very large ; husk flattish. Flavour, excellent. Very
productive. A good grower; does well on stony land.
Nuts keep well. Known also as Lambert's Filbert.

Pearson's Prolific.— A hardy, compact grower. Abun-
dant cropper. Nuts, of medium size, with short husk and
sweet kernels. Shell somewhat thick. Begins to bear
early.

74 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Varieties of the Filbert.

Following are the best varieties:

Frizzled, or Prolific. — A variety with hairy husks double
the length of the nut, and with crimped or frizzled mar'
gins. Very quaint nuts, small, oblong, thin, and slightly
flattened ; borne six to twelve in a bunch. Flavour, sweet
and rich. A free bearer.

Red Filbert. — A moderate grower and medium bearer.
Nut, medium-sized, ovate, with a thick shell. Kernel
covered with a crimson skin. Flavour, good.

Webb's Prize. — A vigorous grower and a free bearer.
Nuts, large; husks smooth and longer than the nut; shell,
thick; kernel covered with a red skin. Flavour, very
rich. A good keeper.

THE CRAB. 75

CHAPTER IX.

The Crab.

REFERENCE has been made in the chapter devoted to the
Apple to the use of the Crab Apple as a stock for the
cultivated varieties of apples. Our purpose here, how-
ever, is to deal with the cultivated forms of the varieties
of Crab Apples, the fruit of which is so highly esteemed
for making jellies, etc. These forms of the Crab are not
only valuable for their fruit, but also for their ornamental
effect in the garden. Their blossoms are pretty in late
spring, and their gaily-coloured fruits are decidedly effec-
tive in the early autumn. They are, moreover, of easy
cultivation, and may be grown in the shrubbery, on the
lawn, or in a special plot by themselves.

Soil. — They will succeed in any soil that will suit the
requirements of the Apple ; so that everyone who has room
for a tree or two in the garden, shrubbery, or orchard
may grow them.

Form of Trees- — For the shrubbery, lawn, or the
orchard, standards are the most suitable form of tree.
For garden culture, pyramids grafted on the Paradise are
best. In the latter case, summer and winter prune as
advised for the Apple.

Culture. — Plant in November or not later than Feb-
ruary, precisely as you would an apple tree. Standards
will then require no further attention beyond keeping the
centres of the trees open, and thinning out overcrowded
growth. Pyramids should be planted I2ft., and standards
about 1 8ft. apart.

76 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Varieties.

There are a number of pretty kinds in cultivation,
among which we strongly recommend the following as
very good:

Dartmouth. — A fine fruiting variety, bearing large, deep
crimson-coloured, plum-like fruits, which, when ripe in
autumn, make a delicious preserve.

John Downie. — A handsome Crab bearing oval-shaped
fruits in clusters ; colour, scarlet and yellow. A free
bearer and a neat grower.

Scarlet Siberian. — This is commonly called the Cherry
Apple, its small, globular, highly-coloured fruits being
cherry-like in shape and size, and borne on long stalks.

A very beautiful variety.

i

The Orange.— A rather quaint-fruiting Crab. The fruit
is small, roundish in shape, and of a yellow colour, marked
with black dots.

The Transparent— A variety which bears large, rich
yellow fruits, flushed with red, on long stalks. May
be eaten raw for dessert. A decidedly ornamental kind
to grow as a standard. When ripe the flesh is more or
less transparent.

Propagation. — Same as advised for the Apple, which see.

THE CRANBERRY. 77

CHAPTER X.
The Cranberry.

THE CRANBERRY (Oxycoccus palustris) grows wild on
boggy heaths and marshes in the northern parts of this
island. It has creeping, slender stems and white
flowers, succeeded by small, globular, red berries, which
ripen in autumn. The latter have an acid flavour, but
they make very palatable tarts and jellies.

Another species, the American Cranberry (Oxycoccus
macrocarpus) bears oval berries, double the size of cur-
rants, which are ripe in September. This species is a
native of North America. Being better flavoured, the
latter is cultivated in preference to the former.

Culture. — Cranberries require a moist situation and a
peaty soil to cultivate them successfully. Choose a site
for the bed close to a stream or a pond, dig out the soil
about 2ft. below the surface of the water, put in a layer
of stones ift. deep, and on this place ift. of peaty soil.
Plant in early autumn, placing the plants about 2ft. apart
each way, and cover the bed, if possible, with a thin layer
of sand. Let the water in to moisten the soil, then pre-
vent more coming in till the following summer, when
again flood the beds occasionally.

Propagation. — This is effected by division of the plant
in early autumn.

78 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

CHAPTER XI.
The Currant.

THE CURRANT is a typically British fruit. We have not,
any way, to record our indebtedness to the Greeks or the
Romans for its appearance in our gardens. The fact of
its being indigenous to Britain, Northern and Central
Europe, and Canada, would naturally preclude its being
grown in such warm countries as Greece or Italy.

When it was first cultivated we have no exact data.
Gerarde is the first to refer to the Currant, and that in
an indirect way. He says, in his account of the Goose-
berry: "We have in our London gardens another sort,
altogether without prickles, whose fruit is verie small,
lesser by much than the common kinde, but of a perfect
red colour, wherein it differeth from the rest of its kinde."
Lord Bacon alkides to them later on as " Corrans." There
is no doubt the Dutch grew both the white and the red
Currants extensively, probably before we did; but, any-
way, both have been popular fruits in large and cottage
gardens for a very long time.

The White Currant is simply a variety of the Red Cur-
rant (Ribes rubrum). The Black Currant (Ribes nigruim)
is a distinct species, and was formerly known as the
Quinsy Berry, because a decoction of its fruits was —
and, in fact, is still — used as a remedy for colds and
affections of the throat.

' The modern word " Currant " is a corruption of
" Corinth," the Grecian province from whence our dried
currants of conwiierce are obtained. These, however, are
the dried fruits of a small variety of grape. In this coun^
try good housewives make a very excellent wine from the
berries of the Red and the Black Currant. White Cur-
rants are used mainly for dessert, and the red ones also
for dessert, cooking, and preserving. The leaves of the

THE CURRANT.

79

Black Currant were formerly used in a dry state for
adulterating tea.

Propagation. — Currants are readily propagated by seed,
but this method is not to be commended, as seedlings vary
considerably in their bearing capabilities. The best of

Fig. 23.

CUTTING OF

RED CURRANT.

All the growth buds

except the upper
three are removed.

Fig. 24.

A " MAIDEN"

RED CURRANT TREE.

Three shoots are produced
the first year, and these re-
quire to be pruned as shown
by short lines.

Fig. 25.

A TWO-YEAR-OLD
RED CURRANT TREE.

Short lines indicate where to prune
the shoots.

all methods is by cuttings. In October or November
select strong young shoots of the current year's growth
about a foot long. Cut the base off close to a joint, and
remove all growth buds except the upper three. Insert
the cuttings 6in. deep in the soil, and 6in. apart in rows
i ft. asunder. Tread the soil quite firm. Any ordinary

80

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

soil will suffice. Allow the cuttings to remain until the
following autumn, then lift and replant them where
required to grow permanently. In the case of Black Cur-
rants there is no necessity to remove the lower buds, as
the more shoots there are growing from the base the more
fruitful will the trees be. (See Fig. 23.)

Soil and Situation.— Black Currants require a moist

Fig. 26. A THREE-YEAR-OLD RED CURRANT TREE.

Short lines show amount of pruning required.

loamy soil to do well. Dry, sandy, or very light soils are
unsuitable. Red and White Currants, on the other hand,
will not thrive on damp or very heavy soils ; a moderately
light one, well enriched with manure, will suit their re-
quirements best. In all cases an open, sunny position
is essential for their successful growth.

Forms of Trees. — Black Currants are grown as bushes,
planted 6ft. apart each way. Red and White Currants

CURRANT, THE WHITE DUTCH.

_!
W

* .

5/3 rs

w ^

H c

THE CURRANT. 81

may be grown as bushes (Fig. 26) for ordinary cultivation,
or as single, double, and triple cordons (Fig. 9), and stan-
dards (Figs. 32 and 33). Cordons are suitable for
growing against low walls or fences, and standards on
borders by the side of paths. Very fine fruit may be ob-
tained from cordons, and, when trained to a wall or fence,
it is possible to preserve the fruit for a long time from
birds by fixing fish-netting over the trees. Cordons should
be planted i2in. apart.

Standards are reared from cuttings in autumn. In
spring, when new growth begins, allow the topmost young
shoot to grow, training it up a stake, and shorten any
side shoots that form to two leaves. When the leader
has attained a height of about 4ft., cut off its point in
autumn. In the following season three or more side
shoots will form. Let these grow till the following winter,
then prune them to about 8 or 9in., when the foundation
for the head will be assured. At the same time cut clean
away any spurs that may have formed on the main stem,
so as to leave the latter perfectly clear. Standards may
be planted 6ft. apart by the side of paths.

Garden Culture. — As already explained, Currants may
be grown in plots by themselves or between pyramid or
bush-trained fruit trees in mixed plantations, or by the
side of garden paths. In the latter case, they should be
planted at least 4ft. from the paths. The best time to
plant is in November, but it may be done as late as Feb-
ruary. Dig out holes 2ft. wide and one spit deep* Fork
up the subsoil, and, if poor, mix some well-rotted manure
with it. Place the bush in the centre, and cover the roots
with about 6in. of soil, and tread it down firmly, after-
wards mulching the surface with manure. When the
trees have been planted a year they should be given
annual mulchings of rotten manure in winter. The best
way to do this is to remove the soil to a depth of 4in.
and a diameter of 3ft. or so around each bush, add 3in.
of manure, and cover this with soil. In summer frequent

G

82

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

applications of liquid manure will be beneficial, increas-
ing the size of the berries. To protect the fruit from
birds, enclose each tree in a piece of fish-netting.

Culture on Walls and Fences- — The Black Currant may
be grown as a fan-trained tree against east or north walls
or fences. Red and White Currants may also be grown
in a similar fashion, or as cordons. The former should
be planted 6ft., and the cordons about ift. apart. Those
grown on a north aspect will ripen their fruit a month
later than those grown in the open garden. A good way

Fig. 27. A FOUR-YEAR-OLD
RED CURRANT TREE.

Short lines indicate where to prune
in winter.

Fig-. 28. AN ESTABLISHED
RED CURRANT TREE.

Main branches furnished with fruit
spurs the result of careful summer
pruning.

of utilising vacant space between wall-trained pears, etc.,
is to plant it with cordon Red and White Currants. The
trees should be trained in a vertical position.

Mode of Bearing.— The Black Currant bears its fruit
on the shoots of the preceding year's growth; also on
spurs on the older wood. Red and White Currants bear
their fruit on spurs of the old wood, and at the base of
the previous year's growth.

Summer Pruning. —This is only practised in the case
of Red and White Currants. It consists of pinching off

THE CURRANT.

83

the points of lateral shoots to the fifth leaf » from their
base, and shortening the leading shoot at the extremity
of each branch to about one foot whilst the bushes are
young; but when fully grown, shorten them to five
leaves, the same as the laterals. Do this in June. In

V\g. 29.

MODE OF TRAINING
RED CURRANTS
AS STANDARDS.

First year's growth
with two basal shoots,
summer pruned, to form
ruitingr spurs.

Fig. 30.

MODE OF TRAINING

RED CURRANTS

AS STANDARDS.

Second year's growth
with summer - pruned
laterals on main stem.

Fig. 31.

MODE OF TRAINING RED
CURRANTS AS STANDARDS.

Third year's growth with fruiting
spurs up main stem and branches
at apex to form future head of tree.

the case of cordons, shorten the laterals to five leaves, but
leave the leader untouched unless the tree has reached
its allotted height.

Winter Pruning — Red and White Currants should have
all lateral shoots shortened to half an inch from their

o2

84 . FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

base, and the leading ones to 6 or 8in., according to their
vigour. Old and weak growths should also be cut out,
and the centre of the bush kept as open as possible.
Cordons should be treated similarly as regards their
laterals ; the leader, however, must be shortened to ift.

Black Currants merely require to have old and ex-
hausted wood freely cut away, also the two-year-old shoots
thinned out, preserving the previous year's shoots to yield
fruit. See that the centre of the trees is kept open.
Those grown against walls or fences should also have the
two-year-old growths cut out, nailing all the new wood
in to the wall or fence. The aim should be to have a
Black Currant bush bristling with new wood. The latter
must not be shortened, but left its full length. Prune as
soon as the leaves fall.

Pests. — The chief kinds are the Currant Aphides, which
infest the points of the shoots; the larvae of the Currant
Clearwing Moth and the Currant Shoot Moth, that bores
into the pith of the shoots ; the larvae of the Currant Saw-
fly and the Gooseberry Moth, which feed on the foliage ;
and the Woolly Currant Scale that infests the branches.
There is also the Black Currant Bud Mite, which causes
the buds to become swollen and deformed. See chapter
on "Pests."

Diseases. — The Currant Anthracnose ; the Currant Coral
Spot; and the Currant Leaf Spot are the chief diseases
that attack Currants. See chapter on " Diseases " further
on.

Varieties of Black Currants.

Following are the best sorts of Black Currants :

Baldwin's Black. — A robust-growing and free-cropping
variety. Berries, large. Bunches, medium-sized. Fla-
vour, sweet. Suitable for garden culture.

THE CURRANT. 85

Black Naples. — A good variety for garden or wall cul-
ture. Berries, very large. Bunches, medium-sized.
Flavour, juicy, sweet, and rich. Heavy cropper.

Boskoop Giant. — A variety of Dutch origin bearing

Fig. 32. MODE OF TRAINING RED
CURRANTS AS STANDARDS.

Fourth year's growth with ample main
branches to form the head.

Fig. 33. A STANDARD TRAINED
RED CURRANT TREE.

Result of training- as illustrated in

Figs. 29 to 32.

The spurs are now cut away, leav-
ing a clear main stem.

monster bunches of large berries. The finest of all the
Black Currants. Berries, very large. Bunches, long and
very large. Flavour, delicious. Suitable for bushes or
walls.

Coronation.— A new variety of great promise. Berries,

86 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

large Bunches, long. Flavour, very sweet. Suitable
for bushes or walls.

Laxton's Blacksmith. — A new and vigorous variety
which resists " Big Bud Mite " attack. Berries, excep-
tionally large. Bunches, long and of great size. Flavour,
excellent. The largest Black Currant in cultivation.

Lee's Prolific. — An old and productive variety suitable
for wall or fence culture. Berries, large. Bunches,
long. Flavour, sweet and rich. Berries hang later on
the trees than those of other sorts.

Ogden's Black. — A very hardy sort. Berries, large.
Bunches, short. Flavour, very good. Free bearer.
Good for bush culture.

Varieties of Red Currants.

The following is a good selection :

Cherry. — A dwarf, compact grower and free cropper.
Berries, very large. Bunches, medium. Flavour, excel-
lent.

Comet. — One of the largest varieties in cultivation.
Berries, very large. Bunches, long. Flavour, very good.
Excellent for cordons, walls, and fences. If netted the
fruit will hang on the trees till September.

Fay's Prolific. — A comparatively new variety. Comes
early into bearing. Berries, very large. Bunches, long
and large. Flavour, good.

Houghton Castle. — A sturdy grower and prolific bearer.
Good for bush culture. Berries, medium. Bunches, short.
Flavour, briskly acid.

Laxton's Perfection.— The largest Red Currant in culti-
vation. Berries, very large, 17 to 20 on a bunch. Colour,
dark crimson. Flavour, very sweet and juicy. Heavy
cropper.

THE CURRANT, 87

Raby Castle. — A good variety for cordons, walls, fences,
or to grow as a bush. Berries, large. Bunches, long.
Flavour, slightly acid. Keeps well, if protected, on walls.

Red Dutch. — A good old sort. An abundant cropper.
Berries, large. Bunches, long. Flavour, briskly acid.
Suitable for bush culture.

Varieties of White Currants.

Common White- — A good bearer. Berries, medium.
Bunches, short. Flavour, very sweet.

White Dutch. — A good variety for walls, fences, or
bushes. Berries, large. Bunches, medium. Flavour,
sweet.

White Versaillaise. — A fine variety. Berries, trans-
parent. Flavour, very rich. Bears freely.

88 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

CHAPTER XII.

The Fig.

THB FIG (picus Carica) is a native of Western Asia,
Northern Africa, and Southern Europe. It is a deciduous
tree growing some 15 to 3oft. high in warm climates.
The fruit has been used as an article of food from the
earliest period of human history. It is mentioned many
times in Holy writ, and was extensively grown and eaten
by the ancient Greeks and Romans.

It is considered probable that the Fig was introduced
with the Vine into this country by the Romans, but there
are no reliable data on that point. There is evidence, how-
ever, that Cardinal Pole introduced trees from Italy early
in the sixteenth century, and caused them to be planted
in the archiepiscopal garden at Lambeth Palace. Arch-
bishop Crammer is also reputed to have brought trees
from Italy and planted them in the Manor House Gardens
at Mitcham, in Surrey. Thomas a'Beckett is also said
to have planted Figs in the Manor Gardens at Tarring,
Sussex, in the twelfth century. The remains of a fig
garden exist there at the present day. The variety grown
is the Brown Turkey, and the trees annually bear good
crops of fruit.

Gerarde, in the sixteenth century, refers to the Fig in
his " Herbal," and recommends the trees to be grown on
a hot wall. Parkinson, early in the seventeenth century,
advises them to be grown in tubs in the Orangery. Philip
Miller, early in the eighteenth century, seems to be the
first gardener to have taken up the culture of the Fig in
real earnest. He introduced many new varieties from
Italy, and grew them with great success on walls. From
that time the Fig was largely planted in gardens, and
even on cottage walls.

THE FIG. 89

In the South of England, including the Isle of Wight,
the Fig is grown as a standard in the open air, but in
other parts on walls, also in pots or planted out under
glass.

Mode of Bearing. — The Fig is somewhat distinct in its
fructification. It has no visible flowers, and, many per-
sons have consequently imagined that none were borne
by the Fig. As a matter of fact, it does bear flowers,
but they are not externally visible on the branches. They
are really concealed within the fleshy bodies which we
call the fruit.

Says the " Treasury of Botany ": " The fruit is gene-
rally shortly turbinate, but some varieties are of an
elongated pyriform shape; the skin soft, with shallow
longitudinal furrows ; the colour yellowish-white, greenish-
brown, purplish-brown, violet, or dark purple. It consists
of a hollow fleshy receptacle, with an orifice in the top,
which is surrounded and nearly closed by a number of
imbricated scales, as many as 200, according to Duhamel.
The flowers, unlike those of most fruit trees, make no
outwaid appearance, but are concealed within the fig
on its internal surface; they are male and female, the
former situated near the orifice, the latter in that part
of the concavity next the stalk. On cutting open a
Fig, when it has attained little more than one-third its
size, the flowers will be seen in full development, and.,
provided the stamens are perfect, fertilisation takes place
at that stage of growth. But it often happens that the
stamens are imperfect, and no seeds are formed; never-
theless the fruit swells and ripens."

The Fig forms three distinct crops of fruit annually.
The first one appears on the previous year's growth;
the second and third ones in the axils of the leaves of
the current year's growth. It is only tlTe first crop that
attains maturity in the open air in this country ; the others,
although they may look promising, never ripen, but even-
tually fall off. The gardener, therefore, need not bother

90 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

about the fruit on the young shoots; it is to that on the
previous year's wood that he must look forward to ripen
about August or September.

Propagation. — The Fig may be reared from seed, but
seedlings do not come true to type. The best method of
increasing the Fig is by means of cuttings of short-
jointed shoots of the previous year's growth about 8 to
i2in. long, each having an inch of older wood attached to
its base. Insert the cuttings 6in. deep ID a warm, shel-
tered border in October or November, and when frost
sets in cover the exposed parts with litter. Leave, the
cuttings alone until the following autumn, then lift and
replant where required to grow. Figs may also be in
creased by bending a branch down to the soil in summer,
securing it firmly with a peg, and covering the pegged
portion with a few inches of soil. Sever the layer in
autumn, and plant in its permanent quarters. Rooted
suckers at the base of trees may be dug up in autumn
and replanted where required to grow,

Soil. — The Fig is somewhat particular in regard to
soil. It will not fruit freely in heavy or rich soils, the
resultant growth being too gross to ripen properly, and
without well-ripened wood fruit is out of the question.
The Fig succeeds best on a chalky or calcareous soil.
Moreover, it must have its root area restricted. Where
there is about i8in. of loam overlying chalk Figs will
do well. In other soils a special bed should be made for
each tree by digging out the soil 2ft. deep and 6ft. wide.
If the subsoil is clayey put in 6in. of brickbats or stones,
and cover these with lime concrete. If loamy, simply
add 6in. of old brick and mortar rubbish, rammed
down hard. Fill up the space with two parts of loam
and one of old mortar rubbish, or chalk nodules, then
the Fig may be expected to made a sturdy and fruitful
growth.

Aspect. — Standards will only succeed in southern or
sheltered districts. Trained trees do best on south walls,

THE FIG, 91

but they are occasionally grown on east and west aspects,
though not so successfully. In may be taken as a
golden rule that a south aspect is best for the Fig, and
the wall should be not less than loft. high. Figs will
not fruit freely on fences.

Distances for Planting* — For trees grown against walls
12 to 1 5ft. apart is a suitable distance to plant. Standards
should be isft. apart each way. Wall trees are grown
on the fan-trained system.

Planting.— The best time to plant young trees grown
in the open is as soon as the leaves fall in autumn. Those
procured in pots should, however, not be planted before
April. Spread the roots out to their full length, and
plant them sufficiently deep for them to be covered with
about 3in. of soil. Firm planting is essential. The
branches should only be loosely secured to the wall the
first season. After planting mulch the surface of the
soil with manure, and if the weather should be dry, give
a good watering occasionally.

Summer Pruning. — The great point to study in the suc-
cessful cultivation of the Fig is to avoid overcrowding
of the shoots. Therefore, care should be taken to train
the growths far enough apart so that the sun can have
full access to each one. Summer pruning should take
the form of disbudding or rubbing off superfluous young
shoots likely to overcrowd the tree later on. Do this
early. Then in the case of other lateral shoots that are
likely to grow too long for the space, pinch off their
points at the sixth leaf, but on no account interfere
with other shoots. Keep all suckers removed.

Winter Pruning.— As a rule, very little winter pruning
is required ; in fact, the less a Fig is pruned the better,
as pruning encourages rank growth and little fruit. As
soon as the fruit is gathered go over the tree and cut
away any weak growths, leaving the best-placed and
stronger ones untouched. There must be no shortening

92 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

of the shoots, only thinning out. Here and there it may
be necessary to cut a branch back to a well-placed young
growth in order to keep the lower part of the tree well
furnished with bearing wood. Prune as soon as the
leaves fall, then the wounds will heal quickly.

Root Pruning. — To ensure fruitfulness in young trees
the latter should be lifted, judiciously root pruned, and
replanted every two or three years as soon as the leaves
fall. Even older trees are benefited by an occasional lift-
ing and root pruning. It encourages sturdy growth and
promotes fruitfulness, and answers better than pruning
the branches.

General Details. — In dry seasons and on shallow soils
Figs will require copious and frequent waterings. Heavy
mulchings of manure are also beneficial in summer for
keeping the surface cool and preventing loss of moisture.
In cold districts the trees should be protected in frosty
weather by covering with thick garden or straw mats.
Another good plan is to unfasten the branches from the
wall, tie them in bundles, and encase them in strawy
litter and mats. These coverings should be gradually
removed in early spring, after the frost has disappeared.
The necessary training of the branches to the wall by
means of nails and shreds should be done before new
growth begins.

Pests. — The chief pests infesting the Fig outdoors are
various Scale insects and Red Spider, the former attacking
the shoots and foliage, and the latter the foliage.

Diseases.— The Fig Mould attacks the fruit and causes
it to rot, otherwise there are no diseases of any import-
ance. See chapter on " Pests."

Varieties.

Of the Fig there are many varieties, but the
following selection represents those best suited for outdoor
culture :

THE FIG, 93

Black Ischia. — A good hardy and free-bearing variety,
fruit, medium-sized. Shape, turbinate. Colour, deep
purple. Flavour, luscious and sweet; one of the best.
Season, early August.

Brown Turkey. — A most abundant cropper, and the
hardiest kind for outdoor culture. Fruit, large. Shape,
pyriform. Colour, brownish-red, covered with blue
bloom. Flavour, rich and sugary. Season, August.

White Marseilles. — Another hardy and free-bearing
variety. Fruit, medium-sized. Shape, roundish pyri-
form. Colour, pale green. Flavour, succulent, sweet,
and very rich. Season, August to September.

94 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

CHAPTER XIII.
The Gooseberry.

THE GOOSEBERRY of gardens is a cultivated variety of the
Wild Gooseberry (Ribes Uva-crispa), a European species.
The wild form is occasionally met with in the Eastern
and Northern Counties. It does not appear to have been
known to the Greeks and the Romans, as they do not
allude to it in their writings.

The earliest mention of the fruit occurs in the reign
of Edward I., 1276, plants of it being purchased
and planted in the King's garden at Westminster.
Tusser, in his work on " Husbandry," published in King
Henry VIII. 's time, refers to it in the following quaint
lines:

" The barberry, respis, and gooseberry, too,
Look now to be planted, as other things doe."

Lord Bacon also mentions the Gooseberry as one of
the earliest fruits. In Gerarde's time (sixteenth cen-
tury) Gooseberries were extensively grown in gardens.
Hence the fruit being so well known, and so universally
grown, it has found favour with rich and poor alike.

In Lancashire, more especially, Gooseberries were
grown during the early part of last century with great
success by the weavers and colliers. . Gooseberry shows
were popular features, and growers vied with each other
in endeavouring to produce the biggest berries, for the
chief point of excellence at these shows was the largest
and heaviest berries. The workers used to spend hours
in their gardens in training their trees, and in feeding
them so as to secure the heaviest berry, and win the
coveted prize. As showing the immense size of some
of these fruits obtained by Lancashire growers? we may
mention a variety named London, one berry of which

THE GOOSEBERRY.

95

weighed, in 1852, 3;dwt. 7gr. ; in 1864, 36dwt. 4gr. ;
and in 1865, 33d wt. i2gr. Many of the Lancashire sorts
at the present day yield berries ranging from 27 to
3idwts.

Apart from these monster berries, the ordinary kinds
grown to-day yield delicious fruits for use in a green
state for tarts, and in a ripe condition for jams, dessert,
etc. The Gooseberry, indeed, is a most refreshing and
useful fruit, and deserves a place in every garden.

Propagation- — The Gooseberry may be increased by
seeds, cuttings, layers, suckers, and division, but the
only method that possesses any real practical value is by
means of cuttings. Seedlings do not come true to type,

I

F\g. 34. GOOSEBERRY CUTTINGS.

All growth buds except the upper three removed.

and it often happens that after cultivating the seedlings
for some years till they reach the fruiting stage, all of
them prove worthless. Layering is a slow process;
suckers rarely make good fruitful bushes; and division
of old plants is unsatisfactory.

The only satisfactory way, as already mentioned, is by
cuttings. These are formed from shoots of the current
year's growth in October. Select shoots about a foot
long, cut the base off straight across close to a joint, and
remove all buds from the lower half, leaving three or
more at the apex. Open shallow trenches 4in. deep,
place the cuttings 6in. apart against one side, fill in the
soil, and tread this down firmly. The rows should be
a foot apart. By the following autumn the cuttings will

96

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

have rooted and formed two or three shoots each. They
can then be lifted and planted where required to grow.
The object of removing the lower buds from the cutting
is to prevent suckers springing up. When only the
upper buds are left the bush has a good clean stem, with
branches only at its apex. (See Fig. 34.)

Soil and Situation.— The Gooseberry loves a moist
loamy and rich garden soil. It will not thrive in light, dry

Fig-. 35. AN ILL-GROWN
GOOSEBERRY TREE.

A sucker has formed at the base
as the result of not having1 removed
the lower buds from the cutting.

Fig. 36. A "MAIDEN"
GOOSEBERRY TREE.

First year's growth. Lines show
where to prune. A variety of erect
habit.

soils or very hot positions. The reason why the Lanca-
shire Gooseberries have always been so famous is on
account of the moist climate, and for the same reason
they do not succeed so well in the South as in the North
and Midlands.' Soils that are heavy should be deeply
trenched, and have plenty of rotten manure and vegetable
refuse mixed with them- Those inclined to be light should
be liberally enriched with cow manure.

THE GOOSEBERRY.

97

Forms of Trees. — The Gooseberry can be grown as a
bush, a fan, cordon (Figs. 41 and 42), or stan-
dard (Fig. 33). Bushes are the usual dwarf trees,
and require to be planted 6ft. apart . each way. Fan-
trained trees, to be planted 5ft. apart, are suitable for
low walls or fences facing north or west ; cordons,
to be grown ift. apart, with one main stem fur-
nished with spurs, also for low walls or fences facing

Fig. 37. A "MAIDEN"
GOOSEBERRY TREE.

A variety of pendulous haHt.
I>ines show where to prur.e.
Shoot must be pruned to a bud
pointing- upwards.

Fig. 38. A TWO-YEAR-OLD GOOSE-
BERRY TREE.

Lines show where to prune,
habit.

Variety of erect

north or west, and for trellises in the open garden. Stan-
dards form a pretty kind of tree for growing by the side
of garden paths. They are obtained by grafting any of
the drooping varieties on stems 2ft. high of the strong
upright-growing sorts. Such trees can be obtained of
most nurserymen. Standards grafted on Ribes aureum,
with stems 3ft. to 4ft. high, are also available- These
have neat, compact heads. Plant them 5ft. apart.

98 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Planting. — The trees can be procured from the nursery
as maidens — one year old — or as fruiting specimens, two
to three years old. The best time to plant is in October
or November; but, weather permitting, it may be done
up to March. See that the roots are moist, and all
bruised portions cut off before planting. Plant the roots
about 4-in. deep, and tread the soil firmly. After planting
mulch with decayed manure.

Mode of Bearing.— Gooseberries, like Red Currants,
bear their fruit on shoots and spurs of the previous year's
growth, also on older spurs on the main shoots. The
finest fruits are always borne on the young or previous
year's wood.

Summer Pruning. — This consists of shortening all young
lateral or side growths to about five leaves from their
base in the middle of June. In the case of young trees,
the leading shoots — i.e., those growing at the ends of
the branches — should be permitted to grow their full
length. In the matter of older or fully-grown trees,
shorten the leaders to six leaves. These remarks apply
to bush and standard trees. Cordons require all young
side shoots to be shortened to four leaves, and the leading
shoot allowed to grow its full length. Fan-trained trees
need to be pruned in the same way, each branch being
treated like a cordon. The object of summer pruning
is the removal of superfluous growth, and the concen-
tration of the energies of the tree upon the production
of fruit buds. The removal, therefore, of a portion of
the foliage permits sun and air to have access to the inner
part of the tree, and consequently facilitates the ripening
of both wood and fruit.

Winter Pruning. — Trees that have been properly sum-
mer pruned will not require any excessive amount of
winter pruning. The best time to prune is in November
or December, but in districts thickly infested with bull-
finches and other birds it is wise to defer the operation

THE GOOSEBERRY.

99

till spring. Still, if due care be taken to protect the trees,
as advised further on, there is no reason why they should
not be pruned at the proper season.

The first step in winter pruning is to shorten all the
laterals to within an inch of their base to form spurs.
This applies to all forms of trees. The second thing to
do is to cut out all sickly or exhausted wood, and to thin
out the main branches, so that there is ample room for
future new growth to develop without overcrowding the
tree. The third operation consists in just cutting off

Fig. 39. A THREE-YEAR-OLD GOOSEBERRY TREE.

Lines indicate where to prune. Variety of pendulous habit.

the soft tips of the leading shoots. Do not shorten these
unduly, because it is on these that the finest berries are
usually borne. Varieties of a drooping habit should have
all lower branches cut away that have a tendency to fall
too close to the soil, otherwise the fruit will get splashed
with dirt in rainy weather, and be spoiled. At the same
time, in pruning, always cut back to a bud pointing up-
wards, not downwards. (See Figs. 35 to 40.)

General Details- — In winter some protection of the fruit
buds from the attack of birds should be afforded. A

H 2

100 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

simple and effective method, where there are only a few
trees to deal with, is winding black cotton freely over
the bushes. The birds cannot see this until they come
into actual contact with it, then they become startled
and fly off. The next best plan, where a number of trees
are grown, is to spray them with a mixture of quicklime,
sulphur, soft soap, and water. This will adhere to the
bushes, and prevent the birds touching the buds. See
chapter on " Pests," further on.

When the fruit has attained a fair size, it is advisable
to thin out the berries, so as to relieve the strain on the
tree, and also assist in the development of larger fruits.
This is especially necessary in the case of cordons, stan-
dards, and fan-trained trees. The Lancashire growers
thin their berries out severely, and place saucers of water
under each berry, the water nearly touching the latter, so
as to encourage the fruit to swell.

See also to manuring and watering the trees, as advised
for Currants. The ripe fruit may be protected by enclos-
ing the bushes in fish-netting.

Pests. — The leaves are subject to the attack of the
larvae of the Magpie, Dot, and Winter Moths, the Red-
legged Weevil, Gooseberry Sawfly, the Gooseberry Aphis,
and Red Spider; and the fruit to the larvae of the Allied
Sawfly.

Diseases. — The most serious of the diseases is the
American Gooseberry Mildew ; and others are the Goose-
berry Die-Back, Black Rust, Leaf-cluster Cup, and Leaf
Mildew. See chapter on "Diseases."

Varieties for Dessert.

We propose to confine our selection to eighteen varie-
ties, believing that these will afford an ample number
for the average grower to cultivate:

Broom Girl. — Fruit, very large and hairy. Shape,
roundish. Colour, yellowish. Flavour, excellent. Sea-
son, early. Free bearer.

THE GOOSEBERRY.

101

Champagne. — There are three varieties of this Goose-
berry, and all are first-rate sorts. They are known re-
spectively as the Red, White, and Yellow Champagne.
Fruit, small and hairy. Shape, roundish-oblong. Colour,

¥\g. 40. AN ESTABLISHED GOOSEBERRY TREE.

Tree has its branches well thinned out and just th« soft tips only of its
shoots removed.

red (Red Champagne), white (White Champagne), yellow
(Yellow Champagne). Flavour, sweet and rich. Season,
mid-early for Red and White Champagne ; late for Yello\v
Champagne.

102 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Golden Gem. — A very fine Gooseberry. Fruit, medium-
sized. Shape, roundish-oblong. Colour, buff-yellow.
Flavour, exceptionally good. Season, early. Free bearer.

Green Gascoigne. — An abundant bearer. Fruit, small
and hairy. Shape, round. Colour, green. Flavour, de-
licious. Season, very early.

Green Walnut.— A free-bearing variety. Fruit, medium-
sized. Shape, obovate. Colour, dark green. Flavour,
sweet. Season, early.

Ironmonger. — An old but good sort. Fruit, small and
hairy. Shape, roundish. Colour, dark red. Flavour,
rich. Season, mid-early. Good bearer.

Keen's Seedling. — A variety of first-rate quality. Fruit,
medium-sized and hairy. Shape, oblong. Colour,
brownish-red. Flavour, rich. Season, mid-early. A
great bearer.

Langley Beauty. — A very fine variety. Fruit, very large
and hairy. Shape, roundish. Colour, buff-yellow. Fla-
vour, very fine. Season, late.

Langley Gage. — An enormous cropper. Fruit, medium-
sized. Shape, roundish. Colour, greenish and silvery-
white. Flavour, very fine. Season, mid-early.

Leader. — One of the finest yellow varieties. Fruit, very
large. Shape, roundish. Colour, greenish-yellow. Fla-
vour, very rich. Season, early. Well-grown fruit has
weighed 28dwts. i4grs.

Pitmaston Greengage. — A first-rate old variety. Fruit,
small. Shape, obovate. Colour, green. Flavour, rich
and sugary. Season, late.

Red Warrington. — One of the best for dessert or pre-
serving. Fruit, medium-sized, and hairy. Shape,
roundish-oblong. Colour, red. Flavour, very rich. An
abundant bearer. Season, late.

Snowball. — A good white kind. Fruit, very large and

THE GOOSEBERRY.

103

hairy. Shape, round. Colour, creamy-white. Flavour,
first-rate. Season, early. Free bearer.

C- -

Fig. 41. Fig. 42.

Fi£. 41. A SINGLE CORDON GOOSEBERRY TREE.

A, Shows position of first year's growth. B, The second year's growth.
C, The third season's growth. Note the stem is clothed with fruit spurs.

Fig. 42. A DOUBLE-STEMMED CORDON GOOSEBERRY TREE.

The left-hand branch has not had its laterals summer pruned ; the right-
hand one has.

Whinham's Industry. — Good sort for dessert, preserv-
ing, or gathering in a green state for tarts, etc. Fruit,

104 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

large and hairy. Shape, roundish. Colour, red. Fla-
vour, good. Season, late. Free cropper.

Whitesmith: — An excellent variety, one of the best.
Very free cropper. Fruit, large. Shape, roundish-oblong
and downy. Colour, white. Flavour, excellent. Season,
mid-early.

Wilmot's Early Red.— An old variety. Fruit, large.
Shape, roundish-oblong. Colour, dark red. Flavour,
good. Season, mid-early.

Varieties for Gathering in a Green State.

If Gooseberries are preferred to be gathered in a green
state for tarts or bottling, then the following kinds are
suitable :

Berry's Keepsake.— Fruit, square-shouldered and large,
slightly hairy. Colour, when ripe, green. A prolific crop-
per. Season, early.

Large Whitesmith. —Fruit, large. Shape, obovate, and
downy. Colour, greenish-white. Season, very early.

May Duke. — A Devonshire variety. Fruit, very large.
Shape, roundish. Colour, deep red when ripe. Season,
early. Green fruit ready to gather in May. Free cropper.

Varieties for Size.

The following are remarkable for the size and weight
of their berries. Suitable for exhibition or dessert, where
large berries are preferred.

Antagonist. — The largest white Gooseberry in cultiva-
tion. Fruit, very large. Shape, long. Colour, creamy-
white, with green veins. Flavour, very good. Average
weight of a single berry, 34dwts. 2igrs. Season, mid-
early.

SI

THE GOOSEBERRY,

106

Careless. — A handsome variety. Excellent cropper.
Fruit, very large, and downy. Shape, long. Colour,
creamy-white. Flavour, very good. Season, mid-early.
Average weight of a single berry, 3idwts.

Fig-. 43. A FOUR-STEMMED CORDON GOOSEBERRY TREE.

Specially suitable for low walls or fences in small gardens.

Catherine — A free bearer. Fruit, large and hairy.
Shape, obovate. Colour, orange-yellow. Flavour, first-
rate, Season, mid-early. Average weight of a single
berry, 32<iwts. Sgrs.

106 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

Companion. — A good cropper. Fruit, very large.
Shape, roundish and very hairy. Colour, light red. Fla-
vour, first-rate. Season, early. Average weight of a
single berry, 3idwts. ngrs.

Gunner, or Cobbam. — A good bearer. Fruit, large and

hairy. Shape, round. Colour, olive, shaded yellow.

Fla\our, first-rate. Season, mid-early. Average weight
of a single berry, 28dwts. iSgrs.

Leveller. — An excellent bearer. Fruit, very large.
Shape, long. Colour, greenish-yellow. Flavour, very
good. Season, early. Average weight of a single berry,
3odwts. ngrs.

London. — The largest of all Gooseberries. Fruit, very
large. Shape, roundish to oblong. Colour, purplish-red.
Flavour, good- Season, mid-early. Average weight of a
single berry, 37dwts. 7grs.

Shiner. — The heaviest green Gooseberry. Fruit, very
large. Shape, round. Colour, light green, shaded white.
Flavour, good. Average weight of a single berry,
3idwts iQgrs. Season, mid-early.

Snowdrop. — A very beautiful Gooseberry. Size, very
large and hairy. Shape, roundish. Colour, white, veined
with green. Flavour, excellent. Season, mid-early.
Average weight of a single berry, 34dwts. 5grs.

Speedwell. — An excellent bearer. Fruit, large, and
hairy. Shape, roundish. Colour, light red. Flavour,
first-rate. Season, early. Average, weight of a single
berry, 29dwts. 4grs.

Stockwell.— Fruit, very large. Shape, long. Colour,
bright green. Flavour, good. Season, mid-early. Ave-
rage weight of a single berry, 3odwts. iSgrs.

Thumper. — A fine Gooseberry. Fruit, large. Shape,
flattish. Colour, green. Flavour, excellent. Average
weight of a single berry, 3odwts. 9grs. Season, late.

THE GRAPE VINE. 107

CHAPTER XIV.
The Grape Vine.

THE GRAPE VINE (Vitis vinifera) has been cultivated by
man from the earliest period of human history. Frequent
references are made to it in Holy Writ. In Genesis, for
instance, we are told that Noah planted a vineyard and
made wine. The Romans and Grecians also cultivated
the Vine extensively. It is assumed that the former intro-
duced the Vine into England. We learn that the Emperor
Domitian, in the first century of the Christian era, ordered
the destruction of the Vine in Britain, France, and Spain
for some reason or other; and that two centuries later
the Emperor Probus commanded that the Vine should
again be cultivated in this island. Rumour goes so far
as to say that the Emperor Probus preferred the wines
of Britain to those of Iberia and Gaul.

In the earlier centuries vineyards were numerous. They
were chiefly attached to monastries, the monks in those
days paying special attention to the cultivation of the
Vine and other fruits. In the Domesday Book thirty-
eight vineyards are recorded as being then in existence.
Gloucestershire is recorded to have been famous for its
vineyards, and others existed in Kent, Norfolk, Surrey,
etc. In the twelfth century, it appears, the interest in
Vine growing began to decline, and vineyards practically
disappeared with the suppression of the monasteries in
the reign of King Henry VIII. Henceforth the culture
of the Grape for wine-making was carried on mainly in
France. The end of the eighteenth century saw the dis-
appearance of the vineyard in England. Some forty years
ago the then Marquis of Bute planted a vineyard at
Castel-Coch, in Glamorganshire, and in later years some
excellent wine was made from the produce. The Royal

108 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Horticultural Society have planted a collection of vines
for trial in their gardens at Wisley, in Surrey, with a
view to ascertaining what varieties are suitable for plant-
ing for wine production in this country.

Whether the result will be favourable to the re-estab-
lishment of vineyards in England, we cannot say. But
Vines have for some two centuries or more been grown
against walls. Before the introduction of glass houses
they were grown against hollow walls heated by flues.
Since glasshouses were introduced, the cultivation of the
Vine has become universal, both in private and market
gardens. Admittedly the best-flavoured fruit is grown
under glass, the artificial warmth ensuring the more per-
fect development and ripening of the fruit. But it is
possible, given suitable varieties, to grow some excellent
grapes on south walls in the southern parts of this island,
as may be seen by the many vigorous and fruitful Vines
grown on cottage and house walls generally.

In this chapter we shall deal with the outdoor culture
of the Vine only.

Propagation. — The usual and simplest method of pro-
pagating outdoor Vines is by cuttings of well-ripened
wood of the previous year's growth. Select a shoot
about i2in. long, cut off its point close to a bud, and
remove it from the parent stem with a slight " heel " of
older wood attached. Pare the edges of the latter off
smooth, and remove all buds except the two upper ones.
The cutting thus prepared should be inserted two-thirds
of its length in the soil and where the Vine is to be per-
manently grown. It is not advisable to insert it nearer
than 6in. to the wall. The cuttings may be put in any
time between -November and March. Vines may also
be reared from seed, but this is an uncertain method, the
trees requiring many years to reach their bearing stage,
and then often producing worthless fruit.

Soil. — Any good ordinary garden soil suffices for out-
door Vines. There is no necessity to make special bor-

THE GRAPE VINE. 109

ders for them; indeed, such would only be of any ser-
vice for .a year or so, as the roots would soon extend
beyond the limits of an ordinary border. Many people
do not seem to be aware of this important fact. They
often dig in manure around the base of the stem, or apply
liquid manure, both of which can be of no possible ser-
vice to the Vine, because its feeding, or fibrous, roots
are not located anywhere near the stem, but many yards
away in the garden. It is therefore useless to apply
manures, or even water, to old Vines, because they can-
not benefit by either.

If the soil is not particularly good, dig out a hole 3ft.
or 4ft. square and 3ft. deep, and fill this with a compost
of two parts loam and one of equal proportions of old
mortar, burnt earth, or wood-ashes, but add no manure.
If the site should be damp, put 6in. of brickbats in the
bottom to serve as drainage. This will give the Vines
a good start, after which the roots will, of course, pene-
trate into the neighbouring soil, and take care of them-
selves.

Planting. — The proper season to plant Vines is in
October or during February. The Vines, as a rule, are
purchased in pots. Carefully turn them out, and remove
the drainage from the base of the ball ; then unravel the
roots, and spread them out evenly where they are to
grow. Cover them with about six inches of soil, and
then tread the soil down firmly. After planting mulch
the surface of the soil with manure, and loosely secure

the branches to the wall.

i

Position. — The only aspect on which Vines will ripen
their fruit properly is a south wall. They will grow on
other aspects, it is true, but they will not develop their
berries to perfection.

Pruning and Training. —There are three methods of
training a Vine on a wall. One is to plant the Vines,
say> 3ft. apart, and train each up with one stem, as is

110 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

done with those grown under glass. The laterals in this
case are allowed to develop at intervals of i5in., and
these are spurred back in winter to one eye or bud from
their base. This is practically cordon training. A second
method, and the one usually practised, is to grow one
plant only on a wall, and to allow these to develop shoots
which are subsequently trained horizontally and verti-
cally to cover the wall.

The third plan is to let the shoots grow as they please,
and simply secure them to the wall. The last method is,
however, more picturesque than profitable. We com-
mend the second plan as the best for general adoption.
In this case the Vine, when planted, should be shortened
to i Sin. In due course three shoots will form. Train
these out widely apart the first year. In winter shorten
the two lower shoots to 3ft. or 4ft., and train them out
horizontally — one to the right and the other to the left.
The central shoot train upright, shortening it also to 3ft.
or 4ft. The following summer laterals will form on
the horizontal shoots or branches. Rub off any that form
on the lower side of the stems, and retain those that de-
velop on the upper side. These should be about a foot
apart; any that form at a less distance should be rubbed
off. When those retained get long enough, train them
to the wall.

Now as to the vertical stem, laterals will develop on
this, and the best should be retained at intervals of
i Sin. to form future horizontal stems to be trained into
position, like the first pair, the following winter. These
must be shortened in winter to 3ft. or 4ft., and trained
horizontally to the wall. The topmost lateral must also
be shortened to 3ft. or 4ft., and trained vertically to form
a continuance of the main stem. The laterals that were
trained to the wall on the upper side of the first pair of
horizontal stems will require to be pruned to one eye from
their base to form fruiting spurs. The lateral growth
at the extremity of each horizontal stem must be trained

THE GRAPE VINE, 111

along to extend the latter, and be shortened to 3ft. or
4ft., according to its vigour.

The same practice must be pursued each year of con-
tinuing the main vertical stem, and laying new horizontal
ones until the Vine has covered its allotted space. The
Vine eventually will be like a horizontally-trained pear
tree, and all that will be necessary is the annual pruning
of the' laterals to form spurs.

Disbudding. — This is an important operation, which
must have due attention to maintain the Vine in good
health and in a free bearing condition. When the spurs
are formed, new laterals will form at each in spring. In
some cases one lateral only may form at a spur ; in others
several may do so; and, as one only must be allowed to
grow at each spur, the remainder — the weakest — must be
rubbed off when they are an inch or so long. Remember
also that no laterals should be permitted to grow on the
lower side, only on the upper one. When the laterals
have grown four or five inches long bunches of fruit
should be seen developing in the axils of the leaves. As
soon as these are seen, pinch off the points at the first
leaf beyond the bunch, or, where no fruit can be seen,
at the fourth leaf from the base. This disbudding and
pinching will keep the growth in order, and greatly
simplify the management of the Vine. (See Fig. 44.)

If a Vine be grown as a cordon, all that has to be done
is to allow laterals to develop a foot apart on each side
of the stem, prune these in winter to one eye, and in sub-
sequent years disbud and pinch as above advised.

Thinning the Berries. — When the berries attain the size
of radish seeds they should be thinned out moderately by
means of a pair of fine-pointed grape scissors. Cut out
the smallest berries, and especially those in the centre of
the bunch.

Watering and Feeding,— In the earlier stages of their

112

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

growth Grape Vines require plenty of water in dry weather,
with occasional applications of liquid manure. Older
Vines, however, push their feeding roots far and wide,
and render it impossible to get at them. It is therefore
useless pouring water or manure near the main stem, as
there are no roots to benefit by the liquid. During hot
weather outdoor Vines are greatly benefited by syringing

Fig-. 44. FRUITING VINE LATERAL.

The cross lines show where the point of the shoot should be removed as soon
as the bunch forms, also where to remove the tendrils.

the foliage every evening with water. This greatly re-
freshes the foliage, and also helps to keep it in a clean,
healthy condition.

Pests and Diseases. — The chief disease that attacks
Grape Vines grown outdoors is the Vine Mildew (Oidium
Tuckeri) ; with Vine Scale, Wasps, and Red Spider in the
way of insects.. See chapter on the subject further on.

BLACK HAMBURGH.
An early Black Grape, a popular variety for outdoor cultivation.

THE GRAPE VINE, 113

Varieties.

The following are the most suitable varieties for grow-
ing on walls outdoors:

Black Hamburgh.— The best black Grape for outdoor
culture. Flesh, rich and juicy. Berries, large, roundish,
black. A free bearer.

Black July. — An early, sweet, and juicy Grape; gene-
rally ripens well. Good cropper. Berries, small, round,
and purpli-sh.

Black Prince. — A free-bearing variety. Berries, oval,
medium-sized, purplish-black. Bunches rather long.
Flavour, second-rate.

Royal Muscadine. — An early, free-bearing white Grape.
Berries, small, greenish-yellow. Flesh, very sweet and
rich. The best Grape for outdoor culture.

114 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

CHAPTER XV.
The Loganberry.

THB LOGANBERRY is of American origin, and is reputed
to be the result of a cross between a variety of the Wes-
tern Dewberry, or Blackberry (Rubus vitifolius), named
Aughinbaugh, and a variety of the Raspberry (Rubus
Idseus), supposed to be the old Red Antwerp. It was
raised by an American enthusiast named Judge Logan, ol
Santa Cruz, California, in 1882. The original plant was
one of fifty seedlings. Card, an American authority on
fruit, says: " In the character of the plant, and in the
shape and conformation of the fruit, the variety is essen-
tially like the Aughinbaugh, propagating entirely by tips.
The core remains with the fruit, like the Blackberry, its
principal resemblance to the Raspberry being in colour
and flavour, although the Dewberry dominates in flavour. '

Then the raiser (Judge Logan) goes on to say: "As t.
the fact of the plant being a hybrid between the Blackberry
and Raspberry, of course there is no absolute proof. The
colour, with the distinct Raspberry flavour of the fruit,
and the circumstances under which it originated, I think,
render the fact of such a cross almost certain."

Whatever its real origin, the Loganberry has certainly
proved a worthy addition to berried fruits, and adapted
itself to successful cultivation in this country.

Habit and Characteristics. — The shoots are Bramble-
like1 in habit and upright in growth, prickly, and with
Vine-like leaves. The fruit is large, Mulberry-like in
form, and of a deep red colour when ripe. The flavour
is rich and luscious, and the fruits are suitable for dessert
or cooking purposes. Moreover, the fruit is firm in tex-
ture, and keeps well on the plant or when gathered. The

THE LOGANBERRY. 118

plant also possesses a vigorous constitution. It comes
into bearing early, and continues to yield for some time.

Propagation. — We cannot do better than reproduce
some very clear hints on this topic from the pen of that
able expert, Mr. J. Lansdell, which appeared in "Amateur
Gardening ' ' :

" Young plants are obtained by layering, which is so
simple that it only requires a stone about the size of a
duck's egg laid on the points of the young shoots about
the end of September, the points of the shoots lying on
the ground. These should be left until spring, by which
time new roots will have formed under the stone. The
shoot may then be cut off behind the stone, and should
then be trained up in its appointed place. The young
plant may remain where it has taken root, or be taken
up with a ball of soil and planted in a more suitable spot.
It is better to plant them where they are to remain at
this stage than to allow them to grow through the sum-
mer and plant them in the autumn ; although the latter
can be done when it is more convenient to do so.

" Strong young growths may be layered their whole
length. To do this, a cut should be made with a sharp
knife, putting it in about an inch behind each bud, cut-
ting half-way through the shoot, then bringing it upward
about an inch past or above the bud. Peg down at each
bud, and cover the whole shoot with soil, except the
leaves, then roots and a plant will be formed at each
joint.

'* The whole of the young shoots may be cut up, and put
in as cuttings, using two buds to each cutting ; the lower
leaf, but not the bud, should be cut off when the cuttings
are put in. The cuttings root more readily when put
into a cold frame during the winter."

