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THE FUNDAMENTALS
OF
LIVE STOCK JUDGING
AND
SELECTION
BY
ROBERT 8. CURTIS, B.S.A.
ASSOCIATE CHIEF, ANIMAL INDUSTRY DIVISION, ANIMAL HUSBANDMAN, BEEF
CATTLE AND SHEEP INVESTIGATIONS, NORTH CAROLINA AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT STATION, WEST RALEIGH, NORTH CAROLINA
ILLUSTRATED WITH 180 ENGRAVINGS
LEA & FEBIGER
PHILADELPHIA AND NEW YORK
1915
Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1915, by
LEA & FEBIGER,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress. All rights reserved.
AUG 21 1915
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STUDENTS AND STOCKMEN |
“No detail is too small to be studied for truth.”
Reo ie See Stevenson.
PREFACE.
THE recent progress of the teaching of Animal Husbandry,
especially live stock judging and selection, commends this
division of the subject to a full modern treatise dealing with
all domestic animals. Rapid advancement in special fields
of production and selection, and the addition of new phases
of animal judging, have furnished much new material for
the work.
In developing the subject various viewpoints ranging
from that of the extensive live stock breeder to the city
fancier must of necessity be considered. Not only the col-
lege student and the professional judge, but also the live
stock breeder, general farmer, salesman, buyer, and the
city fancier of stock at one time or another inspects animals
from the standpoint of the critic. He thus becomes the
judge whether in the show ring or in the field, and when
the term “judge” is referred to in the text it should be
understood that it is not specifically used. In certain
instances attention may be directed to the student or the
professional judge while in other cases any of the above
meanings may be inferred. Any individual who selects
stock is placed in the position of the judge, specifically speak-
ing, and he should, therefore, be so considered in construing
the various discussions herein given.
The improvements of this volume upon former presenta-
tions of the subject consist in logical groupings of the sub-
ject matter, as well as many entirely new features of special
(v)
vl PREFACE
significance. These are brought out mainly in the first
five chapters dealing with the methods and practices and
general principles applicable to the judging and selection
of all classes of live stock. In the fifth chapter information
is included relative to important factors or problems of the
individual, the breeds and the selection of the same, other-
wise than by an external examination on which student and
show ring judging is necessarily based. One chapter is
devoted to the jack, jennet, and mule, since the latter has
become of great economic importance and former discus-
sions of the subject have been incomplete.
A complete and convenient reference to breed descrip-
tions through photographs and concise breed characteristics
is included and supplemented with the latest standard of
excellence and scale of points of each of the important breeds.
Market and show ring considerations are discussed fully
because of the tendency toward the more practical phases
of commercial or market live stock judging. The additions
include a number of the newer breeds of live stock which
have recently come into prominence and therefore deserve
comment.
The material included herein, especially the breed studies,
has in certain instances been submitted to prominent authori-
ties to obtain accurate and impartial criticism. It has been
the aim of the author to mention only the more important
phases of the subject, leaving the detailed or exhaustive infor-
mation for reference reading. It can be readily realized that
no single volume of this nature can exhaust the information
available. The work is intended primarily for students,
farmers and stockmen who wish to become familiar with
the methods and practices in judging the pure breeds and
market and show classes of live stock. The subject matter
has been arranged systematically to facilitate the study of
PREFACE vil
particular phases in the judging and selection of the various
breeds, types and classes. The author hopes that the work
will fit the needs of the class room, the stockman and the
general farmer.
He desires to acknowledge credit to the many books and
periodicals on Animal Husbandry from which valuable help
and suggestions were obtained in the preparation of this
work. He is especially indebted to Carl W. Gay, University
of Pennsylvania; C. 5. Plumb, Ohio State University;
the late John A. Craig, formerly of Oklahoma Agricultural
College; Robert Wallace, University of Edinburgh; M. H.
Reynolds, University of Minnesota; and F. W. Wilder,
Packing Plant Superintendant, Chicago, Il., for the help
and suggestions obtained from their works.
General acknowledgement is hereby given to all other
sources from which helpful information was obtained. The
contributions from the various books, pamphlets, bulletins,
and periodicals dealing with the subject of farm animals has
been invaluable in the preparation of this work.
Acknowledgement is due Robert F. Hildebrand, Chicago,
Ill., and Schrieber and Sons, Philadelphia, Pa., who, under
the direction of the author prepared most of the illustrations,
which are such a valuable source of information in a work of
this nature. They therefore deserve the special touch which
the animal photographer only can give them by securing
the natural pose and position of the subject.
Roo. ©
NortH Carouina AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
West Raueieu, N. C., 1915.
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CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
Tue Live Srock INDUSTRY
CHAPTER Il.
RELATION OF STRUCTURE TO ANIMAL JUDGING
CHAPTER III.
Tur Manirestations or Form, FuNcTION, AND CAPACITY
CHAPTER IV.
Meruops AND PRACTICES IN JUDGING AND SELECTION .
CHAPTER V.
Factors AND PRINCIPLES APPLICABLE TO THE JUDGING AND
SELECTION OF LivE Srock
CHAPTER VI.
Jupcinc Horses, FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
CHAPTER VII.
JupGING Drarr HorssEs .
CHAPTER VIII.
Jupcine Licut Horses
CHAPTER IX.
JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES .
17
57
89
113
133
182
Xi CONTENTS
CHAPTER X.
JupGING BrEer and Duau PurRPOsE CATTLE
CHAPTER XI.
Jupeinc Dairy CATTLE
CHAPTER XII.
JUDGING SWINE
CHAPTER XIII.
JUDGING SHEEP
CHAPTER XIV.
APPLICATION OF JUDGING AND SELECTION
FInisHinc Farm ANIMALS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX
INDEX
To BREEDING AND
317
429
445
LIVE STOCK JUDGING AND SELECTION.
CHAPTER J.
THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY.
Method of Development.—The subject of live stock judging
has become of widespread importance not only through the
teaching of these courses in agricultural colleges, high
schools and other institutions but also through the increased
demand for knowledge among farmers who anticipate
following some phase of live stock work. Keen competition
among breeders and vendors of market animals has placed
the subject on a high plane. The real constructive breeder,
whose work is generally unappreciated, has perfected beauty
and utility of form which is responsible in the main for
revolutionizing the live stock breeding industry. Compara-
tively few people appreciate the improvement which has
been made in animal form thereby owing to the priority
of original development.
18 THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY
This work represents the result of judgment and _ selection
of animal form through which a gradual and_ persistent
improvement has been made possible. It may be com-
pared to two animals with widely varying marks of merit,
the one representing the acme of modern development,
and the other an animal of the same breed a decade prior.
These visual pictures enabled the breeder to foresee what
proper moulding of animal form would bring a decade hence.
The breeders who, through their superlative genius, brought
about these improvements are among the highest and most
renowned judges of animal form. ‘They not only painted
visual pictures of what art later accomplished, but they
were able to recognize readily the good and the bad and
thereby eliminate the unpromising from their future breeding
work. This is the same principle by which a modern
judge selects the ideal type in a class and graduates the
remainder of the animals in their respective positions or
order of merit.
Fields for Development.—The subject of live stock judging
and selection may be divided into two distinct divisions,
the one representing the pure breeds of live stock used
for foundation or reproductive and improvement purposes;
and the other animals possessing commercial attributes as
found in these breeds, either in the pure bred, cross bred or
grade form when grouped in their proper type or market
classes. Breeds represent the product of definite foundation
blood, soil, climate, feeds, certain objects or purposes and
the fancy of the various constructive breeders. While
in most instances in the various types and classes of stock
several breeds may conform closely to a specific purpose,
almost invariably there are special characteristics which
make one or the other excel under changed environment,
purpose or condition. They may do likewise from the stand-
point of market requirements which should be the nucleus
of all live stock improvement. It is this last analysis of
an animal in ascribing its fitness for work or for the block
in which the majority of stockmen are interested. Breed
type is important to the producer of pure bred breeding
stock, but market type is of greater importance to the pro-
IMPORTANCE OF KEEN JUDGING AND SELECTION 19
ducer of market animals. These two special phases of ani-
mal improvement have opened two distinct fields for work
and consequently a need for definitely arranged information
on the subject.
Importance of Keen Judging and Selection.—The rapid
development of the live stock industry for special productive
purposes and for farm land improvement makes it not only
desirable but profitable to have a thorough knowledge of live
stock judging and selection. The importance of this state-
ment can be more fully realized after becoming acquainted
with the magnitude and monetary value of the industry.
The loss from an individual animal through inferior breeding,
careless selection, or improper feeding may be small, and
therefore not seriously affect the breeder or owner. If
this loss was occasioned, however, in a large herd over a
long period of years, it would mean the loss.of a substantial
sum. Considering that faults in animal form can be largely
overcome by wise judging and selection without entailing
any appreciable additional outlay of money, the importance
of the subject should be doubly emphasized or appreciated.
The decrease in the finished weight of fat cattle at nine of the
leading live stock markets in 1912 shows an average shortage
of 18 pounds per head. Based on the total number of animals
shipped to these markets, there was a total decrease of
144,793,620 pounds of beef. This loss could have been
largely overcome by either closer selection or better methods
of feeding. While other causes may have been responsible
for the condition, it serves to illustrate the importance of
keen judging and selection. Based on all the cattle slaugh-
tered for a period of ten or twenty years the figures would be
almost insurmountable.
It would be even more important to remedy the defects of
the breeding animal than in the market animal because the
former would continue to reproduce the undesirable char-
acteristics. This factor of inferiority would be of great
importance, however, even in market animals for the lack
of only a few pounds gain, due either to faulty selection or
feeding of the individual, would mean a large loss in the
ageregate.
20 THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY
is group
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on a basis of utility.
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Fic. 2.—It would require keen d
Value of Domestic Animals.—The magnitude of the live
stock industry can best be understood by citing the figures
giving the value of these animals on the farms of the United
POSSIBILITIES OF INDUSTRY 21
States. The Census for 1910 gives the following value of
the various kinds of live stock maintained:
Kind of stock. Number. Value.
TSG RRSTEIS SNA ht sea A Oe 19,833,113 $2,083,588,195
Jacks, jennets, and mules... 4,315,737 538,591,975
Wattle A ease i nt 61,803,866 1,499,523 ,607
SEG Diyala it ei a mebes nny alae 52,447,861 232,841,585
SHicd nV awa aN s/o ee 58,185,676 399,338,308
otal ween HO GO S6,203 $4,753 ,883,670
These figures are sufficient to indicate the vast economic
importance of the live stock industry. Live stock judging
and selection has maintained an important part in developing
the industry to its present magnitude and importance,
both from the standpoint of numbers and value. How
much greater the value would have been through keener
methods and practices in judging and selection, it would be
difficult to ascertain. Suffice it to say, however, that the
increase in quality which might have been attained by better
methods and practices would have reduced the cost of keep
materially as measured in terms of the finished value of the
product. As this is the problem in which the live stock
husbandman is interested, the application of better methods
would not only increase the quality of the product from a
connoisseur’s standpoint, but add profit as well to the
industry.
Possibilities of Industry.—The figures given above illus-
trate the possibility of securing increased revenue by more
careful judging and selection and better ultimate handling
and management. The opinion is thoroughly conversant
and borne out by facts that it doés not require any more
to maintain an animal with a high order of merit than it
does an inferior one. Based on this statement, an average
increase in weight of one pound on all kinds of domestic
animals hereafter considered, exclusive of horses, mules, and
asses, would mean an increase of 172,437,403! pounds of
edible meats. It is readily imaginable how this increase could
be obtained by closer selection alone. From these figures it
1 United States Census, 1910.
22 THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY
is not difficult to perceive the wonderful possibilities of close
judging and selection of animal form. The average value of
horses per head in 1910 was $105.06,' and while this includes
young stock, it would be possible to increase their value 50
per cent. by more careful judging, selection, and ultimate
management. Other classes of animals are equally suscep-
tible to the same amount of improvement under like
conditions.
It is recognized that it is impossible to ascribe all of the
possible improvement in weight, form, and quality or other
attributes to keen judging and selection, yet breeders and
students of animal form readily recognize its importance.
The foundation for profit in live stock farming is substantially
based on the type of animal selected for breeding, work,
or for direct meat productive purposes. Ill-bred animals,
which means careless selection largely, are attributed as
being generally unprofitable, either for breeding or feeding
purposes. Close scrutinized judgment in selection could
not remove all the faults of animal form at once but its
continuance would be clearly apparent for a substantial
period of years. Proper application of the principles of
judging and selection would not only remedy many destroy-
ing influences in live stock production, but it would increase
or improve almost without apparent cost the world’s total
supply of meat, milk and wool, and form, quality, and efh-
ciency in work and pleasure animals.
Faculties and Requirements in Judging —There are two
special faculties necessary to select or judge accurately a
class of live stock. These are, first, a proper knowledge of
what constitutes the utility points which are judged, either
from a breeding standpoint, or from that of market and
show requirements; and second, a quick and keen observance
of both the major and minor faults in animal form. Craig
states that “When a distinct ideal based on the best types
and their highest qualities has been formed in the mind, and
this is supported by a discriminating eye, it is but another
step to render a correct judgment.”
1 United States Census, 1910.
FACULTIES AND REQUIREMENTS IN JUDGING 23
This increased activity and keen competition in modern
_judging is due to the success which constructive breeders
have attained as students of live stock problems. The
science of breeding, feeding, and development was formerly
considered too simple for a study of the scientific roads of
improvement. Live stock breeders and feeders, however,
are awakening to the fact that it takes brain as well as brawn
to produce prize-winning animals. Not since the days of
the Collings, Booth, Bates and Cruikshank, have stockmen
realized the depth of the problems in live stock selection,
breeding, and feeding.
The real student of judging and _ selection must be
practical and keen sighted to attain success, either as a judge
or as a breeder. Since this is the final test of the breeder’s
art, the student of judging and selection must have clearly
in mind the ideal animal for the various purposes intended in
the breeding or commercial world. Not until he has dis-
tinctly mastered these details of utility, and becomes keenly
alive to the minor differences in all parts of animal form,
can he expect to be classed as a dependable live stock critic.
QE AP ayer
RELATION OF STRUCTURE TO ANIMAL JUDGING.
In animal judging there are special fundamental attributes
or attainments, the value of which must be fixed or measured
in terms of the animal mechanism to be defined or studied.
Without a knowledge of these fundamental problems and
their relation to the particular type of animal involved
judging and selection of live stock would be at best a hap-
hazard undertaking. The following representation of these
fundamentals is not exhaustive, yet it emphasizes the impor-
tance of having a knowledge of the specialized foundation
structure and its correlated parts.
PURPOSE OF ANIMAL MECHANISM.
The purpose of animal mechanism varies widely. Animals
are produced for draft, speed, show, pleasure, meat, milk,
and wool. In certain instances these purposes or uses
may be combined in the same animal, as described subse-
quently. In the first four instances, wherein special reference
is made to the horse, the general form of the machine is
the same, although the purpose or adaptation is at a wide
variance. The difference is largely in the details of structure,
the mastery of which constitutes one of the main funda-
mentals of animal judging.
Meat is ordinarily obtained from three sources in domesti-
cated animals. However, that of the best quality is a pro-
duct of an animal bred specially for the purpose. The beef
animal, the fat and bacon hog, and the mutton sheep produce
what may be termed a specific product. Milk is obtained
from an animal differing more widely in form and mechanism
than any of those classed as food-producing animals. Meat
obtained from a milk-producing animal may be classed as a
(24)
RELATION OF PERFORMANCE AND PRODUCTION 25
by-product. Although a large proportion of meat products
are ultimately obtained from this source, the dairy animal
possesses a specific type and has a specific function in milk
production. Its purpose must therefore be so defined, and any
surplus obtained in meat or otherwise should be classed as a
by-product. Jn the dual purpose animal, the meat and milk-
giving functions are supposed to be equally correlated. The
degree of manifestation in either is arbitrary with the
breeder who may change the ratio of production by a simple
modification of the type through the natural source of
selection and reproduction. ‘The sheep may be classed as a
dual purpose machine in one instance and as a specific
machine in the other. The mutton breeds of sheep are
bred for a specific purpose, although their wool is an impor-
tant by-product. In the strictly wool-producing breeds, the
mutton is a by-product being analogous in this respect to
meat from a dairy animal.
The animal mechanism must of necessity vary greatly to
perform or manifest these various phases of production.
The relation between the machine and production is intimate
and it is only by having a definite knowledge of the former
that conformity to purpose or the power of production can
be accurately measured.
RELATION OF MECHANISM TO PERFORMANCE AND
PRODUCTION.
The form which an animal assumes is an embodiment of
the inner or unseen structure, more specifically of the bone
and muscle development. It is these two fundamentals
that directly or indirectly determine size, shape, locomotion,
compactness and disengagement or looseness of structure.
The draft horse is low set, massive, and compact. This
condition is a direct result of the structural units in the
mechanism. Every condition of development is a manifesta-
tion of what the completed animal will be. The broad
head, the short thick neck, the broad breast and deep chest,
the wide, deep body and the full massive quarters are funda-
mental in the aquisition of weight, which is one of the chief
26 RELATION OF STRUCTURE TO ANIMAL JUDGING
requisites of draft horse attainments. These qualifications
are direct exponents of the principal nuclear structure which
is the bony framework.
The speed horse is the direct opposite of the draft animal.
Both the bones and muscles are longer, attaining a smaller
diameter and therefore a greater manifestation of speed,
which is directly associated with qualifications which possess
or exhibit reach or extension. The structural development
of other types of horses are modifications or combinations
of the two types described. The degree of modification
measures their utility, whether they still retain draft or
speed qualifications or assume entirely new attainments
characteristic of other distinct types of horses.
Likewise the beef and dairy animal, the fat and bacon
hog, and mutton and wool-producing sheep are measured in
value by their conformity to type standards which have
been determined the most economical for productive pur-
poses. The mechanism which, grossly defined, includes the
bone and muscle development, determines the value of an
animal. This is true, however, only when the more vital
functions are working in perfect harmony with these two
fundamentals of animal formation. Without proper nerve
force or development, circulatory, digestive or reproductive
functions, the gross materials which give size, shape, and
locomotion would be of no value.
Gross Structural Material—The bones and muscles are
substantially the foundation upon which all animals are
constructed. It is important, therefore, to have a clear
conception of the part which these gross structural materials
play in giving size and shape to the animal. The ultimate
value of a dressed animal, for example, is directly dependent
on the amount and quality of edible products obtained. ‘The
framework of the horse is equally important, as strength,
durability, and longevity are closely associated with the at-
tainments in this respect other than the part which they play
in the formation of size and shape in the finished animal.
The muscles of an animal are directly related to the
attainments of power, speed, and meat production, but
more specifically to the latter. Short, thick muscles char-
RELATION OF PERFORMANCE AND PRODUCTION 27
acterize the draft animal; long and thin muscles the speed
animal. The fundamental purpose of the muscular system
is to operate the bones. The secondary function is to give
shape and a certain degree of finish to the animal. A careful
study of the skeleton and muscles will reveal that much of
the animal form is determined by the mass of muscles,
especially in certain parts. In other regions animal form 1s
characterized largely by the development of the bony frame-
work. A knowledge of these relations is of extreme im-
portance to the student of animal form.
Special and Combined Functions.—Specific functions char-
acterize animals which are bred for one definite purpose,
although they may produce liberally in other directions.
Animals of the special type are easily depicted or measured
in performance or productive value. Every part of their
structure is perfected toward one definite end. Every attain-
ment in the structural development is a manifestation of
some definite purpose. Where there is thus no division
of energy it is comparatively easy to make an alignment of
values.
The dual purpose animal is bred for two purposes, both
of which must be embodied in the animal form. This
represents an average development, theoretically, or a com-
bination of two special functions. For example, beef and
milk, and mutton and wool represent the two commonly
accepted dual purpose functions or standards. The equation
of value must be measured in such animals by their specific
structural development. Although it is recognized that high
milk production, extreme speed, or unusual block tests are
antagonized in two purpose animals because of the alteration
of structure necessary to harmonize or equalize these two
purposes, they havea place in animal production. Student
judging should so depict every purpose, relation, structural
development and special and combined functions that a
perfectly clear analysis of these factors may be made before
undertaking a decision in any class of animals. Otherwise
gross errors may occur under the best of reasoning power.
A broad working foundation, an accepted ideal, and a logical
mind are herein extremely essential.
CHEAP Ey Res Teli
THE MANIFESTATIONS OF FORM, FUNCTION,
AND CAPACITY.
Tue practical stockman is not directly interested with the
intricate mechanism and development of the animal organ-
ism, yet there are certain manifestations of form, function,
and capacity which stamp the value of an animal in its
various phases of use and development. The value of an
animal to the stockman is largely determined by the forma-
tion of the anatomy of the bony framework, the muscular
development, the digestive system, the circulatory system,
the mammary organs, the reproductive system, and the
nervous development. Because of the close association of
these attributes, from the standpoint of the stockman, a
deficiency or weakness in development of any one would
retard growth and normal development in the individual
and sacrifice what otherwise might be cardinal points in
breed, type or class attainments. An analysis, therefore,
of their utility value is important.
Bony Framework.—The bony framework is a measure of
the height and weight or scale which will be attained by an
animal. Unless an animal possesses a foundation or frame-
work whereon the muscular system may normally develop the
ultimate size at maturity will be materially decreased. The
sleek-bodied colt, the short, round body of the calf and
the small, early maturing hog are indicative of insufh-
cient capacity as associated with bone development. ‘The
size which an animal attains can be no greater than the
maximum number of structural units which are normally
present in the framework. An animal may be forced on the
right kinds of feeds and thus induce greater development.
However, such a method of feeding would not always be
(28)
MUSCULAR DEVELOPMENT 29
prudent or profitable. In selecting live stock, therefore,
special consideration should be given to the indications of
normal development at maturity.
The size of the bone as exemplified in the canon of the
horse, and in the leg of the steer, the hog, and the sheep are
directly associated with the size and weight of an animal
at maturity. The animal which inclines to fatten early
in life before normal development has been reached does
not possess the structural units to perfect normal maturity
upon which the profits from live stock usually depend. In-
dications of the probable development are in evidence in
the condition which an animal assumes as related to bone,
muscle, and fat formation. The young animal or the
matured animal low in condition indicate their probable
maximum attainments by the character of the framework.
While the spare, open development is characteristic only of
the dairy animal, a certain degree of it is necessary in the
other types in order that they may attain the maximum
degree of size, form and finish. Early fattening qualities,
except under certain specialized conditions, such as in the
baby beef animal or other early market maturing quali-
fications, as fixed by farm practice, are antagonistic to
maximum development. Animal attainments relating to size
are measured almost entirely by the foundation structure
imposed in the bony framework.
Muscular Development.—With the exception of the dairy
cow and wool sheep, the value of domestic animals is directly
or indirectly dependent on the degree of muscle formation.
The value of the beef animal, the mutton sheep, and the
fat or bacon hog is directly dependent on this attribute.
The value of the draft horse, heavy and light harness horses,
saddle horses and ponies are dependent on this qualifica-
tion, yet in each the manifestation of it is developed in a
different form of energy or work. In the dairy cow and
the wool sheep the muscular development is of secondary
importance because the usefulness of these animals is meas-
ured by their capacity to produce products not dependent
on the degree of muscle formation. The dairy cow produces
milk, the maximum degree of muscle and fat formation
30 FORM, FUNCTION, AND CAPACITY
being directly antagonistic to the maximum degree of milk
production. The wool sheep is measured in value by its
output of wool, regardless of its value from the mutton
standpoint. The value of the horse is measured in terms of
muscular development, although the kind of work and its
degree of attainment 1s greatly different from that expected
in meat-producing animals. The character of the muscular
system is a measure of work in some form, yet association
with other attributes should be clearly fixed because of the
final balance of the manifestations enumerated under form,
function, and capacity.
Digestive System.—The digestive system of an animal is
of specific importance because an animal grows and becomes
useful to a degree dependent on the amount of food consumed
and its elaboration or manifestation in the various forms of
animal energy, whether it is meat, milk, wool, or horse
power. The measure of value in an animal is therefore
determined by the digestive capacity to a degree depending
on the character of energy to be produced. The manifesta-
tion of a strong digestive system is evidenced in the length,
depth and width of the barrel, this in turn being influenced
largely by the maximum degree of development possible
in “oli bony framework. The direct association of this
attribute with constitution, vigor, and general capacity 1s
readily apparent from an analysis of these various factors
in detail.
Circulatory System.—The bony framework, the muscular
development and the digestive system constitute the gross
attainments necessary for an animal to assume shape and
continue normal development when properly associated
with the other life-giving functions. From the stockman’s
point of view phere is nothing more important than the
circulatory system on which ie giving depends directly,
and in one instance the development of a specific function,
namely, the milk-giving capacity of the dairy cow. In
formulating the value of a dairy animal one of the chief
requisites en consideration is the degree of development
of the circulatory system, especially as evidenced in the
mammary system. The elaboration of milk from the gross
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OR BREEDING CAPACITY 31
food products to the finished product is vitally connected
with the circulatory system, as the blood carries the elements
of milk elaboration. The stimulation received, therefore,
from the blood supply measures quite accurately the capacity
of an animal and the profits which will be obtained therefrom.
Although the evidence of a strong blood supply is especially
significant in the dairy animal, it is of no less importance in
the animal which is used for draft, light harness or saddle
work, or in those animals which are used directly for food-
producing purposes. The blood supply and the energy which
it carries in the way of assimilated food materials is all
manifested in some specific way no matter what the character
of work to be performed. The amount and continuity of
work is thus measured by the circulatory system which
carries the elements or products of energy to the specific
place of use.
Mammary Organs.—The mammary organs or the mam-
mary glands are of special significance in the dairy cow
wherein stimulation of milk-giving capacity has been in-
creased by breeding, selection, and by the administration
of proper food materials. Although it is in the dairy animal
that the most vital consideration is usually given to the
mammary organs, they must, of necessity, become a con-
sideration, either in the meat-giving or work-producing
animals. The difference in the degree of development in
these three broad classes of animals is not as great as might
be first suspected. ‘The dairy cow is measured by her milk-
giving capacity, the meat-producing animals by the amount
and quality of the meat products which they elaborate, and
the work-producing animals by the quality of the offspring
as suited to the production of energy or work in their various
phases of development. The mammary system should be
considered, therefore, as an important part of animal attain-
ments regardless of the specific use of the product obtained
from the individual or future generations.
Reproductive System or Breeding Capacity.—The measure
of value in a breeding animal is largely centered in its capacity
to reproduce like attainments of the individual in question.
The reproductive system, therefore, becomes an important
o2 FORM, FUNCTION, AND CAPACITY
problem in analyzing animal value. The breeding animal
should clearly indicate its capacity for the reproduction of
not only its attainments as a pure bred, but also as exemplified
in the market animal. The consideration of the reproductive
functions from the standpoint of the breeder is one of practical
value. In making a study of the individual its probable
reproductive powers should be considered in conjunction
with the intrinsic value of the animal itself. It is only when
these two factors are properly correlated that a breeding
animal can transmit to its maximum capacity the qualities
which are of vital importance to the breeder in the reproduc-
tion of pure bred animals and the production of market
individuals with an outcome.
Nervous Development.—The nervous system or nervous
development of an animal may be divided into the nervous
or highly organized, the lymphatic, and the sluggish tem-
peraments. Each of the three is characterized in various
individuals representing the breeds of domestic animals.
A nervous temperament is characteristic of the dairy
animal in which all of the energy from the food materials
is manufactured into milk with the exception of that used
in body and reproductive maintenance. The typical dairy
cow is spare and lean in conformation, as this condition is
evidence that the food is being used as indicated above. A
highly developed nervous organization is as closely associated
with maximum milk production as the lymphatic or less
active temperament is associated with fat production. The
two are antagonistic, one representing the result of elimina-
tion, as evidenced in high milk production, and the other in
accumulation, as evidenced in muscle and fat formation.
Indication that food is being so used is as much a part of
animal attainments as a strong, healthy digestive or cir-
culatory system on which life directly depends.
The sluggish temperament is the lowest form of nervous
development and one which should not be directly asso-
ciated with any specific type of animal. Manifestation of
a sluggish temperament is an attribute not to be desired.
It is suggestive of lack in constitution, a weak circulatory
system, and improperly associated nerve development, The
NERVOUS DEVELOPMENT 30
fat animal which manifests or shows a sluggish temperament
may, from one standpoint, apparently be a profitable animal.
When balanced, however, with the other attributes of chief
importance to the stockman, the animal possessing such a
quality is not a desirable specimen for reproductive or
market use. The lack of nerve force is evidenced in one way
or another and will ultimately depreciate an animal in value
to the extent of the insufficient nerve force manifested.
“ATLIBSSODIUUN s[RUNIUB SUI[puBY PIOAB—SULI 9Y} UI 9[}4Vo Joaq Sulspnf syuopnyg—'e ‘HI
CH APA ERT Ve
METHODS AND PRACTICES IN JUDGING AND
SELECTION.
Definition —Live stock judging, strictly defined, refers to
a determination of the value of a single animal or the com-
parative value of a class of animals ie a specialized purpose.:
The individual animal may be judged 1 in a similar manner
to a class of animals, yet the student in so doing must have
learned to attain, either through practical SqUenieniee or
college training, a fixed mental picture of an animal which
conforms to the established ideal of the type in question.
In reality, therefore, one animal may form a class as the
ideal animal, or a standard of comparison must always be
clearly fixed in the mind before judging or fixation of value
logically begins. In judging or ranking animals, the problem
is to establish a rating or rank according to the conformity
to the ideal, and from this affix a productive or market
value, the latter being the final test of block animals.
Whether the animal is considered from the standpoint of
breed, show, work, or for the block, there is a fixed value
which depends on the breeding, individuality and _ the
environment to which the animal has been subjected.
These are the main points or factors of development with
which the student must familiarize himself before judging,
in its strictest sense or selection, based on ancestry and per-
formance records, may be accurately performed.
Live stock judging, broadly defined, may be considered
from the standpoint of comparative show yard placing, where
exterior qualifications or characteristics are the only guides,
or from the standpoint of individual herd or flock merit
based both on individual characteristics and performance
records. The work of the student, in making comparative
(35)
36 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION
or show yard placings, may be specifically considered animal
judging, his opinion being based solely on exterior character-
istics. The work of actually detecting the best individuals
in the herd from their ancestry and actual performance
records may be considered animal selection. It is rather
unfortunate, especially with certain classes of animals, that
the latter cannot be successfully carried out in show ring
judging. In facilitating the passing of judgment on animals,
therefore, the student judge must learn to detect the points
which indicate value for special productive purposes. The
determination of the value of animals through the form or
conformation lies at the basis of successful and popularly
so termed live stock judging.
Objects.—The main objects in judging live stock are
twofold. First, the detection of the characteristics which
fit animals for breeding or reproduction; and second, for
work, broadly defined, or for the block. While the two
purposes are in a sense closely related, from the viewpoint
of the judge, there are important differences which should
not be overlooked. The breeding animal, for example, should
be judged from the standpoint of present individual excel-
lence, and the likely transmission and continuity of these
characteristics to the offspring. In judging an animal for
the block, any future usefulness beyond the fattening or
finishing period may be entirely disregarded, since the
present intrinsic value of the animal to the butcher is the
real paramount factor for consideration.
Animal Knowledge.—The increasing magnitude of student
and show yard judging has brought into employment certain
customs in-establishing the value or rating on the numerous
classes of animals coming before the eye of the judge. While
the exterior characteristics are not absolutely reliable
guides, more especially in breeding animals, a history and
knowledge of the performance of other similarly made
animals and keen detection of their merits or faults will
enable the student to form very accurate conclusions in
the judging ring.
In judging breeding animals there is no absolute assurance
that certain desirable characteristics will be transmitted.
lad
IDEALS, QUALIFICATIONS, AND CONSISTENCY 37
Former records of other animals of like conformation must
be used as a guide or basis for passing judgment or opinion.
This is in reality the basis of all live stock judging, as the
accomplishments of one animal under certain known con-
ditions may reasonably be expected to obtain under like
conditions in other instances. If it were not for this infor-
mation which has been accumulated, either in writing or
through the teaching of practical stockmen and _ college
live stock judges, the subject would not have attained its
present magnitude or accuracy. It is only by correlation
of individual characteristics, as measured by the success of
other animals and actual records, that any assurance may be
obtained regarding the value of an animal as a breeder.
When judging direct fitness for the block or for dairy purposes
all breeding and ancestral records may be disregarded as all
practical evidences of utility and quality are ibreely visible
on the exterior of the animal. This, however, has been made
possible only by careful studies of the conformation of work,
milk, and meat-producing qualities of other similar animals.
Ideals, Qualifications, and Consistency.—The beginner in
live stock judging must necessarily acquire a definite working
knowledge of the principles on which stock judging is based.
He should learn the peculiar structural form of the various
types, breeds, and classes by studying each animal individ-
ually. By so doing, he is soon able to correlate the various
parts and thereby fix the individual as a whole in its relation
as applied to the various standards of excellence employed.
In the show ring the method of procedure is different. It
is not a question necessarily of depicting the minuteness of
form, or becoming acquainted with the various structural
parts or units. The judge of long experience ‘grasps and
analyzes the form of the animal or animals as a whole and
makes the alignment according to merit or conformity to the
standard of excellence used for the type or breed in question.
The requirements are that the animal coming closest to the
ideal standard be selected to head the class. Thereafter,
each of the others should be placed according to the degree
of conformity with the animal selected as possessing the most
ideal type qualification.
38 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION
A judge should have a clear, concise idea of each standard
with which he is expected to compare and place competing
animals. Unless he is thoroughly acquainted with these
standards it is impossible to determine which of the animals
in the class should be taken for the ideal or standard. One
of the frequent troubles encountered at the smaller live
stock shows and fairs throughout the country is the lack of
an adequate classification providing for the separation of
each distinct type and breed. Wherever such a condition
exists there can be no true standard, and consequently no
justification in the methods of judging pursued or the
decisions made. Ideals are the foundation of equity and
justice in live stock shows. Unless the judge has an adequate
classification whereby he may establish an ideal and place
the animals according to their degree of conformity, his work
will necessarily be faulty. It is impossible to judge a Stand-
ardbred and a Percheron in the same class, because an ideal
must be selected or a definite purpose adhered to in a written
or mental standard of excellence. Where two distinct
breeds of such varying conformation compete against each
other this is manifestly impossible, as no two animals with
extreme breed types can have an equal or even a close
relationship with any single standard of excellence.
Type and Breed Standards.—Live stock judging as ordinarily
practised in the show ring or by prospective buyers 1s not
accomplished by the aid of the score card. However, most
colleges have adopted a system of score card judging,
especially for beginners in the subject. This is done to
familiarize the student with the various structural parts of
the animal and to fix in the mind the relative importance
of them. For college work score cards are usually arranged
to cover the types of animals and not individual breeds.
This enables the student to become familiar with the various
types of horses, cattle, sheep, and swine. After these basic
principles of type have been mastered a fuller and better
understanding of the various breed characteristics may be
obtained by consulting breed standards of excellence adopted
by the registry associations or by reading descriptive litera-
ture on the subject.
SCORE CARD JUDGING 39
Most breed associations, with the exception of horse
registry organizations, have adopted a standard of excellence
and scale of points for the breed represented. Usually it is
not practical to use these standards for show yard or market
judging. They serve as an important guide and not as
an absolute standard for practical judging, except in
special cases, such as scoring for advanced registry in dairy
cattle.
Score Card Judging.—I*rom the viewpoint of the student
judge, there are three well-defined methods of arriving at
the value of an individual or a class of animals. The first
is by the score card method, the second by examination which
is followed by oral or written comparisons, as practised in
advanced classes of live stock judging, and the third by
simply placing the animals in their comparative order of
merit, as practised in the show ring. Each of these methods,
after the first, is perfected by having attained proficiency in
the preceding one. The score card 1s not adapted to practical
live stock judging, it being used solely as a means to an end.
The score card system of judging is used in the class room
primarily to instruct beginners in the fundamental art of
judging. Its principal value is in teaching the location and
value of the various parts of an animal. After proficiency
is obtained in this part of the work, the score card is usually
replaced by more advanced methods and practices.
Practically the only value of the score card, aside from
that mentioned, is its use in standardizing the value of an
individual animal. It is used for this purpose largely by
dairy cattle record associations in conjunction with advanced
registry tests. Certain score card requirements are often
employed by these associations in measuring the value of
both male and female animals. In reality the score card
is not practicable in live stock judging because a complete
balance of points or a true decision cannot always be logically
obtained. If there was a fixed unit of value to each part of
the animal, regardless of the development of other correlated
parts, such a method might be satisfactorily employed.
‘However, the value of an animal varies greatly for special
purposes, this depending on the relative degree of perfection
METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION
40
“BULL MOYs
ey} Ul ssBpO [[Nq ULOYZIOYY B SuIspn¢—'F ‘oq
SHOW RING JUDGING 4]
of the related parts, thus making it impossible to establish
fixed units of value.
Comparative Judging—The method of judging by com-
parison is the logical result of score card proficiency. After
the details of location, names and the value of the various
parts of the animal organism are once mastered, a class of
animals may be placed in their comparative order of merit
and the reasons for so doing written or given orally. The
former method is usually employed in the beginning to per-
fect briefness and accuracy. In the employment of the com-
parative method of judging it is necessary to have not only
a clear idea of animal form, but also a logical mind in form-
ing a complete or true balance of points among the animals
under judgment. Numerous questions usually arise per-
taining to the value of animal conformation in its relation to
the various factors which must be considered. As there is
no fixed rule which can be followed in these cases it is neces-
sary for the student to have a clear conception of the
value of various animal conformations in the many relations
which they assume in the class room and on the farm. It is
for this reason principally that score card judging is not the
most satisfactory method to employ. It is this balance of
the practical or productive capacity which must be considered
in judging animals for specialized purposes. Comparative
judging of individuals entails a complete harmonious balance
of points which cannot give unjust or untrue decisions if
based on fixed fundamental principles.
Show Ring Judging.——Show ring judging is a practical
repetition of the work of the student in the class room, with
the exception that reasons are usually not given for the rating
of the animals, although from an educational viewpoint
such a course would be practical and highly desirable.
Modern show ring judging is based entirely on the evidences
of utility and quality exhibited in the external characteristics.
Blood lines are considered only to the extent which the
animal shows improved breeding and pronounced individual-
ity. Otherwise, animals are judged and ranked according
to their individuality at the time judgment is passed... Form
and quality, in the broad sense, include all essential considera-
42 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION
tions in the show ring, as they exhibit in one way or another
the possession or absence of the characteristics defined under
all subdivisions considered in judging animal form. These
two characteristics are inseparable from the viewpoint of
the critic. The form varies according to purpose or utility,
but if the correct form is fixed in the mind and the meaning
of quality is clearly understood the fundamentals of judging
are largely mastered. Gross faults in one or the other
means a serious defect, and consequently the show ring
judge is critical in his estimate of these factors. It is only
in judging the horse, where action is a prime requisite, that
the judge varies from these two broad standard qualifications.
The essentials for successful student or show ring judging
are a keen vision in analyzing animal form, in the broad sense,
and detecting the most devious faults therein. A fault once
seen in an animal should be indelibly stamped on the mind and
the degree of faultiness clearly fixed. Unless such a plan is
pursued, the judge not only becomes entangled in his original
impressions but tiring of the judgment through prolonged
decisions is apt to render them even more faulty. Draft
Shire
Suffolk
Cleveland bay
German coach | Heavy
French coach harness
Hackney
American Light
Standardbred | harness
American |
Saddle horse
Saddle
Thoroughbred
Running horse
Shetland
Welsh + Pony
Hackney!
Class. Subclass.
" f Light
Drafter | Heavy
Logger | Eastern and
5 export
Chunk ) Farm
| Southern
Expresser
) Coach horse
Park horse :
Cob (intermediate with
Cab [pony type)
\ Runabout
Speed or
race horse
) Roadster
| Combination
( horse
J Walk-trot-
canter
Gaited
Trotter
Pacer
Light
Hunter Medium
Heavy
Race horse
runner
Cavalry
Polo pony
Shetland (under 46 inches)
11-2 to 14-2
Conformity to all of the attributes, namely, weight
quality, conformation, symmetry, temperament, disposition,
style, action and finish, which constitutes utility or purpose
in the specific division under observation, is the basis of
1 Hackney under 14-2 hands, with breed characteristics accentuated.
112 JUDGING HORSES
distinction. Because of the varied and specialized purposes
for which horses are used, there is occasionally an overlapping
or combination of classes. This fact is brought out in case
of the expresser, runabout, and combination horse. It
is recognized that classifications vary somewhat, depending
on the authority and the basis on which they are made.
Gay divides horses into four types, namely, power, speed,
show, and saddle. This division is made on the basis of
mechanics, each type being subdivided into classes in
accordance with market and show ring demands.
CHAPTER VIT.
JUDGING DRAFT HORSES.
DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE.
Tue term draft is significant of weight, massiveness,
and, therefore, the development of power. An animal
possessing these qualifications has certain definite attributes
which qualify it for work of this character. The draft type
is divided into three generally significant classes, namely:
drafter, logger, and chunk.
Draft Conformation.—The form of the draft horse should
be massive and compact. Animals of this type should
be low set, wide and deep in the body, with strong bone
and deep muscling, both of which are characteristic of the
horse with power attainments. These attributes should be
correlated so that the animal possesses perfect symmetry
throughout. A draft horse properly made should be low
set, square and compact and at the same time symmetrical
from every angle. Weight properly distributed is the first
essential of a draft animal. Based on weight alone, a horse
might possess sufficient weight, yet because of long legs and
a rangy body such an animal would not be acceptable on
the market or in draft service.
From a structural viewpoint the head should be long,
broad and deep, yet symmetrical with the other parts of
the body. The neck should be of sufficient length and depth
to harmonize perfectly with the weight of the animal. The
head and neck should blend smoothly, and the neck should
deepen gradually toward the shoulders, which should be long
and sloping, and extend well back in order to give strength
in the back, proper style, and symmetry. A moderately
sloping shoulder on a draft horse is usually associated with a
8 (113)
114 JUDGING DRAFT HORSES
short back, which is characteristic of a typical draft animal.
The back should be short, broad, and deeply muscled. The
loin should be broad, level, heavily muscled, and should be
indicative of a close, short coupling. The ribs should be well
arched, closely placed, and the chest should be deep and
broad on the floor. The flank should be full and low.
The hindquarters should be broad, deep, the croup level,
well muscled, and the thighs deep and compact. The bone
Wiles
Fia. 30.—Characteristics of a good draft gelding, illustrating the draft type.
should be large, square, fine and dense, and the forearm
and gaskin heavily muscled. As a whole, the draft animal
should be broad, deep, compact, and massive in appearance
throughout.
Quality.— Quality in the draft animal signifies the same
condition as applied to the light horse or other classes of
live stock. However, in the light horse there is usually
a more significant indication of quality in the hair, skin, and
bone. While quality is just as essential in the draft horse
it is usually not present to the same degree. The principal
' DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE 115
indications of quality are in the head, hair, hide, and bone.
The head should be broad, deep, and clearly outlined by
distinct facial features. Each part of the head should be
‘clearly outlined, there being no evidence of plainness or
lack of definition or refinement. The head is one of the
best indications of quality. It usually portrays intelligence
also, and indirectly constitution and form requirements.
A large, coarse ear, a straight undefined face and head, and a
large, plain muzzle portray a general lack of quality, char-
acter, and intelligence. A fine glossy, mossy coat of hair,
soft to the touch is indicative of what may be found beneath.
