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Prepared by the Fruit Program Committee of the Extension Service

FEBRUARY - MARCH 15,1955

TABLE OF CONTENTS
The Place of Dwarf Apple Trees in Commercial Orchards
Pomologlcal Research
The 1954-55 Storage Season
Insect Control Recommendations for 1955
Strawberries
Recommendations for Apple Scab Control - 1955

Issued by the Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director, in furtherance of Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.

p..

;^3

YOUR POMOLOGY DEPARTI.IENT

Bailey, John S» - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East ViTareham
Doing small fruit research on strawberries, blueberries and beach
plvimso Mr* Bailey also handles considerable of the anall fruits
extension pr ograme

Fish, Almon S« Jr. - Instructor

Teaches small fruits and general fruit growiiig courses, Mr. Fish
is currently taking the place of Mr. J» F, Anderson vrho is on leave
for further graduate study.

French, Arthur P« - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing, currently editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C. - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental
courses. Currently also doing research on fruit marketing,

Southvdok, Franklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is q)ent in research on chemical thinning, pre-
harvest drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also,
teaches in certain advanced courses,

Vifeeks, Walter D, - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain
tests and winter hardiness. Also teaches certain advanced courses,

^______^__^____ - Extension Fruit Sp cialist

Vfe hope to have this position filled before long«

Contributors to this Issue from Supporting Fields

Gilgut, Constantino J, - Extension Plant Pathologist
Wheeler, Ellsworth H, - Extension Entomologist

FRUIT NOTES

February -March .195$

Vfith this issue FRUIT NOTSo iindergoes a permanent change of leadership fcr
better or for worse. The originator aid fcrmer compiler, Professor M, H, Thies,
has retired as reported in the January issue* His shoes will be hard to fill,
but we are actively searching for the right man for the pesition of Extension
Fruit Specialist, so that service to the fruit industry, through FRUIT NOTES and
the fruit extension program, may proceed with as little interuptirn as possible.

Every effort will be made to bring you timely, interesting,; and we hope
valuable information on a wide variety cf aspects of fruit growing* However, -
your comments, criticisms and suggestions will always be welcome »

Regulations require that the mailing list cf such a publication be re-
checked periodically. Therefore, sometime before long each of you will receive
a request card which oust be sgned by you and returned if you wish to continue
to receive FRUIT NOTEg^ Otherwise, we are required to drop your naice from the
FRUIT NOTES mailing liste

JOB OPPORTUNITIES ni

The following is quoted from a recent nevrs letter from the Michigan State
College, Department of Horticulture t "We have not been able to keep up with the
ever-increasing demand for our graduates to fill positions as managers of nur-
series, orchards, greenhouses and vegetable farmsj as field advisors and techni-
cians and sales personnel mth organizations that manufacture chemicals and
equipment used in horticultural enterprises* as inspectors, extension and
research workers for the State and Federal governments, and so on. The attention
of promising high school graduates contemplating college careers should be called
to the many possibilities in the field of horticulture,"

Vfe have recent letters stating that two other states besides Massachusetts
are currently looking for an extension man in fruit. One state has a good open-
ing in fruit research.

There are excellent graduate assistantships open in several states. Three
opportunities for a young man to work into an established orchard business have
recently come across my desk. For none of these could we offer a single recom-
mendation because of the s hortage of Pomology students in recent years. The
opportiinities are there for the right persons with adequate preparation,

•sHf^A, P.French
#############

"2 -

THE FIACE OF DWARF APPLE TREES IN COtMJlCIAL ORCHARDS

A recent story from Oregon on "Hedgerow Apples" has prompted the writing of
this article in order to present our views en the pla ce of dwarf apple trees in
commercial orchards*

The hedgerow system of growing apples as described ccaaisted ^f planting
dwarf trees which had been budded on Mailing IX roots tocks. The trees were planted
in rows 12 feet apart while the distance between trees in the row was fear feeto
The trees were supportedby a three-wire trellis* Pictures of the hedgerow showed
that the trees were allowed to develop into a thick, dense row of shod:s and foliage,
Yields •£ 1,690 boxes per acre at the end of 7 years were reported for Roue Beautyp
Advantages claimed for this sytem of culture were ease of harvesting, spraying and
pruning along with high acre yields,

¥e have been testing and evaluating Mailing rootstocks at the University for
the past 25 years, IThile we have never grown trees on Mailing IX in hedgercws,
we have had considerable experience with their performance under Ifessachusetts
conditions. In light of this experience, we should like to point out some serious
disadvantages in the "hedgerow system" as it applied to Massachusetts conditions 9

Our experience with Mailing IX has shown that the trees will not toler-
ate the competition ot grass and thus cannot be grown under a sod system of soil
management. We do not believe it wise to go back to a cultivation system of soil
management for apples in Massachusetts as such a system on our hillside orchards
w«uld create a serious problem of soil erosion.

The trees on Mailing IX are very shallow rooted ad often suffer for water
unless irrigation is provided. They are also very easily tipped over unless seme
method of mechanical support is provided. The need for mechanical support adds
extra expense and attention to detail which must be taken into consideration,

V/hile pruning under this system may be somewhat easier, it will be
more detailed and may require more man hovirs per acre. This becomes particularly
important as the trees get older, because it is not possible to maintain production
without detailed pruning.

The control of apple scab in our humid climate would be extremely difficult
in the dense hedgerows, as foliage inside the rows would be difficult to reach with
spray materials and it would be very slow in drying.

Dwarf trees on Mailing IX are expensive and difficult to obtain. The
initial cost in planting an acre of hedgerow trees could easily be so high as to
prevent many growers starting such an enterprise. Even a planting distance of
8x12 feet would require U5U trees per acreo This would represent an initial in*>
vestment of 9C0 to 1200 dollars per acre for just the cost cf the trees alone «

We do not believe that the "Hedgerow System" of growdug apples is practical
under Massachusetts soil and climatic conditions. In the next issue cf FRUIT NOTES
the possibilities of semi-dwarf trees for Massachusetts orchards will be (iscussed,

^HHs-W.D, Weeks

- 3 -

POMOLOGICAL RESEARCH

2t The Influence of Orchard aid Post-Harvest
Treatments on the Metabolism of Tree Fruits

Frcm this flowery sounding project title^ it has been our objective to de-
termine the influence of orchard fertilizers and spray treatments on the rate of
respiration, scftening, storage disorders, and marketable life cf apples*, In ad-
dition, we are also concerned with the effect of post-harvest treatments such as
wraps, chemical dips and vapors, temperatvire, variations in atmospheric gases
(controlled atmosphere storage) on the various factors mentioned previously. Our
basic objective, therefore, is to find ways of slowing the rate cf fresh fruit
deterioration.

Seme information we have gathered while working on this project follows:

1» Excessive use of nitrogen has a pronounced influence on the firm?-
ness and rate of ripening of apples. High nitrogen apples, although greener and
less ripe looking, are actually softer and keep less weH than fruit from trees
at a moderate nitrogen level,

2, All our pre-harvest drop hormones hasten ripening to some degree.
Some of them cause much more ripening than others. Of the materials being sold
in Massachusetts, 2,U,5-TP hastens ripening more than either 2,li,^-TA or NAAo The
ripening effect on apples is much more pronounced when the trees are high in ni-
trogen than when they are growing at a moderate level of nitrogen,

3, Maleic hydrazide applied as a spray is capable of slowing the rate
of fruit ripening sLightly, One of ovir hopes is that some day a chemical ripen-
ing inhibitor will be found which will significantly lengthen the marketable life
of fresh fruit,

1;, ¥e have learned many things about controlled atmosphere storage
constructirn and management during the past 3 years following commercial instal-
lation of such rooms in this state,

i«H<-F ,W , S ttuthwi ck
#############

Learn and See Thru Yfcur TV

The Massachusetts Extension Service in cooperation with
Station IBZ-TV, Channel U, Boston, presents -

"Homecoming" - TiTednesdays 2rU5 - 3:00 PM

A program featuring many suggestions
of special interest to the homemaker,

"Down To Earth" - Saturdays 8:30 - 8:5$ AM

For those folks interested in agri-
culture acid the problems of the
hemp gardener.

TEE 195h-'SS STORAGE SEASON

Fruit Firmness - The presence of too many soft Mcintosh in storage seems to te an
annual problem. The best ways we knoTr for keeping Mcintosh in
good shape in storage are: . .

1, Only apples which are quite firm at harvest are suitable
for long storage. Apples testing Ih lbs* or less at
harvest time will not keep well beyond Christmas time*
Mcintosh lose about one pound of firmness about every 3
weeks,

2« Place apples in cold storage the same day they are picked
or at least within 2^ hours of harvesting e Every day in
the orchard at 70°F. takes a week off the marketable life
of an apple o

3» Get the apples cooled to 32°F, m thin U or 5 dayse This
means for some storages more cooliiag capacity, better
stacking methods, and better air circulation. An apple
will ripen much more rspidly at 36-iiO°F, than at 32°F,

Although Mcintosh have about a weeWs marketable life at room tem-
perature after they reach 10 Ibso pressure, Mcintosh apples are
much better eating at aro\md 12 Ibso In other vrords, you'll
make more friends selling a 12 lb, Mcintosh than a 10 lb, one,

A pressure tester is a rather valuable toolfor keeping track of
the storage condition of apples « There shea Id be many more of
them being used today. One costs about 1)30,00 but we believe it
is worthwhile as an investment. The address of the manufacturer
can be p: ovided upon request.

Storage Humidity - The subject has been discussed many times but many storages

still have humidity problems. There is a very good atomiser
on the market which can be hooked up to the water line and
will adequately humidify apple storages© A line strainer and
.. : 2 nozzles cost less than $10,00, A humidity measuring sling

psychrometer should be standard equipment in all storages o
They may be had for less than ^lOcOO, Information concerning
these items may be had upon request, also, Why have apples
which show some shriveling when it can be prevented by proper
storage management.

Storage Scald - This year we've been lucky! No great amount of scald has appeared
even en Gortlaid, a very scald susceptible variety o How come? In
general, it seems that when we have a cool growing season such as
the one just past, scald is much less of a problem than when we
have a hot, dry growing season, Vife are testing mineral oil sprays,
as suggested ty Ve Shutak at the University of Rhode Island, to
determine their valiae on Greening, Cortland and Rome, Since so
little scald is developing we shall not bring our treated apples
out of storage vmtil JIarch or April when we hope there will be
some scald to control.

Controlled Atmosphere Storage - This type of storage seems to be gaining acceptance.

■".Je now have capacity for about 1^0,000 bushels of
Mcintosh in Massachusetts o It will not surprise
us to see our capacity rise to 100^000 bushels or
more within the next 2-»3 years if results obtained
from present rooms are favorable a New York State
now has a capacity for more than 500,000 bushels.
. All rooms operating in this state have been run

very well. It now appears that rooms can be made
sufficiently gas tight without the use of sheet
metal, Vfe are anxious to provide any assistance
we can to those interested in constructing such
rooms,

■sHHfF ,Vif , Southwick

#######//#####

YOUNG TREES IN AN OLD ORCHARD - When a young tree is planted T/here an old one is
taken out, growth is frequently disappointing. At one time it was thought that
a mature tree left something toxic in the soil. But that ideahas been very largely
discarded. The scanty groiirth of the young tree is explained in this way: (l) Certain
elements may have been depleted leaving a lack of balance in the soilo (2) The
organisms vhich bring about decay of the dead roots require nitrogen ard therefore
compete with the young tree, (3) If other mature trees with mdely ranging root
systems remain standing nearby, they also offer serious competitiono (U) Use of
sulfur in s cab control over a period of years lowers the pH to a level unfavorable
for the growth of the young tree. After removing an old tree a soil improvement
program is frequently essential. This involves more than a mere surface applicaticn
of lime and a complete fertilizerc These materials incorporated into the soil,
plus a rank grov/th of cover crop will help to restore the depleted soil to its former
condition, A year spent in growing fertilized cover crops will be time well spente
If manure is available it can be used to good advantage o The soil must be handled
in such a viay that the young tree makes good growth from the starto If 'vre allov/ a
young tree to loaf along, making one year's growth in three, we lose both time aad
money,

###### # # # # # f!' #

Orchards Old ard New - According to J, R, Magness
of the USDA, no commercial apple producing area
has ever made a reputation for its product from
old orchards. He estimates that not more than k%
of the national commercial apple crop is produced
in orchards more than kO years old. To stabilize
commercial production and to maintain orchards in
a more profitable age group, it is essential that
new plantings be made each year and old plantings
discarded,

(This statement appeared in the December 1937
issue of FRUIT NOTES, It is just as true today
as then,-^!),)

6 -

INSECT CONTROL REC0M1'IEI€)ATI0NS FOR 1955

I am happy to report but few changes in our fruit insect control reccmmenda-
tions for 1955 • All of you are aware of the extremely rapid introduction of new
materials that took place in the years follovjing the end of World War lie This
made rather drastic changes in recommendations necessary and oftentimes led to
much confusion.

Through the sorting process carried out by you growers in your orchards,,
as Tsell as by those testing the many materials in their experimental set-ups, much
of the chaff has now been separated from the wheatj I feel that we are on much
firmer ground when making most of our recommendations*

It should not be overlooked that at least part of the confusion and the
necessity for rather extreme changes in our recommendations during the past sever-
al years resulted from the appearance of pests not considered important previous
to the use of some of our newer materials. You know what I mean when I name red-
banded leaf roller, yellow mite and 2-spotted mite« This is a strong argument in
support of the lead arsenate program for the growers who do not have serious cur-
culio or codling moth problems.

The development of air-blast sprayers and the use of concentrates.iiave.' in-
fluenced greatly some recommendations with respect to the uses of certain materials.
As fungicides and methods of combatting diseases are changed, it is often necessary
to re-evaluate the insect control program, Vifith the development of each new mat-
erial there must come a consideration of its compatibility with all the materials
with which it may be used or irahich it may pre cede . or followo

The changes in recommendations are not arrived at lightlyj they are intro-
duced only when it is believed growers will be benefitted,

A great majority of the apple growers in Massachusetts were very suc-
cessful in controlling insects and mites during the 19$h season, YiTe were helped
to some extent by the weather, but I believe that use of the right materials for
your particular situation, and their thorough application at the proper time were
very important contributing factors in your success. If you are one of those
growers who did control insects and mites successfully in your orchards in 195U, I
would urge you to use the same materials, timing and application techniques in 1955 o

A new program should be used only where it can be shown there is a dis-
tinct advantage to you or where some insect or mite has not been well controlled.
Try experimental programs on tank-sized or smaller blocks worked out in such a way
that you have direct comparisons between the new program and a more standard one,

Nov/ let's consider some of the individual pests and materials, keeping in
mind that the ideas expressed here are to give you additional help if the program
you have followed has not given satisfactory results.

Rosy Aphid; This aphid caused a groat deal of damage on susceptible
varieties in 195 U; we have no way of knovdng whether there will be a repeat per-
formance in 1955* Outstanding control can be obtained with a DN material in the
Dormant if the application is thorough. Fortunately, vire now have alternative
measures such as BHC added to oil or to an early scab spray in Delayed Dormant,
Good to excellent control is attainable vdth a phosphate material such as malathion
or TEPP used in 1 or 2 Pre-bloom fungicide spr^s. Check your 1955 Spray Chart
for compatibilities and details.

Bud Moth; This insect is well controlHed by a thorough Dormant ap-
plication of DNc It may be handled also with malathion or parathion in a Pre-blocm
application. Even minimum concentrations of parathion used in 5"th or 6th Cover
will provide complete control of the summer broodc

"Superior" Oil; It is advisable to use oil at least once every
three years* Many growers are using oil every year and swear by it» The complete
omission of oil, every year, may lead to a build-up of San Jose Scale, Also, the
lack of oil may hasten the time when you can no longer control red mite mth one of
the phosphate materials such as TEPP, malathion or parathion because strains re~
sistant to these materials also develop. It is best to try to kill them in several
different wayse

There is a new wrinkle to consider. If you plan to use the fungicide, captan,
to protect against scab early in the season, then the oil spray must be put on be-
fore any green tissue is showing in the buds. Leaves may be severely injured if
sprayed with oil and then with captan,

Gypsy Moth; This insect may be more of a problem in 1955 in many
orchards in Worcester, JliSdle sex, Essex arid Berkshire counties* Much depends upon
hew soon the Department of Natural Resources sprays woodlands surroimding your
orchard if you are in one of the towns where the gypsy moth reached the outbreak
stage in 195U. I would suggest that you be ready to include a poimd of DDT-50 in
the Pink Spray if there is any evidence that gypsy moth is at a peak or near-peak
in your area*

Red-«Banded Leaf roller; This insect continues to surprise growers
with the amount of damage it does during the 3-U weeks follovdng Petal Fall, To
prevent these losses and to reduce the potential for 2nd brood, we are recommending
that TDE (DDD) be included with materials ueed against curculio in either the Petal
Fall or 1st Cover Sprays, Plase note that with the fungicides, captan and glyodin,
only the wettable powder types of TDE are safe, whether it is being used early
against 1st brood or late in the season against 2nd brood.

Plum Curculio ! Dieldrin has provided excellent control of curculio^
The small quantity required, just one-half pound of the S0% powder: in 100 gallons,
makes it possible to use dieldrin at a saving even though it is absolutely essential
that TDE be used with it at least once and that DDT be added to it when codling
moth must be controlled, Dieldrin is very toxic to bees; applications to blossoms
of any kind being worked actively by bees should be avoided, Methoxychlor also
continues to give outstanding control, but may need TDE added to handle moderate
to heavy outbreaks of leafroller.

Codling Moth: In Massachusetts DDT still seems effective against
this pest although reports of rather high resistance in some strains continue to
come in from orchard areas to our west. If you have a codling moth problem and
are not satisfied v/ith the control being obtained and you are sure that it is not
because of poor timing or the lack of coverage, then you may wish to supplement^
the DDT with a pound or more of the 25^ malathion wettable powder as indicated in
the 1955 Spray Chart.

Apple Maggot; This insect continues to be a seriov® threat. The
last several years in particular the appearance of flies late in the season has
caused much concern and too much damage. Whether these flies are those which
emerge late or whether they are migrants is not well understood, but the fact re-
mains they are flies ready to attack our fruit. It seems absolutely essential that .

- 8 -

growers keep very close ivatch of their susceptible varieties and make -use of the
regularly recommended sprays or dusts for apple maggot control plus emergency ap-
plications of methoxychlor closer to harvest. If organic materials such as DDT,
IDE and methoxychlor are depended upon entirely for apple maggot control, then it
is unsafe to stretch the interval between applications beyond 10 days,

European Red Mite; Oil used in Delayed Dormant (Dormant in the
captan schedule) is still very desirable for the control of this mitec If you
want to do a 100^ job, this oil application can be supplemented in Pink or in 1st
Cover or later ty some of the other miticides such as malathion or TEPP,^ Some
trials have been made with ovex (Ovotran, Orthotran, etct)» Results have been
excellent. Care must be taken, however, not to overspray and not to exceed the
recomraended dosages of l/k lb, of $0% ovex in Pink and If! t Cover and l/2 lb, per
100 in any later application.

If no oil is used, then it is very desirable to plan a mite control program
using one of the foliage type miticides such as malathion, TEPP or for extensive
trial, the ovex mentioned above. Such programs are well outlined in the 19^5 Spray
Chart,

TtTO-Spotted Mite? This mite continues to be a problem in orchards
on the schedule making full use of organic insecticides. It appears relatively
late as compared to red mite and thus is not well controlled with the applications
put on during the early part of the seasono There is some indication that the full
ovex program of four sprays such as Pink, 1st Cover, 3-d Cover and ^th Cover, may
also handle two-spctted mite, I am of the opinion that the amount of ovex applied
to the ground cover during the process of spraying the trees might have a great
deal of influence upon the effectiveness of this program against the 2-spot,

If two-spotted mite does develop and aphids are not a problem vinder hot; dry
conditions, Aramite is one of the most effective materials that can be used. If
aphids are also a problem one of the phosphates such as malathion would be more
logical,

Demeton (Systox, etcc)» This newer phosphate which is described
more fully elsewhere in this report, is worthy of limited trial on bearing trees.
Its compatibility with other materials that may have been used earlier or vfill be
used along with it, is not well known. This is a good reason for limited trials.
For the control of red mite, two-spotted mite and green aphid, demeton may be tried
in a single application used late in June or early July at a rate equal to 6-8
ounces per 100 gallons. On young or non-bearing trees, there should be no need
for hesitation in the use of demeton to control green aphid or mitese Ei+her BHC
or lindane could be used on non-bearjjig trees and might prove more economical and
certainly a lot less hazardous to those applying the material, Demeton must be
handled TJith the same safety precautions necessary with parathion.

Residue Tolerances; For many of our commonly used pees tic ides
definite residue tolerances on harvested crops have been or are being established
nan ty the Federal Department of Health, Education and Vvelfare, Eventually, it
will be unlawful for new pesticidesto be sold vmtil a residue tolerance on harvest
crops has been established for the material wiien used for the proposed purpose.

It is important for all growers to understand the significance of t his amend-
ment to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, It is even more important for
growers to use pesticides in a manner which provides a high degree of pest control
while at the same time assuring crops at harvest time free from residues in excess

- 9 -

of established tolerances.

To the best of our knowledge, excessive residues should not result from
using any of the products named in the ^est Control Charts if they are applied as
reconniended,

(This article is used in FRUIT NOTES through the courtesy of the Massachusetts
Fruit Growers Association, 1955 Annual Report, — EDc)

^HHi-E .H.Wheeler
#############

STRAWBERRIES

Three new red stele resistant strawberry varieties, Orland^ Ifeine 55 and
Monmouth, are suggested for trial in the recent revision of Special Circular Noc
212-.D available from the Mailing Room or your county extension office* These
three varieties appear to be mid-to late-season, high yielder, of better than
average quality but not too firm, in limited trials to date. At the moment, Orland
looks somewhat better than the other two, but all three should be worthy of trial
where red stele is a problems

Speaking of red stele, a report by Ee K« Vaughan, etalo in
Phytopathology, October 195U, indicates that Douglas Fir sawdust mulch caused a
significant increase in the seriousness of red stele o Under a four inch mulch
36?5 of the plants vrere affected by red stele whereas under clean cultivation only
8% were visibly injuredo A similar amount of sawdust vorked into the soil caused
only slight increase in red stele o Since the reason given for more red stele under
a sawdust miilch is thought to be lower soil temperature and higher moisture content,
one might expect that aiy kind of sawdust would have the same effect iJrtien used as
a surface mulch o

Virus-free strawberry plants are being offered for sale by several
northeastern nurseries this spring. Pomology Department Sheet No, 12, which may
be had for the asking, lists the local sources of such plants of vhich we know,

•»HH«-A. P.French

##############
BEES AND GRAPES

"Grape growers frequently see bees sucking the juice from grapes and there
fore blame the bees for destroying their fruit© It has long been known that
bees do not have mouth parts which can cut the skin of fruit. In the Bee
World (England), Go Giordani, Bologna, Italy, reports experiments which inj-
dicate that bees are not capable of damaging smooth skinned fruit, although
they will suck the juice of fruit previously damaged by birds, wasps and
other insects,

"Giarvarini in 193U showed that bees in cages died of starvation when grapes
were the only source of food, unless the skin had been previously pierced,"

•»H«5-from Yi/isconsin Horticulture

- 10 -

RECJMMEMIIAnjNS FOR APPLE SCAB CONTROL - 19^5

Apple scab can be controlled satisfactorily on a protective schedule with
the modern fungicides. In such a program, the fungicide must be applied thoroughly
before each rain which is long enough for infection to take place or during such a
rain before infection has taken place.

However, there are times when it is not possible to apply a f\ingicide before
an infection rain or, if the fungicide was applied on time, it was v/ ashed off by
prolonged and heavy rain so that green tissues are no longer protected toward the
end of the infection period. Fortunately, there are fungicides and combinations of
fungicides which have the ability - called "kickback" - to inactivate the scab
organism in the early stages of infection, A knowledge of the fungicides which
have "kickback" and the length of time after the beginning of an infection period
that such action is effective can be used to advantage in controlling scab.

Finally, if scab has not been prevented or stopped, and scab spots appear
on the apple leaves, the grower still has a chance. It is a drastic measure and
consists of using a powerful chemical to eradicate or "bum out" the scab spots,
Becaiose of the element of risk grovrers are urged to make a conscientious effort
to control scab by protection and use of "kickback" fungicides so that there will
be no need for eradication.

There are three basic protective schedules to choose from with variations
for "kickback". All of them will give satisfactory scab control is used properly.

Basic Ferbam^ulfur Schedule

In: this program, Ferbam 3 A Ih. is combined with Sulfur at half strength.
No sulfur is used in 2nd Cover or later and Ferbam is reduced to 1 lb, heire or in
3rd Cover if there is good primary scab or if the weather is dry. Combinations are
at he If strength each.

Delayed Dormant
Up-To-Pink

Pre Rain

In Rain

Post Rain

Basic
DiseSse Control

Ferbam 1-1/2 lbs.

Variations

Neutral Copper Fungicides
(gO^)-l lb,; 25^2 lbs.

Ferbam plus Sulfur
Ferbam plus Sulfur

Ferbam 1-1/2 lbs,

Dichlone plus Ferb, or Sulf ,
cr Dichl«ne or Sulfur dust
. Dichlone l/2 Ib.j Dichlone

plus Ferb, or Su3f .; Ferb.

plus phenyl mercury,

Pink

Same as Up-To-Pink

Bloom

Pre Rain

Ferbam plus Sulfur Ferbam

In Rain

Ferbam plus Sulfur Ferbam or Sulfur dust or spray

Post Rain

Ferbam plus phenyl mercury

Calyx

Same as Up-To-Pink

For eradication, if needed,

phenyl mercury full strength

alone .

- 11 -

Basic
Disease Control

Variations

1st Cover

Same as Up-To-Pink

Use no pl:^gon here or later.

Phenyl mercury alone for

eradication 8

2nd Cover

Use no Sulfur here or later.
Ferbam 1-1/2 lbs, Captan 1 lb. or glyodin 1-1/2

pts.

Phenyl mercury for eradication
only.

3rd. Cover

Ferbam 1 lb.

Captan 1 lb, or glyodin
1-1/2 pts.

Uth & 5th Cover

Ferbam 1 lb.

Captan 1 lb.

6th & 7th Cover

Captan 1 lb.

Glyodin 1-1/2 pts.

Comments on Ferbam-Sulfur program:

Red Delicious and Baldwin - Ferbam only early in seasonj no dichlonej no

sulphur if lead is used before 3rd Cover,
Yellow Delicious: Captan only throughout c
Phenyl mercury eradicant (full strength) may russet Red Delicious, BaldYiin

and Rhode Island Greening, Iviay be desirable to use at half strength with

other fungicide o
Glyodin is left out in Uth and ^th Cover, when lead arsenate will probably

be used for insect control, to avoid injury to Cortland, Baldwin, Red

Delicious, Rhode Island Greening and tacoun.

Basic Captan Schedule

Captan at 2 lbs, is used as the basic fungicide. To avoid injury from captan
and oil, put oil on in Dormant and start captan in Delayed Dormanto Combination
at half strength each.

Delayed Dormant

Up-To-Pink
Pre Rain
In Rain
Post Rain

Basic
Disease Control

Captan 2 lbs a

Variations

C^ tan
Captan
Captan plus Mercury

Captan plus Dichlone

Pink

Same as Up-'i'o-Pink

Bloom

Pre Rain
In Rain
Post Rain

Captan
Captan
Captan plus ifercury

Calyx

Same as Up-To-Pink

1st Cover

Captan 2 lbs<

Captan plus mercury for
"kickback"

2nd Cover

Ijth through 7th Cover

Captan 1 lb.

Captan 2 lbs.

Captan 1 lb.

- 12 -
Connnents on Captan program;

Excellent fruit finish on all varieties in lead program. Best for Golden

Delicious.
Injury is possible, if used after sulfur or dichlone, on Red Delicious and

Baldwin, Do not use with or right after oil, Frogeye and leaf yellow-

IJig.
For Rusts, use at half strength with half strength ferbam, before rains in

Pink, Bloom and Calyx,

Basic Glyodin Schedule

Glyodin is used at 1 qt« and reduced to 1-1/2 pts. in covers and Captan sub-
stituted where there is danger from lead arsenate injury. Suppresses red mite if
season is started with lovf mite populations.

Delayed Dormant

Basic
Disease Control

Ferbam 1-1/2 lbs.
if oil is used

Variations

Glyodin;, if no oil used
or Neutral Copper $0% -
1 lb., 2^% - 2 lbs.

Up-To-Pink
Pre Rain
In Rain
Post Rain

Glyodin 1 qt,
Glyodin 1 qt.
Glyodin plus Mercury

Pink T
Bloora )
Calyx: )

Same as IIp-To-Pink

Ist Cover

Glyodin 1 qt.

Glyodin and mercury
(1/2 str, each) if
needed for "kickback".

2nd & 3rd Cover

Glyodin 1-1/2 pts.

Uth through 7th Cover Captan 1 lb.

Captan 1 lb.

Glyodin 1-1/2 pts. if
no lead arsenate is usedc

Comments on Glyodin program:

For rusts use ferbam 3/U lb, with glyodin 1 pt, in pre-rain applications in

Pink, Bloom and Calyx,
Do not use on yellow and green varieties nor with lead arsenate in covers on

Cortland, Baldwin, Red Delicious, Rhode Island Greening and Macoun.
Hfercury eradicant, full strength, may russet Baldvd.n, Red Delicious, and

Rhode Island Greening, May be desirable to use at helf strength each,

mercury and glyodin,
Glyodin with TEPP or emulsifiable concentrates of insecticides may cause
injury.

(This article is used in FRUIT NOTES through the courtesy of the Massachusetts
Fruit Growers Association, 19^5 Annual Report, — ^EDa)

■}HH«;;J,Gilgut

Publication Approved by George J, Cronon, State Purchasing Agent #19

APRIL 15, 1955

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Explanation of the U. S. Weather Bureau's Forecasts
for New England

Hew to Keep Those Strawberries Virus-Free

The Mcintosh Outlook

Pomological Research

Apple Variety Survey

Clean Up Week

A New Water Repellent

Local Supply of Bees for Pollination is Short

Ismued by the Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Asaociate Dean and Director,
in furtherance of the Acta of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts,
United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOUR POMOLOGY DEPARTlffiNT

Bailey, John S« - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East ViTarehem
Doing small fruit research on strav^berries, blueberries and beach
plums, lir, Bailey also handles considerable of the small fruits
extension program.

Fish, Almon S, Jr. - Instructor

Teaches small fruits and general fruit growing courses. >'ir. Fish
is currently taking the place of Mr, J, F, Anderson who is on leave
for further graduate study,

French, Arthur P, - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
frvdt variety testing, currently e ditor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C, - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental
courses. Currently also doing research on fi^it marketing*

Southwick, Franklin W, - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, pre-
harvest drop, several aspects of storage and nutritim # Also^
teaches in certain advanced courses*

Weeks, Walter D, - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain
tests and winter hardiness. Also teaches certain advanced courses,

- Extension Fruit Specialist

We hope to have this position filled before long.

Contributors To this Issue from Supporting Fields

Henry, Carl B, - U.S.Fish & V/ildlife Service

Parmenter, Robert B, - Extension Forester

Shaw, Frank R, - Associate Professor in Entomology &. Beekeeping

li/heeler, Ellsworth Hs - Extension Entomologist

FRUIT NOTES

April 19^5

EXPIANATION OF THE U.S. WEATHER BUREAU'S AGRICULTURAL FORECAST
FOR NEW ENGLAND t AI^O DEFINITIONS OF TERtIg USED IN WEATHER FORECASTS.

I vfant to urge each county office to have this information duplicated and sent
to all commodity nailing lists.

During April, I.Iay and June this information will be of particular use to fruit
and vegetable growers. The definition of terms regularly used by the Bureau in its
daily forecasts should be of interest to all readers of county publications and to
many others as well.

U.S» WEATHER BUREAU ACaUCULTURAL FORECAST PROGRAM IN NEW ENGIAKD

The purpose of this program is to provide special forecasts for agriculture in
order to give the farmer the weather information he needs for planning and conducting
his operations. These forecasts are "tailored" to particular operations such as
maple sugar production^ fruit-tree spraying, crop planting, spraying, dusting or
harvesting, frost protection and the like»

The U«S,Vifeather Bureau forecast center at East Boston issues detailed agricul-
tural forecasts every v/eekday morning for Inclusion on the early farm radio programs.
These forecasts cover the New England area wliich has been divided into convenient
"weather" zones. They are also made available to local Vifeather Bureau Offices in
each state and are used as a basis for specialized local forecasts which they issue
for use on special farm programso

The "weather" zones used at present are:

Eastern llassachusetts - from southern tip of Maine south to Cape, and inland

15-20 miles.
South Central N.E. - Most of Conn., R.I., central Mass., including Conn.

Valley.
Berkshires - highlands in western Conn., lilass,, ard southern Vt.
North Central N.E, - southern N.H. except near coast, southeastern Vt,
Northern Vermont - northern half of state.
Northern N.Hj - northern half of state,
J.Iaine - subdivided by special local forecast areas.

Radio provides the most adequate means of disseminating these agricultural
forecasts. If a radio farm program director decides he does not wish to read these
special agricultural forecasts, there is little ttie Weather Bureau or other federal,
state or county employees can do to change his mind. The people who use tliese fore-
casts and find them helpful are the ones v/ho can bring pressure on radio stations and
farm program directors, VJrite, call or see them and emphasize your desire to hear
those special agricultural forecasts.

Ellsworth H, Wheeler
Extension Entomologist

•^nore-

- 2 -

DEFINITIONS OF WEATHER TERMS
(Prepared by Dr, Oscar Tenenbaum, Meteorologist in Charge^ Airport Station)

I. STATE OF SKY

A) Clear - Sky free or practically free from clouds (average for period less
than l/lO of sky covered),

B) Cloudy or Overcast - Sky completely covered or nearly so (average for period
more than 9/10 of sky covered).

Intermediate conditions betrreen clear and cloudy taken into account by use of
the folloTfdng terms j

C) Scattered Clouds - Average cloudiness l/lO-^/lO sky covered,

D) Partly Cloudy - Average cloudiness 3/IO-7/IO for period,

E) Considerable Cloudiness or Mostly Cloudy - Average partly cloudy to overcast
for period.

Modifying Terms

Increasing cloudiness - Progressive increase in cloudiness, either in amount of
sky covered or in density of cloud layers.

Decreasing cloudiness - Progressive decrease in the amount of sky covered, and/or
density of clouds.

Clearing - (in general, used only after pscipitation has occurred) - Clearing sky
follovdng a period of mostly cloudy weather.

Variable cloudiness - Variable amounts of cloudiness. May range from nearly
clear to cloudy or vice versa in a small interval of time,

II. VJEATHER

A) Fair - Broadly speaking, free of precipitationo Usually means not much
cloudiness, but can include high thin clouds which do not obscure the sun,
moon or stars, but only dim their intensity. In other words, the term ordin-
arily means sunshine most of the day, and moon or stars visible at night,

B) Showers - Precipitation intermittent and of short duration. Characterized by
suddenness with -viihich precipitation starts and stops and its rapid changes

of intensity. Often accompanied by rapid changes between dark, threatening
clouds and clearing conditions «

1, General Showers (often indicated by use of word "showers" alone) means
that showers are expected over major portion of area,

2, Scattered shovrers - Showers expected to affect 30-70^ of the area,

3, Widely scattered or local showers - Showers expected to affect 30^ or
less of the area.

- -3 -

C) Rain - Precipitation of comparatively long duration as distinguished from
showers. Precipitation expected over major portion of area,

lo Occasional rain - Precipitation at infrequent intervals and not prolonged,
but rather v/idespread ,

2, Intermittent rain - Precipitation of more or less general and prolonged
character but frequently interrupted for short periods.

Modifying Terms for Shovver and Rain Forecasts

In Terms of Amount Expected In Terms of Bate of Accumulation

Very light - less than ,03"

Light - less than ,10" Tvr to ,10" per hour

Moderate - ,10" to ,50" .11" to ,30" per hour

Heavy - more than ,^0" over ,30" per hour

Very heavy - more than 1,0"

•M-T indicates a trace of rain, i,e,, an amovmt too small to measure,

D) Drizzle - Precipitation consisting of numerous tiny droplets which appear to
float in the air. Usually accompanied by loi/, stratus type clouds and fog,

E) Thunderstorm - liVhen thunder is heard a thixnderstorm is considered to be
occurring. It may or may not be accompanied by precipitation. If a shoiver
does accompany the thunder it is termed a "thundershower", (Treated similar
to showers in forecasts,)

F) Fog - Minute water droplets suspended in the atmosphere (results in reduced
visibility) ,

G) Dew or Frost - Widespread liquid or frozen condensation on surface objects.
May be modified by the terms "light" or "heavy", or by "killing" in the case
of severe frost,

III. TEMPERATURE

In general, temperature forecasts, actual readings (usually maximum and minimum)
v/ill be given. However, in trenci forecasts for longer periodsthe following
terms apply;

A) Ylarmerr or not quite so cool - The high or low teirperatures during the period
will be at least four degrees higher than the comparable extremes occurring
during the same period 2k hours before,

B) Colder, cooler, or not quite so warm - The high or lovx temperatxires during
period will be at least four degrees lower ttian the cwnparable extremes
occurring during the same period 2k hours before,

C) Little change - High or low temperatures during the period will not differ
by more than seven degrees from the comparable extreme occurring during the
same period 2k hours before.

IV. WIND

V/ind forecasts will include direction and velocity with velocity given in miles
per hour,

Modifying Terms Applied to V/ind Direction

a) Variable - Irregular « Usually subject to sIovt or moderate changes of varying
magnitude •

B) Changeable - Irregxilar changes of direction of a more decided nature and
magnitude than "variable",

C) Mostly - A modifier used when winds will be subject to some variability, to
indicate viiat direction will predominate,

V. HTO/HDITY OR DRYING CONDITIONS

The drying rate is a fvinction of wind velocity, sunshine, temperature and rela-
tive humidity. The first three of these elements have already been covered,
and the forecaster ^7ill combine his forecast of these elemenlswith expected re-
lative humidity to evaluate the drying rate, Eiying coiditions will then be
forecast as being in one of the following classes;

1, Poor drying: 2, Fair drying; 3, Good drying: It, Excellent drying,

VI. FORECAST PERIOD

A) " Today" covers today's daylight hours, if the forecast also mentions this
evening or tonight<i iJ'hen the latter tvfo are not mentioned, "today" covers
the period until midnight tonight,

B) "Tonight" covers the hours of darkness, or from sunset to sunrise,

C) "Evening" covers the p riod from about two hours before sunset to about two
hours after sunset,

D) "Tomorrov/" covers the period from about sunrise to siinset the following day,
unless the night period is not mentioned. If the night period is not men-
tioned, "Tomorrow" begins from midnight tonight and ends at sunset tomorrow,

E) "Forenoon" covers the period from about sunrise until noon,

F) "Afternoon" covers the period from noon to sunset.

Length of forecast period. The agricultural forecast ordinarily covers the
period of today and tomorrow. An outlook for the day after tomorrovf is given if
the current weather pattern is such that a forecast for the third day can be made
with reasonable assurance of verification.

-5 -

HOW TO KEEP THOSE STRAVfBERRIES VIRUS-FREE

Almost all strav/berry plants gro^dng in the northeast are infected wth one or
more virus diseases. It is very likely that wild stravirberries also are infected.

At least three species of aphids^ knorm to occur in the northeast, serve as
virus carriers. After feeding upon diseased plantethese aphids may transmit the
viruses to healthy, virus-free strawberries. Certain other ai:^ids, also found on
straviTberries occasionally, have transmitted vimses experimentallyo

Virus-free strav/berry plants grovm for fruiting next season, AMD WXT SEASON
ONL^i do not require protection from aphids. Viruses contracted by these plants — '
Wrough aphid feeding should have little or no effect upon their growth or yield.

Plants grgym in nurseries for subsequent sale as virus-free plants, MUST BE
PROTECTED from aphids in the nursery to keep them in a virus-free conditiwu This
becomes even mere important in stock beds from Tiiiiich the nurserymai vdll set his new
stock beds and plant beds for succeeding seasons.

Virus-carrying aphids must not feed on plants which the nurseryman or anyone
else wants to keep virus-free.

How Aphids Move From Field to Field

Winged forms are produced in some generations of most aphid species. In straw-
berry aphids, only the vdnged forms are able to move from one plant bed to another,
(An exception would be the movenent of plants, infested virith wingless forms, from
place to place,)

This Is the Problem

Our problem then is (l)to prevent cringed aphids from developing on knovm virus-
infected plants or on plants which may have virus, and (2) to prevent any vdnged
aphids that do develop on such plants from establishing colonies or even feeding upon
cur virus-free plantings,

TiHiat the Nurseryman Can Do

¥inged apliidsdo not travel great distances unless carried by wind or \3y some
other means; therefore:

(1) Locate virus-free stock and p]a nt beds in places isolated from possible
sources of aphids and virus - 3000 ft, is suggested as a reasonably
safe distance - any distance is better than none. Such isolation is
helpful but distance in itself does not guarantee immunity to aphids and
virus.

Winged qshids restilt -vtien strawberry aphid colony reproduces rapidly and becomes
overcrowded. They occur principally during Ilay and Jiine aid again in September,
October and November, Some may be found during summei«months also, therefore:

- 6 -

(2) Dust all new and old plantings at 12-11^ day intervals after ggrowth
starts in April and during !Jay and June (except during bloom and within
2 weeks of harvest on fruiting beds.)

(3) Dust all plantings at 3-U vreek intervals diiring July and August,

(k) Dust all plantings at 12-11^ day intervals during September and October,

The Right llate rials to Use

Dusts have proved superior to sprays although this may not hold true under all
conditions. Materials must be driven into the buds and ujnder the foliage a Strawberry
aphids are found in these places,

(5) Parathion - 1-2/^ dust is recomnended T^idelyt Observe all Safety
Precautions with this material,

(6) Halathion - h-S% dust should provide as good control^ it will cost more
but is much safer for the man doing the job.

Your Equipment Muat Be Good

Hand dusters are not adequate on any but the smallest plantings. Power dusters
should have nozzles arranged so as to drive the dust into the buds and under the
foliage, A trailing canvas apron, 12-20 feet long, to confine the dust increases
effectiveness,

Ell8\Torth H, Wheeler
Extension Entomologist

EXCESSIVE CULTIVATION DECREASES GRAPE YIELDS * ■«•■)**** ^- * -x- ^;- * % ^ ■«■ -ji- ^^ * -:;- -it ,•«•

Recent experiments in Ohio show rather conclusively that excessive cviltivation
is detriments to high yields in vineyards. Deep plowing and too frequent cxxltivations
tend to cause a compact soil structure, to reduce the water holding capacity of the
soil, and to damage the vines by cutting off roots. Discing of the overvTintering
cover crops in the spring is a more desirable practice than plowing. Three or four
light cultivations with a disc are sufficiente Laborious and costly hoeing between
the vines in the row can be avoided with two or three spray applications of dinitro.
The recommended rate of application is two pints of $$% dinitro-ortho-secondaiy butyl
phenol (Dov; General), 10 gallons diesel fuel oil, and water to make 100 gallons. This
mixture should be applied at the rate of ^0-100 gallons per acre depending on the
size and number of weeds. The first application sho\ild be made in May vhen the weeds
reach 6-8 inches in height. Repeat applications shovQd be made at three to four week
intervals •

0,C, Roberts

0 // ###/;#### # i' #

J

- 7 -

Look For Mouse Injury

During the past \miter there was little, if any,
snow covering in most orchard areas. Consequently,
fruitgrowers might feel complacent in regard to
mouse injury© Hovrever, the combination of hurri-
cane-loosened trees and deep-frozen groxmd increases
the need for careful exaiaination of tree bases for
signs of girdling. Several quite severe cases of
mouse injury have been found in matvire orchards,
where tall grass, mxilch, or weeds have been allowed
to accumulate directly against the tree trunks* It
is suggested that grovrers examine trees in suscep-
tible areas in their orchards so that inarching or
grafting may be done this spring*

Carl B, Henry
# # # # T-;;- # # # # f!' # # #

THE MCINTOSH OUTLOOK

It looks like re can expect a heavy bloom on Mcintosh this spring following a
rather light crop in 19Sh» With a big crop in prospect, poorly colored or small apples
cannot be esqjected to be worth much by fall.

This looks like a spring vriien it would be desirable to use a littln less
nitrogen than usual to help reduce the tendency for over setting and eventual small,
green apples. Also, Mcintosh trees which don't over set are much more apt to bloom
and produce in 1956» Our data do not indicate that once a tree becomes biennial in
bearing haavy applications of nitrogen are going to make the trees annual. In fact,
a heavy nitrogen application in the spring of the "on" year, through its tendency to
increase the set, may increase the tendency toward alternate bearing. Nitrogen is a
very important and essential element in apple raising but v:hen used to excess it iiTill
depress red color development, increase fruit drop, and result in a softer, poorer
keeping apple also.

If exceptionally good weather exists at blossom time, it might be desirable to
take colonies of bees out of the orchard after a day or tvTO of good pollinating
weather. Of course, an overset m^ still occur if wild bees are plentiful.

It is recognized that even if the following suggestions are followed, Hclntosh
may over set anyway. In this a. tuation chemical thinning seems to represent the best
approach to reducing the set and maintenance of annual blooming. For those of you
who may be interested in chemical thinning of Mcintosh, other apple varieties, and
peaches, vre have available our 19SS revision of Special Circular #189, "Chemical
Thinning of Apples & Peaches", This circular can be obtained from your County Extenp-
sion office or from the Pomology Department, University of Massachusetts, Amherst upon
request.

Apparently, peaches came through in good shape in Massachusetts with little or
no winter bud killing,

F,W,Southwick

-. 8 -

POMOLOGICAL RESEARCH

3» The Evaluation of Rootstocks
for Tree Fruits

We have been conducting rootstock studies for the past 2^ years. It would seem
that after 2^ years there would not be much left to learn about rootstocks, but wlien
we consider that the life of an apple tree is 35-50 years it is easy to see that root-
stock research is by necessity a long time proposition.

Up until the present time yre have been concerned with evaluating the performance
of our principal apple varieties w^hen groim on the several East Mailing rootstocks.
We have been looking for a rootstock which would produce a tree 1/2-2/3 the size of
a seedling rooted tree* V/e also wanted the tree to come into production at an early
age and to produce high acre yields.

The results indicate that a few of the lulling stocks appear promising in ac-
complishing our goal, Mlling II and 711 produce trees which are 1/2-2/3 the size of
seedling rooted trees. They come into production at an early age and have given high
acre yields. There maybe a possibility of a weakness vdth these stocks in that the
trees may not be too well anchored.

Mailing I is another stock which shows promise. It produces a tree about 3/U
the size of seedling rootstocks. It comes into production early and is productive aid
appears to be well anchored o

Mailing XVI does not produce a semi-dwarf tree, but is a vigorous stock. It is
very productive and appears promising as a s took for weak growing varieties.

In our studies with the semi-dwarfing rootstocks we have found that the vigor
of the variety determines to a large extent how much dwarfing effect can be produced
by the rootstock. Very vigorous varieties are dwarfed slightly while weak growing
varieties may be dwarfed too much by a given rootstock.

We have recently received a new series of semi-dwarfing rootstocks from England
which are reported to be superior to the Ifeilling stocks. So it looks like we shall
have to start evaluating rootstocks all over again.

Our future studies with rootstocks call for evaluating new rootstocks and deter-
mining if the better Mailing stocks are practical for the commercial orchard,

VVJD .Weeks

### ^* ######## #

The Ear list Formed Stravfberry Runners Are Money-Makers - Research
has shown that the earliest (June-formeci) runner plants are the
ones T*iich will produce the largest yield the following spring.
Early spring planting of mother plants will allow for June runner
plant formation, Funner plants then have plenty of time to bui]d
up food supply for use in forming blossom buds in fall.

The Moral ; Plant your strawberry mother plants early and take
care of them.

Mdlntosh

16

^Baldwin

1^

Delicious (Bud Sports)

15

Cortland

13

Early Mcintosh

12

Gallia &. Red Rome

12

Red Gravenstein

8

Golden Delicious

7

Macoun

6

Northern Spy

h

T, 9 -

APPLE VARIETY SURVEY

The American Porno logical Society is conducting a nation-wide survey of trends
in apple varieties. Before Professor Thies retired he sent a copy of that questior?-
jiaire to 25 tiassachusetts -apple growers. Sixteen growers sent in their reports "viiich
he summarized and which is presented below for your informationo

APS Apple Variety Survey
Variety Growers ^Presenx ^^uture % Increase
Reporting Planting Planting or Decrease

m h3 - 5

15 5 -10

6 16 +10

7 11 +h
5 8 +3
k 8 +li
h 6 +2
k 8 + li
k 9 +5
U 7 +3

Admitted, this represents a very small sampling of Massachusetts apple growers,
but at least it suggests the variety trend in future plantings by these groirers.

A.P.French

#####//?;'##?;' i-;' c #

* * ^i- ^t CLEAN UP lEEK^t -s:- * ^

*Naw is the time to get rid of the winter's accumulation of trash and junk - in
the attic, basement, barn and other out buildings.

*Let's clean up, not bum up. Inspect yoxir attic, closets and basements, and
remove those things that burn fast.

■^■Dispose of discarded clothing, draperies, rags, furniture, magazines and
papers, linoleum and other materials that burn readily.

•K-Vfatch especially for oily rags, paint brushes and open containers of
flammable apint, thinners or cleaning fluids,

^«-Stop the use of unsafe wiring - overloaded ele ctrical circuits, vrom or frayed
cords and defective electrical appliances,

^Remove high brush, weeds, grass and other trash along the roadsides and near
your buildings. Remove standing trees, dead trees or limbs that may cause accidents
or fires e

•M'Do not burn debris, trash or other hazardous waste material outdoors on
dry and vdndy days, or close to your buildings.

- 10 -

*Check your fuses: use 15 ampere fuses in regular household circuits, and
don't make any emergency repairs to fuses j keep wiring in good repairj have all the
work done by an expert electriciano

*Check your ash receptacles: always put hot ashes into covered metal ccntainers.
Hot ashes in wood boxes hst, fire to many houses. In the cellar, this is particularly
hazardous, because flames quickly spread up through hollow walls of the building.

^General repaji-s: plan needed painting and r enovating this spring© Remodel
and modernize your house for greater safety. Replace fauiy stair treads j install
heavy flush type door Lt the head of the cellar stairs to hold the basement fires in
check«

■M'Don't give fires a place to start. Clean up, and if you must burn brush,
grass or trash, select a still, damp day, preferably after Us 00 PM, Have help and
fire tools handy. Be sure fire is dead out before leaving it.

Inspection is the Removal of fire Enlist the cooperation

Fires result from first step in fire hazards pays of your neighbors in a

carelessness prevention dividends clean up campaign

Robert B, Parmenter

Chairman,
Safety Committee

A NEiY WATER REPELLENT

Preservative for Yfooden Boxes, Crates, EtcT

Thanks to modern chemistry, a long-felt need for a safe, inexpensive preserve^
tive for use on wood items in contact with foodstuffs, has been filled.

Now it is possible to preserve wooden containers without damaging even the most
tender crops. Boxes, hampers, and field crates last much longer. Contamination by
fungi and mildew on food handling equipment is practically a thing of the past. And
containers keep their new, clean appearance.

This moisture-repellent wood preservative vrcis developed at the request of, and
in cooperation with, the National Wooden Box Association and the Natim al Wood Pallet
Manvifacturers Association,

It is odorless 5 tasteless, non-toxic p Will not irritate the skin. It really
lengthens the life of the containeiise Prevents blue stain and similar discoloration
of wood, thus insuring a longer lasting clean, bright, sanitary appearance.

How to Apply This VJood Preservative

This wood preservative is pvirchased in the concentrated form and diluted at the
rate of one (l) gallon of the concentrate to two (2) gallonn of mineral spirits
(Stoddard Solvent),

Treat by any one of the folloi/ving methods:

1, Dipping - Use an open tank or a $5 gallon drum. For softwoods, a con>-
plete immersion of 3-U seconds is recommended for adequate treatment.
For hardwoods, 5-10 seconds is sufficient. Larger items than food

t

I

- n -

containers require immersion periods ranging from 1 minute upwards.

2* Brushing - Flow the treating solution on liberally rather than brush it
on. Keep the brush dripping wet at all times. Two coats are advised
on dense woods. After treatment, by any method, allow the solvents to
completely evaporate.

3. Spraying - Use spray guns. Be sure to apply a liberal coating to the
wood. Apply two coats.

Name of product source will be furnished by the undersigned on request.

Robert B, Parmenter

## ## ### # # # ###
LOCAL SUPPLY OF BEES FOR POLLINATION IS SHORT

Winter Losses Heavy: Winter losses of bees have been high. This information comes
to us from various parts of liassachusetts and f rom other New England states as well.
Losses have been so heavy as t) warrant real concern among fruit growers and others
who must depend upon bees for pollination.

Poor Honey Flow in Fall of 195^ t Undoubtedly, these excessive losses can be correla-
ted with the poor fall honey flow in many parts of New England last year. The cooler
than normal summer and fall, hurricane damage to honey plants, excessive rainfall and
long periods of low sunshine were contributing factors to this situation. Colonies
went into the winter with an inadequate food supply.

Early Attention Needed to Assure Adequate Supply of Bees for Pollinatlont It is very
likely that bees for hire will be scarce this spring. Fruit growers and others v;ho
need bees for pollination are urged to arrange early for their supply of these very
necessary insect helpers.

What To Do; Here, are some suggestions which may help to solve your problem.

(1) Contact immediately the beekeeper vrho has supplied you with colcnies in

the past. Find out ■v*ether he anticipates any trouble supplying your needs,

(2) If your usual source of supply appears inadequate, ask your county agent
for the names of other beekeepers. He is also in a position to bring your
needs to the attention of county or other local beekeepers' associations.

(3) Dealers in beekeeping supplies are often a valuable contact through \tiich
you may obtain additicaial names of beekeepers and some idea of the extent
of their apiaries. A list of such dealers has been supplied to each county
extensicn office.

ih) As an emergency measure, make use of package bees. Package bees are not
as efficient as overwintered colonies. They may fail completely unless
certain steps are taken to give them every possible chance to perform the
job for which you have obtained them. For best results package bees should
be installed in hives, fed, and encouraged to develop as far ahead of bloom
as possible.

- 12 -

Package bees may be purchased in 2-Foand packages for approximately $3 #00
to !!i)3.75« For larger units, add approximately ^1,00 for each additional
pound, exclusive of shipping »

The size package required depends upon several factors; (a) The interval
between installation and bloom on the crop to^ggllinated. Packages of
two to three pounds, if handled properly, are'^aaequate if they are ob-
tained and installed four to six -/reeks before bloom appears on the crop
to be pollinated. If the interval between installation and bloom is
less than four weeks, especially if only seven to ten days, five pound
units are none too big. The shorter the interval between installation
and bloom, the larger the unit must be and also the greater need for a
larger number of packages e

(b) The weather during the build-up period is very important^ but we
don't know what you can do about it. It seems obvious that larger units,
and more of them, will overcome the adverse effects of unfavorable
weather to some extent,

(c) The availability of nectar and pollen from plants blooming ahead of
the crop to be pollinated. Here again, vre don't know what you can do
about it except to see to it that the colonies are adequately fed as a
substitute for the more desirable foods they could ©btain from plants.

If you do have to rely on package bees, why not contact local beekeepers
and make arrangements with them to secure necessary hives and other
equipment as well as some labor and "know-how" so as to assure the best
possible returns for the money you have spent to secure the bees. In
some areas cooperative arrangements have been worked out to the complete
satisfaction of both growers and beekeepers. The growers needing bees,
buy the packages; the beekeeper takes charge of them when they arrive,
installs them in his hives and then keeps the bees as part-payment for
the pollination service,

(5) Having exhausted all possibility of obtaining an adequate bee supply

locally, you may wish to contact beekeepers in other states. Some of these
make the rental of colonies for pollination pxirposes a main partof their
business. Transportation costs plus the rental fees may make this an ex-
pensive procedure.

Protect the Beea; Do everything possible to avoid unnecessary destruction of bees
through the unvdse use of insecticides. At times when bees are most active, whether
on crop blossoms or on dandelions or other weeds, use those insecticides which are
the least toxic to bees.

If you rent bees or have an arrangement with a beekeeper to handle package
bees, make sure the owner has ample opportunity to get the bees away from the orchard
before applying post-bloom sprays or dusts.

Experiments carried out last year and in many other parts of the cotmtry give
us no reason to think the aerial spray program carried out for gypsy moth is deleter-
ious to bees to the extent that colonies are greatly weakened or lost,

F»R,Shaw &. E,H,Virheeler
Publication Approved by George J, Cronin, State Purchasing Agent - #19

H^->

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

MAY 15, 1955

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Hew Can W« G«t Better Applet to the CenBumer?

Summer Fruit Meeting*

Blueberry Maggot

Special Pest Control ll^ttages from U of M

Electricity - Friend or Foe?

Removing Strawberry Blossoms

Pomelogicol Research

The "Miller Bill" Becomes Effective

Issued by the Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,
in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 19 M; University of Massachusetts,
United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating

Publication Approved by George J. Cronln, State Purchasing Agent, No, 19.

YOUR POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT

Bailey, John S« - Associate Profess or. Research - Stationed at East V/arehaau
Doing small fruit research on strawberries, blueberries and beach
plums. Mr. Bailey also handles considerable of the small fruits
extension program.

Fish, Almon S. Jr. - Instructor

Teaches small fruits and general fruit growing courses, lir. Fish
is currently taking the place of I^. J. F, Anderson who is on leave
for further graduate study.

French, Arthur P. - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing, currently editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C, - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental
courses • Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwiok, Franklin 1/Y. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, pre-
harvest drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also,
teaches in certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D, - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain
tests and winter hardiness. Also teaches certain advanced courses*

__________^__^__^ - Extension Fruit Specialist

We hope to have this position filled before long.

Contributors to This Issue from Supporting Fields

Oleson, Grunow 0, - Extension Information Specialist
Parmenter, Robert B, - Extension Forester
Tomlinson, William E,, Jr. - Associate Research

Professor (Cranberry Station)
Wheeler, Ellsworth H, - Extension Entomologist

FRUIT- NOTES .

May 1955

>

HOW CAN WE GET BETTER APPLES TO THE CONSUMED?

This question vras the central theme at a recent meeting of the M,F,G.A,
Marketing Committee which ran late into the night e

The recent survey of 0, C, Roberts (which will be reported at the M.F.G.A,
Summer Meeting) shows that altogether too many cut, bruised and otherwise cull
Eastern apples are being offered for sale in retail stores. Steps must be taken to
correctthis situation if our local apples are to retain their rightful place on the
market and our Massachusetts apple industry is to survive.

Two approaches to the problem were acted upon by that committee j (l) the pre-
paration of a flyer of suggestions on careful handling to be inclosed in every
package J (2) working for compulsory grades for apples. On this second point the
committee voted unanimously "that the committee feels that all apples should bear a
correct grade label each and every time offered for sale and that we start working
for such a law and its enforcement,"

Western apples, competition from ivhich will be increasingly keen in years
ahead, meet such standards. Why not ours?

'/rti^k, P, French
#############

Summer Fruit Meetings

June 20-7 P»ni» — Annual Strawberry Twilight Meeting
at the University of Massachusetts, New
varieties, virus-free plants and production
problems vdll be stressed a

July 18 - 7 p.m. — Raspberry-Blueberry Twilight Meeting
at the University of Massachusetts, This is
the first such meeting to be held on campus.
Most of the new varieties will be fruiting
(weather permitting),

July 21 - all day — Summer Meeting of the Massachusetts
Fruit Growers Association at President Elmer
Fitzgerald's orchards in Leominster, Program
to be announced later.

- 2 -
-BLUEBERRI mOGOT-

The blueberry maggot has been noticed in abundance the past few seasons in the
fruit of cultivated blueberries in a few fields in the Cape Cod area. Maggot has
been a problem to the blueberry industry in other areas for a good many years and
there is no reason to believe that it will not be an increasing problem in South--
eastern Massachusetts as the industry expands.

The blueberry maggot is a native insect that infests both wild and culti-
vated blueberries and some related fruits from New Jersey northward wherever its host
plants are found. To avoid maggot infested fruit at harvest it has been found neces-
sary to dust or spray for this insect in the cultivated blueberry fields of New Jersey
and the areas of wild lowbush blueberries that are harvested in New England and else-
where.

The blueberry maggot is apparently a strain of the apple maggot, the only
difference being that the blueberry infesting strain is smaller in size. This size
difference is especially marked in maggots that infest the smaller fruited wild
varieties, while maggots developing in some of the larger cultivated bluebercy varie-
ties approximate apple maggots in size.

Like the apple maggot the blueberry maggot has one generation a year.
The winter is passed in the pupal stage in a quarter inch brown puparia buried in
the soil within a few inches of the surface. The flies emerge for about a month in
the summer beginning about the time the first blueberries start to turn blue« They
are blac^ in color with white bands on the abdomen and are smaller than a house fly
though similar in shape. The wings are marked with characteristic oblique black
bands. The flies do not lay eggs until about 10 days after they have emerged. Eggs
are layed singly under the skin of the blueberry c The eggs hatch in about a week and
the maggots leave the berries and enter the soil and form puparia in v/hich they re-
main until the next or some following spring vrhen they emerge as flies. Some of the
maggots remain in the puparia for two or more years before emerging, and as these
emerge later than those that emerge after one winter in the soil they complicate
control.

Though the flies apparently prefer ripe fruit in which to lay eggs, if they
appear before the fruit is ripe or if they are abundant, they will lay eggs in_ green
fruit as well as ripe berries during the harvest season. Consequently the timing of
the first dust application is ideally based on fly emergence, but lacking this know-
ledge the first dust should be applied just as the first few berries are turning from
red to blue. Because there is about a 10-day interval between emergence of the fly
ani the time it can lay eggs, subsequent dustings are applied at 10-day intervals
after the f irst dust application^ The number of dusts applied will depend on the
length of the harvest season, with three dusts usvially a minimum number and four or
five being necessary in a late season and with a high prcentage of late varieties
in the field.

Frequent picking of ripe fruit during the harvest season and prompt dis-
posal of the picked fruit helps in controlling maggot and reducing loss from it. In
no case should soft over-ripe fruit be shipped to market, though picking of such fruit
and removal from the field will help reduce the fly population the following season.
Vlhere practical, bushes should be picked clean as berries left on the bushes at the
end of the harvest season often become very heavily infested with maggots and are a
source of a large fly population in the next and following seasons.

- 3 -

Since blueberry maggot flies lay their eggs during the picking season of the
cultivated blueberry, rotenone sprays or dusts are favored for controlling maggot,
because of its safetyo A 2% rotenone di-ist applied by airplane at the rate of 15-20
pounds per acre has given satisfactory control. This can be applied by ground dustei*
also, A spray made up with S pounds of ii-5$ rotenone wettable powder in 100 gallons
of water and applied at the rate of 200 gallons per acre will also give satisfactory
control,

4HH{W.3B,Tomlinson, Jr,

#############

IS GRASS INJURING YOUR RASPBERRY YIELD?

Witch or Quack grass is frequently a serious problem
in an established red raspberry planting. This and other
grasses have been satisfactorily controlled in the plant-
ing of Latham and Taylor raspberries according to recent
reports from Michigan, A fall application (late October)
of Chloro-IPG at the rate of 5-8 l^So reduced the grass
stand by 68 and 76 percent in 1953 and 195U respectively.
This reduction in grass resulted in increased yields of
fruit of 30-UO percent. Eight pounds of actual Chloro-
IPC should be used in 100 gallons of water and since only
the row-areas were sprayed, it should cover about 3 acres
with 8 feet row spacing. For the home gardener that means
about one ounce of actual Ghloro-IPC in one gallon of
water to cover a single I4O foot row not over three feet
wide,

iH«t-A,P,French

#############

SPECIAL PEST CONTROL MESSAGES

from University of Massachusetts'

Special pest control messages to gruit growers, market gardeners, and other
crop producers are now being issued for radio broadcast twice each Vireek, These
messages are prepared by Ellsworth H, f/heeler, entomologist, and Constantine J,
Gilgut, plant pathologist at the University of Hfeissachusetts in Amherst, This is
the fourteenth year such special messages have been issued.

Messages are scheduled for release each Tuesday and Friday, and will continue
into July or August when the pest control season is pretty well over. Should weather
corditions warrant, extra messages will be prepared. The first message was issued
on April 15,

Following is a list of radio stations cooperating in special pest control
broadcasts and the approximate time when these messages can be heard:

WBEIK, Pittsfleld, 7;05 a.nio and 12:15 Ptin,
WHDH, Boston, 505 acsn, and 12:i|.5 p.m,
WSe, Boston, 6:00 a«m»
WBET, Brockton, 11:55 a,ra,
WHMP, Northampton, 12:25 p.m.
WTIC, Hartford, Conn,, 6:35 a«m,
WTAQ, TiTorcester, <Sil5 a.m.
WEEI, Boston, $'.h^ a.m.
WHA,I, Greenfield, 6:U5 a.m.
WMNB, North Adams, ll:li5 a.m.

TOBH, New Bedford will use these messages on Wednesdays and Saturdays at
6:35 a.m.

All stations broadcast the agricultural weather forecast prepared especially
for farmers by the U.S. Weather Bureau in East Boston, The special messages from
the University will follow immediately after these farm weather broadcasts so that
growers may plan whatever may be necessary in the way of pest control measures,

H«HKj.0,01eson

#############
ELECTRICITT - Friend or Foe?

Electricity is useful and safe when properly handled. Learn to use it
safely. Use electric heaters in bathrooms and laundries with care. People have
been killed by touching these electric heaters while they are in the bath. Electric
bulbs have been known to explode and start a fire when they are used to dry clothes
or to warm the bed. Never allow dust to accumulate on an electric bulb. It may
cause it to explode in the barn or the attic and start a fire.

No doubt, you can think of some fire in your neighborhod that has been caused
by electric irons, toasters or curling irons having been left connected. Be sure to
turn off the switch or disconnect them when leaving the room. This is a must. Keep
a sufficient number of 15 amp, fuses on band to replace those that burn out. iiany
people are very prone to place pennies and other metals behind the fuse which over-
loads the circuit and causes a fire.

Be sure that the wiring in the house, particularly the lamp cords, are replaced
if badly frayed. Employ an expert electrician to replace wiring in the home.

The other day, I ran across a very excellent safety suggestion for parents and
baby sitters. Caution the baby sitter against permitting the child to play with
matches or electric appliances. Children have been known to put their fingers into
electric light sockets causing a short circuit, badly burning the child, and some-
times causing the death of the child; so caution the baby sitters against allowing
the children to play with the fixtures*

In case you found some member of your family unconscious because of elec-
tric shock and still in contact with the live wire, what would you do to break the
contact? The best and safest method to break such a contact is to knock the mre free
or pull the victim away by using a non-conductive materials as a rake, broom, dry
branch, dry rope or ;3ust the overcoat. Don't, under any circumstances, allow your |
body to come in contact with the person who's still in contact with the live wire, t

^M!-RfrB^Parmenter, Chairman-Safety Comm, |

- 5 -

A FRESH DISPLAY AN AID TO APPLE SALES

In a retail study of apple displays at Michigan State College it was found
that store displays in Detroit, -where fresh apples were added daily, sold apples
twice as fast as those where fresh appleswere added every three days, Fvirthermore,
stores that sold 3/U of their display each day, sold 95 pounds of fruit daily.
Those that sold a little less than 1/3 of the display each day sold only 1^ pounds
of fruit. In other words, this survey emphasizes that a fresh display is an impor-
tant factor in promoting apple sales,

■5«H^0,C» Roberts

Washington Growers Believe in Advertising —

Last year the Washington State Apple Growers contribu-
ted 3^ a box to the Vifashington State Apple Commission
for advertising purposes. By a margin of more than two
to one, they have voted to assess themselves an addi-
tional 10 a box this year. It is anticipated that this
will give the Apple Commission an operating income of
approximately $960,000, A part of this additional in^
come is intended for greater promotion of Washington
State apples in Eastern markets. It is worthy of note
that this advertising campaign will be supported with
quality fruit carefully and attractively packed.
Bruised apples, jumbled in a crate, are not likely to
offer serious competition,

•»K««-0,CJloberts

#############
REMOVING STRAWBERRY BLOSSOMS

The introduction of virus-free plants is giving the strawberry industry a real
'shot in the arm". This is fine but it hasn't solved all of the berry grower»s pro-
blems. He still has a number to which he would like a prompt and satisfactory solu-
tion.

One of these is the time-consuming job of removing the blossoms from newly
set strawberry plants. How nice it would be if they could be destroyed by spraying
without, of course, hurting the rest of the plant. This has been tried but so far no
material has been found which will do the job without reducing the vigor of the plants.

Is blossom removal worth the time and expense it takes? Experimental evidence
indicates that it is. It has been proved that early-formed runner plants are more
productive than late-formed. Early runner formation increases total runner formation.
Therefore, if blossom removal stimulates early runner formation it would increase
yield. Data presented by Scott and Marth of the U.S.D.A show that early runner pro-
duction can be increased very materially by picking off the blossoms, ViThere no

-6 -

blossoms were removed, on July 7 the plants averaged 393 runners. V/here the blossoms
were picked off, the plants averaged 19«9 runners, a sixfold increase. They ccnrlude,
"The removal of blossoms from newly set strawberry plants ic more beneficial in
establishment of a vigorous planting than almost any other cultural operation".

picked off.

On the newly set bed , better keep after those blossoms and keep them

■JHHs-Jo S.Bailey

#############
^HHflTINTER MULCH OH STRAWBERRIESwhh*

This is not the usual time of year to be
talking about winter mulch, It wouldn't
be mentioned except that during the past
winter in one partiof the state there was
some injury which appears to have resulted,
at least in part, from insufficient miOLch,
As mulching material becones more difficult
to obtain or more expensive, the tendency
is to use less and less. If this is carried
too far, the mulch ceases to give any winter
protection* A series of relatively mild win-
ters may also have led to increased frugality
in the use of mulch.

If you haven't already looked for winter in-
jury, now is a good time. Split the crowns
of the plants lengthwise. If the tissue in-
side the crown is brown when cut, the plant
has been injured by cold.

Perhaps a heavier winter mulch is indicatedc
However, remember that weakly, sick plants
are more easily injured than strong, vigor-
ous, healthy ones. Start preparing for winter
now by keeping the plants strong and healthy,

iHHtJ, S.Bailey

#############

POMOLOGICAL RESEARCH

1+, Nature of Winter Hardiness
In the Red Raspberry

The main objective of this project is to try to find out how some raspberry
varieties are able to survive colder winter temperatures than others. The mechanism
by which raspberry canes are able to survive severe cold is very evasive. Some points
of interest iMiich have been observed in the studies so far are: (l) Raspberry varie-
f-icp differ widely in their resistance to low winter temperatures. During the winter

- 7 -

raspberry canes lose a certain degree of their resistance to low temperatures follow-
ing several days of mild temperatures e (2) The canes may regain some of their cold
resistance if the mild weather is followed by gradual changes to colder weather, (3)
Attempts to determine the chemical physical changes v/hich are responsible for the
loss and gain of hardiness have not as yet been successful* (U) Injury to the canes
which appears the same as winter killing may occur during periods when the ground is
frozen and high winds dry out the canes. This type of injury is probably more fre-
quent, in years when the ground is frozen to a considerable depth and high winds occur
when the temperature is above freezing. This year we had such weather and it probably
accounted for much of the observed injury to our raspberry canes, V/e had more injury
to red raspberry canes this past winter then in 19^h, although we had lovrer minimum
temperatures in 19Sh than in 1955 •

The follovfing table compares tfae cane injury in 195k and 1955 for some of the
varieties in our plantations.

Variety

Per cent of

Cane Killed

I95I4

1955

Antietam

5

20

Chief

0

20

Gatineau

5

liO

Latham

5

30

Madawaska

0

20

Milton

20

ko

September

10

ilO

Sunrise

0

30

Viking

20

70

Willamette

30

70

We have not found any practical means as yet to reduce the amount of winter
injury to red raspberry canes but we have hopes that as we find out more about the
nature of winter hardiness vce can find ways to reduce the injury,

^HHfVf .D.TiTeeks

#############

THE "tJILLER BILL" BECOMES EFFECTIVE r. 4^ ^ *

■«- * -;f- ^ This Story Is for YOU— A Grower

Pesticide residue tolerances and exemptions, as established under Public Law 518 -
the "Miller Bill", become effective on July 22, 1955* Every farmer, and especially
ycu who are growing fruits and vegetables, should be aware of this. It can protect
you from mistakes. Ignorance of the law is always a poor alibi.

This amendment to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act is designed to pro-
tect the public welfare - the well being of your consumers. And what's good for the
people who buy and eat your products is good for you also.

That is why this Miller amendment \Tas backed by your farm leaders and the
pesticide industry as well as by those who believed the consuming public needed more
protection against the misuse of pesticide chemicals.

- 8 -

Naturally, the law does not please everyone. Some would prohibit all
pesticide: usage on food - let the bugs get fat and the people go hungry rather than
use these "dangerous" chemicals. Others see the law as too restrictive, burdensome,
perhaps unfair. However, those who have follovired closely the developments in pesti-
cides, public attitudes, trends in pest control and legislative proposals, generally
agree that this present law is the fairest, most liberal and at the same time the
most effective obtainable.

Do You Understand These Terms?

The terms "pesticide" or "pesticide chemical" refer to any one substance of mixture
intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any insects, rodents,
fungi, weeds, and other forms of plant or animal life or viruses (not viruses in or
on man or animals) recognized as pests and which is used in the production, storage
or transportation of raw agricultural commodities. These pesticides are "economic
poisons". Weed killers, rat killers, insecticides, fungicides, etc, are included*

The term "raw agricultural commodity" means any food in its fresh natural state.
It includes all fruits and vegetables, grains, nuts, eggs, meat, raw milk, and simi-
lar produce. Fruits and vegetables that have been washed, colored, stripped of outer
leaves, waxed, prepackaged, or prepared into fresh salads are included in this defini-
tion^ everything that you may produce or market before it is frozen, canned, cooked
or processed in any way,

"Residue tolerance" means the amount of a pesticide residue allowable on
fresh farm produce when ready for interstate shipment. Tolerances are expressed as
"parts per million" in or on the product. Individual pesticides are given tolerances
which must not be exceeded. Examples are DDT, parathion and chlordane with residue
tolerances of 7,0, 1,0 and 0,3 ppm respectively on the crops for i/riiich these limits
have been established,

VOiere several related pesticides are used on a crop, the entire residue
situation must be considered as well as the residues of each individual material,
Dieldrin, methoxychlor, DDT and TDE represent a group of related insecticdesj ziram,
zineb and ferbam are related fungicides.

Some pesticides have a "zero tolerance". This means that none of such materials
may remain in or en the raw agricultural product, Mercxiry compounds and TEPP are ex-
amples ,

Seme materials have been "exempted". This means that use of these pesticides
according to the usual, good, farming practices, does not create a residue hazard -
no tolerance figure is needed because the residues commonly present are not harmful.
The copper fungicides, rotenone, ryania, and pyrethrum come within this group*

What Does It All Mean?

Just this I All raw(fresh) farm produce moving interstate after July 22,19^5
will be subject to federal inspection for pesticide residues (states may decide to
set. up similar inspections locally). Such produce can be condemned or confiscated if
if found to carry, or to contain, pesticide residues exceeding the established toler-
ances.

The same thing can happen if the product carries the residue of a material
for which nc "tolerance" or "exemption" has been established as yet.

- 9 -

Sol What Do YOU Do?

Keep your shirt oni You are not hurt yet and you don't need to get hurt if you
go at your pest control with the right attitude. You have never wanted to kill or
endanger any consumer with pesticides - I hopee Well, the Miller Bill will help you
to avoid doing it by mistake.

Just follow a few simple rules. You will be more successful in your pest con-
trol and less of a hazard to your fellow men,

1, Read and follow labels aM official pest control recommendations o Pesti-
cide manvifactTCFST's and'TOTHTllators spend millions of dollars developing products and
gathering information with which to prove the truth of statements on their proposed
labels. This must be done before the product can be sold interstate.

Now, with the Ililler Bill in effect, more millions will be spent to ob-
tain data necessary for the establishment of a "residue tolerance" or "exemption" for
each pesticide. This will have to be done before a label can be obtained. And the
data must show that the established residue tolerance for the material will not be
exceeded on the crops for which it is proposed if used according tbo directions.

These directions must appear on the lajjel. Read and follow themp

Official pest control recommendations will guide you t o successful and safe
pest control if you follow them. Authors are human and do make mistakes - another
good reason for reading labels. Official charts are your best guide to proper timing
and choice of materials - labels give you the safe and effective amounts per acre or
per 100 gallons, necessary precautions, proper interval before harvest and crops on
which the material may be used, ~~

2, Depend upon a thoroughgoing, preventive pest control program so you
won't have to use late emergency measvires. Such emergency treatments are always
costly and can lead to residue problems. If you do get caught with a pest problem
close to harvest get the best available advice. But - don't be surprised if you do
not get a good answer. No one in his right mind isgoing to suggest you use a material
vtiich might create a residue problem,

Vfould you, if you were in his shoes?

•sHHtE.H.liflieeler

#############
WHY RESEARCH?

Research has been characterized as the "yeast" which raises the "dough" for
industry's bread. Certainly, research is as fundamental and important to agriculture
as to industry, in view of the fact that agriculture has the responsibility of pro-
viding food for an ever increasing urban population with a constantly decreasing farm
population.

Not all research pays off but that ivhich does, more than pays the bill for all
as evidenced by the return of more than one billion dollars a year on a total research
investment of about 15 million to develop hybrid corn. Can you imagine where our Mc
Intosh apple industry would be t oday without the research which has gone into pest
control, nutrition and storage? — ED,

Publication Approved by George J, Cronin, State Purchasing Agent-#19

R

_^

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

JUNE 15, 1955

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Let'» Look ot Mclntoth Apple* in Rotoll Storoi
Somo Orchard Obtorvationt

Echoes from the Strowberry Conforonce at
Boltsvilie, Maryland

Bruises Cost Money

Pomological Research

Are Eastern Apple Growers Toking the Lead?

Why The Grading Low Should be Enforced

Issued by the Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,
In furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts,
United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOUR FOmWQJ DEPAilTMEMT

Bailey, John S, - Associate Professor, Reseerch - Stationed at East Vfareham,
Doing small fruit research ou strawberries, blueberries arxl beach
plums, i^ir, Bailey also handles considerable of the small fruits
extension program,

Flcb , Almon S,, Jr, - Instructor

Teaches small fruits ard general fruit grovdng courses. i»ir. Fish is
cvurrently taking the place of Mr, J. F. Anderson who is on leave for
further graduate study.

French, Arthur P. - Head of Department.

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing, currently editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C, - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental
courses. Currently also doing research on fruit marketing,

Southvdck, Franklin W, - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent In research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in cer-
tain advanced courses.

Weeks, Yfalter D, - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain testa
and -vrlnter hardiness. Also teaches certain advanced courses,

________^__^^_^^^^_ - Extension Fruit Specialist

'A'e hope' to have this position filled before long.

FRUIT NOTES
June 1955

LET'S LOOK AT MCINTOSH APPLES IN RETAIL STCEES-

For fifteen years, at least, research workers in the Northeastern states have
been studying the merchandizing of Mcintosh apples, Numeroxis recommendations relative
to prevention of bruising^ methods of packing, and merchandizing in the retail store
have been made based on the results of these investigations. The fundamental purpose
of these studies has been to provide the consumer with attractive, sound fruit vh ich
would result in satisfied customers, increased sales and a stable market for growers
of Mcintosh apples.

Regardless of the effort that has been made, all too frequently one can still
observe in retail stores Mcintosh apples that are badly bruised, stem punctured, poorly
graded and unattractively displayed. To what extent this condition exists in retail
stores in Massachusetts had never been determined.

Therefore, a survey v/as conducted from October 19Sh to January 1955 with several
objectives in vievf, as follows »

le To determine the grade of Mcintosh apples offered for sale,

2, To determine the reasons for apples being below fancy grade,

3. To study methods of handling apples in the stores.

U, To use the results of the survey as basis for further study

leading to the improvement of market qtiality of Mcintosh apples.

HovT the Survey Was Ijlade

During the period of the survey, tv/o hundred samples of apples in one hundred
sixty-eight stores were purchased as any customer would purchase them. These sauries
were obtained from bulk displays, from original containers or from piles of prepack-
aged fruit, depending upon the method of sale in a particular store. Occasionally,
two samples were taken from the same store where different methods of merchandizing
were employed. After the samples vfere obtained, the manager cr produce clerk \7as
asked such questions as: From what market source did you get these apples? What kind
of a container did they come in ? How were they packed? Did you keep them under re-
frigeration from the time you received them until you put them on display? In
addition, notes were taken on the general appearance of the fruit, \7hether or not the
display counter was refrigerated and the like.

As scon as the apples were taken from the store, the temperature ivas determined
and the sample vras then placed in a specially constructed sponge rubber lined box and
transported by automobile to a refrigerated room at the University in less than twelve
hours ,

Analyses of the Samples

Within forty-eight hours after being placed in the refrigerated room, each
sample vras weighed and analyzed as to grade, reason for apples being below "Fancy"
grade, number and size of bruises, number of stem punctures, cuts and bruises, firmness
and total etmount of waste due to bruises, stem punctures and the like.

What's the Score?

When all of the data from two hundred samples consisting of 2223 apples are
grouped together, here is the story they tell.

- 2 -

Thirty-three per cont were fancy or above and 3ixty«»seven per cent were below
fancy when graded acsordlng to U.S» fyrada standards. If all apples were fancy or
better there would be no problf^m from ihe standpoint of market quality. Since sixty-
seven per cent were below fancy there <3 a problem and accordingly the apples below
fancy grade were analyzed to find out the cause. The relative causes grranged in
order of importance are shown in Table I,

Table I, Defects Causing Apples
To Be Below Fancy Gi^de

Type of Defect

Per Cent Belovr

Fancy

Mechanical

(Bmiisesjcuts,

stem punctiu-es )

62.7

Color

23,5

Rot

5.1

Shape

h,h

Maturity

3«7

Disease

3«7

Insect

2,7

Russet

1.3

Physiologioal

0.5

The percentages in this table total more than 100 because some apples vrere below
grade for more than one reason.

These figures clearly indicate tha^^ the chief cause for apples being below grade
was mechanical in,iury with lack of color of considerable importance. The percentage
of rot was far greater ttian it should have been.

The relative unimportance of insect and disease blemishes is a tribute to the
fruit growers for eithex- they have done a creditabla job controlling pests or they
have carefully eliminated such blemished fruit on the grading table. Most of tlie
poorly shaped apples could have been eliminated in the grading process,

Bruisea

Since bruises were the major cause of mechanical injury, the number and nature
of bruises was analyzed. Every flattened surface on each apple was counted and classi-
fied as to size. The result of this analysis is shovm in Table II,

Table II, Number and Nature of Bruieos

Total number of apples .,.,.., 2223

Number of apples bruised ,,..• 2180

Per cent of total apples

bruised 98,06

Size of bruise No, Bruises Per Cent

ITIi" or less I^U^F " U3*7

lA" - 1/2" 6672 3ii.6

1/2" - 3/U'' 2908 15.1

3/1;" - 1" S>87 5.1

1" or over 28? 1.5
Total no, bruises 19288

- 3 -

Vifhile the number of bruises up to l/2" in diameter constitute seventy-eight per
cent of all bruises, this is relatively uningjortant as bruises of this size are super-
ficial and are seldom noticed. On the other hand, the remaining twenty-two per cent
is of great importance as these bruises not onl;r affect the appearance of the apples
but are usually soft^ often result in rot, and cause a certain amount of wast iT
Elimination of these larger bruises which probably were due' to careless handling,
v:ould do much to improve the market quality of Jiiclntosh apples.

Stem Punctures, Cuts and Cracks

In addition to bruises, sixteen per cent of all apples had stem punctures,
twenty-three per cent had cuts and nineteen per cent had naturally occxirring cracks
in the skin.

Breaks in the skin, of whatever nature, not only detract from the appearance of
an apple, but provide a ready entrance for rots. Several specimens were observed in
which rot had started from one of these sotirces. More careful handling can reduce
the number of stem punctures and cuts but the cause and remedy of naturally occurring
cracks is problematical.

Color

Poorly colored apples detract materially from the sales appeal of a display of
apples and lov;er the price of the entire lot when mixed with well colored fruit. The
market for ^iclntoah apples would be strengthened if such poorly colored apples vrere
kept at the farm and made into cider of^sold separately.

Firmness

Using a mgness-Taylor pressure tester with a 7/l6" plunger, sixty-two per cent
of the apples were in the range of 8,0-^,9 poxinds. Forty-two per cent were in the
range of 9 » 0-9. 9 pounds. In other words, the majority of the apples were too soft
to be in prime eating condition. These apples were either held too long at high
temperatures in the stores or fruit grov/ers held them too long in storage before put-
ting them on the market, Y^erever the fault may lie, the solution is for fruit growers
to vmtch the pressure of apples in "storage more closely and sell them vrhile they are
above ten pounds and then for th~stores to keep them under refrigeration until they
are sold. Only ten per cent of the stores visited sold apples from a refrigerated
display counter. The usual answer to the question, "Can you afford to keep apples on
a refrigerated counter?" was, "Yes, because it keeps ngr apples in better condition
and saves waste, "

Temperature

The temperature of eighty-five per cent of the san^jles as taken from the stores
ranged from 50°F, to 69°F, with forty-six per cent in the 60^, to 69°F, range.
Holding apples at these relatively high temperatures will tend to hasten ripening of
the fruit as compared with the lower average temperature of 52°F, as recorded for
samples taken from refrigerated display counters.

Loss Dub to Waste

The average of prices posted for Mcintosh apples in the stores was 13.25 cents
Jier pound. The average cost of usable pulp, assuming there was no waste, was l5.8
cents per pound. The cost of usable pulp with waste removed was l6,5 cents per pound,
fence, the consumer paid 0,7 cents per pound for unusable waste due to rot and bruises.
While the financial loss due to blemishes should not be ignored, it appears that the

more serious objection to bruises, stem punctures and rotten spots is the effect on
eye appeal which resiilts in reduced sales.

Packages and Packing

ApproxLiiately eighty per cent of the packages in which apples were delivered to
the stores were the Eastern apple box or "orate". Fifteen per cent were delivered
in the cell tj^pe carton. Only about two per cent were packed in a tray type cartons
Seventy^seven per cent of apples in the "crate" were jumble packedo Since studies
in other states have shown that more bruising occurs in the "crate" jumble packed
than in any other type of package commonly used, a more extensive use of the cell
pack or tray pack would materially reduce the number of Wuised apples delivered'to
i-etail stores o

The number of samples obtained from bulk disp>lays and from prepackage displays
was about equal. The most common type of prepackage was a three pound polyethylene
bag. In spite of the fact that studies in New lork State have shown that more apples
per one hundred customers were sold when five pound polyethylene bags were displayed
with bulk apples, only one sTich display v&s observed in this survey but in this case
three pound rather than five pound bags were useHlJ Ouly one sample in a five pound
polyethylene bag was obtained from the one hundred sixty-eight stores visited,

t'farket Source

An analysis was made "with respect to grade, depending upon the source from which
the stores obtained the fruit. No measurable differeuceifms found whether the apples
were obtained directly from the grower-, from a wholesaler or from a warehouse. From
all three soui'ces approximately one'^tli:' rd of the apples were culls due chiefly to
bruises and stem punctures, — ~ ~

A markedly inferior grade of fruit was found in stores ^fil±ch purchased apples
from transient pedlars, ! ' ""

Random Comments

Mention should be made here of the excellent cooperation received from owners,
store managers and produce clerks. In every instance all information requested was
graciously given and in many instances considerably more than was requested,

A definite impression ivas obtained that store managers like to handle Mcintosh
apples becpuse they are a good selling item. In general, they indicated that they
could sell more if they could get vrell colored fruit, free from bruises and other
blemishes and more uniformly sieed. Hence, the key to increased sales of Mcintosh
-apples is chiefly in the hands of those who grow, grade, and pack the fruit,

—0,C, Roberts

More interesting and important fi.iidings from this study will be discussed by
Professor Roberts at the Summer Meeting of the ivkssachusetts Fruit Growers Association
at Fitzgerald's Orchard in Leominster, July 21st,

ED.

-5-

SOME ORCHARD OBSERVATIONS

By the time you read this, any chemical thinning you planned to do should be
done and the results becoming evident. We vrill not have obtained set records where
experimental trials were made until late June or early July, however, so we cannot
say how our testa have turned out yet»

It became apparent in the latter part of i/Iay that all growers did not have
an overset of Mcintosh even though most everyone had a " snowball" bloom on this
variety. This situation, we feel, supports ovir contention that chemical thinning of
Mcintosh should not begin until 10-lb days after petal-fall. The same sort of thing
happened in many Delicious blocks. This variety often "thins itself" to a desirable
degree without the use of chemicals « However, some of you may see more apples novT
and they may seem closer together than they did two weeks ago. Can you still do
some chemical thinning of Mcintosh? We have thinned Mcintosh satisfactorily a s late
as k weeks after calyx, so if you are still i*ithin t hat period or still ahead of the
final drop you might help this year's fruit size and next year's bloom by applying a
thinning material. If the June drop is well under way or complete, you cannot expect
to accomplish anything with chemical thinners, however.

Apparently the amide form of naphthaleneacetic acid is capable of causing foliage
injury occasionally. Early Mcintosh seems to be susceptible sometimes. In one of
our tests on this variety, this year, 12 ounces of the commercial material per 100
gallons of water applied diluted with a hydraulic sprayer in bloom, or at calyx, time
caused considerable leaf curling and shoot growth inhibition. The same variety in an
adjacent block sprayed with 8 ounces of Amide per 100 gallons with a speed sprayer at
petal-fall showed no injury. To our knovfledge Early Mcintosh is the only variety that
this material has injured in this state. At least two growers have noticed it, also,
on this variety. It looks like we'll have to suggest lovTer concentrations of Amide
for Early Mcintosh in the futvire.

You may be interested to know that controlled atmosphere storage capacity
in this state is on the increase. At the present time there are enough rooms under
construction to add about U0,000 bushels to our controlled atmosphere capacity. We
expect there will be a total capacity in Ikssachusetts of 75,000-80,000 bushels this
fall.

— P ,V»r. Southwick

ECHOES FROM THE STRAWBERRY CONFERENCE

at Beltsville, ifaryland

Research in strawberry growing is being carried on in so many different parts
of the United States, Canada and in foreign countries, that it is highly desirable
for the workers in this field to get together occasionally to talk over their pro-
blems and swap ideas. In order to provide an opportunity for a "get-together" to
discuss the latest developments in strawberry research, and to show \7hat is going
on at the U.S.D.A, Horticultural Research Statical at Beltsville, iiiarylard, the small
fruit staff at Beltsville organized a two-day conference on liay 26th and 27th, Al-
though the conference was designed to meet the iieeds of research workers, it was not
limited to them. Nearly 1^0 people attended tte conference. Of these, a considerable
number were nurserymen or their representatives and strawberry growers. These people
came from many parts of the U,S, - California, Oregon, Vermont, New Hampshire and
Florida, among others - and from Canada and even one researcher from the Netherlands,

- 6 -

The program included talks, demonstrations and field trips. Although niany
topics were discussed, most attention was given to breeding, virus and the nematode
problem.

The use of virus-free plants has increased very materially this year
as more virus-free plants were made available. The progressive nurseries are making
every effort to increase the supply and keep them virus-free. Two methods are being
used to keep the "foundation stock" or "mother plant beds" free of virus. In some
states, as is being done in liassachusetts, the plant growers are building screenhouses
to protect the foundation stock plants from the aphids which carry the virus from
plant to plant. In others, the foundation stock is grown in Isolated areas where
there are neither cultivated nor wild strawberries for several miles, as is being
done in California and Tennessee,

One of the serious problems being faced by every state where strawberries
are grown is how to be sure that the g rovrer gets virus-free plants when he orders
them. This involves a number of technical, inspection, control and financial problems.
These are being attacked in several ways by different states, Tennessee has decided
to follow a "get tough" policy, A rather detailed set of rules and regulations has
been established and will be rigidly enforced xintil relaxation seems justified. The
cost of "indexing" (testir^ for virus), inspection and certification is borne by the
State, California, which also has a stringent set of rules and regulations, charges
the plant grower for these services. In both states the plant grower is allowed to
charge a premium of $U»00 per thousand for the virus-free plants.

Other states are approaching the problem the other way around. That is, they are
starting out with a few milri regulations which will be tightened upas it appears
necessary. Other states, including mssachusetts, have set up no regvilations as yet.

The nematode problem received a great deal of attentiontecause it is one of
the neT,Test fields of strawberry research and also because Dr, Caroline Klinkenberg of
the Netherlands was present and discussed the results of her work. She stated that
the nematode problem is the most serious strawberry problem in the Netherlands and
that work on it was started during the last war. It has still not been proved that
nematodes are the cause of the root condition called black-root rot, or simply black
root, , However, it has been shown quite conclusively that where black root is a pro-
blem, plant growth has been greatly improved and yields increased by soil fximigation
vdth nematocides, Dr, Braun, of the Geneva New York Experiment Station, discussed
his work on this same problem and agreed with Dr, Klinkerberg's conclusions.

During the discussion it was emphasized that the soil must be in the
right condition for fumigation, that is, in condition to make a good seed bed, the
right amount of soil fumigant must be used, it must be put down deep enovigh, at least
six inches, the soil must be sufficiently warm, 50^, for the commonly used fumlgants,
and the fumigant sealed in by a drag, smoothing harrow or cultipacker. Therefore,
for strawberries, fumigation in the fall before the plants are set is a practical
necessity.

Strawberry breeding is being carried on in twenty-one colleges and research
stations. The objectives vary with the needs of a particular region, Ona of the ob-
jectives of the breeding work at Beltsville is the production of varieties resistant
to all three strains of the jred stele disease. This phase of the breeding work is
being carried on in cooperation with the University of Maryland, The variety Stele-
master, which was named and introduced last vd-nter, is one of the products of this
project. It is recognized by the men who named and introduced it that Stelemaster
is only a stop-gap variety to be grown where it is impossible to grow other varieties
because of red stele. Varieties which are superior to Stelemaster and have the same
multiple resistance to red stele are in prospect for the very near future.

- 7 -

There is still no control for red stele other than resistant varieties. Some
soil fumigants look promising but too little experimental evidence is available to
dra\T any conclusions,

—John S, Bailey

BRUISES COST MONET-

Would you knoiving^y pass by a twenty dollar bill lying on the sidewalk and not
pick it up?

Possibly, you are passing up many twenty dollar bills by careless handlii^
of your apples.

As reported in "Apple Research Digest" the V/ashington State Apple Commission
estimates that over the past eight years, because of better handling methods,
Yfashington State apple growers have saved |2, 000,000 annually.

In 19hMi7 the Apple Commission made a survey of Delicious apples on re-
tail display and found 31,8 per cent of them severely bruised. After bringing this
situation to the attention of the grovrers by means of films, posters and similar
devices, the number of severe bruises was reduced to 11,0 per cent as determined tiy
another survey made in 195^^-55 •

The recent survey of Mcintosh apples on retail display in Massachusetts showed
23 per cent as being severely bruised. This would indicate that Massachusetts
grovTers might save thousands of dol].ars at least by adopting measures which would
reduce bruising to a minimum,

—0,0 .Roberts

#############

POMOLOGICAL RESEARCH

5. Black-Root Rot
of Strawberries

One of the newest projects in the list of research projects of the Pomology
Department is that concerned with the cause and control of black-root rot in straw-
berries. This is being carried on under an informal cooperative agreement with the
U.S.D.A, Vife are working on control measures; the U.S.D.A, man on causal agents and
their nature.

The black»root rot disease can be found in all parts of Ldassachusetts, It
is more serious in some sections than in others. It is extremely serious in the
Southeastern corner of the state, A state-wide survey carried out in the fall of
1953 (see FRUIT NOTES for November 2k, 1953) showed that nematodes are generally
present in plants suffering from black-root rot, and that usually the plants showing
the worst black-root have the highest population of nematodes in their roots.

The presence of nematodes in the roots of black-root rot infected plants

- 8 -

does not prove that they are the causal organism. Proof of the cause is still lacking
as discussed elsewhere in this issue ol" FRUIT NOTES, Nevertheless, where plants are
to be grown on soil knovm to be infected with black-root rot, the increase in plant
vigor follOTving soil fumigation is very marked.

Several soil furaigants such as D-D^ ethylene dibromide (EDB), irethyl
bromide (MC), or chloropicrin are all good nematocides, Hovrever, only D-D and EDB
are economical for large scale use in strawberry fields, V/here these are being used,
the rates of application recommended are based on experience with other crops and are
not necessarily the right amovuits for best results in treating strawberry fields.
Therefore, an experiment has been started to test D-D and EDB at three different
concentrations and in split applications, ViThere a split application is used, half
the required amount of fumigant is put in the soil, two weeks later the soil is
turned over by plowing, or otherwise harroTied smooth and retreated with the second
half of the fumigant,

EDB and D-D are standard soil fumigants which have been in use for a con-
siderable number of years. Since these are toxic to plants, a period of at least two
weeks must elapse before plants are set. Several new fumigants are in prospect. One
of these is now under test. It is of such a nature that strawberry plants apparently
will tolerate considerable quantities of it. This would permit its use after the
plants are set if this seems desirable.

To insure the best results from soil fumigation, plants whose roots have
been freed of nematodes should be used for setting in fumigated fields. Roots can
be kept free of nematodes by rooting runner plants in fvunigated or sterilized soil.
This is slow, laborious and costly. The U.S.D.A, has developed a hot water treatment
which is much faster and cheaper, Hov/ever, there are certain aspects of this treat-
ment which need further study before it can be unqualifiedly recommended,

John S, Bailey

# # # # # ########

ARE EASTERN APPLE GROWERS TAKING THE LEAD? **■«■■«■■»■« -Jt ■«• ^c- ^;- * •»■ ^i- ^t ■«• •»■ -Ji- ^ ■«• i(- i^
(Excerpts from an address by G,P, Harley U.S.D.A,
before the Washington State Horticultural Association-ED,)

In the past decade we have witnessed a veritable revolution in many industries
and the apple industry is no exception. In this short space of time the apple grovrer
moved from a feeling of almost complete frustration to one of more moderate security
in the production of his fruit. Just 10 years ago many capable and progressive
growers in some eastern areas were firmly resolved to abandon growing of apples be-
cause the codling moth had literally taken over. One year's experience with DDT re-
legated this pest almost to the category of insignificance and now vdth the develop-
ment of many other new pesticides the problems attending fruit groiring have been
greatly eased.

Many other startling advances have taken place and have combined to bring about
important transitions in production methods.

Changes in Acreag^e Holdings - The eastern apple grower today is alert to all these
new discoveries, for the general trend is toward greater specialization with larger
acreages under one management. Small holdings are rapidly disappearing, Bfeiny trees
of poor varieties have gone out and very few have been replanted. Also, practically
all the new commercial planting is being done by experienced growers. Thus, for the
years immediately ahead it appears evident that apple production in the east will

- 9 -
come from a rather stable acreages

Outlet for Old Varieties - About UO per cent of the eastern apple crop is now market-
ed through processing channels s Canned sauce constitutes the major processed output
at present and, for every tushel of Mcintosh, Delicious or other dessert types, a
bushel of York Imperial, Rhode Island Greening, Baldwin, Stayman Vifinesap or Grimes
Golden is required for the proper bland for high quality sauce.

Improved Methods - Production practices in many eastern orchards have had a face
lifting in recent years 9 Vfith larger acreages the trend is definitely toward mechan-
ized methods both in the orchard and in the packing house. Pallet handling of the
fruit is becoming common practice. Automatic spray equipment of one type or another
is in greater usee Better pruning is achieved through the use of pneumatic equipment
and pruning platforms, Vifith the introduction of new pesticides;> Insect and disease
control has been tremendously im.proved»

Along with these changes the eastern grower is changing his perspective. His
sights are nov; set on growing high-^uaLity fruit. He has become "finish" conscious.
Eastern apples were characterized in the past as having rough finish vrLth much
russeting. This was due in part to the nedessity of using sulfur sprays for disease
control^ but cold weather in early spring was a contributing factor. Adverse climatic
conditions will continue to be a threat to fruit finish; however, much study is being
made to find combinations of the newer organic pesticides that vn.ll minimize spray
injury to the fruit svurface. Some excellent progress has been made In this direction.
Should these efforts to improve frxiit finish show any degree of success, competition
of dessert apples on the fresh-fruit market is bovind to increase.

Irrigation - Because of the possibilities of improving quality, and in viewof the
past 3 years of rather serious drought in many areas, grovrers are giving much thought
to irrigation and quite a few orchards are novi equipped to irrigates ''"ith the newer
equipment now available, it is quite certain that many more growers will adopt the
practice if sufficient vfater is available 0

The importance of fruit size also brings up the subject of fruit thinnings The
eastern grower is more and more getting to appreciate the importance of this practice,
but high labor costs of hand thinning of large acreages are very discouraging. Des-
pite the fact that results have been rather variable, many growers are using chemical
spray thinners©

Cultural Practices - The system of culture in eastern orchards is almost entirely
one of permanent soda This sod cover of volunteer grasses and weeds effectively re-
duces run-off of rainwater and subsequent soil erosion. It also affords protection
from soil compaction by heavy spray equipment and other orchard traffic. In the New
England states and in many other sections, mulching of apple trees is a standard
practice and most of the highest producing trees are f ouM in orchards where this
cultural system is followed.

The per-acre production in eastern orchards is considerably less than that of
central and northcentral Yfeshingtona The average commercial yields are about 2^0
bushels per acre. Some more favorably situated and better cared-for holdin- s may
produce ^00 bushels, while a fev/ exceptional orchards have reached SOOa There are
many reasons for the lower production, but the reluctance of growers to use sufficient
nitrogen is partly responsible e It is vrell recognized that retardation of red color
development is correlated with high nitrogen levels. Environmental conditions not
conducive to red pigment formation generally prevail in many eastern apple regions.
Nitrogen levels necessary for high ;^ld have invariably resulted in serious reduction
in color of most varieties in these areas. Such fruit is not only a drug on the

- 10 -. ,

fresh-fruit nnrket but is uriwelcohie in processing channels as v/ell. A partial solu-
tion to the problem is the increased planting of red bud sports. There is experi-
mental evidence that the red sports are not nearly so sensitive to nitrogen effects
as the parent varieties.

Permanent Production Problems - Although there has been great progress", as already
mentioned, \7ith nev/ pesticides, the eastern groi/er still has a battle to grovr clean
fruit. The recommended spray schedules for the 19^h season listed 10 to 12 applica-
tions of rather complicated aiid expensive spray mixtures. The climate of practically
all eastern states is generally ideal for the scab organism to develop and constant
vigil must be exercised to keep this fungus under control. The problem is especially
serious in vie\/ of the fact that 3 of the best quality dessert varieties - ilclntoah,
Delicious and Stayman V^inesap - are highly susceptible to the disease «

Cliief among other troubles are mice and poor soil drainage. The common meadoiv
mouse is always present but the most serious pest is the pine mouse. Poor drainage
is probably the prime factor causing loss of tree vigor and lov; production in orchard,
having clayey subsoil.

Taking the Lead? - In summary, it can be said that eastern apple grovrers are taking
the lead, the lead to improve their competitive positione This does not imply that
superiority over operational methods, quality of product and package of the v/estern
growers has been achieved. It simply means that the eastern grov/ers are in a positio
to accept the vrestern challenge vdth greater coi^rage than they could a decade ago,
Apple grad.ng in the East, and in the Pacific Northviest is vastly different. The
eastern grovv'er is just as intelligent as the v/esterngrovfer, but there the siruilarity
ends. Environmental conditions are so different in the tiTO regions that the end pro-
duct vdll never be exactly the sameo Eastern Delicious, for example, does not evolve
into a long-type apple v/ith prominent projecting points so characteristic of the
western grown fri;its of this variety o Co]d spring rains, lower quantity and quality
of sunlight and high night temperatures before harvest vdll continue to \7ork against
fine finish and red color development on eastern^fruit. Despite these climatic handi-
caps, the eastern grower is pressing forward vvlth advanced methodology to improve
quality production in both fruit and pack, Nev; plantings are v/ith good dessert varie-
ties, mostly red bud sports and these iie\ir plantings mean that increased competition
on the fresh apple market and these nevj' plantings mean that increased competition on
the fresh apple market can confidently be expected,

# ?;^ ##/;'# ii' ##;;'# ^ #

-;;- ii- •?:- -;c- * ■!!- -;^ -s;- •!;- -;:- % Y% The Grading Law Should Be Enforced ^ ^f- -;'<• ^f- •«■ ^'<- ^'^ -«■ •■" •*!• * -=<•

The following are a fevf retailer comments v/hich indicate their viev/s on apple
grades :

"The grading la^T should be enforced. Stop overfacing,"

"I prefer western apples because of uniformity and atteactiveness, V/ould like
to have local apples graded. Would like to sell more apples,"

"If I buy 2 1/2" apples I want 2 l/2" apples, I don't want 3" apples,"

"I lose money on poor apples,"

"I bought a lot of apples vihich vrere overfaced. Paid $3<.50 for themji'ouldn » t
knowingly buy another box from this grov^er,"

"I bought apples for a price. Not going to be taken for a sucker again^fcould havi
paid vloOO more for better apples and been ahead of the gameo"

At present, retailers are at the mercy of the unscrupulous packer. This a tuatic
hurts the sale of apples. Enforcement of the grading 2a v^ would help to protect the re-
tailer as vrell as the careful grovTer and packer,

■?HHi-o, C.Roberts
i^Tiblicatidn Approved by Cieofge J, Gronin, state Purchasing Agent-#iy

The following article from the April 25th issue of NEWSWEEK has been
reproduced for distribution with the permission of the publishers.

-SCIENCE-

Food: Not Less, l)iit More

Rrliiiid each mouthful we eat, behind
the (a?riur, the food proeessoi, and the
suiieiinarket, stands a little-publicized
but critically important line of endeavor-
agricultural research. Within a genera-
tion, the men of this quietly phenomenal
science have put a meaty abundance on
the American dinner table envied by
all the world.

But with miracles come huge prob-
lems. From a glance at the current U.S.
farm surplus, one might conclude that
science and mechanization have lured
the farmer into overproduction. The truth
is far from this. The embarrassing pile-np
of wheat, corn, biiltcr, etc., is destined
to vanisli soon

One good drouglit could do it. bi an\
case, it will soon be eaten awa>- as the
population boom adds 2.5 million mouths
a year to the national stomach. If these
mouths are to be fed, farmers must be-
come luuch more .scientific than even the
best of them are toda\'.

7)1 the follonina, special report, hased
on talks with fop authorities in the flch!,
Newsweiok sc:ipn(;k Editor Richard K.
Winshno fells oj the marvels alreadti
achieved htj ap,rieiilliiral research and of
the knottij problems still to he solved:

LAST week a canny Iowa farm manager,
I an old hand at "selling" research, put
his finger on the changed mood that has
revolutionized American farming.

"Before the war, the county agent
needed several sea.sons to put across a
proven point on soil care or insect con-
trol. Most tarmers would wait tor the
fellow dow n the road to try it first. To-
da>-, it's the other way around. A farmer
snoops around an experiment station,
then rushes back to try .some discovery
that the scientists haven't half tested."

For the 19.55 season, this scienre-
miuded larnier has a bimiper crop of
frcsli wonders to keep his c\'c on.

A .Midwest expeiiment station is about
to release a strain of corn with husks so
tough a bird can't peck through. It will
also fend off its old enem\-, the borer.

Since January, American cattlemen
have been slipping a female se.x hor-
mone, stilbestrol, to 2 million steers to
make them bigger (juicker on less feed
(an DiH'ration. scientists sa\', that will
not adcct a steak-lover's manhood).

Breeders also are talking serioush- ot
impregnating 200,()()() cows With the
frozen semen of a single prize bull.

In New York City, a chemist is taking
the last kinks out of an edible sugar-
based detergent made from cane and
beet sugar. Soap and soap powders con-
taining it do not leave rings arovmd the
bathtub, do not sting the eyes- and wash
spinach thoroughh'.

3lor<>. ^lorc: To .some experts— the
ones who can see beyond the misleading
mountains of today's surpluses— such ad-
vances are deceptive. They are not
nearly enough to assure that U.S. agri-
culture will continue to get its job done.

One of these men. Dr. Byron T. Shaw\
farm re.search chief of the U.S. Depart-
ment of Agricultjire, estimates that, if thq
average American is to contiinie to have
as much meat to eat as he did last year,
all acreage that is currentK- idle will have
to be back at work by 1960. By 1975,
even if all marginal lands are used, there
might be a deficit of more than 100 mil-
lion acres. To meet this, livestock prod\ic-
tion alone will have to be nearly doubled
on the land at hand.

But the output of tlie hard-pressed
hen, for example, has already been
pushed from an average 100 eggs a year

to 180. Broilers have 70 per cent more
meat on them. For further big increases,
the hen and her rations— already nutri-
tional dynamite— will have to undergo
some serious redesigning.

ttifi Pu.<<li: To improve and broaden
agricultural research, the National Farm
Chemurgic Council- a group ot inH"en-
tial farm, industry, scientific nid govern-
ment leadeis is launching a concerted
campaign on many fronts this month. This
is the group which has long pioneered in
promotiiy; industrial uses tor siich items
as corncobs, soybeans, peanuts, and other
farm products. They have made such a
dramatic success of this that these prod-
ucts now account for 8 per cent of the
$30 billion total farm sales. However the
chances for further expansion along these
lines look dim in view of the mounting
competition from petroleum derivatives.
So the council is currently broadening its
scope to embrace all a.spects of agricul-
tural study, from the test tube to the con-
sumer's palate. (To emphasize this, it is
changing its name to the Council for
Agricultural and Chemurgic Research.)

The council's president, Henry T.
McKnight, a "Virginia cattle raiser, is
alarmed by the not-too-surprising fact
that industry's investment in research is

KevoliiMoii al llie Dinner Tahle

In just 30 N'cars there have been big changes in what Americans eat and
the way it is produced on the farm. Some of the most startling shifts:

Appetites increased

1925

1955

Beef per citizen per \car

59 lbs.

72 lbs.

Oranges

20 lbs.

58 lbs.

Chicken

14 lbs.

23 li)s.

So did farm cfficiencij

A farm worker produced food for

8 people

19 people

Crop N'ields per acre

100 units

130 units

Farm tractors

246,000

4,600,000

Food production of farm animals

100 units

1.50 units

Bat . . .

Production expenses

100 units

300 units

Average farm size

14 1.9 acres

2 15.6 acres

Farm population

31,200.000

21,000,000

INewsweek, .April 2.'>. 19.'>.'>

five times that of agiicultiiic. "It seems
pretty .slioitsiiihted," McKiiiKht savs,
"when you consider that the $15 million
spent to develop hybrid corn now brings
in more than SI l)illion a year."

To keep the U.S. (het as rich as now in
protein, Mcknight fignres that the $300
million spent last year for farm research
must be doubled within five years. (Half
of the annual bill is paid by the govern-
ment, Federal and state, and half b\
food processors and farm suppliers.)

Aii<ihi«>ll«'N: Whether or not the coun-
cil achieves its goal in that short a time,
farm researcli will continue to unfold
excitingly. The big news story at the mo-
ment is what is lieing done w ith antibiot-
ics, the w'onderfulK versatile wonder
drugs wjiich alone may prove a con
siderable antidote for the land shortage.
They are performing startling feats in
making an animal transform more of what
it eats into good lean meat.

Antibiotics were initially used on ani-
mals to knock out bacterial infections.
Soon, scientists found that, in smaller
doses, they also made the animals grow
faster. First fed to chickens and pigs,
they have been supercharging ealtlc and
sheep to a profit-doubling extent in the
last two years. Even mink and beagUs
are thriving on them. In Terrc Haute,
Ind., the Pfi/er Kesearch and Develop-
ment Farm, wliich feeds and weighs ex-
perimental cattle like rats, now serves a
special antibiotic-and-hormone cocktail
that is setting fantastic new records foi
induced growth.

Antibiotics may have even greater po-
tential for plants. Fresh on the market
are streptomycin sprays that knock out
costly bacterial blights on fruit trees,
tobacco, peppers, tomatoes, and pota-
toes. After treatment, the plants show
big croji gains, leading to speculation

Heat lamps for ,<owlrs.< slioats

that antibiotics not onl\' control plant dis-
eases l)nt may, as was found with ani-
mals, somehow stimulate plant growth.
E\perimentali\ , these potent suli
stances are also controlling Inngns at-
tacks, responsible for a major part ol tii(
nation's S5 billion-a->ear crop loss trom
pests. The\- are being screened as insec-
ticides. Dramaticalls , they are being
studied as a means of altering and im-
proving the very chemical characteristics
of plants, including tobacco and cabliage,
as they grow to maturity.

A present obstacle to their widespread
use for all this is an economic one. Anti-
biotics are pretts expensive for repeated
sprayings of low-price crops.

Closer at hand, probabh', is the auti
biotic preserving of meat. dair\' products,
and vegetables. This may soon comix'te
with radiation sterilization of foods,
which, apart from some use in preventing
potato spoilage, is still some years away.
Dr. F.E. Deatheridge, head of the Oliio
State biochemistrx' department, embalms
fresh-killed steers simpK b\ pumping an
antibiotic through their arteries. The
meat then will keep through three hot
summer days and acquires, in the proc-
ess, a delicate aged flavor. SiniilarK , b\
pumi)ing brine and smoke llasor inlo a
slaughtered hog. Dr. Dealhciidge thinks
he can put ham and b.ienn on the table
in three da\s inslrad nl llnre weeks.
■''iiliira' (iaitN: Supplementing the
.mliiiiiilics, hormones, and oilier surprises
on the brink ol dexciopmenl, the enter
prising farmer nl the liilnre will have an
old standin to rcK on: A clioice of some
40, 0(10 .igrienltnral ihemicils developed
over \cars ol res<'arch.

All these will help, but the larmer will
still have other pi oblems— pressing jirob-
lems that demand immediate and thor-
oni^h investigation if those 2. .5 million
new mouths a year are to be adequately
fed. Some of them:

►Mechanized as farming is, the farmer
still spends an estimated 6.5 per cent of
his day shoveling, lifting, and toting.
Needed: A variety of radical labor-
saving devices-evcrything from fertilizer
spread by the same vehicle that delivers
it to the farm, to pipelines for milk from
the udder to the vat.
►Marketing is often a Stone Age process,
capable of depressing many a farm item
even when production has been modern-
ized. Needed: Studies showing the
dairyman how to sell his beverage, for
instance, as fast as brewers do, and re-
search to ease the way for more "vertical
organization" in marketing.
►Though botanists, have catalogued
300,000 plants from all over the world,
chemists have intensively analyzed no
more than a "dozen, notably corn and
soybeans, for use by industry. Needed:
A greatly stepped-up search of all plant
life for new foods, pharmaceuticals, and
chemical products.
►By 1970 American industry will hav<»

i c^i

Si

r'^^^R '

:^*»'-s

Di

W&^mi

^hoH I heinlcal Corp.

Private labs for tender shoots

^oubled its already gargantuan thirst tor
water. With water already in tight sup-
ply over most of the nation, crop irriga-
tion is spreading fast over the eastern
half of the country, for it enlarges the
yields and helps insure against drought.
Needed: Common sense, stricter con-
servation, and, above all, more research-
on the development of crops and grasses
thriving on less water, and on rounding
out theories of the water cycle that can
be applied to each locality.

This is perhaps the biggest and most
ominous scientific lag of all. Without
water, all agricultural research could
quickly become so much theory.

SCIENCE-

Electrical Storms

This is the season of sudden
>Iectrical storms of mucli inten-
ilty wliich sometimes bring
ieath along with their destruc-
ive power. Some good advice
;omes to us today from Connecti-
wt 0. W. Apicer, president of
he Bartlett Tree Expert com-
jany, suggests that valuable
lees 50, 75 or 150 feet tall on
rour suburban or country place
lecome lightning targets during
he summer. These, he said, can
)e turned into giant lightning
■ods which will protect both the
rees and the surrounding areas,
I loosely-woven copper condu^
or can be extended from th^
lee-top down the forks an
ilong the trunks, then grounded
leep in the soil beyond the
iranch spread. A lightning bolt
triking such a tree is carried
larralessly into the ground.

During a thunderstorm, he ad-
rises, keep away from all tall
rees, wire fences, beaches and
Deposed hUltops. If you're near
m isolated tree, lightning may
ump from it to your body. Or it
nay enter your body after strik-
rg the ground. Or you may be
lurt if a tree explodes under a
ightning stroke. Trees along a
itream or lake are more apt to be
lit than those in dryer soil. Oaks,
!lms, pines, ashes, poplars and
naples — in that order — are
itruck more frequently than any
ither trees. Tall trees are choice
argets for lightning bolts be-
ause they offer the shortest dis-
Bnce between cloud and ground.

A negative electrical charge
juilds up in a cloud during a
itorra. An equal positive pharge
B built up on the ground. Thi
two attack each other. As th'
negative charge moves with th
cloud, the positive charge race;
along the ground beneath it. The
positive charge sweeps up trees
and buildings to meet the nega-
tive charge coming down from
the cloud. That is why forks of
lightning may be seen moving
up from a tree as well as reach-
ing down from the sky.

All this is good advice. It is
well to remember these points
when vacationing or out on a
picnic when a sudden storm
liurets upon your group. Some-
ilay it may save a life.

/

y

P

Jail and Church Targets

For Bolts of Lightning

Personnel at House of (
Crops Thus Far Ur
River Rises Slowly

Northampton, May 10— The mo
viciqu^^Jlclrical storm in sever
y^^P^^^^^^^^jampton short

Tore noon today^cP^MPting cor

.ightning Strikes
'orth Adams Horn

LTH ADAMS,
The TfiSPflflfW^strlke of th^
year was reported here to'day.

The bolt struck the home of Mr
and Mrs. John Simmons during
a near cloudburst, setting: (ire to
a hrA. Mrs Simmons alnnr in

Fire Loss Runs High
From Severe Storm

Lightning, which accompanied
this vicinity early last Thursday
area, or\g_j:esulting in a $12,000
uption for

irm into

rll 15—-
c'Dliiiliyg^JlllMOTFfon Smith, 18, t
^ and the cow he was militing in y

a \(IKreri't wind and rSf

OUTHAMPTO^
t BARN FIRE LOSS
TOTALS $20,000

famed

Jli(fUt4unCf^ --

FLASH OF DESTRUCTION

Lightning is a major cause of farm fires. It strikes without warn-
ing. Losses are usually disastrous, and crippling. If your buildings
are high, isolated, located on a hill or high ground, or in an area
where electrical storms are severe and frequent, you should consider
protection from lightning.

Nearby metallic objects, such as ventilating heads, barn tracks,
television aerials, fences and wiring with poor or inadequate grounds,
may increase your hazards.

yZightning Kilties
19 Drinking Coim

l[Lightning Photographc
terests of Sci

j^e hope of malun||gilw m
roads n^^ttlggif0tKMffans,t man's
most elusive natural foe, scientists
of General Electric Company con-
ducted their eighth summer of
lightning research high atop New
i 'York's Empire State building this
1 I past season. Complete photographic
records and electjjcal measure-
ments were obtained on all light-
ning strokes striking the National
Broadcasting Company's antenna

ne^.

Lightning Strikes^i LijilUiiing; Hits ^

11 Flee Home j\ Golfing Paiu

~ ^'ia^aangieratt^^l^the

!v i>rs?rnrwfPFss

Eloctricity Fuses
MctimsOf BoH

I .\.- 1 ii,\Mr:i I- ;

li Ml li;:liini'i^ '. ; ',• --'J.

1)111 ilXt-Jj^j^,i4ui4.^.-ie»»1^! ;■ . ^^ ii < .~
ail i liN"^- MU' iiir iiiM ■ in lb
h"ini' nt Ml . .(,vi Ml -. \i nuiii'i
B'i|v.,cI1p ,,i ]:> Bri^^'s .-I., iiiii ili.i
O'i iiiiiiT (l;ini;ii:r.

The f'...i->;fll.- i.uim!' :,,i, u'liu-
S\v iniir : 'iiii \'. •■;■■.■

l';ii'''-n ' Ml :!.■!<.

..ifllr'. .niii: ■aI-,., (;\c. i)(-\'

In llir MUp',>:\ i-,.ii'>i- ii;.; \'h..
elf.-lni ^nx !■ >' v ,, ijj-i npi.- ,

Two Cows Killed
Norwich .Storm.

n

— Two

C0W5

were kilieU"UP»iaBaBWH^^.XJUU dam-
age done to a dwelling in a sua-
den thunderstorm which swept
Norwich shortly after 10 a. iri.
Thursday.

The home of Morris Morgensteir, I
in Norwich was struck by a bolt;
of lightning, which apparently
struck a television guy wire and
vaced down into the house. The
fire started in the attic of the|

cvTCkicirkKj ccDVirc

M ilkllVCDClTV rtP MAQCAri-IIICPTTC f% AMMFDQT

R

V_J^

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS. AMHERST

JULY - AUGUST, 1955

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Extension Fruit Specialist

Mass. Apple Crop Estimate

34th Annual Field Day

Increasing Strawberry Yields by Soil
Fumigation

Country Point Pricing of Apples

Pre-horvest Drop Control of Apples

Pomoiogical Research

Sweet Cherry Varieties

Virus-Free Strawberries

Issued by the Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,
in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts,
United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating

Publication Approved by George J. Cronln, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOPR POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches small fruits and general fruit grovdLng courses #

Bailey, John S. - Associate Profess or^ Research - Stationed at East V/areham,
Doing small fruit research on strawberries, blueberries and beach
plums, ISr, Bailey also handles considerable of the small frviits
extension program,

French, Arthur P, - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing, currently editor of FRUIT NOTES,

Lord, William J, - ExtenSlcn Fmit Specialist

Connected chiefly with fruit grovrers* problems, other than pest
control^ and is somewhat involved in research,

Roberts, Oliver C, - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental
courses. Currently also doing research on fruit marketing,

Southwick, Franklin V/e - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutritions Also teaches in cer-
tain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D, - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain
teats and winter hardiness. Also teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to This Issue from Supporting Fields

CO, Cart\Tright - County Agricultural Agent in

Essex County
F, E, Cole - Extension Specialist in Fruit and

Vegetable Marketing
Robert A, Fitzpatrick - Assistant Research Professor

of Agricultural Economics

FRUIT NOTES
"■ JulyUlugufit 19!:^5

«• ii- if ^^ ^f- 1^ ■«•■%• •5f •){• EXTENSION FRUIT SPECIALIST ■«• * i^ ^i- <• * -Jc- ifr -JJ -if

It is indeed a pleasure to repoit that our six months search for the right raan
to fill the position of Extension Fruit Specialist has resulted in the selection of
Dr, IViUiam J, Lord for this job,

Dvt Lord recently completed his graduate study at the Pennsylvania State Univ-
ersity Tfhere he majored in Horticulture (Pomology). His undergraduate training and
I faster' 3 degree were earned at the University of New Hanpshire,

Hb Txas brought up on a Nevf Hampshire farm and managed a small apple orchard for
five years as a part of his duties while a teacher of Vocational Agricultvure in that
state and has also had considerable experience with small fruits. During ViTorld liTar
II, he was. on active duty with the U«S, Arn^ in Europe and then taught at the U» S.
Army School in Friesing, Germany before returning to civilian life.

As Extension Fruit Specialist, Dr, Lord will concern himself chiefly with the
problems of our fruit irdustry, other than pest control, including certain phases of
the research program. Admittedly, it will take him some time to get acquainted vdth
our iiassachusetts fruit industry and its problems, but we are confident that he will
develop rapidly into a valuable and important member of our Pomological team serving
you fruit growers,

— A, P, French

# 4' # # # # # ^' # /;■ •// /;■ #

Massachusetts Apple Crop Estimate

One item which alvfays attracts attention at the
s\mimer meeting of the i'lassachusetts Fruit Grov;ers
is Walter Piper's crop estimate. This sample esti-
mate is obtained by asking those growers present to
report their last year's crop harvested and their
estimate of their current year's crop.