Soil and Position. — Loganberries will succeed in good
ordinary soil. Those of a strong loamy character are
specially suitable, but they will also succeed well in light

116 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

or sandy soils if plenty of good rotten manure be mixed
with them. Deep digging is most essential. A sunny
position is desirable, but not imperative. The Loganberry
can be grown as a single clump, or trained over arches ;
or it may be grown in rows. It may also be successfully
grown on a north or east wall.

Culture. — The best time to plant is in October or
March. If to be grown in quantity, plant 6ft. apart in
rows Qft. asunder. Like the Blackberry, the shoots
should be cut down to the ground when planted, to en-
courage strong young shoots to develop for bearing fruit
the next year. A stout post, 6ft. to 8ft. high, should
be placed to each plant, and strands of stout wire ift.
apart be fixed to these for training the shoots to. The
shoots should be trained each way, so that sun and air
can gain access to them. In summer mulch heavily with
rotten manure, and as soon as fruit forms give plentiful
supplies of water in dry weather, and liquid manure, cess-
pool contents, or house slops. Loganberries are gross
feeders, and therefore will not, on light soils, object to
being fed even in winter with liquid manures occasionally.

Pruning. — Each season, as soon as the plants have
ceased fruiting, cut out all shoots that have borne fruit,
and also thin out weak shoots of the current year's
growth. In autumn cut off the soft tips of all the re-
maining growths and train them to the trellis. In some
soils the shoots will grow loft, to isft. long in the season.
These very long shoots should be bent down to the top
of the trellis and shortened accordingly. Avoid retaining
too many shoots, as overcrowding means inferior fruit.

W

Gathering the Fruit — Do not gather the fruit until it
is fully ripe, as until then its true flavour is not properly
developed.

Culture on Walls. — The Loganberry also does well
grown against a lofty east or north wall. A cottager in

THE LOGANBERRY. 117

Kent utilises the east wall of his house for growing the
Loganberry, and secures very heavy crops of exception-
ally fine fruit every year, which he disposes of to profit-
able advantage. His method is to cut out all the weak
young growths in early summer, also remove the old
shoots directly they have ceased fruiting, and then train
the strong young growths to the wall to bear fruit the
next season. He feeds the roots liberally with house
slops and liquid manure, and thus obtains admirable
results. We have also seen the Loganberry growing and
fruiting freely on the north wall of an inn at Broadheath,
Worcestershire.

Laxtonberry. — Closely allied to the Loganberry, and re-
quiring similar cultural treatment is the Laxtonberry, the
result of a cross between the Loganberry and the Super-
lative Raspberry. It was raised by the Messrs. Laxton
Bros., of Bedford. The berries are very large, have the
flavour of the Raspberry, and, like the fruit of the latter,
are easily pulled off the stalk when ripe. It has therefore,
unlike the Loganberry, no hard core. The growth is semi-
pendulous, and the shoots grow 6 to loft, long during the
season. The fruit commences to ripen in June, and succes-
sional crops are borne up to November. This new hybrid
fruit is therefore a distinct acquisition, and will in due
course supersede the Loganberry. The fruit is said to
make excellent jam.

The Lowberry, Newberry, and the Phenomenal berry are
varieties of the Loganberry, bearing darker-coloured and
sweeter fruits. Both require similar cultivation to the parent.

118 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

CHAPTER XVI.
The Medlar.

THE MEDLAR (Pyrus germanica) is a native of Asia and
Europe, and belongs to the Rose family (Rosaceee). It
has been found in a wild state in England, but it is doubt-
ful if it is really indigenous to this country. Theophras-
tus, who wrote 300 B.C., mentions the fruit as being
known to the Grecians; and Pliny, the Roman naturalist,
refers to three kinds as being grown in Italy early in the
Christian era. Tusser, the quaint rhymester, refers to
the fruit as Medlars, or Meles, in his day; and Gerarde
alludes to the trees as growing in hedges, and to their
being grafted upon the Whitethorn. Parkinson also gives
a figure of a branch of fruit in his " Paradisi in Sole
Paradisus Terrestris," and describes three kinds — the
"greater and the lesser English, and the Neapolitan."
Chaucer, in the fourteenth century, also sings the praises
of a Medlar tree in flower : —

" And as I stood and cast aside mine eie

I was aware of the finest Medlar tree,
That ever yet in all my life I sie,

As full of blossomses as it might be.''

The flowers are large, white, and solitary, and borne
in June or early July. The fruit is roundish, and crowned
by a bread, hairy disc, fringed with a green, leafy calyx.
In an unripe state it is hard, brownish in colour, and un-
fit to eat; but when gathered and stored until it has
assumed a state of partial decay, the flesh mellows,
becomes soft, and fit to eat, the flavour possessing a*i
agreeable acidity. The fruit, therefore, to be edible, has
to become practically semi-decomposed- Fruits that have
just begun to ripen make an excellent jelly. In Worces-
tershire the fruit is allowed to drop off naturally on the

THE MEDLAR. 119

grass, and, when sufficiently mellow, is picked up and
eaten.

Propagation. — This is effected by budding and grafting
on seedling Pear stocks, or on the Whitethorn or the
Quince. Medlars are easily reared from seeds sown an
inch deep in the open garden in autumn ; but as seedlings
rarely come true, or prove fruitful, they are only of ser-
vice as stocks for budding or grafting good sorts on.
Budding should be done in July, and grafting early in
April. The Pear and Whitethorn are the best stocks for
standards, and the Quince for dwarf trees. Cleft graft-
ing is best for Medlars.

Soil. — The Medlar prefers a deep loamy soil that is
fairly moist, but yet not cold and very wet. Where the
soils are inclined to be light and dry, the trees should be
worked on the Whitethorn ^stock to ensure their doing
really well.

Position. — Medlars will thrive as standards in grass
orchards or hedgerows, or as specimens on the lawn, or
in any open, sunny spot in the garden.

Form of Trees. — Standards with clear main stems 5ft.
to 6ft. high are the usual form of growing the Medlar.
They may, however, be grown as pyramids or bushes
grafted on the Quince stock, and in this way they form
pretty trees to cultivate in small gardens.

Planting. — This may be done any time between Novem-
ber and March. In each case see that the tree is securely
staked at planting time. Plant standards i8ft., and
pyramids or dwarfs i2ft. apart.

Pruning. — The only pruning required is to cut out dead
or diseased wood, and thin out the branches moderately
where much crowded in winter. As the fruit is borne on
the terminal ends of branches, as well as on old spurs,
it will be seen that the less pruning is given the better.

120 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Gathering and Storing the Fruit.— The fruit should not
be gathered until well into November; then be stored,
calyx downwards, on sheets of clean paper in any light
place, such as the shelf of a cool greenhouse or vinery,
to mellow or soften, when it is fit to eat. It usually takes
about a fortnight to ripen.

Pests and Diseases.— Practically none.

Varieties.

There are four varieties in cultivation:

Dutch. — The best sort for general cultivation. Fruit,
large, usually 2in. in diameter. Colour, greyish-green
till ripe, then brownish. Flavour, very good. Leaves,
large. Free bearer. Good for standard culture.

Nottingham, or Narrow-leaved Dutch. — A smaller-
leaved and less vigorous variety. Suitable for pyramids
or bushes. Fruit, medium, lin. in diameter, pear-shaped.
Colour, yellowish-brown, marked with russet. Flavour,
excellent.

Royal. — A free bearer, suitable for pyramids or small
standards. Fruit, medium-sized, roundish. Colour,
brownish. Flavour, nice, pleasantly acid.

Stoneless. — A variety without seeds. Fruit, small, tur-
binate. Colour, russety-brown. Flavour, moderate.
Fruit keeps well after gathering. Free bearer.

THE LOGANBERRY.

A hybrid between the Blackberry and Raspberry. A profitable fruit to grow in
gardens of all sizes.

THE LOWBERRY.
Hybrid between a Loganberry and a Blackberry.

THE MULBERRY. 121

CHAPTER XVII.
The Mulberry.

THE MULBERRY (Morus nigra) is a native of Persia, and
belongs to the natural order Moraceae, the same order as
the Fig. It is reputed to have derived its generic name
from the Latin word " Mora," which means delay, the
fitness -of this name arising from the fact that the Mulberry
does not put forth its leaves until frosts are over. For
that reason it has been called " the wisest of trees." Fre-
quent mention is made of the Mulberry in Holy Writ ; also
by the early Greek writers Theophrastus and Dioscorides ;
and the Roman savants, Virgil, Horace, and Pliny.

We owe its introduction into Europe to the Greeks.
The Romans, too, esteemed the Mulberry more than any
other fruit. It is said that the Mulberry tree was first
introduced into England in 1458, the first trees being
planted in the gardens of Syon House, Brentford. Tusser
refers to the Mulberry in his quaint verses in 1557; and
Gerarde, in 1597, mentions that the tree was then grow-
ing in sundry gardens in England. King James I. en-
couraged the extensive planting of the Mulberry, not,
however, so much for its fruit, as for feeding silkworms —
an industry that, by the way, never made great headway
in this country.

Shakespeare alludes to the Mulberry in several of his
plays, and was very partial to the tree. King James, by
the way, encouraged a French nurseryman to dispose of
100,000 trees in the Eastern and Midland Counties, and
there is no doubt that many of the grand old trees met
with at the present day were planted during that period.
Anyway, the fact remains that, wherever Mulberry trees

122 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

exist, the fruit is highly esteemed for its delicious, re-
freshing juice, whether for dessert, for tarts, or, in many
cases, when made into wine. Mulberry wine and cider,
indeed, make a delicious drink.

Propagation. — Mulberries may be reared from seed ;
but, as seedlings take an average lifetime to come into
bearing, this method is not worthy of ccnsideration. The
best methods are by cuttings or layers. Cuttings should be
taken from shoots of the current year's growth that are
about a foot long, and be removed with a " heel " of two-
year-old wood about 3in. long. Insert such cuttings in
a shady position outdoors in October or November, and
bury them so that only about two to three of the upper
eyes show through the soil. They will then form roots
by the succeeding autumn, and can be lifted and re-
planted elsewhere.

Another method is to saw off a good-sized branch, 4ft.
to 6ft. long, trim off the lower branches so as to leave a
stem i8in. long, then insert this firmly i8in. deep wher-
ever the future tree is expected to grow. Do this in
October. The branch, called a " truncheon," will root
without fail, and form a fruitful bush in a year or so.

To layer a branch, simply bend a low branch to the
soil, cover a portion of it with a few inches of soil, and
peg it down firmly. If this is done in summer or early
autumn, the branch will be sufficiently rooted to sever
from the parent the following autumn.

Soil and Situation. — The Mulberry requires a rich, deep
loamy soil. Shallow, gravelly soils, unless near the
margin of a pond where the roots can get moisture in dry
weather, are quite unsuitable; and so, too, are chalky
soils. The roots like a fair amount of moisture. As
regards the situation, the Mulberry does best on a southern
aspect, and better fruit is always obtained from trees
grown in cultivated soil than on lawns or in grass. In
the North the Mulberry requires a south wall.

THE MULBERRY. 123

Forms of Trees. — The Mulberry may be grown as tall
standards on stems 6ft. high, or as low standards
on stems 3ft. high ; also as bushes or pyramids.
The first two are suitable when to be grown as single
specimens, and the other for cultivation in small kitchen
gardens. The Mulberry may also be grown fan-shaped
against walls.

Planting.— This should be done in March. Plant the
standards 3oft., low standards 2oft., pyramids ioft-, and
wall trees i8ft. apart.

Mode of Bearing. — The Mulberry bears its fruit on the
previous year's growth, as well as on spurs formed on
the older wood. The flowers are greenish-white and in-
conspicuous, unisexual, and borne in separate axillary
catkin-like spikes. The female flower after fertilisation
develops into an oblong, juicy berry.

Pruning. — Standards require no pruning beyond the
removal of dead or exhausted wood and the thinning out
of other branches that are overcrowded. Pyramids re-
quire lateral growths to be shortened in July to about six
leaves to form spurs. The leaders, unless growing
strongly, should not be touched; in any case, merely
remove the tips. On walls, train the branches a foot
apart, and summer prune all side shoots to six leaves to
form spurs. No further pruning is needed.

General Culture. — In dry seasons give the roots an
occasional watering. Wall or pyramid trees, if fruiting
heavily, may be given a weak application of liquid manure.
Fork over the soil in autumn and early spring.

Gathering the Fruit.— The fruit ripens in August and
September, and is ready to gather when it assumes a
blackish-purple colour. The best way to gather the fruit
is to spread cloths on the ground under the branches,

124 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

and then give the tree a gentle shake. By so doing, only
those fruits that are fully ripe will fall off, and these will
be in the best condition for eating. In the case of pyra-
mids and wall trees, the fruit can be gathered by hand.

Pests and Diseases. — There are practically none. Wasps
and birds will attack the fruits, but, as a rule, the quantity
they devour is small. Large trees are liable to have their
branches break off owing to the weight of leaves and
fruit; therefore very large ones should be supported by
props, or linked up by chains to the main body of the
tree.

THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 125

CHAPTER XVIII. *
The Peach and Nectarine.

As these are closely allied to each other — the latter, in
fact, being merely a variety of the former — and, more-
over, require identically the ssune cultural routine, we
include them in the same chapter. The Peach (Prunus
Persica) belongs to the same genus as the Plum and
Cherry, and is supposed to be a native of China. It is
reputed to have been cultivated there two or three
thousand years B.C. Some authorities say that the
Emperor Claudius introduced it into Italy from Persia-

The first English author to mention the Peach was Ger-
arde, in the sixteenth century. He describes white,
red, and yellow kinds, and remarks: " I have them all in
my garden, with many ©ther sorts." Phillips is of a
decided opinion that the Peach was first introduced into
England in 1524 by a monk named Wolf, who acted as
gardener to King Henry VIII. He brought this fruit
and the Apricot from Italy. The Hon. Mrs. Evelyn Cecil,
in her " History of Gardening in England," states that,
If proof were' needed that this fruit were to be had in
England [thirteenth century], we have it in the fact that
King John, at Newark, in the midst of his despair and dis-
appointment, hastened his end by a surfeit of Peaches and
Ale." In Southern Europe, Asia, America, Australia, and
New Zealand the Peach and the Nectarine are grown exten-
sively in orchards ; but in Britain it is essential to cultivate
the trees against a warm wall.

The Nectarine is merely a variety of the Peach, having
a smooth skin of a richer colour than the Peach. The
Peach has a downy skin, and the fruit is usually much
larger than that of the Nectarine. Sometimes one branch
of a Peach tree will bear smooth fruits (Nectarines), and

126 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

the others downy fruits (Peaches). Stones saved from
ripe Peach fruits and sown will often produce seedling
Nectarine trees ; while stones from a Nectarine fruit will
yield Peach trees. Nectarines are generally more luscious
in flavour than Peaches.

Propagation. — This is effected chiefly by budding on
the Mussel and the St. Julien Plum. Seedling Peach
trees, reared by sowing the stones, may also be used
as stocks, but the trees grafted thereon are not long-
lived in this climate, although they do well so propagated
in warm climates. The Mussel and St. Julien stocks are
suitable for the average soils in this country. Budding
must be performed in July or August. It is not difficult
to rear Peaches and Nectarines from stones sown a couple
of inches deep in a sunny border or in pots in a cold
frame; but as seedlings have to be grown many years
before they bear fruit, and then the chances are the fruit
will be worthless, the system is not worth pursuing.
Grafting, again, is not a reliable method of increase.

Soil. — Granted that the Peach and Nectarine succeed
best budded on the Plum stock, and bearing in mind
that this stock is surface-rooting, it will be seen that a
great depth of soil is not needed. What is wanted is a
fairly decent soil, not too light nor too heavy, too dry nor
too wet. A happy medium in both is a sine qua non.

Supposing the soil to be very light or sandy, mix some
heavy loam, also some burnt soil and old mortar or lime,
with it, and dig to a depth of 2ft. If heavy, remove the
top spit, dig out the second one and discard it, loosen
the third spit, and work in some stones, broken bricks,
etc., with it to make it porous. Now replace the top spit,
mix chaired soil, wood ashes, and lime rubble with it; then
fill up to within six inches of the surface with a mixture
of loam, burnt soil, wood ashes, and old mortar; place the
roots on this, and fell up the remaining space with the same
material.

THE PEACH AND NECTARINE.

127

Where the subsoil is damp, dig out a hole 3ft. deep,
put in 6in. of concrete, and let this have a gradual slope
to a drain ; then add 6in. of brick rubble, and fill up with
above compost. The hole for each tree should be 4ft.
long and 4ft. to 6ft. wide. It is very essential that the
roots should not descend into a wet subsoil, so see that
the latter precautions are taken before planting.

Where shallow soils overlie a chalk or gravelly subsoil,

!&

Fig. 45. A FAN-TRAINED PEACH TREE.

Peaches, Apricots, Plums, Nectarines, Cherries, and Figs, are trained in this
fashiou. The short bars indicate the position to prune the shoots in winter.

it will be well to remove ift. of the subsoil and replace
this with good compost, as advised above. The top spit
of a good medium loam that has lain in a heap for a
year will make a good staple soil for cultivating Peach
trees.

Situation. — Both Peach and Nectarine trees require the
shelter of a wall not less than loft. high. In the southern
parts of England these fruits do best on an east or a

128 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

west aspect ; but in the Midlands a north or south aspect
is best; indeed, the latter is, perhaps, the best all-round
aspect for Peaches and Nectarines.

Forms ol Trees. — The usual form of tree is the fan.
In this case there is a short main stem about ift. long,
with branches radiating from its apex. This is the dwarf
fan. There is also the standard fan, with a main stem
6ft. long, having branches spreading right and left at
the top. This form of tree is planted alternately with
the dwarfs so as to cover the upper parts of high walls-

Another form of tree is the cordon, which consists of
a main stem, with side or lateral bearing shoots. The
cordon is specially adapted for low walls — i.e., those about
6ft. or so high — or for filling up spaces between dwarf
fan trees. They have to be trained at an angle of 45
degrees.

Then there is a third method — the U-shaped tree — with
a short main stem, from which two main branches are
trained vertically, these being furnished with lateral bear-
ing shoots. This tree is suitable for walls loft, high or
so, and enables them to be evenly furnished with bearing
wood.

Distances for Planting.— Cordons, 2ft. ; U-trained trees,
4ft. ; dwarf fan-trained trees, isft. to i8ft. ; tall fan-trained
trees, 3oft. to 36ft. apart.

Planting- — This is best done as soon as the majority
of the leaves have fallen off — about October. It should
not be done on any account in December or January, nor
later than February. See that all bruised ends of roots
are cut off, and that the roots are fairly moist. Plant so
that the upper roots are covered with not more than 3in.
of soil. Tread the soil down firmly, too, as firmness is
most essential. Secure the trees loosely to the wall till
the spring to allow for the shrinkage of the soil. After
the planting is completed mulch the surface with decayed
manure.

PEACH, KALE'S EARLY

.Season : August.

THE PEACH AND NECTARINE.

129

Mode of Bearing. — The Peach and Nectarine bear their
fruit chiefly on shoots of the previous year's growth ; also
on spurs. On the former two kinds of buds will be
observed, one narrow and pointed, which are growth or
Wood buds, and the other short, plump buds, which are
fruit buds. Sometimes the latter are borne singly by
themselves; in other cases tfiere may be two fruit buds
together, or one wood and one fruit bud growing side by
side; and in others one wood bud with a fruit bud on
each side (Fig. 48). Particular notice should be taken

Fig. 46. STOPPING PEACH SHOOTS.

Lateral growths like C C, which grow at the base of fruits, should be shortened
to one leaf as shown by short lines. Shoots E and B should be allowed to grow
unchecked.

of these buds, so that, when pruning, the mistake is not
made of shortening a shoot to a fruit bud.

Disbudding. — The first stage in pruning a Peach or a
Nectarine is the disbudding or removal of superfluous
shoots. The object of disbudding is to remove young
shoots which, if left to grow, would later on overcrowd
the bearing wood. It requires to be done by degrees.
First of all, rub off with the finger and thumb all shoots
when an inch or so long, that grow out of the front
or the back of the branches. Next attend to the young

130 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

shoots growing at the sides of last year's growth. Select
two of these young shoots growing as near the base of
last year's growths as possible — one on each side — for
retaining to grow to form future bearing wood. Some
growers only retain one young shoot, but it is usually
wiser to retain two. When, however, it is seen which of
the two shoots is going to take the lead, the other may
be removed. Now, by means of the finger and thumb, or
the point of a budding-knife, remove all other young
shoots gradually until you get to the one at the extremity ;
retain this.

Fig, 47. TRAINING NECTARINES AND PEACHES.

(A) Main branch. (B) Fruiting: shoot of previous year's growth. (C) New
shoot growing- at base of the latter and which must be retained to bear fruit
the next season. After fruiting-, B should be cut away.

Treat each of the previous year's shoots in the same
way, then the tree is not unduly overcrowded — in fact, it
is furnished with the requisite number of young shoots
that, when ripened, will bear fruit the following year.
The shoot left at the extremity of the bearing growth
will, when it has made about four leaves, require to have
its point removed — " stopped "—at the third leaf. Bear
in mind that this disbudding should be commenced when
the fruit. has set, and then only by degrees, so that no
check is given to the development of the young growth
by the wholesale removal of shoots at one time. (See Figs.
46 and 47.)

THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 131

Pruning. — If disbudding is properly carried out, there
will be little winter pruning to be done, j The best time
to prune is in February, when the buds begin to show
signs of growing. Then each shoot that has borne fruit
should be cut back close to the base of the one of the
preceding year's growth, the one that was retained at
disbudding time. Some of the last year's growths may
have grown unduly long or be weak, or have unripened
tips. In their case cut the shoot back to the first wood
bud formed at the side, rather than the top.

Be careful to note that the bud is a thin pointed, and
not a roundish, or globose one. The former is the wood
or future growth bud, and the latter a fruit bud. On no
account cut back to a fruit bud, because no growth can
take place, and the point of the shoot would, in conse-
quence, die. Failing a wood bud, look out for what is
called a triple bud — i.e., three buds, a wood bud in the
centre, with a fruit bud on each side. It is quite safe to
cut back to a triple bud. (Fig. 48.) The only other prun-
ing needed will be the removal of sickly or dead wood.
Once the pruning is finished, the next point will be the
training of the growths.

Training. — This consists of readjusting the main and
subsidiary branches, and securing to the wall at even dis-
tances apart the pruned shoots. These should be distri-
buted sufficiently wide apart to allow for future young
growths to be laid in during summer without unduly
crowding or shading the fruit. Spread the branches fairly
wide over the wall surface, so that the shoots are at least
4in. to 6in. apart. Take care in handling the shoots not
to rub off or injure any of the buds.

Thinning the Fruit. — This is a most important opera-
tion. The thinning should be done at three different
periods. The first thinning should take place when the
fruits are half the size of a marble, then removing the
very smallest only; the second when they are the size of

£ 2

132

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

marbles; and the third, and last time, when they have
formed their stones or kernels. A golden rule is to finally
thin Peach fruits one to each square foot, and Nectarines
one to every nine square inches. Allowing trees to carry

Fig. 48. PEACH SHOOT WITH BUDS.

(A) Fruit buds. (B) A growth bud. The
lower triple bud with growth bud in centre of the
two fruit buds is the correct bud to prune to.

Fig. 49. THINNING PEACH FRUITS.

The short lines under each fruit show which
to remove to secure fine specimens.

Fie. 49.

heavier crops means inferior fruit, weak growth, and short-
lived trees. (See Fig. 49.)

Protecting the Blossom.— Peach and Nectarine blos-
soms are easily injured by frost. Blooming, as they do, in

THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 133

February and early March, frosts and cold winds are often
prevalent, and the delicate organs of fructification are then
specially liable to injury. It is well, therefore, to protect
the trees at night, as well as on cold days, by a temporary
covering of double or treble thickness of fish-netting, or
No. 5 hexagon shading material. This, fixed over poles
or wood spars, placed in a sloping position against the
wall, will ward off frosts and cold winds. On fine, mild
days remove the covering. Commence when the buds
begin to burst, and continue so long as cold weather re-
mains.

General Details. — During spring, summer and early
autumn, Peach and Nectarine trees must be freely watered
to ensure healthy growth and the proper development of
the fruit. Examine the soil when the pruning is finished,
and if it should be in the slightest degree dry fork over
the surface and give a copious watering. Repeat the
waterings every two or three weeks, more especially after
fruit has formed. In April apply a thick mulch of rotten
manure over the soil, and, after each watering, give a
dose of liquid manure. During spring and summer it is
a good plan to well syringe the trees late in the after-
noon of warm days. Daily syringings help to keep the
foliage in good health. These, however, must be dis-
continued when the fruit begins to ripen. For hints on
feeding, see chapter on " Manures," further on. As the
fruit develops see that it is not shaded by leaves ; other-
wise the colour will be more or less wanting in richness
and the flavour somewhat impaired.

Gathering the Fruit.— The fruit is ready to gather when,
on grasping it gently in the hollow of the hand, it parts
readily from the branch. If not wanted for immediate
consumption, store it in a cool, airy room.

Pests Injurious to the Peach. — The larva? of the Winter
and Peach Moths, the Peach Aphis, Leaf-blister Mite,
Red Spider, and the Red-legged Weevil attack the foliage ;

134 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Peach and Cushion Scale the shoots; and Woodlice and
Wasps the fruit.

Diseases.— The chief diseases are the Peach-leaf Curl,
Shot-hole Fungus, and the Silver Leaf. See chapter on
" Pests," etc., later on.

Twelve Good Peaches.

The following are a dozen of the best Peaches in culti-
vation, notable for their excellent flavour, hardiness, and
productiveness :

Amsden June. — Fruit, roundish. Size, medium. Colour,
greenish-white and red. Flavour, tender, juicy, rich.
Ripens early in July.

Barrington. — Fruit, roundish-ovate. Size, large. Colour,
yellowish-green and deep red. Flavour, rich and juicy.
Ripens in mid-September.

Bellegarde. — Fruit, round. Size, large- Colour, red.
Flavour, very juicy and rich. Ripens in early September.
A very free bearer.

Dr. Hogg. — Fruit, round. Size, large. Colour, pale
yellow, dotted with crimson. Flavour, melting, rich.
Ripens in early August. An abundant bearer.

Dymond. — Fruit, round. Size, very large. Colour,
greenish-yellow, mottled with red. Flavour, melting, and
very juicy and rich. Ripens at end of August. Very
hardy and prolific.

Earliest of All. — Fruit, round. Size, medium. Colour,
yellowish and red. Flavour, delicious. Ripens early in
July. The earliest variety.

Gladstone. — Fruit, roundish-oblate. Size, very large.
Colour, pale, mottled with red. Ripens at end of Sep-
tember. Flavour, tender, melting, and juicy. Very hardy.

Male's Early. — Fruit, round. Size, large- Colour,
green, flushed with crimson. Flavour, delicious, juicy.
Ripens early in August. An abundant bearer.

THE PEACH AND NECTARINE, 135

Prince of Wales.— Fruit, roundish, flattened. Size,
very large. Colour, green to dark red. Flavour, juicy and
rich. Ripens in mid-September. Bears freely.

Princess of Wales.— Fruit, roundish, pointed. Size,
very large- Colour, green to dark red. Flavour, juicy
and rich. Ripens in October. A fine late Peach.

Sea Eagle. — Fruit, round. Size, very large. Colour,
lemon-yellow and deep red. Flavour, very rich. Ripens
early in October. Not suitable for the North.

Waterloo. — Fruit, roundish, depressed. Size, large.
Colour, greenish and dark red. Flavour, melting, juicy,
and rich. Ripens in early July.

Six Good Nectarines.

The varieties described are the best for outdoor culture :

Dryden. — Fruit, large to very large. Colour, green,
red, and purplish. Flavour, melting, juicy, and sweet.
Ripens in mid-September. Very hardy, and a free bearer.

Elruge. — Fruit, roundish to oval. Size, medium.
Colour, pale green and violet-red. Flavour, melting,
juicy, rich, highly perfumed. Ripens in early September.
An abundant bearer.

Hardwicke Seedling.— Fruit, roundish-oval. Size,
large. Colour, pale green and purplish-red. Flavour,
juicy and rich. Ripens end of August. A hardy and
prolific variety.

Lord Napier. — Fruit, ovate. Size, large. Colour,
yellowish-green, mottled with red. Flavour, very juicy
and rich. Ripens in early August. A free cropper.

Victoria. — Fruit, roundish-oval and flattened. Size,
large. Colour, greenish-yellow, and crimson. Flavour,
very juicy and rich. Ripens end of September. Requires
a warm position.

Violette Hatine. — Fruit, roundish. Size, medium.
Colour, yellowish-green and purplish-red. Flavour, melt-
ing, juicy, and very rich. Ripens early in September.

136 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

CHAPTER XIX.
The Pear.

THE PEAH (Pyrus communis) belongs to the same genus
as the Apple, and is a native of this country, also of Tem-
perate Europe and Western Asia. It was known to the
ancient Greeks and Romans. Pliny, writing in the first
century of the Christian era, remarks that Pears were
then exceedingly numerous in Italy. It is more than pro-
bable, therefore, that the Romans introduced some of
them into this country. No doubt, too, the monks culti-
vated Pears extensively in their monastic gardens and
orchards. Pears were plentiful in the reign of King
Edward I. (thirteenth century).

Gerarde, in the sixteenth century, says, to write of
Pears and Apples grown in his day would require a
volume. Parkinson also tells us that early in the next
century Pears were as numerous as Apples, and that new
varieties were constantly being introduced. He gives a
list of sorts, some of which are grown at the present day.
Among these the Windsor, Worster (Black Worcester),
Gergonell (Jargonelle), and the Warden are described as
being good sorts. Philip Miller, in his " Dictionary of
Gardening," published in 1731, enumerates 80 varieties.
A century later no less than 630 varieties were reputed to
be grown in England ; and at the Royal Horticultural
Society's Conference in 1855, 616 varieties were exhibited.

The French gardeners were responsible for the intro-
duction of the majority of the varieties, as they paid a
good deal of attention to the culture an3 improvement
of the Pear. , Later the Belgian horticulturists interested
themselves keenly in the subject, and many of the good
sorts grown to-day are the outcome of their skill. Many
distinguished British pomologists, as the late Thomas

NECTARINE, VIOLETTE HATIVE.

Season : August.

THE PEAR.

137

Andrew Knight, of Herefordshire, and Mr. Thomas Rivers,
of Sawbridgexvorth, have, however, also rendered yeoman
service to pomology by rearing some excellent varieties of
Pears.

For some centuries Pears have been largely grown in
Worcestershire and Herefordshire for making a delicious

Fig. 50. A " MAIDEN " OR
ONE-YEAR-OLD APPLE TREE.

The short bars indicate the amount
of pruning- to be given the tree the
first winter to form it into a pyramid,
bush, or espalier.

Fig. 51. A BUSH-TRAINED
PEAR TREE.

The bars indicate where to prune
the shoots in winter. As a result
of the pruning: an averaj?e ot two
youngr shoots will develop from each
shortened shoot the following season.

beverage called perry. The favourite sorts for this pur-
pose were the Barland and the Longland. The city of
Worcester has three Pears as a part of its armorial
bearings, so that it is evident the Pear was held in high
esteem in the district in ancient times.

13S FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION*

Propagation. — The Pear is increased by seeds, budding,
and grafting. Rearing Pear trees from seed is seldom
practised, excepting for yielding stocks for budding or

Fig. 52. A PYRAMIDAL-TRAINED PEAR TREE.

The short bars on the shoots show where to prune the shoots to in winter
to ensure a good shaped tree.

grafting. The usual methods are budding and grafting.
The former is carried out in July or August and the latter
in March. See article on " Propagation," further on.

-THE PEAR. . 139

Stocks. — Two kinds of stocks are used for budding or
grafting the cultivated varieties of the Pear. The first
is the Seedling Pear, called a " free " stock, because it
is of vigorous growth and deep-rooting. This stock is
used for standards, pyramids, and espaliers that naturally
attain a- considerable size. Seeds for this purpose are
obtained from France and America, the warmer climate
ripening them better than is possible in this country. Seed-
ling Pear stocks are also largely exported from France
for budding or grafting.

The other stock is the Quince. This is of sturdier and
slower growth than the Pear, has fibrous roots, which
grow in a dense mass near the surface, and is therefore
more shallow-rooting than the Pear. Being a 'moderate
grower, it is used as a stock for Pears intended to be
grown as cordons, bushes, or dwarf pyramids. Pears
grafted on the Quince come early into bearing, com-
mencing to bear fruit when two to three years old ; whereas
trees worked on the Pear or free stock do not begin to
yield fruit until they are five or six years old. Moreover,
Pears on the Quince thrive best on light, friable, or moist
soils, make a more sturdy and compact growth, and
hence are better suited for small gardens than those on
the free stock.

All varieties, however, do not succeed well on the
Quince. As a rule, it is the more robust-growing Pears
that do best on this stock. But it is possible to grow the
weaker sorts on the Quince by adopting the principle of
double-grafting. Thus Beurre Hardy, Beurre d'Amanlis,
and Vicar of Winkfield are strong-growing sorts which
flourish on the Quince. These are permitted to grow
for a couple of years, then they are pruned back to within
3in. or 4in. of the Quince stock, and such sorts as
Marie Louise, Josephine de Malines, and Knight's
Monarch, which would do well directly on the Quince, are
grafted on the stumps of the former sorts.

Three varieties of Quince are used — the Common,
Angers, and the Portugal — but as a rule the Angers and

140

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

the Portugal have the preference. The Pear may be
worked upon the Apple and also the Hawthorn, but not
so successfully as on the Seedling Pear and the Quince.

Soil. — The Pear succeeds best in deep loamy soils, free
from stagnant moisture. Trees worked on the Pear stock
do not do well on shallow soils because of their deep-
rooting propensity. Heavy clays require trenching 3ft.
deep at least, and to have plenty of grit and decayed

Fig. 53. A " PALMETTE VERRIER" TRAINED PEAR TREE.

This form of training: is largely practiced in France and is a combination of the
Espalier and Vertical forms of training:. Suitable for lofty walls.

refuse added to render them porous. Pears on the
Quince will thrive in any soil that is fairly rich and
not too heavy.

Situation. — Standards grown in the open require a
well-elevated but sheltered position. Owing to the trees
coming early into leaf and blossom, both are liable to be
injured by cold winds and frosts. In the North, and
even in the Eastern Counties, Pears do not succeed satis-
factorily in the open; they require the shelter of a wall.

THE PEAR. 141

Bushes, pyramids, and espaliers will do all right in gar-
dens sheltered by hedges, fences, or walls. Early Pears
may be grown on north and east walls ; mid-season varie-
ties on a west wall ; and late ones on a south wall.

Forms of Trees. — Pears may be grown in a variety of
ways, as standards (Fig. 10), half-standards, standard fan-
trained, dwarf fan-trained, espaliers (Fig. 54), bushes,
pyramids (Fig. 52), toasting-forks, pitch-forks palmette
verriers (Fig. 53), vertical single cordons, oblique single
cordons, double vertical cordons, double oblique cordons,
and horizontal cordons. (Figs. 7, 8, and 9.)

Standards have stems 5ft. to 6ft. high, with branches
at the apex. These are suitable for orchards or mixed
plantations. Half-standards have stems 3ft. to 4ft. high,
with branches at apex. Such trees- are adapted for mixed
plantations or large gardens. Standard fan-trained trees
have stems about 4ft. high, with branches trained fan-
wise ; these are adapted for high walls. Dwarf fan-trained
trees have short stems, with branches trained similarly
to the last. These are suitable for walls loft, to i2ft.
high. Espaliers have horizontal branches trained at right
angles to the main stem and ift. apart on each side of the
tree. Suitable for training to trellises in the open garden,
or against walls. Bushes are dwarf, compact trees, worked
on the Quince, and suitable for mixed plantations or small
gardens. Pyramids have their branches trained cone-
shaped, and they may be large, grafted on the Pear stock,
or dwarf, worked on the Quince. " Toasting-forks" are
trees trained with three vertical stems issuing from a
short main stem, and furnished with fruiting spurs.
4< Pitch-forks " have two vertical stems issuing from a
short main stem. Both suitable for walls. Palmette ver-
riers have horizontal branches trained at right angles to
each side of the main stem for some distance, then they
are trained in a vertical position. Suitable for wall culture.
Single cordons consist of one stem furnished with spurs,
and they are either vertically or obliquely trained. Double
cordons have two stems, and horizontal cordons are trees

142

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

with a main stem ift. high, with a single horizontal stem
or two stems, one trained each way. The vertical and

oblique cordons are suitable for walls, trellises, or fences,
and the horizontal cordons for growing as edgings to
paths.

THE PEAR. 143

Espalier and fan-trained trees should never be planted
against ordinary low walls or fences, as the latter are
not high enough to allow for extension of growth. Ob-
lique cordons are the best kind of tree for low walls or
fences.

Distances for Planting. — Standards and half-standards,
3oft. ; espaliers, fans, or palmette verriers, isft. ; "toast-
ing-forks," 3ft.; "pitchforks," 2ft.; bushes, 8ft.; pyra-
mids, loft. ; cordons, single, i8in. ; ditto, double, 3ft. ;
horizontal cordons, single, 6ft. ; double, i2ft.

Planting. — October and November are the best times
to plant, but it may be done up to March in fine open
weather. Never plant in wet weather. When the trees
arrive examine the roots, and cut off any bruised por-
tions. If the roots should be dry, soak them in water
before planting. For standards, bushes, or pyramids, dig
out holes about 4ft. to 5ft. wide, and stir up the soil to
a depth of 3ft. Do not mix any manure with the soil.
Leave a space about 6in. deep at the top, and on this
spread out the roots of the tree ; drive in a stout stake
to support the stem ; then cover the roots with fine mould,
give a gentle shake to settle the soil, and add more mould
and tread it down firmly. Continue thus till the tree is
planted, then secure the stem loosely to the stake, and
mulch with a layer of manure.

In the case of trees grown against walls, dig out holes
3ft. wide and 4ft. long. Break up the subsoil, and then
plant as just advised. For cordons, dig the soil to a
width of 3ft., and also to a depth of 3ft. Excavate the
surface to a depth of 6in., place the trees in position, and
fill up with soil, treading the latter firmly, and finishing
off with a mulch of manure. Loosely secure the trees to
the wall or fence. Observe the soil mark on each stem,
and plant the roots so that the soil reaches this mark. At
any rate, in the case of Pears grafted on the Quince, see
that the top of the stocks is buried just below the surface
of the soil.

144

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Mode of Bearing. — The Pear, like the Apple, bears its
fruit on naturally-formed spurs on the older wood; also

Fig. 55.
PEAR SHOOTS.

The left-hand shoot is
furnished with fruit buds,
that on the right with
wood buds only.

on those artificially created at the base of the previous
year's shoots as the result of judicious summer and winter

PEAR, MARGUERITE MARILLAT.

Season : October.

THE PEAR.

145

pruning. In the case of standard trees, fruit buds form
freely at the extremities of the preceding season's growth.
Thus it will be seen that if the shoots of such trees are
not shortened, as is done in the case of dwarf trees, fruit

Fig. 57. A PYRAMIDAL PEAR
TREE BEFORE PRUNING.

A healthy and promising- young tree*

Fig-. 58. A PYRAMIDAL PEAR
TREE AFTER PRUNING.

Showing- Fig 57 after it has been
correctly pruned.

buds will form naturally on the last year's growth. Fruit

buds are usually plump and fat-looking, whereas wood

buds are slender and more or less pointed in shape. (Fig.

55.)

146 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Summer Pruning. — This should be done in the manner
and at the period described for the Apple (see Chapter i.),
as both require similar treatment. (Fig. 56.)

Winter Pruning. — The same remarks apply in this case.
It would be a sheer waste of space to repeat the full and
clear details already given for the Apple. See also the
chapter on " Pruning and Training Fruit Trees," pub-
lished further on in this volume. Particular attention
should be paid to thinning out the fruiting spurs on old
trees. Too often such trees have their spurs so over-
crowded that fruit fails to set freely, although there may
be a plethora of blossom. By judiciously thinning out
the spurs, more light and air can have access to them,
and the blossoms, in consequence, develop more strongly
and fruit trees sets more freely. (See Figs. 57 and 58.)

Lifting and Root Pruning. — In the case of cordon trees
grown against walls or fences, that are making too
much wood and fruiting too sparsely, it is desirable in
October to lift them carefully, shorten moderately any
very strong roots, reserving the compact, fibrous ones,
and then replanting. This removal and shortening of the
roots checks the tendency to gross growth, and encou-
rages fruit buds to form more freely. No amount of
summer and winfer pruning will make a tree fruitful
unless the roots are also pruned to maintain a propor
tionate balance between root and branch.

Bush and pyramid trees, also espalier and wall-trained
trees, if making excessive growth, would be greatly bene-
fited by lifting and root-pruning. When such trees, how-
ever, are more than six or seven years old, lifting is at-
tended with a certain amount of risk. In such a case
root-pruning only should be practised. Cordons should
be lifted and replanted every third year to keep rank
growth in check and promote fruitfulness. See chapter
on " Pruning " for further details re root-pruning.

Manuring Pear Trees.— Trees grown ag-ainstfc walls^ or
fences, or as bushes or pyramids in the open, and bearing

THE PEAR.

147

heavy crops of fruit, will be greatly benefited by frequent
applications of liquid manure; also by a mulching of
rotten manure. The latter applies specially to cordon
trees. Copious waterings in dry weather should also be
given. For other manures, see chapter further on.

f

Fig. 59. A PEAR SHOOT.

If ^ wood is well ripened shorten to B ; if not, then to A.
D. Cut away or shorten to two buds.

General Details.— Where trees are grown on walls or
fences exposed to cold winds, it is advisable to protect
the blossom by means of a double or triple layer of old
fish-netting or tiffany, laid over poles or spars of wood
placed in a slightly slanting position against the wall or

L2

148 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

fence. This will break the force of the winds, and also
ward off any sharp frosts that may occur when the trees
are in blossom. Remove the coverings as soon as the
fruit has set.

If the fruits set very freely, it will be wise to thin them
out, removing the smallest. This is especially necessary
in the case of cordons. As a rule, about six small, three
medium-sized, and one large fruit should only be allowed
to the square foot. Thus, one fruit of, say, Fitmaston
Duchess would be ample to the square foot, and three of
Louise Bonne, and six of Josephine de Malines to the
same area. Fruit thus thinned not only develops of
larger size and better shape, but the flavour also is of a
superior quality to that of unthinned fruit. Resides, it
lessens the strain upon the tree, and encourages it to
fruit more regularly. When the fruit begins to ripen, any
leaves which shade it should be pushed aside.

Gathering and Storing the Fruit. — Considerable care
and judgment are required in the gathering and storing
of the fruit. As a rule, Pears are ready to gather when,
on placing the hand under the drooping fruit and raising
it to a horizontal position, it at once parts from the
branch. A fruit which requires to be pulled or twisted
off by force is not ripe, nor is its proper flavour fully de-
veloped. Besides, if fruit be gathered too soon it will
shrivel, and not be of good flavour. The latest sorts
ought not to be gathered till the end of October or early
part of November. Gather Pears when quite dry, and
take care not to bruise the skin. The fruit may be stored
in a single layer on shelves in the fruit or other dark
cool room, where there is a steady temperature of 40 deg.
Or it may be placed in single layers in shallow boxes
fitted with a lid, or in a drawer. To hasten the ripening
of any variety, bury the fruit in bran in a box ; or place
it in clean straw in a basket, and store in a warm room for
a week or so. It is important that light be excluded from
the fruit.

THE PEAR. . 149

Pests.— The larvae of the Winter, Mottled Umber,
Lackey, and Pear-leaf Blister Moths attack the foliage;
the grubs of the Leopard and Goat Math the wood ; the
Fruit Bark Beetle the bark; Apple Blossom Weevil the
flowers ; Apple Sawfly and the Pear Midge the fruit ;
American Blight the shoots ; Social Pearfly, Aphides, Pear
Thrips, and the Pear Blister Mite, the foliage of the Pear.

Diseases. — The Pear-leaf Blister and Pear-leaf Cluster
Cups attack the foliage, and the Pear Scab the foliage and
the fruit. See chapter on " Pests," etc.

Varieties for Dessert.

We will now describe fifty of the most popular Pears
in cultivation. This selection will meet the requirements
of most gardens; but if more varieties are needed, then
recourse must be had to nursery catalogues.

Beurre Alexandre Lucas. — A delicious Pear, hardy and
free-bearing. Fruit, medium, obovate. Colour, yellow,
dotted with russet. Flavour, melting and juicy. Season,
November.

Beurre d'Amanlis. — A free grower and bearer. Fruit
large, pyriform. Colour, green, crimson cheek. Flavour,
juicy, rich. Season, September. Self-sterile.

Beurre Bachelier. — A good hardy sort and free bearer.
Fruit, large, obovate. Colour, greenish-yellow, dotted
russet. Flavour, buttery, melting rich. Season, Decem-
ber.

Beurre Clairgeau. — A very showy Pear. Does well as
a standard. Requires double-grafting if grown as a dwarf
on Quince. Fruit, large, pyriform. Colour, yellow and
bright red. Flavour, melting, rich, perfumed. Season,
November.

Beurre Diel. — Hardy, vigorous grower and free bearer.
Fruit, very large, obovate. Colour, greenish-yellow,

J50 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

marked with russet. Flavour, juicy and pleasant. Sea-
son, October and November. Self-sterile.

Beurre Hardy. — A popular Pear for pyramid culture.
Fruit, large, obovate. Colour, brown, shading to golden-
yellow. Flavour, melting, juicy, ridh, and refreshing.
Season, October.

Beurre Ranee. — A good late Pear, suitable for a north
wall. Fruit, large, pyriform. Colour, green, spotted with
russet. Flavour, rich, melting, juicy. Season, December
to March.

Beurre Superfin. — A very fine, free-bearing Pear. Fruit,
large, obovate. Colour, greenish-yellow, veined with
russet. Flavour, buttery, melting, juicy. Season, Sep-
tember to October. Self-sterile.

Brown Beurre. — A good-flavoured Pear. Fruit, large,
obovate. Colour, green and reddish-brown. Flavour,
imeltiiTg and buttery. Season, October. Succeeds best
double-grafted.

Chaumontel. — A hardy, free-bearing Pear. Fruit, large,
pyriform. Colour, yellowish-green and brownish-red.
Flavour, buttery, juicy, and rich. Season, November to
March. Does well as a standard.

Comte de Lamy. — One of the best dessert Pears in cul-
tivation. An immense cropper. Fruit, small, roundish-
obovate. Colour, yellowish-green and brownish-red.
Flavour, buttery, melting, and sugary. Season, October.

Conference. — A popular and handsome Pear. Free
cropper. Fruit, large, pyriform. Colour, green, orange,
dotted with russet-. Flavour, melting, rich, aromatic.
Season, October. Fine for dwarfs, cordons, etc. Self-
fertile.

Doyenne Bussoch. — A very fine Pear. Free bearer.
Fruit, very large, roundish-obovate. Colour, lemon-
yellow, dotted with russet. Flavour, melting, juicy, rich,
and aromatic. Season October,

THE PEAR. 151

Doyenne du Cornice. — An exceptionally good Pear.
Fruit, large, obovate. Colour, yellow, tinted with russet.
Flavour, rich and delicious. Season, October and Novem-
ber.

Duchcsse d'Angouleme. — A vigorous-growing and free-
bearing variety. Fruit, very large, roundish-obovate.
Colour, yellow, freckled with russet. Flavour, rich, juicy,
melting, and sweet. Season, October and November.

Durondeau. — An excellent Pear for walls or bushes. A
regular and free bearer. Fruit, large, pyrifonm. Colour,
yellow, blushed crimson on sunny side. Flavour, very
rich. Season, October. Self -fertile.

Easter Beurre. — A good hardy, free-bearing Pear.
Fruit, large, obovate. Colour, pale green, with reddish
cheek. Flavour, buttery, rich, and juicy. Season, Janu-
ary to March. Best double-grafted. Self-sterile.

Emile d'Heyst. — An abundant bearer, whether grown as
a dwarf or <a standard. Fruit, medium, pyriform. Colour,
yellow, veined with cinnamon-russet. Flavour, buttery,
melting, and juicy. Season, late October. Self-fertile.

Fertility. — A variety largely grown for imarket. Free

cropper. Fruit, (medium, obovate. Colour, greenisih,

tinted reddish-brown. Flavour, juicy, sweet, and aroma-
tic. Season, September and October.

Fondante d'Automne. — A good, free-bearing autumn
Pear. Fruit, medium, obovate. Colour, pale yellow and
russet. Flavour, sweet, refreshing, delicately perfumed.
Season, September and October.

Gansel's Bergamot. — A good kind to grow as a cordon
or espalier on walls. RequFres to be double-grafted. Fruit,
medium, roundish-obovate. Colour, yellow, tinted red.
Flavour, rich, musky. Season, October and November.

General Todleben.— Hardy arid free-bearing. Fruit,
very large, pyriform. Colour, yellow and russet. Flavour,

152 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

juicy, rich, and aromatic. Season, October and Novem-
ber.

Glou Morceau. — A good Pear for seaside gardens or
walls in inland districts. Fruit, large, roundish or ob-
ovate. Colour, yellow and russet. Flavour, buttery, rich,
aromatic. Season, December to January.

Jargonelle.— A fine old Pear, which does well on walls
and as a standard.. A good bearer. Fruit, large, pyri-
form. Colour, greenish-yellow, tinged with brownish-red.
Flavour, melting, juicy, rich. Season, August and Sep-
tember. Self-siterile.

Jersey Gratioli. — A prolific variety grown as a standard,
or as a pyramid or cordon. Fruit, medium, roundish-
obovate. Colour, yellow, brown, and russet. Flavour,
melting and vinous. Season, October.

Josephine de Malines. — A first-rate Pear, doing well as
a standard, or double-grafted on the Quince. A prolific
bearer. Colour, yellow, green, and russet. Flavour,
juicy, rich. Season, January to April. Self-sterile.

Knight's Monarch. — A fine-flavoured Pear. Hardy and
free-bearing when double-grafted. Fruit, -medium,
roundish. Colour, yellowish-green and russet. Flavour,
juicy, rich, aromatic. Season, November to February.

Louise Bonne of Jersey. — A very handsome Pear, one
of the best. Most prolific. Fruit, large, pyriform. Colour,
yellow, crimson, and russet. Flavour, sweet, rich, and
melting. Season, October. Self-sterile.

Madame Treyve. — A high-quality Pear. Prolific. Fruit,
large, obovate. Colour, yellow and bright crimson. Fla-
vour, melting, juicy, rich. Season, September.

March Bergamot. — A hardy, free-bearing Pear. Fruit,
medium-sized, roundish. Colour, brcwn and russet. Fla-
vour, very rich, aromatic. Season, February to March.

THE PEAR, 153

Marechal de Cour. — A free-bearing and hardy Pear.
Fruit, large, pyriform. Colour, yellow and cinnamon-
russet. Flavour, melting, rich. Season, October and
November *

Marguerite Marillat. — A prolific and hardy Pear. Fruit,
large, pyriform. Colour, pale orange, tinged with red.
Flavour, rich, juicy, and aromatic. Season, October.

Marie Benoist. — A prolific Pear when double-grafted on
the Quince. Fruit, large, roundish. Colour, yellow and
russety. Flavour, juicy, sweet, melting. Season, Novem-
ber to January.

Marie Louise. — A favourite Pear. Does well as a stan-
dard, or double-grafted on the Quince stock. Fruit, large,
pyriform. Colour, golden, russety. Flavour, buttery,
melting, rich. Season, October and November. Self-
sterile.

Nee Plus Meuris. — A good Pear, that does best on a
south wall. Fruit, medium-sized, turbinate. Colour,
yellow and russety. Flavour, buttery, rich, vinous. Sea-
son, January to March. Should be double-grafted on the
Quince.

Nouvelle Fulvie. — A suitable Pear for a warm wall.
Fruit, medium-sized,, pyriform. Colour, yellow and russet,
tinted red. Flavour, juicy and rich. Season, November
to February.

Olivier de Serres. — An excellent late Pear. Does well
as a cordon. Fruit, medium-sized, roundish. Colour,
yellowish and russety. Flavour, buttery, very rich.
Season, February and March. Do not gather till Novem-
ber. Self-sterile.

Passe Colmar. — A hardy, free-bearing Pear. Fruit,
medium-sized, obovate. Colour, pale yellow, reddish.
Flavour, juicy, melting, rich. Season, November and
December.

154 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Pitmaston Duchess. — One of the largest Pears, indi-
vidual fruits often weighing i^lb. each. Fruit, extra
large, pyriform. Colour, pale lemon-yellow. Flavour,
juicy, melting, rich. Season, Octo'ber and November.
Double-graft if to be grown on the Quince. Self-sterile.

Princess. — A handsome and prolific Pear. Free bearer.
Fruit, large, pyriform. Colour, yellow, flushed crimson.
Flavour, melting, sweet, and pleasant. Season, October
and December.