The skin on an animal with a coat of hair so characterized
is usually soft, pliable, and elastic. ‘The bone is an unusual
indication of quality. If it is fine, hard and dense with fine
texture, it is ordinarily accompanied by a corresponding
degree of quality throughout the body. It may be possible
to get too much quality, although as much should be apparent
as consistent with the required weight and substance of the
draft animal.
Constitution and Endurance.—The value of the draft horse
is significantly magnified by the amount of constitution and
endurance possessed. The indications of constitution are
largely in the development of the muzzle, nostrils, head, and
chest. The head should be long, broad, and clearly defined.
The muzzle should be broad, deep, and the nostrils large and
open to give free access of air into the lungs. The jaw
bones should be long and broad at the angle or opening.
The chest should be broad and deep to accommodate the
vital organs. A broad spring of rib and a short coupling
are indicative of constitutional development. The correla-
tion and compactness of the body measures quite accurately
the amount of constitution which an animal possesses.
Endurance is closely associated with constitutional
development. The value of a draft animal is therefore
dependent in a large measure on its enduring or lasting
qualities. Endurance is associated and otherwise indicated
by the structural condition of the animal, especially in the
head, chest, coupling and the character of the bone, skin
and hair. — (Je) bo SS PP Pe
Ke) NNNwR eS
ARO halen Het oops oh ase eee seman ine sce ust LCC)
Qualifications of Mule Mares.—The qualifications of
mule mares vary, depending on the type of mule which is
204 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
to be produced. There are certain attributes, however,
which a mule mare should possess regardless of this factor.
Such an animal should have size, weight, good conformation,
quality, and refinement. The head should show an intelligent,
lively disposition, and the temperament should be active.
The barrel should be long, deep, broad, thus indicating
capacity. The feet and legs should be normal from every
viewpoint, including the normal position of the feet and legs
as formerly described, and quality should be therein indicated.
Fra. 84.—A characteristic mule mare. (Courtesy Kentucky Agricultural
Experiment Station.)
Because of the generally recognized, comparatively coarse
qualities of the jack, mule mares should possess unusual
quality and refinement. Heavy draft mares are not as
desirable for this purpose as those possessing some of the
blood from the lighter breeds, such as the Standardbred
or Thoroughbred. ‘There should be sufficient blood from
these breeds incorporated in the mule mare to overcome
the coarser qualities dominating in the jack. Suffolk mares
are credited with good mule-producing qualifications.
The body of the jack has a tendency to angularity and,
MULES 205
therefore, he should not be mated with mares of this con-
formation. Mares with comparatively large, smooth, sym-
metrical bodies will add size, smoothness, and refinement to
the mule. Mares possessing an undue amount of cold blood
are not adapted to mule production. In seeking refinement
it should not be carried to the extreme and thus decrease the
size of the mule, as such animals are not readily salable at
remunerative prices. The principal attributes of the mule-
producing mare are included in moderate height and weight,
a body with squareness of form, well proportioned with the
other regions, smoothness and symmetry, strong bone,
quality and general refinement, thus showing a moderate
amount of light horse finish and refining characteristics.
Market Classes of Mules.—The mule markets recognize
several classes which include the following: draft, farm,
sugar, cotton, and mining mules. The first two classes
are generally of special significance, although not the most
widely bred or used. Market mules are sold wholly on
their fitness for draft, agricultural, army, or mine use.
The Illinois Experiment Station defines them on a basis
of height and weight qualifications as follows:
Class. Height in hands. Weight range.
Draft mules Ol pert ratn sei Oe en bOmlaee 1200 to 1600
Farm mules TU Se Savas D= Peto 6 900 to 1250
ue les) gs IG troy ale 1150 to 1800
Cotton mules . . . . .. 183-2 to 15-2 750 to 1100
Waluanrores vaovilless a oe ee ISES aro) JUS) 600 to 1350
Draft Mules.—This type of mule is the largest which is
placed on the market. Their height ranges from 16 to 17-2
hands, and their weight from 1200 to 1600 pounds. They
should be large and strong in bone, although the quality
should be up to standard, the same as in the horse. They
should be compact, deep bodied, low set, closely coupled, and
have symmetry of form throughout. The muscling should
be heavy, especially about the thighs and quarters. They
should have a hardy and rugged appearance, such as that
which characterizes the draft type of the horse. Mules of
this type possessing plenty of quality and substance are
capable of doing heavy team work, and their value for this
206’ JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
purpose is being appreciated more as they are given fair
trials.
Farm Mules.—Farm mules, as the name designates, are
used almost exclusively for agricultural purposes. The
type varies considerably, although many very valuable
Fre. 85.—Draft mules 164+ hands high, weighing 1650 pounds.
animals are classed as farm mules. The height of this type
ranges from 15 to 16 hands, and the weight ranges from 900
to 1300 pounds. Mules of this type are not as symmetrical
or as heavily muscled as those of the draft type, which are
supposed to represent the acme of mule production. Farm
mules are somewhat rangier, the bone is inclined to be lighter,
the body less compact, and the animal, as a whole, more
MULES 207
upstanding. They should possess good bone, feet of moder-
ate size and quality sufficient to make them sell readily
on the market.
Sugar Mules.—Sugar mules are used largely throughout
the Southern states on the sugar farms or plantations.
The name is significant of the work which is required of
Fie. 86.—Draft mules, showing two good colors. Suitable either for draft
or farm purposes.
them. These mules range in height from 16 to 17 hands,
and weigh from 1150 to 1300 pounds. Usually they are
heavier and more compact than the cotton mule. Mare
mules are most desired for the trade, ranging from three to
six years old. The quality is usually above the average and
the general appearance is very striking, especially in the
indication of breediness. Weight, finish, and quality are
208 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
greater on the average than that of the cotton or farm mule.
For this reason sugar mules sell for more money. In judging
sugar mules special attention should be given to weight,
quality, and adaptability to the work in question. The bone
should be fine and strong, the joints well developed, and the
feet somewhat larger than that of the average mule. They
should be symmetrical in their build, possess an intelligent
Fig. 87.—A choice sugar mule. (Courtesy Illinois Agricultural Experiment
Station.)
and shapely head, be strong in the neck and shoulder develop-
ment, and compact throughout the body.
Mining Mules.—Mining mules are used in the mines and,
consequently, do not possess the size and weight of the other
classes mentioned. The character of work for which they
are used, especially pit mules, necessitates a rather small,
agile type of animal. They range in weight from 600 to
1350 pounds, this depending upon whether they are used in
the pit or above. Only the smaller types are used under
MULES 209
ground, and as a large majority of them are purchased for
this purpose the average height and weight runs low. In
height they range from 12 to 16 hands. The body should
be compactly built, the legs short and strong, the bone
rather heavy, and the feet large. It is necessary to have
animals without blemishes, as such a condition is likely to
Fia. 88.—A mine mule, showing characteristics of medium pitter.
(Courtesy Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station.)
give trouble because of the sulphur and chemicals to which
they are subjected underground.
Cotton Mules.—Cotton mules are used largely for the culti-
vation of cotton throughout the Southern states. The
demand is usually for a rather small type of animal, the
weight ranging from 650 to 1100 pounds and the height
14
210 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
from 13 to 15-2 hands. This type of mule is of still lighter
build than the mining mule!. The body is inclined to be
somewhat rangy, the bone small, and the body upstanding.
The quality should be uniform and of about the same stand-
ard as that possessed by the mining mule, the difference
being in favor of the latter.
These mules are usually brought into the South in the early
spring before the cotton-planting season begins. In the fall
Fra. 89.—A choice cotton mule. (Courtesy Illinois Agricultural
Experiment Station.)
they are frequently sold back to the dealers, refattened at
the close of the year and sold again the following season.
For this reason the age varies considerably. Although a
standard market type, the age is not as uniform as in other
types, which are sold and placed immediately in continuous
service.
: ! Compared with surface-mining mule.
HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 2A
EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS AND FAULTY
CONFORMATION.!
HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES.
Relation of Soundness to Utility.—In consideration of domes-
tic animals, it is largely in the horse and mule that the
determination of the degree of soundness, specifically con-
sidered, is of practical consideration. > In other animals,
structural development and the nature of work performed
does not tend to produce such conditions. In horses and
other draft animals, broadly speaking, an unsoundness or
faulty conformation is of vital concern, as the presence or
absence of these conditions determines or measures value
both in breeding and draft service. While the ratio of value
may differ, depending on the use of the animal and nature of
the unsoundness or faulty conformation, under any conditions
the value is depreciated, ranging from that of a slight objec-
tion to practical worthlessness. Determination of these con-
ditions involves not only a broad knowledge of the structure
of horses and mules whereby abnormalities may be detected
but also a knowledge of the resulting depreciation in value
for draft or breeding purposes.
Definition and Limitations—An unsoundness is any
abnormal condition which makes an animal less capable or
which will, during development, decrease natural usefulness.
An absolutely sound animal does not possess the slightest
deviation from the normal structure. Such animals are
rare, however, as slight defects are usually present in the
most perfect specimens, although they do not usually interfere
with the usefulness or market value. Soundness is relative
and not absolute, a horse usually being practically sound and
not absolutely so.
An unsoundness should be differentiated from a blemish
which simply depreciates the market value of an animal
usually without impairing usefulness. A blemish may
1 Special credit due M. H. Reynolds, University of Minnesota.
212 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
occasionally impair usefulness; however, such conditions
are rare. Blemishes usually decrease market value only,
while an unsoundness decreases both market value and use-
fulness. A theoretically sound horse is one which has no
disease or other condition that interferes with his usefulness
or market value. He may have a disease from which he
will recover, yet at the time of the examination such an
animal will be unsound.
Unsoundness may be temporary or permanent. Tem-
porary unsoundness may be illustrated by an influenza from
which a horse will probably recover, or by light sprains or a
bruised ankle from interfering. In the latter case the
question would arise at once whether the interfering was due
to faulty conformation or to faulty shoeing. In the former
case the condition would be serious, while in the latter it
would be unimportant as it could be remedied by shoeing
the animal properly.
Normal Conditions.—It is necessary to become familiar
with the usual normal and abnormal conditions for com-
parative purposes. The hocks may be perfectly sound
and yet have a peculiar bony development. In such cases
it will generally be found that both hocks are alike. The
knees may have a similar peculiar development and yet be
perfectly sound. It is necessary to become familiar with all
such conditions before an animal can be examined rapidly
and accurately.
General Examination—An examination for soundness
should be systematic and thorough, although it may be
rapidly accomplished. The examination should be made with
the horse in the stall, as he backs out, stands at rest, and in
motion. In the stall he should be examined for cribbing,
weaving or any other stable habit which is objectionable.
As the horse backs out of the stall, he may show a peculiar
use of the hindlegs or imperfect control, due to serious
disorders of the nervous system. Frequently the first
intimation of spavin may be detected as the animal is made
to stand from side to side, particularly as he steps toward the
spavined leg.
After the animal is taken out of the stall his movements
HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 213
should be observed while walking and trotting. He should
be viewed coming toward, passing by, and going from the
observer, who should note the movement of the entire body
and the use of each limb. It is especially important to
observe the head and hips in locating the diseased limb.
The front foot is a very common seat of lameness.
Locating Lameness.—It is usually quite easy for any
observer to recognize that an animal is lame, provided the
lameness is at all decided, but there are many cases where
the lameness is so very slight that it is difficult for an expert
to locate it or even be sure that the animal is lame. A very
common error is that of locating the lameness on the wrong
side. This is easily avoided if it is remembered that the
head and weight of the body in general come down most
noticeably with the sound limb. For instance, a horse which
is lame in the left front leg will drop the head very perceptibly
as he lands upon the right front leg.
Some forms of lameness are detected with great difficulty
when the animal is walking, but are easily seen when trotting.
It is usually conceded that the latter is the best gait for
diagnostic purposes, although the observer should study the
movements at both the walk and trot if possible. The
animal should be tried on both hard and soft ground, and
on the side of a hill. If the lameness is in the foot, it is
most marked when the animal travels on hard ground. On
the contrary, when a horse is lame in the shoulder, he is
apt to travel with great difficulty in deep mud or snow.
Bony Growths.—Splints, spavins, and ringbones, are simply
developments of bony tissue, the result of an inflammation
of the periosteum. These are all recognized as forms of
unsoundness, and usually cause lameness. This inflamma-
tion may have its origin in bruises or other injuries, or possibly
the inflammation in this tissue may be the result of an extend-
ing inflammation from some adjoining tissue, but in any case
the result is usually a projecting development of bony tissue.
Splints.—These appear as small tumors along the meta-
carpal bones, usually at the junction of the large and small
metacarpals. They may be of various shapes and sizes.
They are generally more serious when located near the knee.
214 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
Occasionally there appears what is known as a pegged splint,
in which the growth extends across the back of the canon,
beneath the suspensory ligament.
The lameness which results from splints is rather easily
recognized: (1) By locating the splint, noting the sensitive-
ness to pressure at this point. A peculiarity of the lameness
is that the horse walks nearly or quite sound, but trots very
lame, especially on hard ground. There is a natural tendency
to recover. Lameness from splints is rarely seen in aged
horses for this reason. (2) When the splint appears very
close to the knee, or in the pegged form, there is less prospect
of natural recovery, and with the latter form lameness is very
apt to be permanent, unless relieved by surgical means.
Ringbone.—This is characterized by enlargement of some
portion of the pastern bones. It may be in front, behind,
on either side, or extend entirely around this region. It
may be located near the crown of the hoof or very much
higher, thus dividing ringbone artificially into two classes,
high and low.
Ringbones are very much more serious forms of unsound-
ness than splints, as they are more apt to be permanent
in effect, and even if the soreness is relieved, there is likely
to be a mechanical lameness because of a stiffened joint.
This unsoundness and the lameness resulting from it are very
easily detected.
Sidebones—A_ sidebone indicates an abnormal condition
of the lateral cartilages, which are naturally elastic. Side-
bones are detected as bonelike structures which appear above
the crown of the hoof and just beneath the skin on either
side. They may cause lameness during the period of inflam-
mation and hardening. In some cases the lameness is
~ persistent.
Spavin.—The cause of lameness, recognized under the name
of bone spavin, is an abnormal condition of the tarsal bones
at the lower, inner, front portion of the hock. There is
usually an enlargement, varying from a very small growth,
commonly called a jack, to a very large growth, known as
bone spavin.
There is another form of bone spavin in which there is a
HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES DAMS)
slight or possibly no external development at all. In this
form of spavin there may be diseases of the bones in the
deeper parts; particularly erosions of the articular cartilages.
Animals with bone spavins have a tendency to recover with-
out treatment, although in many cases the period required for
natural recovery is very long, extending through a period of
years. In other cases recovery can never occur. Recovery,
when brought about by natural or artificial conditions, implies
that certain of the tarsal bones have united in the process
called technically, anchylosis, and the inflamed surfaces are
no longer rubbing together as the limb moves.
Many bone spavins doubtless appear as the result of slight
injuries in susceptible subjects, particularly those that have
a strong hereditary tendency to diseases of this kind. Bone
spavin is one of the most serious forms of unsoundness. A
spavined horse steps on the toe, and carries the hock-joint
with as little movement as possible. The lameness usually
disappears or at least greatly improves with exercise. What
is known as the hock test is made by holding up the limb,
with the hock sharply bent, for several minutes. The horse
is then started suddenly. In case of spavin the first few steps
are very lame. Old horses not affected by spavin may respond
to this test and lead to error in judgment.
Synovial Sacs.—The ordinary wind puffs of the ankle,
and bog spavins and thoroughpins at the hock, are typical
illustrations of enlarged synovial sacs. They are not usually
the cause of lameness, but are to be regarded rather as
symptoms.
Wind puffs usually indicate considerable amount of hard
road work.
Bog Spavins—These are enlargements of the synovial
sac of the hock-joint, and appear at the inner and front
part of the hock. They are often hereditary.
Thoroughpins are very similar to bog spavins and wind
puffs, except in location. Thoroughpins appear at the
upper and back part of the hock. They may or may not
connect with the synovial sac of the hock-joint.
Open Joint.—Lameness from open joint is quite common
among city horses. This usually results from punctures of
216 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
the synovial sacs and the entrance of foreign matter, resulting
in an acute inflammation or synovitis. This form of lame-
ness can usually be very easily detected, and the cause
recognized. It is very serious under all circumstances, and
frequently results in loss of the animal.
Curb.—This is a result of an injury or strain at the back
of the hock-joints, and is characterized at first by a hot,
sensitive swelling just back of the lowest part of the hock-
jot. After the period of swelling and inflammation sub-
sides, there is apt to remain a hard tumor, particularly on
what is known as curby hocks. In cases of young animals
given proper treatment the remaining enlargement may be
very slight or may practically disappear.
Capped Hock.—Capped hock is not usually a cause or
condition of lameness; but is mentioned for other reasons.
This is an unusual prominence at the point of the hock,
produced by bruises. Some horses get it by backing against
the stalls, so that they injure the point of the hock. Other
cases are produced in car shipments, or from a natural
tendency. The first swelling may usually be reduced by
prompt treatment, but it returns with very slight provoca-
tion, and after several attacks is likely to be permanent.
This abnormality does not injure horses for actual use, but
it is unsightly, and materially reduces the sale value.
Shoe Boil.—This appears as an enlargement in the point
of the elbow or superior extremity of the ulna. It is very
similar to capped hock in cause, character, and subsequent
history. Shoe boils are unsightly and injure sale, but do not
usually cause lameness.
Other Important Examinations——The poll should be
examined for evidences of enlargement, roughness or scars,
which are the result of fistula or poll evil. The poll and
back of the ears should be examined for sitfasts, due to
pressure from the bridle or halter. If the sitfast has been
present an animal is likely to offer some resistance when
the hand is passed over the region of the trouble.
Kars. —'The ears in a well-bred animal should be lean,
clean, and covered with soft, fine hair. The ears should be
freely movable, this being a good index to temperament.
HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 217
In examining them it should be noted whether small tumors
are present. Horses in which there is little or no movement
of the ears, are usually afflicted with deafness.
Eyes.—The eyes should be of equal size, large, clear, free
from tears, the pupils black, the lids thin and free from
wrinkles. They should be equally prominent and set on the
same level. Small eyes are known as pig eyes and generally
indicate a sullen disposition or an animal lacking in courage.
Exceptionally large, prominent eyes are frequently associated
with short-sightedness. Horses which show an unusual
amount of white in their eyes generally possess some form of
visclousness.
Nostrils.—The nostrils should be flexible and large enough
to admit an ample supply of air. Small nostrils usually
denote narrow chest, weak lungs, and, therefore, low constitu-
tion or vitality. Nostrils which are constantly dilated are
indicative of wind troubles. If the cartilages at the opening
are hard, the condition usually denotes heaves. During
exercise the movements are accelerated in proportion to the
exertion. The color of the nostrils should be rosy pink, this
becoming brighter with exercise. The presence of scars,
irregular in shape and extent, or the appearance of ulcers
show indications of glanders. Occasionally small tumors
may be found. Openings from the teeth or from the facial
sinusus may be the source of pus discharges.
Teeth—The teeth of the horse should come in direct
opposition. If the upper teeth overhang the lower, the
condition is known as parrot mouth. Excessive forms of
this trouble prevent grasping of food, prevents even wearing
of the incisors and molars, and interferes with the nutritive
powers. The front teeth should be examined for evidence
of cribbing. Horses addicted to this vice have the outer
border of the teeth worn off more than the inner, thus
leaving a distinct wedge-shaped opening between the upper
and lower teeth. The presence of premolars or wolf teeth
is not considered an unsoundness. They have no relation to
the eye diseases.
Withers.—The withers are subject to abuses from various
sources, such as narrow stalls, tight collars or saddles. These
218 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
sometimes cause abscesses or a fistula, and even the destruc-
tion of the ends of the bony spine. A‘ depression may thus be
formed in the top of the neck or withers. A fistula may appear
as a small, hard, swelling on one or both sides of the neck,
near the top where the collar is placed. Running sores
or swellings in this region should be regarded with suspicion.
Shoulders.—The shoulders should be examined for sweeney
or atrophy of the muscles, for tumors, collar boils, and abnor-
mal growths. Atrophy of the muscles may be slight wherein
some weak, counter-irritant may be used to cause temporary
fulness. A well-marked atrophy may be filled with air for
the temporary effect of deceiving the eye. The point of
the shoulders should be examined for enlargement due to
osteoporosis or articular joint disease.
Feet.—The hoof is composed of a hardened sole and frog
which should be elastic and tough. The wall is that part of
the hoof which is seen when the foot is on the ground. The
wall is divided into the toe, side, quarter and heel. The
frog is the wedge-shaped soft horn lodged in the angle formed
by the bars and the back of the sole. The sole is all that
portion viewed when the foot is lifted without including the
margin of the wall and frog. These parts are important in
the examination.
The feet should be examined for sand cracks, toe cracks,
quarter cracks, and other such conditions. Examination
should be made for the parallel rings that mark the effect
of laminitis or founder. The presence of calk marks indi-
cates restlessness or carelessness with which the animal
handles himself. The heel should have good width and be
wider at the bottom than at the top. The frog should be full,
wedge-shaped, and firm. It is this part which becomes the
seat of thrush or canker. The character of the shoe should
be noted for balancing the action and preventing inter-
ference.
Examination in Harness.—The horse should be placed in
harness and attention given to his behavior while the harness
is being fitted. It should be observed whether he kicks,
strikes or bites when the girth is tightened. The reins
should be taken to determine whether an animal is hard or
HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 219
tender in the mouth. It should be observed whether he
frightens at strange objects when being driven. A tight-
fitting collar may be responsible for rejecting an animal
which is duly qualified with proper collar adjustments. The
wind should be tested for whistling, roaring, and heaves.
The ear of the examiner should be put to the throat, the sides
of the chest, and the hands placed on the flank to detect
any unnatural sounds or conditions in breathing.
Going Surface.'—The surface over which the horse steps
has a marked influence on the character of his stride, which
may be taken advantage of in the schooling process. As a
general rule, heavy, soft or deep going causes a high stride,
while a hard, smooth surface is conducive to speed. Of
the speed horses, trotters and pacers take more kindly to the
hard track than the runners, which do best on the turf or a
deeply scratched dirt track. The difference in the going
will frequently account for a horse trotting or pacing, the
heavy or deep going causing double-gaited horses to trot,
while a change in footing will shift them to the pace.
The common defects and peculiarities in the way of
going, for which any of the preceding factors may be re-
sponsible or tend to overcome are:
Forging.—Striking the ends of the branches or the under
surface of the shoe of a forefoot with the toe of the hindfoot.
Interfering. —Striking the supporting leg at the fetlock
with the foot of the striding leg. It is a common result of
the horse standing in the base-narrow, toe-wide or splay-
footed position.
Paddling.—An outward deviation in the direction of the
stride of the foreleg, resulting from the toe-narrow or pigeon-
toed standing position.
Winging.—Exaggerated paddling in horses that go high,
and, consequently, deviate more noticeably.
Winding.—A twisting of the striding leg, around in front
of the supporting leg, after the manner of a rope walker;
most commonly seen at the walk in wide-fronted draft
horses.
1 Courtesy of C. W. Gay.
220 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
Scalping. — Hitting the front of the hindfoot above or
at the line of the hair against the toe of the forefoot as it
breaks over.
Speedy Cutting.—In which the spreading trotter at speed
hits the hindleg above the scalping mark against the inside
of the breaking-over forefoot as he passes.
Cross Firing —Essentially forging in pacers, in which the
inside of the near forefoot and off hindfoot, or the reverse,
strike in the air, as the stride of the hindleg is about com-
pleted and the stride of the foreleg just begun.
Pointing.—A_ stride in which extension is more marked
than flexion, as is commonly seen in the trot of a Thorough-
bred. Pointing also indicates the resting of one forefoot
in an advanced position to relieve the back tendons while
the horse is standing.
Dwelling —A scarcely perceptible pause in the flight of
the foot, as though the stride had been completed before the
foot reaches the ground, and noticeable in actors.
Trappy.—A quick, high, but comparatively short stride.
Pounding.—Hitting the ground hard at the conclusion of
a high stride. ;
Rolling.—Excessive side motion of the shoulders, usually
confined to wide-fronted horses.
CHEAT Ry 2X:
JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE.
EVOLUTION AND IMPORTANCE OF BEEF CATTLE
INDUSTRY.
Tue evolution of the beef cattle industry has had as its
basis the application of better methods of breeding and
feeding, the extent of these developments having depended
largely on closer selection of animals for these two purposes.
Selection involves judging, which is the nucleus of all live
stock improvement. The improvement of the beef cattle
industry through this agency is therefore important, both
from the standpoint of present-day and future breeders.
Viewed from the standpoint of the large cattle markets which
are responsible for directing the large number of cattle
passing through them, the importance of the industry
becomes eminent.
The cattle breeding idnestee is supported i in a large meas-
ure by the small breeder, who is responsible for the kind and
quality of cattle placed on the markets. His knowledge of
animal form, therefore, should be exacting. It is within his
range of practical operations to increase form and quality to
the utmost. Whether this is done will be determined by the
knowledge which he acquires in properly applying these
agencies of improvement in the herd. Figures have been
cited where the increase of one pound on ‘the total weight
of every finished meat-producing animal would mean an
increase of 172,437,403 pounds of edible meats. From this
statement it is readily imaginable how the most modern
methods of breeding, selection and feeding would bring a
greatly added profit, not only to the individual, but to the
beef cattle industry as a whole. Considered from the broad
(221)
222 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
‘317989 Joo JO sJIVd IOLI9}xX9 IY} JO SOWILU PUB UOI]BOOT— ‘IG “DIA
od
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 223
viewpoint, there is still a field for improvement which is
magnified many times, compared with the improvement
which has been made in the past.
Beef Cattle Products and Their Uses.—The uses of beef
cattle products are varied. In former years, before the advent
of modern abattoirs, practically the only parts utilized were
the carcass proper, the hide, and certain edible parts of the
viscera. Modern methods of killing and handling cattle
products have made it possible to utilize almost every part
of the carcass. This has been of special importance to the
producer and feeder, although in an indirect way. Their
interest lies directly in the improvement of animal form,
which in the beef animal involves a long, broad, deep body,
and square, full, compact quarters with the minimum of
waste products. The more highly developed, therefore, that
the breeder can perfect animal form, the nearer will he
approach the ultimate demands of the feeder or finisher and
the butcher.
Relation of Structure to High-priced Cuts.—In perfecting
animal form the breeder is vitally concerned with the
development of certain parts. This development must be
made, however, in perfect correlation with those character-
istics which give the animal life, vigor, and_ thriftiness.
The parts of a beef animal which are of greatest concern
to the packer, the butcher and the meat eater are not
directly concerned with the functions of life and vitality
EXPLANATION OF FIG. 90.
1—Mouth. 13—Neck. 26—Scrotum or cod.
2—Nostrils. 14—Shoulder junction. 27—Hindflanks.
3—Face. 15—Top of shoulder. 28—Sides or ribs.
4—Kars. 16—Crops. 29—Back.
5—Eyes. 17—Heart girth. 30—Loin.
6—Forehead. 18—Shoulders. 31—Loin.
7—Poll. 19—Fore flank. 33—Thighs.
8—Horns. 20—Knees. 34—Rump.
9—Jaws. 21—Shanks. 35—Tailhead.
10—Throat. 22—Feet. 36—Twist.
11—Dewlap. 23—Dew claws. 37—Tail.
12—Brisket. 24—Belly or underline. 38—Hocks.
25—Sheath.
224 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
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EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 225
which govern the breeder’s operations. The butcher, from
his viewpoint, would be pleased to secure only those animals
which possessed the largest relative proportion of the highest-
priced cuts, providing his trade merited such selection. This
would be dependent on conditions. The better the quality
of the product which can be purchased on an equal-price basis,
the better the butcher and his patrons will be satisfied.
A beef animal must possess, however, other attributes
aside from meat-producing qualities. It must possess con-
stitution, capacity, early maturity, quality, and the requisites
for prime finish. These, of necessity, call for development
of animal form which in most cases is antagonistic to the
production of the maximum of the highest priced cuts. There
must be, therefore, a close and direct correlation between
the attributes of life-giving functions and meat-producing
qualities. The higher the attributes of beef-productive con-
formation can be perfected without detracting from these
life-giving functions, the nearer the perfect animal will be
approached from the standpoint of the packer, the butcher,
and the meat eater.
Coérdination of Bone and Muscle.—The muscular part of
an animal and associated fat-producing qualities represent
in the main the factors of importance in judging a beef
animal. In order to know what lies beneath the skin, the
examiner must have a thorough knowledge of the bony
development in its relation to muscle and fat formation. A
EXPLANATION OF FIG. 91.
Skeleton of cow, showing relation of bone and muscle: 1.H., atlas; 7.H.,
seventh cervical vertebra; 1.R., first thoracic vertebra; 6.R., sixth rib; 12.R.,
twelfth thoracic vertebra; 13.R., last rib; 1.L., first lumbar vertebra; 6.L.,
last lumbar vertebra; K, sacrum; 1.S., first coccygeal vertebra; 6.K., sixth
costal cartilage; x, wing of atlas; 1, scapula; 1’, cartilage of scapula; 2, spine
of scapula; 3, acromion; 4, humerus; 4’, external condyle of humerus; 4,
external tuberosity of humerus; 6, deltoid tuberosity; 7, ulna; 8, olecranon;
9, radius; 10, carpus; 11, accessory carpal bone; 12, metacarpus; 13, pha-
langes; 14, sternum; 14’, manubrium; 14’, xiphoid cartilage; 15, ilium;
16, external angle of ilium; 16’, internal angle of ilium; 17, tuber ischii;
18, femur; 19, trochanter major; 20, patella; 21, tibia; 21’, external condyle
of tibia; 22, tarsus; 23, distal end of fibula; 24, tuber calcis; 25, metatarsus;
26, phalanges. (After Ellenberger-Baum, Anat. f. Kiinstler.)
15
226 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
study of the skeleton and the outline drawing will indicate
quite vividly the relation of these parts. The head of the
beef animal is formed largely by the bony development of
this region. The variation from the form as examined on
the exterior is very slight from what would be found on
an examination of the bony framework beneath. The neck
is just the reverse, being formed largely by the muscles con-
stituting this part of the animal. Meat obtained from this
region, however, has a comparatively low market value.
The shoulders are also formed in a large measure by the
muscles composing this part. Although meat from this
region has a comparatively low value, it is important that
the shoulders be smooth and compact. Rough, open, thinly
covered shoulders are not only indicative of relatively
low muscle formation, but they are otherwise indicative
of coarse quality and a low dressing percentage. The body
proper is outlined largely by the rib development. This is
especially true in that part which is taken off with the fore-
quarter in carcass beef, this including all except the last rib,
which is usually left on the hindquarter. The hindquarters
of the beef animal contain a relatively large proportion of
the high-priced cuts because there is a relatively large pro-
portion of muscle to bone and the quality of the product is
superior to that in any other region. ‘The region of the loin,
prime ribs, and thighs or round are especially valuable from
the market standpoint because of these factors. A clear
knowledge of this condition is, therefore, necessary to have
a broad understanding of the value of the carcass cuts and
the qualities or characteristics which indicate them in the
live animal.
Conformation.—The desired conformation of the beef
animal should be self-evident after the former consideration
of the main attributes which give value to the correlated
parts of the structure. The body should be long, wide,
deep, and low set. The back should be broad, thus desig-
nating the shape and turn of the ribs, which should be square,
and extend low to give depth of body. The coupling should
be short, the loin broad and deep, and the flank low. There
should be in all the close, compact condition which is
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 227
evidenced by the smooth, compact, even finish character-
istic of an animal best suited to market demands.
The head should be broad, long, and clearly outlined,
the muzzle large, and the eyes clear and prominent. The
neck should be short and compact and should blend evenly
into the head and shoulders. The width of the animal
should be uniformly developed from the forequarters to
the buttocks. The thighs should be broad and thick, the
quarters well filled, and the twist full and low.
Fig. 92.—Fat steer, illustrating thick-fleshing characteristics, quality
and finish.
The most valuable cuts in the beef animal are taken from
the loin, ribs, and thighs. This makes it necessary to empha-
size the development of an animal in these regions. Coarse-
ness about the head, neck, and forequarters is objectionable,
as it still further reduces the value of the already cheapest
cuts, and, in addition, the value of the best cuts, because
of the close association with the value of these parts.
Such a condition usually has associated with it a narrow
back and loin, rough, undeveloped quarters, high flanks,
shallow body, and lack of natural flesh in general. The
228 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
final disposition of the beef animal is on the block, where
the crucial test is made. Lack of development in the parts
mentioned cannot fail to escape the eye of the butcher who
pronounces final judgment and who therefore signifies the
value of animals, this being based directly on their general
conformation as above described.
Fleshing Qualities—In judging cattle it is not possible to
have too much natural flesh, meaning lean meat, providing
it is properly distributed. This is largely a factor which is
transmitted in the animal and should therefore be a guide
in selecting a breeding animal, as well as a block animal,
from which the most desirable returns are anticipated. A
clear distinction should be made between a wealth of natural
flesh and a soft, flabby covering which accumulates with
high feeding and excessive condition. In examining an
animal in the show ring the judge should search for those
points which will enable him to determine between fat
accumulation and natural flesh development. Patchiness,
soft, flabby flesh, rolls and ties, are very objectionable,
indicating lack of quality and the general smoothness
desired. ‘These points are significant both in the breeding
animal and the feeder, as in the former such undesirable
qualities are transmitted and in the latter they are seriously
objectionable on the block. An animal either in high or low
flesh should show a straight, even contour and be firm and
uniformly covered with flesh and fat.
(Quality.—The flesh of the beef animal is one of the most
important products which enters into the trade for human
consumption. While a large percentage of the slaughtered
beef, especially that utilized on local markets, represents
the products from the lower grades of cattle, there are
other important markets to be supplied wherein the standard
of quality is an important consideration. This attribute
is essential, not only in the production of a better quality
of meat to satisfy the demands of the trade, but it is signifi-
cant of a generally higher price level for those producing it.
A clear-cut, refined animal possesses important attributes
which signify the presence of this characteristic.
The head should show clear-cut character, clean facial out-
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 229
lines, and a general expression of intelligence and thriftiness.
The bone should be smooth, hard, and dense, the skin of
medium thickness, pliable, and of a healthy color, and the
hair fine, straight, and uniformly covering the body. The
shoulder development is important, as roughness, openness
~ or coarseness are indicative of lack in general refinement and,
therefore, quality characterization. Large bone, undefined
joints and a coarse-textured horn, are likewise indicative of
Fia. 93.—-Feeder steer ill-shaped and lacking in natural flesh.
(Photograph by author.)
inferior quality. The presence or absence of these character-
istics in general determines the degree of quality or general
refinement which an animal possesses. A close, compact,
symmetrical development throughout, which condition is:
indicated by head and facial development, bone formation,
and the condition of the skin and hair, is indicative of an
animal qualified to fulfill the requirements of the breeder,
feeder, or the butcher.
Constitution. Indications of constitution are not only im-
portant to the breeder because of hereditary qualifications,
230 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
but also to the feeder in preparing an animal for market. It
has been mentioned that there are certain portions of the
animal which are equally important from the viewpoint of
the producer, the feeder, and the butcher. Constitution is
one of these attributes which must be possessed not only
to reproduce strong, thrifty, individuals, but also to
render the feeding animal of greater significance in the
process of market preparation. Weak constitution and
low vitality are the bane of both the breeder and the
feeder.
The indications of constitution are significant in the
head and chest development. The head should be strong,
clean and impressive, the nostrils large and open, the muzzle
large and broad, the forehead broad and the chest full and
deep. This insures a large girth measurement within which
the vital organs have ample opportunity to perform their
normal functions. If for any reason the natural process
of these organs is interfered with it results in low vitality.
Such a condition is especially marked about the head. The
eyes become dull and sunken, the skin dry and harsh, and
the hair deficient in the normal amount of secretion. There
is a characteristic appearance in any animal possessing
strong constitutional development. Animals possessing these
attributes have strong, vigorous bodies, thus insuring a
robust animal capable of reproducing or finishing for the
block in a most satisfactory manner.
Nervous Development.—The evidences of nerve develop-
ment are very strikingly portrayed in comparing the beef
and dairy animal. The former usually maintains a quiet,
satisfied attitude regardless of environment. The _ beef
animal is thus described as being lymphatic or comparatively
low in nerve force or nerve development. In the dairy
animal there is an alertness and activity very different from
that exemplified in the beef animal. A highly developed,
nervous organization portrays activity such as that mani-
fested by the dairy animal in utilizing the feed to the best
advantage for milk-productive purposes. The beef animal,
on the contrary, having a low nervous development uses the
food for storing fat on the body. The two conditions are
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 231
strikingly significant of what animals will do when placed in
their respective conditions for work.
Weight and Maturity.—I’rom the standpoint of the breeder,
a beef animal matures when three years of age. However,
the same animal may be matured when from twelve months
or thereabout to two years of age from the standpoint of the
feeder and market requirements. Animals finished at the
former age or somewhat older, go on the market as baby beef.
This is a very desirable method of finishing these animals,
especially if the dealer caters to a fancy trade. Whether
this is a wise practice is dependent on the feeder and his
markets largely. While this is a problem which does not
concern the judge of animal form, it is important to have
a clear understanding of the attributes of early maturity
in animals used in the various fields of the breeder, the
feeder, and the packer. From the standpoint of the breeder
proper, maturity has reference to the time when an animal
attains its normal weight and development. This is largely
a matter of age, methods of maintenance, and care and
handling, problems which do not affect the consumer of
the product.
One of the important requisites of a beef animal is that
they show in their structural make-up an inclination to
develop rapidly and mature at an early age. This is im-
portant, either in the breeding or feeding animal. Weight
for age in either case is important. Late-maturing qualities
are very objectionable and should be bred out by the selec-
tion of animals having an inclination to develop their normal
size at an early period in life. Evidences of this character-
itsic are indicated in a broad, deep muzzle, a wide, intelligent
head, a bright, placid eye, a deep, broad, chest; a square,
compact body; full hindquarters with compactness, sym-
metry, and correlation of parts throughout. The reverse
of these conditions is indicative of late maturity, a con-
dition which not only makes the growing of beef cattle
unprofitable but hinders as well the production of the
highest class of beef products. Normal development at an
early age is not only important to the breeder, but to the
feeder, and indirectly to the consumer, as these character-
JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
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EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 238
istics indicate quality in carcass beef. Animals produced
with these attainments will not only be more profitable to
the producer and feeder, but more satisfactory to the trade.
Capacity.—The usefulness of a beef animal is measured
by its power to consume feed and convert it into the proper
material for body maintenance and development. The
breeding animal should have capacity as applied both to
reproduction and body development. This condition, there-
fore, should be doubly emphasized in such animals. ‘The
capacity is dependent largely on the body development,
the blood supply, and the health and vigor manifested. A
narrow, shallow-bodied animal or one with an insufficient
blood supply cannot be healthy and vigorous, and conse-
quently cannot have the capacity for consuming and manu-
facturing feed into the ultimate material needed for body
growth and development. Capacity is quite closely correlated
with constitution and the general conformation of the animal.
The one condition should be indicative of the other. Lack
of capacity is usually associated with lack of constitution
and reproductive development. Its application is far-reach-
ing in studying animals from these two viewpoints.
Condition.— Condition is significant of the quantity of fat
deposited in the muscular tissues and over the body of
an animal. While breeding stock is frequently placed in
high condition for the show ring it is generally recognized
that when a breeding herd is maintained in moderate con-
dition the results are more satisfactory. Market animals,
however, should be fitted in high condition, although many
of them are marketed without having acquired sufficient
fat to make them sell most advantageously. A good quality
of meat is obtained only when the fat is properly interspersed
through the muscular tissues and over the outside of the
carcass. Animals may be overfinished, however, which
detracts greatly from their value. This condition is more
frequently met with in the show ring.
The indications of finish or condition are quite numerous;
however, there are certain fixed attributes which are indicative
of this qualification. A finished animal has a round, smooth,
plump body in contradistinction to the thin body, showing a
234. JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
decided lack of muscle and fat development. The most char-
acteristic specific indications are a fulness at the tongue root,
a well-filled shoulder vein, a low and well-filled flank, and a
firm, well-filled cod or purse.
Fia. 95.—Showing a beef carcass from the viewpoint of the butcher.
(Courtesy Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station.)
Dressing Percentages.—The dressing percentage of carcass
beef varies from 45 to 65 per cent. Animals occasionally
dress as high as 70 per cent. or over. Such animals, however,
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 235
are the result of exceptionally high fitting which does not
always involve a profitable transaction. The dressing per-
centage of an animal varies with the type, age, conformation,
quality, and finish or condition.
Considerable stress should be placed on the probable out-
come of an animal on the block. However, high finish does
not always indicate that an animal will be profitable from the
block standpoint. This is dependent on the ultimate dress-
ing percentage. An animal to dress well should be square,
low set, deep, broad in the body, compact and smooth,
with a relatively large amount of the weight placed in the
regions which sell for the highest market price. A good
feeding animal should have capacity, yet with all it should
be trim and free from excess offal. A heavy-shouldered
animal, low in the back, and inclined to be paunehy will not
dress a high percentage. Such a condition is usually indica-
tive of flat ribs, a large paunch, and excess weight in the waste
or cheap parts. Animals making the highest dressing per-
centage conform to the block or rectangular, low set, broad,
arched rib, deep-bodied sort.
Marbling of Meat.—The marbling of meat is indicative
of the interspersion of fat between. the muscular tissues.
EXPANATION OF FIG. 95.
1, 2, 3—Round. 9—Flank.
4, 5, 6—Loin. 10, 11—Plate.
7—Rib. 12—Shank.
8—Chuck. 13—Suet.
1—Hind shank. 6—Pinbone loin.
2—Round, R and §, off. 5, 6—Flatbone loin.
3—Rump. 10—Navel.
4, 5—Loin end. 11—Brisket.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9—Hindquarters.
7, 8, 10, 11, 12—Forequarter.
7, 8—Back.
7, 10—Piece.
8, 11, 12—Kosher chuck.
8, 10, 11, 12—Triangle.
a—Aitch-bone. e—Chine-bones.
b—Rump-bone f—‘‘Buttons.”
c—Crotch. g—skirt.
d—Cod. h—Breast-bone.
236 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
This condition is reached when an animal is properly finished
for the block.. While one animal or one breed may marble
Fig. 96.—Porterhouse cut, showing marbling and desirable amount of
fat covering.
Fia. 97.—Prime or standing rib, including portion between loin and chuck.
better than another, the condition is necessary to give meat
its best quality. In conjunction with the marbling there
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 237
should be a uniform pad of fat over the outside of the body
to protect the meat and retain its succulence when in the
dressed-carcass condition. It requires in addition a certain
amount of fatty tissue to add succulence and flavor to meat.
HIND QUARTER
Rouwo
Rung
f FUND
Round rump Eshank off
L£ Round st
3-13 Four?
14 Round steak, jas? Cur
15 (Kruck/e soup £07
16 Pot roast
Hind shank
14/8 Soup bones
HOCK Soup bone
Butt-end sirloin sfeak.
Wedge- bone sirloin steak
Round -bone ”
Loubse - Lone
flip -Lone : Mo
8& Hip-hone Porterhouse steak.
9-15 Regular oe *
- /6-/8 Club steaks.
FLANK
td Flank steak
Se CW.
FORE QUARTER
11> & 12% Rib roast,
916 & 10 (
7th & Ble
4 G th ~ ”
CuHuck
/ SL Rib rogs?
Ro. Chuck stecks
10-43 Pot roasts
12 = =~ Clod
1S Neck
PLATE
7 Brisket
2 Nave}
3,4 Rib ends
SORE SHANK
/ IEW. :
fa Anuckle soup hone,
J-6 Soup bores.