The results for this year qere as follows:

19$h Crop 19B^ Estimate

Mcintosh
Baldwin
Delicious
CortDa nd
Other Varieties
Total

201,900 bu,
72,200 bu,
23,590 bu,
32,290 bu,
31,800 bu,

361,7tiO bu.

39Ui30O bu.
^5,500 bu,
k9,kl^ bu,
147,575 bu.
53 J 000 bu,

S99iii50 bu*

— A, P, French

# # # # i!' # # # # # i(* ;r #

- 2 -

3l|th Amm.L FIELD DAY

University of Iiassachusetts Field Station at waltham

The 3Hh Annual Field Day at the University of Ilassachusetts Field Station at
'Waltham vdll be held on Saturday^ August 6<, Scheduling the Field Day for a Saturday
is an innovation inaugurated for the convenience of the hundreds of people viho are
not able to visit the Field Station on v/eekdays«

Some of the special features this year will includes

(a) Exhibits demonstrating the scope of the work at the Vifaltham Field Station*
These include vegetejble breeding, floiver production, propagation, plant
disease control and insect control*

(b) The Annual Flower Gardens, including the All-^American Selections, which
irdll be at their height on this daye

(c) The Perennial Gardens are a unique collection of plant material inhich has
been popular among gardeners over the years*

(d) The Demonstration Home Vegetable Garden, shoviring a trial of all-purpose
pest control materials as dusts and sprays o

(e) Variety Trials of several kinds of vegetables in which old and new varie-
ties are compared for eastern Massachusetts conditionso

The entire experimental work of the Field Station will also be on display for
the public and labeled for inspection. This will include:

(a) The apple orchard where new pesticides are being evaluated,

(b) An asparagus field from which a new variety of asparagus is soon to be re-
leased,

(c) A tomato field where improvements are being made in tomato varieties for
growing on trellises,

(d) A squash field v;here selections are being made for better Butternut Squash,

(e) A carnation field where diseases of carnations are being studied,

(f ) Greenhouses where research is being conducted on propagation of shrubs and
flowers, and on propagation of better flo\Ters and vegetables.

In addition, commercial exhibitors will show the latest in small machinery,
gadgets and materials of interest to both professional and amateur gardeners,

—ED,

INCREASING STRAWBERRY YIELDS BY SOIL FUTIEGATION

Did your strawberry bed show evidence of b]ack-root? Did plants begin to dry
up and die when hot, dry weather started? Did you dig up some of these sick plants
and find most of the roots black and dead? If so, then perhaps you need to try soil
fumigation. Evidence is increasing that where black-root rot is a problem, soil fumi-
gation res\ilts in more vigorous plants and in increased yields.

If you decide to try soil fumigation, arrangements to do the job should
be made soon. There are several reasons for this. Fall fumigation is necessary.
The soil must be properly prepared. Arrangements must be made with a commercial fumi-
gator or equipment miist be ordered and put in shape and a fumigant obtained, So,don't
put off preparations too long.

- 3 -

The kind of equipnent used will depend on the size of field to be fumigated and
the grovrers' inclination as to what and how much they want to do themselves. For the
commercial size planting, tv/o general methods are available. The easiest and surest,
although not the least expensive, is to hire a coirmercial fumigator. He hasthe know-
how, equipnent and materials to do a thoroughly satisfactory job. The cost will vary
according to the area fumigated and the kind ard amount of fumigant used.

On the other hand, a mechanically inclined grower can purchase a kit to rig up
his am fumigator. There are one and tir/o outlet, gravity feed kits which can be attacli-
ed to a one or two bottom plovf. The fumigant is dripped into the furrow ahead of the
plow. Or a 2,U,6,or 8 outlet pressure kit may be obtained for attaching to a cxJ-tiva-
tor. The pressure is supplied by a small gear punqp hitched to the power take-off of
the tractor. An outlet tube is fastened behind each shank of the cultivator with the
opening near the bottom of the shank. The shanks are spaced 10 inches apart. Since
the amount of fumigant applied is extremely iniportant, directions are STJ^pplied with
each kit explaining hovf to adjust it to apply the desired amount, A drag is needed
behind the fumigator to seal the gas in the soil.

For a small area a hand injector can b e used. This is poked into the
soil every 10-12 inches and delivers a small amount of fumigant. An injector of this
type is fairly rapid, easy to adjust arei handle but is rather expensive, A cheaper,
but more laborious method, is to make trenches 6-8 inches deep every 10-12 inches
across the field, povir in the fumigant and then cover it immediately. The pouring can
be done easily by using a quart, metal-topped frviit jar with two holes punched in the
top. The holes are made with an 8 penny nail, one for pouring and one for a vent.

Regardless of the method of application, the soil needs to be v/ell pre-
pared in advance. Thorough plovd.ng and harrovritng are necessary to break up all clods.
Any large pieces of orgaiic refuse, such a s tough sods or cornstalks, must have time
to thoroughly decompose since the fumigant vj-ill not penetrate them othenvisep In other
words, the soil should be well pulverized and moist as if prepared for a good seed bed.
Also, it must not be too cold. Effective fumigation can be done between 50 and 85^,

Fall fumigation avoids late spring planting. If the spring is cold, it may take
considerable time for the soil to reach 50°F, A two weeks waiting period is needed
after treatment to allow all the fumigant to leave the soil before planting. The last
half of September and the month of October are good times to fumigate in most sections
of the State,

There are several very effective soil fumigants. However, \ihen one considers
effectiveness, cost and ease of handling, only two are practical for fumigating straw-
berry fields. These are D-D at 20 gallons per acre and ethylene dibromide, or EDB at

9 gallons per acre of a material containing 83 percent EDB by weight. Effective treat-
ment requires that these materials be placed 8 inches deep in the soil at intervals of

10 inches. If fumigating is done ahead of a rain, the water vd.ll help to keep the fumi-
gant in the soil and make it more effective.

So, if you have black-root rot trouble and v/ant to try soil fumigation,
prepare the soil thoroughly, see that it is at the right ten^rature, use the right
amount of a good soil fumigant, get it down eight inches in the soil and drag the field
to hold the gas in the soil. Do this in the fall and avoid delayed planting in the
spring,

John S, Bailey

p. ji j>. M. .■( J( J! Jt n J' JJ- U U
It rr IT 11 h iT ti ti 11 Ti 11 W JT

CoKdSvy t'oint Priciiif' ol' apples -

A method of country point price reporting was devel-
oped by the Departmeiit of Agricultural iconomics, and tested
during the '52 and ",'3 apple marketing seasons. The study
dealt vdth iiclntosh sold at wholesale,

A group of grovrers, v;hose marketing practices vrere
representative of the practices of all local grovrers, vol-
unteered to report their sales data. All information re-
ported was kept confidential.

Reporting was on a weekly basis e Grov/ers vrere supplied
with blank forms, on which they wrote the sales data. Prices
vfere figured "back to the storage". The grovrers sent the
filled-in forms to the University, v/here the data were sum-
marized. The forms v/ere then returned to the groirers.

The report form listed the following: Date of sale;
Number of bushels soldj Price per bushel; Nearest U.S.gradej
Size; Condition; Color; Package; Kind of buyer; and market
area where sale was made.

In the second season, a weekly summary 7iras sent to
the growers. This sheet listed the volume sold to date,
and the country point price for various grades, sizes, and
packages sold to various outlets in the various markets.
It also gave an indication of the relative movement by
grades, packages, and sizes.

The total volume reported in the first season was
25,000 bushels with a "shipping point" value of about vll5,00c).
In the second season, over 70,000 bushels were reported,
with a value of about $200,000,

The growers who took part in the s tudy r eported that
the information secured was of substantial value to them, as
it gave prices received by grovrers who sold in many differ-
ent ways, and that it was more realistic than information
from v^iole sale market centers alone,

—Robert A, Fitzpa trick

The practical findings of the research study reported above are as follows:

1, Country point price reporting is possible,

2, "Back to the storage" prices indicate what growers are actually getting
from several methods of marketing,

3, Modern methods of marketing emphasise the country storage point as an im-
portant pricing point. Storage door prices were shown to be more steady
and more realistic than Boston w holesale market prices,

I4, A method of reporting by groviers has been tried out and suggested for

adoption,
5, The accuracy, value and use of the suggested method deoends upon growers,

F.".Cole

-5 -

At the summer meeting of the Massachusetts Fruit Grcjwers Association it was voted to
request the Massachusetts Department of Agriculture to supplement existing apple
market reports with more complete country point pricings

— ED.

####### ^ # ^^ # rf #
^PREHARVEST DROP CONTROL OF APPLES

This year there has been considerable speculation as to just where grovrt-h re-
gulating substances or "hormones", used for thinning and preharvest drop, stood fol-
lowing passage of Public Law 5l8 - the "MiUer Bill" which became effective July 22,
1955.

Of the materials being used on apples for these purposes, naphthaleneacetic
acid (NAA), naphthaleneacetamide (NA Amide), 2,U,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid
(2,k,5-TA), and 2,U,$^trichlorophenoxyproplonic acid (2,U,5-TP), only NAA has an es-
tablished tolerance which is 1.0 ppm. Thus we thought that unless tolerances for
the others were set before fall, niether 2,U,5-TA nor 2,U,5-TP could be recommended
for preharvest drop control,

Hovrever, it now appears that these materials are not considered "pesticides"
and therefore are not subject to the regulations of the Miller Bill, "The term^
pesticide refers to a chemical used for preventing, destroying, repelling or raitigat-
ing any virus, insect, rodent, fungus, \ireed or other form of plant or animal life
which is recognized as a pest and which is used in the production of a raw agricul-
tural product. These pesticides are economic poisons and include weed killers, in-
secticides, fungicides, rat killers, etc," F^rom this definition it seems that the
preharvest drop and chemical thinning materials are excluded. In other words, v;e
expect to be able to recommend the use of NAA, 2,U,5-TA and 2,U,5-TP as we have
during the past few years. We have been told that manufacturers and suppliers vrLll
produce and provide these materials as they have in the past. Hence, we expect to
have available for distribution through the County Extension Offices, and the Univ-
ersity of Massachusetts, Special Circular No. 25U, "Preharvest Drop Control of Apples"
by nid-August at the latest.

We anticipate that interest in drop materials will be appreciable since most
growers have large crops of Mcintosh to harvest, VJe want to remind you that apple
trees are inclined to drop fruit rather heavily when carrying a large crop, when the
weather is warm at harvest time, when the trees are high in nitrogen or deficient
in magnesium or potassium, or when the foliage has been badly damaged by mites or_
frost. Hence, keep the foliage in good healthy condition and free from serious mite
injury. If you suspect that some of your trees may be approaching a magnesium de-
ficient condition a couple of sprays of epsom salts at the rate of 20 pounds per 100
gallons may be a very vforthvvhile investment. These hormones won't control fruit drop
of apples if the foliage is not in a good, healthy condition,

— F ,W, Sout hffick
####### i(^ ## 4' # ,f

POMOLOGICAL RESEARCH ':

)■' ■. ■ .
6« A Study of New Varieties
of Fruits

The study of new varieties has been conducted for a longer period of time than
any other irork conducted by tiie Department, In October of 1888, Professor Maynard
reported on new and standard varieties of fruit* Some of the varieties of apples
Y/hich he listed such as Yellow Transparent, Gravenstein, Baldwin and Ro I, Greening
are still being grown, but it is rare to find the varieties Porter, King, Fameuse,
Fallawater, Sutton Beauty and Pewaukee in a commercial orchard today. His peach list
did not contain a single variety which we are now grovTing, The list included Alexan-
der, Mt, Rose, Old Mixon, Stump, Arkansas Traveller, Red Cheek, Morris V/hite, ViTheat-
land. Smock, Early Crawford and Late Crawford, Elberta was then l8. years old but
was not included in the list of peaches \i4iich Professor Maynard was growing at that
time. The stra\Tberry variety list included such names as Daisy, Dai iel Boone,
Garibaldi, Jessie, Old Iron Clad and Woodhouse, but did not include any of our recent
strawberry varieties, I expect this is enough of ancient history but it does show
how the variety picture changes over the years and the need for continuing the study
of new varieties.

At the present time we attempt to obtain promising new variety introductions
of all the principal fruits which appear to be adaptable to Massachusetts, After we
have fruited each variety for a sufficient length of time to determine its v§.ue for
our conditions, we either discard the variety as having no\'alue or recommend it for
trial. After a variety has beengrown for trial by the station and by growers long
enough to fully determine its value as a commercial variety, it is then discarded if
found T^anting or recommended for commercial or home planting.

The results of our variety studies are used as a basis for our special variety
circulars. The circulars list the varieties \#iich are recommended for commercial and
home use and varieties for trial. Brief descriptive notes and the harvesting season
for each variety are also included in the circulars. These variety circulars may be
obtained from the Mailing Room at the University at Amherst or from the Department of
Pomology, In the future we hope to have some stories in this publication on varieties
we have tested and discarded, Vife shall give the principal reasons why we think the
variety does not have any value for liassachusetts c additions.

— ViT.D.Vfeeks

SVJEEJ CHERRY VARIETIES

Vifhile commercial Hweet cherry gro\iilng is of relatively minor importance in
Ii!assach\isetts, several varieties have been tested in the University orchard during
the past tvrenty-five years, ilany have been discarded for one or more reasons, as
follows :

Dikeman - Vifhile it ripens late, it is mediocre in quality, unattractive, and
too small to merit further consideration.

Early Honey Heart - As the name implies, it is one of the earliest varieties

but is a small, yellow cherry, cracks badly and is generally unattrac-
tive •

-7 -

Elkhorn - This is an old variety which has been discarded because the fruit is
small and the tree tends to be unproductive*

Qenesee - This variety has been planted repeatedly but invariably has failed
to grow.

Nelson - A dark red cherry indistinguishable from Schmidt.

Noir de Ouben - A dark red cherry of mediocre quality and size. Inferior to
Schmidt which ripens at the same time.

Paul Rose - A light colored cherry with a distinct red suture. A sport of
Schmidt but inferior in appearance.

Sodus - A light colored variety of inferior quality with a tendency to oraok

at the apex.

Yellow Spanish - An old yellow variety Y*iich is inferior in size and appearance
to Emperor Francis,

Varieties which are still under trial or have been retained to serve as a basis
of comparison are as follows!

August Supreme Lyons

Bing Ittlton Black Tartarian

Black Heart Napoleon

Black Tartarian Seneca

Early Rivers Schmidt

Eraporer Francis Schrecken

Geant d'Hedelfingen Sweet September

Giant Victor

Gil Peck Vernon

Lambert liindsor

York Imperial

•C .Roberts

Peach and Grape Tv/ilight Ileeting

The Massachusetts Fruit Growers Association,
with the County Extension Services cooperating, will
sponsor a Twilight Meeting on peaches and grapes at
S, L, Davenport's, North Grafton, Vfednesday, August
31, 1955 at 7tOO P.K.

Here is an excellent opportunity to get the
low-down on a couple of good diversified cops. Mr,
Davenport is one of the few commercial grape growers
in the State and has large variety collections of
both fruits.

-—A.P.French

####/;??;'## /i' /^ ^' ;:' #

Application of parathion with 3-row duster.

Pigging plants with 2-row potato digger.

VIHDS-FREE STRAWBERRIES

Roger H. Lewis of Andover, Essex
graduate of '25, is using several in-
genious methods for the production of
virus-free strawberry plants. Roger
built the first and only screen house
in Essex County for the production of
vims-free stock last spidng.

Fovir varieties, Catskill, Howard
17, Robinson and Sparkle, were grown
in 1954. These four varieties plus
Fairfax, Midland and Stelemaster are
now being propagated in the field.

In order to prevent infection
ly the strawberry aphid which carries
the virus, Roger dusted all strawberry
plantings at weekly intervals, using
a ton of parathion in 1954^»

In order to speed up the digging
of plants Roger has adapted a two-row
potato digger for loosening the plant
beds.

To get ideal growing conditions
for plants, Roger uses large quanti-
ties of farm manure, cover crops and
rotation with vegetables. Irrigation
is used as needed throughout the grow-
ing season from the nearby Merrimac
River. All vegetable and strawberry
crops are bedded in 60" beds, this
giving ideal soil with no compression
from tractor and other tools.

The screenhouse soil has been fumigated and is now growing stock plants of the
following virus- free varieties: Howard 17, Sparkle, Catskill, Robinson, Red Star,
Empire, and Armore.

Roger plans to fumigate all soil used in the field production of virus-free
strawberry plants this fsill to give nematode- free stock. He has built a fumigation
chamber for treatment of cyclamen mite. Roger's goal is to have virus-nematode
cyclejuen-fflite free plants for sale as soon as possible.

them.

It appears that when better strawberry plants are grown, Roger Lewis will have

-CO. Cartwright

RU
NOTE5

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS. AMHERST

SEPTEMBER 15, 1955

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Prehorvest Drop Control of Apples

Cider Notes

Reduce Labor of Loading Apples on Trailers

Powdery Mildew

Pint or Quart Baskets for Blueberries?

Notes on Varieties - Brambles

Will You Lose Some Trees To Mice This Year?

Control of Chiclcweed in Strawberries

Issued by the Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,
in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts,
United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronln, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOUR POMOLOGY DEPARTMEIT

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches small fruits and general fruit growing courses,

Bailey, John S, - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East VJareham,
Doing small fruit research on strawberries, blueberries and beach
plums. Mr, Bailey also handles considerable of the small fruits
extension program,

French, Arthur P, - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in
small fruit variety testingp

Lorxi, Vifilliam J, - Extension Fruit Specialist

Collected chiefly with fruit growers' problems, other than pest
control, and is somewhat involved in research. Editor of FRUIT
NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C, - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental
courses. Currently also doing research on fruit marketing,

Southf^ick, Franklin IT, - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning,
preharvest drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition.
Also, teaches in certain advanced courses,

Tiileeks, ViTalter D, - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety arid strain
tests and winter hardiness o Also, teaches certain advanced
courses.

Contributors to This Issue from Supporting Fields
K, M.Hayes - Extension Food Technologist
W,R,Jones - U.S. Fish & 'iYildlife Service
R,B,Parmenter - Extension Forester

FRUIT NOTES
September 19^5

-X- a -if- ^/<r a -K- it ■»■ -Si- * ii- -;;- ^ PREHA.RVEST DROP CONTROL OV APPLES ■«• ^ * * ^- -k- ■«• ^f- ■«• ■»■ ^ •«■ *

The materials available for preharvest drop control of apples seem to have stabir-
lieod, at least temporarily, follo\Ting several nev/ introductions during the past feu
years. Hence, most commercial grarers in Massachusetts have had some experience
or introduction to all the materials which are to be discussed, '

Gro\Ters may now choose among the three available materials, naphthaleneacetic
acid (NAA), 2,[|,5-trichlorophenoxypropionic acid (2,U,5-TP) and 2,h,^trichlorophen-
oxyacetic acid (2,U,5-TA), The selection of a given material should be related to
the variety, how long it v/ill take to pick a block or orchard following treatment, and
\7hether hastened ripening is desired or not. For example, we believe 2,l4,5-TA repre-
sents the best of the three materials listed for Mcintosh when drop control of more
than 2 vreeks is desired vdth a minimum of hastened ripening. However, NAA is still a
good material for the grower v^o can harvest his liclntosh crop in 7 to 12 days,

NAA

1, Apply when drop of many-seeded, blemish-free fruit commences,

2, It may be applied as a spray, dust, or by airplane. Spray applications may
be concentrated,

3, Vifhen used at single (10 ppm) or double (20 ppm)strength (U to 8 oz, of most
commercial formulations per 100 gallons) it will reduce the rate of drop of
Mcintosh for 7 to 12 days. If a single strength application is made somewhat
longer drop control may be obtained by the use of a repeat application about
7 days after the first treatment)

kt NAA generally causes less direct ripening to fruit than 2,U,^-TP and slightly
less than 2,I|,5-TA but the higher the concentration of NAA \ised and the great-
er the number of applications the greater the ripening effect,

5, It is satisfactory for drop control of Mcintosh providing the block can be
picked 7d.thin 7 to 12 days after treatment,

6, For most late varieties 2,i|,5-TP is probably a more satisfactory material,
(See discussion under 2,It,5-TP,)

2,U,5-TA - For Mcintosh Only

1, Apply when drop coimmences (Same timing as NA.A),

2, Use at 20 ppm (read label) as a spray. Dust formulations are not generally
available. It can be applied by airplane,

3, 2,U,5-TA will often control drop for 3 to ii weeks but not quite as effectively
as 2,It,5-TP for the first 3 weeks,

h» 2,U,§-TA does not hasten ripening as much as 2,U,5-TP and not much more than
NAA, Remember that the longer apples hang the softer they become even if no
stop-drop material is used. Don't let the fruit remain unharvested too long"
if a good apple for long storage is desired,

$» This material is not suggested for varieties other than Mcintosh because of
lack of experience or failure to control drop (2,U,5-TA was ineffective in
controlling drop of Baldwin),

6, 2,U,5-TA is a brush-killer at high concentrations so do not use it at concen-
trations above those suggested and do not make repeat applications.

« 2 -

2,U,^>'TP

1, For best drop control of Mcintosh, but with the least ripening effect, apply

when drop commences (san© timing as MA),
2» When used at 20 ppm (read the label) it will reduce rate of drop for about 3

weeks after application on Mcintosh, Do not use higher concentrations,
3» It can be applied as a spray or from an airplane. Dust may be satisfactory,

if available. It may be concentrated safely up to 3X|
h» If a good storage Mcintosh apple is desired, pick the fruit within 2 v;eeks

of spraying, even though fruit is not dropping, to keep ripening effect at a

minimum. For longer drop control with less chance of hastened ripening, use

2,li,$^TA on Mr^Intosh,

5. t" or drop control on late varieties such as Baldwin, Rome, and Delicious,
delay the application until drop is about to start or before the foliage
becomes injured by frost or mites. Drop control may be expected for about
h weeks after treatment on these late varieties o This may be the best use
for 3tU,,5~TP since its ripening effect on many late varieties may not be too
pronounced a

6, If used to hasten ripening and improve color of early and midseason varieties,
apply at least 3 weeks ahead of harvest date. Apples from trees high in
nitrogen levels, will be ripened more than f rulFf rom trees at lower nitrogen
levels , Do not use 2,Uj5-TP for Improving color on regular Gravenstein,
Duchess and Milton since color is not greatly inqjroved and the fruit may be-
oome mushy and worthless. It has been used for this purpose with some success
on Early Mcintosh and Tifealthy, Beware of over-ripeness, splitting ■; and water-
core when used as a ripener. The ripening effect is not uniform over the- en-
tire tree. Some fruits will be ripened much more than adjacent fruits.

General Comments

No hormone is effective for drop control if the foliage is in an unhealthy condi-
tion as a result of frost or mite Injury, Also, trees suffering from magnesium or
potassium deficiencies will drop their fruit readily and hormones will not prevent it,

— -F.Vif.Southwick

Magnesium Deficiency - Symptoms of magnesium deficiency
are appearing in some of our Massachusetts orchards.
This deficiency generally is more prevalent in heavy
crop years. Look for a yellowing or brov/ning of the
leaf tissue between the veins on the older leaves. In
severe cases, the older leaves may have dropped off to
such an extent that some branches or the whole tree
may be almost defoliated by late September, In addi-
tion, magnesium deficiency may cause heavy fruit Aropo

—ED,

#############

-3 -

-HaZARDS OF DISCARDED ICE BOXES AND REFRIGERATORS

Discarded ice boxes and refrigerators make Inviting places for games by small
children, HeretcfoM . , many of these discarded ice boxes and refrigerators have
been small in size* This lessened the probability of a child's crawling into any
one of them. However, families are continually purchasing new refrigerators and
freezers in increasing numbers. This increased purchase is occasioned by many fac-
tors, including the desire for new boxes vdth freezing con^artments. The eld re-
frigerators which are now being discarded are larger in size than those which were
discarded years agoo Temporary housing has also stepped up the number of these dis-
carded ice boxes, refrigerators, etc. All this adds up to more and more inviting
discairded refrigerators and freezers for children to crawl into today, and vfith
these discarded air-tight cabinets vdth locks and hinges intact, they provide en-
ticing hiding places.

It is only natural for children to crawl into these hiding places as part
of a game, Many^ however, are locked in through malicious intent of older boys and
girls. Once the child is in this air-tight box, it's not possible for the child to
bo heard or seen, and the refrigerator becomes a death trap,

Sonething can be done about this - community action viiere the community
as a whole, makes a conscious effort to dispose of these empty boxes. However, the
individual can make these discaixied refrigerators harmless by removing the door, re-
moving the latch stop so that the door cannot lock, drill holes in the cabinet and
remove the gasket so it won't be air-tight, or destroy the box altogether.

If you have one of tliese refrigerators that you are going to die-
card, do some of these things and save the children in the neighborhocd from possible
accident. Perhaps the community or some local radio elation could carry on a program
of community education to safeguard the children in the neighborhood from these
death traps,

^R.BoParmenter

Chairman-Safety Committee

Wisdom from the Past-— — —

The preamble of the first yearbook of the
National Apple Association (new the Internation-
al-Apple Association) organized in 1895> inclu-
ded as one of its objectives this statement; "In
urging the necessity for a uniform standard of
barrel and a strict adherence to honest grading
in packing, it is endeavoring to promote the
welfare of the grower while at the same time
protecting the interests of the consumer."

While the statement relative to the barrel
has no significance today, it is interesting to
note that sixty years ago the harmful effect to
the apple Industry of dishonest grading and
packing was appreciated. This continues to be
significant at the present time,

— 0,C»Roberts

CIDER NOTES

Pasteiirizatlon - Many cider makers are contemplating pasteurization of cider for
part of their productions Work on this phase cf cider making is currently underway
at the USDA Eastern Regional Laboratory^ Vihll!£ results are incomplete^ cne of the
more promising set-ups is the use of a 30 gallon hot water tank (one end removed )with
two side-arm heaters to heat the water, A coil (al'jmiinum preferred) through vhich
the cider flows is immersed in the tank of water » Cider flow is adjusted by a valve
or clamp to raise th3 outlet temperature to about l80°Fj After pasteurizing, it is
filled into preheated bottles and coolede For best results, the cider should be fil-
tered before filling to remove sediicent.

Clarification « Many of you like a clear cider, but one that is not pollished
or is brilliant in appearance*

A clear cider can be gotten by allowing a tankful cf fresh cider to settle
for 2k hours and then siphoning off all but the last few Inches in tlie tank« If
possible, have the tank in your cold room to prevent fermentation.

Containers - At the present time, many new homes and apartments are
short on storage spaooj^especially refrigerator space. Move viith the trend and
supply customers with a variety of container sizes o Quart containers may sell viiile
gallon containers of cider will remain on the floor. Perhaps a square gallon con-
tainer or half-gallcn will move whereas round containers won't. Conduct a poll among
your customers to help determine their needs* Remember, satisfied customers come
backi

^K«Mo Hayes

A REMIMDER^HHHHHHHHi-

Now that apple harvest has started, copies of Gpecial
circulars no, 2U5 and 2U6 would be helpful,

. J '"■

Special circular no, 2U5 is titled, "Harvesting
Suggestions for Orchard Foremen", It covers five things that
orchard foremen should show the pickers and nine things that they
should tell them,

"Be A Better Apple Picker" is the title of special
circular no, 2U6, This circular stresses seven harvesting prac-
tices the app]e picker should follow in order to pick apples
easier, faster and better.

Copies of these two special circulars may be obtsiined
at your County Extension Offices

- ««-ED,

-5-

Ifeirvestlng Suggestions for the Owner

Special circulars no» 2ii5 and 2ii6 give harvesting sug-
gestions to the orchard foremen and the apple pickers.
liiThat about suggestions for the owner? Here are a few
worthwhile harvesting suggestions for the groweri

1, Make contacts for obtaining labor before the
harvest season,

2, Inventory all harvesting equipment well in ad-
vance of harvest,

3, Take time to show pickers how to pick properly
and avoid bruising*

ho Provide good harvesting supervision,
5I. Provide picking buckets and ladders of good
design,

6, Keep harvesting equipment in good repair,

7, Provide plenty of empty containers and picking
equipment conveniently located,

8, Provide adequate toilet facilities,

9t Provide plenty of cool and conveniently located
drinking water,

10, Explain carefully the system of paying and keep-
ing track of the number of bushels picked,

11, Take time to analyse the handling methods from
tree to storage in order to increase efficiency
and storage life of the fruit,

—ED.
REDUCE UBOR OF LOADING APPLES ON TRAILJES^ ^'"-'"^ ' ■^.

A study was conducted in tt© state of V/ashington to accumulate information
on methods and costs of loading and moving apples from orchard to the storage §nd
and the packing plants, |Si;ich a study vas of value because this operation is a direct
cost to the grower and handling methods have a n important bearing on how quickly
apples can be moved into cold storage.

One phase of the research involved a time and labor study of three
methods of loading boxes on orchard trailers • Since there is great variability in
time of driving and preparation' to pick up boxes, only the actual operation of load-
ing boxes was considered.

Method A — The most common rrethod (A) of loading trailers uses one -vrorker on the
ground to lift boxes f rom/^5®?ree, stacking" them in rows on the trailer bed. It is
frequently necessary for this workman to carry the boxes several steps in this opera-
tion. Another worker stands on the tra. ler bed and picks up the boxes and places
them into hauling position. The amount of time required to load the trailer is 3»0ii
man hours per 1,000 boxes.

Method B - A variation of the common method (A) is for the man on the trailer plat-
form to stack the center rows on the trailer and then move to the ground, where he

- 6 -

helps the other worker to finish loading c This niethod (B) saved more than one-sixth
of the work requirements per 1,000 boxes and reduced the time to load the traler by
approximately one-fourth of an hour per 1,000 boxes.

Method C - Ifethod (C) eliminates the man standing on the ti-ailer platform. This was
accomplished by placing hardwood skids across the trailer bed #iich enable the worker
to push the stacks of boxes tovrard the center of the trailer after building a stack
of the desired height on the edge of the trailer platform. Thereby, the whole load
can be handled from the ground.

Method (C) saved 39 percent of the loading labor required by the conimou
method (A) and reduced the elapsed time to load a trailer by nearly UO pei'cent.

Comparison of the Three Methods

The results of the study showed that even with the slight variation of
methods (A) and (B), it would pay to instruct the man on the trailer to stack the
center row of boxes and then help the other worker to finish the load from the ground.
Method (C) reduced costs considerably as a result of man hours savede In addition,
it may allow the use of a smaller crew because one man can do all the loading and
hauling of fruit to the storage. In large orchards the saving in total time may
reduce the amount of hauling eq\iipme;it necessary. The difference in the capital cost
of equipment for methods (A), (B), and (C) is negligible. The cost of the hardwood
strips may be off -set by less wear on the traler platform,

— ViT.J.Lord

SEEN AM) HEARD IN THE FIELD

Powdery Mildew - The author had the opportunity to go on the Hampshire
County Fruit Tour to Columbia and Duchess counties in New York, One of the
highlights of the program was the visit to Albei-t Cole's farm in Red Hook,
where we saw some of Dr. Palmiter's fungicide test blocks for powdery mildew
control on Jonathan apples,

Apple powdery mildew always has been a serious disease of apples
west of the Rocky Mountains but has not been so prevelant in the East, Drc
Palmiter stated that it has become a serious problem in some of the New York
orchards, particularly in the western part of the state.

The mild winters and the use of organic fungicides were consider-
ed tvro of the main reasons for the increase of powdery mildeiT in the New
York orchards. The organic fungicides now being used do not control the
disease and the mild winters have been f avorable for the over-wintering of
the fungus threads. It was evident in the test blocks that sulfur controlled
the mildew while the organic fungioides were ineffective.

The powdery mildew was found on the under side of the leaves on
the terminal growth. The affected leaves were crinkled and curled, and the
under side of the leaf covered -with grayish or T/hite felt-like patches© In
some instances the fungus patches covered the entire under surface of the
leaf and the affected foliage v;as hard and bcittle. In addition to the
grayish or vfhitish patches, small black patches of winter spores on the af-
fected leaf petiole also were noted. The fungus threads of the mildevj-

- 7 -

penetrate and over-winter in the terminal buds and in the tissue of the
younger turigs , In the spring, these are the source of primary infection,

"The chief loss frow the fungus results from its attack on the
foliage which, in severe cases, so devitalizes the tree that it fails to
produce fruit buds and causes a crop failure in the succeeding season,"

Although powdery mildew has been reported in New York and Connec-
ticut, at present it has not been found in Massachusetts,

Pint or Quart Baskets for Blueberries? - "Blueberries packaged in
quart baskets veil sell better than those in pints. Baskets of blueberries
without cellopliane on them sell better than those that are covered," These
statements were made by a blueberry grower at a small f ruits twilight meet-
ing held on his farm. This grower thought the reason for the preference of
blueberries not covered with cellophane was because customers on many occa-
sions have been disappointed with farm products packaged in cellophane or
polyethylene.

On the other hand, another grower uses pint berry boxes exclu-
sively. The blueberries are sized into three grades v/ith the best grade
sold in plastic boxes with a plastic cover. However, all three grades of
fruit are sold in baskets either covered with cellophane or a plastic top.
The grower commented that with plastic berry boxes, which are latticed, the
customer can see berries other than those ontopo With these boxes, the
customer can be sure of the fruit quality throughout the package,

A third grovrer puts blueberries in quart baskets for roadside
stand sales while those going to stores are put in pints. He felt that in
stores the public is accustomed to buying pint boxes of blueberries.

The facts stated above show that no one container for blueberries
can be considered best from the standpoint of size orlype. Just because a
certain type of package is preferred in one locality does not necessarily
mean it is to be preferred in others. The grovrer who operates a roadside
stand has an opportunity to determine what is best for his particular sit-
uation. In order to sell fruit not only must it be of high quality, but it
must be packaged to meet the desires of the purchasing public,

—W.J, Lord

// ##//### // #//###■

NOTES ON VARIETIES - BRAMBLES

Among the bramble varieties that have been tested at the University, the follow-
ing deserve or provoke cominent at this time:

Bailey blackberry. Again this year, we have been very favorably impressed
with the large size, sweet flavor and good production of this new variety. It is so
far ahead of Hedrick, another new one from New York, that there is no comparison.

Ebony King blackberry. This new variety which was obtained from a Idchigan
small fruits nursery has turned out to be a mixture of two different things, A part
of the plants are very similar, if not identical with, Eldorado vhile the rest bear
a very small, imperfect fruit which is absolutely worthless.

- 8 -

■ " '■ , ., '7 ■"■■.■■■■"■ •■■-»>■■- . .

September red raspberry, this variety was outstanding for its early summer
crop this year - as early as Sunrise with larger, better berries and fully as good
production, Ofcourse, September is also the best fall cropper for this area,

Taylor red raspberry, Tliree successive plantings of Taylor have been
killed by virus disease within about five years after planting in our trials. However,
in isolated spots there are some fine plantings of this variety in the hills of
Franklin and ViTorcester counties. Experience here and in other parts of the state in-
dicates that only under conditions of good isolation and fairly high altitude, is thi^
variety likely to be worth planting,

Tweed red raspberry. This is an early variety from Canada » Earliness is
its only virtue ; its fruit is distinctly inferior to September and Gatineau in size, ^
flavor and attractiveness »

Antietam red raspberry. This is a recent introduction from Maryland which
ripens in early mid-season, has fairly good color and size and is rather firmo How-
ever, the berries are rather irreguiar and are very inferior in flavor. It has no
place in Massachusetts where better varieties can be groim,

— A, P, French

lill-XS^-Lose Some_Trees_To Mice_This Year? _^ _„

The amount of serious damage to fruit trees by orchard mice this coming winter
is going to depend on the action you take during the next two months. It has been
demonstrated time and time again that an orchard mouse control program pays off.
Occasionally a fruit grower will neglect to eliminate his mouse population in one
season and will suffer no damages. He may then feel that maybe these mice are not as
dangerous as they are made out to be. As a result he may drop his baiting program
the following year also. So what happens? Unless he is endowed with a greater-than-
average supply of good fortune, more than you and I, he is hit and hit hard by the
little rodents.

This same logic can be applied to a slipshod, inefficient, baiting programo
If he gets away with it once, he is tempted to do it again and again. Until, dioring
one fine February thaw, he is confronted with rows of glistening, barkless tree trunks.
Does this happen in your orchard operation?

Our recommendations for orchard mouse control this year are not radically dif-
ferent than last year. Hand-baiting is still the best control method for the smaller
orchards. This means the placing of poisoned bait directly in natural mouse runways
only. If properly done, hand-baiting is very effective and better results cannot be
achieved by any other method known to this date.

For larger orchards, the orchard mouse trail builder machine is recommended.
The big advantages of this mechanized operation are in time and labor savings. Re-
sults should approximate that of hand-baiting in the same area. Another advantage
in some instances is that less reliable or experienced help may be employed with the

- 9 -

trail builder than with the hand^baitirg program. Very conscientious employees are
necessary for hand-baiting as it is a tedious, and sometimes discouraging, job when
the mouse population in an orchard is small but still present.

Apparently, there will be plenty of drop apples on the ground this year. If
this condition occuj-s in 2£ur orchard, our advice is that both Zinc-.phosphide-treated
oats and Zinc Phospldde-ti'eated apple cubes be Esed as a bait, acd it should be
heeded 0 Field trials have indicated that even under normal conditions, the use of
this combination bait gives better pine mouse control. But when the orehard floor
is littered v;ith apples, the apple-and-oat partnership has a decided advantage.

Mowing, as an indirect approach to mouse control, is frequently over-looked.
The goal here is a completely clean tree base, even if we cannot quite attain this
ideal \n.th mechanical equipment. It is surprising how much more grass can be dropped
by the cutter bar if you abandon the routine of mowing up and down the row in one
direction only, George Marshall of Fitchburg, Massachusetts, can t estif y to this.
After all, in a symmetrical orchard there are sixteen different directions to mow and
still be on a row of trees, provided ofcourse, that the orchard floor is smooth enough
to allow traversing on other than the spray rig path.

Special emphasis should be placed on late season mov/ing this year. Dry weather
persisted well into August bvit then the tropical cloudbursts came^ As in the tropics,
the grass cover has sprouted into a luxuriant jungle - an ideal home for the infamous
orchard mice. Removal of this cover before baiting time will be of great value,

—W.R.Jones

Mouse Populations

According to an article by G, C, Oderkirk, the mouse population
varies markedly from year to year^ The reason for this fluctuation has
not beer/dbfinitely established, although adverse weather conditions and
disease are considered important factors. Meadow mice are prolific and
under favorable conditions, have from 5-10 litters of yoiing a year, with
any\?here from 1-11 per litter. The number and size of litters are usu-
ally greater in the so-called "mouse years". During these years, the
mouse population increases rapidly and if conditions are favorable,
they increase over a period of k-6 years and then become scarce. These
population peaks are reached about every four or five years,

"It woxOd be nice if we could predict the 'mouse years' but they
are somewhat localized. However^, knowing that these fluctuations occur
makes it important for the fruit grovrer to keep an eye on the ground to
note the runways and other indications of mouse abundance,"

ED.

from inSCONSIN HORTICULTURE

####### i^ // 7f ## #

Publication approved by George S, Cronin, State Purchasing Agent

#19

CONTROL OF CHICKWEED IN STRAWBERRIES

Chickweed control is the number one problem in many strawberry fields in
the early fall. When the seedlings appear in late September, or early October,
they look pretty small and with cold weather COTdng, one can easily be misled
into thinking that they won't amount to much, that is, \inless one has had previous
experience with chickweed. It can make a tremendous growth in four to six weeks
and may completely cover the strawberry plants. It often lives over winter and
makes more groirth in the early spring. Not infrequently beds become so heavily
infested that picking is no longer profitable and the bed must be plotred under.

Fall is the best time to control chictareed. The smaller the seedlings irtien
a herbicide is applied, the better the control will be. For early fall applica-.
tion, that is before the strawberry plants are dormant, Chloro IPC, or sin5)ly
CIPC, is recommended. It can be applied as early as the first week in October or
at any time thereafter until the ground freezes. Used at the rate of 2 lbs, per
acre, it is effective. Since this material is usually formulated so that it coi>-
tains h lbs, of CIPC per gallon, l/2 gallon is required for one acre. One liquid
ounce would be enough for 680 sq, ft, or one teasixjonful for 200 sq, ft. Since
CIPC works through the roots, the amount of water used is not so in5)oirtant. Enough
should be used to give good, even coverage. The advantage of spraying with CIPC
can be seen in the photograph o The two roirs on the left were sprayed at 2 lbs,
per acre in October 195U« The two rows on the right are unsprayed* If the straw-
berry bed was not
treated in the fall,
it can be sprayed with
CIPC in the early
spring, Scn» control
can be obtained but it
will not be so good as
that following fall
spraying because CIPC
breaks do«ra faster in
the soil as the soil
teiiQ)erature increases.

-■*es

>l%;is^. i^r^^m'

Certain of the di-
nitro compounds irtiich
are made especially for
chickweed control, Di-
ni t ro-orth o-sec ondary-
butyl-phenol, or simply
DNOSBP, and its amine
and ammonium salts are
readily available and
effective.

Chickweed Control - Picture Taken in Spring,19$5

Since these ON coia-
puunis act by "burning"
foliage, they will kill
the leaves of the strawberry plants as well as the tops of the weeds. For this
reason they should be used on strawberries only in the late fall after tJie plants
become fully dormant. When the DN is correctly used, the chickweed can be kiUea

^^?n.!!^ff ^ the Strawberries. If it ia applied on a warm, sunny day, the
r?^?^I»,^*^°!? r^^ ^ increased arri better control will resiltrThoroSgh ^t-
t^beltS^r^nT '' "^^°''^' '°^ ' ^°^ ^- ^^^ ^-^- the'^^Ss""^"^

Hoo, !!;f effectiveness of DNOSBP can be increased by the addition of oil. This

^, or actual DNOSBP with 10 gallons of fuel oil and 90 gallons of water cer acre
SroirS^."^ thoroughly applied will give good control of SiSL^Led! To teer
the 5i ^ ^^^P^°^J°"» thorough mechanical agitation is necessary. Without S!
the oil may separate and injure the strawberries. '

of antS^DN*^^^J^^'"^/°'^ °^.°" "^^ ^1^^^ ^« "^® ^ '^th different amounts,
of actual DN, the directions on the label should be read carefully. For anollcatioA

oMt^^or^'l^^'*' ''^^fT"" '^^^^^^ mechanical agitation it^Sd L sSeS^o °^
^Lt-«1 ii:+.?^^''^ °^V^- °^ ^^^^^ ^N P^^ ^^« i^ °*ll«d for axrithe commarcial
S^S 2^?^^"^ °"?, i^* °^ ^°*^1 °N per gallon, one liquid ounce in one gallon
^t^«i Zll ?°''^? ?t° ^'^^ ^- °^ ^^ ^*- °/ ^°"» ^ f*- '^de. If the commercial

S^r SSon ^e"^ ?JJ?- ^^ ^"i"^' ^" ^^ °^°^' °^ ^ teaspoonsfull . At 5 lbs.
per gaixon, use a little over a teaspoonfull.

*«* John S. Bailey

"R

^

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS. AMHERST

OCTOBER 15, 1955

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Control of Rodents in Apple Cold Storages

A Timely Tip

Highlights of the Northeast Fruit Tree
Rootstock Conference

Pomological Research

Catering to the Consumer

Orchard Enemy No. 1 for 1955

Powdery Mildew Found in Massachusetts

Apple Box Dumping Aids

Wot Happened in the Three Million Bushel
Years of 1949-1951

Howard 17 versus Premier Strawberry

Apple Drop

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30. 1914; University of Massachusetts, Umted

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. CrorUn, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOUR POMOLOGY DEPARTOENT

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches small fruits and genafal fruit grovdng courses.

Bailey, John S, - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East V/areham,
Doing small fruit research on strawberries, blueberries and beach
plums* Ivir, Bailey also handles considerable of the small fruits
extension program.

French, Arthur P. - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in
small fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J, - Extension Fruit Specialist

Connected chiefly with fruit growers* problems, other than pest
control, and is somewhat involved in research. Editor of FRUIT
NOTES,

Roberts, Oliver C, - Associate Professor

Teacher of pe st control, fruit marketing and other departmental
courses. Currently also doing research on fruit marketing,

Southwick, Franklin W, - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning,
preharvest drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition.
Also, teaches in certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D, - Assistant Professor, ifesearch

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain
tests and vrinter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced
courses.

Contributors to This Issue from supporting Fields

F.E.Cole - Extension Specialist in Fruit and Vegetable Marketing

C,J,Gilgut - Extension Plant Pathologist

T/lf.R, Jones - U.S.Fish & Wildlife Service

E, H.Wheeler - Extension Entomologist

FRUIT NOTES
October 19$$

CONTROL OF RODENTS IN APPLE COID STORAGES

Apple cold storage rooms on the farm are becoming a common sight o One of the
problems with which a storage operator may have to contend is a rodent infestation
in the storage after the room is partially or completely filled, ilost storages
are inherently roden-proof . Before starting operations each season access points,
such as the openings around pipes, and places that offer rodent harborage, such as
breaks in the insulation, shovQd be checked and repaired if necessary* The areas
around doors and loading ports should be free of debris in which rats and house
mice imy lurk, seemingly waiting for an opportunity to dash into the storage proper.

The major source of infestation in apple storages is those rodents, chiefly
meadow and deer mice, that will be brought into the storage in boxes of apples.
MeadoviT mice are apt to enter at any time boxed appled remaining undisturbed in the
orchard. Deer mice like to make nests in those filled boxes that remain in the
orchard overnight. Transportation of loaded boxes to the storage as soon as
practical is the ansvjer here, of course.

These suggested practices greatly reduce the danger of rodent infestation in
a storage but many times mice will be found in a storage regardless of the care
exercised to prevent it^ The control irethods remaining are the use of poison
baits and gassing.

Strychnine-treated Steam Crushed Oats is the recommended bait for mouse control
in storagesT This material remains toxic longest under the humid conditions of the
storage room. Teaspoonful quantities of the poisoned oats are p]aced at intervals
along the walls, in alleys, or under pallets, Ihe limited range or travel of these
mice must be recogjaized. Every mouse should be able to find at least one bait
within the circumference of its movements. Obviously this type of baiting must be
done progressively as the storage is fillede

Gassing of an apple cold storage is an absolute control of all rodent species.
Gassing with any material must be carefully done to prevent damage to fruit or in-
jury to operator. Some additional equipment or minor alterations in construction
may be necessary. For these reasons the services of a commercial extenninator
should be considered.

The gassing of a storage demands that the room to be treated be reasonably
gas-tight. Door and port gasket seals can be insured by applying a layer of
vaseline where necessary. The use of ona of two materials ia recommended? (a)
Methyl Bromide!/ j or (b) Carbon lioxidei/. Methyl Bromide should be used two or
three weeks after apples cease to be brought in. This delay is desirable in
order that the chemical will have no effect on the ripening of the fruit. Treat-
ment with Carbon Dioxide has been found to be most effective immediately after
loading ceases. Gassing with either should be made during humid, above-freezing
weather so that proper ventilation can be secured afterward without injury to fruit.

-2-

Methyl Bromide is a colorless, odorife ss gas available in pressurized cans or
cylinders* It is toxic to all forms of animal life, and it has a delayed effect
on humans, EXTRHiE CAUTION is necessary in its usee Equipment for gassing with
Methyl Bromide includes a suitable applicator, a gas mask with proper organic
vapor canisters, and a Methyl Bromide detector. Gassing can be accomplished from
outside the room by using an applicator coupled with a copper tubing running through
the storage wall. The tubing opening should be directly in front of a blovrer or
auxiliary fan and circulating fans should be operating throughout the gassing period
in order to assure uniform gas distribution, Ifethyl Bromide is applied at the rate
of onequarter of a poui^ per 1,000 cubic feet of free air space. No injury to
apples has been observed at this dosage in storages of normal temperatures (32-
36°F,) and atmospheres. This gas concentration is maintained for five hours,
follovired by a complete air change by ventilation.

In order to insure proper ventilation, cross air currents from side-to-side
or end-to-end are necessary. Forced draft by fans is desirable. Storage rooms
which cannot be completely ventilated in about two hours sho\ild not be gassed with
this material. Final check for the presence of Methyl Bromide must be made by an
operator equipped with a gas mask and the special detector apparatus.

Carbon Dioxide is a natural product of respiration of both apples and humans
and is not poisonous in the same sense as Mettiyl Bromide gas. However, in an
atmosphere of high carbon dioxide concentration there remains little room for the
oxygen necessary for the life of mamraals, so that suffocation occurs. Gassing
with Carbon Dixoide still requires CAUTION, as an error could prove fatal to hymans-
«as well as to intended rodent victims'^ There is no chance of injury to the apples
by the gas itself but efficient circulation near the scurce of Carbon lioxide is a
requirement to prevent localized freesingc Carbon Dioxide is applied in the form
of "Dry ice", which is a solid at 110°Fo below zero.

The storage room must be sealed tightly, as with Methyl Bromide » Fans, of
household type or larger, should be placed so as to circulate air over each area
where the dry ice is to be placed. Fifty-pound blocks of dry ice are placed in the
storage passagev/ays , These blocks should be handled only with ice tongs or very
heavy gloves. Each block can be broken up into smaller pieces, with a heavy hammer,
just prior to sealing. Proper carbon dioxide concentration (20JS) is secured at the
rate of 25-30 pounds of dry ice per 1,000 cubic feet. This concentration is main-
tained for about six hours. As with Methyl Bromide, complete ventilation is required
before operators can enter the storage. But, unlike Methyl Bromide, it is not
necessary that the Carbon Dioxide be evacuated immediately,

l/ Data on Methyl Bromide taken from literature prepared tiy Frank ViT. Southwick
Research Professor of Pomology, Univ, of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass,

Zf Data on Carbon Dioxide taken from literature prepared ty Messrs, S, A, Pieniaaek
and Everett P, Christopher, IMiv, of Rhode Island, Kingston, R,I,

— • W, R, Jones
/////////

-3-

A TI^iELY TIP

In Massachusetts red raspberry plants may be set in the fall. Probably the
best time to set these plants is dxuring the latter part of October, at which time
dormant plants should be available o A small amoxint of mulch should be thrown
over each plant before the ground freezes. Diis is done to help prevent heaving
that results from alternate freezing and thawing of soils in late winter and spring*

However, don't just go out and set the plants without first preparing the
ground properly » A red i^aspberry planting involves a considerable investment.
Thorough preparation of the soil is necessary to get the plants off to a good starto

Details on the culture and management of a red raspberry planting may be
obtained by writing your County Agent or the Extension Service, University of
Massachusetts, for Leaflet §h6 titled "Raspberry Growing",

/ / / / / Wo J. Lord

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE NORTHEAST FRUIT TREE ROOTSTOCK CONFERENCE

The Northeast Fruit Tree Rootstock Conference was held in U&iriQ during the
week of August 15, At this conference, research vforkers vjho have rootstock projects
met to observe the rootstock work in !!aine and to discuss mutual problems in root-
stock investigations.

The performance of hardy interstocks was observed at the University of Maine
station and in several commercial orchards o It was of interest to note that Virginia
Crab which has been used q^oite extensively as a hardy interstock ig apparently
either infected with a virus or is subject to a severe case of uncongenialityo
Trees top worked on Virginia Crab are characterized by weak rubbery-like branches
and the Virginia wood has a roughened and pitted appearance which is called "stem
pitting," This condition does not generally appear until the trees come into pro-
duction and then it becomes progressively •vrorse with each crop until trees
become so weak that they are utterly worthless, TJhile the behavior of Virginia
Crab is very similar to a viru3 disease described in England as "rul/bery wood",
as yet it has not been determined that Virginia Crab is infected with a virus.
Whatever the trouble, it does mean that the Virginia Crab can no longer be used as
a hardy stock.

In one commercial orchard a sizeable planting of Clark Dwarf trees was seen.
The Clark Dwarf tree has a portion of its trunk made up of Virginia Crab, Many of
of these trees showed the "stem pitting" of the Virginia Crab stock and the \7eak
rubbery branches, which would indicate that these Clcsk Dwarf trees are i:-''ected
with the same trouble as the Virginia Crab hardy stocks. It is doubtful if this
planting will ever live to maturity^

A sizeable young planting of semi-dwarf trees on Mailing VII and II was observed
in another grower's orchard. These trees v^ere making excellent growth and had pro-
spects for a good crope The grower was very much pleased with their performance
and plans to set moree

. H'^ ■'■ :;.•'■ . ■ ■

From the general discussion of the group, it appears that there is a renewed
interest among fruit growers in planting ne^v orchards on semi-dwarf rootstocks
which will produce a smaller tree.

•■■ • . — «W, D. Weeks

///////////

POMOLOGICAL RESEARCH
-"'■ Ve The Cause of Unfruitfulness in the Beach Plum

Along the coastal plains of eastern North Amsrica from Virginia to New Bruns-
wick there grows a small, native, bushlike plum called the beach plum (Prunus^
jgferitima) • This is imdoubtedly the plum vfhich the Pilgrims found growing' in' ' '
abundance when they arrived in America o

Beach plums grow wild in more or less abundance along the seashore of eastern
and s6uthea&teiMt"Massachusetts, The bushes are very abundant on Cape Cod, The
fruit is generally small and is extremely variable in ripening season, color,
fl3,vor and size. It is used mostly for making Jelly and jam. Beach plum jelly
is highly prized by many people. This has led to the development on Cape Cod
of an extensive industry for the manufacture and sale of this product, A few sup-
erior types of iTild bushes have been selected and named but these are grown on
a very limited Scale, OrtLy a very £evT nurseries have named varieties of beach
plums for sale and the supply is extremely small. As a resvilt there are only
a fevf regular plantings of beach plums and these .are made up mostly of unnamed
seedlings transplanted from the wild. ■> '^"tZ •

The -beach plum has a variety of troubles but from the standpoint of the users
of this fruit the v/erst is its failure to bear fruit more than cnce in three or
four years iii spite of a generally, heavy annual bloom. The project under dis-
cussion is aimed at finding out why" this is so and what can be done about it,
A number of factors, each of which probably plays a part, are being studied and
considerable progress has been made e Some of these factors are;

First, self unfruitfulness. It has been recognized for a number of years
that most, if npt all, beach plum bushes are self unfruitful. Cross pollination
is required to produce a. .crop,.,

Second, biennial bfe^ring, Fiany beach plums are definitely biennial in their
bearing habit. Even where they are pruned, fertilized^ sprayed and have adequate
cross pcSlination.^ they will produce a crop only. every other years

Third, clones. Many beach plum seedlings sprout very freely from the roots
which grow to considerable distances from the original bush. What appears to be
a collection of seedlings is iji reality a clone since all the plants arose from
the same bush. Under these conditions crosspollination, which would usually
result in fruit production, is not possible.

Fourth, cross incompatability. It is strongly suspected that in some areas
the beach plum bushes are so closely related genetically that cross pollination
is not effective.

In relation to factors three and four it is significant that the use of
bouquets of beach plum blossoms brought from a distance resulted in a heavy
set of fruit on a group of bushes that had failed to produce a crop in 25 or 30
years although they had bloomed profusely every year.

Fifth, weather conditions. In the ccsBiai areas the weather during the
blooming season is often cold, rainy and vdndy, Such weather not only reduces
insect activity and, thus, interferes mth pollination but also may interfere
with fertilization after pollination has taken place.

Sixth, fertilization. It would seem that fertilization should benefit a
plant which grows in such poor soil as that where beach plums are usually found.
Fertilizer experiments are imder way. They indicate a possible increase in set
of fruit following heavj" nitrogen application.

Seventh, diseases. There are several diseases which attack beach plums.
The worst is brown rot which also attacks cultivated plums, peaches and cherries.
This disease attacks both blossoms and fruit. Not infrequently it destroys
most or all of the crop. It can b© ooptrolled easily by spraying. Plum pockets,
a disease seldom found on other plums, can be quite destructive if not controlled
by spraying.

Eighth, insects. Of the several insects which attack beach plums the plum
gouger and the plum curculio are the most serious. If not controlled by spraying,
these tvro can ruin a large proportion of a crop.

Ninth, pruning. The most ioaediate benefit from pruning results from the
removal of very low branches which are partially covered by grass, leaves, etc.
This makes possible better spray coverage for the control of insects and diseases,
particularly brown roto

Near East VJareham there is a small planting of beach plums vihich were set
out 2^ or 30 years ago. The bushes are all wild seedlings collected from various
places. This has assured adequate cross pollination. It is nearly surroxinded by
woods which act as a wind break and improve conditions for insect flight during
bloom. In this planting it has been possible to produce three heavy crops in
three years by fertilization, spraying and a very little pruning. The planting
as a v/hole h&b borne heavy crops in spite of the fact that certain bushes are
distinctly biennial. This shows that under proper conditions annual crops are
possible

*

-—John S, Bailey
///////////

-6-

CATERING TO THE CQNSmffiR

Agricultural Information Bulletin #19 by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics,
United States Department of Agriculture reports the results of a survey to determine
consumer preference for apples and pears* In the survey the fruit buyers in 2,573
households thruout the United States were interviewed and here are a few of the
more important things that they indicated they look for when they buy apples.

One out of three persons interviewed preferred apples to any other fruit
and the major reason given for preferring apples are: taste, usefulness and
versatility, and health.

They preferred eating and general purpose apples to varieties that are
essentially bakers or cookers. When selecting apples in the store, condition,
such as freedom from bruises, was most important. Good color was an important
factor if they were purchasing eating apples while size and shape were particularly
considered when purchasing apples for baking.

Pears were essentially a luxury item and the purchasers of pears preferred
to have them ripe.

This study serves to emphasize how essential it is for the fruit grovrer who
•has apples to sell to provide the consumers with the kind of fruit they want and
in the way they want it, The slogan "A satisfied customer is the best form of
advertizing" may be trite and shop Virorn but it ever remains an effective way of
increasing sales.

To provide consumers vfith types of apples that they \?ant rather than those
Tfhich the grower prefers to raise or think they should have appears to be of
first importance.

The second essential is to get the fruit into the hands of the consumer in
a sound condition free from blemishe«>. This calls for cooperative and persistent
effort on the part of both grovier and distributor,

—0, C, Roberts
/////////////

ORCHARD ENEMY NO. 1 FOR 19^S

Two-spotted mite became very abundant in ma^jy Ifessachusetts apple orchards
in mid and late summer. Extreme leaf yellowing follovired by brown spotting and
even uefoliation and early fruit drop resulted.

Mineral deficiencies may be shown to have contributed to the abnormal
condition in some orchards or on certain trees. Leaf analyses are being
made to determine this.

Hot, dry conditions during July and early August were favorable for

-7-

2-spotted mites and their migration into trees. Drought conditions also may
have increased the severity of damage reSAilting from mite activity or other
possible causes.

There is strong evidence, however, that 2-spotted mites are the real
culprits, I remarked in a Plymouth County orchard recently, "You have excell-
ent foliage. Apparently mites did not cause you any trouble," And the grower
replied, "I stopped them with two aramite sprays. Come over here i/diere there
are two poorly sprayed trees next the wall." We looked and there was the
evidence - typical leaf yellowing, brown spotting and a high population of 2-spots.

It. 1b well known that Aramite gives some of its best results when applied
under hot, dry conditions against 2--spotted mite.

Additional evidence is found in some of ovir best commercial orchards spray-
ed with air-blast outfits. Here we can find tree after tree with just two
areas of green, healthy foliage.

And where are those green leaves? Close over or beside the sprayer as it
moved along between the trees . On those branohes - and only on them was the
coverage good enough to control 2-spotted mite*

Certain insecticide-fungicide spray programs are favorable for 2-spotted
mite infestations. Repeated applications of DDT and methoxychlcr plus hot,
dry vreather, are almost sure to increase troubles with 2-spo'a. There are
observations indicating captan to have a similar effect. Many growers in 19^5
combined these materials in repeated applications.

Lessons to Remember

1, Be prepared for trouble with 2-spotted mite if using a program of
methoxychlcr, DDT and perhaps captan,

2, Look for real trouble as the orchard ground cover dries up in late June,
July and August,

3, You need the best material available, Aramite is preferred to malathion,
parathion or TEPP unless aphids also must be controlled or it is rainy.
Ovex at low concentrations, shows promise in a series of regular sprays «

A newer material, chlorobenzilate , is comparable to or perhaps better than
Aramite and may well prove very useful in '56, The systemic, demeton
(Systox), may provide simplest and best control of both mites and aphids--
Handle with Care I It is very toxic,

k» Wstch low hanging leaves, foliage on water sprouts and spurs and in top
centers — 2-spotted mite infestations Btart here.

^9 Coverage underneath must be complete j failures to control 2-spotted in
1955 can be braced more often to poor application than to material, A
big, powerful air-blast outfit poorly operated means just a gentle breeze
to 2-spots over most of the tree.

-8-

6. Timing of successive applications must be right to obtain greatest effect;
proper timing varies with materials and weather,

Ellsworth H, Iheeler

///////////////

POYJDERY IflLDM FOUND IH MASSACHUSETTS

Povjdery mildew was found on termnal leaves and twigs of bearing apple trees
in 'Worcester County by Bill Goss on August 26» Me have been expecting it because
ether states near us, where organic fungicides have been used extensively for
scab control, have had increasing amounts of it for several years, This is a
serious disease and under the right conditions can cause heavy losses. Now it
is here.

The pcfwdery mildew fungus (Podosphaeria leucotricha) attacks the young
tender leaves, tvfigs, blossoms, and fruit of apple. It grows mostly on the
surface but it also penetrates into the soft tender tissues of the twigs and
bud scales where it winters over to cause spr^-ng infections* The pov;dery
spores are produced in abundance on the affected tissues and require very little
moisture - light rains and even dew are sufficient - for germination.

The disease is usually more serious when it starts in the spring and there
are frequent rains but it may start at anytime when tissues are soft and there
is a little moisture.

What To Do I

1, Examine the orchard regularly for mildew - it starts as patches in a
tree - and take care of them right away,

2, Prune out the infected terminals. The fungus will die in a few hours
after the termj.nal is cut off.

In vdnter pruning, cut out all tenninals which have a gray or silvery
appearance. Pruning out is important because it reduces hold-over infections
from which mildev/ starts in the spring,

3, In the spring, spray thoroughly with sulfur in pre-pink and pink, at
which time mildew begins showing up, spacing sprays a v;eek apart. Better kill
will be obtained when temperatures are about 8^° or low 90 's, in which case it
may be advisable to use 2 pounds of 325 mesh sulfur rather than the finer
sulfurs. Growers who are on a sulfur scab control program, either alone or

in combination, will not need to switch to sulfur during this period for
powdery mildew control,

C, J, Gilgut

///////////////

-9-

APPLE BOX DUIiPIMG AIDS

Considerable apple bruising occvirs when the fruit is dumped onto the receiv-
ing belt or the feed table of the grader. In many instances, when apples are
dvimped onto the grader, the boxes are held in such a way that the fruit falls
from a height of several inches, A study of this operation made by Michigan
State University showed that, on the average, each apple when dumped in this
manner, received at Isast one bruise, a quarter of an inch or more in diameter.

How can the grower minimize the bruising that occurs when apples are
dumped onto the gradsrt One of the first answers might be to use a reliable
worker in this operation. However, when one stops to consider that hand
lifting and dumping of apples onto the grader is one of. the hardest and
most tiring jobs in the entire apple packing procedure, it will be realized
that even the most conscientious workers tend to tire and become careless,
it is known that by placing one's hand and arm on the apples whenthey are
being dumped, will reduce bruising considerably but as previously mentioned,
fatigue leads to carelessness. Therefore, to answer the question on how
the grower can minimiae apple bruisingj it can be best done by the use of some
kind of a dumpiiig aid.

The use of a pad placed over the top of an .apple box when the worker
tips the box can reduce bruising. After tipping the box, the worker should
gradually raise the pad to allow the apples to roll gently onto the receiving
belt or the feed table of the grader. Counter - balancing the pad makes it
more ccBvenient to use.

Another inexpensive dumping aid is a canvas bag, "The operator places
a canvas bag, Td.th one end tacked to the gi'ader, over the top of the box of
fruit while he tips the box over. Then he releases the bag and lifts the
box gently to allow the apples to flow out,"

Hand operated mechanical dumpers are available, being sold by various
manuf actxirers . On the other hand, such a device may be constructed by
growers viho have access to a well-equipped farm shop. It is doubtful that
the bruising is less with these mechanical dumpers than with careful hand
dumping vdth a padded board but they do make it easier for the worker to do
a better job with less exertion.

One type of dumping mechanism consists of a pivoted box holder, supported
by a rigid frame in such a Y.'ay that a filled box placed on the holder can
be easily raised into dujnping position and held, A strong coil spring assists
in elevating and tipping of the box. An adjustable padded box lid holds the
apples in the crate while the box is being positioned for dumping. During
the dumping operation this hinged cover swings open allowing the apples to
flow onto- the receiving belt or feed table of the grader in a single layer.

Completely automatic box dumpers are available, also. These have been
found to be satisfactory both from the standpoint of less bruising and
economy of operation but are relatively expensive.

-lo-
in conclusion, bruising of apples can -be reduced considerably by use
of relatively inexpensive dumping equipment. The uSe of a padded board or
a canvas bag is an inexpensive investment that can pay big dividends. The
use of a hand-operated mechanical dumper not only reduces bruising but
helps the operator to do a better job with less exertion,

-— Vif, J. Lord
//////////////////

WtQT HAPPEriED IN TH5 THREE MILLIOM BUSHEL YEARS OF 19^9-19^1

An examination of out of storage movement and price in the years 19^9, 1950
and 19^1 may be of help to you in getting the most out of the 1955 crop.

First, let's look at the out of storage movement in the three years 5 second,
we can look at the price in these years; and third, look at the price ^d move-
• ment together*

October crop estimates in the three years were: 19U9 - 3j8U2,000 bushelsj
1950 - 3,iiU2,000 bushelsj 1951 - 3,160,000 bushels.

There have been 31 Massachusetts apple crops over 3 million bushels in
the 67 years since crop estimates have been available, and 7 crops over 3 million
bushels since 1933 when crop estimates have been on their present commercial
basis — '39, 'U2, 'Ui, «ij9, '50, '51, .,'55» -

The October storage holding report for Mcintosh in the Boston area for
the three years gave these storage holdings: 19U9 - 1,214.8,000 bushelsj 1950 -
1,218,000 bushelsj 1951 - 1,172,000 bushels.

Out of Storage Movement

19h9 The storage holdings were quickly reduced with substantial with-

drawals for four weeks, and a more than average rate of withdrawals for tvfo
Tireeks more, On> January 1, there were only h7% as many Mcintosh in storage as
on October 15.

A slower than average rate of withdravrals in the following six weeks left
about 19^ of the Jiclntosh in storage on February 15. A spring spurt in vath-
drawals had removed all the 2% by April 1.

1950 This was an entirely different year. You virill remember it as a difficult
one. Storage withdrawals dragged from the start. So much so that on January
1, there was still over 55^ of the October 15 quantity still in storage. By
February 15, the situation was even further from average with nearly 32^ of the
October 15 holdings still in storage, against an average of 10 or 12^, One-
fifth of the total holdings on hand on February 15, on top of normal holdings,
proved to be very burdensome. By April 1, there was still 12$ left in storage.

-11-

19^1 The out of storage movement in this year was just about in between the
previous tvro. The i.'clntosh were about one-half gone by Januasey 1. Quantities
were a little heavy on February 1^ with 20;? still in storage, but by April 1,
all but 3% had moved.

Price

19lt9 The October 15 price on the Boston wholesale market for 2 l/2" up,
firm, U. S, Fancy iiclntosh was $lo75. The price moved up to |1.92 by November
1 and back to ^1,8? through January 15. On February 1$, price was up to $2,37,
March 1, $2, 75- and flarch 15, $3.25,

Tou will notice on the "PRICE CHANGE CHART" follov;ing, that the early rise
to ^!ile92 was quite unusual and could not be held. By February 15, soft Mcintosh
were clearly on a different price schedule and firm Mcintosh headed for the "wild
blue yonder",

1950 The second 3 million bushel ci-op year started lower vdth $1,62, A
comparison with a 25-year average indicates that it vrent up too fast and con-
sequently held around ^2,00 until March 1 and then dropped back to 5i)l,87. Ripe
apples, many held too long for a hoped-for rise, sold substantially lovrer,

1951 Price-wise, the third 3 million bushel crop year was a cross between
the previous two. This crop started at $1,90 and v^ent to $2,12 and $2,37. On
December 15, the price was down a quarter to ;i))2,12 and stayed at that level for
two months. Again, ripe apples had their ovm lower price. Firm apples bounced
to $2965 on March 1, to $2,87 on March 15, and :iii3.12 on April 1,

Out of Storage Movement - Price

There are many factors which affect price and every year they add up in a
different way. The really amazing thing is the close relation between the price
and movement AFTER October 15 when the price is usually stabiliaed.

Price behavior after October 15 seems to be very closely related to crop
movement out of storage. Price a^ movement can be dominant factor, A price
that is considered too high by the trade will slow movement, and a price which
looks like a good buy to consumers will speed up consumption.

The amount and kind of sales promotion by growers is an important factor*
There appears to be a rate of consumption for each crop year which is established
in the fall and which persists throughout the year, A good healthy movement into
consumption in the fall, consistent with the size of the crop to be moved, appears
to be a basic requirement to a firm and rising price.

You as an individual grower can follow the price and movement of the crop
as a whole and shape your o\m sales plan accordingly. If too many are being
held, you can apply more pressure to sales and conversely if the movement is
good (essential to a favorable spring price) you may wish to ease up a bit*

-12^,.

It is quite apparent that ripe (soft) apples do not move into consumption
readily. Consumers apparently want- crispness in apples. The record holds no
hope for a late season gamble on ripe apples. It is suggested that you use the
two charts accompanying this article to plan your ovm sales campaign. You can
chart the price and movement of the deal as a whole and you can chart your cavn
sales as a check on your operation. These two charts can make you money,
Massachusetts is very fortunate in having apple market information on a current
basis (Special Apple iiarket Report - Massachusetts Department of Agriculture) so
that you can adjust your selling program to market conditions.

— F. E. Cole

///////////////////

HOWARD 17 Versus PREiflER STRAWBERRY

That these two strawberry varieties are one and the same was settled to
the satisfaction of all concerned many years ago. However, at a recent meeting
of small fruits specialists held in Michigan the question came up again because
of the differences which have been observed between virus-free and ordinary
stocks of this variety, Thsre appears to be no doubt but that virus-free
Howard 1? (Premier) are less desirable in several fruit characteristics includ-
ing softness and tartness and that the plants have lighter colored leaves of
different shape and fold than the regular stock of Howard, How these differences
came about is not known but the fact that the differences are evident between
the two stocks in F.assachusetts, Maryland and Michigan gives no credence to the
view that one maybe Hov/ard 1? and the other Premier,

—A, P, French
///////////////////

APPLE DROP

On September 1, the United States apple crop vras estimated at 108,201,000
bushels. Since then it is estimated that this figure should be reduced by at
least 3,701,000 bushels. The main cause for this reduction is the heavy Mcintosh
apple drop in the East,

It is reported that in Western Nevf York Mcintosh drop ranged from 20^ to
2$% to as high as 60^ or more* The average for the region might approach ^0%
drop.

In Massachusetts, the stop-drop tests showed that 2,1^,5 - TA vras a failure
this year. Apples on trees sprayed ivith 2,U,5 - TA dropped about as badly as
those on non-sprayed trees which had 605? to 6^^ drop. Both NAA and 2,ii,5 - TP
were much more effective in experimental trials than 2,U,^ - TA but even where
they were used drop was 20^ to 2 5^,

Yfith the previous stated facts in mind, anyone ivho lost less than 2^% of
their crop should feel fortunate,

— V[, J. Lord
///////////////////

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PRICE CHANGE - MCINTOSH - BOSTON MARKET

Price changes and bushel movement are the gauges which indicate the success of
the marketing and the returns to the growers.

Price changes reflect consumer demand. They indicate the willingness of the
market to take the offerings. They indicate how well the growers are doing in
selling the crop.

The season price may start high, low or in-between depending upon the size of
the crop, consumer buying power, competitive prices and consumer desires. Desire
to use buying power for the purchase of apples is largely the result of habit,
competitive values, publicity, advertising as well as the attractiveness and
availability of selling displays.

Current changes may be compared with the changes of other years on the basis
of PER CENT CHANGE from the storage season starting price of October 15.

You can figure the per cent change and plot the changes on the chart in com-
parison with the twenty-five year average and the changes of the last two years.

Price information may be secured from the Special Apple Market Report of the
Massachusetts Department of Agriculture.

The solid black line in the chart on the other side indicates the price changes
of the firm Mcintosh, U. S. Fancy - 2^" and up '- Boston, through the period 1924-49.
From October 15, the average price had increased to 7.4% on November 15, 10.6% on
December 15, 10.1% on January 15, 15.2% on February 15, 20.7% on March 15, and 16.6%
on April 15. This is the 25 year average or basic price pattern. 1952 and 1953
price changes have been included on this chart in green for purposes of comparison.

FIGURES USED IN MAKING THE CHART ON THE OPPOSITE SIDE
Firm Mcintosh, U. S. Fancy - 2^2" and up - Boston Market -

1924

-1949

1949

1950

1951

25 Year

Percent

Actual

Percent

Actual

Percent

Actual

Percent

Average

Change

Price

Change

Price

Change

Price

Change

Actual

25 Year

from

from

from

Date

Prices

Average

Oct. 15

Oct. 15

Oct. 15

Oct. 15

$2.17

0.0%

$1.75

0.0%

$1.62

0.0%

$1.90

0.0%

Nov.l

-

-

1.92

9.7%

1.87

15.4%

2.12

11.6%

Nov. 15

2.33

7.4%

1.87

6.8%

2.00

23.4%

2.12

11.6%

Dec, 1

-

-

1.87

6.8%

2.00

23.4%

2.37

24 . 7%

Dec. 15

2.40

10.6%

1.87

6.8%

2.00

23.4%

2.12

11.6%

Jan. 1

-

-

1.87

6.8%

2.12

30.8%

2.12

11.6%

Jan. 15

2.39

10.1%

1.87

6.8%

2.12

30.8%

2.12

11.6%

Feb.l

-

-

2.37

35.4%

2.00

23.4%

2.12

11.6%

Feb. 15

2.50

15.2%

2.37

35.4%

2.00

23.4%

2.12

11.6%

Mar.l

-

-

2.75

57.1%

2.12

30,8%

2.65

39.5%

Mar. 15

2.62

20.7%

3.25

85.7%

1.87

15.4%

2.87

51.0%

Apr.l

-

-

3.25

85.7%

i.87

15.4%

3.12

64.2%

April. 15

2.53

16.6%

-

-

-

-

-

-

Prepared by Frederick E. Cole, Extension Specialist, Fruit and Vegetable Marketing,
September, 1955. University of Masfiachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture
and County Extension Services Cooperating.

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THE MCINTOSH OUT -OF -STORAGE MOVEMENT CHART

The chart on the other side is helpful in deciding when to sell the crop, in
order to get the most money out of it. The standard solid black line has proved to
be a reliable guide. As each year is different, in at least some particulars, the
selling plan should be based on market conditions and the out-of-storage movement
of the current crop. By plotting the out-of-storage movement for the BOSTON AREA
and your own out-of-storage movement, you can see how the current year is different
from average and make your own decision as to what changes, if any, you want to
make from standard practice.

The chart is based on selling one-third of the crop at harvest time, one-third
before Christmas and one-third during the winter and spring months. The placing of
the standard line also takes into consideration that apples move into consumption
most rapidly at harvest time and in decreasing quantities as the marketing season
progresses. A rising price, during the late fall and winter months is associated
with the decreasing movement into market.

A successful marketing season depends upon the establishment of a good rate of
apple consumption in the fall, in relation to the size of the crop, and the
maintenance of a good rate of consumption throughout the marketing season.

This chart can help you to follow the out-of- storage movement of all Mcintosh
in the Boston Area and to make desirable adjustments in the movement of your own crop.

The information regarding total Mcintosh movement in the Boston Area, as well
as the rest of New England, can be obtained from the Special Apple Market Report of
the Massachusetts Department of Agriculture.

MCINTOSH STORAGE HOLDINGS ON SPECIFIED DATES
AND THE PER CENT OF SUCH HOLDINGS BASED UPON THE START OF THE STORAGE

SEASON, OCTOBER 15

Boston Area

Massachuse

tts - Bushels

1949

1950

1951

Date

Standard

Per Cent

Bushels

Per

Bushels

Per

Bushels

Per

(000)

Cent

(000)

Cent

(000)

Cent

Oct. 15

1007,

1248

100.0%

1218

100.0%

1172

100.0%

Nov.l

92%

1093

87.6%

1177

96 . 6%

1110

94 . 7%

Nov. 15

80%

934

74.8%

1077

88.4%

940

80.2%

Dec.l

65%

804

64.4%

951

78 . 1%

814

69.5%

Dec. 15

50%

688

55.1%

793

65.1%

692

59.0%

Jan.l

40%

584

46.8%

674

55 . 3%

596

50.9%

Jan. 15

30%

477

38 . 2%

606

49.8%

511

43.6%

Feb.l

20%

350

28.0%

491

40.3%

378

32 . 3%

Feb. 15

10%

2 38

19.1%

389

31.9%

239

20.4%

Mar.l

5%

160

12.8%

310

25.5%

159

13.6%

Mar. 15

2%

88

7 . 1%

220

18.1%

100

8.5%

Apr.l

0

30

2.4%

147

12.1%

38

3.2%

Prepared by Frederick E. Cole, Extension Specialist, Fruit and Vegetable Marketing,
September, 1955, University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture
and County Extension Services Cooperating.

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

NOVEMBER-DECEMBER, 1955

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Origin of Some Apple Vorieties

Muriate vs Sulfate Form of Potassium

Chemical and Physical Changes in Apples
During Storage

Electricity - Friend or Foe

Pomological Research

A Statewide Look at Cultivated Blueberries

Cider Notes

The Apple Drop in 1955

F.F.A. Fruit Judging Contest

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director.

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 19 14; University of Massachusetts, Umted

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOUR POMOLOGY DEPARTI4ENT

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches small fruits and general fruit grooving courses,

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham,
Doing small fruit research on strawberries, blueberries and beach
plums. Mr» Bailey also handles considerable of the small fruits
extension program,

French, Arthur P. - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in
small fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J, - Extension Fruit Specialist

Connected chiefly with fruit grovrers* problems, other than pest

control, and is somewhat involved in research. Editor of FRUIT
TOTES,

Roberts, Oliver C, - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental
courses. Currently also doing research on fruit marketing,

Southwick, Franklin Vf, - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning,
preharvest drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition.
Also, teaches in certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain
tests and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to This Issue from Supporting Fields

F.E,Cole - Extension Specialist in Fruit and Vegetable iiarketing

R,B,Parmenter - Chairman Safety Committee

K.II.Hayes - Associate Extension Professor. Food Technology

FRUIT NOTES

November 1955

ORIGIN OF SOME APPLE VARIETIES

Several times in the last two months the author has been asked the

origin of soiiie of the apple varieties grovm in Massachusetts, It is felt,

therefore, that this information also might be of interest to many of the
readers of Fruit Notes,

l^ost of the apple varieties planted in this country originated Here,
but the history of many is obscure and except for varieties nore recently
introduced fev: came into existence as the product of the plant breeder.
;fost of the varieties originated as chance seedlings and were discovered
and introduced into cultivation by some observer and admirer of them,
Mcintosh, Delicious, 'Vealthy, Northern Spy and Baldvan are examples of
commercial varieties that originated as chance seedlings.

There are also a number of bud sports of popular varieties on the market,
for example: Galbraith Baldvri.n, Richared, Red Gr^venstein and Red Spy,
liost of these differ from the parent varieties only in higher color of the
fruit,

■"" The following is a list of some of the apple varieties grown in i-ass-
achusetts and their origin. Some varieties resulted from a cross between
two varieties, Ihe origin of such varieties is expressed by placing the
letter "X" between the parent varieties, for example; the ililton variety
is a cross betv/een lellovf Transparent X Mcintosh,

Mcintosh - Originated as a chance seedling in Dundas County, Ontario,
Propagation of this variety began in about I87O,

'Delicious - Originally distributed under the name Hav/keye, being
discovered in Iowa in I88I,

' Golden Delicious - Originated as a chance seedling in "fest Virginia,
Introduced by Stark Brothers in I916,

Starkinp; -ifBottble Red Deliciou&jf - Bud mutation of Delicious. Originat-
ed in Tonroeville, New Jersey, by Levds Mood, Introduced commercially in
I92U, traderaarked 1930,

Cortland - Originated from the cross of Ben Davis X Mcintosh, The
cross vras made at Geneva, iJew York, by the Nev; York State Agricultural
Experiment Station, Introduced for trial about 191$ *

Early Mcintosh - Yellow Transparent X Mcintosh, Originated in Geneva,
New York, by the New York State Agricultural Station, Introduced for
trial in 1923,

• Puritan - Originated from the cross Mcintosh X Red Astrachan made by
Professor i''. C. Sears at the University of Massachusetts about 1929,

-2-

Lodi - >;ontgoiaery X Yellcai Transparent, Originated in Geneva, New
York, by the Mew York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Introduced
for trial in 192h,

'^ i'ilacoun - Mcintosh X Jersey Black, Originated in Geneva, New York,
by the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Introduced for
trial in 1923.

Milton - Yellow Transparent X Mcintosh, Originated in Geneva, ile-vf Yurkj
by the Wew York State Agricultural Experiment Str.tion, Introduced for trial
in 1923,

'^ Red Gravenstein - Bud mutation of Gravenstein, Originated in San
Juan- County, Washington, Introduced commercially in 192it,

Roger's Mcintosh - Bud mutation of Mcintosh, Originated in Dansville,
New York, fcy Isaac C, Rogers, Introduced commercially in 1932.

Melba - Open pollinated seedling of llclntosh. Originated in Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada, by the Division of Horticulture, Central Experimental
Farm, Introduced commerci3.11y about 192h

' Red Melba (Melred) - Origin unknown, but first noticed from a lot cf
nursery trees from the '..ellington and Davidson Nurseries, Fonthill, Ontario,
Canada, Introduced commercially in the 19l40's,

YJealthy Double Red - Bud mutation of Yv'ealthy, Originated in Sodus,
New York, ty James G, Case, Introduced commercially in 19i;0,

Galbraith ifeldwin - Bud mutation of Bald\"n.n, Originated in Ajnherst,
t'iassachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station (Floyd Galbraith), Introduced
commercially in I9I48,

^ Richared Delicious - Biji mutation of Delicious, Originated in Monitor,
Washington, Introduced commercially in 1926,

""' Northern Spy - Originated in a seedling orchard at East Bloomf ield.
New York. In 1552, the American Pomological Society listed it as a new
variety of promise,

Northviestern Greening - Originated in Waupaca County, Vi'isconsin,
Introduced in 1572",

Baldwin - A chance seedling in an orchard at Wilmington, Massachusetts,
Propagated and vifidely introduced in Eastern Massachusetts as early as 178ii.

' ^'^^ter Banana - Originated on a farm near Adarasboro, Cass County,
Indiana about I876, Introduced in I89O,

' Rhode Island Greening - Locality of the origin is not loiovm v.dth
certainty but probably originated in the vicinity of Nevirport, Rhode Island,

-3-

y Roxbury Russet - It is tliought that this variety originated in Roxbury,
Massachusetts, early in the seventeenth centmy,

Williams - Originated in Ro::bury, Massachusetts. It v^as brought to
the attention of the Massachusetts Society in I830,

■ Yfealthv - Originated by Peter ivi, Gideon, Excelsior, Iilinnesota from
seed of the Cherry Grab about i860,

Yfolf River - Originated near Wolf River, V/isconsin, Catalogued by
the American Pomological Society in I88I,

YelloYf Transparent - Imported from Russia ty the United States Depart-
ment of' Agriculture in 1870«

Red Astrachan - A Russian apple imported by the Massachusetts Horti-
cultural Society in 1835 #

j/Rome - Originated in Lawrence County, Ohio, before l8U8«

W, J. Lord

////////////////

IViURIATE vs SULFATE FORM OF POTASSIUIvI

Some of you older fruit gro\'rers may rei.iember the Old Station Orchard
in which a fertilizer experiment was started in IO9O one purpose of which
was to determine the relative value of muriate of potash and sulfate of
potash for orchard purposes. Even though tree growth and yield were
greater on the sulfate plot the design of the experiment was inadequate
to justify positive conclusion to be dra'.Yn,

In a later experiment in which raspberries were included v/inter injury
was found to be considerable greater on uiuriate plots than the sulfate ones
vrith resulting material increase in yield on the sulfate plots.

At the recent meeting of the American Society for Horticultural
Science, Dr, Shaulis of Nev/ York reported on a carefully designed e?>eriment
with red currants conducted in the state over a seven year period. He
stated definitely that muriate of potash is inferior to sulfate of potash
for that fruit crop because the muriate causes a marginal scorch of the
foliage, retards bush grovrbh and is associated with a yield decrease of
about 20^, Leaf analyses showed a greater accumulation of chlorides in the
foliage of the muriate - treated bushes than on any other plot.

So maybe there is a difference in value of these two forms of potash
for some fruit crops,

— A, P, French
////////////////

CHFlalCAL AND PHYSICAL CHANGES IN APPLES DURING STORAGE

The function of cold storages is well kno-vm to the fruit grower. It
is knaun that apples must be stored if the fruit is to be kept in good
sa^ble condition during the winter and spring months which is to the mutual
benefit of both the grower and consumer, Viihat is less well known to the
fruit grower is the chemical and physical changes in the apples during
storage.

First it must be realized that the apple is alive even though it has
been picked from the tree. Apples continually carry on respiration iirhich
consists of the intake of oxygen and the giving - off of carbon dioxide
through the skin, other words they breathe. In addition to the carbon
dioxide, water vapor, volatile substances and heat also are given off as
products. The rate the breathing or respiration depends on the temperature
at which they are stored ••-■At ordinary room temperatures, apple respire
much more rapidly than at storage temperatures of 31° to 32° F, The
faster an apple respires, the faster it ripens,

1/Yhat else takes place in the ripening process of apples during storage?
Infhen an apple is harvested its tissue consists largely of water and such
carbohydrates as sugars in the form of sucrose and reducing sugars, fruit
acids, and i' betvreen the cell walls, cellulose like substances (proto-
pectin and pectates) from which pectins are produced, Pectiia is found
only in low concentrations at the tiiiie the apple is picked.

After the apple is removed from the tree a series of complex chemical
changes take place. Starch is converted to sugar j rate of respiration
increases] ethylene and other gases are evolved^ changes take place in
fruit color; svigars change formj acids decrease; and protopectin is
converted to pectin.

During storage there is a continued change from green color to yellow
color on the unblushed side of the fruit, "while the red color of apples
may increase at room temperature after picking, there is no increase after
the fruit has been placed in storage.

At the time the apple is at commercial maturity, it contains alot of
protopectin and pectin and an appreciable amount of pectate. These pectic
substances cement the cells together and this adhesion is responsible for
the firmness and crispness of the apple flesh. As the fruit continues to
ripen, the pectic substances are lost at a progressively increasing rate,
liYith the dissolution of the pectate between the cell walls, the cells of the
overripe fruit become loosened or even completely freed from one another,
and the fruit becomes soft and mealy, Siniiar changes take place during
the ripening of the pear and peach.

In a recent Technical Bulletin published by the Unites States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, it was found that reducing sugars tended to increase
during storage while sucrose increased only during the first 1 or 2 months
in the apple varieties tested. Total sugar increased while acidity decreased
during storage.

-5-

In conclusion, the stored apple is a living thing and carries on
respiration, a process fundamental to all living things. This process is
necessary in order that the fruit viill obtain the proper stage of maturity.
Respiration is retarded as the temperature is loweredj therefore, the sooner
heat is removed from fruit after harvest and the optimum storage temperature
is attained, the earlier the ripening processes will be arrested and the
longer the fruit can be kept,

— W, J, Lord
////////////////

ELECTRICITY - FRIEIID OR FOE

Electricity is useful and safe when properly handled. Learn to use
it safely. Use electric heaters in bathrooms and laundries with care.
People have been killed by touching these electric heaters while they are
in the bath. Electric bulbs have been known to explode and start a fire
when they are used to dry clothes or tc warm the bed. Never allow dust
to accumulate on an electric bulb. It may cause it to explode in the
bam or the attic and start a fire*

No doubt, you can think of some fire in your neighborhood that has
been caused by electEic irons, toasters or curling irons having been left
connected. Be sure to turn off the sviitch or disconnect them when leaving
the room. This is a must. Keep a sufficient number of 1^ amp, fuses on
hand to replace those that burn out. Many people are very prone to place
pennies and other metal behind the fuse which overloads the circuit and
causes a fire.

Be sure that the wiring in the house, particularly the lamp cords, are
replaced if badly frayed. Employ an expert electrician to replace wiring in
the home,

I ran across the other day, a very excellent safety suggestion for
parents and baby sitters. Caution the baby sitter against permitting the
child to play with matches or electric appliances. Children have been
knoT.Yn to put their 'fingers into electric light sockets causing a short
circuit, badly burning the child, and sometimes causing the death of the
child; so caution the bal^ sitters against allowing the children to play
vrith the fixtures.

In case you found some member of your family unconscious becaus:e of
electric shock and still in contact with the live mre, what would you do
to break the contact? The best and safest method to break such a contact
is to knock the wire free or pull the victim away by using non-conductive
materials as a rake, broom, dry branch, dry rope or just the overcoat.
Don't, under any circumstances, allow your body to come in contact with the
person who»s still in contact with the live wire,

— — R, B. Parmenter

////////////////

-6-

POMOLOGICAL RESEARCH
8, The Nutrition of Apple Txees

In 19U8, the project entitled "The Nutrition of Apple Trees" was ■;■
initiated. The loajor objective of this project vras to determine the
kinds and amounts of fertilizer v/hich are required to produce vigorous
heelthy trees capable of producing maximum yields of high quality fruit.

In conducting the project a nev/ approach was made in determining the
effectiveness of the different fertilizer treatments. The actual amounts
of the different mineral elements found in the leaves were determined by
chemical analyses, •'•he chemical composition of the foliage wcs used to
determine the effectiveness of the several fertilizer treatments and to
study the relation of the treatments to tree performance, quality of fruit,
and to determine deficiencies and excesses* V/hile it is not possible in
an article of this nature to discuss all the results of the project, some
of the important findings may be mentioned at this time.

The results clearly demonstrated the need for considering elements
other than nitrogen in developing a fertilizer program. The need for applying
adequate amounts of potassium was first established by leaf analysis and
and then by tree performance and fruit quality. It ivas found that high
rates of nitrogen fertilization increased the potassium requirements of
the tree, and if these requirements were not met the appearance of potassium
deficiency was hastened.

Fruit color was found to be associated vfith both the nitrogen and the
potassium levels found in the foliage. The poorest colored fruit was pro-
duced by trees which were high in nitrogen and low -in potassium. Fruit of
high color was produced by trees vTith medium levels of nitrogen and high
levels of potassium.

Fruit from high nitrogen trees was considerably softer than those from
medium nitrogen trees and -had a 'shorter storage life. High rates of nitrogen
fertilization gave somewhat increased yields and tree growth but when the
color and quality of the fruit was taken into consideration the increase
yields became of questionable value. Annual production was not maintained
by high rates of nitrogen and it was only vfhen crop size was controlled
by chemical thinning that trees were made annual,

i'iagnesium requirements were taken care of if adequate amounts of high
magnesium v/ere applied to the soil.

Since this experiment vias conducted vfith ilclntosh, the results apply
most specifically to that variety. Although most of the results can be
applied in a general vray to other varieties, we believe they must be modified
to meet specific requirements of each variety. In order to determine if
other varieties have different nutritional requirements, we are initiating
a nutritional project along similar lines vdth Delicious,

— »W. D. Weeks
////////////////

-7-

A STATECIDE LOOK AT CULTIVATED BLUEBERRIES

It is no secret that we knew far too little about fertilizing cultivated
blueberries. Hovrever, our present reconspendations as to what kind of fertil-
izer, how much and when to apply are not entirely guess work. They are
based on experimental evidence but this evidence is far too limited for our
needs, A nevr project was started this past summer the results of v.liich will
give the basic inf onnation needed to answer the questions about fertilizing
blueberries vdth more assurance.

In connection tdth this project leaf samples from blueberry plantings
scattered over the entire state were collected. These will be analysed
chemically for certain elements and this information used as a basis for
further v/orko This state wide svirvey made it possible to get a broad look
at how blueberry plantings are being handled and how they are responding.
As a result certain observations seen v/orth noting.

First, Cultivation vs Sod. Many blueberry plantings have been allowed
to sod over because of the high cost of labor and machinery to cultivate.
Although, the grower may "get by" with sod culture, especially with heavy
fertilization and plenty of moisture, in the long run cultivation will
probably produce more growth and heavier yields.

Second, Ilulching vs Cultivation, Vifhere it can be done economically
mulching has a distinct advantage particularly the use of sawdust or shavings.
In many places the cost is too high to be justified by the benefits obtained.
In some plantings the combination of mulching a strip along the rows and
cultivation betvreen the rows has proved to be very satisfactory.

Third, Fertilizer. It was surprising to learn how few growers know
hoiT much fertilizer they put on in terms of pounds per acre. In most cases
the amount of fertilizer applied is on the light side, especially vfhere
plantings are in sod. Inhere nitrogen has been applied in the ammonia fonn
the results have been very good.

Fourth, Pruning. Few grov/ers do an adequate job of pruning. This
results in overbearing, small fruit and weakened bushes.

Fifth, Spacing, iiost plantings are set too close to allow for efficient
machine operations when the bushes reach full size. In the plantings set
recently wider spacing is generally used. Older plantings present problems
in spacing which will require some study on the part of the grower*

These are some of the important observations made during last summerte
blueberry work. They are stated here very briefly. Later some or perhaps
all of them v/ill be diso'issed at greater length in "Fruit Notes",

—John S, Bailey
////////////////

-8-

CIDER -NOTES

ID£AS

During a visit to a cider mill, two inventions were noticed that
speeded up v/'ork in the mill.

Label Removed - to do away T/ith this wet and time consuming chor6> an
electric motor (approx. l/2 h.p.) was setup with a round wire brush, like
those used to remove burrs on metal. The jig is held against the rotating
bristles - presto - no label! Shield the setup, as the torn paper flies
about.

Jug Cleaner - After soakihg or when ready to wash the Jug, place some
detergent-sanitizer solution in the jUg^ then use this idea. Get a long
spindle (one that will reach the bottom of a gallon container) for a l/U in,
drill. Split the end Tirith a hacksaiv for a depth of k-S inches. Insert in
the slot seme long strips of rubber inner tubing and fasten by tightening a
nut and bolt placed through the end. The strips should be about 1 in, by
9-10 in. Place spindle in drill, insert in jug and turn on switch. The
fast moving strips will remove the dirt and let the cleaner work faster.

Be sure that drill is grounded and is not operated when hands are wet.

Certification Program - Many mill operators are shovfing interest in
the certification program and more are under the program this year than last.

Several questions on the certification procedure have come up. One
that seems bothersome is the physical examination requirement - this is
included to acquaint you viith the law that states either the Department of
Public Health or the local board of health may require an employee to have
a physical examination. It is also possible tiiat local regulations may
require an examination for a person working in a food plant.

Another question is on labels - the law does require a label showing
the name and address of the person vifho packed or sells them.

— — K, H. Hayes
////////////////

THE APPLE DROP IN 19^^

Since vre have just p&ssed through one of the most serious seasons for
fruit drop in recent years perhaps some of you may be interested in an attempt
to explain why this situation existed and what, if any, good stop-drop
materials did in counteracting this situation. As this story is told it
will be apparent that our hindsight was somewhat better than our foresight.

-9-

It may be said, if this is any comfort to you, that hclntosh drop this
fall was as serious, if not more so, in all northeastern iiclntosh growing
areas as it was in Massachusetts, I have cori"espondence from people in
New York stating that losses in parts of the Hudson Valley and VJestem New
York were as high as 60 per cent of the total crop. Apparently idclntosh
drop in i ichigan was severe, also.

Some things which stand out about the Mcintosh drop this year are that
the drop started earlier than usual and that the early drop vras unusually
heavy. Generally, in Massachusetts a few apples commenced to drop around
the 8th to the 12th of September and as the season progressed the drop
intensified. This year the drop started off with a "bang" * By the 12th of
September, 1955 in one orchard where we had an experiment underway, over
1^% of the crop had already fallen from non-hormone sprayed trees. By the
23rd day of the month 6$% of the crop on such trees had fallen. I am in-
clined to think that two major factors were involved. First, we had a
tremendous crop of Mcintosh and I believe most growers recognize that a
heavy Mcintosh crop and heavy drop often go hand in hand unless we have
unusually cool weather in September, Also, we had an unusually hot July
and early August, with mean temperatures during this period about 6 degrees
above normal, perhaps the highest mean temperature for this period on record.
Such high temperatures may be expected to hasten ripening and advance the
maturity date. In other words, Mcintosh were perhaps 7 to 10 days ahead of
their average maturity date as far as firmness and ground color were con-
cerned but good red color did not develop until the usual time. Generally
speaking, ripe apples drop sooner than less mature fruits and this advanced
maturity may explain the heavy early drop.

As you all knov;, many orchards suffered from foliage injury in varying
degree. This injury may have been due in part to the effects of the early
drought - trees carrying a heavy crop suffer inuch more from drought than
trees bearing a moderate or light crop. Also, mites and possibly nutritional
deficiencies may have accounted for considerable amounts of foliage damage.
It is well known that apples frequently "rain off" trees when the foliage as
injured. However, serious drop existed in many blocks where the foliage
appeared to be in excellent shape.

Fortunately, we realized that this might be a good year to test stop-
drop materials and we had two experiments on Mcintosh going when growers
began to realize the seriousness of the drop. Unfortunately, however, we
had considerable confidence in 2,i;,5-TA as a stop-drop material for Mcintosh,
It had performed well in the past and had caused only slight ripening.
Consequently, we recommended its use on Mcintosh for those grovrers who vashed
to control drop for about 3 weeks.

-10-
Table 1, Effect of Hormones on Drop of Mcintosh

. Date Av, No,

Cumulative % drop
September

Av, flesh

applied bu./tree

12

16

19 21 23 26

2B

fiMiness

1. Check 30,7 9.0 l8.0 30.9 39.2 11.7 h9*h, 59o9 lii«2

2. NAA + 9/8

NAA & 2,i+,5-TP 9/19 31.3 hS 6.9 lii.7 21.2 23*1 2U.2 2$,U 13.3

3. 2,U,5-TA + 9/6 3U.2 9.3 17.6 25.9 29*0 29.7 32.0 32.5 13.3

NAA

9/6
9/19

3U.2

9/8

29.7

9/8
9/19

33»2

U. 2,it,5-TP 9/8 29.7 5.0 6.9 8.6 10.2 11.1 12.2 22,8 10.5

^* '^'■^^^ 9^?9 ^^'2 9.9 18.5 25.9 28.U 29.0 29.5 30.0 12.5

As can be seen ty the data in Table 1, both 2,U,5-TA and 2,U,5-TAA
(a new material) which were applied September 8 (treatments 3 and 5 were
completely ineffective up throiigh September 19. In fact, by September 16,
it was obvious that 2,U,5-TA, vfhich was used extensively by growers, was
not working. Since our data show that NAA (treatment 2) was doing well for
about 10 days, we suggested to all growers in this predicament that NAA be
applied immediately, 2,l4,5-TP (treatment k) was not suggested at this time
because, even though it was doing an excellent job of controlling drop, we
were not sure that trees ought to be subjected to both 2,U,5-TA and 2,u,5-TP,
it takes several days to become effect, and because TP is more of a ripener
than NAA.

On September 19 we applied NAA to treatments which had received 2,U,5-TA
(treatment 3) and 2,1;,5-TAA (treatment S) to see if our suggestion to grovrers
was worth anything. As can be seen by the data, the use of NAA was very
much worthxvhile. From September 19 to 28, inclusive, only 6,6 and U.l per
cent of the crop fell from the trees originally sprayed with TA and TAA,
respectively, whereas 29.0^ fell from the checks (treatment l) during the
same period. The trees receiving NAA originally (treatment 2) began to drop
badly after September 16, vfhen the NAA "ran out" so a mixture of single
strength NAA and 2,li,5-TP was reapplied to them on September 19. This
combination was used to give quick holding (from the NAA) and to see if the
TP would eventually control drop. This mixture worked quite well and the
addition of TP at this late date did not hasten ripening any more than any
other treatment. Actually the test did not run long enough to determine' how
long this late TP application would be effective, 2,ii,5-TP, when applied on
September 8, (treatment k) t held the fruit on the trees very well through
September 26 but "ran out" by the 26th of the month. Unfortunately, this
material, when applied 3 weeks ahead of harvest, resulted in much ripening,
v/ater core, and fruit splitting. If it viere not for the marked ripening
influence which this material exhibits after it has been on the trees longer
than two weeks, it would be an excellent material to use for drop control of
Mcintosh,

-11-

We have no good anBwer for why 2,li,5-TA failed this year v/hen both MA
and 2,1;, 5- TP v/ere reasonalby effective en Mcintosh, Apparently, the trouble
with TA is not related t*, any particular formulation or manufacturers
product or brand. It apparently failed in many orchards throughout the
Northeastern Mcintosh area regardless of which brand was used. One possibil-
ity suggested by one experimenter is that TA for some unknoim reason was not
absorbed by the foliage as readily as NAA or 2,li,5-TP,

Many grovrers were disappointed with TP on Baldwin this year, also. Last
year we found TP to be very effective on this variety for about a month
after application. This year, on the basis of the early drop of Liclntosh,
many growers applied TP to Baldmn about September 20, in order to prevent
the possibility of an early drop of Baldvrin, which they feared might take
place. Treatments at this time appeared to run out by Columbus Day or
7 to 10 days before we thought it would on the basis of last year's results*
In other \vords, in the absence of any test data, it is our guess that TP
held Baldwin well for a time but its oeriod of effectiveness was shorter
than anticipated this year. This year it now appears that it might have
been best to have delayed the application of TP on Baldwin until about
October 1, This, of course, represents another example of knowing what
should have been done after the horse ivas stolen. On Delicious, all reports
we have received indicate that 2,I;,5-TP did a good job of controlling the
drop of this variety,

-.— F, TJ, Southwick

////////////////

F,F.A. FRUIT JUDGING CONTEST

The annual F.F.A, Fruit Judging Contest was held at the University
of Massachusetts October 28, Nine teams of three boys each were in competi-
tion this year, these teams were from the following schools: Arms Academy,
Charlton High School, Essex County Agricultural School, Hudson High School,
New Salem AoadeirQ^, Norfolk County Agricultural School, Templeton High School,
Wachusett High School and VJorcester North High School,

In this contest the boys endeavored to identify forty-five specimens
of apple and pear varieties, fifteen specimens of insects and diseases,
fifteen lots of apples as to grade and judge four classes of apples with
three plates in each class*

Templeton High School won the contest Yiith a score of 3j59U points out
of a possible U,350,

David Rossbach of Templeton High' School had the highest individual
score with 1,310 points out of a possible 1,U50,

These winners will defend their crowns at a similar contest to be
held at liiorcester North High School on January k, 19S6, during the Union
Agricultural meetings,

— 0, C, Roberts

////////////////

#

A PRACTICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE U.S. NO. 1 GRADE FOR APPLES

ONE VARIETY - MATURE, but not overripe —
been on the groond — CLEAN, free of diru rea
AGE shall represent size, coloftl^^Snny ol
MINIMUM DIAMETER shall be stated on closed

lAND PICKED, showing no evidence of rough handling or having
iier material - WELL FORMED - FACE OF THE PACK-
-^WELL FILLED - The COUNT or

'stated, inaxM^.size variation shall not be

more than % inch in diameter. Six* ToUronca: minimi

COLOR ~ miniaHNR ra^ulranants:

- RED SPORT VARIETIES aueh « Rad RomV'v
MelNTflSpCORTLAND and similar varieties .
JALD^I^EliELICIOUS^ t^LTHY and similor variatias

Group 1

moxlniiim limits parmtttad fn this grada

Hr NET-LIKE RUSSETTING .

USS^TTING

SLIGHTLY ROUGH RUSSETTING . .
ROUGH RUSSETTING

SCAB AND CEDAR RUST . . . ;^,
HEALED INSECT STINGS .
LIMB RUB

maximnm> If need, not more than lOX.

3/16 inch

^4«tat ar«a 10X of curiae*.
^a^ ana H ineh in diomate
j^'*^^^»ol »'•« W inch in dlamatei

K?:

1/4 inch

. total oraa % inch in liici^'^ta

. total oraa 3/16 inch in diameter.

. total area M inch in,4lon«

HAIL or DROUGHT SPOT, nona mora than supafficiol or total orao of K inch in
from noticaabia SOOTY BLOTCH. SUNBURN, SPRAY BURN, or RED "^"
from OTHER INSECT, DISEASE, and MECHANICAL domaga. A combi ^
ip it allowad if total tariousnass doas not axcaad that ollowad for any on*

Group 3 • Fraa^'^om all
Group 4

a faw shallow and inconapicuous BRUISES.

. Fraa froot^ECAY, H^
SCALD, FltE€ZING IN

>L BREAKDOWN and BROWNING, BITTE
TER CORE, BROKEN SKIN, WORM

1/2 inch

Scale,
facts in this

r JONATHAN SPOT,
rES, and APPLE MAGGOT.

coy

may be below the (rode requirements.
'oTintemol breakdown.

GRADE TOLERANCE: - Not mere

Pievided that: • Net more than IX moy^

ondt • Not more then 5* moy be damaged by insects in excess ol the limits stoted lor this grode.

The percentage eut-ol.grade shall be calculated on the basis ol count when count is stated, on the
l>oals el weight when size is stated.

FOR COMPLETE INFORMATION SEE OFFICIAL GRADE SPECIFICATIONS

A P> A C K. I rvj <S

Ur.S'ted Sta.+ ea Depar-kTncn+ of AgricuHure

oljse: f=> a s t El 1^.

■^ University of NlasaacViusells
Countu ELxtension Services Cooperatina

#

A PRACTICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE U.S. FANCY GRADE APPLES

udulB and oi^r

ONE VARIETY — MATURE, but not overripe — HP^IMfKED, showing no evidence of rough handling or having
been on the pound — CLEAN, * 'mMlf^^'"' and oifer material — WELL FORMED - FACE OF THE PACK-
AGE shall represent size, co\jagSt0^^S^oi '*• "IjQil'y '~JBff^^^^^^^ ' ' >^ILLED - The COUNT or
MINIMUM DIAMETER a^^/^ stated oa?|||ged_co|iSi^|^ tf^Sunt is stated, raaximoniigize variation shall not be
more than % inch in diameter. Six* ToUranc*: minimum adtmai^^i^^ 5% — raaximom, if uittd. not more than 10%.

COLOR — mini^^ rcquiraniMits:

. REi SPORT|wi«t»« i«

mAtosh, CORT LAH^
.J)EUCJI01B,

50% oi surfoc*.

y«r«tiet' .- .,,.:."
LTHY and similgr varieties

3/16 inch

ISX of stif
^al sreo 51% of surfoca.
itai atma K Inch In diameter.
4ai ar»e M Inch In diameter. 1

1/4 inch

maximttifi limits permit^d in this grade:

SMOOTH, Nejr-MKERUSSETTING .

SOLID RUSSiffWG

SLIGHTLY RddGH RUSSETTING . .
ROUGH RUSSETTWG ..... •

Group 2i SCAB AND CEDAR RUSr,;^.V ;% .:i., .i^VflJ^^^E . totol area ]i inch In 4lai|i^

HEALED INSECT S1^^%gS©?I^^^^^^^P ' ***"' "*" ^^'* '"'*' '" ^''

LIMB RUB . . v^^l^^^St^^^^^P^ . . »otol oreo W Inch In diam.ttf. 1/2 Inch

HAIL or DROUGHT SPOTS,^ n«ie more Then^vperliciQi «r total area of K inch inm^tnAr.

from noticeable SOOTY BLOTCH, SUNBURN, SPRAY BURN, or RED SPO^v^ Scale.

J^m OTHER INSECT, DISEASE, and MECHANICAL damage. A combinotioir^^flKfectt in this

gr«^|i> allowed if total seriousness does net exceed that allowed for any one

Group 3 • Free l^m ai|^|||9^ a few shallow and inconspicuous BRUISES

Group 4 - Free from
SCALD,

%L BREAKDOWN ond BROWNING, BITTER^
KTER CORE, BROKEN SKIN, WOR|

^JONATHAN SPOT,
rES, and APPLE MAGGOT.

GRADE TOLERANCE: • Not mero thoini^iiy^gKMUM^^^to^^P^VT may bo bolew the grade requirements.
Providod ttiot: • Net moro than IX moy boolfeeto^mh Jaeoy or Intamol brookdewn.

and: • Net moro than 5% may bo damaged by Insects In excess of tho limits stated for this grade.

The porcofltage out>of-grado shall bo calculated en tho basis of count when count Is stated, en the
basis of weight when si so is stated.

FOR COMPLETE INFORMATION SEE OFFICIAL GRADE SPECIFICATIONS |

A PAOKirvjcsi i-4^ljse: F»cz>S"rE:F^

Uni+ed Sta-ies Depar-kinen+ of AgricuUure -^ Uni\/ersi-l_y of NlaesacViuseHs

Countu Cxlension Services Cooperatinq

a.nc

R

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Apple Storage Sca^d
Neglected Youth
Why is "Preaching" Necessary?
A Mite— y Sugg-sstion
Pomological Research
Safety in the Woods
Virus-free Strawberry Plants for t956
Farm Families and Social Security
Pomological Paragraphs

JANUARY 15, 1956

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating,

Publication Approved by George J. Cronln, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOUR POKiOLOOY DLP^UT'iLMT

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches small fruits and general fruit growing courses.

Bailey, John S, - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East
Yfereham. Doing small fruit research on strawberries, blue-
berries and beach plums, Lrc Bailey also handles considerable
of the small fruits extension programs

French, Arthur P. - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active
in small fruit variety testing.

Lord, V'/illiara J, - Extension Fruit Specialist

Connected chiefly with fruit growers' problems, other than pest
control, and is sonev;hat involved in reser.rch. Editor of FRUIT
NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver Co - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental
courses. Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, Franklin VJ, - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning,

preharvest drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition.

Also, teaches in certain advanced courses.

/eeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain
tests and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to This Issue from Supporting Fields

R, B, Parmenter - Extension Forester

E, H. Ifheeler - Extension Entomologist

L. D. Rhoades - Extension Specialist Farm Management

FRUIT NOTES
January 1956

appij: sTQRAgr scald

The severity of apple storage scald is greatly influenced by the type of
growing season. In other words, the fruit is somewhat predisposed to scald
before it ever enters the storage. However, there are some things a grov/er uiay
do to reduce its severity even in bad scald years.

It is the purpose of this brief report to discuss sane of the factors which
influence scald and the value of present scald control measures.

A, Orchard Factors:

1, Variety. In iiassachusetts by far the most susceptible variety is
Cortland, This variety tends to develop scald rather early in the storage
season (often by December or January) and to develop a dark brown, somewhat
sunken type of scald. Both R, I, Greening and Rome are subject to this disorder
but except for a relatively fev; grc.Yers the volume of Rome and R.I. Greening in
Massachusetts is small. Such varieties as Mcintosh, Delicious, Golden Delicious,

and Baldwin are not usually affected,

2, Season. There is some indication that scald is apt to be worse following
growing seasons that have been warmer than usual. If this is true one would
expect more scald to develop this year than last. Scald on Cortland has already
appeared (after fruit was held at room temperature for 5 days) on k out of 11
samples of Cortland taken by Dr. Bill Lord from storages in six counties in
December, 1955* Last year Cortland did not begin to scald until February,

3» Fertilizer Program, Actually very little experimental work has been
done relating nutritional status of the tree to incidence of scald, Hovrever,
some work has been done relating nitrogen level of the tree with severity of
scald. The findings from these studies do not indicate any close correlation
between nitrogen level and scald development. The influence of other elements
such as potassium, magnesium, boron, etc, is open to investigation,

h* Maturity of the Fruit At Harvest, The influence of maturity is well
known. Immature apples aMost always scald more than more mature lots,

B, Storage Factors

1, Temperature c It is commonly stated that apples held at 32° F, will
scald less than fruit held at 36-I4O'' F, It is desirable to cool apples as quick-
ly as possible to 32° F, to reduce the rate of ripening and softening as much

as possible. However, recent work at Amherst does not seem to substantiate the
claim that apples will always scald more when held at kO° F, than at 32^ F,

2, Apple Volatiles. It is the opinion of many that storage scald is caused
by organic gases produced by apples. It has been possible, for example, to in-
crease the amount of scald on a firm lot of apples by passing vapors from ripe

-2-

apples over them. The recent work at Rhode Island Yirhere investigators have
removed some or all of the cuticle and obtained carked reductions in scald in-
dicates that volatiles from riper apples are not the sole cause of scald. Also,
we found that packing Cortland apples in activated coconut shell carbon did not
control scald. It is apparent that there is still much to learn about the causal
agents of scald „

C, VJhat can a grovrer do to keep track of scald development and control it?

The best way to keep track of scald development is to remove apples of
scald susceptible varieties from cold storage every two weeks and hold them for
five days at room temperature. Apples may appear to be free of scald in storage
and yet show as much as 100^ scald after several days at 70-80° F, This sort of
checking should be started in December and continued as long as the susceptible
variety is in storage. Obviously, prompt movement of any variety showing scald
is desirable.

As far as controls go, a grower of scald susceptible varieties should not
pick them when immature. Of course, he has to be careful that they are not
allowed to become over ripe. Another method of control is the use of oiled paper,
either as vrraps or as shredded paper. This treatment must be done before the
fruit enters the storage in order to be most effective. Since most of our apples
are stored orchard run and packed out-of-storage most grov/ers are not enthusiastic
about the use of oiled paper since it i.ieans another operation and expense during
the rush at harvest time. Also, oiled paper may reduce scald somevrhat but often
will not give adequate control.

At one time we had hopes that coconut shell air purifiers -vrould be of
value in controlling scald. Their value for this purpose is limited, however.
Air purifiers will often fail to control scald on Cortland,

As you can see, present scald control methods are far from satisfactory.
However, recent research being conducted here and in neighboring states indicate
that better control methods may be developed soon, A spray treatment which can
be applied just prior to harvest is our hope so that additional handling after
harvest vdll not be necessary,

— F, Vif, Southwick

////////////////

NEGLECTED YOUTH

Parental neglect in the proper training of a child, according to authorit-
ies on child behavior, is a major cause of the alarming increase in juvenile
delinquency. Among fruit growers failure to properly train the young fruit tree
is the fundamental cause for the wayv':ard branches and the weak character of the
frame work which is altogether too common in too many orchards.

-3-

A young tree like a child must be given guidance if it is to develop
into a respectable adult, physically strong and capable of assuming the burdens
of adulthood. This guidance should begin after the first season^s grovrth and
every year thereafter until the complete structure of the tree has been estab—
lished.

Too often the older trees v^rhich are of bearing age receive first attention
with the result that time runs out before all of the pruning can be done and the
youngsters suffer from neglect. The longer they are allowed to shift for them-
selves the more difficult it will be to develop them into self respecting members
of the orchard family. How about giving these youngsters a break for a change
and assure them the attention that they need before starting to prune the bear-
ing trees?

Y/ith a good pair of pruning shears and a knowledge of the basic principles
involved, the corrective pruning on a young tree can be accomplished in a
couple of minutes or less if it is done every year.

These basic principles and details of pinining each type of tree fruit are
contained in a new bulletin on pruning \fhich is in the process of publication
and should be available from County Agents or the Mailing Room at the Univei^
sity of Massachusetts within the near future,

— 0, C, Roberts
////////////////

V^HY IS "PREi\CHING" HECESSARY?

Research and Extension workers are frequently chided about too much
"preaching" on certain phases of agricultural production. In the case of
Poraologists a grower may wonder why these fellows ai^ always "preaching" about
use of magnesium limestone, boron, or how to prune, or any other of the mar^
recommended fruit growing practices? It does seem unnecessary to have to con-
tinually remind the commercial grower to do certain recommended practices in
his orchard from which he gets his livelihood. However, it also seems foolish
to have to continually Trarn the motorist about taking foolish chances when his
own life may be at stake, > ". ^ . . '. ' . \

The author will admit that for a.'bt of growers the "preaching" is not
necessary but there are still too many growers that are apparently failing to
use certain practices considered essential for profitable fruit grovdng. The
following are examples illustrating the point which the writer is trying to put
forth.

This fall the \irriter saw some beautiful hand picked Mcintosh apples being
taken to the cider mill. The reason for these apples being marketed this way
was quickly determined by cutting them open. These apples showed symptoms of
boron deficiency. It was said that the apples in one block of Mcintosh trees
were thus affected. There are enough factors beyond the control of the grower
that can cause him to lose money, without losing money by neglecting to apply
borax as recommended.

Some growers failed to apply a fungicide for late season and storage scab
and thereby got a lot of pin point scabj It certainly seemed a shame to have so
manj'" otherwise good apples become culls this late in the season.

A survey was conducted in 1953 in order to obtain data on the nutritional
status of commercial orchards in Massachusetts, The analysis of leaf samples
taken from 30 iiclntosh orchards revealed that magnesium ;vas below the desirable
range in kOf= of the orchards, "Calcium was below in 37^3^ of the orchards
followed by nitrogen and potassium with 20$," That too many of our orchards are
not receiving enough magnesium lime was further evident This fall when the
fertilizer programs were obtained in orchards from vjhich leaf samples vrere taken.
Some examples of these are the following;

Farm A - Orchard last limed in 19U5
Farm B - Orchard last limed in 1937
Farm C - Orchard last limed 8 or 10 years ago.

Farm D - Orchard last limed in 19!32 at the rate of one ton per acre, soil
test taken this fall showed pH to be 1;.7»

Another phase of orcharding that our preaching hasn't seemed to do much
for is the pruning of young apple trees. In too many of our orchards the young
tree is truly an orphan when it comes to pruning- In nany ways it is just as
important to prune the young tree as it is the bearing tree. It is from these
trees that the gro\Ter will derive his future income, thereby, it is important
to develop a strong framework that will support the bearing portions of the
mature tree in later years o A little corrective pruning on the young trees is
a sound investment.

The various topics presented in this article partly illustrate why it is
necessary to continually stress basic cultural practices so essential for a
profitable fruit-growing enterprise o

— ¥• J. Lord

////////////////

A UTE-Y SUGGESTION

When you go fishing, you get more of the kind you vrant if you know fish
and their habits.

Even I know you hunt squirrels in trees and rabbits on the ground, ruffed
grouse in woods and pheasants in fields.

But do you remember some of the important differences between the mites on
your apple trees? Here's a chance to review them.

You'll do better at fighting mites — and save money too ~ when you go at
the job with more "what, whe re and why" answers to guide you,

I think the following chart will help you to know and to "get" the mites
you are after »

-5-

Hey, Mite -- VjTio Are You?

'European 'Clover 'Ganiian Spider 'Twp-spotted
1 Red • Mite 'Mite (Yellow ' Mite
t ' 'Mite) '

Winter stage 'eggs - dull red 'eggs - shiny 'adults - yellow 'adults - dull
1 I red ' ' orange or pink

Where" found ~ "spursj Iwigs, 'trmilc, "stone's," "**under~loose ''"Under debris on
in winter 'branches 'vegetation 'bark 'ground (loose bark)

Hatching per- TPlnE Vam 'Silver-tip thru "^very late Delayed"'' on ground cover-
iod or be- »Bloom 'Delayed Dormant 'Dormant to 'Silver-tip to
oome active ' ' 'early Pink 'Green-tip

First eggs laid by overwintering adults

'About Pink

'About early Del,
'Dormant on grass
'and weeds

First adults
mature and
lay eggs

'About Petal-
iFall or soon after

Soon after
Bloom

"'^undersiJes of
'leaves - grass
'and weeds first j
'later in trees

Ifheve summer
eggs are laid

'upper and lower
'leaf surfaces all
I over trees

on~baric of~s"purs''undersi3es of
tv/igs, branches ' leaves
and trunks '

Egg color

'dull red

shTny re's

"•"pearly white
t

^pearly white to
I slight amber

Number of
generations

7 - 8

6(?)

h - 6(?)

9-11

Identifying
features of
adults (summe

"brick-red J back
'rounded, light-
r) colored spcffes'
' and hairs, legs
' of equal length

■T

T

'pale yellow or
'lemon yellow,

brownish-red,

back flattened,

front legs much 'dark spots

longer than 'scattered, body

others

'elongate oval '

'pale yellow or
'greenish yellow,

'two large dark
'spots, body oval

Activity of
adults and
young

'move about, on
'both surfaces
'of leaves
T

'general over-all
'dulling of green
'color and final-
ily a bronzed

'effect

1

J

return to bark 'among hairs on
to shed skins 'undersides of
and lay eggs 'leaves

'among hairs on
'undersides of
• leaves, weobing

Characteris-
tic damage
to leaves

a quick yellow- 'spur leaves crin-
ing, usually on 'kled, mottled
1 or 2 branches 'yellow and brovm;
at first (look , 'later Ivs. cupped
for white, empty 'from below , yel-
akins on spurs) 'lowed above along

'veins, greyish

1 below

'similar to Yellow
'mite, appears
'later, general
'yelloYiring follows,
'seen first on
'inside and low-
' hanging branches,
'in July or later

E, H. Wheeler

////////////////

-6-

POI'iOLOGICAL RESEARCH

9t The Influence of Chemical Treatments on Flo\>eriiig, Fruiting, and Preharvest

Drop of Fruit Trees

Many apple and peach varieties tend to set an excessive nxmiber of fruits
when they blossom heavily provided that the weather at blossom time is not a
factor in reducing the set. Unless the leaf area per fruit is incressed in
such years the fruit size at harvest is apt to be so small that much of the crop
cannot be marketed at a profit. Also, if removal of excess fruits can be accom-
plished shortly after the trees bloom (before flovrer bud initiation commences)
it may be possible to "break" the biennial bearing habit of many of our apple
varieties. Hand thinning of apples is a long, expensive operation which is
usually done too late in the summer to obtain the maximum size benefits for a
given degree of thinning or to "break" the biennial bearing habit of the trees.
It was our hope in working on this project to find certain chemicals iirhich
could be sprayed on the trees early enough to reduce the set, improve size of
the remaining fruit, and make many of our alternating varieties more annual
in production.

In addition, this project is concerned vrLth the testing of chemicals v/hich
may be suitable for preharvest drop control of apples. All growers are aware
that our prinicipal variety, l.iclntosh, may drop much of its crop just before
har-zest. We have been interested not only in measuring their drop control
effectiveness but also in determining their influence on fruit ripening and
storage life.

For several years now we have been testing several grovfth regulating sub-
stances for thinning apples and peaches. For apples the materials naphthalen-
eacetic acid (NAA) and naphthaleneacetariiide (NA Amide) have been found to be of
considerable value in thinning many apole varieties and improving the size of
remaining fruit. Also, v^^hen thinning is sufficiently heavy, the weather favor-
able, and the variety not too inherently biennial, regular bearing has frequently
resulted from spray applications of these materials applied at late bloom or up
to a couple of weeks thereafter, depending on the variety »

One of the early problems, encountered when M.k was the principle material
used for this purpose, was occasional overthinning and severe foliage injury on
certain varieties. The use of NA Amide has greatly reduced these risks, Hovrever,
we haven't reached the point where the degree of thinning obtained by chemical
means can be precisely predicted in advance. Even though chemical thinning of
apples lacks the precision desired, it has novr reached the point where it is a
rather common commercial practice. The situation with peaches is still in the
experimental stage. Neither NAA nor NA Amide are reliable materials for peach
thinning but Chloro IPC has shown some promise.