Seckle. — An American Pear, but a free bearer and good-
flavoured variety. Fruit, small, obovate. Colour, maho-
gany-red, with silvery spots. Flavour, very juicy and aro-
matic. Season, October. If grown on the Quince should
be double-grafted.

*

Souvenir du Congres. — A .good early Pear. Free bearer.
Fruit, large, pyriform. Colour, yellow, crimson, and
rus-set. Flavour, melting, juicy, aromatic. Season,
August and September. Requires to be double-grafted
if grown on the Quince. Self-sterile.

Summer Doyenne (Doyenne d'Ete). — A very early Pear.
Free bearer. Fruit, small, roundish. Colour, yellow,
tinted red. Flavour, juicy, sweet, and pleasant. Season,
early August.

Thompson's. — A Pear of excellent merit. Fruit, me-
diuim-sized, pyriform. Colour, yellow, dotted with russet.
Flavour, melting, juicy, and aromatic. Season, Novem-
ber.

Triomphe de Vienne. — A handsome early Pear. Fruit,
very large, pyriform. Colour, yellowish, russety. Fla-
vour, melting, juicy, rich. Season, September.

Urbaniste. — A hardy and prolific Pear. Should be
double-grafted iT grown on the Quince. Fruit, medium-
sized, obovate. Colour, yellow, russet, and red. Flavour,
melting, rich, sweet, and aromatic. Season, October.

THE PEAR, . 155

Van Mons. Leon Leclerc.— A very handsome Pear.
Requires to be double-grafted if grown on the Quince.
Fruit, large, pyriform. Colour, yellow, russet, and red.
Flavour, juicy, rich. Season, November.

Williams' Bon Chretien.— One of the most popular early
Pears in cultivation. Very prolific grown on the Quince
stock. Fruit, large, pyriform. Colour, yellow, streaked with
red. Flavour, buttery, melting, juicy, rich. Season, August
and September. Self-sterile.

Winter Nelis. — A first-rate winter Pear. Fruit, small,
roundish. Colour, greenish-yellow and russet. Flavour,
rich, melting, with a pleasing aroma. Season, November
to February.

Zephirin Gregoire. — A good bearer on the Quince stock.
Fruit, medium-sized, roundish. Colour, yellow and rus-
sety. Flavour, juicy and vinous. Season, December to
January.

Cooking Pears.

The following sorts are suitable kinds to grow for
baking or stewing :

BeHissime d'Hiver. — Fruit, very large, roundish.
Colour, yellowish-brown, tinged with vermilion. Flavour,
sweet, musky. Season, November to April. May be
grown as a standard on the Pear or as a dwarf on the
Quince stock.

Black Worcester, or Warden Pear. — Fruit, very large,
obovate. Colour, green and brown, tinted with red. Fla-
vour, good. Season, November to February. Best grown
as a standard.

Catillac. — One of the best cooking Pears. A prolific
cropper as a standard or as a dwarf on the Quince. Fruit,
very large, roundish. Colour, greenish, tinted red, Fla-
vour, crisp and musky. Season, December to April.

156 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Uvedale's St. Germain.— The largest Pear in cultiva-
tion, single fruits weighing as much as 2lb. to 3lb. each.
Fruit, extra large, pyriform. Colour, yellowish-green,
tinged with red. Flavour, juicy, sweet, and pleasant.
Season, January to April. Does well double-grafted on
the Quince stock.

Verulam. — A hardy grower and free bearer. Suitable
for standards, or dwarfs on the Quince. Fruit, large, ob-
ovate. Colour, green, russet, and reddish-brown. Fla-
vour, rich. Season, December to March.

Vicar of Winkfield. — A prolific Pear as a pyramid, es-
palier, or standard. Fruit, large, pyriform. Colour,
yellow, tinted with red. Flavour, juicy and aromatic.
Season, November to January.

Varieties for Cordon Culture.

The following sorts, grafted on the Quince stock, are
suitable for culture as vertical or oblique or horizontal cor-
dons against walls or in the open: Beurre d'Amanlis,
Beurre Bachelier, Beurre Clairgeau, Beurre Diel, Beurre
Hardy, Beurre Sterckmans, Beurre Superfin, Brown
Beurre, Comte de Lamy, Doyenne Bussoch, Doyenn6 du
Cornice, Fondante d'Automne, Gansel's Bergamot, General
Todleben, Glou Morceau, Jargonelle, Jersey Gratioli, Jose-
phine de Malines, Knight's Monarch, Louise Bonne of
Jersey, Madame Treyve, Marie Benoist, Marie Louise,
Pitmaston Duchess, Souvenir du Congres, Summer
Doyenne, Thompson's, Olivier de Serres, Van Mons. Leon
Leclerc, Winter Nelis, Williams's Bon Chretien, Triomphe
de Vienne, Zephirin Gregoire, Urbaniste, Nee Plus
Meuris, and Easter Beurre.

Varieties for Bush or Pyramid Culture.

All the foregoing varieties, with the addition of Con-
ference, Durondeau, Duchess d'Angoulerne, Emile d'Heyst,
Princess, and Seckle. All to be grafted on the Quince
stock.

THE PEAR 157

Varieties for Culture on Walls.

The following sorts to be grown as espaliers, fans,
gridirons, "toasting-forks," or "hay-forks" on walls:
(i) for a south, south-east, or south-west wall — Beurre
Ranee, Beurre Sterckman, Beurre Super fin, Brown Beurre
Doyenne du Cornice, Gansel's Bergamot, Glou Morceau,
Jargonelle, Knigiht's Monarch, Marie Louise, Olivier de
Serres, and Pitmaston Duchess ; (2) for easterly or wes-
terly aspects — Beurre Superfin, Doyenne du Cornice, Emile
d'Heyst, Durondeau, Fondante d'Automne, Glou Mor-
ceau, Josephine de Malines, Louise Bonne of Jersey,
Marechal de Cour, Thompson's, Winter Nelis, and Gene-
ral Todleben.

Varieties for Standards.

The following are suitable to grow as standards or half-
standards on the Pear stock : Beurre Hardy, Beurre Clair-
geau, Durondeau, Bmile d'Heyst, Fertility, Fondante
d'Automne, Jargonelle, March Bergamot, Marie Louise,
Louise Bonne of Jersey, Princess, and Williams's Bon
Chretien.

Six Hardiest Varieties. — Beurr6 d'Amanlis, Comte de
Lamy, Emile d'Heyst, Jargonelle, Louise Bonne of Jersey,
Williams's Bon Chretien.

Largest Pear.— Uvedale's St. Germain.

Varieties for the North. — The following will succeed
grown as bushes, espaliers, or pyramids in the North,
including Scotland: Beurre d'Amanlis, Doyenne du
Cornice, Beurre Hardy, Louise Bonne of Jersey, Marie
Louise, Thompson's, Souvenir du Congres, Trioimphe de
Vienne, Beurre Superfin, Josephine de Malines, Le Lee-
tier, and Pitmaston Duchess.

158 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

CHAPTER XX.
The Plum.

THE PLUM belongs to the same genus as the Apricot,
Cherry, Peach, and Nectarine — namely, the Prunus.
Bentham and Hooker, in their " British Flora," class the
Plum, Damson, Sloe, and Bullace as forms of the Wild
Plum (Prunus communis) ; but others consider them to
belong to another species — domestica. Whatever the
origin of the Plum, it has certainly been grown for many
centuries past in this country. Long prior to that, Plums
were cultivated by the Grecians and Romans. Pliny says
they were first brought from Syria into Greece, and from
thence into Italy. From Italy the best varieties found their
way into France, and thence into England.

Gerarde, the sixteenth century writer, remarks in his
" Herbal " that in his day " to write about Plums par-
ticularly would require a peculiar volume"; and Parkin-
son, in the early part of the next century, describes sixty
varieties as being grown in gardens. The well-known
Green Gage Plum was introduced here from France by
a person named Gage, and it has since become the parent
of many fine varieties. In France it is known as the
Reine Claude, this name being applied to the variety in
honour of the queen of Francis I., who introduced the
variety into France from Italy. The Orleans Plum is
reputed to have been introduced into England in the
reign of Henry V.

The precise date of the introduction of the cultivated
Plum into Britain is not known. During the last century
many new varieties were introduced, and the cultivation
of the Plum greatly extended on walls, in the garden, and
in the orchard.

THE PLUM. 159

The fruit is most delicious for eating in a raw state for
dessert, for cooking in tarts, or by itself; also for jam-
making', bottling, etc. Immense quantities of fruit are
annually imported in a dry state under the name of
" prunes " from France, Germany, and California. Green
Gages, too, packed in dainty boxes, reach us from
France early in the season ; and of late years we get large
importations of ripe fruit from South Africa. But, as we
are concerned more in this volume with the growth of
Plums in gardens, we need not enlarge further on the
latter subject. See also chapter on the " Bullace and
Damson."

In recent years some attention has been paid to Japa-
nese Plums, but so far they have only been grown under
glass- Messrs. Bunyard and Co. describe some half-
dozen varieties in their catalogue, and incidentally men-
tion that one variety, the Burbank, has fruited in their
Maidstone Nurseries. They are reputed to be very fer-
tile, and to yield fruit of good quality. Still, as we have
so many excellent sorts in cultivation, there is but little
need to trouble about the Japanese kinds.

Propagation. — The usual and best method is by bud-
ding in July. Grafting by the whip or cleft method is
sometimes practised, but it is not a satisfactory plan, as
there is a risk of gumming occurring at the point of union.
Really budding is the better plan of the two. The Plum
is readily reared frcm seed by sowing stones taken from
perfectly ripe fruit, and burying them 3in. apart in drills
3in. deep and ift. asunder. As, however, seedlings rarely
produce varieties of any merit, this plan is only worth
practising for rearing plants for stocks. Suckers should
be avoided in any case, as they would be liable to be con-
tinually throwing up further suckers from their roots.
Layering is a simple process, and consists of pegging
down to, and partly burying in, the soil any healthy
shoots. •'• Such trees are, however, not so good as those
increased by budding. See chapter on " Propagation."

160 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

Stocks. — Those used for the Plum are the Mussel, St.
Julien, White Pear Plum, and the Myrobalan Plum. The
Mussel Plum is the kind chiefly used for standard trees,
and the others for pyramids, bushes, fans, and cordons.
All may be reared from seed ; indeed, this is the most
satisfactory way of rearing stocks, as they are less liable
to produce suckers than stocks reared from lajrers. All
stocks, whether the trees are to be grown as standards
or dwarfs, should be budded about 6in. from the ground.
In the case of standards, the shoot produced from the
scion should be trained upwards to form the stem. The
amateur will find, if he uses the Mussel as a stock for
standard Plums, and the St. Julien for dwarf Plums, he
will not go far wrong. The late Mr. D. T. Fish recom-
mended the use of seedling Green Gages as stocks for
dwarf Plums. The Common Green Gage is readily reared
from seed, and, as it is of moderate growth, it would, no
doubt, have a dwarfing influence upon any Plum worked
upon it,

Soil. — The Plum is a surface-rooting tree, therefore
does not require a great depth of soil. Sandy, gravelly,
or heavy clay soils are not suitable. A medium soil, free
from stagnant moisture, suits the growth of the Plum
better than a light or a very heavy one. Where sandy
or gravelly soils exist, dig out the soil to a depth of 2ft.,
and replace it with a good heavy loam. On no account
mix manure with it. Should the soil be clay, trench 3ft.
deep, and mix grit and light soil freely with it to lighten
it. In all cases dig deeply before planting. It is well,
too, where soils do not naturally contain lime, to apply
lib. of fresh lime per square yard before planting. Soils
that have been heavily manured are not good for Plums ;
they encourage a rank, unfruitful growth ; therefore should
be well limed to sweeten and improve their condition.

Situation. — Plums require plenty of light and air, and
a fairly well-elevated site. Low-lying, damp positions are
quite unsuitable. The choicer dessert varieties, including

o

CJ

11

«Ji

gf

THE PLUM,

161

the Gages, are best grown against walls. Culinary varie-
ties may be grown on walls or fences facing north , and
Gages for a successional supply; also such first-rate kinds
as Kirke's, Jefferson's, Coe's Golden Drop, etc., on a wall
facing east.

Forms of Trees. — Plums may be grown as standards
in orchards, as half-standards, bushes, or pyramids in the
open garden ; or as standard fan-trained, dwarf fan-

{

>v

Fig. 60. PLUM SHOOTS.

Both shoots are of one year's growth. That on the right is furnished
with fruit buds ; that on the left with wood buds only.

trained, dwarf horizontally-trained, and cordon-trained for
walls. Standards have stems 6ft. high, and half-standards
3ft. high. Bushes and pyramids have a clear main stem
about ift. high, above which branches radiate, these being
kept trained into shape by summer and winter pruning.
Fan-trained standards are similar to ordinary standards
in length of stem, but have their branches trained fan

162 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

shape. They are suitable for walls iq.it. high and up-
wards. Dwarf fan-trained trees have short stems (ift.),
with branches spread out equally each way. These are
adapted for walls 8ft. to loft. high. Horizontally-trained
trees are also suitable for a similar purpose. Cordons
may be of the upright or oblique form, with a single main
stem furnished with spurs ; double-stemmed ; or horizontal.
The upright and oblique cordons are suitable for walls or
fences 5ft. to 6ft. high and upwards, or for arches or
trellises in the open garden. Bushes and pyramids may
also be grown by the side of paths, or in quarters or plots
by themselves.

Distances for Planting. — Standards should be planted
2 1 ft. apart each way; half-standards, i2ft. apart in rows
1 5ft. asunder; bushes, 6ft. apart in rows gft. asunder;
pyramids, loft, apart each way; fan-trained standards,
36ft. apart; ditto, dwarfs, i8ft. ; cordons, i8in. apart.

Planting. — The best time to plant is from mid-October
to December. Planting may, however, be done any time
from then up to March, provided the weather be fine.
Deep planting must be avoided. Plant so that the roots
are fairly close to the surface, and see that the soil is
made quite firm. Standards, bushes, and pyramids should
be supported by a stout stake firmly driven in the ground
before the roots are covered with soil. Those to be grown
against walls or fences should only be loosely secured ;
indeed, the same precaution is essential in the preceding
case. See that the roots are spread out their full length,
that they are made moist before planting, ancl that all
bruised parts are cut away. After planting is completed,
top-dress with a layer of well-rotted manure. We should
add here that, in the case of standards and pyramids, cir-
cular holes 3ft. to 4ft. wide for each tree should be dug
out prior to planting. For wall trees the holes should be
3ft. wide, to allow ample room for the roots to be spread
out their full length. Do not overlook the importance of
firm planting, as Plums dislike a loose soil.

THE PLUM.

163

Mode of Bearing. — The Plum bears its fruit on spurs
formed on the old wood; also on the shoots of the pre-
ceding year's growth. The spurs may be of natural for-
mation or be artificially formed by shortening lateral
growths to four leaves the previous summer. Spurs are
clusters of fat plump buds, the latter being easily dis-
tinguished from wood buds, which are small and thin.

Fig. 61. PLUM SHOOTS.

The shoot on the right is of
one year's growth and with
wood buds only. On the left
is a two-year-old shoot fur-
nished with fruiting1 spurs.

Fig. 62. EFFECT OF SUMMER PRUNING
A PLUM SHOOT.

Result, the formation of fruit buds.

Blossom buds are also borne at intervals along the pre-
ceding year's growth, sometimes close to the tip. In
pruning, therefore, it is essential when shortening a shoot
to take care not to cut back to a plump flower bud, but
to a thin, small wood bud. (Figs. 60 and 61.)

Disbudding. — This operation applies to trees trained
to walls only, and is usually performed in early Sunl-
it

J64

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

mer, as soon as the new growth begins to deve-
lop. It consists of rubbing off with the finger and
thumb all* foreright shoots — i.e., those that grow out of
the front of the branches ; also any weak growths not
required to form future spurs or new branches for extend-

Fig. 63. PRUNING PLUM SHOOTS. Flg 64 A WORTHLESS PLUM

Prune the previous Summer's growth SHOOT,

to A (third bud) to form a fruiting spur.

The second figure represents a shoot Shoots like above, which have buds

furnished with fruit spurs and which on at the apex, should be cut clean

needs no pruning. away.

ing the size of the tree. This timely removal of super-
fluous growth concentrates the energies of the tree upon
the development of the right kind of shoots, and finer
specimens of fruit.

THE PLUM.

165

Summer Pruning. — The chief point to observe in the

pruning of trees trained to walls is to keep them well fur-
nished with young wood. Thus each branch should have a
leading shoot, with laterals on each side. Now a sufficient
number of the latter should be allowed to grow unchecked
if there is room for them to be trained in to the wall. Gene-
rally speaking, the shoots ought not to be less than ift.

Fig. 65. A PYRAMID OR BUSH PLUM
TREE BEFORE PRUNING.

The tree is a young- one and has made un-
usually vigorous growth. The shoots should
have been summer pruned.

Fig. 66. A PYRAMID PLUM
TREE AFTER PRUNING.

The same tree as shown in
Figr. 65 after it has been judi-
ciously winter pruned.

apart. If more numerous, then shorten all lateral shoots
in August to four leaves to form spurs, but do not inter-
fere with the leading or terminal ones. Bushes and pyra-
mids require lateral growths only to be shortened to the
fifth leaf. Cordons require all their lateral or side growths
to be shortened to five leaves in mid-August, allowing the

166 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION. ,

leaders only to grow unchecked. Standards, if growing
very vigorously, should have the points of their strong
leading growths pinched off at above period, but no sum-
mer pruning otherwise will be needed. (Fig. 62.)

Winter Pruning. — Plums do not require much winter
pruning if disbudding and summer pruning have been pro-
perly carried out. In the case of cordons, shorten the
laterals that were pinched back in summer to a couple of
buds from their base- Fan-trained trees will require
similar treatment as regards the summer-pruned laterals.
The leading shoots, unless it is desired to encourage new
laterals to develop, will not require shortening ; they are
best left their full length. If such shoots have to be cut
back, always see that they are cut back to a wood bud,
not to a fruit bud. Pyramids and bushes will require to
have their summer-pruned laterals shortened to two buds,
any weak or sickly branches cut out, and the ends of any
extra strong leaders shortened according as the contour
of the tree demands. Short and stubby leaders need not
be interfered with. Standards will only need to have
overcrowded branches thinned out and sickly ones re-
moved. After a few years the spurs become congested.
It is, therefore, a good plan to shorten the elongated ones,
and thin out the crowded ones moderately. Plums grown
on walls often fail to set their fruit properly owing to the
overcrowding of the spurs. Prune in December or
January. (Figs. 63 to 66.)

Root Pruning. — Cordons, wall trees, bushes, and small
bushes are greatly benefited by careful lifting, moderate
root-pruning, and replanting. Trees growing in rich soils
are very liable to grow too freely, and produce too little
fruit ; therefore, if such trees are lifted every third year
or so, and any extra vigorous roots moderately shortened,
they will be made fruitful. Indeed, this system is essen-
tial to ensure Plum trees bearing freely in the earlier
period of their existence. Let it be clearly borne in mind
that lifting and root-pruning are only beneficial in the case'

THE PLUM. 167

of trees that are growing vigorously. It must not be
regarded as a remedy for unfruitfulness due to other
causes. The best time to lift and root-prune is in October.

General Cultural Details. — The chief points to observe,
in addition to these previously dealt with, are to keep all
suckers removed, tracing them to their source, and cutting
them off close to the root. Trees grown in dry borders
against walls should have a wide mulching of manure
placed at their base in early summer, and copious water-
ings given in very dry weather. Artificial and liquid
manures will also be beneficial to trees in good health and
bearing freely. See chapter on the subject further on.
Wall trees are also benefited by having their foliage
syringed every evening with water in hot, dry weather.

Cordons and other trees grown on walls and fences and
heavily laden with fruit should have the latter freely
thinned out in an early stage of its development. Even
half-standards, bushes, and pyramids often yield a large
crop, and would be benefited by thinning. If trees are
allowed to carry too heavy a crop the fruit cannot attain
its normal size, nor will its flavour be properly developed.
Besides, the strain on the resources of a heavily-cropped
tree? often cripples its future growth, and prevents it fruit-
ing the next season. Thin out early, and be content with
a moderate crop of well-developed fruit. (Figs. 67 and 68.)

Early Plums should be protected when in blossom in
the manner advised for Apricots, which see.

Gathering and Storing the Fruit. — The exact time to
gather each variety can only be determined by experience.
To get the full and true flavour the fruit should be allowed
to remain on the tree as long as possible. For dessert
purposes use a pair of grape scissors to sever the stalk,
or take hold of the stalk with the finger and thumb and
pull the latter from the branch. Always gather the fruit
when dry.

Such kinds as Coe's Golden Drop and Ickworth Im-
peratrice, if not gathered till quite ripe, then wrapped in

168 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

tissue paper and stored in a cool, airy place, will keep in
good condition for a month or six weeks. Before wrap-
ping in the paper it is advisable to expose the fruit to the
sun for a day or so to get it thoroughly dry. (Figs. 67 and
68.)

Pests. — The following insects attack the foliage: The
larvae of the Winter, Umber, March, and Vapourer Moths ;
Clay-coloured, Green-leaf, and Oblong-leaf Weevils ; Plum
Sawfly, Slugworm, and Social Pear Sawfly; Leaf-curling,
Mealy Plum, and Damson Aphis; Red Spider. The
Goat and Leopard Moth larvae and Shot Borer Beetle

Fig. 67. A LESSON IN THINNING FRUIT.

Owing to not thinning out the fruit in an early stage of growth, it is irregular

size.

attack the wood ; Plum Fruit Sawfly larvae the fruit ; and
various Scale insects the bark of the Plum tree.

Diseases. — The Bladder Disease attacks the fruit ; Gum-
mosis the branches, etc. ; and the Silver-leaf Disease the
foliage. See chapters on the subject, further on.

Best Dessert Plums.

Following is a list of what we consider to be the best
dessert varieties :

DESSERT PLUM, OULLIN'S GOLDEN GAGE.

Sraxon : Karlv August.

THE PLUM. 169

Angelina Burdett. — A really good Plum, of exquisite
flavour. Suitable for wall or bush culture. Free bearer.
Fruit, medium- sized, round. Colour, dark purple, mottled
brown, Flavour, rich, very juicy, sweet. Season, early
September. Self-fertile.

Brahay's Green Gage. — A finely-flavoured Plum. Suit-
able for wall culture. Fruit, very large, roundish. Colour,
greenish-yellow, with greyish bloom. Flavour, juicy, rich.
Season, end of September. Self-sterile.

Bryanston Gage. — A hardy and prolific variety. May

Fig-. 68. A LESSON IN THINNING PLUMS.

Owing- to the fruit beingr cut freely in an early stage of deve'opment, it has
grown to double the size of the unthinned specimens shown in Fig- 67.

be grown as a bush or on a wall. Fruit, large, round.
Colour, golden. Flavour, very rich and juicy. Season,
mid-September. Self-sterile.

Coe's Golden Drop. — A most delicious late Plum, but
unfortunately a shy bearer. Does best on a south wall.
Fruit, large, oval. Colour, greenish-yellow, freckled with
red. Flavour, very rich, juicy, and sweet. Season, Sep-
tember and early October.

Denniston's Superb. — A first-rate Plum belonging to the
Gage section. Bears freely as a bush or on a south wall.

170 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Fruit, large, roundish. Colour, golden-yellow, blotched
purple. Flavour, juicy and Gage-like. Season, mid-
August. Self-fertile.

Early Transparent Gage.— A most delicious early Plum.
A free bearer. Succeeds best on a south wall. Fruit, very
large, round. Colour, yellow, mottled red. Flavour, very
juicy and rich, Season, early August. Self-fertile.

Green Gage. — A splendid old Plum, useful for cooking
as well as dessert. May be grown as a standard in the
South; in -other districts as a pyramid or bush, or on a
south wall. Fruit, medium, round. Colour, yellowish-
crimson, dotted with crimson. Flavour, delicious, melt-
ing, juicy. Season, mid-August. Self-sterile.

Ickworth Iraperatrice.— A fine late Plum. Fruit can be
stored for some weeks after it is ripe. May be grown
as a pyramid or bush ; also on a south wall.' Fruit,
medium, obovate. Colour, purple, streaked yellow.
Flavour, juicy, rich. Season, October. Self-fertile.

Jefferson. — An American variety and a prolific bearer.
Does well as a standard or pyramid. Should be grown
on a south wall in cold districts. Fruit, large, oval.
Colour, yellow, speckled with purple and red. Flavour,
delicious. Season, early September. Self-sterile.

Kirke's. — A very fine Plum. Requires a south wall.
Hardy and free-bearing. Fruit, very large, round. Colour,
dark purple, golden specks. Flavour, juicy and very
rich. Season, early September. Self-sterile.

Late Transparent Gage. — A first-rate late variety of the
Gage section. May be grown as a standard or bush in
the open, or against a south wall. Fruit, large, round.
Colour, yellow, suffused red and purple. Flavour, juicy,
sweet, rich. „ Season, end of September. Self-sterile.

Laxton's Utility. — A recently introduced variety, the
result of a cross between Jefferson and the Peach Plum.
Suitable for walls, or as a bush, pyramid, or cordon. Fruit,

THE PLUM.- 171

large, oval. Colour, rich red. Flavour, firm, juicy, rich,
and sugary. Season, mid- August. Self-fertile.

McLaughlin's Gage. — A Plum of American origin.
Hardy and prolific. Suitable for bush or pyramid culture.
Fruit, large, roundish. Colour, yellow, speckled red.
Flavour, juicy, rich. Season, end of August. Self-sterile.

Oullin's Golden Gage.— A handsome Plum. Hardy and
free-bearing. Suitable for bushes or pyramids in firm, not
over rich soil. Fruit, large, roundish-oval. Colour,
yellow, dotted with crimson. Flavour, rich and juicy.
Season, early August. Self-fertile.

Purple Gage. — An excellent Plum. Hardy, free-bearing
and doing well as a standard, pyramid, or on a south wall.
Fruit, medium, round. Colour, violet-purple. Flavour,
sugary, rich. Season, early September. Self-sterile.

Reine Claude de Bavay. — A delicious variety of first-
rate quality. Requires a south wall. Fruit, medium,
roundish. Colour, greenish-yellow. Flavour, very ridh
and sugary. Season, end of September. Self-fertile.

Select Culinary Plums.

The varieties described below represent the best of the
cooking Plums. Some, indeed, are equally good for des-
sert purposes.

Archduke. — An immense cropper. Hardy and suitable
for bush or wall culture. Fruit, large, oval. Colour,
purplish-black. Flavour, rich. Season, early October.
Also suitable for dessert. Self-fertile.

Autumn Compote. — Hardy and prolific Plum. Succeeds
well as a pyramid. Fruit, very large, oval. Colour, red.
Flavour, juicy, pleasing. Season, September. Self-fertile.

Belgian Purple. — A valuable early Plum. May be grown
as a standard, pyramid, or cordon, or fan on a north wall.
Fruit, large, roundish. Colour, violet-purple, with a blue
bloom. Flavour, very juicy and rich. Season, August.
Self-fertile.

172 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Belle de Louvain. — A heavy cropping and free-bearing
Plum. Suitable for a standard or bush, or for an east
or west wall. Fruit, large, oval. Colour, ridh purple.
Flavour, juicy and rich. Season, end of August. Self-
fertile.

Belle de Septembre.— A free bearer. Suitable for pyra-
mids. Fruit, large, roundish to oval. Colour, reddish-
purple, with a bluish bloom. Flavour, juicy, sweet. Sea-
son, early October. Self- fertile.

Blue Imperative — A good preserving Plum. Should
be grown as a cordon or fan on an east wall. Fruit,
medium, oval. Colour, yellow. Flavour, rich. Season,
October. Self-sterile.

Czar. — A splendid Plum. Succeeds well as a standard
or pyramid, or as a fan or cordon on an east or a north
wall. Fruit, large, roundish-oval. Colour, blue-black,
covered with a bluish bloom. Flavour, juicy, rich, and
sweet. Season, early August. Self-fertile.

Diamond. — Another good preserving Plum. Succeeds
as a standard or pyramid, or as a cordon or fan on an
east or a north wall. Fruit, very large, oval. Colour,
deep purple. Flavour, juicy, acid. Season, mid-Sep-
tember. Self-sterile.

Early Prolific. — An early preserving and cooking Plum.
Useful also for dessert. May be grown as a standard or
pyramid, or as a fan or cordon on a north wall. Fruit,
medium, roundish. Colour, dark purple, with a bluish
bloom. Flavour, juicy, sugary, sweet. Season, early
August. Self-fertile.

Gisborne's. — A strong-growing and free-bearing Plum.
Suitable for standards. Fruit, small, roundish. Colour,
amber-yellow. Flavour, brisk, juicy. Season, mid-
August. Self-fertile.

Grand Duke A very fine late Plum of excellent quality.

Will succeed as a fan or cordon on an east or west wall ;
also as a pyramid in the open. A free bearer. Good also

THE PLUM, 173

for dessert. Fruit, very large, ovaL Colour, purple,
covered with a blue bloom. Flavour, sweet. Season,
mid-October. Self-fertile.

Laxton's Prosperity.— A good, new, early culinary Plum.
Suitable for standards, bushes, or walls. Fruit, roundish
oval. Colour, black. Flavour, sweet and rich. Season,
late August. Very heavy cropper. Self-fertile.

Mitchelson's. — An abundant cropper. Succeeds as a
standard *>r pyramid, or as a fan or a cordon on a north
wall. Fruit, medium, oval. Colour, black. Flavour,
juicy and sweet. Season, early September. Self -(fertile.

Monarch. — A very hardy and prolific Plum,- succeeding
as a standard or bush, or as a fan or a cordon on an
east, west, or north wall. Fruit, very large, roundish-
oval. Colour, dark purple. Flavour, juicy, good. Sea-
son, September. Self-fertile.

Orleans. — An old, but nevertheless very good, Plum.
Prolific. Suitable for standards. Fruit, medium, round.
Colour, red. Flavour, juicy, rich. Season, late August.
Self-fertile.

Pond's Seedling. — A hardy and prolific variety. Suit-
able for standards. Fruit, very large, oval. Colour, red,
with a bluish bloom. Flavour, juicy and brisk. Season,
early September. Self- sterile.

Prince Englebert. — A very hardy and prolific Plum. Suit-
able to grow as a fan or cordon against an east, west, or
north wall ; also as a pyramid or standard. Fruit, very
large, oval. Colour, purple, covered with a greyish
bloom. Flavour, juicy, rich, brisk. Season, end of
August. Self-fertile.

Sultan. — An excellent cooking Plum. A constant and
good cropper. Suitable for a cordon or fan on a north
wall, or a pyramid or standard. Fruit, large, roundish-
oval. Colour, red, covered with a bluish bloom. Fla-
vour, juicy, rich. Season, mid-August. Self-sterile.

174 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

Victoria. — The most popular cooking and preserving
Plum in cultivation. Good also for dessert. Does well as
a standard or pyramid, also as a cordon o>r fan against
an east, west, or north wall. Fruit, large, oval. Colour,
ridh red. Flavour, juicy, pleasing. Season, early Sep-
tember. Self-fertile.

Wyedale, — A very hardy and prolific preserving Plum.
Fruit small, oval. Colour, dark purple, covered with a
blue bloom. Flavour, juicy, sweet. Season, October to
November. Self-fertile.

Plums for the North. — Following are suitable for Nor-
thern counties, including Scotland : Cooking — Belle de
Louvain, Czar, Early Prolific, Belgian Purple, Gisborne's,
and Victoria. Dessert — Denniston's Superb, Early Trans-
parent, Jefferson, Kirke's, Green Gage, and Reine Claude
de Baviay. Above are suitable for bush culture.

Plums for Walls. — North aspect : Angelina Burdett,
Early Transparent Gage, Jefferson, McLaughlin's Ga<:e
and Oullin's Golden Gage (dessert) ; Belgian Purple, Belle
de Louvain, Early Prolific (cooking). East aspect : same as
last. ** West aspect : Bryanston Gage, Kirke's, Purple
Gage, and Laxton's Utility (dessert) ; Belle de Septembre,
Victoria, Monarch, and Prince Englebert (cooking).
South aspect: Coe's Golden Drop, Denmiston's Superb,
Green Gage, Late Transparent Gage, Ickworth Impera-
trice, and Reine Claude de Bavay (dessert) ; Archduke,
Blue ImpeVatrice, and Wyedale (cooking).

Plums for Cordons. — Angelina Burdett, Coe's Golden
Drop, Denniston's Superb, Early Transparent Gage, Bry-
anston Gage, Early Green Gage, Jefferson, Kirke's,
Oullin's Golden Gage, McLaughlin's Gage, Reine Claude
de Bavay, and the Green Gage (dessert) ; Autumn Com-
pote, Belgian Purple, Early Prolific, Czar, Prince Engle-
bert, and Victoria (cooking).

Plums for Standards.— Early Prolific, Victoria, Czar,
Belgian Purple, Pond's Seedling, and Monarch (cooking);
Green Gage, Denniston's Superb, Early Transparent, Jef-
ferson, Late Transparent, and Bryanston Gage (dessert).

THE QUINCE. 175

CHAPTER XXL
The Quince.

THE QUINCE (Pyrus vulgaris) is related to the Pear, and
belongs to the same genus. It was formerly placed in
another genus, Cydonia, but modern botanists include
it in the genus Pyrus. Its native country.^is not known,
but some say it is a native of Europe. It appears that
the ancients held the Quince in high esteem. Pliny tells
us that many kinds of Quinces grew in Italy in his day,
some of them wild ; and that the fruit was used as a
sovereign remedy for many complaints.

It is probable, therefore, that the Quince was introduced
into this country during the Roman occupation. Anyway,
the fact remains that Quince trees used to grow wild in
the Wealds of Sussex, the fruit being gathered by the
natives and converted into wine. Gerarde says this fruit
was planted in his time in hedges and fences. Lord
Bacon, too, seems to have been well acquainted with the
fruit. Shakespeare also alludes to the fruit in " Romeo
and Juliet "—

" They call for dates and quinces in the pastry."

In his time Quince marmalade was a favourite conserve.
Tusser also makes reference to the Quince, so that there
is little doubt its fruit was held in high esteem from the
earliest times.

The Quince is supposed to be the " Golden Apple of
the Hesperides." It is a low and slow-growing tree,
bearing whitish or pinkish flowers in June, followed by
Apple or Pear-shaped fruits, of a rich golden hue when

176 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

ripe, the flesh of which is highly perfumed. The ripe fruit,
cut into slices, is often put into apple or pear tarts;
made into a rich and refreshing wine; and converted
into marmalade and jellies. The far-famed Cotignac pre-
serve of the French and Italians is also madt from this
fruit. The Quince, of course, is the popular stock for
Pears grown as cordons, bushes, etc.

Propagation. — The Quince is chiefly increased by layer-
ing the shoots in autumn — hillock layering. It can also
be increased by cuttings, but the operation is a slow and
uncertain one. Seeds rarely ripen in England, so that
it is not possible to propagate Quinces by this method.
See article on " Propagation" further on.

Soil and Situation. — The Quince succeeds best in a rich
loamy soil. Heavy clays1 and sandy soils are not suitable.
The position, too, should be a moist one, and, if possible,
near a pond or stream. It is useless trying to grow the
tree in a dry position. A sheltered, sunny position is also
desirable.

Culture. — Plant in autumn. The trees may be grown
as bushes or low standards. No pruning is required
beyond thinning out weakly or other crowded branches,
and this should be done in winter. Trees grown in soils
that are not over moist should be given a thorough water-
ing and an occasional application of liquid manure in
summer.

Gathering and Storing the Fruit — The fruit is usually
ready to gather early in October. Its ripened condition
can usually be ascertained by its powerful aroma. As
a rule, the flesh is hard when quite ripe. Store it on a
layer of clean straw in any cool place away from Apples
or Pears, otherwise the aroma from the Quince will be
communicated to the latter. The fruit will, if not bruised
in gathering, keep sound for six to eight weeks.

FRUITS OF THE QUINCE.

THE QUINCE, 177

Varieties.

The chief kinds grown are" as follows :

Apple-shaped Quince. — Fruit, large, roundish. Skin,
golden-yellow when ripe. Flavour, excellent. Very pro-
ductive. Ripens early.

Pear-shaped Quince. — Fruit, large, pyriform. Skin,
yellow and woolly. Flavour, moderate ; flesh, dryisfi and
woolly. Ripens late.

Portugal Quince. — Fruit, large, pyriform. Skin, golden-
yellow and woolly. Flavour, delicate. Flesh turns crim-
son when cooked. Ripens late. Somewhat tender. This
variety is much used as a stock for Pears.

178 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

CHAPTER XXII.
The Raspberry.

THB RASPBERRY (Rubus Idaeus) is a native of this country,
also of the temperate parts of Africa, Asia, Europe, and
America. It grows wild in moist woods, etc., in various
parts of the country. It does not appear to have been
cultivated by the ancients. Gerarde, the sixteenth-century
writer on gardening, says it was grown in gardens in his
day, but its fruit was not held in such high esteem as that
of the Bramble. This was the red Raspberry. The yellow
and white varieties were introduced into this country from
Antwerp.

Phillips, in his 4< History of Cultivated Fruits," informs
us that, early in the last century, Raspberries were much
cultivated in the neighbourhood of Isleworth and Brent-
ford for supplying fruit to distillers for making Raspberry
brandy and Raspberry vinegar. He also says: " Rasp-
berries which are intended for the table are brought by
women on their heads; their load consists of a round, or
basket, containing twelve gallons, of three pints to a
gallon ; and, although the distance is ten miles from Isle-
worth to Covent Garden Market, they regularly perform
the journey in two hours, for which they are paid three
shillings and sixpence. These female fruit porters come
to the vicinity of London for the season from Wiltshire,
Shropshire, and Wales ; in their long journeys they seldom
walk at a less pace than five miles per hour."

The fruit of the Raspberry is highly esteemed for des-
sert; also for making jams and jellies, pies, etc., and like-
wise for flavouring purposes. Many housewives, too,
make an excellent wine from the fruit, and Raspberry
vinegar is also a refreshing beverage in summer.

THE RASPBERRY.

179

Propagation. — The usual and best method is by means
of suckers or offsets. These spring up freely at the base
of the parent plants, and may be lifted and planted out
in their permanent positions in autumn. Only the
strongest suckers should be chosen for the purpose. Care
should also be taken to see that they are well rooted.
Raspberries may be readily increased from seed, but as

A " MAIDEN"
RASPBERRY PLANT

A A are growth buds
at the base, not pruned
back at time of plant-
ing- ; a mistake, see
Fig. 70.

Fig. 70.

PRUNING A

" MAIDEN"

RASPBERRY PLANT.

The line indicates
position to prune the
cane when first planted.

Fig. 71.

A YEAR-OLD
RASPBERRY PLANT.

Showing growth made
the first season as the
result of cutting down.

seedlings rarely come true to type this method is seldom
practised. They may likewise be propagated by cut-
tings of the points of well-ripened canes about Sin.
long. Cut off the base close to a joint, and insert them
6in. deep in a moist, shady border in October. The cut-

K 2

180 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

tings will be rooted by the following autumn, when they
should be planted out in their permanent quarters. For
all ordinary purposes, however, suckers are better than
cuttings.

Soil and Situation. — The Raspberry requires a deeply-
tilled, rich soil, containing plenty of humus. Heavy soils
dug deeply, and enriched with decayed vegetable matter
and rotten manure, will grow Raspberries well. Light
soils, or thin soils overlying chalk, do not suit the Rasp-
berry unless liberally enriched with decayed cow manure.
The situation, too, should be a moist and partially shaded
one. The Raspberry is a deep-rooting plant, and also
produces a mass of surface roots, so that a good depth
of soil is indispensable.

Methods of Growing. — There are several ways of grow-
ing the Raspberry. One is to grow them in groups, the
groups being 4ft. apart in rows 5ft. asunder. In this
case three suckers are planted in each group, and the
fruiting canes are trained to a stout stake placed in the
centre. The strong- growing sorts are best planted singly,
not in threes, and the rows should be 6ft. apart. Another
method is to plant the canes singly 4ft. apart each way,
place a stake midway between the plants, and to train
half of the fruiting canes one way in an arching form to
the stake, and the other half in the opposite direction.
This plan allows the fruiting canes full exposure to the
sun, while the young canes occupy the centre and do not
shade the former. A third method is to train the canes
to a wooden or a wire trellis. In this case the plants should
be planted 2ft. apart; and, if more than one row is required,
the rows should be 6ft. apart. The rows should run from
north to south.

Planting. — This should be done in October or Novem-
ber ; but, weather permitting, it may be accomplished any
time in winter. Plant so that the crown of the root is

THE RASPBERRY.

181

buried about 310. Spread the roots out evenly, and use
tine soil only for covering them. Tread the soil down
firmly. After planting, mulch with rotten manure.

Subsequent Culture, — During the summer keep all weeds
removed, and mulch the surface with long manure to keep
the soil cool and moist. Copious waterings, too, should

Fig. 72. A BADLY GROWN
RASPBERRY PLANT.

Result of failing to cut the
cane back at planting time. No
young shoots to bear fruit the
following year.

Fig. 73. WRONG
WAY OF PRUNING
RASPBERRY CANES.

Pruned thus the fruit
will be borne mainly at
the top of the canes.

Fig-. 74. RATIONAL
METHOD OF PRUN-
ING RASPBERRIES.

One-third of the cane*
are shortened two-thirds;
another one-third, and
the remainders have their
tips only removed.

be given in dry weather. Liquid manure may also be
given freely when the plants are in bearing. Suckers not
required for forming new plantations should be pulled up
when a few inches high. In winter, after the pruning is
completed, top-dress with a couple of inches or so of rotten
manure, and lightly fork this in. Except during the first

182 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

year it is not advisable to grow any crops between the
rows, because the cultivation necessary would injure the
roots. See also the chapter on " Manures " elsewhere.

Mode of Bearing. — The ordinary Raspberry bears its
fruit on side branchlets formed on the canes of the pre-
ceding year's growth. The fruiting canes are, therefore,
of biennial duration — that is, they grow one year and bear
fruit the next, after which they die. Autumn-bearing
Raspberries, however, bear their fruit on the current year's
wood.

Pruning. — Canes planted in autumn wil } require to be
cut back in the following March, the weakest close to the
ground and the strongest to ift., in order to encourage
new canes to develop for bearing the next season. If not
pruned thus, the stool, or root, will only produce short,
weak canes, incapable of bearing fruit. It is better,
therefore, to sacrifice fruit the first season, and instead
get good young canes to bear the second season. The
second and subsequent seasons all canes of the preceding
year's growth, which have borne fruit, should be cut
clean away as soon as the crop is gathered. This means
that only canes of the current year will be left. In the
case of two or three-year-old plants select about three or
four of the strongest of the young growths for future
bearing, and remove all others. (Figs. 69 to 72.)

In later years four to six young canes should be retained
on each plant. In autumn, when the leaves are off, the
soft unripened tip of each cane should be cut off close to
firm wood. When grown in groups, each group should
be provided with a stout stake 4ft. high, and the canes be
neatly tied to this with tar twine. Those that are to be
trained on the arching system should be similarly pruned,
and the canes bent over and tied to the stake. Those,
again, to be trained to a trellis should be spread out evenly,
and tied in position.

When Raspberries are grown in groups it is the prac-
tice of some growers, in the case of canes of varying

THE RASPBERRY.

183

growth, to shorten the outer or weaker canes half-way,
those a trifle stronger one-third, and from the strongest
only remove the soft tips. The advantage of this plan is

h

2

l

§ .

*

I

S 3

s i
is I

the group of canes bears fruit freely from base to
apex. It is the natural tendency of canes that are left
practically their full length to bear fruit only on the upper

184 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

half, and hence the system just explained ensures fruit
forming freely at the base of the short ones. One market
grower of ©ur acquaintance always prunes his vigorous
canes back half-way, and he, in consequence, not only
ensures a heavier but also a finer crop from the well-ripened
lower half of his canes. (See Figs. 74/and 75.)

Autumn-bearing Raspberries.— There are several sorts
of Raspberries that yield fruit in September and October
only, but they are not very generally grown. They are
of bushy growth, and require no stakes. The canes have
to be cut off close to the ground in February. New canes
form in due course, and it is on the tips of these that the
fruit is borne the following autumn. They should be
grown 4ft. apart each way.

Gathering the Fruit.— The fruit should be gathered only
when dry. For dessert, gather the berries with the stalk
attached ; but for cooking purposes the berry only, with-
out the core and stalk, should be picked.

Duration of a Plantation. — As a rule a plantation, if
well managed, will continue in bearing for eight to ten
years. When the canes show signs of waning in vigoi r
a new plantation should be made.

Pests. — The Raspberry Aphis infests the leaves; the
Raspberry Beetle the flower buds; the Raspberry Moth
and the Raspberry Sawfly larvae bore into the pith of the
shoots; and the Raspberry Weevil feeds on the leaves.

Diseases. — The Raspberry Spot Fungus attacks the
young canes and leaves. See chapter on " Pests and
Diseases/*

Varieties of Summer Raspberries.

Baumforth's Seedling. — An old and good variety. An
abundant cropper. Fruit, large, roundish. Colour, crim-
son. Flavour, very rich. Vigorous grower.

RASPBERRY, CARTER'S PROLIFIC

AN EARLY STRAWBERRY, ROYAL SOVEREIGN.
Season : June.

THE RASPBERRY. 185

Carter's Prolific- — A very hardy and sturdy-growing
variety. May be grown without stakes. Fruit, large,
round. Colour, red. Flavour, excellent.

Golden Drop. — A strong grower and free bearer.
Fruit, large -and round. Colour, golden-yellow. Flavour,
rich and pleasant. Ripens in July. An attractive
variety.

Hornet. — A vigorous grower. Free bearer. Fruit,
very large, ovate. Colour, dark red. Flavour, rich.

Laxton's Bountiful. — A new variety of first-rate merit.
Fruit, very large, conical, ovate. Colour, bright crimson.
Flavour, sweet and juicy. Growth, robust.

Marlboro' (syn. Bath's Perfection). — A variety of vigo-
rous growth with crimson stems. Fruit, medium- sized,
round. Colour, a brilliant scarlet. Flavour, rich. A
free cropper of American origin.

Red Antwerp. — An old and very productive variety.
Fruit, large, conical. Colour, crimson. Flavour, brisk,
rich. Growth vigorous.

Semper Fidelis- — A strong grower and free cropper.
Good for preserving. Fruit, large, conical. Colour, rich
red. Flavour, good. A continuous bearer.

Superlative.— The best of the summer Raspberries.
Continues to bear for some time. Fruit, very large, coni-
cal. Colour, deep red. Flavour, brisk and rich. Vigo-
rous grower.

The Guinea. — Vigorous grower, resembling Superlative.
Fruit, very large, conical. Colour, yellow. Flavour,
brisk and pleasant. The best of the yellow varieties. A
yellow form of the last-named.

White Magnum Bonum. — A very free bearer. Fruit,
large, conical. Colour, white. Flavour, juicy, sweet.

186 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION

Yellow Antwerp.-— An old variety. Fruit, large, conical.
Colour, yellow. Flavour, sweet and rich. Suitable for
dessert or preserving.

Autiimn=bearing Raspberries.

Alexandra. — A very vigorous and fruitful variety,
ripening in October. Fruit, large and conical in shape.
Colour, deep red. Flavour, rich. Of excellent merit.

Belle de Fontenoy. — Fruit, large, round. Colour, pur-
plish-red. Flavour, good. A sturdy grower. Ripe in
October.

Everbearing Feldbrunnen.— A new variety, certificated
by the R.H.S. in 1912. Grows vigorously, and bears heavy
crops of fine flavoured fruit from August to November.

Hailsham. — Also known as the Hailsham-berry. A
vigorous-igrowing and free-fruiting variety', ripening in
October and November. Fruit, very large and round.
Colour, dark red. Flavour, rich and juicy. The best of
the autumn-bearing Raspberries.

November Abundance. — A vigorous grower, bearing
freely until November. Fruit, very large. Colour, deep
red. Flavour, excellent. One of the best.

October Red. --An old sort, which bears fruit from July
to October. Fruit, medium. Colour, red. Flavour,
brisik. Free bearer.

October Yellow. — An old sort. Free bearer. Fruit,
medium. Colour, yellow. Flavour, juicy and sweet.
Ripe in October.

Orange d'Autorane.— A sturdy prolific variety. Ripens
in October and early November. Fruit, large to very
large. Colour, clear bright orange. Flesh, firm, juicy,
and of rich flavour. A .good variety.

Surprise d'Autorane. — A Continental variety ripening
in November. Free-bearinig. Fruit, large, round.
Colour, yellow. Flavour, rich, juicy, and sweet. The
latest of autumn Raspberries.

THE STRAWBERRY. 187

CHAPTER XXIIJ
The Strawberry.

THE STRAWBERRY is unquestionably one of the most deli
cious of our hardy fruits. It exists in a wild state on
hedge banks, in woods, and on waste spots in this country,
and is still more abundant in the North of Europe, Sweden
especially. On the Continent, indeed, the fruits of the
Wild Strawberry are appreciated more than those of the
cultivated kinds.

In the thirteenth century mention was made in the House-
hold Roll of the Countess of Leicester of Strawberries;
and in the time of King Henry VIII. the fruit was valued
at fourpence per bushel. Strawberries appear to have
been grown in gardens at that period, but they were evi-
dently the ordinary Wild or Wood Strawberry (Fragaria
vesca). Tusser, the farmer poet, alludes to them in his
quaint verse :

" Wife, into the garden, and set me a plot
With Strawberry roots of the best to be got ;
Such growing abroad among thorns in the wood,
Well chosen and picked, grow excellent good."

This reference appeared in the sixteenth century. Ger-
arde, later in the same century, mentions the Hautbois
Strawberry (Fragaria elatior) as being grown in gardens.
Parkinson also describes the Wood and the Hautbois, also
the Virginian Strawberry, in his writings early in the
next century. In the eighteenth century the Alpine
Strawberry (Fragaria alpina) was introduced into this
country from the Continent, and apparently grown largely
in gardens.

Other kinds grown in gardens were the Scarlet or
Virginian Strawberry (Fragaria virginiana), from North
America; and the Chili Strawberry (Fragaria chiloensis),

188 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

from Chili. These, however, according to Philip Miller
(early in the eighteenth century), were not considered to
be so valuable for cultivation as the Wood Strawberry.

It was not until the beginning of the last century that
the present race of cultivated Strawberries was introduced,
the earlier types being the result of a cross between Fra-
garia virginiana (Virginian or Scarlet Strawberry) and
Fragaria chiloensis (Chili Strawberry). From these have
originated all the large-fruited kinds now in cultivation.
To-day, therefore, we have three types of Strawberries in
our gardens — the Alpine, or Small-fruited ; the Large-
fruited ; and the Perpetual. The first are esteemed for
their free and continuous-bearing qualities, also easiness
of cultivation ; the Large-fruited for size and flavour ; and
the Perpetuals for yielding a supply of berries throughout
summer and autumn. The Perpetuals are the result of a
cross between the Alpine and the Large-fruited kinds, and
they promise to become a popular type of Strawberry.

Propagation. — The Strawberry may be increased by
seeds and by runners. The former method is adopted in the
case of the Alpine varieties only, as experience has proved
that the Large-fruited kinds do not, as a rule, come true
from seeds.

To rear Alpine Strawberries from seed, the seed should
be obtained from ripe fruit by squeezing it out of the flesh
of the berry, and rubbing it in sand to cleanse it, or by
purchasing it from seedsmen. In both cases sow it in
shallow boxes of light soil in gentle heat in summer or
spring. Cover slightly with fine soil. As soon as the
seedlings can be handled, transplant them 2in. apart in
boxes, keep in a cold frame for a few weeks, then plant
out in their permanent positions. Or the seed may be
sown outdoors in March. The seedlings can either
remain where they are or be transplanted. In both cases
the plants will yield fruit the following year.

Propagation by runners is effected by severing the
strongest plantlet as soon as rooted sufficiently in the soil,

THE STRAWBERRY.

189

lifting it carefully, and then replanting in the permanent
bed. The better way, however, is to fill some 3in. pots
with good turfy soil, plunge these half their depth in the
soil near the plants, place the plantlet nearest the parent
plant on the soil, and fix it firmly thereon by means of a
peg or a stone. In this case pinch off the point of the
runner close to the plantlet. The soil in the pots must
be regularly watered in dry weather. This layering pro-
cess should be done in June or early July; then the plant-
lets will be sufficiently rooted to sever from the parent

Fig. 76. MODE OF LAYERING STRAWBERRIES.

1— Layering runners on the soil. 2— Layering runners in pots.

plant early in August. Care should be taken to select
runners only from plants that are fruiting freely, other-
wise the rooted runners may prove infertile next season.
(Fig. 76.)