“RETAIL: CUTS - OF - BEEF -
Fic. 98.—Retail cuts of beef. (Courtesy Illinois Agricultural Experiment
Station.)
Percentage of Different Cuts of Beef.—Judging a_ beef
animal accurately for a given purpose necessitates a knowl-
edge of the location and relation of the various regions of the
animal. ‘These regions are defined by certain rather uni-
238 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
versal market terms which are designated in the following
tables. While the way in which a carcass is cut may influence
the value of the various market cuts, the value of the sum
total will not be materially altered. Most every large city
has its method of cutting a beef carcass for wholesale and
retail purposes.
The following table is a record of results obtained from a
cutting test and shows the percentage of “Chicago cut”
meat with square-cut chucks. This shows the different cuts
which are obtained from a carcass and the proportionate
amount of each obtained, based on the total weight:
Cuts. Per cent.
GIUCKSE pera tre ee pet cn ce aan ee ana aL 28.00
1 EOL HD OVO (Paper iain clin ei aie oan brian, Marat SC acl erence Mag 23.00
Nae] ieee in, ee ears RSE Ee a SON pee cae ee 8.00
1 En Eo all ts iter porn NU IC a a Ne ceek Semcce et ML ee orn ear SU aD 2.00
Flank steaks . . 2. 2 Sialic bat aees Or Jone e enh .50
DG (obi =n gemma eae igarctine a ty elec URE Ay .25
1 Br ofc pega ac atee We RE aE CMR tien cna DRMRT Nia ant al ce) Sn larey 10.00
l Boy as eemeeerieramente Wetec ealemeretie aNUAe eeeae TS Ali een ilar Maer ts du lacs 15.00
No. 2 suet sila sepa Te nRisees SAS Stor 9 ete ealcnd Ree NC el pe eee UE .50
No. 1 suet Rae amuneal Sainte pee NT no Mac AN, 3.00
Shanks Fan hay iy poeidaye Naan ond een ate Seba NN ae Ota ae 4.00
Brisket AI Sa pleat Ate aie ae A eee rae? Ore Soa Tana Se 5.00
ING GK cee aia Pieter eee all Shee sean eng ReaD ree an £75
"Rota. 20) oe Cs at ae eee ase OOOO
It is thus seen from this table that the two most valuable
parts, the loins and ribs, constitute only one-fourth of the
total weight of the carcass. The rounds and chucks each
constitute approximately one-fourth the total weight of
the carcass, leaving the other one-fourth to be distributed
among the lowest priced cuts which include the navel,
flanks, shanks, neck, and brisket.
The following table shows in a more condensed form the
percentage of the parts of the beef animal grouped more
nearly according to their market value. ‘This table is
representative of the cuts made Philadelphia style:
Cuts. Per cent.
Rump and round ; mutans rea OO
Rattler (Chuck, plate, brisket and shank) : 44.00
Ribsiandaloins ieee pee RES HA 22.00
Total byte Rae as aire nia a OOROU,
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 239
Fic. 99.—Sirloin or loin end.
Fig. 100.—Round representing the principal thigh cut.
240 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
This grouping represents three rather distinct portions of
the beef animal. The rattler which includes the chuck, plate,
brisket, and shank, includes the cheaper and less desirable
Fig. 101.—Chuck cut taken off between fifth and sixth ribs. (Photograph
by author.)
parts of the animal. The rump and round, combined
constitute about one-third the total weight, while the ribs
and loins combined constitute slightly less than one-fourth
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 241
of the total weight. It is thus seen that the proportionate
amounts of the parts designated in the two tables vary
somewhat with the method of making the cuts. Based on
the universal practice of cutting meat, the former table
represents more nearly the usual method of preparing or
cutting the beef animal for block-distribution purposes.
Determination of Age.—Like the horse, the age of cattle
can be determined by observing the eruption and appearance
of the milk and permanent incisor teeth. While the age
can thus be determined very satisfactorily, it is only in rather
exceptional instances that the teeth are used as an index in
arriving at the age attained. The teeth of cattle are some-
Fie. 102.—Chucks, showing some of the cheaper cuts of beef.
(Photograph by author.)
what different from those of the horse, as the incisors, eight
in number, appear only in the lower jaw. The teeth are
not firmly imbedded in the jaw as in the horse, but are rather
set in cartilage, so as to allow of rather free movement.
As the teeth are not opposed by incisors in the upper jaw,
this is necessary. Instead of having teeth in the upper jaw,
it is provided with a pad or cushion for crushing the feed
when opposed by the incisors in the lower jaw.
The two sets of incisor teeth appear in cattle in the follow-
ing order, and it is by this eruption and appearance that the
age may be determined up to about the ten-year stage.
At birth the calf usually has four incisors, the third pair
appearing about the tenth or twelfth day, and the corner
pair from the latter time up to the thirtieth day or there-
16
242 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
abouts. The permanent central incisors appear from eigh-
teen to twenty months, the first intermediates at twenty-four
to thirty months, the second intermediates at thirty-six
to forty-two months, and the corners from forty-five to
fifty-four months. These are designated as the one, two,
three, and four-year stages.
At five years the central incisors have begun to wear and
at six years they are worn level. At this stage both pairs
of the intermediates are partly worn and the corners have
commenced to wear. At seven years the first pair of inter-
mediates is worn completely and the second pair is worn
considerably. When the eight-year stage is reached the
tables of all the teeth are worn level and a concavity appears
in the central incisors. At nine years this concavity appears
in the first intermediates and at ten years in the second
intermediates.
From this stage the age may be determined by the general
condition of the animal, by the general alterations which
occur in the teeth, or by the horns as described in the fol-
lowing paragraph:
Indication of Age by Horns —The age of cattle possessing
horns may be determined by the rings which appear at the
base. The first ring appears at about three years of age.
Each year a new ring develops, thus indicating the age by
adding two to the number of rings which are in evidence.
One ring, for example, indicates a three-year-old and two
rings a four-year-old animal.
Structural Form and Examination.—The following attri-
butes of form are of special significance in determining the
qualifications of beef-producing animals. These apply
with equal significance to both breeding and fat animals,
with the exception of the sex characteristics, which should
be developed in the former.
Hrap.—The head of the beef animal should be broad,
deep, and have length in proportion, this being a good
indication of thriftiness and feeding capacity. There should
be good width between the eyes, thus showing intelligence.
The angle of the jaw should be wide to allow free respira-
tory action. ‘The head should be neat, trim, and the general
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 243
expression should indicate intelligence. A well-formed head
is indicative of various attributes such as quality, feeding
capacity, intelligence, breed type, and general refinement.
Eyes.—The eyes should be large, clear, and bright, this
being a good indication of constitution, healthfulness, and
breeding capacity. A small, sunken eye indicates low vitality
and possibly disease.
- Kars.—The ears should be medium in size and covered
with fine, mossy hair. A medium-sized ear with fine, silky
hair is indicative of quality, the opposite condition showing
coarseness and lack of refinement.
Horns.—In horned breeds the horns should be fine in texture
and free from a rough, dry, scaly condition.
Poll.—The width of the poll is dependent upon the natural
presence or absence of horns. In polled breeds there is a ten-
dency for the poll to assume a comparatively narrow, pointed
condition.
Muzzle.—The muzzle should be broad and deep, as the
size of it is indicative of constitution and capacity. A
small, pointed muzzle is characteristic of an animal with
low vitality and faulty breeding or feeding qualities. The
nostrils should be large and open. The muzzle should
broaden toward the extremity, such a condition indicating
strong, vigorous breeding and feeding capacity.
Neck.—The neck should be short, broad, deep, and
blend evenly and smoothly into the shoulders. Coarseness
indicated by the presence of loose folds about the neck,
dewlap or brisket is very objectionable. Unnecessary
appendages of this character decrease the dressing per-
centage. The junction of the neck with the head should
be smooth, the throat-latch being free from loose folds
of skin. The junction at the neck should show smooth-
ness and refinement. The crest should be absent in the
female.
ForEQUARTERS.—The forequarters include the shoulders,
shoulder vein, brisket, feet, and legs. The shoulders should
be broad, smooth, and evenly laid in, there being no tendency
to openness or a light-fleshing quality. Undue prominence
of the shoulder-blades and the resulting open formation indi-
244. JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
cate coarseness of quality. The smoothness and compactness
of the top of the shoulder should likewise characterize the
sides of same. The shoulders should blend evenly into the
body proper, there being no tendency to depressions in the
crops or flanks.
Shoulder Vein.—The shoulder vein should be full, thus
giving smoothness of neck and shoulder development.
Brisket.—The brisket should be trim and neat, extending
forward sufficiently to give the animal proper conformation,
although this should not be extreme.
Legs.—The legs should be short, straight, and strong, with
dense, hard bone, this condition indicating quality. They
should set well apart and directly under the body. If they
are set too close together it is indicative of a narrow chest
and thus weak constitution and vitality. The feet should
be medium in size, and the animal should stand well up on
the toes.
Bopy.—The body proper includes the chest, back, ribs,
loin, underline, and flanks. The chest should be broad, deep,
and full. There is a marked difference in the chest of the
beef and the dairy animal. In the former, the width should
be the same through the crops and in the flank region, the
latter having an angular formation at the top, thus necessi-
tating greater width on the floor to obtain the desired chest
capacity. There should be no depression whatever back of
the shoulders. Full conformation in this region gives the beef
animal the most desirable attainments, from the butcher’s
standpoint. A high flank is objectionable. Any noticeable
decrease in the body in the chest or flank region is indicative
either of low vitality or undesirable feeding qualities.
The value of a breeding or feeding animal is influenced
largely by the development of the back because of the
relatively large proportion of high-priced cuts coming from
it. It should be straight, broad, and uniformly carried out
from the shoulders to the hindquarters. The amount and
character of natural flesh is important. The back should
be characterized by smooth, firm, uniform covering through-
out. A low, weak back is objectionable, as such a condition
is associated with a lack of form and symmetry in general
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 245
and otherwise indicates a low dressing percentage. Often
an animal so characterized is paunchy, this condition being
doubly antagonistic to beef-productive capacity.
The ribs should be long, arched, and thickly and smoothly
fleshed. ‘They should be well sprung, coming squarely
from the back bone and extend low to give depth of body
and its accompanying capacity. Flat ribs are very objection-
able, usually being associated with animals of low vitality
and unthriftiness.
The loin contains the highest-priced cuts of the beef
carcass. It should be broad, long, level, and thickly fleshed,
thus giving the largest proportionate amount of meat from
this region.
The underline should be straight, trim, and parallel with
the top line. The flanks should be full, even, and extend low.
HinpQuarTERS.—The hindquarters include the hips, rump,
thighs, twist, and legs. The hips should be broad, smooth,
and level. The rump should be long, wide, the tail head
smooth and level, and the pin-bones wide apart. The animal
should be smooth and firm throughout this region. The
thighs should be broad, deep, and full, carrying well down
to the hocks. Long, narrow, incurving thighs in the beef
animal are seriously objectionable. Such an animal should
possess just the opposite condition, being fully developed
from every viewpoint. The twzst should be deep and full. A
high twist is indicative of inferior fleshing qualities. A short
hindquarter with a drooping rump, and rough, prominent
development otherwise is extremely objectionable.
The legs should be wide apart, straight, short, and the
shanks fine and smooth. The bone should possess quality,
as indicated by density and texture. The feet should be
of medium size, well shaped, and the animal should stand
well up on the toes.
246 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
Score Carp FoR BEEF CATTLE.
GENERAL APPEARANCE
Weight: score according to age.
Form: straight topline ‘and underline; deep, broad, low set,
stylish 10
Quan firm handling, hair fine; pliable skin; dense bone;
evenly fleshed :
Condition: deep, even covering ‘of firm flesh, especially in
regions of valuable cuts. £3 Santen nace ae angel
Temperament: lymphatic, inclined to fatten
Heap anp Necx—7 Points.
Muzzle: broad; mouth large; jaw wide; nostrils large
Eyes: large, clear, placid . Se
Face: short, quiet expression
Forehead: broad, full . :
Ears: medium size, fine texture . p
Horns: fine texture, oval, medium size .
Neck: thick, short; throat clean .
FOREQUARTERS—8 Points.
Shoulder vein: full .
Shoulder: covered with flesh, compact o on top, smooth
Brisket: advanced, breast wide Usinear cai
Dewlap: skin not too loose and drooping
Legs: straight, short; arm full; shank fine, smooth
Bopy—32 Points.
Chest: full, deep, wide; girth large; crops full .
Ribs: long, arched, thickly fleshed ; zi Tie aaa ane
Back: broad, straight, Smooth even insu eae ey ene 1
Loin: thick, broad.
Flank: full, even with underline
Hinpquarters—13 Points.
Hips: smoothly covered; distance apart in proportion with
other parts Uniahe,
Rump: long, wide, even, tail head smooth, not patehy
Pin-bones: not prominent, far apart LAs
Thighs: full, deep, wide
Twist: deep, plump
Purse: full, indicating fleshiness -
Legs: straight, short, “shank fine, smooth
Perfect score.
See ee ee BO
NwWOOMe, Nee bo bo
| NNNNR Wb
Total
—
S
i=)
Breed Characteristics—The several breeds of beef and
dual purpose cattle are all characterized by rather significant
marks of size, color, form, and adaptation. The most
significant points are described in the following:
Shorthorn.—The Shorthorn breed of cattle originated in
the counties of York, Durham, and Northumberland, Eng-
land. The breed is one of the most interesting historically
of any of the beef breeds. The breed is characterized by
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 247
three distinct colors, red, white, and roan. Specimens of the
breed may be solid red, solid white, or a combination of
the two, forming large red-and-white body colors, the former
predominating, or an intermingling of these two colors, thus
giving the characteristic roan. The shades of roan vary
from light to dark. The weight of mature males ranges
from 1800 to 2200 pounds on the average, although these
weights are often exceeded. The horns are comparatively
short, usually curving forward and slightly downward. The
conformation of the anime | adheres closely to the beef type,
Fig. 103.—Shorthorn bull.
although there are two rather sharply defined types. The
Scotch type of Shorthorn conforms closest to the beef type,
the Bates type representing an animal of both beef and milk-
producing qualities. The Shorthorn ranks high in quality,
and docility, and “nicks” well with common cattle. The
breed is adapted especially to rich pasture lands, although it
has a wide adaptation. The breed shows unusual refinement
and breed character.
Polled Durham.—The Polled Durham breed of cattle
is designated as single or double standard, according to
origin. The aim is to breed in them all of the characteris-
tics of Shorthorns excepting the horns. The head is the
248 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
same as that of the Shorthorn except the poll, which is gently
rounded at the crown. ‘The single standard Shorthorn was
the first type of hornless Shorthorn in America. The breed
is the result of crossing pure-bred Shorthorn bulls on native
cows of hornless character. Animals bred in this way are
eligible for registration only in the Polled Durham Herd-
book. Cattle of this breeding, while having Shorthorn char-
acteristics, do not possess strong Shorthorn qualifications.
Double Standard Polled Durhams are descendants from
the cow, Oakwood Gwynne the Fourth, which was a regis-
Fia. 104.—Polled Durham bull.
tered Shorthorn cow. This cow was practically polled and
when bred to Seventh Duke of Hillhurst, produced twin
female calves with polled heads. Animals descended from
this origin are known as double standard, as they are eligible
to registration, both in the Polled Durham Herdbook and
the American Shorthorn Herdbook. Animals of the Polled
Durham breed should have the color and other character-
istics of the Shorthorn breed. While not bred to as high
state of perfection as the breed from which they descended,
some excellent individuals have been produced, showing the
true polled character.
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 249
Aberdeen-Angus. — The Aberdeen-Angus breed originated
in Scotland in the counties of Aberdeen, Kincardine, and
Forfar. The breed is characterized by the absence of horns
and a solid black color, with slight exceptions as given in the
standard of excellence. The weight of the males ranges
from 1700 to 2000 pounds on an average, many _ indi-
viduals exceeding this weight. In general conformation the
breed is quite typical of the characteristics of the beef ani-
mal. The form is inclined to be more cylindrical than in the
Shorthorn or Hereford. In quality and dressing percentages
the breed ranks high, having obtained numerous prizes,
Fie. 105—Aberdeen-Angus bull.
both on foot and on the block for the possession of these
qualifications. The form is compact, low set, and animals
of the breed are characterized by a strong, vigorous con-
stitution. ‘The breed ranks only fair in milking qualities,
not comparing favorably with the Shorthorn in this respect.
The possession of the unusually well-developed beef-produc-
ing qualities has been antagonistic to this end. In character
and general refinement the breed ranks high. The disposition
is inclined to be nervous. The body of the Aberdeen-
Angus has unusual depth, and the breed as a whole possesses
unusually early maturing qualities.
250 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
STANDARD OF HXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF POINTS FOR ABERDEEN—
Anaus CatTTLe.
BULL.
Cotor.—Black. White is objectionable, except on the under-
line behind the navel, and there only to a moderate extent; a
white scrotum is most undesirable .
Hrap.—Forehead broad; face slightly prominent, “and tapering
toward the nose; muzzle fine; nostrils wide and open; distance
from eyes to nostrils of moderate length; eyes mild, full and
expressive, indicative of good disposition; ears of good medium
size, well set and well covered with hair; poll well defined, and
without any appearance of horns or scurs; jaws clean
Turoat.—Clean, without any development of ‘loose flesh underneath
Neckx.—Of medium length, muscular, with moderate chest. (which
increases with age), spreading out to meet the shoulders, with
full neck vein .
SHOULDERS.—Moder ately oblique, well covered on the blades
and top, with vertebre or backbone slightly above the scapula
or shoulder-blades, which should be moderately broad —.
Cuest.—Wide and deep; also round and full just back of elbows
BrisketT.—Deep and moderately projecting from between the legs,
and proportionately covered with flesh and fat
Riss.—Well sprung from the backbone, arched and deep, neatly
joined to the crops and loins
Backx.—Broad and straight from crops. to “hooks; loins ‘strong;
hook-bones moderate in width, not prominent, and well covered;
rumps long, full, level, and rounded neatly into hindquarters .
Hrnpquarters.—Deep and full; thighs thick and muscular, and
in proportion to hindquarters; twist filled out well in its ‘““seam”’
so as to form an even, wide plane between thighs.
Tari.—Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a line with the back
and hanging at right angles to it
UNDERLINE.—Straight as nearly as possible; flank ‘deep and full
Lras.—Short, straight, and squarely placed; hindlegs slightly
inclined forward below the hocks; forearms muscular; bones
fine and clean GU a sea
Fiesu.—Even and without patchiness
Skin.—Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly
covered with thick, soft hair. (Much of the thriftiness, feeding
properties, and value of the animal depends upon this quality,
which is of great weight in the grazier’s and butcher’s judg-
ment. A good “touch” will compensate for some deficiencies of
form. Nothing can compensate for a skin hard and stiff. In
raising the skin from the body it should have a substantial, soft,
flexible feeling, and when beneath the outspread hand it should
move easily as though resting on a soft, cellular substance,
which, however, becomes firmer as the animal ripens. A thin,
papery skin is objectionable, especially in a cold climate)
GENERAL APPEARANCE.—Hlegant, well bred and masculine. The
walk square, the step quick, and the head up :
Perfection
Points.
10
10
100
When bulls are eamuibiced ati thats prOneun, in a 5 aoenaiec class,
add 25 counts for progeny.
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 251
Cow.
Points.
Coxtor.—Black. White is objectionable, except on the underline
behind the navel, and there only to a moderate extent .. 2
Heap.—Forehead moderately broad, and_ slightly indented;
tapering toward the nose; muzzle fine; nostrils wide and open;
distance from eyes to nostrils of moderate length; eyes full,
bright and expressive, indicative of good disposition; ears
large, slightly rising upward, and well furnished with hair;
poll well defined, and without any appearance of horns or scurs;
jawclean .. 10
THROAT.—Clean, without any ‘development. of loose flesh under-
neath . 3
Necx.—Of medium ‘length, spreading out to meet the shoulc lers,
with full neck vein. 33
SHOULDERS.—Moderately oblique, well covered on the blades
and top, with vertebree or backbone slightly above the scapula
or shoulder-blades, which should be moderately broad . 6
Cuest.—Wide and deep; also round and full just back of elbows. 10
BriskET.—Deep and moderately projecting from between the
legs and proportionately covered with flesh and fat... 4
Rins.—Well sprung from the backbone, arched and deep, neatly
joined to the crops and loins... 8
Backx.—Broad and straight from crops to. hooks; loins strong;
hook-bones moderate in width, not prominent, and well covered;
rumps long, full, level, and rounded neatly into hindquarters . 10
HinpquartEers.—Deep and full; thighs thick and muscular, and
in proportion to hindquarters; twist filled out well in its ‘‘seam’’
so as to form an even plane between thighs
Tatn.—Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a | line with the
back and hanging at right angles toit .
UppEr.—Not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the body, and
well up behind; teats squarely placed, well apart and of good size
UnbERLINE.—Straight as nearly as possible; flank deep and full
Leas.—Sshort, straight, and squarely placed; hindlegs slightly
inclined forward below the hocks; forearms muscular; bones
fine and clean :
Fiesu.—Even and without patchiness
Skrv.—Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly
covered with thick, soft hair. (Much of the thriftiness, feed-
ing properties, and value of the animal depends upon this
quality, which is of great weight in the grazier’s and butcher’s
judgment. A good ‘‘touch’’ will compensate for some defi-
ciencies of form. Nothing can compensate for a skin hard and
stiff. In raising the skin from the body it should have a sub-
stantial, soft, flexible feeling, and when beneath the outspread
hand it should move easily as though resting on a soft, cellular
substance which, however, becomes firmer as the animal ripens.
A thin, papery skin is objectionable, especially in a cold climate) 10
GENERAL APPEARANCE.—Elegant, well bred, and feminine. The
walk square, the step quick, andthe headup . . . ... 5
Bo WwW Ww
wo
Perfection .. amet en. LOO
In judging heifers, ait No. 12 snd naa 3 pont to No. 15 and 5
counts to No. 17.
252 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
Hereford.—The Hereford breed is characterized by an
unusually striking combination of colors. The body proper
is red; the head, top of neck, shoulders, over the crops,
lower part of the neck, brisket, floor of the body, the feet,
legs and switch are more or less characterized by white.
This varies somewhat. A medium shade of red is most
desirable, light colors being objectionable. The general ten-
dency is toward these marks, however, the principal variation
in color is in the regions mentioned other than the head.
This is one of the largest of the beef breeds, the weight of
Fia. 106.—Hereford bull.
males being from 1800 to 2400 pounds. The breed ranks
high as a meat producer, although there is some tendency
to lack of development in the hindquarters especially. In
milk production it is average. Herefords graze well on
rather sparse pasture and in this respect they are superior
to most of the other recognized beef breeds. The head of
the Hereford is square and broad, showing marked character
and refinement. The horns are fine, waxy, rather prominent,
and add much to the natural beauty of the breed. The
disposition of the Hereford is more nervous than the Short-
horn and less so than the Aberdeen-Angus. The quality is
usually superior, as shown in the condition of the hide, hair,
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 258
and bone development. The constitution and vigor of the
Hereford is a significant characteristic of the breed with-
standing the changes of climate on the range to a remarkable
degree.
STANDARD OF HXCELLENCE AND SCALE oF Points ror HEREFORD |
CATTLE.
Points.
Cotor.—Medium, deep, rich red, with white head, breast, belly,
crest, switch, and ankles ie
Hrap.—Forehead broad and prominent, ‘face short, slightly
tapering toward nose; muzzle full; nostrils wide and open;
eyes large and expressive; ears of medium size, well set and well
covered with hair; horns of medium size; even color, coming
from head at right angles, set on level with crop, back and tail
head, curving forward and downward . 8
THROAT. —Clean, without any excessive development of loose flesh
or fat underneath — 2
Necxk.—Short, neat, spreading out to meet shoulders, with full
neck vein, free from loose skin. (Males: neck muscular, with
full crest, ‘according to age) . 2
SHOULDERS. —Straight, round, full, smooth and well covered; “top
of shoulder-blades slightly below ver tebree, good width on top ; 6
Curst.—Wide, deep, round and full just back of shoulders. . 6
BRISKET. —Deep and wide, moderately projecting, free from flabbi-
ness 2
Rrps.—Well sprung from backbone, close together, long ‘and
arched, carrying the full width of shoulders and deeply and
smoothly covered. 8
Back anp Lorn.—Broad, ‘straight and heavily ‘covered from
crops to hooks, hooks moderately wide and well covered _. 10
Rump.—Long, wide, smooth and well covered, carrying width in
proportion to width of back and hooks, joining smoothly into
quarters ;
QUARTERS. —Long, straight, muscular, full, deep and thick
TuHIcH AND TwIsT. —Full and thick, carried well down to hocks .
Taru.—Tail head level with line of back, tail poRns: at pe
angles to back line 1
UNDERLINE.—Straight, flanks deep and full 3
Lrecs.—Short, straight and squarely placed, perpendicular both
from side and end view, forearm muscular, bones strong and
Coe Oo
clean . 6
FLESH. —Deep, firm, smooth, ‘uniform covering of all parts ‘and
free from patchiness : 8
SxKrin —Of moderate thickness, mellow, pliable and loose, abun-
dantly covered with long, thick, silky IME gh 6
GENERAL APPEARANCE. —Vigorous, compact and symmetrical.
Bulls masculine and possesing an abundance of quality and
predominant breeding characteristics. Females matronly,
roomy, smooth, showing quality and feminine appearance
throughout. Fae g Pan en ES Sage 10
Weraur.—Age and condition to be considered . . . |. 5
OCA ar aie Rie ew Ae Ce hy Fe TOO)
254 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
Galloway.—The Galloway breed originated in Scotland
in the counties of Wigton, Ayr, and Dumfries. The original
Galloway was characterized by a number of objectionable
points, principally in the lack of rib development and early
maturing qualities. The modern type of Galloway, however,
has been improved very much in these respects, representing
a comparatively compact, low set, thick-fleshed beef animal.
The weight of the males ranges from 1700 to 2000 pounds on
the average, cows weighing considerably less. This is one
of the smallest breeds of beef cattle not ranking with the
Fie. 107—Galloway bull.
former three described in this respect. The breed is polled.
The standard color of the Galloway is solid black, although
white frequently occurs. The coat of hair is exceedingly
long, thick, curly, mossy, and evenly distributed, and for
this reason the hide is used in the manufacture of robes.
The quality is without objection, the bone being fine
and the skin mellow and elastic. The constitution is good,
the hardiness of the breed being especially significant in
its adaptation to colder, less protected conditions than the
other beef breeds. The Galloway ranks well in its meat-
producing qualities.
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 255
STANDARD OF WXCELLENCE FOR GALLOWAY CATTLE.
Cotor.—Black, or black, with a brownish tinge. White markings
on feet, ankles or legs, or on any portion of the body above the
underline, are very objectionable.
Hrap.—Short and wide, forehead broad, crown wide and oval, not
rising to a point. Any trace of scurs or horns debar an animal from
registration. Face clean, muzzle broad, and nostrils large.
Eyr.—Large and prominent.
Ear.—Moderate in length and broad, pointing forward and upward,
with fringe of long hairs.
Necxk.—Short, clean, and filling into the shoulder in such a manner
as to make the neck and shoulder of fleshy animals appear moulded
as one piece. The top of the neck in line with the back in a female,
and in a male gradually rising with age.
Bopy.—Deep, wide, well rounded, moderate in length and symmetrical.
SHouULDERS.—Broad, but well laid into body, joining smoothly; com-
pact and deeply fleshed on top.
Riss.—Deep and well sprung, crops deeply fleshed, making width of
shoulders and body at ribs uniform.
Hooxk-sonres.—Not prominent; in fleshy animals not visible.
Loin.—Moderate in length, wide and deeply fleshed.
HInDQUARTERS.—Long, wide and well filled.
Rump.—Straight, wide, carrying width of body out uniformly. Well
filled with flesh.
Tuicus.—Broad as viewed from side, thick as viewed behind; straight
and well let down at hock, rounded buttocks very objectionable.
Lres.—Short and clean, with fine bone.
Tari.—Set on straight and smoothly laid in with flesh at sides. A
high tail-head very objectionable.
Sxrvn.—Mellow and moderate in thickness.
Harr.—Soft and wavy, with mossy undercoat. Harsh or wiry hair is
very objectionable. Curly hair, if soft, is not objectionable.
Points TO BE AVOIDED.
BY THE LATE JAMES BIGGAR, DALBEATTIE, SCOTLAND.
Long, narrow head with light crown.
Narrow, tapering muzzle.
Long, drooping ears.
Small, deep-set eyes.
Small, light neck.
Light, scraggy breast. °
High, narrow shoulders.
Flatness behind shoulders.
Light fore or back ribs.
Square and prominent hook-bones.
High or drooping rumps.
Weak or slack loins.
Rounded buttocks.
Fleshy double thighs.
Big, coarse bones.
Thick, stiff skin.
Hard, wiry hair without soft undercoat.
256 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
Sussex.—The Sussex breed of cattle is not of special
significance in beef production in this country. The native
home of the breed is in the county of Sussex, England. In
this country interests were centered in this breed largely in
Tennessee. The breed was first imported in 1884 by Mr.
Overton Lea who maintained quite a large herd. Later other
importations were made; however, the breed has not become
important. The size is comparable to the largest breeds of
beef cattle, the bulls attaining a weight equal to that of the
recognized breeds. The color of the Sussex is deep red and
it is characterized by horns of rather prominent develop-
ment. The body is capacious and low set, and while ranking
very favorably, the breed is not widely disseminated. The
form of the Sussex is reasonably blocky, thus meeting the
requirements of the typical beef animal to quite a marked
degree. The quality is somewhat deficient, the head, neck
and shoulder development especially showing an inclination
to coarseness. The breed is fair in milk-producing qualities.
Specimens of the breed graze well and mature early. The
chief criticisms of the breed are its coarseness and lack of
general refinement.
Dual Purpose Breeds.—The dual purpose breeds are
characterized by a two-purpose function—the production
of both meat and milk. Much has been said and written
about the merits of these breeds, at times favorable and again
unfavorable. While it is recognized that perfection of both
meat and milk-giving attributes cannot be reached in the
same animal, there is undoubtedly a place for the dual
purpose breeds on the small farms especially. Under such
conditions neither strict dairying nor beef production can
be made a specialty. A combination of the two, although
each showing comparatively lessened proficiency, seems to
more fully meet the needs of the smaller and more isolated
class of farmers. The three breeds of importance in helping
to meet these requirements are characterized as follows:
Shorthorn (Dual Purpose Type).—The Shorthorn breed
of cattle, formerly described under the beef type, is significant
in having‘a strain or family in the breed having well-developed
dual purpose characteristics. Animals partaking of these
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 257
qualities are often referred to as Bates-bred cattle because
of the particular attention which this breeder gave to milk-
giving characteristics in the breed. Shorthorns possessing the
dual purpose functions do not have the beef-producing quali-
ties which the specialized beef strains possess; however, they
have a beef-producing conformation which is strikingly ex-
hibited in the offspring. Although not as early maturing
as the popular Scotch type of animals, the correlated func-
tions of meat and milk production are very acceptable. In
Fra. 108.—Dual purpose Shorthorn cow.
England large numbers of dual purpose Shorthorns are bred
because of their significant double-producing functions.
Numerous creditable records have been made which indi-
cate the possibility of developing Shorthorns in these two
capacities. There is probably no other beef breed which
will equal the Shorthorn in dairy performance, although
these qualities are not equally developed in all animals. In
selecting Shorthorns for milk and beef production, special
attention should be given to the type and breeding records.
The incorporation of Scotch or other blood with specific
meat-producing tendencies would of necessity unbalance the
17
258 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
dual purpose function. The general Shorthorn character
should be kept in mind in judging dual purpose animals of
the breed.
Red Polled.—The Red Polled breed is the most significant
breed which has been developed entirely for dual purpose
production. It is a native of Norfolk and Suffolk counties,
England, having become disseminated rather widely in certain
states in this country. The breed is characterized by a solid
red color, éxcept white is permissible up to the navel and on
the switch. The breed possesses a polled head and a very
Fic. 109.—Red Polled bull.
well-balanced dual purpose capacity. The type of this
breed varies considerably, this being a condition difficult
to govern in any dual purpose animal, not necessarily be-
cause of the breed but because of the likelihood of different
standards being maintained by various breeders. The
weight of mature males varies from 1800 to 2000 pounds
on the average. As would be expected in a dual pur-
pose animal the form is usually not as deep, broad, or
compact as in the special beef breeds. The Red Polled
is somewhat lacking in natural flesh and in the development
of the hindquarters. The quality is regarded as fair and the
temperament somewhat nervous. The chief objections to
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 259
the breed are the variation in type, the lack of uniform udder
development, and cf good fleshing qualities. The teats are
objectionable because of the extreme variation in size.
A
better defined standard toward which breeders could work
would overcome a great many of the present faults of the
breed, and aid in its distribution.
Fig. 110.—Red Polled cow.
STANDARD OF HXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF POINTS FOR RED
POLLED CATTLE.
BULL.
Points.
GENERAL DEscripTion.—Strong, impressive, low set, and of good
carriage. Weight 1800 pounds to 2000 pounds when mature
and finished.
Cotor.—Any shade of red, the switch of tail may be white, with
some white running forward to the navel. Nose of a clear flesh
color. Interior of ears should be of a yellowish, waxy color
Objections: An extreme dark or an extreme light red is not desir-
able. A cloudy nose or one with dark spots.
Hrapv.—Wide, strong and masculine, relatively short. Poll
stronger and less prominent than in cow. Ears of medium size
and well carried; eyes prominent; muzzle wide with large nostrils
Objections: Long, narrow, or lacking in masculine character.
Necx.—Of medium length, full crest, of good thickness, strong,
of masculine appearance
SHouLpER.—Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, ‘coming up
level with line of back Ry SOME Ned
Carried forward
iw)
260 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
Brought forward
Objections: Shoulder too prominent, piving iho Appearanee of
woaknoss in hearh eirbh, shoulder protruding: above line of
Daok,
Cruse, Broad and deep, tasuring Gousbtitabion, Brisket proms
Honk and commloap well forwarc AEP pa boc
Back AND Raines. Baek medium long, straight and level from
withers to setbing: on of Gath moderately wide, with springs of
ribs wl fanting from the bie skbone, PLVINe i POURCINE Appearance,
Wibhovibs flat and farely wide ape hogy te ps
Objections: Wront vibs too straight, causing: depression back
shoulders, Drop ta back or lon below the top tine,
Thies. Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well eos rod,
Quan, Of pood length, full, rounding ancl level (highs wiclo,
and moderitely full, deep meer, alee cue
Objections: Prominent hooks and sunken quarters,
Tarn. “Pailehend strong and setting well forward, lone and taper=
ing low full awiteh soe taba? i ae
ds, Short, straight, squarely placed, medium bone
Objections: Toeks crooked; legs phiced too close together,
RupimNtAntOs, Large, wide apart, and: placed well forward
Position of rudimentaries st ov" alta oa ees aa Foy Siac Oana
Objections: Ruciimentarios placed back on serotum, or placed
too close together, tadieating tendeney bo transmit badly formed
adders
Hlipw. Loose, mellow, flexible, taelined to thickness, with a good,
Pall cont of sot tava
Objections: Vhin, papery skin or wiry hair,
Conprnion, Eloatthy, moderate to liberal flesh evenly tad on;
plossy Cont) animal prosented in fall bloom
'Votul
I JINQUALLELOATDIONS,
Seurs, or any evidence whatever of a horny growth on the
Any white spots on body above lower line or brush of taik
Cow,
Pointe
on”
ad
100
head,
Pointe
CGunnnan Dusormron, Medium wedge form, low set, top and
bottom tines straight except at flank; weight E800) pounds to
1500 pounds when mature and finished,
Conon, Any shade of red, The swite sh oof tathand udder may be
white with some white PUL forward to the navel. Nose of a
cloar flesh color, Enterior of cars should be of a yellowish, waxy
color ° ‘ ’ ’ . ‘ ’ ’ ‘ ’ ’ . ’ ’ . .
Objections: An oxtreme dark or an extreme light red is not desir-
able. A cloudy nose ov one with dark spots.
Carried forward
EVOLUTION OF THE BREF CATTLE INDUSTRY 26)
Voints,
syrought forward, , 2
Huav.—Of medium length, wide between the eyes, sloping gradu.
ally from above eyes to poll, The poll well defined and promt
nent, with a sharp dip behind it in center of head, arn of
medium size and well carried, Myes prominent; face well dished
between the eyes. Muzzle wide, with large nostrile
Objections: A rounding or flat; appearance of the poll, Mead
too long and narrow.
Nuck.—Of medium length, clean cut, and straight from head to
7] ) ) ,
top of shoulder, with inclination to arch when fattened, and
may show folds of loose skin underneath when in milking form a
Suoutpusnt.—Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming up
TBS CUAVITIN TO OLA CK 70a hey Le eke wh i ne (j
Objections: Shoulder too prominent, giving the appearance of
weakness in heart girth, shoulder protruding above line of back.
Cunev.—Broad and deep, insuring constitution, Brisket promi-
nent and coming well forward ., iD)
back AND Runs. —Back medium Jong, straight and level from
withers to setting on of tail, moderately wide, with spring of
ribs starting from the backbone, giving 4 rounding appearance,
with ribs flat and fairly wide apart. 1A
Objections: Vront ribs too straight, causing depression back of
shoulders. Drop in back or Join below the top line,
Hive. —Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well covered aA 3
Quanrens.—Of good length, full, rounding and level; thighs
wide, roomy, and not too meaty . . 6
Objcchions: Prominent hooks aad aes quarters.
Vaww.—TVail-head strong and setting well forward, long and taper-
INCOM ALG WATCU ts sens eh an et a Z
Luus.—Short, straight, squarely placed, medium bone 4
Oljochions: Hocks crooked; legs placed too close together,
Vonwuppen.—Full and flexible, reaching well forward, extending
Gown level wath hindudder > 03 0 7 in nd ie te a 10)
Hinpuppen.—lull and wellup behind . . ... .. . 10
Tuars.—Well placed, wide apart, and of reasonably good size, 4
Objections: Sack of development, especially in forward udder,
Udder too deep, Abotile shaped? and teats too close together,
Teats unevenly placed and either too large or too small,
Mink Vuins,—Of medium size, full, flexible, extending well for-
ward, well retained within the body; milk wells of medium wine 6
Hinw.—Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thickness, with a good,
UE COAT OUBOLL GIN et oe Cae oe eye a chon) wa, be tne i)
Objections: Vhin, papery skin or wiry hair.
Conpmion.—Healthy, moderate to Jiberal flesh evenly laid on;
glossy coat; animal presented infullbloom . . . . 4 , 10
CE OCA ero ner tw Gdn SRO Uke Ue ar a a tp oe OD
DIBQUALIVICATIONS,.
Scurs, or any evidence whatever of a horny growth on the head,
Any white spots on body above lower line or brush of tail,
262 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
Devon.— The Devon breed is a native of Devon and
Somerset counties England. It is characterized by a solid
red color except for white around the udder and scrotum,
‘white being permissible in neither sex in front of the navel.
The shade of red varies from light to dark, the latter being
preferable. The muzzle should be flesh-colored, and the hair
around the eyes and muzzle a creamy tint. The weight of the
males ranges from 1500 to 2000 pounds; however, the latter
is somewhat excessive for average conditions. The horns are
Fic. 111.—Devon cow.
rather long, spreading and upturned. The size of the horns is
medium, the base light and waxy, and the extremities are of
a darker shade. The form of the Devon is rather low set,
the body deep, the ribs well sprung, and the heart girth
usually well developed. The breed is usually very refined, and
it possesses unusual activity, which is manifested especially
in the oxen quite generally used throughout the New Eng-
land States. The chief faults with the breed are the lack
of size, early maturity, and uniform milk-giving capacity.
The distinctive breed attributes are the color, horns, refine-
ment, and activity. More size would be acceptable, but
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 263
breeders contend that to increase it would injure the quality.
While the breed is quite widely disseminated it is not re-
garded as important except under special localized condi-
tions.
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF PoINTS FOR DEVON
CATTLE
BULL.
Points.
Hrap.—Masculine, full and broad, tapering toward the nose,
which should be flesh-colored; nostrils high and open, muzzle
broad; eyes full and placid and surrounded with flesh-colored
ring; ears of medium size and thickness; horns medium size,
growing at right angles from the head, or slightly elevated,
waxy at the base, tipped with a darker shade . . . . . 10
CurrK.—Full and broad at root of tongue; throat clean . 2
Necx.—Of medium length and muscular, widening from the head
to the shoulders, and strongly set on . 4
SHoutpERs.—Fine, flat, sloping, and well fleshed; arms “strong,
with firm joints. . eget ein esas, 6
Curst.—Deep, broad and somewhat circular. 10
Riss.—Well sprung from the backbone, nicely arched, deep, with
flanks fully developed... 10
Bacx.—Straight and level from the withers to the setting on of
the tail; lom broad and full; hips and rump of medium width
and on a level with the back. . Cee nn imiien “ehimn nonin 2 ()
HrinpQuarTERS.— Deep, thick, and square : 12
Taru.—Well set on at.a right ‘angle with the back, tapering, with
a switch of white or roan hair and reaching the hocks. 2
Lres.—Short, straight and squarely placed when viewed from
behind, not to cross or sweep in walking; hoof well formed : 4
SKIN. —Moderately thick and mellow, covered with an abundant
coat of rich hair of a red color; no white spot admissible unless
around the purse. . ie ys 8
Size.—Minimum weight at 3 years of age 1400 ‘pounds : 4
GENERAL APPEARANCE.—As indicated by stylish and quick
movement, form, constitution, and vigor, and the underline
as nearly as possible parallel with the line of the back . . . 8
Motard eeiiee, oie Mure wee e eee ot es OC)
Cow.
Points.
Hrap.—Moderately long, with a broad indented forehead, taper-
ing considerably toward the nostrils; the nose of a flesh color,
nostrils high and open; the jaws clean; the eye bright, lively
and prominent, and surrounded by a flesh-colored ring; throat
clean; ears thin; the expression gentle and intelligent; horns
matching; spreading and gracefully turned up, of a waxy color,
tipped with a darker shade . Pitre Sune eho NE
co | o
Carried forward
264 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
Points,
Brought forward , . 5
Nnox.—Upper line short, fine at he ad, widening and dee p aut
withers and strongly set to the rane’ yo W en eae 4
SHoutpnrs.—I'ine, flat and enne with strong arms and firm
joints Hae 4
Crnsr.- Deep, broad, and somewhat circular in character ae 5
Kiss.—Well sprung from the backbone, nicely arched, deep, with
flanks fully developed — , 8
Back.—Straight and level from the withers to the se iting on of
the tail, loin broad and full, hips and rump of medium width,
and on avlevel withthe back. (aunt) alee mc 16
HinpQuarters.—Deep, thick, and square. 8
Uppnr,—Not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the belly
and well up behind; teats moderately large, and pate ly placed 20
Taru.—Well set on at aright angle with the back, tapering: with
a sedi th of white or roan hair and re: aching the hocks. . 2
Lnas.—straght, squarely placed when viewed from behind, not
to cross or sweep in walling; hoof well formed — . 4
Skin. —Moderately thick and mellow, covered with an 1 abundant
coat of rich haw of a ved color; no white spot admissible, except
the udder... Oram ie 8
Sizn.— Minimum weight at: 3 years of age, 1000 pounds une 2
GenvraL Appnarnancn,—As indicated by stylish and quick move-
ment, form, constitution and vigor, and the underline as nearly :
as possible parallel with the line of theback. . . . . . 8
Tota eee a la en here ier DE a ae eareemreeeD (1) ()
Class Characteristics.—l'rom the standpoint of the judge,
cattle may be divided into fat, feeder, stocker, young stock,
or calves, and breeding animals which should possess the
following characteristics:
Fat Cattle. — at cattle, which includes steers usually,
are judged largely on their conformation, quality, and
condition. This class of animals is further divided into
erades, ranging from inferior to choice. A consideration
of these grades, however, is not important at this time.