In recent years the number of chemicals available for preharvest drop con-
trol of apples has increased. The principal materials now being used are NAA,
2,U,5- trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,1|,5-TA), and 2,U,5-trichlorophenoxypropionic
acid (2,ii,5-TP), NAA materials v;ere first found useful for this purpose about
15 years ago. In the last 5 years 2,li,5-TP and 2,l4,5-TA, to some degree have
replaced NAA since they usually control drop for a longer period than NAA«

-7-

Hovrever, 2,l4.,5-TP often hastens fruit ripening to a much greater degree than
riAA when applied to Mcintosh and/or varieties that mature ahead of it. Also,
2,U,5-TA failed to control Mcintosh drop in 1955 v/hen both NAA and 2,1;,5-TP
were reasonably effective. Because of tlie failure of 2,ii,5-TA to control
ilclntosh drop in 1955 there is still a need for a material which will control
drop for 3 to U weeks but which will not hasten ripening appreciablyo

— - F, Vf, Southwick

////////////////

SAFETY IN THE WOODS

Felling Trees

Felling and skidding trees is relatively dangerous, requiriiig some degree
of skill and knowledge of safe methods. The danger is increased because of
the remoteness of the operation, the lack of ready help in case of accident,
and the time required for medical attendance. Woodaiiien can, to oome extent,
govern the direction of fall.lhisas determined by the natural lean of the tree,
by the position of obstacles as other trees, rocks, stumps, and electric wires,
and by the proximity of farm buildings.

After the direction of fall has been determined, a wedge-shaped notch or
undercut is made on that side of the trunk just above the sv/ell of the roots.
This will guide the tree in falling and will prevent splitting of the hole before
it is completely severed from the stump,

Viforkmen should stand where it is comfortable and near enough to their work
so that they will not strike a glancing blovi. Standing back of or running from
falling trees is dangerous. The workmen should step several feet to one side
and vratch the direction of the fall,

Most wood accidents are due to carelessness. The following suggestions
should be carefully observed:

1, Never chop or saw without making siire you have a clear circle in which
to swing the axe or pull the saw. Remove all vines, branches, and
brush that are mthin range. One should look overhead for branches
that may catch or deflect the axe,

2, Be sure other vrorkmen are not in range of your axe s\dng. After being
sure of swinging space keep your eye on the mark. Do not crowd your work.

3, In chopping keep a solid grip lYith the hand uppermost on the handle,

U, Avoid chopping into knots. Swing the axe a\vay from body and legs. A
glancing axe is dangerous,

5, Never leave the axe lying on the ground, lihen not in use drive the
blade into a log or stump,

6, If you fall, throw the axe from you as quickly and as far as you can.

-8-

7t Never carry a double-bitted axe on your shoulder in rough country.
Grasp the handle' close to the head vdth the bit at right angles to
the ground,

8, Never carry a saw under the anr., carry it balanced on the shoulder
vd.th the teeth pointing outward,

■ 9» I'ihen axe and saw are not in use, or when carrying them to and from the
job, fasten a piece of split fire hose over the bits and teeth as a
guard,

10, Warn other workmen of falling trees by calling "Timber-r-r-rl"

11, Stand a safe distance away from a falling tree. Never stand directly
behind as it may "kick back" over the newly made stump,

12, Use extreme caution in felling a ]potten tree,, It is difficult to
tell just when or in what direction the tree will fall,

13, Vifhen felling a tree having some dead limbs or a spike (dead) top,
keep watch for the falling of these "vddow-makers"o

— ». R, B, Parmenter

////////////////

VIRUS-FREE STRA\.' BERRY PUNTS FOR 19^6,

In most cases virt:iere virus-free stravfberi'y plants have been compared with
ordinary plants of the same variety the virus-free stock have been superior.
In same cases the difference has been slight and in other cases the virus-free
plants have shovfed marked superiority. Since virus-free strawberry plants
cost little or no more than ordinary stock of plants, it vnould seem wise for the
groiTer to obtain virus-free plants wherever possible,

A recent release from the U.S. Department of Agriculture at Beltsville,
'.aryland, gives the latest information on the availability of virus-free plant-
ing stock and the folloTdng is taken from that release;

1, At present 28 varieties are available from nurseries for planting by
growers. Of these the following appear to be of most interest to ifassachusetts
growers :

Armore Dijcie]a nd Pocahontas

Aroma Fairfax Redstar

Blakemore Howard 1? (Premier) Robinson

Catskill Midland Sparkle (Paymaster)

Vermilion

2, There are 11 varieties of v^tiich no virus-free stock is as yet available
to nurserymen. Of these the varieties most likely to be of interest to Mass-
achusetts growers are Aberdeen, Fairland, "Old Premier", Streamliner, Temple.

-9-

3t The varieties Eden, Empire and Gem (=Superfection, Brilliant) are be-
ing propagated in virus-free condition by nurseries but are not yet available
in sufficient supply to allow sale to growers.

U, Sometiiaes virus-infected strawberry plants can be freed of virus by a
special heat treatment. However, it sometimes takes a year or two to make sure
that the heat-treated plant is actually free of virus, and that the virus is not
merely latent and will reappear. At the Research Station at Beltsville single
plants of seven varieties have been apparently freed of virus by this heat treat-
ment. Those most likely to be of interest to wiassachusetts growers are Fairland,
Streamliner, Temple and Twentieth Century.

5o For nurserymen who have space available in their screenhouse and want
a fev/ strawberry plants for foundation stock, the following varieties are avail-
able: Eden, Empire, Gem and Orland,

i

Neither the U.S. Department of Agriculture nor the State Experiment Station
has a supply of virus-free plants for sale. A list of nurseries offering virus-
free strawberry plants will be supplied on request,

J. S, Bailey

/////////////// /^

FAroi FAMILIES AND SOCIAL SECURITY

Basically the Old Age and Survivors Insurance program is a family group
insurance plan operated by the Federal Government, Self-employed persons like
farm. operators, hired ^Torkers and the'ir employees pay "premiums" for this
insurance \uhile they are earning income. Social Security should be considered
only as a part of a family's plan for adequate insurance protection and retire-
ment ; income.

Kinds and Amounts of Benefits

Three kinds of benefits are provided under the programj one, monthly retire-
ment payments to insured persons and dependents} two, monthly survivor's payments
to the families of deceased insured persons and three, lump sum payments of from
.li,90 to \i>2SS on the death of an insured person.

Is Participation In The Program Voluntary?

No, if you qualify, it is required that all self-employed persons, including
farmers and hired farm workers whose earnings are such as to come within the
provisions of the law must report earnings and pay Social Security taxes regardless
of age»

Farm Operators as Self -Employed Persons

Persons farming for themselves as owner-operators, partners participating in
a joint venture, or as tenants or share farmers who make a net profit from farming
of ''oUOO or more per year, must pay the Social Security tax and are entitled to
the benefits. Farmers who operate entirely with hired help are considered self-
employed persons.

-10-

Farm ^''orkers

Hired farm workers including household help mho are paid as much as vpIOO
cash wages in one year from any one fariaer emp3.oyer whether work is regular or
not, are included as of January 1, 1955 »

Farm V/ork Not Covered

1. Work by employer's son or daughter under age 21 or by the employer's
father, mother, wife or huaband.

2, ^Tork by foreign workers lawfully admitted from British West Indies or by
Mexican contract labor,

3». 'Jork in connection with gum naval stores.

Rental Income Excluded

Share or cash rental income is excluded by law from income classed as net
earnings from self -employment.

How Are Benefits Earned?

Farmers and farm vrorkers become entitled to benefits by earning enough income
over a period of time from operating a farm or from cash wages in farming or other
covered occupations under the law,

Vifhen Do Farmers and Farm Workers Become Insured?

Certain lengths of time in covered work are necessary to qualify for Social
Security benefits. The time varies ^ath the type of benefits, whether survivors
or retirement and the date a person reaches age 65 or dies. The amount of vfork
required is figured in quarters of coverage which are calendar quarters. It may
be as little as one and a half years or as nuch as ten years, depending upon the
age of the worker. Farmers who were 65 before July 1, 195^4- can qualify in one
and a half years or six quarters*

How Do Insured Persons Become Eligible for Retirement Benefits?

Farmers and farm T/orkers become eligible when they meet all of the following
conditions :

la Fully insured status

2, Sixty-five years of age or older

3. Retired

It, Application for payments has been made

A retired worker between 65 and 72 years of age can earn up toH^1200 in cash
wages or from self-employment and still draw all of his retirement payments.

-11- ■•

V'/hat Account Numbers and Other Records Are Needed?

Everyone v/ho comes under the program needs a Social Security Account Number
card. The number on the card is used to identify the Social Security Account of
the worker. Duplicate cards can be secured if the originals have been lost, A
farmer who hires workers covered by the program needs an Employer's Identifica-
tion Number in addition to his oivn Social Security card. Good farm records
virhich show clearly the amounts paid to workers and the amounts earned in self-
employment are neededr Wo particular form of record is specified provided it
shows the amounts paid or earned and by whom and during what time,

YiHiat About Farmers' sons or daughters?

Farmers' sons or daughters who carry on special activity all by themselves
such as U-H 02- FFA projects, and who have net earnings of ^UOO or more are cover-
ed. They must file reports and pay Social Security Taxes regardless of age,

— L, D, Rhcades

////////////////

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS

Root CroTnding

Apple roots may extend several feet beyond the tips of the branches. If
the tops of the filler trees are crovfding those of permanent trees, whatte
happening in the soil under the trees? ;:ost likely the roots of the permanent
and filler trees are interlaced. This v/ill lead to competition for vrater and
nutrients ,

Prevention of root .crowding is another argument for timely removal of
filler trees.

Power versus Hand Pruning

A recent study made at the University of Connecticut of power versus hand
pruning showed that an average of 660 pruning cuts / tree were made with power
pruners as compared to 600 cuts / tree virith hand tools. An experienced worker
pruned 21 trees in an eight hour day with power pruners and 18 trees/eight
hour day with hand tools*

Two Phases of Pruning

Pruning can be divided into two phases: decision and cutting. The time
spent in the decision phase of pruning cannot be shortened by modern equipment.
This phase depends upon the man doing the pruning. The ability to "size up"
each tree and to arrive at a quick but sound pruning decisions is reflected in
the number of trees pruned in a day.

On older treefe, that may need some large limbs removed, it might be worth
the orchard owner's time to paint tliese limbs so that when it comes time to
prune the decision phase has been eliminated,

— — Editor

/////////////////

"R

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pruning Cultivated Blueberries

A Safety Quickie

Let's Turn on the Light

Season of Red Raspberry Varieties

Strawberry Variety Trials - 1955

More Suggestions on Mites

Pruning Peach Trees

FEBRUARY 15, 1956

IsBued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOUR POMOLOGY DEPARTOIENT

Anderson^ James - Instructor

Teaches small fruits and general fruit grovd.ng courses,

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed ao East Vv'areham,
Doing small fruit research on strawberries, blueberries and beach
plums, iir, Bailey also handles considerable cf the small fruits
extension program,

French, Arthur P. - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breading, active in
small fruit variety testing.

Lord, y/illiam J, - Extension Fruit Specialist

Connected chielly v/ith fruit gror/rers' problems, other than pest control,
and is someifhat involved in research, Editor- of FRUIT NOTES,

Roberts, Oliver C, - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses.
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing,

Southivick, Franklin V/, - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also, teaches in
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, ViTalter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to This Issue from Supporting Fields
E, H, ViTheeler - Extension Entomologist

NOTICE

An all day session for Fruit GrcT^ers operating roadside stands is being
arranged for Tuesday, February 28, 1956, at the College of Agriculture, Storrs,
Connecticut, by John Chandler of the Nev; York, New England Apple Institute,
Sixty people attended the lively meeting a year ago and it tias observed that the
meeting was worth several thousands of dollars to every grower attending. All
Fruit Grov/ers operating stands are welcome!

////////////////

PRUMBTG CUT.TIVATED BLUEBERRIES

Pruning is one of the most important operations in the successful production
01' large crops of highbush blueberries.

The basic principles underlying the pruning of this crop are ao different
than those for other fruits. It is only the mechanics that differ.

All the operations in fruit growing are aimed at producing more or better
fruit, or both. If the idea of "better" is limited by substituting the idea
"larger", it is seldom possible to obtain both objectives, that is to increase
both crop size and fruit size. It has been shoivn repeatedly for other fruits, such
as apples and peaches, that maximum crop size, or number of fruits, is obtained
at the expense of fruit size. Or conversely, that large fruit size can be obtain-
ed only by reducing the number of fruits, that is crop size, Highbush blueberries
are no different in this respect. The following statement is from a bulletin is-
sued by the Michigan Experiment Station in 19Uii: " the more severe the pruning

given a mature highbush blueberry plant the greater the reduction in yield, the
larger the berries produced, and the earlier the maturity of the berries,"

There is the basic choice: light pruning to obtain maximum crop and late
maturity, or heavy pruning to obtain maxmum size and early maturity. Each
grower Tdll have to decide" vrhich best suits his ovm particular conditions or
whether some compromise is desirable. However, be \Tamed against going to extremes
in either direction. It doesn't follovir that if little pruning v;ill produce big
crops, no pruning will produce bigger. It may for a year or tvro but the end result
will be bushes weakened by over cropping, producing small crops of very small
berries. On the other hand, it is possible to overdo the pruning and cut out so
much bush that the crop is cut vinnecessarily vri-th no compensating increase in size.
After all, the maximum size of blueberries, as well as any other fruit, is set
by heredity. After this maximum is reached no amount of pruning, fertilizing,
or any other practice will increase size fiirther. In my opinion very few Mass-
achToeetts blueberry growers are over-pruning but many are pruning too little,

Nov/ comes the much more difficult and controversial part of pruning, vfhat
to cut out and how to go about it. To do a good job of pruning requires both
good judgement and skill. Frequently, much more time is used deciding what to
cut than it takes to do the cutting. This demonstrates the necessity for the
training of judgement. No one can learn to do a good job of pruning by reading
a book or watching someone else. These are helpful, especially watching someone
with experience who vfill take the time to explain why each cut is made. This is

-2-

only a start, ;ach worker .nust develop his o;\fn judgement by taking the pruning
shears in his ovm hands and deciding which branch stays and uiiich is cut. Then
the results should be studied. How else can one decide whether the pruning job
was a good one? Study the bushes when the fruit is ripe. This tells the story.
The fact that the bush "looks good" when the pruning is completed may be deceiv-
ing. Well trained help that can be depended on year after year is a great asset.

In New Jersey the blueberry holdings are often large enough so that the cost
of pruning and the time required are very considerable. For this reason Professor
C. A, Doehlert has made a special study of pruning. At a recent meeting of the
Massachusetts Cultivated Blueberry Association he demonstrated four basic methods
of pruning blueberries. The first involves a very detailed cutting of individual
shoots and branches with a hand shears. It usually results in the highest yields
but is slow and costly. Returns were lowest of the four methods. The second is
also a hand shear method. Groups of branches are cutj that is large stems v/ith
much weak vrood. Fewer cuts are made, more bushes can be pruned per man day, cost
per acre is reduced. In the third and fourth all the pruning is done with long-
handled lopping shears 0 This is the fastest and cheapest way because only a few
large cuts are made on each bush. In the third method the cuts are made in the
top of the bush. Groups of branches are removed as in the second hand shear
method. Pruning with the lopping shears could be done a little faster than mth
hand shears. It would be easier to do too much. By the fourth method large old
stems are cut at the base of the bush. This is not much faster than the thiixi
method and overpruning is much more likely to result. This method is not for the
inexperienced. Some of the results obtained by Professor Doehlert are given in
the following table. The fencocas bushes vrere in a field lightly pruned in pre-
ceding years; the Jersey in a heavily pruned field.

Time to prune, min.
Cost per acre
Pints per bush 1955
Returns per bush

Hand

Shear

Lopp

ers

Detailed |

Groups 1

Top 1

Base

Rancocas

k.6
a36.
6.6
■vl.58

Jersey

5.2
,150.

8.1
S2,ll

Ran.

lo6

'MS,

8,3

;pl.8U

Jer.

2.5
^.75.

8.6
„2.2U

Ran.

0.7

^22.

9.0

^2,00

Jer.

2.0

$60.
8,ii
i2.23

Ran.

0.7

i^22,

10

^2.16

Jer.
1.5
7.1

yl.83

Some of the growers at the meetihg expressed a preference for a combination
of methods. They like to take out a fev^r large, old stems at the base vidth lopping
shears and then finish the top vfith hand shears. This combination has special
merit where a pruning crev; of varying skill is used. The best man or two can go
ahead with loppers and make the big cuts. The less experienced follow with hand
shears. Wrong cuts made with hand shears are less damaging to the bush.

Pruning is a very important operation in successful blueberry growing. It
involves the selection of a definite objective. To obtain this objective requires
knowledge, skill, and judgement. There are several ways in vfhich the pruning can
be done. The method selected will depend largely on the training and experience
of the worker. Pruning is still more of an art than a science,

J. S, Bailey

////////////////

-3-

A SAFETy QUICKIE

•'i/'[hen chemicals (pesticidts) cause undersirable effects, I find one or more
of the follovring has made the result possible:

1, Ignorance of the dangers involved,

2, Faulty skills or equipment,

3, A careless attitude.

The human factor which arises from such attitudes as bravado, a desire to
remove safeguards and to take tiraesaving shortcuts, a belief that 'it can't
happen to me,' sheer ignorance, and stubborrjiess is recurringly apparent in the
circumstances of the misuse of chemicals*

The resulting damage may be to useful crops, to farm animals, or to human
beings,"

- by Dr. Lemuel C, McGee, National Agricultural Chemicals

Medical Coimiittee

E. H, Tmeeler

////////////////

LET'S TURN ON THE LIGHT

At the present time fruit grovrers in ilassachusetts are groping in the dark
trying to determine future trends in the industry. In order to look into the
future we need more light on the situation as it is today. Ho\'; many bearing trees
of the important Arairieties are there in commercial orchards? How many young trees
have been planted? To what extent are new plantings replacing old trees that are
going out of production? Y/hat will be the potential production within the next
ten years compared with that of today? Is the Mcintosh Variety over planted?

In order to ansvrer these and many other questions for iirtiich there is no
accurate information available, the Fruit Industry Coirjnittee of the iiassachusetts
Fruit Grovrers' Association has adopted a tree fruit survey as its major project.
The Extension Service at the University is prepared to render all possible assist-
ance in carrying out this project. The actual survey will be conducted next June
or July, At that time each fruit grovirer in the State with 100 trees or more
will be asked to fill out a questionnaire. This questionnaire is included in
this issue of "Fruit Notes" in order that you may become fartdliar iTith it and
possibly have the information ready when the actual survey is conducted.

The full cooperation of everyone vifill be necessary to accomplish this object-
ive.

May we count on you to help turn on the light?

- — 0, C. Roberts

////////////////

-4-

County_
Name

mSSilCHUSETTS APi'LK, PEACH kW /^Afi SURVEY

Town

.'ail Address

Pilncipal Farm Enterprise

Tree Fruits (acres); Apple

, Peach ,Pear , Total Acres (tree fruits )_

Small Fruits (acres): Strawberries , Raspberries , Grapes ,

Cultivated Blueberries , Total Acres (small fruits )_

If all or any part of apple orchard has been abandoned since 19hO, indicate acres_
Reason

Appl

es (Number trees now in

orchard exclusive

of abandoned

trees)

Variety

h yrs,
& under

5-9
yrs.

lO-li;
yrs.

1^-19
yrs.

20-29
yrs.

30 yrs,
& over

1955 Yield
Cbushels)iHi-

Baldwin

Cortland

Early Mcintosh

Golden Delicious

^ravenstein

Mcintosh

^(-Northern Spy

■«-Red Delicious

^Rome or Gallia

Wealthy

All other varieties

Totals

NeviT Varieties

(number
h yrs,

& under

oi
c

I

' trees)
) yrs,

t over

New Varieties

(number of
h yrs.
& under

trees )

5 yrs.

6 over

Davey

Monroe

Ida red

Puritan

'ielrose

Spartan

Capacity of Refrigerated Storage bushels.

Per cent of apple crop sold: Roadside Stand or Fanr, Sales Room: Own %; Other Stands %

Direct to retail stores %; Other selling agent %', Used or sold for cider %,

^Including sports, -;Hf-Include saleable drops and cider apples.

riU'

Peaches

(number trees in o

rchard)

Variety

k yrs,
& under

5-9
yrs»

10-lh
yrs.

15-19
yrs*

20 yrs.
& over

1955 lield
(bushels) *

Early Elberta

Elberta

Golden Jubilee

Hale haven

J. H.' Hale

Red Haven

Summercrest

Your other important
varieties

1. - ■

2.

3.

h.

5.

All other varieties

(

Totals

Pears

(numbe

r trees

in orchard)

Variety

U yrs,
& Under

5-9
yrs.

10-lU
yrs.

15-19
yrs.

20-29
yrs.

30 yrs,
& over

1955 Yield
(bushels) *

Clapp's Favorite

Bartlett

Bosc

Seckel

Your other important
varieties

..

1,

2.

All other varieties

Totals

■K- Include saleable drops.

-6-

Explanatlon of Frui-t^ Survey Questiormalr»

Size of Farm; Only farms vflth 100 trees-'or raqr« will be included in this survey.

Principal Farm Enterprise; IVhat i-s-the chief j^souii'ce of income on the farm? Is
it fruit grovdng, dairying, poultry raising,' or some other activity?

Acres Apple, Peach, Pear, etc.: Under this heading total acreage in each fruit
listed is desired,:; Omit fruits grown for home use only,. Only acreage of
cultivated blueberries grown for sale "should be recorded i

kre of Trees; Under the heading the number of trees of different ages now groviring
is desired. Varieties which are sports such as Starking, should be recorded
with the parent variety, as Red Delicious. Include trees planted in 1956.

Quantity Harvested; 1955 yield refers to all markeiiable fruit harvested in 1955
including saleable j-drops and cider apples. Give quantity harvested by
varietieis, if- poss5.ble. In any case be BMxe to record the total. Note that
peaches are to be reported in bushels, rather than baskets.

Abandoned Orchards ; This -applies to apple orchards only. An abandoned orchard
is one which is not sprayed. In addition to giving the acreage it is part-
icularly important to record the reasons for abandonment,

Mevj Varieties; If • any of the new varieties listed are planted in your orchard,
indicate number of trees in: appropriate column.

Refrigerated Storage ; Only mechanically refrigerated storages should be included
under this heading, •

—I

Method of Sale; Note that percentage of the apple crop and not number of bushels
is wanted. Total of all methods should equal 100 percent,

a. Sales- Direct to Consumers; Any sales made to cons\araers at the farm, whether
from a definite sales area or not, should be recorded as "own". After "otheiw
stands" indicate' per cent of crop- sold to other roadside stand operators, if
any,

b. Direct to Retail Stores; ^jSord per cent of crop you deliver direct to' '"'
retail stores, if any, -7 ;

c. Other Selling Agent; Under this heading record per cent of crop sold thru
a cooperative, to a Airtiolesaler, on commission, by mail order, etc,

d. Used or Sold for Cider; Indicate per cent of crop which you made into
cider ih your own mill or sold to be made into cider ty others.

Peaches and Pears; Under "Your other important Varieties" list any varieties which
you have plarited Tor commercial production which have not been indicated
specifically jabove, i

General Directions; To facilitate tabulation give information desired in spaces

provided vjtierever possible . Leave other spaces blank. If orchard extends into
adjoining state record data only on that part which is located in Massachxisetts ,

■-7 3

SEASON OF RED RASPBERRY VARIETIES

One of the important characteristics of any fruit variety is its season of
harvest,

V/ith any fruit which ripens over an extended period the meaning of early, mid-
season or late is not readily apparent.

In order to obtain a numerical expression of time of ripening for the variet-
ies under test vre have divided the entire picking season for all varieties into
thirds. Then for each variety the percentage of its crop harvested in the first
and last third of the season has been determined. This information is recorded
in the following table for the years 1953 through 1955 •

Season of Harvest - 1953-1955.

Variety

% early

% late

Season

Remarks

1.

Tweed

86.8

0

Very early

1953 only

2.

Gatineau

72.3

3o2

Very early

3.

Durham

68.5

1.8

Early

1953 only

h.

Sunrise

6ii,6

5.7

Early

5.

Antietam

61.8

U.6

Early

195ii-5

6.

September

56,0

lUa

Early

7.

Madawaska

55.9

11.5

Early

8.

Chief

Uo.7

11.2

Early-mi dseas on

9.

Early Red

38 .U

20.5

Early-midseason

1955 only

10.

Willamette

33.0

13.9

Midseason

Badly winter killed in 1955

11.

Viking

27.0

19.7

Midseason

Badly winter killed in 1955

12 „

Cuthbert

18. U

15. ii

Midseason

1951^-5

13.

Latham

18,1

2U.3

Midseason

Ih.

Milton

1.2

Uh,7

Late

195U-5

15.

Amber

0

kl,l

Late

Badly winter killed in 1955

The summer crops only of September and Durham are represented in the figures
for the two everbearers. The severity of winter injury on Willamette, Viking and
Amber in 1955 may have delayed their season of ripening for that year.

During the period 1953-55 Gatineau, September, Madawaska, Latham and possibly
Milton have been the most dependable varieties under trial, Tweed and Antietam
have been discarded because of their small and poor quality fruit, Durham cannot
compete with other varieties in the early summer season, yet it is the earliest in
fall crop, Willamette has an excellent fruit but winter killing makes it unreliable
for any but the gambler.

For latest information on varieties recommended for planting in lilassachusetts
consult Special Circular 212-F, revised January 1956, and available from the
Mailing Room, University of Jiassachusetts, or the Pomology Department,

— ^A, P, French

////////////////

STMWBERRY VARIETY TRIALS - 19^$

The follcfwing table lists, in order of earliness, several of the strawberry
varieties which v/ere fruited in the Iftiiversity variety trials last summeri

Season of Ripening and Yield

Variety

%

%

General

Calc. Yield

Early

Late

Classification

Quarts per Acre

Pathfinder

29.8

7.1;

Early

7022

Howard 17

29.3

8.3

II

7089

Hovrard V, F,

22.U

15.0

II

7560

Temple

20.2

11.5

II

6530

Catskill

llu8

16.2

Mid sea son

892-0
ll;0UliJ

Catskill V.F.

6.6

19.1;

II J*

Stelemaster

lli.7

16.3

II

5639

Pocahontas

12.3

10,8

It

9i;96

Vermilion

9.\x

li;.3

II

102li2

Robinson

8.7

19.1

II '•

6137

Robinson V.F,

U.5

22.1

II ■ '

7037

Redcrop

16

11.8

II ' ■>

6321

Sparkle

5.9

3l;.U

Late ; ■

11190)
ll;013 )

Sparkle V.F.

3.U

39.5

II

Orland

5.i4

21.2

Midseason

12876

Dixieland

i;.8

20.0

It

9327

Aberdeen

2.2

33.8

Late

6990

Armore

1.1

39.2

II

9910

Monmouth

0«7

30.9

II

9157

Maine 55

0«6

19.6

Midseason

9861;

Blaze

0.2

35.7

Late

. 1I1627

Thirteen pickings vrere made during the season. The "^ early" column in-
dicates the percentage of the total crop of each variety which was harvested
during the first four pickings, June 6 through 13. Likewise, the "^ late" column
covers the last four pickings, June 27 through July 5.

>■■ 'This procedure lets us see just hovir much of '^ th,e crop of each variety was
harvested in the first, middle or last third of the season and thereby provides
data, ty which to classify a variety as early, midseason, or late. It is interest-
ing, "to note, in all four cases v^iere 'virus-free stock is compared with ordinary
stock of the same variety, that fruit on virus-free plants ripened slightly later
than on ordinary plants.

The calculated yields per acre are based on data from small, single row plots.
For every variety there were at least two such plots scattered throughout the
field whereas for Howard, Catskill, Vermilion, Robinson, Redcrop, Sparkle and
Armore there were three or four such plots. Red stele was somewhat in evidence
in the Howard and Robinson plots, both ordinary and virus-free, which doubt-
less influenced the yield of those plots. However, the figures for Catskill,
Vermilion, Redcrop, Sparkle and Armore are probably representative of their pro-
duction capacities in this test. The yields of virus-free Catskill and Sparkle

-9-

give rather substantial evidence of the superiority of virus-free plants to ordin-
ary plants of those varieties obtained from good reliable Massachusetts strawberry
niirserymen.

Among the newer varieties Stelemaster Is worth considering only on land where
Sparicle or other varieties resistant to the connnon strain of red stele have become
infected by another strain cf red stele. Rede r op has never been a satisfactory
yielder with us« The fruit of Pocahontas Is ex-tremely variable in size and of
doubtful usefulness in this areaii Dixieiand is an extremely firm variety character-
istic of those grown in the deep south, but much too sour for our market, Armore
is a rather coarse berry but excellent quality. The plant is vigorous but not
resistant to red stele. Blaze is as bright as the name indicates and is well worth
testing as a late variety, but is not resistant to red stele. The three varieties,
Orland, Monmouth, and Maine g^, are all resistant to the common strain of red
stele. All three are a bit soft but have rather attractive berries of good size.

///////////////

MORE SUGGESTIONS ON MITES

^A, Pe French

In the preceding issue of FRUIT NOTES I suggested the importance of knovdng
which mite or mites you had to do battle against. Now let's take a closer look at
our "ammunition" and when it can be used most effectively.

On the follovdng pages you v/ill find charts giving a wide choice of materials
and timing. Some materials or combinations of materials and timing have certain
advantages. These vary from orchard to orchard according to kinds of mites present,
apple varieties, other materials being used, need to control other pests and many
other factors. It is impossible for an "expert" to say, "This is the best material
for mite control program," YiThat is right for you may be quite otherwise for your
neighbor. There may be advantages in using split programs - one material in one of
three applications and quite a different material in one or both of the others*

No program should be selected finally until relative costs have been worked
out. Actual cost of the material used in 100 gallons times the probable (recommend-
ed) n\imber of applications required mil give you a base figure for direct compari-
son. Base figures should be scaled up or down according to other factors such as
necessity for use in a special application and effect upon other pests needing control.

Safety for the spray operators, compatibility \vith other materials, possible
russetting or other injury on susceptible varieties, adaptibility at concentrations
used in your machine, effect upon beneficial insects and mites, and possible residue
complications at harvest are other important considerations.

Good apple growers want to obtain outstanding control of mites as well as other
pestsj they cannot afford anything less, riost successful growers carefully consider
all relevant factors in selecting their materials. They get the "mostest" for the
"leastest" without sacrificing quality or yield.

Is there any other way to play this game?

E. H, vifheeler

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-12-

PRUT-IING PEACH TREES

Pruning At Setting Time

Even though the life of a peach tree is normally considerably shorter than
that of an apple tree, the same care should be taken in building a strong frame-
work to prevent subsequent breakage of main scaffold limbs,

In the past, the customary method of training a young peach tree has been
the open center system which consists of three or four main scaffold limbs arising
at approximately the same point on the trvmk. This tends to produce a tree with
v/eak crotches which frequently break down with a heavy load of fruit. The recent
trend is towards a modified leader t3'pe of tree, Nonnally a one-year peach tree
as it comes from the nixrsery has several side branches. After the tree is set,
all branches viithin eighteen inches of the ground sh-ould be removed. Any narrow
angled side branches should be removed. Then, three or four branches which come
out at a vdde angle, vertically spaced about six inches apart , should be saved
for main scaffold branches. All other branches should be cut off flush with the
trunk. The leader should be cut back to the top-most side branch and then the
lateral branches should be cut' to short stubs two to four inches long, vdth each
containing one bud.

If one-year trees, 9/l6 - 11/16 inch diameter, and five to seven feet in
height are set, an alternative method, known ae deshooting may be employed. This
provides for a better selection of lateral branches and a somewhat better establish-
ment of the head, IfYith this method, the main trunk is cut off at forty to forty-
four inches from the ground and all branches are removed below eighteen inches from
the ground. All other side branches are cut back to stubs of one bud each. Later,
when the shoots from these buds have grown to a length of four to eight inches, four
or five of the most desirably placed laterals are selected and the others removed,
A vertical spacing of four to eight inches is desirable j also, the laterals should
be spaced around the trunk so each has an open space in which to develop. The more
vigorous branches which have been saved should be cut back to about the same length
as the shorter laterals. This method practically insures a strong framework v/hich
will not break down.

Pruning During the Formative Period

Pruning after the first season's growth consists of making a final selection
of scaffold branches, li/hile most of these villi be the same as selected originally,
it may be necessary to make slight readjustments. From this point on, the effort
should be to develop a symmetrically open bowl-shaped tree removing branches virhich
tend to grovi inward and those which are grov;ing straight up through the center of
the tree. Scaffolds should be headed back slightly if growth has exceeded thirty
inches with little or no branching. On scaffolds which have made less than thirty
inches growth with several side branches all but two or three well spaced side
branches should be removed. Laterals on a scaffold branch which grow out and slight-
ly upvard from left and right, are most desirable. Those which tend to grow towards
the ground should be removed. All branches other than scaffolds, which arise from
the trunk, should be removed.

From the second to the fourth year an annual removal of branches which inter-
fere with the growth of the scaffold limbs is essential but severe pruning should be

avoided as this will delay the time v/hen the tree will start to produce a profit-
able crop.

Pruning Bearing Trees

Peaches are borne laterally on shoots that grew the previous year. Therefore,
the stimvilation of one year shoot growth by fertilization and pruning is essential
for maximum yields of fruit. Generally, on a vigorous one-year shoot three bxids
vd.ll be produced at each node. The two plump outside buds will be blossom buds and
the smaller bud in the --center will be a leaf bud. On less vigorous shoots there
may be but one fruit bud and a leaf bud at a node.

There are several reasons for the annual pruning of a peach tree as follows;

1, To eliminate weak shoots,

2, To stimulate the growth of vigorous shoots.

3, To keep the tree at a convenient height,
h» To admit light to the center of the tree,

5, To permit effective use of spray materials,

6, To partially thin the crop.

In pruning a bearing tree the following branches should be removed:

1, Those which are broken or diseased,

2, Those which are slender and weak - especially on the inside of the
tree,

3# Those which grow toward the center or straight up,
ht Those v/hich are grov/ing dovmv/ard so as to interfere vdth mowing or
cultivating equipment.

After these branches are removed, it may be necessary to thin out moderately
a few of the more vigorous branches v/here they are too thick,

"Leggy" branches (those which grow out for a considerable distance without
branching) may need to be headed back in order to induce the development of side
branches nearer the trunko

Since the habit of growth of a peach tree tends to produce bearing wood further
and further from the trunk, it is desirable to encourage the development of some
young branches on the inner parts of the tree. These branches should be so located
as to subsequently replace older wood.

In order to keep the tree at a convenient height, upright branches should be
headed back to an outward grov/ing lateral branch when they reach a distance of
approximately eight feet from the ground.

Pruning Winter- Injured Trees

Peach trees may suffer injury from low winter temperatures in two ways:

1. By killing of the blossom buds,

2, ^ killing of the wood.

■ *14-

Under Massachusetts conditions, the critical vdnter temperature for the killing
of blossom buds is about -15°F, The exact temperature at which blossom buds will
be killed depends upon the variety as some are more hardy than others. The extent
of blossom bud injury can be determined by cutting several buds and noting if they
are black in the center. If all of the buds are killed, an opportunity is provided
to reduce the proportion of old wood without affecting the crop since there would
be no crop the following summer anyvray. This vdll tend to stimulate the develop-
ment of new growth nearer the trunk.

Vifith more severe temperature (-20°F, or lower) the wood may be injured in
addition to the buds. This condition is indicated by the inside of a branch tvirn-
ing dark brown or black. When this condition exists, it is best not to prune the
tree until after growth starts. Then, -only weak shoots on the interior of the
tree and dead branches should be removed since the tree will need every healthy
leaf to help repair the damage.

Because of the possibility of winter Injury in one form or the other, peach
trees should be pruned in the latter part of February or in March, after the extent
of injury can be determined.

Since the pruning wounds on a peach tree are normally relatively small, and
heal rapidly, no wound dressing is required,

—0, C, Roberts

////////////////

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Observations in California

Apple Fertilizer Recommendations for 1956

Semi— Dwarf Trees

Apple Tree Nutrition

Pomologicol Research

More Suggestions on Mites

Suggestions to Those Purchasing Strawberry
plants

How to Figure the Amount of Fertilizer to
Apply

How to Borrow Money If You Need It

MARCH 15, 1956

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOIIR FOIIOLOGY DSl'ARTLIENT

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches small fruits and general fruit growing courses,

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham,

Doing small fruit research on stravirberries, blueberries and beach plums,
lir, Bailey also handles considerable of the small fruits extension program.

French, Arthur P, - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J, - Extension Fruit Specialist

Connected chiefly with fruit growers' problems, other than pest control,
and is somewhat involved in research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES,

Roberts, Oliver C^ - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses.
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing,

Southvdck, Franklin Tf, - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop^ several aspects of storage and nutrition^ Also, teaches in
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D, - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests
and T/inter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to This Issue from Supporting Fields

L* D» Rhoadea - Extension Specialist Farm Management
E» H, V'/heeler - Extension Entomologist

Dr, SoiithvicK -On Leave

Frank Southwick and family left Aniierst the last of January to spend six months
on the Tifest Coast searching for new ideas. He plans to spend most of that time at
the Agricultural Experiment Station at Davis, California, Y/hile there he expects
to have intimate contact vdth their reseajxh program thereby learning what the
problems of their fruit industry are, how they attack them and what they have dis-
covered that may be of use to Massachusetts friiit growers. We shall hope to hear
from him occasionally and shall look foniard to his return August 1st,

^A. P, French

///////// ///////

OBSERVATIONS IN CALIFORNIA

After a fairly rough trip of 3600 miles (600 miles in snow) irjy family and I
finally aiade it to Davis, California, where the University of California College
of Agriculture is located. It is here that we plan to spend approximately five
months of my Sabbatical leave. As you may know the University of California has
eight different campuses, this one at Davis is located in North Central California,
about 15 miles west of Sacramento and about 75 miles erst of San Francisco, The
campus here is large (3000 acres), well staffed (about 25 pomologists) and vrell
equipped. They have about 300 acres of fruit land for teaching and research purposes
with about half of this area at Davis and the other half about 15 miles away at
ViTinters (the earliest apricot section in California),

One of the most obvious things that is apparent to an Easterner, as we drove
from Bakersfield north (after coming over the Mohave desert) to Sacramento, is the
huge acreage of ' grapes groifm here. If my recollection is correct California pro-
duces at least 90 percent of all grapes grown in the U. S, They are vinifera
grapes gro^m for raisins, tpble use, and wine. Total acreage of grapes is nearly
half a million acres. In 195U the total acreage of fruit and nut crops in Calif-
ornia was about 1,U00,000 acres. This acreage includes all tree and nut fruit
crops such as almonds, apricots, citrus, figs, apples, avocados, cherries, pears,
plums, peaches, walnuts, etc. with the exception of small fruits. Hence, ;;^rapes
represent about 35 percent of the total fruit acreage. It is not surprising,
therefore, that there is a separate department here (Viticulture) which deals v/ith
grape problems exclusively.

Another thing which has impressed me so far is the large size of peach and
pear trees and the vigorous groi-rth of their fruit trees, generally. Peach trees
12 - 15 feet high are commonplace and the best orchards may yield up to 30 tons
per acre. Tons I find are the unit of measure here. Pears may yield up to 25
tors per acre or 1100 - 1200 boxes per acre. Individual Bartlett trees may yield
UO or ,uore i;U lb, boxes per tree. Even the strav/berry does unusually well by
our standards. I am told that the Shasta variety, gro"vm by the hill system, pro-
aaces more or less continously throughout the spring and summer and may yield as
high as 30 tore per acre. In other words, strawberries uiay out yield many tree
fruits on an acre basis.

Of course, weather wise, it is a little different here in February than in
Massachusetts. The average maximum temperature for February is 58° F at Sacramento

. -2-

with the average minimum above freezing. When v/e arrived here in early February
aLnonds were beginning to bloom. Several varieties are about in full bloom now
(February 20). Apricots vri.ll reach full bloom shortly, vri.th peaches close behind.
No need for anti-freeze in the car,

Althougithey ,tiay get heavy rains during the winter the large majority of the
fruit acreage in California must be irrigated during the hot dry late spring and
summer months, A great deal of this irrigation water is obtained from v^ ells.
These wells may be 200 - 300 feet deep but a good well, I am told, is capable of
delivering 1000 gallons per minute.

The soils in many of the fruit areas are very deep and fertile. Fruit trees
apparently root to great depths (10 - 1^ feet or more) even though some of the
soils may be rather heavy loams luhich by Eastern standards v:ould not be considered
ideal for best tree performance. Soils are sufficiently fertile and deep in some
areas at least so that pear trees in some demonstration orchards have failed to
respond in yield to nitrogen applications over the past five years. In other v\rords,
trees receiving no nitrogen for the past five years have, iii some cases yielded
as vrell as adjacent rows of trees receiving soil or foliage aoplications of nitrogen
for the past five years. Also, Bartlett pears in some a3reas, bear very well virhen
planted in solid blocks with no provision for cross-pollination. Most of the
Bartlett fruits in such blocks are seedless or nearly so.

Everyone here at Davis has been very cordial and hospitable, Th^have pro-
vided me Trith office space and stenographic help. Their staff is willing and
anxious to show me around and they have got plenty to show,

F, W, Southv/ick

////////////////

SPECIAL CIRCUURS RECEL'ITLY REVISED

The follOTiing circulars have been revised and are available to anyone wish-
ing a copy.

Special Circular 7f212-D Varieties of Strawberries for Massachusetts,

Special Circular #212-E Varieties of Blueberries for Massachiisetts,

Special Circular #212-F Varieties of Raspberries and Blackberries for

Massachusetts,

Special Circular #189 Chemical Thiiming of Apples and Peaches,

Address requests to either the Department of Pomology or the Mailing Room,
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts,

— W, J, Lord
////////////////

-3-

FLESH FIR1.!NESS OF THE SPARTAN APPLE

Many Massachusetts fruit growers Kho attended the recent fruit meeting in
Worcester will remember hov/ much they enjoyed eating the Spartan apples which were
passed out at one of the sessions, A few of the apples were left over and taken
baok to Amherst, Fruit firmness was determined with a pressure tester and the
average pressure was found to be 13.5 pounds. Thus, these apples were 3 to 3-1/2
pounds firmer than most of the Mcintosh which were in storage at that date. If
this characteristic of fruit firmness is maintained by the Spartan apple it v/ould
appear that this is the variety we have been looking for to extend the marketing
season of high quality dessert apples.

— ^W, D. Weeks
////////////////

APPLE FERTILIZER REC0ia£E^E)ATI0MS FOR 1956

It should be recognized from the start that it is not possible to give specific
recommendations for individual orchards in an article of this nature. These recom-
mendations are presented to serve as a guide to the fruit grower for determining
the fertilizer program in his orchard.

In view of experimental evidence and the results of leaf analyses taken from
several growers' orchards, it is no longer possible to recommend a nitrogen alone
program for fertilizing Iviassachusetts orchards. In order to prevent the occurence
of potassium, magnesium and boron deficiencies it becomes necessary to apply fer-
tilizer materials which will supply these elements.

The following tables give suggested rates of fertilizer to use vrhich will
supply the nitrogen and potassium requirenents of the tree. The first table pre-
sents two plans in vrhich ammonium nitrate is used in combination vdth muriate of
potash or 0-15-30. Tlie second table sho^Ts the amounts to apply of two different
mixed fertilizers viriiich ^/vill supply equivalent amounts of nutrient elements.

Suggested Rates of Fertilizer for Bearing Apple Orchards

Approximate amounts per tree

Potential bushel
Yield of tree

Nitrogen
required

Ammonium
Nitrate

Potassium
required

Muriate

of Potash ot 0-15-30

Less than 15

15-25

More than 25

Povinds

0.66
0.66-1,00
1.33-2.00

Pounds

2cO
2.0-3.0
U. 0-6,0

Pounds

1.3
1.3-2.0

2.7-U,3

Pounds

2.1
2.1-3.3
U.5-7.1

Pounds

1.3
3.ii-6.6
9,0-114.3

Potential bushel
Yield of tree

Suggested Rates of Fertilizer for Bearing Apple Orchards

Approximate amounts per tree

Nitrogen
required

Potassium
required

5-10-10

8-16-16

Less than 15

15-25

More than 25

Pounds

0.66
0,66-1.00
1.33-2.00

Pounds

1.3

1.3-2.0

2,7-U.3

Pounds

13
13-20
26^U0

Pounds

8

8-12

16-25

The sxjggested amounts of materials to apply given in the tables are for band
applications under the spread of the branches, V/hen the materials are broadcast
over the entire orchard floor it may be necessary to increase the rates of appli-
cation in order to obtain the same tree response as the band applications. Fertil-
izer materials other than those given in the tables may be used so long as they
are applied at rates which provide equivalent amounts of nitrogen and potassium.

The magnesiuq?! requirements of orchard soils can best be met by applying
sufficient dolomitic lime (high magnesium lime) to maintain a soil pH of 6,0 to
6,5» In orchards which have had an inadequate liming program, it itiay be necessary
to apply magnesium sulfate (epsom salts) sprays to prevent the occurrence of mag-
nesium deficiency. Two or three sprays of epsom salts (20 pounds to 100 gallons)
applied at calyx, first and second cover are suggested as a temporary rueasure to
correct magnesium deficiency until soil applications of dolomitic lime are able
to meet the trees' magnesium requirements.

Boron should be applied to orchard soils every three to five years. Borax
is the most common material used. The rates of application per tree vary with age
and size. Apply one quarter pound of borax on young trees, one-half to three-
quarters pound on medium age and size trees, and three-quarters to one pound on
large or mature trees. In no case should the rate of one application of borax
exceed ^0 pounds per acre.

The amounts of fertilizer applied to trees virhich have received annual appli-
cations of 200 pounds or more of hay ii^iulch per tree may be materially reduced or
entirely elLninated, Tree perfox^mance should serve as a guide in determining
the extent to vihich the rates of fertilizer may be reduced. In young non-bearing
orchards it may be possible by broadcasting^ 500 to 800 pounds of mixed fertilizer
per acre to produce sufficient high quality mulching material in the orchard for
the young trees. Place the mulch in a band under the spread of the branches. The
amount of fertilizer required for the trees with this system of culture will vary
with the quantity and quality of mulch applied around each tree. If the trees
are not making sufficient growth one-eighth pound of ammonium nitrate per year of
tree age may be applied to the mulch.

Early spring is the best time to apply fertilizer to apple orchards. It should
be applied four to six weeks before bloom. This allows for maximum absorption of
fertilizer in the early part of the season wliich is the period of greatest need,

— liY, D. TiTeaks

////////////////

P0!'I0L0GICAL PARAGRAPH

Are You Going to Plant Trees Next Spring? - If you are going to plant fruit trees
this spring, it might be worth your vfhile to read Leaflet #l82. The title of
this leaflet is "Establishing Orchards" and is written by ViT, D, Weeks, Copies of
this leaflet may be obtained from your County Extension Office or the Mailing
Room at the University in Amherst, Massachusetts,

Editor

////////////////

-5-

SEMI - DVjARF TREES

Recently there has been renevred interest in semi-dwarf trees. They conimence
to bear earlier and are easier to prune, spray and harvest than trees on seedling
roots. Vfith seoii-dwarf trees a large proportion of the crop can be picked from
the ground and/or with a short step ladder. It is the purpose of this article to
discuss the classification of Mallirg apple rootstocks recommended for use in
Massachusetts orchards. In addition, yield data, planting distances and suggestea
olanting plans for semi-dwarf trees are presented.

Rootstocks Recommended for Massachusetts

1, Mailing VII and II

These may be classified as semi-dwarfing stocks^ for trees on these stocks,
under our conditions, are approximately 60 per cent the size of a given variety
on a standard seedling rootstock. The size of tree depends considerable upon
the variety. More vigorous \-arieties, like Mcintosh, Macoun, and Northern Spy
are dwarfed less on VII than less vigorous varieties, like Cortland and Roioe,

At the Geneva Experiment Station, it has been found that trees on II are
more vigorous than those on VII, At Aniherst, however, Mcintosh trees on VII are
more vigorous than those on II, The average tree spread of 11 year old trees on
VII and II is 21 feet 8 inches and 18 feet 7 inches respectively. Each average
was based on the tree spread of ten trees,

2, Mailing I

Trees on this rootstock are approximately 75 per cent the size of the same
variety when on a standard rootstock. Although Mailing I induces earlier bearing
in varieties worked on it and is productive on fertile, well drained soils, the
dwarfing effect is probably not enoufih for grorrers wanting a semi-dwarf tree,

3, Mailing XIII

Varieties on this stock do well in heavy soils having poor drainage. Trees on

XIII are approximately 75 per cent the size of the same variety iThen on a standard

stock. Growers planning to plant serai-dwarf trees on heavy, poorly drained soils
should consider XIII.

On the basis of our exioerimental results obtained with serai -dwarf trees. Mail-
ing VII and II are the dwarfing stocks generally recommended for planting in Mass-
achusetts.

Planting Distance

VII

,

20« X 30'

II

—

20' X 30'

I

-

30' X UO', or 35' X iiO'

XIII

-

30' X UO', or 35' X UOi

-6-

Yield

The following table snows the yield of Mcintosh trees on Mailing VII and II,
The trees were planted as one year old vfhips on November 3j 19U3. The trees were
planted 20' x 20' and in the fall of 1953 every other rovT of diagonal trees Yiere
removed leaving the trees 28' apart, ilo yield data was obtained in 19She

Average Yield per Mcintosh Tree on Semi-Dwarf Stock

No. Trees

Dwarfing

Stock

Potential Yield

Per Acre (1)

Yeqr

per treatment

II

VII

II

VII

Bu.

Bu.

Bu.

Bu,

1950

20

1.6

1,0

115

72

1951

20

1.3

2.1;

9li

173

1952

20

2.I4

1.2

173

86

1953

20

2.9

U.5

209

32ii

1955

10

U.5

5,7

32U

iilO

(1) Trees

planted

20' X 30«

= 72 trees

/

acre.

Suggested Planting Plans

Plan A, is for a permanent planting of Mailing VII. Trees are spaced 20' x 30'
making 72 trees per acre. The same planting distance can be used in case of Mailing
II.

In Plan B. the varieties on Mailing VII are used as fillers in the row. The
trees on seedling roots are planted I4O feet in the row with the semi -dwarf trees
used as fillers. Mailing II can be substituted for VII,

With Plan C. the varieties on Mailing VII or II are planted in the center of
the square. Vfith this planting plan, it should not be necessary to remove the semi-
dwarf trees as soon as would be the case in Plan B,

PLA.N C

VII VII Vid fel VII VII

U2.5'

S~U2.5'— S

I48 trees per acre 2k trees per acre (semi-dwarfs removed)

In Plan D the grower has the option of removing either the trees on seedling
roots or those on dwarfing stocks when crowding begins,

PLAN D

VII S VII S VII S VII S VII
30 •/\ 30'

30' \ /■

VII s VII s VII s vn

s

VII

s

VII

vn

s

VII

s

U2.5'^ VII VII viK ymi VII

DiX X 30'

> VII s

N;2,5"^

96 trees per acre

U8 trees per acre (trees on seedling roots removed) 21; trees per acre (semi-dwarfs

removed;

//////y////y//

V^, D, Weeks

-1-

APPLE TREE ilUTRITION

The writer attended the last day of the 101st meeting of the New York State
Horticultural Society. The highlight of the day was the panel discussion on
"Improving the Nutrition of Our Trees for Better Apples".

As part of the panel, Prof, C, G. Forshey of the New York State Experiment
Station spoke on the "Fertilizing Problems that the Hudson Valley Faces". In
his talk he gave the results of a leaf analysis survey made in 57 problem orchards
in the Hudson Valley, Seventeen orchards v/ere deficient in nitrogen. Potassium
was deficient in 19 of the 57 orchards, A reduction in yield due to the potassiun
deficiency was apparent in 11 of the 19 potassium deficient orchards . Ten of the
orchards were deficient in magnesium. Five of these ten were deficient both in
magnesium and potassium. Two orchards were deficient in boron and two in manganese.

At the 65th Annual Meeting of the Connecticut Pomological Society, the writer
had the pleasure of listening to Prof. Fred Emmert of the University of Connecticut
discuss the results of the foliar analysis survey taken from 1^0 orchards throughout
the state of Connecticut, Nitrogen was belcn7 the desirable range in nine per cent
of these orchards and was too high in 2k per cent of them. Twenty-four per cent of
the orchards were deficient in potassium, 65 per cent in calcium and hZ per cent in
magnesium. The soil under 87 per cent of the test trees was below pH of 5»6.

The results of leaf analysis surveys in Hudson Valley and Connecticut, in most
respects, were similar to those obtr.ined from a leaf analysis survey made in Jilass-
achusetts in 1953. In this survey, magnesium was below the desirable range in hO
per cent of the orchards surveyed. Thirty-seven per cent was deficient in calcium
and 20 per cent in nitrogen and potassium.

It is apparent that in Connecticut and New York, as vrell as In Massachusetts^
the fruit grower has need for other elements besides nitrogen in his orchard
fertilizer program.

Another point of interest that was "gleaned" at the Connecticut meeting is
that, C. P. Harley, Senior Physiologist, Beltsville, liaryland, felt that potassium
may influence the development of red color in apples. This is in agreement with
experimental findings of Weeks and others at the University of Massachusetts, Our
fertilizer experiments with Mcintosh apple trees shovred that fruit color is associated
vTith both the nitrogen and potassium levels found in the foliage. "The poorest
colored fruit was produced by trees which were high in nitrogen and low in potassium.
Fruit of high color was produced by trees with medium levels of nitrogen and high
levels of potassium."

Another comment made by one of the speakers at the meetings was that annual
production cannot be maintained by high rates of nitrogen and that it is generally
best to maintain a medium level of nitrogen in our Mcintosh trees. This is in
agreement with experinental evidence obtained in Ifessachusetts,

^W. J. Lord

////////////////

-8-

POMOLOGICAL REST^ARCH
10. Nutrition of the Highbush Blueberry.

The feeding of highbush blueberries is an exceedingly important part of their
cultiu'e. The questions which at once arise are: VJhat should be used and hovf much?
Should a ccraplete fertilizer be used? Or should only one or tvro elements, say
nitrogen and potassiim, be used? This project v/as started to answer such questions
as these and others of a similar nature.

One of the first problems in nutrition of highbush blueberries involved the
yellovmig of the leaves. This was thought to be caused in most cases by a de-
ficiency of iron. This trouble is not general in Massachusetts. It occurs in
spots and may be quite serious in small areas. The relationships are rather complex
and will be discussed in a separate article.

Severe magnesium deficiency was found in one field several years ago. It has
been suspected in other fields. It is not a common deficiency in blueberry fields
but where it becomes serious it can very inaterially reduce both size of crop and
size of berries. It is fairly easily remedied by soil applications of epsom salts
or dolomitic liiaestone. The latter must be light unless the soil is veiy acid, A
recent attempt to correct magnesium deficiency by spraying epsom salts on the
leaves was unsuccessful. Since the blueberry leaf is very waxy and sheds sprays
very readily, this is not surprising. Soil applications of chelated magnesium were
not effective either.

Blueberries, as is the case with other fruit plants, give the quickest and
greatest response to applications of nitrogen. Tlierefore, the nitrogen alone pro-
gram might have been adopted by blueberry growers if it hadn't been learned early
in the life of the industry that a complete fertilizer vforked best in the field.
The use of nitrogen alone for a number of years may affect fruits adversely in tvYO
ways. First, the failure to apply other elements and the increased denard f or them
resulting from increased grovrth followin.;^ the nitrogen application may cause a de-
ficiency of one or more elements. Second, the excess of nitrogen in relation to
the other elements may upset the nutritional balance of the plant v/ith consequent
reduction in growth and yield.

Nutritional balance in a number of fruit plants has been under study for several
years. The usual method is to analyze the leaves chemically for nitrogen, phosphorous,
potassiujn, calcium, magnesi\im, and sometimes other elements, The amount of each
elei.ient is then studied in relation to its effects on other elements, on yield,
color, quality of fruit, etc., and on their inter-relationships.

This type of nutritional study has been very scanty in the case of cultivated
blueberries, A few leaf analyses have been published but these have not been suffi-
cient for a thorough study. Results published from this station in 19h9 showed
that the highbush blueberry appears to have a very low phosphorous requirement.

-9-

To make a start on working out the nutritional relationship of highbush
blueberries a large number of blueberry plantings in various parts of the state
were visited, leaf samples collected, and growth measurements made. The leaf
analyses for nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, magnesium and calcium have been
completed. After the results have been analyzed^ they will be published and
used as the basis for further experiments. The ultimate objective is to correlate
che.iical analyses vfith some quick, easy, field tests which the grower can use
to help him decide what elements he needs to apply and hmr much.

J, s. Bailey

////////////////

IMPORTAIIT

What a difference three little letters can make - see belov;,

CORRECTION! You should make this change in the chart listing materials
useful in the control of Red Mite which was published in
the February issue of Fruit Notes.

Under TEPP in column three (2) it should read: "NOT com-
patible with glyodin and mercury." Please make the change
in your copy.

In fact, none of the organic phosphate materials should be
used in the same spray with a phenyl mercury if you wish
to be completely safe,

OMISSION; In the same chart, fovir ounces of demeton is enough In a

Pink or Calyx application. The amount should be increased
in later sprays.

Also, demeton is not^ compatible with phenyl mercury.

— E, H, Wheeler

////////////////

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-12-

SUGGESTIONS TO THOSE PURCHASING STR/i^reERRY PLANTS

The purchase and planting of virus-free ple.nts of those varieties v:hich are
available is strongly recommended « Virus-free strawberry plants (with the possible
exception of Premier or Horrard 1?) grow more vigorously and give greater yields
than do non virus-free plants.

The growing of virus-free strawberry plants for sale is a specialized job.
It reo.uires long range planning and strict control. Special equipment and methods
must be fully understood and used properly to obtain plants that can be listed as
vjrus-free. It is a job for nurserymen willing to make a special effort to produce
virus-free pLints for sale to growers.

The procedures recommended on the next page are designed to produce plants
as nearly virus-free as possible. After plants are removed from a screenhouse
and grovm in the field, a very small percentage may become infected v/ith virus.
Iherefore, such plants are said to be "essentially" virus-free. You can be sure
the plants you buy are "essentially" virus-free only if your nurseryman follows
these reconraended practices.

You can help yourself and the strawberry industry by satisfying yourself that
your plant grower is doing the right kind of a job. Reliable nurserymen welcome
inquiries and visits by their customers,

PRACTICES REQUIRED TO PRODUCE VIRUS-FREE STRA.f BERRY PLANTS

A. FOUNDATION STOCK. (Plants known to be virus-free and used to produce Propagation

Stock.)

1, Original stock should come from an approved source of virus-free plants
and be free of all other diseases and pests,

2, Plants should be grovm in a well constructed and properly naintained screen
house in which the soil is fumigated and insects are controlled,

3, Stock should be renewed every second year or "indexed" to be sure it is
still virus-free,

B. PROPAGATION STOCK. (Plants v/hich the nurseryman uses to increase his own supply

of mother plants to produce "essentially" virus-free Planting Stock.)

1, The planting should be isolated from all other strawberries, both cultivated
and viild. A distance of 3000 feet is very desirable,

2, The land should have no history of red stele or other soil-bome diseases,

3, The soil should be fumigated for nematode control,

U, The plants should come fran virus-free Foundation Stock and oe free of all
other diseases and pests,

5. The planting (and all nearby stravrberry plants) should receive the complete,
recommended dust or spray program to control aphids which carry virus.

-13-

C, PLANTING STOCK. (Plants set by the nurserjiuan to produce plants to sell to

berry groviers as "essentially" virus-free.)

1, Isolate the planting as far as possible from all other strawberries, both
cultivated and vrild. A distance of 3000 feet is very desirable,

2, The field must have no history of red stele or other soil-borne disease,

3, The plants used diould be no more than one year removed from an approved
source of Foundation Stocky i.e., should have been grown as outlined under B.

1+, The planting (and all nearby strawberry plants) should be protected fully,
throughout the season, by dusts or sprays as recommended to control aphids.

D. ADVERTISING Al^ID PROiiOTION

1, Plants produced as outlined above should be "essentially" virus-free and
should be sold as such,

2, Varieties for which virus-free strains are not available should not be sold
as virus-free,

J. S. Bailey

////////////////

HOW TO FIGURE THE AIIOUNT OF FERTILIZER TO APPLY

In the past when orchard fertilization was discussed the orchardist heard

"You should apply so many pounds of axnmonium nitrate, urea, 5-10-10 or some other
fertilizer". Since there are so many fertilizers now being sold, it is more logical
when discussing fertilizer needs to talk in terms of actual nitrogen, potash (K2O)
and phosphoric acid (PgO^), -It has been noted, however, that this has been confus-
ing to some growers when they try to figure how much of a nitrogenous fertilizer or
a "complete" fertilizer should be applied to equal a certain amount of actual nitrogen,
potash or phosphoric acid. Therefore, it is hoped that the following discussion
ViTill eliminate some of the misunderstanding.

In our fertilizer recommendations we state that a tree capable of producing
25 bushels of apples should receive approximately one pound of actual nitrogen.
If we are going to use some common nitrogenous fertilizer ho\v many pounds must be
applied to equal a pound of actual nitrogen? To determine this, divide the actual
amount of nitrogen needed by the per cent nitrogen in the nitrogenous fertilizer.
For example if you are using a nitrogenous fertilizer containing 33 per cent N,
divide 1,0 pound by ,33 which will give an answer of approximately 3 pounds of the
nitrogenous fertilizer that inust be applied to be equivalent to 1.0 pound of actual
nitrogen.

Similarly, suppose you want to apply 1,5 pour.ds of actual nitrogen and you are
using a nitrogenous fertilizer containing U5 per cent N, divide 1,5 pounds by ,U5
which Tdll give an answer of approximately 3,3 pounds of the nitrogenous fertilizer
to be equivalent to 1,5 pounds of actual nitrogen.

Suppose you are using a 5-10-10 fertilizer, how many pounds must be applied
to equal one pound of actual nitrogen? How many pounds of potash and phosphoric
acid will be added when enough 5-10-10 is added to equal one pound of actual nitrogen?

-Ui-

A 5-10-10 fertilizer contains an amount of total nitrogen as would be equivalent tc
five per cent of nitrogen, an amount of available phosphorous equivalent to ten per
cent of phosphoric acid and available potash equivalent to ten per cent of potash
(KgO), Since the mixed fertilizer contains an equivalent to five per cent N, divide
one pound of actual nitrogen wanted by ,05 which will give an answer of 20 pounds
of 5-10-10 to add in order to apply one pound of actual nitrogen. If you apply 20
pounds of 5-10-10, tvro pounds of potash (K2O) and two pounds of phosphoric acid are
added. These ansT-rers are obtained by multiplying the 20 pounds of 5-10-10 by the
per cent potash and phosphoric acid respectively in the fertilizer.

J ^W, J, Lord

^ / / / I / / / I I / I / / I / /

HOW TO BORROU rtONEY IF YOU NEED IT

A ■ I ■ I ■,■■■■ I ■ i» ■ I ■ ■■■ ii nil ■ — -I ■ ■■■■■ —

Get the Most for Your Money Modern farming requires large amounts of operating
credit as well as long-term capital financing,.

Buy credit as you buy feed and fertilizer - from dependable sources - at low-
est net cost. Be in a position to pay cash for materials bought and demand best
prices and services «

Use Farm Account Book Too much credit or credit unsuited to the farm program being
financed, can be as detrimental to the farm as no credit at all. Be in a pos-
ition to determine in advance the money required to carry on your farming business.

Plan for Credit in Advance A sound loan should pay out in profit to you. Estimate
your sources of income as a guide to orderly repayment.

There is a very real difference between financing a farm operation and mei^ely
making a loan or extending credit for some specific purchase. There is a very real
difference, also, between a sound loan and a safe loan. A sound loan must be:

1, A benefit to the borrower and safe for the lender,

2, Adequate but not too much,

3, Available as needed,

U» Liquidated from normal sources with payments geared to income,

KnoTf Where to Borrow Lending institutions are in the specialized business of loan-
ing money. Figure the net cost of the money before you borrow. You may pay anywhere
from U?^ to 11-1/2^ on a "6?j interest rate" depending on hoiT the loan is figured.

Get Debts Together in One Place Split credit costs more - limits ability to borrow
money - weakens your credit rating, and invites pressure from all creditors. Use
regular lending agencies, meet obligations promptly - protect your credit rating in
the business coiamunity.

Do Not Over-borrow Be sure to keep something in reserve including the ability to
borrovj- more money if needed. Be prepared to meet the unexpected - hospital bills,
farm price upsets, crop failures and changing economic conditions. Buy your credit
as you now buy feed, fertilizer, spray material, or machinery. Use those agencies
vj-hich offer the lowest rate consistent vri. th the service rendered. Remember, you
are not asking for favors when you apply for a sound loan,

L. D. Rhoades

////////////////

R

J^

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Formation and Development of
Strawberry Flowers

Plant Bugs Make Strawberry "Nubbins"

Strawberry "Nubbins"

Factors Influencing Fruit Set of Apples

Life Insurance for Farmers

Pomologicol Research

Chemical Thinning of Apples

Observations in California

APRIL 15, 1956

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director.

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 19 14; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOUR POLiOLOGY DE?ARTliENT

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematic

Pomology,

Bailey, John S, - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Vfareham#

Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums, lir. Bailey
also does considerable Extension work with small fruit growers.

French, Arthur P. - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing*

Lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected vdth fruit grov/ers' problems, other than pest control,
and is somewhat involved in research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES,

Roberts, Oliver C, - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses*
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing,

Southrd-ck, Franklin ViT, - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in
certain advanced courses, (At present on Sabbatical leave at the
University of California.)

Weeks, Yfalter D, - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests
and vdnter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to This Issue from Supporting Fields
L* D, Rhoades, Extension Specialist Farm Management
E, H, Iz/heeler - Extension Entomologist

THE FORIATION AND DEVELOPi LENT OF STRAWBERRY FLOYJERS

The time of flovrer bud fonnation in the strav;berry varies v.ath the latitude,
climatic conditions, species, variety and individual plant. In the latitude of
Massachusetts flovrer buds of the June bearing varieties are initiated in the fall.
Generally, the flcarer bud differeniation proceeds rapidly \vith many buds having
vrell-developed flovrer parts in De -ember. In Pennsylvania, the author has noted,
blossoms may open on the Temple variety in late October,

Some experimental evidence shovTS that flavrer bud differentiation is affected
by the~nutritional level of the soil, particularly by the amount of available
nitrogenT Stra\/berry plants starved for nitrogen at the time of floi-rer bud forma-
tion v/iil set less buds than plants having an ample supply.

Flower bud differentiation in runner plants differs according to time of the
plant formation^ the oldest plants differentiate flower buds earliest. This is
\-fhy the Massachusetts strawberry grower should set his stra\Tberry plants as early
as possible in the spring. Early planting encourages the formation of early runner
plants viThich produce a larger number of blossoms and are more productive than later
formed runner plants. ' ' ~

With everbearing strawberry plants, the fruit that ripens in June developed
from buds vihich vrere initiated the previous fall and the "second crop" is from
flower buds initiated in late June and July,

The typical strawberry flower stalk or inflorescence is made up of a main,
or primary, stem v/hich is terminated by the "primary flower", Tv\ro secondary
branches originate from the primary stem and are terminated by "secondary" flovrers.
From each of the secondary branches, two tertiary branches arise which are termin-
ated by ".tertiary flovrers and from each tertiary branch two quaternary branches
originate and are terminated by the quaternary flowers", A typical strawberry
flcf/rer stalk has, therefore, one primary, two secondary, four tertiary, and eight
quaternary flovvers.

The prijnary flower opens first follovred in order, by secondary, tertiary and
quaternary floiTers, Experimental evidence has shown that a positive correlation
exists between flower~^sition, flower part' ntimber, and size of fruit. The primary
flower of the inflorescence has more flovrer parts, its pistils are more fertile,
and it bears larger fruit than the later flowers of the inflorescence. Many of
the fruits developing from the tertiary and particularly from the quaternary flowers
are small, or maybe nubbins. Some of the last flowers to open may approach sterility.
The mother plants and the earliest formed runner plants produce the largest number
of flowers and are most productive.

The strawberry blossoms generally are pollinated by insects. The time from
blossom to harvest averages about 30 days but varies Virith climatic conditions and
varieties .

The strawberry is an aggregate fruit in which the individual f ruitlets are
what are commonly called seeds. That is to say, the seeds of the strawberry are
the fruits and the edible part of the stravfberry is largely enlarged stem tissue.

.. When pollination is inadequate and only a few ovules are fertilized and
thereby only a few seeds develop the resulting strawberry will be misshapen.

W, J. Lord

////////////////

-2-

PIANT BUGS IIAKE STRAWBERRY "NUBBINS"

Certain insects do cause "nubbins" in strawberries. The extent to which
insects and their allies are involved may vary greatly from year to year and
from planting to planting; there may be great variation in the different parts
of a single small planting depending upon the vegetation in adjacent areas.

Some people call "nubbins" the small, undersized berries produced on weak
plants. Certainly these small and often off- flavored fruits are undesirable.
But as I am using the term "nubbins^" I am thinking of berries which may be
partly normal, but are otherwise hard, green, and misshapen.

Small, but otherwise well-shaped fruits result from a number of causes, some
due to insect or mite activities. Severe infestations of Tvro-spotted Mite and
Cyclamen Mite which destroy the natural green color of the foliage and weaken the
plants often result in these small, almost worthless fruits. Injury by insects
v;hich bore into crovms or vfhich feed upon the roots of the plants may not be sev-
ere enough to kill the plant outright, but yet cause a weakened condition which
makes it impossible for the plant to produce a normal crop.

True "nubbins", however, are very likely the result of feeding by one of the
sucking plant bugs. The False Tarnished Plant Bug in particular, is responsible
for much of this kind of abnormal fruit, Spittlebugs, the true Tarnished Plant
Bug and certain Stink Bugs also contribute to these losses.

The Plant Bugs are small, brovm, rather inconspicuous insects about 1/6 to
i/8 of an inch long, winged and likely to be found in the more inconspicuous
places around a plant. They insert their beaks and suck juices from whatever
part of the plant they happen to be feeding upon. Their activities are not re-
stricted to one or even a fevj- kinds of plants, but include almost all of the com-
mon garden vegetables and fruits as well as most weeds and even shrubs and trees,
Vherever a plant part is particularly succulent, there you find a favorable loca-
tion for feeding by the False Tarnished Plant Bug and its relatives.

Plant Bugs overiTinter in the adult stage in protected places in and around
open fields, orchards, gardens of plantings of small fruits. If brushland,
hedgerows or particularly vieedy patches are adjacent to stravirberry plantings,
these offer favorite places for the insects to hibernate successfully. With the
coming of vjarm weather during May and early June, the hibeniating bugs become
active and attack whatever plants are present and in a stage favorable for their
feeding. The tender tips of developing strawberry fruits offer just such a situa-
tion.

As plant Bugs feed, they appear to secrete some material which causes the
affected plant parts to grow abnormally. Often, parts of the tissue are killed
outright by the action of the toxin. Strawberry fruits develop into misshapen,
unsalable forms which we call "nubbins".

It should be remembered that "nubbins" caused by Plant Bugs are most likely
to occur in plantings or parts of plantings which are adjacent to favorable over-
wintering places. Rank growth of vfeeds and other vegetation located near straw-
berry plantings are likely to attract large numbers of Plant Bugs during the

late summer and fall and thus a heavy overvTintering population may occur in that
area. Brushy hedgerovfs and the edges of woodlands are usually vrell populated
iTith hibernating adults. Therefore, one should think about the location of the
stravberry planting rrith respect to these conditions. Either locate the planting
away from such areas or else control the grovrth of vegetation favorable to the
Plant Bug. .

Insecticides, used as individual strawberry buds separate from the cluster and
again as the earliest blossoms open, will control Plant Bugs. DDT and several other
insecticides are very effective against these and Spittle Bugs also. DDT and some
related materials have one disadvantage which is important to consider. Their
use in one or two applications just previous to bloom may result in a rapid buildup
of the Tv:o-Spotted Hite or Red Spider, Plantings have been observed ■vtiere the
damage from Two-spotted Ilite vras actually greater than that which might have been
done by the insects being controlled. For that reason I would urge that -rtien
either DDT or methoxychlor is used on strawberries that it be combined vd.th sulfur.
Sulfur is fairly effective in checking buildup of Tivo-Spotted Mite on strav;berrieSo
A suitable formula for a dust might be one containing % DDT or methoxychlor and
from 75^ to 95^ dusting sulfur. As a spray, for each 100 gallons of vra,ter use 2
pounds of 50^ wettable powders of DDT or methoxychlor along with 5 or 6 pounds
of a dry-wettable sulfur. Use proportionate amounts in smaller quantities of v/ater.
Malathion dusts and wettable powder sprays give fair to good control of Plant Bugs
and also control the mites. They may be used along vdth DDT or methoxychlor as
in "General-Purpose" mixtures.

Other effective materials will be found listed in the 19^6 Pest Control Chart
for Strawberries which is now available from your Cooperative Extension Service,

E, H. Vifheeler

////////////////

STRATfBERIg NUBBINS

The importance of pests and flower position in nubbin production have already
been presented by Dr, \Jheeler and Dr, Lord elsewhere in this issue. Other factors
such as spring frost, cold wet weather and the nutritional status vdthin the flower
stalk also may be responsible for the formation of nubbins.

Spring frost may operate in one of three ways: It may (l) kill the anthers
thereby reducing the supply of pollen; (2) injure the styles causing imperfect
fertilization of the embryos; or (3) kill a part of the embryos even after fertil-
ization has taken place.

Cold rainy weather may reduce the supply of pollen. It may also interfere
with the flight of pollenating insects and retard pollen tube grovrth enough to
reduce the number of embryos that are fertilized.

Small and imperfect leaves caused by drought, inadequate fertility in the
soil, or any other factor may result in siraller fruit size. Furthermore, pistil
fertility has been found to be less in blossoms from lateral crovms of a plant
than in those blossoms originating from the central crovm,

A. P, French

////////////////

FACTORS INFLIMCING FRUIT SET OF APPLES

Of the many crucial periods in production and marketing of apples (from the
flovirer bud to apple pie), the fruit-setting period is always a perennial source of
anxiety to the grower. There are many factors affecting fruit set some of which
can be controlled and others that cannot be controlled by the grovrer. Factors
such as (1) site, (2) varieties, (3) location, choice and sufficient number of
pollenizers, (h) nitrogen and (5) fungal, bacterial and insect injury are those
;Thich can be controlled by the grower. ^Afhile on the other hand, the grovrer has
little or no control over ecological factors, namely temperature, rainfall, vj-ind
and humidity, Pollenizing insects also affect fruit set but cannot be classified as
either controllable or a non-controllable factor. Although the grovrer cannot pro-
vide favorable weather for bee flight, he can place hives of bees throughout his
orchard to insure better cross-pollenation. On the other hand, some years it may
pay the grower to take the bee hives out of the orchard after a day of good pollen-
izing weather to help prevent over-setting of fruit.

Although the grower has little or no control over the ecological factors affect-
ing frioit set, it is these that vdll be discussed in this article in hope that it
Tfill increase grower understanding of factors affecting fruit-set.

Temperature

Temperatures belov/ UO°F during bloom not only prevent bee activity, but they
either hinder or prevent pollen germination. Ejcperiments vdth hardy fruit trees
have shovTO there is some pollen gerraination from UO°F to 50°F but that pollen tube
grovrth is greatly retarded. Optimum temperatures for pollen germination and pollen
tube growth are from 70°F to 80°F,

Frosts just preceding or during bloom may reduce fruit-set considerably.
However, the temperatures that fl.ovj-er buds and developing fruits will endure
depend on many factors. The length of time the low temperature persists, the
tree vigor, the weather preceding the frost, the variety and the stage of bud
development all play a part in how much cold buds, blossoms, or fruits will stand.
The buds or fruit on a healthy vigorous tree will endure lower temperatures than
those on a weak tree -when other conditions remain the same, A frost follovdng a
period of favorable growing temperatures will cause more damage than one folloidng
a period of cold, cloudy weather as the sap concentration is lower and freezing point
higher during periods of warm sunshiny weather.

The temperature 'which decid\ious fruits will endure at various stages of devel-
opment are given in Table I. ■

Table I. Temperatures Endured for 30 Minutes or Less By Decidous Fruits (Sheltered

Thermometers)

Stage of Development

' Fruit '. Buds Closed But Full Bloom Small Green Fruits

Showing Color . ■

__ ^_ _ , up

Apples 25 ■ ■ • • 28 29

Peaches 2$ 2? ' 30

Cherries 28 - 28 ' 30

Pears 25 28 30

Plums 2$ 28 30

Source of Data :

Young, Floyd D. Frost and the Prevention of Frost Damage,
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Eul. 1588, 19U0,

Detailed information as to vfhat temperatures different varieties of apples
will stand at various stages of development are not available. Incomplete data
indicates that varieties of the Delicious group are less resistant to frost damage
than any of the other commercial varieties grwim in llassachusetts , Mcintosh,
Cortland, Early Mcintosh, Milton, and Melba appear to be quite resistant to damage
from spring frost as compared to varieties of the Delicious group. Late blooming
varieties such as Northern Spy and Rome Beauty appear to be resistant to spring
frost injury but hovf much their resistance is due to less advanced bud development
is not definitely known.

Wind

High \Yinds during bloom may desiccate the stigma and other flower parts. In
addition, winds may injure the flowers to such an extent as to destroy their capacity
of shedding pollen and setting fruit. Probably the most undesirable effect, however,
is that bee activity is reduced considerably on windy days.

Humidity

High relative humidity may retard the release of the pollen and thus reduce
the possibility of pollen transfer by insects. On the other hand, low humidity may
dry the stigmas and reduce pollen germination. However, humidity low enough to
affect fruit set would probably not occur under tessachusetts conditions.

Rainfall

Continous rainfall during bloom retards the release of pollen, inhibits bee
flight and thereby reduces fruit set. HovTever, intermittent rainfall with periods
of sunshine during bloom ordinarily does not adversely affect a commercial set,
with favorable weather and plenty of bees only a relatively short time is necessary
for adequate cross pollination. In trees with a "snow ball" bloom it takes only
one blossom setting fruit in 20 for a commercial crop assuming five blossoms to a
spur.

Water

Although a deficiency of v/ater may reduce fruit set, in some plant species.
It would seldom be a limiting factor in this aspect vjith tree fruit in Massachusetts.
However, in some years probably tree growth may be significantly reduced because of
drought and thereby have an adverse influence on subsequent crops,

— IK J. Lord
////////////////

-6-

SPECBL CIRCULAR RECENTLY REVISED

The Special Circular #212-G entitled "Varieties of Grapes for Massachusetts"
has been revised and is available to anyone wishing a copy. Address requests to
either the Department of Pomology or the Mailing Room, University of Massachusetts,
Ajnherst.

Editor

v' ////////////////

LIFE INSURAI'^CE FOR FARIffiRS

Life insurance policies are contracts which provide that an insurance company
guarantees the heirs of the insured a certain agreed sum of money to be paid when
the insured dies. Cost is met by payments of premiums during the insured's life-
time .

Iijlany different variations of contracts are available and designed to meet
Special needs or desires of the insured. Some common types are given belovir.

Ordinary or TJhole Life insurance contracts are a type of policy in which the
insured pays premiums until he dies or until he selects an option giving him "paid-
up" insurance. The proceeds of the contract are payable at death' though the. policy
builds up a loan or cash surrender value during his lifetime. This is the simplest
and most common type of life insurance policy and gives the most permanent protection
for the money spent.

Limited Payment Life policies give permanent protection and provide for payment
of the face amount of the policy at the time of death. They also have a cash
surrender or loan value that builds up as the insured pays premiums. It is different
from the Ordinary life policy mainly in the premiums are completely paid up over
a definite and limited period of time. Limited Payment Life policies are normally
T/ritten at 20 to 30 year periods though they may read "paid up at 55" or "65" etc.
Though the premium payment stops at the end of this period, the insurance protection
continues. This has the advantage of enabling the insured to pay premiums during
the years when he is most productive and earnings are most dependable. Since the
time of premium payments is shortened, each individual payment is larger. The
overall cost is much the same for the two types of policies.

Endowment policies provide life coverage v/ith an additional emphasis on a sav-
ings or investment plan. This type of contract provides for payment of the face
amount of the insurance contract either in the event of death of the insured during
the endowment period or upon his survival at the end of the period. The insured has
life insurance protection for the term of the endoi/raient but the contract is
dissolved at the end of the period and he is paid the face amount of the policy in
a lump sum or installments. The period selected is usually 20 to 30 years though
the policy may read that the endowment periods ends at age li8, S^f 65^ etc. Depend-
ing on the length of the endowment period this is usioally the most expensive type
of life insurance (the least amount of protection per dollar of premium,)

-7-.'

Term insurance is a type of life insurance that covers the policy holder for
a fixed number of years only. Such a policy may be written to provide coverage
for one or more years but is usually for five, ten, or fifteen years. Under such
a contract, commonly knovm as pure protection, the company will pay the face amount
of the policy to the beneficiary if the insured dies during the term. If he survives
the term of the policy, the contract expires and is canceled. The insured receives
no endoirment payment or surrender value. Premium costs rise with age and renewals
are at higher rates. Usually this type of policy will give the maximum protection
for minimum cost.

Family Income policies combine some of the features of the Ordina3:y Life and
the. Term type of coverage. The policy is arranged so that the insured has a de-
creasing amount of Term coverage that terminates after some selected time period
and after which he has normal Ordinary Life coverage. For example, the decreasing
Term is frequently geared to a mortgage schedule or to the time vrtien the farmer's
responsibilities are greatest. He may, therefore, provide maximum protection vfhen
it is most needed and still maintain a minimum amount of Ordinary Life coverage
after the more pressing need is past.

Annuities are not a fonn of life insurance in the usual sense since benefits
are generally paid for a period of time during the life of the policy holder and
usually stop upon his death. Premiums are paid, either in lump sura or in install-
ments with the agreement that the company vdll pay back a svmi of money at stipulated
intervals for a specified time. Life insurance policies frequently have an annuity
feature as an optional payment plan.

The life insurance business is intensely competitive with higher standards
being required of agents. Most companies have an active in-service training
program designed to keep agents informed and "on their toes." In general premium
rates for similar policies are quite similar, ./hen canparing rates be sure to
compare policies and policy provisions since different types of policies carry
different premium rates,

— L, D. Rhoades

////////////////

POMOLOGICAL RESEARCH
11. Improvement of the Wild Lowbush Blueberry

The harvesting and sale of lowbush blueberries is of considerable importance
in Massachusetts, There are two areas in the state where there is sufficient interest
in this crop and the plants grow naturally in sufficient quantity so that a commer-
cial industry has developed. One is in the southeastern part of the state in the
to\TOs of Granville and Blanford. The other is in northern Worcester County centered
around the town of Ashburnham,

The fields in these areas are mowed regularly and burned every two or three
years. The berries are harvested with metal "scoops" or "rakes" designed especially
for tlBt purpose. They are then put through a cleaning machine to separate the good
berries from sticks, stones, leaves, and green and soft berries. This fruit is sold
in quart baskets for fresh consumption or is placed in large ice cream cartons and
frozen for bakery use.

-8-.

Paj/ietimes light applications of fertilizer are used in Icwbush blueberry fields.
Since the fertilizer stimulates both herbaceous and vroody weeds as well as blue-
berries, the use of fertilizer often results in little or no increase in yield
because of weed competition. Also, if v:eeds become too thick harvesting becomes
•^nery difficult or impossible. Therefore, in order to evaluate correctly the results
of fertilizer applications, weeds need to be reduced to a minmum or eliminated.

The weed problem has been under study for several years. The ideal weed
killer would be one -vjhich vrould eliminate all plant growth except blueberries and
kill all ueed seeds. The large number of different species competing with the
blueberries, the' great differences between them and the close relationship betvreen
blueberries and some species of competing weeds make the goal look a long way off ^
The best v;e can hope for at present is to find materials or methods that will con-
trol the more troublesome weeds. Already ways have been .foujnd for controlling
some of these weed pests. For example, eweet fern (Comptonia peregrina) can be
controlled by spraying with a dilute aolution of 2,I|-D during the summer. Likevd.se,
a dilute solution of 2,U,5-T ester sprayed on bpyberries during the summer will
control it. Many vioody weeds can be controlled by spot apolications of 2,U^5-T or
2,U-D plus 2,lt,5-T esters in oil during the donnant season^

The common brake or bracken (Pteridium latinsculum) is extremely troublesome
in many areas. The tops are very easily destroyed but the large fleshy root stocks
are very difficult to kill. Several materials have been tried but so far only one,
polyborchlorate , looks at all promising. To avoid serious injury to the crop this
material iTill have to be applied the year of the bum. However, the exact time of
year when application will give best results and the optimum amount to apply have
not been fully worked out. It looks as if this material would have the advantage
of controlling many other weeds besides bracken.

J. S. Bailey

////////////////

CHEMICAL THINNINO OF APPLES

A recent bulletin by Teutner & Mumeek from Missouri gives a very fine dis-
cussion on hov: hormones, such as naphthalene acetic acid, are able to thin apples.
The authors found that naphthalene acetic acid causes embryo abortion v;hich results
in increased fruit drop that produces the thinning effect. Just why the material
does not induce embryo abortion in all the fruits is not known at present, although
the degree of embryo abortion appears to be related to the stage of embryo develop-
ment at the time the hormone is applied. In other v7ords, the effectiveness of a
thinning spray may depend on the stage of seed development in the young apples at
the time of application.

This may or may not account for the differences in the degree of thinning
obtained in different seasons from applications with the same timing. Temperatures
folla\'fing bloom could vary enough from year to year so that the stage of embryo
development would not be the same each year for the same timing of applications.

-9-

Another possible factor for differences in the degree of thinning from year
to year may be the effect of weather on the amount of active material absorbed by
the foliage follo\ving application. Cool, cloudy, damp weather following application
may increase absorption and thus increase thiiming \;hile warm, bright weather vjhich
favors quick drying may reduce the amount of active material VJhich is taken in by
the leaves and result in less thinning.

Our recommendations for chemical thinning do nd differ materially from those
of last year, but we would suggest g^o^vers pay more attention to weather conditions
when applying the thinning sprays. It appears that vre can expect more foliage in-
jury and increased thinning vchen the thinning sprays are applied under conditions
of high relative humidity which favor slow drying. This condition could be favored
by sprays applied in late afternoon or evening in contrast to sprays applied eai'lier
in the day.

Our revised thinning circular may be obtained from your County Extension Service
Office or direct from the Mailing Room at the University here in Amherst. Ask for
Special Circular No, l89, "Chemical Thinning of Apples and Peaches,"

^W. D. Weeks

////////////////

OBSERVATIONS IN CAIIFGRNIA

I'm gradually getting to travel vdth the University of California staff to
more and more of their experiiaental plots and se-ing a number of their fruit
sections. Since soil and climatic conditions are often much different from those
in New England, it is perhaps not surprising that the performance of fruit trees
and the methods of orchard management vary considerably from ours. In general
throughout the deciduous fruit areas in California, the vdnters are vary mild, by
our standards. The lowest minimums in many fruit sections of this state may be
above 15° F during the ranter. These mild winter temperatures have a profound
influence on many species of fruit. Lack of a sufficient number of hours below
kO°- kS° F tends to delay the opening of flower and leaf buds so that the bloom
period here often extends over a much longer period than ours, even though the
late vdnter and spring days are fairly warm and sunny. Almonds began to bloom
in early February, here, but some petals were still hanging on some varieties in
mid-March. Peaches reached full bloom around March 16, although some blossoms
opened in late February, Sweet cherries haven't opened yet, which is quite a
surprise to me, since they bloom ahead of peaches in the East, This difference
in time of bloorai-ng is apparently related to differences in chilling requirements
betvreen the two species. In the Watsonville apple section, the lower limbs are
going to flower ahead of those in the tops of trees. Also, in mild vdnters, many
apricot and peach flower buds fall off of some varieties before opening. In the
\7inters< apricot district, the bud drop is sufficiently heavy in some orchards to
reduce the size of the crop this year,

Hovrever, in California they have wide variations in summer temperatures from
one fruit section to another. In seme of the coastal areas, the summer temperatures
may rarely go above 8^° F, This is the situation in the apple section at Watsonville,
whereas, at Davis ^n interior area) summer temperatures of 105° are coiranon. Yet,

-10- ■

areas of marked differences in summer temperature may be only short distances apart,
and of similar elevation. The sections of high sumiTier temperatures are not suitable
for s^iveet cherries, for example, bat may be well suited for peach production. Sweet
cherries grovm at high summer temperatures may develop as many as 20 to 30 percent
double fruits, (hot summers influence development of flo\TCr parts) hence they are
grovm in areas of relatively cool summers.

In the East, every good fruit grower knows he should plant trees on elevated
sites to reduce the chances of spring frost damage. In California, relatively
little- deciduoB fruit is gro\m on hills or slopes. The bulk of it is groi/m on the
flatter, more fei^tile land. In the Watsonville area, for example, some of the
apple orchards are nearly completely surroiinded by higher land. The orchards on
the slopes and hills are not generally as productive as those on the level land.
Orchard heating is a common practice in some fruit areas, but in other places,
frost does not seem to be a serious hazard even in i/hat we would consider frost
susceptable locations.

As I mentioned last month, deciduous tree fruit yields here are generally very
high by our standards. In the Watsonville district, yields of 2,000 bushels per
acre are possible. GiEgrou'-er indicated to me that a minimum yield of 700 - 1,000
bushels per acre are needed to stay in business. Although Easterners often don't
think of California as an important apple producing state, they produce around
nine-million bushels annually. Yellow Newtown, Gravenstein, Red Delicious, Rome,
Jonathan, BellfloTrer and Golden Delicious are the important varieties in the order
listed. The bulk of the crop is sold to processors. Red Delicious is the Drincipai
variety being planted, however, and it's sold vrainly as fresh fruit in California
markets .

The apple orchards I've seen here are planted very close together by our stand-
ards, and are kept quite low, A planting distance of thirty by twenty-eight feet
seem to be quite common in the YiTatsonville section. The growers use caterpillar
tractors and very lavr air blast sprayers which allow them to snake their way be-
tween the rows. Fortunately, for them, scab is usually no problem, and they have
no red-banded leaf roller or apple maggot to contend vdth. However, mildew and
mites are real problems, but even so, their spray schedule is much siinpler than ours.

— -F, W, SouthvYick
/.////.////////////

-13-

C, PLAiiTlNG STOCK. (Plants set by the nursei^nnan to produce plants to sell to

berry growers as "essentially" virus-free.)

1, Isolate the planting as far as possible from all other strawberries, both
cultivated and vrild. A distance of 3000 feet is very desirable,

2, The field must have no history of red stele or other soil-borne disease.

3, The plants used diould be no more than one year removed from an approved
source of Foundation Stock, i.e., should have been grown as outlined under B.

kt The planting (and all nearby strawberry plants) should be protected fully,
throughout the season, by dusts or sprays as recommended to control aphids,

D. ADVERTISING AND PROi'DTION

1, Plants produced as outlined above should be "essentially" virus-free and
should be sold as such,

2, Varieties for which virus-free strains are not available should not be sold
as virus-free,

J, S. Bailey

////////////////

HCW TO FIGURE THE AJC'TOT OF FERTILIZER TO APPLY

In the past when orchard fertilization was discussed the orchardist heard — -
"You should apply so many pounds of ammonium nitrate, urea, 5-10-10 or some other
fertilizer". Since there are so many fertilizers now being sold, it is more logical
when discussing fertilizer needs to talk in terms of actual nitrogen, potash (K2O)
and phosphoric acid (P20^), It has been noted, however, that this has been confus-
ing to some growers -vihen they try to figxire how much of a nitrogenous fertilizer or
a "complete" fertilizer should be applied to equal a certain amount of actual nitrogen,
potash or phosphoric acid. Therefore, it is hoped that the following discussion
will eliminate some of the misunderstanding.

In our fertilizer recommendations we state that a tree capable of producing
25 bushels of apples should receive approximately one pound of actual nitrogen.
If we are going to use some conmon nitrogenous fertilizer how many pounds must be
applied to equal a pound of actual nitrogen? To determine this, divide the actual
amount of nitrogen needed by the per cent nitrogen in the nitrogenous fertilizer.
For example if you are using a nitrogenous fertilizer containing 33 per cent N,
divide 1,0 pound by ,33 which vrill give an answer of approjdraately 3 pounds of the
nitrogenous fertilizer that a:ust be applied to be equivalent to 1.0 pound of actual
nitrogen.

Similarly, suppose you want toapplj'1,5 pounds of actual nitrogen and you are
using a nitrogenous fertilizer containing U5 per cent N, divide 1,5 pounds by ,U5
which will give an ansvfer of approximately 3.3 pounds of the nitrogenous fertilizer
to be equivalent to 1,5 pounds of actual nitrogen.

Suppose you are using a 5-10-10 fertilizer, how many pounds must be applied
to equal one pound of actual nitrogen? Hov/ many pounds of potash and phosphoric
acid iTill be added when enough 5-10-10 is added to equal one pound of actual nitrogen?

J -Ui-

A 5-10-10 fertilizer contains an amount of total nitrogen as would be equivalent tc
five per cent of nitrogen, an amount of available phosphorous equivalent to ten per
cent of phosphoric acid and available potash equivalent to ten per cent of potash
(K20)» Since the mixed fertilizer contains an equivalent to five per cent N, divide
one poimd of actual nitrogen wanted by ,05 which will give an answer of 20 pounds
of 5-10-10 to add in order to apply one pound of actual nitrogen. If you apply 20
pounds of 5-10-10, two pounds of potash (KpO) and two pounds of phosphoric acid are
added. These ansvrers are obtained by multiplying the 20 pounds of 5-10-10 by the
per cent potash and phosphoric acid respectively in the fertilizer,

"W, J, Lord

////////////////

HOW TO BQRROIT MONEY IF YOU NEED IT

Get the Most for Your Money Modern farming requires large amounts of operating
credit as well as long-term capital financing™

Buy credit as you buy feed and fertilizer - from dependable sources - at low-
est net cost. Be in a position to pay cash for materials bought and demand best
prices and services.

Use Farm Account Book Too much credit or credit unsuited to the farm program being
financed, can be as detrimental to the farm as no credit at all. Be in a pos-
ition to determine in advance the money required to carry on your farming business.

Plan for Credit in Advance A sound loan should pay out in profit to you. Estimate
your sources of income as a guide to orderly repayments

There is a very real difference bet'.reen financing a farm operation and merely
making a loan or extending credit for some specific purchase. There is a very real
difference, also, between a sound loan and a safe loan. A sound loan must be:

1, A benefit to the borrower and safe for the lender,

2, Adequate but not too much.

3, Available as needed,

U, Liquidated from normal sources with payments (geared to income,

KnoT/ Where to Borrow Lending institutions are in the specialized business of loan-
ing money. Figure the net cost of the money before you borrow. You may pay anywhere
from h% to ll-l/2^ on a ""6fj interest rate" depending on how the loan is figured.

Get Debts Togjether in One Place Split credit costs more - limits ability to borrow
money - weakens your credit rating, and invites pressure from all creditors. Use
regular lending agencies, meet obligations promptly - protect yom- credit rating in
the business community.

Do Not Over-borrow Be sure to keep something in reserve including the ability to
borrow more money if needed. Be prepared to meet the unexpected - hospital bills,
fann price upsets, crop failures and changing economic conditions. Buy your credit
as you now buy feed, fertilizer, spray material, or machinery. Use those agencies
v;hich offer the lowest rate consistent vrith the service rendered. Remember, you
are not asking for favors when you apply for a sound loan,

L. D. Rhoades

////////////////

R

^

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

MAY 15, 1956

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Are You "Selecting for Resistance?"

Curing Magnesium Deficiency in Cultivated
Blueberries

Observations in California

Soil Analyses for Determining Fertilizer
Needs of Fruit Trees

Pomological Research

When Do Apples Require Thinning?

Dates to Remember

Shoreham Cooperative Cold Storage

Fruit Tree Survey Coming Up

Unusual Type of Winter Injury

Bird Damage to Fruit Crops

Apple Powdery Mildew

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W, Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 19 14; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating,

Publication Approved by George J. CrorUn, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19,

YOUR POMOLOGY DEPARTMEMT

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, snail fruit culture and systenatie
Pomology,

Bailey, John S, - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Warehan,

Doing research on stra^7berries, blueberries and beach plums, Mr. Bailey
also does considerable Extension work v/ith small fruit grovrers.

French, Arthur P, - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, V/illiam J, - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected vdth fruit groviers' problems, other than pest control,
and is somewhat involved in research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C, - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses*
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing,

Southvd-ck, Franklin W, - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in
certain advanced courses, (At present on Sabbatical leave at the
University of California.)

Weeks, Walter D, - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests
and vidnter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to This Issue from Supporting Fields

Bertrajn G-ersten, Aesiatant Research Professor, Control Service
lonald T. Thayer, Aoeooiate County Agricultural Agent, Franklin County
E. H. MIr.bb1&t, Extension Entomologist
C. J, Gilgut . Extension Plant Pathologist

ARE YOU "S'ilECTIir- FOR RESISTANCE?"

Reports of recent USDA research enphasize that the ability to "resist" the
effects of a ndticide is inherited by nites. "Resistance" or the ability to
withstand the poisonous effects of pesticides on the part of insects and aites
is not neviT, Horrever, the development of strains tolerant of pesticides never
occurred so fast as it has since the introduction of many of our present-day
insecticides and niticides. It is cause for thought and planning,

Nov, research shov;s plainly that the ability of mites to ivithstand the toxic
effects of most niticides developed vdthin the last few years is an inherited
trait. Furthermore, once a resistant strain is developed, the ability of that
strain to vrlthstand the effects of miticides is not likely to be lost. Once a
resistant strain of a mite or an insect is developed in an orchard, a potato or
vegetable farm, or a greenhouse, the ovmer has to depend upon biological and cll.i-
atological factors or wait until a ne\i and superior insecticide or niticide cones
along.

For orchardists this report on the inheritance of resistance can be a warning,
with strains of nites strongly resistant to phosphates and codling moth strains
very resistant to DDT already v:ell established in New York State, it would seen
wise for Massachusetts rrowers to attempt a "delaying action".

For mites this could be usine an oil at least once every three years so as
to kill red mite in an entirely different way, as ccrapared to the action of the
summer or foliage-type miticides. VJhen it comes to fighting yellov: mite or
2-spotted iTiite, do not depend upon phosphates alone. Use phosphates when it is
_ logical to do so because of the presence of aphids or other insects you wish to
control. T/hen only mites are the troublesome pests, svrltch to one or more of the
non-phosphate materials and do a "clean-up" job,

"i^en it cones to codling moth, don't be too hasty in your decision to leave
lead arsenate out of all the Cover Sprays Important for codling moth control.
And there may be good reasons for suggesting the use of phosphates against cod-
ling moth rather than to depend entirely upon DDT year after year,

E. H. Vlheeler

////////////////

CURING j'AGNESIUI'J DEFICIENCY IN CULTIVATED BLUEBERRIES

Magnesium deficiency has not been a common trouble with blueberries in Mass-
achusetts. Since it is not uncommon on other fruits, it would not be surprising
if magnesium deficiency occurred more frequently in the future . Experience iirith
blueberries, as vrell as with other fruits, has shovm that heavy applications of
potash could bring about roagnesium deficiency. As the amount of potash contain-
ing fertilizer is increased it v;ould be vri.se to be on the lookout for tliis trouble.

-2-

Experlments in ivlassachusetts have sho',m that magnesium deficiency in blue-
berries can be corrected by soil application of high magnesium lime or Epsom salts.
Depending on acidity a ton to a ton and a half of dolomitic limestone per acre
is usually enough. Or one can use 150 pounds of Epsom salts per acre.

There are tv/o other vrays by vrhich magnesium deficiency in blueberries might
be corrected. Epsom salts might be sprayed on the leaves as is done rd-th apples.
A special form of magnesium called chelated (pronounced key-late-ed) magnesium
might be applied to the soil. Both of these methods were tried. The results
were measured by determining the magnesium content of leaves from treated and
untreated plants before and after treatment. The results are given: in the foil cav-
ing table : . ■

Percent Magnesium in Blueberry Leaves - Dry weight basis

Epsom salt
Spray

Check

Chelated Magnesium per bash in ounces

T

IF

Before

After

.oU
.07

.07
,10

.06
.09

.06
.06

.08
.11

.08
.11

The magnesium content of the unsprayed check leaves increased just as much
as that of the Epsom salt sprayed leaves. I^he blueberry leaves are so waxy that
it is not surprising the spray applications were not effective.

Chelated compounds are formed by combining a metal, such as iron or magnesium,
with an organic compound in such a v/ay that the metal is more readily absorbed by
plants. Chelated iron compounds have been very successful in correcting iron
deficiency in citrus and some other crops. It seemed that chelated magnesium might
be successful in correcting magnesium deficiency in cultivated blueberries. Evi-
dently this is not the case. The data in the table shows that even a pound per
bush of chelated magnesium increased the magnesium content of leaves no more than
that of unsprayed leaves.

Soil applications of Epsom salts or dolomitic limestone are still the best
materials for correcting magnesium deficiency in blueberries,

J. S. Bailey and Bertram Gersten

////////////////

OBSERVATIONS IN CALIFORNIA

In a state such as California, which produces a vri.de range of deciduous
tree fruit crops under variable soil and climatic conditions, one xirould expect
growers to have a great number of production and marketing problems. One of
their common production problems is oversetting of fruit. As you know fruit thin-
ning of apples and peaches are problems of eastern grovrers. 'Te are attempting to

-3-

overcome this difficulty and reduce its cost by the use of suitable thinning sprays.
In California excessive sets of apricots, prunes, plums, peaches, apples and olives
are common. Hand thinning is an almost industry vd.de practice and a major product-
ion cost. Consequently, experimenters and growers here are quite interested in the
possibilities of chemical thinners on all the aforementioned fruits. Almonds,
cherries and walnuts are about the only deciduous tree fruit crops which appear
to be grown without much concern about oversetting.

Experiments by Drs, Lilleland and Uriu indicate that dinitro materials have
considerable promise as fruit thinners on freestone peaches, plums, prunes, and
apricots. These fruits blossom over a rather long period but the r/eather is
rarely too poor for good sets and the risk of overthinning, although it may occur
occasionally, is not great. There is, also, interest in gro\rth substances such
as chloro IPC and Peach Thin 322 (sodium salt of naphthalamic acid for thinning
freestone peaches applied at or shortly after bloom. On apples, interest in Amid-
Thin is prevalent. Therefore, much experimental yrork is being done v/ith chemical
thinners.

Cling peaches, which are grown in greater volume than freestone, are entire-
ly hand thinned, however. The size reqxiirement for cling peaches is 2-3/8 inches
in diameter. There is no premium paid for fruit that are larger than that. The
growers objective is to thin just enough so that this size represents about 90
percent of his total tonnage. An average size of 6? ram (2,6 inches) is needed to
give 90 percent of the fruit above 2-3/8 inches (61 mm). To thin beyond this
requirement results in a loss in total volume with no compensating increase in
price for additional size, Dr, L, D. Davis, over a period of years, has developed
a method wherety a person, by making a number of fruit size measurements about 10
days after the start of pit hardening (reference date) of cling peaches, can
determine about how much thinning must be done so that 90 percent of the crop vn.ll
be about 2-3/8 inches at harvest time and still get maximum yield. For example,
if the fruit averages 32 mm in diameter at reference date heavy thinning Yd.ll be
necessary, if 35 mm moderate thinning and if 38 mm little or no thinning may be
needed to result in the desired size at harvest time. Data as to reference date
and prevailing sizes at that time are collected in the various cling peach districts
through the efforts of State and County workers and passed on to the growers.
This, it seems to me, is an unusually precise means of handling the thinning
problem. Such precision \Tith chemical thinning procedures is probably unattain-
able, so for this crop hand thinning is the preferred procedure even though a
costly one.

Hormones appear to have real promise in other ways in fruit production, also.
For example, Dr, Crane has found that concentrations ranging from 2$ - 75 PPni
of 2,U,5-T sprayed on apricots at the start of pit hardening have pronounced
influence on apricot fruit size and time of maturity. (This is the same material
T;hich failed to control our Mcintosh drop last fall,) On apricots this material
greatly improves fruit size and hastens maturity sufficiently so that treated
trees may be harvested a fe\T days to more than a week ahead of unsprayed fruit,
depending on the fruit district. This response is highly desirable on apricots
since size and earliness are important in the price received for eastern fresh
fruit shipments. This m.aterial, even though applied many weeks ahead of harvest,
controls preharvest drop, also. It's a three-in-one spray for apricots. Since
the apricot is a stone fruit you might expect to get the same responses on other
stone fruits such as peaches. Unfortunately, the overall response on peaches is

-k-

not satisfactory from a commercial standpoint.

In closing you may be interested and amused in knovfing that I visited vfith
an apple grovrer near Placerville this week who had about 10 Mcintosh trees vrhich
were supposed to be another variety \ihen he planbed them. His orchard is in the
Sierra foothills at 2,^00 - 3,000 feet elevation. He says the Mcintosh color
well and he seems to like them, but he noted that they are inclined to drop
heavily at harvest time,

F, W. Southvdck

////////////////
SOIL ANALYSES FOR DETERMINING FERTIUZER NEEDS OF FRUIT TREES

In our talks at fruit grower meetings this past winter, we have stated that
leaf analyses are superior to soil analyses in regard to the determination of
fertilizer need of fruit trees. In addition, we fiorther stated that the main
value of soil tests for orchard soils is for determining lime requirement.

Since our winter fruit meetings, a brief report on the leaf analysis work
at the Maryland Experiment Station appeared in a recent issue of the Maryland
Fruit Grower, It was stated that, in 1955, leaf samples vrere obtained from a
number of Maryland apple and peach orchards and that at the same time soil samples
were obtained under these trees, "Analysis of these leaf and soil samples were
made and the degree of correlation studied. It was found that there was no
correlation whatever; soil analysis did not, therefore, reflect the levels of the
various minerals in the leaves, and cannot be used as a guide for fertilization
of fruit trees."

The statement quoted above is further evidence in support of our thought on
the value of soil analysis as a guide for fertilizing fruit trees. However, it
is again stated that soil analysis is a valuable tool for deteimining lime re-
quirement and should be used as such at periodic intervals by all fruit growers,

— ¥/, J. Lord

////////////////

POMOLOGICAL RESEARCH
12, Apple Orchard Irrigation

Much has to be learned about the irrigation needs of our Massachusetts apple
orchards. Although the average yearly rainfall in Massachusetts is approximately
Uh inches, many growing seasons there are one to two months when very little rain-
fall occurs. Unless the moisture holding capacity of the soil is sufficient to
carry trees through such periods poor tree growth and fruit development will
result. On the other hand, the cost of irrigation equipment is such that the
orchardist must be certain as to the need and expected returns on his investment.

-5-

A question most frequently asked is, "When should water "be applied to orchards?"
Proper timing of Irrigation as to freauency can save orchardists many dollars.

The electrical resistance method of measuring soil moisture has "been developed
to such an sjttent that direct reading moisture meters are available to growers at
cost of slightly over $100. It would "be of value to know at what percentage of
available soil moisture that irrigation water should he applied.

With the previous statements in mind, it was felt that a research project on
apple orchard irrigation would he worth while with the following ohjectives in mind: •

A - To determine how many years out of ten, apple trees on the experimental
site suffer for the lack of water.

B - To study the effect of water shortage on the growth of apple trees, fruit
growth, color, qimlity and yield of fruit.

C - To determine at what percentage of available soil moisture irrigation water
should "be applied.

D - To find how the nutritional status of the fruit trees is affected hy
irrigation.

Results of other Irrigation Pro.iecta

Under California conditions some research workers have reported that various
fruit-crops growing in sandy soils do not suffer from gradual drying of the soil
but are able to obtain moisture readily iintil the permanent wilting percentage of
the soil is reached. ( Hot all moisture in the soil is available to plants. The
percentage of water in soil when plants wilt permanently is called the permanent
vjilting percentage of the soil.) This conclusion vuas based on yield, growth rate
of fruit and fruit size at harvest. On the other hand, the same workers and others
have reported the tree size is reduced before the permanent wilting percentage is'
reached.

In work conducted in Maryland, it was found that growth of apples was not
slowed down until soil moisture was near the permanent wilting percentage. Dur-
ing 3 of the k years that the experiment was conducted, apple trees on rather
shallow shale soil showed reduced fruit growth rate due to moisture shortage at
sometime during the growing season. The fruit size was reduced in proportion to
the length and duration of the drought. In earlier work other research workers
had concluded that there was a slight slowing down of apple growth before the
soil reached permanent wilting percentage.

In the Hudson Valley, It was found that fruit size on apple trees planted in a
shallow soil decreased when the soil moisture in the top two feet was decreased to
the permanent wilting percentage.

In addition to the effect of soil moisture on fruit size and yield, its effect
on fruit quality, fruit storage life, flower bud formation, and tree growth has
also received considerable attention. It has been reported that differences in
soil moisture has no effect on susceptibility of apples to decay, but that irrigated

-6-

apples are softer and show greater "break down after removal from storage. Other
research woi'kers have reported that pears from non-irrigated trees pressure tested
higher and had more total solids than those from irrigated trees, but when the
fruits were in prime eating condition no difference in texture and flavor could te
detected. In Maryland, it was found that when moisutre deficiency occurred during
the latter part of the growing season there vas a reduction in red color develop-
ment on apples, "but in years when soil moisture was ample at harvest time, the
non^irrigated trees produced "better color fruit than did the irrigated trees. In
addition, it was found that when moisture shortage occurred not latter than early
July, fruit "bud formation appeared to "be increased. In the same experiment water
shortage from late July until fall had no apparent effect on flower bud formation.
In greenhouse studies conducted in Michigan, It was foiind that utilization of SC^
cr more of the available soil moisture significantly reduced total chlorophyll per
apple tree, shoot growth, trunk diameter increase, dry weight increase, and leaf
area.

Present Outlook

This brief review summarizes a few of the studies previously conducted on the
soil raoistxire relationships of fruit trees. Experimental results have shown that
growth of apples was not reduced until soil moisture was near or at permanent wilt-
ing. In other words the growth of apples was not reduced until the tree roots had
used most of the available moisture in the soil. On the other hand, the growth of
the fruit trees was affected prior to the depletion of available soil moisture.

At present, little is known about the Irrigation needs of Massachusetts orchards.
How many years out of ten would irrigation pay? Even though fruit size and yield
might not be affected by a deficiency of soil moisture, tree growth may be signif-
icantly reduced and thereby have an adverse Influence on subsequent crops. This
can be determined only by a long term irrigation project such as is being planned.

Nutritional status, particularly nitrogen level, influences color, keeping
qualities of apples and fruit development and alsr might cssntrol fruit quality to
a greater extent than soil moisture. This project should enable us to find out
the nutritional status of the irrigated and non-irrigated trees and should determine
if part of the effects of irrigation on fruit quality can be contributed to nutrition.

One of the most difficult problems in connection with irrigation is to determine
when Irrigation water should be applied in the orchard. It is hoped that the data
obtained from the periodic soil moisture readings and fruit growth measurements will
give us an Index as to when trees need irrigation.

W, J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

WHEN DO APPLES EEQUIHE THimiMG?

A mature apple tree may have 30,000 to 5C,000 blossoms. If it were possible
for all of these blossoms to set fruit, and to mature to an average size of I50
apples per box, there would be a crop of 200 to 333 boxes per tree. We all know

-7-

that such yields are not possible, but just how many TDlossoms should set to give
UB a r©asonn"ble yield of good sized fruit? Twent/ six hundred apples will produce
20 boxes of fruit '.v'lth an average size of I30 apples per box. In general, 3 to 8
per cent of the total blossoms are all that are required for a satisfactory crop.
Of course, the set required for a satisfactory crop depends on the extent of bloomy
a variety such as Early Mcintosh which has abundant bloom requires less set for a
crop than Mcintosh which usually has a moderate bloom.

In our chemical thinning studies we express fruit set as the number of fruits
for each 100 blossoming clusters. From these studies we have determined for several
of our commercial varieties the fruit set necessary for a satisfactory crop when
they have a full bloom. The following figures listed for each variety indicate the
number of fruits for each 100 blossoming clusters which will produce a satisfactory
crop:

Fruits per 100
blossoming clusters

Wealthy 15-20

Early Mcintosh 15-20

Mcintosh 25-30

Baldwin 20-25

Golden Delicious 25-30

Delicious 25-30

Macoun 15-20

R. I. Greening 20-25

These figures nay help in determining whether or not to thin a block of trees.
If it is quite apparent that the final set will exceed these figures by a wide
margin then a chemical thinning spray may be desirable. Varieties which set large
crops, such as Early Mcintosh and Wealthy, can usually be depended upon to exceed
the set figures given and to require thinning. Mcintosh and Delicious may or may
not require thinning. It is often difficult to' determine whether or not these
varieties need to be thinned. By marking a few limbs and counting the number of
blossom clusters and developing fruits, a grower may be able to determine to some
de^iree what the final fruit set will be. This procedure should aid the grower in
his decision to thin or not to thin.

W. D. Weeks

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

DATES TO REi'IEMBER

June 18 (Monday) 7:00 PM

Strawberry Twilight Meeting at University of Massachusetts, Amherst.

Inspection of ne\i; varieties and discussion of strawberry growing
problems,

July 19 (Thursday) all day.

Orchard "Jay Program at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Exhibits and demonstrations of orchard equipment during forenoon: Speaking
program on several aspects of fruit marketing in the afternoon.

A. P. French

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

-8-

SHOREHAM GOQPERATIVL OOLJ^ STORft.GE

The following is a talk presented "by Tom Cook of Burlington, Vermont
and the Shoreharn (Vermont) Cooperative to the Frpnklin Co\xnty Fruit Growers at a
meeting held in Ashfield on March 1, I956. The general topic was req.uested "by the
county fruit commodity committee in a program planning meeting during the fall of
1955.

"I am very pleased to have the opportunity to talk with you fellov.' fruit growers
today ahout our experiences with a Cooperative Cold Storage at Shoreham, Vermont.
And out of it I hope that you will get encoiiragement to go ahead with one of your
own hecause it will not only help you, hut it will help us. I firmly "believe that
if we here in the northeast could market oiir apple crop through a few large coopera-
tives that we could do a more orderly job, put "better fruit on the market, give the
consumer a "better value and have more money left for ourselves. This year's market
has "been an example of what happens when a lot of individuals try to sell a few more
apples than the markets will easily a'bsor'b.

So much for philosophy. Now to get down to practical experience. I am going
to be extremely frank in reciting our experiences and tell you the things we did
wrong as well as those we did right. I hope that you will feel free to interrupt
me at any time that you have questions. I would much rather talk with you than
at you.

During the fall and winter of ''+5- '46 we did a lot of talking a"bout a coopera-
tive cold storage plant, including a visit to Myron Lord, Kezar Falls, Maine and in
April 19^6 we finally incorporated and started "building our plant. There were only
five of us in the original organization and since our "bylaws called for five direct-
ors, we had no pro"blem with elections.

Our first "big pro"blem was raising enough money to "build with. We did this
through sale of common stock to mem"bers and preferred stock to mem'bers and friends
and "borrowing the limit from the "bank for cooperatives. I would like to read the
section of the bylaws on these stocks because I think we have some pretty good
safeguards in them.

We also use the common stock as means of allocating space in the storage.
The original membership of five has increased to nine.

Our original plant had a capacity of '}^■,0Q0 bushels. We have since added four
controlled atmosphere rooms, one a year, with a capacity of 11,000 bushels each.
In each case members have bought common stock, we have used some of the storage
surplus and borrowed the balance. Our financial statement as of June 30, 1955
shows our present position.

The benefits we have derived from the Cooperative as I see them are;

1. Help at harvesting. V/e pick orchard run and ship to the storage as soon as
possible.

2. This fast movement to storage helps keep quality up.

-9-

3. The apples are packed as they are sold throughout the season. This assures
a fresh pack of the kind and type that is moving "best at the time.

t^. Ve are now packing hetvjeen 150,000 and 200,000 "bushels of apples a year.
This is a large enough voliune of uniform high quality pack to make a name
on the market and sometimes command a premiiim.

5. The controlled atmosphere rooms have gotten us a superior price for part

of our crop each year and have extended the Mac packing and marketing season.

6. ■/e have sold through one commission.

7. Bach member's ap-oles keep their identity until sold. 'Ve have not tried
pooling, but all are sold under the Cooperative's label.

8. Packing charges are en an actiaal cost-plus basis for each individual lot
of fruit and average around 25^ per box.

We still have some problems or you might call It unfinished business, V/e have
not developed profitable outlet for our second grade fruit. V/e have not cashed in
on the local market.

We have been expanding rather rapidly so have not reduced ova: debt as miioh as
we might have. (l am not sure that this is bad.) Our original building was built
during the war when materials and labor were scarce. We built it ourselves with
hired labor. We saved some money, but we now have some extensive repairs to make.

Also, we have taken apples from non-member growers during light crop years in
order to operate the storage efficiently and now are faced d-uring a heavy crop
year with too much fruit.

I have some of the returns from my apples and one other member that may help
give you an idea what our expenses and returns have been. What we have left is the
thing we are most interested in.

(Ed, Note: These figures were presented to the meeting, but are not avail-
able here. Mr. Cook might be willing to present them personally to interested
parties.)

Coma up and see our plant in operation and talk with:

Wm. Stalker, Jr., Manager Telephone - Shoreham ^4-2

SCAPA

Shoreham, Vermont Residence: Middlebiiry, Vermont"

.*). T. Thayer

Associate County Agricultural

Agent Franklin County

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

-10-

PRUIT TREE SURVEY GOMIKG UP

The February issue of Fruit Notes contained the initial announcement of a
fruit tree survey this summer initiated "by the Fruit Industry Committee of the Kiass^
achuaetts Fruit Growers' Association and to "be conducted hy fruit growers with the
assistance of the Cooperative Extension Services. A seimple form of the questionnaire
to "be used was included and you were urged to ohtain the information asked for»

At a meeting of the Fruit Industry Committee May 3rd it was decided to conduct
the survey between June 25th and July 7th.

Prior to Jxine 25th a copy, of the official questionnaire will "be mailed to each
known fruit grower having 100 or more trees of either apple, peach or pear. You
are urged to fill out this questionnaire to the "best of your a"bility and some in^
dividual will "be assigned to give any assistance that may "be necessary and pick \ip
the questionnaire when completed. Do not mail it "but hold it until It is collected
"by an enumerator.

This survey will "be of value to you as follows:

1. It will tell you the number of trees of each important variety now grown
in the state and thus guide you in the selection of varieties for future planting.

2. It will tell you not only the niomber of trees of each variety but the nvimber
of non-bearing, in their prime and reaching old age.

3. It will tell you the number of trees of new varieties that have been planted,

ij-. It will tell you the capacity of farm operated refrigerated storages in
Massachusetts.

5. It will tell you what percent of the apple crop is sold on roadside stands,
direct to retail stores, to other selling agencies and for cider,

6. It will indicate trends in the tree fruit industry and guide you in adjust-
ing your business accordingly.

7. It will enable the Extension Specialists to study the significance of changes
occurring in the fruit industry and thereby help them to serve you more effectively
in recommending ways in which you can make adjustments.

This is a cooperative effort of fruit growers to help themselves. You can
help by supplying the information requested in the questionnaire,

0, 0. Roberts

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

-11-

- « UNUSUAL TYPS OF WINTER INJURY

An unusual and severe type of winter Injviry to the trunks and lower scaffold
limbs of bearing apple trees was recently found in three apple orchards in Middlesex
Coiinty. How prevalent the injury is throughout the state is yet to "be determined.

The "bark on the injured tree trunk is in some instances split but :more gen-
erally just pulled away from the wood. Althou^ the injury is more predominant
on the south side of the tree, no side ia immune. In addition to the trunk, this
injury frequently extends a considerable distance up on the lower side of many of
the scaffold branches.

The result of rather limited observations reveal that the winter injury is
mainly confined to bearing Mcintosh trees. Baldwins, Delicious, Cortlands and
except for an occassional Northern Spy and Early Mcintosh show no injury. It b^ars
repeating, that these statements are based on limited observations. It is of
interest to note that two of the orchards have peach trees and that the fruit buds
came through with little killing.

The orchard in which the winter injury was first discovered was one in which
a fertilization experiment has been conducted since 19^^91 therefore, the 1955
nutritional status and yields for 110 trees in the orchards are known. Although
nutritional level of the trees varied considerably and the 1955 crop varied on the
trees, there was no correlation between yield or nutrition and winter injury.

The winter injury was not confined to a particular area in the orchards but
appeared to be scattered throughout. However, in the areas having injured trees,
practically every tree in that area was inJTired.

It is known that if the loose bark on winter injured trees is alive and is
tacked down it will often re-unlte with the trunk. It was suggested to the grower
in the orchard where the winter injury was first discovered, that he try a "gun"
stapler instead of using a hammer and tacks. Nine-sixteenth inch staples were
tried and apparently does a satisfactory job. This method of tacking the bark is
more rapid and less tiring than the usual method of tacking. After tacking the
bark, it is suggested that the inj\ired area should be covered with grafting compoujid.

W. J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
BIRD DAMAGE TO FRUIT CROPS

The amount of damage done by birds on certain fruit crops in Massachusetts
has apparently been increasing materially in recent years. Grapes, blueberries,
and cherries have been particularly hard hit. However, strawberries, raspberries
and even peaches and early apples have been damaged more or less severely in many
areas.

At least several species of birds have been observed doing damage. Starlings
seem to be the most general offenders, but grackles, robins and catbirds take their
toll. Even orioles as well as some of the smaller birds are known or strongly sus-
pected of damaging certain crops. Through a research project recently initiated

-12-

at the Agri-cultural Elxperiment Station under the leadership of Dr. R. E, Trippensee
of "iild Life, as well as through the efforts of the Massachusetts Auduhon Society
it is anticipated that more exact information will tecome available concerning
the species of birds involved- Research on control methods will "be the next step
in solving this complex and exasperating problem.

Control methods currently available appear to be limited chiefly to two types:
(i) screening and (2) noise makers. Screening, particularly with second hand tobacco
cloth, cheese cloth or similar material is probably the most satisfactory method for
the home gardener to employ. Protection will probably be more complete if the
screening does not touch any of the ripening fruit. Birds will peck through and
may soon open holes large enough to gain entrance where the screening is touching
or very close to the fruit.

For the commercial grower two types of noise makers v'ill be available this
summer, both of which have been found to be quite satisfactory against starlings
and moderately so against grackles and robins,

1. Firecrackers. Work in several northeastern states has indicated the use-
fulness of firecrackers. attached to slow burning fuse-rope. The preparation and
use of the rope firecracker device is described in Wild Life Leaflet #365 issued by
the U. S. Fish and Vfild Life Service and may be obtained from any office of that
Borvlce. The bill sponsored by the Massachusetts Farm Bureau, the Massachusetts
Fruit G-rowers' Association and ether organizations to permit the use of firecrackers
for the protection of farm crops has been pasred by the G-eneral Court, signed by
the governor and vje imder stand it is to become effective about the middle of June.
Mr. Wesley Jones, U. S. Fish and Wild Life Service, Amherst plans to issue a release
to County Agents soon. In the meantime it is quite certain that a permit will have
to be obtained from your local Fire Chief before you can purchase firecrackers even
for such farm use and remember firecrackers are dangerous exploBlvee to handle and
store on the farm.

2. Carbide Exploders. Noise makers which operate on gas generated by the
action of water on calcium carbide have been on the market for many years. Most

of them have a single explosion chamber, however, a very few have two non-synchronized
explosion chambers. In limited tests made at the University last summer the non-
synchronized double-chamber type of carbide exploder gave the best control of birds
in cherries and blueberries. As a matter of fact 1955 was the first time for many
years that we were able to harvest any ripe sweet cherries for class use without
the use of tobacco cloth cages.