Soil and Position. — The Strawberry will succeed on
most soils that are rich in humus, deeply dug, and not
too heavy or damp. Clay soils should be deeply dug,
liberally manured and limed, and have also plenty of de-
cayed refuse or grit added to them to render them porous.
Light soils require a dressing of clay or loam, and plenty

190 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

of cow or pig manure added to them to render them com-
pact and moisture- retaining. Strawberries usually do well
on land just cleared of early potatoes. The Strawberry
is a deep and free-rooting plant ; hence deep digging ot
'che soil prior to planting is most essential.

As to situation, a sunny one is indispensable. Wherever
possible the site for the beds should be one sloping to the
south, south-east, or south-west. The Alpine Strawberry
will do well on sloping banks or around the base of dwarf
fruit trees, or in borders by the side of paths.

Planting. — The surface soil should be well forked over
and made fine prior to planting. Light soils should be
made firm by treading slightly. The best time to plant
is late in July or during August, but where this is not con-
venient then plant in March. Runners rooted in pots
should be well watered prior to planting. Take out fairly
large holes for each plant, and see the roots are properly
spread out. Make the soil firm. After planting give a
good watering, and see that subsequent waterings are
given in dry weather. Do not plant too deeply, but only
so that the crown is just above the soil. In very hot
weather it is an advantage to place a flower pot over each
plant to shield it from the sun, but this should be removed
at night. (Fig. 77.)

Distances for Planting- — The usual distances are i$'m.
apart in the rows, and 3oin. between the rows. On very
rich soils it is, however, advisable to plant i8in. apart
in rows 3ft. asunder. When grown as edgings to garden
paths, plant i8in. apart, the row being a similar distance
from the path. Alpines are usually grown in beds 4ft.
wide, with ift. alleys between. The distance between
the plants should be ift.

General Cultural Details. — After planting, subsequent
cultural details consist of keeping all runners removed and
the soil free from weeds by frequent hoeing. In autumn
top-dress the bed with a layer of littery manure. The fol-

THE STRAWBERRY.

191

lowing season, as soon as the flowers appear, place a layer
of clean straw between the plants to prevent the fruit being
splashed by soil in wet weather. Should the weather be
dry, give copious supplies of water, with an occasional
application of liquid manure during the fruiting period.
Unless runners are required for planting new beds, these
should be removed as soon as they have formed. After
the crop is gathered, clear off the straw litter, also all
weeds, and likewise trim off the larger outer leaves. In

Fig-. 77. PLANTING STRAWBERRIES.

3 — Correct way to plant layers in pots. 4 — Wrong way to plant a rooted
layer. 5— Planting pot-layered runners in ground.

autumn very lightly fork over the surface soil, and again
top-dress with manure, adding also the fertilisers recom-
mended further on in this book. On no account dig be-
tween the plants with a spade.

Duration of Plantations— Experience has shown that it
is advisable not to retain plants after the third season of
fruiting. After that period the fruit usually diminishes in
size, quantity, and quality. It is a good plan to make a

192 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

plantation yearly, so as to keep up a succession of fruiting
plants. The finest fruits are borne on two-year-old plants,
and the heaviest crop on those three years old.

Thinning and Protecting the Fruit.— If exceptionally
fine berries are needed for exhibition, the flower trusses
must be thinned out early, retaining the strongest only.
Allow about a dozen fruits to form on each plant, and one
fruit only — the biggest — to develop on each peduncle. As
soon as the berries begin to colour, protect the plants
with fish-netting, or the birds will play havoc with the
fruit. Trusses bearing big fruits for exhibition should be
supported off the ground by means of a forked stick, or
by one of the wire contrivances sold for the purpose.

Alpine Strawberries. — Hints on rearing these from seed
have already been given. They may, however, be reared
from runners, as advised for the ordinary kind. The plants
should be grown ift. apart, and no runners be allowed to
form on them. Mulch with manure in autumn, and keep
free from weeds ; then the plants will fruit freely from
June to November.

Hautbois Strawberries.— A race of Strawberries re-
markable for the musky aroma of their flesh. They are,
however, very shy bearers, and few people care to grow
them in consequence. Unless great care is exercised in
securing runners from free-fruiting plants, they may prove
sterile. They should be planted i5in. apart each way.

Perpetual fruiting Strawberries. — As previously men-
tioned, this race of Strawberries is the result of a cross
between the Alpine and the ordinary Large-fruited Straw-
berries. They are of sturdy growth, and flower and fruit
continuously from May to December. The fruits are of
medium size, and borne very freely. They are suitable
for small gardens, and should be planted isin. apart in
rows 2ft. asunder. In all other respects treat them as
advised for the ordinary kind.

EARLY STRAWBERRY, AUGUSTE NICAISK.
Season : June

LATE STRAWBERRY, ELEANOR.
Season : July.

THE STRAWBERRY. 193

Pests.— The leaves are liable to be infested with the
Strawberry Aphis and the caterpillars of various moths.
Eelworms also attack the roots and foliage. Snails and
slugs attack both leaves and fruit. Birds and millepeds
also attack the fruit.

Diseases.— The Strawberry-leaf Spot and the Straw-
berry Mildew do injury to the foliage. See chapter on
" Pests."

Six Early Strawberries.

Black Prince.— A very early variety. Free bearer.
Fruit, medium-sized. Colour, dark, almost black. Fla-
vour, rich. Good for dessert or preserving.

King George V. — A grand, new, early variety, the result
of a cross between Royal Sovereign and Louis Gauthier.
Fruit, very large, conical. Colour, bright scarlet. Flavour,
delicious ; flesh, orange-red. A very heavy cropper.

King of the Earlies. — A prolific variety. Fruit, small
to medium. Colour, crimson. Flavour, rich, juicy, with
a pine aroma. Excellent.

Noble (Laxton's). — A large-fruited variety. Fruit, very
large, broadly conical. Colour, bright crimson. Flavour,
moderate. Very heavy cropper.

Royal Sovereign. — A popular variety. Fruit, very large,
conical, or flattened. Colour, glossy scarlet. Flavour,
rich. Free cropper.

Scarlet Queen. — A handsome variety. Fruit, large and
conical. Colour, vermilion-scarlet. Flavour, very rich.
Free cropper.

Six Mid season Strawberries.

Gunton Park.— A good bearer. Fruit, extra large,
wedge-shaped. Colour, dark crimson-scarlet. Flavour,
pleasant and brisk.

194 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

James Veitch. — A hardy and prolific variety. Fruit,
very large, conical, wedge-shaped. Colour, scarlet. Fla-
vour, sweet.

Maincrop (Laxton's). — An exceptionally good main crop
variety. Fruit, very large, broadly conical. Colour, rich
scarlet. Flavour, first-rate. Good firm flesh. Crops
heavily.

Monarch (Laxton's). — A prolific variety. Fruit, very
large, wedge-shaped. Colour, brilliant scarlet. Flavour,
rich.

President. — An old but good variety. Fruit, large, coni-
cal. Colour, crimson-scarlet. Flavour, good. Prolific.

Sir Joseph Paxton. — A very hardy and free-cropping
variety. Fruit, large, conical. Colour, bright scarlet.
Flavour, good. The best mid-season Strawberry.

Six Late Strawberries.

British Queen. — The best-flavoured Strawberry. Fruit,
large, conical or wedge-shaped. Colour, pale red. Fla-
vour, delicious. Requires a well-drained soil and a warm
position.

Dr. Hogg. — A hardy, free-bearing, and good-flavoured
variety. Fruit, large, wedge-shaped. Colour, bright
scarlet. Flavour, rich, aromatic. Requires a rich soil.

Elton. — One of the oldest varieties. Good sort for pre-
serving purposes. Fruit, medium-sized, conical. Colour,
glossy scarlet. Flavour, brisk, sub-acid. Prolific.

Frogmore Late Pine.— Fruit, large, conical. Colour,
scarlet. Flavour, rich, aromatic.

Latest of All. — A prolific and good variety. Fruit, very
large, oblong. Colour, crimson. Flavour, juicy, rich.

THE STRAWBERRY. 195

Waterloo. — A popular late variety. Fruit, very large,
globular. Colour, dark crimson. Flavour, juicy, very
rich.

Alpine Strawberries. — The following varieties are
worthy of cultivation: Alpine White, white berries; Belle
de Meaux, crimson berries; Pink Pearl, pink berries; and
Sutton's Large Red Alpine, one of the best and most pro-
lific varieties, easily reared from seed.

Perpetual Strawberries.— The best sorts are Laxton's
Perpetual, Atkin's Continuity, St. Antoine de Padoue, and
St. Joseph.

ADDITIONAL VARIETIES.

Early.

Vicomtesse Hericart de Thury. — An old free^fruiting
variety ; good for preserving. Fruit, medium-sized, coni-
cal. Colour, bright red. Flesh, pale red, firm, and solid.

Mid=season.

Louis Gauthier. — An enormous cropper. Fruit, very large,
rO'undish. Colour, peach-pink. Flesh, lemon-white, soft. Fla-
vour,juicy and melting. Very hardy ;good for town gardens.

Fillbasket. — An old but very prolific variety. Fruit,
large, long and conical. Colour, glossy scarlet. Flesh, pale,
firm, and juicy. Flavour, sweet and aromatic. Very hardy.

The Earl. — A vigorous and free bearer. Fruit, large,
conical. Colour, bright red. Flesh, pale, firm, and very
solid. Flavour, rich and juicy. A fine variety for preserving.

Late.

Givon's Late Prolific. — Free grower and heavy cropper.
Fruit, very large, roundish-oval. Colour, dull crimson.
Flesh, firm. Flavour, rich and brisk. A good very late sort.

Eleanor. — A good old compact-growing variety. Fruit,
large, conical, or wedge-shaped. Colour, carmine-red.
Flesh, red and firm. Flavour, sub-acid and brisk. Does
well in dry seasons.

196 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

CHAPTER XXIV.
The Strawberry=Raspberry.

SOME years ago a fruiting plant was introduced into this
country under the above name, and we believe several speci-
mens were planted, but, so far as we know, they have
never yielded very remarkable results. According to Mr.
F. W. Card, in an American book on " Bush Fruits "
(Macmillan and Co.), the above plant belongs to a species
found wild in Japan, China, and the East Indies, and is
botanically known as Rubus rosaefolius. When first intro-
duced it was reputed to be a hybrid between the Straw-
berry and the Raspberry, but according to the foregoing
facts this is a pure myth.

The plant is herbaceous in habit, that is, like the autumn-
bearing Raspberries, its shoots die down to the ground
in winter, new growths appearing in spring. The foliage
is of a pleasing light green tint, the leaflets narrow and
borne five to seven on a stalk, and elegantly serrated on
the margins. The blossoms are pure white, very attractive
and fragrant. The berries are more or less globular,
bright red in colour, but somewhat insipid and sour in a
fresh state, but when cooked are said to make a palatable
syrup.

Mr. Card says the plant is unproductive in America, but
he notes that Messrs. Laxton Bros, describe it in their list
as being both hardy and prolific. One good trait in its
character is it is immune from insect attacks. In any
case we have had no experience in its culture, and, con-
sidering that the flavour is admitted to be poor, we do not
think the Strawberry-Raspberry is a fruit that is worth
cultivation except as a curiosity. If grown at all, it should
be accorded similar treatment to the autumn-fruiting Rasp-
berries.

THE WALNUT. 197

CHAPTER XXV.
The Walnut.

THE WALNUT (Juglans regia) is a native of Persia and
Asia Minor, and a deciduous tree of noble habit when full
grown. The Grecians apparently introduced it from its
native habitat, and cultivated it extensively under the name
of the " Royal Nut." From thence it was introduced to
Italy in the reign of the Emperor Tiberius ; and the nuts
were, says Pliny, honoured with the name of " Jupiter's
Nuts." They were evidently highly esteemed by the
Romans, for, says Pliny, "The more walnuts one eats
with more ease will he drive worms out of his stomach,
and that, eaten before meals, they lessen the effects of
any poisonous food; eaten after onions, they keep them
from rising, and prevent the disagreeable smell." The
exact date of the introduction into England is not known,
but a writer named Turner remarks in 1551 : " It is so
well knowen in all countries that I nede not to describe."
Gerarde, at the close' of the same century, wrote: " The
Walnut tree groweth in fields neere common highwaies, in
a fat and fruitful ground, and in orchards." It is said
that in excavating the soil for the foundations of the Royal
Exchange, the shell of a walnut was unearthed 35ft. below
the surface, so that the Romans may have first introduced
the tree here.

At the present day one or more fine old trees are grown
in most old gardens or orchards, and the nuts are held in
high esteem in a ripe state for dessert, also in a green state
for pickling. In fact, a large and fruitful tree is a source
of considerable revenue to many a cottager and farmer.
The Walnut would doubtless be grown more extensively
than it is if it were not for the fact that it is so liable to
injury by spring frosts and severe winters, and cannot

198 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

therefore be relied upon to yield crops, as in the warmer
climate of France, Italy, etc.

Propagation. — Although readily reared from seed, trees
thus obtained rarely fruit satisfactorily. Seedlings make
good ornamental trees for yielding timber, and that is all
that can be said in their favour. An exception must, how-
ever, be made of one variety, known as Juglans fertilis.
this coming true from nuts. Other methods are flute-
budding in September and saddle-grafting in late April or
May. Considerable skill is required to carry each method
out successfully, and therefore it is better to purchase
trees frpm a nursery.

Soil and Situation. — It may truly be said that, where
apples will thrive, so will walnuts. The ideal soil would
be a calcareous loam resting on a gravelly subsoil. Ex-
posed or low-lying, damp positions, are quite unsuitable.
A position, too, sheltered from north or east winds is very
desirable.

Planting. — The best time to plant is in October ; or,
failing then, in March. Take care to purchase trees that
have been frequently transplanted, and have a fair amount
of fibrous roots. Trees that are over large, more than
four or five years' old, and have few fibrous roots, should
be avoided. Make fairly large holes, so that the roots can
be spread out fully, and see the soil is made firm. Do
not plant less than 5oft. apart. See they are securely
staked, and during the first season have their roots kept
moist. Before planting it is well to trench each site 2ft.
to 3ft. deep, and 8ft. wide, so as to give the trees a good
start.

Mode of Bearing. — The flowers are ufli-sexual — i.e.,
male and female, borne separately on the same trees. The
males are borne in drooping catkins, and the females either
singly or in clusters of three, and cup-shaped, at the ter-
minals of the shoots. The males generally appear first,

THE WALNUT. 199

and if these should be injured by frost no nuts can form.
Some trees, moreover, are shy in producing male flowers,
in which case they do not bear freely.

Pruning. — The Walnut requires no pruning beyond re-
moving dead or sickly wood. There is a common belief
that Walnut trees bear more freely if their branches are
well beaten, hence the old doggerel:

"A woman, a dog, and a walnut tree,
The more you beat them, the better they be."

This is a great mistake; it is liable to bruise the branches,
and set up decay. Leave the trees to nature, and they
will take care of themselves.

Gathering and Storing the Nuts.— For pickling purposes
they should be gathered by hand in June. For storing
in a ripe state the nuts are usually ripe in October. The
best way is to allow the nuts to fall off as they ripen, then
pick them up. But where there is any risk in leaving the
nuts to fall naturally, the branches should be lightly
beaten with a long pole to cause the nuts to fall off. After
gathering store them in a thin layer in any cool, airy
place until the husks naturally split ; then remove the nuts
and again spread them out to dry, after which place them
in a sack and shake them backwards and forwards to get
them clean ready for storing. The best method of storing
is in shallow alternate layers of sand, a little salt being
sprinkled over the nuts before adding the sand. Store
thus in casks or jars. Should the kernels get shrivelled
remove them from the shells, and soak them for a few
hours in milk and water, when they will regain their
normal plumpness.

Pests. — Lice attack the under and upper sides of the
leaves, and Leaf-gall Mite causes bladder-like swellings on
the leaves. Rooks, squirrels, and rats also eat the nuts.

200 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Varieties.

Following are the varieties in cultivation :

Common. — Fruit, oval, medium-sized. Kernel, sweet
and full. A good bearer, and hardy.

>

Dwarf Prolific. — Fruit, oval and large. Kernel, full
and of good flavour. Of moderate growth. Comes into
bearing when three years old, and does well grown as
a pyramid. Often does not produce male blossoms till
several years old ; hence, unless other and older trees bear-
ing male flowers are near at hand, the trees do not always
bear freely.

Thin-shelled.— Fruit, oblong and double. Shell, very
thin. Kernels, large, plump, full, and tender. Flavour,
excellent. Early and free bearer. The best variety.

Yorkshire. — Fruit, medium-sized. Shell, thin. Kernel,
plump. Flavour, very good. A hardy and free bearer.

M -

H C/3

THE WALNUT,

THE WINEBERRY. 201

CHAPTER XXVI.
The Wineberry.

THIS is a species of Raspberry, botanically known as
Rubus phsenicolasius, which was originally discovered
growing wild in the mountains of Central and Northern
Japan. It appears that seeds of it were sent by a Mr.
J. T. Lovett in 1887 to Professor C. Georgeson, of Kansas,
U.S.A. In 1889 he sold his stock of plants to Mr. John
Lewis Child, the well-known American florist and seeds-
man, who placed it in commerce-

The plant grows 3ft. to 6ft. high, has rambling canes
thickly covered with red hairs and weak prickles, light
green leaves having a whitish under-surface, and fair-
sized berries, which are white at first and red when ripe.
Until the berries are ripe they are enclosed within large,
hairy, viscous sepals. They are sweet and agreeable in
flavour, and, as they all ripen at the same time on each
spray, the sprays can be cut off and dished up thus for
dessert. The berries are also good for making jams or
jellies. It appears that the Wineberry does not succeed
well in America, but in many districts in this country it
has done fairly well.

Culture. — The plant is propagated by 'layering the tips
of the shoots, as advised for the Loganberry, which see.
Any good ordinary soil will suit the Wineberry, if it is
deeply dug and well manured prior to planting. Plant
in autumn or March, 4ft. apart each way, and treat it
as advised for the Loganberry and Blackberry in the
matter of pruning, training, feeding, etc.

Part IL-PRACTICAL WORK.

CHAPTER I.
Propagation of Fruit Trees.

FRUIT trees are propagated by means of seeds, budding,
cuttings, grafting, and layering.

By Seeds. — This method is only practised for rearing
new sorts of fruits after careful cross-fertilisation, with
the specific view of obtaining an improved variety or
varieties, or for the purpose of obtaining trees intended
to serve as stocks for budding or grafting thereon existing
varieties of fruits. No useful purpose is served by rearing
fruit trees from seeds in an ordinary haphazard way, as,
unless the flowers were carefully fertilised beforehand with
a definite object in view, the resultant seedlings, after
years of cultivation, would, in all probability, turn out
worthless. In a general way, therefore, rearing fruit
trees from seed is not to be recommended.

Assuming, however, seeds of Apples and Pears have
been obtained as a result of definite cross-fertilisa-
tion, with a view to obtaining a new variety, sow
them as soon as ripe, in pots of light, sandy
soil, in a cold frame. Do not give much water
till spring. When the seedlings are4 3in. high, plant
them out i8in. apart in rows 3ft. asunder. Let them

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES. 203

remain there for one year ; then transplant them 3ft. apart
in rows 6ft. asunder. As soon as the branches meet,
again lift and replant loft, apart each way. The seedlings
of Apples usually commence to bear fruit wheri seven to
ten years old, and those of Pears when twelve to fifteen
years old. <r If the fruit produced promises to be a distinct
novelty, then take scions from the tree, and graft them
on the Crab or the Paradise stock in the case of Apples ?
and the Quince for Pears.

Crabs for forming stocks for grafting Apples on should
be reared as follows. Extract the pips from ripe Crabs in
the autumn, and store them in sand till spring; then sow
them in drills lin. deep and 6in. apart. The seeds should
be placed 3in. apart in the drills. The following autumn
transplant the seedlings ift. apart in rows 3ft. asunder.
Shorten the tap roots about half-way. The next autumn
again transplant 3ft. apart, and the third year transplant
6ft. apart. When the stems are fin. in diameter they are
ready for grafting.

Apricot seeds (stones) should be sown as soon as ripe
(August or September) 6in. apart in drills 2in. deep and
6in. asunder, in a warm, sheltered border. The following
autumn lift the seedlings, shorten the tap-roots, and re-
plant 2ft. apart in rows 3ft. asunder. The trees begin to
yield fruit when five to seven years old.

Plums, Bullaces, and Damsons are reared in the same
way. If to be used as stocks for budding, the seedlings
should be cut back close to the soil in February after the
first transplanting.

Cherry stones sow in the same manner as soon as ripe.
Transplant the seedlings the second year ift. apart in
rows 3ft. asunder. If required as stocks for budding, bud
them the following summer; but if to be fruited, trans-
plant the next autumn 2ft. apart in rows. 4ft. asunder.

Peaches, Almonds, and Nectarines, sow as advised for
Apricots. If to be used as stocks, bud the seedlings when
two years old. Plums, Peaches, Cherries, and Nectarines
begin to bear fruit when five to seven years old.

204 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Medlars are reared from seed for yielding stocks for
grafting superior varieties on. Sow the seeds' when ripe
in pots of sandy soil in a cold frame. The seeds take two
years to vegetate. Grow in the pots till autumn, then
plant 2ft. apart, and graft the following year.

Figs rarely do well reared from seeds. Procure seeds
from the finest ripe fruits, wash them free from pulp,
store till January, then sow in light soil in heat. When
the seedlings are a couple of inches high plant them singly
in small pots, and grow on under glass. Seedlings fruit
when five to six years old.

Mulberry seeds should be collected from large ripe
fruits, washing them in water to get rid of the pulp. Sow
them at once in light soil in pots under glass, keep them
there till May, then plant outdoors ift. apart in rows 2ft.
asunder. A year or so later plant them where they are
required to grow permanently. Seedlings do not begin
to fruit until they are fifteen to twenty years old.

Walnuts sow, with their shells intact, as soon as ripe,
3in. deep and 6in. apart in drills i8in. asunder. In the
autumn of the second year, lift and replant ift. apart in
rows 3ft. asunder. Two years later lift and replant 3ft.
apart in rows 6ft. asunder ; and when five years old plant
out permanently. They will begin to fruit when about
ten years old.

Filberts and Cobnuts store in sand till March, then sow
6in. apart and 2in. deep in rows ift. apart. Two years
later transplant the seedlings i5»n. apart in rows 3ft.
asunder. Plant out permanently when five years old. The
seedlings commence to bear when eight to ten years old.
Gooseberries and Currants are rarely reared from seed,
because a large percentage of the seedlings prove worth-
less. However, the seeds should be sown in boxes of
light soil in a cold frame, or in the open garden, as soon
as ripe. Transplant the seedlings as soon as they can
be safely handled 6in. apart in rows ift. asunder. When
three years old plant out permanently. Both begin to
bear fruit when four years old.

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES. 205

Raspberry seeds should be collected from ripe fruits,
and be well washed in water to get rid of the pulp. Sow
them at once in light, sandy soil, in a cold frame. In
spring plant out the seedlings 6in. apart in rows ift.
asunder. The following autumn relift and plant in a
permanent position, and cut the canes off close to the
ground. In the third year the seedlings will begin to
bear fruit.

Strawberries, such as the Alpine kinds, are easily
reared from seeds. Separate the latter from the pulp by
repeated washings, and then sow them at once broadcast
and thinly in a sheltered spot in the garden. Lightly rake
the seeds in. Seeds of the choice varieties, saved from
fertilised flowers, should be sown in sandy soil, in pots
or pans, in a cold frame, as soon as ripe. Transplant
the seedlings early 2in. to 3in. apart in boxes, and plant
out later in the garden. The former bear fruit the first,
and the latter the second year.

Budding. — Budding, or bud-grafting, is a method of
propagation employed in the rearing of Peaches, Plums,
Nectarines, and Cherries, and also occasionally for the
Apple and Pear. It consists of transferring a wood bud
from some superior variety of fruit tree to the rind, or
bark, of a commoner kind, called the stock. The usual
form of budding practised is known as " shield-budding."
It is practised in summer on shoots of the current year's
growth. The advantage of budding Apple and Pear
stocks is, if the buds should fail, grafting can be resorted
to in spring. The modus operand* of budding is as fol-
lows :

First of all, the bud is selected from a healthy shoot
of the current year's growth. This should be of a fairly
plump nature. With the budding-knife cut out the bud
in a semi-circular shape from the shoot, and about an inch
in length. Next cut off the leaf, leaving the petiole intact.
Now, with the point of the knife, seize hold of the wood
under the bud, and pull it away from the rind. If a hole

206 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

is seen at the base of the bud, the latter is useless ; there-
fore select a fresh one which shows no hole when the wood
is re'moved. The bud and its shield of bark are now ready,
and should be placed in the mouth or in a vessel of water
to keep moist until the stock is prepared for their reception.

The next step is to prepare the stock. About two days
before the budding is performed, rub off all side shoots
that grow nearer than six inches from the soil. Now, with
the knife, make a transverse incision in the bark 6in. from
the ground, and then an upright one lin. long, so that the
cut represents the letter T. With the bone handle of the
budding-knife raise the bark carefully on each side of the
cut; then get the bud and insert the lower end of the
shield under this, and gently press it down to the base of
the vertical cut. If the upper end of the shield projects
above the cross cut, cut it off even with the latter. Next
get a piece of bast, or yarn, and bind this round firmly,
above and below the bud, to exclude the air, and press
the inner side of the shield firmly on to the wood of the
stock.

The operation is now complete. All that remains is to
see that no new shoots form below the bud. In autumn
cut the stock back to 2in. above the bud, and a month
after budding unloosen the ligature to allow the stock to
expand. The next year, when the shoot produced from
the bud has grown about ift. long, cut the main stem
back to i in. above the bud, and in a position sloping away
from it, and coat this wound with grafting wax. Budding
may be practised from June to September.

Cuttings. — Such fruit trees as Currants, Gooseberries,
Figs, etc., are readily increased by cuttings of the ripened
current year's shoots. Apple and Pear trees may also be
reared from cuttings, but, as trees so reared grow slowly,
this method is not practised except for rearing trees for
pot culture.

Gooseberry and Currant cuttings should be prepared
from shoots about Sin. long. Cut the base off straight

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES. 207

across, close to a joint, and also remove the soft unripened
point close to a bud. All buds on the lower half of each
cutting should be removed, allowing about three to remain
at the top. Open drills about 4in. deep, and put an inch
or so of gritty soil in the bottom. Arrange the cuttings
3in. apart in a vertical position along one side of the drill,
and then fill up with ordinary soil, and tread down firmly.
Do this in September or October, and lift and replant the
rooted plants the following autumn.

Cuttings of Apples and Pears should be about ift. long,
have a base, or " heel," of two-year-old wood attached,
and the buds removed From the lower half of each. The
prepared cuttings should then be inserted 6in. deep, as
advised for currants, taking care to make the soil firm.
They should not be disbudded till the autumn of the second
year. Insert in autumn.

Fig cuttings should be selected from sturdy, short-
jointed shoots, and have an inch or so of older wood at-
tached to their base. Cut off the soft joints to a bud.
Insert these so that the upper bud only shows above the
soil. October is a good time to put in the cuttings. In
severe weather protect the cuttings by a covering of litter.

Mulberries are readily reared from cuttings in autumn.
The latter should be prepared from the current year's
shoots, a foot or so long, and have about an inch of older
wood attached to the base. After removing the soft tips
insert the cuttings 6in. deep in firm soil in autumn, and
do not transplant for two years. Another form of Mulberry
cutting is made by taking a branch about 3ft. long, and
inserting this i8in. deep where it is required to grow. This
is called a " truncheon cutting."

Raspberry canes of the current year's growth, well
ripened, and about ift. long, will root fairly freely if
inserted in a shady north border in autumn.

Layering. — A simple method of propagation. It con-
sists of burying a portion of a shoot in soil without re-
moving it until rooted from the parent plant: Quince and

MS FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Paradise stocks for budding and grafting are reared thus.
To obtain a supply of shoots for this purpose in the case
of the Quince or the Paradise Apple, trees are cut down
to the ground when young, and from the stumps a cluster
of young shoots develop. Such trees are technically
termed " stools," and they are never permitted to form
branches; consequently, as years go on, these "stools"
annually yield a crop of shoots. The shoots are bent
down in the same manner as a carnation is layereB, a
notch cut in the underside of the shoot, and a peg inserted
to keep it in position, and then covered with sandy soil,
leaving the ends exposed. This is done in autumn, and
the layers are severed from the parent plant the succeeding
autumn.

Raspberries, Loganberries, and Wineberries are also
layered by simply bending down the points of the shoots
to the soil, securing them by a peg, and covering the bent
portion with soil.

Strawberries are layered by merely pegging the little
plantlets formed on the runners to the surface of the soil.
As a rule, one plant only should be permitted to develop
on each runner, all others being removed.

Suckers. — These are shoots which issue from the roots.
Some varieties of Plums and Damsons produce suckers
freely, but these do not make satisfactory trees, as they
are liable later to produce suckers freely. It is different
with the sucker growths of the Raspberry and Blackberry ;
they may be relied upon to produce good healthy plants,
and to fruit freely. The same remarks apply to the Fil-
bert and Cobnut.

Grafting. — Mr. J. C. Newsham, F.L.S., contributed the
following lucid description, with sketches, on the art of
grafting, to the pages of " Farm and Garden," and we
cannot do better than reproduce them here:

" The nurseryman who makes a special study of graft-
ing has many objects to bear in mind in order to arrive

DESSERT PEAR, DOYENNE DU COMICE.

Season : October and November.

DESSERT PEAR, NOUVELLE FULVIE.
Season : November to February.

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES.

209

at the desired results, and among his principal reasons
for grafting are the following:

" (i) To increase the stock of those plants which cannot
readily be raised from seeds, cuttings, or other rapid means
of propagation ; also those which do not fruit freely when
growing on their own roots. Thus, when grafted, fruit is
produced in the course of a few years, whereas, had the
plant been allowed to continue its natural growth, ten
or even twenty years might elapse before the tree became
sufficiently matured to produce a heavy crop.

Fig. 78. SCIONS FOR GRAFTING FRUIT TREES.

A and S, suitable shoots to form scions ; A, however, is more preferable
because better shaped. C, scions tied together.

** (2) To keep the varieties of plants true to their charac-
ter, as many plants, such as Apples and other varieties
of fruits, when raised from seed, revert to types of inferior
quality to the parent.

" (3) ^7 tne aid °f gr&ftmg, the natural habit of a plant
can be altered, and this process usually takes the form
of * dwarfing,' which is so essential to their arrangement
and growth in gardens of limited area, and where the sur-

210

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

rounding ground is under cultivation. Old trees bearing
fruit of inferior quality can be cut down early in the year
and regrafted; also espalier and wall trees can be reno-
vated.

' The various stocks used in grafting influence the
colour and flavour of fruit, and are also adaptable to a
greater range of climate and soil than when the plant is
dependent on its own roots. Trees bearing many of the
finer flavoured fruits are so weakly constituted that, were

Fig. 79. SCIONS FOR GRAFTING FRUIT TREES.

D, Bunch buried or heeled in the rig-ht depth in soil to await grafting1.

it not possible to impart strength and longevity by trans-
ferring them to stronger-constituted stocks, their cultiva-
tion could not possibly be pursued with successful results.
Stocks of various kinds can be purchased very cheaply,
and are imported in large quantities from the Continent
at prices at which it could not possibly repay many home
growers to produce them. This, however, is a matter
which may be left to the nurseryman, and it is more to

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES.

211

the advantage of growers to. purchase what stocks they
require from the nursery ; and it will suffice to say that
all stocks to be grafted should be possessed of strong,
vigorous root action ; otherwise it cannot be expected that
they will produce strong, healthy shoots. Where it is
intended to raise standard or espalier Apples, either the
Crab or Seedling Apple stock is usually employed, while
for bush Apples the Paradise stock is to be recommended.
Seedling Pears and the Quince are generally used for

Fig. 80.
WHIP OR TONGUE GRAFTING.

Fig-. 81.
CROWN OR RIND GRAFTING.

Left-hand figure shows the stock pre- Adapted for grafting old or largre

pared to receive the scion. Middle figure trees. The rigfht-hand figure shows the

is the prepared scion. Right-hand figure scion or shoot prepared for insertion in

shows the scion fixed in position on the the branch or stock.

stock

Pears ; whilst Plums are grafted on the common or seed-
ling Plum and Cherry Plum stocks. The Mahaleb and
Wild Cherry are used for Cherries ; while for Peaches and
Nectarines the Almond is in common use. The Apricot
can also be grafted on to the latter stock.

** In the case of young stocks, whip or tongue grafting
is usually employed, and can be best accomplished in dull,
calm weather. With a sharp knife the graft must be cut

212

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

in a sloping direction, the top end of the cut being oppo-
site a bud, as illustrated (Fig. So). The cut surface must
then be placed against the stock, and a cut made in the
latter at a similar angle to that of the graft. This cut
should be made close to the ground. A notch can then
be made in the lower end of the stock, and the extremity
of the tongue be se'curely inserted into it. In order to
keep the scion securely in position, and to prevent dis-
turbance by wind, the joint can be bound with raffia, and
the whole made secure and air-tight by a thick coating

Fig-. 82. CLEFT GRAFTING.

In this method the stock is split -open
to receive two scions. Not so good a plan
as Crown or Rind grafting (Fig. 81).

Fig. 83. SADDLE GRAFTING.

A method suitable for young trees
where the stock and scion are of the
same size.

of wax or some other suitable composition. Great care,
too, must be taken to see that the bark of the scion fits
exactly over that of the' stock on one side at least, other-
wise the two cannot properly unite.

" Crown or rind grafting (Fig. 81) is usually pursued
in the case of large orchard trees which have become
unproductive. They should be cut back some few weeks
before grafting-, and, when the operator is about to com-
mence, a further portion of the branch should be cut off,

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES.

213

the cut end b6ing pared over with a knife (Fig. 84). A slit
should then be made in the stock between the bark and the
wood ; and the graft, after having been prepared in the
manner illustrated, is inserted. Several grafts may be
made in this manner in order to provide against dis-
appointment in one particular case, and, should all the
grafts develop growth, the healthiest and strongest must
be selected, and the others cut away.

" Another method is cleft grafting (Fig. 82). The branch

Fig. 84. OLD TREES PREPARED FOR RE-GRAFTING.

Showing- the branches headed back in winter to a foot from their base ready
for crown or cleft grafting in March.

on which it is intended to cleft graft the scion must be split,
and the opening held apart by a wedge. The graft must
then be cut in the form of a wedge, so as exactly to fit
the sides of the cleft, and the whole joint should be firmly
bound and covered with a sufficient quantity of wax to
allow the wounds time to heal, and also to exclude decay
and insect pests from the inner part of the cleft.

" Saddle grafting (Fig. 83), as the name implies, is a
form of grafting which consists of a scion, cut in the
form of a saddle, which fits on to a * wedge ' made by

214

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

cutting a slice off each side of the stock. Both ends of
the graft may be inserted under the ends of the stock, and
the whole secured by raffia and waxed over. Young and
vigorous wood must be selected for this form of grafting,
and it is essential that the stock and scion should be of
the same thickness in order that the inner barks may be
in their proper position. When grafted in this manner

\JJ

Fig. 85. RESULT OF GRAFTING
AN OLD TREE.

The scions shown are the second year's
growth, the first year's being shortened
half way the previous winter.

Fig-. 86. SIDE GRAFTING.

A simple method of adding- a new
branch to a tree to improve its shape.
The back of the stock is prepared in the
same way as for budding, and the scion
inserted thereunder.

the young scions quickly grow over the stock, and make
very successful plants.

" It will be observed that, after grafting has been per-
formed, the young stocks will put forth buds and shoots,
and when the grafts have developed into growth these
buds should be gradually shortened back and ultimately

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES.

215

removed. The wax or composition to be employed for
the purpose of protecting the cut surfaces or wounds is
to be obtained in a variety of forms. Perhaps the sim-
plest form is a composition of well-rotted or rain-washed
horse dung, mixed with fine clay to the consistency of
wax or putty. The modelling clay known as ' Plasticine '
is also useful for this purpose.'*

: VY*^

i#. 87. SIDE GRAFT SECURED Fig. 88. SIDE GRAFT COATED
IN POSITION. WITH CLAY.

Raffia is used for binding the stick and
scion together.

This is necessary to exclude the air
and keep the wound moist.

Side Grafting (Fig. 86) is a form of grafting especially
suitable for renovating espalier-trained Apple or Pear trees.
Supposing, for example, that a large Pear or Apple tree
has lost one of its side branches, it is possible to graft a
new branch on the main stem to take its place. Or, on
the other hand, assuming that you have a healthy large

216 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

tree that refuses to bear fruit satisfactorily, instead of
digging up and replacing it by a young tree, the branches
can be sawn off to within a foot of the main stem, as is
done in the case of old standards and scions whip grafted
on the stumps. A tree grafted thus is shown in accom-
panying sketch. The process is carried out precisely as
directed for whip grafting in the ordinary way in above
paragraphs. Another method of side grafting is to make
a T-like incision in the bark, as is done for budding, and
then to raise the bark on each of the long incisions. You
next take a small branch about Sin. long to form the scion,
shave off the lower end to a wedge shape on one side, and
then gently push this portion under the raised bark, just
as would the shield of a bud when budding. All that
remains is to bandage the wound round with twine, and
then cover all with grafting wax or clay, as shown in
accompanying sketches (Figs. 87 and 88). Both methods
are easy to carry out.

Time to Graft. — The best time for grafting young trees
is in April, and older ones towards the end of April or early
in May. The sap is then in a sufficiently active condition
to unite to form a callus or union with the scion. The
latter, of course, must not be so forward in activity as the
stock. The scions (Figs. 78 and 79) should be procured in
winter, and burie'd two-thirds of their length in sand or
soil on the north side of a wall to keep the sap dormant.

Subsequent Treatment of Grafted Trees.— As soon as
the scions have made new shoots about six inches or so
long, the grafting wax or clay covering should be removed
and the material used for tying unloosened slightly to allow
for expansion of the bark. It is also, as a precaution
against injury by wind, a good plan to affix a stake firmly to
each scion and its growths.

PLANTING. 217

CHAPTER II.
Planting.

FAIRLY full and concise instructions on the subject of
preparing the sites and planting have been given in con-
nection with each kind of fruit, but there are a few im-
portant additional points that must be mentioned in this
chapter.

Choosing the Site. — Some consideration as to choice
of site must be given where an orchard or plantation of
fruit is proposed to be formed. As far as possible avoid
choosing a site near to a river or lake, or one that is
naturally low and damp. The reason for taking this
precaution is obvious. Excessive moisture would natur-
ally be deposited on the flowers, and, in the event of
early morning frosts occurring, the latter would easily
have their delicate organs frozen, and hence be rendered
incapable of fertilisation. Cold and bleak uplands should
also be avoided, because of the risk of the tender blossoms
being injured by cold winds. The ideal situation for
forming a fruit plantation is one sloping to the south-
west or west, and with ample protection from north and
east winds. Even in small gardens the latter precaution
is desirable.

Shelter. — Some means of sheltering fruit trees from
exposure to north and east winds is imperative. In
gardens this may be accomplished to a great extent by
high walls, 8 to 10 or i2ft. high; but in the case of fruit
plantations it will be necessary, if there are no hills or
woods to form a natural shelter from the north and east,
to plant a belt of forest trees on the northern and eastern
boundaries. The best evergreen trees for forming a

218 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

shelter in a few years are the Scotch fir, Austrian and
Corsican pines. Excellent trees to mix alternately with
the foregoing are the mountain ash, Huntingdon and
Cornish elms, birch, Lombardy and balsam poplars, and
the beech. Plant 5ft. apart in the first instance, and
afterwards gradually thin out as the branches meet,
finally leaving the evergreens mainly to form the per-
manent shelter. Where the exposure is not very serious
a row of Damson trees will form an adequate shelter.

Sites for Planting. — Directions have been given for
preparing these in the ordinary way. Where, however,
the orchard or plantation is an extensive one, and the
soil is difficult to deal with, the best plan is to adopt the
.modern idea of forming them by using explosives. For
example, make a hole 3ft. to 4ft. deep in the centre of
the site, and then put in a charge of 6 to 1202. of Curtis
and Harvey's " Gelignite," or 7 to 1202. of their " Ched-
dite," attached to a safety fuse or to an electric shot-firing
battery. On the charge being exploded, the soil will be
broken up to a good depth and width, and the only thing
necessary twenty-four hours later will be to shovel out the
loose soil and plant the tree. This modern method, which
is invented by Curtis and Harvey, Cannon Street House,
Cannon Street, London, E.C. , enables the sites for each
tree to be more quickly and thoroughly prepared than is
possible in the ordinary way. We advise those con-
templating planting fruit trees to a large extent to write
Messrs. Curtis and Harvey for detailed instructions.

Drainage. — Land that is at all damp should be tho-
roughly drained before planting is attempted. To ascer-
tain if drainage is necessary, dig test holes 3ft. deep in
various parts of the field. If water quickly collects in
these the land needs draining. The drains should be put
in 3ft. deep and i5ft. apart. The branch drain-pipes
should be 2^in. in diameter, and these be connected to a
3in. main drain. Very damp land would be better drained

PLANTING. 219

with 3111. branch pipes connected to a 4-in. main. The
average cost of drainage per acre is about £8 to £9.
Since draining, to be effective, must be carried out skil-
fully, we recommend the reader to get an expert to carry
out such work.

Treatment of Trees before Planting. — When trees
arrive from the nursery they should be unpacked, and if
their roots are dry be at once immersed in water for an
hour. If they cannot be planted at once, open a shallow
trench, place the roots in this, and then cover with soil.
During the process of planting do not expose the roots
long to the air, but cover them with an old sack or mat.
Carefully examine the roots also on arrival, and if any
are bruised or damaged cut off the injured portion to a
healthy part. Jagged or bruised roots, unless cut off, are
liable to be attacked later on by canker.

Depth for Planting. — The general and safe rule for
planting is not to bury the stem deeper than the soil
mark — that is, the mark on the main stem which shows
the height to which the soil attained when the tree was
growing in the nursery. This would mean that the top
layer of roots would not be buried deeper than about
three inches. On heavy or damp soils it is advisable to
place the roots level with the surface of the soil, and to
cover them with soil so that a shallow sloping mound is
formed.

Planting. — In planting spread the roots out equally in
all directions, and do not attempt to twist them round to
fit the hole ; rather take care to widen the hole to allow
the roots to be spread out to their full length. Cover the
roots, first of all, with fine soil, free from manure, and
give the tree a gentle shake to settle the soil about the
roots. Add more soil, and then firmly tread it, and
finally add the remaining mould, afterwards mulching the
surface with strawy manure. Trees to be planted against

220

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

a wall or fence should not be planted nearer to the latter
than six inches. (Figs. 89 and 90.)

Time to Plant. —The best time to do this is in October
or November, but it may be safely done from then up to
the end of March, provided the weather be favourable.

PLANTING,

221

It is, however, always the best plan to get vhe planting
done in the first two months ; then the trees have a good
chance of getting established, and commencing to form
new roots before the growing season begins.

Staking Newly-planted Trees. — Trees planted against
walls or fences will only require to have their main
branches secured loosely to allow for the gradual settling

Fig. 91.
A BADLY STAKED TREE.

Owing to the stem not being
properly secured to the stake the
head has became bent. To get
the tree into proper shape the
upper part should be cut back to
the cross line.

of the soil. Trees planted in autumn should therefore not
be permanently secured until the spring, and those planted
in spring not before May, at least. Pyramids, bushes,
and standards planted in the open should be staked at
the time of planting^ Bush trees require a stake about
4ft. long ; pyramids the length of the main stem and 2ft.
additional length; standards the full length of the main

222 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

stem with 2ft. extra. The stakes should preferably be
round, about 2|in. in diameter, and without bark, as
this forms a harbourage for insects. In order to render

Fig-. 92. A PROPERLY STAKED TREE.

them durable for as long a period as possible, they should
also be tarred, or, better still, creosoted, before they are

PLANTING. 223

used. For dwarfs and pyramids, one stake driven 2ft.
into the ground will suffice ; but for standards in exposed
positions it is advisable to place three stakes, fixed at
an angle of about 65 deg. The upper ends of these
require to be brought together at the top of the main
stem, a strip of sacking being first wound round the
latter to protect the bark from being rubbed by the stakes,
and then the stake ends have to be secured tightly by
means of stout twine. Another method of staking is to
fix three stout stakes in a vertical position, arranged tri-
angularly a few inches apart, secure the main stem to

Fig. 93. "ACME" FRUIT TREE LABEL.

An indelible label made of metal with white -raised letters
on a black ground.

one of them, and then nail a narrow strip of wood to the
tops to hold them securely. Furthermore, to protect the
stems from injury by cattle, rabbits, or hares, a coil of
wire-netting, with its base buried six inches deep in the
soil, should surround them. In all cases the stakes should
be placed in position before the roots are covered with
soil, in order to avoid injuring the latter. (Fig. 91 and 92.)

Labelling the Trees.— It is most essential that the dif-
ferent varieties should be properly labelled at the time of
planting. The paper labels supplied by the nurserymen
soon decay, and, unless these are superseded by some of

224

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

a more permanent character, the identity of the varieties
becomes a matter of conjecture, if not a loss. The best
of all labels for fruit trees is the " Acme " (Fig. 93).
This is made of zinc, with raised white letters on a black
ground; and, if it is secured to the branch by means of
copper wire, it wi.U last as long as the tree. It is neces-

Fig. 94. PRESERVING NEWLY-PLANTED TREE.

A large gridiron trained Pear Tree which had been transplanted to a new
position. In order to keep the bark moist and assist the tree to recover from
the removal, the trunk and lower branches were encased in hay bands, these
being kept constantly moist. From a photograph taken by the author m Holland.

sary, however, to examine the wire ligatures from time
to time to see that, as the branch increases in size, the
wire does not cut into the bark. It is advisable in the
first instance to so arrange the ligatures that ample space
is allowed for swelling of the branch. .Another method
is to get some zinc labels, burnish the face of these quite

A THREE-YEAR-OLD HUSH-TRAINED APPLE TREE.
Early Victoria.

PLANTING, 225

bright by the use of emery cloth, and then write or neatly
print the name thereon by means of a quill pen and special
ink. The latter is prepared as follows: Verdigris, two
drachms ; sal ammoniac, two drachms ; lamp-black, one
drachm; water, four ounces. Mix well in a mortar, and
then store in a glass-stoppered bottle. Another recipe is :
Mix a small quantity of sulphate of copper in a little
water, and, after burnishing the label, write the name by
means of a quill pen. Either will remain indelible for
very many years.

Concrete Foundations. — When fruit trees are grown
against walls — or, indeed, in the open air — and the sub-
soil is of heavy clay and probably very damp in nature,
it is desirable to guard against the roots descending into
this by concreting the base of the site. The holes should
be cut out about 4ft. deep. In the bottom place 6in. of
rough rubble, and arrange for a 2^in. drain to be con-
nected therewith, and to pass away to the nearest main
drain. Over the rubble lay down a bed of concrete 6in.
deep in the centre, but gradually sloping away to 3in.
at the sides. Such a concrete base should be not less
than 6ft. square for each tree. Over this place the com-
post. Remember that it is not of much practical use to
make such foundations unless provision is made to carry
off the water.

226 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

CHAPTER III.
The Principles of Pruning.

HAVING already described in detail the methods of pruning
applicable to each kind of fruit, all that remains for us
to do in this chapter is to deal with the general principles
of the art.

Object of Pruning.-— First of all, let us deal with the
object of pruning a fruit tree. Primarily, we prune a
tree for the purpose of training it into a given shape, as
explained in Chapter II. Secondly, we continue to do
it in order to ensure the maintenance of that shape ; and,
thirdly, for encouraging the production of new growth
or fruit buds. Each method, or object, has its own
special significance, and each has to be undertaken with
skill and judgment. The skilled gardener knows by ex-
perience the effect of removing a branch here or shorten-
ing one there, and he acts accordingly. The non-skilled
person, as a rule, proceeds to prune by " rule of thumb "
— in other words, according to a vague conception of
attaining what he desires — and it is he who inevitably
fails to attain his ideal. For that reason we must ex-
plain as clearly as we can the definite reasons for the
summer pruning and the winter pruning of the shoots and
branches ; also the pruning of the roots.

Philosophy of Pruning.— A healthy tree has, as a rule,
a rooting capacity equal to the vigour of its branches.
If, therefore, we severely prune the branches, and do not
at the same time restrict the growth and number of the
roots, a reciprocity, or perfect balance, between branch
and root is wanting, and we find the latter is capable
of transmitting more food to the former than its limited

THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING,

227

Fig-. 95. How TO SUMMER-PRUNE AN APPLE TREE.

1, A branch of summer-pruned — A, Leader not to be pruned ; B, Where to
prune; D, Wrongrly made cut causing- a new inward growth. 2, A branch
summer - pinched — A, Leader unpinched ; B, Where to pinch. 3, Result of
pinching: producing inward or outward shoot.

Q2

228

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

number of shoots and buds can utilise. The super-
abundant sap must therefore find an outlet for its energies,
and hence, directly growth begins in spring, it forces the
awakening buds into vigorous activity, and the result is
a still more vigorous growth of coarse shoots. These
shoots, full of watery sap, continue to grow, and in their

Fig-. 96. A LESSON IN PRUNING FRUIT TREES.

A Shows a side shoot pruned in winter to four buds. Result, three lateral
shoots which, if summer-pruned to the fourth leaf, will in due course produce
three or further laterals the next season as shown at £.

turn form fat wood buds all along their length. Few,
if any, of them mature properly, and fruit buds have, in
consequence, little chance of developing. In winter these
shoots are again pruned severely to keep the tree within
due bounds, and still the same result is achieved, with the

THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING.

229

additional disadvantage of a still stronger and more
numerous root formation. It is an impossibility under
such conditions to get a tree to bear fruit.

Every year we meet with espaliers or fan-trained trees

Fig. 97. SIDE BRANCH OF AN APPLE TREE.

As the result of winter-pruning three strong laterals have developed, but no
fruiting spurs. These, however, if summer-pruned in August to check exuberant
growth and then not too closely pruned in winter might be induced to form
fruit spurs.

growing on low fences that literally produce faggots of
shoots but hardly a single fruit bud, because the owner
neglected in the earlier existence of the tree to see that
the roots were pruned as well as the branches, to main-

230 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

tain a proper balance between the two. We see, too, in
gardens standard trees, pyramids, and large bushes that
have their young growths barbarously cut off, like the

Fig. 98. ANOTHER SIDE BRANCH OF APPLE TREE.

This, unlike Fig. 97,' has developed fruit spurs at the base of its own accord.
Such variations occur in many varieties of the Apple and Pear.

hair on a convict's head, and which never bear fruit for
the same reason. These are instances of want of know-
ledge of the true principles of pruning— sheer crass ignor-
ance, in fact.

THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING,

231

The reader will therefore clearly see that one of the
most essential principles in pruning is to keep both root
and branch in their proper ratio to each other. This
assured, he may then proceed to practice summer and
winter pruning with a view to the production of fruit

Fig. 99. FRUITING BRANCH OF
RED CURRANT.

Showing fruit borne on old spurs, and
the summer-pruned laterals.

Fig. 100. BRANCH OF RED
CURRANT.

The short lines show where to prune
the lateral and leading: shoots; in the
former case to form spurs.

buds, fruiting spurs, and the maintenance of healthy
growth, to keep the tree growing in a prosperous condi-
tion. We will now pass on to the consideration of the
several methods of pruning.

232 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Summer Pruning. — This is practised on dwarf trees
worked on dwarfing stocks ; also on trees grown on walls
which it is desired to encourage to become and continue as
fruitful as possible. It ought never to be practised on
standards, because, owing to their extensive root action,
they require all the growth possible to assimilate the food
collected by the latter. It would only encourage them
to become producers of wood rather than fruit. A stan-
dard tree, once it has arrived at its bearing stage, natu-
rally develops fruit buds on its previous season's growth,
as anyone may see by examining the shoots on the tree.

Summer pruning the shoots results, it is true, in the
loss of a certain amount of food to the tree, because the
young shoots at first are drawing their chief sustenance
from the reserve food stored previously in the cells, and
the parts removed have not had an opportunity of re-
plenishing the store from the food manufactured later on
by themselves. But, as the object of summer pruning is
not to encourage the too extensive formation of shoots
and wood buds, but rather plenty of fruit buds, this slight
weakening of the tree is an advantage ; it checks exces-
siveness in growth. Instead, therefore, of getting very
vigorous shoots, we get short, sturdy ones, which mature
more thoroughly, and are consequently more likely to
develop fruit buds at their base.

As a general rule, summer pruning is best done in July
or early August. If done earlier the force of the ascend-
ing sap may encourage secondary shoots to develop, and
so prevent the food present in the cells concentrating its
energies upon fattening the basal buds to become fruiting
ones. You then pinch off the slibot to the fourth leaf;
and, if all goes well, the food in the leaves will, before
they fall, return to the cells of the buds the special food
they require to form embryo blossoms. This pruning
not only checks exuberant growth, but it also admits more
sunshine and air to the parts remaining, and these ripen
more thoroughly. (Figs. 95 to 99J

THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING. 233

Winter Pruning. — Assuming summer pruning to have
been skilfully done, winter pruning will not be a serious
matter. It will consist mainly of shortening the leading
shoots more or less to maintain the tree in the desired

Fig. 101. A BRANCH OF BLACK
CURRANT.