While it is desirable for the fat animal to possess the same
form as the highly developed breeding animal, their con-
dition is of fundamental importance, especially from the
market standpoint. Show ring fat cattle should possess
faultless conformation and quality as well as condition.
The inferior grades of fat cattle will, of necessity, possess
serious faults. However, proper fitting will give them
acceptable condition and value.
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEP CATTLE INDUSTRY 265
A steer may be ideal from the standpoint of form alone,
but unless it is accompanied by the proper amount of con-
dition or fat, it would be eliminated from a place in a fat
class for this reason alone. The fat animal should be long,
broad, deep and low set; the top and underline should be
straight and parallel, the ribs well sprung, the loin broad
and thick, the coupling short, and the twist well filled. The
head should be broad and long, the muzzle prominent, the
eyes large, clear and bright, the neck short and full and
evenly blended with the shoulder.
The condition of a fat animal may he determined, first,
by the general appearance, including symmetry and smooth-
ness, and lastly by an examination of the tongue root, which
should be full and firm. The flanks should be low and well
filled and the cod or purse fully distended with fat. The
back, loin and ribs should be deeply and uniformly covered.
The amount of fat may be determined by passing the hand,
palm down, along the back and sides which should be deeply
and smoothly covered if the animal is in high condition.
Rolls, ties or patches are objectionable to the extent of
their occurrence. A true, well-balanced trim animal, with
a minimum of waste is the ideal for the feeder and the
butcher.
Feeders.—l*eeder cattle should be of similar form to fat
animals except for the condition or fat accumulation.
Ordinarily such animals are Jacking materially in fat, this
depending, however, on the way in which they have been
handled. Strictly speaking, an animal is a feeder until
it has accumulated a sufficient amount of fat to place it in
the most desirable market condition. Usually animals
which class as feeders have only a limited amount of fat,
the result of ordinary feeding or grazing conditions on the
range or farm.
The lines of the animal should be straight, the form
square, low set and it should possess quality and a sufficient
amount of constitution to get the best results under feed
lot conditions. Otherwise, constitution is not of special
significance In an animal of this type. Feeders should
possess all the requisites of the fat animal except for fat
266 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
‘9UL0DJNO puw
‘
Aqypenb
qJlIy} SUIMOYS ‘9]}9vd IopI0q—ZIT
‘DIT
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 267
accumulation, which is the ultimate purpose for purchasing
such animals. The feeder is the prospect and the finished
animal the product of the stockman’s goal. The desirability
of the form and finish of the fat animal is directly dependent
on the kind of animal selected in the beginning.
Stockers.—Stocker cattle should be the same in type and
breeding as feeders or fat animals, although the grades may
vary likewise. Stockers are young animals, ordinarily
yearlings, which are wintered on roughage, grazed the
following summer and finished for market usually during
the fall and winter period, though sometimes finished in
summer. The stocker should possess all the attributes of
the feeder or fat animal except age and condition. Con-
siderable attention should be given to the outcome. The
desirability of the stocker is determined by the market grade
of the animal, which ranges from inferior to choice. Like
feeders and fat animals they may be either pure bred or
grades from some of the prominent beef breeds, most of them
coming under the grade class. It is only in selecting animals
for some special purpose, like feeding, and later fitting for
some of the large stock shows, that pure breeds are likely
to be used. Even then many of the best-fitted animals are
of grade origin. In selecting a stocker constitution is usually
of somewhat greater importance than in the feeder or fat
animal.
Calves.—Calves are subject to judging for future use on »
the same basis as discussed under stocker, and feeder
cattle. They should possess quality, constitution, and
vigor, a full, square form, and show evidence of develop-
ment in a square frame, a strong bone, a deep, uniform
amount of natural flesh, and capacious feeding qualities.
Evidence of continuous thrift should be apparent. Young
animals with small bone, cramped heart girth and upstand-
ing, shallow bodies seldom develop into thrifty specimens.
In judging calves a great deal of stress should be placed on
the outcome or future usefulness. The small, fat, sleek-
bodied calf seldom develops into a large, thrifty, capacious
animal. One with a square, compact form, although some-
what inclined to be rough, will usually make good growth
268 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
and develop into an animal at least with acceptable form
and quality. Calves should show every evidence of early
maturity and natural fleshing qualities.
BREEDING ANIMALS.
Breed Type.—In selecting a breeding animal of pure
lineage, the breed type should receive first consideration.
If the animal is lacking in any substantial breed character-
istics this is sufficient to cause severe discrimination. Animals
which are maintained for the reproduction of pure-bred
animals should possess the accepted form and. features
maintained by the breeders or the organization which cham-
pions the cause of the breed. An animal which fails to con-
form to breed type is not only at fault itself, but the faulty
characters will be reproduced and thus magnify the condition.
In establishing a pure-bred herd the type accepted for a
foundation should stand for some definite purpose. The
breed which is making the greatest headway is the one
which has embodied in it the fundamentals necessary for
accomplishing the specific purpose in view. If the aim is
to breed high-class, pure-bred animals the best is none too
good. Unless animals can be produced which satisfy the
critical breeder or feeder, it is useless to spend money toward
this end. ‘To do this involves a knowledge of breed type or
character. The student or purchaser should therefore be
familiar with the attributes or type qualifications, which
should be an embodiment of correlated utility functions.
Conformation.—‘The breeding animal is not materially
different from the type described under Beef Conformation.
The breeding animal, however, should possess scale, an
abundance of constitution, and show evidence of capacity
both in the digestive and reproductive systems. The con-
stitution should be unusually well developed because of the
long period of usefulness in these animals. A long, deep,
roomy barrel in the breeding female is important, although
symmetry and quality should conform with the other
requisites of the animal. Males should show strong repro-
ductive qualities in the head and crest, and females evidence
BREEDING ANIMALS 269
of a strongly developed reproductive system and milling
qualities. In the female the hindquarters should be long,
level, the thighs broad, and the hook points rather prominent
when the animal is in medium flesh. he latter attribute
is indicative of strong maternal qualities.
Constitution and Vigor.—All breeding animals should be
qualified with unusual indications of strong bodies and
natural vigor. Such animals, very much unlike fattening
animals, must undergo a severe strain incident to re-
REL |
I'ig. 114.—Galloway cow, showing a strony, rugged constitution.
production. This requires an unusual amount of vitality
for best results. These characteristics are indicated in the
large, broad muzzle, broad, clear-cut head, bright, prominent
eyes, and a deep, full chest. A capacious, compact yet
roomy body is also indicative of this qualification. Consider-
ation of these points is vital in selecting breeding animals.
Temperament.—'l'’emperament has reference to the develop-
ment of the nervous system or the amount of nerve force.
In beef cattle the temperament should be lymphatic, which
signifies rapid fattening propensities. In animals maintained
for breeding purposes activity and thrift should be closely
270 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
associated with this attribute, although not to the extent
of depreciating the normally accepted qualification. Any
indication of nervousness in a beef animal is seriously
objectionable, although some excellent beef animals are dis-
posed to have this fault. Such a condition is antagonistic
to rapid fleshing qualities. Breeding animals should possess
iw bold, stylish carriage, although the temperament should be
lymphatic, thus indicating easy handling and management.
A sluggish temperament is very objectionable.
Sex Characteristics. The sex of a breeding animal should
be shown by a glance at the head and neck. The bull
should be strong in the head, although there should) be
every evidence of style and refinement. The neck should
he short, thick, and the crest well developed, although not
to a disproportionate extent. The body should be broad,
deep, long and compact, indicating the transmission of
weight and early maturing qualities. Indication of feminine
characters should be disqualifying marks. Delicacy of
constitution and lack of capacity are serious faults.
The head of the female should be finer and cleaner cut
than in the male. Any indication of masculinity is very
objectionable. There should be an expression of refinement
in the head which should characterize the entire animal.
There should be no indication of crest development. ‘The
head, neck and shoulders should be on a level, there being
neither a rise nor a depression in the lines of these parts.
The mammary system should be well developed, although in
beef animals it is not expected that extraordinary evidences
of milk-producing capacity will be present. There should
be sufficient development, however, to nourish the calf
until its growth and development can be cared for otherwise.
Evidences of masculinity in the male and femininity in the
female should be readily apparent.
Crear orn XI.
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE. ,
Purpose of the Dairy Animal.—’The purpose of the dairy
animal, and therefore the fundamental factors in judging,
are strikingly different from any other farm animal. The
indications of intrinsic value and capacity are determined
from an entirely different viewpoint than in judging the horse
or block animals. The form is not only different but its
associated attributes for attainment of purpose are deeper
lying than in other animals. From the standpoint of
capacity the development of the vital organs are of much
greater importance in the dairy animal than in any other.
Vor example, the direct association of the circulatory system
with milk-giving capacity, which is the important and one
vital attainment of the dairy animal, represents quite
forcibly the depth of this statement. Without a strong cir-
culatory system, whereby the food can be manufactured into
milk through the various processes of digestion, absorption,
and assimilation the capacity of the dairy animal would be
limited. The limitation would depend on the degree of
development of the circulatory system. An animal with a
weakened system would have low vitality and therefore
not only would it be limited in point of present attainment,
but the durability and persistency of production would be
lessened in the offspring.
As the dairy animal gives off the products of food diges-
tion, absorption and assimilation, daily the natural result
would be an animal with the spare, open conformation such
as the dairy animal possesses. ‘The block animals, which
accumulate the products of the manufactured food, assume
an entirely different form. Instead of the food products
being given off daily there is an accumulation on the body
of the animal, based on dry matter, a similar or like amount
(271)
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
272
"moo Arrep oy} Jo syavd Jo soureu puv uolBwoOT— FIT “SI
02
DAIRY FORM 273
of manufactured food materials. We have, therefore, the
two distinct types, one eliminating from the body through
the mammary system and the other accumulating the prod-
ucts in the bone and muscular tissues, the former being
represented in the dairy animal and the latter in the block
animal.
Dairy Form.—The type of a typical dairy cow presents a
striking contrast to meat-producing animals. This is only
natural, however, considering the peculiar nature of the work
to be performed. In all other food-producing animals the
effect of food consumption is cumulative, the digested por-
tions of the food eaten being stored in the body of the animal.
The square, blocky, compact form produces the most econom-
ical results from a meat-productive standpoint because the
maximum amount of the manufactured product can be
stored under such conditions. Likewise the dairy type of
animal produces the largest quantity of milk because of the
adaptation of the triangular or wedge-shaped form to milk
production. The dairy animal does not have need for a
broad, smooth, compact shoulder, back, loin, or thighs.
The one great work of this type of animal is to produce,
through the digestive and mammary systems, the maximum
amount of milk possible under the conditions of mdividual
form, kind and quantity of feed consumed and general care
and management. This necessitates a striking contrast in
the development of the body of beef and dairy animals.
EXPLANATION OF FIG. 114.
1—Mouth. 14—Withers. 26—Teats.
2—Nostrils. 15—Crops. 27—Barrel.
3—Muzzle. 16—Shoulders. 28—Back.
4—F ace. 17—Heart girth. 30—Hindflank.
5—KEyes. 18—Foreflank. 31—Hook points.
6—Forehead. 19—Legs. 32—Tail-head.
7—Ears. 20—Feet. 33—Pin-bones or thurls.
8—Poll. 21—Dew claws. 34—Rump.
9—Horns. 22—Belly or underline. 35—Escutcheon.
10—Jaws. 23—Mammary orifices 36—Tail.
11—Dewlap. or wells. 37—Thighs.
12—Brisket. 24—Mammary veins. 38—Hind udder.
13—Neck. 25—Fore udder. 39—Switch.
18
274 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
The digestive system and the mammary system are
indirectly related to the production of muscle which
constitutes the food product in the block animal. This
fact is emphasized in the spare form and the nervous develop-
ment of the dairy animal which shows that the feed eaten is ©
not stored on the body, but rather manufactured into milk
through the digestive, circulatory, and mammary systems.
The large capacious barrel for feed consumption, the strongly
developed circulatory system indicated in the eyes, chest, and
general vigor displayed by the animal and the well-developed
mammary system are the three vital attributes for the
maximum production of milk.
A strong constitution indicates durability and vitality,
which are essential in any animal, constantly drawing
on its own food resources. A strong blood circulatory
system indicates health, vigor, and the proper distribution
of the digested materials taken from the feed, while a large
and well-developed mammary system is indicative of a
capacious manufacturing plant for milk elaboration. When
these factors or parts of the animal are properly developed
they form distinguishing features of unusual significance.
The wedge- hare form oe the dairy cow is significant in
its indication of capacity, mammary development, and
nerve force or nerve temperament. Each part of the
animal has its own important part in milk production. Any
one part removed or impaired would seriously impede the
milk-productive capacity and otherwise injure the delicate
mechanism of the animal.
Dairy Function.—The primary function of the dairy cow
is to produce milk, and the secondary function to reproduce
herself. Her ability to accomplish these purposes depends
on six fundamental points of development. ‘These are dairy
form or type, constitution, capacity, nervous temperament
or nerve force, the mammary system, and circulatory devel-
opment. A proper correlation of these factors is necessary
for an animal to produce to its maximum capacity. The
fundamental factor is capacity for food consumption. If
an animal is limited in its ability to consume food the final
product or milk-producing capacity is limited likewise, as
a
DAIRY FUNCTION 275
it depends directly on the quantity of food consumed.
While the producing ability of an animal may be hindered
through other sources than limited food consumption and
a deficient mammary system, these two factors are of the
utmost significance.
A well-balanced animal involving the factors named
above will usually have normal activity and ultimate milk-
producing capacity, although certain unknown factors may
impair or permanently retard one or more of these func-
tions. While it is not always possible to use production as
a basis in selecting dairy cows, it is always desirable to do
so, especially when animals can be selected having records
extending over long, continuous periods. It is not possible
for a student to follow this practice, neither has it been
established in show ring judging except under specialized
conditions. Because of the impracticability of always
measuring the capacity of a dairy animal on her actual
producing ability, the body form and other exterior evidences
of heavy and continuous production are used as a basis
for selecting animals.
Experience and observation have taught that there are
certain basic conditions or relations between heavy and
continuous milk production. It is on these foundation
principles that dairy cattle are judged by making general
and scrutinized examinations of the exterior form and
development. The degree of productiveness or usefulness
is determined by the degree of development of the factors
mentioned above. Deficiency or delicacy in one or all
impairs the efficiency of the animal to the extent of the
deficiency, whether singly or combined in influence. The
judge of long experience is able to detect very accurately
the actual working capacity of an animal because of the
known relation of each factor to this capacity as well as their
combined influence. Limited observation or experience can
only assume the actual effect on, production of a deficient
form, cramped digestive capacity, weakened constitution
or low vitality, a small mammary system, or a weak circu-
latory system. A complete knowledge based on years of
observation and practice is essential to a determination of
276 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
the value of these factors, singly or combined. Likewise,
correct Judgment on dairy form and capacity is the result
of continuous practice in determining the value of a single
factor or its combined influence with one or more of the
others essential to high and continuous production.
Wedges of the Dairy Animal.—The extreme development of
the dairy animal toward the wedge-shaped form is significant
of factors not wholly understood by the average person.
Why a dairy animal should be so extremely different from a
block animal would ordinarily cause comment, yet a basic
Fic. 115.—Front wedge of the dairy cow, showing the general tendency to
grow wider toward the hindquarters.
understanding of this development is comparatively simple
and significant in its meaning. One of the fundamental
principles involved in a heavy producing dairy animal is the
extreme development of the body or barrel compared with
the size of the animal. In a heavy producer the barrel is
wholly out of proportion with any other part, region, or a
combination of them.
Viewed from three different angles the dairy animal
presents three distinct wedges, namely, the front wedge, the
side wedge, and the top wedge. The meaning of these
QUALITY 277
terms is simple. They imply an increasing depth of body
toward the rear as viewed from the side, an increasing
width of body toward the rear as viewed from in front, and
an increasing width toward the floor of the barrel as viewed
from above. The whole of this development is significant of
barrel capacity which is one of the real fundamentals of dairy
production. It is exemplified in magnified body capacity
and in this respect is widely different from any other type
of animal.
Fic. 116.—Side wedge of the dairy cow, showing the general tendency to
grow deeper toward the hindquarters.
Quality —The dairy animal should possess an abundance
of quality. It should have a clean-cut, refined appearance
about the head and neck and sharp, arall- defined withers.
The spine should be spare and open, the skin phable and
elastic, the hair fine and oily, and the bone dense and fine in
texture. This attribute is important, not only because of
its special relation to the type and refinement of the animal,
but because of its influence on maintenance and cost of
production. A large, coarse-boned dairy animal is seldom
an economical producer. Although such an animal may
278 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
produce large quantities of milk, it is usually at a loss because
of the excessive food requirements of a large, unrefined
Fic. 117.—Top wedge of the dairy cow, showing the general tendency to
grow wider toward the belly or underline
CONSTITUTION 279
animal. Heavy framed, coarse-boned dairy animals usually
convert a larger comparative amount of food into body fat
and maintenance than animals of fine texture and quality.
An examination for quality is made by the hand to deter-
mine the pliability and elasticity of the skin, fineness, and
texture of the hair. If there is a tendency toward harshness
or dryness in the skin or hair it is significant of inferior
quality or temporary ill health. Ordinarily it is the former.
Other than the examination made by the hand, quality is
evidenced in the fineness or texture of the bone, clean-cut
lines, sharp withers, long, thin neck, and general refinement
or expression. Some judges lay considerable stress on the
waxy, yellowish condition of the interior of the ears and the
fineness of the hair thereon. Guernsey admirers are especially
ardent in their application of this principle to determine
quality and richness of milk in the breed.
Constitution The constitution of a dairy animal is of
more than usual significance. The value of such an animal
is not only dependent on present capacity or usefulness but
on the length of time which production will be normally and
profitably continued. This involves durability or vitality. As
the form of the dairy cow naturally precludes the highest
development in constitutional capacity, it 1s especially sig-
nificant that this attribute receive close consideration. While
a dairy animal need not be weak in constitution or low in
vitality the peculiar type of the animal naturally favors such
a condition. Naturally the wedge-shaped form minimizes
the space in which the vital organs may develop and perform
their function. Constitution should be equally correlated
with the other factors essential to heavy and economical
production. Naturally the development of the body or
barrel and the organs of milk production magnify these
parts and minimize the chest capacity on which a vigorous
constitution largely depends.
Constitution, as in other animals, is evidenced by depth
of body in the chest region and extreme width through the
lower portion of the ribs and on the chest floor. The true
dairy form involves a light and spare development at the
withers, thus to perfect the true wedge-shape accepted as
280 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
a fundamental requisite of dairy form and_ production.
Other than this indication constitution is evidenced in the
same manner as in the beef animal. The muzzle should be
large, broad, well developed, the eyes large and bright, the
skin phable and elastic, the hair thick, mossy, and evenly
distributed over the body. The bone should be dense, fine,
and show every indication of refinement and form, although
not to the extent of delicacy. If there is weakness in the
vital parts of the animal, and especially in the dairy animal, it
is an imperfect machine and therefore cannot perform its
function continuously in a satisfactory manner.
Nervous Temperament.— The term, nervous temperament,
is significant of the ability of an animal to utilize its food
other than that required for body maintenance completely
for milk production. It represents the exact opposite of
the conditions which most nearly meet maximum beef pro-
duction. ‘The beef animal is lymphatic in temperament
and utilizes its food for body maintenance and muscle
and fat formation. The dairy animal is nervous in tem-
perament and uses its food for milk production, which
is contingent on directing the largest possible part of the
food nutrients for this purpose. The nervous tempera-
ment is exemplified in the spare, open, conformation. The
head should be expressive of character, and clean and free
from excess flesh. The neck should be long and thin, the
withers sharp, the spine open, the ribs wide, the hook points
prominent, the thighs thin and incurving, the rear flanks
high and the barrel large. All of these points are indicative
of nerve force, showing that the food is elaborated or used
otherwise than on the body.
Capacity.—Capacity in its strictest sense signifies the
ability of an animal to perform its work with a minimum
of food and exertion on the working organism, with a
maximum resulting production. An animal without barrel
capacity for the storage of large quantities of food will
be unproductive sooner or later from the standpoint
of profitable returns. Usually an animal will maintain
average development for a short time, but the heavy strain
of milk production soon saps the vitality of the small animal
CAPACTIY 281
lacking in capacity for food consumption. The result is
seen directly in the lessened milk flow which eventually
eliminates such an animal from herds maintained on a
profitable basis. In the early stages of lactation an animal
with comparatively small capacity may produce a reasonably
large quantity of milk. Later in the period, however,
owing to the lack of food-consumptive ability and digestive
capacity, the mammary system ultimately subsides and fails
to produce until again stimulated by reproduction.
Fic. 118.—Nervous temperament exemplified in the Jersey bull. Note
the keen expression of the eyes, the finely drawn features, and the activity
and energy displayed in the general demeanor.
Capacity as Indicated by Milk and Butter Standards.—
The adoption of yearly milk and butter fat tests is significant
that the leading dairy breed associations recognize the need
for such data in determining the real practical value or
capacity of an animal. It may be possible in judging dairy
attainments to be mistaken in the real productive capacity,
as evidenced by exterior points or factors. With the aid of
the standard, if properly applied, the value of an animal can
be determined absolutely. Student or show ring judging must
be done by measuring an animal by an adopted system,
282 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
as it is impossible to determine the productive value by
applied tests in the modern show ring. If it were possible
to develop such a system it would be highly desirable from
several viewpoints. However, capacity may be very accu-
rately rated or determined if the examiner has a keen knowl-
edge of true dairy form and its correlated functions. |
Mammary System.—The mammary system represents one
of the real fundamentals of the dairy cow. ‘The animal may
Fra. 119.—A typical udder exemplified in the Holstein-Friesian cow. Note
size, length, shape, general balance, and capacity of the cow.
be perfectly developed from the standpoint of dairy form
and nervous development, yet if the mammary system is
insufficiently developed or faulty for any reason, the machine
is imperfect. After the food is taken into the stomach
it is digested, absorbed, and finally elaborated into milk
through the mammary system. The blood carries the
assimilated food products to the mammary system where
they are manufactured into milk. If there is not sufficient
development in the mammary system to ultilize these
products, the animal is imperfect from the standpoint of
MAMMARY SYSTEM 283
efficiency to the extent of the difference in the capacity of
the animal form and the mammary system.
The udder of the dairy cow is the important part of the
machinery, asit 1s within the udder that the milk is elaborated.
The size of it 1s indicative of capacity for milk production,
the same as the size of the barrel is indicative of the capacity
for food consumption. bo
—_
BREED CHARACTERISTICS
Brought forward
Bopy—13 Points.
Back: strong and straight, chine lean, ener and ope
jointed yee :
Loin: broad, strong and level
Ribs~ long, broad, wide apart and well sprung
Abdomen: capacious, deep, aay held Ep with strong mus-
cular development : :
Flank: thin and arching .
HINDQUARTERS—11 Points.
Rump: wide, level, long from hooks to pin-bones, a reason-
able pelvic arch ‘allowed
Hooks: wide apart and not projecting ‘above back nor
unduly overlaid with fat 5 Seas veutuer ak oes
Pin-bones: high, wide apart ..
Thighs: thin, long and wide apart :
Tail: fine, long and set on level with back
Legs and Feet: legs strong, short, straight, when "viewed
from behind and set well apart; shanks fine and smooth,
joints firm, feet medium size, round, solid, and deep
UppErR—22 Points.
Long, wide, deep but not pendulous or fleshy; firmly
attached to the body, extending well up behind and far for-
ward; quarters even; sole nearly level and not indented
between teats; udder veins well developed and plainly
visible en AOL etapa eu he ke Bitar
Treats—8 Points.
Evenly placed, distance apart from side to side equal to
half the breadth of udder, from back to front equal to one-
third the length; length 23 to 33 inches, thickness in
keeping with length, pepeng porendeular and not Hees
ing :
Mammary VEIns—5 Points.
Large, long, tortuous, branching and entering large orifices
EscutcHEon—2 Points.
Distinctly defined, spreading: over a Might and ene well
upward 2
CoLor—2 Points.
Red of any shade, brown, or these with white; mahogany and
white, or white; each color distinctly defined. cPodle
markings allowed but not desirable.) . Ba
CovERiINc—6 Points.
Skin: medium thickness, mellow and elastic
Hair: soft and fine. é
Secretions: oily, of rich brown or yellow color .
StyLE—4 Points.
Alert, vigorous, showing strong character; temperament
inclined to nervousness but still docile Ne ,
WericutT—4 Points.
At maturity not less than one thousand pounds
Total
20
BPO Whe
m bo bo (Se)
22
merc bb
100
306 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
Brown Swiss.—The Brown Swiss breed until recently has
been bred from a dual purpose standpoint. The Registry
Association and advocates of the breed are now paying more
attention to dairy qualities. The breed is horned, solid
brown in color, excepting the udder which is usually of a
lighter color. There is usually a light streak of hair on the
poll, inside the ears and along the back. The muzzle is
Fic. 126.—A Brown Swiss cow, showing dairy capacity in the general form
and development.
mealy colored and the nose, tongue, and switch are black.
The breed possesses an exceptionally strong, vigorous con-
stitution. The weight ranges from 1100 to 1300 pounds 1 in
standard females. Sloane, the average weight is some-
what less. The general fom | is inclined to be noche coarse
and lacking in dairy attainment and refinement. The neck
is somewhat large and heavy, and the shoulders and thighs
are inclined to be beefy. The body is capacious, and the
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 307
udder usually very well proportioned. The mammary veins
and wells are medium in size. The quality is only average,
the skin being too thick, the hair inclined to be coarse, and
the joints large. In dairy temperament the breed ranks
fair. It is adapted to rough, mountainous conditions, not
having become widely disseminated in this country.
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF POINTS FoR BROWN
Swiss Cows AND HEIFERS.
Points.
Heap.—Medium size and rather long. : 2
Facre.—Dished, narrow between horns and wide between eyes : 2
Ears.—Large, fringed inside with light colored hair; skin inside
of ear a deep orange color . 2
Nosr.—Black, large and square with mouth surrounded by mealy
colored band, tongue black... 2
EyEs. —Moderately large, full and bright : 2
Horns.—Short, regularly set with black tips. 2
NECK. Straight, throat clean, neatly joined to head, shoulders
of good length and moderately thin at the shoulder 4
Cuest.—Low, deep and full between and back of forelegs 6
Bacx.—Level to setting on of tail and broad across the loin . 6
Rres.—Long and broad, wide apart and well sprung with thin,
arching flanks a sara EA Cece 3
ABDOMEN.—Large and deep : 5
Hirs.—Wide apart, rump long and broad 4
TuicHs.—Wide with heavy quarters seen 4
Lecs.—Short and straight with good hoofs . 2
Tatu.—Slender with good switch. . 2
Hipe.—Of medium thickness, mellow and elastic 3
Cotor.—Shades from dark to light brown, at some seasons of
the year gray; white splashes near udder not objectionable,
light stripe along back. White splashes on body or sides
objectionable. Hair between horns usually lighter shade than i
body
Fore UDDER. __Wide, deep but not pendulous or fleshy, extending
far forward on the abdomen. 12
Hinp UpDER.—Wide, deep, but not pendulous or fleshy, extending
well up behind. 12
Treats.—Rather large, set well apart and hanging straight down 8
Mritx Vetns.—Large, long, tortuous, elastic and entering good ‘
wells.
EScUTCHEON. __Well defined, spreading « over thighs and extend-
ing well upward BiSuy A untae aD te 2
Disposit1on.—Quiet . 2
Sizn.—Mature cows should weigh not less than 1100 pounds 3
Total 100
308 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
BuLuL SAME AS IN Cows AND HEIFERS Excerpt ror THE FOLLOWING:
Points
EXxpRESSION.—Full of vigor, resolution, and masculinity . . . 3
Necx.—Of medium length, somewhat arched, large and strong in
muscles on top, sloping symmetrically to shoulders. Shoulders
large and strong, smoothly blending into body 10
Scrotum.—Well developed and strongly carried 3
RupmmMenTary TEATS.—Squarely placed, wide apart, and free from
the scrotum. 5 6
Mature Buuis.—Should weigh not less than 1600 pounds 3
Dark, smoky skins very objectionable.
French-Canadian.—The French-Canadian breed it is sup-
posed originally came from the same stock which forms the
nucleus of the Jersey and Guernsey breeds. The develop-
ment of the breed, however, was in the province of Quebec,
Canada. The size ranks smaller than the Jersey. The breed
is not as highly developed as the Jersey, and is not widely
distributed. It is adapted chiefly to colder and more rig-
orous climates than the Jersey. Compared with this breed,
it is stronger in constitution and less subject to disease. The
color of the French-Canadian is black or brown with a yellow-
ish fawn stripe along the back and around the muzzle. Black
is preferred in the males. The conformation of the breed is
very similar to that of the Jersey. The horns are medium
in size and usually curve outward and then inward. One
of the chief points in favor of the breed is its hardiness.
It ranks high in grazing and early maturing qualities. The
quality of the milk is somewhat lower than the Jersey or
Guernsey, the average butter-fat test for the breed being
about 4 per cent. The quality of the breed is especially
characteristic, as shown in the mellow hide and orange color
in the ears and around the udder. The breed is important
more from an authoritative standpoint, being disseminated
principally in Quebec.
Dutch Belted—The Dutch Belted breed is a native of
Holland. It is characterized by a band or belt of white which
extends entirely around the body, usually from just back of
the shoulders or thereabouts to the region of the hook points.
The remaining portions of the body are almost invariably
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 309
black. The size of the breed ranks smaller than the Holstein,
comparing more favorably with the Ayrshire in this respect.
The breed is not especially significant from the dairy stand-
point, although there are several rather prominent herds in the
country. The breed is deficient in dairy development, not
showing the characteristic dairy temperament or udder
development. The udder is usually small, attached low, and
Fic. 127.—A Dutch Belted cow.
the teats placed close together. The breed does not compare
favorably with the Holstein-Friesian, as its origin would pos-
sibly indicate. It does not possess a large number of high
producers. It is especially adapted to favorable pasture
and feed conditions. The breeding qualities are unusually
marked, owing to the almost invariable transmission of the
belted quality to grade animals. The breed is not widely
disseminated. It is distinctive principally on account of the
peculiar color markings.
310 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE oF Points ror DutcH
BELTED CaTTLE.
Cow.
Points.
Bopy.—Color black, with a clearly defined continuous white
belt. The belt to be of medium width, beginning behind the
shoulder and extending nearly to the hips ‘
Heap.—Comparatively long and somewhat dishing: ' Broad
between the eyes. Poll prominent; muzzle fine; dark tongue
Eyes.—Black, full and mild. Horns long compared with their
diameter
Nreck.—Fine and moderately thin and should harmonize in
symmetry with the head and shoulders
SHOULDERS.—Il'ine at the top, becoming deep and broad as they
extend backward and downward, with a low chest
Barre..—Large and deep with well- developed abdomen; ‘ribs
well rounded and free from fat. . : SIRO ete aN!
Hips.—Broad and chine level with full loin :
Rume.—High, long and broad SEs AP MARIN Deg
HIndQUARTERS.—Long and deep, rear line incurving. Tail
long, slim, tapering to a full switch
Leas. Short, clean, standing well apart —.. Shee Picea de tea
UppDER. —Large, well-developed front and rear, Teats of con-
venient size and wide apart; mammary veins large, long and
crooked, entering large orifices . AnH Lancer iP ;
EscurcHEON
Harr.—Fine and soft; skin of moderate thickness, of arich dark
or yellow color eae
Disposttton.—Quiet and free from excessive fat
GENERAL ConpITIon and apparent constitution
ee
GW GO noe ee for) > o> (0,0)
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OnRW NO
Perfection: sii 25: sy, Seal eens aoe as ethereal Pees (0)
Dutcu BELTED BULL.
The scale of points for males shall be the same as those given for
females, except that No. 11 should be omitted and the bull credited 10
points for size and wide spread, placing of rudimentary teats, and 10
additional points for perfection of belt.
Kerry.—The native home of the Kerry is in the Kerry
Mountains in western Ireland. There are two types of the
breed, known as the Kerry and the smaller type known as the
Dexter Kerry. The Kerry is recognized as a dairy animal.
The weight ranges from 500 to 600 pounds in the females
and from 700 to 1000 pounds in the males. The color is
usually black, although red sometimes occurs. White is
objectionable. The breed is horned and is moderately well
proportioned in its dairy attainments. The breed is not
important in this country, although significant from a
BREED CHARACTERISTICS Bi
historic standpoint. As a milk producer, the Kerry is
very good. While the quantity produced is not large it is
rather rich in butter-fat. The breed is hardy, enduring
unusual privation. It has been developed under particularly
adverse feed conditions. It is known in Ireland as the poor
man’s cow. In quality and early maturity the breed ranks
as average compared with other more prominent breeds.
Very few specimens have been introduced into this country.
Fig. 128.—A Kerry cow.
Kerry CatTTLE—SCALE OF POINTS.
BuLu. Points.
General formation and character. . . . . . . . . . 25
Mead horns cancel aliens hens se ee tales ores Meine Os) eco ci iy ee 25
Quality RIAsLO UCL aaa meso Meneame oh emitted i eee OG
Colors Rae A ea Sieh cM arSH ONDE Mere oh rey ne AMG UNS Re cee NL as 30
ARO Galleieeresn eck cream oe Poa an a UNG 2s Unate Wee oA)
Cow.
General formation and character, head, horns, and hair . . 15
Body, topline, underline, ribs, setting of tail, and shortness of leg 25
Udder, size, shape, situation of teats, milk veins and escutcheon 40
Quality FAUVGLRCHONTGINe Puc Ry escola cent A Neer OGTR, ot cn cea 10
Coloweia mL acca che SO aN te ma TR Leh Rehr AEN PMR Ae CRS Cag 10
ARO Galen ae thier aceite eee amano erm leameany ALO
Ayoedeo pue wuioj pedojeasp-|jam A[outeIjxo pue UIIO} o1nj}eUr 24} SUIMOYS ‘SMOd UBISOLIY-UleYs]OFY Jo Anois yw—¢6zZT ‘DIY
CLASS CHARACTERISTICS 313
Class Characteristics—The development of the dairy
animal may be divided into three rather distinct stages or
periods which include the mature form in the aged dairy
cow, heifer development, and calves.
Mature Form.—The mature dairy animal can be judged
or qualifications depicted from the dairy standpoint reason-
ably accurately. The chief difficulty in determining the
value of such animals is during their non-productive period
or after the cessation of lactation. This brings into use
reasoning power based on the possible value of the dairy
animal as determined by quality, conformation, and dairy
temperament. The udder development is usually a good
indication of the value of an animal, although it may be
misleading.
In judging mature animals, particular stress should be
placed on present dairy qualifications and the records in
the herd if they are available. When an animal is selected
during the lactation period allowance should be made for the
duration or brevity of time which the animal has been
milked. Unusual development at the beginning of the
lactation period and slack development at the end of the
period may be misleading. However, a close estimate can
be made by balancing the udder development with the
other dairy characteristics possessed. In selecting after
the close of the lactation period, the size and shape of the
udder, the character of the mammary veins, and the size of
the wells should all be noticed closely. Proper correlation
of all these characteristics and other evidences of dairy
form will usually furnish a close estimate of the value of an
animal.
Heifer Development.—In selecting heifers close attention
should be given to the outcome of such animals. Present
dairy form or other attributes are valuable, but the possi-
bilities must be taken into consideration. Stress should be
placed on the weight for age, quality, constitution, dairy
temperament, and indications of mammary development.
Short, shallow-bodied animals, thus lacking in capacity, and
having slack development otherwise in the constitution and
mammary system are very objectionable.
314 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
Dairy Calves.—Dairy calves should be judged in the same
manner as discussed under the general topic of Selecting
Live Stock. The individuality should be considered along
with the probable outcome in dairy form and capacity.
Evidences of growth, thriftiness, and capacity, both in the
digestive and mammary systems, should be apparent. The
small calf with a shallow body and flat ribs never develops
into a large productive individual. The head should be
broad, clearly outlined, the muzzle strong, the neck of
Fre. 180.—An Ayrshire bull exemplifying breed type, quality, and con-
stitutional development.
medium length, the body long, broad, and deep, these all
being suggestive of rapid growth and capacity. Quality
should be exhibited in the skin, hair, and bone, the latter
showing evidences of producing an animal with a large frame
which is directly associated with dairy capacity.
Breeding Requisites—The requisites of breeding cattle
have been fully considered under the chapter on Beef Cattle.
There are certain factors, however, in connection with dairy
animals, which should have special consideration. Like
beef animals, dairy cattle should show evidences of mascu-
CLASS CHARACTERISTICS 315
linity and femininity in the male and female respectively.
They should also exhibit strong constitutional development,
good quality, and capacity. In the dairy animal, however,
special emphasis should be placed on dairy form and capacity,
this being indicated in the long, deep, spacious barrel. Cor-
related with this, dairy temperament should be manifested
in large, bright, keen, expressive eyes; clean, facial outlines;
and a lean, spare, or open conformation. The development
of the rudimentaries should be emphasized in males.
In addition to these qualifications, the breeding female
should possess striking evidences of strong maternal functions
or reproductive capacity. This, like the general dairy form
and capacity, is exhibited in the prominent hook points,
lengthy hindquarters, broadly placed pin-bones or thurls, a
deep body, and striking mammary development. Coupled
with the individual examination of the breeding animal,
the ancestral records should be closely examined as well as
the offspring if the animal has attained a sufficient age to
have animals in the active stage of production. The dairy
animal which has reached this stage is unusually strongly
reinforced with evidences of reproductive capacity. Not
only may the individual be studied from the standpoint of
present attainment, but the breeding and productive records
of the ancestors and in certain instances that of the progeny.
Summing up the discussion, the requisites in the breeding
animal include evidences of deep dairy development cor-
related with constitution, quality, nervous temperament,
and productive capacity.
‘QUIMS Jo Sqied Jo sotIBU pUB UONBIO] SUIMOYS—'TET “DIZ
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W/
CHU APAL ER Xo.
JUDGING SWINE.
Structure—The structural development of swine is in a
general way like that of cattle and sheep. The framework,
especially in the head and forequarter, fixes the form of
these parts to a large extent. The neck and hindquarters
are largely constructed of muscular tissue. The shoulders,
however, especially in their filling over the sides, are com-
posed of muscular tissue. It is quite frequent in judging
to find that the shoulders protrude on top, thus giving an
open, undesirable condition. The back of the hog, especially
along the spinous processes, is rather heavily filled with
muscle and fat tissue in the finished animal. In this respect
swine are different from sheep, having a larger proportion
of valuable cuts in the forequarters and body proper. From
the market standpoint these regions are more important,
in judging, than in sheep.
In the region of the loin and coupling there is a large
amount of muscular tissue. Animals should be thickly
covered in this region and the flanks should be low and full
and the sides smooth and even. Like cattle and sheep,
the form and development of the hindquarters is largely
determined by muscle and fat development. The ham of
the hog is especially valuable, it being comparable to the
EXPLANATION OF FIG. 131
1—Mouth. 9—Shoulder. 18—Back.
2—Nostrils. 10—Foreflank. 19—Loin.
3—Face. 11—Chest floor. 20—Rump.
4—Hyes. 12—Legs. 21—Coupling.
5—Ears. 13—Dew claws. 22—Hindflank.
6—Jaws. 14—Sheath. 23—Tail.
7—Jowl. 15—Belly. 24—Thighs.
8—WNeck. 16—Sides or ribs. 25—Hocks.
17—Heart girth. :
(317)
JUDGING SWINE
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PURPOSE AND METHOD OF USE 3lg
leg of mutton in sheep. In swine the shape of the head
especially is very largely determined by the bony frame-
work, next the shoulders, then the body and least of all the
hindquarters. The importance of these points will be fully
appreciated in scoring or comparing a class of animals to
determine merit from the market standpoint. Block animals
are judged according to the amount, location, and quality of
the edible products. In swine there is a more uniform
distribution of natural flesh, and a higher dressing percentage
than in other animals. The value of these parts therefore
varies less than in cattle or sheep.
Purpose and Method of Use.—The carcass of swine is used
either in the fresh form or in a cured condition. Practically
all of the cuts, with the exception of the edible parts of the
viscera, may be prepared in a permanent condition for market
uses. Portions from the head, neck, and jowl may be
minced and made into various products for immediate or
future consumption. Backbones and ribs are usually con-
sumed in a fresh condition or left intact with the sides.
Otherwise practically all of the cuts from the hog can be
prepared intact for future use. Such parts include the
shoulders, hams, sides, belly meat, and leg portions. When
prepared in this condition the cuts become standard market
products.
There is probably no other animal in which the use is as
wide or varied. On this account pork products are very
wide in adaptation among all classes of people. The various
cuts obtained from the hog are not only prominent from
the packing-house standpoint, but also from that of the
farmer and the city patron. No other farm animal can be
produced as profitably under such a range of conditions.
The greater uniformity in the value of the various cuts and
their edibility, in both the fresh and cured form, gives a
double significance to this type of animal. Knowledge of
the form of the hog and its value is more widely disseminated
than that of any other block animal. It constitutes one of
the main sources of meat, especially among the average
class or common people. In judging the hog, its adapt-
ability to the purposes and conditions mentioned should be
given close consideration.
320 JUDGING SWINE
Age.—The age of swine may be determined by the teeth,
although this method is seldom used. The general appear-
ance of swine can usually be relied upon to determine the
age to the extent which it is needed in the class room, show
ring, or on the farm. Aged boar and sow classes include
animals two years old or over, this being the upper age limit
in show yard classifications. The stage between one and
two years and under one year can usually be determined
satisfactorily by. the general appearance of the animal.
Furthermore, swine are difficult to handle to determine the
age by dentition.
Breed Classification.—Swine are divided into two distinct
types on a basis of their adaptability to the production of
pork and lard, and bacon products. Certain breeds of hogs
go to the market designated as lard or fat hogs, others as
bacon hogs. The distinction is in the peculiar characteristics
of the two types which adapt one to the production of an
average-qualitied edible product and the other to the produc-
tion of a high-class bacon product characterized by alternate
layers of fat and lean. The former type has a thick pad of fat
over the outside of the body, the latter type having a thinner
outside covering of fat with a characteristic streaking of the
fat and lean. The classification is made by breeds as follows:
Fat Type.— Berkshire semifat, Poland-China, Duroc-
Jersey, Chester White, Hampshire,! Cheshire, Victoria, Essex,
Suffolk, Middle Yorkshire, Small Yorkshire, and Mule-foot.
Bacon Type.—Large Yorkshire and Tamworth.
Fat Type.—The qualifications of the fat type of hog,
while covering many of those which characterize the bacon
type, have a peculiar significance, as given under several
important headings, which include age, weight, form, quality,
constitution, capacity, condition, and maturity. Constitu-
tion and capacity are of special significance in breeding swine.
The other qualifications are especially important in consider-
ing the hog from the market standpoint.
General View of the Hog.—In judging the hog the quality,
conformation, style, constitution and vigor should be care-
fully considered. By quality is meant fineness of bone,
1Classed also as a bacon animal, depending on growth and development.