Unfortunately most of these carbide exploders cost from $50. to $75. each and
in an orchard will probably not be effective over an area of more than one to two
acres. Rather regular cleaning and a little adjusting is necessary to keep them
in operation. However, the cost of carbide on which to operate is only about $0(^
per day or about one-third the cost of firecrackers to do the same job.

With either type of noise making it is important to have the devise in operation
early and late as well as durihg the normal working hours. Birds recognize nothing
less than a dawn to dusk day.

Information on sources of equipment and supplies for noise making devices may
be had from your County Agricultural Agent or the Pepartment of Pomology, University
of Massachusetts, Amherst.

A. P. French

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

-13-

Trouble from apple powdery ml Idev; was anticipated for Massachusetts growers
two years ago* Growers \i;ere warned that it was causing concern in the states to
the south and west of us and it would only he a matter of time when it would he
trouhlesome in Massachusetts too. Thersfore, it is no surprise to find it start-
ing in three Massachusetts orchards this spring.

The Agricultural Research Service of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture states in a recent report, "Apple powdery mildew, spreading rapidly in the
past few years, has hecome a troublesome disease in apple orchards east of the
Mississippi River", At present it is not serious in Massachusetts hut it may,
and prohahly will "be, if growers are not on guard against it, and if they do not
take prompt measures to control it when it is found in an orchard,

Apple Powdery Mildew is Mot Hew

■le have always had a little powdery mildew in our orchards, and freouently it
was brought in on young apple nursery stock when a new orchard was planted. It
caused little concern because the mildew was held in check by the sulfur and lime-
sulfur which growers were using for control of apnle scab and sulfur is one of the
fe'-' fungicides that controls mildew.

In recent years, grower preference has been for organic fungicides rather
than sulfur because they control apnle scab better. As frequently happens, when
one changes to new materials to get better control of one disease problem, another
is created. The organic fungicides do not control apple powdery mildew and n(yj}
this disease is on the increase and promises to be a major problem in fruit grow-
ing in Massachusetts.

How the Fungus Attacks

The powdery mildew fungus is an obligate parasite - it must have living apple
tissue on which to live. It first ap-oears on a tree as a powdery white growth on
the leaves and then creeps down onto the soft shoots and twigs and into the buds.
If it starts early in the season, there may be corsiderable distortion and stunt-
ing of the leaves and shoots. On the fruit it causes a network of russet and,
in severe cases, stunting, shriveling, and cracking. The fungus continues to
grow and spreads by spores produced on the mildew mat and which are blown about
by wind and carried by air currents to other leaves and other trees until raid-
summer .

The powdery mildew overwinters on the twigs and in the buds on infested twigs.
The buds are weakened by the invading fungus and are leas resistant to winter cold
than healthy buds. They are frequently killed by temperatures 20-30° F. below
zero as are also some of the infected twigs. Temperatures slightly below zero do
not seem to be effective in wholesale eradication of the fungus. Unless the in-
fected overwintering buds are killed by cold, they are the source of infection for
new leaves in spring. If the season is early, the mildew may show up between de-
layed dormant and pre-pink but this year, since the season is late, it may not show
up until pink or later.

SusceptJTjlHt./ of Ap-ple Varieties

Jo variety of apple is immune to poi/dery mildei'j Ijut some are more susceptitle
than others and a fevi are highly resistant.

Relatively resistant varieties are Mcintosh, Delicious, and Golden Delicious.
Very susceptible are Baldwin, Cortland, Gravenstein, Eome, Jonathan, Stayman, and
Yellow Transparent.

Sufi:i£:estlona for Control

Best results are obtained vjhen cultural practices, mechanical means, and
chemical treatments are used together.

(1) Buy and plant only nursery trees that are free from mildew. The nurseryman
should control diseases in the nursery hefore he sells the trees to you.

(2) Prune out all infected terminals during Tjinter pruning and newly infected
terminals in summer as far as is practical. This will help keep the fungus
from "building up. There is no need to turn the prunings since the fungus
will die as soon as the pruned twigs die.

(3) Spray: There are two materials that will control mildew - sulfur and kara-
thane or mildex. Sulfur is a little less expensive and is ciuite satisfactory
in the pre-hloom sprays on varieties that are not sensitive to sulfur. In^
jury may result if temperatures are 85° F. or higher after application. Three
pounds in 100 gallons is sufficient.

Karathane is a little more expensive and is preferred in pre-hloom sprays
on sulfur sensitive varieties and in the cover sprays on all varieties. It
may cause injury when temperatures are 95° ^' 0^ higher for prolonged per-
iods. It will cause injury with oil and oil-containing formulations and may
cause injury when comhined with organic phosphate insecticides especially
during the calyx to second cover period. Other-'ise karathane is compatihle
with the common fungicides and insecticides. It even has some miticidal value
and will aid in mite control. It is used at 1 Ih. per 100 gallons for the
"best mildew control.

The following points ahout spraying should he kept in mind.

(1) Start control immediately when mildew is fo\xnd in an orchard.

(2) '\'here mildew was present the previous year, hegin control "before hloom
and continue during the cover periods to avoid huild-up in the "buds and
winter carry-over.

(3) Spray thoroughly so that the mildew is wet "by the spray.

(k) Use a wotting agent to get good wetting of the f\ingus. Some fungicides,
like glyodin, already have enou4?h wetting agent for this purpose.

C. J. Gilgut

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FR

J^

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS. AMHERST

JUNE- JULY -1956

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pomological Research

A New Blueberry Disease

Legal Liability Risks and Insurance
Protection for Farmers

Mulch For Grapes

Effect of Frost Upon the Viability of
Apple Pollen

Water Sprinkling for Frost Prevention

Food For Thought

Winter Hardiness of Raspberry Varieties

Pomological Poragraph

Observations in California

Protect Young Trees From Insects

Special Circular Recently Revised

Mcintosh - 1955-56-57

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronln, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOUR POMOLOGY DEPARTJffiMT
~.i<^* - 'Jlil ■ ■

Andorson, James - Instructor

Teachos courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systoinatic
Pomology.

Bailey, John S, - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham,

Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums. I'fr. Bailey
also does considerable Extension -v^ork with small fruit grav\rer8»

French, Arthur P, - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active In small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected vdth fruit growers' problems, other than pest control,
and is somev;hat involved in research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C. - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses.
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

SouthvTick, Franklin Vf, - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in
certain advanced courses. (At present on Sabbatical leave at the
University of California.)

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain eivanced courses.

Contributors to this Issue from Supporting Fields

F, E. Cole, Extension Specialist Fruit & Vegetable IJiarketing

L. D. Rhoades, Extension Specialist Farm Management

E. H« Wheeler, Extension Entoiaologist

B. li. Zuckerman, Assistant Professor Plant Pathologist

POMULOGICAL RESEARCH
13. Chemical Control of Weeds in Fruit Plantings

The use of chemicals to control weeds is not new. Such ordinary materials
as salt and smelter wastes have been used for centuries • The modern era of chem-
ical vfeed control began with the accidental discovery of the selective action of
copper salts in I896, During the period from 1900 to World War II a considerable
list of weed killing chemicals was developed. Some vrere selective, some weare norw
selective and a few could be used as soil sterilants. Large quantities of a few
of these were used for specific purposes, mostly in the western states.

With the entry of the United States into World Y[ar II and the consequent
shortage of labor, chemical weed control began to receive more attention as a
labor saving device. The introduction of 2,U-D with all the possibilities it
presented stirred the imagination of manufacturers, researchers, farmers and other
users. The public press and trade papers kept before consumers a rosy picture of
the performance of this "miracle" weed killer.

Although 2,U-D has not solved all weed troubles, it is a very useful material
Virhere it is adapted. It also focused attention on the possibilities of a much
wider use of chemicals for weed control. The result has been a deluge of new
chemicals with supposed weed killing potentials, llany of these vrere distributed
to researchers before their real value was known. Therefore, the researcher v;as
faced witn the task of "weeding" the weed killers. Among so many herbicides there
certainly should be some that could be used to advantage in fruit plantings.

One of the first to be used in orchards was sodium chlorate, formulated to
reduce fire hazard, to control poison ivy^ This was largely replaced by aiiimonium
8ulfamate (Ammate), Ilore recently 2,U-D, 2,U,5-T, and mixutres of the tv/o have
come into wide use. Directions for poison ivy control are in Special Circular 190,
Poison Ivy, Thj^se materials are being used also for the control of brush around
orchards. The control of choke cherries, a menace to nearby peach orchards, is
discussed in Special Circular 216, Choke cherries; Hm to Recognize and Get Rid
of Them,

Soon after the introduction of 2,U-D it was found that straviberry plants would
tolerate more than many of the vfeeds associated with them. The optimism generated
was short-lived. Although the strawberry plants themselves would tolerate 2,U-D
applications, runner and fruit bud formation and fruit growth were adversely
affected. Hence, 2,U-D's usefulness in strawberry fields is so Umited it is not
included in our chemical -weed control recommendations for this fruit. Numerous
other materials have been tried but only two are recommended, SES for control of
summer weeds and CIPC for winter weeds, especially chickweed. Consult Special
Circular 215, Chemical Vfeed Control in Strawberries, for details,

ilature raspberry canes are fairly resistant to 2jU-D which can be used at
1-1/2 pounds amine form per acre to control broad leaf weeds after suckers are two
feet high, SFS vail delay the reappearance of weeds when applied at 3-U pounds
per acre to a weed-free field. CIPC at 6-8 pounds per acre applied from mid-October
to mid-November vdll control winter weeds, TWo applications a month apart may be
made if necessary. Except during suckering DNBP may be used at 3 pounds per acre

for temporary control of grasses .

Grapes can be weeded with a directed spray jf DN+oil provided it does not hit
tender new shoots, T\to quarts of Doit General or Sinox ?/ vfith 15 gallons of fuel
oil and 85 gallons of vrater can be used as needed in established vineyards*

The list of herbicides for cultivated blueberries is still short. DN at 3-U
pounds per acre will give terupoi-ary conti'ol of weeds during sujtnmer and fal] but
must be kept off tender new shoots. In clean cultivated fields a pre-eraergence
application of SES at 3 pounds per acre may be helpfulo

Because of the provision of the Miller Bill and the lack of clearance on
several materials, the list of herbicides that can be reconunended in fruit plant-
ings at present is rather limited. As the 1956 season progresses and more inform-
ation required under the Miller Bill becomes available, more herbicides will be
[;ivcn clearance for use. Even when all those knoxvn to be useful have been cleared,
not all weed problems in fruit plantings will be solved. There is need for a
better material for control of summer weeds in strawberries. Grasses, especially
\Titch grass, can be a very trying problem where cultivation is undesirable or
impossible. Under these conditions no fully satisfactory control is available,

J. S, Bailey

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A^ im _B_LUEB^RRY DISEASE

':irhat appears to be a new disease of the cTiltivated blueberry was found in a
field in Freetown, Massachusetts, in the spring of 1955 » Affected bushe9 may
have galls on all woody portions, both tops and roots. The galls on the top
portion of infected bushes closely resemble the galls of the cravm gall disease.
The striking difference is the appearance of gall on the root of the plants in-
fected with this new disease. Root s^Hs have never been observed on crown gall
infected cultivated blueberries.

This root gall disease appears to be infectious but the causal organism is
not knoim. Work is under way to determine the cause and methods of control.

Root gall disease has been found in only the one field. If anyone finds
blueberry plants vjlth galls on the roots, the authors vrould like to know about it,

— B, M, Zuckerman and J, S, Bailey
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LEGAL LIABILITY RISKS AIID INSUiLll'iCB PROTECTION FOR FARIiSRS

A farmer runs a greater risk now than ever before of becoming involved in a
lawsuit, because of injury or death to another person, Povier machinery has in-
creased rapidly on farms and has been accompanied by an increase in accidents o
More cars and trucks on farms, the need to go more frequently to town on business,
increase your chances as a farmer of becoming a party to a traffic accident,
1''armers' net worth has increased so farmers stand to lose inore today if called
into court, A court judgment could mean the loss of lifetime savings.

Liability insurance, therefore, is more necessary to a farmer than ever before.
In general, the legal liability risks a farmer runs, by virtue of being in business,
fall into three groups (l) personal liability, (2) liability to employees, and (3)
motor vehicle liability.

(l) Personal Liability of Farmers

As an ovmer or occupier of property, a farmer must maintain his holdings with
due regard to the safety of others. This duty applies particularly to the upkeep of
buildings, in the control of his livestock on the farm, in the wholesomeness of the
products he sells, as well as to woric undertaken by him both on and off the farm.

Under personal liability, a farmer is responsible, among other things, for the
following!

1* To safeguard visitors on his premises. (His highest responsibility is to
those he directly or indirectly invites to his place; he is less responsible for
licensees, such as salesmen] and he ov-es trespassers at least the duty of not
knowingly harming them.)

2. To keep his livestock off highways where they may cause accidents resulting
in injury to motorists or to property,

3. To provide safeguards in handling vicious animals,

U. To warn his tenant of any hazard on the premises that would not ordinarily
be detected,

f^. To prevent fire from spreading from his property to the premises of another,

6, For his othi negligence if an employee is injured while at vj-ork,

7. To his own employees and, ixnder certain circumstances, those of a contractor
doing work on his farm, even though the contractor might carry insurance.

Two Types of Personal Liability Insurance Policies

There are tvio types of personal liability insurance policies available to
farmers :

1, The Owners, Landlords, and Tenants (OL & T) form which may or may not in-
clude the Employers Liability-Farm Employees coverage, and

2, The Farmer's Comprehensive Personal Liability (FCPL) form.

An OL & T policy covers the farmer's legal liability to the public iwhile on
his premises. Coverage may be extended to cover liability to farm employees by
including Employers Liability-Farm Employees coverage,

A Farmer s Comprehensive Personal Liability (FCPL) policy covers or may be
written to cover;

*

1, Protection to the farmer against suits brought by others for bodily injury
or property damage o

2, Protection from suit by a cousuiaer who bought the farmer's product through
a second party-,

3, Provides medical payments to injured persons without regard to whether the
farmer is legally liable*

k» Provides protection against suit that results from injuries caused by
automobiles used on the farm that are not licensed for highway use,

5. Provides coverage for liability involved in any written lease betvreen
tenant and landlord if acceptable to the company,

6, May cover liability from custom work which a farmer does,

7» May be written to provide protection against lawsuits by injured employees,
as well as medical benefit payments to them if not covered under State Workmen's
Compensation,

8, May include medical payments to neighbors who do odd jobs on swap labor
basis.

Rates depend on policy, coverage risk and in case of FCPL policy on size of
farm.

No, 1 of a series

L, D, Rhoades

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MULCH FOR GRAPES

The following are excerpts from Research Circular #28 published by the Ohio
Agricultural Experiment Station entitled "Mulch as a Management System for Grapes",

-5-

In the experimental vineyard located at "booster, Ohio, "Concord grapes were
grown, for nine years under pernianent straw mulch and cultivation plus cover crop
systems of soil management \Tith different rates of nitrogen fertilizer applicationo
The vigor of the vines as evidenced by pruning weights in 19<2 and 19^3 was signi-
ficantly higher under the mulch system of management. Mulched vines produced on
the average l6,9 lbs« of fruit per vine per year as compared -urith llcU Ibse per
vine per year from the cultivated vines. The petiole concentrations of nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium and manganese were higher while calcium and magnesium were
lower under the mulch system of management. Highest total yields under cultivation
occurred when 80 lbs, per acre of actual nitrogen was applied each yearn With
mulch the highest total yield for the period 19U7 through 1953 occurred xuhere UO
lbs, actual nitrogen per acre per year was applied. It should be noted, hovirever,
that in 1953 highest yields with mulch occurred when no nitrogen was applied and
this has continued to be the case in I95I4 and 1955*

The use of mulch resulted in the production of fruit containing lower soluble
solids and higher acids than did ciiltivation. The influence of season on these
constituents was nearly as great as was the influence of soil management system.
The reduction in soluble solids under mulch is believed to be the result of delayed
maturity and might be overcome by permitting a longer ripening period.

During the first several years ivhile a umlch is being established, applications
of ho pounds of actual nitrogen per acre per year are recommended, ii^ith the rate
and kind of mulch used in this study such applications of nitrogen were beneficial
for the first six years of production. This period would vary with different kinds
of mulch material. Sawdust, for example, would decompose less readily and might
require prolonged applications of nitrogen, vfhereas more rapidly decomposing
materials which were relatively high in nitrogen might require less than six years
of nitrogen fertilizer application.

The use of permanent mulch system of management for Concord grapes is believed
to be economically sound and to possess certain advantages not obtainable under
the conventional cultivation plus cover crop soil management system,"

Editor's Notes;

In the Ohio Experiment the mulch was applied originally at the rate of 10 tons
per acre and was replenished annually to maintain a layer of straw from 10 to 12
inches in depth. In our mulching experiments with raspberries conducted at Amherst
hay mulch was applied at the rate of 20 tons per acre in order tc have sufficient
mulch to suppress weed and grass growth. This amount of hay gave a mulch covering
of ii to 6 inches deep.

As was stated in the excerpts from the Research Circular, the rate of fertil-
ization will vary considerable vri.th the mulch used. Most hay would probably be
higher in nitrogen than straw and vrill decompose more rapidly. It is known that
nitrogen deficiency may develop if appreciable amounts of carbonaceous organic
materials such as sa\'vdust are used as mulch. This deficiency develops because the
bacteria which decompose the organic matter tie up the soil nitrogen in an unavail-
able form.

-6-

Grape groiTcrs in L'lassachusetts who might v/ant to try the mulch system for
grovdng grapes will have to adjust their fertilizer program according to the amount
and kind of mulch applied and to observations of plant response.

Because of our short growing season tho delay in ripening caused by the mulch
system might be very serious on Concord and other varieties ripening with or later
than it,

— Yif, J, Lord

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EFFECT OF FROST UPON THE VIABILITY OF APPLE POLLEN

Some fruit grovrers have wondered about the effect of the recent frost upon
the viability of apple pollen. The amount of injury to apple pollen at a given
lo\T temperature depends upon the variety and the condition of the bloom at the
time the frost occurred. It is generally stated that considerable pollen is still
viable at temperatures v>rhich kill the styles and stigmas.

In a paper published in the Proceedings of the American Society of the Hort-
icultural Science in 1930^ W, E. Lommel and Laurenz Green reported on the effects
of frost upon the viability of apple pollen. The follov/ing are some excerpts
from that article. The minimum temperature was not knovra but "a relatively heavy
freeze occurred in the orchard v/here the apple trees were in varying stages of
blossoming, ranging from kO per cent full bloom in the case of Rome Beauty to 90
per cent v;ith Delicious, Considerable damage was done to the blossoms of which a
considerable percentage v/ere killed. Later many frost bands developed on the fruits.

Pollen v/as taken from blossoms and buds at various stages of development and
showing different amounts of pistil and stamen injuries. The pollen was thoroughly
dried in the laboratory and germination tests were made in a 10 per cent sugar
solution, 11 and 12 days after the freeze.

Unopened buds shovring no pistil injury gave a high percentage of viable pollen
in all varieties except Stayman Vfinesap,, Stayman Winesap produced practically no
viable pollen in any case.

Unopened buds with dead pistils yielded high percentages of viable pollen in
Delicious, Grimes Golden, and Jonathan, Rome Beauty in this class shovjed less
than UO per cent viable pollen. Unopened buds of Delicious with dead pistils and
brovm anthers and filaments gave a high percentage of germinating pollen, Jonathan
pollen from blossoms of the same class contained only an occasional grain of ger-
minating pollen and all of these were low in vigor,

Delicious was the only variety that produced even a fair percentage of viable
pollen from opened blossoms with dead pistils, Delicious pollen was injured veiy
little at the temperatures experienced even when the anthers and filaments v/ere
killed, Stayman Winesap produced practically no viable pollen even in uninjured

-7r

blossoms. Rrane Beauty pollen xvas apparently injured to a greater extent by the
cold than that of the other varieties."

— ¥. J*. Lord

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WATER SPRIMLING FOR FROST PREVENTION

Some fruit growers sprayed water on their apple trees vilth their orchard
sprayers in an attempt to prevent frost injury. In one orchard where this vras
done, the writer observed that the blossoms were injured more on the sprayed trees
than on unsprayed trees. In addition, considerable foliage injury occurred on the
sprayed trees.

Water must be sprayed on the trees continuously as would be applied by an
oscillating type sprinkler to provide enough heat to keep the plant from freez-
ing, VJith orchard spray equipment it would be very difficult to supply contin-
uous water. The folloYJing paragraphs were written by Dr. W, D, Weeks and appear
in Special Circular #13ll titled "Frost Prevention for the Orchard",

Sprinkling plants vrLth water duidng a frost has long been considered as a
possible method of preventing injury. There hare been reports of both success
and failure where this has been done.

The underlying principle by vrhich water is able to prevent frost injury is
based on the latent heat which is released when water is changed to ice. Some
heat is released as water is cooled to 320F,5 but the main effest is produced when
the water is changed to ice, When 1000 gallons of vrater are changed to ice as much
heat is released as when 800 gallons of boiling water is cooled to 320F, The temp-
erature of any object remains near 32°Fc so long as water is freezing on it. Fruit
blossoms are not critically injured by temperatures of 30° to 32°F. so if they can
be kept at temperatures of 30° to 32°F,, even though encased in ice, frost injury
can be prevented.

It is quite obvious that frost protection by irater sprinkling depends upon an
adequate supply of water and equipment which can apply the water during the period
of frost. Overhead irrigation equipment of the oscillating type may be adapted for
frost protection. It must be capable of operating v/ithout clogging with ice and of
applying the required amount of water continuously. The amount of water to apply
depends on the severity of the frost. In one experiment conducted in England,
l/lO inch of water per hour v:as able to give protection for about 8°F, of frost,

YiTater should be applied just as soon as the air temperature reaches 32° and
should be applied continuously just as long as the air temperature remains below
freezing. If sprinkling stops before thawing takes place, the temperatui^e of the
wet flower drops rapidly and it is killed.

Water sprinkling as a method of frost protection for the average liassachusetts
orchardist does not appear to be too practical. It vdll require considerable

-8-

additional expense for equipment to apply the vrater, and the possibility of exten-
sive limb breakage from ice-laden branches could easily offset any benefits from
decreased frost injury,"

— -W. J. Lord

- ///////////////

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

"The following, it seems to me, are sane of the important matters vj-hich ought
to claim the attention of every fruit grower in New England,

1, First and foremost, vfe ought to do everything in our power to insure a
good crop of good fruit,

2, We ought to have better quality varieties,

3, We ought to support in every way possible, the uovement ...., for uniform
legislation governing the packing and selling of apples,

h* We ought to advei-tise,

St We must cooperate in every way possible,

6« \Je must develop more satisfactory packages.

7, And lastly, we must pay more attention to our retail markets,"

The platform or program quoted above certainly highlights the current emphasis
on im^proved marketing as the greatest need of the Massachiisetts fruit industry to-
day. Yet, dear reader, that program is taken from an address given by Professor
Fred C, Sears as President of the Massachusetts Fruit Growers' Association in
1915, Certainly, we have made much progress in marketing as well as other problems
of the fruit industry in the past 1|0 years, HcaTever, there is stil]- much to be
done all along the line from the grov/er to the retailer to raise the standard of
fruit, apples in particular, which is offered the consumer.

The future of the ifessachusetts fruit industry is at stake even more today
than it was in 1915 • The action of gro^rers, individually and collectively, now
can set the stage for greater acceptance of our attractive, juicy, and aromatic
Nevf England grown fruit throughout a larger marketing area,

— A, P. French
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WINTER HARDINESS OF RASPBERRY VARIETIES

The vfinter of 1955-56 was one during which the ground was bare and frozen
imach of the time, ViTith the exception of two nights in December when the tempera-
t\ire \rent to -10° F, and -l5° F,, no severe cold prevailed. Yet this combination
of circumstances was sufficient to cause considerable winter killing of canes of
nffliy varieties of red raspberry.

The listing belovf gives an estimate of the percentage of total cane length
of each variety that was found to be dead in the University variety planting after
grovrbh had started this spring. For purposes of comparison, an estimate of winter
killing during the winter of 195U-55 is listed in parentheses.

Chief

0%

Latham

%

Madawaska

10^

Sunrise

15^

Early Red

25^

Viking

30$

Mlton

30$g

(5^)

September

(10^)

Ivluskoka

(105?)

ilarcy

(25?o)

Gatineau

(35$)

Cuthbert

(60$)

Willamette

(Uo$)

Amber

\xS%

(U0$)

5U7&

50$

$^%

(25$)

70$

(50$)

75$

(60$)

75$

(75$)

Puyallup

U0$

It is unfortunate that so few of the newer varieties stand our winter any-
where near as \vell as does the old standby Latham#

J, F. Anderson

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POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Winter Injury

The winter injury described in the iiay issue of "Fruit Notes" has been report-
ed in other orchards. In most instances, however, it is less extensive than in
the first orchard in which it was observed by the writer. In most of the orchards
the injury appears to be correlated v/ith early pruning,

Editor

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-10-

OBSERVATIOHS IN CALIFGHMIa

The grcfvn.ng season out here is pretty v:ell advancod now. Hand thinning of
most fruit crops has been completed or is about over, Sv;eet cherries are being
picked ncrtT (middle to latter part cf Hay) and corae are being packed for eastern
shipment. Packing of street cherries is strictly a hand operation and it seemed
to me that this job requires considerable skill. The cherries are packed in rorrs
with the same number of cherries in each row,

I vias surprised to find that grovrers are interested in the possibilities of
chemical thinners for sweet cherries, A premium is paid for large size and in some
of the sv/eet cherxT- districts the set of fruit can be so heavy that much of the
fruit may be smaller than desired, Since no chemical thinning procedures have
teen developed some growers have done a limited amount of hand thinning on sweet
cherries ,

Apricots will comraence to ripen in early June, I'm looking forvirard to seeing
and tasting this fruit when tree ripe, I imagine they'll taste a lot better out
here than they do after shipment across the country. Peaches are as big as golf
balls now and the hand thinning of this fruit is nearly done.

Speaking of peaches I had a chance to travel through the cling peach area in
Sutter County last week. This section which is planted to about 15^000 acres of
cling peaches is located about iiO miles north of Sacramento, Last vdnter when
unusually heavy rains fell in December sizeable areas near Yuba City and iiarysville
were flooded. In some orchards one can see (vrhere litter still hangs in the trees)
that some orchards were immersed in 8 to 10 feet of v/ater. In some of these areas,
many peach trees have died or are dying. Almonds show some injury from flooding,
also. However, walnuts and plums appear to be uninjured following similar flooding.

One of the problems facing peach growers in these flood areas where the trees
are dead or dying is the old peach replant problem (peaches planted after peaches
often do not grow well). In California, the peach replant problem exists for both
cling and freestone peaches north of Modesto, Tlie failure of peaches to do as well
after peaches as they do on "virgin" soil is a general problem throughout this
country and in many foreign lands. Mo real solution to the problem has been found.
The trouble is very specific to the peach. For example, almonds or apricots pro-
pagated on peach root may not grow well on old peach sites either. The peach re-
plant problem here has not been solved by soil treatments for nematodes or oak
root fungus - although such treatments may help improve tree grovrth where serious
infestations of nematodes or root disease organisms are present. The true peach
replant problem, which is related to toxic substances arising from old peach roots,
has not been solved by changes in fertilizer practice, either.

Nutritional problems on deciduous tree fruits are plentiful in California, also,
Not only have deficiencies of boron, potassiuiu and magnesium been found here, as
they have in New England, but also deficiencies of manganese, iron, sine and copper
have been found. In addition, excess boron injury is apt to occur whenever the
irrigation v/ater contains more tlian 1,S ppm of boron,

— F» V/, SouthvTxck
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-11-

FROTECT YOUNG TREES FROH INSECTS

Your young orchard deserves protectioric You've spent money preparing the
landj you've purchased the treesj you've spent something on disease control.
In other words, you have an investment j why let it deteriorate through neglect?

At least three, possibly four, inseots are likely to require attention.
They are the green apple aphid, the round headed apple tree borer, the buffalo
treehopper and the apple leaf hopper. Occasionally, under some types of manage-
ment, mites may become a problem. Rarely, one of the scale insects may cause
some real damage.

It takes only one or tv;o apple tree borers to kill a small tree. Since the
female beetles may lay up to 25 eggs apiece, it does not take many beetles to
set up a serious infestation in a young orchard. The beetles do not prefer
other plants for egg laying, but their larvae liave been found in shadbush, crab-
apple, mountain ash, some chokecherries and hathornes and other fruit trees.

The adult beetles emerge from late Hay until the early part of July. Egg
laying begins shortly after the first adults emerge and may continue on into August,

The adult beetles feed upon the bark and foliage of host plants. There is
evidence that they prefer to feed upon ha-wthorne and perhaps shadbush, even though
their egg laying preference seems to be young apple trees. They tend to feed more
on the bark of twigs than upon leaves, but in neither instance is this feeding
enough to be serious.

This habit of feeding, hov^ever, does provide a simple method of effective
control, at least where the infestation has never been allowed to become well
developed. Lead arsenate used at 3 pounds per 100 gallons, plus a good sticker,
will provide good control. Applications should begin as the first beetles start
to emerge in late May or early June, For a high degree of control, and particular-
ly where the infestation is building up and likely to be serious, the insecticide
should be applied to ha^Tthornes, shadbush and v/ild fruit trees vrithin the vicinity
as well as to the yoiong trees themselves. It is important also tiiat the application
be repeated after an interval of 2 weeks to cover new grovrth and to assure a toxic
residue throughout the period of beetle emergence and egg laying.

Developing infestations of the green apple aphid normally become apparent by
late June, The inclusion of some aphicide with the second application of lead
arsenate should check such an outbreak.

Several materials could be used against the aphids and some of them would

also knock out any leaf hoppers that were getting started. These might be nicotine

sulfate, if you -vrish to protect predators of aphids and mites as much as possible,
or it could be benzene hexachloride (Bffi) or lindane.

-12-

A systemic insecticide such as demeton should give complete control of aphids,
leafhoppers and mites and not be particularly daniaging to the predator population,
Demeton could be applied somev/hat later June or even in early July, after the leaves
had become somewhat curled. To obtain a high degree of control vrLth the other
materials or vrith malathion and TEPP, it would be necessary to make the applications
before serious leaf curling had occurred and they certainly would have to be repeat-
ed two or three times on som-e varieties or when conditions were favorable to the
aphids*

Demeton is extremely toxic like parathion and. TEPP, It should be handled v/ith
all due respect. Follow all safety precautions listed on labels for any of these
materials. Directions for diluting the materials are always found on labels and
are reliable.

The buffalo treehopper causes damage to the trunks and branches of young trees
through its egg laying activity, Deep slits are made in the tender bark and vfhere
they are numerous, the affected parts are heavily scarred, may be stunsted or even
killed.

Upon hatching in May or June, the nymphs of the treehopper move to succulent
plant groiTth such as weeds, various legumes like alfalfa, sweet clover, and a few
others. You can readily see that clean cultivation of young orchards would be an
effective control measure for the buffalo treehopperc

DDT is very effective against both nymphs and adults of this treehopper. Some
of the materials used as aphicides, such as BK), lindane, malathion and perhaps
demeton, also should be effective against them, but might not give as long-lasting
residual effect as does the DDT«

Regardless of the material used, the best time to make the application is
about mid-July or as soan as any adult treehoppers are discovered.

The treatment should be made to all the vegetsta-on in the orchard and for a
distance of about 100' around the orchard if good control under conditions of
severe infestation are to be expected.

Once again, let me remind youj you have an investment, why not protect it?

E, H, ViTheeler

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SPECIAL CIRCULAR RECENTLY REVISED

The following circular has been revised and is available to anyone wishing
a copy.

Special Circular #21^ "Controlling Weeds in Strawberries With Chemicals"

Address requests to either the Department of Pomology or the I'iailing Room,
University of Llassachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts,

Editor

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-13-

McINTOSH - 19^5 - 56 - 57

An unusually \rarm. gro\Ting seas on j a large local crop and an unusvial harvest
drop complicated the marketing situation for jlclntosh apples.

As a result, too ripe and too much-too late seem to be the key notes of the
1955-56 ilclntosh apple season. Those virho sold on a strictly virholesale basis are
not happy over the result. Those grcuvers who sold a substantial quantity directly
to consuiners are better satisfied vdth the year, but still not altogether happy,

Out-of-Storage Movement - 1955 - 56

The first month of selling after October 15 vras nearly in line vri-th the solid
line on the Out-of-Storage llovement charts released by the Extension Service
for the study of liclntosh marketing. During the last two weeks of October, hovf-
ever, the movement out of storage was saneiirhat slo\Ter than is considered most
effective. The first month resulted in a movement 5-10^ slower than would have
been desirable looking at the season after it was closed. To visualize the im-
portance of a good rate of movement in last October, it is only necessary to real-
ize that 105^ of the October holdings represent nearly the entire holdings on April
1, Small percentage changes in the first part of the season have a way of becoming
very important in the latter part of the season.

The out-of -storage movement lagged during the second i.ionth, so that on Dec-
ember 15 the season movement vr&s about 20^ behind standard. The Christmas holidays
savf the slovrest movement of any tTro-v/eek period of the season. There vras a nearly
normal rate of movement in early January from existing supplies.

As a result of the slow movement out of storage, the quantities remaining
to be sold v/ere about one-third too many on January 1, one-half too many on
January 15, nearly double on Febraury 1, three times the standard on February 15,
four times standard on liarch 1 and seven times standard on iiarch l5.

Prices - 1955 - 56 (Special Apple Market Report - Boston)

The period between harvest and about the middle of October is a price test-
ing period, when the forces of demand and the forces of supply work out a basic
price for the season. Last fall the price started for Mcintosh US Fancy 2-1/2
and up in a crate at an average of ^2.62, On September 20, this price had low-
ered to Wl»62 and for eight successive reports the price for this grade averaged
to be !#l962 for a crate of Liclntosh, which is used as a base price on the chart.

On October l8, 20 and 25 the price rose to an average of 02,12 and held at
that point until November 15 » In the last t\ro v/eeks of November, the price was
off a quarter to ^1,87, On December 1, the average price rose to 02,00 and stayed
at that point until December 20, In the three-week period at the end of the year
and through January 12, the price was again at !:p1,87, and only one quarter up
from the starting price on October 15, On January 19 and 26 and February 2 the
price had settled to the starting price of the storage season.

From February 9 to 23 j the average price was just a little over $2,00 and
again settled back to 01.82 in early Ilarch, On March 15, the average price rose
to $2,25 and held at about that point through ,the first of April,

In retrospect it can be seen that the price rose in the very eai-ly v/eeks of
the storage season to a point nearly as high as it was at the close of the normal
storage period.

Prospects - 1956 - 57

A somewhat less than average crop in New England, in the Eastern United States
and possibly in the Western United States together with good buying povrer on the
part of consumer, sets the stage for a price level, at the start of the season,
somewhat higher than average. Close estimates of the crop are not available as
this is being written (June 5)« Cold injury is reported but the effect in terms
of actual crop is not knovnft.

Current reports indicate a Mcintosh crop in l&ssachusetts about 25^ to kO%
less than the bloom indicated might liave been possible,

A crop of 1/3 less means that the fixed costs on a bushel will be at least
65 cents more per box than average.

Every possible effort •vTill have to be made to grow and harvest as many first-
class apples as possible in order to increase total sales and reduce unit costs.

Unusually careful and aggressive marketing vri.ll need to be carried out to
secure necessary returns. This is not a year ivhen a return over costs can be
taken for granted,

F, E, Cole

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"R

^

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Gleanings From The Packing House Survey

The Storage and Ripening of Pears

Are Your Pickers With You?

Protectant Fungicide Schedule for the Control
of Fusicoccum Peach Canker

Are You Looking for Apple Recipes?

Let's Reduce Bruising

Legal Liability Risks and Insurance Protection
for Farmers

Observations in California

For MORE Customers - Have FEWER Flies

Are You Using An Apple Box Dumping Aid?

AUGUST 15. 1956

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director.

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronln, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

TOUR POMOLOGY DEPARnm^

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematic
Pomology,

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham.

Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plTuns, Mr. Bailey
also does considerable Extension work with small fruit growers*

French, Arthur ?♦ - Head of Depaiianent

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, Williami J, - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected vrLth fruit grovrers' problems, other than pest control,
and is somewhat involved in research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C. - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses.
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing,

Southwick, Franklin W, - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent In research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D, - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to This Issue from Supporting Fields
F, E, Cole, Ebctension Specialist, Fruit & Vegetable Marketing
E. F. Guba, Research Professor in Botany, Walthara Field Station
L, D. Rhoades, libctension Specialist Fann Management
E. H. Wheeler, Extension Entomologist

GLEANINGS FRO"!; THI] PACKING HOUSE SIQ^/EY

During the iTinter of 19!^ii-5^5^ I made a survey of the condition of Ilclntosh
apples as offered to cons-omers in retail stores in L'assachusetts. This survey
revealed that 325^ of the apples offered to the consumer :rere culls, 2,2% were
Fancy or better and the balance v:erc mostly Utility grade. Such apples are no
inducement to a customer to come back for more,

Miat was the principal trouble with these apples? Bruises, stem punctures,
cuts, rot and lack of color. Is this situation the fault of the store kee ~.er,
tiie middleman, tlie ti-ucker or the fruit grovter? "{here in the harvesting and iiiarket-
ing process does most damage to the i"ruit occur? It raay take some time'to find the
^ ansiTer but a beginning was made during the ivlnter uf 1955-56 when a survey was made
* to determine the condition of the fruit as it left the packing houses.

In this survey seventy samples ?fere obtained from sixty-four different growers
in various parts of the State, Occasionally two samples were taken from growers
who had two styles of packs.

Samples picked at random, were obtained by taking forty-eight apples from a
lot which had been packed for market. These samples were carefully placed in a
cell type carton and taken to the laboratory at the University for analysis.

Each apple was graded according to U, S. Standards, and an analysis made of
the belovT fancy grades to determine vfhy they were belov/ fancy. Also, the number
of bruises over one-half inch in diameter were' counted and classified, Blemshes
due to stem punctures, cuts and cracks were recorded. Other observations were
made but you are more concerned with results than procedure,

Hovf did the apples in this survey gre.de out and hoiir did the results compare
\Tith those obtained the previous year from the survey of apples in retail stores?

In the store sm-vey 2>3% of the applos were Fancy or better. In the packing
house survey ?1^ \irere Fancy or better which suggests a marked deterioration between
the packing house and the consumer. It should also be noted that there is consider-
able room for improvement in the apples as they leave the packing house. The vari-
ous packs ranged from 29% to 9k% fancy or above vdth half of the samples falling
in the 60-8O;5 range.

The fact should not be ignored that S»'j% of the apples as packed for market
were culls and that 2%, contained some rotj Such apples do not encourage repeat
sales.

'./hat caused apples to be belcn^v fancy as packed for market? The same defects
that caused them to be below fancy in retail stores, namely: mechanical injuries
and lack of color. By far the most iiv.portant cause for low grade fruit are bruises,
cuts and stem punctures. These mechanj.cal injuries amount to 61% of the total cause
of apples being below fancy at the packing nouse as compared with ^% in retail
stores. The lessons to be draim from this are: 1, That grov/ers should look more
critically at their ovm packs before accusing the storekeepers of causing most of
the damage, 2, That too much bruising occurs between the tree and the package.

The percentage of apples belovT fancy because of insufficient color in packing
house samples in 19SS-S6 was 6% greater than was found in the retail store samples
in 195U-55, being 29% and 23% respectively.

-2-

In most instances the poor colored apples vrere found in packages that were
supposed to be fancy or above, This could have happened only in one place and
that iTas the packing house.

Bruises account for the greatest quantity of lavi grade fruit. In the packing
house survey 3ht7% of all apples Hxamined had one or more bruises l/2" or over.
Bruises less than l/2" in diameter vrere of relatively little importance and were
not counted in the packing house survey. Of all bruises 1/2" or over 8Up were in
the range l/2" - 3A% 13,35^ in the range 3A" - 1" and 2,7% ^vere 1" or over.
Several lots had less than six apples witli bruises l/2" or over while oti-iers had
as high as thirty-eight apples out of forty-eight with bruises l/2" or over. This
clearly demonstrates that even Mcintosh apples can be handled ivith a minimum of
bruising and that an excess of bruising can be attributed solely to careless handling.

While in general, there appeared to be some advantage of hand grading over
machine grading relative to the amount of bruising yet some of the lots with the
least number of bruises were machine graded, ? This suggests that machines are not
necessarily at fault but it is how they are ^ed that makes the difference.

In both the packing house and retail store surveys insect and disease blemishes,
poor shape and russet combined were less important as the cause of below fancy fruit
than either mechanical injury or lack of color.

Possibly the most startling discovery from the packing house survey is the
relationship betvreen type of package and the incidence of bruising* This is shovm
in the follov/ing tabiej

Type of Package Number of Samples Fancy & Ex, Fancy Below Fancy Bruised

— - (percent; (percent) (percent)
Crate 33 69.0 31.0 32.3
Carton (cell pack) 21 76.7 23.3 36,3
Prepackage 1^ 68.1 31.9 35.8
Western box 1 66,7 33.3 5^,2

These figures may be startling because of the general opinion that the crate
contributes materially to the bruising of apples. Except for the higher percentage
of fancy or above with a corresponding decrease in below fancy there seemed to be
relatively little difference whether the apples were packed in crate or were pre-
packaged with respect to grade or amovmt of bruising. The one lot packed in a
western box is only indicative of its effect on bruising because if more such packs
involving a greater number of packers could have been obtained the effect on bruis-
ing might have been reduced.

The percent of bruised apples in each case represents the percent of all apples,
packed in the respective type of package, which had one or more bruises at least
1/2" in diameter.

These figures indicate that the type of package in which the apples are placed
is of less importance relative to bruising then the way they are handled previously.

It should be emphasized that these figures refer to the condition of the apples
as they leave the packing house and not what their condition might be after they
have passed thru the various market channels,

-3-

What have we learned from the surveys that have been conducted over the past
tvfo years?

1, From retailers comiuents that people \iant to buy and mil pay the price for
good apples,

2, That in too many instances tha condition of the fruit as offered to the
consumer does not encoui^age maxijiium consumption,

3, That bruises, cuts and stem punctures ai^e primarily responsible for the
unattractive appearance of the fruit,

kt That often apples lacking in color are mixed v/ith vrell colored fruit
depreciating the appearance and value of the lot,

5, That the same factors, namely^ mechanical injuries and lack of color are
causes of low grade fruit at the packing houses as well as at the produce
counter in retail stores,

6, With the exception of the lone sample of the I'Testern box, the type of pack-
age in which apples are placed has less effect on freedom from bruises than
the way the apples are handled before they are packed,

7» That, in general, more bruises occur before the apples leave the packing
house than occur between the packing house and the consumer,

8, That it is possible to ksep bruises at a rninimum until the fruit leaves
the packing house because several grov/ers are doing it,

9, That grw.'ers should check their pac!:ages more often to make sure that the
pack is v/hat they think it is.

Finally, these surveys point to:

1, The necessity of a constant effort to reduce mechanical injuries from
the tree to final delivery to the consumer,

2, The desirability of separation of fruit into grades according to
established standards rather than the mixing of grades to the detri-
ment of the better apples,

3t The elimination of deceit and adherence to the principle of an honest
pack.

These are the basic essentials for increased sales and the future prosperity
of the fruit industry,

- — 0, C, Roberts
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THE STCRaGE AUD RIPKrIINU OF p:^RS

Although I'iassachusetts does not raise a large volume of pears, there are a
number of growers who do have a few acres of theme Certainly this fruit is rather
well adapted to I'iassachusetts and if harvested, stored, and ripened properly it
can be a popular retail stand item and help diversify an orchard enterprises

The storage and ripening of pears, hovrever, is somewliat more complicated in
certain respects than apples. Hence we thought a few words on this subject might
be of interest to pear grovTers and their customers. Failure to recognize certain
varietal differences, storage requirements, and ripening procedures can ruin other-
■vvise vrell grown fruit.

Pears should be harvested before becoming fully ripe. If left on the tree
until yellow they are frequently soft and decaying on the inside. Even if the
interior remains sound the flesh is often coarse, gritty, and of poor textxire and
taste. Hence, pears should be picked before eating ripe and ripened off the tree.
Studies in Yfashington, California, and New York indicate that the use of a pressure
tester, employing the small pear head (^/l6" diameter) is a valuable guide in deter-
mining when pears should be picked. The pressures suggested for several varieties
are as follows:

Anjou 13-15 lbs.

Bartlett 17-20 lbs.

Bosc ih-lS IbSc

Seckel I6-I8 lbs.

Winter Nelis IU-I6 lbs.

After harvesting, unless the pears are to be sold imiaediately, pears should be
stored promptly at 32" F. At this temperature ripening proceeds very slowly „ V^hen
pears are to be ripened this is best done by placing them in a humid chamber at 60°
to 70° F, Under such conditions a good yellov/ color, a smooth, buttery texture,
and the best flavor develops vdthout the least chance of shriveling of the fruit.
It is realized that most gro'/rers have no special room for this purpose but it might
be possible to approach such a condition if pears to be ripened were stacked in the
shade on warm fall days, heavily wet dovm iTith a hose, and covered with a canvas
or tarpaulin of some sort. Ripening may be hastened by placing a box of ripe apple
drops in the stack* Such apples will produce sufficient ethylene to hasten the
ripening of the immature pears. Of course, in late fall and v/inter the pears could
not be placed out of doors.

Another factor to be kept in mind is that pears have definite limits beyond
which they should not be held at 32° F, if they are to ripen properly Virhen removed
from cold storage. For example, Bartlett should not be held in cold storage much
more than 90 days, Bosc and Seckel 90 to 100 days, Anjou 1^0-180 days, and Vf inter
Nelis 160-180 days. If the frvdt is held in cold storage for periods beyond these
suggested the pears often lose their capacity to ripen properly when placed at 60"
to 70°F. Pears stored too long are often subject to core breakdown and scald. It
should be realized, also, that if pears are stored at temperatures above 32° F. the
safe storage period will be shortened. Pears stored at UO*^ F, may have only about
half the cold storage life of pears stored at 32° Fc

F. W, Southwick

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-5-

Agl'^YOUR riCKSRS'vflTH YOU?

Bill Doe - 0, C. Doe and Sons, Havrbuck Orchards, Harvard, i.Iassachusetts - has
his pickers working vdth him. They aro interested in picking good apples. They
are quality conscious » The pickers are conpetinc vath each other for a daily bonus
that means better apples for Bill to sell.

Here is how it works. Simple!

Bill took one of his best PACKERS and put her in the orchard checking apples
as they i-rere picked. She made one check on each picker both morning and afternoon.
She checked "rough-looking boxes - each one all the way through". At U:30 p,m»,
she added up the score ^ One-quarter of the pickers with the smallest amount of
picking injury got a nickle bonus on their pick for the day, every day. Bruises,
stem pimctures, cuts. or any other form of picking injury was counted against them.
Some time a special check was made on certain pickers. If wore than tvro boxes vrere
checked, the two highest counts (most injury) were used for the daily total.

The pickers like it, naturally. They are nov^ taking a special interest in do-
ing a good job of picking, Bill likes tliat. It's easier to get pickers, too. Bill
has found the migratory help, picking 100 or more boxes per day, are usually among
the winners.

Injury has been reduced to betv/een 10 to 20 marks per box.

Bill sells more apples than he grovs. Late in the season he took part of his
crew to other orchards. He found that in these other orchards the pickers were
making between ^0 to 80 marks per box as a regular thing I

The boxes with the lew injuiy sell for 2$^ to ^0<ji more per box.

All this for a nickle more on one quarter of the boxes picked!

A MIGKIE GKTS HDI AT LEAST A DOLUR.

Where else?

F. E. Colo

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PROTECTANT FUI'IGICIDE SCHEDULE FOR THE CONTROL OF FUSICOCCUM PEACH CAMER

Tvro infection periods are recognized in the life cycle of the pathogen; (l)
Autumn season infections of buds of current season's gro-vrth; (2) Spring season
infections of leaf cluster buds, basal portion of herbaceous axillary shoots and
leaf blades. Autumn season infections occur in rain periods from late September
to the onset of cold weather_, and the earliest cankers appear in October and they
continue to appear, with the' advance of the fungus from infected buds into the bark
about the nodes, throughout the winter, early spring and through the blooming
period, These cankers provide the inoculum or conidiospores for the spring season
infection phase which occxirs after the bloom and in rain periods. Disease from

these infections appears in June, such as dead leaf clusters and axillary shoots,
basal shoot cankers and leaf spots,

A tight protectant spray schedule covering the two infection periods has given
good control of the disease. The protectant schedule is started around September 20
or about one month after Golden Jubilee harvest, and continued at 10-12 day intervals
using a mixture of l/l; lb, of Dichlone, 1 lb. of Ferbam, and 1 pint of Glyodin to
100 gallons of virater, Glyodin is added as a spreader. Good coverage of buds and
protection in advance of rains is important. Captan and Thiram are also effective.
Final application is made when 90^ of leaves have fallen. For this last application,
liquid lime sulfur (6-1/2 gals.) or dry lime sulfur (2it lbs.) and 1 pint of Glyodin
will be used this autumns

The lime sulfur-Glyodin is repeated at early delayed dormant in the following
spring season. It is followed by Phygon-Ferbam at full pink, calyx and shuck fall,
coinciding vdth the schedule for the control of early brown rot.

In addition to thorough protectant spraying, pruning in June in addition to
dormant pruning is most desirable as a sanitary control measure,

E, F. Guba

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ARE YOU LOOKING FOR APPLE RECIPES?

You should let the public know how apples lend themselves to so many different
uses in the day's meals. Let other people besides yourself have the opportunity
to enjoy your wife's favorite recipe using apples.

Recipes printed on polyethylene bags or on flyers placed inside of apple con-
tainers is good marketing.

Growers have found that using one recipe at a time is most effective as a hand-
out,

Belov; are three good recipes using apples that May E, Foley, Extension Nutri-
tionist, University of Massachusetts says make good eating,

Applc-chesBB Dessert

5 cups apple slices (pared) l/2 cup sifted flour

1 Tablespoon lemon juice lA teaspoon salt

3/1; cup sugar l/ll cup table fat

l/U teaspoon cinnamon 2/3 cup grated cheese

Fill pie pan or shallow baking dish with apples; sprinkle with lemon juice and
l/U cup of the sugar.

Mix cinnamon, flour, salt and the other l/2 cup sugar. Cut in fat until mix-
ture is granular. Stir in cheese. Spread over apples.

-7-
Bake at 350° F. (rnodorate oven) until apples are tender - about kO minutes.

Cool before cutting to serve. Serve with plain cretm or ice cream, if desired,
six servings.

Applesauce Drop Cic Okies

?./2 cup fat 1 teaspoon cinnamon

1 cup sugar l/2 teaspoon cloves

1 egg 1/2 teaspoon nutmeg

I-3A cups sifted flour l/2 cup seedless raisins

1/2 teaspoon baking povder 1 cup quick-cooling rolled oats

1 teaspoon soda 1 cup applesauce

1/2 teaspoon salt

Cream together fat and sugary stir in the egg.

Sift together flour, baking pov/der, soda, salt, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg. Mix
in raisins and rolled oats. Add to creamed mixture in three portions alternately
with applesauce in two portions. Beat well.

Drop dough by teaspoonfuls onto greased baking sheets. Bake at 375°F, (moderate
oven) about 15 minutes, Ilakes about 3 dozen cookies.

App.le Relish

1 cup finely chopped unpared apples l/3 cup sugar

1 cup finely shredded cabbage 3 Tablespoons vinegar

1/2 cup finely chopped celery l/2 teaspoon salt

1 Tablespoon chopped green pepper 1/k teaspoon ginge-r

Dash of cayenne pepper l/k teaspoon mustard
1 Tablespoon chopped canned pimiento

Mix apple, cabbage, celery and green pepper.

Combine sugar, vinegar, spices, and pimiento. Add to the apples and vegetables
and mix lightly but thoroughly.
Yield: 2 cups.

If you TTould ].ike to see other recipes using a.pples, send for Special Circular
#156, Extension Service, Mailing Room, University of Jdassachusetts, Amherst,

Editor

/////////////////

NOTICE

The 19S6 revision of Special Circular No. 25U entitled "Preharvest Drop Control
Of Apples" will be available in August, It can be obtained through your County
Extension Service or the Pomology Department, Universi-oy of liassachusetts, Amherst,

-8-

LE^'S REDUCE BRUISINf}

If the apple grower expects to receive the best price for his product, he must
first get those good apples off ohe tree and j.nto storage efficiently and vath as
little bruising as possible, In the packing houce survey conducted by Prof, 0, C,
Roberts in 1955-56 he fouiod that 2>hol% of all apples that he sampled were bruised.
Good organization and management of the harvest operation will help minimize bruising I

Some pickers damage an unbelievable number of apples. Bruised apples are nore
apt to decay and thereby affect the rest of the apples in the box by ripenj.nj faster, '
Research data have shavrr. thet bruised apples respire faster and give off ripening
gas early, Saje of bruj.sed apples means dissatisfied customers; dissatisfied
customers mean reduced sales I Hew can the grower reduce the amount of bruising when
he has an inexperienced crew?

Carefully conducted studies have shown that much of the bruising v/hich occurs
at harvest can be reduced by close supervision. Careful supervision is the back-
bone of a good picking crewl Take time to show pickers how to pick properly and
avoid bruising. Although many growers have read or heard the previous statements
many times, ho^T many actually heed the suggestions? Make use of Special Circulars
2k$i "Harvesting Sugges Lions for Orchard Foremen" and 2h6, "Be a Better Apple Picker!'
If you do not have copies of these circulars they may be obtained at your County
Extension Service,

Poor pickers cost grcnvers money f Have yoii ever figured out how many less
severely bruised apples per box it 'iri-Dl take to more than pay for a bonus to good
pickers? If you pay your pickers good wag-'.-s, you can be in the "driver's seat,"
In other words, a worker will take more constructive critjc:-sm if he is being paid
for his efforts.

Harvest Proced\u-'es Worth Consideration

The folloTfing practices have proven profitable for growers. One or more of
these practices or perhaps some modification of a practice may be practical for
your situation,

1, Use inexperienced labor for carrying filled boxes to central locations for
handier loading, leveling filled boxes and other time consuming jobs. The good
pickers shoald be picking fruit I

2, Hire a checker to inspect random boxes of the pickers' fruit. Set up a
score card for pickers and post whero they can compare their ratings with the rest
of the pickers. Pay a bonus to pickers who keep the damage to the fruit at a
minimum,

3, Pay a bonus to pickei'S who stay through .the entire season,

i;. Some growers have found il advantageous to pick into half bushel peach
baskets, The fruit is hauled to the pacJcing house in a truck having a compartmental
.platform for holding the baskets. The baskets of fndt are then dumped into the
grader.

5. It has been reported that the use of a lov/ stool, about 2-1/2 to 3 feet high
vdth a top large enough to hold an apple box is both a time and labor saver. Pickers

-9-

can pick directly into boxes fron lovj branches which saves time and reduces bruising.
The construction of one or two steps on the stool vfould be beneficial. The add-
itional 12 to 20 inches of height wi]l enable the picker to reach quite a fev/ apples,

6, Place hardvrocd skids across the trailer bed. These enable the worker vrho
is loading the trailer to push the stack of boxes towai'd the center of the trailer
after building a stack of the desired height on the edge of the trailer platform.
The whole load can be handled from the ground,

7, In some operations the use of tractors ;dth fork-lift attachments is profit-
able c The worko-r' assigned to leveling boxes placeo the leveled boxes on pallets.
The loaded pallets are lifted onto a trailer or truck by means of the fork lift.

8, Double decked trailers are useful in some operations. By use of these, two
layers of boxes can be hauled ivithout the necessity of leveling the boxes in the
orchard,

9, The common method of loading trailers uses one v/orker on the ground to lift
boxes onto the trailer bed„ Another worker stands on the trailer bed and picks up
the boxes and places them into hauling position.

Loading time can be reduced by having the men on the trailer stack the center
row first. He should then get off the trailer and assist the other vrorker in
completing the load,

10, VJhen the orchard is distantly located from a storage frequently it is
necessary to accumulate truck loads of appDes in or near the orchard. Some grovrers
build platform areas or sheds on which to rssemble the friut. When unloading the
trailer, the bozos are built to six high and then hcnd^-ucked over a bridge plate
to the platform, Vriien the road truck arrives it is backed up to the platform and
the fruit is hand-trucked across a brir'ge plate to the road truck,

— •ViT, J. Lord

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I£GAL LIABILITY RISKS AMD INSURANCE PROTSCTION FOR FARILERS

In the first article in this series we discussed the kinds of legal liability
which result from the fact that you decide to become a farmer and operate a farm.
This article will discuss the risks a farmer assumes \fhen he becomes an employer.

Liability To Emplo^^ees

Farmers - like other employers - are expected to safeguard their v;orkmen from
harm while they are on the job. You as an employer must provide them a safe place
to work, furnish safe equipment, and give them proper supervision. You assume a
high degree of responsibility \dien you allo-»T employees to vrark in dangerous situat-
ions not of their ovm choosing.

This type of liability is restricted to action against a farmer because of in-
juries or death suffered by a workman, because of the hazards of his employment.

-10-

Before the passage of the workmeas' compensaticn laws^ farmers, as v/ell as
other employers, were ljab3.e in nourt .for injuries to employees only v^hen negligence
vras proved against the employer. If, on the other hand the employee \>rere solely at
fault, his employer vras not liable. Because of the difficulty of deciding liability
viThen both employer and employee -v/ere at fault in some degree, it vras generally ruled
- under common-lav; doctrine - that if the employee contributed to the accident he
could not obtain a judgement, VJhen vj'orkmens ' compensation latrs do not apply to
farmers, this general rule may still apply. When, hov;ever, a farmer elects to take
worlanens ' compensation insurance even though he is not required to do so, then the
common-law rules on negligence do not apply. Payments are made under vrorlonens ' comp-
ensation insurance without regard to fault f

Vforkmens' compensation laws were passed originally to protect industrial employ-
ees 1/orking in dangerous occupations. The law provides a schedule of awards to be
paid for each type of injury to an employee. The matter of negligence is disregarded,
The protection of Yforkraens Compensation laws has been extended over the years to
employees in less dangerous occupations.

The increased use of machinery on farms has resulted in an increasing toll
of accidents among farm workers,

A farmer should find out if he comes under the worVcraens' compensation lav;,
in particular if any part of his operatj.on is covered by the law,

TvTo Types of Employer's Liability InGurance

There are tvro types of liability iusui-ance available to farmers as protection
from suits resulting from injury or death to employees,

(1) Employers Liability Coverage

(2) Workmens' Compensation Insurance Policy

Employers' Liability Policy Coverage

Under the laws governing employers' liability, a farmer ordinarily vrould not
be held liable in court if his injured employee were found negligent. If the farmer
were fcund negligent, the amount of the award to the employee might be substantial,
A farmer might be in great difficulty, if he had no liability insurance coverage,
since he would have to pay costs of defense as well as pay a judgement against hira,

. The significant thing about the employers liability policy is that it protects
the farmer against suits by his hired help, Vlliether the farmer is liable or not is
largely governed by who is a fault, the farmer or his employee.

Usual basic coverage provided by an employers Ij.ability policy if ^^,000 for
bodily injiory or death to one employee, and (?10,000 if two or more employees are
involved in the same accident. Medical payments of r;250 for each person injured
are usually included in the basic policy. Higher limits may be obtained for extra
premiums ,

Workmens' Compensation Insurance Policy

A workmens' compensation insurance policy guarantees payj-^ents to an injured
employee in accordance with a schedule of awards, by type of injury, established

,-11-

by the vrorkmens' coinpensation lav.', Uiid.er tliis policy the question of negligence
or fault is disregarded aiid an airard to an injured employee by the State Industrial
Accident Board is payable by the insurr.nce company that issued the policy covering
the injxired employee.

In instances v/here f armors are exempt f rem workmens ' compensation law^-s, they
may elect to come under the laws volvuitarily, 'JL'hey may do this by taking out vfork^
mens' compensation insurance^ by notifyingy the State Industrial Accident Board of
this action; and by posting notice of such action on their premises >,

The significant thing about workmens- compensation laws is that they establish
the schedule of payments that must be made to an employee for each type of accident
he might suffer and the amouiit for accidental death as well as compensation for
loss of wages, i/orkmens' compensation insurance guarantees these payments j there
is no top limit on the total amount which may bo paid.

In addition, after due notice to the employee the workmens ' compensation insur-
ance has been issued to his employer, the employee is "estopped" or barred from
suing his employer for injuries or death resulting from employment.

The premium for workmens' compensation depends upon the rate per vlOO of pay-
roll and the amount of the annual farm labor payroll. If a farmer furnishes room
and board, the value of tliese items is added to the actual money payment to deter-
mine the total payroll, A minimum annual premium is also charged.

Farmers should consult their insurance agent for details of coverage, rates,
and policies available,

— ^-L. D, Rhoades

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OBSFRV/.TIOKS IN CALIFORNIA

This leave of mine is about to end and by July 2 my famly and I vdll leave
California on our way back to Amherst, However, we plan to go north into Oregon
and Washington and I hope to get at least a brief picture of their tree fruit
Industry during the 7 to 10 days I expect to spend in those States,

Since I last wrote I*ve had a chance to see something of the apricot picking,
packing, and eastern shipment deal in the V/inters section. This area is planted to
about 11,000 acres of apricots. The Winters district, virhich is about 12 miles from
Davis, is the earliest' apricot section in California, It's rather surprising that
although Winters is only a few mj.les from Davis their apricots ripen 10 to ih days
ahead of apricots in the University plantings at Davis, Apparently, the night
temperatures at Winters average a few degrees waiTuer than they do at Davis during
the growing season and this fact accounts for their earlier ripening, Earliness in
ripening is a very important factor in the raising of this fruit for eastern ship-
ment since the early shipments command the best prices. Actually, the shipping
deal lasts about 10 days to two weeks in Winters and the rest of the crop goes to
the cannery or is cut and dried. This year the crop at V/inters is a little short
so very few fruits are being dried since canners are paying good prices for the bulk
of the nonahipped fruit*

-12-

Another thing vj-hich interested me considerably this month was an opportunity
to see some of the large vegetab^^e and strawberry acreage in the Watsonville -
Salinas area. This area is near the coast around Monterey Bay, In this area the
climate apparently is ideally suited for leafy vegetables and strawberries. The
summers in this area are cool virith maximum temperatures rarely in the 80' s, Under
these cool climatic conditions strav^ftsrries, in huge acreages, produce fruit from
April through October, Tlie hill system of planting is the one employed. The tops
of these plants are not especially large but the plants flower and fruit simultan-
eously over a very long period and hence the yields on a per acre basis are tremend-
ous by eastern standards. Yields of 30 tons per acre have been recorded although
the average per acre yield is soraevrhat less than half this amount. As vath most
crops irrigation is standard practice, even on hilly land, and the plants aren't
irrigated with sprinl-rlers either. Rows are planted on the contovir and water is
carried to each row from a flume c The berries I've seen are firm and capable of
being shipped to the east coastt

Although I haven't spent much time studying the vinifera grape situation here
I am interested in looking ab them and observing the cultural methods employed.
The pruning methods used on these grapes are different from those employed on our
eastern American grapes. Their system of pruning and metiiod of supporting the
vines (if any) varies greatly with the variety and its use.

All ivine and raisin varieties seem to be trained to a central trunk and the
canes cut to short spurs (leaving 2 to h buds per spur depending on its size). In-
itially the main trunk is tied to a stake to provide mechanical support but even-
tually as the trunk gets large and rigid enough no support is needed. Some of the
trunks in old grape vineyards may becoiae a foot or so in diameter. No trellis is
used to support the new fruiting canes, either*

With the table grapes the spur type pi'uning may be employed (for Tokays) or
cane or cordon priming may be used, depending on the variety. The table grapes
are trellised. Many trellises are buLlt waist high v;ith a sloping horizontal top
which is about 3 feet wide. The trellis slopes toward the south and as the canes
are supported on the wires of this sloping trellis, the bunches of grapes hang dovm
underneath, much as they would dia a grape arbor. This metiiod of training shades the
fruit from direct sunlight during mid-day and makes picking easier «.

Many of the fancy table grapes require thinning for various reasons depending
upon the variety. The three types are flower, cluster, and berry thinning, Flov^er
thinning is done before the flowers reach full bloom to improve the set of varieties
which otherwise produce loose clusters. Cluster thinning is done shortly after the
berries set to reduce an overload and improve fruit size and coloring of remaining
clusters. Berry thinning consists of removing parts of clusters after the berries
set to reduce cluster compactness. This practice is necessary when Thompson Seed-
less is grown as a table grape and the vines have been girdled. Girdling of Thomp-
son Seedless may increase berry size 100^ and is a common practice v;hen this variety
is grovm for the fresh fruit market, I'm told that some old Thompson Seedless vines
have been girdled annually for 20 years and are still producing good crops,

^F, W, Southvdck

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-13-

For MORE Customers - Have FEl';^R Flies

Flies do NOT attract customers, but many roadside and farm stands and cider
presses DO attract flies.

You, Mr, Owner or Operator, can DO SOTffiTHIUG ABOUT IT,

1, CLEAN UP kW KEEP CLEAN i

Flies are attracted to moisture — especially juices from fruits, vegetables,
milk, eggs, and meats, J'ruit pojaace and any decaying fruit, vegetable or meat
scraps are attractive to flies, Even small amounts, if moist, iTiay be a breed-
ing ground for more flies.

Provide tight containers mth tight covers such as galvanized cans for \mstes.
Stand them on a hard, easily cleaned surface. Empty waste containers and
clean them every day. Bury or burn the wastes immediately — flies travel
farther than you may think possible.

Clean out and remove empty boxes, baskets, cartons, etc. Store them as
far from the stand or mill as possible. A dump out back may be out of
sight, but the flies it attracts and breeds vfill be out front in full view.

2, USE RESIDUAL INSECTICIDES ON SURFACES!

Apply residual materials to all surfaces in and around the stand or mill
on which flies commonly rest. AVOID contamination of edible products,

lettable powders leave a visible deposit; emulsifiable concentrates diluted
with water do not; oil solutions are not diluted and leave no visible deposit,

DDT is still effective against many flies, including the tiny fruit or vinegar
flies; raethoxychlor is similar and preferred inside the stand or mill; outside
surfaces and dumps may be treated vdth the above or with chlordane or Diazinon,
the latter being very effective against flies immune to other materials » Mal-
athion is safe and effective, but has a short residual life. Both diazinon
, and malathion are more effective if sugar is added to them as directed on
labels,

3, BAITS SUPPLETGNT other TiEASURES!

Baits containing malathion are available under many brand names. Use them
sparingly, but frequently, on all horizontal, dry surfaces in or around the
stand or mill T/here flies tend to gather,

k, SPACE TREATlffiNTS ESSENTIAL TOO I

Stands and mills that can be closed up completely or enough to prevent cress
ventilation may be "space treated" with a finely atomized spray or aerosol.
All flies then in the building should be killed by the treatment; there is no
residual effect.

-lU-

Apply space treatments at closing time and at other times as operations
permit and flies make it desirable c.

Pyrethrin or allethrin, each synergized by materials like piperonyl butoxide,
sulfoxide or others, are the chief killing agents. Some products contain
methoxychlor or other materials. Products containing DDT, chlordane or similar
materials should not be used unless edible foods are covered.

Apply space treatments by using oil based pyrethrin or allethrin "fly sprays"
in hand or electrically operated atomizers or by using aerosol bombs, Lai-Pie
(5-lb) bombs are less expensive than smaller types if used according to direct-
ions, Othendse the smaller types may be just as convenient and no more costly.

Read the list of "active ingredients" to get what you want. Follow "directions
for use" to do the best job safely,

5. FANS HELP

Fans that direct a current of air across displays may help greatly to keep
flies off those products especially attractive to them. Air currents directed
out of doorways from inside and above will reduce the numbers of flies which
enter,

BUT — REIMfflER THIS!

Without your complete attention to NO. 1, you cannot expect the suggestions
under No's 2, 3j h) and 5 to solve your fly problem,

E, H. Yfheeler

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ARE YOU USING AN APPLE BOX DUIgJNG AID?

Although research data has shovm that one of the greatest causes of bruising
is grading operations is careless dumping onto the receiving belt or the feed
table of the grader, many grwrers still are not using an apple box dumping aid.
The bruising that occurs during the dumping of apples on the grader is one of the
easiest and least costly to minimize. Let's do something about it I

The use of a pad placed over the top of an apple box when the box is tipped
can reduce bruising. After tipping the box, the v/orker should gradually raise the
pad to allovj- the apples to roll gently onto the receiving belt of the feed table
on the grader. Counter balancing the pad makes it more convenient to use.

Another inexpensive dumping aid is a canvas bag, "The operator places a
canvas bag, with one end tacked to the grader, over the top of the box of fruit
while he tips the box over. Then he releases the bag and lifts the box gently
to allow the apples to floiT out,"

— ^W. J. Lord
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R

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Increased Sale of Apples in Five Pound Bags

Pomologicol Paragraphs!

Legal Liability Risks and Insurance
Protection for Farmers

The Cost of a Box of Apples

Orchard Mouse Control Supplies

Pomologicol Research

Liquid Apples

Those Good Old Apple Varieties!

Highlights of the Strawberry Conference
at Norfolk, Virginia

The Wellington - A New Early Apple

SEPTEMBER 15, 1956

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

Contrlbutoirs to This Issue jfTom Supporting Fields

Max Q. FultZf Ulddlesex County Agricultural Agent

Kc If. Hayes f Eictenslon Food Technologist

W« R. Jones 4 U« S. Fish and Wildlife Service

L* D* Rhoades, Extension Specialist In Farm Management

INCREASED a'^.LE OF APPLES IM FIVE POUND DAGS

Carefully conducted experiments in eight super markets in Rochester, New York
confirm previous experiments by Prof » Max E, Brunk and others that significantly
more apples are purchased per one hundred customers \Jhen the apples are displayed
in five pound rather than three pound polyethylene bags.

This experiment vias conducted between February 20 and l/iarch 19, 1956, by Dana
G. Dalrymple, under the direction of Prof, Brunk of the Department of Agricultural
Economics at Cornell University,

Comparisons were made among four merchandising practices as follows:

1, 3-pound unprinted polyethylene bags,

2, Two 3-pound unprinted polyethylene bags priced in a combination unit at
a 1^ discount.

3, 3-pound printed polyethylene bags,

ii, 5-pound polyethylene bags.

The principal varieties included in this experiment v/ere iiclntosh, Red Deli-
cious and Rome,

The price charged for each variety vms held constant thruout the experiment.
For example, ?'cIntosh was priced at 11,70 per pound or 3 pounds for 350j 5 pounds
for 590* two 3 pound bags with 10 discount for 690.

The increase in sales of the 5 pound bag over the 3 pound bag was 2U.2 per
cent. This indicated rather significantly that more apples can be sold in 5 poiuid
units than 3 pouixi units and that consumers do not discriminate against the larger
package ,

Y.Tiether the 3 pound bags were printed or unprinted or sold in a combination
pricing unit made no significant difference,

?Jhy stay in a rut with the three pound bag when the five pound bag will sell
more apples?

0, C. Roberts

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POl/IOLOGICAL PARAGRi'^PHS i

Girdled Trees

Contrary to what at least one grower was told trees leaf out and often fruit
the first season after the bark and cambium layer are destroyed around the tree
trunk I Recent observations, however, have revealed that the vigor of these completely

-2-

girdled trees vary considerably. On some trees the foliage and fruit appear normal;
foliage may be light in color but friiit size normal on some trees j and on other
girdled trees the foliage may be light in color and sparse and the fruit small.

The reason why completely girdled trees leaf out and often fruit the first
season after the bark and cambium layer are destroyed around the tree trunk is
because v/ater and other materials which are taken up by the roots from the soil
pass up to the leaves through the wood. In the leaves the water and the carbon,
dioxide takmfrom the air by the leaves are united chemically, through the action
of sunlight, into glucose sugar. This sugar is the starting point for the synthe-
sis of all other carbohydrates and in turn for proteins, oils, waxes, and other
organic compounds which make up the bulk of the apple tree. After the manufacture
of the plant foods by the leaves, they move to other parts of the tree through the
phloem which is found in the bark. From the facts presented, it can be seen that
complete girdling will not deprive the top of the tree of water and other materials
necessary for the manufacture of plant foods and that these materials will be trans-
ported to all plant parts above the injured area#

Reserve food stored in the roots enable the roots to function for some time,
often a year or two^ thus keeping the top of the tree alive. However, a completely
girdled tree, unless repaired, ^vill eventually die from starvation of ^e roots'
for carbohydrates I

Russeting

The number of russeted apples evident in our orchards this year makes the
maintenance of 90 to 95 P©r cent relative humidity in apple storages during the
19^6 - 1957 storage period more important than ever. Russeted fruits shrivel
readilyl Lacking the cuticle which serves to protect the fruit against loss of
water and various external injuries, evaporation and water loss from the russeted
area are greater than takes place in non-russeted fruit,

— W, J. Lord
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LEGAL LIABILITY RISKS AND INSURANCE PROTECTION FOR FARI.iERS

In the previous tv/o articles, I discussed the questions of personal liability
and liability to employees. This discussion will outline the questions of motor
vehicle liability ,

MOTOR VEHICLE LIABILITY

As owners and users of automobiles and trucks on and off the farm, farmers
may be held liable if operation of their vehicles results in personal injviry or
damage to property of others. Loss of drivers' license and registration plates
can also result if you are involved in accident or lavf violation on public high-
ways.

-3-

Under certain circumstances, farmers may also be held liable for the negli-
gence of others vfhom they permit to drive. In general, the liability of an owner
is extended to cover the liability of any person Vfho is legally using the auto-
mobile with the permission of the ovmere

Automobile Kesponsibility Laws

All states have motor vehicle safety and financial responsibility la\Ts, These
lav;s were passed to reduce traffic accidents by controlling irresponsible drivers.
Under these lav/s, the driving permits and registration plates of financially ii-re-
sponsible drivers may be withdravm under certain conditions.

Ordinarily the most satisfactory way to satisfy the financial responsibility
law is to secure automobile liability insurance,

In most states, the financial responsibility lavrs require security of ',,-5*000
for injuries or death to one person and 010,000 for injuries or death of two or
more persons with a limit of <i?^fOQO for any one person. The requirement for pro-
perty damage is frequently $5,000, These security requirements are knovm as 5/10/5
limits. Several states have increased their requirements for injuries or death
to SlO,000 and 020,000 respectively, A few states have set their requirements for
property damage at a minimum of :,p2,000 and others to ■;p5>000« The 12 states that
require higher amounts of security than 5/lO/2 are Connecticut, Liaine, Vermont,
New York, Maryland, Mnnesota, Mississippi, J/Iissouri, Ohio, South Dakota, Texas,
and Vfisoonsin,

Che of the more important advantages of using insurance to prove financial
responsibility is that payments are guaranteed v^hen loss or damage covered by a
policy occurs. Usually the company is not relieved of its obligation under the
policy, even if an agreement is reached between Policyholder and claimant or if
the insured becomes bankrupt. The intent of the law is to make sure that the
innocent injured victim is compensated. But it should be remembered that the right
of states to legislate is limited to their 'highways. For example in fessachusetts
legislation is limited to "the accepted ways of the Commonvrealth" ,

Coverage

A company issuing a standard automobile liability policy agrees to pay up to
the limits of the policy such claims as the insured may become obligated to pay
because of liability imposed upon him by law. In addition, if a case goes to
court, the insurance company furnishes the lawyer and pays all court costs. Lia-
bility must be clearly recognized or proved before the company is obligated to
pay,- If the insured motorist is found \7ithout fault in an accident, there can be
no liability against him or his company, but any claim or suit will be defended
by the company,

Standard automobile liability insurance policies provide two types of coverage;

(1) Bodily injury

(2) Property damage

Automobile liability insurance companies provide policies to meet the special
conditions imposed by the motor vehicle financial responsibility laws of the vari-
ous states, at least up to the amount of the basic coverage required in the state
where the policy is issued. Higher limits are available to motorists who wish
to protect themselves against judgements that might be higher than the minimum se-
curity required to be posted in their own or other states. Since Massachusetts
has only 5/10 statutory requirements and svirrounding states of Connecticut, Maine,
New York and Vermont have higher requirements, higher limits would be desirable
for many, if not all, i.iassachusetts motorists for proper insurance protection.

Most liability policies list as optional coverage:

(3) Medical payments

Under medical coverage, payments are made to anyone v/ho is injured or killed
while lavffully entering, riding in, or alighting from an insured automobile. The
standard payment is usually $^^00 to each injured person, to defray medical, hospital
and nursing costs. In event of death, the payment may be applied toward funeral
expenses. The amount of medical coverage may be increased with the payment of an
additional premium, lledical benefits are not authorized if the injured person
was acting in the course of his employment at the time of the accident and was
covered by T:orkmen's compensation insurance.

Under certain conditions, the automobile liability policy covers any liability
of an owner for the negligence of another person whom he permits to drive.

Principally because a car is no\r often used by many people, both inside and
outside the family, automobile liability insurance attaches to a specific car and
follows it v/hether it is operated by the ovmer or is in legal use of a peri.iitted
driver, except when there is a change of ownership. In i/Iassachusetts insurance
is required as a condition of obtaining registration plates. In some other states
vrtien an insured car is traded in on a nevf one, the insurance on the old car applies
to the new car for a period of 30 days. Any accident within 30 days is covered
automatically. The insurance will lapse at the end of 30 days unless transferred
to the new car.

Premium rates vary according to the amount of coverage, the liabilities in-
cluded, the ages of the drivers, the use of the vehicle and the place of principal
garaging of the car or truck. As mth other types of insurance consult your insur-
ance agent for details as to policy, rates and coverage.

This article does not cover questions and coverages of policies issued to
provide insurance for damage to the motorist ' 3 car and death or injury to him.
Content of this series of articles has been approved by insurance company repre-
sentatives as an educational service.

L, D,- Rhoades

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THE COST CF A BOX OF APPLES

A series of three fruit growers' cost analysis meetings was held at Flerra's
packing shed and storage in West Acton on the evening of February 20, March 15
and March 29. GrovTers ' figures Y/ere used to nake up a composite cost sheet on the
basis of price per bushel of top grade apples. Yields were based on the total
-with ciders and B grades ondtted and used as a ciishion to make the paper figures
more realistic. The figures presented here are not guaranteed, as they are composite,
but they are accurate enough for a grower's comparisons in analyzing his own costs.
They should give the consuming public a somewhat surprising picture of the cost of
processing a box of apples completely through to the viholesaler.

The total gross cost per packed box of apples is $2,U9. This includes product-
ion, picking, handling into storage, grading, containers, storage, various sell-
ing charges, etc. It also includes such overhead iteias as shrinkage, depreciation,
taxes, etc. The production costs, i.e., putting the ripe apple on the tree ready
for picking, was averaged at 66^, with the most expensive block being $1,0$, It
is readily seen that the much-lamented production cost is only a little over 2^%
of the total.

This figure of .'ii2,li8 or roughly $2,50 per box we stress represents the gross
selling price needed to break even. It also, as previously pointed out, is based
on estimated yields of top grade apples. Furthermore, this is a i^rtiolesale figure.
Delivery to the store and the legitimate retail mark-up would have to be added
to translate the cost into terms of produce shopping.

The group felt that it was very interesting and helpful to set up such a set
of figures and to try and pick out cost factors over which the grower might have
the most influence or could do something about. In tlie history of fruit growing
it has been consistently found that correct understanding and realization of one's
individual cost-per-unit figures have been essential to success,

— ^iiax 0, Fultz

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ORCHARD MOUSE CONTROL SUPPLIES

Orchard mouse control supplies will be available as usual from the Rodent
Control Fund, South College Building, University of Massachusetts or your local
cooperating agency. Every year some fruit growers initiate this mouse control pro-
gram at too late a date to successfully cover their entire orchard. Sometimes
this is due to circumstances over v^hich they have no control. There is not much
we can do about spells of bad weather or a late harvest that extends way into
frosty weather. Yet there are some things that are under our command. We have
taken some steps at Amherst to provide you with prompt service at this end after
we have received your order.

-6-

A nev; mixing machine has been purchased. This mixer is a heavy-duty model
capable of continuous operation. Its capacity is such that any rush of orders
will not overload it and it should perform vrell throughout tlie season.

The basis of our treated-oat ba.its is a large, high quality grade of steams-
crushed oats obtained from the West, Other years i7e have had trouble in obtaining
these oats, which always seemed to become lost enroute. The small size of our
storage facilities in Amherst precluded obtaining a single shipment. This year,
through the cooperation of the University, vre have obtained a storage space of
ample size to hold our season's supply. This larder is now stocked, \yaiting only
for orders so that they nay be filled wilh freshly-prepared bait,

What can the fruit groi»;er do to prevent being late in poisoning the orchard?
The one thing you can do is to order the supplies now from your usual source. If
you have been ordering through a cooperator, let him knovr your needs nor/ so that
he may make up his combined order. If you order direct you may specify the day
you wish your order to leave Amherst, All orders are shipped Railway Express,
shipping charges collect,

■¥. R, Jones

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PQIIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

lU, A Study of the Tree Characters of Fruit Varieties

This project has been active since October 11, 1917. The question v/hich
immediately arises is "How can vre justify carrying on a project for such a long
period of time?" But if we examine the nature of the project the question can
readily be answered. The purpose of this project is to establish the vegetative
characters of fruit varieties so that mixtures may be detected in the nursery row,
thereby materially reducing the number of misnamed trees ixhich get planted in
commercial orchards. So, as long as new varieties are introduced this project
will need to be continued.

During the existence of this project bulletins describing the vegetative
characters of apple, cherry, plum and pear varieties have been published. On the
basis of these descriptions millions of fruit trees have been examined in eastern
and mid-western nurseries for trueness-to-name since the inception of the project.
The numbers of misnamed trees and rajxtures foiond dui'ing this period is imknown
but it could easily approach several hundred thousand and the savings to fruit
grov/ers and nurserymen could easily total many thousands of dollars.

While this project cannot be considered extremely scientific or spectacular,
it has without question made an outstanding contribution to the fruit industry
in the Northeast. This may sound like boasting to many of our younger fruit grow-
ers, but if they ask some of the old timers vrho planted liclntosh only to find that
they had a "fine" orchard of V/olf River when the trees came into production, there
will be little doubt as to the value of this project,

— ^, D, ViTeeks
////////////////

, ■ -7-

XIQUID APPLES

Have you ever thought of cider fts being liqidd apples? Many times liquid
apples can represent a liquid profit, also. Growers should consider all the
angles when preparing to sell their crop, to determine which form vdll result
in the greatest profit.

Let's consider for a moment the total return that can be gained from cider.
The average bushel of cider apples will produce 3-1/2 gallons of cider, although
this does vary. The average price at retail is 75^ a gallon or a total of C;2»60
for a bushel of cider apples. From this return deduct the cost of growing the
apples, the cost of labor and materials to produce the cider. The net profit
cora:^res favorably -iTith that received from selling top grade apples. Take a
little time ard figure your own costs and see if cider will add to your profit*

In short crop years such as this, prices will be up, both for fresh apples and
for cider. Keep in mind that there will be a temptation to sell more cider grade
apples as fresh rather than as cider. By grading as you v/ould normally and pro-
ducing a good cider, you are building for the future.

The Cider Certification program is moving along well this year, but vrhether
you are under it or not, cleanliness and sanitation are the important factors.
The more thorough the sanitation, the longer your cider vri.ll hold up. Use of
a detergent-sanitizer will help prevent quick spoilage, Vihen possible store the
finished product under refrigeration as it slov;s the growth of spoilage organisms.

Good cider production and high sales can be summed up in these points:

1, Use clean sound apples of tv;o or more varieties

2, Follow a sanitation program

3, Refrigerate the cider
h* Price right

K. M. Hayes

////////////////

THOSE GOOD OLD APPLE VARIETIES!

We frequently read articles in which the writer reminisces about those good
old apple varieties, As a result of these articles, the fruit grower gets custom-
ers requesting some variety D.ong since abandoned on his farm. T/hy was the plant-
ing of these varieties discontinued? A recent article in Farm Research titled
"Apples of Yesteryear" by L, G. Klein of the Department of Pomology, Geneva, New
York, discusses what happened to "those good-old apples varieties". The follow-
ing summarizes this article.

Before the fruit industry became so highly specialized as it is today, most
farms had a small apple orchard. In these orchards were a collection of many
"fine old varieties". As the fruit industry became more specialized, many of the
old varieties disappeared from the commercial orchards because they proved to be

-8-

unsuitable for "efficient large-scale production". These varieties virere usually
lacking in more than one of the following attributas considered by commercial
growers to be more important than good quality; (l) productiveness, (2) attract-
iveness, (3) ease of handling, (u) disease resistance, and ($) good keeping and
shipping quality*

"Why Old Favorites Fade Away"

Black GilliflOTfer (Sheepnose) - Unattractive dark dull color contributed to
its failure to gain commercial acceptance,

Chenanpjo - Extremely susceptible to bruising and has poor keeping quality.

Early Harvest - Small size, \ineven ripening, bruises easily and has very
short storage life,

F^opus Spitzenberg - Trees lack vigor, are unproductive and fruit attains
top quality only under certain conditions of soil and locality.

Fame use (Snow Apple) - Popular before the Mcintosh era but soon became apparent
that the Mcintosh vras superior in most respects, particularly in size and production.

Lady - Very small in size,

— Maiden Blush - Uneven ripening, short storage life and pc^r dessert quality.

Mother - subject to winter injury, only fair production and tendency to be
biennial bearing.

Porter - Uneven ripening and has tender flesh, very attractive to apple maggot.

Pumpkin S\feet (Pound Sv:eet) - Trees are not too hardy and are subject to
sun-scald. The fruit is too large and coarse for dessert purposes,

Roxbury Russet - Unattractive color,

St, Lawrence - Not very high in quality, susceptible to scab and to premature
dropping ,

Seek-no-further - Frequently mediocre quality in some localities,

Tolman Svfeet - Small size and not too attractive in addition to limited uses
for svfeet apples,

Tompkins King - Trees unproductive,

Wagener - Trees lack vigor as they reach maturity and are short-lived. Also,
the fruits run small.

Yellow Mevftown - Trees fail to thrive in most of regions in the Northeast.

Mi, J, Lord

////////////////

-9-

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE STRAVfBERRY COi^irERENCE AT NORFOLK, VIRGBIIA

A group of growers, morsoryraen, and scientists gathered at the Virginia Truck
Crops Station at Norfolk, Virginia, on May 17, 1956, to look over the strawberry
experiments and to talk over mutual problems . This was to have been a two-day
conference v;ith the second day spent at the U. S, D, A, - Ivlaryland Experiment
Station at Salisbury,' IM, A severe frost on April 2U on the Eastern Shore of
Maryland practically eliminated the crop. Therefore, the second day of the con-
ference was cancelled. In spite of this, the attendance was good v/ith participants
coming from as far away as Florida and Michigan,

The Virginia Truck Crops Station is working on a wide variety of strawberry
problems, i'lany have a wide application; others are peculiar to their situation,
A few of those of general interest will be discussed briefly.

Black-root rot is a serious trouble in many strawberry sections. It is a
soil-borne disease thought to be caused by nematodes or a combination of nema-
todes and fungi, and possibly bacteria. Soil fumigation appears promising for
its control, A considerable number of both nev/ and old soil fumigants were under
test. Some of these are nematocides and scrae are both nematocides and fungicides.
The plants in most of the plots treated with soil fumigants vrere larger and looked
healthier than those in untreated plots. The best looking plants were in the plots
treated with methyl bromide, I'ethyl bromide is a good neraatocide and is effective
in destroying some, but not all, soil fungi.

Some very interesting experiments were under way to find a good method to
control summer growth and plant spacing « The results obtained from using the
"hormone" type materials is not alv:ays predictable. Therefore, an attempt is
being made to do the thinning vdth a dinibro type spray, 'Vhile progress is being
made with this method, much remains to be done before it becomes practical,

Yihat is the best mulch for strav/berries? This is becoming an increasingly
serious problem in many areas where mulching material is becoming scarce and
expensive. At the Virginia Truck Crops Station pine needles, peanut hulls, grain
straw (chopped into short lengths with an ensilage cutter), chopped corn cobs,
sawdust and shavings v/ere under trial. Of these, they liked pine needles and
peanut hulls best. Sawdust and shavings v^rere liked the least because they require
the use of more nitrogen and blow avray too easily,

ViTith their warmer vdnters winter vreeds are a very serious problem, especially
knotweed, chick7,-eed, and henbit. They have fotmd that under Virginia conditions
a combination of one pound of Chloro IPC and two pounds of SES per acre applied
twice, once in November and once in February, gives very good control. Combining
this spray vrlth the mulch application has proved very satisfactory. It was applied
to the soil just before mulching, to the mulch before spreading, or on the mulch
after spreading, with equally good results. The combination of Chloro IPC and SES
used as a preplanting treatment killed the strawberry plants. When adsorbed on
vermiculite it acted as if it were twice as strong and injured severely or killed
the plants.

-10-

A number of materials, including both common fungicides and antibiotics, were
being tested for fruit rot control « It is interesting that one of the antibiotics
increased the shelf life of strewDerries by several days as well as giving good
rot control.

Several new varieties and selections were under test. The new variety
Pocahontas has been very outstanding in vigor and production. Of the new selections,
US 2233 was outstanding. It will probably be named and introduced this fall. An
early ripening selection, US 3939, in season with Midland, looks very promising
and is being seriously considered for introduction.

Other things under investigation are time of planting, kind, rate and time of
fertilizer applications, insect control, storage of plants, and plant spacing,

J. S. Bailey

////////////////

THE VffiLLINGTON - A NEVY EARLY APPLE

The Wellington is the latest apple variety named by the Experiment Station
at Geneva, It resulted from a cross of Cortland by Crimson Beauty in 192h, and was
named in honor of Professor Richard ITellington who for many years was in charge of
the fruit breeding work at the Geneva Station.

Experience at the Geneva Station indicates that 'Tellington is an annual cropper,
has no tendency to\Tard biennial bearing, is an early variety, ripening U to 5 days
after Crimson Beauty and 8 to 10 days before Melba or Duchess, It blooms within
a day of Mcintosh and should be an excellent pollinator for early blooming variet-
ies such as Melba, Mcintosh, and Delicious.

The Fruit

The Wellington Apple is handsome - attractively red-streaked and of large size.
It ripens evenly, may be picked at one time, hangs vrell to the tree and it is not
subject to bruising. Also it can be held in storage for a month and still be
acceptable for fresh market sales.

Although the VJellington cannot be rated high in quality, it is considerably
better than Duchess. It's flavor is mildly subacid and is probably of better
quality than any other variety of its season. However, it does not have the high
dessert quality of Melba, Preliminary processing tests have shown that Yfellington
makes good sauoe.

The Tree

The Wellington tree is of an upright spreading type and the branches have de-
sirable wide crotch angles.

The Geneva Experiment Station is of the opinion that V/ellington is worthy
of extended trial vfhere a variety of this season is wanted, "Its attractive
appearance and earliness should make it a valuable variety for early fresh market
sales, while its large size and even ripening of its fruit enhance its commercial
adaptability."— April, 1955 Issue of Farm Research.

— M, J. Lord
////////////////

R

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Research on the Biology and Control of
Orchard Insects at the Waltham Field
Station

Why Do Owners of A Farm Business Need
A Will?

The Control of Fall and Winter Weeds in
Strawberries with Chemicals

Comments on Outstanding Fruit Varieties

The Present Status of Controlled Atmosphere
Storage

Apple Sorters' Manual

What Fertilizer Element Does the Cultivated
Blueberry Need Most?

Twenty-nine Percent

Holiday Time is Apple Time

Approved Farm Stand Program

Sixty-one Percent

OCTOBER 15, 1956

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, Uniter

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOUR POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematic
Pomology,

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham.

Doing research on strawbenries, blueberries and beach plums. Mr. Bailey
also does considerable Extension work with small fruit growers.

French, Arthur P. - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
find.t variety testing.

Lord, William J, - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest control,
and is somewhat involved in research. Editor of HIUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C- Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other depaiianental courses.
Currently also doing research on finit marketing.

Southwick, Franklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to this Issue from Supporting Fielda

Frederick E, Cole, Extension Specialist in Fruit and Vegetable Marketing

Lawrence D. Rhoades, Extension Specialist in Farm Management

Warren D. Whitcomb, Research Professor in Entomology, Waltham Field Station

RESEARCH ON THE BIOLOGY km CONTROL OF

ORCHARD INSECTS AT THE VjALTHAII REELD STATION

l/^lhen the original orchard at the lYaltham Field Station \;as planted in 1926,
it consisted of 12 trees each of the Nev/ England Seven varieties set in adjoin-
ing rows so that sprays applied to rows vrould shou the pest control, foliage
injury and fruit russet from a pesticide treatment on each of these varieties.
Since then, rows of Golden Delicious, Ilacoim, Kendall and a block of miscell-
aneous varieties have been added. Recently, about 70 trees mostly Mcintosh,
Cortland and Delicious were planted, and vfhen these reach bearing age, many of
the older trees vri.ll be removed to release the land for other use. In addition,
there is an orchard of about 60 trees consisting of Baldvfin, Golden Delicious,
Starking and luacoun on Mailing Stock III, IV and V \vhich was planned by Dr. J. K,
Shaw before his retirement*

These trees are used entirely for pest control studies, a part by the Depart-
ment of Botany under the direction of Dr. E. F. Guba and a part by the Department
of Entomology under the direction of Prof, U. D. VJhitcomb,

Early in the \Tork, the orchard was found to have an extremely high infestation
by the plum curculio often suffering 85 - 9^% stung fruit on trees unprotected by
an adequate insecticide. Consequently the insect work has emphasized the evalua-
tion of materials and spray schedules for curculio control.

This Tfork is organized under State Project - Entomology 5023, Studies in
this project have developed methoxychlor into the No, 1 insecticide to control
heavy infestations of the plum curculio and shovm that it is compatible vjlth the
common fungicides and raiticides. It was found that dieldrin was effective against
curculio at the amazingly small dosage of l/U pound actual toxicant in 100 gallons,
but that this insecticide had no value against codling moth. Although the organic
phosphates such as parathion, EPN and malathion kill the beetles, they have a
short residual period and are unsatisfactory unless applications are repeated each
U or 5 days.

By omitting some of the regular sprays, it v/as found that the calyx applica-
tion Tfas the most important in 1955. This is contrary to the general belief that
the 1st Cover spray is most timely and the tests will be continued.

New insecticides are evaluated each season. Our trials have shown unsatis-
factory control of ciurculio from TDE, which is closely related to methoxychlor j
from endrin, which is closely related to dieldrinj and from diazanon, a phosphate
similar to parathion,

A new insecticide called Guthion which has shoim promise for the control of
both insects and mites will be tested for its effectiveness under Massachusetts
conditions and its compatibility vd.th common fungicides.

Emergence cages for apple maggot flies to aid in timing insecticide appli-
cations to combat this destructive insect have been operated for many years and
similar cages for use by Agricultural Agents in nearby counties have been stocked.
The effect of soil insecticides on the emergence of apple maggot flies has been
studied and a practical treatment with dieldrin and similar materials has been
developed for use in small areas where infested apples have been stored,

— ¥, D, Whitcomb
////////////////

-2-

WHY DO OVmERS OF A FARM BUSINESS I^IEED A WILL?

Many successful farming tjusinesses have been forced into a sale because the
owner died v.-ithout having made a proper will. Such a situation is wasteful,
unfortunate, and unnecessary, A TTill, soundly planned and correctly executed
will avoid many problems and help to continue a farming business. The cost of
having a good will drawn and kept up to date is not high.

Settling an Estate Costs Money

Small estates need just as careful planning as larger ones. The tax costs
and other- expense may not be so large, but the possible shrinkage is higher in
proportion in the smaller estates - due to costs of administration, and losses
due to lack of prompt and experienced attention to affairs of the fanning business.

Things To Consider

The owner of a farm should provide, through a vfill, for his executors to
carry out any agreements made during his lifetime for the sale or other disposition
of his farming business. Or, in the absence of such agreements, to continue the
operation of the farm during the period of settling the estate, at the risk of the
cTmer's estate.

Sometimes it might be proper, to plan for sale of farm equipment and livestock
and feed and supplies and for keeping the real estate to be rented as an income
asset for the beneficiaries,

A definite requirement that the executors sell or liquidate the farm business
may or may not be advisable. The gains from continued operation need to be com-
pared with the returns from sale, Vilhen the word gets around that the farm and
personal property must be sold the market value often drops very rapidly.

Courts having control over the settling of estates often order the estate
assets to be converted into money, in the absence of specific authorization to
continue the business.

Authority of Executors

Consideration should be given to giving the executors specific povrer to hire
managers, agents, consultants, accountants and sales brokers as well as authority
to continue the operation. Power to the executors to vote shares of the corpora-
tion in whatever manner is deemed advisable, when the business is incorporated,
should be provided in the will. The Executors should be given authority to select
or vote for the appointment of themselves or others as managers, officers or
directors.

The will should also provide that any of these persons may at the same time,
be officers, directors or employees of a corporate executor, such as a trust
company or bank.

The executors should be authorized to borrov^ money in order to assure the
profitable operation of the business without interruption.

-3-

Use of Trustees

In Massachusetts, T/hen there is no will, the surviving spouse inherits one-
third of the estate and the children inherit two-thirds. If the children are
minors, it vriLll be necessary to have guardians appointed and here again the court
may \Tell direct the sale of the fanning business during the guardianship.

If minors are to inherit, it is often wise to appoint a trustee under the
will to hold and manage the property - at least until the minor children come of
age. A simple trust arrangement will often prove far more effective and practical
than a guardianship. For example, a guardian must furnish a bond, but a trustee
need not do so, A guardian must petition the court (involving legal expense to the
estate) for authority to act. Such costs can be avoided by providing proper power
to the trustee.

Setting up a trust arrangement under the will may be the best way to assure
continued operation without conflict where several children (minors or not) and
various other beneficiaries are involved. A trust arrangement can be worked out
to guarantee the trustees all the powers and discretion they may need to continue
the business.

Tax Considerations

A good many small farming businesses are ovmed jointly by husband and wife,
father and son, two brothers or the like. In those cases, the v/ills of the owners
can have a direct bearing on the taxes levied upon the estate and the business.
The relationship of the will and taxes shoxad be clearly understood. An oimer
should consider taxes in relation to wills and estate planning. Tax problems
are complex and expert advice should be sought. In particular the appraisal of
estate assets "Xf^^'^er's property) made~ih connection vath the probate of a will
or administration of an estate should be considered carefully.

Most estates will have various depreciable assets, such as buildings and
equipment, which may be held or disposed of according to the provisions of a
will, ViThen the property is appraised (valuec$ in connection with the will, there
seems frequently to be a desire to get an appraisal "as lov: as the law permits,"
Actually, a market-value appraisal is desirable. The appraisal can have far
reaching effects upon later allowable depreciation, and hence, on net income and
future tax liability of the farming business. It is important to get a completely
fair judgment of values. The average estate-tax rate (if a tax is due) on the
deceased person's half may prove to be more economical than future capital gains tax.

In addition, when inventories in an estate such as crops or feed and supplies
are appraised at the selling price, this can avoid ordinary income tax on the
operating profit.

Family Cor-Qorations

The comments just made on appraisals of assets for Federal estate tax purposes
do not apply to corporations. Only the capital stock itself in the case of corp-
orations acquires a nevir adjusted-cost basis.

Tho ovmers of a faming business may v/ell v;ant to consider the advantages of
incorporation to preserve the continued operation of the business after the death
of the principal owner. If tax factors warrantp the ovmer may direct or authoriao
his executors to incorporate the business at his death and distribute the stock
to his beneficiaries. Note here that the stock is to be distributed not its value.

Properly planned "buy and sell agreements" on business interests, to take
effect on the death of the ovmer offer many worth ivhile savings in values, time,
effort, and tax liabilities, particularly on family farming corporaticxis.

Good Planning is Important

Allc^T time for adequate thought and planning of these problems. Get the best
professional advice from an attorney, accountant, and insurance advisor as well
as your banker,

Sovmd and appropriate willb are seldom developed the first time. Have every
Tidll that is prepared, properly executed j each one is better than having no vd.ll
at all, and is usually better than any former mil. To be legal, a vfill must be
written, vfitnessed, and signed according to strict requirements fixed by law.
The drafting of a vail calls for technical skill. To reduce the risk of error
and misunderstanding, you need the professional help of an attorney.

Make it a habit to revise your will as often as you revise your other insur-
ance coverage.

Acknowledgement is made for source of some of the material used in this
discussion to the Small Business Administration-Small Marketers Aids,

L, D, Rhoades

////////////////

THE CONTROL OF FALL AND WINTER V^EEDS

IN STRAirBERRIES WITH CHQCTGALS

Chloro IPC has been recommended for several years for the control of fall
and winter weeds, especially chickvreed, in strav/berries , This material has given
very satisfactory results and has been considered safe when applied at not to
exceed two pounds per acre in the fall, winter, and early spring. At least no
damage has been reported by Hassachusetts growers.

Therefore, it v;as surprising to learn that CIPC has caused injury to straw-
berries in Hew Jersey and Ilichigan. The injury in Michigan was especially severe.
It occurred in all parts of the state where CIPC was used and reduced yields $0
to 100 percent. As a result, CIPC will not be recommended in Michigan until the
reason for this damage is known and methods for the safe application of CIPC are .
vforked out.

\?hat can be substituted for CIPC? Is a dinitro the answer? Uifortunately,
the answer to this must be no, Michigan growers had trouble with DN applied in
the fall of 19^h» An occasional case of injury has occurred in Massachusetts.

Until we find out the reasons for these cases of injury it vrould be better
not to use CIPC or DN for fall or winter weed control in strawberries*

J. S. Bailey

///////// / / / / / / /

coijjmts on outstamding fruit varieties

On the third Thursday of September each year the Annual Meeting of the New
York State Fruit Testing Association is held at Geneva, New York,

This meeting affords an opportunity for those interested in fruit varieties
to see a large assortment of varieties of various fruits and to compare notes
on the merits of some of the newer sorbs. It was ray privilege to attend the
meeting this year and this is a report of some of the impressions vdiich I recieved,

Yifith respect to apple varieties the emphasis seemed to be given to those
7ifhich ripen early. Among these Puritan and Wellington received particular atten-
tion. In a collection of new varieties Puritan was fully as attractive as any
on display and received many favorable comments as a desirable variety ripening
about mid-August,

Wellington is a large attractive apple v/hich ripens at about the same season
as Puritan, It has particular merit as a processing variety and has a strong
tejidency towards annual bearing.

Two new seedlijigs show considerable promise. These are N, Y, 17207 and

N. Y, Ulll, N, Y. 17207 is a cross between Haralson and Mcintosh, It is a firm

attractive apple ripening in the Wealthy season. It appears to be a sort that
would handle well,

N., Y, Ulll is a cross between Mcintosh and Cox Orange, This seedling is
attractive, has excellent quality and ripens a week after Early Mcintosh.

While time did not permit an exhaustive discussion of peach varieties, mention
was made that Kalhaven is being recommended as a desirable variety ripening between
Halehaven and Elberta,

A new pear seedling (N. T, U885) was on display. This is a very productive
Bartlett type ripening between Bartlett and Gorham, It is a cross between
Bartlett and Ewart. Trees of this seedling are available from the New York Fruit
Testing Association,

The Cook grape was on display among the grape varieties and received favorable

comment.

The afternoon vras devoted to a tour of the Experiment Station plantations
during which we were shown thousands of seedlings and named varieties of various
fruits covering an area of five hundred acres.

0. C. Roberts

///////////////

THE PRESENT STATUS OF COIITROLLED ATtiiOSPIIERE STORAGE

As most of you are aiTare, the growth of controlled-atmosphere (C.A.) storage
has been quite rapid since 19^0, In a recent report written by D, G. Dalrymple,
Cornell University, on Marketing Controlled Atmoshpere Apples, he notes that comm-
ercial G, A. storage capacity has increased so rapidly that present capacity is
roughly 10 times v/hat it was in 1900 , In New York State there is sufficient C, A,
storage capacity to hold approximately 10^ of that state's Mcintosh production.

In Massachusetts the growth of C. A. storage has been sufficient during the
past five years so that New York represents the only state with greater capacity
in this type of storage than we have now. This fall the number of G. A, rooms
in Massachusetts is 13 with capacity for approximately 110,000 to 11^,000 bushels.
Good apples from our C. A, storages have generally been well received and have
been sold at premium prices. The rapid growth in C, A, storage capacity virould not
have occurred if this were not so*

So far, the vast majority of the fruit stored in such rooms has been Mcintosh,
However, about 75,000 bushels of Red Delicious are being held in a few rooms in
New York. Also, smaller amounts of Rome and Golden Delicious have been stored in
this fashion.

Michigan, which represents the other important Mcintosh area in this country,
will have several rooms operating this fall. Also, a few such Mcintosh rooms are
operating in Canada, It may be expected that since a fairly large number of comm-
ercially important apple varieties respond favorably to C. A, storage, other sections
of this country will eventually get into this type of storage. Important Red
Delicious producing areas in the Shenandoah-Cumberland region and in Washington
State may eventually build C. A. rooms for this variety. In California one baby
food processor is much interested in C. A, storage for Yellow Neidrtowns so that this
variety can be handled by their processing plants throughout the year,

^F. W. SouthiTick

///////////////

APPLE SORTERS' MANUAL

Do you have a copy of the Apple Sorters' Manual in your packing shed? It is a
useful aid in training or re-training personnel for grading apples for it gives
interpretations based upon United States Grades for Apples, Copies of the Apple
Sorters' Manual can be obtained through your County Extension Service or the
Pomology Department, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts.

Editor

///////////////

-7-

WMT FERTILIZER ELEt.ffiNT DOES THE CULTIVATED BLUEBERRY NEED MOST?

The question of the how and what in fertilizing cultivated blueberries has
been discussed on several occasions in Fruit Notes, Rec5ntly, in the Nov. -Dec,
1955j and the March, 1956, issues reference was made to a nutritional survey in
fields of cultivated blueberries throughout the state. The purpose of the survey
■'ras to find out how several of the most important chemical elements vary in the
leaves under actual grovfing conditions . The field work for this survey was conduct-
ed in the summer of 1955 and the chemical analysis of leaves made in the winter of
1955-56.

Thirty-three blueberry plantings " situated all over the state were visited.
These fields represent a Yd.de range in bush vigor, soil-type, soil management,
cultural practices, fertilization, soil moisture, and climatic ccnditions. Ten
bushes which were considered representative- were selected in each field. The
growth made in 1955 of ten shoots on each of the ten bushes was measured and aver-
aged. Forty leaves were picked from each bush, made into a composite sample,
dried and analysed for nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), potassium (k), calcium (Ca),
and magnesium (Ugo).

The results are given in the following table s

Average shoot Percent in leaveq (dry weight basis)
Growth in inches "1 P K Mg Ca

Highest value
Lowest value

19.2
k,3

2.25
1.13

.12
.07

.61
.33

.26

.11

.69
.36

Average all fields

11 c3

1.76

,09

.U2

.18

.U8

5 good fields
5 poor fields

13.5
7.3

1,72
1.57

.10
.09

.Uo

.19
.18

.U9
.k9

5 cultivated fields 13.7 1.81 ,10 .U8 .16 .U8
5 sod fields JhJx 1.71 .09 .U2 .17 .U5

The highest values for the several elements were not all from the same field.
Neither were the lowest values. These values do not necessarily represent the
maximum range but are probably somewhere near it. Nor should the averages be taken
as the most desirable values. They are merely a handy point of reference.

To get a better idea on the effects of vigor of growth on leaf element content,
five of the best and most vigorously growing fields T/ere selected and compared
\Tith five of the poorest. It is interesting that, although the average shoot
growth of the bushes in the five best fields was nearly twice that in the poor
fields,., nitrogen Yfas the only element which varied enough to appear significant,

■ When five cultivated fields were compared vrith five sod fields, the differ-
ence in growth was slight and again the only element in the leaves which varied
to any extent was nitrogen.

From these data it appears that leaf nitrogen is the element most likely to
change significantly under different grovdng conditions. Experimenters in lifichigan

-8-

reached the same conclusion by a slightly different method. They selected good
and poor bushes in the same field and analysed the leaves for quite a number of
elements including seme of the trace elements. They also found that leaf nitrogen
was the only element which varied significantly.

The results of these analyses are not such as to allov; any sweeping conclusions,
They do suggest that, unless an abnormal condition occurs to make some other element
deficient, nitrogen is the one most apt to be lacking. Therefore, a nitrogen appli-
cation would be most likely to result in increased growth. Other elements may
influence growth and yield through their effect on the absorption and utilization
of nitrogen as well as by their direct effect,

J, S, Bailey

////////////////

T\'JENTY-NINE PERCENT

The Packing House Survey conducted by Professor 0, C, Roberts during the winter
of 195^-1956 revealed J

Twenty-nine percent of the apples that graded below U, S, Fancy failed
to meet the color requirements for the grade,

Approx±mately three times more apples failed to grade U, S, Fancy because
of color than due to pest damage. The same was found to be true in the
19?ii-1955 survey.

What Are You Going To Do About It?

Put an apple with the right kind and amount of color as a minimum in front
of those grading as a guide.

Check packed containers at least once or twice a day to be sure yoiu:' stand-
ard is being maintained,

— ¥. J. Lord
////////////////

HOLIDAY TDffi IS APPLE TI?ffi
Three Seasons of Opportunity! HaloiTeen, Thanksgiving and Christmas,

Holiday time is apple tine - - but people can not get and enjoy apples that
are locked up in a storage. Neither, in these tines, will any product sell unless
some push is put behind the selling. Holiday time is a good time to push apple
sales.

-9-

Those of you who sell to retail stores and direct to consumers have a special
opportunity.

You can work closely vdth food retailers to put up special displays. You
can arrange for y/indow displays in clothing stores, restaurants, dry goods stores
and banks. Special displays are a real problem to them. Help them out by offer-
ing to furnish some apples, com stallcs, seme pumpkins, fall foliage and some
apples. It vfill help both of you.

Those of you who sell direct to consumers can decorate your sales room in
the spirit of the holiday. Really do it up brown. This is the time for large
displays of your regular packages and special displays of special containers.
Gift containers are saleable. So are special arrangements for the living and

dining room table, "Apples for bobbing" "Apples for eating" "Apples for

pies" - - "Apples for holiday desserts" - - "Apples for television treats".

Give 'em the ideas and sell 'em the apples! Hake the holidays really holler 11

Holidays can be bright spots in a season of good selling if you put an enthu-
siastic spark in your sales promotion. That spark must come from you,

F. E. Cole

////////////////

AFPROVED FARM STAW PROGRAII

¥ith the receipt of the most attractive signs from the manufacturers, the
Massachusetts Fruit Growers Association Approved Farm Stand Program has gotten
off to a good start.

Each of the ten growers who made initial application for use of the sign
have as a part of the program, agreed to be guided by the follov/ing Code of Ethics
in the conduct of their stand business.

Code of Ethics for Approved Farm Stands

To all customers;

The undersigned has agreed to operate this roadside stand or farm
sales room in accordance with the folloviring Code of Ethics;

1, To maintain the stand, stand surroundings and signs to present a neat and
attractive appearance,

2, To feature local items, v;ith at least 60^ of items sold to be produced by
stand operator,

3, To display only products in good firm usable condition,
U. To use only clean containers.

-10-

5, To use a grade mark on all products whenever official grades are available
for the product and to have the product under a grade mark qualify under the
grade indicated,

6, To pack all containers vd-th at least the v/eight or volume common for the pack-
age and to have the face of each package represent the contents of the package,

7, To have the name and address of the operator on or in each container,

8, To have items on display plainly priced, vd-th neat readable signs,

9, To state the variety and grade when advertisijig price in newspapers or on the
radio whenever official grades are available,

10, To- treat all customers with courtesy and consideration favorable to the devel-
opment of a good reputation for tlie Approved Farm Stand sign,

11, To display the APPROVED FARM STAND CODE OF ETHICS in a prominent place in the
stand at all times.

The benefit to be derived from this program which is aimed at increasing
consumer- confidence in fruit and other produce purchased at the farm is great both
from the grower as well as consumer stand point. The more growers who come into
it the greater will be the benefit to all,

— -A, P, French

////////////////

SIXTY-ONE PERCENT

The results of the Packing House Survey conducted during the winter of 19^^-
19^6 showed:

Mechanical injury amounted to 61 percent of the total cause of apples
being below the grade of U, S, Fancy.

Mechanical injury amounted to five times pest damage.

What Are You Going to Do About It?

Time spent checking the grading and packing operation will pay dividends.

Have you ever checked the condition of apples in your packed containers?

Is your grading and packing equipment or grading personnel causing
much of this mechanical injury?

-11-

Vfhere is the Excessive Amount of Brvd.sing Occurring?

Dropping of boxed apples on the floor, pallets or when loading or unloading
the truck.

Fast or rough dumping of apples onto receiving belt of the grader.

In the apple brusher - cleaner brushes and buffer clothes may be covered vd,th
wax which accvunulates dirt that bruises the apples.

Running a brusher too fast and with too few apples.

Fruit rolling dovm an incline and striking a sharp unpadded corner of the

grader.

During a change in elevation such as when the apples roll from the sorter
onto the sizing chain of a chain sizing unit,

Yifhen the apples are spun into a rotary bin by the rubber-tube ejector unit
of the revolving wheel grader.

Filling bins too full.

Palling apples down in a bin,

\'ifhen the fruit is transferred to a unit moving at a much different rate of speed.

Belt burn when too many fruits are on a moving belt.

Too many fruits being forced through the grader at one time.

Packing personnel dropping apples into the packages,

Lidding overfilled boxes.

Stacking boxes that are too full.

Rough jouncing to settle apples in a bag.

Cartons are good but they should not be thrown.

— W. J. Lord

////////////////

FR

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Liming Orchord Soils

Water Core of Apples

How Consumers Buy Apples

Time to Lime

Will the Beach Plum Respond toan
Application of Fertilizer?

Do It Now!

An Evaluation of Mouse Control Methods

Casualty Insurance

Observations on the Boston Market

NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 15, 1956

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, J ames W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director.

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 19 14; University of Massachusetts, Unitea

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No, 19,

TOUR POMOLOQY DEPARTMENT

Anderson, James •> Instructor

Teaohes courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematio
Pomology,

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham.

Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums. Mr» Bailey
also does considerable Extension work with small fruit growers.

French, Arthur P. - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Ponology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest omtrol,
and is scraenhat involved in research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Robeirta, Oliver C*- Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fniit marketing and other departmental courses.
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, Franklin W, - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests-
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses*

Contributors to this Issue from Supporting Fields
Ralph W, Donaldson, Extension Agronomist

Wesley R, Jones, Assistant District Agent, TJ. S. Pish & Wildlife Service
Howard A. Merrill, District Agent, U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Lawrence D, Rhoades, Extension Specialist in Farm Management

LII.1ING ORCHARD SOILS

The soils in l.Iassachusetbs are naturally acid. In uost productive soils the
soil acids, clay and hunic acid, are combined i;ith bases such as calcium, nagnesiura
and potassium.

Soils become progressively more acid and less productive as calcium, magnesium
and potassium are lost from the soil by leaching and/or by crop removal. The
harmful effect of this acidity on crop yields has been mainly attributed to exces-
sive quantities of hydrogen ions, soluble alimiinum, manganese, iron and to defi-
ciencies of calcium, phosphorus or other essential nutrients,

Ilany agricultural practices speed up the acidification of the soil. In
orchards the continued use of sulfur to control fungus diseases T/ill increase soil
acidity and accelerate the leaching of calcium, magnesiiun and potassium, Orchard-
ists using sulfur and follovdng the current pest control schedule for apples may
use 200 to 300 pounds of sulfur per acre per year. Since it takes approximately
three pounds of limestone to neutralize one pound of sulfur, knovdng how many
pounds of sulfur compounds he buys for the year and the per cent sulfur in these
compounds, the groover can figure the approximate amount of lime it will take to
neutralize the acidifying effect of the sulfur.

In addition to sulfur, several of the common nitrogenous fertilizers produce
residual acidity. Ammonium sulfate produces the most residual acidity of the
common nitrogen fertilizers. It take 110 pounds of limestone to neutralize the
acidity developed by the use of 100 pounds of this compound. Ammonium nitrate and
urea, also, have an acidifying effect on the soil.

Effect of Lime on the Orchard Soil

Chemically, lime brings about many complex changes in an acid soil. If added
in sufficient amounts, limestone corrects soil acidity and eliminates aluminum,
iron and manganese toxic conditions, Overliraing may create iron, boron and man-
ganese deficiency. These deficiences, hovrever, would probably occur only if the
soils were limed above the neutral point (pH 7,0), By decreasing iron and aluminum,
phosphorus becomes more available. In addition, liming soils increases the calcium
and magnesium (v;hen magnesium-containing lime is used) content of the soil.

Biologically, lime influences soil organisms thereby increasing the activity
of the soil organic matter and nitrogen. The rate of turnover of these constituents
is more important than the actual amounts present. Decay and ammonification are
markedly speeded up by limng an acid soil. Nitrogen-fixation bacteria are stim-
ulated and nitrification, the change of ammonia nitrogen to nitrate nitrogen,
proceeds more rapidly.

Physically, lime may improve the physical structure of soils.

Testing Soils For Acidity

Soil tests are useful for the determination of lime needs in orchards. With-
out a standarized sampling procedure, however, and careful adlierence to this pro-
cedure, the value of the soil sample is negligible.

-2-

lifhen to Sample

Soil samples may be taken any tiiue the soil isn't frozen. The results of
soil samples taken after harvest, hov/ever, are useful for determining the amount
of lime to apply in late fall or winter months, the usual time lime is applied,

Method of Taking Soil Samples

1, If there are two or more distinct soil types vd-thin the orchard block
being sampled, each should be sampled separately. The same is true if portions
of the block have received different lime and fertilizer treatments,

2, Sample each soil type as follovTS;

a. Scrape away the mulch and grass from the area to be sampled under the
drlpline of the tree,

b. Take the soil sample with an augur to the full depth of the surface
soil as shown by the change in color,

c. In place of an augur, a spade may be used. Care should be taken to
take a slice of uniform thickness, top to bottom. First expose the
surface soil to its full depth, then cut off a slice about an inch
thick. Break or cut the side of the slice to produce a column one
inch thick and about t\ro inches wide and as deep as the surface
soil depth,

d. Take one boring or soil slice beneath the dripline of each 10th -
15th tree in a block. After obtaining five such borings or soil
slices, place them in a clean container such as a pail and mix
throughly. From this composite sample remove about 1 cupful of
soil for the test. If the soil is wet and soggy, place on wax paper
and air dry. Place the composite soil sample in a clean container
such as an ice cream container or a tobacco can,

e. Repeat process described in 2-d until the v^hole orchard block has
been sampled,

f . Label each container with date, ovmer of farm and orchard name or
number*

g. In many instances a subsoil sample should be taken. To do this en-
large the hole from which surface soil sample was taken and bore or
dig into the subsoil. The sampling procedure is the same as that
for the surface soil,

3, Acidification caused by sulfur spraying or dust is greatest under the trees,
Therefore, the need for lime is greatest in this area. In order to evaluate the
Ime application procedure, sample the soil vd.thin three to four feet of the trunk.
One composite sample obtained as described in 2-d should be sufficient.

-3-

Klnd of Lime to Use

J.'Iagnesium deficiency can be found in many orchards in Massachusetts, A survey
conducted in 1953 to obtain data on the nutritional status of orchards in Mass-
achusetts revealed that magnesium was below the desirable range in kO per cent
of the orchards surveyed. Therefore, the orchardist should use a magnesium lime-
stone preferably one which contains at least 20 per cent magnesium oxide (HgO),
Such applications of high magnesium lime not only reduce soil acidity, thus in-
creasing the availability of soil nutrients already present in the soil, but they
also add magnesium and calcium which are necessaiy for plant growth.

When to Lime

Lime may be spread any time the soil is firm enough to support the spreader
equipment and when it can be done without knocking off fruits. Generally it is
spread during the winter months.

How Much Lime

It is desirable for orchard soils to be in the pH range of 6,0 to 6,5. Hov/-
ever, the attainment of the pH in orchards having soil more acid than is desired
will be a slow process because lime penetrates soil slov;ly.

First, the orchardist should have his soil tested to determine the lime require-
ment. Since experiments have shown that heavy applications of lime penetrate more
rapidly than lighter applications, the lime required should be applied in one
application. As much as 5 to 6 tons of lime may be applied in one application if
economically feasible.

Under the present (1956) Agricultural Conservation Program; "No soil test is
needed for applications of 2 to 3 tons of lijne per acre, A soil test is required
if more than 3 tons or less than 2 tons per acre are to be applied," In the
majority of the liassachusetts orchards, however, more than threetons of lime per
acre are needed.

After the initial application of lime, the soil should be retested in 3 to 5
years and additional lime applied if needed. Once the desired pH is attained, it
may be expected to be maintained by an application of one ton of lime every five
years. This nay vary with soil type, however. Sandy soil requires more frequent
use of lime but requires lesser amounts than heavier soil types.

If the trees have magnesium deficiency, due to the slow penetration of surface
applications of dolomitlc lime, a complete control of this disorder may not be
effected for 3 to 5 years. In the meantime supply magnesium to the leaves, by
applying epsom salts at the rate of 20 pounds per 100 gallons, Tvto or three
applications should be made starting with the calyx or first cover spray.

Spreading the Lime

The most popular method of spreading lime is with a lime-spreading truck.
Taking everything into account, many fruit growers consider this the most econom-
ical way of getting lime spread. However, the friiit grower should supervise the
spreading operation.

lime spreading trucks are usually hopper-shaped with an endless or screw-
type conveyor located in the bottom, Tliis conveyor moves the lime back to the
spreading mechanism mounted on the rear of the truck. These mechanisms are of
two main types: the fan or spinner type, and the transverse-conveyor type. For
liming orchards the former type of spreading mechanism is preferred. In this
type of spreading m.echanism, the conveyor in the hopper delivers the limestone
onto tvfo rapidly rotating circular fans or spinners vrith radiating vanes that
throyr the lime out<> Some lime trucks have a metal plate under the two spinners
vihich enables the throwing of a larger proportion of the lime under the trees
vifhere it is needed most.

Some fruit growers still do their own spreading using a lime sov/er, fertilizer
distributor or other types of distributors. Whatever type is used the emphasis
should be placed on getting the largest proportion of the lime under the trees
v/here the need is greatest,

— ^V/. J, Lord

////////////////

WATER CORE OF APPLES

It has been noted by growers this year that Delicious apples and strains
of this variety were suffering from a considerable amount of water core at harvest
time. This disorder always develops while the fruit is on the trees and has
generally been considered to be most serious on various apple varieties as the
fruit approaches maturity or definitely becomes overripe. Most authorities have
indicated and data have shown that this disorder is most prevalent in areas or
seasons of intense svmlight and high temperature. The fact that water core is
prevalent on our Delicious this year seems surprising in view of this general
concept that high light and high temperature are primary causal factors since
we've just experienced a cool gra\'dng season and the fruit vjas not overripe from
the standpoint of flesh firmness,

Hovrever, H, A, Schemer working for the U,S,D,A, at Wenatchee, Washington,
has noted recently that temperatures near 30°F. during the har-vest season may
help to induce the development of water core, also, This cool harvest season
effect and later than average harvesting of the variety may be important reasons
for the presence of water core in some of our Delicious this year.

Water core is, also, most apt to occur in apples that are grovm on trees that
are carrying less than a full cropo Large apples are more susceptible to water
core than small ones. Certainly, many of our Delicious trees were not carrying
a large crop and the average fruit size was greater than usual this year.

The question of what can be done about water core and how the fruit should
be handled is of some concern to many growers. Studies on water core indicate
that if the disorder is not too severe it may largely disappear in storage.
Generally the rate of disappearance is faster at field temperatures than at 32°F,
However, Delicious held at v;ana temperature ivill r ipen and soften faster than

-5-

finiit huld in a refrigerated storage, A study in lichigan published in 1930 by
R, E, Marshall indicated that about 75 percent of the water core present in
Delicious at harvest disappeared after 11 weeks in cold storage.