Prune either to A or B to encourage
new shoots to develop below.

Fig. 102. GOOSEBERRY SHOOT
PROPERLY PRUNED.

A, Lateral shoot and leading shoots
properly shortened. B, Laterals cut back
to two buds to form spurs.

shape. The summer-pruned shoots will also need to be
cut back to the second bud to promote the formation of
artificial fruit spurs. Branches here and there may need

234 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

regulating, especially in the case of bush and standard
trees, so as to keep the centres well open, and prevent
branches crossing each other. The precise methods have,
however, been described in connection with each kind of
fruit. (Figs. 100 to 102.)

Pruning Newly Planted Trees.— A good deal of con-
troversy has taken place among experts as to whether a
fruit tree should be pruned at the time of planting or in
spring when the sap has commenced to circulate. Others,
again, maintain that no .pruning should be attempted the

Fig. 103. A LESSON IN PRUNING SHOOTS.

A, Shows the correct way to prune. JS, The wrong: way, thus leaving
a "snag" or portion of shoot extending beyond the bud. This portion dies in
due course, and causes decay of the shoot.

first year. Our own experience, however, as well as that
of many successful fruit-growers, is that pruning should
be practised the first year, not, however, at the time of
planting, but about April, when the sap has begun to cir-
culate and the buds to develop. It is possible* then to
readily distinguish which of the many wood buds on the
shoots are most likely. to develop into a strong, healthy
shoot, and hence to prune back to this. Wood buds which
appear to be fairly plump and promising in winter may

THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING.

235

shrivel by spring, and if the shoots were shortened to these
weakly growth would be the inevitable result. On the
whole', therefore, we maintain that it is wise to defer the
pruning of trees planted in autumn or winter until the sap
begins to circulate freely.

Points to Observe in Pruning.— In pruning a shoot,
special care should be taken always to cut back to a wood

Fig. 104. BARROW'S PATENT
PRUNER. •

A strong and useful tool for pruning
trees in winter. Cuts with a knife-like
action and does not bruise the shoots.

Fig. 105. POWERFUL
PRUNING SHEARS.

Useful for cutting- off strong
branches. Known as Aubert's Pruning
Shears. A French invention.

bud pointing outwards, so that the future shoot may de-
velop in the right direction. The cut, too, should be
made close to the apex of the bud, and with a slight slope
behind it. Never make the cut below the apex of the bud,
nor leave a " snag " — i.e., a portion extending far above
the bud — as this piece of wood will gradually die owing to

236

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

there being no leaves beyond to draw up the sap. Use
a keen knife in all cases, and if a saw has been used

Fig. 106. Fig. 107.

Fig. 106. PRUNING TOOLS.

A good type of pruning knife, parrot and puffin-bill secateurs, and a straight
and curved pruning saw.

Fig. 107. "STANDARD" TREE PRUNER.

A useful tool made with a handle varying from four to ten feet in length.
Admirably adapted for pruning tall trees.

to sever a root or branch, neatly trim off the edges to
make a clean wound. It is advisable to paint all large

THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING.

237

wounds with an antiseptic like Stockholm tar; then they
will heal more quickly. (Fig. 103.)

Tools Used in Pruning.— The first essential is a good
folding clasp-knife. There are two kinds, one with a
straight and the other with a curved blade, each fitted
with a stag's-horn handle. Then a pair of secateurs come
in useful for pruning Gooseberries, Red and White Cur-

Fig. 108. WRONG WAY TO ROOT PRUNE A TREE.

Severing the roots too close to the trunk, and thus sacrificing the fibrous ones
Result, a severe check to future growth.

rants, and the best form is that with two cutting blades.
A saw, too, is indispensable for cutting off large branches.
The American curved saw is a most useful form for
general use. Tree pruners, fitted with long handles and
operated by a lever, are indispensable for pruning large
trees, as the primer can remove branches without ascend-
ing the tree. (Figs. 104 to 107.)

238

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Root Pruning. — This is a form of pruning which has
for its main object the removal of tap roots, and also the
shortening of too-vigorous lateral roots, so as to encourage
a tree to make more fibrous roots, and hence render the
branch growth more sturdy and fruitful. Root-pruning
is imperative in the case of cordons, pyramids, bushes,
and wall-trained trees, to check rank root growth

Fig. 109. RIGHT WAY TO ROOT PRUNE A TREE.

Severing: the main roots at a point equal to the circumference of the branches,
as shown by dotted vertical lines.

and promote fruitfulness. Cordons, bushes, ana pyramids
are all the better for being lifted every third year, having
their vigorous roots shortened, and then replanted. Exu-
berant shoot growth is then restricted, and trees so
treated bear all the more freely.

Dig out a trench about 3ft. from the stem, carefully
work away the soil until the tree can be lifted, then

THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING. 239

shorten the strong roots about half way, but not the fine
fibrous ones, and then replant. Treat cordons similarly.
Fan-trained and espalier trees that are making a too free

Fig. 110. RIGHT POSITION TO OPEN TRENCH.

First digr out a trench as at C, then gradually fork away the soil toward*
the trunk B until the position £ £ be reached.

growth treat as follows : Open a trench 4ft. from the stem,
gradually work away the soil, shorten any vigorous shoots
3ft. from the stem, then tunnel under the main stem and

Fig. 111. SECTION OF TRENCH PROPERIA OPENED.

A A are the fibrous roots which it is essential to preserve intact.

sever any vertical or tap roots. This advice applies to
old trees. Trees up to five or six years old should be
lifted, root pruned, and replanted, as advised for pyramids.

240

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Standards or very large bushes, or pyramids, cannot
be safely lifted ; hence must be treated differently. Thus,
a trench should be opened at a point equal to the circum-

Fig. 112. PRUNING THE TAP ROOTS.

A and B, Fibrous roots tied in bundles to prevent them being injured.
C, Tap roots which require severing at base of tree D.

ference of the branches. Only half the roots should be
treated thus the first year, the remaining half being
deferred to the next season. Continue to dig down in the

Fig. 113. RIGHT AND WRONG WAY OF PRUNING ROOTS.

A, Roots with jagrg-ed bruised end. B, Pruned the wrong- way. C, Not
pruned far enough back, thus leaving a fracture susceptible to injury by fungi.
D, Correct way to prune. The circle indicates the proportionate width of
trench from base of tree.

trench, and then sever any thick roots that cross it, care-
fully preserving all fibrous ones. Next tunnel underneath
to the centre of the trunk, and, if any vertical roots are

AUTUMN-FRUITING RASPBERRY, OCTOBER RED.
Season : October.

THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING. 241

discovered, sever them. After this is done replace the
soil, carefully spreading out the roots, and adding manure
and compost to enrich the existing soil.

The proper season to do root pruning, lifting, and
transplanting is during October, not later. Readers will
find, if they pay attention to the advice herein given, that
their trees, instead of producing a superabundance of
gross wood, will yield a moderate growth and an abun-
dance of fruit. Remember, finally, the golden rule to
preserve an even balance between root and branch, and
better results will be the ultimate reward. (Figs. 108 to
"30

242 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

CHAPTER IV.
Training Fruit Trees.

THE proper training of a fruit tree from its earliest infancy
to its mature condition is an operation of the greatest
importance. The future success of the tree or bush,
indeed, depends mainly on the way it is trained from the
earliest stage of its existence. Once neglect to lay a
proper foundation, and the subsequent results will prove
most unsatisfactory. Hence it is essential, in a practical
work of this kind, that we should deal with the general
principles of the art of training, so that the reader may
go the right way to work to obtain a well-balanced, sym-
metrical tree or bush. We will therefore proceed to
describe the usual methods of training the various shapes
of trees in general cultivation.

Cordons. — This form of training is applicable to Apples,
Pears, Plums, Cherries, Gooseberries, and Red and
White Currants. Three kinds of training are practised —
the single, double, and the horizontal.

The single, or ordinary form, consists of a main stem
without side branches, but furnished with fruiting spurs.
Commencing with a maiden tree .grafted in spring, this
is allowed to produce a single main shoot the first season ;
it is then, in winter, pruned back about half-way. The
second season a leading shoot forms at the apex, and this
is permitted to grow, any side growths forming being
shortened to the third leaf. The new young main shoot
may have its point pinched oif about June, and this will
induce a second young growth to form, which allow to
grow. In winter shorten the main shoot half-way. The
third year again allow one young shoot to grow at the
apex, and all lateral or side growths shorten to the third

TRAINING FRUIT TREES. 243

leaf. The tree will now be well furnished with fruiting
spurs, and commence to bear fruit. Future treatment will
consist of summer pruning the lateral growths, and, if
the tree should have reached the height desired, of shorten-
ing the main shoot also.

Double cordons are formed by allowing two young
shoots to develop after the maiden tree has been pruned
the first time. If one should attempt to take the lead,
nip off its point, but let the other grow. In winter prune
the two, as advised for the single cordon ; again keep
an eye on the young growths, and do not allow one to
get in advance of the other. The next winter prune as
before, and permit each stem to develop one shoot on each
at the apex, and keep all laterals summer pruned. The
tree will then arrive at its fruiting stage.

Horizontal cordons are formed in a similar way, except
that the maiden tree is best planted at an angle of 45
deg. Strong wires should be fixed about ift. from the
ground, and the main stem pruned to this. In spring
allow two shoots to grow, and train one each way along
the wires. If one takes the lead remove its point. In
winter shorten each slightly, and allow a young shoot to
grow at the apex of each. Any laterals that form pinch
to three leaves. Proceed similarly each year until the
tree has filled its allotted space.

Pyramid. — This is a suitable method of training Apple,
Pear, Plum, and Cherry trees. Commence with a maiden
tree, grafted the previous spring, by pruning it back in
winter to about seven buds — or, say, ift. — from its junc-
tion with the stock. The next spring several side shoots
and one leader will develop. Place a stake to the leading
shoot to keep it upright and safe from injury by winds.
In winter prune the leader back one-third, and the side or
lateral shoots about half-way. To ensure a perfect pyra-
midal outline, however, the lower shoots should be left
a trifle longer than the upper ones, so that the tree, when
pruned, assumes a cone-shape. The third season will

Bfl

244

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

produce a tree with many lateral shoots, and these must
be carefully watched. At least three new laterals will
form on the previously-shortened growths. One must

Fig. 114. A PYRAMID APPLE TREE BEFORE PRUNING.

The variety, "Stirling Castle," is a free grower and also requires occasional
root pruning to check excessive growth.

develop on each of the latter as a leader to extend the
size of the tree. Examine the others, and if it is seen
that, by leaving them, the tree will be overcrowded, pinch

TRAINING FRUIT TREES.

245

them back to the third leaf to form fruiting spurs. When
winter arrives prune the main leader back a third and
the leading branch shoots to 6in. or ' Sin. , according
as may be required to form a correct pyramidal outline.

Fig. 115. A PYRAMID APPLE TREE AFTER PRUNING.

Above shows the preceding- tree (Fig-. 114) after it has been properly pruned.

Laterals, too, shorten to 3in. or 4in., according to space.
In future years the trees will require to be summer and
winter pruned, as advised in connection with each kind
of fruit in the earlier part of this book. (Figs. 114 and 115.)

246

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Bush Trees.— Apples, Pears, Plums, Cherries, Goose-
berries, Red, White, and Black Currants are grown in
bush form, and trees so grown usually take up less space,
and are more easily trained, than the formal pyramids.

In the case of Apples, Pears, Plums, and Cherries,
maiden trees require to have their main shoot shortened
in winter to five or six buds. These buds produce shoots
the following year. The leading and side shoots thus

Fig-. 116. PREPARED CUTTING
OF BLACK CURRANT.

Two lower growth buds only
removed.

Fig-. 117. MODE OF TRAINING
A BLACK CURRANT TREE.

"Maiden" tree with first year's
growth. Lines indicate where to
prune.

formed have to be shortened in winter to about the same
length — namely, one-fourth. The third year further
laterals, as well as a leader, are produced. One should
be allowed to grow at the apex and one at the extremity
of each branch, all other laterals being shortened to the
fourth leaf. Subsequent pruning should consist of short-
ening the leaders to four, six, or eight inches, and the

TRAINING FRUIT TREES.

247

summer-pruned laterals to a couple of buds. This system
keeps the branches fairly open. Some gardeners, how-
ever, allow lateral shoots to grow, and shorten these to
four or six inches in winter.

Gooseberries and Currants require the following treat-
ment. When the cuttings are inserted, all buds except
the upper three are usually removed. These buds in due

Fig. 118. MODE OF TRAINING Fig. 119. MODE OF TRAINING
A BLACK CURRANT TREE. A* BLACK CURRANT TREE.

Second year's growth. Lines show Third year's growth. No pruning:

where to prune. required.

course produce three shoots, which are permitted to grow,
and in winter are pruned back half-way. The following
season double or treble the number of shoots are formed.
These shorten, in winter, to about 4in. or 6in. The next
year all side or lateral growths, except in the case of
Black Currants, summer prune to 3in., and further

248 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

shorten in winter to an inch to form fruiting spurs. Sub-
sequent pruning is dealt with in the cultural articles. (Figs.
116 to 120.)

Espalier Trees.— This system applies to Apples and
Pears. Assuming a tree grafted in March to have made
one strong shoot by winter, shorten this to ift. from
its base. Three shoots will develop in spring, and the
topmost should be trained vertically to a stake, and the
other two at an angle of about 45 deg. to a frame-

Fig. 120. MODE OF, TRAINING A BLACK CURRANT TREE.

work of stakes. In winter prune the central shoot to
i ft. from its base. Do not prune the two side shoots,
but leave them as they are, and in the same position.
Any lateral growths which may form, pinch back to the
third leaf. The 'next season three more new shoots will
develop. Train the central one vertically, and one on each
side at the same angle as before. Again shorten the
leader to ift. in winter, and then depress the two lower

TRAINING FRUIT TREES.

249

250 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

first-formed side branches to a horizontal position. The
next year treat the new growth as before, pinching back
laterals or sub-laterals to three leaves, until the tree has
attained the desired height.

Fan-trained Trees.— Apples, Pears, Plums, Cherries,
Figs, Peaches, and Nectarines are trained thus for grow-
ing on walls. A maiden tree should have its main shoot
pruned back to about three buds in winter. Three
shoots subsequently form, which allow to grow un-
checked. In winter prune these to 6in. from their base ;
and in spring, when growth begins, allow a central leader
to grow, and two young shoots on each lower branch ;
any others that form pinch back to the foarth leaf. When
winter arrives, the lower duplex branches will not require
shortening, only those that form above, including the
leader. Continue a similar method until the tree has filled
its allotted space, and each original branch, including the
leader, is furnished with duplex sub-branches, each clothed
with spurs, the result of summer pruning the laterals. (Fig.

121.)

Peaches and Nectarines are treated in the same way for
the first year to ensure a good foundation of main
branches. The resultant new growths, however, are
spread out equally in the form of a fan, there being no
leader. In winter do not prune the lower pair of shoots,
only the upper ones, about one-fourth of their length.
The next year permit two leaders to grow at the ends of
the two lower branches on each side, and only laterals
on the others. In winter only the upper branches should
be slightly shortened, together with any laterals. A
year later laterals form freely, and these bear fruit. Sub-
sequent pruning consists of cutting away shoots that have
borne fruit, and training in new ones for bearing the
next season. See also hints in the chapter on " Culture."

Figs merely require a young tree with one stem to be
cut back to ift. from the ground. New shoots, when
about ift. long, must have their points pinched out, the

TRAINING FRUIT TREES. 251

result being further shoots; and so on, until a full-sized
tree is obtained.

Standard Trees. — Commencing with a maiden tree,
train the main stem to a stake until it has attained the
desired height in the second year. Do not remove any
side shoots that may form on the stem, but pinch these
back to the fourth leaf in early autumn. When, in the
second year, the main stem is long enough, pinch off its
point in early summer. Laterals will then develop to
form the foundation of the future head. In winter cut
clean away all stem laterals, and also shorten the leaders
to three buds. The following winter prune the previous
summer growths to 6in. or Sin. The tree will hence-
forth require no further pruning beyond keeping the
centre well open, and shortening or removing any branches
which cross each other.

Nuts. — The Kentish system of training Cobs and Fil-
berts is as follows : Starting with a rooted layer or sucker,
shorten this to i8in., and remove all buds except the
upper three. The next season three shoots will form,
and in winter the three must be shortened to three eyes.
Six shoots will develop the following season, and these
should be trained at equal distances in a globular form
by securing them to hoops placed inside. Subsequent
treatment consists of shortening these in winter, and
training further leaders the next year, and in summer
pruning all side growths to six leaves.

There are other fanciful methods of training fruit trees,
but as these are not in general demand we shall not waste
space in describing the methods of producing them. Those
who want gridiron, goblet, palmette - verrier, and other
fanciful modes of training are advised to purchase them
ready-trained from the nurseryman.

252 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

CHAPTER V.

Manuring Garden Trees.

THIS is a subject of very great importance in relation to
the successful cultivation of hardy fruits. Next to skilful
planting, pruning, and training, a knowledge of the re-
quirements of each kind of fruit, as regards the special
food it requires as an aid to successful growth and suc-
cessful fruit-bearing, is most essential. The grower,
indeed, requires to know the effect of the various manures
or fertilisers upon the production of healthy growth and
the development of fruits. It is a very easy matter to
use manures to excess, and to defeat the very object the
grower has in view, and it is equally easy to starve a tree
by not giving it the food most suitable for its require-
ments. Our duty, then, in this chapter, is to set forth
the various facts about manures and manuring in as
simple a form as possible, so that mistakes may be
avoided and success assured.

Mistakes Made in Manuring.— Novitiates in fruit cul-
ture too often make the mistake of imagining that liberal
applications of manure will resuscitate a sickly tree, and
bring it into a healthy and vigorous condition. Such
treatment has, however, quite the opposite effect — it
hastens the death of the tree. It is far better to uproot
and consign such a tree to the fire, and to replace it by a
healthy one.

On the other hand, there are those who imagine that
the more you feed a healthy tree with manures the more
productive it will be. Here, again, a serious mistake is
made. Excessive manuring encourages a tree to make
excessive growth and to develop few fruit buds, because
the nature of the food supplied is not conducive to the

MANURING GARDEN TREES. 253

storing up in the tissues of the right materials. Others,
moreover, begin to apply manures to a tree before it has
become established, and has had time to form an abun-
dance of fibrous roots to collect and assimilate them, and
the result is failure to make the progress expected.

When Manures are Required. — Manures can only be of
real assistance to a fruit tree when it has been planted
at least a year, and is furnished with a plenitude of
fibrous roots ; when it is in good health ; and particularly
so when it is bearing freely. It is, indeed, in the latter
stage that the tree needs additional food to enable it to
perfect and mature its crop. A tree which grows too
freely, and produces too little fruit, requires to be manured
differently to one which shows a tendency to crop too
freely, but does not grow vigorously in proportion. Thus,
we see that to grow fruit trees successfully we must not
apply manures haphazardly, but with caution and judgment.

Main Elements of Plant Food. — Three main elements
of plant food are required to produce successful growth
and the development of fruit. These are phosphates,
potash, and nitrogen. Other minor elements are usually
present in sufficient quantities in the soil. Phosphates
assist particularly in the development of flowers and the
seeds ; potash in the formation of fruits ; and nitrogen in
leaf, cell, and tissue formation ; but all three, nevertheless,
combine in the formation of the tree as a whole. As trees
grow and perfect their fruits, they take annually out of
the soil a good deal of phosphates, potash, and nitrogen ;
indeed, according to an American experiment, it has been
found that ten bushels of apples removed from the soil
in one season i|lb. of nitrogen =iolb. nitrate of soda;
i fib. potash = 1 5lb. of kainit; and ^lb. of phosphate of
lime = 2lb. of superphosphate of lime. Potash especially
is therefore in great demand by fruitful trees.

Natural Manures. — Stable or farmyard manures serve
the two-fold purpose of supplying the soil with humus for

254 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

the encouragement of bacteria and maintaining it in a
friable condition ; also providing a proportion of the three
main elements of food. It is not desirable that they
should be mixed too freely with the soil before planting,
but they can be used as a mulch to established trees in
autumn. The surface soil to a depth of 3in., and a cir-
cumference equal to the spread of the branches, should
be removed in autumn, 3in. of well-rotted manure added,
and this be covered with soil. This dressing should be
applied only to trees in good health and bearing freely.
Poultry and pigeon dung may be applied in a similar way
at the rate of lib. per square yard. Liquid manures from
dung heaps or stables. also contain the three elements,
and may advantageously be applied in a diluted state to
trees in winter or summer that are in a fruitful condition.
So, too, may cesspool contents. Night-soil is also a rich
manure. It should be mixed with equal parts of soil, and
have a little sulphate of lime added as a deodoriser ; then
be stored in a heap till winter, and afterwards applied as
advised for stable manure.

Artificial Manures. — Those that supply nitrogen, and
are best applied in summer, when the trees can take im-
mediate advantage of it, are nitrate of ammonia, nitrate
of soda, nitrate of lime, nitrate of potash, sulphate of
ammonia, soot, nitrolim, and dried blood. Those that sup-
ply phosphates and nitrogen are guanos, fish guano, bones,
and dissolved bones; phosphates only — bone-ash, bone-
black, mineral phosphates, superphosphate of lime, bone-
meal, and basic slag. Those, again, which supply potash
are sulphate, muriate, and carbonate of potash, kainit,
and wood-ashes.

How to Use Nitrogenous Manures. — Nitrate of am-
monia is a suitable manure to apply in a liquid form to
trees with pale foliage. Use at the rate of £oz. per gal-
lon of water about twice a week in summer.

Nitrate of soda use at the rate of roz. per square yard
to trees that have set their fruit, and afterwards at inter-

MANURING GARDEN TREES. 255

vals of a week until the fruit begins to colour. Suitable
for dry soils.

Nitrate oUime is, no doubt, one of the best of fertilisers
for fruit trees, especially Cherries, Peaches, Nectarines,
and Plums. Apply at the rate of loz. per square
yard once a fortnight from the time the fruit sets until it
begins to colour.

Nitrate of potash is rather an expensive fertiliser, but
it may be used on a limited scale with good effect. Should
be used occasionally only, at the rate of loz. to three
gallons of water. Contains potash as well as nitrogen.

Sulphate of ammonia is best adapted for heavy or damp
soils, and should be used as advised for nitrate of soda.

Soot, also, is a nitrogenous manure, and may be bene-
ficially applied to all fruit crops at all times of the year
at the rate of a gallon per tree.

Nitrolim, a combination of nitrogen and calcium car-
bide, is an excellent fertiliser for occasional application to
fruit crops generally. Apply at the rate of loz. per square
yard in summer.

Blood, although a rich plant food, is too obnoxious to
use in a fresh state. It should be mixed with soil, and
placed in a heap to decompose ; then be applied as a top-
dressing to trees that are in good health yet not making
much giowth.

Dried blood should be applied in spring at the rate of
2oz. per square yard, and forked into the soil. Should
not be applied to trees that are making excessive leaf-
growth and not bearing freely.

How to Use Phosphatic Manures.— Guanos, owing to
their containing nitrogen as well as phosphates, are best
applied in spring and summer, when the fruit has set,
and afterwards at intervals until the fruit begins to colour.
Use at the rate of roz. per square yard.

Dried fish guano should be used at the rate of 2oz. per
yard at intervals of a fortnight during the fruiting period.

256 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Bone-meal is a slow-acting fertiliser, and should be
applied in autumn at the rate of 402. per square yard,
forking it in. Dissolved bones use similarly, especially
on chalky soils.

Bone-ash and bone-black use at the same rate in
autumn. Not very generally used.

Superphosphate of lime is made in two grades, the
double and the ordinary. The former is especially bene-
ficial to fruit trees grown on chalky soils, as it imparts
more vigour to the tree, also more colour to the foliage.
Of the former apply Jib. to each tree in June, and again
in August. Of the ordinary, apply 302. per square yard
in autumn and fork in.

Basic slag is an excellent phosphatic manure for clayey
or rich garden soils. Apply at the rate of 402. to 6oz. per
square yard in winter, and fork in.

How to Use Potash Manures. — As a rule, clay soils
contain sufficient potash, but it is always wise to ignore
this fact in the case of fruit trees growing on such land.

Sulphate of potash is a very soluble form of potash, and
easily assimilated by crops. Apply in autumn or spring at
the rate of 202. per square yard. The same remarks apply
to muriate of potash.

Kainit is the cheapest form of potash, and should be
applied in winter at the rate of 402. per square yard. Fork
it in.

Wood-ashes contain a good deal of potash, and these
may be applied at all times to fruit crops as liberally as
possible.

Lime. — This is an important factor in fruit culture. In
the case of heavy clays it liberates the latent potash, and
assists in breaking up the plasticity of the soil. In old
or sour soils it neutralises the vegetable acids, and en-
courages the development of the nitrifying bacteria. It
is, moreover, of immense advantage to all stone fruits,
and without its presence in the soil the trees will neither
grow nor fruit satisfactorily. The best form of lime to

CULINARY PLUM, PRINCE ENGLEBERT.
Season : End of August.

CULINARY PLUM, POND'S SEEDLING.
Season : Early September.

MANURING GARDEN TREES. 257

apply is ground lime, and this should be forked in every
third winter at the rate of 402. per square' yard.

Marl contains a good deal of lime, and a top-dressing
of it, where it can be obtained, will prove beneficial to
fruit trees generally.

General Hints. — The mistake is too often made of
applying fertilisers and manures around the base of the
trunk only. Manure so applied rarely benefits the tree,
unless it be a cordon, with compact root action. The
fine fibrous roots, which alone collect and assimilate the
food, are usually situate at a distance from the trunk
equal to the circumference of the branches or beyond. An
old standard tree, indeed, may have its feeding roots some
1 5ft. or 2oft. — we have found them 3oft. — away, in fact;
so that, if the tree is to derive any advantage from addi-
tional food, it must be applied where the feeding roots
really are. So, in applying manures or fertilisers, the
application should commence some 6ft. or 8ft. from the
trunk, and extend to loft, at least from the outer fringe
of the branches of a standard tree. In the case of a bush
or a pyramid, commence at ift. to 3ft., according to the
size and age, and apply the manure to a distance beyond,
equal to the height of the tree. For cordons apply from
the base to 3ft. or 4ft. beyond ; and for large wall trees
generally from 3ft. to 8, 10, or isft., according to size
and age. Grape vines have a habit of extending their
roots many, many yards, often under paths into the
garden beyond, and it is extremely difficult to decide where
their fibrous feeding roots really are. Raspberries, Goose-
berries, Currants, and Strawberries are compact-rooting,
and hence there is no difficulty in feeding 'such crops.

Special Manures for Various Fruits. — Mr. W. Dyke,
in his excellent little manual on " Manures for Farm and
Garden Crops," recommends the following formulae:

Apples and Pears. — For trees the second year after
planting that do not grow freely, fork in a barrow-load
of dtcayed manure to every six trees in autumn, and in

258 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

May apply 102. of sulphate of ammonia and loz. of sul-
phate of potash to each. Trees that grow too strongly,
and do not show signs of fruiting, give 402. of basic slag
per tree each autumn. Established trees growing in
sandy soil, give equal parts of bone-meal and kainit ; in
chalky soil, equal parts of kainit and superphosphate; in
clayey soil, four parts of basic slag and one part of muri-
ate' of potash ; peaty soil, four parts of basic slag and
loz. of sulphate of potash, applying in each case 402. per
square yard. He also recommends in poor, hungry soils,
the addition of one barrow-load of decayed manure to
every ten square yards. Each May, too, when fruit has
set, he further recommends 202. per square yard of the
following mixture: One part muriate ©f potash, i| parts
of sulphate of ammonia, and 3 parts of superphosphate.

Apricots, Cherries, Plums, and Damsons.— Where soils
are deficient in lime, apply lib. of ground lime per square
yard on heavy soils, or 4lb. of powdered limestone or
chalk on sandy soils. To be applied every third year in
autumn. Each winter apply lib. of basic slag and 402.
of sulphate of potash per tree on heavy soil; or 1202. of
superphosphate and 802. of kainit per tree on chalky soils.
Trees that promise to yield a heavy crop should also be
given, in June, ^lb. to 3jlb. of fish-meal per tree, accord-
ing to si2e.

Currants and Gooseberries. — These should have a
winter dressing of three barrow-loads of decayed manure
per square rod, and 402. of basic slag and 202. of kainit
per tree. In May apply 102. of nitrate of soda or of
sulphate of ammonia per tree.

Figs- — Apply 4oz. of bone-ash or 802. of basic slag per
square yard in winter. To trees carrying heavy crops
apply once a week, in summer, 202. of guano or of fish-
meal, or liquid stable manure.

Peaches and Nectarines.— Before planting, Mr. Dyke
advises 4lb. of bone-meal, 2lb. of hoof and horn, Jib. of

MANURING GARDEN TREES. - 259

sulphate of potash, and 4-lb. of chalk to be mixed with
every cubic yard of soil. When the trees are in full bear-
ing apply just before, and again after stoning, the follow-
ing mixture : One part Peruvian guano, two parts dis-
solved bones, and half a part muriate of potash, applied at
the rate of 2oz. per square yard. If the trees fruit too
freely, and do not make a robust growth, apply the follow-
ing mixture in place of above — viz., one part nitrate of
lime, two parts guano, one part dissolved bones, and one
part muriate of potash ; or, on the other hand, making
too much growth, and not bearing freely, one part nitrate
of lime and four parts of bone-ash. In each case apply
2oz, per square yard.

Raspberries. — Apply three barrow-loads of rotten
manure, 4lb. of basic slag, and lib. of sulphate of potash
per square rod in winter. When the plants are in flower
apply 3lb. of fish or Peruvian guano per square rod.

Strawberries. — In April apply 2lb. of superphosphate
per square rod, and, directly fruit has set, a similar quan-
tity of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia.

In addition to Mr. Dyke's formulae, we give particulars
of special manures suitable for other kinds of fruit:

Blackberries and Loganberries. — For these, one part
of superphosphate, one part of kainit, applied at the rate
of 2oz. per square yard in autumn; and loz. of nitrate of
soda per square yard, applied when the fruit has formed,
are suitable fertilisers.

Mulberries. — Equal parts of bone-meal and kainit, ap-
plied at the rate of 6oz. per square yard in autumn, and
2oz. of nitrate of soda to the same area when the berries
have formed.

Nuts. — Apply 4oz. per square yard of equal parts of
superphosphate and kainit per square yard in autumn.

Further. on in this volume we give in tabular form the
formulae for manuring fruit trees grown in orchards and
market gardens.

92

2eo FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

CHAPTER VI.

Storage of Fruit.

THE gathering and storing of fruit so that it can be made
the most of, and kept in the best possible condition
for winter use, are of great importance. With regard to
Apples and Pears, it is a common error to gather late
sorts too soon, while early sorts are not gathered soon
enough. Most of the early dessert Apples and Pears lose
their brisk flavour as soon as they become fully ripe, and
soon after they commence to go sleepy, and then rotten.
Unless late varieties are allowed to hang until they have
become fully matured they never get their proper flavour,
and they often shrivel in keeping.

How to Ascertain when Fit to Gather.— All the fruit
on one tree is never ready for gathering on the same day ;
two, and sometimes three, pickings are necessary to get
them in the best condition. This is more especially the
case with the earlier varieties than it is with the late ones.
The practised eye can see at once which are likely to be
ready; and if these come off easily with a gentle pull, lift-
ing the fruit upwards at the same time, they are ready ;
but if not, they are left for a few more days. Apples are
very often attacked by the grubs of the Codlin Moth,
which causes them to fall; or rough winds may blow
many down ; neither of these causes should be taken as a
sign that they are ready for gathering. These may all
be used, or sold, without loss, which is far better than
storing them with sound fruit. A few fruit of the best
is better than a large quantity of inferior quality.

The Fruit Store. — -A good position to store' apples in is a
moist, cool place, such as a cellar, with a temperature of

STORAGE OF FRUIT. 261

40 deg. This should be well ventilated for two or three
weeks after the fruit has been stored, until the perspira-
tion has dried up; then gradually close and make
quite dark. Pears require' a warmer and drier atmo-
sphere to bring up and retain their flavour. For
these an attic would answer, if a fire could be lighted in
severe weather. We saw a very good fruit room a short
time ago in a clergyman's garden. A hole was dug in
the ground gft. wide, about i2ft. long and 3ft. deep.
The soil, being of a clayey nature, was used as mud walls
for continuing the building about 2ft. higher at the sides,
and the ends in proportion. There was enough soil to
bank the sides up to the roof about 3ft. in thickness.
The roof was thatch, about ift. in thickness. Nothing
could be better for keeping the cold and the heat out, or
for preserving the fruit, and the expense in building
was trifling. The door was the weak point, but
this could be remedied by having two doors. Anyone
could have shelves in this place 3ft. wide and ift. 6in.
apart each side, or one side could be shelved and the other
used for different purposes.

Another method is to procure some of the movable fruft
trays which are usually advertised for sale in the garden-
ing journals in autumn. These are made with open lath
bottoms, and with sides sufficiently deep to allow of a
single layer of fruit being placed on them. The trays,
as filled, are then placed one over the other to form a
kind of nest, and may be stored in a cellar, or cool place,
or on the floor of the fruit room. These trays occupy
.comparatively little space, and the open laths permit a
free circulation of air among the fruit. Some have a
frame made to take the trays, and enable the latter to be
easily withdrawn when required. Anyway, this is an
excellent plan for those who have only small quantities
of fruit to store, and only limited storage room. (Fig. 122.)

Where a large quantity of fruit has to be stored, a
proper fruit room should be provfded. The best position
for this is against a north wall.

262

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

STORAGE OF FRUIT.

263

The drawings given herewith illustrate a lean-to building
designed as far as practicable to meet all ordinary require-
ments. A thatched lean-to roof for a loft, span should rise

Fig. 123. A LEAN-TO FRUIT ROOM.

(1) Ground plan. (2) Section of elevation. (3) Side elevation. (4) Section of
interior. (5) Details of apex of roof.

at least 8ft. from the lowest to the highest point, or wet
will not run off freely. The height of the building shown
is sft. at the front from the floor to the wall plate level,

264 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

and I3ft. at the back. The portion of the store that is
sunk 2ft. below the ground level should be built of blue
bricks in cement mortar, as also should the front wall
against which earth is to be banked to prevent damp
striking through. About 1,700 blue bricks will be required.

Fig 123 (i) is a plan of the store showing the window in
the front wall with a retaining wall on each side to hold up
the earth banked against the front wall. The uprights in
the wooden ends are shown, with the door in the centre
of the east end to open outwards, whilst three* steps are
shown from the ground level to the floor of the store. The
positions of the uprights and framing of the lath shelves
are' also indicated.

No. 2 is a cross section of \he store, and shows the
window, with hinged shutters, also the framing in one end,
the door, the steps, and the roof construction. No. 3 is
the front elevation, and shows the position and number of
the roof spars, and also the window. No. 4 is a cross
section showing how the lath shelves may be fixed and
arranged. The uprights in the ends should be 4in. by
2 Jin. , the rafter at each end 4in. by 3 Jin. , the spars 3 Jin.
by 2in., the purline 7in. by 2 Jin., and the wall-plate 4jin.
by 3in.

The steps may either be constructed of wood or brick
and stone. The door should be of fin. thick boarding
nailed to i^in. thick ledges and brace. The window is 3ft.
wide and 2jffc. high, one-half being made to slide open.
The shutters should be of fin. thick matchboarding, ledged
and hinged to open, as indicated by the dotted lines in
No. i.

Creosoted weather-boarding will be' the best for the out-
side of the ends of the store, and Jin. thick grooved and
tongued matchboarding for the inside, whilst the ceiling
will be all the better if it is covered on the underside with
similar boarding. 'Die space between the two thicknesses
of boarding at the ends should be filed with slag wool or
other suitable non-conducting material. Cement concrete
2in. thick will make a satisfactory floor.

STORAGE OF FRUIT.

265

Another good style of fruit room is illustrated in
accompanying diagram (Fig. 124). The outer shell
consists of a nine-inch wall 8ft. or so high. This
should be covered with a thick roof cf thatch or
heather. Outside this structure should be erected a
duplicate shell of wood, thatched with straw, leaving
an air space of 6in. to ift. between the brick wall and the
wood. This lining of air serves to maintain an even
temperature and to keep out frost. The door should be
made as shown at Fig. 125, its upper half being fitted with

Fig. 124. A SPAN-ROOF FRUIT ROOM.

A represents the inner chamber ; and B the outer shell ; C is the air space
between the two; D is the slate shelving on which the fruit is stored.

wire netting to admit air in fine weather. In frosty weather
a shutter must be attached. The width may be 8 to i2ft.,
and the length as you please. Inside shelves should be
constructed 3 to 4ft. wide, and 2ft. apart. The* shelves
should be formed of open laths, and the fruit arranged in a
single layer thereon. The floor space underneath may be
used for storing bulbs, potatoes, etc. Instead of fixed
shelves, portable wooden fruit trays, already described,
may be purchased, and these stored one over the other.

265 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

General Hints. — The average temperature of a fruit
store should be 40 to 45 deg. Never allow it to fall
lower than 40 deg. ; otherwise Pears will lose their
flavour. Store the fruit in single layers, and, as far as
possible, keep the early, mid-season, and late kinds by
themselves. Never store fruit on straw or hay, as these
substances impair the flavour of the fruit. Examine the
fruit daily, and remove all decayed ones. The presence
of one decayed fruit in a store often sets up decay in
others, besides affecting their flavour. The ripening

Fig. 125. DOOR FOR SPAN-ROOF FRUIT ROOM.

The upper half is fitted with a wire frame and shutter for the purpose of
admitting: air occasionally in fine weather.

period of Pears may be hastened by placing a few in bran
in tin boxes, and storing them in a warm cupboard or
room for a few days.

Other methods of storing fruit are placing them in
unglazed earthenware jars with a movable lid, and storing
them in a cool room or cellar; packing them in tissue
paper and storing in dry sand ; and placing them in clean,
sweet barrels in a dark, cool place. The worst of all
places in which to store Apples is a dry loft or room. All

STORAGE OF FRUIT. 267

choice fruits when gathered should be carefully wiped clean
with a dry cloth before they are stored away.

The baskets for gathering the fruit should be padded
to prevent the fruit getting bruised. The fruit should not
be dropped, but placed in the basket, and also be taken
out with the hands when emptying the baskets. Fruit
should always be dry when gathered, and never be moved
after once being put on the shelves.

Detailed instructions about the methods of storing nuts
and fruits generally are given in the chapters dealing
with their culture.

£68 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

CHAPTER VII.

FRUIT ENEMIES.

Apple Pests.

Apple Aphis (Aphis pomi). — Larvae attack the young
leaves in early spring and cause them to curl. First
Ibrood is hatched in April from eggs laid on the shoots
in autumn. Aphis sorbi and fitchii also infest the Apple,
the former the leaves and the latter the shoots. Spray-
ing in autumn with a paraffin emulsion, and again in
February with a lime-sulphur wash, are good preventive
remedies. In case of attack, spraying is of little use
owing to the curling of the leaves. Better then pick off
and burn the curled leaves. Burn all winter prunings.

American Blight (Schizoneura lanigera). — A species of
aphis, which infests the shoots and branches, sucks out
the sap, and causes excrescences to form, which eventu-
ally bring the tree into ill-health. The female aphis pro-
duces her young alive, and these secrete a white woolly
substance, which is the characteristic feature of this pest.
At first the young lice are yellowish, but later they assume
a purplish-brown tint. In autumn and winter the females
hide in crevices in the bark, and also on the roots near
the base of the trunk. They increase rapidly in spring
and summer. Winged females fly frorn tree to tree, and
in this way the pest distributes itself. Spray in winter
with a lime-sudphur wash to kill the winter broods, and
in sumimer with a soft soap and quassia emulsion to de-
stroy the lice. Where o<nly a few aphides exist, lightly
dab the colony of lice with a brush dipped in soap and
paraffin or in olive oil. See also p. 345.

Apple Blossom Weevil (Antbononnus pomorum).— The
larvae of this weevil, which are small, white, and foot-

FRUIT ENEMIES, 269

less, and with a brown head, feed on the stamens of the
opening blossom bud, and thus prevent its developing
into fruit. The female beetle deposits one egg in the
centre of the unopened bud. The presence of the larvae
may be detected by the brown and shrivelled appearance
of the petals. Spraying does not appear to be effectual,
as, of course, the liquid cannot get at the young larvae
in the bud. Mr. F. Theobald suggests jarring the trees
frequently to dislodge the weevils. Tarred cloths should
be spread under the branches to catch the falling beetles.

Fig. 126. CODLING MOTH AND GRUB (CARPOCAPSA POMENELLA).

Note, the grub is seen, inside the fruit.

Apple Sawfly (Hoplocampo testudinea). — The female
flies deposit their eggs in the open blossom. The eggs
give birth to creamy-white larvse, with several sucker-like
feet and a brown head. They eat their way into the
centre of the fruit, and remain there till fully grown,
then escape through a hole near the eye and enter the
soil, in which they remain till spring, then pupate and
appear as flies later on. The only remedy is to gather
and burn all fruits that show signs of attack, and to dress
the soil in winter with a soil fumigant.

270 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Codling Moth (Carpocapsa pomenella). — The caterpillar
of this moth attacks the interior flesh of the Apple, and
causes it to fall prematurely. The female lays one egg
on the side of the newly-formed fruit, generally at night.
As soon as the young caterpillar is born it crawls to the
eye of the fruit, and gradually eats its way into the
centre thereof. When it is fully grown the larva either
lets itself down by means of a silken web to the ground, or
escapes from the fallen fruit, and then ascends
the trunk, forms a cocoon in crevices of the bark,
and remains in this till spring; then pupates, and
appears in June as a moth. The larvae are1 creamy-
white in colour. Grease-banding early in June will
trap the ascending larvae, and spraying the trees in
about ten days after, the petals have fallen with arsenate
of lead will destroy the ova and young larvae. (Fig. 126.)

Apple Sucker (Psylla Mali).— A small insect, about
l-iothto i-3rd-inch in length, greenish-yellow to brownish-
yellow in colour, which attacks the leaves, buds, and
blossoms of the Apple. In the former case leaves infested
with this pest become crinkled, shrivelled, and brown;
and in the latter one, the blossoms shrivel and turn
brown. Both sexes are winged, and they usually appear
between April and November. The female deposits her
eggs on the spurs and growth buds in autumn, and these
hatch out in late April or early May. The insects are very
agile in their habits, hopping off directly the leaves are
touched. Spraying with a wash composed of lime and
sulphur between February and the end of March appears to be
the best means of destroying the ova of this pest, and thus
preventing its later appearance.

Winter Motk (Cheimatobia brumata).— Several cater-
pillars, the larvae of moths, attack the foliage of the Apple,
and do much injury to the trees if very numerous. The
chief culprit is the larva of the Winter Moth (Cheimatobia
brumata). The female moth, which is wingless and greyish
in colour, is capable of laying as many as 350 eggs. The

FRUIT ENEMIES. 271

moths appear between early October and early January,
and lay their eggs on the buds and the small shoots. The
eggs hatch early in spring, and the young larvae com-
mence to feed on the unfolding leaves ; later they spin the
leaves and flowers together, and feed on these, and still
later attack the young fruits. The caterpillars form their
bodies into a loop when moving, are of a greenish colour
with pale lines on their bodies, and usually measure about
an inch in length. They arrive at maturity in June, then
descend to the earth, enter the pupal stage, and appear
as moths between September and January. Grease-banding
the trunks about ift. from their base early in October,
and maintaining the grease in a fresh condition up to
mid-January, will trap the wingless females which attempt
to crawl up the trunk to lay their eggs. Should cater-
pillars appear, directly their presence is observed, spray
the trees with an arsenate of lead solution when the
leaves begin to unfold, and again about ten days after
tfee trees have shed their blossoms. The larvae of the
Mottled Umber Moth (Hybernia defoliaria), creamy-yellow
and chestnut-brown in colour, appear about the same time,
and do similar damage to those of the Winter Moth. The
March Moth (Anisopteryx aescularia) has green or
greenish-yellow larvae, about an inch in length when full
grown, which appear in April, and defoliate the trees.
The remedies in both cases are those advised for the Win-
ter Moth ; but in that of the March Moth the grease-bands
must be kept on the trees till April. The females are
wingless.

Lackey Moth (Clissiocampa neustria). — This moth, both
sexes of which are winged, appears between July and Sep-
tember, and the female lays her eggs in bands around
shoots of the current year's growth. These bands may be
readily detected. Late in April the larvae appear, spin a
web over a cluster of leaves, and in the earlier stages of
their existence feed under the protection of this. Later,
however, they roam about the foliage, returning to their

272 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

webby habitations at nightfall and during wet weather.
The larvae are bluish-grey, striped orange and white, and
spotted black. They measure about if in. when fully
grown. In June and July the larvae spin silken cocoons
either among the leaves or in crevices of the bark, and
reappear as moths in the course of a few weeks. Spray-
ing in May or June with arsenate of lead will kill the
larvae. The webs, too, should as far as possible be cdt
off, and the bands of eggs removed as soon as seen. Burn
all prunings. (Fig. 127.)

Ermine Moth (Hyponomeuta malinella). — In some
seasons the larvae of this moth prove very destructive to

Fig. 127. LACKEY MOTH and LARVA (BOMBYX NEUSTRA).

the foliage of the Apple. The moths appear in July and
August, and the females deposit their eggs in small
patches on the' twiggy growths. The eggs are covered
with a glutinous matter, which hardens and forms a sort
of case over them. The eggs hatch out in early autumn,
and the tiny larvae remain under the protective covering
until the buds begin to develop; then they commence to
feed on the young leaves and the flowers. Later they
spin a web, and under tHis devour the whole of the
soft parts of the leaves. At first the larvae are of a
yellowish tint, but when more advanced the colour is an
ash-grey, spotted black. Late in June they form cocoons

DESSERT PEAR, BEURRE CLAIRGEAU.

Season : November.

DESSERT PEAR, BEURRE ALEXANDRE LUCAS
Season : November.

FRUIT ENEMIES. 273

in the webs, pupate, and appear a month or so later as
moths. Where possible the tents or webs and the larvae
should be collected and burnt. Spraying in winter with a
caustic alkali wash might kill the eggs, and with arsenate
of lead in May or early June would destroy the larvae.

Fruit Tree Beetle (Scolytus rugulosus).— A small beetle
measuring about i-ioin. long, and of a blackish hue, which
does serious damage to Apple trees by making tunnels in

Fig. 128. GOAT MOTH (Cossus LIGNIPERDA) AND LARVA.

Both of natural size.

the bark. In these tunnels the females deposit their eggs,
which hatch out into small footless white maggots or
grubs. These, in turn, make fresh tunnels, and so honey-
comb the bark that the tree gradually dies. Since the
beetles and larvae cannot be reached by insecticides, the
only remedy is to cut down and burn infested trees. March
is the best time to do it.

274 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

Goat Moth (Cossus llgniperda). — The female moth de-
posits her eggs in crevices of the bark in June and July.
These soon give birth to caterpillars, which eat their way
into the bark, and gradually tunnel into the heart of the
trunk. They are pinkish when young, and a rich yellow
marked with a mahogany stripe when older. The larvae
live for three years in the tree. Sometimes they are to
be met with crawling about, but, as a rule, they pupate
in the tunnels, and appear as moths in June. The presence
of the larvse in the tree may be detected by the lumps of
frass hanging to the bark and concealing the entrance.
If, as sometimes happens, several larvse are in one tree
the latter may die. To destroy the caterpillars in their
tunnels, thrust in a piece of red-hot wire. Bits of stick
cyanide placed in the holes, and the latter sealed over
tightly with clay, is another good remedy. Smearing the
bark with a mixture of lime, clay, and cow dung will pre-
vent the eggs hatching. (Fig. 128.)

Mussel Scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi). — An insect resem-
bling a mussel shell, hence its common name. The female
insect, which has a pale fleshy body and no legs, lives
beneath a scaly covering attached to the bark. There,
by means of a sucker-like mouth, it penetrates the bark or
rind, and feeds on the sap. Male insects are very scarce,
consequently the females are capable of producing their
young without the agency of the former. The female
attaches herself permanently to the bark, and in due course
lays a colony of eggs under the scale, and afterwards dies.
When the eggs are hatched the larvae for a time wander
about the shoots, fruit, an'd leaves. The larvae are also
transported about the trees by birds, insects, etc. When
. they are present in large numbers the scales seriously
injure the .tree by puncturing the bark and removing
the sap. .Spraying in June with a paraffin emulsion, and
in winter with the lime-sulphur wash, are the best reme-
dies.

Wood Leopard Moth (Zeuzera pyrina). — Like the larvae

FRUIT ENEMIES. 275

of the Goat Moth, the caterpillar of this moth also forms
tunnels in the bark and heart wood of Apple and other
trees, and often kills them. The moth appears in sum-
mer, and lays its eggs in deep crevices of the bark. In
a short time larvae are hatched from these, of a yellowish-
white colour, with black bristles and a brown head. When
fully grown they measure 2in. in length. They exist in
the larval stage for about a year, then pupate in a silken
cocoon beneath the bark, and appear as moths in sum-
mer. Apply the remedies advised for the Goat Moth, or
inject some disulphide of carbon into the hole, and plug
it up tightly. If a branch is found to be shrivelling, cut it off
and slit it in two, when probably the larva will be found
therein.

Miscellaneous Pests. — In addition to the foregoing there
are numerous other pests that are harmful to Apple trees,
though only in a minor degree. Thus the Apple Tree Mite
(Oribata lapidaria) infests the fruit buds, and sucks out
the sap ; the caterpillar of the Bud Moth (Hedya ocellana)
spins the young foliage and blossoms together, and causes
them to shrivel and turn brown ; the Green-leaf Weevil
(Phylobius maculicornis) devours the soft portions of the
leaves; the Shot Borer (Xyleborous dispar) bores into the
bark and pith ; and the larvae of Pith Moths (Blastodacum
kellerella and vinolentella) bore into the buds, shoots, and
spurs and kill them. When shoots are seen to shrivel,
cut them off and burn them. The larvae of many moths
also levy toll on the foliage, the remedy for which is
spraying in early summer.

Apricot Pests.

Apricot Moth (Batodes angustiorana). — The small
greyish or yellowish-green larvae of this moth curl the
leaves into tubes and feed upon them. The female moth
lays its eggs on the shoots in summer; these hatch out
in early spring — from April onwards — and often do much
injury to the foliage. When disturbed they drop out of

276 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

the folded leaves by means of a silken thread. If undis-
turbed they will, when full grown, pupate in the folded
leaf tube'. Crushing the larvae in the leafy tubes, or spray-
ing with arsenate of lead when the fruit is set, are the
best means of coping with this pest.

Other Pests.— The Bark Beetle (Scolytus rugulosus),
Winter Moth (Cheimatobia brumata), Mottled Umber
Moth (Hybernia defoliaria), Bud Moth (Hedya ocellana),
Peach Aphis (Aphis amygdali), and Peach Scale (Leca-
nium persica) infest the Apricot. These pests are dealt
with in other sections of this chapter.

Cherry Pests.

Cherry Aphis (Myzus cerasi). — A species of black fly
which infests the shoots and leaves of the Cherry in sum-
mer, coating the surface of the latter with a gummy secre-
tion from its body, and causing them to curl up. Like
other aphides, the Cherry Aphis also sucks the sap out of
the foliage. Viviparous females are produced in early
spring from eggs laid on the shoots the previous autumn.
Successive generations are produced during the season,
and unless prompt steps are taken to destroy the earlier
brood the lice will seriously cripple the growth of the
trees. Spray with a soft soap and quassia wash as soon
as the aphis is seen. Repeat the dose if the first one fails
to get rid of the pest. It is also advisable to spray with
a paraffin emulsion in autumn to destroy the egg-laying
females.

Cherry Tree Borer (Semasia woeberiana). — The larvae of
this moth bore into the bark of Cherry and Plum trees,
and feed on the inner bark, causing gum to exude an3 also
the parts affected to swell. In due course the tree falls
into ill-health and dies. The moths appear in June, and
lay their eggs in the crevices of the bark. The larvae are
of a pinkish hue, about Jin. long, and enter the pupal
state in August. A second brood appears in September,
and lays eggs which hatch out in April. Smearing the

FRUIT ENEMIES. 277

trunks with a mixture of fresh cow-dung and lime in May
and June, and again in September, to prevent egg-laying
is the only remedy.