AGH AND WEIGHT 321
straight glossy hair, fine, clean skin and a clear-cut contour,
especially about the head and ears. The bone in the leg
should be large, straight and strong, the nostrils open, the
eyes prominent and bright, and the chest, broad, deep and
full. If an animal is being selected for a breeder, breed
character and constitution are of special importance. One of
the most common faults of the hog, especially in some breeds
is to narrow abruptly behind the shoulders and gradually
become narrower toward the buttocks, thus giving the
animal, not only an ungainly appearance, but a very undesir-
able condition from the market standpoint. Such a con-
dition is likely to be magnified in the male because of the
natural tendency to be heavy-through the shoulders owing to
the development of shields. This is a common fault in sows,
and should be avoided.
Age and Weight.—The age at which a hog reaches market
maturity and the ultimate weight attained at this period is
dependent on the use or purpose of the animal. The method
_of feeding also bears directly on the problem. A hog grown
under the proper condition for breeding purposes naturally
develops into a larger and stronger animal than otherwise.
Growth takes place during a longer period than when the
same animal is fed properly for market. A clear distinction
should therefore be made in judging hogs for breeding and
market purposes. Special stress should be placed on the
bone development in a breeding animal because of its in-
fluence on the duration of usefulness. From the market
standpoint it is necessary to develop only sufficient bone and
substance to carry the finished market weight.
The various breeds of hogs differ greatly in their weight
for age, growing period, and maturing qualities. The Essex
is a small early maturing breed, the small size being one
of the principal objections to the breed. The Tamworth
is a larger and later maturing breed, the latter characteristic
being one of the chief objections to them. Weight for age
and maturing qualities are dependent on the breed, the
individual, and the method of feeding and management.
Exceptional weight for age is desirable, providing it is cor-
related with market demands. A hog weighing 200 to 225
21
B22 JUDGING SWINE
pounds is always in ready demand. Small, unfinished hogs
or overgrown specimens with excessive waste are not salable
at remunerative prices. It is therefore better to have less
weight, more quality, more smoothness and symmetry of
form than to have extraordinary weight at the expense of
these attributes.
Conformation.—The fat type of hog is closely analogous
to the beef animal in form and development. Consideration
should be given to the length, width, depth, symmetry and
Fie. 133.—A Berkshire barrow, showing the desired form, quality, and
condition in the fat hog.
compactness, all of which should be closely correlated in the
utility animal. The form of the breeder is not greatly
different from the animal used for feeding purposes. The
principal difference is in the larger, broader, capacious frame
of the breeding specimen. It is not necessary, therefore,
to differentiate greatly in judging these two types of ani-
mals. The body of both should be long, wide, and deep,
the back slightly arched, the shoulders smooth, the sides
smooth and even and the loin broad. The animal should have
good depth, this being largely determined by the spring
INDICATIONS AND VALUE OF QUALITY 323
and length of the ribs. The shoulders, sides and thighs
should be smooth and free from creases or wrinkles. A
line stretched from the shoulder to the thigh, either at the
rib spring, mid-body or at the underline should touch
the parts mentioned. The width should be sufficient
to furnish the maximum amount of back and loin cuts.
Occasionally animals taper from the top line toward the
underline. This is not only objectionable because of the
decrease for productive purposes, but it renders the animal
much less capacious as a feeder or breeder than otherwise.
The nearer the hog conforms to the parallelogram in all of
its lines and measurements the nearer it approaches the
ideal. The legs should be short, straight and strong, this
being especially important in breeding animals. The bone
should be large, dense and smooth, the pasterns straight and
strong, and the animal should stand well up on the toes.
A break in the pasterns such as to allow the animal to
walk on the dew claws is seriously objectionable. The
general appearance of the hog should show smoothness,
symmetry, style, and compactness. Constitution and vigor
should be clearly evident both in breeding and feeding
animals.
Indications and Value of Quality —Quality indicates both
texture of bone and carcass and the dressing percentage,
these determining in a large measure the ultimate value of
the product. Quality is exhibited largely as in other animals,
although there are special characteristics which indicate its
presence or absence. The general appearance of the animal
should present clean-cut features and outline, there being nu
tendency to grossness or flabbiness in any part. Lack of
clean-cut, trim lines are especially indicative of inferior
quality. ‘The indications are seen in an even distribution
of a fine, silky coat of hair. Coarse hair and frequently
associated swirls are the most noticeable indications of
faulty quality. Coarse quality is further indicated by either
long, coarse, straight or kinky hair or the reverse condition
in which it curls rather tightly to the body. The latter
is more objectionable as it detracts, both from the usefulness
and the general appearance of the animal. Swirls are very
JUDGING SWINE
324
‘Jopae} IO Iapseiq oy} UT Are
\
ssooou Apoq snotwedvo puw deep
‘
pe
o1q
‘DUOT 9} SUIMOYS
‘SMOIIB 9ITYSY19gq—
TEL
‘DI
BREEDING AND FEEDING CAPACITY 325
objectionable, these occurring usually about the head, jowl,
on the back, or over the rump.
The bone of the animal is one of the chief indications of
the quality possessed. A large, coarse, open bone and rough,
undefined joints are extremely objectionable. While there
should be sufficient bone to sustain the weight of the
animal under all conditions, quality should not be sacrificed
to obtain it in an extreme degree. A bone of somewhat
smaller size with sufficient quality is more desirable than a
large, spongy bone devoid of quality. This latter condition
usually signifies open or loose conformation, which is a very
objectionable feature. Large, overgrown ears, a heavy,
flabby jowl, coarse, open shoulders, rough, undefined joints,
coarse hair and a large, coarse bone are the chief indications
of objectionable quality. Taken as a whole, there should be
a general indication of smoothness, compactness and refine-
ment both in form and finish.
Constitution and Vigor.—Constitution is especially signifi-
cant in the breeding animal. Because of the comparatively
short period which the feeding animal is maintained, con-
stitution 1s not of equal significance. The breeding animal is
usually maintained for a long period of years, comparatively
speaking, and to sustain the burden of reproduction and
development it is necessary to have as much constitution as
consistent with the size and type of the animal. Con-
stitution is indicated by a broad, strong head, large, clear,
bright eyes, a large muzzle, large nostrils and a broad, deep
chest, the latter indicating capacity for heart and lung
development. The general appearance, capacity, move-
ments and demeanor should otherwise indicate a strong or
weak-constitutioned animal.
Breeding and Feeding Capacity——Capacity signifies the
ability of an animal to economically use sufficient feed to
attain normal and economic development as a feeder or to
properly nourish the body and that of the fetus and off-
spring. A long, broad, deep, capacious body is important
in accomplishing this end. Capacity is closely codrdinated
with constitution, as one cannot be developed to a maximum
degree without the other. Capacity indicates roominess of
326 JUDGING SWINE
body. This term should not be confused with the coarse-
qualitied, large, open-framed body formerly described.
Capacity and compactness should be consistently developed
in the animal. A cramped chest floor and a narrow floor
line in the body with insufficient length and width otherwise
are important indications of insufficient capacity.
Meaning and Value of Condition.—The term condition is
used to signify the amount of marketable finish acquired
by an animal. A hog with a small amount of fat develop-
ment is said to be in low condition, thus lacking the proper
amount of fat for placing it in the most acceptable condition
for market purposes. A high condition may be obtained
economically or at considerable expense, thus largely elimina-
ting the possible profit from swine husbandry. When an
animal is excessively fattened, there is a double loss, as
superfluous fat is extremely objectionable in market animals.
The important evidences of condition are not difficult to
recognize. A high-conditioned hog is smoothly covered with
fat, thus giving an even, smooth, symmetrical appearance.
The jowl should be full and firm, the shoulders smooth, well
filled, and the flanks low. If the flanks are well filled and
carried low it signifies the general deposition of fat, this
being one of the last places where fat is deposited at which
time normal marketable finish is completed. A full, smooth,
even, symmetrical appearance is indicative of finish desired
in market animals.
Maturity —Maturity has a double significance. It signifies
the attainment of definite qualifications for two fundamental |
purposes. The term may signify either breeding or market
maturity. An animal should be matured for breeding pur-
poses under normal growing conditions to influence the
growth of a strong, dense bone, full muscle development, and
to otherwise induce strong constitutional powers primarily
for reproductive purposes. Market maturity in a hog should
be attained at six to eight months of age, and to obtain the
desired weight for age different feeding methods must be
followed. Indications of forced market maturity are usually
in evidence in the form, vigor displayed, carriage of body
and bone development, as indicated in the legs and feet.
PERCENTAGES OF YIELD BOT
Small bone, an overabundance of fat, weak, low pasterns,
spreading feet, and stilted carriage usually indicate forced
maturity. This condition necessarily indicates the posses-
sion of objectionable qualifications. ‘The comparison used
should not be taken as absolute but rather as indicative of
the fundamental meaning of the two conditions. In the mar-
ket animal these conditions should not be in evidence to an
extreme degree. The principal requirement in such animals
is a sufficiently strong bone to maintain the finished weight
providing no ill effects are caused otherwise. As a breeder,
however, where normal size, weight for age, constitution,
capacity, and reproduction are involved, such a condition
as the above is highly objectionable. Such animals, judged
from the breeding standpoint, should be subject to extreme
criticism, and likewise in market animals, where utility is
depreciated.
Dressing Percentage.—A well-bred hog with pronounced
individuality should normally dress from 75 to 85 per cent.
of the live weight. The dressing percentage is of necessity
dependent upon the type, age, breeding, individuality, and
condition. An inferior-bred individual, low in condition, will
dress a low percentage, as the conformity of the animal to the
accepted standard and the condition attained influence the
percentage of edible product obtained from the live animal.
Young pigs or unfinished shoats will not dress as high as
older or finished animals respectively. The accumulation of
fat throughout and over the body parts is largely responsible
for the ultimate ratio between the live and dressed weight.
Exceptional individuals or lots of hogs have been known
to dress as high as 87 to 88 per cent. This is an extreme
condition, however, and should not be taken as the average.
A hog in average condition will dress about 75 per cent., and
one in high condition about 80 per cent. These figures are
based on averages obtained under normal conditions of breed,
individuality and condition.
Percentages of Yield.—The variety of cuts into which a
hog can be divided varies considerably. The total yield of
the various cuts mentioned in the following table will vary
with the market, and to a certain extent depending upon the
328 JUDGING SWINE
Fic. 135.—English and domestic cuts of swine carcass. (Courtesy of
Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station.)
English cuts.
A—Long cut ham. B—Long side or middle.
Domestic Cuts.
1—Short cut ham. 9—Clear plate.
2—Loin. 2, 8—Back.
3—Belly. 2, 3, 8—Side.
4—Picnic butt. 4, 7—Picnic shoulder.
5—Boston butt. 5, 9—Shoulder butt.
6—Jowl. 8, 9—Long fat back.
7-—Hock. 4, 5, 7, 9—Rough shoulder.
8—F at back.
DETAILS OF FORM 329
size of the hog and the season of the year. These variations
will not be, on the average, more than 2 per cent. of the total
yield. The figures given are based on hogs weighing from
240 to 275 pounds.
A hog cut in the following manner will yield the following
percentages based on live weight.
Cuts. Per cent.
Loin Nyaa) 8 SA ae ae ce a a 9.00
Bell yeunraenerrne tr an el i re A OO
BACKS een eee sami ede teeter ee eS Th OO
Shoulderstpepr yet eke cis ra Ue reat ta A 9.00
EL ATS ine arene Winget nak eae a eh EL. PEDO,
Lard ihe Gen me car Soar tyme sae EV ROO
MSO tale uere suey ame pret TN ese)
The remaining portion of the animal is included in the
head, neck, shanks, feet, and viscera, thus constituting 324
per cent. of the total weight, making the standard edible
products from the hog constitute slightly more than two-
thirds of the total live weight.
Based on the short-rib method of cutting a hog carcass,
from heavy weight hogs weighing 300 to 350 pounds, the
following yields will be available:
Cuts. Per cent.
Ribs BPS eo take Os Re inert a ae ge eek ae is Pe ea MR Te re en 10)
ETA TSC FRNA ie ante eee ata s/t . 12.50
Should erst te au. erat eins toe crass hart Wh hgee ne cee hes 8.00
Lard Patty Meret aoe mah are ts pluie hale eee ee ALN ()
TROGalic ie ue wenn criesenie ss Seni eee ee OC)
This leaves a total of 28 per cent., which is included in the
head, viscera, and other minor parts of the animal. The
variation in the two methods of cutting and the size of the
hog makes a difference of 43 per cent. in the total yield of
the products.
Details of Form.—A somewhat better understanding can
be obtained of the desired qualities of the hog by making a
detailed study of the various parts as follows.
330 JUDGING SWINE
Head.—The head should be short, straight or medium
in dish and broad between the eyes. The eyes should be
large, clear, and prominent. Features of the breed or type
should be especially significant. The head should be deep
as viewed from the side, showing a straight face or medium
dish, a large muzzle, and open nostrils.
Ears.—The ears should be medium in size, erect, semi-
erect, or pendant, depending on the breed, and covered with a
short, fine coat of hair. Heavy, coarse, pendant ears indicate
inferior quality. The Berkshire has an erect ear, the Poland-
China a semidrooping ear, and the Chester White a droop-
ing or pendant ear. These factors are not as important in
judging market hogs as when considering animals from the
breed type standpoint.
Jowl.—The jowl should be firm, trim, and closely carried.
A large, heavy, pendant jowl is objectionable, as it indicates
coarseness of quality or overdevelopment in condition. A
smooth, trim jowl is most desirable, as this condition is
usually significant of quality. Superfluous, flabby flesh
or fat is objectionable in this region both in breeding and
market animals.
Neck.—The neck of the hog should be short, broad, deep,
and smoothly and evenly blended with the head and shoul-
ders. A long, thin neck is objectionable as it usually signifies
inferior breeding, low condition or general unthriftiness. The
neck of the hog is extremely short, especially in the fat type,
there being a longer, more pronounced formation in the
bacon type of animal.
Shoulders.—The shoulder development of the hog is
extremely important, as the form of it is indicative of several
important factors. Large, coarse, open shoulders detract
seriously from the value of an animal, either for breeding
or feeding purposes. The same characteristics will be
transmitted by the breeding animal, and such a condition
is objectionable in finished animals owing to the relatively
high value of the cuts in this region. The shoulders should
be broad, although not to such an extent that the fore-
width of the body cannot be carried out to the extremity.
This is one of the common faults of the hog and therefore
DETAILS OF FORM 331
attention should be given in overcoming this objectionable
characteristic. The shoulders should be broad, level, smooth,
and compactly covered over the top and sides. The depres-
sion characteristic of the so-called open shoulder indicates
lack of condition and coarseness of quality.
Chest—The chest measurement is determined by the
width and depth of the animal attained through the body
part back of the shoulders. There should be no depression
in this region, as such would interfere with the normal
constitutional capacity and therefore with the future useful-
ness. Good width and depth in the heart-girth region are
significant of strength and vigor. Any tendency toward
narrowness at the base of the chest is extremely objectionable.
Back.—The back should be long, uniform in width from
shoulders to hindquarters, smooth, and _ slightly arched.
There is a decided tendency for hogs to narrow as the hind-
quarters are approached. Special discrimination should be
made against an animal of this conformation.
Sides and Ribs.—The length and depth of the body are
determined largely by the formation of the ribs. They
should spring squarely from the back to give width of body,
and be long and extend low to give depth of body. The coup-
ling should be short. The sides should be smooth, extend on
a direct line with the shoulders and thighs and be free from
wrinkles, creases, or any other characteristic rough condition.
Flanks.—The flanks should be full and low. High flanks
detract from the usefulness and general appearance of an
animal. They give the impression of ranginess which is
objectionable. They also indicate weak constitution, espe-
cially the foreflank, which determines chest capacity in a
large measure. An animal cut high in the hindflank seldom
breeds or feeds well.
Feet and Legs.—The legs should be short, straight, strong,
and squarely placed under the body. The pasterns should
be upright and the animal stand well up on the toes. Low,
weak pasterns are very undesirable.
332 JUDGING SWINE
Score Carp ror Fat Hoas.
Perfect score.
GENERAL APPEARANCE—40 Points.
Weight: score according to age . 6
Form: low set, rectangular, broad, deep, long, smooth, sym-
metrical . 10
Quality: refined head, ‘smooth, sides free from wrinkles, ‘fine
straight hair, clean ‘bone. ES Hae ee ay Nee ona ll (0)
Condition: thick, even covering offirm flesh” & 2 i538 tio). 10
Temperament: lymphatie, disposed tofatten . .° . .- . 4
Heap AND Necx—7 Points.
Head: short, broad, deep 1
Snoul: comparatively short, fine 1
Eyes: large, bright, wide apart : 1
Face: moderately dished, according to breed, broad between
the eyes , Seana 1
Ears: medium size, pointed, thin, carried well up- 1
Jowl: full, deep, trim. . 1
Neck: thick, deep, short, top line sharply curved upward 1
FornQuaRTERS—S8 points.
Shoulder: wide, smooth on sides, compact on top 4
Breast: prominent, full hee 2
Legs: short, straight, strong, clean bone 2
Bopy—31 points.
Chest: deep, wide, full, no constriction. . 3
Back: broad, thickly covered, well supported, arched. 10
Sides: long, deep, smooth, firm, eek covered 6
Loin: broad, thickly covered. 10
Flank: deep, full, underline straight 2
HinpQuaRTERS—14 points.
Rump: long, broad, level ‘ 2
Ham: wide, deep, full, well rounded, firm . 10
Legs: short, straight, strong, clean bone 2
Total 100
Breed Characteristics.—The various breeds are character-
ized by the differences in type, size, weight, color markings,
thriftiness, adaptability, maturity and condition as filles
Berkshire.—The Berkshire is a native of the Shire of
Berk, England. The breed is important, not only as a
typical breed 3 in itself, but also from its use in developing
other newer breeds. The Berkshire figured prominently
in the development of the Poland-China breed of swine in
Ohio. Ordinarily this breed classes among the fat types.
The writer gives it a place between the fat and bacon types,
designating it as a semifat breed. Considered from the
BERKSHIRE B ysis)
standpoint of its use in specific bacon production it comes
much nearer filling these requirements than any of the other
breeds belonging to the fat type. In size the Berkshire
ranks among the larger breeds. The average weight of
boars in fully mature condition ranges from 500 to 600
pounds. The color is black with the exception of six white
points, namely: the snout, the four feet, and the tip of the
tail. White may appear on the forearm, shoulder or jowl
Fic. Fe peererrshire boar.
without disqualification. One or more black points may
also be present. However, they are objectionable, among
most American breeders. The form is smooth, compact,
and unusually neat, clean and trim in outline. The head is
short, and either moderately or excessively dished, depend-
ing upon the fancy of the breeder. The face is broad, the
poll usually wide, the ears erect and the neck and jowl
smooth and firm. The Berkshire is unusually alert, expres-
sive in facial outlines and possesses unusual refinement
otherwise, being a typical show hog.
t=)
334 JUDGING SWINE
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE oF Points FoR BERK-
SHIRE SWINE.
Points.
Cotor.—Black, white feet, face and tip of tail, but skin and hair
occasionally showing tinge of bronze or copper color. An occa-
sional splash of white not objectionable; lack of either of white
points admissible : 3
Face anp Snout.—Face well dished and broad between eyes;
snout short and broad 7
Eyrs.—Prominent, clean, clear, large, dark hazel or eray . ; 2
Ears.—Medium size, setting well apart, carried fairly erect,
inclining forward, especially with age . 3
Jowi.—F ull, firm, not flabby or hanging too low, running back well
onneck . 3
Necx.—Full, short and slightly ar rched, ‘broad on ‘top, well con-
nected with shoulder 3
Harr.—Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and covering the
body well; free from bristles PTE nU nt ser An tee ataae heee 3
Skin.—Smooth and mellow. 3
Cuest.—Deep, full and wide, with good heart eirth 6
SHOULDER.—Smooth and even on top and in line with side 6
see .—Deep, smooth, well let down, straight side and bottom ‘
ines
Back. —Broad, full, str ong, level or slightly arched; ribs well
sprung . 10
FLANK. —Extending well back and low down: on leg, making near ly
a straight line with lower part of side . : a! 5)
Loin.—F ull, wide and well covered with flesh 6
Ham. —Deep, wide, thick and firm, extending well up on back
and holding thickness well down to hock . 10
Tart.—Well up on line with back, neither too fine, short or
tapering.
Legs AND Frer. —Straight and strong, set wide apart, short
in pastern, with hoofs nearly erect, capable of carrying great
weight... 10
SIZE. Ge all that is s possible without loss of quality or symmetry
with good length. Weight in good condition, boars at 12
months, 350 to 450 pounds; at 24 months, 500 to 700 pounds;
sows at 12 months, 350 to 400 pounds; at 24 months, 500 to 700
to
pounds 4 6
APPEARANCE AND CHARACTER. —Vigorous, ‘attractive, of good
disposition, firm and easy movement . . . ...°.... 6
Totaly igs Miata ot emcee eapienieka a tier ies nee ae ()()
Poland-China.—The Poland-China ranks as one of the
extreme fat breeds. It is an American product characterized
by an unusual prevalence or accumulation of outside fat.
The weight of boars may reach as high as 500 to 600
pounds or more in mature breeding specimens. Like the
Berkshire, the breed is characterized by a solid black color
POLAND-CHINA B ysis)
with the exception of six white points, namely, the snout,
four feet and tip of tail. One or more black points are
sometimes found but they are not desirable. This, however,
is a fad or fancy adhered to by breeders. One of the chief
objections to the Poland-China is the method of breeding
which has been followed, this reducing the size and vigor
of the breed as a whole. The modern type of animal is
characterized by larger bone, more vigor, and rustling quali-
Fic. 137.—Poland-China boar.
ties. In the last decade considerable attention has been
given to the improvement of the breed in these respects.
The head of the Poland-China is broad and short, the face
usually straight, the neck short and full, the body long, wide,
deep, and the animal as a whole comparatively low set.
Ears which best characterize the breed are semidrooping,
the upper one-third of the ear breaking over. The jowl is
usually heavy, the legs short, and the thighs plump. Lack
of size, small litters, a drooping rump, and inferior rustling
qualities are faults with the breed.
336 JUDGING SWINE
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF PoINTS FoR POLAND-
CHINA SWINE.
Points.
Heap anp Face.—Head short and wide; cheeks full; jaws broad,
forehead high and wide; face short, smooth, wide between the
eyes, tapering from eyes to point of nose and slightly dished
surface, even and regular :
Objections: Head long, narrow, coarse; forehead low and narrow
or contracted, lower jaw extending beyond upper; face long;
straight and narrow between the eyes; nose coarse, thick or
crooked, ridgy, or dished as much as a Berkshire.
Eyrs.—Large, prominent, bright, lively, clear and free from
wrinkled or fat surroundings.
Objections: Small, dull, bloodshot, deepset or obscure; vision
impaired by wrinkles, fat or other causes.
Ears.—Small, thin, soft, silky, attached to the head by a short,
and small knuck, tips pointing forward and slightly outward,
and the forward half drooping gracefully, fully under control of
animal, both of same size, position and shape.
Ne&cK. —Wide, deep, short, and ce arched at top from poll of
head to shoulder :
Objection: Long, narrow, thin, flat on top, not extending down
to breast bone, tucked. up
Jowi.—Full, broad, deep, ariopth and firm, carrying fulness back to
near point of shoulders, and below line of lower jaw, so that lower
line will be as low as breast-bone when head is carried up level
Objections: Light, flabby, thin, wedge-shaped, deeply wrinkled,
not drooping below line of lower jaw and not carrying fulness
back to shoulder and brisket.
SHoULDER.—Broad, deep and full, not extending above the line of
back and being as wide on top as on back, carrying size down
to line of belly and having good lateral width 5
Objections: Narrow and not same depth as body, narrow at top
or bottom, extending above line of back, less than body in
breadth at. top or bottom portions, or lacking in lateral width,
shields on boars under eight months of age, or large, heavy
shields on hogs under eighteen months of age.
Cuest.—Large, wide, deep, roomy, indicating plenty of room for
vital organs, making a large girth just back of shoulders, the
breast-bone extending forward so as to show slightly in front
of the legs and extending in a straight line back to end of breast-
bone, showing a width of not less than six inches between fore-
legs in a large, full-grown hog
Objections: Flat, pinched, narrow at top or either end of breast-
bone; breast- bone crooked or not extending slightly in front
of forelegs.
Back anp Loin.—Broad, straight or slightly arched, carrying
same width from shoulder to ham, surface even, smooth, free
from lumps, crease or projection, not too long, but broad on top,
indicating well-sprung ribs, should not be higher at top than
at shoulder, and should not fill at junction with side so that
a straight-edge placed along top of side will touch all the way
from point of shoulder to point of ham; should be shorter than
lower belly line Pee EU arse mean ne
Carried forward
bo
12
14
44
POLAND-CHINA 337
Points.
BrOugHtTORWARGiy mic (ok Aa oe tie S Ngabae | Sel
Objections: Narrow, creased back of shoulders, swayed or hollow,
drooping below a straight line, humped or wrinkled, too long,
or sunfish shaped, loin high, narrow, depressed or uneven, width
at side not as much as shoulder and ham.
SIDES AND Rips.—Sides full, smooth, firm and deep, carrying
sides down to belly and evenly from ham to shoulder, ribs long,
strong, wellsprungattop and bottom . . . .. . . I10
Objections: Flat, thin, flabby, pinched, not as full at bottom as
at top, drawn in at shoulder so as to produce a crease, or pinched
or tucked up and in as it approaches the ham, lumpy, or uneven
surface, ribs flat or too short.
Betty anp FLanK.—Wide, straight and full, dropping as low as
flank at bottom of chest, back of foreleg, making a straight line
from lorelegs to hindlegs; flank full and out even with surround-
ing portions of body, belly at that point dropping down on a line
with lower line of chest; the loose skin connecting ham and
belly being on a line even with bottom of side . . . . . 4
Objections: Belly narrow, pinched, sagging or flabby, flank thin,
tucked up or drawn in.
Hams AnD Rump.—Hams broad, full, long and wide. They
should be as wide at point of the hip as at the swell of ham.
Buttocks large and full, should project beyond and come down
upon and fill full between the hocks. The lower front part of
the ham should be full, and stifle well covered with flesh and a
gradual rounding toward the hock. Rump should have a
rounded slope from loin to root of tail; same width as back and
filling out full on each side and above the tail . . . . . 10
Objections: Ham narrow, short, thin, not projecting beyond and
coming down to hock; cut up too high in crotch twist; lacking
in fulness at top and bottom, lacking in width from stifle straight
back, lower forepart thin and flat, straight from root of tail to
hock; buttocks light, thin or flabby. Rump flat, narrow and
peaked at root of tail, too steep.
Fret anpD Leas.—Legs medium length, straight, set well apart
and squarely under body, tapering, well muscled and wide
above knee and hock, below hock and knee round and tapering,
capable of sustaining weight of an animal in full flesh without
breaking down, bone firm and fine texture, pasterns short and
nearly upright; feet firm, short, tough and free from defects . 10
Objections: Legs long, slim, coarse, crooked, muscles small above
hock and knee, bone large, coarse, as large at foot as above knee,
pasterns long and slim, crooked or weak, the hocks turned in
or out of straight line, legs too close together, hoofs long, slim
and weak, toes spreading or crooked or unable to bear up weight
of animal without breaking down. ;
Tar.—Well set on, smooth, tapering and carried inacurl . . 1
Objections: Coarse, long, crooked or hanging straight down like a
rope. j ;
Coat.—Fine, straight, smooth, laying close to and covering the
body well, not clipped, evenly distributed over the body . . 3
Carrieditorwards sitesi ie eras me meet Ger eee nk 82
bo
008 JUDGING SWINE
Points.
Brought forward ;
Objections: Bristles, hair coarse, harsh, thin, wavy, or ~ curly,
swirls, standing up, ends of hair split and brown, not evenly
distributed over all the body except belly. Clipped coats
should be cut 1.5 points.
Cotor.—Black, with white in face and lower jaw, white on feet
and tip of tail, a few small, clear white spots on body not objec-
tionable
Objections: Solid ‘black, more than one-fourth white, sandy hair
in spots, a grizzled or speckled appearance.
S1zr.—Large for age and condition. Boars two years old and over
if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 pounds. Sows
same age and condition, not less than 450 pounds. Boars
eighteen months old, in good condition, not less than 400
pounds; sows 350 pounds. Boars twelve months old, not less
than 300 pounds; sows 300 pounds. Boars and sows six months
old, not less than 150 pounds. Other ages in proportion
Objections: Overgrowth, coarse, gangling, or hard to fatten at
any age.
AcTION AND StyLe.—Action easy, vigorous, quick and graceful.
Style attractive, high carriage and in male testicles should be
of same size and carriage readily seen and yet not too large
Objections: Slow, dull, clumsy, awkward, difficulty in getting
up when down, low carriage, wabbling walk. In males testicles
not easily seen, not of same size or carriage, too large, or only
one showing.
Conpition.—Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales or sores, soft
and mellow to the touch, flesh fine, evenly laid on and free from
lumps or wrinkles. Hair soft and lying close to the pee good
feeding qualities ..
Objections: Unhealthy skin, scaly, wrinkly, scabby, or. harsh,
flabbiness or lumpy flesh, too much fat for breeding. Hair
harsh, dry and standing up from body, poor feeders, deafness,
partial or total.
Disposirion.—Quiet, gentle and easily handled
Objections: Cross, restless, vicious or wild.
Symmetry of points
Total
DISQUALIFICATIONS.
82
bo
Form.—Upright ears; small, cramped chest; crease back of shoulders
and over back so as to cause a depression in back easily noticed;
deformed or badly crooked legs; feet broken down so that’ animal
walks on pastern joints.
Sizz.—China build or not two-thirds large enough for age.
Conpition.—Excessive fatness; barrenness; deformed; ‘seriously dis-
eased; total blindness, caused by defective eyes, or by reason of fat
or loose and wrinkled skin over the eyes.
Scorr.—Less than sixty points.
PEDIGREE.—Not eligible to record.
DUROC-J ERSEY 339
Duroc-Jersey.—The Duroc-Jersey is one of the leading
fat breeds. It is characterized by a red color which may
vary from light to dark. A tendency to black is objection-
able, a cherry red color being preferred. The size of the
Duroc-Jersey is on the average about the same as the Poland-
China or Chester White. Mature boars may reach as high as
600 pounds or more in weight, the sows averaging 100
pounds less at the same age and condition. The breed
has good rustling qualities and is very popular in many
sections. A tendency to coarse bone and lack of refinement
Fie. 1388.—Duroc-Jersey boar.
are objections to the breed. The head is reasonably short
with a moderate dish. The ears are drooping or arching
in appearance. The neck is short and full, the shoulders
reasonably compact, the sides of good length and the quarters
or thighs reasonably smooth and well filled. The principal
points in favor of the breed are the size, rustling qualities,
and their economic producing qualities. Excessive fat
formation, lack of quality, smoothness, and refinement are
the principal objections. As a whole, however, the breed
conforms very closely to the fat-hog type. In many respects
it favors the Poland-China in size, general form and finish.
340
JUDGING SWINE
ScaLte oF Points ror Duroc—JERSEY SWINE.
Head .
Eyes
Ears
Neck
VOW. =.
Shoulder .
Chest. .
Back and Loin
Sides and Ribs.
Belly and Flank
Ham and Rump
Feet and Lees
Tail
Coat .
Color .
Size.
Action and Style
Condition
Disposition
Symmetry of Points
Points.
—
—_
WNNWONWEOORORNONNNNE
|
Total rae haere cae mene fee aL)
Chester White.—The Chester White breed received its
name from the solid white color characteristics.:. Bluish
Fra. 139.—Chester White boar.
spots on the skin are permissible. The breed ranks as a
strictly fat breed. Mature boars range in weight from 500
1 Originated in Chester County, Pa.
CHESTER WHITE 341
to 650 pounds. It ranks in size with the other leading fat
breeds. One of the principal objections to it is its general
lack of refinement. The ears are often heavy and extremely
pendant, the shoulders prominent, and the hair coarse and
curly. The head is rather large, the face straight, the jowl
large and the body proper inclined to be rough. The breed
has the extreme tendency to narrow materially from the fore-
to the hindquarters.
The O. I. C. breed, meaning the Ohio Improved Chester
White, is merely an offspring from the original Chester
White, having been decidedly improved in quality and
conformation. The size has been somewhat decreased and
the attributes of quality and compactness introduced.
Considered as a whole, the improved form of the Chester
White is a very acceptable breed. The body has good width
and carries out well. Coarseness in bone, prominent shoul-
ders and general lack of quality are still faults, however,
with some specimens of the breed.
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE oF Pornts For O. I. C.
SWINE.
Points.
Cotor.—White. Black spots in hair disqualify, but blue spots
in hide (commonly known as fect); while objectionable, do
not argue impurity of blood . . fan ae ee Wu re intial 2
Objections: Color any other than white.
Heap AND Face.—Head short and wide; cheeks neat (not too
full); jaws broad and strong; forehead medium, high and wide;
- face short and smooth; wide between the eyes, which should
be prominent, clear, and bright and free from fat surrounding
nose neat, tapering and slightly dished . 5
Objections: Head long, narrow or coarse; forehead low and nar-
row; jaws contracted and weak; face long, narrow and straight;
nose coarse, clumsy or dished like a Berkshire; eyes small,
deeply sunken or obscure; impaired vision.
EKars.—Medium size; soft; not too thick; not clumsy; pointing
forward and slightly outward; drooping gracefully and fully
under control of the animal 2
Objections: Too large or too small; coarse; thick; stiff or upright,
drooping too close to face; not ‘under control.
BrisKET.—F ull; well let down ; Joined well to jowl in line with belly 3
Objections: Narrow; tucked up or depressed.
JowL.—Smooth; neat; firm; full; carrying fulness well back to
shoulders and brisket when head is carried up level . . 2
Objections: Light; rough and deeply wrinkled; too large and
flabby; not carrying fulness back to shoulders and brisket.
Garriedsiorwatdtece swat eee ee ome 14
342 JUDGING SWINE
Points.
Brought forward RUNNIN Sasi iu etna RL Ee ETE LG
Necx.—Wide; deep; short and nicely arched; neatly tapering
fromhead toxshoul dermis ane iene neh cy ene samara
Objections: Narrow, thin; long; flat on top; tucked up; not extend-
ing down to breast-bone.
SHouLpERS.—Broad; deep and full; extending in line with the
side, and carrying size down to line of belly peas ee
Objections: Deficient in width or depth; extending above line of
back; thick beyond line of side and hams; shields on boars too
coarse and prominent.
Cuest AND Heart GirtH.—Full around the heart and back of
the shoulders; ribs extending well down; wide and full back of
forelegs Aisa weenie ey cee tin., MO SEO Aas Cah Cenacle
Objections: Narrow; pinched; heart girth less than flank measure
or length of body from top of head to root of tail; or creased
back of shoulders.
Bacx.—Broad; straight or slightly arched; uniform width;. free
from lumps or rolls; same height and width at shoulder as at ham
Objections: Narrow; swayed; humped; creasing back of shoul-
ders; sunfish-shaped; uneven width; lumps or rolls.
Stprs.—Full; smooth; deep; carrying size down to line of belly;
even withuline, of hamyandushoulderjie i). gneiss cin n:
Objections: Flat; thin; flabby; uneven surface; compressed at
bottom; shrunken at shoulder and ham.
Rres.—Long; well sprung at top and bottom; giving animal a
SQUATES TORN) G. >Re siat uce ii Mee arena meron pes ene Ne aati:
Objections: Too short; flat.
Lorn.—Broad and full .
Objections: Narrow; depressed.
Bretty.—Same width as back; full; straight; drooping as low at.
flank as at bottom of chest; line of lower edge running parallel
WICH SIC OSs eee Auris anne mec ecpan AL ane Weak Seti tanta
Objections: Narrow; pinched; sagging or flabby.
Fuanx.—Full and even with body ay
Objections: Thin, tucked up or drawn in.
Ham anp Rump.—Broad; full; long; wide and deep; admitting
of no swells; buttock full, neat and clean; stifle well covered
with flesh, nicely tapering toward the hock; rump slightly
rounding from loin to root of tail, same width as back, making
AN EVEN ULINeE wal MeSlG See amy malate ani min Meni eesweti tie ayia
Objections: Narrow; short; not filled out to stifle; too much cut
up in crotch or twist; not coming down to hock; buttocks
flabby; rump flat, narrow, too long, too steep, sharp or peaked
at root of tail.
Tait.—Small; smooth; nicely tapering; root slightly covered with
flesh icarriedvin a CuUrliiis Wi annum gna Rae une tye
Objections: Coarse; too long; clumsy; straight.
Lras.—Medium length; strong and straight; set well apart and
well under body; bone of good size; firm; well muscled; wide
above knee and hock, round and tapering below knee and hock,
enabling the animal to carry its weight with ease; pasterns
short and nearly upright DE ERE SR NOLEN Sei Dace -fine; neat,longer than an lard hog 35.) 27022. 2
Neck: short, not heavy . Tete Chace eee N PNG filing 3
Shoulders: smooth, well covered mR eens aLi()
Sides: long, deep, evenly fleshed, firm; loin heavy SAN NAO
Hams: large, plump, firm; light covering of fat 0 =. >= 20
ALO Galle he ee, y pten eri artes nite Cease es = NO)
Weight.—The weight of the bacon type of hog averages
less than that of the fat type. Animals weighing from 180
to 190 pounds are in greatest demand for bacon-producing
purposes. The bacon type represents a strictly finished
product from the market standpoint. A smaller, unfinished
lard type of hog should not be confused with it. Weight
and form in the bacon hog are of special significance. Either
—over- or underweight with lack of proper smoothness,
quality, and finish disqualify an animal for the most dis-
criminating purposes.
Quality.— Quality in the bacon hog corresponds very
closely in its attainments to the most desirable acquisition
of this characteristic in the fat animal. In bacon hogs
there is a more pronounced individuality of the correlated
parts, thus emphasizing the clear-cut form and features
indicative of general quality. The head should be clear cut,
302 JUDGING SWINE
smooth in outline, the jowl comparatively small and trim,
the ears of medium size, the neck smooth and comparatively
long, the shoulders smooth and compact, the sides long,
smooth, and even, bone of medium size and dense, trim
underline, and a fine, silky coat of hair. Other indications
are signified by the general refinement in form and _ indi-
viduality.
Conformation.—Compared with the fat type of hog, the
bacon animal is longer, narrower, and deeper in the body.
Fig. 141.—The bacon type exhibited in a Large Yorkshire.
The head is cleaner cut, the ears usually finer and more
erect, the jowl smaller and smoother, the neck longer, the
shoulders narrower and firmer, the sides longer, smoother,
deeper, and more uniform, the quarters squarer, the thighs
longer and thinner and the underline straighter, thus showing
little waste.
Taken as a whole, the animal is characterized by more
quality, cleaner-cut features, more trimness of form, less
waste, higher station and straighter feet and legs. The ribs
are not as broadly sprung, but extend lower, thus giving
the characteristic straight, even sides.
CONDITION OR FINISH 003
Smoothness.—Smoothness and trimness of form in the
bacon hog are of pronounced importance. A rough, coarse,
large-jointed animal with heavy bone or folds or wrinkles
in the shoulders, sides or thighs will not make a desirable
bacon product. Such animals have too much loss in carcass
weight, and when placed on the market the sides do not
present the delicate, palatable appearance required. Rough
animals make rough, coarse sides of bacon and are otherwise
undesirable in quality and edibility.
Uniformity of Product.—Bacon hogs are produced under
specific conditions where the proper kind of nitrogenous
feeds are available. In Canada bacon hogs are produced
largely to the exclusion of the fat type. Special breeds
and feeds are utilized in the production of a uniform
marketable product. The first acquisition of the producer
of bacon should be a type of hog closely conforming to
the accepted standard for bacon production. Unless the
breeding is uniform this condition cannot be obtained in
the finished product. Cross-bred animals of proper type
may make an acceptable bacon product. However, indis-
criminate breeding should not be resorted to in bacon
production. Greater dissimilarity of type can be tolerated
in the fat animal if the individuality and market condition
are obtained. The bacon hog is a specific product bred under
uniform conditions of breed, type, and feed requirements.
Where these conditions prevail a most acceptable type of
bacon hog can be produced. Uniformity of product can
be obtained which will command a premium on the market.
Condition or Finish.—Condition or finish in the bacon type
of hog is significant of the same requirements as in the
fat animal. The degree and character of condition attained,
however, is widely different. The fat animal accumulates
a large amount of fat, especially over the outside body region.
The bacon hog intersperses the fat and lean in so-called
streaks throughout the carcass. The high finish obtained
in the fat hog is not desirable or even acceptable in the bacon
animal. There should be only a sufficient amount of fat
accumulated over the outside of the body to give the sides
smoothness, firmness, and to retain the succulence and flavor
23
O04 JUDGING SWINE
of the product. From one to one and one-half inches of fat
on the bacon hog is the accepted standard, while in the fat
animal it may reach or exceed three or more inches.
Market Value.—Ordinarily, the bacon hog, when placed
on the average market, will not sell above the fat-hog market.
This is largely because the markets in the near and surround-
ing country do not generally demand this kind of a product.
In sections where bacon production is specifically followed,
as in Canada or Ireland, the bacon hog sells for a premium
of fifty cents to one dollar per cwt. over the fat type of animal.
Score Carp ror Bacon Hoas.
Perfect score.
GENERAL APPEARANCE—36 Points.
Weight: 170 to 200 pounds, largely the result of thick cover
of firm flesh... PR scan SMe yar GLa eines Tan 6
Form: long, level, smooth, deep . : re Ra 10
Quality: hair fine; skin thin; bone fine; firm, | even covering
of flesh without any soft bunches of fat or wrinkles . 10
Condition: deep, uniform covering of flesh, ep in
regions of valuable cuts. |). : ore ch satus)
Heap and Nrecx—6 Points.
Snout: fine. .
Eyes: full, mild, bright
Face: slim :
Ears: trim, medium size .
Jouwl: light, (apuad 5) |e
Neck: medium length, light
Fornquarters—10 Points.
Shoulders: free from roughness, smooth, compact and same
width as back and hindquarters ee ene rare egy ties 6
Breast: moderately wide, full): se en ee 2
Legs: straight, short, strong, bone clean; pasterns upright;
ae pe ee ee
feet medium size 2
Bopy—34 Points.
Chest: deep, full girth : BAD ectudeiog tie 4
Back: medium and uniform in n width, smooth. . 8
Sides: long, smooth, level from beginning of shoulders to
end of hindquarters. The side at all points should touch
a straight edge running from fore- to hndquarter . . . 10
Ribs: deep... 2
Belly: trim, firm, thick without any ‘flabbiness or shrinkage
at flank . Te erat (ale tag a ae ete ea eae Ail()
HinpquarTers—14 Points.
Hips: smooth, wide; proportionate to rest of body 2
Rump: long, even, straight, rounded toward tail... 2
Gammon: firm, rounded, tapering, fleshed deep and low
toward hocks 8
Legs: straight, short, strong - feet medium size; bone clean;
pasterns upright Pana a aN is Ritu errr Soo nati eis fig 2
"Total icy oie ie ac eee Sam crea ee yom mae aan ()()
LARGE YORKSHIRE 300
Bacon Breeds.—The bacon breeds from the American pro-
duction standpoint consist of the Large Yorkshire and the
Tamworth. ‘The Hampshire has been classed both as a fat
and a bacon hog. It 1s of considerable interest and utility,
both from market and show-yard standpoint for both purposes.