However, it should be remembered that severe water core may not disappear,
no matter how the fruit is stored. Also, fniit that has had this disorder is
much more subject to internal breakdovm in storage even after the vrater core has
disappeared. Hence^ it seems to us that if your Delicious vrere suffering from a
cor.siderable amount of water core at harvest time that the fruit be disposed of
fairly early in the marketing season, Tfe suggest that storage operators check
their holdings of Delicious regularly (large apples especially) so that serious
development of internal breakdown in this variety does not occur prior to sale.
It would be desirable to observe fruit after it has been held a week at room
temperature rather than to limit your observations to fruit under refrigeration,

F. W. Southfdck

//////////////////

HOYf CONSTOERS BUY APPLES

Mohigan State University has recently issued a bulletin entitled "Consumer
Purchases of Apples in 1953" by J, D, Shaffer and G. G. Quackenbush, The follow-
ing interesting information is found in the summary and conclusions.

1, The U, S consumption of apples has been declining at the rate of about

1 pound per person per year since 1920, based upon a straight trend line,

2, In 1953, panel families' purchases of fresh apples amounted to about l6
percent of their expenditures for fresh fruits and about 8 percent of the
total spent for fresh fruits and vegetables together. Apples v/ere third
in dollar volume among the fresh fruits and vegetables j only bananas and
potatoes received greater expenditures,

3, Apple sales are highly seasonal. For the 1953-195U crop year, over 20 per-
cent of the apples purchased during the year were bought during Octoberj
about 50 percent were bought during the 12 vireeks starting September 6o

U, During the year, 35 percent of the apples were purchased in units of 5
pounds or less« Less than 8 percent v/ere bought in 6-pound units. Almost
50 percent of the apples vrere purchased in units larger than 10 pounds.
Since the typical retail grocer seldom handles units over 10 pounds, this
indicates that a large portion of the apples are retailed through other
channels ,

5. There is an important seasonal difference in both the average size of
purchase and the distribution of size of apple purchase, indicating that
the optimum size of pre-packaged units varies during the season. Similarly,
the fact that larger families tend to buy in large quantities per purchase
indicates that a variety of package sizes to meet the needs of different
families should be made available for maximum total sales.

-6-

6, Large variations in apple purchases existed bet\/een faiailes. Quantities
purchased varied from 0 to 372 pounds per farxLly for the year. One-fifth
of the families bought hi percent of all the apples purchased,

7, Annual quantities purchased per person -varied from 0 to 1^0 pounds. The
top 20 percent of the families buying the most apples bought 68 pounds per
person, compared to only 6 pounds for the 20 percent of the families buy-
ing the fewest apples per capita ^ If the average consvimption could be
increased to that of the one-fifth of the families buying the most apples
per person^, consumption frould be increased by over 230 percent.

8. The range in expenditures per person among families was from '^0 to $11.
The one-fifth of the families spending the most for fresh apples per
person spent 210 percent of the average expenditure, compared to 23
percent for the lowest groupo

9. Total quantities bought per person were related to both frequency of
purchase and quantity bought per purchase. The fifth of the families
buying the most apples per person bought apples about three and a half
times as often and in quantities about three and a half times as large

per purchase as did the fifth of the families buying the smallest quantity.
This indicates that one way of expanding sales vrould be to extend the
period T^hen apples are available at usual shopping places, thus increasing
the number of purchases duriiig the year,

10, The range in average price paid for fresh apples was from 2,7 to 20c5 cents
per poiand. The fifth of the families paying the lovrest prices purchased
in larger than average quantities and with less than average frequency;
they spent an average amount for apples, but bought a much larger than
average quantity per capita,

11, There was some indication that families with higher incomes per capita
bought more apples per person than those \n.th lower incomes, and that one
and two member fandlies bought more apples per person than larger families.
However, the correlation bet^ieen per capita purchases and tnese family
characterisitcs (age and education of the homemaker, per capita income and
size of family) is very law. The same is true in respect to total expend-
itures for all apples. Neither income nor the other factors appear to be
as important as individual taste in explaining the large variations in
consumption .

12, The follovijng tabulation shorjs the percent of families who did not buy
particular processed apple products during the year.

Product Percent buying none

during entire year

Canned apple sauce ^0

Apple cider 68

Canned pie apples 67

Canned apple juice 85

Editor

////////////////

-7-

TEffi TO iim

Acidity is like sickness - an ounce of orevuntion may be ii/orth a pound of
"cure" .

Many folks prefer to remain healtlay by follOTving a reasonable diet. Then
why not treat your soil and crops the same v/ay?

By Keeping, Them "Svfeet".

''•ihy not try a policy of liming sods befor^ they run out?

1. Tlie lime will be slowly penetrating and working.

2, It may help your crop and vron't be lost.

It should keep "svreet" soils up and improve others,

3c Spreading can be done more easily vrtien conditions are firm -
summer, fall, or when the ground is frozen,

h» You can save time and labor through bulk spreading,

5* Vifhen time comes to plow and harrow, the lime will be better
mixed through the soil,

6, If you should turn up acid bottom soil, then lime it some -
it won't need as much,

7. Judge the lime rate and frequency by means of soil tests.
Treatments might run 3 to $ year intervals.

By Keeping Them Acid.

Of course, if you vrait until sods run out, or the soil is really acid, it may
take a heavy liming job to start a new seeding off.

Too often it has been necessary to rush this operation in the spring, when
getting stuck-in-the-mud is most certain |

— R, \'[. Donaldson

////////////////

WLL THE BEACH PLUII RESPOND TO AN APPLICATION OF FERTILIZER?

Iiihy doesn't the beach plimi die of starvation? It is so often found on sand
dunes where any compounds other than salt from salt spray must be very scarce.
Any nitrogen, which is so essential to the grov/th of plants, that reaches the
sand would certainly be washed out by the first rain. Yet the beach plum is able
to live under such conditions » How can it?

-6-

A plant which is livin^^ so near the verge of starvation ought to respond
markedly to an application of fertilizer it would seem. An experiment was start-
ed in the spring of 19^3 to see what beach plijims would do if given rather heavy
amounts of fertilizer. In one field, five-bush ^olots were fertilized with a
7_7_7 fertilizer at rates of 2^0, 500,, 1000., and 2000 pounds per acre. The fer-
tilizer on the 250-pound plot was applied in early April, On the other plots
half v/as applied in early Apiril aixi half about June 1, Each year a record was
made of yield and the amount of terminal grovrth. Leaves were analysed for total
nit-rogen to determine if nitrogen from the fertilizer had been picked up and
whether differences in amount applied would be reflected in the amount found in
the leaves 0 The three-year averages are given in the following table;

Fertilizer
applied
Pounds per
acre

Pounds of
fruit per
plot

Average terminal
growth per bush
in inches

Percent
nitrogen
in leaves

none

85

2.1

2.27

250

67

2.2

2.27

500

101

2.3

2.27

1000

86

3.2

2.37

2000

50

2,8

2.37

It is apparent that an application of as much as a ton of 7-7-7* which would
supply lUO pounds of actual nitrogen per acre, had very little, if any, effect on
the yield and groiTth of the bushes or the nitrgen content of their leaves. The
bushes on the 2000-pound plot were smaller initially than those on the other plots
T/hich accounts for the poor yield on that plot.

The lack of response of the beach plums to such heavy applications of fertil-
izer was not anticipated. It is probably associated vo.th Yrater relations* The
soil on which these beach plums are planted is sand underlaid with gravel and it
drys out very rapidly. Although the total rainfall for the grawmg season, April
through September, was not low for any of the three years, the distribution was
poor. There were dry periods of considerable duration in each season. Lack of
viater appeared to be the limiting factor.

In another location some beach plums along a stone wall vrere fertilized with
enough nitrogen carrying fertilizer to give 200 pounds of actual nitrogen per
acre. During a two-year period the fertilized bushes averaged 17.8 inches of
terminal grovrth, the unfertilized 7,6 inches. These bushes failed to bear because
beach plums are self -sterile and cross pollination was not provided. The greater
growth at this location probably resulted partly from no crop and partly from a
better soil and more moisture. These bushes are near a planting of cultivated
blueberries which indicates that moisture is available most of the time.

These experiments re-emphasize the fact that water can be a limiting factor
even mth a plant which is adapted to living in dry places. Where water is limit-
ing, any attempt to increase grovrth and yield by other means than adding vrater has
little chance of success. Deriving profits from planting beach plums in dry sandy
locations appears to have some limitations,

— J, S. Bailey

////////////////

-9-

DC IT HOVjI

Remember last soring when the homeoT/mers were calling in about those rabbit-
chewed backyard dwarf fruit trees, and the commercial growers wanted to know v/hat
to do about those hopping pests that were skinning the bark off their trees? It
was too late then to do anything except cry about it, bridge-graft, or in-arch.
But it is not too late now for this season.

Rabbits live on a diet composed of a large variety of plants. By treating
the plants vfhich v/e consider desirable v/ith a material distasteful to the rabbit,
we cause it to sviritch its attention to other plants. Only taste repellents have
proven practical; area repellents are frequently ineffective,

TasiB repellents can be divided into two general classes; (l) winter or dormant
season; and (2) siuomer or growing season repellents. Two good dormant season
repellents are z«i,p, (formerly made by the B, F, Goodrich Chemical Company, and
no-.: compounded by the Larvacide Products, Inc., 117 Liberty Street, New York 6,
Nev; York), and Ringwood Repellent (Ringwood Chemical Company, Ringwood, Illinois),

Explicit directions for their use are given on the label of each package.
The z.i.p, seems to retain its effectiveness best if it is painted on with a brush.
Simply dilute the z.i.p, with only enough water so that it will spread easily ;Yith
a paint brush. The Ringwood product appears to be equally weather-resistant,
whether painted or sprayed on the tree trunk.

In order to properly use these materials, one uust be somewhat of a vreather
prophet. All bark to a height that rabbits might reach during a heavy snow period
must be coated with a repellent,

Ilassachusetts fruit growers can obtain at least one of these repellents from
the following sources:

Caldvrell and Jones
1108 Main Street
Hartford, Connecticut

Eastern Chemical Company
289 Ashland Street
Holliston, Massachusetts

Essex County Cooperative Farming Association

Topsfield

Ilassachusetts

Frank's Market Garden
Allen Street
Springfield, liass.

Frost Insecticide Company
2k Mill Street
Arlington, Massachusetts

— ¥. R. Jones
////////////////

-10-

AN EVALimTIOH OF /lOUSE CONTROL liETHODS

An evaluation of nothods requires extensive and accurate observations incliod-
ing the kno\;ledge of many biological factors. It is surprising to know that some
orchardists erroneously evaluate the effectiveness of last season's control by
tha number of mice present novf. It is known that each spring and summer mice
move into orchards from surroimding areas and through their great reproductive
capacity rapidly repopulate an orchard, thereby requiring annxial control,

. ■ ■ At the present time there are three methods proposed by different agencies.
This article vdll attempt to give the advantages and disadvantages of each method,
Hov/ever, it must be remembered that tests currently are being conducted and the
folloviring opinions are not final,

AIRPI/J'ffi BAITB^G VJITH ZIMG PHOSPHIDE-TREATED C0R1\I; This method consists of
broadcasting 6-b pounds of poisoned cracked corn per acre by flying dovm each tree
rov/.

Advantages ;

Disadvantages ;

1, A large acreage can be treated rapidly,

2. Lot; cost of both materj.al and application,

1. Does not control Pine Mice, Under certain conditions
MeadoY/ Ilice have been controlled effectively, but these
results have not been consistent. This is probably due
to the grain (com or oats) not penetrating through dense
cover to reach active mouse runways,

2. Small orchard blocks are not suitable for airplane coverage.

3. Hazard to vdldlife. Several orchardists have reported find-
ing dead pheasants »

GROUtTO SPRAYING I'TITH ENDRIN; This method is the application of Endrin as a spray
to the ground cover at the rate of 2 pounds actual Endrin per acre.

Advantages :

Disadvantages ;

1, Gives effective control of MeadovT and Pine Mice,

2, Reasonably fast — one sprayer can treat approximately 20
acres per day.

3, Ordinary spray equipment \rith minor changes can be used,

1, Costly, Of the three methods this is the most costly.
The cost of Endrin vdll be |10-l5 per acre, application
costs in addition,

2, This material does not have federal registration for use
in mouse control which should preclude its use.

-11-

3. Hazards, This method is hazardous to humans, domestic
animals, pets, vdldlife, and fish. Several operators
have been ill from exposui'e to this material during
applicationc There is also a hazard to persons eating
sprayed fruit from treated orcharxis. The full chronic
effects are not Imovm, This treatment has resulted in
the death of dogs, a goat, quail, pheasants, rabbits,
opossum, and various song birds,

li. Characteristics and effects of this new chemical are not
fully knovm,

TRAIL BAITING lalTH ZINC PHOSPHIDE APPLE AiTO OATS; This method involves the appli-
cation of specially prepared baits to natural or artificial mouse runivays.

Advantages ; 1, Many years of extensive use have proven the effectiveness

of this method for controlling both Meadovv- and Pine Mice,

2. The method has proven safe from the standpoint of the
operator, domestic animals, and wildlife,

3. It is adaptable for various type of orchards — either
hand-baiting or trail builders can be used.

U, By use of a trail builder, 20-25 acres per day can be
treated.

Disadvantages :

1, In hand-baiting, conscientious personnel is required and
the method is relatively slow*

VJhat Is a Caoualty?

H. A. "iferrill

////////////////

CASUALTY INSURANCE

The term "casualty" refers to an identifiable event of a sudden, unexpected
or unusual nature j a mishap. In general, this means that a casualty loss must
result from a sudden destructive force. Damage from a normal process or from
progressive v/earing out of property through a steadily operating cause — such as
the steady -t/eakening of a foundation from v/ind and v/eather not unusual in nature —
is not a casualty loss. The fact that a flood, hurricane or other disaster is
near is not a casualty, A casualty results only when actual physical damage occurs
to property or there is a partial or complete loss of property. Fire, v/ind storm
damage, flood, collision, accidental death of livestock, damage by lightening, and
hail, are examples of casualty losses.

Farmers are likely to have much of their capital in values of buildings,
livestock, equipment, crops, feed, and supplies, all subject to casualty losses.

-12-

Henco, a farmer needs to be concerned uith the possible efiect of a substantial
casualty loss on his business, his fanil^s vrelfare and his financial position
and ability to continue farming. To provide funds to replace the property loss
or to indemnify the farner for the loss of use or value, insurance is offered by
various companies and for some of the various risks or exposures involved.

Property Casualty Insurance

Insurance provides a way for an individual, the farm ovmer, to contribute to
a fund that v/ill be used to defray expenses that arise from losses due to damage
to, or destruction of, his property by fire or other selected causes.

The insurance company's liability to the policy-holder is nonnally figured
on the actual value at the time of loss of the property destroyed, but not exceed-
ing in any case the coverage specified in the policy. An insurance policy is a
contract c Under its terms, the company agrees to make certain payments or indemnity
for losses that may occur, in return for the payment of a premium.

In most cases, the limit of the insurance company's liability under a policy
has been interpreted to be the depreciated replacement value of the property
damaged or destroyed. Small amounts of damage, which make up the majority of
claims for many companies, are frequently settled by complete replacement or repair.
The most common insurance coverage is that which insures property against damage
resulting from fire, Ifany companies, offer additional endorsements to the original
contract and may give extra coverage c Protection from such hazards as smoke damage,
windstorm, hail, explosion, falling aircraft, etc., may be provided for by an
"extended coverage" endorsement.

Cost of Insurance

Casualty insurance costs vary a good deal; the kind of property insured, its
location, the amount of insurance carried, the risks insured, and the type of
company involved, all have an effect on cost. The type of construction of the
buildings and different kinds of livestock and machinery may have different rates.
Special situations may have attached discounts or penalties. Protective devices
such as lightning rods, approved fire extinguishers, hydrants and farm water supplies
may affect rates. Spacing, use and size of buildings affect rates.

Checking Insurance

In spite of urgent suggestions to policy holders to "Read your Policy" exper-
ience show that few policy holders do so. There are some precautions that farmer
policy-holders should take for their own protection, A partial list is given below:

1, Check the amount of coverage,

A. If the policy covers a single item of property and is the only policy,
amounts shown on the policy in different sections should agree,

B, If the policy is one of several policies on the same property and
policies are in different companies make sure the policies are in
agreement, (i,e, "concurrent" in insurance language) and that the

sum of the amounts of the policies equals the total coverage you want.

-13-

C, If your insurance policy states that the rate i£ affected by a
"co-insurance clause" ('.i.sually 80^j) ask your agent to compare your
coverage with the injure. ble value of the property.

2, Check the "risks" covered by the policj' to be sure that the insurance
policy insures the risks you v;ant covered.

3. If your policy calls for filing a "schedule" or inventory of property on
hand to be insured, (used on some policies on poultry and other livestock)
at stated in"oervals, be sure that this is done»

U, liost policies state that "the company shall not be liable" for loss in
excess of the amount of the policy and shall be liable for loss only in
proportion to the total insurance carried that the policy bears to tiie
total insurance coverage in force. Policies also generally state that
coverage shall not exceed the "actual cash value" at the time of the loss.
As stated above this is usually interpreted to be "depreciated replace-
ment value,"

5. Be sure the policy as written describes the property insured correctly and
also lists the ovmers (holders of title) and any mortgagees or lien holders,

6, Be sure your policy is signed by a representative of the company,

7, Don't hesitate to ask your agent to explain your policy to you. It is his
job to be sure the policy you buy is the policy you ivant.

8. Take an annual inventory of property and keep it in a safe place,

lilhat Insurance to Carry

VJhether you carry insurance against insurable risks depends on the answers
you have to three questions. They are:

1, I'lfhat is the risk I am taking or Tvhat are the chances of a loss?

2, V/hat will it cost to insure against a loss?

3, How would a loss affect me, my family, and my farming business, if I had
a loss?

V.Taile the words of the song go "There's no one with endurance like the man
who sells insurance" it should be remembered that your insurance agent can be a
real help to you in setting up your insurance protection program. It's good
farm management to consider insurance when needed.

Not all insurance companies vfrite insurance on all type of risks . Some risks
are not insured by any company. Recent trends in insurance have been in the direct-
ion of broader coverage (covering more risks) and tov/ards combining more coverage in
the same policy, frequently with little increase in rates and in some cases at lovrer
rates,

L. D. Rhoades

////////////////

-11;-
OBSERVA Tier's 0" THE BC'STOM TARKFT

An important feature of the course in fruit cr.rketinc given by the Pomology
Department is a trip to the Boston iicrkct. One day of this trip is devoted to
giving the boys an opportunity to visit packing houses and storages enroute to
Boston and the follovfing day is spent in and around the Boston Market,

Here are soino of the things the boys saw and heard at the Boston Ilarket on
such a trip taken recently.

They visited the Terminal liarket and the Auction Iiarket, At each of these
they sau fruit and produce uniformly graded and attractively packed in neat neu
packages. Then they vifent to the Faneuil Hall liarket. Here they had an opportunity
to observe the contrast vdth vrhat they had seen previouslyo Tf/hat did they see at
Faneuil Hall Liarket?

1, Stacks of dii'ty v/eather beaten crates junble packed v/ith mixed grades and
various sizes in the same package.

2, Numerous closed packages which failed to carry the markings required by
the i'lassachusetts Apple Grading Law,

3, One lot of apples labelled "Fancy" which obviously v/as a poor grade of
drops with large soft bruises,-

k» One box in i/^ich the following blemishes vrere observed in excessive amounts:
San Jose scale, Curculio^ leaf roller, bud moth and maggot e

5. Golden Delicious apples jumble packed in cartons which bulged in all
dimensions ,

These conditions mentioned above were observed in lots of apples shipped in
from neighboring states as well as those from liassachusetts growers,

6, Several lots carefully graded and uniformly sized, packed in neat cell
cartons „ These lots had eye appeal and were moving readily at good prices,

Tv;o commission men explained to the boys some of the problems involved in the
sale of apples. Both stressed the point that vrell graded, neatly packed apples
will always move at the top of the market, but that there is a limit to the price
that housevfives will pay for apples.

One man in particular who handles a large volume of fruit emphatically
denied that the Boston Market is a "sick" market for he could get as much for
good quality apples as could be obtained elsevfhere. His complaint was that the
best fruit is being sent to other markets and the less desirable grades are being
shipped to Boston, Both predicted that unless grovrers start moving Mcintosh in
greater volume a short crop will become a large crop at the end of the season,

- — 0, C, Roberts
////////////////

"R

J^

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS. AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Research on Orchard Diseases at the
Waltham Field Station

Blueberry Varieties - From "Back When"
Till Now

Just In Case You Have Forgotten

Newer Fruit Vorieties

Pruning Errors

JANUARY 15, 1957

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOUR POMOLOOY DEPARTMENT

Anderson^ James - Inatruotor

Teaohes courses in general Pomology^ small fruit culture and systematio
Pomology.

Bailey^ John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Warehara*

Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums. Mr. Bailey
also does considerable Extension work with small fruit growers.

French, Arthur P. - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, UTilliam J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest control,
and is sanewhat involved in research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberta, Oliver 0 ^Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses*
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, Franklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests-
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses*

Contributors to this Issue from Supporting Fields
E. F. Cuba, Research Professor of Botany
E. H. Wheeler, Extension Batomologist

RESE/'.RCH ON ORCH/iRD DISEASES
at the

¥Altha;i field station

Orchard disease research has been a part of the overall activity of the
ViTaltham Field Station almost from the beginning of its establishiiient as the ilarket
Garden Field Station in Lexingtoft in 1917. The v;ork vras done by members of the
staff of the Botany Department ot the University, originally by v/ebster S. Krout
(1920-22), then William L, Doran (1923-2?), and from 1928 by the writer. The
work Mia3 related to disease control, spray injury, dust vs. spray and laboratory
and service work,

Krout 's work ell owed that Bordeaux mixture v/as as good as lime sulfur in the
pre-blossom sprays. Lime sulfur ?:as advised for the rest of the schedule (/ass.
Sta. Bui. 21i;, 1923). Doran showed that there was nothing gained from copper
sprays or dusts before bloom. Preference was given to lime sulfur and sulfur dusts.
Omitting copper materials significantly lessened fruit russet. Lime sulfur and
lead arsenate caused foliage injury, but a dry mix of sulfur, lime and casein
(New Jersey Dry ilix) did not.

This vras the beginning of the trend tovrard vrettable, insoluble sulfurs.
The fineness of sulfur particles \vas emphasized, and eventually perfection was
reached with sulfurs with particles in a range of 1-3 microns in diameter. In
this respect the paste sulfurs were unique. This viras a vast improvement over
75-100 micron sulfur used in the first dry mix sulfurs in the period 1922-2^ and
coincidentally in better control of scab. Lime sulfur became less and less worthy
and then in 19U3 it was omitted altogether from our official schedule of applications.

Yifith improvements in fine particle size came multiple X sprays, concentrates
and mist blovrers, air borne machines and improvements in dusting to improve dis-
tribution and coverage, and less dependence on virater as a carrier.

The introduction and success of ferbam was sensational. The substitution of
ferbam for sulfur eliminated fruit russet on Delicious. It improved foliage color
and yields by supplying nitrogen directly through the leaves. It gave better
control of apple rust than sulfur. The circumstances led to exhaustive search for
more and better dithiocarbamate fungicides, Ferbam was follov/ed by ziram, zineb,
maneb, for vegetable disease control, replacing the traditional copper fungicides,
and by thiram and the new iron and manganese carbamates.

The phenyl mercury fungicides were introduced in the early forties, and what
an immense help they have been in serious scab situations. They replaced lime
sulfur for eradicating scab. They gave back-action control of scab three to four
days from the beginning of the rain- infection period. Scab control with back-
action fungicides exploded the idea of protection in advance of infection rains as
the one and only method of controlling scab, Coincidentally, in-the-rain spraying
and dusting became a feature of the grovier's practice.

In the progress with organic fungicides we have also seen the trend away from
lead arsenate in the apple schedule and its elimination altogether from the peach
schedule. These circumstances have given the fungicide schedules a greater measure
of safety.

_2-

The strong trend to dichlone, captan and glyodin, and the promise demonstrated
by thirara and the new iron and manr;anese carbamates characterize the present era
of fungicides on orchard fruits. The most recent materials preserve the natural
function of the foliage and the satin finish of the fruit. Glyodin is in addition
an excellent spreader-sticker, thus being valuable in combination with other fungi-
cides. All of the nevif materials except Phygon may be used with superior type oils
at delayed dormant, Ife now have safe fungicides for all varieties and for inter-
planted apples and peaches, Thiram does not injure peach foliage, nor is it in-
jurious to Red Delicious foliage. Both of these circumstances have restricted the
use of captan, Thiram, like ferbam, controls the apple rust diseases. These
newer materials are compatible with phenyl mercury. The half and half mixtures in
general show advantage by better all-purpose fungicidal action and greater safety
to the foliage. Greater tolerance, better wetting, and better disease control
feature the new fungicides.

The fruit disease work at V/altham has been publicized at growers' meetings in
annual reports of the Ilassachusetts Fruit Growers' Assn. and Ilass. Agr, Experiment
Station, scientific meetings and otherwise. The tests and observations have been
useful in contributing to improvements and revisions of the fruit spray schedules,

Apple growers are familiar with the professional character of the 1956 apple
soray schedule. It comprises ih pages of pertinent information to guide the grower
to produce a clean crop of apples. The progress of change in a period of near ^0
years can be appreciated from a glance at the apple spray schedule of 1913. In
those days apples were packed in barrels and the spray schedules were prepared by
clerks in the State House in Boston, The tv/o important sprays came at dormant for
scales and at calyx for codlihg moth and leaf feeding insects. Scab was of minor
importance. The schedule was composed of six spray applications, but in many cases
only two were necessary. The materials used were lime sulfur or miscible oil at
dormant, and lime sulfur, Bordeaux and lead arsenate for the other spray applications
The array of pests today represents a vast change from the past and obviously makes
an alert research and extension program a necessity. The present activity of the
writer on fruit diseases involves two projects;

Investigation of Fungicides that Promise Value in Apple Disease Control,
Presently we have been comparing Thiram, the iron and manganese Vancides, Glyodin,
Captan, and US 605 (thiram and dichlone combined). The materials were combined
rtth superior type oils at delayed dormant and with insecticides recognized in the
official spray schedule.

Taxonomy, Infection Cycle and Fungicidal Control of Peach Canker caused try
the fungus Fusicoccum amygdali. The late Dr, 0. C, Boyd reported this disease in
peach orchards of southeastern Massachusetts in 19iiO and this was the first report
of the disease in Ilassachusetts, When the disease came to ray attention in 19Sh,
it was epidemic and destructive, and a subject worthy of immediate study, V/e
have investigated the organism causing peach canker, the infection cycle and in-
fection sites. We have organized spray schedules to fit vulnerable periods in
the life history of the pathogen. In the beginning of our work the disease v/as
a big question mark, and our knowledge of its control was zero. By fundamental
stiidies, life history and infection studies, and spraying tests, the various aspects

-3-

of the problem have been pieced together into a comprehensive understanding of the
pathogen and its control, The grovrers in Bristol County, realizing the "life and
death" character of the problem, have cooperated splendidly. Now the disease is
well under control,

vJith the expansion of the orchard of Waltham, and recognition of our fruit
disease progranis, we will continue to serve the fruit industry in the study of
disease problems peculiar to Massachusetts.

E. F. Guba

////////////////

BLUEBERRY WiRIETIES .■ FROM "Bf.CK VvHEM" TILL NOW

The blueberry breeding programs of several institutions have arrived at a
point ViThere a considerable number of new introductions may be expected in the near
future. As new names appear on the variety list, the tendency is to forget those
which have proved useful in the past. It might be v/ell, therefore, to stop occa-
sionally and take another look at these "old friends" as v/ell as to examine the
possibilities of the nevit

Although some sporadic selecting had been done previously, the orderly approach
to the development of named varieties of cultivated blueberries was started in 1909.
The first varieties to be named and -introduced \rere selections from the vdld. uost
of the selecting was done by iiiss Elizabeth C, v/hite of ViTiitesbog, N. J, and Dr.
F. V. Coville of the U, S, Dept. of Agricultiore » Among the selections, Sooy,
Russell, Brooks, and Chatswcrth never became of commercial importance. They vrei-e
used for breeding only.

The six selections, Rubel, Sam, Dunfee, Adams, Harding, and Grover were used
commercially for a while, but only Rubel continues to be grovm,

Rubel has survived because of its productiveness and general hardiness, Rubel
ripens late and has a very long picking season. The fruit is only medium in size,
firm, raedixm blue, fairly attractive, and has a good scar and good flavor. The
bush is upright, vigorous, very productive, and resistant to a wide variety of ad-
verse conditions. Some growers have indicated that because of its productivity
and reliability they would plant more if they did further planting.

The early hibridization was done by Dr. F. V. Coville of the U. S. Dept. of
Agriculture. The first three of his selections. Pioneer, Cabot, and Katherine, \;ere
named and introduced in 1920,

Pioneer (Brooks X Sooy) r/as a very popular mid-season variety for many years
and many can still be found in commercial plantings in Llassachusetts . It has
outstandingly fine flavor but the bush is only moderately vigorous and requires
much detailed pruning which is costly. The berries decrease in size rather rapidly
at the end of the season. It is no longer reccinmended in Massachusetts,

-h-

Cabot (Brooks X Chatsworth) is an early variety v»rhich had only earliness to
recommend it. The fruit lacks flavor and cracks after rains. The bush is very
subject to the stunt virus and gets crovm gall in wet locations. It hasn't
been recommended for many years,

Katherine (Brooks x Sooy) has such fine flavor that at one time it was refer-
red to as the Llclntosh of blueberries. The bush was vigorous and fairly product-
ive. It's great fault was difficulty in picking. The skin tore so often and so
badly as to spoil the looks of a basket and hurt keeping of the berries. It never
became a commercial variety.

In 1926 two more of Dr, Coville's hybrids, Greenfield and Rancocas, were
introduced, Greenfield (Brooks X Russell) was an early, low growing type v/ith
small, dark fruit. It never was planted commercially,

Rancocas [(Brooks X Russell) X Rubelj is an early variety which rates high
with some New Jersey growers because of its productiveness. In T'lassachusetts
the bushes are slow in coming into production, the berry clusters are tight, making
the first picking or two difficult. The first berries are large if the bushes are
well pruned but size decreases rapidly as the season progresses. It is not
recommended for Massachusetts.

Jersey and Concord were iiitroduced in 1928, Jersey (Rubel X Grover) is still
one of our good ccmmercial varieties. The bush is upright, vigorous, productive,
and hardy. The fruit ripens late^ v/ith Rubel, is medium to large in size, firm,
attractive, a good blue, and has a good scar and good flavor, if the berries are
left on the bush till thoroughly ripe. The fruit stems are long vfhich makes the
clusters open and the berries easy to pick.

Concord (Brooks X Rubel) is a raidseason variety which performed well in some
parts of liassachusetts but not in others. Because of its variable performance
and the availability of better varieties, it is no longer recommended.

Two years later, in 1930, Stanley and June vrere introduced, Stanley (Katherine
X Rubel) is a very fine flavored, second early variety. It attained some popular-
ity in New Jersey but v;as never planted extensively by Massachusetts growers. The
bush is upright and vigorous but has too open and straggly a type of gro^vth. Under
JIassachusetts conditions it has not produced very well except in the hands of a
very few growers. It is being replaced by more productive varieties,

June [JBrooks X Russell) X Rube]] is a very early variety. The bush is very
slow to come into bearing and lacks vigor. It never attained commercial status
in Massachusetts.

Scammell ^Brooks X Chatsworth) X Rubel) was introduced in 1931. It proved
to be too sensitive to winter cold to be of any value in Massachusetts,

The three varieties, Vifareham, l^eymouth, and Dixd. were named and introduced
in 1936, Wareham (Rubel X Harding) was popular in Massachusetts for a time because
of the vigor and productiveness of the bush and the lateness and high flavor of
the berries. It has two serious faults. The fruit is dark colored and is cracked
badly after rains. For these reasons it is no longer recommended.

-5-

vJeymouth (June X Cabot) is a very early variety. The bush is small and weak
and not very productive , It has never been recoiianended for liassachusetts ,

Dixi j (Jersey X Pioneer) X Stanley)] made a real sensation vihen it was intro-
duced. It"Tiad produced berries nearly an inch in diameter^ the largest berries
up to that time. The bush is upright, moderately vigorous, and moderately produc-
tive under riassachusetts conditions. The fruit ripens late, is very large and
.firm, has fair flavor, a fair scar and is a fair blue in color. Because of its
size, it was recommended for home gardens for those who wished large berries. It
is no longer recommended since varieties such as Berkeley and Herbert are just as
large and are better varieties. The naming of this variety is interesting. It
was the last variety named and introduced by Dr. Coville before his retirement.
He used the icbin word Dixi because, as he explained, it was used by Roman orators
at the end of a speech. It means, I have spoken.

Three more varieties were introduced in 1939, Atlantic, Pemberton, and Burl-
ington. Atlantic (Jersey X Pioneer) has not been popular with most liassachusetts
grovrers. The bush is sIoxy to come into bearing. Only a fev^ growers like it a
The fruit ripens late, is medium to large in size, has good flavor and color, a
very good scar, and is very good for freezingc It is not recommended,

Burlington (Rubel X Pioneer) is very late and very cold resistant. The fruit
has an unusually small, dry scar. However, the bush is small and only fairly pi'O-
ductive and the berries are small. It is not recommended for liassachusetts ,

Pemberton (Katherine X Rubel) is one of our commercial varieties. The bush
is upright, vigorous, and productive. It has been quite winter hardy. The fruit
ripens late, although not quite so late as Rubel. It is large, firm and attract-
ive. It has excellent flavor, good blue color, but a poor scar.

It was ten years before the next tvro varieties were introduced in 19U9. These
were Berkeley and Coville, two of the so-called Big Sx%, Their performance over
several years has been very satisfactory* They are recommended for commercial and
home planting,

Berkeley, (Stanley X (Jersey X Pioneer)! ripens in midseason. The bush is
upright, vigorous, productive, and easy to propagate. The berries are extremely
large, light blue in color, firai, mild flavored, and have a large, dry scar,

I—'
Coville [(Jersey X Pioneer) X Stanley) , another of the Big Six, is a very
late variety, ripening after Rubel, It has very high flavor but is a bit tart
unless thoroughly ripe. The bush is upright, spreading, vigorous, and very product-
ive. The berries are large, firm, and attractive -with good blue color and a good
scar.

Two varieties bred especially for Noiiih Carolina conditions, that is, for
very early ripening and resistance to canker disease, were introducecLJ-n 1950,
vJolcott and L'urphy are both crosses of iWeyraouth X (Stanley X Crabbe li)j. Both v;ere
said to be "not promising in liaryland and Wev/ Jersey", It seemed that farther
north they vrould have little chance for success and have not been suggested for
trial.

-6-

Angola and Ivanl-ioe, introdaced in 1951, are tvio more varieties bredi, for canker
resistance for North Carolina, Angola [vifeymouth X (Stanley X Crabbe h)' , like
Wolcott and Murphy, was considered unlikely to succeed in the north,

Ivanhoe |(Rancocas X Carter) X Stanley , on the other hand, seemed to have
promise enough"so that is was considered for a time as a member of the Big Six,
It ripens in Rancocas season. The fruit is large but a bit dark in color. The
bush lacks vigor and productiveness under our conditions. It is not recomraended.

Three more members of the Big Six were introduced in 1952* These all look
promising, but until more is knovm about their performance under jviassachusetts
conditions they are recommended for trial only.

Earliblue (Stanley X lleymouth) is early as its name suggests. It ripens in
Vi/eymouth season or a day or two earlier. The fruit is light blue, very firm,
large, and has good flavor, The clusters of berries are medium size and medium
loose. The bush is upright, vigorous, and well shaped. It is said to be product-
ive and easy to propagate,

Bluecrop K Jersey X Pioneer) X (Stanley X June)| ripens in midseason between
Stanley and Berkeley. The fruit is very light blue, very large, and finn, and
fine flavored with an unusually good scar. The fruit clusters are large and
medium loose. The bush is upright, fairly vigorous, and said to be very pro-
ductive and moderately difficult to propagate «

Herbert ; Stanley X (Jersey X Pioneer)] ripens late, vrith Rubel and Jersey, a
fevi days ahead' of Goville, The fruit is very large and firm, about the same blue
as Rubel and Jersey, and has an unusually good scar. The flavor is very good
but may be a bit tart for New England taste unless the berries are very ripe. The
bush is medium high, spreading, vigorous and productive. It is said to be easy
to propagate,

TJtje latest variety to be introduced is Blueray i (Jersey X Pioneer) X (Stanley
X June)l , This is the same parentage as Bluecrop, It is a second earl^ ripen-
ing between Earliblue and Bluecrcpj in Rene ocas -Stanley season. It is expected
to replace Ivanhoe as one of the Big Six, The fruit clusters are rather small,
tight and attractive. The berries are -very large, about tlie size of Berkeley,
firm, light blue, very aromatic and high flavored, but may be a little tart if
not fully ripe. The plants are erect, somewhat spreading and said to be very
vigorous and productive. It looks promising and is recommended for trial,

J, S. Bailey

////////////////

-7-

JUST IN C..SE YfU H..VE FORGOTTEN

Hey, Mite — YJho Are You?

European
Red

I Clover

I I.Iite

Garman Spider
Mite (Yellov^
Mte)

I Two~spotted

, Mte

Enter stage

eggs - dull red

I eggs - shiny
t red

adults - yellow

Jhere f oun3

in winter

Halching~per-
iod or be-
come active

unJer loose
bark _
Ta^e"l)elayed~
Dormant to
early Pink_

About Pink

t adults - dull
I orange or pink

spurs, tT/igs,
branches
Pink thru
Bloom

I trunk, stones,
I vegetation
Tsiiver-tip ^hru"
(Delayed Dormant

First eggs laid by overwintering adults

I Under debris on

I ground ( loose_ba_rk)

'ion ground cover-
I Silver-tip to
[Green-tip

'ilbouiE early Delayed
(Dormant on grass
I and weeds

First adults
mature and

la^^ eggs

liere summer
eggs are laid

About Petal-
Fall or soon
after

Soon after
Bloom

undersides of'
leaves

upper ancT lower ~
leaf surfaces all

over trees

duri~red "

On bark of spurs
twigs, branches
and trunks _ _
sKiny red"

I Undersides of leaves
r grass and weeds first
I later in trees

Egg color

pearly white

I pearly white to
I slight amber.

Number of
generations

7 - 8

5-6(7)

h- 6(?)

9-11

Identifying
features of
adults (summer)

brick-red, back
rounded, light-
colored spots
and hairs, legs
of equal length

brovmish-red
back flattened,
front legs much
longer than
others

pale yellovf or
lemon yellcw,
dark spots
scattered, body
elongate oval

I pale yellow or
I greenish yellow,
itYfo large dark
I spots, body oval

Activity of
adults and
young

move about, on
both surfaces
of leaves

return to bark
to shed skins
and lay eggs

I among hairs on

iimder sides of

leaves i leaves, vrebbing

among hairs on
undersides of

Characteris-
tic damage
to leaves

general over-all
dulling of green
color and final-
ly a bronzed
effect

a quick yellow-
ing, usually on
1 or 2 branches
at first (look
for Tihite, empty
skins on spurs)

spur leaves crin-
kled, mottled
yellow and brown)
later leaves cup-
ped from below,
yellovred above
along veins,
greyish belovf

I similar to Yellow
imite, appears later,
I general yellowing
I follows, seen first
I on inside and low-
I hanging branches,
tin July or later

Why not tack this up for ready reference? Hey, its a good ideal

E. H. ?n:ieeler

////////////////

-8-

NEliiTOi FRUIT VARIETIES

, Spme Good - Some Not So Good

The following reports on behavior of some of the newer fruit varieties under
test in the University of flassachusetts plantings are brought together in this
issue at the suggestion of the New Varieties Committee of the Massachusetts
Fruit GrovTers' Association with whom we are cooperating in the state wide testing
of new varieties.

These notes should be considered as supplementary information on varieties
recommended for planting in Massachusetts as given in Extension Service Special
Circular #212-A, Bj C, D, E, F, G and H which are available from your County
Agent or the Mailing Room, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.

RED RASPBERRY

Tweed - A very early variety introduced from Ottavra, Canada. Parentage: Newman 23
X Lloyd George, Fruit small, quite inferior quality. Value for Massachusetts
practically none,

Antietam - An early variety from the University of Maryland, Fruit medium size,
rather firm but poor quality. Of no value here.

Early Red - Originated at South Haven, !lichigan as a cross between Lloyd George and
Cuthbert, In season it ripens with Chief but has larger and somewhat better flav&rec
fruit which is bright red. The canes are only moderately winter hardy and are moder-
ately susceptible to spur blight, V^orthy of limited trial where a beriy of this
season is desired,

Willamette - A midseason variety from Oregon. Parentage; Newburgh x Lloyd George.
Fruit quite large, firm, medium red, and fine flavor. Unfortunately, this variety
has -nT-nter killed as much or worse than liarcy which vrould make it very much of a
gamble in most parts of the state,

Muskoka - This midseason variety originated at Ottawa, Canada as a cross between
Nevrman 23 and Herbert, The fruit is medium size, light red, moderately firm and
fairly good quality. Reported as extremely winter hardy in Canada but Afinter
killed ^0% here last vdnter,

Pi:yallup - Originated at Puyallup, V/ashington as a cross between V/ashington and
Taylor, In season it appears to be about vri.th Latham, Its fruit is rather large,
firm, medium red, conic shape, v/ith a distinctive flavor and very good quality.
Last spring it showed somewhat more winter injury than I Hilton vihich is a bit too
much for comfort.

Other new reds imder test include Canby, Crimson Cone and New Hampshire ,
However, these plantings are still too young for even e preliminary evaluation of
their fruit and plant characteristics.

Lack of sufficient iiinter hardiness of the canes continues to be the greatest
vieakness of most of the newer red raspberry introductions ,

^A. P. French

-9-

STliA''!Bmm

l"Iany new varieties v;ere included in the variety trials this past season,
a report on a few follov/s:

Surecrop (M - U.S«D.A. Mo. 2233) - Ttiis recently named variety is resistant to
two strains of red stele. The plants were vigorous and productive. The fruits
Inhere medium in size, attractive and of good qiiality. This early ripening variety
shows promise of value to growers having trouble with red stele »

Earlidawn (U.S.D.A, Moj 3939) - a newly named U,S,D,A. introduction. This was
the earliest ripening variety in the University planting this past season. The
fruits were of medium size and of fair to good quality. The plants are very
susceptible to the common strain of red stele and vrere nearly a complete failure
in our trials. Earlidavm may be of value to growers who are not bothered by
red stele,

Redglow (U,S,D.A, No. kl9k) - Another new]y nam.ed introduction. This early -
midseason variety vras vigorous, moderately productive and appeared to be resistant
to the common strain of red stele. The fruits vrere small, distinctly necked, and
of fair to good quality. This variety needs further testing before a more complete
evaluation of its usefullness can be made.

Crimson Flash - A seedling of Pairpeake. Limited trials indicate that this early
midseason variety will produce vigorous and productive plants. The berries vere
small, roundish, dark red and of good quality. Further testing is required before
a fair evaluation can be made of this variety. Not resistant to red stele,

Strafford - An introduction of the New Hamjjshire Station, This is a late ripen-
ing variety with plants of moderate vigor and size but lath good production. The
berries were large, attractive and of good quality, Strafford was badly damaged
by red stele and shou].d not be planted where this disease is present,

Phelps - This New Hampshire introduction produced attractive berries of medium
size and good quality. The plants were vigorous, of moderate niunber and fair
production but were very susceptible to red stele, Phelps does not appear to be
promising from results of this years trials.

Blaze - A New tfempshire introduction for the late season. The berries were large,
attractive, briglit red, soft in texture and only fair quality this past season.
The plants were of good vigor and high production. Blaze is not resistant to red
stele, but is T/orthy of trial where this disorder is not present,

Lassen, Shasta and Donner, - These three introductions from California were tested
in the University plantings this year with Lassen having a decided edge over the
other two. These varieties produced fruit of good quality but the plants lacked
vigor, were low in yield and very susceptible to red stele. These varieties do
not appear to be adapted to Massachusetts.

— -J, F. Anderson

APPLE

Red Melba - h red sport of ifelba which is superior iii color. Good quality for an
early apple. Season early august. Recommended for commercial planting where an
early variety is desired.

Beacon - A rather attractive, well colored early apple from Minnesota, Season
mid - to late August, Fruit quality generally good for an early apple but may
be quite variable from season to season. Fruit size is usually good but this
year fruit size v;as definitely too small. The tree is productive. Because of
its erratic performance Beacon does not look too promising as a comiuercial variety.

Puritan - A promising early red apple. Fruit attractive, good quality for its
season, somevxhat tart. The tree is hardy and vigorous but has a tendency toward
biennial bearing, Puritan vj-ill pollinate iiclntosh. It is vrorthy of extensive
trial.

Jubilee - Originated from a cross of Mcintosh x Grimes Golden at Summerland,
British Columbia, The fruit is well colored and attractive with a rather light
colored red. Fruit quality is good but size runs too small. It will require
thinning to maintain satisfactory size. Jubilee has a longer storage life than
Mcintosh, Harvest season is late September, Jubilee mil pollinate Mcintosh,
Jubilee may be given limited trial, but it appears inferior to Spartan,

Spartan - A Hclntosh x Newton seedling from British Columbia, It is an attractive
dark red apple Y/ith Mcintosh shape and quality. Spartan retains quality in storage
much better and longer than Mcintosh, The fruit may have a tendency to be small.
The tree is a vigorous Mcintosh type. Harvest season is late September. It will
pollinate Mcintosh. Spartan shows great promise as a variety to extend the Mcintosh
season and should be given serious consideration for future plantings,

Idared - A promising VJagener x Jonathan cross from Idaho, The fruit has an attract-
ive bright red finish. Fruit quality good but somewhat on the mild side. It has
a long storage season. Harvest season is early October, Idared is one of the more
promising late keeping dessert and general purpose apples,

Melrose - A high quality winter apple introduced by the Ohio Experiment Station,
Melrose is a Jonathan x Delicious cross , The fruit is well colored, has good
size and shape. It may develop some russeting unless given a mild spray program.
The fruit has excellent dessert and cooking qualities and a long storage season.
The tree is productive, has good structure, and is annual. Harvest season mid-
October, Melrose is cross incompatible with Delicious but will pollenize other
varieties, Melrose shows much promise as a replacement for Baldiirin, It should
be given extensive trial,

Bancroft - Introduced from Ottawa as a late winter apple. It fruited for the first
time this year. The fruit has good size and shape and is well colored. The full
dark red color along with considerable scarf skin detracts from its appearance.
Quality is only fair. It should keep well in stora.f^e. Harvest season mid-October,
We have not seen enough of Bancroft to fully evaluate it at this time.

-11-

S&ndcn-i - A Spy seedling introduced from Ottavra. The fruit is of good size, well
colored and fairly attractive. Quality good for a late winter apple. Fruit is
reported to be subject to bitter pit. We have not fruited Sandovi long enough to
determine its value.

Crandall - A Jonathan x Rome introduction from Illinois, Fruit good size and
shape, fairly well colored vdth an attractive bright red. Fruit flesh is fine
grained and juicy but quality only fair, Crandall is a hard apple which should
keep Yirell in storage. It needs further testing.

Monroe - A Jonathan x Rome introduction ty the New York Agricultural Experiment
Station, An attractive, well colored medium red apple of good size. Fruit
quality good but not up to dessert quality, Monroe shows promise as a winter
apple but needs a fevf more seasons observations before we can determine its value
for Massachusetts,

¥. D. Weeks

PEACH

Sunrise - An early, attractive, medium size yellovi peach v/hich ripens a few days
ahead of Early East, Fruit quality varies with season^ but fairly good for an
early peach. A clingstone unless fully ripe. Suggested for limited trial where
an early peach is desired.

Early East - A rather attractive good sized yellov/ peach « Fair quality, semi-cling,
somewhat irregular in shape. Early East ripens about 10 days ahead of Golden
Jubilee, Suggested for limited trial,

Prairie Davm - An attractive yellow fleshed freestone peach v^hich ripens just after
Jerseyland, Fruit juicy and good quality. Bud hardiness above average, l^orthy
of trial,

Prairie Daybreak - A yellovir flesh freestone vihich ripens vdth Jerseyland, Fruit
quality not too high. The flesh is greenish yellow and the buds are no hardier
than Elberta, Prairie Daybreak is inferior to Jerseyland and of doubtful value

for Massachusetts.

Hale Harrison BrilliaPt - A large yellow fleshed freestone which ripens 3 to U days
before Elberta, It is better quality than Elberta and is worthy of trial,

Sungold - A yellow fleshed freestone of Elberta season. Quality varies vdth season.
Tree is not vigorous, on the small size, Sungold has been aroimd for several years
but it has not been outstanding enough to recommend it and is of no particular value,

W, D. Weeks

-12-

PEAxR

Cayuga - Attractive, juicy^ fair to good quality, medium size, skin rather thick
and tough. Tree large , vigorous, late coming into bearing.

Covert - Ripens late September, fruit large, green color, resembles Bartlett in
shape, fair quality excellent keeper. Tree medium in size, productive,

Douglas - Fruit small, poor quality, unattractive. Resembles Kieffer in shape
and quality. An undesirable variety for the fresh fruit market.

Evfart - Ripens mid-September, fruit large, yellovvish-green, attractive, good to
excellent quality, keeps a month later than Bartlett, Tree medium size, productive,

Gorham - Ripens two weeks later than Bartlett and keeps a month longer, a seedling
of riartlett which it resembles in size, color and shape; quality good to excellent.
Tree medium size, not always a reliable cropper.

Ovid - Late, yellowish green, not particularly attractive, tends to russet, good
quality, tough skin, excellent keeper. Tree large, vigorous, productive,

Phelps - Late, yellowish green, rough surface, medium size, good quality but some-
what tart, excellent keeper. Tree medium size, moderately vigorous, productive.

Waite - Late, greenish-yellow, medium size, fair quality, good keeper, lacks
attractiveness. Tree medium in size and vigor, productive, blight resistant,

VJlllard - Late, large, rough surface, green vath reddish blush, poor quality,
difficult to ripen. Tree large, vigorous, productive,

0. C. Roberts

////////////////

PRUNING ERRORS

The pruning season has arrived and with the anticipation of a snowball bloom
in many orchards this is the logical year for' growers to do heavy pruning v/here the
need exists. The objective of the apple grower is to obtain a high percentage of
fruits of the size^ color and quality demanded by the market. The grower cannot
afford to grow small, poorly colored fruits. Therefore, pruning to eliminate
weak vTOod and thereby a lot of potential culls is in order.

Several rather common pruning errors have been found in orchards most of which
occurred Tihile lowering the tops of tall apple trees. Some growers are attempting
to lower tree height by the removal of all branches above a certain level. This
will not accomplish the desired results} Instead, a large number of water sprouts
will develop near the pruning cuts and many of these will gravr to a height greater
than the tree before lowering was attempted. To reduce tree height growers should
remove entirely tall branches or cut back to well placed strong lateral branches,
depending on the tree under consideration.

^, ^^««»/»iA>- -13-

In some cases growers are attempting to lower the tree height in one year and v'o /»wC
ar# hot leaving enough branches or water sprouts to shade exposed limbs. Such a
procedure results in considerable sunscald. If a tree has a number of tall branches,
all of these should not be removed in one year. Remove over a 2 or 3 year period.

One of the objectives of lowering tall trees is to replace old wood on the
remaining limbs with young, vigorous fruiting wood. Some growers have left too U-rr-^ f*^
many water sprouts which are poorly placed. These water sprouts are in a key ~^'^*t^
position to receive the water and nutrients that otherwise would go to the pai^nt
scaffold branch. If too many of these water sprouts are left they may dwarf the
parent branch beyond their point of origin. Growers- should remove all but the
most desirably located vrater sprouts. It is the hope of the grower that as the ^^
water sprouts develop side branches they wilT settle toward the outside of the ^''^
tree. Sometimes the water sprouts can be trained toward the outside of the tree
by removing some of the inside branches or by heading back to an outward grovring
lateral branch.

Another error made in pruning bearing apple trees, especially \vith power prun-
ers, is the removal of nearly all the smaller lateral branches from the scaffold
limbs in the central part of the tree ,' The process begins near the trunk and
often continues nearly to the ends of the scaffold limbs. The fruiting area then
consists merely of a fringe at the ends of these "muletailed" branches. This
makes any attempt to lower the tree height difficult because of possibility of
sunscald and lack of desirable wood to cut back to. In addition, when pruning
bearing trees the drooping ends of branches should be headed back to upward and
outward groviring branches. If nearly all the smaller branches on the nain limbs
have been removed, there may be no good upvirard and outward growing branches left
to take over*

\^. J, Lord

////////////////

R

J'

E5

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS. AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Fertilizer Applications for Cultivated Bfueberries

Apple Outlook

Virus - Free Strawberry Plants for 1957

Tree Crowding

Modernizing Your Blueberry Planting

1957 Fertilizer Recommendations

Social Security Law Amendments
Which Affect Farm Employers and
Self-Employed Farmers

Tips on Insect and Mite Control

Pruning and Fertilization of Winter-Injured Trees

Results of the F.F.A. Fruit Judging Contests

Pruning Cold Injured Blueberries

FEBRUARY 15, 1957

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W.Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 19 14; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. CroiUn, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

TOUR POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT

Anderson^ James - Inatruotor

Teaohos ooursea in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematio
Pomology.

Bailey, John S, - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham.

Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums, Mr. Bailey
also does considerable Extension work with small fruit growers.

French, Arthur P. - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing.

lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chief ]y connected rrith fruit growers' problems, other than pest control,
and is scmevrtiat involved in research. Editor of JRUIT NOTES.

Robeirbs, Oliver Cv- Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses*
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, Franklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, pj^eharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests-
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses*

Ccntidbutors to this Isstie from Supporting Fields
Frederick E. Cole, Extension Marketing Specialist
Lawrence D. Rhoades, Extension Specialist in Farm Management
Ellsworth H. HJheeler, Extension Entomologist

FE1.TILIZ£R APPLICATIONS FOti CULTIVATED BLOEBERRIES

V/hat kind of fertilizer shall I use for cultivated blueberries and how much?
Tne table below attempts to ansvcer these questions.

Annual Application of i'ertilizer

Years

Founds

pex' acre

For 10

after

Combination

Sul.

bushes

plants

Sul.

(pounds)

are set

10-10-10

10-10-10

Am,

Am.

7-7-7

5-8-7

5-8-7

0

100

100

1U5

200

1-3A

1

200

200

_

«.

270

Uoo

3-1/2

2

300

200

50

«

U30

600

5-lA

3

ItOO

200

100

200

570

800

7

h

5^0

250

150

275

610

1100

10

5

700

350

175

350

1000

liiOO

12-3A

Other fertilizer mixtures may be as good as those listed. The amounts
suggested are to serve only as guides. The amount used should be based on the
size, vigor and productiveness of the bushes, ^iiihere fields are in heavy sod or
have been recently mulched with shavings, sawdust or other woody material, it is
usually desirable to increase the nitrogen 50-100 percent,

In column 1, 0 indicates the year the plants are setc At this time soluble
nitrogen carelessly used can injure the plant, lu'ait until the plants are estab-
lished, about June 1, to apply the fertilizer. Spread it out vrell around the
plants on a clear;, dry day,

10-10-10 (column 2) is rapidly becoming a standard fomula. The quantities
recommended should be increased or decreased as experience indicates. It may be
desirable the second or third year to split the application - half before bloom
and half about June 1,

In columns 3 and k is given a combination of 10-10-10 to be applied in April
and sulfate of amiiionia to be applied June 1, Sulfate of ammonia, containing 20
percent nitrogen, is too strong for very young plants and replaces only l/3 of
the nitrogen 2 years after planting, Thereafter it can replace more.

The sulfate of ammonia only program in column 5 is for older bushes and for

those which have been receiving liberal amounts of complete fertilizer. Since

blueberries probably need all the elements, it is advisable to use an application
of complete fertilizer every third or fourth year.

Column 6 gives the amount of 7-7-7 fertilizer which would be required to
give the same amount of nitrogen as the 10-10-10 mixture.

Column 7 gives the amount of 5-8-7, 5-10-5, 5-10-10, or any other fertilizer
containing 5 percent nitrogen, required to give the same amount of nitrogen as the
10-10-10 mixture.

The last column reduces the quantities in column 7 to amounts suitable for
10 bushes .

J. S. Bailey

////////////////

-2-

A?Pi_^ COTim K

The outstanding point in the apple outlook is tliat about the same quantity
of apples iirill be divided among more and more people as the years roll on,

Apple time can be measured by tree a^e. There are U8 million more people in
the country now than \vhen a tree just 26 years old was planted, and another 38
million people are expected by the time that tree is hS years old. Three or
four t?irenty-acre orchards could be planted each week just to keep up with the
population growth. That is a population increase - potential market increase -
of l66^ in the life or an apple tree. This means that the potential loarket for
apples is greater now than at any time since the Mcintosh variety was first groi\fn
commercially ,

The volume of deciduous fruit produced for fresh use has held about steady
since World War II and therefore per capita consumption has continued to decline.

New England apple production has held about the same in recent years (since
1939) in contrast to moderate or sharp declines in all other important producing
areas in the East.

Much of the decreased acreage is due to the removal or abandonment of small,
low-yielding orchards and those virith less desirable varieties,

Fot only has there been more people to eat apples in recent years, but con-
sumers have had larger incomes and consumer income is expected to set another re-
cord in 1957.

Costs of factory -nade supplies v-jill continue on present or slightly higher
levels 3 The cost of hired labor will follcvir trends established in recent years
in competition with local manufacturing and service industries.

The trend in consuraer packages will continue onward. Technical problems of
aople packagilng will be solved if apples are to hold their relative position on
produce counters of growing super markets.

The quantity of apples from controlled atmosphere storage is expected to in-
crease in the next few years. Anticipated quantities pose a special problem of
marketing with the controlled atmosphere storage apples very likely to appear on
the market earlier in the season. Adjustments in selling the ordinary cold storage
portion of the crop will have to be made to secure maximum returns for the whole
crop >.

The long term outlook for orcharding continues to be favorable for efficient
operations in connection with well located orchards,

1957 will be the "on" year for apple yields in New England v/hich should cause
no concern in a year of record consumer income for those orchardists with a planned
sales program,

F. E. Cole

///////////////

-3-

VIRUS - FREK STR;-^l'.'BEK.l:Y PDu'TS FOR 1957

k i-ecent release from the U, S, Department of Agriculture at Beltsville,
Maiylflnd, gives the latest information on the status of "virus-free" strawberry
plants and the follovfing is taken from that releasej_

At present there are 36 strawberry varieties essentially virus-free from
virhich plants are available from nurseries for planting by grov-rers. Of these, the
follo^ving may be of interest to Massachusetts grovrers:

Armore
Aroma
Blakemore
Catskill

Empire

Fairfax

Gen (Superfection)

Howard 17 (U.S.D,A,)

J'lidland

Pocahontas

Reds tar

Robinson

Sparkle (Paymaster)

Vermilion

■¥. J. Lord

////////////////

TREE CROljDING

Tliis virill be a good year to do something about the filler trees in crovmed
blocks. Tree crowding causes many production pi-oblems. It leads to tall trees
which are difficult to spray and prune, a hij^:her proportion of poorly colored fruit
particularly on lower limbs, unproductive lorwer limbs, difficulty in mowin', and
other orchard cultural practices and the interference with the development of the
permanent trees* The writer feels that insufficient planting distances and the
failure of timely removal of filler trees leads to more production difficulties
than any other single poorly conducted cultural practice. Tree cro^vding in peach
orchards is as prevalent as that in apple orchards . How many peach orchards in
Massachusetts cem't be properly sprayed or dusted for Brovm Rot control because of
insufficient room to drive betweon the trees?

How can tree crowding be avoided? Naturally, the answer is siraply to use
sufficient planting distances and the timely removal of filler trees.

Tree Spacing

Proper planting dxstance for trees v;ill vary rath the variety, soil fertility
and v/ater holding capacity. Generally, however, the follo^'dng planting distances
are recommended :

Apples - vigorous varieties

less vigorous varieties

Pears -

Peaches -

15' to 50'

35' to hO'

20' to 25'

22' to 2?'

25' to 30' on most favorable locations,

Filler Trees

Formerly filler trees in apple orchards viere planted in the ron and between
the rows of permanent trees. For example, the trees on many farms vrere planted
on a 20' by 20' basis with a plan to remove every other diagonal row v;hen the
trees began to crowd. The so called "semi-permanent" apple trees which vrere
left were removed later when the trees again began to crowd. It is now recom-
mended that the filler trees should be planted in the center of the square or
rectangle or between the permanent trees in the row but not both. In this system
there is but one filler tree to each permanent tree as compared to the old system
in which 3 A of the trees trers fillers,

VJ"ith the prospects of a snow-ball bloom in many orchards next spring this
should be the year for fi:roirrers to get up their courage and do something about the
filler trees that have begun to crovvd the permanent trees or to interfere with
orchard operations. If croTirding isn't too severe , the filler trees may be "fan-
pruned" which merely means that they are pruned heavily on the sides adjacent to
the permanent trees. On the other hand, the grovrer might do one of the following^
remove all filler trees in the crowded block or remove the most objectionable
filler trees from the standpoint of crowding and fan-prune the rest in anticipation
of removing the remajjiing filler trees in the near future,

Y'l. J. Lord

////////////////

MODERNIZING YOUR BLUEBERRY PLANTING

The question has been asked, "Shall I pull out the older blueberry varieties
and plant new ones?" This question of variety is as old as fruit grotidng. It
has had to be faced by practically every fruit grovrer, no matter v;hat kind of
fruit he grows. Few blueberry growers in Massachusetts have had to face it yet.
The asking of the question indicates an awareness that the problem must be faced
sooner or later. What then should be considered in making such an important
decision?

First, the grower is a business man vAo must make a profit to survive like
every other business man.

Second, the means at hand must be such that a profit is possible for the con-
ditions under which the grower is operating.

Third, if no profit is obtained, a change is necessary. If no profit is
possible, a basic change is mandatory,

NoYJ- let's examine the blueberry replant problem. V'/e'll assume that grovrer
Smith has a field of an older variety — say Rubel, Should he pull out the Rubel
and plant one of the nevfer varieties? First, let's ask that basic question. Is
the field yielding a satisfactory return? If it is. v:hy disturb it? If it isn't
why not? Can anything be done to make it profitable vdthout going to all the
expense in tine and money of replantin-^ it? V/ill a change in soil management,
pruning, fertilization, spray^jrig or any other practice result in a sufficient
increase in return to make the field profitable? II not; then replanting or elimin-
ation must be considered.

-5-

Before ordering the new plants, let's take a look at the site and make sure
nothing is basically wrong. la it too wet? Can this be corrected by drainage?
Is it too dry? Can this be overcaiie by irrigation? Is it subject to cold injury
either in -winter or spring? Is a better site available? If the decision is to
replant, then the |)6l4. question is what variety or varieties to plant*

It is not the purpose to discuss varieties here since this has already been
done in a previous issue of Fruit Notes o Hovrever, a few general comments may not
be amiss. Few growers vrould consider replanting such old varieties as Cabot, Con-
cord, or Pioneer, On the other hand, there are some commercial grovrers who have
stated that they would replant Rubel because of its dependability, V/hen a new
variety proves that it can yield more "greenbacks" per acre than Rubel, or any
other variety, then is the time for replacement. Replacing a tried and proven
variety because of its age by one that is new and untried is questionable. Among
the new varieties Berkeley and Coville have performed well in Massachusetts over
a long enough period so that they are being recommended for commercial planting,
Tliey will not quite replace Rubel because they are not the same season. On the
other hand, Earliblue, Blueray, Bluecrop, and Herbert, Yihile they look promisijig,
have not had an opportunity to really prove themselves under iiassachusetts condi-
tions* They are recomQioended for trial only until they do,

iiihere new land is planted to blueberries, there is no past to serve as a
guide. The site factors must have more careful consideration. The variety sel-
ection problem is similar except that a grower who has a considerable area in
profitable production may feel that he can aiford to gamble more heavily on the
new and unproved varieties.

The testing of nevj- varieties is very important and should have a place in a
planting plan wherever possible. In the last analysis, it is the growers'
judgement that determines v;hether a variety has a short or long life. Good
jmgement is based on personal experience with a variety.

Finally, let common sense determiiie when to replant your blueberries, not
fancy descriptions in a catalogue,

J. S. Bailey

////////////////

19^7 FERTILIZER RECOTQ-IENDATIONS

Most I'iclntosh orchards appear to have an abundance of fruit buds which with
favorable weather could produce an excessive crop in 19'ol ^ Our fertilizer program
should be directed toward the production of a medium sized crop of high quality
fruit. To help accomplish this goal v.e believe that nitrogen applications should
be reduced by one third to one half. It is particularly important to reduce
nitrogen applications in those blocks which have been heavily pruned or had a
light crop last year. In some cases it may be desirable to delay applying the
nitrogen application until after petal fall. Trees vfhich had only a partial crop
last year should have a considerable reserve of nitrogen available for utilization
this spring.

-6-

The potassium requirements of apple trees in a hea-vy crop year are high as
the fruit utilizes about three tiraes as much potassium as nitrogen. The quantity
of potassium stored by the tree which is available for utilization is extremely
low in comparison -urith nitrogen. Thus it is iiiiportant to supply adequate potassium
in a heavy crop year.

The follovfing tables give su,:igested rc.tes of fertilizer to use which will
supply the nitrogen and potassium requirements of the tree in a normal crop year.
The rates for nitrogen are for maximum amounts and should be reduced l/3 to 1/2 as
succested previously. The first table presents two plans in v/hich ammonium nitrate
is used in combination vrlth muriate of potash or 0-15-30. The secaid table sho\fs
the amounts to apply of t\TO different mixed fertilizers vrtiich will supply equiva-
lent amounts of nutrient elements.

Nonual Rates of Fertilizer for Bearing Apple Orchards

Potential bushel
yield of tree

Approximate amounts per tree

Nitrogen
required

Aimnonium
Nitrate

Potash
required

Liuriate

of Potash or 0-15-30

Less than 1^

15-25

More than 25

Pounds

0,66

0,66-1,00
1.33-2,00

Pounds

2,0

2.0-3.0
U. 0-6.0

Pounds

1.3
lo3-2„0

2,7-U.3

Pounds Pounds

2.1 U.3
2.1-3.3 3.I|.-6,6
ii.5-7.1 9.0-li;.3

Normal Rates of Fertilizer for Bearing Apple Orchards

Potential bushel
yield of tree

Less than 15

15-25

More than 25

Nitrogen
required

Approximate amounts per tree

Pounds

0.66

0.66-1.00

1.33-2,00

Potash
required

Pounds

1.3
1.3-2.0

2.7-U.3

or t;-16-16

Pounds

13

13-20
26-I4O

Pounds

8

8-12
16-25

The su:igested amounts of materials to apply given in the tables are for band
applications under the spread of the branches. .;hen the materials are broadcast
over the entire orchard floor it may be necessary to increase the rate of applica-
tion in order to obtain the same tree response as the band applications. Fertil-
izer materials other than those given in the tables may be used so long as they
are applied at rates which provide equivalent amounts of nitrogen and potassivim.

The tree's magnesium and calcitim requirements can best be met by maintaining
an adequate dolomitic liming program. The pH of orchard soils should be maintained
between 6 and 6,5 if a soil test shows that the pH of the soil is ^!,$ or beloiir,
magnesium sulfate sprays should be applied to prevent possible occurence of mag-
nesium deficiency. It takes from 3 to 5 years befoi'e dolomitic limestone is effect-
ive in correcting magnesium deficiency, i/hen ruacnesium sulfate sprays are used
apply 2 to 3 sprays of epsom salts at the rate of 20 pounds per 100 gallons of •

-7-

water. These sprays should be timed by calyx, first, and second cover sprays.
To avoid possible incompatibilities the epsom salt sprays should not be combined
with the regular insecticidal and lungicidal sprays.

Boron should be applied to orchard soils every three to five years. Borax
is the most common material used. The rates of application per tree vary v;ith
age and size. Apply one quarter pound of borax to young trees, one-half to three-
quarliers pound to medium age and size trees, and three-quarters to one pound to
large or mature trees. In no case should the rate of one application of borax
exceed 50 pounds per acre.

The amounts of fertilizer applied to trees which have received annual
applications of 200 pounds or more of hay mulch per tree may be materially re-
duced or entirely eliminated. Tree performance should serve as a guide in de-
termining the extent to \'rhich the rates of fertilizer may be reduced.

In young non-bearing orchards it may be possible to produce sufficient high
quality mulching material for the young trees by broadcasting 500 to 800 pounds
of mixed fertilizer per acre. Place the mulch in a band under the spread of the
branches. The amount of fertilizer required for the trees vdth this system of
culture will vary vrith the quantity and quality of mulch applied around each tree.
If the trees are not making sufficient growth one -ei^h pound of ammonium nitrate
per year of tree age may be aoplied to the mulch.

¥. D. Weeks

////////////////

SOCIAL SECURITY LAW AlffiNDIviHiTS i.HICH AFFECT FARM Ei.^PLOYERS
AND SELF-SliPLOYED FARIiERS
1956 Social Security Law Amendments

I. llfHEN ARE FARJI H'lPLOYEES COVERED?

Beginning with January 1, 1957 a farm worker or employee's wages are covered
and the employer (farmer) is required to deduct social security taxes from wages IF:

A, The worker is paid $150 or more in cash during the year for either piece-

work or time work,
or

B. If the worker does farm work on 20 or more different days during the year
for cash pay on a tijne basis (rather than on a piecework basis) then his
pay is covered regardless of the amount of vrages .

II. RATES OF TAX on both self-employed farmers' income for social security and farm
employees' wages are increased after January 1, 1957.

III. WH^T DO FARll EtJPLOYERS HAVE TO DO?

-8-
Farm employers must:

A. Keep a record of the farm employee (worker) 's name, address and social
security number.

B. Keep a record of the days on which the employee worked and the amount of
cash vrages paid and whether on a piece^"/ork or a time linit basis (an hour,
a day or a week) «

C. If you have an employer's identification number nov/ you vdll continue to
use the same number. If you don't have such a number write or ask for one
at your social security office or the District Director, Internal Revenue
Service, Boston 1^, Massachusetts, right away. The form to request is
SS-I4.

D. After any month or series of months when the total tax amounts to $100
you must deposit the social security taxes you ¥ri.thhold from your vrarkers
together with your share as an employer. The rate is 2-l/U^ of employee's
wages and 2-lA^ from you. You use form U50 (Federal Depositary Receipt)
and make the deposit in a Federal Reserve Bank or in a bank approved to
accept such deposits. You will need to request this form from the District
Director the first time you need to use it.

E. VJhen your employee leaves your employ or at the end of the year you must
give him a statement of total wages paid and social security taxes v/ith-
held, with his name, address, and social security number and your name and
address as employer, as well as the period during Virhich vv'ages vifcre paid.
You can get form SS-lii to use for this purpose if you ask for it from the
District Director^ Internal Revenue Service, Boston l^f Massachusetts 0

F. You must file form 9h3s Employers' Annual Tax Return for Agricultural
Employees before January 31 f 19?8,

G. You need your ovm social security number as a self-employed farmer,

IV. 17HAT ARE THE RiiTES OF SOCIAL SECURITY TAXES BEGimmTO JAI^IUARY 1, 1957?
'l-\/\x$ of Yfages paid employees and 2-\l\x% paid by employer — total l;-l/2f^.
3-3/8/^ of income for social security purposes of self-employed farmers — limit

of ^112 00 of net income,

V. RECORD SHEET

Following is a sample form that might be helpful for keeping records. One
or more of these forms must be filled out for each employee.

Eraploj'ee

Address

Date of
payment

Period employed including
Dates and Units of Work
(days, lirs, piecework, units)

Y/age
Rate

Total

Wages
for
Period

Social Security Number

Employees
Social Sec,

Tax
Yiithheld
2-lA^ of
total vrages

Employers

share

of tax
2-lA^ of
total wages

Total
Social

Security

tax
payable

Total

Total

Total

Total

L. D. Rhoades

////////////////

TIPS ON INSECT km MITE CONTROL

If you grow STRAl'/BERRIES there is no longer any reason to lose plants or to
have them vreakened by soil insects such as grubs or wireworms , It costs very
little to treat the field before setting plants,

Heptachlor, dieldrinj aldrin or chlordane are effective but different amounts
are needed per acre or per 1,000 sq, ft. These insecticides are available in
different formulations - dusts, wettable powders^ emulsifiable concentrates and
granulated - and at varying concentrations of actual chemical.

Be sure to read and to follov; directions on the label and know the size of
your field. It is important to broadcast evenly the right amount of the material
you find most economical. There are more details on this and other strawberry
problems in the 19^7 Pest Control Chart for Strawberries,

If you grovif PEACfiES ycu cfiy be vfcndering about a pest control program for this
year with no crop in sight and possible winter injury to the trees. Here are some
suggestions.

Do not apply any oil to peach trees this year even though you may have planned
to control lecanium scale. Oil could cause additional injury on weakened trees,

Weak trees are even more susceptible than healthy trees to borer attack,
especially the lesser peach tree borer. Eggs are laid in rough places anyv;here
on the limbs, not just on the trunks.

-10-

You can prevent borer injury and a serious build-up in the population of
borers with sprays of parathion (2-100) or LPN-300 (l-l/h-lOO) , Malathion is not
nearly so effective and DDT iiTOuld favor an increase in mites.

Spray thoroughly so as to cover all the bark of limbs j crotches and trunks
on all peach trees both young and old.

Put on the first spray about June 25 and follow it up with two more at 3-week
intervals,

APPLE growers are urged again to put their orchards on a 3-year rotation for
oil - more often does no harm, A thorough application of a superior type oil
once every 3 years can save you some future headaches.

It is the best vray to knock out San Jose Scale, You are killing red mite in
an entirely different vray^ thus preventing or at least delaying the development
of resistant strains. TJaese are outstanding reasons j there are many other advant-
ages such as making sure the sprayer is all set to go.

If you groTiT aphid-susceptible varieties such as Spy, Gravenstein, Baldwin,
Cortland, Greening or Red Delicious include some insurance against rosy aphid in
you plans. They did not cause much trouble in 19^6 and no one can predict accur-
ately -what will happen in 1957c We do know that 1956, throughout the summer and
fall T;hen the rosy aphid is on plantain, was very favorable to many other species
of aphids.

If you grow BLUEBERRIES in sod and are troubled by Japanese beetles, grub-
proofing that sod v;ill at least keep them from breeding right there in your own
field, of course it won't stop them from breeding in other turf and flying in to
your berries.

It tells how to grub-proof turf with heptachlor, dieldrin or chlordane and
how to protect fruit from beetles in the 1957 Blueberry Chart and in Extension
Leaflet #295.

Perhaps you can get neighbors to grub-proof their essential turf vdth one of
the insecticides and then, to bring about an ultimate and permanent reduction in
the number of beetles, make sure that you or someone in the area put some milky
disease spore po-vvder on same turf that will never be treated vfith a chemical,

— E. H. Wheeler

////////////////

PRUNING AMD FERTILIZATION OF VroiTER - INJURED TREES

The sub-zero temperatures during the week beginning January lltth killed the
majority of peach flower buds in Massachusetts orchards. In addition, considerable
peach wood has been injured.

The lowest temperature recorded in the University of Massachusetts peach
orchard was -22°F, on January lUth, Observations reveal that all peach flower

-11-

buds are killed as are many leaf buds» Considerable wood injury is also evident.
All flower buds on the svieet and sour cherries and on the plums appear to be dead,
A few apple floiver buds and more of those on pears shavr injury.

Growers can determine whether a flower bud is alive by cutting through it
longitudinally 1 A darkened area in the center indicates that the flower parts
have been killed. Wood injury in the tops of the trees can be determined by
cutting longitudinally the one^ two or three year old wood. If the vfood is in-
jured, it will be light to dark brown in color depending upon the severity of
injury. Non-injured wood is whitish. To be sure what non-injured vrood looks
like examine Virood on branches that ^vere covered by snow. In addition, examine
suckers that can be found at the base of some trees.

Peach Trees - Priming of peach trees should be delayed until, or just after
bloom« At this time leaf growth virill have progressed sufficiently to distinguish
between living and dead wood. If there is considerable wood injury, prune the dead
wood only. Postpone all other pruning on these trees until another year to allow
as much recovery as possible. It has been reported in many instances that following
wood injury heavily pruned peach trees die viheveas trees not pruned or lightly
pruned make satisfactory recovery^ Rate of fertilization should be reduced accord-
ing to severity of injury.

Peach trees having nearly all flovrer buds killed but v/ith little or no \rood
injury, can be pruned in the normal manner. Fertilizaer applications may be re-
duced or omitted depending upon previous vigor of trees ,

In case of older peach trees having severe winter injury, growers may pi-efer
to remove these and replant., However, past experience in other localities has
shown that many severely injured trees made remarkable recovery if not pruned.

The grower should be continuously on the alert for signs of winter injury.
In the past, some types of vriiiter injury were not observed until during or at the
end of the growing season,

Apple Trees - At the time this article was vfritten, no definite wood injury
to apple trees has been detected and only a few flower buds vfere killed. However,
grovfers should be on the alert for iidnter injury. If and vrhen \ie have evidence
of winter injury of apple wood, groTirers will be informed,

A high percentage of Mcintosh apple trees in Massachusetts had a light crop
v;hich is favorable from the standpoint of winter injury. Trees with light crops
and healthy foliage accumulate an abundant supply of food materials in the vrood
and bark tissues which is an important factor contributing to winter hardiness.

Other factors in our favor are maturity of tissues and the weather preceding
the sub-zero temperatures. The wood and buds acquj.re resistance to coldc Low
temperatures or sudden drops in temperature in late fall or early Tfin.ter before
the wood of the fruit trees are sufficiently hardened to the cold can cause con-
siderable Trinter injury.

"12-

Many Baldi^dn trees had a medium-heavy crop. It is common kriowledge that
apple varieties like Baldvdn, Northern Spy^ Viinter Banana and Gravenstein are
tender to cold vri.th Baldvfin being considered to be among the most susceptible
to viinter injury,

Grovfers should prune first the varieties considered hardy: Mcintosh, Cort-
land, f.Iacoun, ^.'Telathyj Hilton, Melba, and Early liclntosh. If winter injury is
suspected on the more tender varieties delay prjning until extent of injury can
be determined*

Some growers pruned in December and early January, These trees should be
watched closely especially if large cuts viere made.

Pears - In the University of Massachusetts orchards, observations reveal
that more pear buds vrere injured than apple, Hovrever, probably enough non-injured
buds remain for a good crop. Considerable wood injury has been found in spurs but
the effect of the condition on growth this coming season is not known,

^l?. J. Lord

////////////////

RESULTS OF THE F.F.A. FRUIT JUDGING CQFTEST5

The annual fruit judging contest was held January 8, at Vforcester North High
School in association viith the Union Agricultural Meetings, Teams representing
Essex County Agricultural School, Norfolk County Agricultural School, Worcester
North High School, Templeton High School, T.'achusett Regional High School and
New Salem Acaden^.' participated in this, contest o Templeton High School won the
team honors, with Essex C.A.S, and l/orcester North Placing second and third respect-
ively.

The three boys having the highest combined scores, from this contest and an
earlier contest held at Amherst, were chosen for the State judging team and receiv-
ed both medals and cash avrards, Donald Stoddard of Templeton, Paul Kelley of
Essex and Robert Anderson of Templeton were recipients of these awards.

The fruit judging contest includes the identification of varieties of apple
and pear, the United States grades for apple, and insect and disease specimens
or blemishes caused by the pests and is excellent training for future orchard
personnel.

Much praise should be given to the teachers who train these teams for the
excellent results that they have achieved,

J. F, Anderson

////////////////

-13-

PRUNING CCLD INJURED BLUES}i:RRIES

Cold injury to cultivated blueberries in the southeastern part of the state
has net been severe. The lowest temperature reported vras -19° F. several feet
above a field. It vras probably belo;f -20° in the field. An estimated 5 to 10
percent of the flower buds in this field were injured. IHrenty percent of injured
flower buds was the most found. The only vfood injury observed was in a planting
forced into late, excessive growth by very heavy nitrogen fertilization. Even
under these conditions the injury was not serious.

The pruning of blueberries should be preceded by a thorough examination of
the field for bud aiid Tiood injury. Each fruiting bud contains several flower
buds. All the flower buds in a fruiting bud are seldom killed unless injury is
very severe. The blueberry produces more flower buds than it can mature into
fruit and still maintain vigor to produce succeeding crops. A loss of 20-2^
percent of flower buds is no more than a good pruning and villi not be serious
unless followed by heavy pruning. V.liere many f lower buds have been lost, the
pruning ^Till need to be reduced in proportion to the loss to maintain a crop.
It is xvell to delay the pruning as long as possible to learn the full extent of
the injury.

If there is evidence of vfood injury as revealed by broiiwiing of the tissues,
it is even more important to delay pruning till the full extent of the injury
is knovm. If the wood ijijury is light, it may be possible to give the bushes
a nonnal amount and type of pruning. If the injury is severe, the injured wood
needs to be removed and the crop reduced by thinning out or cutting back of the
fruiting shoots remairing. I'There injury has been severe, the object should be,
not the production of near normal crop, but the minimizing of subsequent effects
on the bush by encouraging grc-vrth rr.ther then fruiting.

^Jhere propagating is to be done, the vrhips used snould be examined very
critically. If any sign of injury is fovnd, they should oe discarded.

J. S. Bailey

////////////////

^

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS. AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Whot Does Orcharding Offer the Young Man

Winter Injury to Insects

Treatment of Girdled Trees

Fungicide Combinations

Root Activity

Pomologicol Paragraph

Farm Family Financial Planning

Further Notes on Winter Injury

"Floater" Insurance

Apple Scab Control Materials for 1957

MARCH 15, 1957

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W, Dayton, Associate Dean and Director.

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19,

YDUR POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT

Anderson^ Jamas - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematic
Pomology,

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham.

Doing research on straviberries, blueberries and beach plums. Mr. Bailey
also does considerable Extension work with small fruit growers.

French, Arthur P. - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, actlTS in small
frriit variety testing.

Lord, William J, - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than past ccntrol,
and is samewhat involved in research. Editor of PRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C*- Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses*
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, PVanklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests-
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses*

Contributors to this Issue from Supporting Fields
W, H, DarixTW, Putney, Vermont
C. J. Gilgut, Extension Pathologist

E. F. Cuba, Research Professor of Botany, Waltham Field Station
L. D. Rhoades, Extension Specialist in Fann Management
W. D. T/hitcomb, Research Professor of Bitomology, Waltham Field Station

WmT DOES ORCHARDING OFFER THL: YOUNG MAN

(The follcrwing comments by one of New bnglaiid's outstanding younger fruit
growers, were condensed from a talk given by him at a recent meeting of the Nashoba
Fruit Producers Association, liis "light" is considered too valuable to remain
hidden. - A, P. French)

Let us assume that the young man is reasonably intelligent and educated, Vife
start with two basic choices;

1, Plan to work for himself - have his own business,

2, Get a job - in the outside world.

Jobs are plentiful and pay well in many fields today. Industry is crying
for young men who have what it takes and can take responsibility.

Today the country is full of high school age boys who are looking for:

1, Big pay

2, Short hours

3, Ne\T car

Today many college graduates are looking for and finding the $5000 to $10,000
job, UO hour week, month's vacation, no responsibilities, and let someone else do
the worrying.

For me, the basic choice is easy; liYork for yourself I I want to make my own
decisions, come and go as I ivish (This, by the T/ay, is an illusion,), and take
no guff from anybody (also an illusion).

First, let's go over some of the points of going into business for yourself -
any business - because orcharding today 'l]i'"15usiness, and serious"^usiness,

1, It's toucher to make a go of it today than at any time in the past 10 years,

2, Don't go into business v/ithout experience,

3, No business was ever built on a I|0 hour week. You may vifork longer and
harder and for less than on a job. And, in addition to a 12 hour day, you may
worry 2U,

h* The same qualities that drive a man to the top as an employee generally
make for success in business: broad interests, being a self starter, liking to
organize, rising to challenges, a strong sense of self reliance and security,
being realistic, and having a desire to achieve for achievement's sake.

If you make the decision to be in the orcharding business, how do you get
into it and does it have a future?

J&ny young men have found themselves in the apple business because their
fathers are in it.

Going into business with your father has its good points and its bad points.

-2-

A successful father can be a wonderful teacher and guide. The father's
worry is: Will the son mature fast enough and accept responsibilities, and make
sound decisions?

From the son's point of view, he most often has trouble getting father to
loosen the reins. Some fathers just don't seeja to be able to let go. Yet they
must understand that in order to develop a son who can make sound decisions, he
has simply got to let the son make some mistakes and do things the son's way*
Mistakes are the greatest teacher.

Father should gradually ease out so that the son is shouldering most of the
burdens. At this point the son must remember that father needs enough to keep
him busy. He may not want complete retirement. He probably should not have it.
So push just enough onto father's shoulders to keep him happy, and ask his advice
occasionally (it may be helpful).

There are several other ways of getting into the apple business;
1, Buy an orchard, 2, Plant one and work out until it can pay its way.

Several well known orchardists have become their own bosses by vrorking for
someone in orcharding, watching for a good plant to come on the market at a fair
price, and then buying.

Working on an outside job lAhile you plant and grow an orchard is probably
the toughest way into the business »

VJhat's so good about fruit growing, you ask? IThy should I stay in it? Too
many,~^e first test is; Will it pay me financially? The second; Is it a
pleasant way of life?

Let's go over the latter first. It is an outside job, with plenty of exercise.
It is not monotonous, like putting 259 front lYheels on 259 new cars each 8 hour
shift. Your work changes with the season, it's interesting, you have challenges
and problems to solve, it's competitive.

Remember this; Few occupations can offer you as great an opportunity to
exercise your knowledge. You are a fruit grovrer, but you are also a seller, a
buyer, bookkeeper, a keen observer, and must have knowledge of refrigeration,
insects, insurance, business principles, finance and economics,

I assure you that the best fruit growers today are no slouches. They're
tough competition for you because they are the type who could step into industry
and do a comparable job,

Orcharding should enable you to live a fuller family life. You'll see more
of yovoc family, have a better opportunity to raise your children, have more con-
tact with them, influence their development, and teach them values.

You can vacation when you wish, your conscience being your guide. There are
times in the year when the nose need not be at the grindstone. Much of this de-
pends upon your organizational ability.

-3-

You are your oim boss, yet that is an illusion, because when you are boss
the responsibilities rest vfith you. If something is done wrong, you, in the end,
shoulder the burden. Tour customers and your creditors are your bosses.

Will orcharding pay financially? Here the ansvfers range from a deafening
NO] to a reassuring YES;

Some growers are seriously concerned about their ability to nake a living
from orcharding. On the other hand, there are growers who are doing very well
financially,

What are the differences between these growers?

Let's go over some of the requirements of a successful operation;

1, How is your orchard site? Be honest when you ask yourself this. For the
best orchardist vail have a hard time on a poor site. If the soil is poor, or
you are exposed to frosts, winds, hail more than occasionally, it's a poor bet

to start. Orchard sites so strongly affect orchard income that putting capital
into a poor site is like throwing it away,

2, The grower himself. Do some soul searching on this one,

3, Size of unit. Are you big enough to afford machinery and labor and invest-
ment in a storage and turn out apples at a fair cost per bushel competitively?

U» Details, We can lump a number of things under this category, Do you pro-
duce good volume consistently? Not too many ups and doims? If not, why? Some
small detail such as pollination, or soil management? A consistent volume of good
fruit I That to me is the KEY. Have apples and good apples every year. If you
are not producing consistently, there is a reason for it and it's your job to
find it.

Fortunate is the grower who has a crop in a "short year". Yet there are
growers who consistenly come through vdth better than average crops on these years.

Keep your operation in tip top shape and v;hen one of these short crop years
comes along, you can hit it hard, and put that money back into the operation to
enable you to dc it again,

ViTith production and quality you can't go v^rong. True- you may just coast
and squeeze by in a poor market year. You probably would have done better Tdth
your capital invested elsewhere. But in a good m.arket year, you should make tetter
interest on this capital than it viould do in industry.

Remember this is not a 2, kj or 6 year adventure. It's a long term propos-
ition. Plan it that vray and see hov-r you do over a 10 year period.

If your apples aren't bringing the top of the market, find out why, and do
something about it.

-il-

Any future, you ask? I believe we have to grow bigger, combine small units,
and all face this common enemy: disorderly niarketing. It's a long subject, market-
ing, and a distressing one. It is the fruit and produce grovrers' v/eakest point
today. You have an instrument in your N,Y, & N.E, Apple Institute that can be of
tremendous aid to you. Support it and nourish it, and tie it to some sort of
controlled marketing and v/e will have arrived.

The population of this co\mtry is growing. It is inconceivable to me that
people will give up eating apples.

— ¥. H, Darrow, Jr., Putney, Vermont

////////////////

WIITTER INJURY TO INSECTS

Insects are cold blooded animals and as such are much more tolerant than warm
blooded animals to below normal temperatures, Fxirthermore, it has been reported
that when insects go into hibernation (winter dormancy) a part of the moisture
in the body fluid is evaporated so that the remainder is concentrated into an
antifreeze liquid vjhich resists the formation of ice crystals at below freezing
temperatures. However, there is a limit to such phenomena, and temperatures of
-IS'^ F« or below kill many unprotected insects.

Observations this winter indicate a high mortality of San Jose scale, codling
mcth, bud moth and several minor fruit pests which hibernate on the exposed parts
nf the trees. However, in each case observed, a few live insects have been found.
Eggs of European red mite and the apple infesting aphids appear to have suffered
little injury and a normal percentage of them look natural.

Of course, some of the more destructive pests such as plum curculio, apple
maggot and red banded leaf roller vrere under 15 inches or more snow and well
insulated from severe cold, Likev/ise, the snow protected any of the scales, aphids
and worms -which were on Io^y hanging branches or the lower part of the tree trunk.

From the control standpoint, this means that growers cannot relax from their
regular spray or dust program, but should expect better results following reduced
numbers of some pests.

Where there is any evidence of v/inter injury to the buds or bark, especially
the bark, it is ura'dse in most cases to apply dormant oil this year. Otherwise,
the regular program as outlined in the Pest Control Schedule should be follov/ed,

\'I. D. Vlhitcomb

///////////// ///

TREATTIENT OF GIRDLED TREES

I
Fruit growers should be continually on watch for girdling or partial girdling

of their fruit trees by mice so that they can make plans for Repair of this damage.
It is difficult to find desirable scions for bridge grafting and trees for in-arch-
ing in late Hay and Juna as some fruit growers found out last year.

-5-

How Much Damaf^e is Necessary to V/arrant Repair?

Havf much of the trunk circioaf erence may have the bark removed and still leave
the tree capable of its functions is not loiown for certain, but it is estimated
that if the bark is removed from a quarter of the ^Tay around the trunk the tree
will be somewhat crippled. On the girdled side of the tree, the roots will even-
tually become starved since there is no appreciable lateral movement of food
materials. If the amoiont of removed bark and cambium is not great in extent, hov^-
ever, the uninjured cambium should form new wood and bark to replace that which
has been destroyed. Wound dressing in the early spring is always helpful even
to these less extensive injuries.

It usually does not pay to bridge graft trees that have been completely or
almost completely girdled for a year or more. These trees are generally in such
a lovT state of vigor that they will not respond to the treatment. However, some
success has been reported when apple trees were bridge grafted the second spring
after T/inter injury to the trunk.

In the case of complete girdling of the trunk, the trees may be treated in
any one of several different ways, the choice depending on the age of the tree,
species of tree, tree vigor, and the growers preference,

Determirting the Treatment

1, The tree may be pulled out and replaced by a better one,

2, If the apple or peach tree is only one or two years old it may be cut off
two or three inches above the surface of the ground or below the girdled area.
Usually many shoots will develop from the remaining stub. One of these may be
selected next spring and a new tree grown from it. Care must be taken, however,
to see that the shoot selected comes from above the union of the stock and scion,
otherwise the grovrer will get a seedling tree instead of a new tree of the variety
orginally set,

3, If the apple tree trunk is one and a half to two inches in diameter, the
trunk may be cut off and two scions of the desired variety may be cleft grafted
into the trunk,

k» When the trunks of girdled apple trees are more than tvro inches in diameter
and where the top is vforth SAving, bridge grafting is probably most feasible,

$, Mihen the roots of an apple tree are so bad]^ ijijured that scions cannot be
readily attached to them, inarching should be done,

6, Peach trees generally do not respond so satisfactorily to bridge grafting,
HoWBve-r, Prof, 0, C» Roberts stated that tie- has grafted peach tree&-stteee6eful3^
with plum scions.

Season for Repair Grafting

Repair grafting should be performed yihen the bark is slipping readily which
is about the time the trees are starting grovrth. If and when attempting to bridge
graft the bark doesn't slip readily, the inlay graft may be used.

-6-

Selection of Scion Wood for Brid^je Grartlng

It usually is necessary to obtain scions in advance of their use in order to
have them dormant. Water sprouts or well ripened one year terminal growths make
good scions for bridge grafting. Scions can vary in size from that of a lead
pencil to one half inch in diameter, the largest scions being used on larger wouj^.
Scions may be taken from the same tree or any other available compatible sort, but
preferably from a winter hardy variety such as Cortland or Mcintosh.

Seedlings for Inarching

Use dormant small seedling or nursery trees 3 to 6 feet in height.
Mechanics of Repair Grafting j[^y,,nJj^ v^vm/*'^^

Farmers' Bulletin #1369 U. S. Department of Agriculture give in detail methods
of bridge grafting and inarching. A -e^y of this publication can be obtained
from the EwwA^y Department, University of liassachusetts, Amherst or from your
County Extension Service,

^^^"^''^Grafting Compound

For the protection of grafting wounds, many growers now use asphalt emulsion
instead of a grafting wax. It can be obtained from most distributors of farm and
gardening supplies. Asphalt emulsion should be applied on the tip ends of the
scions and the exposed edges of the bark on the trunk when bridge grafting is com-
pleted. Applying the emulsion on the injured section of the trunk will prevent
weathering.

The Number of Scions

The follwing are about the right number of scions for different sized trees:

(1) Tree 2 inches in diameter, 3 scions

(2) Tree 3 inches in diameter, \x scions

(3) Tree 6 inches in diameter, 6 scions

(U) Tree 10 inches in diameter, 8 or 10 scions.

On partially girdled trees use a proportionate number of scions. Tree one-
quarter or more girdled should be bridge grafted.

Care of Scions After Grafting

It is necessary to keep the scions from producing shoots . As buds on the
scions swell, rub them off.

General Considerations

1, As soon as the injury is discovered, it may be possible to save some of
the cambium layer cells by promptly applying the asphalt emulsion or grafting wax.

-7-

2, Occasionally suckers are present or arise later from the area below the
wounds. Some of these suckers that extend above the wounded surface may be used
as "inlay scions" at the top end«

3. Trees leaf out and often fruit the first season after the bark and cambium
layer are destroyed aromid the tree trunkl Horrever, the vigor of these completely
girdled trees vary considerably. On some trees the foliage and fruit appear normal j
foliage may be light in color but fruit size normalj and on other girdled trees

the foliage may be light in color and sparse and the fruit small.

The reason why completely girdled trees leaf out and often fruit the first
season after the bark and cambium layer are destroyed around the tree trunk is
because water and other materials which are taken up by the roots from the soil
pass up to the leaves through the vrood. In the leaves the water and the carbon
dioxide taken from the air by the leaves are united chemically, through the action
of sunlight, into glucose sugar. This sugar is the starting point for the synthe-
sis of all other carbohydrates and in turn for proteins, oils, waxes, and other
organic compounds which make up the bulk of the apple tree. After the manufacture
of the plant foods by the leaves, they move to other parts of the tree through the
phloem which is found in the baric. From the facts presented, it can be seen that
complete girdling will not deprive the top of the tree of v^ater and other materials
necessary for the manufacture of plant foods and that these materials v;ill be trans-
ported to all plant parts above the injured area.

Reserve food stored in the roots enable the roots to function for some time,
often a year or two, thus keeping the top of the tree alive. However, a completely
girdled tree, unless repaired, will eventually'' die from starvation of the roots
for carbohydrates i

— ^. J. Lord
////////////////

FTOGIGIDE COmiMTIONS

The accompanying table indicates some of the advantages gained from mixing
fungicides in half and half strengths. T^relve categories are considered. Com-
bining two fungicides can contribute to more general control of diseases and to
better control of apple scab. The softening action of one on the other, each
at half strength, would improve safety and tolerance vathout losing any of the
virtues of either material at full strength. Improved wetting, nutrition,
back action, protectant action against scab and economy may be combined in one
spray by selecting two compatible materials each at half strength.

The gains apply to the earl;y sprays and in the primary scab infection period
up to mid- June, Thereafter, the single fungicides are used at reduced strength
and preference is given to the materials leaving the least objectionable deposit,
having the greatest residue tolerance and leaving the fruit in the best natural
finish.

E. F. Guba

-8-

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-9-

ROOT ACTIVITY

It is commonly known that the function of root systems is to supply vrater
and nutrients required for synthesis of food for tree and fruit grovrth. However,
the active part of the root system in this respect is not the large main roots
but the microscopic roct haii's that are in intimate contact mth small colloidal
particles of clay and humus. It is these root hairs that actually absorb water
and nutrients from the soil.

Root hairs are short lived structures and often die within a week or less.
Thus, they must be constantly formed so that the tree will get sufficient water
and nutrients. These new root hairs develop continuously throughout the season
whenever temperature, moisture and aeration of the soil is favorable. Research
findings shovr that root growth is very limited during the viinter months, therefore,
most of these root hairs if not all must be regenerated at the beginning of each
gra\ii±ng season.

Growers know that fruit trees do poorly or fail to survive on soils having
inadequate drainage. In such soils, at sometime during the growing season the
amount of oxygen in the soil is insufficient for formation of new root hairs.
Without oxygen root hair grovrth cannot occur. A representative silt loam soil
when in optimum condition for plant growth contains approximately ^0% pore space
being less for sandy soils and greater in soils containing clay. For optimum
conditions for root hair growth about half of this pore space should be occupied
by water and the rest by air.

Early root activity is necessary for adequate moisture and nutrient uptake
by fruit trees before bloom, Vfithout this, spur leaf area will be small and fruit
set may be reduced. Sufficient root activity early in the growing season necessi-
tates good soil aeration and soil management practices. In wet seasons, trees
planted on poorly drained soils may be water logged during the first part of the
growing season. In such instances, root hair activity vail be confined to the
surface layer and thereby the leaves and fruit may suffer for the lack of oxygen
and nutrients. These trees^ unless the soil is tile drained, are apt to be non-
profitable to the grovifer.

Growers should strive to apply their fertilizer to the fruit trees at least
tiiro to three vfeeks before bloom in order that the root hairs will be supplied
with sufficient nutrients for uptake,

M. J. Lord

////////////////

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Tree Girdling by iJice

The writer has noted very little girdling of fruit trees by mice in orchards
visited during February, Apparently many fruit grovrers conducted a thorough
baiting program because mice were abundant in most orchards last fall. This does
not mean, however, that growers do not have to be on the alert for signs of girdl-
ing, ffice may have caused considerable damage in some orchards,

Editor

////////////////

-10-

FARM FA.IILY FIHj.NCIaL FLAMING

A farm family ivhich owns a farm vyill gain financial security usually to the
extent that they can make and carry out sound plans in the areas of family finan-
cial management which follow;

Credit. Keeping the use of credit within the means of the family to repay
takes some doing but is a big factor in a security programT The feeling of security
which results from a good credit standing which can be called upon in times of
family or business need and stress cannot be measured.

Savings , The typical farm family saves first by buying and paying for a farm
business, and by adding to the value of this farm property. Sometimes savings in
the form of investments or life insurance supplement the farm investment but the
major savings program usually is investing in the farm business.

General Insurance. No farm owner should feel secure v/ithout insurance pro-
tection. One catastrophic fire, a costly accident to the hired man or just one
mistake while operating a motor vehicle on a public highvvay and a lifetime of work
in building up financial security and savings can be wiped out.

Life Insurance. Fairm people buy less life insurance than any comparable
groupl Life insurance can be both a protection and an investment. Farmers need
life insurance mainly as protection for the family in case of death of the farm
operator since farmers use their farm as an investment. To insure an adequate
income to tlie family in case of death of the farm operator i:isually life insurance
is needed, even #ien the family ovms a large farm free from debt.

Retirement Plans. Farmers like other people live longer and many, indeed
too many fann families make no plans for retirement, IIo one should plan to
operate at full tilt for life. Savings in the form of farm property alone often
prove inadequate to provide a retirement income that is satisfactory. Few farm
owners can retire on the income from the proceeds of the sale of the farm at age
65 or even 70 or 75. Social security protection and benefits apply to farmers
and their dependents and needs to be considered as part of an overall plan.

Estate Plans. Very Often a widow or an estate cannot operate a farm business
at a profit. Definite plans as to disposition of the business in the case of the
untimely death of the operator should be inade. Every farm ovmer should have a
will. Plans for the sale or operation of the farm at his death should be made by
the owner vjith his wife.

Actually these problems are all part of the same problem although we commonly
make the mistake of looking at each of them separately.

It is increasingly important that you take the time for a real look at your
plans for family financial security. Dollar investments in the farm business are
increasing and the need for planning ahead is becoming much more necessary and
important,

L. D. Rhoades

////////////////

^y ,.■&■'■">> -11-

' FURTIIE.R NOTES ON '^^NTER INJURY

At the present time, except foi-' some brovming of the sapwood back of the
buds, no definite wood injuiy to apple trees have been detected in Massachusetts
orchards. Little or no injury has occurred to fruit buds of apples. /j Only in one
orchard have v;e found considerable fruit bud injury and that ta^s on Gravensteins .
Some of the Gravenstein branches were cut off and placed in water at room temper-
ature. It v/as noted that there v:er,e only 3 or U blossoms to a cluster instead of
the usual 5-7.

Sour cherry fruit buds appear to be more vfinter hardy than those/ of sweet
cherry, jiany of the fndt buds of sour cherries blossomed when tTdgs cut from
trees in the University orchard were placed in water and kept at room temperature.
On the other hand none of the.sifireet cherry fruit buds op_ened vfhen the twigs were
treated in a similar manner^' /

In many orchards in Massachusetts, the leaf buds of peach trees appear to
have suffered less injury than those in our IMiversity orchard v,rhere temperatures
of -22°F, vrere recorded.

It is reported in the Produce News that some areas of New York may have
enough undamaged peach fruit buds for a 1^ to 2^ per cent crop. Other areas vd.ll
have no peaches and many trees may not survive. In Monroe and Yifayne Counties in
NeiiT York, a few blocks of Baldwin and Greening apples may have some damage,
"Damage is to the sap wood back of the buds, A hot or v^arm dry spring would
intensify this damage, while a cool, moist spring would minimize it. Some growers
fear that fruit may bloom and then drop badly,"

In marry instances the primaiy buds on grapes have been injured but the
secondary buds unliarmed. In these cases the secondary buds vd.ll probably grow
and may bear a partial crop.

Grovrers should be on the alert for signs of v/inter injury to fruit trees.
Some types of winter injury may not appear until late spring or summer,

W. J. Lord

////////////////

"FLOATER" INSURANCE

Originally property insurance coverage was largely "vvritten to cover loss or
damage resulting from fire. Later coverage was extended to provide indemnity for
losses and damage from other causes.

To cover losses from many causes particularly on property which might be
sometimes located in one place and sometimes in another, a kind of insurance call-
ed "inland marine" or "floater" coverage vras developed. Policies of this type
adopt a quite different approach to insuring risks from the simple fire insurance
policy,

"Floater" coverage is commonly written to cover all risks and locations vilth
relatively few exceptions.

-12-

I

"Floater" polj.cies are written either' to cover specific property such as your
wil'e's fur coat or your valuable camera, or may cover a schedule of property such
as livestock on your farm or movable f aim equipment, V/here inventoiy of machines
and livestock and values vary, a monthly schedule may be used to keep premium costs
low.

This type of "all risk" insurance is the only v;ay that many companies provide
such coverage as "theft" protection on livestock, for example.

By all means discuss ivith your agent or broker the possibility of using this
type of insurance to cover certain kinds of your property vfhich is subject to risks
of damage or loss that are likely to occur as well as fire or damage resulting from
fire. This type of comprehensive coverage might be of particular interest to
poultrymen or dairymen whose numbers of livestock vaiy during the year or who keep
birds of varying ages in several locations or other farmers v/hose inventory of
products varies viridely during the year,

— L. D. Rhoades

////////////////

APPLE SCAB CONTROL MTERIALS FOR 1957

A grower needs to know thoroughly the scab spray materials and what he can
expect of them for control if he is to get the most out of his scab control program,"
The following is a presentation of the available scab control materials «

Sulfur; Some growers continue to get good scab and black rot control v\fith
sulfurs and it may be well for gro^-rers to take another look at them, especially
since sulfur is the only scab fungicide i*jch also controls apple pov/dery mildew, ■
The paste and fine particle dry-r/ettable sulfurs, either alone or at half strength
in combination with another scab protectant, may be used through the primary infect-
ion period. After second cover, there is risk of fruit scald if the weather turns
hot and it can happen even when sulfur has been applied during a cool period a week
'3r more before the hot spell. It does not occur every year, but when it does, it
can cause serious loss. Since there are safer summer scab spray materials than
sulfur, it is well tc use one of them. If it should be desirable to use sulfur in
cover sprays, as would be the case if apple poivdery mildew showed up in suimner, a
coarse sulfur, 325 mesh, at 2 to 3 lbs, would be a little safer than the paste or
fine particle sulfurs.

Adherence to foliage is an important characteristic of a scab fungicide and the
paste forms are better in this respect than the particle forms — maybe that is v;hy
they usually give slightly better scab control. After about one inch of rain the
particle forms, as with all poxvder fungicides, may need to be replaced to maintain
protection,

A sulfur dust comes in handy for emergency protection when tliere is not enough
time to apply a spray and either spray or dust may be used in bloom.

Sulfur combines well vdth ferbam, glyodin, dichlone, and, according to the man-
ufacturer, even vd.th captan. It is not safe \rith oil and when used with lead arse-
nate, may cause some leaf injury. It has no "kickback".

-13-

Ferbam: This carbamate is sti'ictly a protectant fungicide T,dth no "kickback"
action. It controls scab well and is still the standard fungicide for controlling
cedar-apple and quince rusts, Brooks' spot, and bitter rot. It maj^ be used alone
but also does v/ell at half strength with half strength sulfur, dichlone, glyodin,
or captan. It is safer than sulfur v;ith lead arsenate on Bald^Tin and Red Delicious.

Ferbam is the only scab fungicide' that is recommended vj'ith oil in Delayed
Dormant, It is not compatible Virith all oils and the grower should determine how it
mixes, v/ith the oil he plans to use, before he uses such a combination. Some grov/-
ers prefer to put on a separate spray or dust of ferbam, if needed, rather than use
a ferbam - oil combination, Ferbam may be used in bloom,

Dichlone > This organic fungicide is an excellent scab fungicide and also con-
trols frogeye leaf spot and rusts. It may be used as a spray or dust for primary
scab control through calyx. It is not used in the covers.

At full dosage, in an all season program, it tends to cause leaf chlorosis,
some fruit spotting or russetting, and a noticeable reduction in fruit set in sub-
sequent years. It is most commonly used at half dosage with lialf dosage sulfior or
ferbam or as a 3% actual dichlone dust for airplane application. The dust is also
applied vath ground equipment, or a spray may be used, toward the end of a pro-
longed vret period or vrhen "kickback" is needed, "Kickback" is about i^O to 50 hours
at 50°F, when applied to vret trees. Better results may be obtained at full dosage
in a rain application than with reduced dosages. If needed, it may be used in
bloom vdth no injury except browning of flower petals.

The older dusty formulations of dichlone caused an uncomfortable skin irrita-
tion for some spray operators. The nevj- dustless dichlone is claimed to cause less
skin irritation.

Dichlone is not compatible with oils and phenyl mercuries,

Glyodin; This is a liquid fungicide lYhich gives very little residiie, a fine
fruit finish, and excellent scab protection. It is persistent and is not v/ashed
from the leaves easily by rain but has no "kickback" value.

It controls Brooks' spot and sooty blotch but not black rot, mildew, or rusts.
For rusts, it is necessary to use ferbam in combination with glyodin at half dosage
of each.

It has given very good scab control virhen used at half dosage vfith half dosage
of phenyl mercury, Tlie combination gives good protection and about 72 hours "kick-
back",

Glyodin should not be used with oil and with liquid insecticides such as TEPP
and TDE (DDD). It has a tendency to cause leaf scorch when used with lead arsenate
on Cortland, BaMvin, R, I, Greening, and Red Delicious, Vihen used vdth lead arse-
nate, if no mercury is in the spray, an equal amount of fresh spray lime may act as
a safener.

-11;-

Concentrates of I4X or over and over application i.iay cause some fruit russet,
especially near the machine.

Excessive foaming may be reduced or prevented by adding the glyodin to the
tank when it is nearly full or by using 2 oz, of fresh spray lime or 1 pint of
kerosene per tank,

Captan ; One of the newer materials virhich already has found a place in fruit
growing because of excellent scab control and excellent fruit finish. It is one
of the safest fungicides for easily russetted varieties, especially Golden Delici<-us,

It controls Brooks' spot, and black rot, but not mildew, sooty mold, and
rusts. If rusts are a problem, use captan-ferbam combination, one half dosage of
each.

It gives "kickback" up to 18 or 20 hours at 50°F, and also supression of spore
development on scab spots but no "bum out". For longer "kickback", up to 72 hours,
combine half dosage each of captan and phenyl mercury.

It combines v/ith lead arsenate, DDT, and most other organic insecticides and
fungicides, but is incompatible with lime, oil, oil-type stickers and emulsifiable
insecticides such as TDE. Over application may cause spotting, yellowing, or
burning of leaves on Red Delicious, Baldvdn, and Stayman, especially around calyx
and first cover,

Miacide A and Hiacide H: These are nev^ names for wha.t xvere formerly Vancide
A and Vancide M» They are scab protectants which are relatively new but vfhich
have given good control and good finish in tests and limited grovrer trials.

Both Niacides are mixtures of several materials, Niacide A contains ferbam
and thiram along with other materials and is a dark wettable poiTder, Niacide M
has no ferbam in its formulation, but does have thiram. It is light in color.

The manufacturer suggest Niacide A at 2 lbs, through first cover, I-I/2 lbs,
in second and third cover, and 1 lb, in later covers, but not closer than 30 days
to harvest and removal of excess residue at harvest. Niacide M.is suggested at
I-I/2 lbs, in early covers and 1 lb, in late covers in place of Niacide A for less
conspicuous residue with applications not closer than 30 days to harvest and re-
moval of excess residues at harvest. On spray sensitive varieties such as Golden
Delicious, Niacide M at 2 lbs, is preferred to A in pre-cover sprays,

Thiram; This fungicide has been knovm to agriculture for some time, but only
recently has it been seriously suggested for use on apples. It seems to have ex-
cellent scab control properties^ it controls rusts and other diseases, and produces
excellent finish. Its light color makes it suitable for summer and late season
use. There is still need for testing and observation londer a wider variety of
weather and grower conditions,

C. J. Gilgut

////////////////

R

J'

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

APRIL 15, 1957

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Small Fruit Disease Conference
Prune Those Red Raspberries
Pomological Paragraphs

Refrigerated Apple Storages in Massachusetts-1956
Fertilization of Apple Trees with Poultry Manure
Woodchuck Control in the Orchard
Chemical Thinning of Apples

The Influence of Preharvest Drop Control
Materials on the Amount of Internal
Breakdown of Mcintosh

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronln, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOUR POMOLOOY DEPARTMENT

Anderson^ James - Instruotor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematic
Pomology.

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham.

Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums. Mr. Bailey
also does considerable Extension work with small fnoit growers.

French, Arthur P. - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J, - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers* problems, other than pest oontrol,
and is somewhat involved in research. Editor of JHUIT NOTES.

Robez>ta, Oliver C^ Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental eovaraoe.
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, FrankUn W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches In
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests-
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses*

Contributors to this issue from Supporting Fields

Wesley R, Jones, Assistant District Agent, U. S, Fish and Wildlife

Service

SMALL FRUIT DISEASE CONFERENCE

A small fruit disease conference was held on February 18 and ly at the U.S.D.A.
Research Center at Beltsville, Maryland. About a hundred small fruit specialists,
growers and nurserymen from all over the United States and Canada were in attendance.

The strawberry virus situation was discussed in considerable detail. It
was apparent that from the standpoint of the research man this is a very complex
problem. Much work is being done, but much more is needed. From the viewpoint
of the grower the essentially virus-free stocks are so much better than the non-
virus- free that every grower should demand them.

At present the difficulty is to maintain these essentially virus-free plants
in that condition through the several years it takes tc multiply them sufficiently
so that all growers can be supplied. Eight states, California, Tennessee, Michigan,
New Jersey, Ohio, Maryland, Delaware and Arkansas have established, or are in the
process of establishing, a system of inspection and certification or registration
of essentially virus-free strawberry plants. In these states there is some super-
vision over the production, and control over the sale, of such plants.

In Massachusetts there is no such arrangement. A few plant grov;ers, because
of carelessness or ignorance, are offering plants for sale as essentially virus-
free which are not. The progressive plant growers are doing a good job of
supplying quality plants v;hich are essentially virus-free. It is up to the straw-
berry grower to be sure that he deals with the latter kind of nursery.

Attempts are being continued to produce virus-free plants by heat or chemical
treatments. So far heat treatment has been successful in inactivating some but
not all viruses. One case has been reported of inactivating a virus with a zinc
salt.

The fight against root infesting nematodes in strawberries continues. The
root knot and meadow nematodes which work in the roots continue to be the most
general and worst offenders. In Florida the sting nematode which works on
the outside of the roots is their worst offender.

A new nematocide 1, 2-dibromo-3 chloropropane (sold under the trade names
Fumazone and Nemagon) received considerable attention. This material is not
toxic to strawberries as arc the commonly used soil fumigants DD and ethylene
dibromide. On the other hand it is much slower acting. It has been found to
be very effective against root knot nematodes. It is being prepared in granular
from which makes it much easier to apply.

Red Stele was discussed briefly. Two or three more strains of the disease
have been found in northwestern Canada, making a total of 5 or 3 strains. The
only control measure is still the use of red stele resistant varieties.

Verticillium wilt of strawberries was discussed at some lengbh. It is the
most serious disease of strawberries in California. It can be controlled by
fumigating the soil with chloropicrin, but this is too expensive at present
price levels out there. As a result, some strawberry land is going out of
production. This fungus attacks red raspberries, potatoes, tomatoes, egg plant

and many other plants. In both California and New Jersey it is reported to do
greater damage to strawberries when they are planted within two years after a
crop of tomatoes. Verticillium v;ilt has been found occasionally on strawberries
in Massachasetts . One case was found last summer .

One of the highlights of the conference was a report by Dr. G. M, Darrow
on his trip to Chile, South America, in search of breeding stock of the Chilean
strawberry. He found fields of strawberries in the mountains which had been
fruited continuously for perhaps a hundred years. The berries are so fira that
they are hauled to market in large wooden boxes holding 10 to 20 kilos ( a
kilo is slightly over a pound) in ox carts. They are then dumped in piles in
the store windows the way apples used to be dumped in this country. They are
quite poor in flavor according to Dr. Darrow.

■J. S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

J

PRUNE THOSE RED RASPBERRIES

Possibly no other fruit suffers more from the lack of pruning than does the
raspberry. There are at least three valid reasons why the red raspberry must
be pruned annually:

1. The individual raspberry cm:& lives only two years. The first year it
starts as a tender shoot at or near the ground level and develops into
a mature, typically unbranched 6 to 8 foot cane by fall. The next
season this cane sends out fruiting laterals, Blossoms, bears a crop,
and then dies.

2. The suckering habit of the red raspberry would soon result in a "brier
patch" with weakened cane growth and poor air circulation if no pruning
were done,

3. Most pickers would fail to locate and pick too high a percentage of the
crop if the rows were left wide and the stand of canes too dense in the
row. Many of the lower buds, in particular, fail to develop into fruit-
ing laterals under such conditions.

When and How. In view of the fact that the old fruiting canes die soon after
bearing their crop and serve as a source of infection for such diseases as spur
blight, all fruiting canes should bo removed immediately after harvest is over.
Such old green leaves as may still remain on these fruiting canes after harvest
have been found to contribute little, if any, food to the plant. Therefore, the
sooner they are taken out after harvest the better.

During the late winter or early spring all one year canes of less than
average diameter should be cut out. There is plenty of evidence to indicate
that the large canes are the most fruitful ones. Having cut out all of the
weaker canes, the base of the row should be narrowed to approximately one foot

-3-

in width and, if necessary, more canes cut out so as to obtain a spacing of
approximately o inches or so between remaining canes. This procedure should
result in a narrow row having approximately 25 canes per 10 feet of row length.
To the inexperienced person a row so treated will appear excessively thin. How-
ever, under these conditions the maximum number of buds will develop fruiting
laterals, air circulation will be good, and the pickers should find most of
the berries.

Heading back of these canes is best delayed until growth has started and
one can observe the amount of killing back which has taken place during the
winter. In the absence of winter killing, the amount of heading back will depend
upon \jhether or not the canes are to be given support. If support is used, a
5 to 6 foot heading is entirely reasonable, but if they are to be grown without
support they should be shortened to about 4 to 4% feet with most varieties.
Otherwise, the weight of the fruit and foliage will cause the canes to bend
and the fruit to become dirty in the soil. Longer canes tend to bear somewhat
smaller sized fruit which ripens slightly earlier as compared with fruits on
canes which are shortened somewhat more. However, since every bud on the
cane is potentially capable of producing a fruiting lateral and the greater
the length of the cane, the fewer is the number of basal buds which develop
into fruiting laterals, there may be little difference in total production
between canes that are headed at 4% feet and 5% feet.

---A. P. French

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS

Winter Injury

Live peach buds were found in two small orchards in Barnstable County.
According to one of the growers, the minimum temperature recorded in his
orchard during the week of January 14th was -9^F.

In peach orchards visited in Plymouth and Bristol County, little or no
wood injury was evident. However, this was not the case in Norfolk County.

Pruning Grape Vines

Frequently when walking out to the orchard during fairm visits to discuss
pruning of tree fruits, the grower will v;ant to know how to prune that grape
vine or vines in the backyard. The leaflet titled "Grape Culture in Mass-
achusetts" describes the training and pruning of grape vines. This leaflet
may be obtained from your County Agent or from the Cooperative Extension
Service, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.

---W. J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

-4-

REFRIGERATED APrL£ STORAGES IN MASSACHUSETTS - 1956

As gleaned from the Fruit Tree Survey tht: capacity of refrigerated apple
storages in Massachusetts totals 2,210,000 buhsels.

Details are shown as follows:

BARNSTABLE COUNTY

Sandwich

3,600

Adams
4,000
Hancock
300

Acushnet
10,000
Fall River
5,000

Andover

650
Bradford
8,000
Hathorne
1,100
Ipswich
5,000

BERKSHIRE COUNTY
Richmond
9,000

Williamstown
5,000
BRISTOL COUl'JTY

SegreRanset
2,200
Swansea
4,000
ESSEX COUNTY
Methuen
12,000
Peabody
15,500
Rowley
5,000

VJest Newbury
35,000

Total - 3,600

Total - 18,300

Total - 21,200

Total - 82,250

-5-

Deerf Leld
7,500

Brlmf leld

S) , 500

Crauville

70,000

E . Longmeadow

7,000

Monson

7,500

Southwick

2,400

Amherst

39,000

*4,000
T50.000
. 93,000

Belchertown
5,000

Chesterfield
15,000

FRAi^LIM COUNTY
Shelburne

59,000
HAMPDEN COUNTY

Three Rivers

13,000

*15,000

28,000

Tolland

12,000

Westf leld

9,200

VJilbraham

39,000

HAMPSHIRE COUNTY

Sasthampton

16,000

Southampton

C,800
Ware
9,500

Williamsburg
20,000

Total - 66,500

Total - 15b, 800

>n5,ooo

173,800

Total -

Bushel Capacity by Counties and Towns
T - Country Point Commercial Storage
* - Controlled Atmosphere Storage

111,300

*A , 000

T50 , 000

165,300

-6-

MIDDLES'EX COUNTY

Ac con Hndaon

42,000 14,000

Ashland Littleton

47,000 13,000

Bilierica Marlboro

7,700 60,500

Chelmsford Pepperell

10,600 47,000

Concord Sherborn

T 220,000 2,200

Dracut Stow

11,500 105,500

Dunstable Tewksbury

2,300 4,500

Groton Westford

10,000 36,000 Total - 41J,80u

T220.000

633.800

NORFOLK COUNTY

Franklin Norwood

1,600 2,000

Medfield Sharon
2,000 650

Medway Walpole

15,000 1,700

Mil lis Wrentham

3,000 15,000 local - 40,y3U

Lakeville
8,400

Aver

T 393,000

T" 87,000

482,000

Ashburnham

1,000

Berlin

25,000

Bolton

30,000

Boylston

4,000

Brookfield

19,000

Charlton

3,000

Fiskdale

8,000

Fitchburg

84,500

Grafton

1,500

Harvard

78,000

•i:7 , 000

85,000

PLYMOUTH COUNTY

Nor well

.50

VJQRCESTER COUNTY

Lancaster

4,000

Leominster

24,000

740,000

64,000

Mendon

2,100

Millbury

5,000

Northboro

4,700

Oxford

2,900

Spencer

2,000

Sterling

52,000

Sutton

14,000

Warren

12,000

Westboro

6,800

Total - 8,450

Total - 383,500

*7,000

T*87,000

T435.000

912,500

-8-

GRAMD TOTALS

1,308,650

*26,000

1*87,000

T7O5,000

2,126,650

0. C. Roberts

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FERTILIZATION OF APPLE TREES WITH POULTRY MANURE

/^ Poultry manure must be used with caution as many growers have already found
/ out. The application of too much poultry manure may result in nitrogen becoming
\ available late in the growing season, causing poor fruit color and immaturity
of wood,

A number of growers use poultry manure regularly and through experience
know how much to apply without getting into difficulty. On the other hand,
growers using poultry manure for the first time should do so with caution. It
may be best to experiment on just a few trees. Poultry manure applied sparingly
and broadcast over the area between trees will improve tree and grass growth.

The following facts and figures about hen manure were taken from the Penn-
sylvania Extension Service publication - "Hen Cackles" April, 1955 issue.

It is difficult to estimate the analysis of poultry manure because of vari-
able amounts of litter it may contain. In addition, as much as 75% of the nitrogen
can escape from poultry manure if it remains wet in the houses or is allowed to
heat. There may also be loss of nitrogen from oxidation. The losses of phosphoric
acid and potash are not as great as that of nitrogen because they are more stable.

The following is the analysis of poultry droppings:

Phosphoric

Water Nitrogen Acid Potash

Fresh and Wet 76% 1.48% .96% .47%

Fresh and Dry 16% 5.88% 3.60% 1.65%

A rule of thumb as to nitrogen content of poultry manure: There is approx-
imately one pound of nitrogen per bushel of wet droppings, or three fourths bushel
of dry droppings. Three fourths of a bushel of dry poultry manure contains enough
nitrogen to meet the nitrogen requirement of a Mcintosh apple tree capable of
producing 25 bushels of apples.

Nitrogen in poultry manure becomes available to the trees more slowly than
in the commercial forms and may benefit the crop for several seasons, Approxi-
'' mately one half of the plant food in the poultry will be utilized by the first
crop; one fourth will be available the second year and one fourth the third year.

---W, J. Lord
|.^ I I I I I I I I It I I I I I I

WOODCHUCK CONTROL IN THE ORCHARD

Fortunately there are a few orchard pests that don't require the use of a
hand lens for identification. That stocky, low-slung rodent, the woodchuck, is
one of these. Every fanner is familiar with this pest and its damage. The fruit
grower, particularly, has reason to bar woodchucks from his premises.