Cherry Slugworm (Eriocampa limacina). — Slugworms
are the larvae of a black, shiny sawfly. The latter appears
about June, and deposits its eggs in the cuticle of the
under sides of the leaves. The eggs hatch in a few days,
and the larvae, which are slug-like in form, greenish in
colour, and have slimy bodies, crawl on to the upper sur-
face of the leaves, and feed thereon, leaving the veins
and under-surface only. The leaves have thus a blotched
appearance, and, being unable to carry on their functions,
they wither and die. Early in July the larvae descend to
the ground, form cocoons, and pupate an inch or so
below the surface. In case of an attack, spray the trees
with arsenate of lead. Fork in also, in autumn, one of
the soil fumigants to destroy the pupae.

Other Pests. — In addition to the foregoing special pests,
the larvae of the Winter, Mottled Umber, Lackey, and
other moths feed on the Cherry. See the section devoted
to Apple pests. The Bark Beetle also bores into the
trunks; and various weevils feed on the foliage.

Currant Pests.

Black Currant Bud Mite (Eriophyes ribis). — One of the
most troublesome and destructive pests that attack the
Currant. Also known as the Currant Gall Mite and the
Big Bud Mite. The Mite is a microscopic creature, hardly
visible except through a powerful lens; has a cylindrical,
semi-transparent, whiFish body, and lives in the scales of
the wood buds. There it sucks out the sap, and in doing
so so disorganises the tissues that growth is unable' to take
place. The buds, consequently, instead of producing
shoots, develop to an abnormal size, and finally shrivel
and die. The mites enter the young buds in July and
August and deposit their eggs. The following spring —
April and May — the mites escape, and crawl about the

278

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

bushes in search of new buds. It is assumed that some
crawl on the ground to other trees, or that they are carried
by bees or other insects thereto. Anyhow, the fact re-
mains that the infestation quickly spreads to other trees.
Now as to remedies. Picking off and burning all swollen
buds seems to be the most certain remedy. Where trees
are badly infested this plan is hardly practicable, because

Fig. 129. CURRANT CLEAR-WING MOTH (SESIA TIPULIFORMIS).

The upper figure is the moth ; the cross lines below indicate its natural size ;
at the bottom is a shoot with the larva inside.

it would mean destroying all, or nearly all, the buds, and
the trees would be rendered worthless. Clearly, the best
remedy would be to dig up and burn the trees, and not
to plant Black Currants again on the same site. Another
remedy advised is to dust the bushes in spring and sum-
mer, when the foliage is moist with dew or after rain,
with a mixture of one part of fresh ground lime and two
parts of flowers of sulphur. Some growers claim to have

FRUIT ENEMIES. 279

got rid of the mite by occasionally spraying the foliage
with a solution of fir-tree oil.

Currant Clearwing Moth (/Egeria tipuliformis). — The
larvae of this moth bore into the shoots of Currants, feed
on the pith, and cause the growths to shrivel and die.
The female moth lays one egg on each shoot in June.
The larva, which has a creamy-white body and a brown
head, appears in about ten days, and immediately bores
into one of the young lateral growths, and thence into
the pith of the main shoot. It remains in the shoot till
April, then enters the pupal state, and appears as a moth
in June. Its presence in shoots is indicated by the shrivel-
ling of the foliage and the withering of the former. Slit
the shoot open, and the culprit will be found in the pith.
The only remedy is to cut off and burn any withering
or dead shoots. (Fig. 129.)

Currant Shoot Borer (Incurvaria cupitella). — The parent
of this pest is a small moth, the female of which lays
her eggs in the young fruit late in May or early in June.
The larvae feed on the seeds for a short time, then quit
the fruits, spin a cocoon over themselves, and hibernate
in crevices of the bark till spring, when they again come
forth, and at once bore into the buds and young shoots,
causing them to flag. In their earlier stages the larvae
are bright red, but later they become greenish- white.
Pupation takes place early in May, and the moths appear
in June. Picking off the drooping shoots and burning
them, also spraying the bushes in winter with a caustic
wash, are the only remedies.

Currant Aphis (Rhopalosiphon ribis). — A species of
plant lice which infests the under-surfaces of the leaves
of Currants, causing them to turn brown and shrivel.
Very often leaves so infested have reddish blisters on their
upper sides ; these, however, are declared by Professor
Theobald not to be due to aphis infestation. Wingless,
viviparous females produce their young alive from April

280 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

to August. Some of the lice pupate, and become winged
females, which fly from bush to bush, and so spread the
infestation. In autumn a brood of male and oviparous
females is produced. The latter deposit their eggs on
the shoots, and these in early spring give birth to vivi-
parous females. The same aphis infests lettuce and sow
thistles. Always examine the foliage early in the season,
and if any lice are seen spray with quassia and soft soap
solution. Once the leaves have curled it is difficult to
apply a spray fluid to reach the aphides. In the case of
Red and White Currants that are infested, summer prune
and burn the shoots removed.

Currant Sawfly (Nematus ribesii).— The larvae attack
the leaves of the Red and White Currant, also the Goose-
berry, and in a very short space of time completely de-
foliate the bushes unless they are destroyed before much
mischief is done. The female sawflies deposit their eggs
in the cuticle of the under side and in rows close to the
ribs of the leaf. The larva? appear in about ten days. At
first they have green bodies, with black spots and black
heads ; and later the colour changes to a bluish-green, the
head being brown and the black spots being absent. Their
length when fully grown is about 2-3in. They feed first
on the epidermis, and then gnaw holes in the leaf, finally
devouring all the soft parts, leaving the ribs only. When
they reach maturity the larvae enclose themselves in a
cocoon, and either pupate in the soil or under any debris
lying on the surface. Several broods are produced during
the season, the last one remaining in the pupal stage till
spring. Repeated spraying with a quassia and soft soap
solution is the safest and best method. The use of arseni-
cal preparations is too risky, unless it is done before the
fruit begins to ripen. Where bushes were badly attacked
the previous summer, remove the upper three inches of
soil and burn it, replacing the burnt earth. Another plan
is to dig in a soil fumigant in autumn to destroy the pupae.
(Fig. 130.)

FKUIT ENEMIES. 281

Brown Currant Scale (Lecanium persicae var. saro-
thamni). — This insect infests the Currant and Gooseberry,
as well as several kinds of shrubs. The female scales are
yellowish-brown in colour, hemispherical in shape, and
about |in. long. The former lays a large number of
minute eggs, which give birth to oval-shaped larvae, that,
during the earlier stage of their existence, wander about
the bushes until they have found suitable positions on the

Fig. 130. GOOSEBERRY AND CURRANT SAWFLY (NEMATIS RIBESII).

Above is the Sawfly with lines below to indicate its size. Below are the
larvse feeding on a leaf, with a cocoon at the side.

young shoots to settle down permanently. They then
pierce the bark, and by means of their beak-like mouths
suck out the sap from the shoots, causing the latter to
be stunted in growth and sickly. There are at least two
broods of this pest in a year. Spraying the bushes in
January with a caustic alkali wash is the best way of
getting rid of this pest. (Fig. 131.)

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

White Woolly Currant Scale (Pulvinaria vitis var.
ribesiae). — A pest which is readily distinguished by the
masses and threads of white wool-like substance which
accompany it. The female scale is of a yellowish tint,
reticulated with brown, and lays its minute eggs on the
woolly mass in June. The larvae move about freely, and

Fig. 131. BROWN CURRANT SCALE (LECANIUM PERSIC^E
SAROTHAMNI).

Upper figure represents the female and the lower one a side view of the
scaly covering which shelters the young insects.

suck out the sap from the shoots. The woolly fibres con-
taining the eggs are readily blown to other bushes by
the wind, and birds and insects carry them about. Trees

FRUIT ENEMIES, 283

infested with this pest soon become sickly. The remedies
are those advised for the Brown Currant Scale.

Other Pests.— The larvae of the Winter and Magpie
Moths also infest Currant bushes. See descriptions, etc.,
in other sections.

Gooseberry Pests.

Gooseberry or Magpie Moth(Abraxus grossulariae). — The
larvae of this moth feed on the foliage of the Gooseberry
and the Currant, and speedily defoliate the bushes unless
they are destroyed in an early stage of their existence.
The parent moth is a very pretty insect. It has a yellow-
ish body and creamy-white wings, spotted with black.
The female lays its cream-coloured eggs in July and
August in groups on the under side of the leaves. The
larvae feed on the leaves for a short time, then they spin
leaves together and pass the winter thus, either in the soil
or in crevices of the bark, etc., until spring, when they
come forth, ascend the bushes, and begin to feed on the
young foliage. They are then of a creamy-white colour,
spotted with black, and marked with yellow on their sides.
Early in July they enter the pupal stage, and emerge as
moths in August. Spraying in early autumn with arsenate
of lead to kill the larvae is the best remedy. If any larvae
are seen in early spring, spray the bushes with a similar
preparation.

Gooseberry Red Spider (Bryobia ribis).— A small mite
with a pale-coloured body, dotted with reddish spots, which
infests the leaves in hot, dry seasons, and sucks out the
sap, causing them to assume a silvery appearance. It
feeds mostly on the under surface of the leaves. The mites
lay their eggs on the shoots in early spring and onwards,
and if the weather should be warm and dry the larvae will
soon swarm over the foliage and do serious harm. Spray-
ing the bushes in February with a lime-sulphur wash will kill
this pest; or later with a nicotine preparation if the first
remedy should fail, will prove effectual.

284 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

Other Pests.— The larvae of the Winter Moth eat the
foliage; those of the Currant Clearwing Moth bore into*
the shoots; the Currant Sawfly larvae devour the foliage;
and the Currant Aphis and Brown Scale suck the sap out of
the leaves and shoots. See other sections for descriptions.

Nut Pests.

Filbert Bud Mite (Eriophyes avellanae). — A mite allied
to the Big Bud Mite of the Black Currant. The mites
live in the scales of the buds, suck out the sap, and cause
the buds to swell to an abnormal size. They commonly
infest the buds of the Wild Hazel. Picking off and burn-
ing the swollen buds is the only remedy.

Nut Weevil (Balaninus nucus). — The weevils, which are
tawny coloured and about iin. long, bore a hole into the
young nut with their beaks or rostrums, and then deposit
a single egg therein. In about ten days a creamy-white
maggot appears, and feeds on the kernel until it is full
grown ; then it gnaws its way out, descends to the soil,
forms a cell, and remains therein till spring, when it
pupates, and appears as a weevil in June. The weevils
feed on the foliage during the summer. Spraying the
foliage with an arsenate of lead wash in June seems to be
the only way of killing the beetle.

Other Pests.— The larvae of the Winter, Mottled Umber,
and Buff-tip Moths, also various leaf weevils, feed on the
foliage.

Peach and Nectarine Pests.

Peach Aphis (Aphis amygdali). — A species of aphis
which infests the young foliage, sucking out the sap, and
causing the leaves to curl. Spraying with a soft soap
and quassia solution is the only remedy.

Peach Scale (Lecanium persicae).— Usually attacks
Peach trees grown under glass only, but is occasionally
to be found on outdoor trees. Infests both leaves and
shoots, and is best got rid of by spraying the trees in
winter with a caustic alkali wash.

FRUIT ENEMIES. 285

Pear Pests.

Pear-leaf Blister Moth (Cemiostoma scittella). — The
larvae of this moth feed on the inner soft tissues of the
leaves, and cause blisters to form thereon. The female
moth lays its eggs on the under sides of the leaves from
May to August, and the subsequent larvae gnaw their way
into the tissues and feed upon them. The blisters are
brownish at first, changing later to a dark hue. The
injured leaves in due course die and fall off. The larvse
are greenish in colour, and about ^in. long. There are
two broods in a season. Spraying with arsenate of lead
in May to destroy the young larvae before they have entered
the leaves seems to be the only remedy.

Social Pear Sawfly (Pamphilius flaviventris). — The
larvae spin webs over the shoots and leaves of the Pear
tree, and under the protection of this greedily devour the
foliage. The female sawfly deposits its eggs in groups on
the under sides of the leaves in May and June. The larvse
appear in about ten days, and at once begin to spin a
large web. Therein they devour the leaves within reach,
and when the supply is exhausted they move further on,
spin another web, and again make a raid on the neigh-
bouring foliage. They go on thus for about five weeks,
then lower themselves to the ground by a silken thread,
enter the soil, form a cocoon, remain in this until spring,
when they enter the pupal stage, and appear as sawflies
in May. When this pest appears, the webs or nests of
larvae should be cut off and promptly destroyed. A soil
fumigant should also be dug into the ground in autumn
to kill the hibernating larvae. (Fig. 132.)

Pear Midge (Diplosis pyrivora). — This is a terrible pest
in some seasons, the maggots infesting the young fruits
and completely destroying them. The midges appear in
April, deposit their eggs in the blossom either before it
has expanded or just afterwards, and in ten days small
yellowish-white maggots are produced. The maggots, to

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

FRUIT ENEMIES, 287

the number of a dozen or more, at once tunnel into each
young fruit and devour the pulp. As soon as they reach
maturity they quit the fruit, fall to the ground, form a
cocoon, and pupate later on. Fruit attacked cannot, of
course, develop, and it therefore falls off. The young infested
fruits should be gathered and burnt, and the soil dressed with
a fumigant. such as "vaporite."

Pear Leaf Blister Mite (Eriophyes pyri).— A gall mite
which enters the young leaves through their stomata,
forms galls or small blisters, deposits its eggs therein,
which in turn hatch into larva? that increase the injury
to the foliage. During the winter the mites live in the
scales of the leaf-buds. The blisters are reddish at first,
and brown or black later on. The mites attack the young
fruits also, and prevent their developing. Leaves badly
attacked by this pest eventually die and fall. Spraying
with a lime-sulphur wash in winter is an excelled
remedy. Badly-blistered leaves should be picked off and
burnt.

Other Pests.— The Winter, Mottled Umber, and Lackey
Moth larvae feed on the foliage; those of the Wood Leo-
pard and Goat Moths on the inner wood of the trunks;
the Fruit Bark Beetle forms tunnels in the bark; the
Cherry Slugworm feeds on the leaves ; the Apple Blossom
Weevil maggots injure the blossoms; and the American
Blight infests the shoots, etc. See previous sections for
descriptions of these pests.

Plum and Damson Pests.

Plum Aphis (Aphis pruni). — A pest which does con-
siderable injury to the foliage of the Plum and Damson
in some seasons. The first brood is hatched in early
spring from eggs laid on the shoots the previous autumn.
These and successive generations produce their young
alive. The females are wingless up to a certain period,
then winged ones, together with winged males, appear,

238 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

the final brood laying eggs on the shoots in autumn. The
purplish-brown lice puncture the rind of the shoots, suck
out the sap, and cause the leaves to curl and eventually
to shrivel and die. The trees should be sprayed in Febru-
ary with a lime-sulphur wash to kill the eggs. Spring
spraying, either just before the buds open or after the petals
have fallen, to kill the first brood of female aphides, is also
desirable.

Mealy Plum Aphis (Hyalopterus pruni). — Another aphis,
with pale green bodies covered with a dense coating of
mealy secretion. They congregate in clusters on the
under sides of the leaves, and in time cover the surface
with a sticky substance called honeydew. The lice appear
in early summer, and disappear before autumn. There
are wingless and winged females, the latter flying from
tree to tree. Spraying with an insecticide when the pest
is first seen is the best remedy.

Red Plum Maggot (Opadea funebrana). — This is the
larva of a small moth. The latter lays an egg at the base
of the stalk of a fruit in June or July. In due course
a maggot appears, and gnaws its way into the fruit, feed-
ing on the flesh. The maggot, which has a reddish body
and a brown head, reaches maturity early in September,
when it quits the fruit, spins a cocoon in crevices of the
bark, pupates in spring, and appears as a moth the follow-
ing June. These maggots spoil the value of the fruit for
eating. Fruit which ripens prematurely should be ex-
amined, and if infested be promptly burnt. Grease-banding
should also be practised.

Plum Sawfly (Cladius padus). — The larvae feed on the
surface of the leaves, devouring the soft parts, but leaving
the upper epidermis intact. The females lay their eggs
on the under surface in May and June, and the latter hatch
out in about eight days. The larvae are pale green in
their younger stages, and of a darker green shade, with
an orange-coloured head, as they increase in age. When
three weeks old the first brood of larvae descend to the

FRUIT ENEMIES, 289

soil, form a cocoon, pupate, and appear as moths in a
few weeks. The females again lay eggs, producing a
second brood, which pass the winter in cocoons In the
soil, enter the pupal stage in April, and appear as moths
in May. Spray with an arsenate of lead wash as soon
as the insects are seen. In autumn, too, fork a soil fumi-
gant into the soil.

Oyster-shell Bark Louse (Aspidiotus ostraeformis). — A
scale insect which infests the trunks, branches, and shoots
of the Plum and other fruit trees. The scaly covering
of the insect resembles an oyster-shell in shape. The
wingless female insects deposit their eggs on the shoots
in April and May, and the larvae appear in June. They
crawl about the branches for a short time, then attach
themselves permanently to the bark, pierce the latter with
their beak-like mouths, and suck out the sap. In autumn
each larva forms an oyster-like scale over its body, under
which it lives until it reaches maturity the following April,
and commences to lay eggs. Spray the trees in winter
with a caustic alkali wash to kill the pest.

Plum Fruit Sawfly (Hoplocampo fulvicornis).— The
larvae of this sawfly attack the young fruit of the Plum,
feed on the fleshy interior, and cause it to fall off in an
early stage of its growth. The sawfly deposits an egg
in the unopened flower bud in April or May. In a week
or so a larva appears, and begins to eat its way into the
young fruit. The larvae are creamy-white or pinkish in
colour, and have a brown head. They attain maturity
in July ; then leave the fruit, enter the soil, and spin
cocoons, remaining thus until February, when they enter
the pupal stage and appear as sawflies in April and May.
Gather and burn all fruits attacked, and fork a soil fumi-
gant into the ground around the tree in autumn to destroy
the cocoons.

Other Pests.— The larvae of the Winter, Mottled Umber,
March, and Vapourer Moths, Pear Slugworm, and Social
Pear Sawfly feed upon the foliage ; the larvae of the Wood

290 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Leopard and Goat Moth, also the Bark and Shot Borer
Beetles, infest the wood and bark; Weevils feed on the
foliage; and the Mussel Scale and Brown Scale infest the
shoots and branches of the Plum. These are dealt with
in other sections.

Raspberry and Loganberry Pests.

Raspberry Moth (Lampronia rubiella).— The small
larvae of this moth infest the buds and shoots of the Rasp-
berry, feed on the pith, causing the canes to wither and
die. The moth appears in May and June, and lays its
eggs in the flowers. Larvae appear in about a week, and
enter the core of the berry. Here they remain until the
fruit begins to ripen, when they depart, spin cocoons
attached to crevices in the bark 'of the canes or the root
stock, and remain thus until spring. They then leave the
cocoons, bore their way into the nearest growth bud, and
gradually tunnel through the pith. The result is the
withering of the young shoot. The larva is of a pinkish
hue, and about fin. long. It pupates in the base of the
shoot or among the dead leaves, and appears as a moth
in May. Canes with shrivelled shoots should be promptly
cut off and burnt. A dressing of lime should also be
raked into the soil around the base of the stools in early
spring, and one or two sprayings of arsenate of lead given
in late May and early June. All loose rubbish should be
collected and burnt. Also attacks loganberries.

Raspberry Beetle (Byturus tomentosus). — The maggots
of this beetle attack the fruits of the Raspberry, Black-
berry, and Loganberry, and so damage them that they
are unfit for food. The beetles also feed upon the blos-
soms and bud.1?. The beetles appear in May, and deposit
their eggs in the blossoms. Larvae appear in due course,
penetrate the receptacle of the berry, and then feed upon
it, causing it eventually to shrivel and fall off. The larvae
are yellowish in colour with brown markings, the head
being brown and flattish in shape. They frequently crawl

FRUIT ENEMIES.

291

from one fruit to another, and thus do anv immense amount
of mischief. When fully grown, the larvae pupate in the
soil or in crevices of the bark of the canes, and appear
in the beetle form in spring. The beetle is about i-7th-inch
long, has a dark brown body covered with a golden
pubescence, and is very active in sunny weather. All
canes that are cut away in autumn should be promptly
burnt. Dress the soil around the stools with lime and
soot in autumn, and rake both in. Smear some sacks

Fig-. 133. RASPBERRY BEETLE (BYTURUS TOMENTOSUS).

A, Beetle flying. B, At rest. C, Larva ; all magnified.

with tar, and on dull, warm days in May and June shake
the canes over these ; then the beetles will fall on to the
former and be caught. Spraying with arsenate of lead
in May and June would kill many of the beetles. (Fig. 133.)

Raspberry Weevil (Otiorhynchus picipes). — This oblong,
pitchy-coloured weevil is a very destructive pest which
feeds on the blossoms, fruit buds, young snoots, and
leaves. It carries on its destructive work at night, and

u2

292 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

during the day hides in the soil. These weevils are crafty
creatures, falling off the plants the instant the latter are
touched, and simulating death. The best way to catch
them is to go quietly along the sides of the plants at night
with tarred sacks or boards, and to suddenly shake the
canes over them. A dark lantern or an electric hand-
lamp, the light of which can be flashed on, will cause the
weevils to drop on to the tarred sacks. Spraying at night
with arsenate of lead is a good remedy. Dressings of
soil fumigant raked into the soil by day will also kill the
weevils. The white, fleshy grubs of this weevil live in the
ground, and eat the roots of plants.

Raspberry Gall Fiy (Lasiopteri rubi). — Sometimes galls
or excrescences are found on Raspberry canes. These are
due to the presence of tiny orange larva?, which puncture
the tissues and cause the parts affected to become swollen.
Cut off and burn infested canes.

Other Pests. — The larvae of various moths, also Chafer
Beetles, feed on the foliage, but the harm they do is
very slight.

Strawberry Pests.

Eelworms. — Two kinds of eelworms infest Strawberry
plants, and sometimes do serious injury to them. The
kind known as the Root Eelworm (Tylenchus devastatrix)
is a microscopic species of thread-like worm which infests
the tissues of the roots, and causes the plants to decay
and die. They are also to be found in decayed manure
and in sour, damp soils. Another kind, called the Cauli-
flower Disease Eelworm (Aphelenchus fragaria?), infests
the stems, leaves, and flower buds, causing the latter
especially to develop into a cauliflower-like mass of swollen
growths, and the entire plant to sicken and die. Here,
again, the eelworms live and breed in the tissues. All
diseased plants should be burnt, and the soil liberally
dressed with ground lime. Spent hops are particularly
liable to encourage the presence of eelworms.

FRUIT ENEMIES. 293

Slugs and Snails. — Three kinds of slugs — namely, Arion
ater (Black Slug), Agriolimax agrestis (Grey Field Slug),
and the Black-striped Slug (Leinax maximus) — do con-
siderable damage to the foliage, the blossoms, and the
fruit. All three are reproduced from eggs laid in the soil.
There is also a species of snail (Helix rupescens), with a
yellowish-brown body and dark brown stripes along the
neck and tentacles, which feeds on the young leaves and
fruit at night. Before strawing the beds give the soil a
good dressing of soot, or a mixture of one part of lime,
and ten parts of napthalene, to one hundred parts of fine
cinder-ashes.

Miscellaneous Pests.

Wasps.— These attack the ripe fruits of the Plum, Pear,
Apricot, Peach, Nectarine, and Vine, and in some seasons
play serious havoc with the former. In the case of Vines
cover all ventilators or open spaces in vineries with muslin
when the berries begin to ripen. A framework covered
with muslin should also be used in the doorways if the
doors are to be left open for ventilating purposes. Wide-
mouthed jars should be partly filled with treacle and
water or stale beer, and suspended in the branches of out-
door fruit trees to trap the insects. Wherever possible
it is desirable to discover the nests, and at night destroy
these by inserting squibs of damp gunpowder and igniting
these, or cotton wool saturated with cyanide of potassium,
in both cases immediately sealing up the hole, and later
on digging out and destroying the nests.

Rabbits and Hares. — These quadrupeds do considerable
mischief by gnawing off the bark of young fruit trees.
The best preventive remedy is to enclose the lower 3ft.
of the trunk in small-mesh wire netting. In the case of
attack prepare a mixture of fresh cow-dung, clay, and
water, of the consistency of paint, and to each pailful add
a teaspoonful of tincture of assafretida- Smear the bark,
and the wounded parts especially, with this pigment.

294 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Birds. — Blackbirds, thrushes, and starlings eat the
fruits of the Strawberry, Cherry, etc., and sometimes the
Apple and Pear. Strawberry beds should be covered
with fish-netting, and the same remarks apply to Goose-
berry and Currant trees and other fruits grown on walls.
Bullfinches and titmice peck off the fruit buds in winter,
and sparrows occasionally also do considerable damage in
spring by pecking off the blossoms. Covering the trees
with fish-netting is the only remedy in the latter case,
and syringing the bushes in winter with a lime sul-
phur, and salt wash will prevent the former destroying
the buds.

FRUIT DISEASES, 295

CHAPTER VIII.

FRUIT DISEASES.

The Apple and Pear.

Apple Mildew (Spaerotheca mali). — This fungus appears
in the form of a dense white powdery film on the young
shoots and leaves of old Apple trees during the summer,
and seriously injures the growth. Spraying the tree as
soon as the disease is discovered with a solution of sul-
phide of potassium is the only remedy.

Apple Scab (Venturia inequalis). — A disease which
appears in early summer, mainly on the upper side of the
leaves, in the form of black spots. In due course the
spots become confluent, and form olive-coloured patches
on the leaves. The young shoots are also attacked.
Later the disease spreads to the fruit, and black sunken
scabs develop thereon ; the rind, or skin, also cracks, and
the fruit is consequently rendered unusable- The reme-
dies are, first of all, to cut off as far as possible all dis-
eased shoots, leaves, and fruits, and burn them. In
spring, just before the leaf-buds open, spray with Bor-
deaux mixture, and again with a weaker solution when
the leaves are half-expanded.

Apple Rot (Gloesporium fructigena). — This appears
on the fruit in the form ot pale brown spots under the
skin. Later sunken patches form, and the fungus de-
velops a series of small black points arranged in con-
centric circles. The result of an attack is the early
maturation and falling off of the fruit. The disease also
causes cankery warts on the shoots or branches. Needless
to say, all diseased fruits should be immediately burnt, and
any shoots having the cankery warts on them be also

286 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

cut off and burnt. The best preventive remedy is to spray
the tree with Bordeaux mixture before the flower-buds
open, and again at intervals during the summer.

Canker (Nectria ditissima). — A disease which is, un-
fortunately, too common, especially on fruit trees grown
in badly-drained or damp soils. Careless pruning also
contributes to the development of this disease. The fun-
gus first develops in any wounds or cracks in the bark,
and gradually causes the decay of the tissues. The wounds
caused by an infestation of American Blight are frequently
attacked by this fungus. The ultimate result of an
attack is the complete decay of the bark and the death
of the branch. Badly attacked trees should be burnt, as
there is no possible cure in such a case- Where the attack
is only slight, cut off the diseased branches, or pare away
all diseased parts to healthy tissue, and then paint the
wounds with Stockholm tar. Sorts like Cox's Orange,
King of the Pippins, and Lord Suffield are especially liable
to canker attack if grown in damp soils; therefore plant
these only on well-drained soils.

Coral Spot Disease (Nectria cinnabarina). — This disease
flourishes mainly on dead wood, but it will develop on
living trees if there are any fractures in the bark. Its
appearance may be easily detected by a colony of bright
coral red spots on the bark. All dead wood covered with
red spots or warts should be burnt ; and in the case of a
living tree cut off and burn all diseased parts, then paint
the wounds with Stockholm tar.

Apple Blotch (Phyllosticha solitaria).— A disease which
attacks both the leaves ant3 fruits of the Apple. It appears
in the form of yellowish or brownish patches on the leaves,
also as cankery warts on the shoots, and frequently causes
the fruits to crack. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture
before the flower-buds expand, again when the' petals have
fallen, and at frequent intervals during the summer, is the
best remedy for this disease.

FRUIT DISEASES. 297

Pear-leaf Cluster-Cups (Gymnosporangium sabina?).—
Not a serious disease. It produces rugged swellings on
the leaves. Burn infected leaves.

Pear Scab (Venturia pirina). — A similar disease to the
Apple Scab, previously described. Same remedies apply.

Stone Fruits.

Apricot Brown Rot.— See Apple Rot Disease, in pre-
vious section.

Cherry-leaf Scorch (Gnomonia erythrostoma). — A dis-
ease which attacks the leaves and eventually the leaf-
stalks. The result is, the sap is prevented passing to the
leaves, and they consequently wither, and have the appear-
ance of having been scorched. The dead leaves hang on
to the shoots until the following year. Gathering and
burning all withered foliage in winter or earlier is the only
remedy.

Cherry Mildew (Podosphsera oxyacanthae). — This forms
white powdery patches on both sides of the leaves, and in
cases of a bad attack seriously cripples the growth of the
tree. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture at half the usual
strength when the leaves are young checks the develop-
ment of this fungus.

Peach-leaf Curl (Exoascus deformans).— Leaves of the
Peach and Nectarine are frequently attacked by this
fungus. The leaves have a puckered and swollen appear-
ance, and are coated with a whitish mould, similar to
mildew. The disease prevents the leaves carrying on
their proper functions, and hence they soon become sickly
and die. The mycelium of the fungus lives in the young
shoots, and then passes on to the leaves. Infected leaves
should be removed early and burnt, and it is a good plan
to also remove and burn shoots that have borne infected
le'aves. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture before the flower-
buds expand will do much towards checking the spread
of the disease.

298 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

Bladder Plum Disease (Exoascus pruni).— This fungus
attacks the fruit of the Plum and Damson. The mycelium
enters the embryo of the flower, and when the fruit forms
it develops a bladder-like shape, hollow within, and stone-
less. As the mycelium of the fungus lives in the tissues
of the shoots, the only remedy is to cut off and burn those
that bear the bladder-like fruits.

Gumming Disease (Coryneum beyerinckii). — This dis-
ease attacks the Apricot, Cherry, Plum, and Peach. It
appears in the form of red patches on the under surface of
the leaves. In due course the disease develops, causes
the parts attacked to become dry, fall out, and leave cir-
cular holes in the leaves. It also attacks the shoots, and
causes a gummy substance to ooze out. Another fungus
(Cladosporium epiphyceum) also causes gum to ooze out
of the branches. Cut off and burn all shoots attacked.

Silver-leaf Disease.— The Plum, Peach, and Apricot
have of late years been attacked by a disease which causes
the leaves to assume a silvery hue. Some authorities con-
sider it to be caused by a fungus (Stereum purpureum),
but Mr. George Massee, F.L.S., the well-known myco-
logist, holds a contrary opinion. Anyway, whatever the
cause may be, trees attacked do not survive for more than
two or three years. Many remedies have been tried as
a cure or a preventive, but all have so far failed to act.
Clearly, the only course is to uproot and burn all diseased
trees.

Currants and Gooseberries.

American Gooseberry Mildew (Spaerotheca mors-uvae). —
This is a very serious disease, which, had it not been for the
timely action of the Board of Agriculture in taking strin-
gent steps to stamp it out, might have annihilated the
Gooseberry in this country. It appears about May, in the
form of a delicate cobweb-like, white film, and later be-
comes mealy on the young leaf-buds, then on the shoots
and fruit. The fungus develops with alarming rapidity,

FRUIT DISEASES. 299

and is easily dispersed by the agency of wind, rain, insects,
and birds, to other bushes, thus infecting a whole planta-
tion in a short period. During the winter the mildew
changes to a dark brown hue, and remains in the myce-
lium stage in the points of the shoots till spring, then
infects the new growth. Under the provisions of the
Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 1887 and 1907, this
disease is scheduled as a notifiable one ; consequently any-
one suspecting it to be present on his bushes must, under
a penalty of £10 in default, notify the fact to the local
inspector appointed under the Act, or direct to the Board-
The officials will inspect the bushes, and, if they are
infected with the disease, instruct the grower what to do
to get rid of it.

Gooseberry Black-Knot (Plowrightia ribesia). — A para-
sitic fungus which develops in wounds, and causes the
foliage to wilt, turn yellow, and fall off early in the
season. The result is feeble growth the next season, and
the ultimate death of the shoot or branch. All shoots or
branches with yellow, wilted foliage should be cut off and
burnt.

Gooseberry Mildew (Microsphsera grossulariae).— Ap-
pears on the leaves in summer in the form of a greyish-
white mould. Does not infect the shoots or fruit as does
the American Mildew. Spray the bushes with a solution
of sulphide of potassium when the leaves begin to unfold.

Gooseberry-leaf Cluster Cups (Puccinia pringsheimiana).
— This fungus appears in the form of tiny cups with
whitish, laciniated edges, on the leaves and fruit. Each
cup contains orange-coloured spores. Collect and burn
all diseased leaves or fruit.

Currant-leaf Spot (Pseudopeziza ribis). — This appears
on the surface of the fully-grown leaves as blackish spots.
The mycelium spreads in the tissues, and prevents the
leaves carrying on their functions ; hence they die, thus
weakening the growth of the tree- Burn all fallen leaves,

300 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

and spray the foliage in summer with a solution of sul-
phide of potassium.

Raspberries and Strawberries.

Raspberry Rust (Phragmidum rubi-ideae). — A fungus
which appears on the upper surface of the leaves in early
summer in the form of yellowish-brown spots in circular
patches. Leaves attacked fall off early, and thus affect
the future growth of the canes. Burn all diseased foliage,
and spray early in the season with a solution of sulphide
of potassium.

Raspberry Spot (Glceosporium venetum). — Attacks the
young canes and leaves. Appears first as small red spots,
then gradually develops into large blotches. The canes
the following season produce scanty foliage, and little, if
any, fruit. Cut off and burn all diseased canes, and spray
in winter with a sulphate of iron solution.

Strawberry-leaf Spot (Sphaerella fragarise).— Attacks
the leaves in the form of greyish or white spots, with a
reddish border. It seriously affects the growth of the
plant, and also the yield of fruit. Cut off and burn all
infected leaves ; in fact, in the case of a bad attack, it is
advisable to burn the plants, and to plant a new bed in
a fresh site. Spraying before the flowers open with a
sulphide of potassium solution is a good preventive.

Strawberry Mildew (Sphaerotheca humuli).— This dis-
ease causes the leaves to curl in the first instance, and
then appears as a white mould on the under surface. Also
infects the fruit. Spraying with sulphide of potassium
directly the disease appears will check its spread. Badly
attacked plants are best burnt.

Finally, we commend to the notice of readers of this
volume' the Author's book, " Garden Foes " (25. lod.
post free), which contains the life history of, remedies for,
and illustrations of the various pests and diseases that
attack trees and other crops.

CAUSES OF UNFRUITFULNESS. 301

CHAPTER IX.
Causes of Unfruit fulness.

WE receive scores of enquiries every year from readers of
" Amateur Gardening," asking us to solve the problem of
why their trees fail to yield no, or very little, fruit. It
has therefore occurred to us that we might well devote
a special chapter to the subject of the chief causes of un-
fruitfulness in fruit trees, and so help to solve many pro-
blems that confront the amateur in his endeavour to grow
fruit successfully. These we will proceed to deal with
under various heads, as follows:

1. Sterility of the Blossoms. — Up to a. few years ago it
was generally assumed that the chief cause of fruit trees
failing to produce fruit, notwithstanding the abundant
crop of bk>ssom, was the result of injury by late spring
frosts. Now, while undoubtedly the latter is responsible
in some sea-sons for a paucity of fruit, scientists have dis-
covered that there is another cause for the failure, and
that is a physiological defect in the floral organs, namely,
the inability of the pollen grains of some varieties to pos-
sess the potency for fertilising the ovaries. For some
time, therefore, both here and in America, experts have
been making a close study of the subject of pollination,
as applied to fruit trees, and they have, as a result, dis-
covered that so'ine varieties of apples, pears, plums, and
cherries are self-sterile, i.e., incapable of fertilising their
flowers with their own pollen ; while others are self-fer-
tile and capable of self-fertilisation with their own pollen.
Considerable progress has been made in determining the
self-sterility and self-fertility of apples, plums, and
cherries, and also in a small degree of pears. Those
varieties in each class of fruit that have been definitely
stated to be self-sterile or self-fertile are noted in the lists
of varieties published in the foregoing pages.

302 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

The discovery practically means that certain varieties
can only have their ovaries fertilised by pollen obtained
from another variety, conveyed either by the agency of
bees or other insects, by wind, or by the aid of man.
Apparently, while a variety cannot pollinate itself by
means of its own pollen, yet it is capable of being fertilised
by that from another variety, even thougih it may be self-
sterile itself. To pollinate self-sterile varieties success-
fully, there must, therefore, be plenty of bees about to
collect pollen from other trees that are in blossom at the
same time. Hence, it follows that if a single apple tree
of a self-sterile variety, like Cox's Orange Pippin, be
grown only there is a risk of no fruit being produced, be-
cause, unless there are apple trees grown in adjoining
gardens, there would be no supply ol potent pollen
available.

The obvious remedy is to grow self-fertile and self-
sterile sorts together, then if there are plenty of bees
about, pollination will be assured. Then, wherever pos-
sible, one or two hives of bees should be kept in' every
garden where fruit is grown largely, and in the case of
extensive fruit gardens, no less than 40 hives should be
kept for every 160 acres of plantation. Where there are
only a few trees it would be a good plan to hand-pollinate
the blossoms on fine days by means of a rabbit's tail fixed
to a stick.

And it is not only the fruits mentioned that require the
aid of bees and insects to ensure perfect pollination of
the blossoms. The pollen grains in the flowers of the
gooseberry and currant are of a glutinous nature, and
hence cannot be conveyed from one tree to another with-
out the assistance of insects. Nor can raspberries, nor
loganberries, do so effectively without such aid. Cobnuts
and filberts are pollinated easily by wind agency. Grapes,
again, also peaches and nectarines grown under glass,
require hand or insect pollination. Old-fashioned gar-
deners made a practice of placing a hive of bees in their

CAUSES OF UNFRUITFULNESS. 303

orchard and peach houses during the flowering period to
assist in the distribution of pollen.

Another simple method of pollination of self-sterile
varieties is to place trusses of blossoms of a fertile variety
among the branches of the former on bright, sunny days.
Insects on the wing would then visit these trusses and
convey the pollen to the other flowers. Such a method,
of course, is only practicable in the case of a few trees.

2. Frost. — Fruit trees growing in low-lying, damp posi-
tions are apt to have their floral organs seriously damaged
by late spring frosts* It frequently happens that the
entire crop of fruit is lost in such a case, and unfortu-
nately there seems no really successful way of combating
the injury. The various methods in vogue for the protec-
tion of fruit blossoms are described in the next chapter, so
that we need not discuss them here. Readers who culti-
vate fruit trees in low, damp, or exposed positions, and
who fail to secure good crops of fruit must therefore not
attribute the loss to sterility of the blossoms alone, as
frost and cold winds <may, in such a case, be the real causes.

3. Faulty Pruning.— The failure of trees to produce
flowers or fruit may often be traced to faulty pruning.
Trees are often planted in positions unsuitable for enabl-
ing them to attain their natural fruiting size, as standards
in small gardens, or espaliers or fan-trained trees on low
walls or fences. To keep these trees within the required
limit of space severe pruning of the shoots is practised
annually, with the result that they make rank annual
growths, which fail to ripen and develop fruit buds. This
erroneous practice, moreover, encourages excessive root
production, and makes matters still worse. Strict atten-
tion should therefore be paid to the instructions given in
the chapters on pruning and training. Moreover, care
should be taken not to plant trees in positions where they
are unable to develop to their nonmal size. Judicious
periodical root pruning is also essential to maintain a due
balance between root and branch growth.

304 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

4. Damage by Pests. — A common cause of unfruitful-
ness is allowing the buds, blossoms, young fruit, shoots,
and branches to be damaged by insect and fur gold pests.
Hence, particular care should be paid to the importance
of winter and summer spraying, grease-banding, etc., as
advised elsewhere in this work. Trees can/not make
healthy, normal growth, nor can they bear blossoms pos-
sessing the necessary stamina to ensure perfect fertilisa-
tion of their ovaries, if their growth be crippled by the
action of pests. ,

5. Conclusions. — The obvious lessons to be learnt fro<m
the foregoing facts are: (a) Self-fertile and self-sterile
varieties should be grown in conjunction ; (b) due care
must be made to the protection of the trees whilst in
blos>som ; (c) proper attention must be paid to plant trees
suitable to the positions they are intended to occupy, also
to skilful pruning ; (d) avoid permitting pests a,nd diseases
gaining a foothold on the trees ; (e) finally, be careful as
to the proper selection and treatment of soils, the use of
suitable manures, and the general methods of cultivation
as laid down in these pages, then there would be fewer
instances of unfruitfulness.

SUMMER RASPBERRY, THE DEVON.

vigorous-growing and free-fruiting Raspberry, bearing large bright crimson
fruits of splendid flavour.

PROTECTING FRUIT TREES. 305

CHAPTER X.
Protecting Fruit Trees.

TREES that grow against walls and flower early require
some protection from frost and cold winds during the
blossoming period. We refer to Peaches, Nectarines, and
Apricots more especially ; but in cold positions early Pears,
Plums, and Cherries are all the better for some protec-
tion whilst the trees are in blossom. The protection
should be given as soon as the flower buds begin to show
colour, and be continued until the fruit has set. Indeed,
should frosty weather prevail, it should be prolonged until
the latter has disappeared.

Glass Copings. — For large gardens, with high walls,
portable glass copings afford the most perfect and satis-
factory way of protecting trees in blossom. These are
formed of glazed sashes, 2ft. or 2ft. Gin. wide, and 6ft. 7in.
in length. They are made to slide in iron brackets fixed
in iron brackets permanently bolted to the wall. When
not required for protective purposes, the sashes can be
easily removed and used as lights for garden frames.
The average cost is 2s. 3d. to 2s. 8d. per foot run. By
means of curtain rods and metal rings, blinds can be
attached to the lower part of the coping, and the latter
drawn back by day or closed by night, as the state of the
weather demands. The trees are just protected from rain
or frost whilst in flower. (Fig. 134.)

Canvas Blinds. — A simpler method is to place stout
poles at intervals of 6ft., the top resting against the wall,
and the base on the ground 2ft. from the wall. To the
top of each pole affix a metal ring, and about 2ft. from
the ground fix a stout peg, about a foot long, in the pole.
To the upper side of the canvas fix rings 6ft. apart, secure

306

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

a piece of rope to each, and run the opposite end through
the ring in the top of the hole. This will enable the blind
to be drawn up at night and lowered by day. Scrim
canvas or tiffany are suitable materials to use for the
blinds.

Fish Netting.— Old fish-netting or tanned whipcord-
netting also forms good protective material, but is not so
frost proof as the combined coping and canvas, or the
canvas alone. Either should be used of double thickness,
and supported by poles placed 6ft. apart. This may be
left on day and night until the fruit has set.

Fig-. 134. A FRUIT PROTECTOR FOR WALLS.

Consists of a glass coping- with provision for suspending a tiffany blind in
front on cold days and frosty nights.

Trees in the Open. — It is rarely necessary to protect
trees in the open garden unless the weather is likely to be
very severe at the time of blossoming. Even then only
dwarf, pyramid, or espalier trees can be conveniently pro-
tected. For bushes or pyramids, place stakes about 2ft.
apart, ift. from the branches, and a trifle higher than the
tree. Around these fix scrim canvas or tiffany, leaving
the top exposed. For espaliers, fix stakes the height of
the trees, 3ft. apart and ift. from the sides, along both
sides, and secure canvas thereto during the flowering

PROTECTING FRUIT TREES. 307

period. Gooseberry and Currant bushes may be pro-
tected by placing some straw over them in frosty weather
only. In all cases, do not fix the lower edge of the can-
vas nearer than i8in. from the ground.

Protecting Orchard Trees.— In America fruit growers
have long adopted a method of protecting orchard tree
blossoms from injury by frost by means of "smudge"
fires. The idea has been practised in England also with
good results. A special form of heater is used for the
purpose, and about fifty of them are required per acre,
placed at even distances apart. The apparatus has to be
charged with a handful of cotton waste saturated with
petroleum oil, then one of firewood, and finally some coal.
A cover has then to be placed on top. When frost is
imminent, the contents of the heater are ignited by means
of a torch of wire and cotton-waste saturated with oil.
The smoke from the consuming fuel is then emitted in a
steady, dense volume, completely enveloping the trees,
and effectually warding off the frost. The cost per acre
for keeping fires burning for one night is estimated at
2os. to 255. To guard against a sudden visita-
tion of frost, up-to-date growers have a thermometer
fixed up in an exposed place near the house, and this
connected with an electric alarm-bell situate in the bed-
room of the owner or his foreman. If the temperature
descends to freezing point, the bell is instantly set ringing,
and then is the time to light the heaters. Another method
is to start wood fires at intervals about 2oft. apart in the
plantation. In both cases the materials should always be
in readiness, and, needless to say, only employed when
there is a danger of severe frost setting in. Special
heaters are manufactured and sold in this country, the cost
of which would amount to at least £7 to £10 per acre, so
that " smudging " is after all rather an expensive method of
protecting fruit blossoms.

X 2

Part III -MARKET CULTURE.

CHAPTER I.
ORCHARDS.

THE cultivation of fruit in grass orchards has been prac-
tised for ages in this country, and certainly there is no
sylvan scene so picturesque and beautiful in springtime
as an orchard of Apple blossom, or so ruddy and glowing
in effect as one of trees of ripening fruit in autumn. The
orchards of Devon, Somerset, Gloucester, Hereford,
Worcester, and Kent have long been famous for yielding
fruit for producing that delicious beverage known as cider,
as well as many luscious eating and useful cooking Apples.
But, since experience has demonstrated that much finer
samples of fruit can be produced on dwarf trees and in
cultivated land, the old-time grass orchard, with all its
charm and picturesque beauty, has lost a good deal of
its former popularity. There is no doubt that the only
point in favour of the grass orchard, from a utilitarian
view, is that it affords shelter in summer days for cattle
and other stock ; and is, moreover, well adapted for poultry
keeping. On that account grass orchards are not likely
to disappear in our rural districts yet awhile, at any rate.
Granted, then, that a grass orchard serves the two-fold
purpose of affording shelter for stock and fowls, as well
as yielding fruit, it naturally follows that in the present
work we should devote a chapter to the subject. Besides,

ORCHARDS, 309

it does not necessarily follow that the cultivation of fruit
trees in grass should take the form of an orchard. There
are many gardens in which one or more fruit trees might
be grown on the lawn as shelter trees, as well as for
yielding fruit; and, as the cultural details are precisely
the same for both, the remarks hereafter given will apply
to the two methods of cultivation.

Site. — So far as the orchard is concerned, the first ques-
tion to settle is the site. The ideal position would be
land sloping to the south-west. Trees grown thus are
not so likely to have their blossoms injured by frost as
on a south or south-east aspect. In both the latter cases
the early morning sun is apt to cause a sudden thaw of
the frozen blooms, and thus destroy the organs of fruc-
tification. Orchards, too, should never be placed in damp,
low-lying situations below the fog line, as in such positions
there would be a great risk of injury to the blossoms by
late frosts. Keep well above the fog line.

Shelter. — In exposed positions shelter from the east
and north winds and south-westerly gales is indispensable.
Formerly it was the practice to plant forest trees, as elms,
poplars, etc., to act as shelter trees, but this was a most
unwise plan, as the roots of both travel a good distance,
and rob the adjoining fruit trees of a good deal of their
sustenance. A far better plan is to plant Damsons, or
such hardy Pears as Fertility, Chalk, Lammas, and
Bishop's Thumb ; or Apples, as Northern Greening, Afris-
ton, Annie Elizabeth, and Royal Jubilee, round the
eastern, northern, and south-western boundaries. These,
planted in a zigzag fashion I2ft. apart, would soon form
a dense shelter, and yield plenty of fruit into the bargain.

Soil. — For Apples, a deep, well-drained loam or marl
is preferable. Light, gravelly, sandy, or chalky soils do
not give good results. Pears do best on a lighter or
medium soil ; Plums succeed satisfactorily on a soil in-
clined to be heavy; and Cherries require a moderately

310 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

light soil. Damsons also need a heavy soil. In all cases
it is essential that the depth of soil should be from 2ft.
to 3ft. Shallow soils overlying chalk or gravel are rarely
satisfactory, the trees soon becoming stunted in growth,
cankerous, and unfruitful.

There are two methods of preparing the soil for trees
in grass orchards. One — and by far the best — is to trench
the site 2ft. deep, and break up the subsoil and give it a
good dressing of manure — 40 tons to the acre — and then
plant the site with potatoes for the first year. The culti-
vation required for this crop will put the soil in good tilth
for planting in autumn. The following spring the land
can be sewn with pasture seeds, and thus ensure not only
the future success of the trees, but the foundation also
of a good permanent pasture. Trees planted in land that
has been deeply and wholly dug over have a \*ider and
fuller run for their roots, and hence will make a more
rapid and healthy growth than those planted in holes dug
out of the pasture.

The second method is adapted for planting in old pas-
tures or in lawns, and consists of digging out holes gft.
in diameter and 2ft. deep for standards, and 6ft. wide for
bush trees- The disadvantage of this plan is, when the
roots reach the limit of the holes they have to penetrate
the natural soil, which may or may not be of a good tex-
ture. If it is of a naturally porous and friable nature, well
and good ; but if it be clayey or poor, then the roots will
not thrive happily in it, and the result will be a check to
growth. However, those who prefer to run the risk of
adopting this method should first of all pare off the turf
and put this on one side, then dig out one spit deep of
soil, and place this also on one side. Next take out a
trench one spit deep, break up the subsoil with a fork,
and turn the soil over it. If, however, this second spit
should be of a gravelly, sandy, clayey, or chalky nature,
it is well to remove and replace it with good soil. Next
replace the turf, chopping this into small pieces and blend-

ORCHARDS. 311

ing it with the soil. Leave the top spit until the planting
takes place. It is a good plan to prepare the holes some
time in advance, so that the soil may, by exposure to the
weather, be sweetened and made friable.

Distances for Planting. — An orchard may be planted
solely with standard Apple or Cherry trees ; or with Apples
and Pears ; Apples, Pears, and Cherries ; or Apples, Pears,
Plums, and Cherries. In any case, the distance apart
each way should not be less than 24ft. At this distance
75 trees will be required to plant an acre of land. Some
authorities advocate soft, to 4oft. ; but, as most folk
nowadays want to make the best use of their land, we
consider 24ft. to be an ample distance. If bush or pyra-
mid trees are preferred — and these answer well for small
orchards which are to be used as poultry runs — i2ftv apart
is the proper distance- The number of trees required per
acre in this case would be 302.

Arrangement of Mixed Orchards. — Where Apples alone
are to be grown, it is not advisable to mix the sorts indis-
criminately. It is better to plant varieties of spreading
and upright growth alternately. Thus, Warner's King,
which is of a spreading habit, should be alternated with,
say, King of the Pippins, which is an upright grower.
Again, if Apples and Pears are decided upon, alternate
the Pears with the Apples. If a mixture of Apples, Pears,
Plums, and Cherries be preferred, then alternate Plums
with Apples in the first row, Cherries with Pears in the
second row, and so on. The rows should run from north
to south, or from north-east to south-west. (Figs. 135 to

137.)

Planting. — The next thing to consider is the planting of
the trees. First of all, drive a stout stake in the centre
of each hole. See that it is quite firm. Next get the tree
or trees, cut off all jagged or bruised ends of roots, and
place the stem close to the stake, then spread out the roots
evenly in all directions. Note the soil mark on the stem,
and add sufficient soil to cover the roots up to this mark.

312

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

As a rule, 310. to 410. of soil is ample. Give the tree a
gentle shake to settle the soil, and then tread it down
firmly. On soils that are inclined to be heavy it is advis-
able to plant the roots on a level with the surrounding
land, the soil over them thus forming a sloping mound.
When the planting is finished, wrap a narrow piece of
sacking around the stem, and secure this to the stake by
means of stout twine or an osier twig. Do not bind too

Fig. 135. ,
A GRASS ORCHARD PLANTED WITH STANDARD FRUIT TREES.

Trees of spreading and upright habit planted alternately.

tightly at first. When the staking is finished, mulch the
surface of the soil with stable manure, and let this remain
there. We need scarcely remind the reader that no manure
must be mixed with the soil in which the trees are to be
planted. The surface mulch advised is all that is neces-
sary.

Protecting from Stock. — In each and every case the
trees, stems and branches, must be well protected

ORCHARDS,

313

from grazing animals generally (colts ought never to be
seen inside an orchard, as these are most mischievous and
destructive), and also rabbits and hares. Nothing answers
better than three stout stakes, each disposed 2oin. to 2ft.
from the tree stem, and equidistant, with barbed wire

ANOTHER TYPE OF GRASS ORCHARD PLANTED WITH
STANDARD TREES.