Large Yorkshire.—The Yorkshire breed of swine is of three
distinct types, namely, the Large, Medium, and Small
White. The Large type is the only one which has gained
prominence in this country. The color is solid white,
although bluish or black spots at times occur on the skin.
Fic. 142.—Large Yorkshire sow.
The body is long, comparatively deep and wide. The head
is broad, the snout of medium length and slightly upturned.
The ears are medium in size and should stand erect, although
they are at times inclined to be pendant. The neck is of
moderate length, the jowl reasonably trim, and the underline
straight. The width of the back conforms to bacon re-
quirements. The sides are long and full between the
shoulders and hips. This breed ranks as one of the largest
in size. Weights of 1000 pounds have been attained, although
this is excessive. The Large Yorkshire is very popular in
bacon production, although it is at times inclined to be
somewhat coarse in quality and lacking in general refine-
356 JUDGING SWINE
ment. This breed is quite prevalent in bacon-producing
countries, both in America and in its native home and
surrounding countries. A weak loin and too much length of
leg are objections in the breed.
STANDARD OF RACHEL ONGE AND SCALE OF POINTS FOR LARGE
IMPROVED YORKSHIRE SWINE.
Points.
GENERAL OvuTLINeE.—Long and deep in proportion to width, but
not massive; slightly arched in the back, symmetrical and
smooth, with body firmly gee by well-placed legs of
medium length =.
Ovurtinr or Hrap.—Moderate in length and size, with lower
jaw well sprung, and some dish toward snout, increasing with
advancing maturity : SPUN MeN Phe icyy Noe A
ForEHEAD AND Poti.—Wide . .
Jowi.—Medium, not carried too far back, toward ‘neck, and not
flabby 0:
Hyer. Seiedia size, clear and ‘bright
Snour.—Turning upward with a short curve, iner easing with age
Ear.—Medium in size, standing well out from head, nearly erect,
but inclining slightly forward
Necx.—Of medium length, fair width and depth, rising er adually
from pol) to withers, muscular, but not gross, evenly connect-
ing head with body TUN eR SIE SACS Saline Un pesca NG lee
OuTLINE or Bopy.—Long, deep, and of medium breadth,
equally wide at shoulder, side and hams; top line slightly
arched, underline straight
Back. —Moderately broad, even in ‘width from end to end; strong
in loin, short ribs of good length BS poet ng
SHOULDER. —Large, but not massive; not open above
Arm anp TutcH.—Broad and of medium length and development
Briskbt.—Wide and on a level with underline nen
SrpE.—Long, deep, straight and even from shoulder to hip
Riss.—Well arched and deep
Heart Girra anp FLANK Girta.—Good and about equal :
HrnpquarTEeRs.—Long to correspond with shoulder and side,
deep with moderate and gradual droop to tail.
Ham.—Large, well let down on thigh and twist and rear outline
somewhat rounded . (ae ned ene gee
Twist.—Well down and meaty :
Tart.—Medium, not much inclined to curl pie cooete aes
Lecs.—Medium_ in length, strong, not coarse, ‘but standing
straight and firm
Hair. — Abundant, long, of medium fineness without any bristles
Skrv.—Smooth and white, without scales, but dark spots in skin
do not disqualify : Ge SA NR TON Re Ge pee a
CoLor.—White on every part .
Movement.—Active, but not restless
Total
—
—
oOrFND Bo FRO GT OUNMWNROD N
|
—
j=)
TAMWORTH 357
Tamworth.—The Tamworth, like the Large Yorkshire is
one of the largest breeds. Excessive weights have been
attained, although average male animals will weigh
between 550 and 650 pounds. The color is solid red, the
shades varying from light to dark, a medium color being
preferred. Blackish spots on the skin are objectionable.
This breed is long and deep compared with its width. There
is considerable inclination toward upstanding qualities
although this is significant to a certain extent with bacon
breeds. The head and snout are rather long and pointed,
Fig. 143.—Tamworth boar.
the face narrow, and the jowl light and trim. The eyes are
large and bright, the ears large and erect or semidrooping.
The shoulders are usually smooth but of extreme width. The
back is slightly arched, the sides long, smooth and deep and
the quarters and thighs moderately developed. The quality
is very good, the breed ranking well in bacon production.
The chief objections to the Tamworth are its late maturing
qualities, its lack of width and high-standing body. The
breed has never become generally popular with American
breeders owing to the extreme type as compared with the
fat hog. The temperament of the Tamworth is active,
the breed on the whole possessing good rustling qualities.
358 JUDGING SWINE
Long legs and prominent shoulders are other objections te
the breed.
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR TAMWORTH SWINE.
Cotor.—Golden red hair on a flesh-colored skin, free from black.
Hrap.—Fairly long, snout moderately long and quite straight, face
slightly dished, wide between ears.
Ears.—Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid and inclined slightly
forward.
Necx.—Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar.
Cuest.—Wide and deep.
SHOULDERS.—Fine, slanting, and well set.
Lrcs.—Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone, and set well outside
body.
PasTERNS.—Strong and sloping.
F'ret.—Strong, and of fair size.
Bacx.—Long and straight.
Lor.—Strong and broad.
Tait.—Set on high and well tasselled.
Siprs.—Long and deep.
Riss.—Well sprung and extending well up to flank.
Bretity.—Deep, with straight underline.
FLANK.—Full and well let down.
QuarTERS.—Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail.
Hams.—Broad and full, well let down to hocks.
Coat.—Abundant, long, straight, and fine.
Action.—Firm and free.
Objections: Black hair, very light or ginger hair, curly coat, coarse
mane, black spots on skin, slouch or drooping ears, short or turned-
up snout, heavy shoulders, wrinkled skin, inbent knees, hollowness at
back of shoulders.
Breeding and Class Characteristics.—Swine are judged
from the breeding standpoint largely on the same basis as
the fat specimens. There are a few points, however, of
special significance well worthy of consideration.
Breeding Requisites —Breeding swine should be judged from
the standpoint of the individual and the transmission of
desirable breeding attributes to the offspring. Weight
for age is important. Hogs are normally mature at least
from the show-yard standpoint at two years of age. While
extreme weight is important, if consistent with breed and
utility qualifications it should not be obtained at the expense
of weak bone, impaired constitution and vigor. In judging,
therefore, evidences of such treatment should be taken into
consideration. Conformity to breed type is important, not
SEX CHARACTERISTICS 359
only in character but in general conformation, capacity and
maturing qualities. The form should be long, wide, deep
and otherwise uniform, thus exhibiting a capacious, repro-
ductive system. Special attention should be paid to breed
type, quality and bone formation. The feet and legs should
be strong, straight, and the animal should stand well up
on the toes. A low back, weak pasterns and small capacity
are necessarily objectionable. All evidences of constitution
and vitality which largely determine future usefulness should
be apparent.
Fria. 144.—A Chester White sow, showing the attributes of a good breeder.
Femininity, smoothness, quality and refinement in evidence.
Sex Characteristics——The sex characteristics should be
strongly developed, the boar masculine, vigorous, and
alert. The head should be strong and broad, the eyes
large and bright, the jaws square and broad and the chest
wide and deep with lines conforming to the hindquarters.
The head as a whole should exhibit masculine qualities.
The neck should be of good length and blend smoothly with
the shoulders which should be broad and otherwise strongly
developed, although they should be smooth and_ possess
refinement. The shields should be well developed, although
not to the extent of causing coarseness of quality.
360 JUDGING SWINE
The sow should possess just the opposite extreme in sex
development. Refinement should be in evidence through-
out, although not to the extent of lowering constitution and
vitality. ‘The head should possess clear, pleasing lines. The
neck should be straight, the shoulders more refined than in
the boar, the body more capacious and the hindquarters
fully developed from every angle. Width and depth of
body are important. The chief indications of usefulness
in the sow should first be conformity to breed type. Re-
finement and general quality, constitution, capacity, strong
feet and legs, and early maturing qualities should all be in
evidence. She should have numerous well-developed teats.
Feeders.—This class of hogs is not important from the
open-market standpoint. Because of the prevalence of
cholera and other communicable diseases hogs are not shipped
to and from market as a usual thing for feeding purposes.
Hogs of this class are usually purchased in the country and
moved from farm to farm rather than from the open market
to the farm. Like other animals, uniformity of breeding,
a square, compact form, and quality are desirable. Hogs
weighing from 75 to 150 pounds are used largely for feeding
purposes, the age and weight selected depending upon feed
and market conditions. Barrows constitute the best animals
for feeding purposes. In judging, the same factors should
be considered as in other types and classes, weight, form,
quality, and indications of health and thriftiness being the
main factors for consideration.
Young Stock.—Young stock, whether in the pure-bred or
grade form, should be judged on a basis of their probable
outcome. Indications of thriftiness and desirable ultimate
form and finish are the chief attributes to be considered.
Weight for age is important. Quality and constitution
should be apparent. Further evidences of good qualities
are seen in the general refinement and symmetry of form,
although this should not be gained at the expense of the
other important utility requirements.
CHAPTER XIII.
JUDGING SHEEP.
‘ Purpose.—Sheep are maintained for two distinct purposes:
mutton and wool production. In judging them these
qualifications should be given close consideration. While
both types are in a measure dual purpose in design, they are
specifically bred for one or the other of these products.
The mutton type, although specifically bred for mutton-pro-
ducing purposes, is more strictly dual purpose, as the wool
obtained from it constitutes a large proportion of the total
supply of this product. Although the aim of breeders
has been primarily toward perfecting mutton form, this type
of sheep has given a good account of itself in wool products.
The wool type is not as well balanced as the mutton
type in the production of these two products. The quality
of wool is unsurpassed, but the form of the animal has a
low measure of value in mutton production. The mutton
obtained from a wool sheep, therefore, is essentially a
by-product.
Method of Use.—The mutton carcass is consumed in a
fresh condition with few exceptions. The principal market
classes of the fat sheep are the lamb, yearling, wether, and
ewe. While sheep are placed on the market in other forms,
the same as cattle and swine, these classes mentioned consti-
tute the standard finished market products.
The wool obtained from the sheep either once or twice
yearly is used in the manufacture of various kinds of woven
or felted materials. This depends on the class and grade of
the wool, as described later. In judging sheep a careful
estimate should therefore be made concerning the value of
this product in its various uses.
Determination of Age.—Sheep have eight incisor teeth in
the lower jaw. On the upper jaw a rough pad or cushion is
(361)
362
JUDGING SHEEP
6
ive)
ues
Fig. 145.—Showing location and names of parts of sheep.
_ DETERMINATION OF AGE 363
provided which serves the purpose of teeth in biting and
masticating the feed. The age of sheep under one year is
easily determined by the teeth, there being a full set of eight
milk or temporary incisors after twenty-eight or thirty days.
These temporary teeth are much smaller and whiter than
the permanent set. This is clearly evident on the appearance
of the first pair of permanent central incisors which are
darker in color, larger, broader and longer.
At one year to fecal months of age the two permanent
central incisors appear. These are much larger and stronger
than the milk teeth. They can easily be detected by this
difference. At eighteen to twenty-four months of age the
first intermediate incisors appear and at two and one-half
to three years the second intermediates appear. At four
years of age, or thereabouts, the fourth or corner pair of
incisors displace the temporary teeth, when the sheep has
a full mouth, and the age must thereafter be determined
by other signs. While it is not frequently necessary to
determine the age of sheep after the four-year stage, it is
sometimes desirable to do so. The only practical way
which this can be done is by observing the general
condition of the animal. As the age advances the loin
becomes hollow, the nostrils wide and the mouth assumes
a characteristic condition known as “broken mouth.”
When an animal reaches this stage it is beyond its practical
period of usefulness except in cases of valuable animals which
it is sometimes profitable to maintain by giving special
attention to the preparation of the feed.
EXPLANATION OF FIG. 145
1—Mouth. 11—Shoulder base. 21—Belly.
2—Nostrils. 12—Legs. 22—Sheath.
3—Eyes. 13—Foreflanks. 23—Scrotum or cod.
4—Forehead. 14—Heart girth. 24—Hindflanks.
5—Poll. 15—Crops. 25—Thigh or leg of
6—Ears. 16, 17—Back and loin. mutton.
7—Neck. 17—Loin. 26—Twist.
8—Throat. 18—Upper thigh. 27—Tail or dock.
9—Brisket or breast. 19—Coupling. 28—Rump.
10—Shoulder junction. 20—Sides.
Fia. 146.—Mutton and lamb cuts. (Courtesy of Illinois Agricultural
Experiment Station.) j
1, 2—Saddle. 1—Leg.
3, 4, 5—Rack. 2—Loin.
1, 2, 3—Long saddle. 3—Short rack.
2, 3, 4, 5—Body. 2, 3—Back.
4—Breast.
5—Chuck.
4, 5—Stew.
EXAMINATION OF FORM 365
Examination of Form.—The examination of a sheep when
properly made requires a different method of procedure than
when judging other animals. The usual method of examina-
tion may be employed if the wool is removed. However,
most sheep are judged when the wool is intact. This con-
dition requires a careful sense of touch and vivid imagina-
tion in order to picture the general form and character of the
underlying structure. A sheep with a full coat of wool
Fig. 147.—Determining the development of the neck and over the shoulders.
should always be examined cautiously, as the art of trimming
is so perfected that an experienced shepherd can block out
most any form desired. This is a common practice in the
show ring and experienced judges are always on the alert
for such a condition. While an animal need not be examined
with the hands to determine beauty and general appearance,
it is very essential to do so to determine the merits and
imperfections of the underlying structural form. Each
movement made by the person examining a sheep should
reveal the true condition of form of the part under examina-
366 JUDGING SHEEP
tion. Nothing should be passed over until a true visual
picture is obtained of the sheep as it would appear with the
wool removed. In order to accomplish this end most
satisfactorily some systematic method of examination should
be employed.
Head and Neck.—The examination should begin at the
head, first determining the age as previously indicated.
The shape of the head, its length, width and wool covering
Fig. 148.—Determining the fulness through the shoulders and chest.
should be determined, and likewise the expression, size and
brightness of the eyes and the set of .the ears. While very
few breeds of domesticated sheep possess horns, it is well
to determine whether there is any indication of them appear-
ing. In pure polled breeds of sheep this is of special sig-
nificance, as the appearance of horns, abortive or otherwise,
would likely indicate impurity in breeding. After completing
the examination of the head, the hands should be passed
along the neck to determine the form and condition of
this part. The blend of the neck into the shoulder should
EXAMINATION OF FORM 367
likewise be determined by continuing the hands toward the
shoulder, feeling the fulness of the shoulder vein during the
process.
Shoulders.—After completing this part of the shoulder
examination the right hand should be placed on top of the
shoulders to determine the width, smoothness, and firmness.
The hands, one on each side of the animal, should then be
passed down the line of the chest or girth which is back of the
Fie. 149.—Determining the development through the lower chest region
and in the flanks.
_ withers and shoulders, this constituting the junction of the
forequarters and body proper. The spring and depth of rib,
and fulness of chest and foreflank should thus be deter-
mined.
Body.— After determining the size and fulness of the
heart girth, the right hand should be brought to the top of the
shoulders, or slightly back of them, whence the left is passed
to the floor of the chest to determine the depth of the animal
in this part. The right hand should then be passed along
368 JUDGING SHEEP
Fre. 150.—Determining the amount of covering, its distribution and firm-
ness over the back and loin.
Fie. 151.—Determining the width and thickness of the loin.
EXAMINATION OF FORM 369
the back, pressing firmly with outstretched palm on the wool
to determine the thickness, firmness, and uniformity of the
flesh and condition in this part. After reaching the region
of the loin insert the tips of the fingers of each hand in the
barrel depression to determine the width of the loin. The
spring of rib should be determined by passing the hands along
the sides and on either side of the back-bone in such a way
that the true form will be revealed. The depth of the body
Hinesran®
Fig. 152.—Determining the development through the hindquarters.
in the region of the hindflank should be determined by placing
the right hand at the hook point and the left in the region
of the flank.
Hindquarters.—The fulness of the hindquarters should be
determined by passing the hands one on either side toward the
region of the tail-head. The left hand should then be placed
at the region of the hook point and the right at the point
of the buttock to determine the length of the hindquarters.
The size of the leg of mutton is determined by grasping the
leg with the left hand on a level with the flank and with the
24
370 JUDGING SHEEP
right at the rear, just below the extremity of the twist.
The size and fulness of the leg of mutton should thus be
determined by noting whether the hands meet in encircling
the part or whether there is an appreciable lack of so doing.
After this examination has been completed the student
should be able to picture vividly in his mind an exact model
Fig. 153.—Determining the development of the leg of mutton.
of the animal examined. Each animal in the class should be
examined in this way and after balancing the points of vital
consideration an estimate should be made of the usefulness
for the purpose in question, whether for breeding, show or
market.
Fleece.—In judging the fleece it should be opened at three
distinct places. It should be examined over the shoulder
MUTTON TYPE orl
about midway of the body and on the outside of the thigh.
The wool is finest in the shoulder region, coarsest in the thigh
region and medium in the body region. The wooling of the
face, legs, and belly should also be examined, as this is very
important, especially in breeding classes. While not of
such great importance in market animals, close and uniform
wooling characteristics are desirable. Close, compact wool
is indicative of good mutton qualities. In examining the
fleece 1t should be parted at a natural opening by pressing
the inner side of the hands on either side of the place to be
opened.!. This will avoid ruffling the wool, which is very
much disliked by shepherds and experienced handlers of
sheep. This examination for determining the quality of
the fleece should be made at the same time that the animal
is being examined to determine the characteristics of form.
The length, uniformity, density, crimp, quality, and yolk
constitute the main points for examination.
Mutton Type.—The mutton type of sheep is analogous
in form to the beef steer or the fat hog. The primary object
of production is to produce an edible product. The nearer
the form of a sheep approaches the established economic
meat-producing type, the more valuable it becomes. The
essential considerations, therefore, in mutton production are
involved primarily in the same attributes as possessed by
other meat-producing animals.
Weight.—The weight varies, depending upon the breed,
individuality and condition, the range in mature animals
with approved breeding varying from 125 to 400 pounds
gross. In market animals the weight is likewise dependent
upon breeding, age, and condition. Weight for age is the
standard of determining this attribute. The Southdown is
the smallest of the mutton breeds, although it is very com-
pact and especially desirable from the standpoint of mutton
production. The long-wool breeds which are represented
by the Lincolns, Leicesters, and Cotswolds, and the Oxfords
from the medium-wool type represent the other extreme.
Conformation.—Most of the domesticated breeds of sheep
are of English and Scotch origin. Breeds from this source
1See Fig. 158, page 379.
312 JUDGING SHEEP
constitute the principal mutton-producing animals. The
form should be square, compact, and the animal low set.
The body should be long, broad and deep. This should be
largely the result of long, well-sprung ribs closely spaced,
which gives width, depth, length, and compactness of form.
The head should be broad and full, the neck short and
compact, blending smoothly into the shoulder. The shoulder
Fic. 154.—An ideal type of Shropshire wether.
should be broad and smooth over the top, and full and com-
pact over the sides. In the region of the heart the form
should be full and the chest deep. There should be no
appreciable depression of form in the junction of the fore-
quarters with the body proper. The crops and flank should
be full and smooth. The back should be straight, carry out
well to the tail-head, and it should be parallel with the under-
line. The ribs should be well sprung, long and full, thus
MUTTON TYPE BY)
giving width and depth to the body. The hindquarters
should carry out square to the tail-head and _ buttocks.
Any inclination to narrowness in this region is exceptionally
objectionable. The leg of mutton constitutes the most
valuable part of the carcass and development in this region
should, therefore, be given special consideration.
Quality — Quality in sheep is important, the same as in
other animals, although the method of determination is
somewhat different from that used in horses, cattle and
swine. A measurement of this condition cannot be made
as largely by the eye and hand in sheep as in other animals.
Quality is usually in evidence about the head, which should
be clear in outline and free from any indication of coarseness.
Large, drooping ears, a heavy muzzle and a coarse, open
fleece are indicative of objectionable quality. The shoulders
should be smooth, the joints clean in outline and the bone
hard and refined in appearance. A fleece of fine quality,
showing density, and fine hair on the face, ears and legs is
also indicative of this attribute. The general demeanor
should all indicate clean, trim features and outline of form
devoid of waste. The skin should present a bright, pink,
healthy appearance. A light, pale skin is indicative of
general lack of health and thriftiness.
Constitution.—Constitution is of special significance in
breeding sheep. If the butcher could eliminate the parts of
the sheep indicative of constitution it would be a desirable
thing from his standpoint, as all of the readily salable por-
tions are located in the loin and leg of mutton, while the
head, neck, and forequarters, the parts which indicate con-
stitution, are comparatively low-priced cuts. In actual
practice the breeder and feeder have problems to contend
with as well as the butcher. It is therefore necessary to
have a broad, strong head, a large muzzle and nostrils, and
a broad and deep chest, these being the chief indications of
constitutional vigor. Like quality, every part of the animal
should portray strong breeding and feeding attributes.
These are dependent largely on form and constitution, the
former indicating possession of qualities which will enable the
sheep to use feed to good advantage, and the latter the con-
374 JUDGING SHEEP
tinuance of this process until the period of breeding or feed-
ing is terminated. The general appearance of the animal is
quite indicative of strength and vigor. A weakly constitu-
tioned animal is portrayed by a small, pointed head and
muzzle, small, sunken eyes, a narrow, shallow chest, and a
dull, lifeless fleece.
Capacity.—The attributes of capacity have been given
consideration largely under the description of form or
conformation. Length and depth of body are important,
as sheep of this description develop rapidly during the
normal growing period and thereby attain other important
qualifications. Every part of the animal form should show
capacity for breeding and feeding. The shallow body is
very objectionable, as an animal with such conformation is
usually cramped in the digestive capacity and therefore
cannot use feed to advantage. Flat ribs, depressed crops,
and a narrow loin are especially objectionable. Taken as a
whole, the animal should show sufficient length, depth
and symmetry of form to make, not only a strong vigorous
breeder, but a producer of market animals conforming
closely to the standard type desired.
Condition.—Condition is one of the first qualifications
noticed by the buyer of animals fattened for market purposes.
This is true because it is necessary to mingle muscle and fat
to give a carcass a tender, juicy condition. The extent of
fitting sheep for market, show or sale depends on conditions.
They are usually fitted to the extreme for the show ring as
custom has fixed this standard in bringing out all there is in
an animal. Sheep should be highly fitted for the market,
although fitting should never be overdone, as a soft, blubbery
carcass is inferior in quality from the butcher’s standpoint.
An animal fitted to such a condition never appears to the
best advantage in the show ring or on the market.
An overconditioned animal can be determined by noting
whether the fat has slipped. When in an overdone condition
there is an accumulation of soft fat either in the foreflank,
at the tail-head, on the ribs, or around the loin. A sheep in
the best condition for the butcher is smooth, firm, and uniform
in the fat covering. Any adverse condition is not only
MUTTON TYPE Ble
objectionable but unsatisfactory in securing the best market
prices. Buyers often test the condition by grasping the
animal with one hand over the region of the back, loin and
ribs or at the dock. A full, firm, yet springy, even condition
of these parts is indicative of proper finish.
Maturity.—Sheep are mature when two years of age,
considered from the standpoint of the breeder. In mutton
Fic. 155.—A sheep in field condition.
production, broadly speaking, the age may range from
that of the early lamb to the yearling, or to normally
mature animals sold or discarded from the breeding herd. In
judging market animals, maturity from the purely market
standpoint is all that need receive attention, other condi-
tions being equal. In judging breeding animals, however,
weight attainments for age are especially important. _
Deception from Trimming.—Deception from trimming is
best illustrated by examining a sheep with the wool under
376 JUDGING SHEEP
Fria. 156.—A sheep trimmed for show, illustrating how form can be improved.
(Photograph hy author.)
Fie. 157.—A sheep with wool removed, showing natural contour. (Photo-
graph by author.)
FLEECE CHARACTERISTICS oul
normal field conditions, with the sheep blocked out in a
square, compact form, and the same sheep with the wool
removed. This will bring out all of the possible points of
deception. It will be noted that a very unsymmetrical
sheep from the structural standpoint may be made to appear
as having an ideal mutton form. Ordinarily the defects
covered by blocking and trimming may be located on almost
any part of the body exclusive of the legs or other portions
where wool does not normally grow.
Fleece Characteristics..—The intrinsic value of an animal
is determined by the sum total of all of its marketable
products. The sheep, unlike most other animals, has an
additional commodity in the wool, which not only serves as
a protection to the animal, but which enters into commerce
as an important product. The value of the wool, therefore,
should be carefully determined in connection with the
mutton-producing qualities. Although the fleece from an
individual animal is not normally a large consideration,
measured in dollars and cents, it is oftentimes, under certain
conditions, sufficient to cover the annual cost of maintenance.
While extreme wool and mutton-producing qualities are
antagonistic, it is important to produce as good a quality of
wool as consistent with the production of mutton of the
best quality.
There are three commonly accepted types of wool, measured
in terms of breed production. These are namely: fine wools,
medium wools, and long wools. In judging fleece character-
istics 1t is necessary to take into consideration the type of
sheep on which the wool is produced. The fine-wool breeds
produce wool comparatively short and fine in quality. The
crimp is close and the yolk excessive. The medium-wool
breeds produce wool of average length and fineness. On
the best individuals of these breeds the wool is unusually
fine and uniform in distribution. The long-wool breeds
produce a long and rather open fleece, lacking in crimp,
and the excessive amount of yolk, as found in the fine-wool
breeds. In order to judge these characteristics understand-
1 Special reference, The Wool Grower and The Wool Trade, by F. R.
Marshall and L. L. Heller, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture.
378 JUDGING SHEEP.
ingly, it is necessary to have a clear idea of the kind of
wool produced by the various types of sheep. Market
considerations are also important, but if the three distinct
types of wool are clearly understood and their qualities
defined from the breed-production standpoint, the value of
the fleece may bé judged accurately from the viewpoint of
the stockman.
- Method of Examination.—In judging fleece characteristics
the best results are obtained by following some regular
procedure in making the examination. ‘The wool covering
of the head should first be noted, after which it should be
examined over the shoulder, mid-body, and outer thigh
respectively. With the fingers extending straight and held
close together, the wool should first be opened over the
shoulder. This should be done by parting the wool at a
natural opening to avoid ruffling or matting it. The finest
wool grows in this region, and a determination of the quality
in this part should not be taken as the standard. The wool
should next be opened over the mid-body and outer thigh
in the same manner. A balance of the fleece characteristics
indicated in these parts will furnish an accurate guide to
the wooling qualities throughout.
Before deciding finally on the value of the fleece the
sheep should be turned up on the buttocks and an examina-
tion made of the wool covering over the belly and on the
legs. The quantity, quality, length, density, purity, close-
ness of crimp, yolk, and soundness should all receive close
consideration in the general examination. In making a final
summary of the value of a mutton sheep, the mutton and
wool qualifications should both be taken into consideration.
While the wool is a by-product in the mutton sheep its value
should be coérdinated with the mutton-producing qualifica-
tions. In the fine-wool breeds the reverse condition is true,
the wool being of chief consideration.
Throughout the examination the fingers should be extended
and held closely together to avoid ruffling the wool. The
fingers should never be thrust in the folds of the wool as it
usally leaves an impression which it is difficult to overcome,
especially in sheep fitted for show. As in judging the form
FLEECE CHARACTERISTICS 379
and condition of an animal the first examination should
reveal the true condition and value of the fleece.
Quality —The quality of a fleece is determined by the fine-
ness of the fiber, the closeness of the crimp, and the softness
or pliability of the staple.
The fineness has reference to the size of the fiber. This is
very closely associated with the crimp, which should be
close and uniform in contradistinction to the open-spiralled
fleece of the long-wool breeds. A diseased or ill-fed sheep
usually has a very objectionable fleece because of weakness
Fira. 158.—Method of examining the character, quality and condition
of the fleece. Wool should be parted at a natural opening. Fingers should
be kept close together to avoid ruffling wool.
of fiber and irregularity in the crimp. In a healthy, well-
fed sheep the crimp is uniform, while otherwise it is long
and wavy. An irregular growth is undesirable because of
the lack of uniform fineness and strength of fiber. Ifa sheep
remains in an unhealthy condition for any great length of
time, the wool retains a weak place which usually reduces the
value very materially. Wool with a perceptible weakness
goes in a class for shorter stapled wools.
In making an examination of the quality of a fleece, the
fineness and closeness of crimp should be carefully deter-
mined as well as the condition of the fiber. The softness
380 JUDGING SHEEP
or pliability is readily determined by pressing on the fleece
with the palm of the hand, fingers extended. If there is a
firm yet pliable condition the wool possesses the requisite of
softness. If there is a dry, harsh touch, the wool is lacking
in yolk or oil to give it the necessary pliability to retain a
normal, healthy condition. When the secretion is ample,
the scales on the fibers retain their close-fitting position,
while if the secretion is not sufficient the scales stand out
and give the harsh, grating touch characteristic of a dry,
unhealthy or cotted fleece. A sheep which is well fed and
otherwise properly managed usually exhibits it in the con-
dition of the fleece as well as the body.
Quantity.—The quantity of the fleece is indicated by the
length, density, and uniformity of staple. The length of
staple varies, depending on the breed and the season of the
year. ‘The fleece should be judged with these three factors
in mind. The long or coarse wools include those produced
by the Lincoln, Leicester, and Cotswold. The medium
wools include those from the Southdown, Shropshire, Hamp-
shire, Oxford, Suffolk, Cheviot, and Dorset, and the fine or
short wools those produced by the Rambouillet, American
and Delaine Merino. Short-staple wools are used in the
manufacture of woolens and felts, while long-staple wools
are adapted to producing worsted goods made from strong,
fine yarn.
Density refers to the closeness or compactness of the
fibers. If the fibers are not close it depreciates the value of
the fleece greatly, not only on account of the amount of wool,
but because of the depreciation in quality. An open fleece
is also very objectionable because of the lack of protection
afforded the sheep. An open fleece is often influential in
causing an animal to become diseased through continuous
exposure to storms and it is difficult to keep such a fleece
free from foreign matter.
Uniformity of covering influences greatly the wool clip.
Sheep which are bare on the head, belly and legs are very
undesirable, unless it is with breeds which are not naturally
heavily wooled over these parts. Not only are these regions
important but the uniformity of covering as well over the
back, shoulders, sides, and thighs. An open, spiral condition
FLEECE CHARACTERISTICS 381
about the thighs or elsewhere is very objectionable, although
it frequently occurs.
Purity —An examination of the fleece should reveal a clean,
pure condition. The skin should be of a healthy pink color
and from it the wool should grow evenly and without any
indication of kemp or dead fibers. The original sheep was
covered with a harsh, hair-like covering beneath which was a
soft-wool fiber. Domestication and improvement by man
has eliminated the coarse outer covering and in its place a
uniform covering of wool has been bred by proper selection.
Inclination to revert to the original condition should be dis-
covered, as dead, kempy wool is very objectionable because
of its undesirable qualities in the manufacture of fabrics.
Kemp will not absorb dyes and wherever these fibers appear
in the cloth they reduce the value materially because of the
discoloration and the harsh appearance in the product.
Other than these dead fibers of wool, there should be
freedom from foreign material of any kind. While allowance
should be made for judging sheep in field condition, proper
care will avert a large part of the dirt and filth often found
in the fleeces upon examination. The introduction of any
preparation to increase the oil or yolk content or to improve
the texture or general appearance of the fleece is very
objectionable.
Lustre.—The lustre of a fleece refers to the character or
glistening appearance of the fiber. Lustrous wools have a
glistening or brilliant appearance. While this would seem
to make wool harsh it does not cause such a condition. Dull
wools are dead or lifeless in appearance and on handling
there is a very decided harshness characteristic of dead or
dry hair. When held to the light there is no tendency to
glisten. Wools of this character are very much less valuable
than those of a lofty, fresh lustrous appearance.
Yolk.—Y olk is an oil secreted by oil glands. This exudes
on the fibers of wool and out to the extreme outer surface
where it collects and in some breeds forms a hard crust on
the coat. This condition is especially characteristic of the
fine-wool breeds which have an unusual amount of this oil
in the fleece. Sheep in healthy condition should show a
JUDGING SHEEP
382
SUOT}IPUOD [BINZeVU JopuN posonpoid 4seq oe [OOM snorjsny{
‘
punos’ puv
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AY
yeoH—
6ST
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MARKET CLASSIFICATION OF WOOL 383
uniform distribution of yolk throughout the fleece. This con-
dition in sheep may be compared to the much-coveted oily
condition of the skin and hair of the Guernsey cow. Only
enough yolk should be exuded to keep the fleece in a soft,
healthy condition. Any in excess of this amount is of no
use whatever, as the manufacturer uses only the scoured
wool. An uneven distribution of yolk indicates unthriftiness.
Layers or flakes of yolk throughout the fleece show that the
glands secreting this fluid are out of condition. This is an
index to the regularity of the vital organs of the animal.
When such a condition is present the feeding and manage-
ment of the animal should be investigated, as invariably it
is the result of improper care or a generally unhealthy con-
dition.
Soundness.—Sound wool is of great importance to the
manufacturer because of the increased value given to the
finished product. Unsound wools would of necessity make
unsound cloth, because of the irregularity in the strength
of the yarn, whether in woolen or worsted goods. There
should be a uniform condition of strength and crimp through-
out the fleece.
A diseased condition of the animal may cause dead or weak
places in the fleece. The location of the unsoundness depends
on the stage of development of the fleece when the disease
appears. The weakness may be in the top, the bottom or
middle of the wool. This leads to the expression of wools
with weak tops, weak bottoms or weak middles. In classi-
fying wools, what would otherwise be a combing wool if
sound would enter into the class for clothing wools because
of the shortness of fiber made necessary through dividing
the fiber at the location of the weakness.
Market Classification of Wool.—Market wool is classified
into clothing, delaine and combing staple. This classification
is based on the length, strength and fineness of fiber, shrink-
age or condition, color and character. Each of the domestic
staples is divided into various commercial grades.
Clothing Wool.—Clothing wool is used for making the
highest grades of woolen cloth. It is a fine, short staple
averaging about two inches in length. Clothing wools are
384 JUDGING SHEEP
graded on their quality into Picklock, XXX, XX, X, No. 1
or one-half blood, No. 2 or three-eighths blood, and No. 3
or quarter blood. Picklock and XXX are rare.
Delaine Wool.—Delaine wool is about three inches in
length, sound in staple and is used in manufacturing delaine
cloth. The wool is further graded into fine, medium, and
low. It is also classed under combing wools.
Combing Wool.—Combing wool averages three or more
inches in length. It should be strong enough to withstand the
combing process. Such wool is graded into half-blood, three-
eighths blood, quarter blood, low-quarter blood, and braid.
Variation in Fleece.—Each fleece contains a number of
distinct grades of wool; for instance, the finest wool of the
fleece is found over the heart or along the shoulders, the
next finest along the sides. The back of the fleece which has
been most exposed to the rays of the sun and weather is
usually dry and harsh. The neck, legs, and lower parts of
the fleece yield shorter wool, while the lowest grade is found
on the hindquarters.
Before any of the wool is actually worked in the mills
it is sorted according to the grade and thence used for the
various purposes on which it is adapted. This emphasizes
the necessity of having the fleece uniform in quality and
condition throughout. While this is difficult to find in
the average sheep, yet the nearer this condition can be
approached the higher the wool will grade and the more
valuable it will be on the market. Kemp and foreign matter
damage the wool materially and for this reason care should
be exercised in detecting the condition.
Score Carp ror Mutron SHEEP.
GENERAL APPEARANCE—40 Points. Perfect score.
Weight: score according to age. Be icy thee 6
Form: long, level, deep, broad, low set, stylish ; 10
Quality: clean bone, silky hair, fine skin, light in offal, yield-
ing large percentage of meat. : 10
Condition: deep, even covering of ‘firm flesh especially in
region of valuable cuts. Points indicating condition or
ripeness are thick dock, back thickly covered with flesh,
thick neck, full purse, full, low flank, plump breast 10
Temperament: lymphatie, inclined to fatten. : utd 4
Carried forward’) 02 5. ug bs oie. te aes ear ae ee eee)
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 38o
Perfect score.
SROUCMURRORW.AROG tes ast eo Che We Deve TU oie inane oO
Heap AND Necx—6 Points.
Muzzle: fine, mouth large, lips thin, nostrils large 1
Eyes: large, clear, placid . alee can Cy SAS pal ee acuta a aN 1
Face: short, clean-cut features . . . . . .. . =. 1
Forehead: broad, full . 1
Ears: fine, erect. 1
Neck: thick, short, throat free from folds 1
Fornquarters—4 Points.
Shoulder Vein: full :
Shoulder: covered with flesh, ‘compact 0 on top, smooth
Brisket: projecting forward, breast wide.
Legs: straight, short, wide apart suOnEg, forearm full, shank
smooth and fine pera thee Ae
Bopy—26 Points.
Chest: wide, deep, full, indicating constitution — .
Back: broad, straight, ‘long pide, ees fleshed, ribs arched
Loin: thick, ’broad, long...
HinpquartTEers—12 Points.
Hips: far apart, level, smooth
Rump: long, level, wide to tail-head
Thighs: full, deep, wide sone
Twist: plump, deep.
Legs: straight, short, strong; shank smooth, fine .
FLEECE—12 Points.
Kind: domestic, territory, carpet or blanket.
Class: clothing, delaine or combing.
Grade: fine, medium, or coarse.
Quantity: long, dense, even distribution . . . . . . 4
Quality: fine, pure; crimp close, regular,even. . . . . 4
Condition: bright, sound, clean, soft, ight. . . . . . 4
ee :
@\V(=>)(p) —_ Stile es
mow tO bh
RO tala ia oieaeg ee re tea ee ee te OO
Breed Characteristics.—Sheep are classified by types and
breeds as follows, the classification being based on mutton-
and wool-producing qualifications:
Mutton.—Long wool: Lincoln, Leicester and Cotswold.
Medium wool: Shropshire, Southdown, Hampshire, Oxford,
Cheviot, Dorset, Romney, Suffolk, and Tunis.
Wool.—Fine wool: American Merino, Delaine Merino,
and Rambouillet.
They are further described in detail as follows on a basis
of type and breed characteristics:
Lincoln.—The Lincoln breed of sheep originated in
Lincolnshire, England. It is among the largest breeds
produced. The weight of the rams varies from 250 to 300
20
386 JUDGING SHEEP
pounds, the ewes ranging somewhat lighter in weight. The
color is pure white, the wool extending up to the poll and
throttle with a characteristic tuft on the forehead. ‘The
wool extends down to the knees and hocks. The head
and legs are covered with white hair. The fleece is long,
moderately fine, considering type, and hangs in spiralsor locks.
In general appearance the breed is massive, some specimens
Fig. 160.—Lincoln ram.
reaching a weight of 400 pounds. The back is broad,
level and the flesh reasonably firm. The breed is polled,
broad between the eyes and inclined to be Roman-nosed.
It does not rank high as a mutton producer, as the quality
of mutton is not extra and there is an excessive amount
of waste in the dressed carcass. The disposition is docile,
although the breed is not the best suited to general pro-
duction. The fleece attains an extraordinary length. It
should not be less than eight inches in length for one year’s
BREED CHARACTERISTICS | 387
growth. In quality it is somewhat better than that of the
Leicester. The breed ranks fair in breeding qualities.
For average conditions it is too large and does not possess
enough quality either in the mutton or wool.
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF Points FoR LINCOLN
SHEEP.
' Points.
ConstTITUTION.—Body deep, back wide and straight; wide and
full in the thigh; bright, large eyes; skin soft and of a pink color — 25
Size.—Matured rams not less than 250 pounds when in good
condition. Matured ewes not less than 200 pounds. 10
APPEARANCE.—Good carriage and symmetry of form .. 10
Bopy.—Well proportioned, good bone and length; broad hind-
quarters; legs standing well apart; breast wide and deep... 15
Hrap.—Should be covered with wool to the ears; tuft on forehead;
eyes expressive; ears fair length; dotted or mottled in color . 10
Necx.—Medium length; good muscle; well set on body . 5
Leas.—Broad and set well apart; good shape; color white, but
some black spots do not disqualify; wooled to the knees. 10
FLeEcE.—Of even. length and quality over eos not less than
eight inches long for one year’s growth . 10
QUALITY OF Woou.—Rather fine, long wool; : strong, lustrous
hier NogvendencyntOncObe ale Soeig se aut ee he es ale: 5)
Mo tales cua cer St Sh ein cris wan ea sh OQ
Leicester.—The Leicester ranks as one of the large breeds,
although it is the smallest one belonging to the long-wool
type. The rams average in weight from 200 to 250 pounds,
the ewes ranging 50 to 75 pounds lighter. The form is
square, although inclined to be somewhat upstanding. There
are two types of the breed, the Bakewell and Border Leicester,
however, the standard of excellence makes no distinction in
them. The Bakewell type is white in color, large, long
wooled, and is somewhat long in the leg. The head of the
English Leicester has a tuft of wool and the face has a
bluish tint, small black spots often appearing on the head
and ears. The ears are erect, thin, and well poised. The
neck is short, the body wide in the rib, although the
quarters are inclined to be rounded and narrow. The
breast is prominent, thus giving an unusually square appear-
ance. The breed is polled and somewhat inclined to be
Roman-nosed. ‘The quality of the fleece is good for a long-
388 JUDGING SHEEP
wooled breed. It is medium in length and hangs in spiral
locks over the body. The fleece does not extend beyond
the ears usually or below the knees or hocks. ‘The two
types of Leicesters are distinguished by the white face and
freedom from wool thereon in the Border Leicester, and the
bluish-white face and tuft of wool on the head of the English
Leicester. The breed is unusually refined and possesses a
docile disposition. It is more popular in Canada than in
the United States.
Fic. 161.—Leicester ram.
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF POINTS FOR LEICESTER
SHEEP.
Points.
Hrap.—Long, moderately small, tapering toward the muzzle;
white and well covered with hair: lips and nostrils black
Nost.—Somewhat narrow, almost ‘straight in ewes, and slightly
Roman in rams
Facr.—Having a wedge- shaped appearance, well covered with
fine white hairs Ufc eR eh gaat
S|
j=) bo No Oo
Carried forward
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 389
Points.
Brought forward. 10
Ears.—Thin, rather long, mobile and directed backward; ‘a black
speck on face and earsnot uncommon . . . . . .. . 2
Eyrs.—Large and prominent . 4
Necx.—Strong and moderately short, level with the back and
broad at the base where it leaves the chest, gradually tapering
toward the head, being fine where head and neck join; neck
straight from chest, showing a straight line from rump to poll 6
Breast.—Deep, broad and full 8
SHOULDERS.— Upright, wide across the top, eiving good thickness
through the heart. : 6
CHEST. — Well filled behind the shoulder, “with large eirth | i 6
Backx.—Broad and well fleshed, ribs well sprung, loins wide, hips
level, quarters straight and long : 12
BarreEL.—Round, well-ribbed home, str aight ‘lines above and
below . 10
Lecs.—Of moderate length, fairly large and wide apart, with
strong, flat bone, covered with white hair; brown hair or spots
objectionable Aisne ao et lar eah RPE ne = 6
FLesH.—Firm, springy pelt; pink skin Want 8
FLEEcE.—Fine, uniform and sound in staple, curly, with ood,
bright lustre ‘and no dark hairs or kemp, belly well cover eds. 10
Carcass.—Rectangular, legs well set on, hocks straight, pasterns
good, with neat feet, good general appearance . . . . . 12
AO taleane rat sadn ey eee che ahly te WW, oer)
Cotswold.—The Cotswold breed, a native of the Cotswold
Hills, England, is of remote lineage. -The breed ranks with
the Lincoln in size, rams weighing from 250 to 275 pounds or
more in moderate flesh. This is an average mutton breed,
the quality being somewhat inferior and the percentage of
fat and offal too great. The breed is hornless, and the face
usually white, although sometimes spotted with gray or brown.