Probably the first annoyance that will come to the attention of the fruit
grower is the chewing proclivity of the woodchuck. Apparently chucks chev* for
the sake of dental exercise when they first become active in the spring. If
the dea happens to be located in a young orchard, then one or two nearby trees
may be destroyed by this gnawing. There seems to be no intent on the part of
the woodchuck to consume the bark, for he lets the chips fall where they may.
In fact, woodchuck damage may be easily recognized by its raggedness, in comparison
with the clean removal of bark by girdling mice or rabbits.

Woodchucks pester the fruit grower in other, more universal, manners. Their
burrows may collapse under the weight of heavy equipment--trapping the wheel of
the spray rig just when you are about to finish applying second cover. And those
gravelly mounds are rough on mowing machine blades after these mounds become semi-
hidden in lush grass .

Spring is woodchuck control time. In Massachusetts these rodents should meet
their destiny during the period from the middle of April to the middle of May.
There are a number of conmion sense reasons for this. The burrows are easy to
locate at this time; the young may not yet have been born or are, at least, still
present in the maternal burrow; only a single burrow system is in use at this
time of year; and there is less chance of destroying other wildlife.

Gassing is the most practical method of controlling woodchucks in the orchard,
and the use of the special Gas Cartridge, manufactured by the U. S. Fish and Wild-
life Service, is the most practical means of gassing. Detailed instructions on
the employment of the Gas Cartridge will not be given here but are available in
printed form from the suppliers of the cartridge, from your County Agricultural
Agent, or from our office at the University of Massachusetts.

Cartridges this year can be obtained, under a new distribution system, from
a number of cooperators in the state. Chief among these are: Eastern States
Farmers' Exchange, Inc.; Farm Bureau Association; Essex County Cooperative
Farming Association; and United Cooperative Farmers, Inc.

Gassing with Calcium Cyanide is an alternate method of treating burrow
systems. It is best applied with a foot pump, sold commercially for about $15.00.
Used with this equipment, the poisonous fumes are forced into and diffused through-
out the underground passages. Depositing a spoonful of Calcium Cyanide in the
burrow opening is a slightly less satisfactory method. A zone of gas is formed
which is effective only if the 'chuck enters this area before the gas is dissipated,

The use of tractor exhaust, while effective in its action on the woodchucks,
is not considered practical in commercial-size orchards. The expenditure of time
required by this method precludes its use.

-10-

Trapping is a useful adjunct to any gassing program. In a large orchard
there may be a few rock heaps or stonewalls that are so loosely piled that the
gases are not contained in the burrow in toxic concentration. A No . 2, Coil
Spring, Steel Trap is recommended for its high grip and strength, for the woodchuck
frequently escapes the jaws of smaller traps. The trap may be set in the trails
leading between burrow openings. The woodchuck is quite unconcerned about walking
into a trap. Some provision should be made, utilizing sticks, rocks, or natural
barriers, to obstruct progress each side of the trap; for the 'chuck will walk
around it if that is the easiest thing to do. Traps may be set down in burrow
openings if there is fear of catching pets, but frequently this may lead to a
fine catch of belly fur.

The necessity of area - wide control cannot be over emphasized. Removal of
only a few woodchucks from an orchard sometimes resulfis in the operator becoming
discouraged or losing faith in the control practice. It will be found that those
woodchucks overlooked in the gassing will reopen the burrows without actually
reoccupying them. Thus, it becomes difficult to estimate the efficiency of the
control program.

---W. R. Jones
I I I I I I I I I I I 11 I I I

CHEMICAL THIIWING OF APPLES

The 1957 revision of the Chemical Thinning Circular is available. If you
desire a copy request Special Circular #189 entitled, "Chemical Thinning of
Apples", revised March, 1957 from your County Extension Service or the Mailing
Room, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass.

F. W. Southwick

I I I I I I I U I I I I I I I

THE INFLUENCE OF PREHARVEST DROP CONTROL MATERIALS

ON THE AMOUNT OF INTERML BREAKDOWN OF McINTOSH

One of the problems of the 1956-57 storage season was the development of
considerable amounts of internal breakdown in many apple varieties. In some
late varieties such as Delicious and Spy susceptibility to breakdown was greatly
increased by the presence at harvesttime of considerable amounts of water core.
Also, temperatures in the high teens and low twenties, prior to picking some late
varieties, in mid-October may have frozen some apples and increased their amount
of storage breakdown. However, Mcintosh which in many instances were picked before
temperatures were low enough to freeze the fruit and which showed no signs of water
core developed considerable amounts of internal breakdorm while in cold storage.

Since most growers are using preharvest drop control materials on their
Mcintosh some people have wondered vhat influence they may have had on the develop-
ment of internal breakdown. In the fall of 1956 experiments comparing the effective-
ness of several preharvest drop materials were conducted in two orchards. Samples
of fruit from all trees in these experiments were placed in storage at harvesttime.

-11-

Ln March 1957 these samples were removed from storage and left for five days ai
room temperature. After this period all fruits were cut to determine the percentage;
of internal breakdown for each preharvest drop control treatment. Since the results
obtained were almost identical in both orchards results from only one of them are
given in the following table.

The Influence of Several Preharvest Drop Control Materials on the Percentage
of Internal Breakdovm of Mcintosh After 5 Months in Cold Storage

Treatment

Date applied
1956

No. trees

% of internal breakdown after
5 days at room temperature
March 5. 1957

Check

2,4,5-TAA

- 20 ppm

9/7

2,4,5-TA

- 20 ppm

9/7

2,4,5-TP

- 20 ppm

9/7

2,4,5-TA

- 20 ppm^

- 20 ppmf

9/7

NAA

- 20 ppm

- 20 ppm

9/7\
9/2lJ

NAA
2,4,5-TP

- 20 ppm

- 20 ppm

9/7 \
9/21/

16.8

18

.6

13

.2

17

.9

16

.7

22

0

25

5

The data show that the single treatments of all the materials used had no
influence on the percentage of fruit that had internal breakdown. However, when
treatments were applied on both September 7 and 21 to the same trees fruit from
these trees developed slightly more internal breakdown than the checks. These
data indicate that v;eather conditions during the 1956 season were largely re-
sponsible for the susceptibility of these apples to internal breakdown rather
than preharvest drop control materials. Also, the fact that our Cortland trees,
which are not subject to preharvest drop and were not sprayed with drop control
hormones, produced fruit that developed a considerable amount of internal break-
down, lends support to the previous statement.

F. W. Southwick

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

J'

R
NOTE5

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS. AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Opportunity for Roadside Stands
Pomological Paragraphs
Soil Management of Strawberries
Nutrient Element Sprays
Air-Blast Sprayers
Chonges in the Strawberry Industry

MAY 15, 1957

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director.

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts. United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

TOUR FOMOLOQY DEPARTMENT

Anderson^ James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematic
Pomology,

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham.

Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums, Mr. Bailey

also does considerable Extension work with small fruit growers. Currently
on leave of absence studying the strawberry industry in California.

French, Arthur P. - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active tn small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J, - Extension Fmit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest control,
and is somemhat involved in research. Editor of PTIUIT NOTES.

Roberta, Oliver Cr- Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketlxig and other departmental courses*
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, Franklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests-
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches ceirtain advanced courses*

Contributors to this issue from Supporting Fields

Frederick E. Cole, Extension Marketing Specialist

THE OPPORTUNITY FOR ROADSIDE STANDS

There is just one reason why consumers are buying at roadside stands and
farm sales rooms to the extent of an estimated $20,000,000 annually. They are
able to buy what they want for good eating.

Also, there is just one reason why producers sell through a roadside stand
or farm sales room. Their net returns are increased by using this selling method
with other selling methods.

Basically, the main problem and the big opportunity of these operators is
to continue to improve this advantage of providing good eating satisfaction.

The requirements are simple and few: 1) good products - 2) good business
methods - 3) helpful sales people - 4) cleanliness - 5) shopping made easy -
6) attractive surroundings.

Sales volume is a reliable guide to your success. If the stand is conducted
in a way to cause your customers to tell their neighbors about your products, the
main requirements are being met and your business is gaining.

1. There may be some operators who do well because people like to hear them
talk, but usually good usable products is what brings the customers to your
stand. The products may not all be the most fancy, but they are sold and
bought for what they are, and they fit the intended uses. Some better than
average eating results from the purchases.

2. Good business methods are also essential. Prices are "on the market" for
the quality and the package. Selections are made easy. Satisfaction is
guaranteed and a satisfying policy for product return is in use.

3. Pleasant sales people are helpful in making desired selections. Services
are given when services are requested. Change is quickly and accurately
made. Help is given in getting produce to the car when help is desired,

4. The display areas, sales room, sales people and the area surrounding the
sales room are clean. It is food you are selling. Confidence in the whole-
someness of your products is important.

5. It is easy to stop and buy. There is a sign to give warning of your location.
The entrance of your sales area is wide enough to make getting off the road
easy and safe. A car can be parked on the level with enough space to get out
and back into the car with packages. There is room enough to back out, turn
around and get safely on to the road again. Adequate lighting makes judgement
of quality easier. Plain pricing helps to make buying decisions

6. The stand and its surroundings are attractive. It is a pleasant place to
stop. It is a good contact with a pleasant country and a good farm. Customers
get a "lift" from making purchases there. There is space to walk around just

a bit as a relief from driving.

-2-

Not all successful stands have all of these requirements, but no one knows how
much more business they would do if they did have them. Some stands are noticeably
short on one or more of the requirements, but there is a good chance that some
others are excellent to make up at least in part for the obvious deficiencies.

Most of the sales promotion for the stand or sales room has already been
mentioned. It starts with the sound planning of the outlet. Paid advertising
has the main function of letting people know what you have for sale this week
and letting new customers know where you are located. Word of mouth advertising -
customer advertising - has prepared the way for the most part.

Your name and address in each package is an implied guarantee and a grade
mark, where grades are available, may be used to build customer confidence with-
out which you have little in the way of repeat sales.

The "Approved Farm Stand" sign of the Massachusetts Fruit Growers Associa-
tion is used by a group of growers who recognize the value of the above require-
ments for stand operation. They are trying to build sales. The sign is just
plain good busiuess for those who are really serious in the development of a road-
side stand or farm sales room business. The requirements of the sign are simple
and few.

These requirements are being met by some who do not have a sign, but if so,
a sign would "tell the world". The more signs used, the more that can be done
in advertising.

Roadside stands and farm sales rooms have a future. A sound foundation
under the use of this outlet means greater returns over a period of years.

— F. E. Cole

I I I I I I I I ! I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS

Puritan

Several growers during this last month have asked about the Puritan apple
variety. Puritan originated from the cross Mcintosh x Red Astrachan made by the
late Prof. F. C. Sears at the University of Massachusetts about 1929. It is
recommended for trial by growers wanting aa early red apple. Massachusetts growers
who already have fruited the variety report favorably on its size, color, quality
and public exceptance at road side stands.

The Puritan is an attractive, well colored red apple of medium size which
retains its size well even v^ith a full crop. The quality is good for an early apple
although rather tart. The flesh is crisp, white and does not discolor readily.
Sauce and pies made from it have a distinct pinkish color. The season of harvest
of Puritan is just ahead of Early Mcintosh.

The tree of Puritan is hardy, vigorous, with wide crotch angles and has
the tendency toward biennial bearing. It will pollinate Mcintosh.

---W. J. Lord

SOIL MANAGEMENT OF STR/iHBLRRIES

Soils on which strawberries are grown continuously without benefit of rotations
will become gradually less productive. In such soils, air and water rather than
nutrients may be the limiting factor. Stravjberries have shallow root systems and
therefore need an adequate supply of moisture within 6-12 Inches of the soil
surface. On the other hand, a compact, impervious soil is detrimental to root
growth. The soil originally selected by the grower/ may have met the specification '^'^'^^
for being a desirable soil for strawberries, | but continual cropping with/ straw- ./t**^
berries/without rotation soon breaks down the soil structure.

Soil structure is the arrangement of soil particles which are not only indi-
vidual mechanical elements, such as sand, silt and clay, but also aggregates of
smaller mechanical fractions. In order to have a soil that is loose and friable,
stable aggregates are necessary. "Aggregation and its accompanying arrangment
of structure is the anatomy of the soil. It is only by the virtue of aggregation
that air and water can enter and leave the soil." In soils that are continually
cultivated, the aggregates are broken down by the various cultural operations and
by weathering.

Decomposing organic matter is the source of organic acids that stabilize the
soil aggregates. In addition, organic matter (a) serves as a storehouse or supply
of plant nutrient elements, (b) is the site of microbiological processes occurring
in the soil, (c) is the source of various organic and inorganic acids which dissolve
soil minerals and (d) forms humus which possesses many physical and physicochemical
properties which make it a valuable soil constituent.

Since the maintenance of a high organic matter level is difficult and expensive,
the strawberry grower should try only to tiaintain organic matter at a level that
will result in good yields. Farm manures, sod crops and green manure crops are
the materials that most strawberry growers use to increase the supply of soil
organic matter. It is the fortunate grower who can get /ade^juate amounts of farm
manure I for not only is it a source of plant nutrients but^ the ideal source of humus.
If manure can be supplied at the rate of 20 to 40 tons j^pproximatelyj 10 to 20 cords)
per acre probablv, no green manure or sod crops are necessary. Most growers, how-
ever, are not that fortunate and must rely i^on green-manure and sod crops in
rotations. Which of these the grower will use to supply organic matter to the
soil depends Apftftn the amount of land available, the adaptability and utilization
of the crops in a rotation and the presence of certain insects and diseases. Gen-
erally a long rotation in which strawberries occupy the land only lapproximateiy y(:^Arf<w7'^
16 months out of 5 or 6 years is most satisfactory. , ,-

Following are some suggested soil management programs that the strawberry
grower may follow.

USE OF GREEN MANURE CROPS ONLY

When no extra land is available the grower must rely on green manure crops
to supply humus from the time the old bed is plowed after harvest until straw-
berry plants are again set the next spring. After the old bed has been thoroughly
disked in late June or July, millet, Sudan grass or a mixture of the two can be

-4-

sown. When preparing the soil for seeding apply 500 to 800 pounds of 10-10-10 or
its approximate equivalent per acre.

Rate of Seeding

Soil Cover Crop Amount per Acre

Cell drained Sudan grass 25-30 lbs. per acre ,.,,i^T^

Poorly drained Millet 20-25 lbs. per acre

Average soils Mixture ( Sudan §: millet) (20 lbs. sudan per acre

I

(15 lbs. millet per acre

In September the green manure crop can be plowed or disked under and winter
i ye or wheat, oats or oats V7ith winter rye can be sown. When preparing the soil
apply 300 to 500 lbs. of 10-10-10 or its approximate equivalent per acre,

■WlJen the soil is to be fumigated do not sow a green manure crop after plowing
or disking under the strawberry plants. When preparing the soil apply 300 to 500
lbs. of 10-10-10 or its approximate equivalent to hasten plant decomposition. In
addition, the fertilizer will be available for the cover crop that follows. Wait
4 to 6 weeks or whatever time, necessary for thorough decomposition of plant parts.
It probably will be necessary* to work the soil lightly at least once during the
period preceding fumigation to eradicate weeds. The fumigant can not reach
nematodes protected by undecomposed plant parts.

Some fumigants must be applied while the soil temperature is still above 60 F,
other above 50°F, so the soil usually should be fumigated by the last of September.
A green manure crop of winter rye or V7he^t, oats or oats with winter rye can be
sown approximately two weeks after fumigation.

Rye over-winters and may be planted up to October 15, depending upon the
locality. Sow at the rate of two bushels per acre. The growth made by winter
rye in the fall is likely to be small but in the spring growth usually is vigorous.
Winter rye plowed under when still young and succulent decomposes rapidly but
forms little organic matter. On the other hand, mature winter rye adds more
organic matter but decomposes slowly. A quickly available nitrogen-carrying fert-
ilizer should be applied to the mature winter rye before or when it is plowed
under to hasten decomposition and to help prevent nitrogen deficiency in the
strawberry paints that follow. On light soils, 500 to 800 lbs, of 10-10-10 or its
approximate equivalent should be sufficient to hasten decomposition of the winter
rye and at the same time supply enough nutrients for the newly set plants.

Growers wishing a green manure crop that winterkills may use barley or oats.
If planted by September 1st, in most localities, these should make 8 to 10 inches
of growth in the fall and provide sufficient soil cover. Sow at the rate of two
bushels per acre. When preparing the soil apply 300 to 500 pounds of 10-10-10 or
it.s_^a.pprciximate equivalent per acre. Although, the oats and barley won't add as
much organic matter, they are easier to plow under than a rank growth of winter
rye. In addition, there won't be so much vegetative material to be broken down
by the micro-organisms which compete with crops for nitrogen.

In case the grower does not get Che opportunity to sow a green manure crop
until the middle of August or first of September and is not going to fumigate, the
following cover crops could be seeded:

(a) Sow winter wheat or rye at the rate of two bushel per acre then plow-
under the crop early in spring.

(b) Sow oats and winter rye at the rate of two bushels of oats and one
bushel of rye per acre then plow-under the crop early in spring. Oats
will make quick early growth but there will be less cover crop to plow-
under in the spring than in case of (a) .

The grower should fertilize all his green manure crops to increase yields and
value of the manure crop. Fertilizer should be applied at the rate of 300 to
500 lbs. of 10-10-10 or its approximate equivalent per acre.

ROTATIONS WITH SOD CROPS

A definite rotation which includes sod crops should help maintain an adequate
supply of organic matter in soils devoted to strawberry culture. In adtiirtion, '^sz^
rotations aid in the control of weeds, insects and diseases. /The presence of; a
cultivated crop in the rotation will give the grower a source of income and at
the same time should help rid the soil of white grubs. Potatoes, tomatoes or
peppers should not be planted because they may be a source of Verticillium Wilt
on the strawberries. Beans, peas, squash, corn etc., on the other hand, would
be desirable cultivated crops. Fertilizer should be applied on all crops in the
rotation. If clovers are used in the relation, their lime requirement should be
met. The following are two good rotatio-is for the maintenance of organic matter.

Rotation A - When land is to be kept out of strawberries one full year or more
a sod crop is preferred being less labor end more beneficial than continually sow-
ing and working under of green manure crops. With the following rotation, land
could be kept in sod one, two or three years. If the land is to be in sod only
one full year and then replanted to strawberries, the sod can be worked under in
the fall previous to replanting. A cover crop of winter rye, winter wheat, oats
or oats with winter rye could be sowed. To avoid grub injury to strawberry plants,
refer to|the material in the Strawberry Pest Control Chart which may be obtained
(through your County Extension Service or the Mailing Room, University of Mass-
achusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts .|\

First Year - Strawberries (non-bearing bed)

Second Year - Strawberries (bearing bed)

After disking under plants, sow grass mixture (5 lbs. timothy, 2 lbs.
alsike clover and 8 lbs. mammouth red clover) per acre.

Third Year - Sod

It is desirable to cut hay and let lie. Cut hay before it heads.

Fourth Year - Cultivated Crop.

Follow cultivated crop with winter rye, wheat, oats or oats with winter
rye.

Fifth Year - Strawberries.

-6-

When preparing the seed bed for the grass mixture, work m the fertilizer and
then let the soil set 2 or 3 weeks to firm seed bed. This should improve the
"catch" of grass when seeded. It may be necessary to work the soil lightly once
during the 2 to 3 week period to eradicate weeds. Seed before end of August,
Fertilizer should be applied at the rate of 300 to 500 lbs. of 8-16-16 or its
equivalent per acre.

Rotation B - This rotation or one similar is particularly desirable for growers
wishing to use a cover crop for mulch.

First Year - Strawberries (non-bearing bed)

Second Year - Strawberries (bearing bed)

Disk or plow-undei^ plants, sow millet, sudan grass, or millet and
Sudan grass. 1 -

Disk and sow winter rye in September.

Third Year - Rye planted September of 2nd ye.ar may be harvested for mulch.
Disk or plow, oow grass mixture (51bs. timothy, 2 lbs alslke clover
and 8 lbs, mairimouth red clover) per acre.

Fourth Year - Sod

Fifth Year - Cultivated crop, '

Follow cultivated crop with winter rye, barley, oats, winter wheat,
rye or oats and winter rye.

Sixth Year - Strawberries.

The land could be kept in sod an additional year if wanted. For the green
manure crops, fertiliser should be applied at the rate of 300 pound of 10-10-10
or its approximate equivalent per acre, while for the grass mixture 300 to 500
lbs. of 8-16-16 is suggested.

---W. J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

NUTRIENT ELEM3HT SPRAYS

The application of nutrients to apple trees in the form of sprays should
be considered as a supplemental or temporary measure and not as a regular progranj
of orchard fertilization. It may be desirable under certain conditions to supple-
ment the regular fertilizer program with nutrient sprays.

If the foliage shows signs of insufficiatft nitrogen and tree vigor is weak,
the application of a urea spray will help to correct this condition. However,
if urea is applied late In the season, the nitrogen level of the trees may be
raised too high and fruit color may be reduced. Urea sprays should not be
applied much later than June 15 on bearing trees.

Orchards which have not had adequate iiine or have a history of nagnesium
deficiency will benefit from sprays containing magnesium in the form of epsom
salts. Two or three sprays of epsom salts at 20 pounds to the 100 gallons
will provide good insurance against magnesixjm deficiency.

Unless the grower is certain that urea or epsom salts are compatible with
the insecticides and fungicides used in his spray program he should not include
urea and/or epsom salts in his regular spray mixtures. To be on the safe side
all nutrient element sprays should be applied as separate applications.

W. D. VJeeks

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

AIR-BLAST SPRAYERS

The annual Sprayer Demonstration sponsored by the Worcester and Middlesex
County Extension Services was of great value to growers in attendance. The
trouble-shooting session was of particular value in that nozzling of air-blast
sprayers was discussed. In addition, the sales representatives of the various
sprayer manufacturers discussed the main reasons why some growers are not getting
satisfactory performance with their air-blast machines. The representatives of
the sprayer manufacturers stressed that any grower not satisfied with his sprayer
performance should not hesitate contacting the local sprayer dealer.

The following material pertaining to operation of air-blast sprayers was
discussed.

I. Nozzling of Air-Blast Sprayers.

First Step: Determine Ground Speed

A. A speedometer is very desirable'.

B. The speed of travel to which most machines are best adapted is from \\ to
2 miles per hour.

C. If the tractor has no speedometer, the table immediately below gives the
equivalent rate in feet per minute and the number of trees which would
be passed by.

NO. TREES SPRAYED PER MINUTE AT V/^JIIOUS RATES OF TRAVEL

Miles Feet

Number

of Tr

ee Spaces

Pa

ssed per min.

with Trees

Spaced at:

per per

Hour Minute

18'

20'

35'

40'

50'

1.0 88

5.5

4.4

2.5

2.2

1.8

1.5 132

7.3

6.6

3.8

3.3

2.6

2.0 176

9.8

8.8

5.0

4.4

3.5

2.5 220

12.2

11.0

6.3

5.5

-4.4

3.0 264

14.8

13.2

7.5

6.6

5.3

4.0 352

17.6

8.8

6.8

No. of trees

134

109

35

27

17

Per Acre

■

Planted on Square

-8-

D. The following formula also can oe uaed to decermine speed of travel.

S X N : M p H M.P.H. - miles per hour

88 ' ' * S - tree spacing in feet

N - number of trees passed in one minute.

Example: If trees are spaced 40' apart in the row and the tractor passes
3.3 trees per minute 40 x 3.3 = 1.5 ^^^g gj. ^our

88

Second Step; X Concentration Desired

A. When nozzling the air-blast sprayer the grower must decide the X concentra-
tion.

B. If X Concentration is changed during the spray season, nozzling must be
changed.

Third Step; Determine the Average Spread of the Trees in the Block to be Sprayed

A. This should be the average of the mediiim to medium- large trees in the
block rather than an average including the smallest and the very largest
trees.

Fourth Step; Based on Average Tree Size (Step 3) Determine the Proper Gallonage
of Dilute Spray Normally Applied.

A, The following table gives the nuniber of gallons necessary to cover trees
of different age groups with 1 X dilute spray mixture.

Approximate Tree No. of gals, to cover trees with
Age 1 X dilute mixture

8-10 5

10 - 12 10

12 - 15 15

15-20 20

over ^0 25

Fifth Step; Determine the gallons per minute required to provide the dosage

necessary to obtain pegt control on the size trees being treated.

A. In steps 1 through 4 we have determined:

a - Average tree spread

b - Gallons of dilute spray per tree

c - Rate of travel

d - Concentration desired

B. Having the above information use the following formula in order to
determine necessary discharge per side of rig:

-9-

Rate of Travel ^ gals, per tree Gallons per min. per sprayer

(feet per mln.) X required dilute ; side required for that size
X Cone. Desired X Ave. Tree Spread tree at the speed.

in feet .

For Example;

a - Rate of travel - 176 feet per min.

b - Gallons of dilute spray per tree ; 15 gals.

c - Concentration desired : 2 X

d - Average tree spread z 33 feet

Multiply the rate of travel (17 6 feet) by one-half the number of gallons of
dilute normally used per tree (7.5 gals.). Then multiply the concentration (2 X)
by the average tree spread (33 feet) . Divide the results of the first multipli-
cation by the result of the second. The resulting figure will be the required
rate of deliver in gallons per minute for your air-blast sprayer.

176' X 7.5 gals. = 1320 a 20 gals/min.
2 X 33 66 per side

Sixth Step; Determine Arrangements of Nozzles on the Sprayer

A. Number of gallons per minute that must be delivered per side is knovm,

B. Then, refer to tables provided by the manufacturer, which gives the
capacity in gallons per minute of spray nozzles with different - sized
orifices (nozzle disc opening) operated at different pressures.

C. The vertical spacing of the number of nozzles necessary to supply the
required gallonage should provide uniform coverage and dosage. To do
this, position the nozzle and arrange nozzle sizes to put two-thirds of
the total-output in the top third of the tree and one-third of the dis-
charge in the bottom two thirds of the trees. Remember some nozzles may
be plugged entirely or shut off by convenient valves.

Example; Twenty gallons per minute per side is required, therefore 2/3
or 13.3 gallons should be directed at the top third of the tree and 6.7
gallons at the bottom two thirds.

D. For two-way delivery, nozzle both sides in the same manner.

E. The manufacturers have manuals which indicate a number of nozzle set-ups
to meet certain gallonage requirements. However, because of so many
varying conditions - how trees are pruned, kind of tree, spacing, terrain,
etc., it is almost impossible to set a definite standard. Because of this
the grower should work with the dealer to establish the proper nozzling
and spray pattern to conform to the individual orchard condition.

Reasons Why Some Growers Are Not Getting Satisfacotry Performance

1, Sprayer not nozzled properly.

-10-

2. Nozzle wear, (nozzles should be checked three times during the spray season.)
Some types of nozzles such as the disc type vear more rapidly than the v/hirl-mist
nozzles. The discs i^ear and will increase the amount of material applied in
addition distortion of spray pattern and distribution will occur. Sprayer manu-
facturers have guages V7hich can be bought by the grower for checking the disc
orifices for wear.

3. A varying speed of travel during spraying.

4. Failure to have deflectors adjusted properly in order to get thorough
coverage (must adjust for wind, direction of wind, tree height, etc.)

5. Voids in the spray patterns. (Gaps in the spray pattern so that one part
of the tree is receiving insufficient amount of spray.)

---W. J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

CHANGES IN THE STRAWBERRY INDUSTRY

A recent study on "Trends in the Ohio Strawberry Industry" (Ohio Agr.
Expu. dtation Research Bui. 787) contains information which may be of interest
and value to growers in Massachusetts.

1. Strawberry acreage in the United States has declined from about 208,000
acres in 1928 to about 109,000 acres today, while total production has about
doubled in the same period.

2. The national per capita consumption has decreased from 2,5 quarts in
1941 to 1.9 quarts in 1954.

3. VJhereas only 10% of the national crop was processed in 1939 over 557o
of it was processed 1954.

4. In ten years' time the production in California, Oregon and Washington
has risen from 20% to 60% of the national crop. Michigan, New York and New
Jersey produce about 9%, 3.4% and 2.5% respectively of the U. S. total.

Where do we stand in Massachusetts?

1. In 20 years our acreage has dropped from 1562 to 451 according to the
1954 census. During the same period our production has gone from somewhat over
3 million quarts to less than 800,000 quarts.

2. Production has decreased considerably in most counties, but the big
drop has been chiefly in Barnstable County. Middlesex is now our leading straw-
berry county with somewhat higher production in 1954 than in 1949.

3. Better growers report yields of 10,000 to 12,000 quarts per acre. We are
in a consuming area where people have better than average incomes. Quality local
berries properly handled bring satisfactory prices at retail. "Pick your own"

is gaining favor as a method of profitably handling the crop with a minimum of
headaches on the part of the grower.

---A. P. French
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

R

^

JUNE 15, 19S7

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Renaming of Strawberry Varieties
"Pick Your Own Method" of Selling

Small Fruits
What is a Virus?
Why Mow Grass in the Orchards?
How is Depreciation on Orchards Handled?
Pomological Paragraph
Apple Thinning

Excessive Spray Residues Can Be Avoided
Transfer of Red Stele to Stawberry Land
Repeat Bloom
Thinking About C.A. Apple Storage

Construction?

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, J ames W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, UrUted

States Department of Agriculture and Coxinty Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOUR POMOLOQT DEPARTMENT

Anderson^ Jamas - Inatruotor

Teaohes courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematlo
Pomology,

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham.

Doing research on straytberries, blueberries and beach plums. Mr. Bailey
also does considerable Extension work with small fruit growers.

French, Arthur P* - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active In small
fruit variety testing.

l>)rd, William J. - Ejctension Fruit Specialist

Chief ]y connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest control,
and is somevrtiat involved in research. Editor of FHUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C<- Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses*
Currently also doing research on fioiit marketing.

Southwick, Flranklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvsst
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests
and Tiijiter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses*

Contributors to this issue from Supporting Fields

Lawrence D. Rhoades, Extension Specialist in Farm Management

John W. Zahradnik, Associate Research Professor, Department of Agricultural

Engineering

RENAMING OF STRAWBERRY VARIETIES

A recent report from the U. S. D. A. Plant Industry Station, Beltsville,
Maryland (in Fruit Varieties and Horticultural Digest of the American Pomological
Society) gives the following list of common strawberry varieties from which in
their tests certain rather new introductions from nurserymen are indistinguishable,

Armore indistinguishable from Red Cluster

Ounlap

Fairfax

Gem

Howard 17

Midland

Robinson

Sparkle

Parish

Grandview, Cummerbund

Superfection, Brilliant

Polor Queen, Golden Bell

Crimson Flash, Adonis

Scarlet Beauty, Kardlnal King

Paymaster

Our variety trials in Massachusetts agree with their findings on Gem,
Robinson and Sparkle and we expect to have two other of these comparisons
fruiting this year.

A. P. French

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

"PICK YOUR OWN METHOD" OF SELLING SMALL FRUITS

The "Pick Your Own" method of harvesting small fruits appears to be gaining
popularity in Massachusetts. In many iiistances growers were forced to use this
method when it became impossible to obtain pickers. After trying the "Pick Your
Own Method" of selling, however, the majority of these growers agree with James
Cesan of West Feeding Hills who states, "I would never go back to the old method.
I sincerely can say that I am all for 'bring baskets and pick your own strawberries'
Try it!"

Some growers are reluctant about letting the public pick the fruit for fear
they will trample many berries. Walter Mores of Bradford states "the public is
no harder on our picking beds than a crowd of our own hired pickers. In fact,
I think they are better as most people come to pick and not to fool around."

James Cesan formerly hired women and children to harvest about eight acres
of strawberries. The headaches were many with such things as frequent fights,
berry throwing, messy berries, baskets half full and straw in the bottom of
the baskets.

What about honesty on the part of the public? Growers have found the major-
ity of the people honest and that with supervision trouble can be avoided.
Richard Sanford of Westfield requires: (a) baskets paid for when purchased; (b)
no berries paid for before picking and (c) berries paid for before being put
Into the car. Mr. Sanford states that this eliminates all bookkeeping and
arguments concerning what has been paid for.

A problem cited by several growers is that some people try to get a box and
a half of berries in a box. One grower has stated that he feels it might, with

6ome of the public, become necessary to sell the berries on the basis of weight.
To combat this problem, Mr. Atherton Parsons of Southampton has one or two quart
baskets on a table, at the entrance to the strawberry planting filled with
imitation strawberries made of plaster of Paris and painted red with green caps.
These sample baskets are filled to indicate what the grov/er considers a full
quart. In addition, he has the following rrBgulations posted on a bulletin board
for customers to read when they enter the field;

Adults only in picking field.

Please be careful to walk only in aisles.

Pick In quart basket only.

Baskets msy be purchased here for 2o each.

Bring berries to stand for settieTuent ,

See sai:ple basket for fullness.

Heaped baskets 5( extra.

Mr. Parsons states that it is the small minority of people who try to get
too many berries in their quart baskets.

Growers selling their small fruit on the "pick your own basis" sell baskets
to the customers if they have none of their own. Generally, the quart or pint
baskets are the only containers allowed in the fields, no pails, kettles, or
crates and so forth.

Ample, nearby parking is a must. Also it is essential to have a place where
small children can stay and still not be too far away from their parents.

Growers have found it necessary to lacdify their cultural practices slightly.
Richard Sanford states that strawberry row : zscing should be wider than usual
In order to provide ample walking space for customers. In addition, he believes
that raspberry cane spacing should be wider to make it easier for the public to
find all of the berries.

Growers generally advertise in their local papers when the berries are ready
to be harvested. Many compile a mailing list of customers to v/hom postal card
notices are sent when berries are ripe.

It is not necessary to be on the main roed to operate successfully the "Pick
Your Own" method of selling small fruits. All that is necessary is to give explicit
directions in the nevrspaper advertisement or Include a map. The erection of neet
and well placed signs to direct the customers to the farm is a necessity.

With the increasing difficulty of getting adequate and reliable labor to pick
the small fruit crop, more growers should consider the "Pick Your Own" method of
harvesting. Many growers have been able to Increase their acreage using this
method of selling. If you haven't tried the "Pick Your Own" method of selling
of small fruits, give it a try. It can be a very profLtable way of harvesting
the small fruit crop. Remember, however. It takes patience when you are daaling
with the public. In many of the road side stand and "Pick Your Own" selling
operations, the wife is your best salesman.

---W. J. Lord
t I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

-3-

WHAT IS A VIRUS?

Recently, at a meeting of strawberry growers, strawberry viruses were under
discussion. There was a request for a good layman's definition of a virus.

In the U.S.D.A. Yearbook of Agriculture for 1953 the following appears:

"Virus. An infectious agent too small to be seen with a compound microscope'.

This Is adequate if one is not interested in technicalities. If one is
interested in a more precise definition, the same paragraph continues:

"It is not yet settled whether virv^ses are living organisms, because they
have characteristics of both the living and nonliving worlds. The definition that
is generally accepted is that they are large, high-molecular-weight protein
bodies capable of multiplying and acting like organisms when they are in living
tissue."

— J. S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

WHY MOW GRASS IN THE ORCHARDS?

In an article published in the American Fruit Grower, Dr. John R. Magness
stated that on a hot summer day with low humidity a vigorous 20 to 25 year old
apple tree with a large leaf area will use up to 125 gallons of water a day.
Under average conditions, however, a large apple tree in our eastern orchards
will use about &0 to 70 gallons per day. Using the later figures, an acre of
20 to 25 year old apple trees planted 40' x 40* will use approximately 1600 to
1900 gallons of water a day during the summer months. With these figures in
mind, what can a grower do to conserve soil moisture?

A study conducted at the University of New Hampshire Experiment Station
showed that the soil moisture loses at 12 inches and 30 inches depth were reduced
considerably by mowing the grass in the orchard and letting it lie.

Soil moisture studies made in Michigan orchards (Quarterly Bulletin, Michigan
Agr. Exp. Sta., Nov., 1956) showed that permanent sod covers vary considerably
in the depth to which they deplete soil moisture. "Kentucky bluegrass, timothy,
redtop, and Chewing' s fescue grass sods depleted soil moisture the least; they
satisfied their needs primarily from the upper 24 inches of soil. These four
grasses were similar in both amount and depth of depletion.

The legume sods, white dutch clover, Ladino clover and alfalfa, depleted
soil moisture seriously to the lowest measured depth of 40 inches. White dutch
clover used somewhat less moisture than Ladino and alfalfa. Ladino clover and
alfalfa used moisture about equally to a depth of 40 inches. Quackgrass water
usage was intermediate between the grasses and legumes .

-4-

Mowing about mid-June conserved soil moisture under the grass sods and the
alfalfa sod during early summer of 1952, 1953 and 1954. The moisture-conserving
influence of mowing extended into late summer under some grasses and alfalfa in
years of low midsummer rainfall.

Abundant soil moisture at the time of mowing or shortly after encouraged
more rapid regrowth of the mowed sods, increasing depletion of soil moisture in
late summer. During such seasons, repeated mowings of the new growth should
continue to reduce water usage.

One mowing in mid-June conserved more moisture during seasons of deficient
summer rainfall; regrowth of the mowed sods remained low because of drouthy
conditions."

In addition to conserving moisture, mowing reduces the fire hazard, aids
in mouse control and makes the harvesting operation easier.

- — W. J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

HOW IS DEPRECIATION ON ORCHARDS HANDLED?

There are three definite periods in the life of a farm or an orchard.

These are (1) the preparatory period, (2> the development period, and (3)
the productive period.

In the preparatory period expenditures may not be deducted as farm expense
but must be treated as capital expenditures.

Some typical expenditures, which also include material and labor costs and
which must be capitalized are the costs of:

1. Clearing brush, trees, and stumps.

2. Leveling and conditioning land,

3. Trees and their planting.

4. Installing drain tile and permanent irrigation.

5. Building roads.

You may claim depreciation on any of the above which are of a depreciable
nature. Also, if any of them qualify as a soil or water conservation expend-
iture, they may qualify for special treatment.

During the development period you may capitalize your expenditures, which
are required by current operations or you may deduct them as current expense.
Expenditures of a capital nature, may not be deducted at any stage unless they
are for soil or water conservation. Some expenditures which you may capitalize
or deduct as current expense whichever you prefer, are the cost of the upkeep,
taxes, water for irrigation, fertilizer, controlling undergrowth, and culti-
vating and spraying of trees.

-5-

In the productive period when trees are bearing ordinary and necessary

expenses cannot be capitalized. Wlien the orchard reaches the productive period

these expenses are deducted each year when they are incurred, if you report

on the accrual basis, or when they are paid if you report on the cash method.

Depreciation on commercial orchards (Investment in trees aside from the
bare land) Is allowed upon reaching producing age if on a reasonable basis.

If an orchard has been grown by the present owner and the costs deducted
on previous income tax returns as annual operating expenses, then depreciation
cannot be justified because the costs have already been charged off once.

Xf a bearing orchard Is purchased, the new owner may start taking deprecia-
tion on its cost to him.

There are no nationwide or even statewide "official" rates for calculating
orchard depreciation. The taxpayer should use his beet judgment in estimating
the probable length of the productive life of his orchard.

The cost of setting out new orchards should be handled as follows:

1. Amounts spent in setting out new orchards must be treated as capital
investments, rather than as current operating expenses.

2. The taxpayer may treat as either capital investment subject to
depreciation or as current operatiug expenses such expenditures during the
development neriod of orchards as, those for cultivating spraying and taxes;
and most farmers find it more cohvenient to treat such expenditures as current
operating expenses.

, \ •■ ^ ---L. D. Rhoades

t I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMQLCGICAL PARAGRAPH

Winter Injury to Peach Trees

Peach trees in many orchards in the state are showing considerable dieback
at the tips of branches from winter injury. There are some trees completely
dead. Many trees only have about 30 to 50 per cent of normal leaf surface.

Growers should not prune peach trees until full extent of the damage has
been determined. A hot, dry summer might result in wilting and dying of the
new shoots and leaves due to the inability of injured cells to conduct sap
from the roots. By the time the amount of the winter injury has been determined,
the grower might as well wait until next spring to prune unless he is particularly
anxious to prune out the dead wood. If any pruning is done this summer cut out
dead wood only. It is vital to save all the leaf surface on these injured peach
trees in order that they have the fullest opportunity to make recovery.

---W. J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

-6-

APPLE THINNING

While conducting our chemical thinning tests this spring and looking at heavy
sets of fruit in many orchards, a few thoughts have come to mind. If the use of
chemicals fails to thin the crop sufficiently, some hand thinning may be necessary.
Hand thinning should be done as soon after the June drop as possible. Of course,
injured and the smaller fruits should be removed first. If a fruit is smaller
than its neighbors in June it will also be smaller in September. The factors
which made a young apple relatively small to begin with persist throughout the
growing season.

We've noticed several new plantings of Early Mcintosh and Puritan which are
just coming into bearing. These varieties are very biennial and it might be very
much worthwhile to start hand thinning these small young trees in their first bear-
ing year. This job, if done quite early might help to prevent the development of
a strong biennial tendency. Although chemical thinning of such young trees might
help to prevent the development of a strong biennial cycle it might reduce the crop
on such young trees too drastically. Hand thinning of these trees would offer less
risk and can be done quite rapidly on small trees. However, the job should be
completed by mid-June if the thinning operation is going to influence flower bud
formation.

F. W. Southwick

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

NOTICE

The next issue of Fruit Notes will be a combined July - August issue and will
be published August 15.

---Editor

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

EXCESSIVE SPRAY RESIDUES CAN BE AVOIDED

As harvest time approaches those who are growing fruit either for sale or
home consumption should adjust their pest control programs so as to avoid exc&sslve
residue on the fruit when harvested.

Under the Miller Amendment of the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act limits
of tolerance for spray materials have been established and apply to agricultural
products which move in interstate commerce.

The amount of tolerance varies depending upon the material and crop on which
it is used.

In general, spray materials fall into four groups as follows:

1. Those which have been declared safe and for which no tolerance is specified
Buch as sulfur, •

-7-

2. Those which are exempt when used in accordance with good agricultural
practices such as Bordeaux mixture.

3. Those for which a zero tolerance has been established such as T.E.P.P.
In other words, no trace of these materials is allowed on the fruit,

4. Those for which a tolerance has been established. For apples the tolerance
for materials commonly used falls within the range of 0.25 parts per million
for aldrin and dieldrin to 20 parts per million for captan.

While no practical means is available to the fruit grower to determine the
amount of residue remaining on his fruit at harvest time, he can be reasonably sure
that his fruit does not exceed the tolerance if he follows explicitly the instruc-
tions on spray material containers and those prescribed in official spray charts.

— 0, C. Roberts

I I I 11 I I I I I I I I I I I

TRANSFER OF RED STELE TO STRAWBERRY LAND

It has been recognized for some time that soil with no red stele history may
become contaminated through drainage water from an infected field at higher
elevation. Recently Michigan has reported two other sources of contamination which
might not occur to most growers; (1) plants of red stele resistant varieties
gro^m in infected soil may carry red stele spores in soil particles adhering to
their roots, and (2) the fine rootlets of some red stele resistant varieties may
be attacked by red stele and thereby carry the disease to clean land if such
plants are used for starting a new bed.

---A. P. French

I I I f I I I I I I I I I I I I

REPEAT BLOOM

In one block of Mcintosh apple trees in the University orchard a high percent-
age of spurs that bore fruit in 1956 bloomed again this year. Last fall the
writer tagged on each of 5 Mcintosh trees 25 spurs bearing one apple and 12 spurs
bearing two apples. In addition, 25 non-bearing fruit spurs were tagged on each
tree. The table below shows the tree yields in 1955 and 1956 and the percent
of repeat bloom on spurs bearing in 1956.

Bloom

in 1957 on

Spui

rs Bearing in 1956:

Percent

Repeat

Tree

Yield
1955

Yield
1956

One Apple

Two Apples

No Apples

1

38.7

16.1

56

38

73

2

44.5

11.7

80

86

92

3

34.6

19.7

55

44

96

4

34.6

18.1

81

83

100

5

26.6

15.3

53

70

70

Undoubtedly, some of the reasons for such a high percentage of repeat bloom
of spurs bearing in 1956 were the light crop in 1955 and conditions favorable
for flower bud development.

With many varieties, the same spur often bears fruit only every other year
or may go two or three years without bearing. However, if the blossoms fail to
set because of frost, lack of pollination, low vigor of the tree, or if the
blossoms are intentionally removed these spurs may blossom again the next year.
Spurs on annual bearing varieties such as Cortland and Mcintosh are more apt to
bloom in successive years than those on varietites like Baldwin and Early Mcintosh
which are biennial.

---W. J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

THINKING ABOUT C.A. APPLE STORAGE CONSTRUCTION?
HERE'S WHAT TO CONSIDER.

Controlled atmosphere (C.A.) storage construction is complex. If improperly
carried out, serious operational problems may result. Careful planning, quality
materials, and good workmanship will produce satisfactory results. Here's what
to consider in planning.

Space Requirements - Space must be provided for the crop; grading and pack-
ing; equipment, including the refrigeration compressor, the carboa dioxide scrubber,
and the breather bag; a loading ramp, and in some cases sales. The amount of
space allotted to each of the above will depend on the total capacity of the
storage and how it is tied into the remainder of the regular refrigerated fruit
storage. In making allowance for storage space, use 2.5 cubic feet per box of
apples. This figure includes space for duct work and proper stacking away from
walls, ceiling and floor.

Refrigeration - In order to secure the maximum storage life of the apple
with C.A., each individual room should be loaded in approximately 10 days. This
will determine the minimum daily loading rate. Refrigeration capacity must be
enough to accommodate this daily apple cooling load; the cooling load due to
the heat of respiration of the apples already stored; the cooling load due to
the heat transmitted through the inslutated walls, ceiling, and floor; and the
cooling load due to the individuals working in the storage, the light, motors,
and infiltration through the door. Electrical power for compressor motors
larger than 7 hp. should preferably be 3 pliase. If water is available in
abundance and cheap, a water cooled condenser is recommended. If water is scarce
and the tonnage of the unit is over 5, then an evaporative condenser should be
used. In rare cases only, should appreciable tonnage be installed using small
air cooled condensers mounted directly with the compressor. In such cases, if
water is so scarce as to rule out an evaporative condenser, then a remote air

cooled condenser would be justifiable. It should be remembered that air cooled
condensers usually are accomplished by higher condensing temperatures which in
turn result in less efficiency from the compressor.

Insulation - (Refer to Fig. 1) Established practice has called for the
use of 4" of cork or its equivalent (U s .075) in the walls, 2" of cork or its
equivalent (U z .15) in the floor, and 6" of cork or its equivalent (U s .05)
in the ceiling. Less insulation means the heat transmission through the build-
ing from the outside will be greater and refrigeration requirement will then be
higher.

Vapor Barriers - (Refer to Fig. 1) On the walls, adequate vapor barriers
(less than 1 gr. of moisture per square foot per hour) should be placed on the
outside face of the insulation. This will keep moisture from condensing on
the cold face of the insulation since it will not be able to penetrate through
the vapor barrier on all sides. Ceiling insulation on gable roof storage
construction calls for a vapor barrier on the underside of the insulation.
The top side requires no vapor barrier provided the space above the insulation
is vented.

Gas Seal - (refer to Fig.l) Various materials have been used as gas seals
satisfactorily. On the walls and ceiling, the gas seal is placed on the inner
face of the insulation. If the material used for the seal requires support,
this must be properly anchored through the insulation, to the storage walls. In
the floor, the seal is placed over the insulation and under the floor wearing
surface.

Special C. A. Equipment - To complete the equipment necessary to operate
a C. A. storage, a carbon dioxide scrubber, a breather bag, an Orsat analyzer,
and an air purifier must be provided.

If the above components are properly planned and good workmanship and
materials used in the construction, your C. A. storage will give you years of
satisfactory service.

J. W. Zahradnik

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

DATES WORTH NOTING

J""e 17 - Annual Strawberry Twilight Meeting at the University of Massachusetts
7:00 P.M.

July 18 - Summer Meeting Massachusetts Fruit Growers' Association, Rice Fruit
Farm, Wilbraham - all day.

Ty PIC A V^ Sections fociGkSrof^ACB

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lypiCAL Fuoo^ Sectiou

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rE5

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abusive Handling of Mcintosh Apples

Are You Ready For Harvest?

C. A. Storage School

Prehorvest Drop Control

Personal Liability Insurance for Farmers

FLY CONTROL ot the Roadside Stand
and Cider Mill

JULY-AUGUST 1957

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W, Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No,

TOUR POMOLOOT DEPARTMENT

Andersotii James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology^ small fruit cult\ura and systenatlo

Pomology.

Ballej) John S. - Associate Professor, Research •* Stationed at East Wareham*

Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums, Mr, Bailey
also does considerable Extension work with small fruit growers.

French, Arthur P. - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, acti^re in small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest ccntrol,
and is soroerrtiat involved in research. Editor of IRULl NOTES.

Robeirts, Oliver C<- Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses*
Ctirrently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, FrankUn W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests-
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches oeHain advanced courses*

Contributors to this issue from Supporting Fields

Lawrence D. Rhoades, Extension Specialist In Farm Management

Ellsworth H. Wheeler, Extension Entomologist

ABUSIVE HAI^DLIHG OF McINTOSH APPLES

Everyone v;ho handles Mcintosh apples froa crower to retailer knov7s that
Mcintosh is a tender variety and is easily bruised, cut and stern punctured.

To deteraine the extent and source of mechanical injury (bruises, cuts and
stem punctures) affecting Massachusetts Mcintosh has been the purpose of a series
of studies over the past three years. In 1954-55 a study was made in retail
stores and it x^as found that 67 per cent of the Mcintosh on display were below
fancy ^rade and that 83 per cent of these v/ere below fancy because of mechanical
injury. In 1955-56 a study was made in several packinB houses to determine the
nature and extent of blemishes on Mcintosh in the packages as packed for market.
This study showed that 29 per cent of the apples were below fancy grade and that
ul per cent of these were below fancy because of mechanical injury.

During the fall and early winter of 1956-57 another study was made in nineteen
packinij houses in an endeavor to learn where this excessive mechanical injury is
taking place.

In this study a sample of 400 to 500 apples was obtained as the apples came
to the packers from storage* These apples were analyzed for number of small
bruises (less than V), number of bruises V to 3/4", 3/4" to 1" and 1" and over,
also for number of cuts and stem punctures. Another sample of 300 to 400 apples
was obtained from packages packed for market and analyzed in the same manner.

At eleven of the packing houses studied the apples were hand graded while in
the other eight the apples went over some type of grading belt or machine.

The situation with respect to mechanical injury as found in the several
packing houses is shown in part in the accompanying table.

In this table columns marked "B" refer to apples as they came from storage
to the packers. Columns marked "A" refer to apples that were packed for market.

Column I shows the percentage of apples with few small bruises (less than %
inch in diameter) . Column II shows the percentage of apples with many small bruises
(more than 7 bruises less than %" in diameter) . Column III shows the percentage
of apples with bruises -i" or over. Column IV shows the number of %" to 3/4" bruises
per apple on the basis of all apples in the sample. While a record was made of
bruises larger than 3/4" the number was relatively unimportant. Column V shows
the number of cuts and stem punctures per apple.

One or more of three types of packages were used in the various packing houses:
cell carton, polyethylene bag and the eastern apple box commonly known as the
crate. A study was made of the extent of bruising and cuts and stem punctures in
each type of package. Also, a study was made of the relative effect on mechanical
injury of machine grading versus hand grading.

What does this study indicate?

1, That Mcintosh apples can be handled with a minimum of mechanical injuries
even in orchards with a large volume.

2. That more mechanical injury occurred before grading with growers who use
grading machines than with those who hand grade.

3. That excessive bruising is not necessarily the fault of the grading machine
but rather how it is used.

4. That in ten out of fifteen cases there was a higher percentage of bruised
apples in cell cartons after packing than in a similar lot of apples before
packing. This may be due to packers trying to force apples that are too
large into the cells.

5. That bruising in polyethylene bags was slightly less than in cartons.

6. That bruising in the crate was considerably more than in the other two
types of packages .

7. That the bruising in the crate occurs chiefly in the lidding process.

8. That there was no appreciable increase in cuts and punctures with apples
packed in cartons compared with those in a similar lot before packing.

9. That there was a greater increase in cuts and punctures than bruises in
polyethylene bags.

10. That there were more cuts and punctures in crates than with the other

two types of packages but less increase in cuts and punctures than in bruises,
when lidding.

What does this all mean in dollars and cents?

Assuming that each grower included in this study had a 10,000 bushel crop
and that Fancy Mcintosh were selling for $3.75 per bushel and utility at $2.00
(the rices quoted on the Boston Market Dec. 11, 1956), the average loss from
bruising alone on apples as they came from storage would amount to approximately
$3,000.00. The least loss would have been $350. and the greatest $9,500. There
is some indication from this study that much of this loss occurs in the harvesting
procedure

How much are you losing from inadequate supervision and inspection when the
apples are being harvested?

-3-

Packing

House Study 1956-57

I

" 1

III

IV

V

Orchard

7o appl
small

es few
bruises

% apples many
small bruises

% apples with
bruises %" & over

# bruises per
apple V -3/4"

# of cuts &
stem punctures
per apple

D

A

B

A

B

A

B

A

B

A

1

45

47

4

5

11

11

.107

.103

.053

.065

2

56

65

10

16

20

37

.230

.480

.035

.016

3

44

45

4

1

21

15

.225

.153

.063

.143

4

39

42

3

5

IG

18

.170

.220

.033

.057

5

39

56

7

10

16

15

.225

.173

.030

.037

6

46

47

5

21

19

35

.385

.443

.058

.108

7

38

12

1

1

9

12

.100

.137

.033

.023

8

53

50

14

12

25

13

.315

.170

.043

.017

9

51

46

10

7

19

12

.215

.135

.065

.088

10

52

52

33

34

44

46

.603

.670

.038

.157

11

45

52

15

18

36

31

.460

.460

.060

.223

12

34

40

6

35

28

44

.323

.660

.110

.113

13

53

50

2

11

19

22

.225

.320

.058

.126

14

59

59

8

5

26

28

.282

.297

,084

.133

15

51

67

10

13

25

49

.338

.055

.038

.075

15

35

40

3

2

17

21

.208

.300

.055

.040

17

03

61

11

7

19

15

.218

.133

.036

,080

18

61

60

12

16

22

29

.456

.323

.102

.174

19

33

43

2

4

21

23

.235

.260

.043

,070

Average

47

49

8

12

22

25

.280
0. C. R

.321
oberts

.055

.092

-4-

N. 0 T E •

Special Circular No. 254 "Preharvest Drop Control of Apples" has been revised
and is now available from your local county agent or the Mailing Room, University
of Massachusetts, Aaherst.

---Editor

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

ARE YOU READY FOR HARVEST?

Do you have your supply of Special Circulars #245 and i^lkol

Special Circular #24C titled "Be A Better Apple Picker" should be read by
all your apple pickers and can be used as a guide when your foreman shows inexper-
ienced pickers how to pick properly and avoid bruising.

The foreman of the picking crew has the responsibility of supervising the
harvest operation in order that fruit gets from the tree to the storage \7ith
the minimum of bruising. Special Circular #245 titled "Harvesting Suggestions
for Orchard Foremen" lists suggested harvesting pointers that should be shown
and told to pickers.

Copies of the tvro Special Circulars mentioned above may be obtained through
your County Extension Service or the Mailing Room, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst ,

Have you, thp. oTTOcr, made the necessary preparations for harvest?

1. Inventoried all harvesting equipment.

2. Repaired harvesting equipment,

3. Provided for good harvesting supervision.

4. Provided adequate toilet facilities.

5. Made provisions for supply cool and conveniently located drinking
water.

0. Analysed the proposed methods of handling the apples from tree to

storage in order to increase efficiency and storage life of the fruit.

The results of the Packing House Survey conducted during the winter of 1955-
1956 showed that mechanical injury amounted to 61 per cent of the total cauee of.
apples being below the grade of U.S. Fancy.

Considerable mechanical injury occurs during the harvesting operation. One
way to minimize this is to make pickers quality conscious.

-5-

1. Be prepared to pay a bonus to pickers who keep damage to the fruit
at a minimum.

2. Hire one of your best packers to inspect random boxes of the pickers'
fruit .

3. Set up a score card for pickers and post their scores so they can
compare ratings with the other pickers.

Have you tested your packing house equipment?

How good is your grading and packing equipment? Is your equipment causing
considerable bruising? Here's how you can find out: Select several boxes of
unbruised Mcintosh apples. Run these apples over your equipment, then count every
bruise or dent. Is there an excessive amount of bruises; if so where did the
bruises occur?

1. Dumping apples onto receiving belt of the grader.

2. In the apple brusher - cleaner brushes and buffer clothes may be
covered with wax which accumulates dirt that bruises or cuts tte apples.

3. Fruit rolling down an incline and striking a sharp, unpadded corner
of the grader.

4. During a change in elevation such as when the apples roll from the
sorter onto the sizing chain of a chain sizing unit.

5. When the apples are spun into a rotary bin by the rubber- tube ejector
unit of the revolving wheel grader.

G. I^/hen the fruit is transferred to a unit moving at a much different
rate of speed.

---William J. Lord
I I I t I I I I I I I I I I I I
C. A. STORAGE SCHOOL

A C.A. Storage School will be held Thursday, August 22 at the University of
Massachusetts. The morning program to be held at French Hall (10 a.m. to 12 a.m.)
will be devoted to instruction in the use of the gas analyzer. The afternoon
program (1 p.m. to 3:30 p.m.) is to be held at Atkins Storage in South Amherst.
The afternoon will be devoted to the discussion and demonstration of methods used
to determine gas tightness of C.A. Rooms. Also, carbon dioxide scrubber and
breather bag operation and any other subjects of interest will be considered.
Present and future C.A, Storage Operators and others who may be interested are
welcome to attend

--- Editor

I I I I 11 I I I I I I I I I I

PRSHARVEST DROP CONTROL

It is now evident, barring a major catastrophe, that a very large crop of
apples is to be harvested in Massachusetts, You recall that with a similar crop
in 1955 an exceedingly heavy preharvest drop was experienced.

Mcintosh. In August of 1955 we had considerable faith in 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy-
acetic acid (2,4,5-TA) for preharvest drop control of Mcintosh, but by mid-
September much of our faith in it was lost. The reason for the failure of 2,4,5-
TA to control drop in 1955, when both naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and 2,4,5-
trichlorophenoxypropionic (2,4,5-TP) were effective, is still not definitely known.
In 1956 we tested 2,4,5-TA again in hopes of determining whether this material
would be as effective as it appeared to be prior to 1955. However, the 1956
season was not a good year to test preharvest drop control materials. Because of
a cool growing season, last year's harvest period for Mcintosh was 7 to 10 days
later than usual in most sections and no serious fruit drop developed on Mcintosh
until late September or early October. Under these conditions 2,4,5-TA reduced
fruit drop about 50 percent. Even so both NAA (2 applications) and 2,4,5-TP were
slightly superior to 2,4,5-TA in this regard.

If Mcintosh fruit drop is no more serious in 1957 than in 1956, then 2,4,5-TA
would probably be a suitable material. It controls fruit drop for 3 to 4 weeks
when effective and does not hasten fruit ripening to a marked degree. It is
our guess, however, that Mcintosh fruit drop will be more of a problem in 1957 than
it was in 1956.

Since 2,4,5-TA appears to lack the reliability of HAA we believe that 20 ppm
of NM is generally the best material to suggest for Mcintosh drop control in
1957. For drop control beyond 10 to 12 days, growers will have to apply HAA at
least twice at / to 10 day intervals. For those who wish to try 20 ppm of
2,4,5-TA in hopes that a single application of it will be satisfactory, we
suggest that you watch fruit drop very carefully following its use. If drop
control is not evident 5 to 6 days after its application, NAA should be applied
immediately. 2,4,5-TP is not recommended for drop control of Mcintosh unless
they are picked within 2 weeks after it is applied, because of its strong tendency
to hasten fruit ripening.

Early Apples. NAA materials are generally satisfactory for drop control of early
apples . 2,4,5-TP has a strong tendency to increase the rate of fruit ripening.
In some cases it may hasten the development of red color but sometimes the
influence on ripening is so pronounced that the fruit may become too soft for
sale. 2,4,5-TA does not appear to be reliable for drop control of early apples.

Late Apples. For drop control of late apples (Baldwin. N. Spy, Delicious, and
Rome) 20 ppm of 2.4.5-TP is outstanding. It will often control fruit drop for
about 4 weeks after the time of application and generally it doesn't hasten the
rate of fruit ripening of these late varieties appreciably. Be sure to get this
material on the trees while the foliage is in a good healthy condition. If foliage
is injured by a frost after this material is applied, good drop control will be
obtained. On the other hand, if the foliage has been injured by frost, mites, or
magnesium or potassium deficiencies prior to a hormone application, any material
may be completely ineffective. ;^ •

---F. W. Southwick

I I I 11 I I I I t I I 11 I I

-7-

PERSONAL LIABILITY INSURAIvlCE FOR FARMERS

A farmer runs a greater risk now than ever before of becoming involved in a
lawsuit because of injury or death to another person or of damage to property.
More people come to the farm for various reasons, farmers own more power equipment
of one kind or another, more skill is required of employees and in some cases more
farm prccessing of farm products is done. Farmer's net worth has increased so
farmers tend to lose more if called into court. A substantial court judgement
could mean the loss of lifetime savings. Liability insurance is more necessary
now to a farmer than ever before.

Personal Liability of Farmers

As an owner or occupier of property, a farmer must maintain his holdings with
due regard to the safety of others both as to their persons and their property.
This duty applied particularly to the upkeep of buildings and the farm surroundinRs.
in the control of livestock on the fainn, in the vTholesomeness of the products he
sells, as well as to the work undertaken by him both on and off the farm.

Among other things under personal liability a farmer is responsible for the
following:

1. To safeguard visitors and their property on his premises. (His highest
responsibility is to those persons he directly or indirectly invites to his place;
he is less responsible for licensees such as salesmen and he owes trespassers at
least the duty of not knowingly harming them.)

2. To keep his livestock off highways where they may cause accidents resulting
in injury to motorists or to property.

3. To provide safeguards in handling vicious animals.

4. To warn his tenant of any hazard on the premises that would not ordinarily
be detected.

5. To prevent fire from spreading from his property to the premises of another.

6. For his own negligence if an employee is injured while at work.

7. To his own employees, and under certain circumstances, those of a contractor
doing work on his farm, even though the contractor might carry insurance.

8. To the public for v7hole8omeness of his products. (Farmers who sell
farm prepared food products such as ready-to-cook poultry, frozen chicken pies,
pastries, apple cider, farm made sausage and the like may assume this liability
as a result.)

Insurance is offered to protect farmers from some or all of these risks and
others not listed.

In general two policies are used;

1. In the case of smaller fanners who do no farm processing and who sell
their ovm products, satisfactory coverage may be obtained by buying a Fanners
Comprebpnqj.ve Persnnsi Lirbi-Uty Policy and securing suitable endorsements under
the policy. It should be noted that this policy does not Insure any automobile
liability away from the premises nor does it insure farm employees unless an
endor»emeiit is secured as part of the policy to insure them.

2. In the case of larger farms, insurance for the various risks listed
above plus many others can be secured by a Comprehensive General Liability Policy.
Farmers who process farm products for themselves and others, who retail milk, make
sausage, dress and freeze poultry, make chicken pies, and the like, should consider
discussing their farm operations with their insurance agent concerning proper
coverage.

It is important in buying insurance that you tell your insurance agent about
your farm operations and the various operations you perform boch on and off the
farm so that he can determine the proper policy to protect you and your investment
and equity. If you do not do this your agent would be very easily misled as to
kind of business you conduct and hence sell you a policy that does not provide the
protection you need. Be particularly careful to check with your agent if you
change your farm operations; for example, if you decide to sell on a retail route
or open a store off the farm, or decide to start a crop spraying business or do
custom work off the farm or grading or packing or storing of other farmer's products
on your farm, these operations may not be covered and may make your policy invalid.

The rates you pay will depend on the policy, the risks, the amount of coverage
and in some cases the size of your farm.

If you do not carry Workmen's Compeasation Insurance on your farm employees
you may want to have an employees endorsement added to your present liability
policy or to the polity you buy.

— L. D. Rhoades

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FLY CONTROL at the Roadside Stand and Cider Mill

Make your stand, salesroom or mill more attractive to customers by making them
less attractive to flies. These suggestions may help you. None will give the
desired results unless number one is considered all- important .

1. CLEAN UP AND KEEP CLEAN 1

Flies are attracted to moisture -- expecially juices from fruits; vegetables,
milk, eggs, and meats. Fruit pomace and any decaying fruit, vegetable or
meat scraps are attractive to flies. Even small amounts, if moist, may be
a breeding ground for more flies.

Provide tlRht containers i7ith ti^'.ht covers such as gaivaaized cans for
wastes. Staiid them on a hard, easily cleaned surface, limpuy waste
containers and clean them every day. Bury or burn the wastes immediately --
flies travel farther than you may think possible.

Clean out and remove empty boxes, basUets, cartons, etc. Store them as

far from the stand or mill as possible. A dump ouc back may be out of

sight, but the flies it attracts and breeds will be out front in full
view.

2. USE RESIDUAL INSECTICIDES ON SURFACES!

Apply residual materials to all surfaces in and around the stand, sales-
room or mill on which flies commonly rest. AVOID contamination of edible
products and follow directions exactly to get the best results.

lettable powders leave a visible deposit; emulsifiable concentrates diluted
with water do not; oil solutions are not diluted and leave no visible deposit.

DDT is still effective against many flies, including the tiny fruit or
vinegar flies; mcthoxychlor is similar and preferred inside the stand or
mill. Diazinon may be used as directed on labels as a residual treat-
ment to wall and other fly-resting surfaces inside and outside the
stand or mill. Ovitside surfaces and dumps may be treated with chlordane,
Diazinon, or malathion, the latter two being effective against flies
immune to the other materials. Malathion is safe and effective, but has
a short residual life. Both Diazinon and malathion are more effective
if sugar is added to them as directed on labels.

3. BAITS SUPPLEMENT other MEASURES!

Dry baits containing malathion, Diazinon, and Dipteryx are available under
many brand names. Use them sparin^ily, but frequently, on all horizontal, dry
surfaces in or around the stand or mill v?here flies tend to gather. Liquid
or spray baits are described on Diazinon and malthion labels. They can be
very helpful where over-all residual spraying is not desirable.

4. SPACE TREATMENTS ESSENTIAL TOOl

Stands and mills that can be closed up completely or enough to prevent
cross ventilation may be ''space treated" with a finely atomized spray
or aerosol. All flies then in the building should be killed by the
treatment; there is no residual effect.

Apply space treatments at closing time and at other times as operations
permit and the number of flies make it desirable.

Pyrethrin or allethrin, each synergized by materials like piperonyl
butoxlde, sulfoxide or others, are the chief killing agents. Some pro-
ducts contain methoxychlor or other materials. Products containing DDT,
chlordane or similar materials should not be used unless edible foods
are covered.

-10-

Apply space treatments by using oil based pyrethrin or allethrin "fly
sprays" in hand or electrically operated atomizera or by using aerosol
bombs. Large (5-lb) bombs are less expensive than smaller types if used
according to directions. Otherwise the smaller types may be Just as
convenient and no more costly.

Read the list of "active ingredients" to get what you want. Follow
"directions for use" to do the best job safely.

5. FAHS HELP

Fans that direct a current of air across displays may help greatly to
keep flies off those products especially attractive to them. Air currents
directed out of doorways from inside and above will reduce the numbers of
flies which enter.

--- E. H. Wheeler
I I I U I I I I t I I I I I I

R

Jf

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Apple Tree Survey Reveals Trends

Pomological Paragraphs

New York State Passes Law Concernirtg Sale
of C.A. Stored Fruits and Vegetables in
That State

Plant Bug Injury to Apples in 1957

Careers in Agriculture

Abandoned Orchards in Massachusetts

What is a Fruit Tree Worth?

A Device for Cutting Apples Into Cubes for
Use As Mouse Bait

SEPTEMBER 15, 1957

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronln, State Purchasing Agent, No,

YOUR POMOLCOY DEPARTMENT

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaohes courses In general Pomology, small fruit culture and syatematlo
Pomology,

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Warehamt

Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums. Mr. Bailey
also does considerable Extension work with small fruit growers.

French, Arthur P. - Head of Department

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
frxiit variety testing.

Lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest oontrol,
and is scmerrtiat involved in research. Editor of IBUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C^ Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses*
Currently also doing research on frxdt marketing.

Southwick, Franklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, prehairvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tasts-
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses*

Contributors to this issue from Supporting Fields

E. J. Rasmussen, Extension Horticulturalist, University of New Hampshire

G. W. Westcott, Professor of Agricultural Economics

E. H. Wheeler, Extension Entomologist

APPLE TREE SURVEY REVEALS TRENDS

Points Up Opportunities for the Future

More apples, fewer trees, and fewer but larger orchards — that sums up
the drastic ch?.nges that have taken place within the Massachusetts apple
industry during the past 30 years, as revealed by a series of three apple
orchard surveys taken in 1925, 1940, and 1956. Of course, these trends were
evident without surveys, nevertheless the last survey taken by fruit growers
under the sponsorship of the Massachusetts Fruit Growers^ Association and now
being summar.zed by Oliver C. Roberts and George W. Westcott of the Extension
Service of the University of Massachusetts, does throw a lot of light on
precisely what is happening within the industry. This information will enable
the leaders of the industry to plan with greater wisdom for the future.

Since 1925, the number of fruit growers with 100 or more apple trees used
for commercial purposes has declined from 1754 to 371. Slightly over one
fifth still remain. And apple trees have decreased from almost a million
(984,564) to about one third of former numbers (344,335). This means that the
average size of orchard has increased from 560 to almost 930 trees.

To the average onlooker this appears to be a dire situation. There is
common talk about fruit growing as a decadent industry. Even some fruit
growers tend to depreciate their own industry. This is understandable. Four
fifths of the orchards of 1925 have gone out of business. Obviously their
operators could not compete. They could not keep up with fast changing
techniques in production and marketing. For them the situation was black. But
that is only part of the story.

Today, 371 apple growers are producing, on the average, almost 2.6 million
bushels annually as compared to 2.1 million bushels produced annually 25 years
ago by five times more growers with three times more trees'. Apple production in
southern New England is on the increase. With increasing production an industry
cannot be described as decadent.

New England is the only region in the United States where apple production
is on the increase. This bears out contentions held by many over the years --
that sourthern New England does have the advantages necessary to support a sound
apple industry -- natural conditions and unexcelled nearby markets. Combine
these with know-how equal to or better than that of our competitors and we have
what we have — a healthy prosperous growing industry.

It is, of course, true that the industry is undergoing change — drastic
change -- and unless we can understand the nature of these changes, we tend
to become confused. We are apt to think only of the smaller less efficient
operators with marginal orchards on poor sites who are falling by the way
side,* and forget those efficient operators who are increasing the size of
their operations, their yields per tree, and the quality of their product which
in total is larger today than ever before.

The informational analysis now being prepared from these surveys should
help us to see our industry in its true light. It should help us to realize

* See Mr. Roberts' article in these Notes on "Causes of Orchard Abandonment."

potentials and opportunities and give us courage to continue to develop the
policies and programs, including most importantly research and training, needed
to keep our industry prosperous and progressive if we are to forge ahead.
Research and training are emphasized because without more know-hox^/ than our
competitors, whether they be apple growers in other regions or producers of
competing products, and without trained and enthusiastic young people, we cannot
continue to go forward. The only other direction to go would be to slip backward.

Competition in know-how and trained personnel is sharp. It is a case of
having to run hard to keep from falling behind — but that is true of the com-
petitive economic system we cherish. Fortunately for the apple industry of
Massachusetts, it has a potentially bright future. But it will not come to
pass by default. The situation calls for continued concerted action on the
part of all. Analytical information, now being processed, on such factors as
varieties, age of trees, size of orchards, percent of income from fruit, methods
of sale, and trends broken down to the individual counties and towns will be
invaluable for the industry's leaders in determining goals, policies, plans,
and programs for the future.

--G. W. Westcott

FARMS WITH 100 OR MORE APPLE TREES

IN MASSACHUSETTS
By Counties, 1925, 1940, and 1956

County

1925

1940

1956

Number

7o of 1940

Worcester

27 6

93

33.7

Middlesex

626

79

12.6

Hampshire

75

32

42.6

Franklin

201

31

15.4

Hampden

37

49

56.3

Essex

133

31

23.3

Bristol

35

19

54.2

Norfolk

58

17

29.3

Berkshire

39

10

25.6

Plymouth

38

8

21.1

Barnstable

8

2

25.0

Total

1754

1576

371

23.7

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-4-

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS

Boron

In all instances known to the writer, where boron deficiency symptoms
have appeared in apples this summer it was correlated with the failure on the
part of the grower to apply boron. Fruit vj'as examined in orchards in the
drought-stricken areas of south-eastern Ne^; England but no deficiency symptoms
were observed. The growers of these orchairds have been applying boron regularly.

At one of the recent twilight meetingu the question arose as to what
effect an excess of boron would have on tho fruit. Research has shown that
heavy ground applications of borax caused liarly harvest of Jonathan apples
and serious breakdown of late stored fruit- It has been noted also, with
this and other apple varieties that preharvest drop and the change from green
to yellow ground color were hastened on trcies heavily fertilized with boron.
Because of the deleterious effect of excessive boron it is recommended that
in no case should the rate of one application of borax exceed 50 lbs, per acre.

Pressure Testing Pears

Several growers have asked the pressure suggested for pears when using a
pressure tester as a guide in determining when pears should be picked. (For
pressure tesing pears use the small pear head, 5/6" diameter). The pressure sug-
gested for several pear varieties are as follows:

Anjou 13-15 lbs.

Bartlett 17-20 lbs.

Bosc 14-16 lbs.

Seckel 16-18 lbs.

Winter Nelis 14-16 lbs.

Editor

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

NEW YORK STATE PASSES LAW CONCERNING SALE OF CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE STORED
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES IN THAT STATE

The following quotation is taken from chapter 400 of the Laws of New York,
This law is now in effect.

"No person shall sell or exchange or offer or expose for sale or exchange or
transport for sale any fruits or vegetables represented as having been exposed to
"controlled atmosphere", "modified atmosphere", alone or with other words, or
shall so use any such term or form of words or symbols of similar import on any
container or lot of fruits or vegetables advertised, sold offered for sale or
transported for sale within this state unless such fruits or vegetables have
been kept in a room or storage building with not more than five percent oxygen for
a minimvnn of ninety days. A record on a form approved by the commissioner shall
be kept at a convenient location adjacent to said room or storage building
from the day of sealing to the day of opening of said room or storage building,
and shall be subject to review by the commissioner or his authorized agents
at any time for a period of at least one year."

Passage of this law means that any shipper of C. A, Apples to any part of
New York State must be in a position to prove that such apples have been held for

at least 90 days at an oxygen level of not more than 5 percent. It seems de-
sirable that all C, A. operators keep an accurate daily log. The following form
although not approved by the New York State Commissioner of Agriculture would
contain the essential information,

C. A. Storage Record

Room No .

Date

Time

Temp.

Percent

CO'

CO2 / O2

02

C02 Scrubbing

Minutes

Caustic soda
Added lbs.

Air Added

(Minutes)

I

I

I

I

-f-

Since keeping a daily log on each C. A. Room is standard procedure this
requirement can be readily met.

This New York law, also, means that C. A. apples cannot legally come on
the market in New York State until about mid- January even though held at 5 per-
cent oxygen or less before the 90 days are up. Most C. A. rooms are not down
to 3 to 5 percent O2 much before the middle of October.

F. W. Southwick

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

PLANT BUG INJURY TO APPLES IN 1957

More than the usual amount of injury to apples typical of Tarnished Plant
Bug is showing up this year in orchards all over Massachusetts. Fortunately
the injury does not often seriously affect the marketability of the fruit
but growers and others are puzzled to know why it is there and why their
spray program failed to control it.

This injury was studied quite extensively in 1938 by Dr. 0. H. Hammer
then of the Hudson Valley Laboratory of the New York State Agricultural
Experiment Station. He describes feeding punctures as small superficial
dimples and egg laying scars as much deeper depressions with some russet-
ting and sometimes considerable distortion of the fruit. The injury usually
appears at the calyx end but may be elsewhere if the main plant bug activity
occurred after petal fall.

Injury of this type is correlated with certain weather conditions prior
to or during bloom. Plant bugs lay eggs and feed in the succulent tissues of
a large number of crop plants and weeds. New terminal growth, buds, and
developing fruit of many trees and shrubs are attacked likewise. Often plant
bugs become very numerous in the Fall and search out sheltered places in or
near orchards in which to hibernate. Whenever a series of unseasonably warm
days precedes or occurs during bloom the overwintering bugs are stimulated
to move out of hiding. The new growth and tender, developing fruits on apple,
pear, and peach trees furnish excellent tissues for feeding and egg laying.

We had such conditions in 1957 . April was warmer than normal and the
maximum temperature reached 75° or above on 7 of the final 10 days. Again,
during the period just before and during apple bloom, maximvmi temperatures
reached 80° or above on 4 successive days. These were ideal conditions for
plant bug emergence and activity.

-6-

Most of the insecticides now being used, except lead arsenate, will kill
plant bugs hit by the spray* Some like DDT, dieldrin, methoxychlor, and
some organic phospliates have considerable residual action if the insects
crawl about over a good deposit.

Injury occurred in 1957 because the bugs emerged from hibernation and
moved into thf; trees during those hot days. Many went directly to the blossoms
and young fruits without danger of being hit by a spray or of crawling over
a lethal depcsit. By the time the Petal-fall applications were made the injury had
already been started but was not so easily seen then as later when the fruit be-
came larger.

E. H. Wheeler

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

CAREERS IN AGRICULTURE

Surveys conducted for the American Association of Land-Grant Colleges
show that there are each year at least 15,000 new jobs for agricultural
graduates, with less than 8,500 young men and women being graduated each year.
Jobs are available each year to agricultural college graduates in: Research,
Agricultural Industry, Agricultural Business, Agricultural Education,
Agricultural Communication, Agricultural Conservation, Agricultural Service,
and as Farm Managers.

Editor

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

ABANDONED ORCHARDS IN MASSACHUSETTS

As one phase of the Fruit Tree Survey an effort was made to obtain information
on the extent of abandonment of orchards over the past fifteen years and the
reasons for such.

When a similar survey was made in 1940 reports were received from 1,576
growers who operated orchards of 100 trees or more.

This 1940 list of growers was submitted to County Agents and others who were
asked to delete all whom they knew were no longer in the orchard business and to
add names of persons who have become fruit growers since 1940. The revised
list contained a total of 901 names. This is 675 names or approximately 43
percent less than reported in 1940.

During the 1955 survey a report was made on each of the 901 names on the
corrected list. 371 of these are operating orchards with 100 or more trees,
438 are no longer in the orchard business and 92 were not considered as commercial
apple growers.

Hence, while there were 1,576 apple growers with 100 or more trees in 1940,
there were only 371 in 1955 or a decrease in the number of commercial growers of
approximately 76 percent.

While, at first glance, it would appear that fruit growing in Massachusetts
is on the decline such is not the case since production of apples has increased
rather than decreased during the past fifteen years. This means that the small
farm orchard has been replaced by specialized commercial orchards.

What's the story on these abandoned farm orchards? Why were they abandoned?
How large were they?

In order to get an answer to these questions, rather definite information
was obtained in the current survey on 203 abandoned orchards. The average
size of these orchards was 14% acres ranging from 3 acres to 50 acres. The
principal reasons given for abandonment are shown as follows:

Reason for abandoranent Percent

Unprofitable 20.7

Sold for house lots 15.0

Owner deceased 12.3

Undesignated 12.3

Old age or ill with no j'oung generation to carry on 9.8

Lost interest 7.9

Converted to livestock including poultry 6.0

Sold - new owner not interested 3.9

Converted to market garden, field crops or hay 3.5

Financial difficulty 3.4

Other employment 1.5

Tornado and hurricane 1.0

Miscellaneous 2,7

This can be summarized in these words: it takes a live, interested,
healthy, energetic, intelligent person to stay in the fruit growing business
today and make it pay.

0. C. Roberts

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
WHAT IS A FRUIT TREE WORTH?

As in many states, fruit growers in Illinois are losing trees because of
highway development. The difficilty confronting the growers is that there is no
basis on which to price their land and trees. To remedy the situation a special
committee of the Illinois Horticulture Society was appointed for the purpose of
deriving a standard on which to base tree evaluation. The following are the
committee's recommendations as to what a fruit tree is worth: peach trees should
be valued as $2.00 per year up to fifth year, 40<: per year from 5 to 16 years of
age, no gain in accumulated value between years of 16 and 20 and then a decrease
in value of 40^ per year from 20 years on. It was recommended that apple trees
should be valued at $3.00 per year up to the age of nine and an increase of $1,00
per year from 9 to 20 years. For apple trees of 20 to 25 years no increase in
value and from the age 25 and over a decrease in value of $1.00 per year.

Using these formulas, the maximum value of a peach tree (at the age 16 to 20
years) would be $14.40 and for an apple tree (age 20 to 25 years) would be $38.00.
These formulations are for evaluation of fruit trees only. The committee recommend-
ed that the land prices be assessed separately and at the going land sale price
of the specific area.

The tree value recommendations are to be compared with cost records obtained
from other states and if they are in accord the recommendations will be presented
to the Illinois State Horticultural Society for approval.

— W. J. Lord

-8-

A DEVICE FOR CUTTING APPLES INTO CUBES FOR USE AS MOUSE BAIT

The control of mice is an important orchard practice and must be done every
year. Mice, if not controlled, will girdle trees 25 years old or older, resulting
in serious loss to the grower.

The best 'iontrol of mice is obtained by the use of poisoned apple cubes
placed in the mouse trails or in runs made with the trail baiting machine
recently developed by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Cutting bait is quite a chore and growers ask each year about a better
way of cutti.ig up apples than with a knife.

The otiier day I visited Clarence Faulkner, Rodent Control Specialist with
the United States Fish and Wildlife Service who is located in Durham, New Hampshire.
He showed me how he had remodled a commercial horizontal french fry cutter so it
could be used cutting apples into cubes for mouse bait. The cost was about $15.00
and about one hour of labor.

The materials required are a horizontal french fry cutter with 5/8 inch pusher
block and die, (can be purchased from any restaurant supply house), 1 hack saw
blade 1 inch wide. (A) sharpened part way on one side; a piece of strap iron 1
inch wide, 1/8 inch thick and 13 inches long (B) to be used as a support for one
end of the hack saw blade; a piece of strap iron 1/2 inch wide, 1/8 inch thick and
9 inches long (C) to be used as a stop for the apples: a 2 x 6, 15 inches long
for a base (D) on which the cutter is mounted; a small piece of sheet metal (E)
for a stop for the hack saw blade; a short piece of rubber hose for handle on the
hack saw blade and a few screws and stove bolts. Holes are drilled in the pieces
of strap iron so they can be fastened to the wood base as illustrated in photograph
no. 1. Bend the pieces of strap iron as shown in the photograph. It is necessary
to reverse the die and cutter blades in order to have a smooth cutting surface for
the hack saw blade knife to ride over when slicing the apple. This will require
removing the blades, grinding about 1/16 of an inch off the back of each cutter
blade and redrilling the holes in the vertical ends of the die.

In order to allow the pusher block to be moved far enough forward in the
slide it is necessary to cut two slots 3/4 of an inch long and 3/8 of an inch
wide in the slide at the base as shown at (F) in photograph no. 2.

There may be scsne difference in the contruction of different makes of french
fry cutters, but the grower should be able to make the necessary changes in re-
modeling so that it can be used for cutting apples into cubes.

To cube the apple push it through until it touches the strap iron stop
which should be 5/8 of an inch from the front of the cutter blades, and then
slice off the projected part of the apple with a downward stroke of the hack
saw blade knife,

A half inch mesh screen can be used to catch the cubed apples, and to
remove the smaller pieces not suitable for bait.

■— E. J. Rasmussen

I I I I t I I I I I I I I I I I

rmrstti awr nearipgs 1 '■' '«•"'" "S Toe officeV'pnd

eial rniinsel Ray |C Jen^--;f^t^^.^» \t Provi* ''^ ■

nieanvvhile that l^j^^tf* .s^"^ .n h,

"*" '" •'ice officer pnd which he led as
x-ice^onimOTder and commander

an huiiErj»for tw «. ■•■ms He has demon-
strate ^, .^^trative ability and

com-

and trp;
and up

er hi
an
-Ten
! have

(Continued on Page

ccte

*l FIREMAN DIES
DUE TO SHOCK

Mp; Coiichc*,
livrngroom i«t«,1
bedroom sets, 940
Mashing machines, I
beds,

Maine Girl, 5, Crushed i Tree Fights Bulldozer,

Fatally Under Tractor

YARMODTH, Me.. Aug. 27 (AP)
-A ^ive-year-old girl was fatally
cruslrted today under a tractor in a|
Held ^^..^ „.,. J ,

jinxii_ii.r

;r Girl Netgil-^7^

gsjCoroner Walter E

were four I

lie cq

t

Girl Hilled by Tractor in
Second Tragedy

Two persons were killed and Avo

more seriously injured in non-traf-

I fie accidents in Maine yesterday.

j named to handle various phases i

of the projecrt. , |

Gen. James Van Fleet. forrA.
commander of America's tc/ /ff
in Korea, is national chairn/ '■''
the Foundation Jf**''' -- /
formecj, t<v. "j'ii^- — , ^

rincipar

(ssed doubt he"

plo his own inherilanf_. ^^,^^

rnery Ward Thorne wasunt

% in his studio apartmentj

ISrotl St. Saturdj

NEVER:

Tractor Upsets,
Fatally Injures
Holderness Mon

LdERNESS, N. H...JuIv 29
ployes. and runs that aeg-
the eatabllahment as Ills
..e has a huge sitaff. mostly
ladles who wear outflte that
no pockets and profit no| [
from a _f5 tip than from a|

ivice employee was at work on ^
y-ty in North Holderness
his sister, Mrs. Hattle

other sister, Miss f
^«f N«shu«.

Operator Is Injured

y^ AOAWAM. Sept 10 (API—
I rrThc top of a bulldozer working ■ |
on a land-leveling job. caught a
tree branch today' and pulled it
back lii<e a huge catapult. 4

Relcaoed. the branch sprang!
back and struck the bulldozer',
course, .put many restaurania aiul,
clubs l«a»e itheir hat check privf-
leges to lEJlis for annual tees rang-
ing from »20.000 to »56,00O. He!
then takes over, establishes his I

Crash Victims

Vehicle Hurtles

Down Steep Hill

)ut of Control

aie few di-seases as.
to» -<is diabetes. When insulin;
r/C f*, ^""^^ and the diaheticX

*%.

'^t could be rem- 1
i a noi'mal
weak- [

'olice .

1. Refuel Tractor when hot.

21 i/p>

2. Service Tractor when running.

^^Oj,

3. Run Tractor inside a building.

t»Ve
lies
t ovi*

4. Allow riders.

f 5. Walk back on drawbar and step back
on other machine to make adjustments.

'we ,f
4..1he,>("";,;,^cl»sv -■ ,v,e

at

„vnoon

■State ' *•■"

y

21
(R.-Vl.l"'

6. Wear loose clothes or gloves when
making adjustments.

7. Hitch to axle — use drawbar.

>,7un

'?„'ied evid«" jereii:ei_UOQUici^

It beg;' ^^^^
ite nnnns it»
ied forsti- ^1^
, S. Ai ot o«
)ott sain of P

uld lim,t&e.«"^dJ,,^,,V.tvJ°^^,e w;^^«„ .once^^^^^

BULLDOZER KILLS MAN

ELMIRA. (^) _ A 15-ton bull-i
l°vfru.?''«^™«*r'«»^ P'"e City
„rt 10 a ' "^ ,„r \-"\r ,v,e or"**.- ,,n- ,

uld limitae />■■ ,\niuy , re «
) one daJO»\^P°5vfu\ ^^'l ^EA^icaU

^^''^^l. d.abeie; '' il at.d

ior»
-tarvt
his

ause

?^«»S-;S^S^Sa!r--

r, , '»*

'W Orleans. _,

Lloyd. 48't

IEAS7 DOES IT

MONTREAI. (AP)— The

)4er of an 18 - ton bulldozer was

ordered in Quebec superior court

to pay $343.65 damages when the

machine crackad the cedent

ider -con

id.',"" a so i'^ '"" heavy ^°\ ' nd e'
^ *,^e ^^^^-^ '' &^"°;a^d-in-

T' .iiB^^

ans hachelo \s"^'

s ago that h( .j'-...r to see

)f the street — '■ — '— — '■

1.

he started
e. A few rr
iged to wall
a clipboard
ed. nolelToo
are shoelace

\\'hirh he
1 A to Z;

struction
property,
testified
operator
come tooi

1 West

"action by the driver ana ovmevti
la trailer truck resulted in s^^'^
the tractor from destructiol/ *-<
fire yesterday.
Cont'rols and Instruments on the
irivotrainer cars have been
latch those of stan

learned, r^^^lg^^ ii^ctfg thfet

abetes was t.^'^t.^^/ simple-

tier of an insuti.. /supply of |

ilin. It was quite e/ident that'

'tic coma, th* u.sual cause of|

lulin death, had sharply de- j

also that with the aid of;

the diabetics' life line wasj

tended many yeais. But]

a price tag attached toj

ih sKbwed this disease in 1

[ly new light- for the price |

hardening of the arter- ■

■y invoh'Pmenl in the

,ges. severe visual de-j

circulatory changes;

[stic of ageing, years inj

the normal expectation. |

Tactor
fer Is Saved

^e diibetic? flwnnittle'ma^ga-zme

fprf -".cast which is invaluable as

^e^,-^r "shot." and rccom-

.^^O/j. ,., both young and old.

tt-r***;^-!' ^nthlv. the price is

(ip. istroj^ "''Wt."^**6o>^

Crortt Kuirtec

Tractor Crushes Boy's Legs
But He Doesn't Let Out a Peep

West Springfield. Aug. 26— Nine-

Extension Servics
University of Massachusetts

calibre" shells, the war-heads that
exploded the shells. Not only did
the Clark-Aiken shop mak£ them;
they made the automatic machines
which clipped them off from long
steel rods at the rate 9f hundreds

hisDlaRWB^i*»Mjun_^^^
pansion were adotJiW^****.
pleted under the direction
Arthur W. Babbitt at a cost ot
J700.000.

During World War H the govern-
ment placed substantial orders
with Monument Mills (or bed-
spreads, the Army Quartermaster
Corps and Veterans Admini.stra-
tion being good customers.

In September. 1953. a radical
/.Vianuo was Dut inlo effect at the

damage was ■ AP)
I Firemen said tUxXty,
IgMstarted from the hea/{a./jj

-111 the

' /i^bly

was in 1946
ight the en-
nd became
n, with Mr.
a JO-year
Mr.

Aiken rem„ , ,»

conti*acr as general manager.
Aiken died last year.

War Production
During WorW War U the concern
flourished, converting to 95 pet
cent defense work. Its chief output
was millions of tiny steel gadgets
I about the size of a .2:^ calibre
cartridge. These steel pieces be-

"R

J^

NOTE5

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Credit for Farmors

Excerpts from Talks on Marketing Methods
Effects of Bagging Apples on Quality

Start Now to Control Fusicoccum Peach
Canker and Peach Leaf Curl

Apple Squeezings

Pomological Paragraphs

Combatting Orchard Mice

Orchard Mouse Bait Requirements

OCTOBER 15, 1957

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W.Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

TOUR POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT

Anderson^ James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology^ small fruit cxilture and systematio
Pomology.

Bailey, John S* - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham*

Doing research on stravrberries, blueberries and beach plums. Itr. Bailey
also does considerable Extension work with small fruit growers*

Frttnoh, Aii^hur P. - Head of Department

Does soma teaching in Penology and in Plant Breeding, actiye In small
frxiit variety testing.

Lord, William J, - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest omtroly
and is somenhat involved in research. Editor of FROIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C*- Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses*
Ctirrently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, Franklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain teste-
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses*

Contributors to this Issue from Supporting Fields

Lawrence 0. Rhoades, Extension Specialist In Farm Management

C. J. Gllgut, Extension Plant Pathologist

Kirby M. Hayes, Extension Marketing Specialist, Food Technology

Wesley R. Jones, U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service

CREDIT FOR FARMERS

In the ordinary course of events it is estimated that about 8 out of 10
farmers in Massachusetts use credit at some time during the year. The sources
they use may be quite varied but credit is extended whenever goods or services
are acquired without full payment at the same time.

There are only four means of obtaining the capital needed in farming and
they are: to inherit it, to get it as a gift, to save it from earnings or
to borrow it. Very often the needed amounts are obtained by a combination of
two or more of these means.

For many farmers it becomes a necessity to borrow in order to establish a
large enough capital structure to produce farm earnings which will provide a
desired standard of living. Borrowing capital, however, has its risks and
hazards .

A sound and profitable farm and home management program requires a plan
for the most efficient and profitable use of capital whether borrowed or not.
Putting such a plan into operation requires making arrangements to get the needed
capital on a satisfactory basis.

For the fanner who must seek capital through borrowing, three important
steps are involved:

1. He must consider and evaluate the benefits and risks which are
concerned with borrowing.

2. He must decide how to effectively organize and present his case
to a prospective lender.

3. He must decide what specific agreements should be included in the
loan contract after it has been determined that a sound basis for
credit exists.

Since modern fatnning calls for substantial amounts of capital to be most
profitable, many farm families must take the risks of borrowing. They should be
calculated risks -- potential benefits balanced against potential risks.

Here are 10 rules to follow:

1. Use loans only for things that will increase income ~ needed
machinery, livestock, feed, seed fertilizer, etc., that will earn
income — they are productive investments,

2. Limit debts to amount needed to operate efficiently. Select your
loan purpose to bring the largest dollar return in the shortest
time.

3. Study and estimate future price trends. Discount future prices and
give full value to costs.

4. Keep debts in line with your net worth -- what you own minus what

you owe -- drops in value affect assets not debts which are in
dollars.

5. Estimate your probable Income — gross cash farm income minus cash
farm expenditures leaves cash available for family living and
interest and principal pajmients on debts. You may not be able

to cut family living costs when the going is rough.

6. Have a definite repayment schedule — if the loan is for operating
expense then plan to pay from the proceeds of crops or livestock
for which the loan is used. Funds borrowed for items with a
longer life should be repaid before the items purchased with
borrowed funds become unproductive or are replaced.

7. Be fair, frank and bussinesslike at all times with your lender.

He can be of most service if he understands your operation and the
results you expect. Pay promptly or if circumstances prevent this
arrange in advance for further consideration.

8. Select a lender who is most likely to be willing and able to go
along with you if bad economic conditions develop.

9. DO NOT BORROW for an enterprise which is not fully familar to you.
A trial run on a limited scale with your own funds may be wiser
than plunging into an unfamilar deal.

10, Remember insurance for added risks — Be sure your property and

liability coverage is adequate. In many cases borrrowing increases
debts without an offsetting increase in assets at the time. Life
insurance may be needed to protect your family in case debts are
heavy and risks are high.

— -L. D. Rhoades

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

EXCERPTS FROM TAU<S ON MARKETING METHODS, MICHIGAN
STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY REPORT FOR 1956.

1. The Challenge of Our Changing Distribution System, by Stanley B. Davis, President
International Apple Association, Inc. "The apple grower must realize that his
trading days are about over and he must turn to scientific merchandizing if he is
to receive a satisfactory return for his fruit." "Every fresh fruit and vegetable
item, including apples, peaches and pears are in competition with other food items
upon which millions of dollars are being spent for television, periodical, newspaper
and radio advertising. The superior eye appeal and glamor of our product has
offset somewhat the competitive pressure of this greater amount of advertising;
however, we must start blowing our horn louder and longer if we want to maintain
our favorable selling position in today's retail market."

"Apple growers as well as other fresh fruit and vegetable producers are
going to have to forego the desire to perform the entire job of growing, packing
and selling individually and cooperate in a joint endeavor with fellow growers to
develop expert machinery in each of these fields to do the job efficiently. The

-3-

present traffic will not bear the extravagance of so many salesmen, packers and
traffic experts."

2. Collective Bargaining for Better Apple Prices, by Edwin Mawby, Rockford, Michigan,

"Most apple grower meetings will find growers complaining bitterly about
chain store buying practices, excessive wholesale profits, shady business trans-
actions of truckers and brokers, processors stealing the crop and processors
demanding the quality for which they do not pay. Very seldom does the grower
blame himself for any of the weaknesses in his industry. He likes to grow
them, turn them over to somebody else and then sit back, relax and complain.
He hopefully waits for the government, for his local broker, a chain store, his
marketing extension specialist, or some other good Samaritan to come along and
solve his problems. The apple grower, being the basic producer of apples, must
accept the responsibility for the manner in which his product is packed, distrib-
uted and sold to the consumer."

"Opinions have been expressed that the apple industry is drifting; that
it does not have a clear, concise long-range view of what it wants or hopes to
attain in the future. There is a definite need for more industry planning in
regard to varieties to plant, expansion of apple acreage, development of new
apple byproducts, and the uniform standardization of packaging of these products
for the consumer. The apple industry in the past 10 to 15 years has had an
attitude that by freezing out some producing sections, by bulldozing out some of
the poorer varieties, and by squeezing out the small producers, in other words,
decreasing the supply, the price will be higher and the survivors of the industry
will be financially better off. This thinking is contrary to the planning and
thinking of progressive business men in the world today. If we are to survive
as an apple industry in today's expanding economy, we must plant more orchards,
build more processing plants, produce more and better apples cheaper, in order
to maintain our position in the food producing and distribution field. We as
an industry must be very careful that we do not find ourselves in the position
of being too small an industry to compete with other fruit producing industries*
We must fight to expand and maintain large volume production."

"I sincerely feel that there are enough young growers who have the vision,
the ambition and the ability to work and strive to again put apples as King of
Fruits, a No. 1 fruit both processed and fresh. It is our responsibility to
see that people are given the opportunity to have this healthful fruit at their
disposal at all times of the year throughout the world. If each adult in the
United States would eat an apple a day, instead of brushing his teeth, it would
take 438,000,000 bushels of apples for this project alone. The horizon is
unlimited."

—A, P, French

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

EFFECTS OF BAGGING APPLES ON QUALITY

The following excerpts are from an article by G. D, Blanpied, Cornell
University that appeared in the Proceedings of the One Hundred and Second Annual
Meeting of the New York State Horticultural Society,

"Let's look at some facts on how prepackaging in consumer unit polyethylene
bags affects some of the facets of quality. My comments will be based on tests

which we have conducted at Cornell. These tests are by no means exhaustive, but
I feel they are indicative.

Flesh Firmness

Flesh firmness is certainly one measure of quality which everyone employs.
To be sure, small differences in pressure tester readings mean nothing to the
layman, but I think most people prefer a reasonably hard Mcintosh to a soft one.

We have worked with Mcintosh, Cortland, Delicious, and Golden Delicious to
determine whether or not bagging has any effect on flesh firmness. The treatments
included one and two weeks of continuous exposure to 70°F.; two weeks of alternat-
ing temperatures of 70° during the daytime and 32° at night; and two weeks at 32°F
followed by two days of 70° and twelve days at 80°F. In only three of the fourteen
tests were there differences in excess of one-half pounds difference in flesh firm-
ness* Differences in incidence of water core of Delicious accounted for two of
these three cases.

Our tests indicate that bagging has no significant effect on flesh firmness.

Skin Shrivel

Thirteen separate tests were carried out with Mcintosh, Cortland, Delicious,
and Golden Delicious apples to determine the effect of bagging on water loss and
subsequent skin shrivel. The differences in weight loss varied from five times
as much water lost from Golden Delicious in bulk as compared to comparable apples
in poly bags at 70°F to differences of only one and one-half times as much water
lost from bulk Delicious apples as compared to bagged Delicious apples stored at
alternating temperatures at 32° and 70°F.

In every case, the bagged fruit lost less weight than the bulk stored fruit .
Whether or not this skin shrivel retarding effect will benefit your apples depends
upon how long and at what temperature your apples are kept in bags.

Decay

Decay of bagged apples is a real threat and a detriment to quality. One
rotten apple in one bag will hurt the appearance of a bagged apple display. Almost
every rotten apple I have found in polyethylene bags has been innoculated at a
skin puncture. Our studies indicate that punctured fruit will show a higher
incidence of decay in poly bags than in bulk displays at 70°F.

It is well to remember that fruit with stem punctures and other unhealed
cuts are culls.

Scald

Some apple handlers have expressed the opinion that bagging increases the
incidence of storage scald. We have carried out three separate tests with Rhode
Island Greening in bulk and bag displays to determine the effect of bagging on
the appearance of scald. Our tests show that bagging in polyethylene has no
significant effect on the appearance of scald.

-5-

We haven't encountered it yet, but it is conceivable that apples kept in
consumer unit polyethylene bags for a month or longer during the first six to
eight weeks after harvest might show more scald than apples which were not confined
in poly bags.

Air-Tight Bags?

Limited tests with air-tight consumer unit polyethylene (150 g) bags at the
Cornell pomological laboratory have indicated that apples will not significantly
benefit from a sealed bag environment and it is sometimes a dangerous practice.

Summary

Summing up our work at Cornell, it may be said that prepackaging apples in
consumer unit polyethylene bags will reduce the amount of water lost from the
apples and increase the amount of decay of punctured fruit."

W. J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

START NOW TO CONTROL FUSICOCCUM PEACH CANKER AND PEACH LEAF CURL

There are two peach diseases that require grower attention in the fall. One
is Fusicoccum peach canker and the other, peach leaf curl.

Peach canker infections start in buds on the current season's growth in
rainy weather in September and new infections continue to occur until cold
weather. The cankers resulting from the infections begin to appear in October
and continue to appear through winter and spring. Spores produced on them
infect leaf bud clusters, leaf blades, and the base of soft tender new shoots
in rain periods after bloom in spring.

Not all orchards have peach canker. Where it is present, a program of
pruning and protective spraying is suggested.

Pruning out of diseased twigs and branches should be done while trees
are dormant and also in June.

Spraying should be started in mid or late September according to Dr.
E. F. Cuba, with applications at 10 to 12 day intervals, preferably before
rains, and should be continued until nearly all the leaves have fallen from
the trees. As with all spraying, thorough coverage is necessary. Satisfac-
tory results have been obtained by Dr. Cuba from spraying with a mixture of
\ lb. dichlone (Phygon) and 1 lb. of ferbam in 100 gallons of water with 1
pint of glyodin added for better wetting. Captan at 2 lbs. and thiram at 2
lbs. have also been effective.

To obtain control of peach canker, the preventive spray program with
dichlone- ferbam mixture should be continued in spring. Start with early
Delayed Dormant and make applications in Pink, Petalfall, and Shuck fall.

-6-

Where fall and spring spraying are done for peach canker, it will also
control peach leaf curl. In orchards where there is no peach canker, a spray
of Ik lbs. ferbam in 100 gallons applied in the fall after leaves have dropped
or in the spring before the buds have started to open should give satisfactory
control if the spray is applied thoroughly so that it coats the buds.

C. J. Gilgut

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

APPLE SQUEEZINGS

The Cider Certification Program is again in the full swing. Many of you
who have cider mills are contemplating going under this program. Be sure as you
make improvements, that they fall in line with the requirements of the program.
Even if you have no thoughts of joining the program, but do plan to make improve-
ments, it would be well to make them with the Cider Certification Program in
mind as our aims and the requirements of the State Food and Drug Division are
for all purposes identical.

With the warm days of Fall here, I suggest that you check your sanitation
program and also observe if your present fly-control system is working adequately.
Odors and flies can do more to discourage a customer from coming back than most
anything else other than poor quality. For most cider mills, a good dairy cleaner
will work well in washing the equipment down and insuring that it is kept in clean
condition. Use it on the press, the racks, the cloths and from time to time on
the walls and floors to help keep the mill smelling sweet. Removal of pomace
from the immediate area of the press room at the end of the day's run will help
your fly control program. Follow the recommendations for fly control given by
Dr. Wheeler in the July-August issue of Fruit Notes and especially pay attention
to those sprays that may be used in food plants.

We all know that it is difficult to make good cider early in the season as
we have to wait for the later varieties to give us the desired characteristics.
However, wherever possible, use as many different varieties as you can as these
will blend together to give a better cider than if only one variety is used.
Another thought along this line, and that is, as soon as your cider is pressed,
refrigerate it. The colder it is, the less likelihood there will be of any
spoilage taking place and the better your customer will like it. Remember that
if a customer buys a gallon, it has to remain sweet until all of the cider is
gone. If this spoils before it is all consume^ the buyer will be disappointed
and perhaps not be a repeat customer.

This is the time of the year to advertise sweet cider. By getting your cus-
tomers into the habit of picking up a container of cider now, you can build the
sales later in the year. Advertise your products, advertise them truthfully, but
make them aware of the fact that you have sweet cider for sale early in the year
and you will find your sales will lengthen out over the period of time.

A Note on Inspection

Food and Drug Inspectors will undoubtedly be dropping into cider mills
throughout the state during the next three or four months. Be sure that at
all times your mill can stand inspection. We know because of the process a
cider mill cannot always look neat and clean, but any pomace or other debris

-7-

should be fresh rather than old dried up leavings from the previous pressing or
two. Always when you are through, even though it may be late, give the mill a
good hosing down and plan to finish the cleaning in the morning. If you leave
it stand overnight, then your work is almost doubled in trying to make it a
clean, sanitary mill. Remember sweet cider can be used to attract customers to
your stand which in turn should aid in the sale of your other products.

— Kirby Hayes

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS

Importance of Two-Spotted Mite Control

In the Preharvest Drop Control test conducted this fall the importance of
keeping the two-spotted mites population within bounds was clearly emphasized.
Apple drop was heavy from the limbs carrying foliage injured by the two-spotted
mites. The low limbs where good spray coverage was difficult, without special
effort on part of the growers, were the ones usually carrying mite injured
foliage. In many cases, a high percentage of the dropped fruits picked-up under
the trees came from a relatively few limbs which carried foliage injured by the
two-spotted mites.

Is Your Cider Sweet?

In this issue of Fruit Notes appears an article by Kirby Hayes, Extension
Marketing Specialist, Food Technology, in which he stresses the importance of
selling sweet cider that will remain sweet until it is all gone. Too many cider
producers are not concerned enough about this fact. The writer knows of a
person who buys cider quite regularly from cider mills throughout the state and
has been disappointed too often in what he bought. Several times the cider that
looked good when purchased had to be poured down the sink. This does not build
repeat sales I No customer should be sold cider that has been displayed in the
sun or a wairm room for any period of time Even though cider has been refrigerated
the person offering cider for sale should sample it to be sure that it is still
sweet.

W. J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

COMBATTING ORCHARD MICE

Orchard mouse control recommendations emanating from other parts of the
country seem to offer great promise and hope for a simple control measure. As
yet, we have not found these "Shangri-la" methods as meeting all the requirements
of a good control method. Our recommendation this year remains substantially
the same as last. The use of Endrin is not approved.

Last year Doctor Lord and I made a field trip during which we found many
fruit growers making major mistakes in their application of a baiting program.
SOTie of these mistakes we discovered in the field were as follows:

-8-

1. Using last year's oats. Zinc phosphide oats are mixed upon order at
our Bait Mixing Station and they are calculated to maintain their
toxicity for about four-six months in the original shipping containers.
They will not hold over to the next season,

2. Using zinc phosphide purchased many years ago. Some growers were found
still using old red-colored cans of zinc phosphide rodenticide. Zinc
phosphide can be safely stored in its original container for about
three years. Do not use any material older than this. All zinc phos-
phide rodenticide currently being prepared will have the year date
stamped on each container.

3. Placing bait only at the tree base. Bait must be placed in mouse run-
ways when hand baiting.

4. When using mechanical trail builder, just carelessly dropping bait
behind the furrower. Bait must be placed right in the artificial
runway .

5. Failure to clean around tree bases. Girdling can occur at any time of
year and is always encouraged by heavy cover against trunks of trees.
Clean mowing or grubbing around tree bases will reduce chances of early
season damage.

Apparently many growers are not following the recommended procedures to the
letter, and this is necessary. It is suggested that each grower take a few
minutes time to sit down and review the procedures as outlined in our new leaflet
on orchard mouse control and see that his program is according to Hoyle. Orchard
mouse supplies this year will be available at many more sources than formerly.
County Extension offices will not handle baits, but they have been furnished with
a list of our cooperating suppliers and can inform you of your nearest distributor.

Present conditions indicate that there will be a lot of dropped apples re-
maining on the ground during the baiting program. This may slightly decrease the
attractiveness of your apple bait. It is still one of the best baits, dropped
apples or not, but under these conditions we recommend also the use of zinc
phosphide- treated oats in conjunction with the apples. The combination bait is
always recommended where pine mice are present.

The Eish and Wildlife Service Staff is now fully manned in this state with
the addition of Mr. Fred Courtsal, stationed at the Extension Office, 36 Harvard
Street, Worcester, Massachusetts, and covering Eastern Massachusetts. Mr, John
Peterson, stationed at Amherst, Massachusetts, is our field man for Western
Massachusetts. Individuals desiring aid in their mouse control program are
invited to contact these men,

---Wesley R. Jones

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

ORCHARD MOUSE BAIT REQUIREMENTS

The following figures are to be used as a guide in determining the amount of
bait to be used in Orchard Mouse control. These are minimum figures, for in actual
practice it is found that fruit growers are quite generous in their quantity of

-9-

bait applied. If you are the liberal type, double the bait requirement listed.

HAND- BAITING INFORMATION;

10 Pounds of Zinc Phosphide-treated Stem Crushed Oats

- 900 teaspoon-sized bait placements.
• 225 trees baited with oats only.

- 450 trees baited with apple and oats.

1 can Zinc Phosphide Rodent icide (1-ounce can)

' 16-20 quarts of treated apple.

8 1600-2000 apple baits.

' 400-500 trees baited with apple only.

= 800-1000 trees baited with apple and oats.
TRAIL-BUILDER BAITING INFORMATION:

(a) One acre of trees, spaced at 40' x 40', requires 2,160 feet of machine-trail.

(b) One acre requires about 540 baits at 4- foot spacing.

(c) One acre requires 5-1/2 quarts of apples only or about 1/3 ounce of Zinc
Phosphide Rodenticide.

(d) One acre requires 6 pounds of oats only.

(e) One acre of ccmbination baits requires about 1/6 can of Zinc Phosphide
Rodenticide and about 3 pounds of poisoned oats.

—Wesley R, Jones
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

R

^

NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 1957

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS. AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS
How Do You Figure Interest or Credit Cost?
"The Ten Commandments of Apple Marketing"
Pomological Paragraphs

Results of a Rrehorvest Drop Control Experiment
with Mcintosh Apples

Use of Materials Outstanding in 1957 CA
Construction

What is a Semi-dwarf Apple Tree?

Further Information Concerning the Sale and
Shipment of CA Apples in New York State

Cider Notes

Fertilizing Cultivated Blueberries

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director.

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts. United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronln. State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOUR POMOLOGY STAFF

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematic
Pomology.

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham.
Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums. Mr,
Bailey also does considerable Extension work with small fruit growers.

French, Arthur P. - Head, Department of Horticulture

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest
control, and is somewhat involved in research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C. - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental
courses. Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, Franklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain
tests and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to this issue from supporting Fields

Kirby M. Hayes, Extension Marketing Specialist, Food Technology

Lawrence D. Rhoades, Extension Specialist in Farm Management

John W. Zahradnik, Associate Research Professor, Department of Agricultural

Engineering

HOW DO YOU FIGURE INTEREST OR CREDIT COST?

In these days of interest rate increases it helps sometimes in deciding where
to get credit to know how to figure interest rate or cost reduced to some standard.
In these examples we have used the actual annual rate of interest as the standard.

You trade your car or truck for another one and the difference is $960 and
your old car is the dox-m payment. You are asked to sign a 12-month note to a
finance company with monthly payments of $89.51. How much interest will you be
paying?

$89.51 X 12 m $1,074.12 s Total amount to be paid

Principal amount financed ■ $960.00

Finance or interest charge ■ $114.12

Average amount outstanding during the year z $520.00

$114.12 divided by $520 - 21.95 per cent interest

When the monthly payment plan or any other plan calling for equal and evenly
spaced payments is used, one way to figure the actual rate of interest charged
is to use the following formula:

Actual

Total of finance charges ^ No. of payments ^^ 1 = Annual

% original loan No of years No. of payments ♦ 1 Rate of

Interest

Substituting figures in the last example:
114.12 12 ^ 1 « 1369.44 m 21.95% interest

480.00 1 13 6240.00

If you can borrow the money from a lender who charges 6 per cent of the face
amount your annual rate will be 11.08 percent annually and you will save $56.52
over the cost from the finance company.

If you borrow the money from a lender who charges 6 per cent of the face
amount and deducts it from the note (discounting) then your rate will be 11.78
and you will have "paid" the interest in advance. The note to give you approxi-
mately $960 (actually $958.80 would be for $1020 z $61.20 would be deducted
for advance interest payment and the calculation using the formula would be as
follows:

11.787o - the actual annual rate of interest

61.20 ^ 12 V 1 :

: 734.40

479.90 1 13

6238.70

Carrying Charges

Instead of interest, some time payment plans include "carrying charges" and
sometimes other names are used such as "credit" charge. Like the old Frenchman's

-2-

coiranent after his first experience with potato whisky, "she don't taste lak'
she read on de barrel.", names mean little, the charge made is what counts. Con-
verting to annual interest is not difficult. Here is one example. You decide to
trade your old tractor for a new one costing $2250. You are allowed $1,000 on
your old tractor leaving $1,250. A carrying or credit charge of $125 is added
for a total of $1,375 on the note and you are to pay in two installments, one at
the end of six months and one in twelve months, of $687.50 each.

Using the formula, you figure

111 X - X 1 = —250 B 13.3% as the actual annual rate of interest.
625 1 3 1875

You need to add up all the charges to get the cost of using borrowed funds.
You will be likely to run into some unusual names, charges, and methods. They
are all designed to separate you from your money. Credit has a cost but costs
vary widely between lenders. A sharp pencil and a pad of paper are excellent
farm tools when used frequently and wisely. Pick your lender for lowest cost and
most favorable terms to you.

—Lawrence D. Rhoades
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

"THE TEN COMMANDMENTS OF APPLE MARKETING"

An article by Carroll R. Miller in the Maryland "Fruit Growers* News Letter"
contains much food for thought and is reproduced here for the benefit of
Massachusetts fruit growers.

1. It is the Law of The Profits that good markets exist only where Demand
goes ahead of Supply. Therefore build Demand, and yet more Demand, for
your apples.

2. Diligently teach your customers the merits of apples; for only a fool
buys that for which he knov/s no use. Prepare the market carefully, in
advance: for education costs only pennies per bushel but the price of
ignorance is in dollars.

3. A thousand growers shall not attempt to sell their apples to seven buyers;
for verily the growers will cut each others' prices to pieces, and the
buyers will wink and laugh. But seven sellers and seven buyers make a
firm market and fatten the pocket book of all.

4. He who sells by under-cutting his neighbor's price has thrown a boomerang
which will return to smite him. His neighbor shall cut in his turn, and
both will be sorely wounded in the hip-pocket.

5. You shall not attempt to market a puny volume of apples: for the seller
of a million bushels attacts the hard-cash buyers but the push-cart
peddler must hunt the by-v;ays and alleys for bad-check customers.

6. Unless you are a professional salesman as well as a grower, hire yourself
a salesman: for the amateur cannot compete equally with the professional,
and the buyers of apples today are surely professionals.

7. Guard diligently against over-filling the nearby markets, for a glut
ruins the price-level and the blight speeds by telegraph over land and
sea. Offer your apples to many cities, for apples grow only in certain
spots of this terrestrial ball, but all the people of all the nations
hunger for fruit.

8. Strive mightily for a stable market, for therein the merchant buys
tomorrow's needs freely and with confidence. But when the price-cutters
enter, the merchant withholds buying, lest his competitor buy cheaper

or tomorrow's fruit be lower: and the unsold apples pile up like a dammed
river, unto the bursting thereof.

9. Forget not that the Eye controls the Purse Strings; that bruises are
repulsive and poor color looks shabby: and that your apples must sell
themselves in the super-markets alongside 70 other fruits and vegetables,

10. An honest grade is a delight to all merchants and brings re-orders: but
a deceitful or a sloppy pack induces wrath and rejection.

0. C. Roberts

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS

External Symptoms of Boron Deficiency

Generally there is no external evidence of boron deficiency in apples,

however, severely affected fruits may have pebbled or very noticeable roughened

surface particularly near the calyx end of the fruit. These symptoms were found
on Mcintosh, Rome and Cortland apples.

More boron deficiency was found in fruits from young trees because of the
tendency of some growers to forget them when it comes to applying borax.

Garden Tractors for Mowing

Very little hand mowing is done in orchards today, therefore, a garden tractor
with a sickle-bar mower or a roadside mower might be a good investment. These
work very nicely around young trees and mature trees pruned to eliminate low
hanging limbs. However, under mature trees with low hanging limbs the mowing
job is a "man-killer". Also, these mowers are useful in many areas around the
orchard and farm buildings where mowing with a regular mowing machine or orchard
rotary-mower is impractical.

One Massachusetts fruit grower likes to use his garden tractor with the
sickle bar mower attachment around young trees because fewer trees are sheared-
off than with standard mowing equipment and hand mowing is eliminated.

Hand Thinning Apples

The question was asked about desired fruit spacing when hand thinning
apples. Experimental evidence has shown for most varieties that fruits should
be thinned to allow about 30 to 50 leaves in the vicinity of each fruit. The
usual commercial practice is to space the apples from 6 to 8 inches apart on
the branch with Delicious apples being spaced farther apart than Mcintosh. The
spacing will vary depending upon fruit set on individual limbs and upon location,
variety, tree age, soil moisture, etc. In some instances there may be a relatively
small number of apples on a limb but these are clumped together. In these cases
the fruit should not be thinned or only lightly thinned. Apple varieties which
inherently set heavy crops, unless chemical thinning is successful, require more
hand thinning than other varieties. In years like this past summer no matter
how much hand thinning was done satisfactory fruit size could not be obtained
from trees in some locations. More fruits may be left near the periphery
(outside) and top of older trees than near the center because of greater wood
vigor, leaf surface and more light.

Some Orchards Still Need Limel

Although the use of lime in apple orchards has been stressed for a number
of years, many growers are still not following this recommended practice. It
is surprising the number of growers that have not limed their orchards for a
number of years. Apparently the problem of soil acidity exists in other states.

Dr. E. G. Fisher, Cornell University, states that soil acidity is certainly
one of the major nutritional problems in VJestern New York. In the Proceedings
of the 102nd Annual Meeting of the New York State Horticultural Society he says:
"About 67% of the soil samples we collected in the Western New York area were at
or below pH 4.9. An acid soil condition often leads to magnesium deficiency.
Based upon soil or leaf analysis, about 40% of the samples we collected showed
a need for increased magnesium levels."

Another condition brought out by the 1956 New York State leaf analysis was
the low potassium level in many of the Western New York apple orchards. About
68% of the samples analyzed indicated a need for potassium. As Dr. Fisher stated,
"This does not mean that 68% of the Western New York orchards need potassium
fertilization. There is a decided tendency for us to be called into problem
orchards. It does mean that many of our problem orchards are low in potassium,"

Apple Box Dumpers (Box Turners)

While visiting apple package sheds during the month, the writer observed
two growers using hand-operated mechanical apple box dumpers. These were
obtained from manufecturers of apple grading equipment. However, apple box dumpers
can be constructed by growers having a well-equipped farm shop and probably for
half the price. Although the dumped apples were not checked for bruises, the
growers definitely felt that the mechanical apple box dumpers reduced the number
and average size of bruises.

The dumping operation is most efficient when the boxes are transported to
the dumpers by means o£ a roller convey jr. The enr" of the conveyor should be
close to and about an inch higher than the box holder platform so that the
operator can slide the box up to the platform. With the mechanical dumper and
conveyor, it is the \-n:iter's opinion that a v;oman can handle the job of dumping
the apples on the grader

---W. J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

-5-
RESULTS OF A PREHARVEST DROP CONTROL EXPERIMENT WITH McINTOSH APPLES

Since the failure of 2,4,5-TA to satisfactorily control preharveet drop of
Mcintosh in 1955 there has been much speculation concerning the future of this
material ,_ Consequently, additional attempts were made in both 1956 and 1957 to
compare 2,4,5-TA with other materials or their combinations to determine whether
or not failure of 2,4,5-TA in 1955 was just a chance happening. Ofcourse, extent
of fruit ripening from stop-drop hormones must be considered, also.

In 1956 we had a moderate crop plus a cool, late growing season and fruit
drop was of minor importance. All materials were reasonably effective. However,
two applications of 20 ppm of NAA gave somewhat better drop control than one
application of 2,4,5-TA. Neither treatment had any appreciable influence on
fruit ripening in 1956.

This fall, with a large crop and a very dry year it seemed likely that a
much heavier drop of Mcintosh might be expected than occurred in 1956. Conse-
quently, a stop-drop test was set-up in the hope of getting additional comparisons
among materials. In Table I are data obtained from our 1957 experiments.

Table I. The influence of several materials on the rate of preharvest fruit

drop of Mcintosh apples. 1957

Date Av. Cumulative Percentage of Drop Ave. Flesh

Treatment*

Appl.

9/9

9/13

9/18

9/20

9/23

9/27

Firmness (lbs.

1. Check

.9

5.2

16.9

20.8

27.0

31.5

15,1

2, NAA -20

NAA -20

ppm
ppm

9/6
9/18

.3

1.1

5.4

7.7

9.7

10.9

15.2

3. NAA -20
2,4,5-TP-'20

ppm
ppm

9/6
9/18

.5

1.6

6.7

10.0

15.4

16.8

15.0

4.2,4,5-TP-20

ppm

9/6

.7

2.6

7.1

8.3

10.9

12.9

13.9

5. 2,4,5-TA- 20

ppm

9/6

.4

2.7

11.5

13.8

17.8

20.3

14.8

6. 2,4,5-TA- 20 ppm ♦
Tween 20- (4 oz/100 gals)

9/6

.8

3.3

9.2

10.6

13.0

14.6

14.0

7. 2,4,5-TAA-20 ppm

9/6

.8

4.6

10.5

11.4

12.9

14.0

12,3

"I trees per treatment
Av, yield per tree - 37,8 boxes.

From the data presented it appears that 2 applications of NAA at 20 ppm
(treatment 2) will give as good or better control of drop than any other material
or combination of materials tested. Treatment 2 was also about twice as effec-
tive as 2,4,5-TA over a 3 week period. Use of Tween 20 as a wetting and penetra-
ting agent seems to increase the ability of 2,4,5-TA (treatment 6) to control
drop but appreciably increases the ripening influence of the compound.

-6-

On the basis of the work in 1955, 1956 and 1957 it seems that the most
reliable suggestion we now have for preharvest drop control of Mcintosh apples,
for a 3 week period and with a minimum amount of fruit ripening, is 2 applications
of NAA at 20 ppm.

F. W. Southwick

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

USE OF MATERIALS OUTSTANDING IN 1957 CA CONSTRUCTION

CA storages constructed in Massachusetts this year were built with a variety of
materials. Growers and construction men have demonstrated considerable ability
in the utilization of different materials to suit the particular problem at hand,
and still keep costs dox^n. In many cases the materials going into the structural
elements, the insulation, the vapor barrier, and the gas seal have been integrated
in a unique way.

Most rooms satisfied the pressure-relaxation test (1" AQ\rci to .1" water
gage in not less than 30 minutes) and all have successfully come down to 37, oxygen
in good time. The majority of the rooms came down in about 12 days. Some of the
tightest rooms ever built in this state were built this year.

Of course, the best all around materials for use in CA construction have yet
to be found. The case, at the present time, is to employ the materials most
adaptable to the type of construction being used. IThether the structural frame
is steel, wood, or masonry determines what type of vapor barrier, gas seal, and
insulation can be used to the best advantage.