(1) Apple trees. (2) Plum trees. (3) Pear trees.

wound thinly around them. Sometimes only two stakes are
used, but in this case the wire is dangerously near to the
tree stems ; and if the latter get loose, as they are too often
allowed to do, the bark is liable to be badly injured by con-
tact with the wire. Where barbed wire is objected to,

314

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

strips of wood nailed to the posts may be substituted.
Various other contrivances are resorted to, including iron
tree-guards, which are rather expensive, must be well
fixed, and are somewhat difficult to take apart when no
longer wanted. Many farmers are content to heavily sur-
round the tree stems with whitethorn bushes, and these
answer fairly well if renewed as often as they become
rotten.

Fig. 137. GRASS ORCHARD OF STANDARD APPLE TREES.

J, Large spreading varieties. K, Dwarf growing varieties.

In each and every case keep the tree carefully fastened
to the central stake, large numbers having been seriously
injured by being allowed to rub against hard substances.
All ought to be gone over annually, and all fastenings
renewed. In order to keep rabbits and hares from the
stems, enclose the lower part of the " cradles," or other
forms of tree-guards, with lin.-mesh galvanised wire net-

ORCHARDS. 315

ting, taking care to bury a portion of this, and giving the*
lower edge an outward turn before covering it, and in this
way preventing the rabbits from burrowing under.

Pruning. — As regards the pruning of orchard trees, we
cannot do better than reproduce the advice given by Mr.
W. Iggulden, some years since, in the pages of '* Farm
and Garden " :

" Much of the success attending the efforts of the more
experienced and intelligent fruit tree planters is largely
due to having pursued rational methods of pruning from
the first. Too often trees are stuck in the ground, and
allowed to grow as they please; and not a few of those
who are anxious to do well mar their initial efforts to fail-
ing to prune their trees properly during the first few years
they have them. It should be remembered that newly-
moved trees have, of necessity, to be severely root-pruned,
and root-pruning naturally destroys the balance between
the top and root growth, with the result that anything in
the shape of vigorous wood growth is out of the question,
always supposing that nothing in the shape of restoring
the balance by pruning is attempted. If the top growth
is checked badly, owing to a failure in the sap supply from
below, then there is a tendency for the wood to produce
fruit buds, and to harden to the extent of becoming
stunted.

' ' Once a tree commences bearing fruit prematurely it is
almost certain to remain in that productive state ; and, as
a consequence of this great strain on the constitution, little
or no new growth is formed, and a badly-dwarfed tree is
the result. No only are stunted trees of no practical value,
but nothing short of drastic measures will ever improve
them. We readily admit that many trees, planted under
highly favourable conditions, have eventually grown into
a serviceable size in spite of neglect as far as pruning is
concerned, but they would have done better had they re-
ceived proper attention at the outset. As it happens,
however, these may be termed mere exceptions to the rule,

316 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

and one has only to tour through the fruit-growing districts
in Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, Worcester-
shire, Monmouthshire, Somerset, Dorset, and Devon to be
convinced of the fact that millions of trees are not worth
much more than they were when planted, any time, say,
during the last ten years.
"If trees are planted in the autumn they ought to be

Fig. 138. A NEWLY-PLANTED STANDARD TREE.

Tree as received from the nursery and not pruned.

rather severely pruned the following February, or, if the
weather is unfavourable, early in March, the only exception
being made in favour of Cherries, which are found to
respond to the knife better after having been planted not
less than twelve months. As we have already pointed out,
trees properly planted in the autumn partially recover from

ORCHARDS,

317

the check, forming many root-fibres before top-growth
commences in the spring, and these duly pruned form
fairly large numbers of strong young shoots the following
summer. Now, if the trees are not planted till late in the
winter or early in the spring, they will not have made any
appreciable move before the summer, and would not there-

Fig. 139. STANDARD TREE AFTER ONE YEAR'S GROWTH.

As the result of non-pruning-, the new growth is poor and stunted.

fore be in a condition to respond to the knife — might not
make shoots more than 6in. long, in fact. These late-
planted trees, then, ought to have an opportunity to form
some new roots before they are pruned, and, in plain
English, should not be pruned till they have been one year
in their new, and presumably final, quarters.

318 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

" Fig. 138 shows a standard tree much as received from a
nursery, and this, unpruned, is repeated in Fig. 139, only
furnished with all the leafy growth it is likely to form
during the first summer. As it happens, those clusters
of leaves represent 'so many fruit buds ; and in Fig. 1 40 we
have the same tree as it may be seen in full bearing the

Fig. 140. STANDARD TREE AFTER Two YEARS' GROWTH.

Showing the still further evil effects of non-pruning- the first year. Result,
a worthless tree.

second summer after planting. If, instead of allowing
that tree to bear fruit, those branches had been duly cut
back to where they are marked in Fig. 141, the resulting
growth would have been more like that shown in Fig. 142,
and of a character that would develop into a serviceable
head. Let us repeat, stunted trees are a dead loss, and

ORCHARDS.

319

must be guarded against by means of the pruning knife.
If reference is again made' to Fig. 141, the bars indicate
where it is to be pruned in the spring following autumn
planting. The result of this pruning is shown in Fig. 142,
a satisfactory beginning, because the shoots, though not
particularly strong, are sufficiently so, and of the right
character for rapid progress in later years. (Fig. 143.)

Fig. 141. A NEWLY-PLANTED STANDARD TREE.

Tree as received from nursery and properly pruned.

" During the second winter after planting (or the third
in the case of those not pruned till they have been planted
one year) these shoots require to be thinned out where
crowded, leaving all those best placed for developing in
the right direction, open centres being aimed at in the

320

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

case of Apples and Cherries, and shortening these reserved
shoots to about one-half of their original length. These
pruned shoots will, in due course, push out other shoots,
and if the variety is of a free-bearing habit of growth will
also form a few fruit buds. A year later, thinning out

Fig. 142. STANDARD TREE AFTER ONE YEAR'S GROWTH.

Result of pruning- correctly at time of planting.

should again be resorted to, all the badly-placed shoots,
including those with an inward tendency, and any rub-
bing against or crossing the shoots that are to be saved
being shortened to within one inch of the old wood. The
selected shoots may again be shortened this time, leaving

1

DESSERT PEAR, BEURRE RANGE.
Season : December to March.

ORCHARDS.

321

about two-thirds of their length, and more shoots and
fruit buds will, during the following summer, form on
these. In this way, a strong yet not too compact head
will be formed, and all the pruning in later years may

re i**
Fig. 143. STANDARD TREE AFTER Two YEARS' GROWTH.

Result, a healthy, well shaped and fruitful tree.

consist of merely thinning out the branches where too
thick or interfering with each other, and shortening back
any with a tendency to take an undue lead.

" If the trees are planted so thickly as to require pruning
annually to prevent undue crowding of shoots, the results,

322 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

as far as cropping is concerned, will be found anything
but satisfactory; and an annual severe pruning, all the
young growths being severely topped, means a plentiful
supply of sticks every season, and not much fruit. The
only way out of difficulties of this kind is either to resort
to root-pruning occasionally, thereby checking top growth
and converting what would otherwise have been wood
buds into fruit buds, or else one-half of the trees should
be either transplanted elsewhere or destroyed, those left
standing being allowed to grow much more naturally in
the future. Both remedies are of the order expensive."

Subsequent Culture. — For the first six years, at least,
the circular space of gft. in the case of standards and 6ft.
in that of bushes must be kept free from grass or weeds,
and these spaces should be given a fresh mulch of manure
every winter. This precaution is necessary to ensure
healthy root action. If the first spring and summer should
be very dry, copious waterings may be necessary. Other
routine work consists of spraying the trees to keep them
healthy, and in feeding the roots as advised in the chapter
on " Spraying " and in the table of Manures.

FRUIT PLANTATION. 323

*

CHAPTER II.

Fruit Plantation*

WHERE fruit is grown for sale, or where large quantities
are wanted for home consumption, it becomes necessary
to plant trees and bushes on a larger scale than is usual
in the garden or home orchard. A few hints on the laying
out of a plantation may therefore be useful to some
readers.

Aspect. — There is little need to say much about aspect,
for in most cases there is no choice in the matter. Usually
the best has to be made of any land that may be avail-
able, and that it may generally be done successfully is
shown by the fact that flourishing plantations may be
found in many situations, on hills and on the level. How-
ever, there is no doubt that the ideal is a gentle slope
towards the south or south-east, whilst south-west is per-
missible; but no one would choose a slope towards a
northerly or easterly quarter, if it could be avoided.

Shelter is a very important factor in fruit culture, but
it can be overdone. A sheltered position surrounded by
higher land is generally found to be more liable to severe
frost than more open or higher ground, the reason being
that the cold air, being heavier than warm air, sinks into
the lower position and remains there stagnant. It is by
no means uncommon to find fruit bloom cut off by frost
in the hollows whilst that on rising ground remains un-
injured. On a gentle slope there is a certain amount of
air movement or drainage, which is beneficial.

A good deal can be done to protect the trees on exposed
land by planting shelter trees on the outskirts of the plan-
tation, on the side from which the high winds are to be

324 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

expected ; but such trees really need to be planted several
years in advance of the fruit trees, to be large enough
to protect the latter during the early, stages of growth.
Lombardy poplars are the most rapid growers that can
be planted, but, if an evergreen is preferred, there is little
to beat Cupressus macrocarpa, which grows fast and
makes a dense shelter, whilst it also stands clipping if
necessary. Austrian pines are often recommended as
shelter, and are, no doubt, excellent in districts where they
grow quickly, but we have found them too slow. Where
only slight shelter is wanted, a double row of Damsons
planted on the outside of the plantation itself is often
enough. Forest trees should be separated from the fruit
trees by the width of a headland or road, as their roots
rob the fruit trees if put too close.

Soil. — About soil it is only necessary to say that, whilst
a deep alluvial soil is naturally best, it is merely essential
to avoid such extremes as stiff clays, dry sands, and
gravels, and very shallow land. Practically any land that
will grow ordinary farm crops well can be made to grow
fruit.

Preparations for Planting. — The preparation of the soil
for planting in gardens and small orchards is fully treated
in a previous chapter, but different methods are called
for when we come to deal with areas too large to dig by
hand. Drainage must, of course, be seen to where neces-
sary, and some steps taken to break up the subsoil. Plant-
ing after ordinary shallow ploughing is a mistake- The
best preparation is to allow a subsoil plough to follow the
ordinary plough down each furrow; or the land may be
broken up with a steam cultivator going twice over the
field, and penetrating as near 2ft. deep as possible. If
the land is foul, or has been under grass, it is best to take
a crop of potatoes before planting fruit trees, as these
are a good cleaning crop, and ensure the thorough work-
ing of the soil, besides which they are generously manured.

To mark the positions to be occupied by the trees, the

FRUIT PLANTATION, 325

best plan is to let a good ploughman draw shallow furrows
across the land in both directions, the distance between
them being that required between the trees. A light
double-breasted plough, such as is used for ridging, does
the work well. Wherever the lines intersect a hole is dug
for a tree, and further precautions are taken to keep the
rows straight by sighting along them whilst actually
planting, or when driving in the stakes if standard or half-
standard trees are used — for these must be put in before
planting. The sites for any bushes that are to go be-
tween the trees can be measured out afterwards by hand,
using a garden line. It is very desirable to have the rows
of both trees and bushes quite straight, so that horse cul-
tivation can be done in two directions whilst the trees
are young.

Distances Apart for Trees. — Some varieties of any kind
of fruit are of much more spreading habit than others;
so that, to make the most of all the available space, dis-
tances apart should really vary for different varieties. But
this cannot be done where horse cultivation is to be em-
ployed, so we must be content to give all the same space.
Of Apples, Pears, and Plums, full standards should be
2oft. to 24ft. apart each way; half-standards, i$ft. to
2oft. ; and bushes (dwarf trees), loft, to i2ft. Cherries
need to be 3oft apart. Usually the larger distances are
to be preferred, but the smaller ones are enough on very
poor land, where the trees naturally do not spread so much.
Some growers fill the space economically by alternating
weak and strong-growing varieties ; but we do not favour
this, as it makes for confusion when gathering is in pro-
gress, besides which some kinds are more prone to certain
pests and diseases than others, so that it is most con-
venient for all purposes to have the varieties separate in
blocks. . These blocks should not, however, be too large,
as it has been found that some kinds are self-sterile, and
need the pollen and other varieties to fertilise their bloom
and enable it to set.

326 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Bush fruits are usually grown between the tall trees,
generally with the intention of grubbing them up when
the trees grow so big as to overshadow them. They must,
therefore, be placed at distances apart which are multiples
of those of the trees. For instance, if the trees are 24ft.
apart, there may be three bushes 6ft. apart between every
two trees in the rows, and a row of bushes 6ft. apart mid-
way between every two rows of trees. If the trees are
at 2oft. distance, the bushes must be sft. apart, and so on.

As a rule, half-standard trees are best for market work,
unless it be in the case of Plums, which are free-growing
enough even on dwarfing stocks. Bush Apples on the
English Paradise stock, excellent as they are for gardens
or small orchards where the land can be generously en-
riched with manure, are not always free-growing enough
for field planting, unless the soil is naturally rich. On
poor land there is some danger of their becoming per-
manently stunted through too prolific fruiting in their early
years. But they are very useful for planting between
full standards, to fruit in the years that must elapse before
the latter begin to be profitable, and to come out when
the standards want all the room.

Examples of Plantations. — The arrangement of trees in
a plantation can be varied in many ways to suit the special
requirements of the grower, and we can only give a few
examples as a guide. The most common plan is that of
planting half-standard trees, say, 2oft. apart, with bushes
(Currants or Gooseberries) 5ft. apart between them. There
would be three bushes between each two trees in the rows,
and a row of bushes only midway between every two rows
of trees. The bushes give a quick return before the
trees come into bearing, and are about worn out by the
time the trees want all the room. (Figs. 144 and 145.)

On richer land bush-trained trees on a dwarfing stock
could be planted instead of the half -standards, i2ft. apart
each way, with bushes 6ft. apart between them.

A Cherry orchard may be started with standard Cherries

FRUIT PLANTATION.

327

't?i

irf

**fc* fA^ ^ H^ *A* * <l*

$ ^? -^ sf§ 4* ^ $*• 4* <£ <|9 ^jfc ^^^^

* $ * ^H^^®^^ ^^ ^^ *

£ j % ^y* *& ^ x ^ 4^ X ^ ^^ *

^ ^ #*$**.^*i*jt*4*

* ft ^ *A ^ ** H * *^i * * ^ *

^ W ^ ^!<^P?^ ^f$ ^*

• teJSz&fc. ^^ "*• *

Fig. 144. A PLANTATION OF MIXED FRUITS.

C, Apple trees. D, Pear trees, £", Plum trees. F, Bush fruits,

«

ra •»»»»'

Fig. 145. A PLANTATION OF MIXED FRUITS.

<7. Damsons as shelter trees. //; Apple and Plum trees alternately.
/, Gooseberries and Currants. Strawberries under the Damson trees.

328 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

3oft. apart each way, and bush Plums or Apples loft,
apart between them to stand until the Cherries want all
the room. Apples are better for this purpose than Plums,
because they bear earlier. Bush fruits also could be intro-
duced into such an orchard.

Bush Apples or Plums can be planted in a similar way
between full standard Apples or Pears 24ft. apart each
way, the latter to stand alone when they want all the room,
by which time they should be bearing well.

The above examples will suffice to show the ideas to
be brought into play in arranging a plantation. The plans
can easily be varied to include any kinds of fruit the grower
wishes to plant. (Figs. 144 and 145.)

PACKING FRUIT FOR MARKET, 329

CHAPTER III.

Packing Fruit for Market.

IN no branch of commercial fruit-growing has more pro-
gress been made in recent years than in packing for
market. Both home and foreign supplies of fruit have
increased so enormously in our markets that competition
is keen, and only really good produce, carefully graded
and packed, can be expected to realise satisfactory prices.
The days are long past when fruit could be knocked or
shaken from the trees, poured anyhow into baskets, and
sent to market with large and small specimens mixed
together. Nowadays no profit would attend such a care-
less system. It cannot be denied that there is still a great
deal of poor packing done, as a visit to any large market
shows, but it will be found that the most successful
growers give a great deal of attention to this branch of
their work. Certainly it pays to do so. Even in a crowded
market there is always room for the produce of a man
who has become known amongst the regular buyers as
one upon whom they can rely for careful and honest
packing. Consistent good packing is bound to bring its
reward. The buyers get to know that, when they see a
certain grower's name on the label, the package can be
relied upon to hold the full weight stated, and to con-
tain the same quality at the bottom as at the top. There
could hardly be a better example of the truth of the well-
worn proverb — Honesty is the best policy.

Gathering for Market.— Care in gathering is the first
necessity, for tasteful packing is of little use if the fruit
has already been bruised and disfigured. Speaking gene-
rally, most kinds of fruit should be gathered before they
are dead ripe, though by no means long before. It must

330 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

be remembered that several days often elapse before it
reaches the consumer, so that it has time to become over-
ripe or even partially rotten if too ripe when picked. More-
over, shopkeepers do not like to buy fruit that is likely
to go bad on their hands before they can dispose of all of
it. On the other hand, if gathered too early, the full
flavour will not have developed by the time the fruit is
consumed, and it is likely to shrivel.

But the chief point about gathering is to avoid bruising
by rough handling. Pickers are apt to treat apples, for
instance, as though they were potatoes, pouring them
freely from one basket into another, instead of which they
ought always to be transferred by hand.

It is generally advised that baskets padded with wood-
wool or cotton-wool covered with canvas or tiffany, should
be used for gathering; but it is doubtful if large growers
ever go to this expense and trouble. They want such a
lot of baskets in use at one time that they generally fall
back on the bushel and half-bushel baskets received from
the salesmen. The wooden baskets known as trugs, or
bodges, in different parts of the country are also useful to
pick into, but they would be very much the better for pad-
ding or a lining of felt. We have seen wooden trays or
boxes made for sprouting seed potatoes employed for fruit
ricking. They are very suitable for the purpose, because
they can be stood one on top of the other without injury
to the fruit, owing to the ends being higher than the sides,
and this is very convenient in both fruit room and carts.
These could, of course, be lined with felt, though we have
not found it necessary where the fruit was put into them
with reasonable care.

The above remarks apply chiefly to Apples and Pears,
which have to be removed from the field to the buildings
for grading and packing. Most offier kinds of fruit —
unless it be choice Plums — can be gathered straight into
the baskets in which they will be marketed, being graded
at the same time where necessary, though many of the
bush fruits need no grading.

PACKING FRUIT FOR MARKET. 331

Where the orchard consists of tall trees, steps are needed
to reach the fruit on the top branches. The best form has
wide steps at the bottom, and narrow ones at the top,
where the sides approach till they meet. At this point a
stout pole is hinged to act as a leg, forming a tripod with
the two sides of the steps. We thus have steps which
can be pushed up into the tree, and will yet stand alone
without leaning against the branches. When the steps
are in use, the picker needs to carry a small -handled
basket aloft with him, emptying the contents into the
larger baskets at intervals.

Grading* — The essence of good packing is careful grad-
ing, where the kind of fruit lends itself to the process.
It may seem ridiculous that graded fruit should make
better prices than the same produce in mixed sizes, par-
ticularly as the shopkeeper often mixes it again on his
stall ; but that such is the case can easily be proved by
trial. Generally it is sufficient to make two grades —
" firsts " an'd " seconds," but with some samples of fruit
it is better to make a few " thirds " as well. Into this last
grade can be put misshapen and marked fruits, leaving
the il seconds " inferior to the " firsts " only in size.
When this is done the " seconds " often realise almost as
much money as the " firsts. " With some fruits, as will
be seen later, it pays to select some of the very choicest
to pack in small non-returnable packages, in addition to
the ordinary grades. The different grades should always
be distinguished by the use of packing paper of separate
colours, the various markets having recognised colours
for " firsts," " seconds," etc.

Grading and packing are best done in a well-lighted
shed, fitted with benches or tables of convenient height.
The simplest plan is to have before one a basket just as it
arrives from the field, take out the fruit as it comes, and
grade and pack it at the same time — that is to say, the
" firsts " are put into one package, the " seconds " into
another, and so on. Or the finest fruits can be picked

332 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

out to fill a package with " firsts," and then the remain-
der packed as "seconds" and "thirds." The handiest
method for the kind and quality of fruit being dealt with
soon suggests itself, for there are no hard-and-fast rules.
Some people advise turning the fruit out into felt-lined
trays or divisions of the bench, grading in these, and then
packing ; but this plan seems to necessitate more handling
than that described above.

The Packages. — Most of the fruit sent to market is
packed in baskets supplied by the salesman, whose com-
mission covers the initial cost and the wear and tear.
Different salesmen do not send the same kind of basket
for the various fruits, as customs are not alike in all
markets. If the grower writes to the salesman to tell
him what fruit he wishes to send, the proper sort of
empties will be forwarded. The commonest baskets are
bushels (sieves), half-bushels (half -sieves), pecks (quarter-
sieves, or strikes), flats, and small-handled baskets. When
dealing with a fresh market it is well to ask what weight
is liked in each package, or whether they should be
simply filled to the top.

Although most growers still rely on the salesman to
supply empties for the greater part of their fruit, there
has lately been a very popular move towards the use of
small non-returnable packages for choice fruits, especially
such kinds as are soft and perishable. The advantages
for such purpose are obvious. The contents reach the
consumer in much better condition, since they need not
be disturbed or handled from the time they leave the
grower. Big baskets of soft fruit are certain to get wet
and messy from the very weight of the contents, and this
state is made worse when the fruit is turned out in a
heap in the shopkeeper's window. The small basket he
exposes intact, and often the consumer purchases the
whole thing and carries it home just as it left the grower's
hands. The most popular kind of non-returnable for soft
fruit is the chip-handled basket, which holds 4lb. of straw-

PACKING FRUIT FOR MARKET. 333

berries, and is suitable also for Raspberries, dessert
Gooseberries, choice Plums, Greengages, etc. There is
no reason why it should not be used also for very choice
specimens of dessert Pears and Apples. For these fruits,
however, some growers now use non-returnable wooden
boxes, which certainly have the great advantage that the
fruit is well protected from damage, and capable of being
displayed with the greatest effect if tastefully packed.
Colonial growers have led the way in the use of such
boxes. They can be bought ready-made, or put together
at home during the winter months. Such boxes are none
too cheap, and should be used only for choice varieties
and good samples. It is, however, usually possible to
get the salesman to reduce his commission where non-
returnables are used — as, indeed, he ought to, for he is
relieved of the expense and worry of supplying empties.

The Actual Packing.— The essential point in the actual
packing of large fruits is to make them so firm that they
will not shake about and bruise, and yet not so tight as
to damage them. At the same time, they should be so
arranged as to present the best possible appearance,
though " topping up " must be avoided. Let the pack-
ing be strictly honest, the fruit as good at the bottom as
at the top. Generally the same weight is required in
each package.

Little more can be said about packing in a general way.
The best lesson is a visit to the market, and a chat with
the salesman, who is always ready to explain what
method of packing suits his trade best. The following
hints on the packing of the principal fruits show the
methods commonly followed:

Apples. — Dessert varieties usually go in half-sieves;
cooking varieties in sieves. A little wood-wool or hay is
put at the bottom, and round the sides a strip of " sugar-
paper," which can be obtained ready cut to size. Coloured
or white tissue-paper, denoting the grade, is doubled over
the edge of the basket, almost covering the bottom, and

334 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION,

leaving enough overlap to fold over the Apples at the top.
Red, blue, and white may denote the three grades, though
generally only two are made. Pack the Apples all the
same way up, most kinds going best with the eye up-
wards. Fold the paper over the top when the full weight
is in, place a layer of wood-wool or hay over, and secure
with two " benders " of willow; or tie newspaper over the
top. Label the outside of each basket, giving the sales-
man's name and address, the name of the variety, and
the grade. Some growers also put a label inside bear-
ing their own name and that of the variety. A half-sieve
of Apples holds 2olb., a sieve 4olb. ; but some salesmen
merely want the baskets filled, and not weighed.

Packing in non-returnable boxes is now being recom-
mended. These boxes are of various sizes, and the
Apples are sold by count. The method of packing is prac-
tically the same as when baskets are used. Both sides
and ends should be lined with paper, to fold over the
fruit. Wood-wool is used, as before, at top and bottom,
and the fid nailed on. There are also possibilities in the
fancy packing of really fine specimens of choice dessert
varieties in small boxes holding one or two dozen in a
single layer, each fruit half-wrapped in white tissue-
paper, and bedded in wood-wool.

Cherries. — The bulk are packed, without grading, in
half-sieves, holding 24lb. No litter is wanted in the
bottom. The best finish is a circular cover of " sugar-
paper," sold to fit the baskets, with a layer of litter over,
secured with "benders." Failing the circular papers,
the baskets may be lined with tissue-paper, as for Apples.
Some of the very finest Cherries are sometimes selected
for packing in small chip baskets, or punnets, which ii.
turn are packed in single layers in flat boxes.

Currants. — Pack ungraded in half-sieves holding 24lb.,
like Cherries, but the paper should be placed only over
the top of the fruit. Lining the baskets excludes air, and
the fruit does not keep well. Circular '* sugar-papers "

PACKING FRUIT FOR MARKET. 335

are best over the top, but tissue-paper can be adopted, if
tucked in slightly. Use no litter, but only " benders,"
over the paper. Choice White or Red Currants, fit for
dessert, may sometimes go in 4-lb. handled chip baskets
or in punnets.

Gooseberries.— Pack the bulk in half-sieves of 24lb.
in the same way as Currants, without lining the baskets
or using any litter. Fine specimens of choice dessert
varieties sometimes sell in punnets, or in 4lb. chip-handled
baskets.

Peaches and Nectarines.— These choice fruits are sold
by the dozen, and are packed in flat boxes holding from
one to three dozen in a single layer. A layer of fine
wood-wool is first placed in the bottom of the box, and
over this a sheet of tissue-paper. This forms a soft bed
for the fruit, each of which is half-wrapped in thin white
tissue-paper, and pressed gently into position on the bed.
Over the top another sheet of tissue-paper is laid, and
on that a pad of cotton-wool, sold in sheets for the pur-
pose, to fill the space between the fruit and the lid. Some
growers use no paper at all, considering that it rots the
Peaches. The lids are not nailed on, but several boxes
are tied together in a pile for despatch by rail. We have
also seen Peaches very tastefully packed in handled chip
baskets.

Pears. — Pack either in baskets or boxes in the same
way as Apples. With choice varieties of these there is
even more inducement to pack in small boxes of a dozen
or so, tastefully Tialf-wrapped in tissue-paper.

Plums.— These go in half-sieves of 2403. to 281b. No
litter is placed in the bottom, but tissue-paper may be
used, as for Apples, with " benders " over it (no litter).
The circular "sugar-papers" mentioned for Goose-
berries, etc., could be used instead, but would not show
the grade, if any. Many crops of Plums are of too uni-
form a size to allow of grading, but some will make two

336 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

grades. Choice dessert Plums or Greengages may be
packed in small boxes, in single layers, as described for
Apples, but without wrapping each fruit in tissue-paper.
They can lie close together on a bed of fine wood-wool
covered with tissue-paper. Handled chip baskets are also
used for choice Plums.

Raspberries.— For dessert these are usually gathered
with about half an inch of stalk, and marketed in punnets,
with a few leaves beneath them, or in 4-lb. chip-handled
baskets. The handiest punnets for packing are the
square, deep ones, as they fit well into a flat box or into
a case with shelves, and the fruit does not come above
the edges. Make each layer of punnets very firm and
secure, filling all corners with wood-wool or paper, and
label "This side up." When Raspberries are marketed
in bulk for cooking or jam, they usually go in small
wooden barrels supplied by the jam-makers.

Strawberries.— Handled chip baskets holding 4lb. are
now very largely used for choice Strawberries, but many
come in strikes (quarter-sieves). The former are very
much to be preferred, except for jam fruit. The earliest
Strawberries are tastefully packed in shallow punnets,
with a few leaves beneath and around them ; and later on
in deep, round and square punnets, holding about lib.
For the packing of these, see Raspberries. The strikes
are simply filled, and then have paper tied over the top.

DESSERT PEAR, GENERAL TODLEBEN.
Season : October and November.

A DESSERT PEAR, MARIE LOUISE.
Season: October and November.

SPRAYING FRUIT TREES. 337

CHAPTER IV.
Spraying Fruit Trees.

FRUIT TREES and bushes have so many enemies that the
up-to-date fruit grower may be said to wage continual
war against insect pests and fungoid diseases. At any
rate, he has to be constantly on the watch for the first
sign of attack, and ever ready to meet it with the most
effective weapon with which modern science can supply
him. Fortunately he is much better equipped for the
fray nowadays than he could be even a few years ago,
for keen brains and skilful hands have been at work to
learn the life histories of the pests and diseases, to dis-
cover spraying fluids calculated to destroy them with the
minimum of injury to the trees, and to devise cheap and
efficient machinery for the application of such remedies.
It must be confessed that there are still some troubles
for which the pruning-knife and the fire are the only
remedies, but for the great majority spraying with suit-
able materials provides a cure or preventive.

A Necessary Evil. — Spraying is the great modern
weapon against orchard pests and diseases. It may be
looked upon with disfavour, for it is often unpleasant
<vork, and expensive and laborious where large areas
have to be dealt with ; but at least it is a necessary evil,
for without its aid it is impossible to grow healthy crops.
Naturally it assumes greatest importance where fruit is
grown on a commercial scale, for competition is nowa-
days so keen that only first-class fruit is really profitable,
and trees and bushes under field cultivation seem to be
more liable to insect and fungoid attacks than those grown
in the more congenial atmosphere of a well-tilled garden.
Indeed, the market grower has come to consider spraying

338 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

as part of his ordinary routine work; and the amateur
with anything worth calling an orchard under his care
must follow suit if he wishes his trees and his fruit to
be a credit to his skill. No one wants to spray more than
is absolutely necessary; the desire should rather be to
reduce the work to the minimum that suffices to keep the
trees healthy ; but the grower is lucky when he escapes
spraying two or three times in the year; and in a bad
season, or when his trees are severely attacked by any
particular enemy, he may have to treat them several times
in addition. The great thing is to take an attack in time,
for it is much more easily dealt with in its early stages
than after it has become firmly established. Take an
attack of Leaf-curling Aphis (greenfly), for instance, with
which the fruit grower has to contend nearly every year.
Once the pests have curled themselves up in the leaves
they are practically safe, because no spray can reach
them. It is only by catching them when they first appear,
before they protect themselves in the way described, that
they can be dealt with successfully. The grower should
be amongst his trees constantly in the spring and early
summer, from the time when the first buds burst, so that
he may detect the coming of the queen Aphides, the Apple
Sucker (psylla), many minute caterpillars, and other pests
that make their appearance on the young leaves and
amongst the bloom buds. At that time they are com-
paratively easily dealt with, but if neglected they increase
with wonderful rapidity, particularly in a cold season,
when vegetation is slow to develop, and before long they
become a formidable host, difficult to combat with any
degree of satisfaction.

The Year's Spraying Simplified.— A beginner making
his first study of a text-book of pests and diseases might
well imagine, from the multitude of enemies and the
number of different remedies advised, that his spraying
operations must be almost endless, and his store of
chemicals enough to stock a chemist's shop. Fortu-

SPRAYING FRUIT TREES, 339

nately, however, it is possible to combat many pests and
diseases in one operation. Roughly, the enemies of fruit
trees and bushes may be divided into three classes, as
follows :

(i) Leaf-biting insects, such as t'he various caterpillars.

(ii) Pests which live by sucking the plant's juices, such
as the various aphides, psylla, etc.

(iii) Fungoid diseases, such as Apple Scab, Brown
Rot, etc.

Each of these three classes requires special treatment,
but by the use of combined washes or spray-fluids any
two or all three of them may be dealt with in one opera-
tion.

The leaf-biting insects of the first class are destroyed
by poisoning their food. This may be done by spraying
with arsenate of lead.

The sucking pests of the second class cannot be killed
by poisoning their food, because they pierce to the inner
tissues of the plant to obtain the juices on which they
live. They have to be destroyed by washes which either
block up their breathing pores (such as paraffin and soft
soap emulsion), or those that act directly on their skins
(such as nicotine or tobacco extract).

The fungoid diseases, of the third class, are not touched
by the insecticides mentioned above. Against them we
have to use fungicides such as Bordeaux mixture or lime-
and-sulphur.

Suppose we agree to employ arsenate of lead for the
leaf-biters, nicotine for the sucking pests, and Bordeaux
mixture for the fungoid diseases. We may thus be very
simply equipped against practically all our enemies. The
arsenate and Bordeaux mixture may both be obtained in
the form of paste, and the mixture in the form of extract.
Any of these may be used alone, and anj two or all three
may be combined, as required. With the quantities to
use we will deal later. Practically all we shall need in

340 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

addition is a winter wash to clear the trees of moss and
lichen.

There are, of course, other washes which do the same
work, including numerous excellent proprietary prepara-
tions. It is also possible to use cheaper materials for
some purposes. We have merely suggested the above
materials because they seem to reduce the whole subject
of spraying to the simplest possible dimensions, at the
same time being some of the most modern and effective
remedies.

We will now consider the use of these materials, and
some others, in the spraying operations required in an
average season.

Winter Spraying.— This has to be done whilst the
trees are dormant, and may take place at any time from
the fall of the leaves in autumn to the first signs of the
bursting of the buds in spring. It is, however, found
to be most effective when done in February, or up to
the first part of March, for at that time the trees are still
dormant, but the insect pests are beginning to awaken
into life, and are more vulnerable in consequence. Feb-
ruary is probably the safest month.

The chief object is to remove moss, lichen, and loose
bark. A tree cannot long remain healthy if covered with
such growths, which in time sap its energy and cause it
to produce small and worthless fruit. Worse than this,
moss and lichen harbour pests and diseases. Some of the
hibernating insects, notably American Blight (woolly
aphis), are certainly killed, as are the eggs of some other
pests. It is hoped that fungoid disease spores also are
destroyed, although this is doubtful. But the chief thing
is that the trees are cleaned of encumbrances that would
harbour pests and diseases in future. Growers find that
winter spraying gives them cleaner crops, but it is not
wise to expect too much from it, and to think that it

SPRAYING FRUIT TREES, 341

obviates the need of spring and summer work. This
operation is not needed every winter; it is enough if it
be well done every two or three years.

The mere removal of lichen and moss from old trees
can be effected by spraying with a very simple wash-
viz., 2|lb. of caustic soda (98 per cent, purity) dissolved
in 10 gallons of water. But a better wash for general
winter spraying is what is known as the Woburn wash,
the outcome of the investigations of Mr. Spencer U.
Pickering at the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm. The
ingredients are as follows : Iron sulphate, |lb. ; quick-
lime, |lb. ; paraffinv 5 pints; water, gf gallons; caustic
soda, 2lb. To prepare the wash, the iron sulphate is dis-
solved in about 9 gallons of water. The lime is then
slaked in a little water and well stirred, a little more water
being added to make a "milk." The milk of lime is
next run into the iron sulphate solution through a piece
of sacking or a fine sieve, to remove grit or coarse par-
ticles. The paraffin is then added, and the mixture
churned thoroughly with the spraying syringe, repeatedly
drawing some up and forcibly ejecting it into the rest of
the solution until a complete emulsion is obtained. Just
before using, the caustic soda in the powdered form is
added to complete the wash.

Another winter wash that can be recommended is the
lime-and-sulphur. Not only is it both an insecticide and
a fungicide, but it also checks birds from eating fruit
buds if used shortly before they open. Lime-sulphur is
cheap, and can be bought in concentrated liquid form from
several makers (sometimes under fancy names), requiring
only to be diluted with water. Note that the makers give
directions for mixing both for winter and summer use.
For the former three quarts to ten gallons of water is
commonly recommended, but the maker's instructions
should be followed. We have tried the "self-boiled"
formula often given, and have made and used hundreds
of gallons of home-boiled wash made in an iron " copper,"
but we have no hesitation in advising the purchase of the
factory-boiled concentrated solution, for it is strongest

342 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

and best. This excellent wash, however, must not be ap-
plied by means of a copper spraying machine, or with one
containing copper parts, because the lime-sulphur chemi-
cals react with copper, and hence seriously injures the
machine. If, however, the machine Joe made of tinned
copper or some other resistant alloy, then it may be safely
used for lime-sulphur washes.

Spring Spraying. — As soon as any foliage or bloom
appears on fruit trees, insect pests appear. At this time
the grower should be frequently amongst his trees with
a magnifying glass to detect his enemies. Amongst the
first to appear on all trees are the mother-queen Aphides,
which, although thinly scattered, breed with remarkable
rapidity, and soon produce a serious attack. Various
minute caterpillars arrive almost as soon, and the Apple
Sucker is to be found amongst the bloom buds of Apple
trees before they open. The spring spraying is directed
against these pests, and also against fungoid diseases,
particularly Apple and Pear Scab, and Brown Rot on
Plums, Apples, and Pears. As soon as the bloom has
fallen, Apple trees often need spraying again to kill
Codlin Moth caterpillars and the larvae of the Apple Saw-
fly, both of which bore into the fruit and cause the fami-
liar maggoty Apples.

The materials to use are ar senate of lead for cater-
pillars; tobacco extract or nicotine for sucking pests like
Aphides, Apple Sucker, and Red Spider; and Bordeaux
mixture for fungoid diseases. The arsenate should be
obtained in the form of paste, of which 4lb. is used in
ico gallons of water. The tobacco extract is used at the
rate of lolb. per 100 gallons of water. Bordeaux mix-
ture can now be obtained in the form of paste, made from
the Woburn recipe, and this is generally accepted as
better than home-made mixtures, because less liable to
scorch the foliage, and moreover keeps well. It is used
at the rate of 81b. in 100 gallons of water, or 61b. when
the foliage is young and tender.

Spraying should be done just before the bloom buds

SPRAYING FRUIT TREES. 343

open, and again just after the petals fall, never whilst the
bloom is actually open. Any of the above washes can
be used alone, or any two combined, or all three together,
according to the enemies present. Suppose spraying is
being done against Aphides, young caterpillars, and fun-
goid disease, the combined wash would be as follows :
Tobacco extract, lolb. ; arsenate of lead paste, 4lb. ;
Woburn Bordeaux paste, 61b. to 81b. ; water, 100 gallons.
If no caterpillars are present at the first spraying, omit
the arsenate of lead ; if no Aphides, omit the tobacco, etc.
When the spraying is only for fungoid diseases, Bor-
deaux mixture is used alone. The grower can only
tell from his previous year's experience whether he needs
to spray against fungoid diseases, such as Scab and
Brown Rot, as it is done as a preventive rather than a
remedy.

Summer Spraying. — In a good season the grower may
find no further spraying necessary. If, however, he is
fighting Apple or Pear Scab, he is certain to want one
more spraying with Bordeaux mixture two or three weeks
after the second. He can then add the other ingredients
if required for insect pests at the same time.

Again, some seasons prove very bad for Aphis attack,
and repeated sprayings of tobacco wash may be neces-
sary. It is very important to take this pest early, par-
ticularly the leaf-curling species, as once these are curled
up in the leaves they cannot be reached, and little good
results from spraying. Large growers sometimes find
the tobacco wash too expensive, although there is nothing
better. For them we can recommend the following from
experience: Quassia chips, lolb. ; soft soap, lolb. ; water,
100 gallons. Boil the quassia with half the soap and
some water for an hour; then with the rest of the soap
and some more water for another hour. Finally mix the
two solutions, and make up to 100 gallons with water.
This wash may be substituted for tobacco in any of the
combined washes already recommended.

344 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

Some Warnings. — Few growers need advising not to do
more spraying than is found necessary. If any of the
applications recommended can be do-ne without in a good
season, by all means let them be omitted. This may often
happen in gardens, though seldom in the market plan-
tation. Too much spraying does not do the trees any
good ; and with Bordeaux mixture in particular there is
danger of scorching the foliage, some varieties (Cox'S
Orange Pippin, for instance) being much more liable to
damage than others

In the absence of chemical knowledge it is safer to buy
the prepared washes.

Another necessary warning is that arsenate of lead is
very poisonous, and should not be used on fruit near the
time of gathering for use.

In the case of winter washes containing caustic soda,
it. should be remembered that they burn the skin of the
face and hands. Vaseline on the face, and hedging gloves
on the hands are sufficient protection.

Hints on Spraying. — The main point in spraying is to
cover all parts of the tree or bush with a fine, mist-like
spray, without drenching it. Never should it be so much
soaked that the wash drips off the points of the leaves.
This is where there is most danger of scorching. From
this it will be gathered that the spraying nozzle is very
important. An ordinary garden syringe, with its com-
paratively coarse rose, is of no use at all ; but there are
syringes made with proper nozzles that do the work quite
well in a small garden, or even a large one. The spray
(must be delivered in a regular cloud which is easily car-
ried on the wind. For washes containing lime special
nozzles are required.

! For use in larger gardens and on the fruit farm there
are many spraying machines, made in all sizes. The
various knapsack machines, which are carried on the
back, will be found very handy, even where the work to
be done is extensive ; though much more powerful

SPRAYING FRUIT TREES. 345

machines are, of course, in use. The best knapsack
machines are those in which the spray is forced out by
compressed air, the machine being charged with air
before spraying starts. The operator then 'has nothing
to do but to direct the spray when he gets amongst the
trees, having no pumping to occupy his attention. For
tall trees the nozzle has to be mounted on a long lance.

Addenda.

American Blight. — In dealing with this pest on p. 268
only a brief reference was made to its also infecting the
roots. It appears that the lice migrate from the branches
to the roots, and cause galls to form thereon. It has also
been proved that the lice migrate from the roots to the
branches. It is impossible, therefore, to get wholly rid
of the aphis if the branch or aerial form only is dealt with,
hence it is essential to also apply remedies to destroy the
root progeny. This may be accomplished in two ways.
Thus, carbon disulphide, a highly volatile substance,
should be injected into the soil by means of a Vermoral
Injector in about four places, at a distance of 2ft. from
the trunk in winter. The operator must not smoke whilst
injecting the fluid as the disulphide is inflammiable. The
second method, which is less dangerous and more simple
to use, is to place some lumps of freshly burnt lime in a
ring around the base of the trunk. When these have
slaked, spread out the lime 2in. deep and ift. wide closely
around the trunk, and then cover it with a layer of soil.
The lime prevents the lice ascending or descending, and
as they cannot multiply on the roots, only above ground,
those below will eventually die.

Another good remedy for eradicating American Blight
on the branches is to dissolve 402. of soft soap in a gallon
of boiling soft water, then add one fluid ounce of carbolic
acid and thoroughly mix the whole. Apply this when cold
by means of a stiff painter's brush to the infested parts
only. Use gloves to protect the hands from the acid.

346

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

MARKET FRUITS,

APPLES (COOKING).

List of profitable sorts, with season of ripening, when and how
to market, average pre-war prices, etc.

Name of Variety.

Season.

When to
Sell.

How
best
Sold.

Average
Pricts.

How best
Grown.

Alfriston

Nov. , Mar.

Jan., Feb.

Bush.

4/6 5/6

Dwf. or St.

Annie Elizabeth ...

Dec., Apr.

Mar. , Apr

Bush.

4/6 5/6

Dwf. or St.

Bismarck

Oct., Jan.

Dec., Jan.

Bush.

2/6 5/-

Standard.

Blenheim Orange ...

Nov., Feb.

Dec.

Bush.

6/6 8/-

Standard.

Bramley's Seedling

Dec., Apr.

Jan., Feb

Bush.

5/- 6/-

Dwf. or St.

Cox's Pomona

Oct., Nov.

Nov. ...

Bush.

4/- 6/-

Dwf. or St.

Early Victoria

July, Aug.

July ...

Bush.

2/6 5/~

Dwarf.

Ecklinville Seedling

Sept., Oct.

Sept. ...

Bush.

2/6 5/-

Dwf. or St.

Edward VII.

Jan., Apr.

Feb., Mar.

Bush.

51- 6/-

Dwf. or St.

Golden Noble

Nov. , Dee.

Dec. ...

Bush.

3/- 51-

Dwf. or St.

Golden Spire

Oct., Dec.

Nov. ...

Bush.

2/6 5/-

Dwf. or St.

Grenadier ...

Sept.,0ct

Sept. ...

Bush.

3/- 5/-

Dwf. or St.

Keswick Codling ...

Aug. , Sep.

Aug.

Bush.

1/6 2/6

Standard.

Lane's Prince Albert

Nov., Apr.

Dec., Feb.

Bush.

4/~ 6/-

Dwf. or St.

Lord Derby...

Nov., Dec.

Nov. ..

Bush.

4/- 6/-

Dwf. St.

Loi-d Suffield

Aug. , Sep.

Aug.

Bush.

1/6 4/-

Dwf. St.

Newton Wonder ...

Nov.,May

Jan., Apr.

Bush.

4/6 7/-

Dwf. St.

Norfolk Beauty ...

Oct, Dec.

Nov. ...

Bush.

4/6 6/-

Dwf. or St.

Peasgood's Nonsuch

Nov. , Dec.

Nov. ...

Bush.

5j- 8/-

Dwf. St.

Royal Jubilee

Oct., Mar.

Jan., Feb.

Bush.

4/- 8/-

Dwf. St.

Stirling Castle . . . | Oct. , Nov.

Oct.

Bush.

2/6 4/6

Dwf. St.

Tower of Glamis ...

Oct., Nov.

Oct.

Bush.

2/- 4/-

Standard.

Warner's King

Nov. ...

Nov. ...

Bush.

51- 61-

Dwf. St.

Wellington...

i

Nov., Mar.

Dec., Feb.

Bush.

4/- 6/6

Dwf. St.

MARKET FRUITS,
APPLES (DESSERT)

347

* . - / '

List of profitable sorts, with seasoning of ripening, how and when to
arket, average pre-war prices, how best grown, etc.

Name of Variety.

Season.

When to
Sell.

How
best
Sold.

Average
Prices.

How best
Grown.

Allington Pippin . . .

Nov., Feb.

Dec , Jan

Bush.

10/-16/-

Dwarf.

Beauty of Bath

July, Aug.

July ...

Bush.

3/6 5/-

Dwarf.

Christmas Pearmain

Nov., Dec.

Dec.

Bush.

6/-IO/-

Dwarf.

Cox's Orange Pippin

Nov.>Jan.

Dec. ...

Bush.

10/-16/-

Dwf. or St.

DevonshireQuarrdn.

Aug.

Aug.

Bush.

3/6 5/

Standard.

Duchess' Favourite

Sept., Get

Sept. ...

Bush.

3/6 51-

Dwf. or St.

Gascoigne's Scarlet

Nov.,Feb.

Dec., Jan.

Bush.

4/_ g/_

Dwf. or St.

Duchess of Oldnbgh.

Aug., Sep.

Aug. ...

Bush.

3/6 51-

Dwarf.

Juneating, Red

Aug. ...

Aug.

Bush.

3/6 51-

Dwf. or St.

King of Pippins ...

Oct., Jan.

Dec.

Bush.

4/- 7/

Dwf. or St.

Lady Sudeley

Aug., Sep.

Aug.

Bush.

3/6 51-

Dwf. or St.

Ingestre, Yellow ...

Sept. ...

Sept. ...

Bush.

3/6 6/-

Dwf. or St.

Mr Gladstone

July, Aug.

July ...

Bush.

3/— 5/-

Dwf. or St.

Ross Nonpariel

Nov., Dec.

Dec.

Bush.

5/6 7/-

Dwf. or St.

Stunner Pippin

Feb., June

Jan., Mar.

Bush.

6/6 8/-

Dwf. or St.

Worcester Pearmain

Sept. ...

Sept.

Bush.

\jf \* ^ff

Dwf. or St.

Rosemary Russet ...

Dec., Feb.

Jan.

Bush.

4/_ g/_

Standard.

Allen's Everlasting

Apr. , May

Mar., Ap.

Bush.

5f- 7/-

Standard.

James Grieve

Sept., Oct.

Sept. ...

Bush.

g/_ g/_

Dwf. or St.

Duke of Devonshire

Mar., Ap.

April

Bush

51- 6/-

Dwf. or St.

Ellison's Orange

Oct.

Oct.

Bush.

5j- 6/-

Dwf. or St.

Lord Burghley

Feb., Mar.

Feb.

Bush.

6/— 11-

Dwf. or St.

Lord Hindlip

Jan., May

Mar., Ap.

Bush.

6/_ 7/_

Dwt. or St.

Ribston

Nov., Jan.

Dec. ...

Bush.

10/-16/-

Dwf. or St.

CHERRIES.

List of profitable sorts, with modes of marketing ; average pre-war
prices, best form of trees, etc.

Variety.

Class.

Season

How
Bold.

Average
Prices.

How Grown.

Archduke

Duke

July

^ sieve

4/- 5/-

Standard.

Black Heart .

BLaok Heart

July

£ sieve

V- 51-

Standard.

Black Eagle .

Black Heart

July

£ sieve

4/- 5j-

Standard.

Cluster, Black .

Black Heart

Aug.

i sieve

7/- 151-

Standard.

Elton ...

White Heart

July

\ sieve

4/- 8/-

Standard.

Bigarreau

(Napoleon)

White Heart

Aug.

3 sieve

11- 151-

Standard.

Bigarreau (Kent)

White Heart

Aug.

\ siere

7/- 15/-

Standard.

348

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

CHERRIES— continued.

Variety.

Class.

Season

How
Sold.

Average
Prices.

How Grown.

Governor Wood

White Heart

July

$ sieve

4/- 8/

Standard.

Black Tartarian

Black Heart

June

i sieve

41- 8/-

Standard.

May Duke

Duke

June

£ sieve

3/- 6/-

Standard.

Late Duke

Duke

Aug.

\ s-ieve

7/- 15/-

Standard.

Hivers' Early ...

Black Heart

June

\ sieve

4- 8/-

Standard.

Waterloo

Black Heart

June

\ sieve

4/- 8/-

Standard.

Royal Duke

Duke

July

£ sieve

4/- 8/-

Standard.

Frogmore

Bigarreau

White Heart

June

\ sieve

4/- 8/-

Standard.

Kentish Red ...

Cooking

July

\ sieve

3/- 5/-

Dwfs.&St.

Flemish Red ...

Cooking

July

^ sieve

3,- 5/-

Dwfs.&St.

Morello

Cooking

Aug.

\ sieve

4/- 8/-

Dwf s. & St.

CURRANTS

List of the most profitable sorta, with modes of marketing, and
average pre-war prices.

Variety.

Colour.

How

Marketed.

Average
Prices.

Adaptability.

American Wonder

Red

$ sieve

4/_ 7/

Cook ; preserving.

Baldwin's ...

Black ...

^ sieve

4/- 6/-

Cook ; preserving.

Black Naples

Black ...

^ sieve

4/_ 6/-

Cook ; preserving.

Boskoop

Black ...

£ sieve

4y_ g/_

Cook ; preserving.

Carter's Champion

Black ...

$ sieve

4/_ 6/_

Cook ; preserving.

Fay's Prolific

Red ...

\ sieve

3,6 6/

Cook ; preserving.

Raby Castle

Red ...

£ sieve

5/- 7/-

Cook ; preserving.

New Red Dutch ...

Crimson

\ sieve

41 - il~

Cook ; preserving.

Scotch Red

Red ...

\ sieve

4j- 7/-

Cook ; preserving.

Versailles ...

White...

Punnet.

— _

Dessert.

White Dutch

White...

Punnet.

— —

Dessert.

DAMSONS AND BULLACES.

Variety.

Season.

How to
Market.

Average
Prices.

How Grown.

Farleigh Prolific

Sept.

\ sieve

3/6 4/6

Standard.

Frogmore

Sept.

\ sieve

3/6 4/6

Standard.

Shropshire

Sept.

£ sieve

3/- 3/6

Standard.

Bradley 's King

Sept.

£ sieve

3/- 4/-

Standard.

Shepherd's Bullace

Sept.

\ sieve

2/6 3/6

Standard.

Merry weather

Sept.

\ sieve

2/6 3/6

Standard.

MARKET FRUITS.

849

FILBERTS AND COBNUTS.

Select list of profitable sorts, with periods to market, and average
pre-war prices ; also marketed by the pound and twelve pounds, as
well aa by the sieve.

Variety.

When to Market.

How to
Market.

Average Prices.

Cosford
Kentish Cob
Kent Filbert

Sept. to Feb.
Sept. to Feb.
Sept. to Feb.

Sieve
Sieve
Sieve

4/- to 5/- per 12 Ibs.
4/- to 5/ - per 12 Ibs.
4d. to 6d. per Ib.

Prolific Frizzled Filbert

Sept. to Feb.

Sieve

4d. to 6d. per Ib.

Pearson s Prolific Cob...

Sept. to Feb.

Sieve

4/- to 5/- per 12 Ibs.

GOOSEBERRIES.

List of profitable sorts, with methods and periods of marketing,
average pre-war prices, and adaptabilities.

Variety.

Colour.

When to
Market.

How to
Market.

Average
Prices.

Adaptability.

Crown Bob

Red .

Green

J sieve

6/- 8/-

Cooking.

Early Sulphur

Yellow

Ripe ...

£ sieve

4/6 6/6

Dessert.

Keepsake (Berry's)...

Green

Green

£ sieve

6/_ gy_

Cooking.