The head is broad between the muzzle and eyes, while the
nose is somewhat Roman. The breed is alert, having con-
siderable expression, and often a dignified appearance. The
back is broad, although the body is at times shallow, making
the animal appear leggy. The legs have the same color:
markings as the head. The breed ranks only fair in mutton
quality, considering type, the coarse texture of mutton and
external fat being criticisms against the breed. The fleece is
similar to the Lincoln, hanging in locks or ringlets over the
body. The breed is characterized by a heavy forelock of
wool which hangs over the face and eyes. The fleece often
390 JUDGING SHEEP
has extreme length, attaining a length of ten inches or more.
Although considerable improvement has been effected in the
weight, symmetry, maturing qualities, and fleece charactistics
the demand for a smaller, earlier maturing breed of mutton
sheep has mitigated against the general introduction of the
Cotswold.
Fic. 162.—Cotswold ewe.
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF PoINTS FOR COTSWOLD
Ram.
Points
Herap.—Not too fine, moderately small, and broad between the
eyes and nostrils, but without a short, thick appearance, and
in young animals ‘well covered on crown with long, lustrous wool §
Face.—Hither white or slightly mixed with gray, or white uap bled
with brown. 4
Nostrits.—Wide and expanded, nose dark . 1
Eyes.—Prominent, but mild looking : 2
Ears.—Broad, long, eee el thin, and covered with short
hair. : : 4
Carried forward 19
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 391
Points.
Brought forward . 19
CoLiar.—Full from breast and shoulders, tapering gradually all
the way to where the neck and head join. The neck should be
short, thick and strong, indicating constitutional vigor, and free
from coarse and loose skin . 6
SHOULDERS.—Broad and full, and at the same time join so gradu-
ally to the collar forward and chine backward as not to leave
the least hollow in either place ; 8
ForELEGS.—The mutton on the arm or forethigh should come
quite to the knee. Leg upright with heavy bone, being clear
from superfluous skin, with wool to fetlock, and may be mixed
with gray . 4
Breast.—Broad and well forward, keeping ‘the legs apart, girth
or chest, fulland deep . 10
FOREFLANK. —Quite full, not showing hollow behind the shoulder 5
Back Anp Lorn. —Broad, flat and straight, from which the ribs
must spring with a fine, Cincularsarches neha seed cn 12
BELuLy.—Straight on underline. 3
QuarTers.—Long and full, with mutton. quite down to the hock 8
Hock.—Should stand neither in or out. 2
Twisr.—Or junction inside the thighs, deep, ‘wide and full, which,
with a broad breast, will keep the legs open and upright Gees 5
Bunce: .—The whole body should be covered with tone lustrous is
WOO lene roe taney maa ec a eS Me egy LN ea ratte
ARO LAL wenme ae ara imc ten OR BUS oe shire SS 10
Medium Wool.—Shropshire.—The Shropshire is one of the
most widely distributed breeds of sheep in existence. While
there is some variation in type, the breed possesses certain
well-defined characteristics. The quality of the Shropshire
is excellent, and when matured for market the lambs and
mature sheep make a good quality of lamb and mutton.
The quality is exhibited very strikingly in the general
trimness of the animal. The bone is medium in size and ~
possesses good quality.
The size of the rams ranges from 175 to 225 pounds, and
the ewes from 125 to 175 pounds. The breed possesses good
constitution and exhibits considerable hardiness, although
there are other breeds which surpass it. The most striking
characteristics are the head which is broad, deep and almost
completely covered with wool. The eyes and the extremity
of the muzzle are the only parts which are not covered
with wool, although in some cases it is so dense that the eye-
sight is almost completely obstructed. The fleece is medium
392 JUDGING SHEEP
in length, compact, and should extend from the muzzle ex-
tremity well down to the hoofs on characteristic animals
of the breed. The muzzle is usually dark brown or black
and also that part of the legs which may not be covered
with wool. The Shropshire possesses most striking breed
characteristics. The breed is hornless, the ears small, short,
and should be covered with short, fine wool. Large ears are
Fig. 163.—Shropshire ram.
objectionable. The Shropshire is a strong-backed breed,
and usually has good depth of body. The brisket is usually
full and square. ‘The fleece covers the entire body uniformly
and exhibits unusual quality. The breed is early maturing,
the lambs growing and fattening uniformly at an early age.
The mutton and wool combination, size, quality, and
maturity are popular with the numerous advocates of the
breed.
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 393
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF POINTS FOR SHROP-
SHIRE SHEEP.
Points.
GENERAL APPEARANCE.—Attractive, indicating breeding and
quality, with stylish carriage, and a symmetrical form covered
with a dense fleece. 25
ConstiTtuTION.—Robust, as indicated by width and depth of chest,
strength and formation of neck, and by bold, active movement 10
Size.—In breeding condition when fully matured, rams should
weigh not less than 180 to 225 pounds, and ewes not less than
125 to 170 pounds 10
FLEECE AND Sxrn.—Fleece of good length, dense, elastic to
touch, medium fine, free from black fibre, slightly crimped,
with evenness of texture throughout; scrotum of rams well
covered with wool. Skin light ‘cherry color, free from dark
spots. 15
Bopy.—Well proportioned, with shoulders well placed, fitting
smoothly upon the chest, which should be deep and wide, broad
and straight back, thick loins well covered with firm flesh;
hindquarters well finished; twist deep and full . . . 20
Heap anp Necx.—Head short, broad between the ears and eyes,
bold and masculine in rams, without horns, well covered with
wool, ears short and erect, eyes bright, color of face and ears
dark brown. Neck of medium length, strong and muscular
‘(especially in rams), symmetrically joined to head and_ shoul-
ders. Rams with horns or stubs are disqualified as heads of
flocks. 15
Lecs.—Well set ‘apart, broad, ‘short, ‘straight, color dark brown,
and well wooled; pastern str ong and Lor GG eee ee elena 5
ARG Cellnet ree erate ras agi ora sins dartummnine ra ol OO)
Hampshire.—The Hampshire breed ranks rather large
in size and like the Shropshire, has certain very marked
breed characteristics. The face is dark brown in color,
broad, long, and the nose very strikingly Roman in appear-
ance. The legs are also dark brown or black in appearance.
The fleece is medium in length, reasonably dense, but not as
good in quality as in the Shropshire or Southdown, lacking
in length, density, fineness and an even distribution.
In general appearance, the Hampshire is a large, long,
broad, and deep animal. It is second to the Oxford in size.
The legs are of medium length, thus giving the animal a
fairly low-set appearance. ‘There is some inclination to
narrowness and shallowness in the heart girth. The weight
of the rams ranges from 200 to 250 pounds and the ewes
394 JUDGING SHEEP
from 175 to 200 pounds in sheep of standard weight. The
quality is fair, there being some inclination to coarseness.
The breed is hornless, and ranks well for crossing on other
breeds for the production of mutton. One of the principal
points in favor of the breed is the large size to which it
attains early in life, thus giving size and maturity to the
lambs at a much younger age than otherwise. Taken as a
Fria. 164.—Hampshire ram.
whole, the Hampshire is not as compact or as good in quality
either in mutton or fleece as the Shropshire or Southdown.
However it ranks well as a mutton sheep, having a reasonably
wide distribution in England, America and other countries.
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF Pornts FOR HaAmp-
SHIRE SHEEP.
Detailed Description.
Heap AND LEGS:
Head: moderately large, but not coarse; well covered with
wool on forehead and cheeks.
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 395
Nostrils: wide.
Color: (head and legs) dark brown or black
Eyes: prominent and lustrous.
Hae moderately long and thin, and dark brown or black
color.
Legs: well under outside of body, straight, with good size
of bone, black.
Nerck, SHOULDERS AND CHEST:
Neck: A regular taper from shoulders to head, without any
hollow in front of shoulders, set high up on body.
Splat sloping, full, and not higher than the line of back
and n
Chest: dees and full in the heart place, with breast prominent
and full.
Bopy:
Back: straight, with full spring of rib.
Loin: wide and straight, without depression in front of hips.
Quarters: long from hips to rump, without sloping, and deep
in thigh. Broad in hips and rump, with full hams. Inside
of thigh full.
ScaLE or Pornts:
Points.
Head: size and shape, 5; ears and ae 3; color, 5; legs and
feet, 2 . 15
Neck: shoulders and breast—neck, “5; ‘shoulders, 10; chest
and breast, 15. Jigs sme uta aah Gee Siriaas “ooh oC)
Body: back and loins, ‘15; ‘rib, 5 Wi tchemenae casas annhe DO
Quarters: length, 10; width, Hie twist, 5 25
Wool: forehead and cheeks, 2; belly, well covered, 3; quality, 5 10
Ro taliie or ean ee eo mala cera ya LQ)
Southdown.— The Southdown is the smallest of the
middle wool breeds of sheep. The weight of rams ranges
from 150 to 175 pounds and ewes from 130 to 140 pounds.
From the standpoint of form and quality, the breed is
almost ideal. The animal is straight in its lines, squarely
built, and compact throughout. The latter attribute is
one of the most desirable qualities of the breed. The bone
is fine, the fat not excessive and the flesh of the finest flavor.
The color of the face and legs is of a rich grayish brown. The
fleece extends over the poll and forehead, up to the eyes and
to the extremity of the lower jaws. On the legs it extends
well below the knees and hocks. The fleece is of medium
length, fine in quality, very dense and has a close crimp for
396 JUDGING SHEEP
a medium wool breed. The fleece is short, however, and
lacking in yolk.
_ The breed is hornless, the head broad, the ears rather small
and neatly set, the eyes bright, the muzzle large and the
nostrils open. The neck is short and compact, the shoulders
smooth, and the crops full. The body of the animal is very
nearly ideal from the mutton standpoint, it having the
desired length, width, squareness and fulness of body, back
Fig. 165.—Southdown ram.
and loin. The leg of mutton is well developed, having
quality and compactness. The constitution is quite well.
developed as indicated by the rather large muzzle and
nostril and the broad, deep chest. The legs are of medium
length, the bone of medium size and fine quality. The con-
formation of the Southdown meets the demands of the
butcher in compactness and quality. The breed lacks size,
however, and may be criticised somewhat from this stand-
point, as well as having a light fleece.
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 397
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF Points FoR SouTH-
DOWN SHEP.
Points.
Heap.—Medium in size and hornless, fine, carried well up, the
forehead or face well covered with wool, especially between the
ears and on the cheeks, and in the ewe slightly dished 5
Lips and Unper Jaw.—Fine and thin . 1
Hars.—Rather small, tolerably wide apart, covered with fine
hair, and carried with a lively back-and-forth movement 2
Eyrs.—Full and bright 3
Facu.—A uniform tint of brown, or oray, or mouse color. 3
Necx.—Short, fine at the head, but nicely tapering, and broad
and str aight on top at the shoulders 4
SRCULDERS, .—Broad and full, smoothly j joining the neck with the
ack. 5
BREAST. —Wide, ‘deep and projecting well forward, the forelegs
‘standing wide apart . 5
Back.—Back and loin broad and straight from shoulders to rump 7
Riss.—Well arched, extending far backward, the last projecting
more than the others —. : 6
Rump.—Broad, square and full, with tail well set up 6
Hirs.—Wide, with little space between them and last ribs 6
Turaus.—Full and well let down in twist, the legs standing well
apart 6
Limps.—Short and fine in ‘bone, and in color to agree with the
face 3
ForELEGS.—Well wooled and carrying mutton to the knees, ‘but
free from meat below 2
Hinpiecs.—Well filled with mutton and wooled to the hocks,
neat and clean below. 2
Bretity.—Straight and covered with wool, the flank extending so
as to form a line parallel with the back or top line... 5
FLEECE.—Compact, the whole body well covered with moder ately
long and close wool, white in color, carrying some yolk. . 12
Form.—Throughout smooth and symmetrical, with no coarseness
In any part. 8)
GENERAL APPEARANCE. —Spirited and attractive, ‘with a deter-
mined look, a proud and firm step, indicating constitutional
vigor and thorough | oO) gerero pv ay Uaiaivente Oa Mae Aa corns ON et nie tees tery ace Mona 8
ETFO Gal leachate Gig ee ete oe er aah ee acuta e costunbee ML (DQ)
Oxford.—The Oxford, which is a derivative of a Hamp-
shire-Cotswold cross, is the largest of the medium wool
breeds of sheep. In some respects it resembles the Shrop-
shire and Hampshire breeds, although it is larger in size.
The breed is somewhat variable in this respect, standard
rams of the breed weighing from 250 to 350 pounds and
ewes from 180 to 275. The constitution of the Oxford is
well developed, as indicated by the broad, deep chest which
398 JUDGING SHEEP
extends well forward, thus giving a large chest capacity. The
frame is large, which provides for the extraordinary size to
which the breed develops. The animal is long in body, deep,
broad, and square over the back.
The head is large and somewhat inclined to be plain,
although not to a serious extent. The forehead is broad,
the jaws deep and the muzzle large and characterized by
Fig. 166.—Oxford ram.
open nostrils. ‘The neck is full, broad, and compact, the
shoulders smoothly developed and the chest girth square and
full. The leg of mutton is large, although it does not possess
the quality of some of the smaller breeds. The fleece covers
the entire animal, with the exception of the face, cheeks,
muzzle extremity, and frequently the legs from the knees
and hocks down. The face and legs are uniformly brown
in color. The fleece of this breed is rather coarse and open.
It is ordinarily classed as the longest and coarsest fleece
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 399
grown by the Down breeds. The skin of the Oxford is not
as desirable as it should be, there being some tendency to
a bluish tinge which is an objectionable feature in any breed.
The Oxford is prolific and meets with most favor on level
or rolling lands.
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF POINTS FOR OXFORD -
Down SHEEP.
Points.
Breep TyprE—30 Points.
Form: Of a good general appearance, made by a well-balanced
conformation, free from coarseness in any part, and show-
ing good style both at rest and in motion . 15
Head: Of moderate length and width between the ears and
between the eyes, and well covered with wool over poll and
down to the eyes. Color of face an even dark gray or brown,
either with or without gray spot on tip of nose : 6
Rams: When fully matured and in good condition rams)
should weigh 250 to 350 pounds. 5
Ewes: When fully matured and in good condition ewes
should weigh 180 to 275 pounds...
Ears: Medium size, not too thick and of. an even brown or
dark gray color . 2
Legs: Short, strong in bone, ‘flat and of even dark gray or
brown color, placed squarely under the body and well apart 2
CoNnsTITUTION—25 Points.
Heart Girth: Large and wide and fullin the chest . . . 10
Movement: Must be bold and vigorous. . . Rea 5
Eyes: Bold, prominent and bright EES toll Sy MeN AR eT MST ety ed 4
Skin: Bright pink in color 3
Neck: Strong and muscular in rams and well set on in both
sexes . 3
Murron ForM AND Quatity—30 Points.
Shoulders, Back, Loin, and Rump: Wide and straight on top
from base of neck to tail. 15
Shoulders and Thighs: Full and well meated both inside and
outside 5
Flanks: Well filled and strong so as to make the lower lines
of the body as straight as possible, and side lines straight
orrather full . sae: 4
Carcass: Evenly covered with good, ‘well-marbled meat . 6
Woot—15 Points.
Fleece: Of moderate length, close and of even quality, cover-
ing the whole carcass, well and free from black patches
upon the body, neck orhead . . . ..... =. 15
Potales en neat eam icant mint eceye OO
Cheviot.—The Cheviot is a very characteristic breed. Its
stylish form and sprightly movements are noticeable by any
AOO JUDGING SHEEP
casual observer. The breed is medium in size, rams weigh-
ing 200 pounds on the average, and ewes from 140 to 150
pounds. The head is usually hornless and devoid of wool,
the latter extending to the base of the ears and the throttle.
The legs are bare of wool below the knees and hocks, the
head and Jegs usually having a white color. The fleece is
more than average in length, and is very uniformly dis-
tributed over the body. It is not as dense as in other medium
wool breeds, the openness of fleece being objectionable.
Wig. 167,—Cheviot ram and ewe,
The head of the Cheviot is rather broad, the muzzle large
7 ry. * ‘
and the nose slightly Roman. The ears are free from wool,
of medium size, rather pointed and slightly erect. The neck
is short, broad, and deep and has a rather characteristic crest
formed partly by the conformation of the neck and shoulder
. s § ry. ’ 4 . . s
and otherwise by the fleece. The body of the Cheviot is deep,
the legs rather short, thus giving the animal a characteristic
low-set appearance. The shoulders and body are not as
broad as in the Shropshire and usually not as smooth and
compact. The ribs extend well down, thus giving a charac-
BREED CHARACTERISTICS AQ)
teristic depth of body. Mutton from this breed ranks high,
because of superior quality and minimum of waste fat. The
constitution is quite remarkably developed, as indicated by
the depth of body and the forward extension of the brisket.
The breed, a8 a whole, is rarely surpassed in rustling quali-
ties. In some cases the rams have horns, although this is
rare, Characteristic animals of this breed have w very alert,
stylish, and distinctive appearance. The principal objections
to them are lack of compactness and thin, light, open fleeces,
STANDARD OF WXCERLLUNCH AND BCALY OF Points vor Cunyior
Seer
Points,
GENELAL CONVYORMATION AND QuALItY.—Deep and full breast
and large through chest, Wack wide and straight, with well-
yung, deep ribs, legs well placed and leg of mutton full and
thick: ody well fleshed, skin pink with no blue or dark color-
ing, fleece compat and medium fine, hone strong and fing, gen-
eral appearance gracctiul, symmetrical, active — . a)
Sizv.—In good flesh when full y mat ured a twent y-four- months
old ram should weigh not less than 225 pounds, and 4 ewe not
less than 150 pounds tg)
Hvap.—Should be medium short and broad with ample breadth
between the eyes, Ware should be of medium length and
usually erect when at repose. Head covered with dear white
hairs, extending from nostrils to back of poll Ridge of head
from between eyes to nostrils straight or slightly arched with
females and more strongly arched or oman with rams, Color
of tip of nose black . M5
Bovy.—Well proportioned having notable depth, with thickness
on top and at flanks. Loins should be very broad and thick,
shoulders should set wel) back and be smoothly covered, and
crops be full and well arched, The rump should be long, broad
gad level a)
Leos.—Should be shor t, well vet apar t and be covered with dean
white hair, with no wool below hocks and knees. The hind
legs should be flat and deep below hocks, Pasterns should be
strong and not show weakness, any ering the body well . 10
Fuvs,—Symmetrical, eoetey placed when in repose and hoofs
black in color. 5
Fixece,—Should cover the body complevely to behind the poll
and ears and down to knees and hocks, Under part of the body
should be well wvered, In mature animals should be not les
than three inches Jong for annual growth and be compact and
of medium wool class. Wasme should shear at least 12 pounds
and ewes 8 when in mature form to be desirable representatives
mnthepreedac to. ewe ee let oe te at oe a 0
SOA eee, ee ule ee eile Cy: 100
2
402 JUDGING SHEEP
OssecTIONS.—Scurs on the head, black spots on the head, flesh-
colored or spotted skin about the nostrils, hair about the thighs
or kemp on the body, reddish or sandy hair on head or legs, lack
of wool on under part of body.
DISQUALIFICATIONS.—AIl male lambs shall be ineligible to registra-
tion if having scurs or horns exceeding one inch in length.
Dorset Horn.—The Dorset Horn breed, as the name
implies, is one of the few domesticated breeds of sheep
which possesses horns. In the rams the horns have a very
Fic. 168.—Dorset Horn ram.
characteristic spiral form. They are large at the base,
extend slightly outward from the head, then backward
and curveforward. The face and legs of the breed are white.
The fleece extends to the base of the lower jaw and the under
side of it, extending in a circle around the eyes and over the
poll and forehead. The fleece is medium in length and fine-
ness. It extends to the knees and hocks, the remaining por-
tion of the legs being white. The fleece is usually too short,
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 403
and not well distributed. The underside of the body and
legs is often scantily covered with wool.
The size of the breed ranges from 200 to 225 pounds in the
rams and from 150 to 175 in the ewes. The form of the
Dorset Horn is somewhat inclined to be rangy, the ribs
flat and the back low. The body has not as much scale
and compactness as desirable for a typical mutton sheep.
The Dorset Horn is an exceptionally good breeder, the ewes
making excellent mothers, often breeding twice yearly. The
quality of the lamb and mutton is above the average. The
constitution is very well developed, although there is some
tendency to shallowness of chest. Lack of mutton form
and even distribution of fleece are criticisms of the breed.
STANDARD OF HXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF PoINTs FOR DorsET
SHEEP.
Points.
Heap.—Neat, face white, nostrils large, well covered on crown
and under jaw with wool 5
Horns.—Small and gracefully curving forward, rather close to
aw Bap ae ee ia einai ta troy ant 5
aoe —Pr ominent and bright : am ela 2
Ears.—Medium size, covered with short white hair 2
Nercx.—Short, symmetrical, strongly set on shoulders, gradually
tapering to junction of head 5
SHOULDERS.—Broad and full, joining neck forward and chine
backward with no depression at either point (important) . . 15
BriskET.—Wide and full, forward, chest fulland deep... 8
FOREFLANK. — Quite full, showing little depression behind
shoulder 8
Back anp Lomin.—Wide and ‘straight, from which ribs should
spring with a fine, circular arch 10
QuaRTERS.—Wide and full, with mutton extending down to
hocks. Fee ve ey Maka oe ie ae ee CE 10
BELLY. —Straight on under line . 3
Fierece.—Medium grade, of even quality presenting a smooth
surface and extending over belly and well down on legs 12
GENERAL CONFORMATION.—Of the mutton type, body moderately
long; short, stout legs, placed pauately under Rey skin pins
appearance attractive . . 15
Ropers ta neat at ere ann bei Ses ana arta ene ena Mec Pete cena! NO)
Romney.—The Romney breed is a native of Kent county,
England. The breed is comparatively new and untried in
America. The head and legs are white, the wool extending
404 JUDGING SHEEP
down to the knees and hocks and up to the extremity of the
jaws, reaching over the poll and terminating in a tuft on
the forehead. It is fair in mutton production, the back
being broad and the body very compact in form. The early
type of the breed was small, flat-ribbed and late in maturing
qualities. The modern type is more refined and compact
and has better fattening propensities. The back is broad,
long and the quarters are well developed. The breed is
hornless. It is claimed it is free from foot-rot, but this
Fic. 169.—Romney ram. (Courtesy of Messrs. Hickman and Kent, Scruby,
England.)
may be somewhat exaggerated. The breed is adapted to
low-lying lands, although it is not likely that it is entirely
immune from this disease, peculiar to sheep when main-
tained on low lands. The quality of the breed is fair in mut-
ton and wool. There is some inclination to coarseness of bone
and open fleece characteristics, an average fleece weighing
about eight pounds. The breed has considerable merit and
has met with favor in Australia and some of the British
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 405
colonies. It is not important in this country, although it
is well worthy of consideration both from a utility and
authoritative standpoint. .
Suffolk.—The Suffolk breed is not widely distributed in
this country. It resembles the Hampshire Down in many
respects, the face and legs being either black or a very dark
brown. The breed is polled, the wool extending from the
back of the ears and the lower extremity of the jaws down
Fie. 170.—Suffolk ram.
to the knees and hocks. Specimens of the breed are about
equal to the Hampshire in size, rams weighing from 200
to 250 pounds, the ewes ranging about 50 pounds lighter.
The Suffolk is a strongly constitutioned breed and it is said
that they are immune from foot-rot. The ears are medium
to large in size and are covered with a fine coat of soft
hair. The head is rather broad, the neck moderately long,
and the chest broad and full. On the whole, specimens of
406 JUDGING SHEEP
the breed are inclined to be rangy. However, it has a
well-sprung rib. The fleece is moderate in length, and reason-
ably dense and fine in quality. The rather distinct black
covering of the head and legs is a peculiarity of the breed.
As a mutton breed it ranks well, possessing fat and lean-pro-
ducing attributes which are especially favorable to lamb and
mutton production. The constitution is well developed, as
Fig. 171.—Tunis ram.
indicated by the strong chest development. The breed is
especially suited to low or rolling lands.
Tunis.—The Tunis breed is not widely distributed in
America. The origin is unknown; however, it has existed
in Tunis for several centuries. The breed is polled generally
and characterized by a brownish color about the face and
legs, the head being bare of wool from the forehead down
and likewise the legs below the knees and hocks. The fleece
is quite fine in quality, fairly compact, and averages about
three to four inches in length. The color varies consider-
WOOL TYPE 407
ably. In some specimens the color of the fleece is white,
while in others there is a reddish cast, and in still others,
reddish fibers intermixed with the white.
The breed is rather small in size, the weight ranging from
140 to 160 pounds in rams and from 125 to 1380 pounds
in the ewes. The form is inclined to be rangy, the type
not being expecially well fixed in the breed. The head is
rather long and inclined to be narrow, the ears large and
the neck long and not compactly developed. The breed is
fairly low set, although there is some tendency to extreme
length of leg. The body possesses very good depth, however;
it is inclined to be narrow and lacking in the spring of rib.
One of the characteristic features of this breed is the broad
tail, which often measures four to five inches in width. It
is thick and moderately long, the fleshy part extending
down six to eight inches at maturity. The principal objec-
tions to the breed are its lack of size and uniformity in type.
There is considerable opportunity for improvement in the
breed, especially in these two respects.
WOOL TYPE.
Wool sheep are produced primarily for the fleece. In
former years the variation in the mutton and wool type was
greater than it is at present. Economic conditions have
so changed that the breeders of strictly wool sheep are now
giving more attention to the form or mutton-producing
qualities. ‘The fine-wool breeds were bred so carefully in
wool-producing qualities that the weight of the fleece not
only formed an unusually large proportion of the total
weight, but the constitutional development was thereby
injured. The increase in the price of beef and other meat-
producing animals has had a beneficial effect on the produc-
tion of more and better sheep. It is also significant that the
fluctuation in the price of fine wool, due to several conditions,
has caused the fine-wool breeders to place more stress on
mutton-producing qualities.
Conformation.—Compared with the mutton sheep, the
wool type is smaller, longer in the leg, less symmetrical,
408 JUDGING SHEEP
flatter in the ribs and not as heavily or uniformly covered with
natural flesh. The type is wooled, however, practically from
head to foot. The head is usually so densely covered with
wool that the animal sees with difficulty. It is wooled to the
extremity of the muzzle, over the belly, in the arm pits and
down to the pastérns. Some of the breeds of this type are ex-
cessively wrinkled, thus giving a maximum area on which
wool may be grown.
Fia. 172.—Wool type of sheep.
The modern type of fine-wool sheep is more symmetrical,
less angular and smoother in form than formerly. This has
been brought about largely by the desire to obtain better
mutton-producing qualities. Attention has been given to
breeding out the folds and wrinkles, thus materially improving
the mutton form. Even with these improvements the wool
sheep does not possess the thickness, smoothness and uni-
formity of natural flesh of the mutton type. In judging
this type of sheep mutton-producing qualities should be
emphasized consistently with the wool-producing attributes,
which are of primary consideration.
WOOL TYPE 409
Quality —The wool type of sheep possesses an unusual
degree of refinement. This is natural, however, considering
the purpose of the animal. Naturally an animal producing
a fine quality of wool would show correlated characteristics
in other respects. While smaller, more angular, and less
symmetrical than the mutton type, these animals possess
unusual quality. The head is clear cut, the bone fine, the
skin soft and pink, and the hair of fine quality where it
appears on the animal.
A close examination of the fleece on a fine-wool sheep
will indicate the possession of these attributes. The close-
crimp, soft, compact nature of the fleece is indicative of
correlated qualities otherwise. Other than the points men-
tioned the wool sheep is judged largely the same as the
mutton animal. The fleece should be given first considera-
tion, mutton-producing qualities being secondary.
Fleece Characteristics——The fleece of the fine-wool breeds
is shorter, finer and denser than the wool grown on any other
breed. The term fine wool is significant of quality as related
to fineness. As extreme length and fineness are antagonistic,
the fleece on the fine-wool breeds is comparatively short.
The staple usually ranges from two to three inches in length
having a close crimp and being very dense, meaning tech-
nically a large number of fibers per square inch. It contains
an excessive amount of yolk, scoured wool often shrinking
as much as 60 per cent. or more of its original weight.
The fleece of the fine-wool breeds completely covers the
body from the muzzle extremity to the pasterns. Absence
of wool over any part is seriously objectionable. The area
or surface for producing wool has been materially increased
by the development of the folds or wrinkles over the body.
These folds are excessively developed in the American
Merino, less so in the Delaine, with the fewest number
appearing in the Rambouillet. The fineness and density
of the fleece ranks in the same order, the American Merino
producing the finest and the Rambouillet the coarsest wool
of the three breeds.
In judging fine wools, the length, crimp, density, distribu-
tion, lustre, soundness and condition should all be carefully
410 JUDGING SHEEP
considered. The amount of yolk is also important, as an
even distribution through the fleece indicates that the animal
is in a healthy condition and therefore the wool is likely
sound. The fleece should be thoroughly examined over
all parts including the head, shoulders, back, sides, thighs,
belly, and armpits. An evenly distributed, dense fleece with
a close crimp and in a bright, lustrous, healthy condition is
indicative of value, as measured by the demands of the
manufacturer. This should be the guide in judging a fine-
wool sheep the same as mutton form is judged according to
the demands of the butcher and mutton consumer.
Score Carb FoR FINE-WOOL SHEEP.
: Perfect score.
GENERAL APPEARANCE—26 Points.
Weight b 4
Form: level, deep, stylish, ‘round rather than square d 6
Quality: clean, fine bone; silky hair; fine skin 6
Temperament: active . 4
Condition : thick, even cover ing of firm flesh; ‘full purse ‘and
flank, showing ripeness SS heii ; 6
Heap and Necx—6 Points.
Muzzle: fine, broad, wrinkled nose; pure white 1
Eyes: large, clear, placid . 1
Face: wrinkled, covered with soft, velvety coat 1
Forehead: broad, ule ge tear 1
Ears: soft, thick ‘and velvety. . 1
Neck: short, muscular, well set on shoulders 1
ForEQUARTERS—S Points.
Shoulder: strong, being deep and broad 4
Brisket: projecting forward, breast wide. : 2
Legs: straight, short, wide apart; shank smooth and fine 2
Bopy—16 Points.
Chest: deep, full, indicating constitution 6
Back: level, long; round-ribbed . 4
Loin: wide, level 4
Flank: low, making underline str aight : 2
HiInpDQUARTERS—S8 Points.
Hips: far apart, level, smooth 2
Rump: long, level, wide ; as
Legs: straight, short, strong; shank smooth, fine . 2
Carried forward 64
WOOL TYPE All
Perfect score.
IBGOUGM ta ORW AL Gey in, cj lass ag wee cet Sink enn be een OA
FLEECE—36 Points.
Kind: Domestic, clean and bright.
Territory, dirty or discolored.
eee o hhairy or having dead fibers.
Class: Clothing, fiber under two inches in length or unsound.
Delaine, fiber two to three inches in length.
Combing, fiber over three inches in length and sound.
Grade: fine, medium or coarse.
Quantity: long, dense, even covering, especially over crown,
cheek, armpit, hindlegs and belly ; 12
Quality: fine fiber, crimp close, regular; even quality includ-
ing tops of folds aie 12
Condition: bright, lustrous, sound, pure, soft, even distribu-
tion of yolk, with even surface to fleeces ea oes 12
Ota eae cr oe ure c ee cea ely. ee LOO
Fine-wool Breeds. — The fine-wool breeds of sheep as
described below are derivatives of the Spanish Merino.
These breeds exhibit marked peculiarities in the skin folds
and the unusually fine quality and large quantity of the
wool produced.
Merinos are sometimes classed into A, B, and C types on
the basis of the presence or absence of the skin folds.
Class A has heavy folds at the neck, over the body and hind-
quarters. They are characterized by high percentage of wool
and yolk to carcass weight. This class is represented by the
Spanish or American Merino.
Class B, has a smoother body than Class A and there are
fewer folds in the skin and less yolk in the staple. This class
is represented also by Spanish or American blood.
Class C has a comparatively smooth body with very
few folds except possibly around the neck and shoulders.
This class is represented by the Delaine Merino and Ram-
bouillet.
American Merino.—The American Merino is the smallest
of the Merino breeds, rams ranging in weight from 125 to
135 pounds and ewes from 90 to 100. The form is angular,
lacking in symmetry, and therefore desirable mutton-pro-
ducing qualities. The body is wooled from the upper part
412 JUDGING SHEEP
of the muzzle to the top of the hoofs with the exception of the
ears and nose. The peculiar development for wool production
gives the breed unusually dense fleece characteristics. ‘The
skin is excessively wrinkled over the neck and body. The
head is small and has large, spirally twisted horns in the rams.
The ewes are polled. From the standpoint of mutton pro-
Fie. 173.—American Merino ewe.
duction the breed is unusually defective, the heavy wool-
producing qualities being antagonistic to the development
of this quality. The fleece is short and very fine, and at
times contains as much as 50 to 70 per cent. of yolk. The
fleece is not excelled by any other breed in quantity or
quality. Shearings of forty pounds or over are on record.
The accumulation of foreign matter in the wool, caused by
WOOL TYPE 413
the excessive amount of yolk, gives the fleece an unusually
dark appearance. Scouring removes this entirely. The color
of the muzzle is white like the other parts, which are very
infrequently exposed, owing to the uniform and dense wool
covering. The head is rather broad, the neck thin and the
shoulders light. The body has fair depth, although it is some-
what short and narrow. The breed is famous only for wool
production.
Fig. 174.—Delaine Merino ram.
Delaine Merino. — The Delaine Merino is larger in size
and smoother in form than the American type. Rams
range in weight from 125 to 175 pounds and the ewes from
100 to 140 pounds. The breeding out of the folds of the skin
has been instrumental in the improvement of the mutton
characteristics. The quality of the Delaine is good, both
in wool and mutton production. The lower part of the
face, muzzle, and lips are white and also that portion of
the legs not covered by the fleece. The ears are rather
414. JUDGING SHEEP
small and covered with a fine quality of soft hair. The
quality of the fleece in the Delaine is inferior to that of the
American Merino, in not having the same degree of crimp
or density. ‘The fleece is also more open than in the Ameri-
can type. ‘The breed is either horned or polled, depending
on the line of breeding which has been followed. The
introduction of crosses has caused considerable variation,
not only in the development of horns, but also in the size,
smoothness, and compactness. ‘The fleece characteristics
have likewise varied with the breeding. The Delaine Merino
does not have as much yolk in the wool as the American,
however, the fleece is somewhat stronger and longer. Shear-
ings of 15 to 20 pounds are not uncommon.
STANDARD OF WXCELLENCE AND Scaue or Points ror DELAINE
or Crass C Merino Sumnp.
GunpraL APPEARANCE—23 Points.
Weight: according to age: 30 pounds, six months; 60 pounds,
Points.
twelve months . . 6 Minne ge en ean SUR aa 4
Form: low, compact, symmetr {call ehh yc oeueae anna 9
Quality: bone and wool inbavey, Inner GINS 6 gg) phos, oo s 10
Heap ann Necxk—9 Points.
Muzzle: fine of good size, face medium length BUT RET oa 2
Hyes: bright, easily seen; forehead broad . yen 2
Mars: medium size, set well apart, coated with fine hair. 2
Neck: short on top, deep, neatly blending head and shoulders ‘
LorEQUARTERS—14. Points.
Shoulders: well placed; chest deep, medium thick : 8
Brisket: carried well for ward, with some breadth and fold or
apron D)
Legs: straight, shor ts strong; feet good . 4
Bopy—1L0 Points.
Back: straight, medium wide; loin wide
ibs: well sprung, long; flanks low .
HinpQuarters—12 Points.
Hips: smooth; rump, long, level, wide .
Thighs: ranging from muscular to plump
Legs: straight, short; stifle full; feet good
WooLt—32 Points.
Quality: fine sott,. cleans ever smal aaee nee oer mn ()
Density: compact all over body. . ah ela 9
Length: uniform, at least 24 inches for twelve months. . 9
Oil: light colored, evenly distributed 4
eo
me Coot
MPO tall My tena ge che Lae Benn Gea es eg Ree a i eel (0) (0)
WOOL TYPE 415
Rambouillet.—The Rambouillet is the largest of the
Merino breeds. More attention has been given to the
mutton-producing qualities than in the other two breeds of
the fine-wool type. ‘The breed may be considered dual purpose
in its characteristics. The fleece is coarser and more open
than in the other breeds. It covers the entire body, however,
with the exception of the muzzle extremity and the ears. Rams
Via. 175.—Rambouillet ram.
of this breed range in weight from 175 to 200 pounds and ewes
from 125 to 150. The constitution of the Rambouillet is
exceptionally good. Specimens of the breed are large and
vigorous in appearance. The body has good length and fair
depth, although there is some inclination to stand high on the
legs. ‘The head is large, the nose strongly developed, and
horns usually characterize males of the breed. From the
mutton-producing standpoint the Rambouillet is very desir-
able, although compared with the best Down breeds they are
416 JUDGING SHEEP
somewhat inferior. One of the principal objections to the
breed is the inclination to coarseness of bone. The fleece
averages about three inches in length and does not possess
an excess of yolk like the other fine-wool breeds. As a
combined wool and mutton producer the breed ranks well,
having an acceptable mutton form and reasonably early
maturing qualities. The breed is widely distributed.
Jainesnans
Fic. 176.—Lincoln ewe, illustrating femininity and breeding qualities.
Breeding and Class Characteristics.—From the standpoint
of the stockman sheep may be divided into breeding, fat,
and feeder classes. The first includes pure breds of the
various breeds, their grades and crosses. The second class
includes fat sheep and lambs, and the third feeder sheep.
Breeding Classes.—In selecting sheep for breeding purposes
whether pure bred or grade, special attention should be
given to age, weight, health, quality, constitution, and con-
dition. These subjects have been fully treated only from
the standpoint of the pure-bred and fat sheep, and the
application of the points mentioned here is therefore neces-
WOOL TYPE 417
sarily important. In selecting sheep for breeding purposes
the age is important. Broken-mouthed ewes will neither
thrive themselves nor produce strong, vigorous lambs. Ewes
selected for this purpose should show indication of health,
proper weight for age, good constitution, and quality of both
wool and mutton attributes. Such ewes should be large
and roomy and uniformly covered with a fine, dense fleece.
In pure-bred classes breed type and sex characteristics are
Fic. 177.—Grade-breeding ewe. (Photograph by author.)
important. Rams and ewes should show masculinity and
femininity respectively.
Fat Sheep and Lambs.—Fat sheep and lambs should be
judged according to the standard given formerly. Weight,
quality, and condition are important. The fat sheep or
lamb should be square, low set, compact, and fine in flesh
texture. The back should be level, the loin wide, firm, and
the quarters well developed. Fleece characteristics are not of
special importance except that a reasonably dense fleece
is usually associated with good mutton-producing qualities.
27
418 JUDGING SHEEP
Open fleeces are objectionable on fat sheep as they are antag-
onistic to good mutton-producing form and quality.
Feeder Sheep.—Sheep selected for feeding purposes should,
like breeding ewes, show unbroken mouths, good health,
form, constitution, quality, and capacity. Large-framed
sheep with angular bodies and long, open fleeces do not
make good feeders. The age may vary, depending on the
object in view. Early lambs are usually sold and consumed
immediately, and therefore do not constitute a large propor-
tion of sheep used for feeding purposes. Late lambs, wethers,
and sheep which have attained the age of one year or more
or ewes of proper qualification are frequently purchased. for
this purpose. A square, low-set body, thrift, capacity and a
close, compact fleece are important.
ANGORA GOATS.
Importance.—The production of Angora goats is of cénsid-
erable importance, especially in certain sections and under
specialized conditions. The breed is a native of Angora, in
Asia Minor, having been imported into this country in 1849.
As a general thing, the Angora is not an important factor
on the average farm. However, it is deserving of consid-
eration in its special fields of production.
Purpose.—The introduction of the Angora goat into the
field of live stock husbandry is comparatively recent, although
the popularity which the breed has attained in some sections
gives it a conspicuous place in the field of live stock pro-
duction. The primary object for breeding the Angora is to
obtain the fleece which usually sells for high prices, this
depending, as in wool, on the length, quality and condition.
The Angora is bred secondarily for mutton production.
In judging stress should be placed, first, on the length,
density, fineness and uniformity of fleece covering. Mutton-
producing attributes should be given a secondary considera-
tion. Angoras are judged in this respect very much like the
fine-wool breeds of sheep.
General Appearance.—In general appearance the Angora
of approved breeding shows neatness and tidiness of form
ANGORA GOATS 419
and features. It is usually pure white in fleece markings.
It is alert, having a keen expression, long, pendant ears, a
body of medium length and depth but inclined to be narrow.
The fleece parts along the back and hangs in wringlets almost
to the ground in well-bred animals.
Conformation——The Angora is on the average smaller than
the common goat. The weight ranges from 50 to 100 pounds,
depending on the age, breeding and condition. The body
should be reasonably broad, long, deep and low set. The
back should be straight and level. The body is inclined to
be somewhat narrow and the legs short and strong. The head
should show strong, clear-cut features. The ears usually
droop and attain a length of six to eight inches. The eyes
should be large and bright. The horns are grayish in color,
inclining inward, backward, and then upward and outward,
with a reasonable spread at the tips. In the females the
horns are smaller, straighter and shorter and are inclined
to grow more in an upward direction.
The head should be broad and strong at the poll and
taper gradually to the muzzle. In females, there is an
incurving facial outline which is very characteristic. Taken
as a whole, the animal should present a reasonably square,
strong-lined contour. In many cases, however, this condition
is emphasized by the peculiar growth of the fleece.
Constitution—Evidences of constitution are exhibited in
a large, bright, prominent eye, a strong muzzle, and large,
open nostrils. The chest should be broad, deep, and the
heart girth full and the brisket rather prominent. There
should be no indication of delicacy about the head and
neck, although feminine characteristics may apparently por-
tray this condition. Low, narrow shoulders and long, slender
bone indicates a lack of vigor and constitutional develop-
ment. Other than these points constitution is evidenced by
the same characteristics as in other animals.
Quality.—The horns should not be excessively large or
coarse In texture. A coarse horn indicates coarse quality
and otherwise undesirable characteristics. The bone should
be clean, dense, and of ample size to insure a vigorous, con-
tinuous period of usefulness. ‘The head is indicative of
JUDGING
Fic. 178.—A group of Angora goats, showing the characteristic type and fleece desired. (Courtesy of William Riddell
& Sons, Monmouth, Oregon.)
ANGORA GOATS 421
quality by the clean-cut features possessed. There should be
no indication of coarseness about the muzzle or shoulders.
The fleece is a reliable guide to general quality. A close,
compact fleece, soft to the touch and with tightly twisted
spirals indicates quality development. A bright, lustrous
fleece, free from kemp and a pink, healthy skin, characterize
these animals as having desirable breeding qualities.
Fleece.—The fleece should be dense and cover the entire
body uniformly. Special emphasis should be placed on the
belly covering. The annual growth should not be less than
ten inches. The density should be such that an average-
sized Angora will shear from three to five pounds. The
fleece should hang in wringlets or spirals tightly twisted up
to the skin. Loose, wavy hair is objectionable as it indi-
cates coarseness throughout. The fleece should be bright
and lustrous, having great tensile strength and freedom from
kemp or lead-colored hair. This depreciates the value of
the fleece regardless of its quality otherwise. Formerly it was
thought impossible to breed out these undesirable qualities
but recent improvements disprove the idea.