A close look at the materials in the catagories of structural frame; in-
sulation; and vapor barriers and gas seals, illustrates the wide variety to be
found. Of the nine different storage sites where CA rooms were built, 3 were
conversions from regular refrigerated fruit storage to CA and 6 were new CA
construction. The 3 converted rooms used an aluminum foil - sisal kraft paper
("brownskin") , or an asphalt emulsion reinforced with fiber glass net for the gas
seal. Of the 6 new rooms, 4 used masonry construction, 1 wood, and 1 steel. In
these 6 new rooms, 4 utilized rigid block type insulation, 1 blanket insulation
and 1 fill insulation. Gas seals in the 6 new rooms were: plastic coated plywood
entirely on 2 rooms, and partially on 1 room; asphalt emulsion reinforced with
fiber glass net partially on h- rooirs; and sheet metal partially on 2 rooms. The
partial catagories mentioned above mean that more than one type of material was
used to seal a room. This xcas also true of insulation. The block type of
insulation can be used efficiently with steel and masonry side walls, whereas
the fill type insulation gives greater economy and ease of installation in
ceilings.

As the specific functional requirements of the structure, the insulation,
and the gas seal become better understood, it can be expected that materials
will be used even more effectively in the future, resulting in greater economy
and reliability in CA construction.

J. W. Zahradnik

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

-7-

WIL\T IS A SEMI-WARF APPLE TREE?

The answer to this question is not so simple as it first appears. To some
people it may mean a tree propagated on any of the East Mailing rootstocks, to
others it may mean a tree propagated on a specific stock such as East Mailing VII,
while there are still others who think of a semi-dwarf tree as one which has an
interstock of one of the East Mailing rootstocks. One can readily see that tree
performance can not be the same for the three catagories and that a state of
confusion exists in regard to terminology with respect to semi-dwarf trees.

In order to have an idea as to what constitutes a semi-dwarf tree, one must
first have an understanding of the East Mailing rootstocks. This series of East
Mailing rootstocks, usually shortened to "EM rootstocks," is identified by Roman
numerals rather than by name. These stocks differ from seedling stocks in that
they are propagated by layering or cuttings rather than from seeds. EM stocks
are clones or rootstock varieties and each stock originated from a single indi-
vidual the same as the Mcintosh variety originated from a single individual.
The degree of tree vigor which EM stocks will produce depends on which numbered
stock we choose; it ranges all the way from very dwarf, semi-dwarf, vigorous to
very vigorous. For example, EM IX produces a very dwarf tree; VII a semi-dwarf
tree; XIII a vigorous tree and XII a very vigorous tree. The degree of dwarfing
which a given rootstock will produce also depends on the variety which is prop-
agated on it. Vigorous varieties will not have their growth restricted so much
by a semi-dwarfing stock as will weak varieties. A weak growing variety may have
its growth restricted too much by EM VII while a vigorous variety may have its
growth controlled to the desired size.

Another method of controlling tree size is by the use of an interstock of
one of the EM very dwarfing stocks such as EM VIII or IX. This method consists
of inserting a short stem piece of EM VIII or IX between the seedling rootstock
and the scion variety. The degree of dwarfing obtained by this method depends
upon the length of the stem piece and EM stock used for the stem piece. Trees
which are produced in this manner will be larger than trees which are budded
directly to the rootstock used as the stem piece. For example, if EM VIII is
used as an interstock the trees will be somewhat larger than trees which are
grown directly on EM VIII roots; similarly, if EM VII or II is used as the
interstock the trees will be larger than trees on EM VII or II roots. In other
words, trees produced by the interstock method are not identical with trees grown
directly on a given EM stock.

In light of this discussion it should be apparent that the terms dwarf and
semi-dwarf have very little meaning, unless the variety, rootstock and method of
propagation are stated. The following method of designation, such as Mcintosh/
EM VII, and Mclntosh/EM IX/domestic seedling root, is suggested as a means of avoid-
ing the confusion regarding dwarf and semi-dwarf trees. McIntosh/EM VII signifies
a Mcintosh scion on an East Mailing VII rootstock, while Mclntosh/EM IX/domestic
seedling indicates a tree which comprises a Mcintosh scion with an intermediate
stem piece of East Mailing IX on a domestic seedling root. If nurseryraen would
adopt this method of designation in their catalogue listings and fruit growers
would place their tree orders on this basis, then the grower would be more likely
to get the kind of tree he wants.

W. D. Weeks

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FURTHER INFORMATION CONCERNING THE SALE AND SHIPMENT OF CA APPLES IN
NEIJ YORIx STATE

In the September 1957 issue of Fruit Notes is a copy of the recent New York
State Law concerning the sale of controlled atmosphere stored fruit and vegetables
in that State, We have recently received rules and regulations in respect to this
law from the Department of Agriculture and Markets, State of New York, Albany, N.Y.
Rather than attempt to interpret these instructions, for those of you interested
in CA apples, a copy of them follows:

STATE OF NEW YORIC
DEPART14ENT OF AGRICULTURE AND MARKETS

I, DANIEL J. CAREY, Commissioner of Agriculture and Markets of the State of
New York, having held a public hearing at the City of Albany, New York, on the
28th day of August, 1957 to consider the adoption and promulgation of Rules and
Regulations Relating to the Use of the Term "CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE" and other
Words of Similar Import when Applied to Fruits and Vegetables, and proof having
been received at such public hearing, and due deliberation having been hand, now,
therefore, pursuant to the authority conferred upon me by Sections 18 and 156-f
of the Agriculture and Markets Law to supplement and give full effect to the
provisions of Article 12-A of the Agriculture and Markets Law relative to the
Grading of Farm Products, and particularly to Section 156-dd thereof relating to
Controlled Atmosphere, do hereby adopt and promulgate the following Rules and
Regulations, viz:

1. Definitions: "Commissioner" means the Commissioner of Agriculture and
Markets of the State of New York.

"Department" means the Department of Agriculture and Markets.

"Person" means any individual, corporation, partnership, association or
other organized group or persons, or any business entity, by whatever name desig-
nated and whether or not incorporated.

2. The following rules and regulations apply only to rooms or storage build-
ings containing apples.

3. Any person owning or operating a controlled atmosphere room or storage
building or packers or repackers of apples coming under the provisions of the
Section shall register with the commissioner on a form prescribed by the commis-
sioner. The registration period shall commence on August 1 and end on July 31 of
each year. Owners or operators of such a room or storage building shall register
on or before August 1 of each year except the registration period for apples
grown in 1957 shall commence on November 1, 1957 and end on July 31, 1958.

The Commissioner shall assign each approved registrant a registration number
preceded by the letters CA. This number shall be marked on all containers coming
under the provisions of this Section and shall be in accordance with all provisions
pertaining to markings as set forth in any Article of the Agriculture and Markets
Laws.

4. Each owner or operator shall make the required air components determinations
daily. The percent of oxygen shall be reduced to five percent within twenty (20)
days after date of sealing.

5. Records: Each oxmer or operator shall maintain a record for each room on
an approved form or forms. It shall include o^mer or operator's name and address,
room number, date of sealing, date of opening, capacity in bushels, lot identifi-
cation, number of bushels within each lot, daily air constituents determination
recordings showing date of test, time of test^ percentage of carbon dioxide, per-
centage of carbon dioxide and oxygen, percentage of oxygen, temperature and
comments .

Any person selling, offering for sale or transporting for sale within this
State apples coming under the provisions of this Section shall furnish an invoice
covering the sale of such apples. Each invoice shall indicate the CA registration
number assigned to the o^^mer or owners of the controlled atmosphere room or storage
building in which each lot or lots of apples included thereon were kept. Each
invoice shall also include the CA number required to be marked on each container
within each lot of lots of apples included thereon.

Each owner or operator shall submit to the Department, within twenty days
after date of sealing, a report in writing, for each room showing room number,
date of sealing and number of bushels contained therein.

6. These rules and regulations shall become effective on the 15th day
of October, 1957.

SEAL

Dated and Sealed at the
City of Albany, New York
this 7th day of October, 1957

S/ Daniel J. Carey

DANIEL J. CAREY, Commissioner of
Agriculture and Markets of the
State of New York.

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

■F. W. Southwick

CIDER NOTES

Containers

A change appears to be in the making insofar as cider containers are
concerned. The new two quart (half gallon) paper container is finding wide
acceptance, especially the certified carton. Customers remark on the ease of
handling, less room required in the refrigerator, and its cleanliness. A
point that has also been brought out is that children can pour their own,
rather than wait for parents to lift the gallon jug.

Operators like it as it does away with washing, label removal and the
discarding of non-food jugs that are turned in.

* Be sure you store paper containers so that dust and dirt do not fall
into the empty container,

* If you use a twin-pak handle, be sure the staples are well clinched
and properly placed — mine wasn't', II

* Rotate your stock in the display area so no old cider is sold.

•10-

Apples

In visits this fall to mills, apple quality has been good. Be sure your
cider apples are clean and sound throughout the season.

It only takes one rotten apple to alter the flavor and lower the quality
of the whole pressing. Keeping quality is reflected directly by the type apples
used.

Equipment and Cleaning

During cleanup pay special attention to the grinder and the pulp holding
box below the grinder. Hose it down immediately, scrub with a brush and
detergent-sanitizer, then hose again. Final step - inspectl

Plastic linings for tanks and other portions of the press are available.
The cost is less than stainless, but I feel the life will be less also. Look
over both before purchasing. Either one will cut down on cleanup time and
improve not only your sanitation program but the looks of the press.

Cider Quality and Flavor

On flavor - use two or more varieties of apples for your cider, but be sure
they add to the overall quality. A mixture of Mcintosh, Baldwin and Northern
Spy will please your customers, but some Delicious, Mcintosh and Ben Davis
won't go over quite so well.

Be sure to use your apples before they become mealy and overmature -
yield is lower and so is flavor.

Final Thought

One good thing about always telling the truth is that you don't have to
remember what you saidi

— Kirby M, Hayes
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FERTILIZING CULTIVATED BLUEBERRIES

It has been reported that blueberry bushes have been injured as a result
of using the amounts of fertilizer suggested in Pomology Sheet No. 2 which has
been included at the end of this article. The injury appears to have occurred
because the amounts given were used as a ring application. The table was not
intended to be used in this way. "Pounds per acre" in that table means pounds to
be distributed evenly over an entire acre, 43,560 square feet. If the fertilizer
is applied as a ring or row application, then the amount should be reduced so as
to keep the rate constant.

Around blueberry bushes the use of ring applications of a readily soluble
fertilizer like nitrogen is a risky practice unless one knows how to do it
correctly. The roots of the blueberry bush are usually very near the soil
surface and, therefore, subject to injury by improper or careless use of

-11-

fertilizer. It is very easy to apply the fertilizer in too narrow a band and
concentrate it to such an extent that injury results. Young bushes are espec-
ially susceptible to this sort of injury. Therefore, when fertilizer is applied
to young bushes, it should be applied just beyond the root zone rather than right
over it. Fertilizing a strip or band down the rows is much safer, faster, and
easier than ring applications. The fertilizer can be broadcast along the row,
thus avoiding the danger of concentrating in spots over the roots.

In Pomology Sheet No. 2 it is suggested that the fertilizer application
be split, half being applied in the early spring before bloom and the other
lialf about June 1. There were several reasons for this. Splitting the appli-
cation would give a better distribution of nitrogen available to the plants
during the early part of the season. The June application would give the bushes
a push just as fruit starts to ripen. Where high rates of nitrogen are used,
splitting the application would ordinarily be less likely to result in injury.

Weather can have a very marked role in this practice of split applications.
If there is a prolonged drought in late spring so that the soil becomes very
dry, as happened in 1957, an application of fertilizer during the dry period
might be risky. If the application is followed by just enough rain to put the
fertilizer into solution, the soil solution might become concentrated enough
to cause considerable root injury. Under dry conditions it might be better to
reduce the amount of fertilizer or even omit it altogether, unless irrigation
equipment can be used to thoroughly wet the soil.

It is obviously impossible to give directions which will satisfy the needs
of every blueberry field. Nor can specific directions or qualifying statements
be given in the limited space of a single page. It was for these reasons that
the following statements appear in Pomology Sheet No. 2: "The amounts are

suggested ". "The amounts used should be based on the size, vigor and

productiveness of the bushes". "The quantities recommended should be increased
or decreased as experience indicates". In other words, the table is just a
starting point. The amount actually givm should be adjusted to the needs of the
bushes.

Pomology Sheet No. 2

FERTILIZER APPLICATIONS

FOR

CULTIVATED BLUEBERRIES

Years

Annual App

lication o

if Fertilizer

For 10

after

Pound J

i per

acre

bushes

Plants

10-10-10

Combinat

lion

7-7-7

5-8-7

(pounds)

are set

10-

•10-10

Su]

..Am.

Sul.Am.

5-8-7

0
1
2
3
4
5

100
200
300
400

550

700

100
200
200
200
250
350

50
100

150

175

200
275
350

145
270
430
570
610
1000

200
400
600
800
1100
1400

1-3/4
3%
5%
7

10
12-3/4

Other fertilizer mixtures may be as good as those listed. The amounts in the
table are suggested for an overall, broadcast application. If the entire area is
not covered, the amount applied should be adjusted accordingly. The amount used
should be based on the size, vigor and productiveness of the bushes. Where fields

-12-

are in heavy sod or have been recently mulched with shavings, sawdust or other woody
material, it is usually desirable to increase the nitrogen 50-100 percent.

In column 1, 0 indicates the year the plants are set. At this time soluble
nitrogen carelessly used can injure the plant. Wait until the plants are estab-
lished, about June 1, to apply the fertilizer. Spread it out well around the
plants on a clear, dry day.

10-10-10 (column 2) is rapidly becoming a standard formula. The quantities
recommended should be increased or decreased as experience indicates. It may be
desirable the second or third year to split the application - half before bloom
and half about June 1,

In columns 3 and 4 is given a combination of 10-10-10 to be applied in
April and sulfate of ammonia to be applied June 1. Sulfate of ammonia, containing
20 percent nitrogen, is too strong for very young plants and replaces only 1/3 of
the nitrogen 2 yrs. after planting. Thereafter it can replace more.

The sulfate of ammonia only program in column 5 is for older bushes and for
those which have been receiving liberal amounts of complete fertilizer. Since
blueberries probably need all the elements, it is advisable to use an application
of complete fertilizer every third or fourth year.

Column 6 gives the amount of 7-7-7 fertilizer which would be required to
give the same amount of nitrogen as the 10-10-10 mixture.

Column 7 gives the amount of 5-8-7, 5-10-5, 5-10-10, or any other fertilizer
containing 5 percent nitrogen, required to give the same amount of nitrogen as the
10-10-10 mixture.

The last column reduces the quantities in column 7 to amounts suitable for
10 bushes.

John S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FR

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

What is an Orchard Worth?
Blueberries - A Look Ahead
Newer Fruit Varieties Worthy of Trio I
A Puritan Goes to Denmark
Strawberry Variety Trials - 1957
Cyclamen Mite - A Pest of Strawberries
Prevention of Deer Damage with Fencing

JANUARY 15, 1958

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean ana Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 19 14; University of Massachusetts. United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No, 19.

YOUR POMOLOGY STAFF

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematic
Pomology.

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham.
Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums. Mr.
Bailey also does considerable Extension work with growers of small
fruit.

French, Arthur P. - Head, Department of Horticulture

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers" problems, other than pest control,
and does research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C. Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses.
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, Franklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, prehaxrvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also teaches in
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to This Issue from Supporting Fields
Lawrence D, Rhoades, Extension Specialist in Farm Management
Ellsworth H. Wheeler, Extension Entomologist

WHAT IS AN ORCHARD WORTH?

The drastic changes in the fruit industry over the past 15 years and the takinR
of land for public use have made the pr<->^lem of orchard valuation of interest: to
orchard operators. The statement has been made that orchard owners have no basis
of determining value. This statement in itself is suspect since all property has
some value to someone although value may be lower or higher depending on circum-
stances.

There are two general problems and they are:

(1) The problem of determining value to set a sales price.

(2) The problem of determining value under condemnation or land taking
for public use.

The problem of determining a value for the purpose of a sales price is usually
a matter for an appraisal either by the owner, his representative or by a trained
appraiser. An appraisal is always an opinion. An appraisal by a trained and
experienced appraiser is usually a composite based on observation of the property
in its present condition and experience of the appraiser. It frequently is a
COTiposite of many opinions on parts of the farm and its setting.

The value of an orchard is determined by the production after development and
the cost of maintaining that production. Any orchard will be in one of three
conditions:

(1) A developing orchard - on the way up in production.

(2) A producing orchard - in full production.

(3) A declining orchard - going down in production.

When reaching a value for a developing orchard it is necessary to determine
whether development can continue until the orchard is a producing one. If this
seems likely then there are some requirements for a successful orchard:

(1) The soil is important and it should be suitable for the varieties
being grown as well as the type of fruit - apple - peach - pear.

(2) The orchard should be located in a fruit area where there are other
successful orchards,

(3) Markets should be established,

(4) Some plan for replacement should be indicated,

(5) Hazards of climate, drainage and requirements for irrigation should
be minimum.

(6) Wild '"rees, abandoned orchards and other pest and disease sources
should be few and control of orchard damaging animals should be
established.

(7) Spacing and planting distances and varieties should meet accepted
standards for the area.

(8) Orchard layout should permit use of labor saving equipment in orchard
care, spraying and harvesting.

(9) Tree growth should be vigorous and evidence of good care should be
present.

-2-

A producing orchard should meet all of the above tests plus having a record
of high yields annually.

A declining orchard presents some additional problems. The property may have
value for other uses. In this case the suitability of the soils for other crops
becomes important and the cost of converting the orchard site for other uses becomes
an item. If the reduced yields represent the start of a rather long period of
declining yields, yield levels may still be such that continued operation is in-
dicated and possible rehabilitation may be a consideration.

It is important in arriving at a value for a sales price to deteirmine the
stage of the orchard and then proceed to place a value on it by using all three
of the generally accepted methods of determining value.

(1) Values based on net income capitalization or "earning value."

(2) Values based on comparison with other property which has changed
hands or where values have been established.

(3) Value based on reproduction cost.

Usually a sound answer to the question 'What is my orchard worth?' can be
reached by considering all three of these and balancing them against each other to
determine a basic value. The actual sales value would then be adjusted by compari-
son with sales prices of similar properties in the area.

The American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers have defined
Present Market Value as follows:

"It is the price at which, within a reasonable time and with a substantial
down payment, the property may be expected to change hands from a willing, able
and informed seller to a desirous, able and informed purchaser."

The problem of determining value under condemnation or land taking for public
use is somewhat different from that of determining value for a sales price or
present market value.

Taking private property for public use upon payment of just compensation is
condemnation. The legal basis is called the "right of eminent domain." Under this
procedure the people or the government take private property for public use when
public needs cannot be provided for in some other manner.

The requirement that no person shall be deprived of private property without
just compensation is a part of the "right of eminent domain." The courts by their
decisions have varied in just what is "just compensation."

Under the "right of eminent domain" it follows that the injured party who is
entitled to "just compensation" has the responsibility of deteirmining values. The
fact that the owner prefers the particular property to scrne other does not mean
that he is thereby entitled to additional compensation. Legal precedent and usage
have tended to favor the property owner.

In general, courts have held that market value is the gui(fe to be followed in
determining awards and further, again in general, the measure to be used in deter-
mining damages in condemnation cases is market value.

-3-

The courts have defined market value in these terms quite generally:

Market value is the highest price, estimated in terms of money, which the pro-
perty will bring, if exposed for sale in the open market, with a reasonable time
allowed to find a purchaser buying with knowledge of all uses and purposes to which
it is best adapted, and for which it is capable of being used.

In some instances the term "fair market value" is used and then is defined as
a situation where the sale can be made for cash or terms equivalent to cash, at a
price agreed on by an informed seller willing but not obliged to sell to an informed
buyer willing but not obliged to buy.

The attempt frequently made to value property taken under eminent domain or
for that matter in attempting to arrive at a sales price by valuing the property
by units and adding the unit values to get a value for the property, is likely to
be very misleading. It is a good deal like trying to arrive at the value of a
used car by placing values separately on the motor, the wheels, the tires, etc.
and then adding the unit values together. The value needs to be determined for the
whole property and it is the loss in value of the whole property as a result of the
condemnation or partial sale, that needs to be determined.

---Lawrence D. Rhoades
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

BLUEBERRIES - A Look Ahead

Those who are familiar with the history of the blueberry industry know that
much of the breeding work has been done by workers in the U.S.D.A. Following
the retirement of Dr. F. V. Coville, Dr. G. M, Darrow took charge of the blue-
berry work and continued Dr. Coville' s breeding program. Recently, Dr. Darrow
also retired. Nevertheless, he continues to maintain a very active interest in
what is going on. A recent letter from him contains some information of consider-
able interest and importance.

Quoting Dr. Darrow, "This year I saw beautiful ripe blueberries out of doors
in mid-April at the University of Florida, resulting from Prof. Sharpes work.
There is no doubt that an industry based on high flavored, light blue varieties
can furnish fine fruit for the markets in April and May. Then at Jonesboro,
Maine crosses of the Ashworth from north of the Adirondacks with Earliblue and
with Bluecrop were perfectly hardy, and Dr. Whitton there is doing a fine job.
Use of low temperature hardy Ashworth and frost-resistant Bluecrop in breeding
should insure varieties giving regular crops throughout New England."

Many fine selections resulting from Dr. Darrow' s breeding work are under
test in fields of private growers in Massachusetts, Michigan, and New Jersey,
In the near future, these should furnish a whole series of excellent varieties
tailored to meet almost any market demand.

—John S. Bailey
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

-4-

NE^'JER FRUIT VARIETIES WORTHY CF TRIAL

The following report briefly describes the newer fruit varieties under test
in the University plantings that are worthy of trial by coimnercial growers and
home gardeners.

These notes should be considered as supplementary information on varieties
recommended for planting in Massachusetts as given in Extension Service Special
Circulars #212-A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H which are available from your County
Agent or the Mailing Room, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.

APPLE

Red Melba - A red sport of Melba which is superior in color. Good quality for an
early apple. Season early August. Recommended for commercial planting where an
early variety is desired.

Puritan - A Mcintosh x Red Astrachan cross which was made by Professor Sears at the
University of Massachusetts about 1929. It is a handsome well colored red apple
which ripens just ahead of Early Mcintosh. Fruit quality is good for an early
apple. The tree is hardy and vigorous but has a tendency toward biennial bearing.
It will pollinate Mcintosh. Puritan is being widely planted in Massachusetts.
Growers who have it in production have been more than pleased with its performance
and the prices it commands. Puritan is worthy of extensive trial.

Spartan - A Mcintosh x Newton seedling from British Columbia. It is an attractive
dark red apple with Mcintosh shape and quality. Spartan retains quality in storage
much better and longer than Mcintosh. The fruit may have a tendency Co be small.
The tree is a vigorous Mcintosh type. Harvest season is late September. It will
pollinate Mcintosh. Spartan shows great promise as a variety to extend the Mcintosh
season and should be givai serious consideration for future plantings.

I dared - A promising Wagener x Jonathan cross from Idaho. The fruit has an attract-
ive bright red finish. Fruit quality good but somewhat on the mild side. It has
a long storage season. Harvest season is early October. Idared is one of the
more promising late keeping dessert and general purpose apples.

Melrose - A high quality winter apple introduced by the Ohio Experiment Station.
Melrose is a Jonathan x Delicious cross. The fruit is well colored, hai. good
size and shape. It may develop some russeting unless gxven a mild spray program.
The fruit has excellent dessert and cooking qualities and a long storage season.
The tree is productive, has good structure, and is annual. Harvest season mid-
October. Melrose is cross incompatible with Delicious but will pollenize other
varieties. Melrose shows much promise as a replacement for Baldwin, It should
be given extensive trial.

-— W. D. Weeks

PEACH

SUNRISE - An early, attractive, medium size yellow peach which ripens a few days
ahead of Early East. Fruit quality varies with season, but fairly good for an

-5-

early peach. A clingstone unless fully ripe. Suggested for limited trial where
an early peach is desired.

EARLY EAST - A rather attractive good sized yellow peach. Fair quality, semi-
cling, somewhat irregular in shape. Early East ripens about 10 days ahead of
Golden Jubilee. Suggested for limited trial.

PRAIRIE DAWN - An attractive yellow fleshed freestone peach which ripens just after
Jersey land. Fruit juicy and good quality. Bud hardiness above average. Worthy
of trial.

HALE HARRISON BRILLIANT - A large yellow fleshed freestone which ripens 3 to 4
days before Elberta. It is better quality than Elberta and is worthy of trial.

- — W. D. Weeks

PEARS

ALEXANDER LUCAS - An attractive French winter pear which is large, yellow with
a blush and good quality. Its season is late fall and early winter.

CHAPIN - A seedling of Seckel which resembles Seckel in general characteristics
but ripens nearly a month before Seckel. It is very sweet and excellent in
quality.

EWART - A large greenish yellow pear netted with russet and has a fine, melting,
tender, juicy flesh. The season is a month later than Bartlett.

GORHAM - Fruit resembles Bartlett in size, color, and shape. Ripens two weeks
later than Bartlett and keeps a month longer. The quality is good to excellent.
This variety is particularly recommended for dessert and canning.

RED BARTLETT - A sport of Bartlett which resembles Bartlett in every respect
except color which is red rather than yellow.

"-0. G. Roberts

RED RASPBERRY

EARLY RED - Originated at South Haven, Michigan as a cross between Lloyd George
and Cuthbert. In season it ripens with Chief but has larger and somewhat better
flavored fruit which is bright red. The canes are only moderately winter hardy
and are moderately susceptible to spur blight. Worthy of limited trial where a
berry of this season is desired.

MUSKUCA - This midseason variety originated at Ottawa, Canada as a cross between
NevTman 23 and Herbert. The fruit is medium size, light red, moderately firm and
fairly good quality. Reported as extremely winter hardy in Canada, Winter
killed 507o here in 1955-56 but only 20% in 1956-57.

PUYALLUP - Originated at Puyallup, Washington as a cross between Washington and
Taylor. In season it appears to be about with Latham. Its fruit is rather large,
firm, medium red, conic shape, with a distinctive flavor and very good quality.
The last two winters it has shown somewhat more winter injury than Milton which
is a bit too much for comfort «

-6-

Other new reds under test include Canby, Crimson Cone and New Hampshire.
However, these plantings are still too young for even a preliminary evaluation
of their fruit and plant characteristics.

Lack of sufficient winter hardiness of the canes continues to be the great-
est weakness of most of the newer red raspberry introductions.

•A. P. French

STRAWBERRIES

Armore - (Blakemore x Aroma) This University of Missouri introduction looks
very promising. The plant is very vigorous and forms many runners. The fruit
is large, firm and of fine flavor. Armore falls short in fruit appearance and
is not resistant to red stele.

Blaze - An introduction of the New Hampshire Experiment Station, The plants are
vigorous and produce a moderate number of runners. The fruits are large, light
in color with white centers, fair in firmness and good quality. Blaze j^ not
resistant to red stele, but is worthy of trial where this disorder is not present.

Ear li dawn - (Midland x Tennessee Shipper) This U.S.D.A. introduction has been
the earliest ripening variety in our trials the past two years. The plants are
productive, of moderate vigor and form a satisfactory number of runner plants.
The fruit is of medium size, firm, tart and of fair to good quality. Earlidawn
is susceptible to the common strain of red stele but may be of value where red
stele is not a factor, because of its earliness.

Pot-o-Rold - Introduced by E. A. Wright of Plympton, Massachusetts. The plants
are tali, vigorous and produce a fair number of runners. The fruit is large, firm,
attractive and good to very good quality. The seeds are hard and prominent. The
yield of Pot-o-gold was rather disappointing in 1957 but it appears to merit further
testing as a late ripening variety.

Redglow - (Fairland x Tennessee Shipper) A U.S.D.A, introduction for the midseason.
The plants are tall, vigorous and produce numerous runners. The fruits are
attractive, of medium to large size and of good quality. Redglow is resistant to
the common strain of red stele but is susceptible to mildew.

Surecrop - (Fairland x Md. U.S. 1972) An introduction of the U.S.D.A. and the
Maryland Experiment Station. The plants are tall, vigorous and produce numerous
runners. The fruit is of medium size, attractive and of good quality though
tart. Surecrop show promise where red stele is a problem.

Several of the newer varieties were quite disappointing this past season.
Phelps. Orland and Redstar all showed very poor vigor and low yields. Crimson
Flash, probably identical with Midland, lacked the vigor and production of
the virus-free Midland

J. F. Anderson

-7-

BLUEBEEIRY VARIETIES

The most important question varietywise that growers must answer is "shall
I plant any of the 'Big Six'?" We have been recommending them for trial and a few
growers are trying them, but plantings are still not extensive. However, as a
group, they look more promising all the time.

Earliblue is the best early variety produced so far. It will be a good
replacement for Weymouth, Cabot and June.

Ivanhoe was one of the original "Big Six". It is a second early to follow
Earliblue. When it was introduced, it was recommended for North Carolina and
suggested for trial farther north. At the Cranberry Station it has never been
overly vigorous and crops have been light. One grower in a very favorable sit-
uation has been fairly successful with it. Its value in Massachusetts is
questionable, especially since the introduction of Blueray.

Blueray was introduced in October 1955. Only a few trial plantings have
been made in Massachusetts. The berries are very large, attractive and fine
flavored. Its outstanding characteristic is frost resistance. This character
alone should make it worthy of extensive trial. It ripens in Ivanhoe season
and will probably replace that variety.

Bluecrop produces very large, attractive, light blue, fine flavored berries.
Where it has been tried, it appears to be a heavy producer.

Berkeley looks better all the time. The berries are very large, attractive
and mild flavored. The bush is vigorous and productive. This variety has un-
usually good consumer acceptance because of its mild flavor which more nearly
resembles that of the native wild lowbush berries so dear to the New Englander's
heart .

Herbert produces extremely large berries which are somewhat flattened and
tend to be slightly five sides. The bush is turning out to be more upright and
vigorous than first trials indicated.

Coville is slowly gaining in grower favor. The bush is vigorous and pro-
ductive. The fruit is large and medium blue. The main objection has been its
tartness. Since the berries hang to the bush well, this objection can be over-
come by leaving the berries on the bush till they are thoroughly ripe. When
this is done the tartness disappears and the berries have an uausually fine
flavor. Growers who have tried leaving them on the bush report that consumers
come back and want more of them.

One grower, who likes to experiment, is trying Murphy and Wolcott, These
two varieties together with Angola were introduced for use in North Carolina
because of their resistance to stem canker. It is doubtful if they will be of
much value in Massachusetts.

J, S, Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

A PURITAN GOES TO DENI-IARK

In 1954 Puritan scions were sent to Count F. M, Knuth of Bandholm Denmark.
This last September we received a letter and colored photograph of Puritan from
the Count. He is very much impressed with the performance of Puritan to-date.
If the performance of Puritan can be judged by the colored photograph which he
sent uSj there is no doubt that the variety has given an excellent account of
itself. The size and color of the fruit of Puritan was "wonderful" to quote
the Count, He also commented, "I was rather confident that a variety of
Massachusetts origin would beccme a success."

W. D. Weeks

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

STRAWBERRY VARIETY TRIALS - 1957

The following table lists, in order of earliness, several of the strawberry
varieties which were fruited in the University variety trials last summer.

Season of Ripening and Yield

Variety

7o
Early

Late

Season
Classification

Gale. Yield
Quarts per Acre

Earlidawn

A7.4

13.8

Very early

Stelemaster

43.3

18.1

II II

Phelps

38.0

19.2

Early

Howard V,F.

37.2

17.5

II

Midland V.F.

37.0

18.2

II

Crimson Flash

37.0

25.4

II

Surecrop

28.4

23.9

Midseason

Redglow

22.8

22.4

II

Vermilion V.F.

22.2

29.4

.11

Fairland

21.6

30.2

It

Temple

21.2

31.9

II

Catskill V.F.

18.5

39.3

It

Fairfax V.F.

17.9

43.0

It

Empire V.F.

16.7

36.8

It

Robinson V.F.

13.0

41.0

Midlate

Maine 55

9.9

36.6

Midseason

Monmouth

7.0

30.5

II

Armor e V.F.

6.2

36.3

It

Blaze

4.8

49.6

Midlate

Or land

4.6

33.8

Midseason

Sparkle V.F,

4.1

57.9

Late

Pot-o-gold

3.0

47.3

Midlate

N.H.-F13

2.7

60.4

Very late

Redstar

.5

64,3

II II

Strafford

.0

78.2

II II

10172
5286
2335
5501
9588
3462
7713
6976
4794
8912
6668

12814
8912

10018

10479
6207
7713

11524

10325
4026

11032
4487
8297
3073
4978

Eleven pickings were made during the season. The "% early" column indicates
the percentage of the total crop of each variety which was harvested during the
first four pickings, June 7 through 14. Likewise, the "% late" column covers the
last four pickings, June 24 through July 8.

-9-

This proceJure lets us see just how much of the crop of each variety was
harvested in the first, middle or last third of the season and thereby provides
data by which to classify a variety as early, midseason, or late.

A. P. French

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

CYCLAIIEN MITE - A Pest of Strawberries

What is This Pest: It is a tiny mite, practically invisible to the naked eye,
much smaller than the common red spider or 2-spotted mite. It occurs on

many different plants both in the greenhouse and outside. It sucks juices
from the plant tissues.

Symptoms of Injury: Heavy infestations result in severe dwarfing and stunting.
Early symptoms are a wrinkled, deformed appearance of the new leaves. The
plants appear dense or crowded and the leaflets are held vertical rather
than horizontal because of the shorter stems. Finally some of the inner
leaves are killed outright- Crops are greatly reduced, worthless or lost
altogether.

Seasonal Development and Habits: Adult females overwinter in crevices between

the bases of leaf stems. Become active in spring but all active stages avoid
light and require a high humidity. They remain in unopened leaves in plant
crovms or between parts o^f leaves or flowers. Eggs, nearly as large as the
females, are laid singly but as many as 3 each day for several days. Eggs
hatch into larvae which feed, enter a "pupal" stage and then become adults.
At 70° F. an entire generation requires only about 14 days. Just a few
females on a plant when it is set can result in a heavy infestation before
the season ends or before fruiting. Dr. Boulanger of Maine reported finding
1500 active mites on 20 leaflets on his unsprayed plants.

How Introduced Into a Field: Cyclamen mites get into a field most commonly on
infested planting stock. Some infestations can be traced to movement from
nearby infested plants or weeds.

How Are They Spread: (1) By migration from mother to daughter plants or adja-
cent ones, (2) carried by birds and insects, (3) wind-borne, (4) carried
by workers in the fields.

Some Points Related to Control of Cyclamen Mite

Mites are in Protected Spots: Majority of the population remains within crown
in unfolded leaflets or other parts and inside sheaths at base of stems.
Hard to reach with a spray. Impossible to reach with dusts. Low-gallonage
and low pressure sprays probably will not be effective.

Many Common Miticides do not Kill Cyclamen Mite: Allen and associates in Cal-
ifornia tested over 50 chemicals 1952-56. Found only 3 to be really effec-
tive: endrin (available but cannot be used during bearing year except after
harvest); isodrin (not on the market); Thiodan (available for testing only).
A 4th, Kelthane is only fair to good in single applications but may be used
during fruit bearing year.

-10-

None of the organic phosphates (parathion, malathion, etc) or the systemic 8
(demeton, etc.) give effective control and in fact their use may result in
more trouble.

Control of Cyclamen Mite - Strawberries

On Plants in the non-bearing year: OBSERVE all SAFETY PRECAUTIONS when handling
or spraying with endrin. Do not use endrin on a fruiting bed except after
harvest.

Material: endrin - emulsifiable concentrate containing 1.6 lbs. active
ingredient per gallon PLUS a wetting agent.

How Much : 1 qt. per 100 gals, at 400 gals, per acre (or 1 gal. of con-
centrate per acre in from 300-500 gals.) PLUS excessive wetting
agent

How and I-fhen; Whenever an infestation is discovered or as a preventative -
spray, at 200 lbs. or more pressure, directly down into crowns of
plants. An excess of water and a wetting agent are essential to sat-
isfactory control

Repeat in 2 weeks in mid-summer, in 3 weeks when cooler.

Spring Treatment to Fruiting Bed, BEFORE BLOOM only:

Material; Kelthane - emulsifiable concentrate (EC) or wettable powder (WP)
PLUS a wetting agent.

How Much; 1 qt. Kelthane EC or 2 lbs. Kelthane WP per 100 gals, at 400

gallons per acre (or 1 gal. of EC or 8 lbs. WP per acre in from 300-500
gals.)

How and When: After growth starts but BEFORE fruit sets - spray at 200 lbs,
or more pressure directly down into crowns of plants. Use plenty of
water to obtain thorough drenching.

Repeat in 10-14 days - Kelthane is not harmful to pollinating insects.

E. H. Ivfheeler

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

PREVENTION OF DEER DAMAGE WITH FENCING

In many areas of Massachusetts growers planting young orchards are faced
with a problem of preventing deer damage. Many growers are afraid to prune
their young tree because of the follow-up pruning given by deer. The browsed
young trees are injured, delayed in coming into bearing and are poorly shaped.
However, the states north of us appear to have solved the problem of deer damage
in young orchards.

-11-

In Maine, whenever it is found impossible to keep deer from doing damage in
orchards, the Department of Inland Fisheries and Game may enter into an agreement
with the owner of the orchard whereby the Department may assume half the cost of
fencing the young orcliard. They supply fencing for young orchards only. Their
present policy is to provide the wire fence while the grower sets the posts,
provides the gates and strings the wire. It is the assumption of the Department
of Inland Fisheries and Game that providing the wire represents about lialf the
cost of the fencing job. It is felt that the program of supplying the fence for
the young orchards suffering deer damage has not been overly expensive, it is
thought that repellents will serve in some instances to prevent deer damage and
that their effectiveness depends upon the variety and supply of feed available to
deer as the seasons change. However, the only perfect repellent is wire fencing.
The Department of Inland Fisheries and Game feel that their law works well,
from both the standpoint of conservation of their deer herd and for the protection
of orchardists. In addition, they stated that they do not feel the cost of the
present program is unduly heavy and that in the final analysis sharing the cost of
fencing these orchards, in the Jong run, does save money for the state.

The State of New Hampshire Fish and Game Department supplies six foot graduated
stock wire to growers setting out orchards in areas having high deer population,
Mr. James W. Alger, Game Damage Adjuster of the State of New Hampshire Fish and
Game Department states that a total tree loss by deer browsing or horning could
run to a figure where in two years the fencing will pay for its initial investment.
He believes that the fencing, properly maintained will last twenty years, Mr, Alger
states that the fencing program is of great value from the standpoint of grower
attitude, for the fenced-in young orchards grow normally and no loss of tree
growth is experienced due to set backs by deer browsing or horning. In addition,
trees are often injured so severely that replanting is necessary.

He cites a case where 700 young trees were set out in June 1956, and the
delivery of 30 rolls of wire was slower than they anticipated. As a result, deer
damage was done between June and September which called for a damage payment of
$250. In this case if the damage were to persist for another year at the same
rate, with the orchard unfenced, it would cost the state $500. However, the
wire cost the state $420. and they are free of any future claims. Under the laws
in the State of New Hampshire Fencing Program no damages are paid on the fenced
areas.

Mr. Earl W. Young, a fruit grower in Temple, New Hampshire, has had a deer
fence around his orchard for nine or ten years and thus far it has been 100%
effective. It is a six foot woven wire fence which was set into a stone
wall surrounding his orchard. Mr, Young stated that the posts set into the stone
wall have held up well but posts set into the ground had to be replaced in three
years with cedar posts. The original posts wc-e pine. He states also that the
only trouble experienced is with hunters that will not go around but climb over
the fence breaking posts.

Mr. G. A, Morison, Upland Farm, Inc., Peterboro, New Hampshire, states that
his deer fence is a four- foot woven game fence, with small mesh at the bottom
gradually widening to about six inches at the top, and above this are three
strands of barbed wire making the entire fence eight feet high. This fence is
strung on pine or spruce posts. The fence has been very satisfactory and only
once has Mr. Morison seen a deer in the orchards that was so fenced. He said,
"This was a young doe, and from the tracks and hair left on one of the barbs,
she jumped through the lower and middle strand of barbed wire, the space being
16 inches wide and the lower wire 5»4" above the ground, so she was some jumper,"

-12-

Mr. Morison feels that after the trees are 10 to 12 years old it is perfectly safe
to remove the fence,

Mr. Robert B. Farnum, Concord, New Hampshire, states, "Up in this country it
is impossible to raise a young orchard without a fence. To date we have the
entire orchard fenced with about 2 miles of wire. Our latest method has been
to go into the woods around the edge of the orchard, cut a path and use the
standing trees for posts. The fence is not straight but it saves the time of
digging post holes and setting posts; also your posts don't rot off. There is
danger of the wind blowing down trees over your fence and breaking down the wire,
which means you must patrol the fence every few months through the year. The best
check on deer can be made after the first fall of snow for the tracks. I would
certainly hate to start another orchard in our area without a fence; it sure pays
off. Be sure to pick a level path for your fence, for deer can crawl through
very small holes. Also use a good grade of wire and it will last many years.
Some of our wire has been up 20 years and still looks good."

Mr. Robert T. Burrows, Manchester, New Hampshire, had the post holes for his
deer fence dug with a post hole digger attached on the back of a truck and found
it saved considerable labor and expense. Mr. Burrows states, "We used a woven
wire fence which I think is six feet high, with one strand of barbed wire above
that when the ground outside is about level with the ground inside, and two
strands wherever the ground outside is higher. We have used ten foot cedar posts
and because they are set in the ground at least two feet in some parts of the
fence we have nailed on a two by four inch extension for two feet extra in order
to get a supplementary barbed wire up to a height of 8 feet. The fence requires
some maintenance each year, such as replacing a few posts and general tightening
up to keep the deer out. Finally on the question of gates we have used heavy
wooden gates, but have come to the conclusion that light weight metal framed gates
are more practical because of their lighter weight."

A New Hampshire apple grower reports that stringing rope, coated with creosote,
on three stakes driven into the ground close to young apple trees seems to prevent
deer browsing considerably. The young trees were replacement trees in a bearing
orchard.

The blocks of young apple trees in this same orchard were fenced with a six
foot woven wire fence. The grower was late in getting fencing around one block of
trees and the trees suffered considerable deer damage but since the fence was
erected no further deer dcunage has occurred.

-W. J, Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

R

^L-J

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Color Requirement for Apples

Pruning Peach Trees

Blueberries in the West

Notes on Strawberries

Pomological Paragraphs

Beware! San Jose Scale

Control of Fusicoccum Peach Canker

Fruit Promotion in Hampden County

One Reason for Low Prices

1958 Fertilizer Recommendations

How Growers Can Help the Extension
Service

FEBRUARY 15, 1958

Issued bytheCooperativeExtenBionService,J«ne» W.Dayton, AB.ociate Deim and Director,

In furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30. 1914; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOUR POMOLOGY STAFF

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematic
Pomology.

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham.
Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums. Mr.
Bailey also does considerable Extension work with growers of small
fruit.

French, Arthur P. - Head, Department of Horticulture

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest control,
and does research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C. - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses.
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, Franklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also, teaches
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to This Issue from Supporting Fields

E, F. Cuba, Research Professor of Botany, Waltham Field Station

Ellsworth H. Wheeler, Extension Entomologist

G. Everett Wilder, Associate County Agricultural Agent, Hampden County

The Massachusetts Apple Grading Law includes five grades in which color is
a grade factor. These are: U, S. Extra Fancy, U. S. Fancy, U. S. iJo. 1, Mass.
Extra Fancy, Mass. Fancy. A comparison of the color requirements of the several
grades for a selected list of apple varieties is as follows:

U.S. Ex. Fancy U.S. Fancy U . S . No . 1 Mass .Ex. Fancy Mass. Fancy

Astrachan

25

10

Tinge

66

33

Baldv/in

50

25

15

66

33

Cortland

66

33

25

66

33

Davey

(1)

111

(1)

50

20

Delicious

50

25

15

66

33

Duchess

25

10

Tinge

25

10

Early Mcintosh

50

25

15

66

33

Gravenstein

25

10

Tinge

15

0

Macoun

66

33

25

66

33

Melba

66

33

25

(1)

(1)

Mcintosh

66

33

25

66

33

Milton

50

25

15

66

33

Rome

50

25

15

50

20

Spy

50

25

15

50

20

Wagener

50

25

15

66

33

Wealthy

50

25

15

66

33

Williams

50

15

Tinge

66

33

Red Sport Varieties

75 (2)

50 (2)

25 (2)

(3)

(3)

(1) Not specified.

(2) Where red sport varieties are specified as such they shall meet color require-
ments specified for red sport varieties.

(3) Red sport varieties - - same as for regular varieties.

0. C. Roberts

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

PRUNING PEACH TREES

Peach growers are faced ^^7ith the task of pruning trees which were in most
instances left unpruned last spring. Most trees made remarkable growth considering
the amount of wood injury sustained during the week of January I4th in 1957.
This year growers should head back the tall peach trees and prune to replace
the winter injured wood.

Tall peach trees are kept at the desired height by heading back upright
branches to an outward grov/ing lateral branch.

In the future probably considerable limb breakage will occur on trees having
winter injured branches, unless they are replaced by new wood. Well placed
branches on the inner parts of the tree should be retained so that they will
subsequently replace older wood. Some of the scaffold branches on tbc bearing
trees should be headed back into 2 and 3 year old wood. These branches should be
headed to a desirable outward growing lateral. This process will reduce the
length of the scaffold limbs and their future fruit load and lessen the chances
of scaffold limb breakage.

— -W. J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

BLUEBERRIES IN THE VJEST

The cultivated blueberry industry of the far west has developed principally
in the coastal regions of Washington and Oregon, west of the Cascade Range of
mountains. In this area the climate is quite favorable; plenty of rain, enough
cold to satisfy winter chilling requirements without excessive cold, favorable
summer temperature without excessive heat, and good soil. East of the mountains
the rainfall is so light that the region is totally unsuited to fruit crops,
except in a few scattered areas where irrigation is possible and practical.

In spite of the favorable conditions, the blueberry industry has been
slow in developing. The chief reason given for this is the lack of good markets.
It is said that consumers on the west coast are not so accustomed to eating
blueberries as those in the northeast are. One sign of this is the kind of pie
available in resturants. One seldom finds blueberry pie. On the other hand,
stra^^7berry or "berry" - it may be boysenberry, loganberry or blackberry - are
offered in almost every resturant.

Another difficulty is the scarcity of large markets in the northwest.
Population density is far less than in the northeast. Aside from Portland
and Seattle, there are few large population centers. This means that for any
large volume of berries markets must be found in California or elsewhere.
Nevertheless, there are several hundred acres being grown and the industry is
expanding slowly.

Because of the heavy rainfall, 80-100 inches, diseases are more important
than insects. A Botrytis which causes shoot dieback is one of their worst
troubles. On the other hand, muiiiriy berry is unkno^m.

One grower in the Puyallup, Washington, area has been unusually successful.
He had 19 acres set to a considerable number of varieties. The soil and climate
are so favorable that all varieties appear outstandingly vigorous and productive.

Even such varieties as Concord and Scanimell, which were erratic performers here,
are vigorous, heavy producers there.

In California the blueberry situation is quite different. Very few are
grown at the present time. The principal reason for this appears to be lack
of interest in this fruit. While much of California's soil and climate are
not suited to blueberry growing, there are sizeable areas where, with a little
help in the way of irrigation and special soil treatments, considerable quan-
tities of blueberries could be grown.

The slow development of the blueberry industry up and down the west coast
is at least partly the result of the intense interest in other small fruits.
All three coastal states are heavy producers of strawberries. California is
also a heavy producer of boysenberries, loganberries, and trailing blackberries.
Washington and Oregon are heavy producers of raspberries and trailing black-
berries. These industries are so large and so well developed that, unless
there is some sudden change, blueberry growing will continue to expand slowly.
The increased production will probably be consumed in local markets. There-
fore, eastern growers will not need to worry about shipments from the far west
for quite a number of years.

John S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

NOTES ON STRAWBERRIES

The following remarks are based on field observations made last summer:

Virus-free Midland strawberry plants look promising on some farms. On other
farms, however, the variety does not make enough runner plants. Several growers
reported that Midland has a long picking season. A grower desiring an early
ripening variety should plant Midland on a trial basis to determine its suit-
ability under his conditions. This should be the case with any variety because
variety performance differs considerably from farm to farm in a locality and from
site to site on a farm.

Virus-free Robinson's make abundant runner plants, in fact, on most farms
where spacing of daughter plants is not practiced, the plants are too thick'.
The dense stand of plants favor gray-mold rot. Growers should set Robinson's
at least 24 inches apart in the row, cut excess runner plants after the desired
row width has been obtained and remove excess runner plants in the row.

Growers selling their strawberry crop by the "Pick Your Own" method should
either increase the planting distance between rows or narrow the plant rows in
order to provide ample walking space for customers.

June Yellows which was seen in many strawberry beds last spring is not an
infectious disease but is due to a hereditary factor or character present in
certain varieties. Normal plants of susceptible varieties like Howard 17 possess
the character for yellowing and there is no way to predict when a plant or its
offsprings will turn yellow.

W. J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

-4-

PQMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS

Subsequent Pruning of Young Apple Trees After Framework has been Established .

If the orchardist has faithfully pruned his young apple trees during the
first three or four years of growth, the tree's framework should be in most
instances well established. Subsequent pruning until bearing should be light
mainly consisting of the removal of any wood that begins to compete with the
scaffolds or leader. No more cutting should be done than is necessary to keep
the selected framework of the tree developing properly. The orchardist should
not be concerned with the small shoots and spur- like growths on the older parts
of the trees, small lateral branches between the scaffolds or a limb that is
too low. These may be gradually removed after the trees begin to bear; until
then the surplus branches contribute to the total leaf surface on the tree.

Repair Mouse Damage!

At the County Fruit Commodity Committee Meetings last fall, some of the
growers stated that rodent control was their number one cultural problem in apple
orchards. It is realized that the goal of the fruit growers should be the pre-
vention of mouse injury but once it has occurred the injury should be repaired!
Any tree that has the bark removed from a quarter of the way around the trunk
should be repaired. There have been thousands of fruit trees completely or
partially girdled in the last few years. On the otherhand, a large number of these
trees have not been repaired. Apparently too many growers are failing to examine
their fruit trees for sign of mouse injury or are ignoring it. If it was worth
the time and money to grow the fruit trees, it should be worth the effort to
repair them.

As soon as the snow disappears in the spring the trees should be examined
for signs of mouse injury. By this early attention, the grower will have ample
time to secure the scions for bridge grafting or the small seedling trees for
in- arching.

Rotary Mower - Shredders

Many Massachusetts fruit growers report favorably on the use of rotary
mower - shredders for shredding prunings and mowing in orchards. For cutting
the prunings, generally the brush is thrown out into the aisles between the
trees and the limbs over 2^i inches in diameter are hauled away. High windrows
of brush cause difficulty.

The number of times the mower is run over the brush depends upon the amount.
The first time over the tractor is driven slowly. Each time thereafter the
forward speed is increased and the cutter is set closer and closer to the ground.

The "leavings" in the orchard after the use of rotary mower-shredders on
prunings have worried some growers who have not used these machines. In orchards
where a good job of cutting has been done the "leavings" present no difficulty.
The grass growth quickly covers the shredded brush and it is soon out of sight.
The majority of growers mow the grass with a rotary mower- shredder which further
cuts the prunings into smaller pieces

-5-

Rotary mower- shredders have been used by growers to cut brush and small
trees on land being prepared for an orchard. One grower reports that oak, maple
and birch trees ten feet in height can be knocked down and cut into small pieces
by a mower-shredder.

--- W. J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

BEV.'ARE'., San Jose Scale

The threat posed by this insect should not be shrugged off'. San Jose Scale
is weakening and killing twigs and branches - even entire trees. Apples with tiny,
round scales or the red spots left where the insects settled and fed are being
found in more and more boxes. Growers and official workers in adjacent states
also report unexpected infestations. Scale-marked fruit is do\>m-graded for local
sales and may be refused for export.

Why is this scale threatening to become an important pest again?

Undoubtedly the upsurge in numbers of San Jose Scale has resulted from the
cumulative effect of several factors. The switch from lime sulfur to mild sul-
furs and then to the organics; a change to less frequent applications of oil;
methoxychlor and dieldrin in post-bloom sprays rather than sulfur- lead or DDT-
lead; a natural or possibly an insecticide-caused upset in the parasite-host
relationship; the series of mild winters (prior to 1956-57) and relatively warm
summers (except 1956) extending from the late 1940' s -- all of these added to
other unknown influences, have brought about the present situation.

San Jose Scale has a tremendous potential for reproduction. Each over-
wintering female may give birth to 400 tiny living young. These latter scatter
widely over the tree making it difficult to attain 1007, kill with any material.
From three to four generations occur each year. Infestations on wild fruit trees
and other woody plants are spread into orchards by wind, birds, etc. Overwinter-
ing stages are found all over the bark, some well protected by flakes of loose
bark or other cover.

Apple growers are urged to give full attention to the control of this scale
during 1958 and the next two or three years. If already known to infest any block
an oil application seems essential. Since a complete clean up from one treatment
is not expected, other measures should supplement the oil spray. A dormant DN
application could be one of these and would be especially useful on aphid-susceptible
varieties. Bofch oil and DN should be applied in dilute sprays to obtain the over-
all washing- drenching effect so necessary to get complete coverage of scale-
infested bark on trunks, larger limbs and even some spots on smaller branches.

Summer sprays containing DDT or any one of the phosphates should be effective
against young active "crawlers". These appear first soon after bloom and then
again at intervals of about 4 weeks. However, it is extremely difficult to obtain
spray coverage in summer applications which is good enough to give adequate kill.
There are thousands, even hundreds of thousands, of these tiny crawlers on fruit,
leaves, new and old twig growth and branches. We must put our greatest reliance
upon delayed dormant oils and dormant DN's.

-6-

A program of oil, once every three years, would seem logical and adequate in
orchards where San Jose Scale is not noticeable now. This action, if thoroughly
carried out, might well serve to hold in check an incipient outbreak.

E. H. Wheeler

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

CONTROL OF FUSICOCCUM PEACH CAI^IICER

Two major infection periods are recognized in the lite cycle of the pathogen:
(1) Autumn season infections of buds of current season's growth; (2) Spring season
infections of leaf cluster buds, basal portion of axillary shoots and leaf blades.
Autumn season infections occur in rain periods from September to the onset of cold
weather, and the earliest cankers appear in October and they continue to appear,
with the advance of the fungus from infected buds into the bark about the nodes,
throughout the winter, early spring and through the blooming period. These cankers
provide most of the conidiospores for the spring season infection phase which
occurs after the dormant season and in rain periods . Disease from these infections
appear in May and June, such as dead leaf clusters and axillary shoots, basal
shoot cankers and leaf spots.

A tight protectant spray schedule covering the two infection periods has given
good control of the disease. The protectant schedule is started in September after
Golden Jubilee harvest, and is continued at 10-12 day intervals or in advance of
rain periods using a mixture of 1/4 lb. of Dichlone, 1 1/2 lbs. of Ferbam, and 3/4
pint of Glyodin to 100 gallons of water. Glyodin is added as a spreader. Good
coverage of buds is important. Captan and Thiram are also effective. Final appli-
cation is made when 90 per cent of the leaves have fallen. For this last applica-
tion use liquid lime sulfur (7 gals.) and 3/4 pint of Glyodin to 100 gals, water.

The lime sulfur-Glyodin is repeated at late dormant in the following spring
season. It is followed by applications of Dichlone- Ferbam at full pink,
calyx and shuck fall, coinciding with the schedule for the control of early
brown rot.

In addition to thorough protectant spraying, pruning in June in addition to
dormant pruning is most desirable as a sanitary control measure. The orchard
should be sown to a thick stand of cover crop in early July to soften the effect
of heavy late season rains on growth.

The Fusicoccum pathogen is a wound parasite. Over 90 per cent of the cankers
on water sprouts and terminals are distributed among the nodes in the distal half
of the latest growth. Of this percent, between 60 and 70 percent of the cankers
are distributed in the last quarter or 3/4 - 4/4 of the latest season's growth.

A good spreader- sticker In the fungicide schedule is Important. The buds
must be well protected periodically as they swell late in the growing season and
as the bud scales are pushed away.

The program is costly. A badly diseased orchard can be rehibilitated in 3
years on the basis of our experience.

E. F. Cuba

I I I I I I I I I I i I I I I I

-7-

m.

.^sn

rTfcA' •^*/1..: i'-'

A^APPLES v^ ;^^

Apple A Day—

^^

Apple Display in Dave's Food Town which won first prize

for food stores in the Hampden County Fruit Growers'

Association Store Display Contest

Shown in picture is Mrs. David Levi, wife of store owner.

FRUIT PROMOTION IN HAMPDEN COUNTY

Because of an exceptionally good crop of high grade apples in Hampden County
this season, growers were faced with the problem of selling the crop without
dumping them on the market and thus causing a downward trend in price. Directors
of the Fruit Growers' Association with help from the Extension Service, set up
and operated a booth at the Massachusetts Building during the Eastern States
Exposition, September 14 - 22. Extra fancy apples were attractively displayed
and on sale both individually and in 3 pound bags. Certified cider was sold by
the cup, quart or gallon. The both was exceedingly well patronized by the public,
surpassing expectations.

In October Harry Watling USDA agent, convinced the directors of the Hampden
County Fruit Growers' Association that a Store Display Contest would pay off as an
additional form of advertising. The growers decided to offer two $50. prizes for
the best apple display, one for food stores and one for non-food stores, shown
from November 8-16. Letters with return cards were sent out to all independent
retail stores in a Chamber of Commerce letter. Chain stores were contacted by
individual letters to the area managers. As a result, sixteen stores entered the
contest. Some very fine displays were judged by an impartial team of judges. The
two $50. prizes were awarded at the Annual Dinner Meeting of the Association on
November 21, to Dave's Food Town on Belmont Avenue in Springfield, and Valley
Cinema Incorporated on State Street, Springfield.

-8-

Two television appearances were arranged, one for October 25th on Kitty
Broman's afternoon show, and one for November 6, on Tom Colton's "Western Massachu-
setts Highlights", an evening show. President of the Association, Dorrance Green
and Associate County Agent Everett Wilder appeared on the afternoon show. President
Green and State Association President Jesse Rice appeared on the evening show.
Apple varieties and their best uses x«rere explained to the public and displays of
extra fancy apples and certified cider were shown.

A local television station offered fancy packs of 100 Mcintosh apples as
gift packs in a survey to determine the number of its viewers. For two weeks
apples were advertised many times a day between programs. The apples were
furnished by the fruit growers of Western Massachusetts. Hampden County's
share in this advertising gimmick was 65 packs.

Apples were featured in the Greater Springfield Chamber of Commerce break-
fast on November 6. Fresh cider and baked apples were featured on the menu.
Two hundred and ninety-four persons attended and received 5 pound bags of extra
fancy Hampden County grown apples as they left the breakfast room.

In all these forms of advertising, thousands of people in Hampden County

felt the impact of this extra promotion of apples. Many more apples were sold

because of this extra effort in keeping the buying public aware of this splendid
fruit.

— G. Everett Wilder

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

One Reason For Low Prices

A rather significant item in a recent issue of "Produce News" is as follows:
"The Hudson Valley still has inumerable grading packages, varieties and sizes which
works to keep prices down. As long as everything is non-standardized, the only
thing a buyer can do is to be very careful. Or, to phrase it another way, not pay
much for the fruit."

This comment could apply to Massachusetts just as much as to the Hudson Valley.

0. C. Roberts

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

1958 FERTILIZER RECO^MENDATIONS

Prospects for a heavy bloom in 1958 are not too likely following the large
crop in 1957. With most orchards having a light to medium bloom this season, it
will be desirable to provide normal rates of nitrogen to aid in obtaining a good
fruit set. The following table gives suggested amounts of fertilizer to apply.

-9-

Suggested Rates of Fertilizer for Bearing Apple Orcliards
Approximate Amounts per Tree

Potential bushel
yield of tree

Less than 15
15 - 25

More than 25

Nitrogen
required

Pounds

0.G6
0.66-1.00
1.33-2.00

Potash
required

Pounds

1.3

1.3-2.0
2.7-4.3

Ammonium
Nitrate

Pounds

2.0
2.0-3.0
4.0-6.0

Muriate

of Potash or 0-15-30

Pounds

2.1
2.1-3.3
4.5-7.1

Pounds

4.3
4.3-6.6
9.0-14.3

8-16-16

Pounds

8
8-12
16 - 25

The suggested amounts of materials to apply in the table are for band applica-
tions under the spread of the branches. When the materials are broadcast over the
entire orchard floor it may be necessary to increase the rate of application in
order to obtain the same tree response as with the band applications. Fertilizer
materials other than those given in the tables may be used so long as they are
applied at rates which provide equivalent amounts of nitrogen and potassium.

The tree's magnesium and calcium requirements can best be met by maintaining
an adequate doloraitic liming program. The pH of orcliard soils should be maintained
between 6 and 6.5. If a soil test shows that the pH of the soil is 5.5 or below,
magnesium sulfate sprays should be applied to prevent possible occurence of mag-
nesium deficiency. It takes from 3 to 5 years before dolomitic limestone is
effective in correcting magnesium deficiency. V/hen magnesium sulfate sprays are
used apply 2 to 3 sprays of epsom salts at the rate of 20 pounds per 100 gallons
of water. These sprays should be timed by calyx, first, and second cover sprays.
To avoid possible incompatibilities the epsom salt sprays should not be combined
with the regular insecticidal and fungicial sprays.

Boron should be applied to orchard soils every three years. Borax is the
most common material used. The rates of application per tree vary with age and
size. Apply one quarter pound of borax to young trees, one-half to three-
quarters pound to medium age and size trees, and three-quarters to one pound to
large or mature trees. In no case should the rate of one application of borax
exceed 50 pounds per acre. Boron may be applied as a foliar spray on a trial
basis. Polybor-2 or Bore Spray applied at 1/2 pound per 100 gallons of spray
one and three weeks after petal fall have given satisfactory results in New
York State.

The amounts of fertilizer applied to trees which have received annual
applications of 200 pounds or more of hay mulch per tree may be materially re-
duced or entirely eliminated. Tree performance should serve as a guide in de-
termining the extent to which the rates of fertilizer may be reduced.

In young non-bearing orchards it may be possible to produce sufficient high
quality mulching material for the young trees by broadcasting 500 to 800 pounds
of mixed fertilizer per acre. Place the mulch in a band under the spread of the
branches. The amount of fertilizer required for the trees with this system of
culture will vary with the quantity and quality of mulch applied around each tree.
If the trees are not making sufficient growth one-eighth pound of ammonium nitrate
per year of tree age may be applied to the mulch.

-10-

Recommendations for fertilizing peach orchards are given in the following
table. The amounts given may need to be increased if the trees are in a heavy
sod. A suggested increase would be to double the amount of nitrogen.

Suggested Rates of Fertilizer for Bearing Peach Orchards

Approximate amounts per tree

Tree Age

Ammonium
Nitrate

Muriate
+ of Potash or 0-15-30

8-16-16

3-6

6-9
9-12
12 & over

Pounds

%-l

1 -1%
l%-2

2 -4

Pounds

1-2
2-3
3-4
4-3

Pounds

2-4
4-6

6-8
8-12

Pounds

2-4
4-6
6-8
8-16

W. D. Weeks

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

HOW GROWERS CAN HELP THE EXTENSION SERVICE

The Extension Service both at the County and State level supplies up-to-date
and timely information to farmers but to make the service most effective it must
not be a one way road. Growers can help the Extension Service to effectively ful-
fill its obligation by: (1) reporting the occurrence of orchard pests, nutritional
difficulties or physiological disorders and (2) by making the Fruit Industry
needs known.

Fruit growers are in their orchards, packing sheds or storages every day
while on the other hand the County Agent due to other commitments cannot visit
fruit growers daily. Thereby, the grower can help the County Agent and his
fellow growers by reporting early, unusual or severe outbreaks of some orchard
pest. For example, the County Agent may be working in the northern part of
his County while a grower in the southern part may observe the first indication
of scab. This information reported to the County Agent would be of benefit.
Reporting the occurrence of boron or magnesium deficiency, unusual amount of
internal breakdown of apples in storage, etc. are all examples of useful inform-
ation. It should be remembered that in most instances a particular problem is
not restricted to one farm. Although sometimes it makes a fellow wonder if this
is so'.

How can the Extension Service know it is meeting the needs of the Fruit
Industry if growers fail to participate in the County Fruit Commodity Meetings?
Some growers may have the attitude that the County and State Fruit Programs are
based entirely on the suggestions of the County Agents and the State Specialists.
Nothing can be further from the truth as evidenced by some of the objectives of
the 1957-58 State Fruit Program stated below. These were included in the State
and County Fruit Programs as a result of grower suggestions at the County Fruit
Commodity Meetings held last November.

1. Conduct a two day pruning school in Middlesex County with County Agents
and growers from other Counties invited.

2. Supply information about airplane dusting to control diseases and insects,

-11-

3. Tour apple packing sheds of dealers handling large volumes of fruit

4. Emphasize two-spotted mite control.

5. More specific attention to methods for obtaining adequate spray coverage
with air-blast sprayers.

6. Supply up-to-date material on CA storage construction and management.

7. Stress importance of good soil management practices for tree and small
fruits.

8. Supply information on irrigation of tree and small fruits.

9. Increase the scope of material included in the Preharvest Drop Control
circular.

W. J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FR

J^

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pointed Points About Insects ond Mites
Peach Buds Unusually Hardy in 1958
Blueberry Nutrition - A Progress Report
Soles Gimmicks
Hints on Controlling Woodchucks in Orchards

Results of the Apple Orchard Irrigation
Experiment in 1957

The Effect of Color on Sales Appeal

Water Core and Internal Breakdown

MARCH 3, 1958

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director.

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 19 14; University of Massachusetts Unitea

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating

Publication Approved by George J. Cronin, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19

YOUR POMOLOGY STAFF

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematic
Pomology.

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham.
Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums. Mr.
Bailey also does considerable Extension work with growers of small
fruit.

French, Arthur P. - Head, Department of Horticulture

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest control,
and does research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C. - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses.
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, Franklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also, teaches certain
advanced courses.

VJeeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to This Issue from Supporting Fields

Karol J, Kucinski, Assistant Professor in Agronomy

Bertram Gersten, Assistant Professor in Feed and Fertilizer

Albert F, Spelman, Associate Professor in Feed and Fertilizer

Ellsworth Wheeler, Extension Entomologist

John W. Peterson, Mammal Conservation Supervisor, U, S, Fish and Wildlife Servicf

POINTED POINTS ABOUT INSECTS AND MITES

How much oil should be used in each 100 gallons of dilute spray? This
question is being raised because of statements in the Spray Chart: " 'Superior'
oil ('tank-mixed') 2 gals. OR Prepared 'Superior' oil 2^-3 gals."

Any prepared oil knox^m to form a quick-breaking emulsion in water and there-
fore with depositing characteristics similar to that of "tank-mixed" oil, when
used at 2 gallons, should provide adequate kill of red mite and San Jose scale.

Obtain assurance from you supplier that his product is of that type. There
are on the market some miscible and self-emulsifying oils that form slow-breaking
emulsions. A higher concentration of these is required to obtain an oil deposit
or a kill equal to that obtained with the "quick-breaking" type,

•f: ic -!f -k ■k ie •)( it -k vV * ^.f * * A' *

Everywhere I go the happiest fruit growers are fellows who don't have any
trouble with mites.

How do they get that way? It's a combination of attitude and action'. These
growers just assume there are mites there to give them trouble if nothing is done
about it or if control measures are put off until later.

So these happy growers plan a complete suppression program from early to late.
And then they carry out the planned program exactly or with minor variations to
take advantage of certain desirable "fringe" benefits when other problems arise.

There is no better way to assure yourself of freedom from damage by red mite
in June and by 2-spotted mite in July or August or later. A variety of materials
and programs are discussed in the Spray Charts. Plan a way to keep ahead of mites.

Oh yesl These same happy growers are the ones who continually adjust their
equipment and speed through the orchard so as to get the good coverage necessary
for good insect and mite control.

They know what they are doing'. You will be happier if you do tool

* Vf i< ie v.- 5V i< -k -k it k it it it it k

Many peach trees have wounds from one cause or another on limbs and branches
and the lesser peach tree borer moth is attracted to such places for egg laying.
These borers can shorten tree life seriously.

The organic phosphates are most effective against this insect and also the
regular peach tree borer. That is why we like to recommend organic phosphates
on peaches in post-bloom sprays.

Applications of a residual type phosphate (not TEPP or Phosdrin) June 20-25
and again 3 weeks later will be well timed for the lesser borer and early activities
of the regular peach tree borer. The degree of control however, will depend to
some extent upon how well the bark of limbs and branches is drenched.

k k k k k it k k k it it it k k k k

Burn those galls (swellings) you are finding as the blueberries are pruned.

The maggots or larvae of a tiny wasp are overvjintering in those galls. If you
simply drop them on the ground or a brush heap the wasps will emerge next summer
and come right back into your planting to lay eggs.

Result? More galls'.

ic i< -ic it -k ie it i< ic it it it it it it it

Home orchardists should plan to apply a dormant oil spray this year'. San
Jose scale is being found in increasing numbers. It kills twigs, branches and
even trees. The "General-purpose" spray and dust materials and schedules are
not good enough to handle this particular scale.

A dormant oil spray on all backyard fruit trees, especially apples and
pears, should be a "must" operation this year - and for good measure - next year
too. Don't miss any part of the bark'.

E. H. Wheeler

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

PEACH BUDS UNUSUALLY HARDY IN 1958

Much to the amazement of the writer, peach buds withstood the -I60F temperature
which occurred in the University peach orchard on February 18. In most years a
temperature of -16°F. would be expected to kill practically all peach buds. However,
a check of approximately 200 fruit buds showed the per cent of live buds for each
of the following varieties to be Elberta 7 5%, Redhaven 787o, Golden Jubilee 80%
and Halehaven 567o. It is most unusual for Elberta to have 7 5% of its buds alive
after a -16°F temperature. The Halehaven trees are located at a lower elevation
than the Elberta trees and probably were subjected to a temperature a few degrees
below that for Elberta. This could account for the greater degree of killing with
Halehaven.

The factors responsible for the remarkable hardiness exhibited by peaches
this winter probably started last year. These trees were without a crop last
summer and they were not pruned because of the wood injury which occurred in
the sub zero temperatures of January, 1957. Past experience has shown that
peach trees which have had a heavy crop will not have as many fruit buds survive
severe winter temperatures as trees with light to medium crops.

Another factor in the hardiness of peach buds this winter was the temperatures
which occurred prior to the extreme cold of February 18. For 10 days to two weeks
the temperature did not get above freezing. This long cold spell conditioned the
peach buds so that they were at their maximum hardiness. On the other hand if the
temperatures prior to February 18 had been considerably above freezing the peach
buds would have lost considerable hardiness and it is doubtful if any buds would
have survived the -Ib^ temperature. Thus it appears that conditions were most
favorable for maximum hardiness of peach buds in 1958. It is doubtful if commercial
peach orchards in the State had lower temperatures than what occurred in the
University orchard, so we can expect a peach crop providing we do not get any

I

:

-3-

more sub zero temperatures.

— W, D. Weeks
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

BLUEBERRY NUTRITION - A PROGRESS REPORT

The fertilizing of cultivated blueberries has followed a pattern similar
to that which has characterized many other fruits in their early history. It
was feared that too much fertilizer, particularly nitrogen, would do more
harm than good. As a result, early fertilizer applications were relatively
light. These have been gradually increased until rather large amounts are
being recommended and used by some growers, amounts which supply 100 or more
pounds of actual nitrogen per acre. How much is safe and economical to use?

Cultivated blueberries appear to respond readily to applications of
nitrogen. What their response is to other major elements is uncertain. In
New Jersey there seemed to be a response to applications of phophorous. The
results of leaf analysis both in Massachusetts and in Michigan suggest that
the cultivated blueberry needs very little phosphorous. The situation as re-
gards potash is still uncertain. Results from Michigan indicate no relation
between amount of leaf potash and yield.

To get more information about the fertilizer need of cultivated blue-
berries, an experiment was set up in a growers field in the spring of 1956,
Nitrogen is applied as ammonium sulfate at the rate of 1/2, 1 and 2 pounds
per bush. Sul-Po-Mg is used to supply both potash and magnesium because the
use of potash alone might result in a magnesium deficiency. The rate is 0,
1/2 and 1 pound per bush. These are being used in all possible combinations,
this giving nine different treatments. All fertilizer is spread at one time,
just before bloom.

In 1956, all plots were fertilized alike with a complete fertilizer so
that yield records of the plots could be obtained before the differential
fertilizer treatments were made. Each summer yields are obtained and leaf
samples for chemical analysis are collected from all the plots.

The rates of fertilizer application, especially nitrogen, are high.
These high rates were considered advisable because the bushes were in a low
state of vigor and because it was desired to find the upper limit of amounts
which could be used without injury.

In 1957, the differences in yields between plots were not significant.
This is not surprising when one remembers that the fruit buds for the 1957
crop were formed in the summer of 1956 before differential fertilization
started. On the other hand, the growth response of the bushes has been very
marked. All the bushes have been stimulated into increase growth which ap-
pears to be roughly in proportion to the nitrogen applied. When 2 pounds
per bush of ammonium sulfate was used, considerable late growth resulted,
growth which was quite immature at leaf fall and which will probably be in-
jured if very low temperatures occur. It looks as if the limit of safety
has been exceeded. This is not surprising since 2 pounds per bush would be

equivalent to about 440 pounds of actual nitrogen per acre. Perhaps over a
period of several years, even 1 pound per bush may be excessive. To date
there has been no observable response to the Sul-Po-Mg applications.

Leaves of some Rubel bushes were collected semi-monthly through the
summer and analysed chemically. Leaf nitrogen was very high in late May.
It dropped very rapidly to mid-July and then dropped very slowly till mid-
September,

It is too soon to draw any conclusions from this experiment.

John S. Bailey

Bertram Gersten
A. F. Spelman,

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

SALES Gir^ICKS

Many people enjoy obtaining branches of forsythia and pussy willows during
February and forcing them to flower by placing the stems in water at room
temperature. Apples, peaches, pears, plums and cherries also can be forced
into flower in February and March. One Massachusetts fruit grower takes advantage
of this by using prunings as a sales gimmick at his roadside stand. In advertis-
ing, he mentions that branches of fruit trees for forcing or which have been
forced can be obtained at his roadside stand.

Customers are charged for the branches that have been forced by the grower;
branches that have not are free of charge. Prior to Christmas, the same grower
has boughs of evergreen trees which are available free of charge.

Salesmanship like that mentioned above brings customers I

W. J, Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

HINTS ON CONTROLLING WOODCHUCKS IN ORCHARDS

When woodchucks emerge from hibernation, they sometimes seriously damage
fruit trees by chewing the trunk. However, it is believed that the purpose
of this gnawing is to exercise or wear down the teeth rather than to consume
the bark as food. The most serious economic damage to fruit trees results
from an annoying habit that chucks have of digging extensive burrow systems
under fruit trees. This excavating often exposes the roots, causing them to dry
out and in extreme cases may result in killing the tree. The burrow system
also encourages mice by providing excellent harborage, as well as a readily-
available food supply in the form of exposed roots. The combination of rootlets
drying out and mouse damage to the root system reduces tree vigor, growth, and
fruit production.

Damage to farm equipment such as breaking or dulling of mowing machine
blades should not be minimized. Also, these holes are trips for catching wheels
and causing equipment to get stuck or even overturned.

This damage which is indirectly caused by woodchucks can be prevented
by an early inspection of your orchard about April, Freshly excavated soil
at the burrow opening is a positive indication of recent activity. Only active
burrows should be treated. The Gas Cartridge is the easiest and most effect-
ive means of eliminating these rodents and the best time to use the cartridge
is before the young have left the burrow. It is equally important to attain good
peripheral control in hedgerows, woodlands, and brushy areas bordering your orchard;
this will keep migrants, who reside in these adjacent areas, from moving into
your orchard. Gas Cartridges may not be so effective where burrows are hidden
in stonewalls, under outbuildings, and in other inaccessible places. In cases
like these, trapping or shooting is the best solution. A No. 2 Trap is a must
and we recommend a coil-spring type because it catches the chuck high on the leg
and prevents him from twisting or pulling out. Traps should be set in a burrow
opening or in a travel lane and should be somewhat concealed. Shooting shouldn't
be discounted as a control method, especially if the owners or neighbors enjoy
this sport.

The following facts are set forth to dispel some common misconceptions
relative to controlling woodchucks: (1) There is usually only one woodchuck
to each burrow but they are polygamous and visit frequently, especially during
the mating season; (2) Wandering chucks and other burrowing animals (especially
skunks) will set up housekeeping in a burrow that has been gassed and filled in,
giving people the erroneous impression that the original occupant was not elimi-
nated. This is also the reason why perimeter control is so important; (3)
There is very little danger in handling Gas Cartridges if the directions are
followed,, They jdo not explode--they merely burn with great intensity and in
so doing give off a poisonous gas.

Gas Cartridges may be purchased through most farm cooperatives, garden
and hardv/are supply stores, or directly from the Rodent Control Fund, Univerr
sity of Massachusetts, Liberal Arts Annex, Amherst, Massachusetts. When
purchased from the Rodent Control Fund, the current price, f.o.b. Amherst, is:
7 1/4 cents each for orders of 200 or more; 9 cents each for orders of less
than 200.

If control measures are carried out according to our recommendations,
regarding proper time and the method employed, woodchuck control can be
accomplished at a minimum expense and with very little effort.

---John W. Peterson

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

RESULTS OF THE APPLE ORCH/vRD IRRIGATION EXPERIMENT IN 1957

In 1956 an apple orchard irrigation experiment was undertaken in South
Amherst, Massachusetts to learn more about the irrigation needs of our Massachu-
setts orchards.

The objects of the experiment are as follows: (1) to determine how many-
years out of 10, apple trees on the experimental site suffer for lack of V7ater,
(2) to study the effect of water shortage on the growth of trees, fruit growth,
color, quality and yield of fruit, (3) to determine at what percentage of avail-
able soil moisture irrigation water should be applied and (4) to find how the
nutritional status of the fruit trees is effected by irrigation.

On May 25, 1956, a frost killed 957, of the blossoms and therefore the trees
were not irrigated. However, in May, 1957, the trees had a snow-ball bloom and
a large potential crop. During June, 1957, 5.7 inches of rain were recorded x^ith
l.A inches on the 19th and 3.09 inches from the 26th through the 30th. However,
only 1.38 inches were recorded in July and 0.84 inches in August. Many parts of
the State were not so fortunate receiving little or no rain during June. The
summer of 1957 at Boston, based on the June, July and August period, was the
driest in 140 years of official and unofficial records. Total rainfall was but
3.97 inches, only 40% of the 3 month normal of 9.89.

Yield and Fruit Size

The fruit on the irrigated and non- irrigated trees grew approximately at the
same rate until after July 23rd which is 7 days after the date of the first
irrigation during which 3 inches of water was applied. Water was again applied
on August 22. Due to the slow development of red color the fruit was "spot-
picked" on September 17th and 18th and picked clean on September 23rfi. The
average yield for the irrigated trees was 29.6 bushels and that for the non-
irrigated trees 25.9 bushels. A greater difference in yield might have occurred
except for the fact that the irrigated apple trees were slightly smaller in size.
Fruit drop was recorded but no difference existed between the irrigated and non-
irrigated trees.

On the day the fruit was picked clean, water core v/as noted in some of the
fruit on the irrigated trees. Approximately 15 per cent of the fruits from the
irrigated trees had x-zater core and only 1 per cent of those from non- irrigated
trees.

At harvest 4 bushels of apples xvrere selected from each tree to determine
the average number of fruits required to make a bushel. The average number
of fruits per bushel from the irrigated trees x/as 126 as compared to 170
fruits per bushel from the non-irrigated trees. It took 44 less apples from
the irrigated trees to fill a bushel.

Table 1 shows approximately 91% of the fruits from the irrigated trees
were greater than 2 1/2 inches in diameter as compared to 54% from the non-
irrigated. By count, 206 apples from the 7 bushels graded from the irrigated
trees x^/ere 3 inches or greater in diameter. Only 8 three inch apples were
harvested from a similar volume of non- irrigated fruit.

Table I - Percentage of Various Size Apples of the Fruit Sampled from Irrigated

and Non-Irrigated Mcintosh Trees, 1957,

Fruit Diameter

Irrigated Fruit

Non-Irrigated Fruit

inches

per cent

per cent

2 - 2 1/4

3,7

19.2

2 1/4- 2 1/2

5.2

27.2

2 1/2- 2 3/4

24,2

39.9

2 3/4- 3

42.5

14.0

-5 ^y y^r^^r.

?6.5

0.6

Leaf Analyses

Leaf samples were taken prior to the first irrigation and on August 27th
after the second irrigation to determine the nitrogen, phophorous, potassium
calcium and magnesium content of the foliage. The leaf analyses showed that
irrigation had no effect on nutritional level.

Fruit Color and Flesh Firmness

Table H shows that the percentage of apples from the irrigated trees meeting
the color requirement for U. S. Extra Fancy was twice that from the non-irrigated
trees. The quality of color was superior on the fruit from the irrigated trees,
being a brighter red. In addition, the ground color on the irrigated apples was
distinctly more yellow than on the non-irrigated fruit.

Tabl

e II -

Percentage of
Trees Meeting

Mcintosh Apples
the Color Requir

Sampled fi
ement for

•om Irri
Various

gated and Non-
U. S. Grades,

Irrigated
1957.

Grade

Irrigatec

1 Fruit

Non-

Irrigated

Frui

t

U.

U.

u.

S.
S.

s.

No. 1
Fancy
Extra

Fancy

6.6
36.3
55.1

12.3
58.3
22.6

At harvest time, average flesh firmness as determined by a pressure tester
was 15.1 for the irrigated apples and 17.7 for the non- irrigated apples. Since
much of this difference of flesh firmness could be accounted for by size differ-
ence, pressure tests of the stored fruit were made on apples of 2 1/2 to 2 3/4
inch diameter, the results of which are shown in table 3. It will be noted in
Table III that when apples of similar size are selected no significant difference
in flesh firmness existed between the irrigated and non-irrigated fruits.

Table III - Fruit Flesh-Firmness of iTigated and Non- Irrigated 2 1/2 to 2 3/4
inch Mclnt osh Apples, 1957 .

Date Irrigated Fruit Non-Irrigated Fruit

pounds pounds

October 16 12.6 12.6

November 21 11.0 11.3

December 19 10.6 10.9

January 20 10.4 10.8

* January 24 8.4 8.9

^'^Fruit Held at Room Temperature 3 days

On January 23, pressure tests were taken of a random sample of fruits from
the irrigated and non-irrigated apples. Average flesh firmness for the irrigated
apples was 9,4 pounds and that of the non- irrigated apples 10.5.

In summary, the experimental results with apple orchard irrigation in
1957 show increased fruit size and improved color from irrigation but on
the other hand the fruit vras softer and had more water core,

W, J. Lord

K. J. Kucinski
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I B, Gersten

-8-

TIIE EFFECT OF COLOR ON SALES APPEAL

Recent research studies with Mcintosh apples in Massachusetts show conclu-
sively that mechanical injury (bruises and stem punctures) is the principal
cause of off-grade apples and insufficient color is second in importance.
Insect and disease blemishes are relatively of minor importance due to the
splendid job that most growers are doing in controlling orchard pests.

A current investigation indicates that considerable progress is being
made in reducing the amount of mechanical injury but persistent effort is
necessary on most fruit farms in order to reduce this type of injury to a
minimum.

With poor color second in importance as a cause of off grade fruit, prac-
tices which tend to improve color need to be emphasized.

The development of apple color has been studied at the West Virginia
Agricultural Experiment Station for the past twenty years and in 1956 a special
study was made of the effect of color on sales appeal. Results of these studies
have been reported in VJest Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 396,

In their study of the development of color they found that excessive
nitrogen often decreases or delays color formation and that in some fertilizer
studies potassium has increased red color.

While pruning, thinning, fertilization and stop-drop sprays all have an
effect on the development of red color, greatest progress has resulted from
the use of color sports of standard varieties.

Clear, sunny, cool days v/ith low humidity help to develop highly colored
apples with a bright, lustrous finish while hot days with warm nights and high,
humidity coupled with fog or cloudiness account for poor color with a dull
finish.

The experiment reported in this bulletin included a study of the effect of
color on the sale of Rome apples in a chain store in Charleston and Huntington,
West Virginia. A comparison v/as made between the sale of Rome apples in 5 lb,
polyethylene bags having 15 percent color and those having 50 percent color.
In the stores studied, sales were increased approximately 75 percent by increas-
ing the area of solid red color on the surface of the apples from 15 percent
to 50 percent with both lots selling at 5 lbs. for 49 cents. However, sales
were reduced approximately 43 percent ^^7hen the price of the high colored
apples was increased from 5 lbs. for 49 cents to 5 lbs, for 69 cents.

0. C. Roberts

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

WATER CORE AND INTERNAL BREAKDOWN

During the 1956-57 season, internal breakdown of Delicious, Rome, and
Spy apples was a rather serious problem. At least with Delicious it was known

-9-

that much water core e;:isted in the fruit before and at harvest in 1956. It
has also been sho^m that fruits which have had water core are much more suscep-
tible to internal breakdoxm in storage even though much of the water core may
disappear. During the 1957-53 season, several storages had Delicious shov7ing
considerable amounts of internal breakdoxm in January. In practically all
cases where this breakdo^<m occurred, water core v;as also evident. Since there
appears to be a close positive correlation between water core and later devel-
oping internal breakdo^m, it appears that a reduction in water core would
markedly reduce the susceptibility of apples to internal breakdo\^m.

Uhat is the cause of water core? What factors increase susceptibility?
VThat can be done to reduce its prevalence? Studies on water core have been
"few and far betxizeen" in the past 25 years. Consequently, ideas on its
cause have not been subjected to much recent critical examination or study.

Water core is somewhat of a misnomer since this trouble often exists in
tissues beyond the core. It is generally thought that rapid conversion of
starch to sugar in the flesh contributes considerably to the development of
water core. The marked increase in sugar in same of the cells supposedly
causes water to move into these areas, thus raising the pressure within these
cells. Eventually, a leakage of the sugar solution into the intercellular
spaces occurs and the water-soaked areas develop. Some observations and
studies made in Illinois in 1942, hov/ever, raise some doubts concerning the
above explanation. In these studies, it x\7as found that within a water cored
apple the soluble solids content of the watex'-cored area was often no higher,
if as high, as non-water-cored areas. Also, the v7ater-cored areas appeared
to be as high or higher in starch than non-vjater-cored tissues. In view of
these findings, it appears that the cause of water core is not fully understood.

There is considerable agreement concerning factors associated V7ith v^7ater
core. Certainly, there is considerable variation in variety susceptibility.
Delicious is very susceptible. Many other varieties may develop water core
expecially if allowed to become overripe on the tree. Some varieties, such
as Delicious, may develop water core before they are overmature as occurred
during the 1956 season. VJith most sorts, however, (including Delicious) it
tends to get increasingly severe as the fruit ripens. Large fruit is generally
more likely to have water core than small fruit although small apples will
often have some. Perhaps the reason for this relationship with fruit size is due
in part to the fact that large fruits on any given date are usually riper than
small ones. For example. Dr. Lord found in 1957 that a midseason irrigation
of Mcintosh greatly improved fruit size but accompanying this improved size was
hastened fruit ripening and an increase in water core. It would appear that
heavy thinning, severe pruning, and a high level of nitrogen fertilization
might increase the susceptibility of fruit to v/ater core if these practices
increase fruit size and/or the rate of fruit softening. Much has been said
about the influence of climatic condition in relation to water core. Past
studies of water core indicate that water core is increased by abrupt increases
in temperature over the previously prevailing conditions. A heat wave follow-
ing a period when 70°F. weather prevailed during the latter part of the grow-
ing season may increase susceptibility. However, in 1956 when water core was
serious we experienced a growing season that was cooler than average. Certainly,

•10-

weather conditions have a very important influence of the development of water

core, but it is not always clear what the critical climatic factors are and

what relationship there is betv;een them and the soil moisture and nutrient supply.

There is no positive control for water core and eventual development of
internal breakdo^m of Delicious. However, there are a few things that one
can attempt to do to reduce its severity. These seem to be: (1) Try to
reduce the tendency to produce oversize fruit. Oversize fruit always has a
shorter storage life and is more susceptible to a wide variety of storage
troubles than medium sizes. Such fruit is generally softer and, even in the
absence of a visible disorder, do not store well. (2) Pick the fruit before
it becomes too mature. We recognize that water core may develop in Delicious
even when the fruit is not sufficiently ripe for harvest, but there is little
doubt that the riper the fruit becomes the more water core it is apt to have.

It is now obvious that apple storage operators should make more inspec-
tions of their fruit throughout the storage season not only to determine the
prevalence of internal breakdotm but for scald, bitter pit, brown core and
other storage disorders. Regular inspections at regular two-or-three-week
intervals, starting at about Thanksgiving time, would help to eliminate
serious losses late in the storage period. For example, samples of fruit of
a susceptible variety should be taken from storage and placed at room temp-
erature for a week, in unsealed poly bags to prevent shriveling to see whether
any troubles develop that were not evident in storage. A storage operator
who can spot troubles early in the season has some chance of disposing of the
fruit before the trouble reaches serious proportions. The person who doesn't
keep track of the situation by frequent inspections may eventually have fruit
so seriously injured by a storage disorder that much of it is unsalable.

F. W. Southwick

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

"R

APRIL 18, 1958

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

What's Happened in the Past Thirty Years in
the Apple Industry in New Hampshire

Pomological Paragraphs

Preventing Frost Damage to Strawberries

Tips on Detecting Mineral Deficiencies of
Apple Trees

Don't Take a Chance with Apple Scab in 1958

Plastic Mulch for Strawberries

Composition of Vermont Orchards

About Insects and Mites

New Shotgun Shell Effective Against Nuisance
Birds

Faith in the New England Apple

Take a Look at Your Insurance Program

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W, Dayton, Associate Dean end Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating,

Publication Approved by George J, Cronln, State Purchasing Agent, No, 19.

YOUR POMOLOGY STAFF

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematic
Pomology. Active in the testing of new varieties.

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham.
Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums. Mr.
Bailey also does considerable Extension work with growers of small
fruit.

French, Arthur P. - Head, Department of Horticulture

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest control,
and does research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C. - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses.
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, Franklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also, teaches
certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to This Issue from Supporting Fields

E. J. Rasmussen, Extension Horticulturist, University of New Hampshire

Wesley R. Jones, Assistant District Agent, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service

C. J. Gilgut, Extension Plant Pathologist

Frederick E. Cole, Extension Marketing Specialist

C. Lyman Calahan, Extension Horticulturist, University of Vermont

Lawrence D. Rhoades, Extension Specialist in Farm Management

E. H. Wheeler, Extension Entomologist

WHATS HAPPEIvfED IN THE PAST THIRTY YEARS IN THE APPLE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE

(Editor's Note - This is the first of a series of articles in which
Professor E. J. Rasmussen discusses "Whats happened in The Past Thirty Years
in the Apple Industry in New Hampshire 1")

I came to New Hampshire thirty years ago as a part time Graduate Student
and as a pest control specialist on tree fruits, I well remember the first
New Hampshire Horticultural Society Meeting I attended. It was in 1927 at
the Armory in Manchester. Mr, James Tufts of Exeter was President of the
Society and A, J, Farley, Extension Horticulturist of New Jersey was one of
the guest speakers. There was a fine apple show in connection with the
meetings. W. B. Farmer of Hampton Falls and E. N. Sawyer of Salisbury were
competing for the sweepstakes prize. Both exhibitors showed a barrel of
Baldwin apples. The apples were so near alike in both barrels that the judge.
Dr. R. H. Roberts of Wisconsin, had to remove nearly every apple from both
barrels before he could decide the winner. The sweepstakes went to W. B.
Farmer.

There was a good deal more interest in fruit shows at that time. Folks
took a real pride in exhibiting their fruit and naturally with seventy varieties
being grown there was plenty of material from which to choose. As much as
eight hundred to one thousand dollars was spent on premiums and expenses for
running these shows ,

Those first years as Extension Specialist in Pest Control were interesting
ones. At that time fruit growers were numerous enough so that Town Fruit
Meetings were common. Me would have 15 to 20 growers at a meeting in Hancock
and 30 to 40 in Wilton, Hollis and Derry. Usually there were four of us,
Prof, G. F. Potter, Dr. L. P. Latimer, Mr. H. A. Rollins and myself, on the
program. Fred Beane nicknamed us the "four horsemen" and we often rode forth at
night.

VARIETIES

The reduction in the number of varieties of apples grown is no doubt
the most significant change and had the greatest influence on the industry
of any of the changes that occurred in the past thirty years. The 1927
Annual Report of this Society lists grading regulations for 43 striped and
red varieties. This does not include the green and yellow and a number of
odd varieties.

The following is an excerpt from a letter to H. A. Rollins from
William Thies, Extension Horticulturist at Massachusetts dated January 17, 1928,
"Believing that seven apple varieties will serve our needs better than seventy
the Agricultural Colleges of New England through the Extension Service are
cooperating on a better variety campaign program. Seven apple varieties
have been selected as especially adapted to New England conditions. These
are to be called the New England Seven and are as follows: Baldwin, Delicious,
Gravenstein, Mcintosh, Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening and Wealthy.
These varieties are the leaders in the New England States. Upon them our
reputation as a fruit section depends." Further comments in this letter
indicate that the apple industry in New England was on the decline and the
better variety campaign was a move to revive the industry. From seventy to
seven, that could have been the slogan for the better variety campaign in
1927,

•2-

The men who selected the New England Seven did a good job of selecting
varieties. TXjo of these varieties, Delicious and Mcintosh are the leading
ones today. Delicious is first in production and popularity and Mcintosh
is first in New England and second in the United States, Baldwin, Rhode
Island Greening and Wealthy are no longer being planted. Red Gravenstein
and Northern Spy are being planted in a limited way. Cortland, an important
variety today, was introduced later and its real value to the industry is
as a pollinizer for Mcintosh and Delicious. Today the list of varieties
could be called the New England Three which include Mcintosh, Red Delicious
and Cortland.

There is some interest today in planting the new early varieties such
as Puritan, Fenton, liantet, Red Crimson Beauty and Red Melba, especially
for roadside stand operators. These early varieties will help to prolong
the marketing period for apples.

There is a real need for a winter variety to partly replace Mcintosh
but at present none of the new varieties appear to be good enough.

The promotion of the better variety campaign which was started in 1926
was quite an undertaking. There were 463 growers in eight counties entered
in the program which shows how interested the growers were in this project.
In order to promote this better variety program a top grafting contest was
started the same year. Three prizes were offered in each of two classes
based on the number of trees of odd varieties to be worked over in an
individual orchard. The report shows that 35 hundred trees were top grafted
the first year of the contest in New Hampshire. The first prize of 50
certified apple trees was won by A. D. Rowe of Stratham. The second prize
by Miles Watson of Newington and the third prize went to J. T. Moore of Boscawen.
The report also stated that 35 thousand trees were top grafted to better
varieties in New England and the majority of the trees were grafted over
to the Mcintosh variety. There is still evidence of this top grafting
contest in many of the old orchards in the state and many of these trees
have contributed to the welfare of the industry.

POLLINATION

The reduction in the number of varieties grown brought out the importance of
cross-pollination in obtaining a set of fruit. The value of cross-pollination on
certain varieties was not recognized in 1927 . There were always suitable variet-
ies for pollination in all orchards where so many were grown. The removal of
all of the odd varieties and the planting of solid blocks of one variety created
a pollination problem, especially with self-sterile varieties such as Mcintosh,
Delicious, Gravenstein and Northern Spy. The experimental work on pollination
of apples at the New Hampshire University by Dr. L. P. Latimer from 1927 to
1933 was the first work to show the value of such varieties as Red Delicious,
Wealthy and Wagener as pollinizers for Mcintosh and the necessity of inter-
planting these varieties if good crops were to be produced. Soon after the
establishment of the importance of cross-pollination the interplanting of vari-
eties in new plantings became a standard practice.

E. J. Rasmussen

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

-3-

Pomological Paragraphs

Recently it was suggested that we add to the fertilizer table for
blueberries another column giving costs. This would be a good idea if the
value of fertilizer could be judged by cost alone. Of course, it can't.
There is a quality factor which is more important than actual price per
ton. The cost per unit of nitrogen or phosphorus, or potash, or a combin-
ation of these, is more important than the cost per ton. In general, high
analysis fertilizers are the least expensive per unit. It is good business
to buy fertility as cheaply as possible. Buying the cheapest fertilizer
may not yield the cheapest fertility.

---J. S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

PREVENTING FROST DAMAGE TO STRAWBERRIES

Late spring frosts have caused considerable damage to strawberry crops in a
single night. Growers that irrigate for frost protection report that irrigation
means the difference between a good strawberry crop and a near failure.

Frosts generally occur when the earth and surrounding objects reach the
temperature of 32° F. or lower. Frosts are usually accompanied by deposition of
ice crystals, but temperatures below 32° may occur without formation of ice
crystals.

The principle by which water is able to prevent frost injury is based on the
latent heat which is released when water is changed to ice. Some heat is re-
leased as water is cooled to 32° F., but the main effect is produced when water
is changed to ice. When 1,000 gallons of water is changed to ice as much
heat is released as when 800 gallons of boiling water is cooled to 32° F. The
temperature of any object remains near 32° F. as long as water is freezing on
it. VJhen an irrigation system is used for frost protection, water is con-
tinuously sprayed on the plants and soil. As the water starts to freeze on
the plants, it gives off heat to the strawberry plant leaves and blossoms
and to the air and soil. Unless the air temperature is very low or the heat
is rapidly removed by a cold wind, the head absorbed by the plants is
sufficient to keep the temperature above freezing. The water should be
applied before the air temperature reaches 32° and continuously as long as
the air temperature remains below freezing. If sprinkling stops before
thawing takes place, the temperature of the wet strawberry blossoms drops
rapidly and they will be killed.

A Massachusetts grovjer reports that irrigation gave complete protection
of strawberry plants in 1956 when air temperature dropped to 22 degrees. Reports
from other states indicates that growers have been able to protect strawberry
plants against temperature as low as 12 degrees.

It was reported in the 84th Annual Report of the State Horticultural
Society of Michigan that some Michigan strawberry growers assume that the
start of ice crystals is the time to start applying water and that these

growers used various ingenuous methods to determine the starting time. The
most common method was to observe and feel the formation of ice crystals on
the leaves in the lower part of the strawberry field. Other growers parked
their cars in a low area and watched for the formation of frost on roof and
fenders. One grower used an old car fender placed in the lowest area while
another used a very thin layer of water in a pie plate which was set directly
on the row. It should be noted, however, although frosts are usually accom-
panied by deposition of ice crystals, that temperatures below 32° F. may
occur without the formation of ice crystals. This condition is known as
"black frost" and may result in frozen plants.

To avoid risks thermometers should be used. These should be placed at
plant level because temperature here is apt to be several degrees colder than
at four or five feet above the ground. The use of temperature - alarm devices
can save growers a great deal of sleep.

A sprinkler irrigation system, if properly used is the most effective
method known to control, or greatly reduce damage caused by frost. Smudge
pots or burning tires work only on those rare nights when atmospheric condi-
tions are just right. In many cases frost protection is obtained for a
short distance only from the smudge pots or burning tires.

Irrigation equipment can be placed to cover more area when used for
frost protection than when used for irrigation. Many irrigation systems are
designed so that water from one sprinkler will reach the base of the next
sprinkler. For frost protection, the spacing of the sprinklers can be
increased to cover about twice as much area. It is suggested in the Michigan
State University Extension Bulletin #327 that for frost protection, the wetted
area from one sprinkler should overlap for a few feet the wetted area from the
next sprinkler. To distribute the water satisfactorily over a large area
sprinklers should be spaced in a triangular pattern instead of a rectangular
or square pattern.

Sprinklers with smaller nozzles than those used for protection against
drought are more efficient in frost protection, as generally ice is formed
more quickly than with large nozzle sprinklers.

The Michigan State University Extension Bulletin gives the following
suggestions for using the irrigation equipment:

"The water distribution in the field should be checked to make sure that
all the plants are sprinkled with enough water. This can be done by measuring
the water depth in several oil cans--with tops cut out — placed midway between
two sprinklers, where the water application is likely to be the least. This
should be done as a "test run" before the equipment is used for frost pro-
tection.

The water application rate for frost protection should be just enough
to prevent damage to the plant. Putting on more water than is needed is a
waste of water and power, and may lead to waterlogging the soil. A minimum
water application rate of about 1/10 to 1/8 of an inch per hour, as measured

in cans between sprinklers in the field, appears to be adequate for a minimum
temperature of 20°F.

Most of the rotary irrigation sprinklers used in Michigan, especially
those with two or more nozzles, usually apply more water than is needed for
frost protection. Some growers plug one nozzle and use only the nozzle with
the "kicker arm"; by use of this procedure, usually about half the normal
amount of water is applied. It may also be necessary to use a smaller-size
sprinkler nozzle to further reduce the application rate. Increasing the pres-
sure at the sprinkler will increase the wetted area and may create finer
water droplets, both of which are desirable. Your irrigation equipment
dealer can help you select the proper size nozzle and adjust the sprinkler
spacing.

The turning and speed of the sprinklers can be an important factor in
the effectiveness of irrigation for frost protection. Small, one-nozzle
sprinklers turning one revolution in 12-20 seconds have given very satisfac-
tory results; whereas somewhat larger sprinklers with one nozzle plugged,
turning one revolution in 90 seconds or more, did not adequately protect a
tomato crop against a 24 degree frost. Until further research evidence is
available, definite recommendations regarding the turning speed of sprinklers
cannot be made. The rotation speed of some sprinklers can be increased by
increasing the spring tension or by making other adjustments."

W. J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

TIPS ON DETECTING MINER.\L DEFICIENCIES OF APPLE TREES

Magnesium and potassium deficiencies are of frequent occurrence in
Massachusetts orchards. Both deficiencies are expressed by a scorching of
the foliage. Interveinal scorching of the foliage is generally associated
with magnesium deficiency while marginal scorching is characteristic of
potassium deficiency. However, in many cases interveinal scorching may
extend to the margin of the leaf making positive identification of the
deficiency difficult or impossible.

A history of the fertilizer program used in the orchard where foliage
scorch appears will often aid in determining whether the scorch is due to
magnesium or potassium deficiency. For example, if scorched foliage occurs
in a block which has not been limed for several years and it has been fertil-
ized with a mixed fertilizer such as 10-10-10 you can be almost certain that
the scorched foliage is due to magnesium deficiency. On the otherhand, a
block which has been well limed and fertilized v^ith only a nitrogen carrying
fertilizer the scorched foliage will be an expression of potassium deficiency.
These observations have been verified by chemical analysis data which we have
obtained from growers orchards over the past several years.

W. D. Weeks

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

DON'T TAICE A CHANCE WITH APPLE SCAB IN 1958

Dry weather in the spring of 1957 made it an easy year for scab control
and most growers had little or no scab on fruit at harvest. Continued dry
weather in summer and fall did not favor build-up of leaf scab so that for
1958 the carryover is light.

The question in the mind of nearly every grov^er is, "With a very light
carryover, is it necessary for me to follov/ a strict protective scab control
program or can I take it easy?" Unfortunately, there is no unconditional
answer, and, regardless who gives the answer, at best, it can be only a guess.
But the chances are tliat it will be a better guess if there are a few facts
on which to base it.

Suppose we start with one scab spot on one leaf on one tree and the leaf
drops to the ground. The fungus grovjs and winters in the leaf but no winter
spore cases v^ill develop and produce primary scab spores because the fungus is
self-incompatible. But suppose we start with two scab spots on one leaf. The
fungus from each grows through the leaf tissue and as the threads from one spot
reach those from the other there is union and formation of winter spore cases
because threads from different spots are compatible. Winter spore cases can be
formed also when two leaves v^ith only one scab spot each are overlapping or in
contact with each other oii the ground so that fungus threads can grow from one
leaf into the other.

It is possible for 250 winter spore cases to be formed on one square inch
of one scabby leaf on the ground and it has been calculated that from one
square inch of such a leaf more than 33,000 primary spores can be discharged
in 45 minutes of wetting. If even a few of these spores land on unprotected
leaf tissue or flower clusters, each will produce a scab spot in 12 to 15 days
with many spores capable of causing secondary infections and, what is more,
each scab spot will continue to produce and scatter spores with each rain the
rest of the season unless it is "burned out". And each secondary scab spot will
produce more spores in 10 or 12 days. All this from just one discharge and
in one primary infection rain. When this is multiplied by several discharges
during infection rains, it is obvious that a grower can have a rather heavy
scab population going on in his orchard in 20 or 30 days if he neglects his
scab control program.

Several years ago Dr. A. B. Burrell of New York, in a talk at the Annual
Meeting of the M. F. G. A. reported that it cost more for scab control if there
were scab infections on spur leaves or early in the season. He advised early
scab control and a strict protectant program through the primary infection
period. This is still good advice for Massachusetts growers for 1958 even
though there is a light scab carryover.

The fungicides listed in the spray chart will give satisfactory scab
control if applied on time and thoroughly. Grov/ers should read about apple
powdery mildew on the last page and decide v/hether to include mildew protection
in the early scab sprays or to wait until milde\-; is found in the orchard.

C. J. Gilgut

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

PLASTIC MULCH FOR STRAWBERRIES

While I was in California I visited some strawberry fields where plastic
mulch is being tried. Only a few of the many strawberry growers there are
trying it. It is still considered in the experimental stage. It is true
that during a three weeks rainy period in the early part of the season plas-
tic mulch prevented many berries from rotting (I v/as assured that such weath-
er was very unusual). In California strawberries are grown by the hill sys-
tem. This makes it possible to cut holes in the plastic strips and pull
the plants through.

In the summer of 1956, a small amount of plastic mulch was donated for
trial by one of the manufacturers. I gave some to two growers who use the
Cape Cod spaced row system. Both reported that it was almost impossible to
set runner plants through the mulch. At the end of the season the runner
plants set through the plastic were much smaller than those set without it.
I can see no possibility of using plastic mulch where the matted row system
is used. Only some type of hill system appears adapted to its use. Climate
is also a factor. Plastic mulch appears to be shorter lived in the north-
eastern states than in California. Even the black mulch, which is most
resistant to sunlight, has deteriorated badly in about two years.

Although the results here have not been very encouraging, it is still
possible that with changes in the material itself and in methods and prac-
tices in strawberry growing, plastic mulch may be useful.

---John S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

COMPOSITION OF VERI-IONT ORCHARDS

A survey of Vermont commercial apple orcliards conducted during the 1957
growing season v/as the first complete survey of this kind. Of the 104 apple
plantings surveyed, only 86 are of commercial importance. These 86 orchards
involve 3562 acres on which 122,000 trees are being grown. In line with a
trend observed from other orcharding states, orchards of 500 trees or less
have only 4% of the tree population while even though only 22% of the orchards
were above the 2,000 tree size, they included more than 56% of the tree
population.

Mcintosh is far ahead of any other variety with 64% of the tree popula-
tion followed by Northern Spy with 12% and Red Delicious with 10%. Cortland
is the fourth important variety with only 6%. Greenings are down to 2%. This
is the continuation of a definite trend during recent years to fewer varieties..
With better than 90% of Vermont's commercial apple trees limited to four
varieties, it is not at all surprising that Baldwins, Wealthy, Fameuse and
Northwest Greenings are no longer being grown.

-8-

Only \TL of the apple trees in the 86 orchards have been planted since
1950 which is a much lower figure than the 20% plus figure generally consid-
ered to be necessary to maintain a good strong orchard operation, Addison
County, with 387o of the state's apple trees, has 15% of the tree population in
the non-bearing age bracket. Bennington County, with 21% of the trees, has
only 3% in the young bracket. Windham County, which is the third important
apple growing county, has 23% of the trees in the non-bearing age bracket.

Growers may realize some benefit from the survey by determining the
situation in their own orchards as to ratio of non-bearing to over-age
trees and also the number of low value trees being grown. The short-
comings of growing an orchard in which a very high number of trees are
already in, or soon will be in, the over-age bracket shows up quickly if
and when selling the orchard is necessary. An orchard on a good site,
made up of the right varieties for the situation and with a favorable ratio
of young to full-bearing age trees, is a good proposition both from income
and resale value standpoints. A good ratio of young to old trees and high
to low value varieties is a form of insurance that an apple grower might
like to look into.

— C. Lyman Calahan

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

ABOUT INSECTS AND MITES

Revised editions of Disease and Insect Control Charts for Massachusetts
are now available in County Extension Offices and the Mailing Room, Univer-
sity of Massachusetts at Amherst.

These charts are designed for commercial growers of Apples, Pears,
Peaches, Cultivated Blueberries, Strawberries, and Grapes. They have been
developed cooperatively by Extension and Research personnel of the College
of Agriculture from the headquarters at Amherst and the Field Stations at
Waltham and Wareham.

For Home Orchardists the "General-Purpose" Home Orchard Spray Schedule
(Special Circular No. 178) is still available but unchanged. This chart
features a mixture of captan, methoxychlor and malathion, a safe, effective
combination for use on all home gro\«i fruits.

* Vf * -k it •}'( i( Vf it it it it it it it it it it it it it it it it it it it it

Strawberry growers planning to use captan in repeated applications
from before bloom and all through harvest to control various fruit molds
should plan also to control 2-spotted mite (red spider) . It is well knovm
that captan creates conditions favorable to mites. The addition of meth-
oxychlor or DDT to one or two pre-bloom sprays encourages mites even more,
but may be well worthwhile to control plant bugs, spittlebugs, and weevils.

-9-

Prevent outbreaks of 2-spotted mite by including a good miticide in
pre-bloom sprays of captan. Kelthane is preferred. It has a long residual
life, is not hazardous to handle and is of some value also against the
cyclamen mite.

For outbreaks of 2-spotted mite that do occur after bloom, malathion
and TEPP (BE Cy^JREFUL with TEPP) are the only materials available. Follow
label directions as to use near harvest.

* ■>'( ■* Vf * I'c * •>'( •>'( Vf i< it i< * Vf Vf * * * Vf * * *• * * •>!? * *

New Materials may be given an Experimental Label and a Temporary Tol-
erance. Representatives of commercial firms and state or other official
workers may suggest that you try certain new materials that have such an
Experimental Label.

Such labels are given to manufacturers with the understanding that the
material may be sold or given to growers for trial use under supervision.
You, as a grower, are cooperating in a field trial of the material. Obser-
vations on its performance that are made by you and by official or commer-
cial investigators or Extension personnel will help determine the value of
the material in the pest control program.

Fruit treated according to directions on an Experimental Label may be
sold through regular channels. Following tests of materials not yet labelled,
even for Experimental use, treated fruit should not be sold for food.

— E. H. Wheeler

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

NETJ SHOTGUN SHELL EFFECTIVE AGAINST NUISANCE BIRDS

Several sound devices that produce frightening noises have been used in
an attempt to move nuisance birds . The device known as an acetylene exploder,
operated either from calcium carbide or an acetylene tank, produces deafening
reports.

A more recent development is a shotgun shell, in 12 gauge only, contain-
ing an inner exploding cartridge which is impelled by the powder charge in
the shell. The inner cartridge has a fuse which ignites when the shell is
fired, causing the cartridge to explode at a distance of 100 to 200 yards
away. Thus, the 12 gauge shell produces an explosive report similar to one
from a regular 12 gauge shotgun shell. This is followed by a loud, sharp
crack sound from the inner cartridge when it explodes. The second explosion
occurs in raid-air if the shell is given the correct trajectory.

The new exploding shells are very good in frightening birds from agricul-
tural crops when properly used. Our experience with the shells indicates that
they may be particularly effective in conjunction with the acetylene exploder
in certain situations. At present the shells, kno\^m as "shell crackers", are
being manufactured in Japan and distributed by a company in the United States.

-10-

Your County Agent can supply you with the information as to price ana
where the "shell crackers" can be obtained,

— -Wesley R. Jones

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FAITH IN THE WM ENGLAND APPLE

On the last day of February, Mrs. Cole and I completed a seven and one
half month trip of 22,400 miles into market areas in 35 states. Conferences
were held at 20 state universities. More than 500 market people were inter-
viewed regarding current operations and trends in marketing. These people
included shippers, brokers, jobbers, wholesalers, processors, truckers, chain
and independent buyers, supermarket operators, market reporters, market
managers, association managers and secretaries, and state department of agri-
culture personnel. Producing areas and producers were visited. Over 150
supermarkets or grocery stores selling fruits and vegetables were visited and
purchases made in many of them. The trip was made during a Sabbatic leave
from the University of Massachusetts and co-sponsored by the Federal Reserve
Bank of Boston.

The main object of the trip was to learn as much as possible about what
is happening in the fruit and vegetable business around the country and to
learn about the market prospects for the fruit and vegetable industry here in
Massachusetts including the feasibility of modern market facilities.

Most people are convinced that their own area has many possibilities and
like it as a place to live and work. That is goodl Other areas have advantages
and all have disadvantages once you get well enough acquainted to see the whole
situation. In this regard Massachusetts is like the rest.

Differences come to light in a comparison of the advantages and disadvantages
the strength and the handicaps that help or hinder a particular business.

It is my conclusion, after the trip, that the balance of the advantages and
disadvantages in Massachusetts is decidedly in its favor as a place to grow and
sell apples. I will also repeat a comment that has been made in several meetings.
There has never been a time in this area that was any more favorable to the
planting of apple trees than at present. A comparison of our soil, climate,
market outlets, costs and competition points to the favorable business opportuni-
ties in fruit growing.

All areas have weather and many have variations that are more serious than
ours. Nowhere is it possible to succeed with inefficient methods and careless
operation. Some areas have hurdles due to climate, or distance from market or
soil and seem to be almost insurmountable for all except those who carry a
generous supply of courage in their shirt pockets. Boom areas and easy profits
are practically nonexistent.

•11-

There are fewer farms, but larger ones, maintaining production in practically
every section of the country. It is a common situation.

Nov;here are growers able to coast along comfortably in the same old way of
doing things. Changes have to be met, head on, and adjustments thought
out in the current scheme of things. No area is immune to change.

There is no reason why those who like New England as a place to live and
fruit growing as a vocation cannot plan on a favorable business opportunity
with good business management and attention to the necessary details of production
and marketing.

Those who have faith in New England fruit growing have a faith that is
well founded. It is their opportunity to have a good business and like it tool

F. E. Cole

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

TAICE A LOOK AT YOUR INSURANCE PROGRAI'l-

VJith Costs of growing fruit still at high levels, fruit growers may well be
concerned with ways of protecting themsleves against disaster. One way of
spreading risk is to buy insurance.

On your orchard consider using hail insurance. If you have had any past
history of hail damage then hail insurance is something to be considered.

Your insurance agent may be able to offer you several types of policies.
You may insure only certain blocks of trees rather than the entire orchard. Rates
may vary and may seem high but losses can be substantial, too.

Fire insurance on your buildings and equipment--higher construction costs
and higher costs of equipment may mean that adequate insurance would require
larger policies. If you store the crop on the farm ask about a "schedule"
policy which requires you to file a monthly inventory of fruit on hand. You
pay insurance on the apples you have while you have them and not on apples
after they move to market. It usually means good protection if for proper
amounts and usually lower cost of insurance.

If you move your equipment to several farms, ask about "blanket" or "floater"
insurance on equipment instead of including it on your fire insurance policy.

Suits for injury or damage to people or their property have been becoming
more frequent so consider Public Liability insurance on your premises in a
Farmer's Comprehensive Insurance policy or a General Comprehensive Policy.
Particularly important if you have visitors coming to the farm.

Consider Workmen's Compensation insurance to protect you in the event
your employees are injured on the job.

-12-

Don't forget insurance on non-registered motor vehicles used on the farm.

If you sell directly to the public or if you sell in marked pacl<ages
consider "product" insurance to protect you against suits of consumers who
may be made ill by eating your farm products.

Adequate motor vehicle insurance is important and should include coverage
for travel both on and off the "ways of the Commonwealth." Property damage
should be included with public liability coverage.

Other special insurance coverage may well be a consideration for some
farms.

Begin consideration of insurance by raising three questions: 1, VJhat are
my chances of a loss occurring? 2, How much can the loss be if it does occur?
3, How can insurance be obtained and what will it cost?

Where possible--buy comprehensive coverage if offered, buy policies with
deductible clauses where offered, buy policies for a greater period than a
year and pay premiums in yearly installments if necessary, be sure your agent
understands your farm operation- -what you do, who visits your farm, what
property or risks you wish to insure, where and what you sell, and read you
policy.

- — Lawrence D. Rhoades
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

\^^

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

A Comparison of Vermont with Other Apple
Producing Areas

Stronger and Hardier Apple Trees

Whats Happened in the Past Thirty Years
in the Apple Industry in New Hampshire

SUMMER FRUIT TOUR AND MEETING

New FDA Rulings to Help in Mite Control

Pruning Peaches

The Same Old Story

Training Young Trees

Two Kinds of Clover Mites

CA Roundup

Red Stele of Strawberries

Shipping Strawberry Plants

Chemical Thinning of Apples

MAY 15, 1958

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director.

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating

Publication Approved by George J. Cronln, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

YOUIl POMOLOGY STAFF

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematic
Pomology. Active in the testing of new varieties.

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham.
Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums. Mr.
Bailey also does considerable Extension work with growers of small
fruit.

French, Arthur P. - Head, Department of Horticulture

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest control,
and does research. Editor of FRUIT MOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C. - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses.
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, Franklin V/. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also, teaches certain
advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to this issue form supporting fields

C. Lyman Calahan, Extension Horticulturist, University of Vermont
E. J. Rasmussen, Extension Horticulturist, University of New Hampshire
E, H. VJheeler, Extension Entomologist

Harvey R, Levine, Graduate Student, Department of Entomology and

Plant Pathology

A COMPARISON OF VERMONT WITH OTHER APPLE PRODUCING AREAS

An Apple Tree Survey was conducted In 1957 by the Extension Service,
University of Vermont in cooperation with the U.S.D.A. Agricultural Marketing
Service. Table 1, which appears on the next page, was prepared by Prof. C.
Lyman Calahan, Extension Horticulturalist, University of Vermont, and it
shows the size of the Vermont Apple Industry and how it compares with some
other apple areas. It can be noted that there are 86 apple orchards in
Vermont as compared with 371 in Massachusetts. The smallest orchard reported
in the Vermont survey had 117 trees. The Massachusetts Apple Orchard Survey
was on a similar basis in the orchards with 100 or more apple trees vjere
surveyed.

The percentage of trees of various varieties in Vermont in comparison with
those in Massachusetts is shown in Table 2.

Table 2 - The Percentage of Trees of Various Varieties in:

Vermont

Massachusetts

Mcintosh

64.2

Northern Spy

12.0

Delicious

10.1

Cortland

6.0

Greening

1.9

Others

5.7

Mcintosh

Baldwin

Red Delicious

Cortland

Early Mcintosh

Others

48.6
14.1
10.8
7.7
3.1
15.7

About 95 per cent of the Baldwin trees in Massachusetts are 10 years old
and over and about 7 3 per cent of the Northern Spy trees in Vermont are 28
years or older. The non-bearing tree population indicates that Red Delicious
will be the second leading variety in both Massachusetts and Vermont in the
future.

Vermont has storage capacity for 457,500 bushels of apples 44,000 of
which is CA storage.

The average apple crop for Vermont for 1945-1954 in comparison with the
other New England States is sho\m in Table 3.

Table 3 - '^'^New England Apple Production, by States,

State

Average for 1945-1954

Massachusetts
Connecticut
New Hampshire
Maine
Vermont
Rhode Island

2,276,000
1,191,000
890,000
862,000
782,000
160,000

Source: Crop Reporting Service, United States Department of Agriculture.

William J. Lord

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-3-

STRONGER AND HARDIER APPLE TREES

Even though very low temperatures or extended periods of low temperatures
have occurred during the past two winters, there doesn't seem to be evidence of
winter injury to Vermont apple trees. In fact, there are not many active growers
who remember the severe losses of Baldwins, Spys, Red Delicious and even Macs
during the 1933-34 winters. Much of the injury to these varieties caused at
that time is still taking a toll of broken scaffolds and dying trees, often
without being recognized as associated with winter injury.

The hardy stock, Malus Robusta No. 5, developed by the Canadians, shows a
lot of promise for planting to help avoid future losses caused by winter injury
as well as to develop stronger trees. Robusta, being a clonal stock, is propa-
gated in much the same way as are the dwarfing stocks. This makes them a little
more difficult to get and more expensive than seedling stocks.

The Vermont Horticultural Society, working with a prominent Quebec apple
grower who is producing hardy stocks on a commercial basis, is assisting Vermont
apple growers to obtain hardy trees. The first sizable plantings will be made
this spring by about 20 Vermont growers.

Two tree-building systems are used. In the first, a single bud of the scion
variety is set by the nurseryman in Robusta stock at a point about 20 inches
above the crown. The resulting scaffold system is of the scion variety and no
special budding or grafting work is required by the apple grower after planting.
The second method is that of budding or grafting onto a trunk and scaffold system
of the hardy stock. In this system, growers plant Robusta 5 and usually bud the
scion variety onto 4-6 scaffolds during the first two years the tree is in the
orchard. This requires more time and know-how, but evidently will result in an
even hardier and stronger scaffold system than where a single bud is used.

A very favorable crotch angle development is being observed even on Red
Delicious and Spys grox^m by the single bud as well as the topworked system.
This may be due to the high vigor of the Robusta root system compared to
seedling stock. Single budded trees are always planted as one-year trees
because growth during the second year in the nursery is very fast, possibly
because the root system is one year older than the usual seedling roots used.
Most of the hardy trees being ordered are Mcintosh aiid Red Delicious with the
best local strains being collected and sent to the nursery for budding on a
custom basis.

C. Lyman Calahan

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

WHATS HAPPENED IN THE PAST THIRTY YEARS IN THE APPLE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE

Pruning

Pruning thirty years ago was a controversial subject and still is. There
were as many methods of pruning in 1927 as there were growers and times haven't

changed growers viex-js on pruning very much. We knew very little about the
relation of growth of twigs or branches and the formation of blossom buds
or to production of the time of blossom bud formation. We didn't talk about
weak and vigorous wood and its effect on fruit set. I think most of the
pruning was done just for the sake of pruning and many growers pruned a good
deal more severely than they do today. For the period of 1930 to 1940 the
practice was to prune apple trees very little the first 5 to 6 years after
plantiiig. Unpruncd trees came into bearing at an early age but experience
shov/ed later that the frame v/ork on such trees was not as strong as on trees
where a few branches were selected to form the framework of the tree.

Today pruning is done partly to fit the trees to the equipment and
partly to improve the quality of the fruit. Weak, low-productive wood is
removed and trees are headed back and the top centers thinned out to make
spraying and harvesting easier.

The development of compressed air pruners and elevated platforms from
which pruning can be done has been quite a help in speeding up the pruning
operation.

Brush removal v^as a slov; and tedious taslc thirty years ago. The brush
was piclced up by hand and placed on a wagon or drag and hauled out of the
orchard. Practically all of the hauling v;as done with horses. The drag
provided the most economical v;ay to remove brush. A simple way to unload
the brush from the drag was to tie one end of a long rope to the back end
of the drag and then string the rope along the bottom of the drag and place
the remainder of the rope in a coil at the front. When the drag was loaded
and hauled to the unloading place the rope was throv/n over the top of the
brush, a horse hitched to the loose end and the brush rolled off.

Later the brush burner became popular, then the buckrake on the front
end of a tractor and more recently the large rotary mower. All of these
pieces of equipment have helped to simplify the removal of brush from the
orchard.