Lancashire Lad .*.

Red ...

Green

£ sieve

6/— 8/-

Cooking.

Alma

White

Ripe ...

Punnet

—

Dessert.

High Sheriff

Yellow

Ripe ...

Punnet

Dessert.

Large Whitesmith ...

White

Green

| sieve

6/_ S/-

Cooking.

Warrington ...

Red ...

Green

| sieve

1/3 6/-

Cook ; pre-

or Ripe

serving.

Whinham's Industry

Red ...

Green

-^ sieve

1/3 6/-

Cook ; pre-

or Ripe

serving.

Rifleman

Red ...

Green

£ sieve

g/_ gy_

Cooking.

Telegraph

Green

Ripe ...

Punnet

___

Dessert.

Leveller

Yellow

Ripe ...

Punnet

—

Dessert.

Speedwell

Red ...

Ripe ...

Punnet

— —

Dessert.

850 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

PEARS (DESSERT).

List of profitable sorts, with season of ripening, how and when to
market, average pre-war prices, etc.

Variety.

Season.

-V hen to How to

-larket. Market

Average
Prices.

How best
Grown.

Beurr£ d'Amanlis

Sept. ..

Sept.

Bush

5/- 6/-

Dwf. St.

BeurreBosc

Nov. ..

Nov.

Bush

51- 11-

Dwarf.

Beurr6 Capiaumont

Oct. .

Oct.

Bush

5j- 6/-

Standard.

Beurr6 Clairgeau

Oct. ..

Oct.

Bush

51- 11-

Dwf. St.

Chalk

Aug.

Aug.

Bush

2/6 6/-

Standard.

Conference

Oct.

Oct.

Bush.

2/6 51-

Dwf. St.

Doyenn6 Boussoch

Oct. ..

Oct.

Bush.

5f- 11-

Dwf. St.

Doyenne du Cornice

Nov., Jan

Dec.

Bush

«/- ?/-

Dwf. St.

Doyenne, Summer

Aug.

Aug.

Bush.

2/6 6/-

Dwf. St.

Thompson

Oct.,Nov

Oct.

Bush

51- 6/-

Dwarf.

Dr. Jules Guyot

Sept. ...

Sept.

Bush.

5/- 6/-

Standard.

Durondeau

Oct. ...

Oct.

Bush.

51- 11-

Dwf. St.

Emiled'Heyst

Oct., Nov.

Oct.

Bush.

5/- 11-

Dwarf.

Fertility

Oct.

Oct.
Aug.

Bush.
Bush.

2/6 5j-
3/6 6/6

Standard.
Standard.

Jargonelle

Aug. ...

Eyewood ...

Oct.

Oct.

Bush.

2/6 5j-

Standard.

Marie Louise d'Uccle ...

Nov. ...

•Nov.

Bush.

3/6 8/-

Dwt. St.

Pitmaston Duchess

Oct. ...

Oct.

Bush.

4/- 9/-

Dwf. St.

Princess ...

Oct.

Oct.

Bush.

3/6 51-

Dwf. St.

' Souvenir du Congres ...

Sept. ...

Sept.

Bush.

9Jj \J *Sj

5!- 11-

Dwarf.

Williams' Bon Chretien

Sept. ...

Sept.

Bush.

2/6 51-

Standard.

Hessle

Sept. ...

Sept.

Bush.

2/6 51-

Standard.

Lammas ...

Aug. ...

Aug.

Bush.

21- 3/6

Standard.

Louise Bonne of Jersey

Oct. ...

Oct. Bush.

51- 6/-

Dwf. St.

PLUMS (DESSERT).

List of profitable sorts, with season, colour, mode of marketing,
average pre-war prices, etc.

Variety.

Season

Colour.

How
Sold.

.Iverage

Pricea.

How
Grown.

Soil.

Belgian Purple
Denniston's Superb . . .

Sept.
Aug.

Violet
Yellow

J sieve
J sieve

2/- 11-
4-71-

Dwf. St.
Standard.

Ord.

Heron

Aug.

Red...

£ sieve

2/- 1f-

Dwf. St.

Ord.

Greengage (old)

Aug.

Green

4 sieve

3/6 11-

Dwf. St.

Light.

Jefferson's Gage

Sept.

Yellow

i sieve

3/6 11-

Dwf. St.

Light.

TransparentGage(late)
Oullin's Golden Gage. . .
Coe's Golden Drop ...

Sept.
Aug.
Oct.

Red ...
Yellow
Yellow

£ sieve
^ sieve
| sieve

3/6 11-
3/6 11-
51- SI-

Dwf. St.
Dwf. St.
Dwarf.

Light.
Light.
Light.

MARKET FRUITS,
PLUMS (COOKING).

351

Variety.

Saaaon.

Colour.

How
Sold.

Average
Prices.

How
Grown.

Soil.

Black KentishDiamond

Sept.

Black

£ sieve

2/- 6/-

St. Dwf.

Ord.

Belle de Louvaiii

Sept.

Red ...

\ sieve

2/66/-

St. Dwf.

Ord.

Gisbonne's

Sept.

Yellow

\ sieve

2/-6/-

St. Dwf.

Ord.

Curlew

Sept.

Red ...

\ sieve

2/- 51-

St. Dwf.

Ord.

MagnumBonum(white)

Sept.

Yellow

£ sieve

2/- 5/-

St. Dwf.

Ord.

Pond's Seedling

Sept.

Pink...

\ sieve

2/- 5/-

St. Dwf.

Ord.

Orleans (new)...

Aug.

Red ...

| sieve

2/- 5/-

St. Dwf.

Ord.

Monarch (Rivers') ,.

Sept.

Black

% sieve

2/~ 5/-

St. Dwf.

Ord,

Smith's Purple Prolific

Aug.

Black

^ sieve

2/- */-

St. Dwf.

Ord.

Victoria

Aug.

Pink ,

£ sieve

3/6 7/-

St. Dwf.

Ord.

Rivers' Early Prolific

July

Red..

£ sieve

3/6 7/-

St. Dwf.

Ord.

The Czar

Aug.

Red ...

£ sieve

2/- 5/-

St. Dwf.

Ord.

Wyedale

Oct.

Black

£ sieve

3/6 8/-

St. Dwf.

Ord.

RASPBERRIES.

List of profitable sorts, with modes of marketing, average pre-war
prices, etc.

Variety.

Colour.

How Marketed.

Average
Prices.

Adaptability.

Carter's Prolific
Superlative
Norwich Wonder
HaiLsham Berry

Red
Red
Red
Red

Tubs ; punnets
Tubs ; punnets
Tubs ; punnets
Punnets

Per tub.
3/- 6/-
S/- 5j-

3/- 5/-
6d.tol/-

Dessert ; preferring.
Dessert ; preserving.
Dessert ; preserving.
Dessert.

STRAWBERRIES.

List of varieties grown for market, with modes of marketing, etc.

Name.

Season.

How Marketed.

Average Price.

Royal Sovereign
Laxton's Noble
Sir Joseph Pax ton ...
Sir Charles Napier ...
Givon'a Late Prolific

Early ...
Early ...
Mid-season
Mid-season
Late

/"Chip Baskets
(4to61bs.)
^ Punnets (1 tti.)...
Peck (121bs,) ...
^Barrels (56 Its.)...

lOd. to 4/6
2d. to9d.
3/6 to 4/6
5/- to 6/-

352

FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

MANURES FOR ORCHARDS.

Table showing the most suitable manures for each kind of fruit, the quantity of
each to apply per acre, or otherwise, in grass, orchards and plantations, and the
best time to apply them.

Fruit.

Manure.

Quantity.

When to apply.

Apple

99 • **

Superphosphate ...

Kainit

3 cwts.
1£ cwts.

After pruning.
After pruning.

Nitrate of Soda ...

1 cwt.

When fruit is set.

99 ••

Farmyard Dung ...

20 tons

Winter.

Liquid Manure

3 galls, sq.yd.

Winter ; June.

Cherry

Steamed Bone Meal

3 cwts.

February.

99 * *

Sulphate of Potash

li cwts.

February.

99 "

Chloride of Soda...

2 cwt.

February.

99 **

Sulphate Magnesia

i cwt.

February.

99 "
99

99 **

Sulphate of Lime...
Liquid Manure . . .
Nitrate of Soda ...

5 cwts.
3 galls. sq.yd.
1£ cwts.

February.
Winter ; June.
When fruit has set.

99

Farmyard Dung ...

20 tons

Winter.

Currants and

Gooseberries

Farmyard Dung ...

20 tons

Winter.

99 "* '

Liquid Manure ...

3 galls. sq.yd.

Winter ; June.

99 * ' *

Bone Meal

3fc cwts.

Winter.

Kainit

1£ cwts.

Winter.

99 * **

Nitrate of Soda ...

1$ cwts.

When fruit has set.

Nuts

Farmyard Dung ...

20 tons

\V inter.

9 > •• •

Woollen Rags ...

2 tons

Winter.

99 ' •'•

Liquid Manure ...

3 galls. sq.yd

Winter.

Pear

Farmyard Dung ...

20 tons

Winter.

>* • ** *

Steamed Bone Meal

3 cwts.

After pruning.

99 '"

Kainit

1 cwt.

After pruning.

)9

Nitrate of Soda ...

li cwts.

Half in Mar. ; half

in June.

99 •••

Liquid Manure ...

3 galls. sq.yd.

Winter ; June.

Plums and

Damsons

Farmyard Manure

20 tons

Winter.

99 99 •"

Liquid Manure ...

3 galls.sq.yd.

Winter ; June.

99 99 •••

Bone Meal

3 cwts.

After pruning.

99 99 •••

Kainit

l£ cwts.

After pruning.

99 »»

Nitrate of Soda ... 2£ cwts.

Spring.

Raspberry ..

Farmyard Dung ... 20 tons

Winter.

99

Liquid Manure ...

3 gall3.sq.yd.

Winter; June.

99

99 *

Superphosphate ...
Kainit

3 cwts.
1 cwt.

Winter.
Winter.

J > •

Nitrate of Soda ...

2 cwts.

April.

Strawberry

Farmyard Dung ...

20 tons

Winter.

>'

Bone Meal

3 cwts.

Winter.

»» ••

Kainit

H cwts.

Winter.

»

Soot

40 bushels ...

Spring.

CULINARY PLUM, GRAND DUKE
Season : Mid-October.

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

353

APPROXIMATE COST OF PLANTING AN ACRE
OF LAND WITH VARIOUS FRUIT TREES.

(Pre-war Prices. )

Name of Fruit.

|

1

i

H

•s

||

of Manure.

^It

11

tal Cost.

I

5

o*

1

!

1

£

£

Apples, Dwarf...

12ft.

302

£8

£7

£5

'7/6

£20 7 6

Apples, Stand. ..
Cherries, Bush...

20ft.
12ft.

108
302

£9

£15

£7
£7

£5
£5

32/6

7/6

£22 12 6
£27 7 S

Cherries, Stand.

30ft.

48

£4 16

£7

£5

167-

£16 17 6

Cobnuts

12ft.

302

£8

£7

£5

7/6

£18 7 6

Currants

6ft.

1,210

£12

£7

£5

14-

£24 14 0

Damsons

15ft.

193

£8

£7

£5

£3

£23 0 0

Filberts

12ft.

302

£6

£7

£5

7/6

£18 7 6

Gooseberries . . .

6ft.

302

£6

£7

£5

14/-

£18 14 0

Pears, Dwarf ...

12 it.

302

£7 10

£7

£5

7/6

£19 14 6

Pears, Standard

20ft.

108

£9

£7

£5

32/6

£22 12 6

Plums, Standard

20ft.

JOS

£7

£7

£5

32/6

£20 12 6

Plums, Dwarf...

12ft.

302

£15

£7

£5

7/6

£27 7 6

Raspberries ..

4 ft. X 1 ft.

6,987

£10

£7

£5

15/-

£22 15 0

Strawberries ...

2ft.6in.xlift.

11,000

£3

£7

£5

20,'-

£16 0 0

APPROXIMATE COST OF CULTIVATION.

With yield and returns ; less rent, rates, and salesmen's commission,
from an acre of Orchard. (Pre-war values.)

1

+>

'3

1

I'S

|

S

*o * ti

"o pf

•g*

c
•

MS ^

jvj'S'

1-

Name of Fruit.

1-l'i

ll

2

jtl

ll

«+»

oBH

P«

O w

o

<D ii

2 —

£J 2.

p

"oi

1

t* 08

4?

*

C5

0

H

*«1

Apple
Cherry ...

327-
32J-

207-
20/-

£7
£9

£5
£5

6 tons
4 tons.

£60
£100

£45 8
£83 8

Cobnut

32/-

20/-

£1

£5

10 cwt.

£14

£5 8

Currant...

&£/—

22/-

£6

£5

2 tons.

£30

£16 6

Damson...

22/-

207-

£12

£5

6 tons.

£96

£76 8

Filbert

32/-

20/-

£1

£5

10 cwt.

£14

£5 8

Gooseberry

32/-

22/-

£5

£5

3 tons.

£25

£12 6

Pear

32/-

20/-

£7

£5

5 tons.

£50

£35 8

Plum

32/-

207-

£7

£5

7 tons.

£100

£85 6

Raspberry

32/-

127-

£10

£5

2 tons.

£46

£28 18

Strawberry

607-

15/-

£8

£5

2 tons.

£42

£22 5

2 A

354 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

WEIGHTS OF FRUIT.

Standard Weights in London Markets.

Apples

Half Sieves

20 to 24 Ibs.

Apples

Bushels

40 to 48 Ibs.

Blackberries

Pecks

12 Ibs.

Blackberries ...

Strikes ...

12 Ibs.

Cherries

Half Sieves

24 Ibs.

Cherries Pecks ...

12 Ibs.

Cherries Strikes

40 Ibs.

Cobnuts

Half Sieves

20 Ibs.

Currants

Half Sieves

12 Ibs.

Currants

Pecks

12 Ibs.

Currants

Strikes

12 Ibs.

Currants

Chip Baskets ..

4 to 12 Ibs.

Damsons ... ... Half Sieves

28 Ibs.

Damsons

Bushels...

56 Ibs.

Filberts

Half Sieves

20 Ibs.

Gooseberries ...

Half Sieves

28 Ibs.

Gooseberries ... ... j Chip Baskets ...

4 to 6 Ibs.

Loganberries ... ... Pecks ...

12 Ibs.

Loganberries ... ... Strikes ...

12 Ibs.

Loganberries ...

Chip Baskets

4 to 6 Ibs.

Mulberries

Pecks .

12 Ibs.

Mulberries ... ... j Strikes ...

12 Ibs.

Mulberries

Chip Baskets

4 to 6 Ibs.

Plums

Half Sieves

28 Ibs.

Plums ...

Bushels i 561bs.

Plums

Pecks ! 121bs.

Plums ...

Strikes

12 Ibs.

Raspberries (pulled)...

Pecks

12 Ibs.

,, (cut with stalks)

Pecks

8 Ibs.

Raspberries ...

Strikes

12 Ibs.

Raspberries ...

Chip Baskets ...

4 to 6 Ibs.

Strawberries ...

Pecks

12 Ibs.

Strawberries ...

Chip Baskets

4 to 6 Ibs.

Walnuts

Bushels

40 Ibs.

COST (PREWAR) OF DIGGING SOILS.

Soil.

How Cultivated.

Cost
per rod.

Cost
per acre.

Time required.

e. d.

£ s. d.

Light
Ditto ..

Dug 1 spit deep
Trenching 2 spits deep

0 2

0 10

168
6 13 4

14 days per acre.
28 „

Ditto ..

Bastard Trenching...

0 6

400

21 „

Ditto .

Plouprhins1

0 12 0

Iday

Heavy
Ditto ...

Dug 1 spit deep
Trenching 2 spits deep

0 3
1 0

200
800

18 days
30 „

Ditto ...

Bastard Trenching

0 8

568

24 ,

Ditto ...

Ploughing

0 16 0

U „

Ordinary ...

Harrowing

010

10 acres per day.

Ditto ...

Cultivating

030

3 to 5 acres per day.

Ditto ...

Rollins

009

8 to 10 ..

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

355

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES.

Name of Fruit.

How Propagated.

Stock.

When.

|PPje
Apple
Apricot
Biackbenrj
Cherry
Cranberry

Budding
Grafting
Budding
Cuttings (Root)
Budding
Cuttings
Cuttings

Paradise; Crab
Paradise; Crab
St. Julien Plum

Mahaleb"

July.
March.
July.
March.
July.
March.
October.

Fig
Fig

Suckers
Cuttings

October.
October.

Cuttings

October.

Grape

Cuttings

January.

Division

October.

Loganberry
Mulberry
Mulberry
Nectarine
Peach
Pear
Pear ..

Layering
Budding
Cuttings
Budding
Budding
Budding
Grafting

White Mulberry '.'.'.

Almond; Plum
Almond; Plum
Seedling Pear; Quince
Seedling Pear ; Quince

Summer.
August.
October.
July.
July.
July.
March.

Plum
Plum
Quince

Budding
Grafting
Cuttings • layers

St. Julien
St. Julien

July.
March.
October.

Raspberries

Division

October.

Walnut

Seed

Nov.

DISTANCES FOR PLANTING FRUIT TREES.

Name.

In the Row.

Between Rows.

When Plant.

Apple (Standard)
Apple (Bush)
Apricot (Wall)

20 ft. .
12 ft
15 ft. . .

20 ft. .
8 ft

Oct. to Feb.
Oct. to Feb.
Oct to Feb.

Blackberries
Cherry (Standard)
Cherry (Bush)
Currant
Damson (Standard)
Fig
Gooseberry

4 ft
30 ft. . .
12 ft
6 ft
18 ft
15 ft
6 ft
4 ft.

4ft.

24 ft. :

8 ft
5 ft
18 ft

"5 ft. ;;.' '.'.'.

Oct. to Feb.
Oct. to Feb.
Oct. to Feb.
Oct.
Oct. to Feb.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct. to Feb.

Nectarine
Peach

15 ft
15 ft. .

Oct.
Oct.

Pear (Standard)
Pear (Bush)
Plum (Standard)
Plum (Bush)
Raspberry
Strawberry

20 ft. ..,
12 ft

20 ft. .
12 ft
2 ft
1 ft.

20 ft
8 ft
18 ft
8 ft
4 ft
30 ins.

Oct. to Feb.
Oct. to Feb.
Oct. to Feb.
Oct. to Feb.
Oct. to Feb.

A 2

356 FRUIT AND ITS CULTIVATION.

FRUIT MEASURES.

(For weights see Table on p. 354.)

BUSHEL BASKET. — A measure equivalent to a sieve, which
see.

BUSHEL SIEVE. — Same capacity as a sieve, which see.

HALF SIEVE. — Capacity, 3^- imperial gallons. Diameter,
\2\ in. ; depth, 6 in. Used for fruit.

HALVES. — The same as a half- sieve.
PECK. — One-fourth of a sieve or .bushel.

POT. — A wicker basket used in Worcestershire and the
Midlands for measuring fruit, Peas, etc. Shape, oblong ;
length, 21 in. ; width, 14 in. ; depth, 15 in. In the Bir-
mingham market a " pot " of Apples weighs 63 Ibs. ;
Cherries, 63 Ibs. ; Currants, 63 Ibs. ; Damsons, 72 Ibs. ;
Plums, 72 Ibs. ; Gooseberries, 63 Ibs. The same rule is
observed in the Manchester market. At Liverpool a
" pot " of Apples varies from 64 to 72 Ibs. ; Pears the
same.

SIEVE. — A measure containing 4 pecks or 8 imperial
gallons. Diameter, 15 in. ; depth, 8 in. Used mainly as
a fruit measure.

STONE. — A measure by weight of 14 Ibs. Used chiefly
in the .northern markets.

STRIKE. — A basket used chiefly by the Middlesex growers
for marketing fruit, etc. Capacity, one-fourth of a sieve
or a quarter bushel, which see.

INDEX.

PAGE

AMERICA* GOOSEBERRY

MILDEW 298

„ Blight 268,345

Ammonia., Sulphate of 255

Apple Aphis 268

Bearing Mode of.., 22
Blossom Weevil ... 268

Blotch Disease 296

Culture on Walls

and Fences 28

Diseases of the ... 29
Distances for Plant-
ing Trees 16

Fruit, Gathering ... 28

Storing 28

Thinning 28

History of the 9

Mildew, The 295

Modes of Training

the 14

Pests 268

Planting the 20

Propagation of the 12

Pruning the 24

Root-pruning the ... 26

Rot, The 295

Scab, The 295

Site for Growing the 20
Soil for Growing the 16

Stocks for the 12

Sucker, The 270

Varieties of the ... 30
for Cordon Culture 38
for the Midlands 37
for the North ... 37
for the South ... 38
for Standards ... 38

Apples, Marketing 333

„ Cooking for Market 346

PAGE

Apples, Dessert for Market 347
„ Unthinned and

Thinned 29

Apricot, Aspect for the ... 4-0
,, Bearing, Mode of ... 42
„ Brown Kot Disease,

the 297

,, Fruit, Thinning ... 44

History of the 39

Modes of Training

the 41

Moth, The 275

,, Pests of the ... 44, 275

Planting the 41

Propagation of the 40
Protecting Blossoms

of 44

Sites for the 41

Soil for the 40

,, Summer-pruning the 42

Varieties of the ... 45

„ Winter-pruning the 43

BARBERRY, Culture of the... 47

Basic Slag 256

Big Bud Mite. The 277

Bilberry, Culture of the ... 48

Birds 294

Blackberry, Culture of th«3 49

History of the 49

Propagation of the 50

„ Pruning the 50

Black Currant, Culture of

the 78

„ Mite, The 277

Bladder Plum Disease 297

Blood 255

„ Dried 255

Bone^ash 256

Black .. 256

358

INDEX.

PAGE

Bone-aah, Meal 256

Brown Currant Scale, The 281
Budding, Propagation by ... 205
Bullaoe, Culture of the ... 51

„ Varieties of the 53

Bush Trees, Training 246

CANKEB DISEASE 296

Cherries, Marketing 334

„ Varieties lor Market 347

Cherry Aphis, The 276

„ Aspect for Growing

the 58

,, Bearing, Mode of ... 59

„ History of the 56

,, Leaf Scorch Disease,
the

297

63

297

Lifting and Boot-

pruning the

Mildew, The

Modes of Training

the 57

Peste of the 276

Planting the 58

Slugwonn, The ... 277

Soil for the 57

Stocks for the 57

Summer-pruning the 60
Tree Borer, The ... 276
Varieties of the ... 64

„ for Pyramids 66

„ for Standards 66

for Walls 66

„ Winter-pruning the 61
Cobnut, Culture of the ... 67

„ History of the 67

,. Kentish System of

Growing the 71

„ Peete of the 73

„ Propagation of the 68
,, Pruning and Train-
ing the 69

„ Storing Nuts of the 73
„ Varieties of the ... 73

Cobnuts for Market 349

Codling Moth, The 270

Concrete Foundations 225

Coral Spot Disease 296

Cordon Trees, Training ... 242

Grab, Culture of 75

„ Propagation of the 76

Crab, Varieties of the ... 76
Cranberryj Culture o-i the ... 77

Currant Aphis, The 279

„ Bud Mite, The .... 277
,, Clearwing Moth,

The 279

Culture on Fences... 82
in the Garden ... 81

on Walls 82

,, Diseases of the 298

History of the 78

„ Leaf Spot Disease ... 299
,, Modes of Training

the 80

„ Pesrts 277

Propagation of the 79

„ Sawfly, The 280

„ Snoot Borer, The ... 279
Soil and Situation... 80
,, Summer-pruning the

Bed and White ... 82
„ Varieties of the

Black 64

of the Bed 86

of the White 87

,, Winter-pruning of

the 83

Currants Marketing 334

„ Varieties for Market 348
Cuttings, Propagation by... 203
DAMSON, Culture of the ... 53

„ History of the 51

,, Propagation of the 51
„ Varieties of the ... 54

Damsons for Market 348

Drainage of Land 217

EKLWOBMS 292

Ermine Moth, The 272

Espalier Trees, Training ... 248

Explosives, Use of 218

FAN-SHAPED TREES, Training 250

Fig, Bearing, Mode of 89

„ Aspect for Growing

the 90

„ History of the 88

Pests of the 92

,, Planting the 91

„ Propagation of the 90
„ Protecting in Winter 92
,, Boot-pruning the ... 92

INDEX.

359

91
284
67
67
67
73
68

PACK

Fig. Soil for the 90

,, Summer-pruning the 91

,, Varieties of the 92

,, Winter-pruning the

Filbert Bud Mite, The

,, Culture of the

History of the

,, Mode of Bearing ...

,, Peste of the

,, Propagation of «>ne
Pruning and Train-
ing the 39

Storing Nuts of the 73
Varieties of the ... 74

Filberte for Market 349

Fruit Diseases 295

,, Enemies 268

Gathering for Market 329
,, Grading for Market 331

,, Measures 356

,, Packages for Mar-
keting 332

„ Packing for Market 329

„ Plantations 323

Propagation of 355

Storage of 260

„ Store, The 260

Temperature of the 266
„ Tree Beetle, The ... 273
„ Trees Protecting ... 305

„ Weights of 354

„ When to Gather ... 260
GLASS COPINGS FOR WALL

FRUITS 305

Goat Moth, The 274

Gooseberries for Market ... 349
Marketing ... 335
G oose-berry, Black-knot

Disease 299

Diseases 298

History of the 94

Leaf Cluster Cups... 299

Mildew 299

Modes of Training the 97

Pests of the 2a3

Planting the 98

Propagation of the 95
Red Spider. The ... 283
Soil and Situation
for the 96

FAGE

Gooseberry, Summer-prun-
ing the 98

„ Thinning Fruit of the 99

Varieties of the

100

Graft, Time to 216

Grafting 208

„ Cleft 213

Grown or Rind ... 212
Propagation by ... 208

Saddle 213

„ Side 215

,, Whip or Tongue ... 211

Grape Vine, The 107

Guano, Fish 255

Gumming Disease 298

HAILSHAM BERRY, The 186

KAINIT 256

LABELLING TREES 223

Lackey Moth, The 271

Laxtonberry, The 117

Layering, Propagation by... 207

Lame 256

Nitrate of 255

Superphosphate of ... 256
Loganberry, History of the 114
Propagation of the 115

Pruning the 116

Soil and Situation

for the 115

„ Walls, Culture on ... 116

Lowberry The 117

MAGPIB MOTH, The 283

Manures, Applying 257

Artificial 254

for Apples 257, 352

for Apricots 258

for Blackberries ... 259
for Currants ... 258, 352
for Cherries ... 258, 352
for Damsons ...258,352

for Figs 258

for Gooseberries 258, 352
for Loganberries ... 259

for Mulberries 259

for Nectarines 258

for Nuta 259. 352

for Orchards 352

for Peaches 258

for Pears 257, 352

for Plums 258, 352

INDEX.

PAGE

Manures for Raspberries

259, 352
5, for Strawberries 259, 352

„ Natural 253

,, Nitrogenous 254

Pkospliatic 255

,, Potash
Manuring, Mistakes in

Market Culture

Fruits

Marketing Apples

Cherries .

256
252
308
346
333
334
334
335

„ Curraats

,, Gooseberries ...
,, Peaches and Nec-
tarines 335

„ Pears 335

Plums 335

Raspberries 336

„ Strawberries 336

Marl 257

Mealy Plum Aphis, The ... 288

Medlar, History of the 117

„ Pests of the 120

„ Planting the 119

,, Propagation of the 119

Pruning the 119

„ Storing the Fruit ... 120

, , Varieties of th e 120

Mulberry History of the ... 121

,, Peats of the 124

„ Planting the 123

Propagation of the 122

Pruning the 123

„ Soil and Situation

for the 122

Mussel Scale, The 274

NECTARINE, Disbudding the 129

„ History of the 125

„ Mode of Bearing ...129
, , Mode of Training the 128

„ Pests of the 133

Planting the 128

Propagation of the 126
Protecting Blossoms

of the 132

Pruning the 131

Situation for Grow-
ing the 127

Soil for Growing the 126

PAGE

Nectarines, Thinning Fruit

of the 131

Varieties of the ... 135
Watering and

Syringing the 133

Nitrolim 255

Nut Pests 284

„ Weevil, The 284

ORCHARDS 308

Arrangements for

Planting 311

Cost of Cultivating 353
„ Cost of Planting ... 353
,, Distances for Plant-
ing 311

Manures for 352

Planting Trees in ... 311
Protecting Trees in 312
Pruning Trees in ... 315

Shelter for 309

Site for 309

Soil for 309

Oyster-shell Bark Louse,

The 289

PEACH Aphis, The 284

,, History of the 125

„ Disbudding the ...129
Leaf Curl Disease ... 297
,, Mode of Bearing ... 129
,, Mode of Training

the 128

,, Propagation of the 126

„ Pests of the 284

„ Planting the 128

,, Protecting Blossoms

of the 132

Pruning the 131

„ Scale, The 284

,, Situation for Grow-
ing the 127

Soil for Growing the 126
,, Thinning Fruits of

the 131

,, Varieties of the 134

,, Watering and

Syringing the ... 133

Peaches, Marketing 335

Pear, Bearing, Mode of ... 144

,, Diseases 298

Gathering the Fruit 148

INDEX.

361

PAGE

Pear, History of the 136

„ Leaf Blister Mite... 287
„ Leaf Blister Moth ... 285

,, Manuring the 146

„ Midge, The 285

,, Modes of Training

the 141

„ Pests of the 285

„ Planting the 143

Propagation of the 138
,, Root-pruning the ... 146

Scab Disease 298

„ Situation for the ... 140

„ Soil for the 140

„ Stocks for Grafting 139
„ Storing the Fruit ... 148
„ Summer-pruning the 146
,, Thinning Fruits of

the 148

„ Varieties of the ... 149
„ for Bushes, etc.... 156

,, for Cordons 156

for Standards ... 157

for Walls 157

„ Winter-pruning the 146

Pears Marketing 335

„ Varieties for Market 350

Pests 268

Phenomenal Berry, The ... 117

Pith Moth, The 275

Plantation Aspect for ... 323
Cost of, per acre ... 353
,, Distances for Plant-
ing 325

„ Example? of 326

„ Shelter for 323

„ Sites, Preparing ... 324

„ Soil for 324

Planting 217

Choosing the Site ... 217
Cost of, per acre ... 353

„ Depth for 219

,, Distances for 355

,, Drainage before ... 218

„ Mode of 219

Shelter 217

„ Sites for 218

„ Time for 220

,, Treatment of Trees

before , ..219

PAGE

Plum Aphis, The 287

„ Bearing, Mode of ... 163
,, Disbudding the ... 163
,, Fruit, Gathering,

etc 167

Fruit Sawfly, The... 289

„ History of the 158

„ Modes of Training. .. 161

„ Pests of the 287

Planting the 162

Propagation of the 159
Boot-pruning the ... 166

Sawfly, The 288

Situation for the ... 160

Soil for the 160

Stocks for the 160

Summer-pruning the 165
„ Thinning the Fruit 167

„ Varieties of the 168

„ Winter-pruning the 166

Plums, Marketing 335

„ Varieties for Market 350
Pollination of Fruit Blos-
soms 301

Potash, Nitrate of 255

Sulphate of 256

Propagation of Fruit Trees 202

Protecting Fruit Trees ... 305

Pruning, Philosophy of ... 226

„ Newly-planted Trees 234

„ Principles of 226

„ Root 238

„ Summer 232

„ Tools and Appliances

for 237

„ Winter 233

Pyramid Trees, Training ... 243
QUINCE, Fruit, Gathering

and Storing 176

„ History of the 175

„ Propagation of the 176
,, Soil and Situation

for the 176

„ Varieties of the ... 177

RABBITS AND HARES 293

Raspberry- Autumn-bearing,

The 184

„ Beetle, The 290

„ Diseases 300

„ Gall Fly, The 292

INDEX

PAGE

Raspberry, History of the 178
„ Modes of Growing

the 180

„ Moth, The 290

„ Posts of the 290

,, Planting the 180

Propagation of the 179

Pruning the 182

„ Rust Disease 300

Soil and Situation

for the 180

,, Spot Disease 300

,, Varieties of

Autumn-bearing 185
,, Varieties of

Summer-bearing 184

„ Weevil, The 291

Raspberries^ Marketing ... 336
Varieties for Market 351
Red Currant, Culture of the 78
"Red Plum Maggot, The ... 288
Root-pruning Apple Trees... 26

SEEDS, Propagation by 202

Silver-leaf Disease 298

Slug-s and Snails 293

Smudge Fires 307

Social Pear Sawfly, The ... 285

Soda, Nitrate of 254

Soils, Cost of Digging 354

Soot 255

Spraying Fruit Trees 337

„ Spring 342

„ Summer 343

„ Winter 340

Staking Trees 231

Standard Trees, Training... 251

Strawberries, Marketing ... 336

„ Varieties of the ... 193

„ for Market 351

Strawfoerry, Alpine, The ... 192

„ Diseases 300

,, Duration of Beds of

the 191

„ Hautbois, The 192

„ Leaf Spot Disease ... 300

., Management of the 190

Mildew .. 300

Perpetual-fruiting,
The

192

PAOK

Strawberry Pests 292

„ Planting the 190

„ Propagation of the 188

„ Protecting the 191

„ Soil and Position

for the 189

Strawberry-raspberry, The 196
Suckers, Propagation by ... 208
Superphosphate of Lime ... 256

TBAINING BUSH TREES 246

Cordon Trees 242

Espalier Trees 248

Fan-shaped Trees ... 250

Nut Trees 251

Pyramid Trees 243

Standard Trees 251

Trees, Age to Buy 18

,, Treatment of Newly.

bought 18

.. Unfruitful 27

U> FRUITFULNESS, C a U S 6 S

Of „ 301

VINE, Disbudding the Ill

History of the Grape 107

Pests of the 1J2

Planting the Grape 09
Propagation of the .. 108
Pruning and Train-
ing the 109

Soil and Situation for 108
Varieties of the Grape 113
Watering and Feed-
ing the Ill

WALNUT, History of the ... 197
Mode of Bearing ... 198

,, Pests of the 199

Planting the 198

Propagation of the 198

Pruning the 199

Storing Nuts of the 199

Varieties of the 200

293

White Currant Scale, The... 282

Winter Moth, The 270

Wine'berry Culture of the... 201

„ History of the 201

Wood^ashes • 256

Wood Leopard Moth, The ... 275
„ History of the 187

ADVERTISEMENTS.

KING'S ACRE

74 Gold Medals and 16 Silver

Cups Awarded to our Exhibits

during Seasons 1909-1919.

160 ACRES
FRUIT TREES, ROSES

FOREST AND ORNAMENTAL
TREES AND SHRUBS, ALPINE
AND HERBACEOUS PLANTS.

New Catalogues, containing: much useful
information, free upon application.

KING'S ACRE NURSERIES, LTD.

HEREFORD.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

HARDY, HEALTHY, RELIABLE,
and TRUE TO NAME.

Numerous GOLD MEDALS, CUPS, and other Prizes

Awarded at the leading1 Shows throughout the Country.

ILLUSTRATED and DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE from

J. CHEAL & SONS, Hrfccl.

THE NURSERIES, CRAWLEY.

Pumps

And GROWERS' HCOSE

C. P.

65a,

FOR ALL PURPOSES.—
Hand-Pumps with capacities
up to 6,000 gallons per hour.

KINNELL & CO., Ltd.

SOUTHWARK STREET,
LONDON, S.E. 1.

The "Ready-
to-run "
Engine Pump
Set.

ADVERTISEMENTS .

How to Grow Good Fruit

Make sure that the fruit-tree you plant is right.

Start off with a healthy young tree ; and in due time you
will pluck your own fruit, — fresh, ripe, and with full
flavour — a fruit that commands a ready market at a
profitable price.

Plant Bees' " Guarantested " fruit trees.

They are grown and seasoned on an exposed site (swept
by tremendous gales), where only the hardiest and
strongest plants can thrive. This severe test enables
Bees to guarantee them to be famously-rooted, robust,
and free from disease. Hence the name
"Guarantested" — guaranteed and tested too.

Bees' Illustrated Catalogue No. 68 offers a large variety of
sound fruit trees— Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry and
many others — as well as fruit bushes, such as
Raspberry, Loganberry, Gooseberry, and Black and
Red Currant.

Write and tell us what you intend growing; what kind of
soil you have ; and what your troubles and doubts
are. We will put you on the road to starting
properly— and then help you to get the best results
from your efforts.

Advice is doubly valuable at the start.

175N Mill Stree LIVERPOOL

If it comes from Bees' — it grows."

ADVERTISEMENTS.

Plant more Fruit Trees

Is the exhortation of those who realize that Britain
has hitherto been neglectful of her opportunities to
provide an abundance of Hig-h-class Home Grown Fruit.

THIS ADVICE IS GOOD AND SOUND,
BUT IT IS EQUALLY OR EVEN MORE

Important to better manage those already established
in order to attain a

100 Per Cent. CROP

SPRAYINQ is an essential item in the system of

enlightened Fruit Culture — but this pursuit must

not be haphazard, nor handicapped by the

employment of inefficient material,

We have fully equipped Laboratories and a staff of
Trained Chemists who devote their time to the
Preparation of Efficient Remedies and Preventives
Indispensable to the Fruit-Grower (both professional
and Amateur).

NICOTINE CAUSTIC -WINTER SPRAY

For Moss, Lichen Fungi and all Hibernating Insects.

NICOTINE SPRAY (No, 2)

(For Spring and Summer use).
Contains Nicotine, Quassia, Liver of Sulphur, etc.
THE GREATEST THING IN INSECTICIDES.

All the ingredients are accurately blended in accordance
with scientific research and experiment.

THE BEST AND SAFEST SPRAY FOR ALL FRUIT
TREE PESTS,

Further particulars on application to —

EDWARD COOK & CO., LTD.,
BOW, LONDON, E.3.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

LIME SULPHUR WASH

Guaranteed Full Strength. For Winter and Summer

Washing of Trees and Plants.
1 gall, makes 20 galls. 1 gall. 4/9 ; 3 galls. 3/6 per gall.

ARSENATE OF LEAD PASTE

Best quality. Adheres well to the leaves. The best known

means of destroying Caterpillars on Trees and Bushes.

1 Ib. makes 20 galls. 21- per lb.f postage 6d.

"ACME" WEED KILLER

For Destroying Weeds, Moss, etc., on Garden Walks, Drives, Roads, etc.
Used in Royal Horticultural Society's Gardens, Kew, Crystal Palace, etc.

POWDER WEED KILLER

Dissolves quickly in cold water.
Q-,» nf ( No- 1. sufficient to make 25 galls. . . 3/9

Tfaf-1 No'2' " » 50 7/3

Tms I No. 3, „ „ 100 , 14/-

No. 3 post free.

LIQUID WEED KILLER

Strength to 1 to 25 of water. 1 gall. 4/- (drum 1 /6) ; 3 galls. 1 7/6 (drum 4/6) ;

10 galls. 33/4 (drum 8/-); carriage paid. Drums allowed when returned.

Strength 1 in 50. Prices on application.

LAWN SAND INSECTICIDE, Etc.

Lawn Sand.— Kills Daisies, etc., and fertilizes the grass, No othe
manure necessary. 7 Ib. 2/3 ; 56 Ibs., 1 6/-, carriage paid on 56 Ibs.

Soluble Paraffin. — Mixes instantly with water and does not separate
1 Ib., 2/5, post paid. 1 oz. sufficient for 1 gallon water.

Extract of Quassia Insecticide.— 1 gall.. 6/- ; pint, 1/1O,
carriage paid.

Compound Extract of Quassia Tobacco Insecticide.

Pint, 1/6; quart, 2/6, post paid.

SUMMER SHADING.

Prices and particulars on application.

THE ACME CHEMICAL CO., LTD.,

TONBRIDGE, KENT,
And River Street, Bolton, Lanes.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

fib

ABOL

IS

YOUR FRIEND.

YOUR WORK MUST NOT BE IN VAIN

The fruits of your labour must be worthy of your effort to make grood.
Yet what pitfalls, what failings and disappointments await the unwary !
We put forward "ABOL" as your friend. We say to you, as a keen
man (or woman) get a tin — and use it ! You cannot possibly go
wrong. It is not natural to suppose that you desire the very life of
your Crops, your Roses, the best of your Plants, blighted. Yet it
may be so if you neglect to use "ABOL," the NON-POISONOUS
INSECTICIDE AND FUNGICIDE. Go to your nearest Horticultural
man to-day, and ask him or a tin, and then write us tor a free Treatise.
i-Pint, 1/3 ; Pint, 2/- ; Quart, 3/- ; ^-Gallon, 5/- ; 1 Gallon, 8/9.

"ABOL" PATENT SYRINGES

WERE WORTH WAITING FOR!

We cannot meet the demand at present, yet we are overtaking it
gradually. The "ABOL" Syringe is the most sought after thing of
its kind, and with good reason. You should make enquiries, and if
we can assist you in any way, kindly drop us a line; perhaps we
can arrange quick delivery through your local Ironmonger or Seedsman.
No. 4, 19/-; No. 5, 211- ; No. 6, 28/-; Bend, 2/- extra.

"ABOL" PERT LIZER.

This wonderful Plant Food is essential to those desiring well-grown
plants. It is a first-class Rose Food, while it is second to none for
food crops. It is regularly used by exhibitors, and you
would quickly see the excellent results if YOU tried it.
Just get a tin to-day ; but get what you go for —

" ABOL " Fertilizer, or write us.

Tins, 7d., I/-; 7-lbs. 3/-; 14-lbs., 5/-; 28-lbs., 8/-.
(in 14-lb. bags).

J

Obtainable at Nurserymen, Seedsmen, Ironmongers, and Stores.

E. A. WHITE, Ltd., 54, BELTRING, PADDOCK WOOD, KENT.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

BUTVYARDS

FOR FRUIT TREES

When PLANTING, buy trees of
QUALITY. Remember that there are Fruit
Trees — and — Fruit Trees.

For over 120 years we have been
gaining- our experience. That experience
is worth your consideration.

TAKE ADVANTAGE OF IT.

We can advise you —

How — when — and what to plant-

How — when — and what fertilizers to use.

How — when — and what to spray with.

In fact, use bur knowledge, gained
by 120 years' experience to make a good
start and ensure success-

Write for our Catalogues.

GEORGE BUN YARD & CO., LTD.,

The Royal Nurseries,

MAIDSTONE.

Telegrams :
POMONA, MAIDSTONE.

Telephone :
MAIDSTONE, 301.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

Fruit Trees, Roses, Vines,

Figs, Oranges, and Orchard"

House Trees

Are of First-class Quality.

A LARGE AND SELECT STOCK ALWAYS ON VIEW

Price List post free on application.

THOMAS RIVERS & SON,

SAWBRIDGEWORTH, HERTS.

Station-HARLOW, G.E.R.

A constructive experience of 25 years,
HOLDER -HARRIDEN

PNEUMATIC SPRAYERS
The BEST

No continuous arm work, both hands

free for Lance,and a Steady and Constant

Power behind the Spray.

In seven types, from 27/6 to 99/6
Pumped in 1 minute to the requisite pressure, to
discharge the whole of the contents in a fine mist-
like spray, without residue and without re-
pumping. Automatic pressure-gauge to larger
sizes. All parts readily accessible, and nothing to
get out of order.

Typical Letters received: —
^'Decidedly the best machine we have."
I* The best, far and away."

"Bound to speedily replace the old hand-pump
machine.

Write for Catalogue and Testimonials from growers.

14 H I nFR-HARRIflFN LTD NOBLE HOUSE, 35, 36 & 37,
HULUEK-nAKKIUEN LIU., NOBLE STREET, LONDON, E.C«

ADVERTISEMENTS.

Business Established 1750. Telephone : City 5474.

BARRIE & BROWN, LTD.

(Directors: A. E. HAMLINQ, J, S. WATKINS),

The Oldest Seed Establishment in London.

To obtain GOOD QUALITY and SEEDS THAT
GROW, come to us. We can supply you with

Vegetable and Flower Seeds

SCOTCH SEED POTATOES,
BULBS, ROSES & FRUIT TREES.

The following are some of our well-known Specialities :—
BARRIE'S PEA-Early Allpod.

BARBIE'S PEA— Marvel.

BARRIE'S PEA— Ultimatum.

BARRIE'S FRENCH BEANS— Early Prolific.

BARRIE'S RUNNER BEANS— Best of all.

BARRIE'S BEET— Blood Red.
BAr.RlE'3 BRUSSELS SPROUTS— Little Marvel.

BARRIE'S CABBAGE— Little Gem.
BARRIE'S SAVOY CABBAGE— Early Com.

BARRIE'S CARROT— Early Wonder.

BARRIE'S CABBAGE LETTUCE— Monster.

BARRIE'S ONION— "The Monument."

BARRIE'S PARSLEY— Green Gem.

BARRIE'S TURNIP— White Model.

Seeds sold by us are up to and above Government Standard
of Germination.

All Catalogues sent Free on Application.

ONLY ADDRESS:—

39, King William Street,

LONDON BRIDGE, E.C.4.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

LAXTON'S NURSERIES, Bedford.

FRUIT TREES trained in all forms.

LAXTONS
BEDFORD

FRUIT TREES
ROSES

CATALOGUE & CULTURAL
HINTS GRATIS

Roses,

Shrubs,

Strawberries,

Small Fruits

and Berries.

VERMOREL'S

KNAPSACK SPRAYING MACHINES

The ORIGINAL
and still the BEST.

"ECLAIR" No. 1.
For spraying—
FRUIT TREES,
POTATOES
and all Crops.

Have won over
600 Medals and Prizes.

"TORPILLE."

>r all Powders, Sulphur
Dusting-, etc.

Write for Catalogue " B."

Sole Agents—

COOPER, PEGLER & CO., LTD.,

24/26, CHRISTOPHER STREET, LONDON, E.G. 2.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

MERRYWEATHER'S
FRUIT TREES

FRUIT TREES FOR ORCHARD PLANTING.
FRUIT TREES FOR GARDEN PLANTING.

IF YOU FOR PLEASURE, OR

WANT FOR PROFIT, BOTH

DON'T fail to plant

BRAMLEY'S SEEDLING

The Finest Flavoured Kitchen Apple and the most
Profitable Apple Grown.

FRUIT TREES OF ALL KINDS to select from.

THE ROSE

The People's Flower. The National Flower.

Every garden must possess them. All strong and home-grown plants.

Full Lists of varieties on application.

A GRAND STOCK OF SHRUBS AND ORNAMENTAL TREES.
HERBACEOUS PLANTS IN GREAT VARIETY.

Consult us and send for Catalogue, post free on application to —

H. MERRYWEATHER & SONS, LTD.,

SOUTHWELL, NOTTS.

ADVERTISEHEn* TS.

If you are buying Fruit Trees

KENTISH GROWN TREES

Write for our Lists, also particulars
of our Newberry, This fine Berry is
a great improvement on the
Loganberry, having Raspberry
flavour and without the hard core.

WHITELEGG & CO.,

NURSERIES,
CHISLEHURST AND ORPINGTON.

FAMOUS

FOR
40 YEARS.

WITH'S

SAFE

AND
RELIABLE.

MAKES THE BARREN TREE FRUITFUL.

A compound of wonderful value for all kinds of Fruit, especially
Apples, Apricots, Currants, Cherries, Gooseberries, Peaches,

Nectarines, Plums, Raspberries and Strawberries.
It assists in the setting and development of the Fruit in its tran-
sition from the Flower stage. Increases the crop, size and quality
of the Fruit, and aids the ripening of next year's Fruit Buds. By
its use the poorest soils may be made available for Fruit-growing.
It is not costly to use, and can be applied without disturbing the

Roots of the Trees.

FULL PARTICULARS AND PRICES POST FREE.
ALL ORDERS CARRIAGE PAID. Full Directions for use in each Bag.

With's Chemical Manure Co..

EST. 1875. HEREFORD.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

FRUIT TREES

For Market Growers
A SPECIALITY.

1 and 2 year trees, also very fine

fruiting Pyramids, Bushes, Cordons

and Standards can be offered, in

splendid condition.

Catalogues on Application.

. . THE . .

BARNHAM NURSERIES,

LTD.,

BARNHAM, SUSSEX.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

QUALITY. QUALITY. QUALITY.

EVERYTHING FOR THE GARDEN

Bulbs, Roses, Fruit Trees,
SHRUBS.

All Kinds of Flowering Plants,

VEGETABLE PLANTS.

Send for a Catalogue of your requirements.

G. F. LETTS, F.R.H.S.,

Nurseryman, Seedsman and Bulb Merchant,

36, HADLEIGH, SUFFOLK.

WHEN IN DOUBT OR DIFFICULTY

TURN TO

The Brightest and Best

of all Horticultural Journals.

A COLOURED PLATE GRATIS EVERY WEEK.

Offices: 148 & 149, ALDERSGATE STREET,
LONDON, E.C. 1.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

Grade of Fruit is Important.

Grade of Fruit Tree is
of Greater importance.

FIRST GRADE TREES

AT

MODERATE PRICES

ARE WHAT WE AIM AT GROWING.

If you are interested, it will pay you to call or

get our Quotations. We have 100 acres of

young stock.

STUART LOW CO.,

BUSH HILL PARK, ENFIELD, MDDX.

ADVERTISEMENTS

FOR
NURSERYMEN

CREOL&VOSTER

The Soil Sterilizers.

PHOSPHO NICOTYL

For Wood I ice, etc.

SPECIAL! ES

FOR FRUIT GROWERS.

VOSS STANDARD LIME SULPHUR

1*300 Highest Concentration. Clear as Crystal.

VOSS WINTER WASH (No. 1.)

VOSS FRUIT TREE BANDING GREASE

Catches the MOTH.

CARLTO;* ARSENATE OF LEAD

By far the best.

CATTERSCAB

(BORDEAUX ARSENATE)

The combined Spray.

VOSS PTEROKYL

f or Aphis and Apple
Sucker.

BORDORITE

(PATENT)I
The Copper
Fungicide

NICOTYL RED SPIDER
COMPOUND

NICOTYL FUMIGATING
COMPOUND

CARLTON CUCUMBER SPOT
FUMIGANT

SPECIAL FERTILIZERS FOR

EACH OF THE
MORE IMPORTANT CROPS.

LIST POST FREE ON APPLICATION.

Do not forget the above Specialities are backed by the name of
VOSS, a sufficient Guarantee of their excellence to all that
know us.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

McDOUGALLS
FRUIT TREE WASHES

KATAKILLA

THE PERFECT INSECTICIDE

FOR

FRUIT, FLOWERS AND VEGETABLES

To destroy Aphides, Green and Black Fly
Dolphin, Red Spider, Woolly Aphis and Caterpillars

No. 2 FRUIT TREE WASH

THE COMBINED INSECTICIDE AND FUNGICIDE

OSTICO

BANDING FOR FRUIT TREES

To prevent Attacks of Caterpillars

WEED KILLER

NON-POISONOUS SAFE AND EFFECTIVE

FUMERS AND INSECTICIDE SHEETS

FOR GREENHOUSE FUMIGATION
SOLD BY SEEDSMEN, NURSERYMEN AND IRONMONGERS

MCDOU6ALLBROS. L"-pan street, MANCHESTER

ADVERTISEMENTS.

FEED your FRUIT TREES

with

AWARDED
DIPLOMA & MEDAL

at

The Royal International

Horticultural Exhibition,

1912.

Beware of Imitations.

Genuine only in our marked

Containing Guaranteed
Analysis.

HOP MANUR

•< RATEN'TiEb ) .

\p THE MOST PERFECT c^
"%>/ FERTILIZER <§8r

SCIENTIFICALLY
AND CHEMICALLY
PREPARED in the
form of a leaf-mould,
ready for use at any
time, in the same way,
and for all purposes
that stable manure is
put. Goes further (1
cwt. equalling IScwts.)
gives better results, is
clean to handle, sweet
smelling, and free from
weeds, worms, etc.

Amateur Gardening states : " The difficulty of obtaining: really Rood stable or
farmyard manure is overcome by using: Wakeley's Hop Manure. This supplies just
the materials required for improving: the condition of a soil, furnishing- with needful
humus, and providing: the crops with the essential plant foods they require, viz.,

nitrog-en, phosphates and potash."

A beautiful Free Booklet giving full particulars and testimonials, also valuable
cultural instructions, sent on receipt of Postcard,

REPORT OF ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.

" Your Patented Hop Manure has been used in the Society's Gardens at Wisley.
and I am pleased to report that it has proved excellent for the flower borders, fruit
and vegetables grown both under glass and out in the open air."

(Signed) W. WILKS, Secretary.
Prices for large and small quantities on application.

THE ONLY RELIABLE &

Wakeley's Ground Lime —————— _«««».

2/9 bul, ba*. Carriage COMPLETE SUBSTITUTE
forward. fQR STABL£ MANURE.

WAKELEY BROS. & CO.. Ltd,

Telephone :
Hop 676 (2 lines).

73, BANKSIDE, LONDON.

Telegrams :
" Superior. London.'

YB 47372