Hormones

The idea of having a material that could be sprayed on trees in the spring
to thin the fruit and in the fall to stick the fruit on was not even dreamed
about thirty years ago. It would have been thought fantastic. The discovery in
1939 that naphthaleneacetic acid and some related compounds would delay the
preharvest drop of Mcintosh, saved the apple growers in New England many
millions of dollars and no doubt was partly responsible for the continued
heavy planting of the Mcintosh variety. No orchard practice has ever been
accepted as a general practice in so short a time as the use of stop-drop
materials. Prior to the discovery of these hormones growers were resigned to
picking from 25 to 50 per cent of the Mcintosh crop off the ground. Today
most growers hand pick at least 907o of their crop of this variety. These
materials have played a part in the increased yield per acre by permitting the
grower to harvest a larger percentage of his crop.

-5-

Thinning apples thirty years ago was done only in a limited way and all of
it was done by hand. The research work on thinning showed that thinning would
improve the size and quality of fruit if done early in the growing period.
Varieties such as Wealthy, Duchess, Golden Delicious and Early Mcintosh required
thinning in order to obtain marketa"ble fruit but the cost of hand thinning
usually was greater than the difference in returns received. Recent experience
and research has shown that some of the hormone materials as naphthaleneacetic
acid and naphthaleneacetamide can be used to thin apples and their use is be-
coming a standard practice in many orchards today.

Soil Management

Not too much was kno^rm about soil management in orchards thirty years ago.
Most of the bearing orchards were grown in sod. Some of the young orchards were
being cultivated, manure and wood ashes when available, were used as fertilizers.
It was during this period that the value of a hay mulch and nitrogen was estab-
lished. The celebrated fertilizer plots started by Dr. Gourley at the Woodman
Orchards in Durham and later continued at the Horticultural Farm by Prof. Potter
showed the importance of nitrogen as a fertilizer for apple trees. The experi-
ment on the use of hay mulch by Dr. Shaw of Massachusetts was the forerunner of
the sod-mulch system of soil management v;hich helped in a large way to make
the production of apples profitable on our rough hilly land. Without the sod-
mulch system it isn't likely we would have an apple industry in New Hampshire today.

Minor element deficiencies were not recognized thirty years ago. I remember
the first boron deficiency injury reported in New Hampshire. It was on the Harry
Chase Farm in Lyndeboro on Gravcnstein trees. Some experimental work by Dr.
Latimer showed that the injury could be corrected by adding a half pound of borax
to the soil under the trees. Magnesium deficiency was also a mystery at the time.
It wasn't until 1940 that the browning of leaves and defoliation on apple trees
was known to be caused by magnesium deficiency and could be corrected by applica-
tions of epsom salts as a spray to the foliage.

Number of Growers and Size of Orchard

The decrease in the number of apple growers and the increase in size of
operation is one of the most noticeable changes in the industry. I don't know
of any record of the number of apple growers in the State in 1927. The
correspondence regarding the better apple campaign between H. A. Rollins and
the County' Agents showed that 463 growers from 8 counties owning 121,226 trees
were entered in the campaign in 1927. From the comments in 1927 in these letters
about 1/3 of the growers in an area entered the contest. This would indicate
that there were around 1500 apple growers in the State thrity years ago. The
majority of the growers operated between 50 and 200 trees. Some of the figures
in these letters are interesting. For instance, Belknap County reported 104
growers signed up in the campaign with 14,000 trees. Sullivan County, 15 growers
with 3,000 trees. Cheshire County, 29 growers vjith 10,550. Merrimack County,
87 growers with 50,000 trees. Strafford County, 36 growers with 10,228 trees.
Hillsboro County, 117 growers xjith 63,722 trees and Rockingham County, 63 growers
with 23,763 trees. Today Sullivan, Cheshire and Strafford Counties have less
than ten commercial growers each. Rockingham and Hillsboro Counties are still
the largest apple producing counties with around 100 commercial growers each.

-6-

Size of operation has greatly increased and the decrease in the number of
growers and the number of trees has not reduced the total yield of apples in
the State. Production in 1927 according to the 1927 Crop Report was 1,100,000
bushels. In 1957 the yield of apples in Nev; Hampshire was 1,300,000 bushels.

The high cost of labor, the large investment in equipment, the necessity
of refrigerated storages and the difficulty in marketing a small volume of
apples all contributed to this change in size of operation and the number of
commercial growers. Many of the smaller orchards were taken over by the
larger grov7ers in the neighborhood resulting in the salvation of many of these
small units. The present growers are seleccing better sites on which to plant
new orchards.

Investment and Cost of Production

The average investment 30 years ago of buildings and land without counting
the value of trees as reported in the New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment
Station Bulletin 279 was fifty-five hundred dollars. The average total invest-
ment including value of trees, equipment, personal perpcrty, land and buildings
was $19,800. Today total investments in some of the larger operations in the
State is $100,000 to $150,000. The cost today of a 10,000 box cold storage is
greater than the average total investment in an orchard 30 years ago.

E. J. Pvasmussen

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

SUMMER FRUIT TOUR AND MEETING
Reserve July 17 and 18 for a summer fruit tour and meeting.
Several orchards in the Nashoba area will be visited on July
17th. On the morning of July 18th, a half day speaking
program will be held at the University and in the afternoon
an orchard in Franklin County will be visited.

-Editor-

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

NEW FDA RULINGS TO HELP IN MITE CONTROL

Producers of small fruits should be encouraged by a recent Food and Drug
ruling which allows Kelthane, also known as 1, l-bis(chlorophenyl) 2, 2, 2-
trichlorothanol, to be used on strawberries and all cane fruits after bloom and
up to 2 days before harvest.

Kelthane is a miticide (acaricide) and is especially useful against 2-spotted
mite (red spider) which can become serious between bloom and harvest. In the 1958
Strawberry Chart, malathion and TEPP are suggested because at that writing no other
materials were available. Now that i;elthane is approved, it is to be preferred.

Unfortunately, dusts containing Kelthane are not available. For dusting, after
bloom we have only malathion to suggest for strawberries.

Cyclamen mite also can be checked with heavy, drenching sprays of Kelthane.
It is not the best material for this pest, but it is the only one we may suggest
for the bearing bed. With it a threatened crop can be saved.

ie Vf it -jV * i( i( iV it it it it it it it it it it it it it it it it

Apple growers also should be interested in Kelthane for summer applications
against 2-spotted mite and late red mite. Single applications should be compared
with Aramite used in the same way. Like Aramite, Kelthane provides no "fringe"
benefits against other pests, but it can be very valuable at times when such
benefits as provided by the organic phosphates are not needed. Even with
Kelthane, as with all other materials, thorough coverage of underneath surfaces
is essential to 2-spotted mite control.

E. H, Wheeler

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOCICAL PARAGRAPHS

Pruning Peaches

Visits to peach orchards during the month has led the writer to believe
that some growers in their pruning operations are not pruning to replace the
winter injured wood. VJith a good crop of peaches, considerable limb breakage
may occur. More heading back should be done on some of the scaffold branches.
These branches should be headed to a desirable outward growing lateral. Well
placed branches on the inner parts of the tree should be retained so that they
will subsequently replace older wood.

The Same Old Story

The failure of timely removal of filler trees in an apple orchard has
been discussed and probably will be discussed as long as apple trees are grown.
Perhaps if more growers had the opportunity to visit orchards over the State as
frequently as the writer, more would be done about the timely removal of filler
trees. This last month the writer observed a block of trees in which the filler
trees are severely crowding the permanent trees. Practically all the lower
branches on the permanent trees have been shaded out, and the trees are getting
too tall.

Last summer an excellent example was observed of canpetition between
permanent and filler trees for moisture as shown by fruit size. In this particular
block, only part of the filler trees had been removed and fruit size was notice-
ably smaller where the filler trees remained in competition with the permanent
trees for moisture.

Training Young Trees

Considerable time was devoted during the month to pruning of young trees.
There is less tendency than formerly to leave the young apple trees unpruned

during the first five to six years after planting. The purposes of pruning
young trees is to train them to a desired form. The time to remove the undesir-
able limbs is when they can be pruned with hand pruning shears. To delay the
training of young trees until it is necessary to make many saw cuts is to wait
too long.

-— U. J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

TWO KINDS OF CLOVER MITES

Clover mites feed on the foliage of fruit trees and various grasses and

other plants, and have recently come into prominence as household pests. In

orchards they are particularly troublesome when applications of DDT are not
accompanied by adequate mite-control measures.

Fruit growers often become alarmed in early spring when they notice
millions of clover mites feeding on the orchard cover crops. A few weeks later
the mites appear in the trees on the 'mouse-ear' leaves. Recent studies in
British Columbia-'- and at the University of Massachusetts^, however, indicate
that the 'clover mites' on the cover crop are not the same as those which later
feed on apple foliage.

By banding the trunk and scaffold limbs of apple trees with an adhesive, it
has been shown that the 'clover mites' feeding on the apple foliage live primarily
on the leaves. They migrate to the tvvigs to lay their eggs and shed their skins,
but do not move dox^^l to the trunk or ground. These mites pass the winter in the
egg stage on the apple twigs.

The 'clover mites' on the ground cover, however, spend the winter in both
the egg and active stages underneath the loose bark at the base of trees.
Because they overwinter partly as active stages, they appear on their food
plants earlier in the season than those on fruit trees. They feed only on
grasses and similar plants but do not migrate up the trunk to feed on the apple
foliage, hence are of no real concern to the apple grower.

J. J.

^Anderson, N. H., and C. V. G. Morgan. 1958. Canad. Ent. 90(1): 23-42
Levine, H. R. Unpublished data

Harvey R. Levine

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

CA ROUNDUP

Most CA rooms have been opened and the repacking and selling of CA Mcintosh
is well under way or completed. All CA rooms in Massachusetts, and perhaps with
one or two exceptions throughout New England, were run well enough to qualify
under the Nev; York State CA law. This law requires, among other things, that a
CA room reach an oxygen level of 5 per cent within 20 days and that this level

be maintained for at least 90 days. Generally, the fruit from CA rooms is in
good shape and is selling at profitable prices. However, some disorders are
present and the condition of fruit i^/ithin a given room may vary considerably
from lot to lot.

After looking over quite a few CA Mcintosh it is apparent that when a
room is properly run failure to have good fruit when the room is opened is
usually due to the fact that poor fruit was put in the storage originally.
Such things as overripe, off-grade, bruised, and stem-punctured fruit are
troubles which have occurred prior to storage. The same is true for boxes
which are slack. Even the severity of storage scald may be related to pick-
ing fruit in too immature a condition or allowing it to remain out of storage
too long after harvest. Findings in Ilev; York indicate that the amount of
scald on CA Mcintosh increases quite rapidly if storage of the fruit after
harvest is delayed more than 24 hours. In our tests this year Mcintosh
scalded more in regular cold storage than in CA if the apples \jevc similar
and were placed in and taken out of storage at the same time. The opposite
was true for Cortland, however.

Aside from scald, fruit splitting and rot were problems in some lots of
Mcintosh. In CA rooms the humidity must be kept high to prevent shriveling.
Consequently, mist nozzles have been installed in most CA rooms. Sometimes
boxes with which the mist comes in direct contact tend to develop more split
fruit and rot than boxes farther away from the 'nozzles. It is our observation
that large fruit or apples V7hich went into the storage in an overripe condition
are most apt to split, but excessive water from mist nozzles may increase the
tendency of such apples to spilt. Often apples from one source are much more
susceptible to splitting and rotting than from another even when the fruit is in
a similar position in the same room. This means that the condition of the fruit
vjhen it comes to the storage is often of primary importance in determining the
extent of these difficulties. It also seems that fruit packed in old wood may
develop more rotten apples than fruit in new boxes. Old wood, expecially if
it has contained rotten apples in the past and no attempt has been made to
disinfect it, probably represents an excellent source of rot spores for every
new batch of apples.

Some carbon dioxide injury v;as evident in sliglit amount in some storages.
This trouble can be further reduced in amount by running the CA room at about
3 per cent carbon dioxide for the first month and at 5 per cent thereafter,
rather than at 5 per cent throughout the storage period.

Summary

1. It should be re-emphasized that only good sound fruit be placed in a
CA room. Mcintosh apples in such rooms should average about 15 pound flesh
firmness at harvest. In order to have firm, crisp Mcintosh in March and April,
one must put a good hard apple into the storage. Probably, it is better to put
firm apples vjhich lack the best red color into a CA room rather than fancy
colored apples which are too ripe if a choice must be made.

2. The best Mcintosh for CA should not exceed 3 inches in diameter. Over-
size fruit does not keep well in any Icind of storage and is much more subject to
splitting and internal breakdo\m than smaller fruit.

-10-

3. Use apples from blocks vjhich have not been heavily fertilized with
nitrogen. We have noted marked differences in apples from trees with varying
levels of nitrogen. Apples from trees with a moderate N level are noticeably
superior to high nitrogen fruit.

4. Be sure to place only blemish- free fruit in CA rooms. Culls are culls
even after they'v been in a CA room. They just take up space.

5. Move apples to a CA room rapidly so that no more than 24 hours elapse
between harvest and storage.

6. Put the fruit in clean or new boxes,

7. Handle fruit with extreme care in the orchard and en route to the
storage so that bruising and cuts are kept at a minimum. Careless picking and
handling plus over or under filling of boxes in the orchard can result in ex-
cessive bruising and stem cuts. All skin cuts represent an excellent place
for rot to start.

F. W, Southwick

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

STRAWBERRY NOTES

Red Stele of Strawberries.

Red stele is a cool, wet weather disease. The root core, or stele, develops
the characteristic brick red symptoms in early spring. The first case observed
this spring was found on April 25 in a field of Howard plants in Falmouth.
Plants in this field showed red stele symptoms for the first time in the spring
of 1956. It was a mistake to replant this field to a red stele susceptible
variety.

Shipping Strawberry Plants

Now that polyethylene film and bags are available there is little excuse for
strawberry plants to arrive in poor condition, even when shipped considerable
distances. If the plants are properly packed in film of the right thickness and
not subjected to excessive heat in transit, they will arrive in good condition.

Recently I received three lots of strawberry plants which are good examples.
One lot was shipped in a crate without even a paper liner. Naturally they were
very dry on arrival. They might have been a total loss if they had remained in
a hot office over a weekend. In a second lot, the plants had been dipped in
water before being placed in polyethylene bags. As a result, many plants had
either crowns or roots decayed or both. In a third lot, the plants had the
soil shaken off the roots before being placed in the polyethylene bags with no
added moisture. They arrived in excellent condition.

Polyethylene film will let gasses such as oxygen and carbon dioxide escape,
but it is impervious to water or water vapor. The water that goes into the bag

-11-

with the plants stays there. Plants put in dry lose very little moisture
because it can't escape. Even a piece of wet paper toweling or wet sphagnum
put in the bag can result in too much moisture followed by decay.

It is not safe to use polyethylene film thicker than 2 mils because gasses
cannot escape rapidly enough. As the plants respire, oxygen is used up, carbon
dioJcide increases and the plants smother.

John S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

CHEMICAL THINNING OF APPLES

At this time (late April) while apples are still in the pre-pink of develop-
ment, it looks as though most growers have sufficient Mcintosh bloom for a moderate
crop. Naturally, following the heavy crop of last year, this year's bloom is
expected to be lighter than a year ago and a smaller crop is anticipated. However,
there are occasional blocks or orchards which suffered unusually high losses from
frost in 1957, which are going to bloom heavily this spring; and such blocks
should be watched closely so that a thinning treatment may be applied if it seems
necessary.

In general, the need for chemical thinning of Mcintosh will probably not be
nearly as great as it was a year ago. However, the decision on this point can be
delayed until 10 to 14 days after petal-fall. • Probably the most dependable means
of determining the need for chemical thinning of Mcintosh 10 to 14 days after bloom
is by calculating the number of fruits set per 100 blossoming clusters by actual
count on several trees. This means that the number of blossom clusters on at
least 2 limbs of 5 to 6 trees must be counted and recorded in each block. Then
the number of fruits developing on the same limbs must be determined 10 to 14
days after petal-fall. If one finds (by dividing the number of apples by the
number of blossom clusters) an average set in excess of 50 to 60 fruits per 100
blossoming clusters on trees that have a reasonably heavy bloom, some thinning of
Mcintosh may be necessary. A final set of 25 to 35 fruits per 100 blossoming
clusters seems to be about right for heavy to moderate blooming Mcintosh. If 50
or less fruits are left 10 to 14 days after petal-fall, one may expect reductions
in set during the June drop period to be sufficient so that chemical thinning will
not be necessary. When in doubt, omit the spray or use '"no more than a weak spray ■^-"^^ "
of NAAmide'(25 ppm or 4 oz. of Amid-Thin per 100 gallons of water). We have
never seen this treatment seriously overthin Mcintosh.

Of course, many other varieties may need thinning if they bore little or no
crop a year ago. Suggestions concerning such varieties are given in Special
Circular No. 189, Chemical Thinning of Apples, which was revised this spring and
is now available from your County Agent or from the Mailing Room, University of
Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts.

Following a couple of seasons' work with NAA and NAAmide, with and without
additives such as light oil or Tween 20, we have come to the conclusion that the

•■12-

use of additives is not desirable for apples in chemical thinning sprays.
Additives greatly increase the absorption of NAA and NAAmide, but do not neces-
sarily cause more thinning than the same concentration of NAA or NAAmide alone.
Also, additives may markedly increase the foliage injury from a given concentra-
tion of NAA or NAAmide.

F. W. Southwick

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

R

E5

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Whats Happened in the Past Thirty Years
in the Apple Industry in New Hampshire

Pomological Paragraphs

Thin Those Peaches

Manure for Cultivated Blueberries

What Are Unprofitable Trees?

Research Findings From Other Areas

Crop Prospects

The Vermillion Strawberry

JUNE 18, 1958

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 19 14; University of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronln, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

POMOLOGY SECTION - DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematic
Pomology. Active in the testing of new varieties.

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East V/areham.
Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums. Mr.
Bailey also does considerable extension work with growers of small
fruit.

French, Arthur P. - Head, Department of Horticulture

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest control,
and does research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C. - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses.
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, Franklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also, teaches certain
advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to This Issue From Supporting Fields
Lawrence D. Rhoades, Extension Specialist in Farm Management
A. C. Bobb, Extension Horticulturist, University of Connecticut
Rudolph A. Poray, Extension Horticulturist, University of Maine
E. J. Rasmussen, Extension Horticulturist, University of New Hampshire
C. Lyman Calahan, Extension Horticulturist, University of Vermont

WIATS MPPENED IN THE PAST THIRTY YEARS IN THE APPLE INDUSTRY IN NEW IL\MPSHIRE

Pest Control

It would be interesting to try to grow a crop of apples today using the
recommendations in the 1927 spray schedule. The changes in pest control, both
in the development of materials and equipment have had a real influence on the
yield and quality of fruit and also on the cost of production.

In 1927 the spray schedule for apples consisted of four pages and one of
these was a cover page. The spray schedule listed three fungicides: Bordeaux,
lime-sulfur and New Jersey Dry-Mix and two insecticides: lead arsenate and
nicotine sulfate. Six sprays were recommended.

Today's spray program consists of thirty-two pages. It lists fifteen
fungicide or combination of fungicides and fifteen insecticides. Some of these
materials are effective against only one pest.

More information is available today on the life histories of the various
pests which aids greatly in timing the spray application.

The only control measure for apple maggot thirty years ago was to pick
up the dropped fruit at weekly intervals beginning about July 10.

The first work to show that apple maggot larvae would mature in dropped
Mcintosh and Baldwin apples was done on the Carl Dearborne orchard in Weare in
1929. At that time there was a real controversy between some of the Entomology
Departments in New England and New York as to the merits of spraying with lead
arsenate to control apple maggot. It was not realized that apple maggot larvae
could mature in late varieties and since only early varieties were picked up
there was always as good infestation from year to year from late varieties.

The fact that larvae emerged from late varieties and that fly emergence
some seasons occurred in late September was evidence that sprays later than July
were necessary to control apple maggot and helped to settle the controversy as
to the value of sprays for maggot control.

Browntailed Moths were controlled by cutting off the nests which were in
the very tops of the trees during the dormant period, and the gypsy moth was
controlled by painting the egg masses with creosote. A mixture of lead arsenate
and fish oil was the recommended spray mixture for plum curculio control and
what a smelly mess that was.

All of the materials suggested for use thirty years ago were injurious
to the fruit and foliage. This injury was not considered serious during this
period when materials were applied with low pressure nozzles and in very limited
amounts. It wasn't until the development of high pressure, large volume pumps
that severe injury from lead arsenate and from lime-sulfur was recognized as the
cause of low yields and poor finish on fruit.

Today the less injurious effects of the spray materials on foliage can be
in part credited with the increased growth of the trees and higher yields as
well as the better finish on the fruit. The new materials cause less defoliation
and the trees today produce larger and greener foliage. This better foliage
makes more carbohydrates available for growth of fruit, spurs, shoots and
foliage.

Costs of materials have increased. Spray material costs per box in 1927 was
as low as two to two and one half cents. Today it is twenty to twenty-five
cents or about ten times as much.

Pest Control Equipment

Spray and dust equipment has also been greatly improved. Thirty years
ago all of the equipment was hauled by horses. Today it is hauled by either
trucks or tractors. Hand spray machines were still in use in 1927 although
power sprayers and dusters were owned by many of the growers. Most of the
machines were low capacity, three to ten gallons per minute pumps and operated
by a two to five horse power engine. Bamboo rods on which were mounted nozzles
with a capacity of one to three gallons per minute were standard equipment.
Spraying was all done from the ground, dragging fifty feet or more of hose.
A six to ten gallon per minute outfit required three men to operate it, one
man driving, sometimes only one horse and two men spraying. Tank capacities
were from 50 to 200 gallons.

Spray guns and large capacity, high pressure machines appeared in the early
30' s and later the multiple spray nozzles. The development of this better
equipment made it possible to force spray solutions greater distances and
growers began riding the spray rigs and using larger capacity guns and nozzles.
This method greatly speeded up the spraying operation and made applications
more timely. Along with the larger machines came the water supply tanks with
large valves. This equipment made it possible to fill the spray tank in a
few minutes. About fifteen years ago the air blast machines were developed
and today machines delivering 50 to 75 gallons per minute operated by one man
does most of the spraying in orchards in New Hampshire. Supply tanks on trucks
deliver spray solutions directly to the sprayer in the orchard greatly increas-
ing the amount of spray applied per hour. Today one man will apply more spray
in an hour than three men did in a whole day in 1927 and do a more thorough
job.

Night spraying was introduced in 1930 in New Hampshire. The cover picture
on our orchard practice bulletin published in 1934 is a night spraying scene at
the Horticultural Farm. Around-the-clock spraying made more efficient use of
spray equipment permitting growers to take care of a larger acreage and apply
more timely applications.

Recently the application of concentrated sprays has increased the number
of trees that can be covered with a tank of spray solution and also has increased
the efficiency of the pest control equipment.

The use of air craft the past two or three years is receiving more attention
as a means of applying pest control materials. The development of more effective
materials such as dichlone, parathion and DDT which can be applied safely at
high concentrations has made the application of such materials practical. In
1956 several hundred acres of apple orchards in New Hampshire were treated by
helicopter with a 3 per cent dichlone dust in the pre-pink and pink applications
for scab control. Growers were well satisfied with the result and we can
expect the use of air craft for pest control to increase.

Some idea of the spraying operation in 1927 can be obtained from a letter
by James Purrington, County Agricultural Agent in Rockingham County to H. A.
Rollins, Extension Horticulturist at that time. This letter contains a report
on a spray ring organized in 1926 and operating in the to\^m of Atkinson. One
paragraph is as follows: "VJe did spraying for 23 persons outside the ring and
sprayed 800 outside trees. In the ring there were approximately 600 trees
sprayed. Including members of the ring 12 person sprayed once, 13 twice and
5 three times. Some of us intended to spray the fourth time but did not get
to it personally I shall try to spray five times this coming season adding
the pre-pink and the three weeks after calyx to the ones put on this year as
scab and railroad worm developed in my Mcintosh in storage."

Apparently the effectiveness of the program was not satisfactory and
the importance of additional applications was recognized by the growers.
Commercial growers were more consistent in their spray program and produced a
higher percentage of clean fruit than did the small growers.

There were 20 insects and diseases listed in the 1928 spray program:
apple maggot, plum curculio, codling moth ard scab were the most serious pests
and still are in our orchards today. Browntailed moth, apple curculio, red bug
and Brook's spot are seldom seen today. European red mite was first discovered
in the Parker Orchards in Lyndeboro in 1928. Leaf roller, two spotted and yellow
mites are new pests that have appeared in the past 30 years.

Progress has certainly been made in pest control. The new materials and
better equipment has taken much of the gamble out of this most important orchard
practice.

•E. J. Rasmussen

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS

Red Stele Again

"Sparkle strawberry plants were found infected with red stele in two
fields on a farm in Falmouth. Since Sparkle is resistant to the A strain
of red stele, this indicates that there are at least two strains in these
fields. This is the second place in which more than one strain of red
stele has been located in Massachusetts. This is another indication that
the disease is spreading and that growers should be especially careful about
the source of their planting stock. Never forget that a field once infested
will remain so for 18 to 20 years."

Diuron as a Weed Killer in Cultivated Blueberries

For several years a weed killer called C.M.U. has been on the market.
It has recently been renamed Monuron. Although it is a good weed killer
for many purposes, it is a little too potent for safe use on all varieties
of blueberries.

-4-

A close relative, Diuron, which is less soluble, has been found to be
just about as effective and much safer \Aien used according to directions.
It is very effective in controlling annual weeds for long periods when ap-
plied pre-emergence.

The FDA has recently granted a label for the use of this material in
plantings of cultivated blueberries in Massachusetts and New Jersey. Read
the directions on the package carefully before use.

Cold Resistance of New Blueberry Varieties

How cold resistant are the new blueberry varieties Earliblue, Bluecrop,
Blueray, Berkeley, Herbert and Coville? Will they come through a severe
winter and produce a full crop? Are the blossoms resistant to late frosts?
Unfortunately, we have no experimental data on which to base answers to
these questions. We still must depend on a few random observations.

Bluecrop and Blueray, at least under New Jersey conditions, appear to
be outstanding in their resistance to severe winter cold. For the past two
years these varieties have borne a full crop when other varieties, such as
Coville, Berkeley, Weymouth and Concord, had only 50-75 percent of a crop.

Bluecrop and Herbert seem to be the outstanding in their ability to re-
sist spring frosts. Several instances have been reported when, following
severe frosts during bloom, these varieties came through with full crops
and others were severely damaged. This indicates that the reason is actual
cold resistance of the blossoms and not escape by late blooming.

John S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

' THIN THOSE PEACHES

The consumer wants large, well-colored, high quality peaches. Peaches
of this type cannot be produced on an overloaded tree. The ability of a peach
tree to develop size in its fruits depends upon (1) leaf area per fruit, (2)
nutritional status of tree and (3) the water available throughout the growing
season. All growers may not be able to apply v/ater to supplement rainfall
but all growers can thin. In spite of high labor costs, the effort made to
thin the peach crop should pay dividends as shown in the table below. A 3-inch
peach has about 3 times the volume of a 2-inch peach. A 2 1/2-inch peach has
2 times the volume of a 2-inch peach. Trees bearing a heavy unthinned crop
of peaches produce small-sized low valued fruits. In addition, limb break-
age may be excessive which reduces the future bearing capacity of the trees.

Number of Peaches per Bushel for Given sizes of Fruit

Diameter of Peach Peaches in Bushel

2 inch ---------------380

2 1/8 inch 315

2 1/4 inch 280

-5-
Diameter of Per.ch Peaches in Dushel

2 3/8 inch 225

2 1/2 inch -- - 190

2 5/8 inch 165

2 3/4 inch 145

3 inch 110

-W. J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

- MANURE FOR CULTIVATED BLUEBERRIES

Can manure be used as fertilizer for cultivated blueberries? The simple
answer is yes. Manure is good fertilizer for blueberries but it must be used
with reason. It won't do to assume that if a little is good, more is better,
like the fellow who put a whole wheelbarrow load of manure on a single bush
and killed it.

Fifteen years ago we carried on an experiment at Amherst using horse,
poultry and cow manure on bearing blueberry bushes. Horse manure was used
at the rate of 10 tons per acre and the other at such a rate as to give
about the same amount of nitrogen. The dire results predicted failed to
materialize. In fact, the manurial treatments were just as good as commer-
cial fertilizer, based on yield and size of fruit.

Since horse and cow manure usually contain about the same amount of
nitrogen, they can be used at the same rate. Based on our experimental re-
sults, 10 tons per acre is safe for bearing bushes. For younger bushes the
rate should be less according to age and size of bush. Poultry manure or-
dinarily contains twice as much nitrogen as horse or cow manure. Therefore,
the rate needs to be halved. Five tons per acre is sufficient for bearing
bushes.

No higher rates than 5 and 10 tons per acre were tried. Hence, we do
not know if the blueberries will stand more. If the manure were well rotted
and weathered, or had a high proportion of bedding or litter in it, bearing
bushes probably would stand more.

Can well rotted manure be used in the planting hole? Possibly, if the
manure were well rotted and weathered so that it is nothing more than organic
material, but the practice is questionable. Manure, unless it has been well
rotted and weathered, contains much soluble nitrogen and can be damaging to
small plants in the S£une way that too much chemical fertilizer with soluble
nitrogen can injure small blueberry bushes.

-6-

We know from experience and experiment that acid peat is excellent in
the planting hole. If acid peat is placed around small plants on the soil
surface, the roots will grow up into it so that after a year's time they will
be almost setting on top of the soil. If the peat is placed at the bottom
of a trench and the blueberries set on top, the roots will grow down into
the peat.

Probably the next most desireable material is well decayed leaf mold,
woodland turf, or wood from rotten logs or stumps.

In heavy clays, sawdust mixed with the soil has been used successfully
to lighten it up. Unless the sawdust is pretty well decayed, it's use will
require the application of additional nitrogen. This must be done with great
care when small plants are involved.

John S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

WHAT ARE UNPROFITAgLE TREES?

There are as many definitions of unprofitable trees as there are orchardists.
There have been many recommendations made to fruit growers with rules for
indicating when trees should be removed from the orchard. The only safe rule
to apply is the one that begins "it depends" and ends "on your situation."

The following situation is one taken from a Massachusetts orchard and
illustrates a method which can indicate the effect of a change on net income
from the orchard.

This orchard consists of 45 acres of orchard with 1830 trees in blocks
with trees aged from 10 to 40 years and about evenly distributed by age groups
of five years. The 40-year trees are large. The average production on the
orchard is 13,000 to 14,000 bushels with 12,000 bushels sold on the average.
It is proposed to remove a five acre block of the older trees because of size
and estimated cost of picking and spraying. Yields on the average are 280 to
300 bushels per acre with the oldest block at 400 bushels per acre. The owner
and one year-round employee plus seasonal help are used.

Returns and costs in a recent year are given below. An estimate of the
effect of removing a five acre block on net income is also shown. All equip-
ment is owned and a 10,000 bushel refrigerated storage costs are included in
the items of expense. Excellent quality crops are grown and sold at wholesale
with some retail sales included in total income. A change in the number of
producing units does not affect all cost items alike, some change and some do
not.

-7-

Before Removal of
5-Acre Block of
Oldest Trees

After Removing
5-Acre Block of
Oldest Trees

Total Sales

11,100 bushels

$29,500.

Expenses

Year Round Labor

2,100.

Weekly and Monthly Labor

3,526.)

Harvesting

3,168.)

Spray and Dust

5,930.)

Fertilizer

1,230.)

Truck and Tractor

1,721.)

Containers

3,855.)

Seeds, Plants, Suppl

ies

328.)

Electricity and Tele

phone

387.)

Repairs - Equipment

390.)

Buildings

140.)

Taxes

580.)

Interest

524.)

Insurance

151.)

Miscellaneous

432.)
$24,462.

Net Farm Income

$ 5,038.

2000 bushels less

Reduced Somewhat

Changed very little

$24,135.

2

100

(3

,126

(2

,666

(5

,445

(1

,130

(1

,521

(2

,947

(

328

(

387

(

390

(

140

(

580

(

524

(

151

(

432

$21

,867

$ 2

,268

The adverse effect of such a change on Income results from the fact that

"fixed costs" or "overhead" items are affected very little and variable costs

are not reduced proportionately to the reduction of income from lowered pro-
duction.

In planning a change a budget such as the above will indicate the effect
on income of a shift in operations affecting income.

In general, changes in production that result in lowered production require
new production or a reduction in fixed costs. Fixed cost reductions are usually
rather difficult on a fruit farm. Since most farms acquire fixed costs over
time, on fruit farms a tree replacement program geared to prospective tree
removal is an important part of farm management.

The suggestion was made that 150 trees be removed on a selective basis
within the blocks on basis of yield. The total crop reduction was estimated
at 1000 bushels. A partial budget was used to estimate the effect on net
income; balancing items which would increase income; that is, benefits against
items that would decrease income, detriments with the following result.

The effect on annual net income of the orchard if 150 low producing trees
are removed:

Benefits:

Additional Receipts

Reduced Costs:

Less weekly labor

$200.

Reduced Harvesting

300.

Less Spray material

150.

Fewer Packages

455.

Less Fertilizer

50,

Total

Detriments:

.

$1155.

Additional costs ---

Reduced Receipts:

1000 bushels 0 $2,657 $2,657.

$2657.
Benefits less detriments - reduction in net income -$1503.

Since trees once removed take some time to replace, a careful estimate of
the effect of a tree removal program should be made before taking this
irrevocable step on the basis of snap judgment.

---Lawrence D. Rhoades

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

RESEARCH FINDINGS FROM OTHER AREAS

The Effect of Cover Crop Management on Soil Moisture in a Young Apple Orchard

The effect of cover crop management on soil moisture in a young apple orchard
was studied by Russell Eggert, Department of Horticulture, University of New
Hampshire, the results of which should be of interest to fruit growers. The study
was conducted in a young apple orchard at the University of New Hampshire to
determine the effect on soil moisture of not mowing orchard cover during the
months of June to August, or mowing either once or twice, in some instances
letting it lie and in others removing it. The orchard cover was similar to that
found in Massachusetts orchards being principally Canada Bluegrass intersperse
with some "quack" grass.

Soil moisture readings showed that failure to mow grass cover in early June
resulted in rapid depletion of available water from the soil at both 12 and 30
inch depths during the two growing seasons that the experiment was conducted
(June and July, 1951 and 1952.)

"The practice of mowing grass cover in early June, and of leaving it in
place, delayed the start of second growth and was more effective in conserv-
ing moisture early in the season than when the mowed cover was removed. This
was true at both the 12 and 30 inch depths."

Effect of Irrigation on Fruit Size and Yield of Peaches in Pennsylvania

The effect of irrigation on fruit size and yield of peaches in Pennsylvania
was studied by Joshua Feldstein and Norman F. Childers, Department of Horticulture,

-9-

Rutgers University to determine the benefits, if any, of irrigation of peaches
in Pennsylvania.

The experiment was conducted during the 1955 growing season on eight year
old trees of the varieties Golden Jubilee, Newday and Elberta. All trees
received uniform cultural practices except for irrigation. After the June
drop the fruit on all trees were thinned to a uniform spacing.

The rainfall during April, May, July and September was below normal but the
rainfall for August was 3 times normal, Pennsylvania like Massachusetts had
hurricane rains during August of 1955. Also like Massachusetts, temperatures
were exceptionally high in the months of July and early August.

The trees to be irrigated received supplemental water 3 times during a 5
week period (July to August). Three inches of water was applied each time.

Irrigation resulted in a significant increase in fruit size and yield
of all three varieties. The yield of Golden Jubilee, harvested August 10th
to 13th, showed an increase of two bushels per acre over non irrigated trees.
Ninety-five per cent of the fruit harvested from the irrigated trees was 2 1/4
inches in diameter or larger as compared to only forty per cent of this size
from non irrigated trees.

Irrigation of the Newday variety, harvested August 15th to 18th, resulted
in an increase of 1.4 bushels per tree. Seventy-five per cent of the fruit
harvested frcm the irrigated trees was 2 1/2 inches in diameter or larger
while only fifty per cent of the fruit from non irrigated trees were of this
size.

The Elberta variety, harvested on September 10th to 13th, showed an increase
of one bushel per tree over non irrigated trees. Ninety per cent of the fruit
from the irrigated trees was 2 1/4 inches or larger whereas from non irrigated
trees 75 per cent were of this size. Although 16 inches of rain fell in August
during the period of the final swell of the Elberta peaches, there was a
significant increase in size and yield of fruit on the irrigated trees. The
trees had been irrigated during the dry period in July and the results obtained
were in agreement with other research findings in that a prolonged drought
during any period of fruit development will result in an ultimate reduction of
fruit size and yield.

The fruit from the irrigated trees was harvested in one picking, whereas
two pickings were required on the non irrigated trees. In addition, the fruit
from irrigated trees ripened two to three days earlier than did the fruit from
non irrigated trees.

Due to irrigation, shoot growth on all three varieties was increased
significantly. Irrigation had no effect on color nor pit-splitting,

W, J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

NOTICE

The next issue of Fruit Notes will be a combined July - August issue and
will be published August 15.

-10-

CROP PROSPECTS

Maine

All varieties of apples appear to have a good blow of blossoms this year.
Good pollination weather for most varieties. Trees appear vigorous except where
early frosts injured a few leaves but trees are recovering rapidly. Scab is
general but most growers are clean so far. Crop prospects in general look good.

Rudolph A. Poray

Massachusetts

At this time (June 2) , it appears as though most growers have sufficient set
for a moderate crop of Mcintosh and Cortland. The Red Delicious crop in most
orchards will be light. This year's crop should be about the average for 1945-1954
which is 2,276,000 bushels.

In spite of the cool, wet weather during the latter part of April and in May,
Mcintosh bloom date was about normal for Amherst which was between May 14 - 16.

Bee activity was frequently held up by cool or rainy weather but most orchards
had enough warm, sunny hours between May 12 - 18 to insure pollination.

Frost was no problem for the most part. Frosts during the last weekend in
April caused some bud killing to Red Delicious and Gravensteins in Middlesex
County. For the most part, however, the damage was not sufficient to reduce
crop prospects. On May 14, frosts caused slight damage to orchards located on
low sites in Hampshire County.

Peach flower buds came through the winter with little killing and in spite
of cool weather during bloom a large crop is in prospect.

William J. Lord

Connecticut Orchard Conditions as of May 29th

Peak of apple full-bloom was in mid-May about ten days later than '57.
Pollination weather although not perfect was satisfactory. Not as much spread
in bloom dates between early and late sections of State as is generally expected.
Set on apples less than last year -- Mac's lighter than '57 -- Red and Golden
Delicious very light -- Pears generally heavy set. Peaches very heavy following
general freeze-out in '57. Blossom brown-rot infection in some blocks severe.
Thinning will be necessary. Some growers like the "rubber-hosed-stick" method.

Some blossom and twig botrytis infection in some blueberry plantings.
Elgetol ground treatment for mummy-berry appeared to reduce botrytis.

Strawberries good — limited frost damage to earlier blossoms in lower fields.
First berries should appear late in first week of June. Cutworms prevalent.

Average for State indicates most growers applied first cover on apples
last week in May.

-11-

Many growers did not complete pruning--"busy packing apples and too much
nasty weather." Pruning will continue into growing season making smaller and
smaller cuts as the season progresses. More and more "snip pruning" is being
done especially on Red Delicious and on pears.

Grass killer chemicals applied under the tree are being tried by more
and more growers. Results look promising.

Annual Fruit Day and N.Y.N. E. Apple Institute Meeting at University of
Connecticut June 25th.

Several Connecticut Growers are planning to attend the Massachusetts Fruit
Tour July 17 and 18.

New Jersey Growers will tour Connecticut orchards by bus in early July.

A. C. Bobb

Vermont Apple Crop Outlook Good

As of the last week in May, the 1958 Vermont apple crop prospects are
for the heaviest crop since 1955. Almost all Mcintosh blocks in all sections
carried a heavy bloom. Cortland, Red Delicious and Northern Spy bloom was from
good to heavy. Unseasonably cool pre-bloom temperatures delayed Mac full bloom
until the 19th and 20th in the Shoreham area and the 26th and 27th in Grand
Isle which is about average or a day or so late. Periods of cloudy, windy and
cool conditions, plus a very humid day on the 19th, are factors which limited
bee flight compared to the 1955 season. Late April frosts caused some bud kill-
ing to Delicious and Greenings, especially on lower branches, in Addison and
Rutland County orchards. Clusters are seldom observed in which more than
two blossoms have been killed.

The severest pre-bloom scab condition in several years has caused heavy
scab on unsprayed trees, but commercial growers have done an excellent job so
far. Most air-dusted or sprayed orchards had four scab control applications
by full pink time.

This year's Vermont crop is expected to be above the 1951-57 average.

---C. Lyman Calahan
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

THE VERMILION STRAVJBERRY

Recently, Vermilion plants with a severe case of what appeared to be June
Yellows were observed in two fields in Middleboro. Specimens were sent to Dr.
McGrew at Beltsville, Md., to make sure that a virus was not involved. He con-
firmed the diagnosis — June Yellov^s. He stated also that they have not found any
stock of Vermilion plants which are free of both virus and June Yellows. Unless
a stock free of both can be found, the future life of Vermilion as a variety
probably will be short.

-12-

In California the Cupertino variety produces fruit of high quality and looked
very promising. After a few years it went all to pieces with June Yellows, or
Blakemore Yellows as they prefer to call it, and has been discarded. The
severity of the June Yellows observed in Vermilion at Middleboro suggested a
similar fate.

- John S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

A REMINDER

Reserve July 17 and 18 for the Summer Fruit Tour and Meeting.
Several orchards in the Nashoba area will be visited on July
17th. On the morning of July 18th, a half day speaking
program will be held at the University and in the afternoon
an orchard in Franklin County will be visited.

-Editor-
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

R

POMOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST

JULY-AUGUST, 1958

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Whats Happened in the Past Thirty Years in the
Apply Industry in New Hampshire

Reducing Harvest Bruises on Mcintosh Apples

Hasten the Rate of Apple Cooling by Proper Stacking

Soil Fumigation for Black Root of Strawberries

Is the Apple Industry of Mass. Going to Try and Sell
989,000 Bushels of Bruised Apples This Year
Due to Careless Picking?

Mcintosh Apples for CA Storage

A Reminder

IsBued by the Cooperative Extension Service, James W. Dayton, Associate Dean and Director,

in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 19 14; UrUversity of Massachusetts, United

States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services Cooperating.

Publication Approved by George J. Cronln, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

POMOLOGY SECTION - DEPARTMEITT OF HORTICULTURE

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and systematic
Pomology. Active in the testing of new varieties.

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East V.'areham.
Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums. Mr.
Bailey also does considerable extension work with growers of small
fruit .

French, Arthur P. - Head, Department of Horticulture

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active in small
fruit variety testing.

Lord, VJilliam J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest control,
and does research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C. - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other departmental courses.
Currently also doing research on fruit marketing.

Southwick, Franklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is Spent in research on chemical thinning, preharvest
drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition. Also, teaches certain
advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Assistant Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and strain tests
and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Contributors to This Issue From Supporting Fields

E. J. Rasmussen, Extension Horticulturist, University of New Hampshire

F. E. Cole, Extension Marketing Specialist

WHATS HAPPENED IN THE PAST THIRTY YEARS IN THE APPLE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE

Packages ,

Thirty years ago the barrel was still in use as a container for apples.
In the 1927 annual report of the Society all the grading and packing regulations
were for barreled apples. The Western boxed apples were beginning to compete
with the Eastern grown fruits on our market. The Eastern growers soon realized
that some changes had to be made in packaging and grading if they were going to
retain their markets. The Boston Produce box, a solid bottom, shallow, nearly
square box in use for vegetables was first tried but was found to be unsatis-
factory. Too much bruising occurred to the fruit while being transported and
marketed. Next an effort was made to introduce the Western box. The cooperative
extension service constructed grading and packing tables which were transported
from place to place where demonstrations were held. The Western box was also
found wanting. The low percentage of fancy fruit that could be packed in this
package, the cost of wrapping and packing, and the lower price received, compared
to the Western boxed apples were some of the reasons this pack was not accepted
by growers or buyers.

^ The jumbled pack appeared to be the most desirable package for Eastern
grown apples. In order to prevent bruising by packing too tight a pack a box
with a capacity of 1 1/5 bushels was first suggested and tried. This box would
hold a bushel of fruit level full and could be closed with a corragated card-
board cover and two slats. It was soon found that buyers were not satisfied
with a slack pack and that some growers in order to make a sale would put up
a bulging pack containing 1 1/4 bushels of apples. Giving an extra 1/4 bushel
just to make a sale did not appeal to many growers and a compromise was finally
made on a box with a capacity of 1 1/8 bushels. This is our standard Eastern
apple box today. Recently the shift is to the cell pack in cartons and to the
3 and 5 pound polyethylene bag. From a 100 pound container to the 3 pound
transparent bag is quite a change in packaging.

Grading, Packing and Marketing

New Hampshire apple grading laws date back to 1917 when the first
grading regulations were established. In 1927 an effort was made by the New
England States to have uniform grading regulations for apples for the entire
area. Our grading regulations were modified that year to conform very closely
with the United States grades except for color requirements. Color requirements
for New Hampshire grades are a little higher than for the Federal grades. The
grading laws have been modified slightly during the years to meet changes in
marketing conditions.

Packing apples thirty years ago was done mostly in the orchard. Some
growers sold their fruit directly to buyers, others sold to commission merchants
and some fruit was stored in large commercial storages. There were nine commission
merchants, one exporter and two commercial storage operators advertising in the
1927 Annual Report. A common practice was for buyers to visit growers prior
to harvest and offer a price for the crop, harvested and graded according to the
buyers specifications: the buyer supplying the barrels or containers. These

I

-2-

buyers were mostly speculators. This may not have been the best way to sell
apples but the grower always knew what he was receiving for his crop. Sometimes
the buyers lost on the deal but there always seemed to be enough buyers around
to gamble on the next crop even if the previous year had been one in which they
lost heavily.

The shift from the barrel to the box as a container for apples and the
demand for a better graded pack made it impractical to pack in the orchards. As
a result barns were converted to packing houses, equipment was developed for sort-
ing and sizing the fruits and the grading and packing operation was moved indoors.

During the late 1930 's and in the 40 's elaborate sorting and sizing
equipment was developed but the Mcintosh apple was so easily bruised that this
equipment was not satisfactory and much of it has been discarded. Hand packing
directly out of the picking box is still the preferred method for grading and
packing Mcintosh apples. In other words there has been little progress here in
the East in the handling of apples in the packing house in the past 30 years.
There is no doubt that suitable sizing and grading equipment can be developed
to handle Mcintosh and a project for the development of such equipment by the
experiment stations in New England or by private organizations should be encour-
aged by the growers and by the several Horticultural Societies in New England.

The Souhegan Apple Packing z\ssociation, the first and only cooperative
apple packing house and cold storage in New Hampshire was organized and built
in 1924. This cooperative organization operated for ten years. The organization
had its own brand and packed under the Uoc-a-way Probile, Top-Notch and Meda
labels. They also purchased fertilizers and spray materials for their members.
The cooperative is still active but acts as a promotional and marketing organ-
ization.

Today apples are sold direct to retail stores, through commission
merchants and through distributors. There is considerable interest in the organ-
ization of a cooperative marketing organization, through which a volume of un-
iformly graded apples could be offered and in that way attract buyers and pro-
vide an opportunity to bargain with experienced buyers representing the large
chain stores.

Apple Storage

The heavy planting of Mcintosh soon increased the volume of this variety
to be marketed. Mcintosh did not keep well in common storage and had a short
marketing period under the conditions that existed at that time. Some work in
1929 to 1933 on Mcintosh held in refrigerated storage at 30 to 32° F showed
that this variety would remain in a good marketable condition for six to eight
months. There were only three refrigerated on-the-farm storages in New Hampshire
in 1927. One at the Applecrest Orchard in Hampton Falls, one at Uoodmont Orchards
in Derry and the other at the Cooperative Packing Plant in VJilton. For a number
of years large commercial refrigerated storages in cities stored apples for

-3-

growers and offered a marketing service. This method of storage is used very
little today. It had a number of disadvantages: other kinds of produce were
often stored with the apples, sometimes giving an off flavor to the apples. The
fruit had to be graded and packed before it x«s sent to storage and there was
little opportunity to repack if spoilage occurred. Circulation of the air was
often unsatisfactory in these large storages resulting in either too high or too
low temperatures and usually too low humidity for proper storage of apples. Today
there are forty-four on-the-farm cold storages for apples in New Hampshire with
a total capacity of 700,000 bushels. This trend to on-the-farm storages helped
greatly to supply a much better grade of fruit for the market.

The controlled atmosphere refrigerated storage is further progress in
helping to maintain a better quality Mcintosh over a six to eight months marketing
period. Six of the seven controlled storages that we have in New Hampshire were
built in 1957. The total capacity of this new kind of storage is 70,000 bushels.

A Look at the Future

Changes in the apple industry in New Hampshire in the next 30 years can
be just as spectacular as they were in the past 30 years.

Some of the changes that could easily come true are:

Introduction of varieties more resistant to disease and insect attack,
and firm enough to permit the use of grading and packing equipment and with long
stems so picking can be done with harvesting equipment.

Automatic equipment (electric eyes) that will grade fruit for color
and blemishes.

Artificial pollination making it possible to regulate size of crop
without thinning.

/ Chemicals that will promote the red color of apples when applied as
sprays without causing premature ripening.

Controlled atmosphere storages in which the concentrations of the
gases will be controlled automatically.

New apple products and by products. VJe will likely be drinking more
of our apples.

Atomic energy to reduce damage from frosts.

Systemic materials that can be applied to the soil or injected into the
tree for pest control.

Light or sound waves to control insects.

Increase use of air craft for applying pesticides.

-4-

Harvesting equipment such as picking machines and elevated platforms.

Better methods for determining the fertilizer needs of the trees.

Good sites and large acreage will be necessary to warrant the capital
investment required for an economical unit.

How safe is an orchard investment today compared to 30 years ago: An
orchard investment should be less of a gamble because of the better pest control
materials and equipment, longer marketing periods due to refrigerated storages,
better varieties, impr.oved soil management practices and cooperative advertising
and marketing. Investment, however, is several times greater and careful consider-
ation should be given to the many things that will influence the future of the
business. An orchard is a longtime investment. Selection of the site and
location should receive special attention. Is the farm large enough or can addi-
tional land be obtained if modern technology continues and makes it necessary to
enlarge the business? What will the land be used for 30 years from now? Will it
be more valuable for house lots or industrial sites? Can the investment in a
large cold storage and packing house be justified if some other use is made of
the land than growing apples? Should all of the family savings be plowed back
into the business?

One thought to keep in mind is that the valuation of a farm property
whether it is an orchard or a dairy barn should be based on who the most typical
buyer is likely to be if it becomes necessary to sell and what he is most likely
to use the property for.

The production of apples will continue to be a specialized and
intriguing business. It will require a wider knowledge of insects and diseases,
chemistry, refrigeration, engineering, plant physiology, marketing and salesman-
ship than at present,

--- E. J. Rasmus sen

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
CORRECTION'.

In the June 18, 1958, issue of Fruit Notes on page 9 paragraph 5 the
following sentence appeared: "The yield of Golden Jubilee, harvested August
10th to 13th, showed an increase of two bushels per acre over non irrigated
trees." The sentence should have read - two bushels per tree not per acre.

-William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

REDUCING HARVEST BRUISES ON McIUTOSH APPLES

In 1920 a group of fruit growers designated as the "Ten Year Program Committee"
proposed practices for the betterment of the fruit industry. One of the proposals
was as follows. "Pick carefully. Rough handling is responsible for many a poor
apple that the consumer gets,"

To what extent are apples being picked carefully today?

In an attempt to ansxver this question a study was made of harvesting
practices in twenty Mcintosh orchards during the 1957 harvesting season.

In each orchard, x^herevcr possible, a fifty apple sample from two boxes
harvested by each of five pickers was obtained. This made a random sample of
five hundred apples from each orchard. In a few orchards the harvesting pro-
cedure was such that the sample had to be obtained regardless of who picked it.

Each apple in a sample was examined for bruises and skin punctures.

The apples were classified with respect to mechanical injuries as those
having: (1) few small bruises, (2) many small bruises, (3) 1/2" to 3/4" bruises,
(4) 3/4" to 1" bruises, (5) bruises 1" and over, (6) skin punctures.

With one exception this study v^as made in orchards with a total production
of all varieties ranging from 14,000 to 40,000 bushels.

In the majority of the orchards a metal picking bucket with canvas bottom
was used. Splint baskets, peach baskets, metal pails and canvas picking bags
were the containers used in other orchards.

In fifty percent of the orchards pickers were paid on the piecework basis, in
forty percent on the hourly basis and in ten percent both systems were used. The
range in pay on the piecework basis was 18 to 25 cents per bushel. The range on
the hourly basis was $1.00 to $1.25.

In orchards where pickers were paid on a piecev/ork basis 14.4 percent of the
apples harvested had one or more 1/2" bruise while in orchards where pickers were
paid on the hourly basis 4.5 percent of the apples had one or more 1/2" bruise.
This suggests rather conclusively that the piecework basis of pay is more conducive
to bruising than the hourly basis.

A range of 60 to 75 bushels picked per eight hour day per man was considered
a satisfactory day's work by the majority of growers. One grower does not allow
any picker to pick more than eighty bushels in a day when paid on a piecework
basis.

The cost per bushel at $1.25 per hour is less, even when only fifty bushels
per day per man is picked, than the average cost when picked by piecework.

Obviously the harvesting procedure v/as adapted to each particular orchard and
no two methods were identical-

Three methods employed by growers whose apples had a minimum amount of
bruising are described briefly as follov;s:

1, Pickers equipped with a metal picking bucket vjith caiivas bottora.
Pickers divided into crews of tvjelve to fifteen men with a competent foreman
for each crew. Specific instructions given each crew on how to pick with a
minimum of bruises. One person, usually a woman, who takes a sample of apples
from boxes harvested by each picker at least twice during the day and checks
samples for bruises and stem punctures. In one orchard with a large number of
pickers it was necessary to employ two women to check bruises.

Pickers causing excessive bruising are reported to foreman of the crew
who shows picker how to correct his method of picking.

2, Pickers divided into crew;^ as desc. ibed above.

Each picker equipped with a splint basket with hook attached. Pickers
take filled baskets to central location in area being picked. Crew of women
transfer apples by hand from baskets to field boxes and also eliminate culls.
Excessive bruising by any picker can be noted and corrected.

3, Pickers divided into crews as described above.

Each picker equipped with a canvas strap which he attaches to a peach basket
so that basket is suspended from one shoulder. Filled peach baskets trucked to
mechanical grader where apples are immediately segregated into grades and sizes
and then stored. Foreman keeps close watch on extent of bruising by the pickers.
Transferring apples from picking container to field box is eliminated by this
method. V'ith each of the methods described the pickers were paid on an hourly
basis.

The charts on page 7 show the records from two orchards. Orchard #1 is
representative of orchards with a minimum amount of bruising while orchard #2
is representative of orchards with maximum nmount of bruising.

In these charts the number of apples in the classification: "Number of
apples with few small bruises" is of relatively little importance as the amount
of bruising is not sufficient to affect the grade. However, there is a signifi-
cant correlation between the number of apples v;ith fev; small bruises and the
number \-jith 1/2" bruises.

The number of apples with 3/4" - 1" bruises and 1" bruises and over was not
recorded. However, the number of apples in each of these classifications is
practically identical with the number of bruises.

In orchard i*/! the procedure described in method 1 above was employed. The
production of all apples in this orchard was approximately 25,000 bushels. The
pickers were paid on an hourly basis.

•7-

AlWLYSIS OF MRVESTED APPLES

Orchard 1

Fifty apple samples from each of two boxes chosen at random from five pickers.

Picker 1 1 2 , 1_ .. 3 _3 4 4^5 ^.5 Totals

No. Apples with

few small bruises 4 11 7 2 2 14 4 0 1

36

No, Apples with

many small bruises

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

No. Apples wi
1/2" bruises

th

1

4

3

3

0

0

0

1

1

1

14

No. bruises
1/2" - 3/4"

1

4

3

3

0

0

0

1

1

1

14

No. bruises
3/4" - 1"

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

No. bruises
1" h. over

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

No. Apples with
cuts & punctures

0

2

2

2

0

0

0

0

1

1

8

No. cuts &
punctures

0

2

2

2

0

0

0

0

1

1

8

COMMENTS

Pickers 1, 2 and 5 were inexperienced Puerto Ricans. Precise instructions
by the o\>mer plus adequate supervision account for this good record.

ANALYSIS OF IL-VRVESTED APPLES

Orchard 2

Fifty apple samples from each of two boxes chosen at random from five pickers.

Picker 112 1_ 3 3 4 4 5 5 Totals

No. Apples with

few small bruises 28 31

No. Apples with

many small bruises 2 4

26

22 ^17_

0

10

18
1

0

14 11

177

29

No. Apples with
1/2" bruises

19 25 24 22

117

No. bruises
1/2" - 3/4"

27

29

32

25

6

7

6

0

1

2

145

No. bruises
3/4" - 1"

7

10

4

2

1

3

2

0

1

2

32

No. bruises
1" & over

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

3

No. apples with
cuts 6: punctures

4

9

1

4

0

1

1

0

3

2

25

No. cuts 6<
punctures

5

9

1

4

0

1

1

0

3

2

26

COl'C' IE-NTS

All of the pickers in this orchard v;ere considered experienced men. Each
person nicked by himself without supervision. Pickers 1 and 2 v;ere chiefly
responsible for this poor record. Note particularly the contrast betv/een pickers
1 and 2 compared v/ith picker 4. This reflects the importance of picl;cr attitude.

-8-

In orchard //2 the production of all apples V7as appro::iniately 15,000 bushels.
The pickers were paid on the piecework basis. The lack of supervision cost this
grower a considerable amount of money.

In the case of orchard v,-l only 4,6 percent of the apples harvested would
be eliminated from Fancy grade because of mechanical injury while in orchard #2
approximately 40 percent of the apples would be eliminated.

For the twenty orchards studied 17 percent of the apples would be eliminated,

This study indicates rather conclusively that mechanical injury of Mcintosh
apples at harvest can be minimized by:

1. Adequate supervision

2. Specific instruction of the pickers.

3. Payment of the pickers on the hourly rather than the piecework basis.

4. Discharge of the careless or indolent picker.

This study has demonstrated that Mcintosh apples can be harvested, even in
large orchards, with a minimum of bruising and that the attitude of a picker is
more important than the number of years he may have been picking apples.

What happens to the apples as regards mechanical injury after they are
picked is another story which will appear in a subsequent issue of "Fruit Notes".

0. C. Roberts

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

I
MSTEN THE RATE OF APPLE COOLIIIG BY PROPER STACi;iNG

Rapid cooling of fruit in the cold storage is an extremely important phase
of cold storage management. The cooling of apples from field temperature to
32°F within 2 or 3 days instead of 4 to 6 weeks can make a great deal of differ-
ence in the rate of softening, breakdown, and moisture loss of the fruit. Suit-
able cooling capacity and air circulating systems cannot function properly if
the fruit is not stacked in such a way that some air movement occurs along at
least tvi70 sides of every box.

It is to be expected that suitable stacking arrangements must vary from
room to room depending upon room size and shape, v/hether boxes are hand-piled or
pallet-loaded, the type and location of the refrigeration diffuser, and the
presence or absence of an air duct.

The basic idea behind any stacking arrangement should be such that the air
from the cold diffuser moves through the stack, rather than short circuiting
through open aisles or wall spaces, before it returns to the intake side of the
cooling unit. Boxes should be stacked at least 6 inches from all v;alls, from
12 to 13 inches below the ceiling, and on slats at least 1 to 2 inches off the
floor. This is necessary to allov; for needed air movement around the sides,
top, and bottom of the stack and to reduce the tendency of heat loss directly
through the v;alls and floor.

-9-

Unlidded northeastern crates are best stacked v;ith the lengthwise dimension
at right angles to the flow of air from the diffuser or duct openings. For e;:ample,
in a room X7ith a central ceiling duct do\m the middle of the room which delivers
air to the side walls from openings along the sides of the duct, boxes should be
placed lengthwise along the side walls. If this is done the air, as it moves
from the ceiling area into the side wall spaces, can pass through the openings
between the top and bottom of each box and the spaces at ends of each box left
open by the end cleats. In such a system an aisle beneath the duct serves as
a return air channel to the intake side of the diffuser. Of course, during
and after loading, the openings at the walls must be blocked off in such a
way that air can't move from the side wall spaces to the aisle without moving
through the stacks of bor.es.

If no ducts are present nnd most of tlic air is delivered to the wall
oppositn the diffuser, the boxes should be stacked leai;,thwisc to the v/all
opposite the diffuser; in other words, in a fashion directly opposite to the
stacking method used where air is delivered to the side vjalls from a duct.
If an aisle is left running at right angles to the diffuser, it obviously must
be blocked off as well as the spaces on the side walls.

Probably this discussion is somewhat difficult to follow in the absence of a
sketch of the room layout. Therefore, it is suggested that a sketch be made of
the rooms involved and their air distribution system, so that the air movement
in the room can be visualized. Then by appreciating the fact that air will
move most readily along the path of least resistance, it may be possible to set
up a stacking arrangement that will improve the rate of air circulation through
the stacks of apples. Any improvements that can be made should be of help in
prolonging the keeping quality of the fruit.

F. U. Southwick

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

SOIL FUIIIGATIOK FOR BLACK ROOT OF STRAlvBERRIES

The time iJs at hand to fumigate the soil for next year's strawberry bed.
The question is v/hether to fumigate or not. VJill it pay? There are two ways
of approaching an answer. The first is the way \;e handle the sickness problem.
Most of us don't call the doctor till we are sick.. The the doctor prescribes
some medicine and usually gets results. Ue can approach the soil fumigation
problem in the same way. I'e can wait till there are symptoms of black root
in a field, then, before the field is used for strawberries again, fumigate.
This v/ould be called, at least by some people, the more practical, hard
headed approach.

The second method is the insurance approach. There is black root in the
State. There is a possibility of bringing it in on infected plants. At least
one of the causal organisms has a wide host range so that it may be carried
over in these even though strav;berries are not grov.ni. Therefore, we could
fumigate to ward off trouble before it starts. A fev; growers are convinced
that regular fumigation as insurance pays. Most are v/aiting till trouble
starts.

-10-

During the past tv;o years experiments v/ith soil fumigation in the town
o£ Falmouth have resulted in an increase of about 2000 quarts per acre in favor
of soil fumigation. The soil was a light sandy loam. Fumigating was done in
the early fall. The variety Robinson was used in 1957 and Sparkle in 1958.
EDB (ethylene dibromidc) v;as used on the 1957 bed. Several materials were
used on the 1958 bed but there was little difference among them.

A little quick figuring will shov; that in those cases soil fumigation
paid quite well, 2000 quarts at 25 cents - this was a common price for "pick
your ovm berries" - equals $500, The cost of the commonly used soil fuiuigants
is from $50 - $60. Application costs $10 - $20 an acre. Hence, $500 of addi-
tional income was produced at a cost of $80 or less.

Now, lets review a bit what we're talking about. IJhen we say "black root"
or "black root rot", we are referring to a condition of the root in which its
outer sheath has died and turned black. Sometimes the inner "core" is still alive
and white; sometimes it too is dead and black. Regardless of what kills it, the
root will turn black. There are many causes for death such as cold, drought,
fungus attack and nematode attack. Or death may result from a combination of
these causes. There is a good reason to believe that in eastern United States a
large part of the "black root" trouble is caused by microscopic worms called
nematodes. These attack the roots and, if in sufficient numbers, kill the roots
and cause them to turn black.. Therefore, the soil fumigants most commonly used
are those that will k.ill nematodes and are called nematocides. There are soil
fumigants which will control fungi and weeds in addition to nematodes. These
materials are much more expensive and are seldom used in strawberry fields unless
some benefit other than nematode control is desired.

The most commonly used and cheapest soil fumigants for strawberries are D-D
and EDB (ethylene dibromide) . These are liquids V7hich are injected into the soil
to a depth of six to eight inches in bands ten inches apart. The liquid turns to
a gas and permeates the whole soil.. For effective use the soil - not air - temper-
ature needs to be between 50 and 80 degrees Fahrenheit. It is also extremely
important that the soil be properly prepared before fumigation. All plant remains
must be thoroughly decomposed because any which are not can protect nematodes
from the fumigant and may accumulate in front of the chisels of the fumigator and
cause trouble. The soil must be moist and friable with all clods brolcen up as
for a good seed bed.

Since these soil fumigants are toxic to strawberry plants, it is necessary
to wait three weeks after application before setting the plants^ ,p Because of
this V7ait and the necessity for having the soil temperature at .Jw degrees, letting
the fumigation go till spring may result in very late setting of plants, especially
if the spring is late and cold„ Late summer or early fall is a good time to do the
job.

Even the very best job of furaigating will not kill all nematodes in the soil.
They v/ill be likely to build up again so that for r.ia::imum protection a repeat treat-
ment will be needed each time a strawberry bed is set.

The benefits of soil fuaiigation can be lost by setting plants which are infected
V7ith nematodes. Taking plants for setting from an old fruiting bed is risl.y. It
is far better to get plants from a reliable nurseryman v/ho starts out with clean
plants and grows them in fuiuigated soil.

John S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

-Il-
ls THE APPLE II«JDUSTRY OF MASSACHUSETTS
GOIirc TO TRY AHD SELL
989,000 BUSHELS OF BRUISED APPLES THIS YEAR
DUE TO CARELESS PICKIllG?

(Records show that careless picking results in 43 one-half inch bruises
per 100 Mcintosh Apples)

* Bruise-free apples frequently sell for 50c more per bushel.

* One bushel in five is therefore lost ((S$2.50 per bushel) in careless
picking.

* It would be better to pick 4 bushels carefully than to pick 5 bushels
carelessly. (Reputation in the market makes a difference)

* Better 807» of crop picked carefully than lOOZ picked carelessly

* Good picker supervision and/or pay incentives mean the difference.

Pickers do not pick with equal care.
Variations between pickers is often great.
Picking foremen should

1. Find out which pickers are bruising apples.

2. Find out how these pickers are bruising apples

3. Instruct pickers in careful handling

4. Constantly check on all pickers.

---F. E. Cole

•12-

MICHIGAN STATE COLLEGE, Agricultural Experiment Station, Special Bulletin
Number 374 by H.P.Gaston and J. H. Levin shows the following damage of
three inch Mcintosh apples dropped onto a flat solid surface:

VERTICAL DROP

(Slight finger pressure
can equal a one inch
drop,)

1"

1/2"
Bruise

(A pinch or a squeeae can
equal a thrae Inch drop,)

3/4"
Bruise

(A ball bounces

An apple breaks',! t)

1" Bruise

k

-13-

IIcINTOSH APPLES FOR CA STORAGE

The volume of Mcintosh apples going into CA storage is increasing rapidly.
At the present time it appears that the capacity for CA fruit in Massachusetts
will be at least twice what it was a year ago. The total capacity is expected
to increase from about 190,000 bushels in 1957 to about 400,000 bushels in 1958.

As the volume of CA fruit available increases, it would seem reasonable to
expect that high-quality fruit must come from CA storages if a premium is to be
paid for such fruit. Once a good CA room is built and properly operated, the
factor which has the greatest influence on quality of CA fruit is the condition
of the fruit which is placed in the CA room. In other words, failure to have
CA fruit of high quality is generally due to the fact that poor fruit was put in
the storage originally.

The following is a list of points which should be kept in mind when operat-
ing and selecting fruit for a CA room.

1. Mcintosh apples for CA rooms should average about 15 pounds flesh
firmness at harvest if one is to expect to have a good crisp apple in
April and May. It now appears that, if a choice must be made, it is
better to put firm apples which lack the best red color into a CA room
rather than fancy-colored apples which are too ripe.

2. The best Mcintosh for CA are those between 2% and 3 inches in diameter.
Mcintosh over 3 inches in diameter are generally softer than smaller
fruit and do not keep well in any type of storage. Large apples are
much more subject to splitting and internal breakdown than smaller ones,
Whenever possible, avoid fruit from trees carrying a light crop.

3. Use apples from blocks which have not been heavily fertilized with
nitrogen. Mcintosh apples from trees with a moderate nitrogen level
are noticeably superior in keeping quality to fruit from high-nitrogen

4. Only sound, blemish-free fruit of suitable size is fit material for
a CA room. Culls are culls even after they've been in a CA room.
CA space is too valuable to be wasted on them.

5. Place the fruit in clean or new wooden boxes (never use cedar).

6. Move apples rapidly to the CA room so that no more than 24 hours
elapse between harvest and storage.

7. Handle fruit with extreme care in the orchard and en route to the
storage so that bruising and cuts are kept at a minimum. Careless
picking and handling plus over or under filling of boxes in the
orchard can result in excessive bruising and skin cutting. Skin cuts
represent an excellent place for rot to occur.

8. If you wish to reduce the chances of carbon dioxide injury, maintain
The carbon dioxide level at 3 percent instead of 5 percent for the
first month.

9. Maintain a high relative humidity (90-957o) , but don't operate the
mist nozzles for more than an hour or two a day. Excessive operation

-14-

of mist nozzles can increase the amount of mold growth and rot on the
boxes and fruit, especially in the area close to these nozzles.

F. \-l. Southwick

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
A REMINDER

Now that apple harvest has started, copies of special circulars No. 245
and 246 would be helpful.

Special circular No. 245 is titled, "Harvesting Suggestions for Orchard
Foremen", It covers five things that orchard foremen should show the pickers
and nine things that they should tell them.

"Be A Better Apple Picker" is the title of special circular No. 246. This
circular stresses seven harvesting practices the apple picker should follow
in order to pick apples easier, faster and better.

Copies of these two special circulars may be obtained at your County
Extension Office .

Editor

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FRUIT KOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff
Department of Horticulture
University of Massachusetts
Amherst

SEPTEMBER - OCTOBER, 1958

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Apple Bruising

Livestock Thrive on Apple Pomace

Research Findings from Other Areas

Bruising of Mcintosh Apples After Harvest

The Cider Industry in Ohio

Cider Notes

Commercial Crop of Apples

Beware of Water Core in Delicious

Fruit Notes to be Issued Bimonthly

t'

^"

mm

Wi^r-

^^s^d

#/'

%

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, Dale H. Sieling, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914,
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication approved by Bernard Solomon, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

POMOLOGY SECTION - DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and
systematic Pomology. Active in the testing of new varieties.

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research - Stationed at East Wareham.
Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums.
Mr. Bailey also does considerable extension work with growers
of small fruit.

French, Arthur P. - Head, Department of Horticulture

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active
in small fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest
control, and does research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C. - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other depart-
mental courses. Currently also doing research on fruit
marketing.

Southwlck, Franklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning,
preharvest drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition.
Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Associate Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and
strain tests and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain
advanced courses.

Contributors to This Issue From Supporting Fields
Kirby M. Hayes, Extension Marketing Specialist, Food Technology
Lawrence D. Rhoades, Extension Specialist in Farm Management

APPLE BRUISING

The amount of bruises caused by dropping apples from varying heights and
during the various harvesting and handling procedures was studied by H. P.
Gaston and J. H. Levin of Michigan State University. Some of their findings
are given below and show the importance of taking time to show pickers how to
pick properly and avoid bruising.

Bruises Caused by Vertical Drops

A three inch Mcintosh dropped one inch onto a flat hard surface caused a
half inch bruise.

A three inch apple dropped three inches onto a sharp corner resulted in
a skin break.

When an apple was dropped onto another apple or apples, several bruises
usually resulted. Gaston and Levin found that when a 2% inch Mcintosh was dropped
from a height of 12 inches onto another apple resting still on another apple that
was resting on a flat board, the result was five separate bruises, each one of
which averaged more than 5/8 of an inch in diameter.

Bruising During the Harvesting and Grading Operations

The following table presents data obtained by Gaston and Levin in their
study of the amount of meclianlcal injury that resulted from the careless and the
careful performance of various handling operations during Mcintosh harvest,

T/.BLE I - Mechanical injury per 100 Mcintosh apples, 2% inches and up, resulting
from the carel e ss and the careful performance of various handling operations.

No. of bruises %" in dia.

Careless picking 43

Careful picking 1

Careless dumping into field crates 88

Careful dumping into field crates 0

Careless dumping onto receiving belt 86

Careful dumping onto receiving belt 19

Table I shows that 43 bruises of ^" in diameter were found per 100 Mcintosh
apples when the apples were carelessly picked. To simulate the careless picking
operation the apples were dropped into a standard metal picking bucket with a
canvas bottom. The fruit were dropped into the bucket from about the level of
its' top edge or a little below. The first few fruits had approximately a 14
inch drop and the next 12 or 15 between 8 and 12 inch fall striking the apples
lying on the canvas bottom. This was a drastic treatment, however, the practice
is not uncommon in orchards. Only by adequate supervision and instruction can
the tendency of pickers to drop at least some of the apples into their picking
containers be kept at a minimum.

Careless dumping into field crates resulted in extensive bruising (Table I).
In performing the careless dumping into field crates, the canvas bottom of the
picking bucket was released while it was held at about the level of the top edge
of the field box into which it was beinc emptied. The incidence of bruising in

-2-

this operation was more serious than that caused by any of the other operations
studied by Gaston and Levin,

The careful dumping into field crates consisted of placing the full picking
container on the bottom of the field box or onto fruit that was in it before the
canvas was released. The picking bucket was then lifted slowly and gently so that
the apples rolled slowly into the field crate.

GROWERS AND FOREMEN'.

The importance of careful filling of field crates cannot be over emphasized
and this operation should be carefully supervised if bruising is to be held
at a minimum I

Dumping Onto Receiving Belt

It can be seen in Table I that careless dumping onto the receiving belt
resulted in 86 bruises, 1/2 inch in diameter, per 100 Mcintosh apples as compared
to 19 when the job was done carefully. Gaston and Levin noted that when field
crates were dumped by hand they were usually held in such a way that the fruit
fell onto the receiving belt from a height of several inches. This method of
dumping resulted in the extensive bruising shown in Table I. The bruising that
occurred during the operation was one of the easiest and least costly to minimize.
Some Massachusetts growers are using hand-operated mechanical apple box dumpers.
Others use a pad which is placed over the top of the apple box when the box is
tipped. After tipping the box, the grower gradually raises the pad to allow the
apples to roll gently onto the receiving belt of the feed table on the grader.
Another inexpensive dumping aid is a canvas bag. The worker dumping the apples
places a canvas bag, one end of which is tacked to the grader, over the top of the
box of fruit while he tips the box over. The worker releases the bag and lifts
the box gently to allow the apples to flow out.

- — William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

LIVESTOQC THRIVE ON APPLE POMACE

In an experiment conducted by the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station
and U.S.D.A's Beef Cattle Research Station at Front Royal, Virginia beef cattle
fed apple pomace not only thrived but gained more than animals eating locally
grown feed.

Both wet pomace, containing 70 per cent moisture and dry pomace, derived from
the wet pomace by partial dehydration with steam heat to a moisture content of
about 4 per cent were fed. The v/et pomace was stored in a covered shed with
no packing or preservative. Even under these conditions the pomace remained
nutritious, palatable, and unspoiled.

Unbred Shorthorn yearling heifers gained 115 pounds in 106 days on self- fed
dry apple pomace and a pound of cottonseed cake daily. Other heifers fed sorgo
- sudangrass - soybean silage and .75 pound of cottonseed cake gained only 32
pounds in the same period.

The moral here is: Don't let valuable pomace go to waste when livestock

men in the vicinity can use it to advantage. l\Thy not let the pomace pay part or
all of your pressing cost if you are in the business of making cider?

Incidentally, if you have a cider mill why not take advantage of the M.F.G.A.
"Certified" Cider Program? For details write 0. C. Roberts, Assistant Secretary,
French Hall, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.

0. C. Roberts

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

RESEARCH FINDINGS FROM OTHER AREAS

Costs of Producing Peaches in New Jersey

The May, 1958 issue of Horticultural News published by the New Jersey State
Horticultural Society contained an article by John W. Carncross, Department of
Agricultural Economics, Rutgers University titled "Cost of Producing Peaches in
New Jersey." The following excerpts from this article which summarizes the
information obtained from 30 peach grov/ers as to production and harvesting costs
are of interest.

"Thirty peach growers cooperated in giving information on the costs and
practices in the production of their crop for the year 1956. These farms were
located in Burlington, Gloucester, Camden, and Atlantic Counties. Most of the
growers produced vegetables in addition to peaches. Only two of the farms were
specialized in fruit that is, growing only peaches and apples. The acreage of
peaches grown per farm ranged from 5 to 125. Two- thirds of the farms were grow-
ing between 10 and 40 acres of bearing peaches. There was a total of 752 acres
of bearing peach orchards included in the survey. Twenty-six of the thirty
cooperators also had non-bearing peach trees, with a total of 221 acres „ The
details of the average costs for the 30 famis on a per acre basis for the bear-
ing orchard are shown in Table I,

Table I. Cost of Producing Peaches on 30 Farms in New Jersey, 1956.

(Average per Farm)
Yield of Peaches

Up to Harvest

Fertilizer

Spray and Dust Material

Man Labor

Machine and Equipment

Interest on Orchard Valuation

All Other Costs
Total Cost Up to Harvest per Acre
Total Cost Up to Harvest per Bushel

Harvesting

Man Labor

Containers

Other Harvesting Costs
Total Harvesting Costs per Acre
Total Harvesting Costs per Bushel

1087 lbs.

73 hrs.

244 bu.

$27
51
76
35
28
45

$262
1.07

121 hrs.

^128

125

17

$270
1.11

Marketing

Commission $40

Hauling and Cartage 32

Hydro-cooler 14

Others 4

Total Marketing Costs per Acre $90

Total Marketing Costs per Bushel .37

TOTAL ALL COSTS PER ACRE $622

TOTAL ALL COSTS PER BUSHEL 2.55

Receipts

Market Peaches $723

Rejects 33

Total Receipts $756

Receipts per Bushel of Market Peaches 2.96

Returns per Hour of Man Labor 1.73

Total Acres of Peaches 752

Acres of Peaches per Farm 25

The cost up to harvest averaged $262 per acre, or $1.07 per bushel for the
average yield of marketable peaches of 244 bushels. Harvesting costs, including
containers, averaged $270 per acre or $1.11 per bushel, and marketing costs
averaged $90 per acre or 37c per bushel. The total of all costs was $622 per
acre or, $2.55 per bushel. In general, growers with above average yields produced
a crop at less than average costs, while growers with below average yields pro-
duced at above average costs.

The growers applied an average of 11 sprays. Two-thirds of the growers
sprayed between 9 and 12 times. The average expenditure for spray and dust
material was $51 per acre. Two-thirds of the growers spent between $30 and
$70 per acre for spray and dust material. There was not a close relation between
the amount spent for spray material and yield of peaches per acre.

The growers' estimates of the valu('. of their bearing trees, including the
land, ranged from $300 to $1,000 per acre. Two-thirds of the growers' estimates
fell within the range of from $400 to $600 per acre.

An average of 73 hours of man labor was used per acre in producing the crop
prior to harvest. This expenditure of $7 6 per acre for man laljor was the largest
single item in production costs up to harvest. In harvesting the crop, the cost
of $128 per acre for man labor only slightly exceeded the average expenditure
of $125 per acre for containers. The 3/4 bushel was the most common container
used, although many sold part of their crop in a 1/2 bushel container.

The year 1956 was a favorable year for the production of peaches. These
growers received an average price for their peaches of $2.96 per bushel. This
varied considerably between growers, depending on their metho-l of sale. The
return per hour of man labor averaged $1.73, which also varied sharply between
farms. Factors entering into the variability of returns included yield of
peaches per acre, the efficiency of production, and the price received for the
market peaches.

Peach growers need to make a continuing analysis of the factors in their
production which will economically contribute to higher yields of peaches per
acre. Six of the growers had yields of over 300 bushels per acre. The yields
for these six averaged 348 bushels, and were produced up to harvest at an average
cost of $.65 per bushel. Seven growers had yields of less than 200 bushels and
averaged 162 bushels per acre. Their cost of production up to harvest averaged
$1.54 per bushel. The Iw^er cost per bushel with the higher yields greatly
increases the net returns to the operator for his labor as compared to the low
yield - high cost group. Higher prices obtained by some growers also increased
profits. Six growers averaged over $3.00 per bushel at the farm for their crop,
while four growers averaged less than $2.00 per bushel. Quality of pack, variety
and age of trees, and marketing skill were important factors in this price
difference between growers."

---William J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

BRUISING OF McINTOSH APPLES AFTER HARVEST

The July-August issue of "Fruit Notes" contained an article relative to a
study of the extent of mechanical injury (bruises and skin punctures) on Mcintosh
apples as harvested^ This article deals with a subsequent study of mechanical
injury as Mcintosh apples were removed from storage. In this study an attempt
was made to determine the amount of injury which occurs between the orchard and
the packing house.

Procedure

During the packing season eighteen of the tv;enty orchards from which data
were obtained at harvest were re-visited and the extent of mechanical injury
determined on a five hundred apple sample obtaiiied by selecting fifty apples
from each of ten boxes chosen at random as they moved from the storage to the
packing house.

While the apples in the five hundred apple sample from storage may not have

come from the same orchard nor been picked by the same pickers as those studied

at harvest time, the size of the sample was considered sufficient to fairly

represent the entire crop and would warrant comparison with the extent of mechan-
ical injury found in the orchard.

This comparison is shown in Table I on page 8,

Columns with the odd numbers show the situation for the respective classifica-
tions when the apples were harvested. Columns with even numbers show the situation
when the apples were taken from storage. Note that the items in columns 7 to 10
inclusive show the total number of bruises on 500 apples rather than the percent of
apples bruised or skin punctured sho\'m in the other columns.

What do the figures in this table indicate?

1. That there was a marked increase in all types of bruises and of skin
punctures when apples were removed from storage as compared with those observed at
harvest. In fact, a weighted average of bruises and skin punctures for all

eighteen orchards shov;s that these mechanical blemishes were twice as serious on
the apples when taken from storage as compared with those at harvest. In some
orchards this increase was relatively small while in others it was excessive.

2o That there was a decided increase in the percent of apples in the class-
ification "Few small bruises'". While such bruises are of minor importance since
they would not affect the grade, the percentage increase in small bruises shows
that, in most orchards, the method of handling from orchard to packing house
could be improved,

3. That, on the average, there was a particularly large increase in the
type of bruises which Vi/ould affect the grade and thus decrease material I3' the
value of the crop,

4. That the percentage increase in skin punctures was about the same as the
percentage increase in bruises.

5. That in the combined samples of 9,000 apples from eighteen orchards the
number of 3/4" bruises and 1" bruises was in each case approximately twice as
many when removed from storage as when harvested. In a few instances the number
of the larger bruises was less on apples taken from storage compared with those
examined when harvested. This apparent discrepancy was presumably due to the
Scimple that happened to be chosen in each case.

Considering the number and types of orchards and the size of the sample,
it may reasonably be assumed that the marked increase in bruises and skin
punctures from harvest to packing house found in the orchards studied is the
situation that exists in general for all orchards in the State.

If there are any lessons to be learned from this study some at least are as
follows:

1. In general, there is altogether too much bruising occurring from the
time apples are harvested until they reach the packing house.

2. Most pickers cause less bruising than the handlers of the apples after
they are picked.

3o It would pay a grower to make random bruise counts at various stages in
the movement of apples from orchard to the shipping platform of the packing
house so as to determine the extent of bruising and where it is occurring.

4, The importance of reducing the number of bruises and skin punctures can
be reduced to a dollars and cents basis by accepting a few well founded assumptions
as follows:

1. A grower has a 15,000 bushel crop of Mcintosh apples (the approximate
average production of the orchards studied.)

2. Even with the careful growers 10 percent of the apples will be below
Fancy grade because of bruises and skin punctures (average of the five most
careful operators.)

3. This particular operator has 307, of his crop below Fancy because of
mechanical injury (the approximate average of apples as taken from storage
in all orchards studied.)

4. The average price of Fancy grade Mcintosh is $3.50 (Quotation from
January 16, 1958 Special Apple Market Report - Country shipping point price.)

5. The average price of $1.75 for apples below Fancy grade (an assumed
value.)

Under these conditions the careful operator would have:

13,500 bushels (? $3.50 $47,250

1,500 bushels (? $1.75 2,625

Total $49,875

The operator with 30% of the apples below Fancy would have:

10,500 bushels (? $3.50 $36,750

4,500 bushels (? $1.75 7.875

Total $44,625

Amount lost because of excessive bruises - $5,250

An operator with 50 percent of his apples below Fancy because of bruises
(average of the five most careless operators) would lose $10,500 compared with
the careful operator. Are you losing the price of a tractor, a sprayer or
possibly a mink coat for the wife because of bruises and skin punctures?

TABLE I

Comparison of Mechanical Injury at Harvest and Out-of-Storage (see note)

H Columns refer to amount of injury at harvest.

S Colijmns refer to amount of injury as apples came from storage. .

8

10

11

12

Orchard

Apples with
few small
bruises
H S

Apples with
many small
bruises
H S

Apples with
1/2 inch
bruises
H S

No. of
3/4 in.
bruises
H S

No. of
1 inch
bruises
H S

Appl

cuts

punc

H

3S with
and
tures
S

2

7o
13.4

7„
51,0

7o
0.2

6.2

13.6

7,
24.0

8

37

0

#
5

3.0

7,
4.8

3

10.8

60.0

0.0

7,6

4.6

23.8

1

50

1

10

1.0

5.6

4

9.2

22.6

0.0

0,6

5.8

5.6

9

7

0

1

2.2

4.4

6

7.4

27.4

0,0

0.8

4.4

9.2

5

14

1

3

1.4

2.6

7

20.4

42.4

0.0

2.8

7,3

9,4

1

9

0

5

2.6

3.2

8

4.0

23.0

0.0

0.2

2.0

4.0

2

7

0

2

0.6

1.0

9

15.8

52.8

1.0

2,2

7.6

10,8

5

9

0

4

1.0

5.2

10

13.2

50.6

0.4

7.4

7.4

28.8

9

41

4

11

2.8

10.2

11

26.8

49.8

0.4

3,6

10.0

11.4

11

15

3

1

2.6

3,0

12

17,2

49.4

0.4

2.4

17.4

14.0

30

2b

1

7

5.0

5.0

IJ

29.2

57.6

1.6

11.6

16.4

20.6

25

32

1

2

9.2

16.6

1'+

35.4

50.8

5.8

9.2

23.4

23.0

32

57

3

8

5.0

4.6

15

26.6

63.0

4.0

4.8

17,6

24.8

19

29

1

8

2.8

4.6

16

7.2

33.4

0.0

3.0

2,8

14.0

1

15

0

4

1.6

6.4

17

23.4

25.0

2.4

1.0

14.6

14.2

25

20

4

1

2.6

7.6

18

40.2

59.2

1.4

13.4

20,4

29.8

13

28

2

4

1.2

7.2

19

18.8

20.8

0.4

0.0

4.6

8.0

2

15

2

1

2.8

4.2

20

8.8

15.8

0.0

0.2

3.6

2.4

1

1

1

0

0.8

1,8

Average

18.6

41.9

1.5

4.3

10.7

15.4

11.

6 22.9

2.

0 4.3

2.7

5.4

Note:

Orchards 1

and 5 are

omitted

because

circums

tances

prevent

ed

the obtai

ning

of data as apples were removed from storage.

0. C. Roberts

THE CIDER INDUSTRY IN OHIO

The Proceedings of the 111th Annual Meeting of the Ohio State Horticultural
Society contained a summary of the present status of the Cider Industry in Ohio
reported by Dr. M. P. Baldauf of the Ohio Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio.
In Ohio as in Massachusetts the cider mill operators are striving to produce a
better product.

Dr. M. P. Baldauf reports that a survey of Ohio cider mills indicates that
there is a trend to custom presses operated full time during the season. On the
otherhand, the Ohio cider mill survey indicates a decrease in the so called
"Press-in-the-woods" type cider mill. He cites several reasons for this:
"(1) The consumer is more conscious of sanitation; (2) transportation of today
allows a custom presser to serve a rather large area; (3) the demand for home
made vinegar and fermented cider is not so large; and (4) the law enforcement
agencies concerned with cider mills are beginning to enforce the laws which
have not been strictly enforced in the past."

Dr. M. P. Baldauf is of the opinion that although custom pressers are doing
a better job the individual pressers should not quit, because there are many
instances where a private press is a great asset. He cites the following
Justification for a private press: "(1) Greater control of sanitation;

(2) creation of an atmosphere about a sales stand; (3) personal consumer faith
in an individual presser; (4) control of how and when the cider is made; and
(5) lack of a good custom press within a convenient distance."

In the article, Dr. Baldauf lists a few of the undesirable practices
observed during visits to cider mills which are as follows: (1) the use of
badly bruised, decayed, or insect infested apples; (2) the use of dirty apples;

(3) the use of wooden equipment or equipment made from corrosive materials;

(4) the use of cloths that are not washed at least daily; (5) the use of contain-
ers without labels or with labels of other products; (6) Sale of fermented
cider containing a sweet cider label; (7) the use of used containers and caps;
and (8) containers of cider with settlings or floating material."

The Ohio State fruit growers are interested in a certified cider mill
program similar to that which we have in Massachusetts. At the 111th Annual
Meeting of the Ohio State Horticultural Society held last year a certified
cider mill operator from Ifessachusetts was invited to describe the Massachusetts
Certified Cider Mill Program.

Dr. Baldauf feels that a certified cider mill program would help to improve
the quality and methods of cider production in Ohio. He states, "Admittedly,
the cider industry as a whole is improving by producing a better quality cider
under more sanitary conditions and this will help a great deal, but it is
not enough. The ansv^er is a certified cider program,"

William J. Lord

I I I I I I I i I I I I I I I I

-10-

CIDER MOTKS

V.'ith the bci^inning of a nev; cider season, perhaps a loo!, at past years
activities is in order. If j^ou can answer yes to the follov-ing questions and
v;ill do the same this year, customers will return to buy more.

1 - Was my price competitive and fair?

2 - Is my mill clean enough for customer inspection at any time?

3 - Do I use only clean sound apples?
A - Do I blend two or more varieties?

5 - Will my cider hold up at least 5 days without fermenting in a home

refrigerator?

6 - Are my press cloths clean and sweet smelling?

7 - Do I use hot water and a sanitizing agent to clean my press and room?

8 - Do I store my cider under refrigeration?

9 - Do I use approved methods of fly control?

As has been the case in past years, I can give limited assistance in
advising on mill design, remodelling and equipment selection. Request for assist-
ance should be cliannclcd through you County Agent and Dr. William J. Lord.

K. M. Hayes

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

COMMERCIAL CROP OF APPLES

Bushels
Average Average Indicated

1943 - 1952 1947 - 1956 1956 1957 8/1/58

Massachusetts 2,387,000 2,497,000 1,640,000 2,850,000 2,550,000

New England 6,246,000 6,885,000 5,020,000 7,570,000 7,800,000

35 Commercial 105,802,000 108,163,000 100,852,000 118,548,000 125,999,000
Crop States

August 1, conditions indicate a commercial apple crop 6 per cent above
1957 and 1671 above average, a crop of this size would be the largest since
1949. Water supplies have been adequate along the eastern seaboard which
has 447o of the United States crop this year compared to 417„ in 1957.

-11-

The peach crop is estimated to be the largest since 1947. The Massa-
chusetts crop is estimated at 120,000 bushels compared with 8,000 bushels
in 1957 and 79,000 bushels the 1947-1956 ten year average. The southern
states estimate a crop 53% above average. The pear crop is estimated nation-
ally 5% below average with good crops however, in Michigan and New York.
Michigan 79% above average and New York 17% above average.

Short Shorts
Social Security;

Don't forget that as an employer you must keep a record of the name,
address and social security number and days worked for each of your employees
and whether paid on a time or piece work basis. On a piece work basis
(pay by the bushel, etc.) you deduct social security tax at the rate of 2%%
of wages of $150 or more during the year. On a time basis after he or she
has worked on 20 different days regardless of amount paid you deduct social
security tax of 2%%,.

After any month or series of months when your tax liability reaches $100
(2^ from employees and 2-^ your share) you must make a deposit using a Federal
Depository Receipt (Form 450) in the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston or an
authorized bank, probably your own bank.

Insurance:

You can provide insurance protection against suit for injury by your
employees by Workmen's Compensation Insurance or by an employees endorsement
on your Comprehensive Liability Insurance policy. These are not the same
sort of protection. Your insurance agent will be glad to explain the differ-
ence and to suggest which policy might fit your risks better. Don't forget
fire insurance on your crop after harvest while in storage.

-—Lawrence D. Rhoades

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

BEWARE OF WATER CORE IN DELICIOUS

During the last two years Delicious apples and strains of the variety have
had considerable water core and in some instances this condition has been followed
by internal breakdown during storage. This year with many Delicious trees carry-
ing a light crop, growers should make every effort to minimize losses due to water
core,

Delicious as well as other varieties may develop water core especially if
allowed to become overripe on the tree. Large apples are more likely to have
water core than small ones, although small fruits will often have some. Water
core is apt to be more prevalent on trees carrying a light crop.

The question is what can be done about water core and how should the fruit
be handled having this disorder. Growers should pick the fruit before it becomes
too mature. Although, water core may develop in Delicious even when the fruit is
not sufficiently ripe for harvest there is little doubt that the riper the fruit
becomes the more water core it may have.

•12-

Lots of fruits suspected of having water core should be sold early in the
season. Even though water core may disappear in cold storage internal breakdo\^m
may occur later. If it is necessary to store Delicious apples suspected of
water core for a considerable period, apple storage operators should make
inspection of the fruit throughout the storage season not only for the presence
of internal breakdown but for other storage disorders, llegular inspections at
regular 2-or-3 week intervals, starting about Thanksgiving time, would help to
eliminate serious losses late in the storage period.

VI. Jo Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

BLUEBERRY TROUBLES

IXiring the past summer three troubles have appeared in blueberry plantings
scattered over the State, They are not new but at least one has been more frequent
and more serious than in the oast. In fact, in a fe^j fields it has been extremely
serious o Usually this trouble is observed first during pruning. One or more dead
canes arc found. A look at the base of these dead canes reveals a canl;er which
looks very much like a disease canker. On young canes the juvenile bark has turned
black and the tissue beneath is brown, dry and dead. Where these cankers have
completely encircled the canes, they are deaci or soon die. On older canes the
cankers are not so apparent. The corky outer bark is still present and covers an
area from which the inner bark has entirely disappeared leaving the xi70od e::posed.
This exposed v70od is dark, brov/n or black and dead.. Frequently the presence of
these dead areas is revealed by a swelling beneath the bark or a split in the
bark through which can be seen an irregular, light brovm, corlcy looking mass of
tissue vrhich resembles a gf.ll of some sort. These gall-like growths always
develop at the top of the (;anl:er as if the plant were trying to callus over the
wound.

V/hile the first dead canes v;ere observed in the early spring at pruning time,
not all affected canes died so early. Canes have continued to die all summer. In
some cases fruit set and developed to about one-fourth mature size before the canes
died.

What is the cause of this trouble? Is it disease, winter injury or a combin-
ation? Since pathogenic fungi have been found in and around these cankers, there
is evidence that the trouble is caused by a disease. On the other hand, there is
evidence of cold injury. This suggests the possibility that the fungal attack was
secondary, that is, the fungus invaded tissue already severely damaged by cold.
It will take considerable painstaking work to get the true answer.

In the meantime v/hat can be done where this trouble is present? The answer
will have to be tentative until more is knoT^m of the cause. Affected canes can be
cut out and burned to prevent spread - it is hoped - in case the trouble is a
disease. To reduce the danger from cold injury less nitrogen can be used and all
applied at once in the spring. Where cultivation is practiced, it can be stopped
earlier and a cover crop so\m to stop grovjth and cause the canes to harden off.

■13-

Of course the real answer to the cold injury problem is the choice of cold resist-
ant varieties set in locations most favorable for avoiding cold injury.

A second trouble which is definitely the result of cold injury has appeared
frequently this year. Small berries fail to develop and are flattened instead
of round in shape. If these berries are cut open, they will be found to contain
no seeds or perhaps 1 to 3 empty seed coats. Sometime during winter or early
spring cold killed a very small bit of tissue, perhaps only a single cell, in
the flower bud and normal seeds were not formed. Without at least a few seeds
the berries fail to develop. The new varieties Bluecrop and Blueray and to a
less degree Herbert are not only more resistant to this type of injury but can
develop normal berries with fewer seeds than other varieties.

A third trouble has been very serious in numerous plantings this summer.
When the bushes came into bloom, it was discovered that something had suppressed
the development of leaf buds. The bushes were a mass of bloom with very few leaves,
As a result berries were small and slow in developing. A reason for this can only
be arrived at by speculation.

Among the first varieties of cultivated blueberries introduced was one named
Sam. This variety regularly produced shoots 18 to 24 inches or more in length
with only 3 or 4 leaf buds at the base and 15 to 30 or more fruit buds. Unless
most of the fruit buds were cut off, leaving only 4 ot 5, the bushes would have
very few leaves and a heavy crop of very small worthless fruit.

With so much sunshine during the summer of 1957 conditions for fruit bud
formation were unusually good. Many more fruit buds than normal were formed up-
setting the normal balance between leaf buds and fruit buds. Unless the balance
was restored by heavy cutting back during pruning the result was, as with Sam,
much small fruit and few leaves.

---John S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FRUIT NOTES TO BE ISSUED BIMONTHLY

Please note that this issue of Fruit Notes is for September and October.
We regret that due to financial circumstances beyond the control of the
Department of Horticulture, Fruit Notes will be issued only six times a year
in the foreseeable future.

Urgent and timely information will, of course, continue to be channeled
to you fruit growers thru your County Extension Service.

— - Arthur P. French

I I I I I I ! I I I I I I I I I

FRUIT NOTES

Preparad by Pomology Staff
Department of Horticulture
University of Massachusetts
Amherst

NOVEMBER - DECEMBER, 1958

TABLE OF CONTENTS

A Mechanical Pruning Device

Effect of Bruises on the Sale of Apples

The Aphids on Apple

Research Findings from Other Areas

Winter Fruit Meetings

Results from the Mcintosh Preharvest
Drop Control Experiment

Present Status of Massachusetts
Fruit Industry

Effect of Bruises on Sales

Cider Notes

*<

- — £•% - "■^•

■-^i?'^^"*'

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%^

m

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'W{

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'^t

^'jt^

I*au«d by the Cooperative Extension Service, Dale H. Sleltng, Dean and Director, In furtherance of the Acta of May 8 and tune 30, 1914;
Unlveralty of Maaaachuaetta, United States Department of Agrlculttve and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication approved by Bernard Solomon, State Purchaslne Aeent. No. 19.

POMOLOGY SECTION - DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE

Anderson, James - Instructor

Teaches courses in general Pomology, small fruit culture and
systematic Pomology. Active in the testing of new varieties.

Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research -

Doing research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums.
Mr. Bailey also does considerable extension work with growers
of small fruit.

French, Arthur P. - Head, Department of Horticulture

Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active
in small fruit variety testing.

Lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist

Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest
control, and does research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.

Roberts, Oliver C. - Associate Professor

Teacher of pest cctitrol, fruit marketing and other depart-
mental courses. Currently also doing research on fruit
marketing.

Southwick, Franklin W. - Professor, Research

Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning,
preharvest drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition.
Also, teaches certain advanced courses.

Weeks, Walter D. - Associate Professor, Research

Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and
strain tests and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain
advanced courses.

Contributors to This Issue From Supporting Fields
E. H. Wheeler, Extension Entomologist
Kirby M. Hayes, Food Technologist

A MECHANICAL PRUNING DEVICE

Mechanical pruning device showing the two hydraulic arms that
are operated from a control box attached to each "bucket".

^7

Whitney Doe of Hawbuck Orchards demonstrates their mechanical
pruning device. Whit is showing the excellent maneuverability
of the equipment which is operated from the control box in
front of him.

-2-

0. C. Doe and Sons demonstrated thetr mechanical pruning device at William
Hermann's orchard, Harvard, Massachusetts, one of the orchards visited on the
summer £ruit tour. This device is mounted on a trailer and has two hydraulic
operated arms to which are attached "buckets". The pruner standing in the
bucket can raise himself to the desired position in the tree by operating the
controls attached to the bucket.

William Doe of Hawbuck orchards has the following to say about the mechanical
pruner. "Two years ago Hawbuck Orchards decided to go into power pruning equip-
ment. We felt at the time that in order to get the maximum efficiency out of the
investment some sort of tower was needed to get the men into the trees. A plat-
form type of tower was made which helped but left a lot to be desired. This
past year with time even more pressing, we developed the "Monster" pictured with
this article. It was the outcome of a collection of ideas, and proved to be a
big step forward. Our feeling is that although this machine costs about half
again as much as similar types it is much more efficient because two men are
working and they are more mobile and time is not wasted in constant moving.

Our work pattern is to park in the middle of four trees 35 to 40 feet on
centers and work one quarter of each tree at one time.

Needless to say it takes a day or two to get used to this type of machine,
but we feel it is a big help and well worth the trouble to develop and make.
We will be happy to cooperate with any grower wishing to build a pruning
machine of this type."

- — W. J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

EFFECT OF BRUISES ON THE SALE OF APPLES

Studies by the Washington State Apple Commission Show that 697. more apples
can be sold through relatively bruise-free displays than from displays with
moderate levels of bruising.

0. C. Roberts

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

THE APHIDS ON APPLE

Rosy Apple Aphid

1958 will be remembered as a "rosy apple aphid year". 1954 was the last
such year for most of the State. In Southern Middlesex, Norfolk, Bristol, Plymouth
and Barnstable Counties every year is likely to be a "rosy aphid year".

No year needs to be a "rosy apple aphid year" for you or any grower. Low
cost "insurance" against this is available to everyone every year.

It requires a preventative program. The years when rosy apple aphid is
likely to cause losses throughout the State cannot be predicted with any certain-
ty. Injury occurs early, mainly before Petal-Fall, in most seasons.

-3-

(Hindsight Is always better than foresight 1 The writer should have urged
more widespread use of phosphate materials in Petal-Fall and 1st Cover sprays
this past spring. The rosy apple aphid did more damage after Bloom and remained
on the trees longer in 1958 in addition to being more abundant).

However, remember this I Even in 1958 growers who carried out one of the
"insurance" programs did not need a phosphate soon after bloom, at a time when
apples are tender and easily russetted especially under poor drying conditions .

More About The Aphid Itself

Right now (October) winged females are flying from narrow leaved plantain to
apple trees. Here they produce living progeny which are wingless, egg laying
females. After a mating with winged males from plantain the overwintering eggs
are laid during October, November and even into December. Weather conditions
during these months have much to do with the return to apple and the abundance
of overwintering eggs.

The eggs are tiny, black, ovals tucked into crevices and under the bark
along the trunk, limbs and branches. Each female may produce fewer than 10 eggs.

Hatching usually starts when fruit buds show from 1/4 to 1/2 inch of green
tip, a stage we identify as Early Delayed Doirmant. All eggs are hatched normally
within a week but cooler weather may extend this considerably.

The young nymphs crawl to the leaves, start sucking the sap and cause the
spur leaves to curl tightly. They are dark in color and develop rapidly into
the rounded, purple stem mothers.

About the beginning of Pink these stem mothers, without mating, start to
produce living young. This is at an average rate of 5 or 6 per day (maximum
reported is 33) and may continue for a month. Thus a single overwintering egg
may give rise to 200 rosy aphids within a month after hatching.

Furthermore, all these young aphids are females capable of repeating the
feat of their mother. Also they are now well protected in tightly curled leaves.
They may have already caused many "aphid apples"

II

A few of the above, the second generation, may have developed wings and
migrated to plantain. All, or nearly all, the third generation, and all of the
fourth if there are any on apple (as in 1958) migrate to plantain. Here four
or five additional broods are produced before we are back to the winged migrants
with which we started this story.

It is complicated life cycle involving the tvjo host plants, one egg laying
generation, three winged forms, and many broods in which are found only the non-
mating females capable of producing living young.

You can see the importance of early season control to prevent injury and
further build-up in numbers.

The "Insurance" Programs

You have several choices. All are based upon pre bloom applications. Costs
vary; some give better control while other offer more fringe benefits against

-4-

other pests. Here they are listed from the earliest to the latest. Its up to
you to check costs and to choose the program best suited to your conditions and
operations.

1. Dormant - DN - butyl phenol, 1 qt./lOO. A drenching spray required so
concentrations above 2x are often less effective. Fringe benefits: grain
and green aphid eggs killed; some reduction in San Jose and oyster shell
scales and red mite, better control of these and also bud moth if 2
quarts are used.

2. Late Delayed Dormant - Oil (70" superior or regular 100" superior type),
2 gallons PLUS BHC (12% gamma), 2 Ibs./lOO. A drenching spray required
so concentrations above 2x are often less effective. May fail to give
complete control if egg hatching is delayed or temperatures are lower
than 65°F. You obtain all of the effects of the oil against mites and
scales plus these fringe benefits: grain and green aphids killed better
than with oil alone.

3a. Up-to-Pink (in some fungicide application between Late Delayed Dormant

and full Pink) - BHC (127. gamma) 2 Ibs./lOO. May not give complete control
if temperatures are lower than 65^. Fringe benefits: grain and green
aphids killed, some miscellaneous leaf eating caterpillars and sucking
bugs killed.

OR 3b. Phosphates: TEPP, 1/4 (407,) to 1/2 (207,) pt; malathion, 2 lbs; parathion
(on non-McIntosh varieties), 1 1/2 lbs. Fringe benefits: grain and
green aphids killed; parathion excellent, malathion good against bud
moth, both good against miscellaneous caterpillars and sucking insects:
malathion kills active leafroller moths, parathion fair. Avoid slow
drying conditions, combinations with mercuries, and TEPP with glyodin.

4. Pink (in a fungicide application) - Phosphates as in 3b just above.
Additional fringe benefits: earliest hatched red mites will be killed.
TEPP may be less effective here because of leaf curling. Avoid slow dry-
ing conditions combinations with mercuries, and TEPP with glyodin.

In Case of Emergency

Its already Petal-Fall and you realize its a bad "rosy aphid year". Some-
thing should be done on all except Mcintosh, Wealthy, and Duchess, even though
expensive

1. Petal-Fall demeton, 1/2 pt. Avoid slow drying and combinations with
mercuries and glyodin. Other aphids and mites will be killed; of
little or no value against curculio.

Newer Materials for Trial

Follow manufacturer's directions in using Trithion between Dormant and
Delayed Dormant (not Late Delayed Dojrmant or later) . Promising as an aphid
control, other benefits doubtful at this writing. Cost may be too great.
Compatible with oil but compatibility with all fungicides not well known.

E. H. Wheeler

^ I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

RESEARCH FINDINGS FROM OTHER AREAS

The Blueberry Industry in Nev; Jersey

The Proceedings of the 25th Annual Blueberry Open House held in New Jersey
in January, 1956 published by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station
contained an article by Gordon G. Butler, Statistician, New Jersey Crop Report-
ing Service, titled "Acreage and Production Figures from the 1956 Blueberry
Survey". The information obtained in this survey should be of interest to the
blueberry growers of Massachusetts.

In 1956, New Jersey grov^ers reported a total of 6,266 acres of blueberries,
bearing and non bearing, which is nearly four times the acreage reported in the
last complete survey conducted in 1944. Burlington County accounted for 54
per cent of the 1956 total and Atlantic County 35 per cent. The townships of
Pemberton and Hammonton accounted for ^-,879 rcres of the State total.

Production records for 1955 indicated thai 1,619,000 trays (12 pint trays)
were harvested from 5,125 acres. This was an average of 316 trays per acre.
Yields as high as 850 trays per acre were reported but 1/3 of the growers had
average yields between 200 and 300 trays.

Nearly 1/2 of the growers reporting harvested less than 5 acres of
blueberries in 1955 and 70 per cent harvested less than 10 acres. "While
small acreages predominate, large operations are an important segment of the
Industry. Nearly 1/2 of the 1955 crop was produced by 59 growers, who harvest-
ed 20 or more acres each."

W. J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

^ WINTER FRUIT MEETINGS

The 65th Annual Meeting of the Massachusetts Fruit Growers' Association, .
Inc. in cooperation with the University of Massachusetts Extension Service vf ,
will be held in the HAlVOn Armory, Hu-daen, Massachusetts on January ^.^'an^^ 9 i^ 1959'.

The Following is the tentative program:

Thursday Forenoon, January 8", l°>^

This Apple Maggot Situation

Prof. W. D. Whitcomb, University of Massachusetts Field Station, Waltham.

Research and Grower Experiences in Ohio with Mites, Codling Moth and Aphids.
Dr. C. R. Cutright, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster

Some Business Aspects of Apple Production

Dr. A. B. Burrell, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York

Thursday Afternoon. January 8, 1959

Apple Marketing Around the Country

Prof. F. E. Cole, University of Massachusetts

The New Red Delicious Strains

Prof. Edwin Gould, West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station,
Kearneysville.

Chemical Thinning and Preharvest Drop Control

Dr. F. W. Southwick, University of Massachusetts

Financing Orchard Operations, Buildings and Equipment
Prof. L. D. Rhoades, University of Massachusetts

Friday Forenoon. January 9. 1959

There's A New Story About Oil

Dr. E. H. Wheeler, University of Massachusetts

Apple Powdery Mildew

Dr. M. Szkolnik, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva

Insect Control Recommendations for 1959

Dr. E. H. Wheeler, University of Massachusetts

Disease Control Recommendations for 1959

Dr. C. J. Gilgut, University of Massachusetts

Friday Afternoon, January 9. 1959

Effect of New Tax Laws on Rates of Equipment Depreciation
Prof, L. D. Rhoades, University of Massachusetts

New Packages for Apples

Mr. D. R. Stokes, Agricultural Marketing Service, U.S.D.A.,
Washington, D. C.

Handling and Storage of Apples in New Zealand and Australia
Dr. R. M. Smock, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

The Influence of Bulk Boxes on the Condition of Mcintosh Apples
Prof. 0. C. Roberts, University of Massachusetts

Apple Handling and Packaging Equipment

Prof. F. E. Cole, University of Massachusetts

— - Pomology Staff

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

-7-

RESULTS FROM THE McINTOSH PREHARVEST DROP CONTROL EXPERIME^^^

This fall comparative testing of 2,4,5-TA and NAA was carried out for the
fourth consecutive year in a heavily bearing block. (45 box average per tree) of
Mcintosh at Bolton. In addition to comparing 2,4,5-TA with two applications of
NAA (our commercial reconmendation) mixtures of NAA and 2,4,5-TA were tried. We
have known that when 2,4,5-TA is effective that it may require a week or more
before it shows any benefit. Therefore, if some quick acting material like NAA
is added to 2,4,5-TA it might be possible to obtain good drop control for at
least 3 weeks with a single spray application and still have a minimum amount
of fruit ripening.

In Figure 1 are shown the major findings from this experiment.

50 ^

40 ..

a
o

<^

4)

>

30 ..

^ 20

Mcintosh Drop
1958
7 Trees per Treatment

Check

2,4,5-TA - 20ppra - 9/11

^ NAA - 20ppm-9/ll ih MAA - 20ppm - 9/24
4 NAA - 10ppm-<- 2,4,5-TA - 20 ppm - 9/11/

2^

u

10 ..

Average Flesh Firmness (lbs.)

1. 14.7

2. 14.0

3. 13.8

4. 13.9

Figure I. The influence of some stop-drop materials on the rate of
preharvest drop of Mcintosh apples.

-8-

The data indicate that drop was not a serious problem in this orchard until
September 24 to 25 v;hen temperatures soared to the raid-eighties during the day
and remained in the fifties and sixties at night. On heavily bearing trees
without a drop control material (Treatment 1.) a very severe drop occurred after
September 24 so that by October 4 about 50 percent of the crop had fallen to the
ground. The data, also, show that 2,4,5-TA (Treatment 2.) was completely in-
effective through September 24 (13 days after application) but reasonably effect-
ive, thereafter, with a total drop by October 4 of about 27 percent of the crop.
Ti'io applications of MM (Treatment 3.) were as effective as any treatment but
even this treatment v;a3 unable to prevent a 20 percent loss by October 4. From
the data, however, it is apparent that our second application of NAA was delayed
about 2 days too long since a sizeable loss of fruit occurred from trees receiv-
ing this treatment betv;eeu September 24 and 26 (vrhen the first treatment was no
longer effective and the second application had yet to become so). A slightly
earlier application of the second NAA spray might have saved about 5 percent
of the crop from falling. Tlie single application of the mixture of NAA and
2,4,5-TA (Treatment 4.) did as good a job as two applications of NAA. This
mixture looks very promising but we need more experience with it to be sure of
its reliability. All of the treatments hastened ripening slightly as can be
seen by the averages shown in Figure 1-

In this block it is apparent, as far as a commercial application of NAA
or a mixture of NM and 2,4,5-TA is concerned for Mcintosh that the initial
application might well have been delayed until about September 20 since less
than 5 percent drop had occurred up to that time. Since v;c; are interested in
testing materials for at least 3 weeks we generally apply treatments ahead of
the best commercial timing in order to put the materials through as severe a
test as possible.

F. W. Southwick

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

PRESENT STATUS OF MASSACHUSETTS FRUIT IN PUS TO Y_

A - Analysis of the Situation

At the Department of Horticulture Fruit Advisory Council Meeting (the
Council was composed of fruit growers, marketmen and University personnel) held
on June 12, 1958 the general consensus was: APPLE BUSINESS GOOD - - - PROSPECT

FOR FUTURE IS BRIGHT CLOSE CONTROL ON PRODUCTION COSTS NliCESSARY - - -

EXTENSION PROGRAMS IN THE FUTURE >njST PLACE MORE EMPHASIS ON HARVESTING AND
R\NDLING THE CROP. The Committee felt that new plantings should be encouraged
where sites and other factors indicate feasibility. In addition, they thought
that continued emphasis must be given to the Certified Cider Mill and Approved
Farm Stand Programs and that increased plantings of varieties of early apples
are well adapted to many farms.

A study of harvesting practices in 20 Mcintosh orchards during the 1957
harvest season was made by Prof. 0. C. Roberts. In orchards where pickers were
paid on a piecework basis 14.4% of the apples harvested had one or more 1/2"
bruises while in orchards where pickers were paid on the hourly basis 4.5% of
the apples had one or more 1/2" bruises. A tremendous variation in bruising of
fruit by pickers v;as evident. Forty-three per cent of the apples picked by some
pickers had one or more 1/2" bruises. The study indicated rather conclusively

that mechanical injury of Mcintosh apples at harvest can be miniralzed by:
(1) adequate supervision, (2) specific instruction of the pickers, (3) payment
of the pickers on the hourly basis rather than piecework and (A) discharge of the
careless or lazy picker.

The volume of Mcintosh apples going into CA storage is increasing rapidly.
The total capacity has increased from about 192,500 bushels in 1957 to 416,000
bushels in 1958. As the volume of CA fruit increases, it becomes increasingly
necessary to store and sell from the storage high-quality-fruit if the grower
expects to receive premium prices.

The control-atmosphere Mcintosh apple has made many friends outside of
New England. In the past the two primary markets for Massachusetts apples have
been New York and Boston. In recent years, however, an increasing number of
apples have been shipped to such markets as Baltimore, Washington, Chicago and
Cleveland.

Labor saving devices are more necessary than ever. Not only will the
grower pay more for labor, but it will become more scarce. Mechanization calls
for a better grade of labor. Many agricultural communities are now in competi-
tion with industry for semi-skilled labor and the grower will liave to match wages
to get his labor supply.

More people are becoming customers for apples by reason of the upward trend
of our population. There should be an increase in demand for apples each year.
This increase in market is an opportunity we must seize or we will lose it by
default to alert competitors.

New England is not the only area facing the great increase in population.
The Western states from Arizona to Washington are experiencing proportionately
greater increases in population. These States are also having population head-
aches. What this means in adjustment in production cannot be predicted accurate-
ly at this time. However, the more mouths to feed in other areas, the better for
us in Massachusetts. Only 1/3 of the 1957-58 Washington State apple production
came east of the Mississippi. Nearly 2,000,000 bushels went to California and
nhout 6,500,000 bushels to the Mid-West. Figures show that it costs approxi-
mately $1.15 - $1.20 to ship a box of apples from Washington to the East Coast,

In Massachusetts, the suburban development has brought many difficulties from
the standpoint of zoning, taxes and the loss of land. On the otherltand, the sub-
urban developments are a boom to grCTrers operating roadside st, nds.

Last year a study titled "Competition for Nev? England Apples on the United
States Markets" was published by Joseph Gartner and J. R. BoT^ring of the Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, University of New Hampshire, Durhajii. They presented
figures showing that the total United States Commercial production of apples
has been decreasing at a slov; and constant rate since 1934. On the otherhand,
■ apple production in New England is on the increase. One of the purposes of this
V study was to determine the long-run competitive position of New England apples
r in 1965. Based on average per capita consumption, population trends, apple
production, etc. they theorized that by 1965 New England will have decreased
its surplus of apples due to the increased total consumption assurred as a
result of the increased population within New England and that Nev; England apple

-10-

growers should have improved competitive position relative to grov/ers in other
regions. The analysis of the Gartner and Bo\«:ing study indicates opportunities
for profitable production expansion are present in New England.

B. Problems Which Need Major Emphasis in 1959

Members of the Fruit Advisory Council and the Pomology Staff consider that
the following phases of the fruit industry need further attention during the
coming year:

1. Small Fruits - Strav/berry nurserymen must be educated concerning the
necessity of producing disease and insect free plants. On the otherhand,
purchasers of strawberry plants must be educated to demand such plants.

Pruning and soil management are two problems that need continued emphasis
for blueberry grox'rers. A considerable number oi^ part-time farmers are planting
blueberry bushes and do not realize the soil management problems involved with
such a crop.

Fumigation for black root rot of strav.'berries has been shown experimentally
to result in an increase of about 2,000 quarts per acre in favor of soil fumiga-
tion. In Southern Plymouth County there are a number of strawberry growers whose
plantings range from a small garden patch to about three- fourths of an acre.
These are mostly located in the town of Wareham and Carver. The area owned by
each grower is usually no more than tv;o or three acres. The total area involved
is probably betv/een 25 and 50 acres. Strawberries have been grown in these same
fields for many years. Growth is now poor and there are many blank spaces. The
appearance suggests soil nematode trouble. In a few fields checked, nematodes have
been found. Unless something is done, many of these growers will have to stop
growing strawberries. Some soil fumigation demonstration trials might help, plus
the use of disease-free planting stock.

2. Harvesting the Apple Crop - The grower needs to become more bruise con-
scious. Much greater emphasis on proper harvesting and handling of apples through
orchard visits, meetings, demonstrations, etc. must be made by the extension
personnel.

3. Increase the Efficiency of Fruit Production - In every field of the fruit
growing operation there are Increased costs making labor saving devices more
necessary than ever.

4. Farm Management - Basically, the major objective of the fruit farm
management program is that of stimulating growers to think through their problems
in order to make sound managerial decisions.

5. Storage Disorders - The last two years considerable breakdown has been
found in some apple varieties particularly Delicious. This breakdwim appears to
be associated with water core. More emphasis is needed on cold storage disorders
and their control,

C. Other Problems Need Emphasis in 1959

1. To obtain more participation in the Cider Mill Certification and the
Approved Farm Stand Programs.

-11-

2. Stress the importance of good soil management practices of tree and small
fruits.

3. To encourage growers to train young trees and to stress proper pruning
of small fruits.

4. Chemical thinning,

5. Mouse Control

6. Evaluation of new varieties.

-— W. J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

EFFECT OF BRUISES ON SALES

One reason why apples do not sell as rapidly as they might is indicated
by research work recently done in Virginia. In a study of consumer preference
for apples it was found that 607, of consumers did not want apples even with
bruises less than 1/2 inch in size. 91% did not want to buy apples with
bruises 1/2 inch and larger.

Research in Massachusetts shows persistently that more Mcintosh apples
fail to meet the requirements of fancy grade because of bruises than from
any other cause.

Careful handling results in fewer bruises, improved consumer acceptance,
more sales, more money in the grower's pocket.

0. C. Roberts

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

CIDER NOTES
Blends

The blending or mixing of apple varieties can improve cider tremendously.
Very few mills produce a single variety cider intentionally with the possible
exception of a Roxbury Russet cider. As a guide to blending, the following
breakdown of apple varieties can be used to advantage:

(1) Sweet Subacid

Delicious

(2) Mildly Acid to Slightly Tart

Baldwin, Greening, Rome Beauty, Winesap, Jonathan, Stayman,
Northern Spy, York Imperial, Wealthy and Cortland

(3) Aromatic Group

Golden Delicious, Winter Banana, Mcintosh, Russet

(4) Astringent Group

Crab Apples: Florence, Hibernal, Red Siberian, Transcendent,
Martha, Hyslop

(5) Neutral Group

Ben Davis, Black Ben, Gano, Willowtwig

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When blending, use very small quantities of Group 1 and 5 if at all,
small amounts of Group 4 for tang, and the majority of varieties in Groups 2
and 3. Always try to have 2 or more varieties in the cider, preferably one
from Group 2 and one from Group 3.

A popular mixture is 50-60% Mcintosh, 20-30% Baldwin and the remainder
from other varieties. Attempt to standardize your formula, but keep in mind
that maturity can affect the final product as well as your mixture.

Brushing or Washing

Recent conversations with mill operators and Food and Drug officials
indicate that the need for brushing and/or washing needs more attention.
Brushing is the preferred method since washing may not do as good a job and
could lead to watering the cider. Brushing has been adopted as a require-
ment for the Certified Cider Program starting in 1959. Plan now to include
brushing as an integral part of your cider operation.

Cider Bulletin

Indications are that the new Unitied States Department of Agriculture
Cider Bulletin will be available for distribution within the next several
weeks. Photographs in it will show several Massachusetts locations and
products. If you would like a copy, let me know.

-— Kirby M. Hayes
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Effective December 1, 1958, Professor John S. Bailey will be
stationed at Amherst instead of East Wareham. He will continue
to be the leader of our small fruit research program.

A. P. French

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FRUIT NOTES

Prepored by Pomology Stoff
Deportment of Horticulture
University of Massachusetts
Amfierst

JANUARY - 1959

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SMALL FRUIT MEETING

Your 1958 Federal Income Tax (Farmers)

Thoughts on Pruning

Notes on New Varieties

The Aphids on Apple II

Prices - Last Five Years

^'

M/a

k;

i

-.^

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, Dale H. Slellng, Dean and Director, In furtherance of the Acts of May « and June 30, 1914}
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication approved by Bernard Solomon, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.

Publication 380 has three sections, the first of wWL ch reviews the practices
followed by growers in servicing the retail food stores and the apple merchandis-
ing procedures of these stores.

During the course of the study, the authors observed situations and practices
not specifically investigated in the study itself which might be helpful to growers
who are contemplating store servicing. In the opinion of the authors some of these
observations are worthy of consideration and are discussed in the second section
of the study.

The third section of the publication contains suggestions for apple growers
who are marketing apples directly to retail stores. The suggestions are based on
the findings in the study and other available research data, observations of
practices of growers and store operators, and other information on the marketing
of agricultural products.

---William J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
RESULTS OF THE F. F. A. FRUIT JUDGING CONTEST

The annual winter fruit judging contest was held January 9th at the Gardner
Armory in conjunction with meetings of the Massachusetts Fruit Growers Association.
Teams representing Essex Agricultural and Technical Institute, Narragansett
Regional High School, Norfolk County Agricultural School, Wachusett Regional High
School and Worcester North High School participated in this contest. Team honors
were won by Narragansett Regional High School.

The three boys having the highest combined scores, from this contest and an
earlier one held at the University, were chosen for the State fruit judging team
and received both medals and cash awards. Donald Robbins and Cyrille Allain of
Narragansett and William Rudd of Essex were recipients of these awards.

The contest includes the identification of varieties, the U. S. grades for
apples, and insect and disease specimens and blemishes. This contest provides
excellent training for young men interested in the growing and marketing of
fruit.

Much praise should be given to the M. F. G. A. for their continued support
In providing the space and the cash awards for this winter contest.

James F. Anderson

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I