The fleece of the Angora, known as mohair from a com-
mercial point of view, differs from the wool in sheep in
not having exterior scales and felting characteristics. The
mohair covers an undergrowth of hair which is technically
known as kemp. Mohair is lustrous and white, at times
attaining a length of sixteen to eighteen inches. Its value is
determined by the length, density, fineness and condition.
Emphasis should be placed on these characteristics as well as
on uniformity of covering and freedom from kemp or other
foreign matter. The fleece should extend from the base of the
horns, completely encircling the neck, and thence back over
the body, covering the body proper, arm pits, belly and legs.
Angoras which have been graded up by using a pure-bred
sire on common goats are frequently bare over the belly,
in the arm pits, on the legs, and have an inferior quality of
mohair.
Breed and Sex Characteristics.—The breed is character-
ized by the possession of horns, both in males and females,
the characteristic fleece known as mohair, and the absence of
422 JUDGING SHEEP
the strong musky odor of the common goat. Specimens of
the breed are comparatively small in size, although reason-
ably strong in constitution, especially after attaining the age
of two months. The fleece is exceptionally long in well-bred
individuals and does not possess felting qualities like wool.
The fleece is shed each spring if not shorn. This should be
considered in judging when in this shedding condition. While
some Angoras are colored it is rather a rare characteristic in
well-bred specimens. Colored spots on the skin are very
objectionable.
The sex characteristics should be portrayed the same as
in other animals. The males should possess a broad, strong
head, rather large horns, a full neck, and a broad, deep body.
Femininity is indicated by bright expressive eyes, incurving
facial outlines, and a general appearance of refinement.
Adaptation—Angoras seem especially adapted to a dry
climate, although they are found in nearly every State in the
Union. Large flocks are maintained through the west and
southwest, principally in New Mexico and Texas. With good
care they will adapt themselves to a wide range of conditions.
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FoR ANGORA GOATS
Points.
FINENESS AND LUSTRE OF FLEECE:
TELE GOOG ye Teo aac ee ag Ee nc a coef ee ae 20
Good 1 Aa cy Es, mR PNG REAR Ste nde Gi REN cae ne NORE emg tegd 14
Medium FS tho tier ghetatin ee died Me ete hh aeaaat Ri SSer UR ateci sameeeatey Leer en reel 8
QUANTITY OF FLEECE:
ELE? GOOG: Boe ee ey ag CNY Suet ra a ee nic ren ce eee eae 20
Good ae es SUF WNdae Ce NEE) or tN A ee ce A SS Oe a 14
Medium Se Ae Sei a eyo Parra: ay see URS IA Serer tere 8
FREEDOM FROM Kemp:
FCI GE GOOD OE Oe ease rg Maiieeer noe i a ten pi eo tear 20
Good Abe ene AR Act eich erie bien in OR cea Were piles Rea eG 14
Medium UB SBT har A aNT EAN Mri RO Oe 2 Sn eR eR NR NG A nan ee 8
Size or Bong, BreaptH AND DeEptTH oF CARCASS:
LENG HG OOM Hae ee ie NG aT Ren Gi atecte Le eli Sanh Sy Agee ieteke a Sar ante 20
Good Pi aie MN any Ves mesa un hauae eynonw ip aeneen oe | ccd la ana rTM 14
Medium Bae ca Rennrad MSM RE VER EAMeN ais Leto ay Weseh tei Stata on 8
CoNsTITUTION AND Form:
TO gta CLO) 10 aaa eto OMUN La Noe A adc eD Aaa aer satay Nias Me 20
Good eee acai rien Ua RI Ai fi ane Cour RCTS Nee Rg tas 14
Medium CPOE Toy at Ai IW ec i Ce Ree Ra aa ec 8
Total points for perfect animal pine Aenea ts ete aren OU)
Total’ points for eoodsanimellesteges 2 eae en ee tea O)
Total pointstor mediumsaninial eres ee ee
CHAPTER XIV.
APPLICATION OF JUDGING AND SELECTION TO
BREEDING AND FINISHING FARM ANIMALS.
Individual.—The individual animal is the nucleus for
live stock improvement. This fact is evidenced by the
immense practical use which is being made of the pure-bred
sire in the improvement of herds and flocks of horses, cattle,
sheep and swine. Davenport quotes that the sire is half
the herd or even more. He is half of the first generation,
three-quarters of the next, seven-eighths of the third and
so on until, if judicious selection be maintained for a few
generations, the character of the herd will be fixed by the
sire alone. This emphasizes the fact that if the breeder
must choose between the selection of a pure-bred sire and a
number of varying females, in all cases the pure-bred sire
should be selected in preference to following the latter
course. This plan of breeding has direct application from
the standpoint of live stock judging and selection. Grant-
ing this statement, the sire can be made of much greater
importance by keener judging, closer selection and wider
usage on farm herds and flocks.
Herd Improvement.—Herd improvement is divided into
two fundamental divisions, namely, the breeding of pure-
bred and grade animals. In either case, the most careful
judging and selection will accomplish the most noticeable
results in a given time. The breeder who eliminates the
inferior individuals from the standpoint of individuality as
well as those which fail to respond satisfactorily to the
breeding test, must not only be a breeder in the general sense
of the term, but a judge of the highest order. If otherwise,
the maximum results obtainable from careful judging and
close selection will not materialize in the herd. The breeder,
( 423 )
APPLICATION OF JUDGING
424
*parepue4ys
w1ojIun vB
0} Sploy SUIpoeiq Ul 10j0vy JuvIIOdW Ue UVEeq sey BUTI MOYs
24 L—'6L1
“Oly
ATTRIBUTES OF THE BREEDER 425
in other words, must be a keen student of animal form and
attainments. He must be able to detect to a reasonable
degree of accuracy the probable outcome of the individuals
which he chooses to raise the standard of his herd. It is
only by continuous elimination, generation after generation,
that the maximum results of selection are obtained. There
must be a standard or an ideal toward which breeding opera-
tions may be directed. This involves an unusual amount of
animal knowledge, both as applied to the individual, the
herd and the breed which is being perfected or improved.
Fic. 180.—Uniform type, illustrating careful judging and selection for the
show ring.
Attributes of the Breeder Responsible for Degree of Improve-
ment.—A proper knowledge of the habits and treatment
of animals is most important from the breeder’s point of
view. Those who have been intimately associated with
animals during their entire lifetime almost without exception
rank as the keenest judges and breeders of live stock. The
best shepherds are those who have assisted and grown in
the ranks from early life to finally attain the management of a
flock. It is not only a knowledge of animals which may
have been obtained early or late in life but the direct associa-
tion in feeding and management which makes the best
judge, and therefore the best breeder. A first-class judge
who produces prize-winning animals is almost invariably
426 APPLICATION OF JUDGING
one who spends much time in studying the peculiar traits,
form and quality of his animals. It is in this way usually
that the master breeders have learned the details of structure,
the peculiarities of individuals, herds and breeds and thereby
attained the greatest success as breeders on the farm and in
the show ring.
Live Stock Shows.'—The importance of live stock shows
in establishing standards for herd and breed improvement
can scarcely be overestimated. While much mediocre stock
has been shown and irrational practices followed in prepar-
ing specimens for exhibition much valuable knowledge
has been so gained. The fact that the good and bad con-
ditions have both existed has given the student of judging
and selection an opportunity to consider and decide logically
on the value of such practices in perfecting animal form and
studying its related problems. Wherever sound practices
have been followed they have usually continued with the
result that future generations have been improved thereby.
A better opportunity of carefully studying these conditions
has never been afforded the student or breeder. Live stock
shows have formed a most important nucleus by which the
best practices of breeding, feeding and fitting have been sifted
from the various methods and practices followed in the
preparation of breeding and fat animals for the show ring.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
General.
A Partial Index to Animal Husbandry Literature, by C. 8. Plumb.
Published by the author, Columbus, Ohio.
Principles and Practice of Live Stock Judging, by Carl W. Gay.
Maemillan Co., New York.
Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, by C. 8. Plumb. Ginn & Co.,
New York.
Judging Live Stock, by John A. Craig. Kenyon Printing Co.,
Des Moines, Ia.
Farm Animals, by Hunt & Burkett. Orange Judd Co., New York.
: cia of Breeding, by Eugene Davenport. Ginn & Co., New
York.
Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, by C. S. Plumb. Webb Pub-
lishing Co., St. Paul, Minn.
1 Study International Live Stock Show Catalogue.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 427
Farm Live Stock of Great Britain, by Robert Wallace. Oliver &
Boyd, London.
Breeding Farm Animals, by F. R. Marshall. Sanders Publishing
Co., Chicago.
Farmers’ Cyclopedia of Agriculture, by Wilcox and Smith. Orange
Judd Co., New York.
The Study of Breeds, by Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co., New York.
The Book of Live Stock Champions, by P. H. Hale. Hale Pub-
lishing Co., St. Louis, Mo.
Manual of Farm Animals, by M. W. Harper. Macmillan Co.,
New York.
‘Animal Husbandry for Schools, by M. W. Harper. Macmillan
Co., New York.
Live Stock Judging for Beginners. Cir. No. 29, revised edition,
July, te Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station, Lafay-
ette, Ind.
Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Swine, by G. W. Curtis. Rural Pub-
lishing Co., New York.
Age of Domestic Animals, by R. 8. Huidekoper. F. A. Davis, Pub.,
Philadelphia.
Domestic Animals, by R. L. Allen. A. O. Moore, Pub., New York.
Horses and Mules.
Productive Horse Husbandry, by Carl W. Gay. J. B. Lippincott
Co., Philadelphia.
The Horse Book, by J. H. 8. Johnstone. Sanders Publishing Co.,
Chicago.
The Horse, by I. P. Roberts. Macmillan Co., New York.
Horse Breeding, by J. H. Sanders. Sanders Publishing Co., Chicago.
Market Classes and Grades of Horses and Mules, by R. C. Obrecht.
Bulletin No. 122, IWinois Experiment Station, Urbana.
Examination of Horses for Soundness. Bulletin No. 109, Purdue
University Agricultural Experiment Station, Lafayette, Ind.
How to Judge a Horse, by F. W. Bach. William R. Jenkins, Pub.,
New York.
Points of the Horse, by M. H. Hayes. Thacker & Co., London.
Ponies, Past and Present, by Sir Walter Gibbey. Vinton & Co.,
London.
Breeding and Rearing of Jacks, Jennets, and Mules, by L. W.
Knight. Cumberland Press, Nashville, Tenn.
Horses, Asses, Zebras, and Mules, by Tegetmeier and Sutherland.
Horace Cox, London.
Cattle.
cla Cattle, by A. H. Sanders. Sanders Publishing Co.,
hicago.
Little Sketches of Famous Beef Cattle, by C. 8. Plumb. Published
by the author, Columbus, Ohio.
History of Hereford Cattle, by McDonald and Sinclair. Vinton
& Co., London.
Beef Production, by H. W. Mumford. Published by the author,
Urbana, Ill.
428 APPLICATION OF JUDGING
History of Abderdeen-Angus Cattle, by McDonald and Sinelair.
Vinton & Co., London.
Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, by C. H. Eckles. Macmillan
Co., New York.
Modern Packing House, by F. W. Wilder. Nickerson and Collins,
Chicago.
Market Grades and Classes of Cattle, by H. W. Mumford. Bulletin
No. 78, Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana.
Market Classes and Grades of Meat, by L. D. Hall. Bulletin No.
147, Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana.
Swine.
Swine, by William Dietrich. Sanders Publishing Co., Chicago.
Hog Book, by H. C. Dawson. Sanders Publishing Co., Chicago.
Swine in America, by F. D. Coburn. Orange Judd Co., New York.
Swine Husbandry, by F. D. Coburn. Orange Judd Co., New York.
Market Classes and Grades of Swine, by William Dietrich, Bulletin
No. 97, Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana.
Productive Swine Husbandry, by G. E. Day, Lippincott & Co.,
Philadelphia.
Sheep and Goats.
Sheep Farming in America, by Joseph E. Wing. Sanders Publishing
Co., Chicago.
The Domestic Sheep, by Henry Stewart, Chicago.
Modern Sheep, Breeds and Management, by W. J. Clarke. Ameri-
can Sheep Breeder Co., Chicago.
Fitting Sheep for Show and Market, by W. J. Clarke. Draper
Publishing Co., Chicago.
Manual of Angora Goat Raising, by G. F. Thompson, Chicago.
Market Classes and Grades of Sheep, by W. ©. Coffey. Bulletin
_ No. 129, Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana.
The Wool Grower and the Wool Trade, by F. R. Marshall and L.
L. Heller. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Poultry Husbandry, by J. P. Lippincott. Lea & Febiger, Philadel-
phia.
Anatomy of Domestic Animals, by L. W. Sisson. W. B. Saunders
Publishing Co., Philadelphia.
APPENDIX.
PureE-BRED Live STock Registry ASSOCIATIONS.
HorsEs.
Percheron Society of America, Wayne Dinsmore, Secretary, Union
Stock Yards, Chicago, Ill.
National French Draft Horse Association, C. E. Stubbs, Secretary,
Fairfield, Lowa.
‘American Clydesdale Association, R. B. Ogilvie, Secretary, Union
Stock Yards, Chicago, Ill.
Picea Shire Horse Association, Chas. Burgess, Secretary, Wenona,
Illinois.
American Association of Importers and Breeders of Belgian Draft
Horses, J. D. Connor, Jr., Secretary, Wabash, Ind.
American Suffolk Horse Association, A. Graham Galbraith, Secretary,
DeKalb, Il.
American Hackney Horse Society, Gurney C. Gue, Secretary, 308
W. 97th St., New York, N. Y.
French Coach Horse Society of America, Duncan E. Willett, Secre-
tary, Oak Park, Ill.
German Hanoverian and Oldenburg Coach Horse Association of
America, J. Crouch, Secretary, Lafayette, Ind.
Cleveland Bay Society of America, R. P. Stericker, Secretary,
Oconomowoc, Wis.
American Morgan Register Association, T. E. Boyce, Secretary,
Middlebury, Vt.
American Saddle Horse Breeders’ Association, R. H. Lillard, Secre-
tary, Louisville, Ky.
American Trotting Register Association, W. H. Knight, Secretary,
355 Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill.
The Arabian Horse Club of America, Henry K. Bush Brown, Secre-
tary, Newburg, N. Y.
The Jockey Club, W. H. Rowe, Secretary, 5th Ave. and 46th St.,
New York, N. Y.
Welsh Pony and Cob Society of America, Geo. E. Brown, Secretary,
Aurora, III.
American Shetland Pony Club, Miss Julia’ M. Wade, Secretary,
Lafayette, Ind.
i ‘American Jack Stock Stud Book, J. W. Jones, Secretary, Columbia,
enn.
(429 )
430 APPENDIX
CATTLE.
American Shorthorn Breeders’ Association, F. W. Harding, Secre-
tary, Chicago, IIl.
The Polled Durham Breeders’ Association, J. M. Martz, Secretary,
Greenville, Ohio.
American Hereford Cattle Breeders’ Association, R. J. Kinzer,
Secretary, Kansas City, Mo.
American Aberdeen-Angus Breeders’ Association, Chas. Gray,
Secretary, 17 Exchange-Ave., Chicago, IIl.
American Galloway Breeders’ Association, Robt. W. Brown, Secre-
tary, 817 Exchange Ave., Chicago, IIl.
The Red Polled Cattle Club of America, H. A. Martin, Secretary,
Gotham, Wis.
Pcie Devon Cattle Club, L. P. Sisson, Secretary, Charlottes-
ville, Va.
American Jersey Cattle Club, R. M. Gow, Secretary, 8 W. 17th
St., New York, N. Y.
American Guernsey Cattle Club, William H. Caldwell, Secretary,
Peterboro,
Holstein-Friesian Association of America, F. L. Houghton, Secre-
tary, Brattleboro, Vt.
Ayrshire Breeders’ Association, C. M. Winslow, Secretary, Brandon,
Vermont.
Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders’ Association, Ira Inman, Secretary,
Beloit, Wis.
Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America, G. G. Gibbs, Secretary,
Marksboro, N. J.
SWINE.
American Berkshire Association, Frank 8. Springer, Secretary, 510
E. Monroe St., Springfield, Ill.
National Poland-China Record Association, A. M. Brown, Secretary,
Winchester, Ind.
Standard Poland-China Record Association, Geo. F. Woodworth,
Secretary, Maryville, Mo.
American Poland-China Record Association, W. M. McFadden,
Secretary, Union Stock Yards, Chicago, II.
National Duroc-Jersey Record Association, J. R. Pfander, Secretary,
Peoria, Il.
American Duroc-Jersey Record Association, T. P. Pearson, Secre-
tary, Thornton, Ind.
Ohio Improved Chester White Swine Breeders’ Association, J. C.
Hiles, Secretary, Cleveland, Ohio.
Cheshire Swine Breeders’ Association, Ed. S. Hill, Secretary, Free-
ville, N. Y.
American Essex Association, F. M. Strout, Secretary, McLean, IIl.
American Yorkshire Club, Harry G. Krum, Seeretary, White Bear
Lake, Minn.
American Tamworth Swine Record Association, E. N. Ball, Secretary
Hamburg, Mich.
GLOSSARY OF HORSE AND MULE MARKET TERMS 431
American Hampshire Swine Record Association, E. C. Stone, Secre-
tary, Peoria, Ill.
National Mule-foot Swine Record Association, W. H. Morris, Secre-
tary, Indianapolis, Ind.
SHEEP.
American Leicester Breeders’ Association, A. J. Temple, Secretary,
Cameron, Il.
American Cotswold Registry Association, I’. W. Harding, Secretary,
Waukesha, Wis.
The National Lincoln Sheep Breeders’ Association, Bert Smith,
Secretary, Charlotte, Mich.
American Southdown. Breeders’ Association, Frank §. Springer,
Secretary, Springfield, Il.
American Shropshire Registry Association, Miss Julia M. Wade,
Secretary, Lafayette, Ind.
American Oxford Down Record Association, W. A. Shafor, Secretary,
Hamilton, Ohio.
American Hampshire Sheep Association, Comfort A. Taylor, Secre-
tary, 310 East Chicago St., Coldwater, Mich.
ee Dorset Club, Joseph E. Wing, Secretary, Mechanicsburg,
io.
ene Cheviot Sheep Society, F. E. Dawley, Secretary, Fayette-
ville, N. Y.
American Tunis Sheep Breeders’ Association, Chas. Roundtree,
Secretary, Crawfordsville, Ind.
Romney Marsh Sheep Breeders’ Association, J. E. Wing, Secretary,
Mechanicsburg, Ohio.
Vermont, New York and Ohio Merino Sheep Breeders’ Association,
Wesley Bishop, Secretary, Delaware, Ohio.
National Delaine Merino Sheep Breeders’ Association, J. B. Johnson,
Secretary, 248 West Pike St., Canonsburg, Pa.
American Rambouillet Sheep Breeders’ Association, Dwight Lincoln,
Secretary, Milford Center, Ohio.
GLOSSARY OF HORSE AND MULE MARKET TERMS.’
A Bull.—A horse so windy that he cannot stand much
exertion without choking.
A Few Hairs Off.—A skin blemish not haired over; usually
a wire mark which may be either large or small.
A Hole In.—Used in speaking of an animal that is believed
to be defective in some manner but at present it is not
apparent.
An Indian.—A wild or vicious horse difficult to handle
in or out of the stall.
1 From Bulletin No. 122, Courtesy Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana, Til.
432 APPENDIX
At the Halter—See No. 6, Auction Rules.
Beefy Hocks.—Thick, meaty hocks, lacking in quality.
Bench-legged.—See knock-kneed.
Blue-eye.—An unsound eye with blue appearance. The
sight may or may not be entirely gone.
Bobber or Jig Back.—A horse or mule that wobbles in hind-
quarters when he moves, due to an unsound or weak back
in the region of the loin.
Boggy in Hocks.—Bog spavins.
Bow-legged.— Too ile apart at the knees, the apposite
of knock-kneed.
Bowed Tendon.—An enlarged tendon back of the canon,
due to an injury.
Broken Knees.—Knees which have had the skin broken
from a fall or a bruise and much enlarged.
Buck-kneed.— Knees bent forward when standing.
Bull Pen.—An auction ring at any market where horses
are sold.
Bush.—T’o deduct a part of a stated sale price on account
of a blemish, or unsoundness not mentioned or not apparent
at time of sale, or for other reasons.
Calf-kneed.—Knees bent too far back—the opposite of
buck-kneed.
Capped Hock.—The point of the hock back of the web
enlarged. Caused by a bruise of the bursa.
Car Bruise.—Bruised in car in shipping. If freshly done
swelling and inflammation will be present.
Cartilage—Prominent lateral cartilage or incipient side
bone.
Chancy.—Purchased at a moderate price because of an
uncertainty, with prospects for developing into something
good.
Cock Ankle.—Standing bent forward on the fetlocks—more
often on the hind ones.
Coon-footed.—Long and very low pasterns.
Coupling —The space or connection between the dorsal
vertebree and the pelvis on top of the back. An animal
that has a long coupling is too long in the lumbar vertebre.
This is best measured by the distance of last rib from hip.
GLOSSARY OF HORSE AND MULE MARKET TERMS 433
Cow-hocked.—Standing with hocks together and_ hind-
toes out.
Crampy.—In hindlegs—raising either one or both legs
up with a jerk. More apparent when the animal has been
standing and is cool.
In the Back.—When the head is elevated and the animal
is compelled to move backward he raises his tail and shows
a quivering of the flanks, soreness of the loin and an inclina-
tion to drag his feet.
Cribber.—An animal having the vice of biting or setting
the teeth against something and “sucking wind.”
Cross-firing.—Hitting one of the forefeet with the opposite
hindfoot when traveling.
Curb.—An injury or sprain of the ligament at the back
of the hock which usually causes an enlargement.
Curby Hock.—The back of the hock is rounding when
viewed from the side.
Cushion—An enlarged bursa occurring just below the
hock near the forward edge on the outside of the canon.
A Michigan pad.
Cutting.—Interfering.
Docked.—Having the end of the tail cut off.
Docked and Set.—By an operation the end of the tail is
cut off and the stump is set up.
Dummy.—A horse whose brain is affected, the cause
usually being overfeeding and lack of exercise. The symp-
toms are listlessness and hesitancy in moving; a vacant
stare in the eyes and a proneness to cock the ears and look
sideways and upward; also, the holding of hay and feed
in the mouth without any attempt at mastication.
Ewe Neck.—A deficiency of muscling causing a depression
at the top of the neck just in front of the withers.
Falls Out of Bed.—Pulls back on halter rope.
Feather in Eye-—A mark across the eyeball not touching
the pupil, often caused by an injury. It may or may not
impair the sight.
Filled-in Hocks.—May mean either bog spavins or thorough-
pins, though most generally the former.
28
434 APPENDIX
Fistula.—Fistulous withers. An abscess occurring in the
region of the withers. .
Forging.—Striking the front shoes with the toe of the
hind ones.
Founder.—Inflammation of the feet causing lameness.
Technically known as laminitis.
Glass-eye.—See wall-eye.
Goose Rump.—A short, steep croup and narrow at point
of the buttock.
Gristle—An incipient side bone.
Halter Puller.—Pulls back on halter rope.
Hand.—Four inches. Horses are measured at the highest
point on the withers in terms of hands. 14-2 would mean
14 hands and 2 inches, or 58 inches.
Heavey.—Having the heaves.
Hipped.—Having the point of one hip broken over so
that it appears lower than when normal. It does not materi-
ally impair usefulness.
Hitching—Having a shorter stride in one hindleg than
the other.
Hog Back.—A roached back, the opposite from sway back.
Hollow Back.—A sway back.
Interfering. —Striking the fetlock or canon with the
opposite foot as it passes, either in front or behind.
Jack.—A bone spavin.
Jibber.—An unguidable horse, often “green.”
Knee-banger.—One that interferes—hitting his knees.
Knee-sprung.—Over on the knees caused by relaxation
of the extensor muscles—sometimes spoken of as buck-
knees.
Knock-kneed.—The front legs bent in at the knees with
feet wide apart. Sometimes called bench-legged.
Legs Go.—See No. 5, Auction Rules.
Light in the Timber.—Light bones, especially in the canons.
Little Green.—Not thoroughly broken. Often means an
animal that will not pull.
Lugger.—One that pulls or lugs on the bit.
Lunker.—An exceptionally big, heavy-boned horse.
Makes a Little Noise——A very little windy.
GLOSSARY OF HORSE AND MULE MARKET TERMS 435
Michigan Pad.—A puff or cushion that occurs just below
the hock on the outside of the hind canon near the forward
edge. The same as outside cushion.
Moon Blindness.—Periodic opthalmia.
Nicked.—An operation severing the cords on one side of the
tail to straighten it.
Nigger-heeled.—Front toes turned out, heels in.
Old Skin or Skate-——A worn-out animal.
Outside Cushion.—The same as cushion or Michigan pad.
Over-reach.—Reaching farther forward with the hindfeet
in traveling than where the front ones were picked up.
Paddle.—Winging out with the front feet.
Parrot Mouth.—The upper submaxillary longer than the
lower jaw.
Periodic Ophthalmia.—Inflammatory affection of the inte-
rior of the eye. It usually disappears in a week or ten days
and returns again in afew weeks. The cycles are often com-
pleted in about a month and because of this fact many
people believe the trouble is in some way related to the moon
changes, hence the name “moon blindness.”
Pig-eye.—A small eye set too much in the head and with
thick eyelids. It accompanies, in general, animals with a
lymphatic temperament and with imperfect vision.
Pigeon-toed.—Front toes turned in—the opposite of nigger-
heeled.
Pink-eye.—A disease causing a white skum to form over
the eye often causing blindness.
Poll Evil.—A fistulous condition or abscess on or near
the poll.
Pones.—Lumps of fat on a mule’s body.
Posting.—Rising and falling in the saddles with each
alternative step when the horse is trotting.
Pufis.—Wind galls, bog spavins, or thoroughpins.
Quarter Crack.—A vertical crack on the. side of the hoof
often running to coronet.
Quittor.—A fistulous opening upon the heel or coronary
band of the foot.
Rat Tail—A tail with but little hair.
436 APPENDIX
Rejects.—Animals not filling the guarantee and conse-
quently turned back on the hands of the seller.
Rickety.—The same as bobber or jig back.
Ring-bone.—A bony growth on the upper or lower pastern
bones and most always causing lameness.
Ripper.—An exceptionally good big animal.
Roach Back.—See hog back.
Roarer.—Defective in wind. Very windy.
Rough Behind.—Having a bone spavin.
Rounding Hock.—Having a curb.
Sand Crack.—A vertical crack in the middle of the hoof
often running to coronet.
Scalping—When speeding, the horse strikes the front
side of the hind coronet, pastern or canon against the front
toe. Also, applied to a trader that buys and sells animals
on the market.
Seam in Hoof.—A scar in hoof from an injury of some kind,
such as cracks, wire marks, calks, ete.
Seedy Toe.—A separation of the walls of the toe from the
sensitive laminz. Very often the end of the toes turns
slightly up.
Serpentine.—An animal that extends and withdraws his
tongue as a serpent.
Serviceably Sound.—See No. 2, Auction Rules.
Shoe Boil.—A bruise at elbow which results in an abscess,
caused from the animal lying on his foot in such a way
that the heel of the shoe strikes the elbow.
Sickle Hock.—T oo much bend in the hock. A conformation
predisposed to curbs.
Side-bone.—An ossified lateral cartilage occurring on
either side at the top of the foot.
Slab-sided.—Flat-ribbed.
Smoke His Pipe.—An animal with lip torn where the bridle
bit rests.
Smoky Eye.—A clouded eye with whitish appearance.
Smooth Mouth.—An aged horse.
Sound.—See No. 1, Auction Rules.
Speck in Eye.—A spot on the eye not covering the pupil.
It may or may not impair the sight.
GLOSSARY OF HORSE AND MULE MARKET TERMS 437
Speedy Cutting.—Striking the inside of the hind canon
against the front foot as the hindfoot is brought forward
and passes the front foot on the outside in over-reaching.
This only happens in speedy horses.
Splay-footed.—Nigger-heeled.
Splint—A bony growth on the canon-bone occurring
most often on the front legs and either on the inside or out,
but more often on the inside.
Stands a Little Careless in Front.—Knees sprung or buck-
kneed.
Stringy.—String-halt. A convulsive action in the hind-
legs flexing either one or both up with a jerk.
Stump-sucker.—A cribber. —
Sucker.—An animal with some defect which is not always
apparent.
Sweeney.—Atrophied shoulder muscles causing a depression.
Thick Neck.—A neck too thick at the shoulder for a collar
to fit well.
Thoroughpins.—Puffiness occurring in the web of the hock.
Tongue Loller—Permitting the tongue to hang out.
Trephined.—A hole in the jaw bored for removing a molar
tooth.
Trot Out Short.—Sore in front, having a short stride.
Wall-eye.—The iris a pearly white color, due to a lack
of pigment. Sometimes called glass-eye.
Weaver.—Continual swaying back and forth when standing
in the stall.
Wind and Work.—See No. 3, Auction Rules.
Wind Galls—Puffs occurring at the upper part of the
fetlock joints. ;
Windy.—One that whistles or roars when exerted.
Whistler.—Defective in wind. See windy.
Winging.— Throwing the front feet out or in when traveling.
Worker.—See No. 4, Auction Rules.
AUCTION RULES.
Note.—In the auction ring sales are made under certain
well-understood rules which are published and announced
from the auction stand, recorded and stand as a guarantee.
The following are the principal rules which govern sales in
the auction ring. Exceptions to these rules may be an-
nounced from the auction stand pointing out the defects,
in which case they are recorded and go with the horse.
1. Sownd.—Perfectly sound in every way.
2. Serviceably Sound.—Virtually a sound animal, barring
slight blemishes which do not interfere with his usefulness
in any way. His wind and eyes must be good, but a spot or
streak in the eye which does not affect the sight will be
considered serviceably sound as long as the pupil of the eye
is good. He must not be lame or sore in any way.
3. Wind and Work.—The only guarantee this carries
with it is that the animal has good wind and is a good worker.
4. Work Only.—He must be a good worker and everything
else goes with him. No other guarantee than to work.
5. Legs Go.—Everything that is on the animal’s legs go
with him; nothing is guaranteed except that he must not
be lame or crampy. He must, however, be serviceably sound
in every other respect.
6. At the Halter—Sold just as he stands without any
recommendations. He may be lame, vicious, balky, kicker
or anything else. The purchaser takes all the risk. The title
only is guaranteed.
( 488 )
BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS APPLICABLE TO MOST
BREEDS OF CATTLE, SWINE, AND SHEEP.
By Rospert WALLACE,
UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH.
General Points of Beef-producing Cattle—The masculine
or the feminine characteristics naturally represented in
individual specimens of each sex.
General appearance stylish, and showing quality; figure
compact and well-proportioned, deep, broad, and low set
as opposed to being leggy.
Head broad between the eyes, flat across the crown (with
exceptions in polled breeds) and down the face, which should
be neither “dished” nor Roman, but short, or of medium
length, with a quiet expression; forehead broad and full;
muzzle broad, full, distinct, and dewy; mouth large; jaw
wide; nostrils large; eyes large, placid, and clear; horns
none, or varying in length, color, and strength, according to
breed, fine and symmetrical, set on the crest of the head;
ears full and sensitive, of fine texture, well covered with
hair, and varying slightly in position in the different breeds.
Neck medium length, full at the “neck-vein,” or “ shoulder-
vein” where it joins the body, broad (muscular and crested
in the male), but fine, and tapering toward the head—to
which it should join without thickness or chokiness—and
straight from the shoulder top to the roots of the horns,
excepting when it rises into the crest of a bull.
Body long and deep, equally balanced before and behind;
back broad throughout its length, smooth and even, and
straight from the top of the shoulders to the tail-head; the
frame well and equally covered with firm flesh, especially
in the regions of the best cuts, not patchy on the hooks,
tail-head, rump, shoulders, or other parts (when prime fat,
a little pit may be felt on the point of each hook). The trunk,
( 439 )
440) APPENDIX
looked at from any point, should resemble as nearly as
possible a parallelogram; the under and upper lines straight
and parallel; brisket projecting well forward and wide,
making the forelegs stand well apart; loin thick and broad;
flank full and deep, even with the underline; foreflank
to correspond, well filled; tail thin, set on well back (but
not too high), and falling perpendicularly.
Skin moderately thick (not papery), pliable, and mellow
or mossy to touch; hair soft and abundant, covering all
parts well.
Shoulders well covered with flesh and laid back over the
ribs, so that the natural depression behind them in the
region of the heart or girth line should not be too pronounced,
broad and compact on top; the shoulder-blades adhering
closely to the trunk; shoulder-points fine, “snug,” and well
covered.
Chest, viewed from before or from behind the shoulder,
full, wide, deep, and massive; girth large; crops full.
The forearm and leg straight and short; muscle large
and broad; leg-bones dense and strong, though smooth,
fine, and flat (abnormally small bone shows tendency to
diminished size); legs short and well under the body; hoofs
clear and oily looking.
Hindquarters full and well packed, lengthy from the
hook-bones to the pin-bones (which should be well apart);
rump wide and even, and the tail-head smooth, not patchy,
and no part rising above the back level; hips smoothly
covered, distance from each other to harmonize with other
parts; thighs broad, thick, and well down toward the
hocks; twist or inner thigh full, deep, and plump.
Ribs thickly fleshed, well sprung (arched), and deep, filling
up deficiency behind the shoulder and hollow in front of the
hooks, 7. e., “well-ribbed home.”’
Legs straight and short, shanks fine and smooth.
The lines of the body flowing, not sharp or abrupt, with
a general balance of parts to please the eye; carriage stylish.
Points Generally Applicable to all Breeds of Swine.—In
judging, it is best to begin at the feet and legs, as these are
most important, on account of their having to carry the
POINTS APPLICABLE TO ALL BREEDS OF SWINE 441
weight when the animal is fat and heavy, and to insure
firm, free action. ‘The feet should be proportionate and
neat; the pasterns strong; the legs perfectly straight and
well set, level with the outside of the body, with plenty
of fine, flat bone, fleshed well down in both fore and hind-
quarters; feet wide apart; loin strong, and as broad as the
shoulder-head, which should be compact and free from any
opening or looseness; the back broad all the way, straight
and level, not drooping too much at the rump when the
animal walks, and extending over the neck. Pigs are all
liable to arch in the back and droop at the rump when
standing. The underline should be parallel, and continued
below the jowl; the chest wide and deep; the belly full,
but not flabby;.the quarters long and wide, and straight
from hip to tail; hams broad, full and deep to hocks; the
flank thick, full, and well let down; the ribs well sprung,
and sides deep; the neck thick, especially toward the
shoulders, and of proportionate length; the ears vary from
a foot long to a few inches, each breed having its own special
size, shape and position; the head broad between the eyes;
the nose long or short, according to breed; the under jaw
shorter than the upper; the cheeks full; the eye not too
small, quick, but mild; the tail stout and long, and set high,
but not coarse, and a tuft of long, fine hairs on its tip; the
body well covered all over with flesh, and of a rectangular
shape from all points of sight, deep and wide before and
behind; the skin medium in thickness, and covered with
a sufficient coat of characteristic hair.
Though the points enumerated are those looked for at
shows, it has been most forcibly pointed out by Sanders
Spencer, one of the most successful breeders and exporters
of white pigs in England, and also by those interested in the
bacon-curing trade, that the most economical pig to breed,
and consequently the one which ought to be encouraged in
the show yard, should be long in the body, a good medium
depth in the ribs, light in the neck and forequarters, and
heavy and deep behind in the hams or gammon; or, as
A. W. Shaw, of Limerick, has tersely put it: ‘““What is really
wanted, is a pig that is neat in the head, light in the neck
442 APPENDIX
and shoulders, deep in the heart, thick in the loin, stout in
the thighs, and short in the legs’”—the reason being that
changes in the curing trade and pork market have resulted
in certain parts of the animal being of greater value per
pound than other parts. The shoulder and neck being of
least value, it is shown that it is a waste of food substance
to transform it into flesh of inferior quality, if by selecting
animals with tendencies to greater development in the more
valuable parts a greater amount of material on the higher
division of the scale of market values can be produced.
Points Applicable to Most British Breeds of Sheep.—Il. A
graceful carriage and springy style of walking.
2. A characteristic head with good depth and strength of
jaw, and breadth across the bridge of the nose, and full,
bright eyes, indicating both docility and courage.
3. The neck thick toward the trunk, tapering to the head,
arching slightly, and not too short.
4. The chest broad, deep, and projecting well over the
forelegs, and descending from the neck in a perpendicular
line.
5. The back level and broad behind and before (except
in the Cheviots and Lonks, which have sharp shoulder-tops
or withers), with a uniform covering of flesh, not boggy, but
to the touch firm and muscular; under and upper lines
straight.
6. The ribs well sprung, rounded and deep.
7. The shoulders well laid and covered with firm flesh.
The regions immediately behind the shoulders filled up.
8. The thighs and gigots and also the arms and the fore-
flanks fleshed well down.
9. The rump or part near the dock well developed, though.
not too large, as is sometimes the case in Cotswolds, Border
Leicesters, and other heavy-fleshed breeds.
10. The quarters long and not drooping behind, and the
spaces between them and the last ribs short.
11. The legs straight and set well apart, not too long; the
bone clean and fine, and neither coarse nor deficient; the
hocks are much better slightly out than at all in or “cow-
hocked.”’
MARKET GRADES AND CLASSES 443 |
12. The characteristic wool of the special breed covering
well the body, and particularly the belly; also the scrotum
of the ram.
- MARKET GRADES AND CLASSES.
The most intelligent producer of live stock should have a
knowledge concerning the various grades and classes of live
stock which fulfil market requirements. Very often a pro-
ducer of stock, on account of his lack of knowledge con-
cerning these problems, does not receive the maximum price
for his product. In studying this problem a clear distinc-
tion should be made between classes and grades. A class
represents some special type of animal designated for a
specific purpose. The term grade should be construed as
indicating the degree of perfection attained as compared
with the standard for the class. For example, in cattle the
market classes are beef cattle, butcher stock, canners and
cutters, stockers and feeders, veal calves, Texas and Western
range cattle, and distillers, the latter two constituting sub-
classes. The miscellaneous classes include baby beef, export
cattle, shipping steers, dressed beef cattle and stags. Each
of the above main classes is then subdivided into prime,
choice, good, medium, common and inferior grades. ‘These
represent the principal market distinctions. In certain
classes there are additional grades, such as fancy selected;
this term being used in designating feeder cattle.
The division by classes is based on use and into grades
on conformity to this use or purpose. The designation by
grades is based on weight, quality, conformation, maturity
and condition. Horses, cattle, sheep and swine are all so
classed and graded, although there are certain specific mar-
ket terms which are used in designating each of the classes
and grades fixed by different market requirements.
fee
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INDEX.
A
ABERDEEN-ANGUS, hativity and
description of, 249
standard of excellence and scale
of points, 250, 251
Action, 48, 97
defects of, 219
of draft horse, 116
examination of, 110
of heavy harness horse, 135
of jacks and jennets, 184
of mules, 200
Adaptation, 72
of Angora goat, 422
Age, determination of, in cattle,
241, 242
in horse, 105
in sheep, 361
in swine, 320
limitations, 75
of mules, 195
of sheep at maturity, 375
of swine at maturity, 321, 326
classification, 320
American jack, description of, 191
Guernsey Cattle Club Notes, 295
Merino, characteristics of, 411
Saddle Horse, description of,
157, 158, 159
Association, 100
requirements for Ameri-
Saddle Horse, 158
Standardbred, description _ of,
150, 151, 152
official standards, 152, 153
Andalusian jack, nativity and de-
seription of, 188
Angora goats, adaptation of, 422
breed and sex characteristics
of, 421
Angora goats, constitution of, 419
fleece of, 421
form of, 419
general appearance of, 418
importance of, 418
purpose of, 418
quality of, 419
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 422
uses of, 418
Appendix, 429-443
Ass, 182. See Jacks and Jennets.
Auction rules, 438
Ayrshire, 72
nativity and characteristics of,
302
standard of excellence and scale
of points, 308-305
B
Bacon hog, form of, 59
type, 350
Beef cattle, breed characteristics,
of, 246-256
brief description of, 439, 440
capacity of, 233
class characteristics of, 264—
268
condition of, 233
conformation of, 226
constitution of, 229
coordination of bone
muscle of, 225
determination of age of, 241
dressing percentages of, 234
fleshing qualities of, 228
indications of quality of, 228
industry, evolution and impor-
tance of, 221
and
( 445 )
446
Beef cattle, marbling of meat. of,
235
nervous development of, 230
percentage of different cuts of
beef of, 237
products and their uses, 223
relation of structure to high-
priced cuts, 223
score card of, 246
weight and maturity of, 231
dressing percentages of, 234
marbling of, 235
percentage of different cuts of,
237
Belgian, nativity and characteris-
ties of, 121, 122, 123
Berkshire, nativity and character-
istics of, 332
standard of excellence and scale
of points, 334
Bibliography, 426-428
Blemishes decrease value of ani-
mal, 50
definition of, 51
not transmitted, 51
one class of defects, 50
Block tests, 85
Bog spavins, 215
Bone and muscle, codrdination of,
2205
indicates quality, 62, 115
quality of, indicated by canon
bone, 93, 95
size of, indicates scale, 29
Bony growths, 213
Breed character, 70
characteristics of Angora goat,
421
of beef cattle, 246-256
of dairy cattle, 290-311
of draft horses, 118-128
of dual purpose cattle, 256-264
of heavy harness horses, 136—
145 ;
of jacks and jennets, 186-192
of light harness horses, 150—
153
of ponies, 169-173
of saddle horses, 157-161
of sheep, 385-407, 411-416
of swine, 332-350
selection, 81
Breeder, attributes of, 425
two classes of, 78
INDEX
Breeders’ fads, 87
Breeding animals, conformity to
breed type, 268
constitution and vigor of, 269
form of, 176, 268
qualifications of, 70
quality of, 176
sex characteristics of, 178, 270
temperament of, 177, 269
attributes, 175
classes of sheep, 416
condition, 69
requisites, 268, 314, 358
test, 73
Breeds, beef cattle, 246
draft horses, 118
dual purpose, 256
factors contributing to their
origin, 18
heavy harness horses, 136
horses, classification, 111
jacks, 186
light harness horses, 136
ponies, 169
saddle horses, 157
sheep, 885
swine, 332
Brown Swiss, characteristics of , 306
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 307
C
Cas horse, description of, 145
Calves, characteristics of, 267
Canter, description of, 100
Capacity of beef cattle, 233
of dairy animal, 280
how determined and developed,65
indicated by milk and butter
standards, 281
of mutton sheep, 374
of swine, 325
Carcass of swine, uses of, 319, 350
Catalonian jack, nativity and de-
scription of, 187
Cavalry horse, characteristics of,
164
specifications of Quarter-
master-General for, 165
Cheshire, characteristics of, 348
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 348
INDEX
Chester White, characteristics of,
340
Cheviot, characteristics of, 399
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 401
Chunk, classes of, 131
description of, 131
Circulatory system, affects elabora-
tion of milk, 30, 31, 271
importance of, 30
Class characteristics of beef cattle,
264-268
of dairy cattle, 3138-3814
of draft horses, 128
of heavy harness horses, 145
of light harness horses, 153-
155
of mules, 205-210
of ponies, 173-175
of sheep, 416-418
of swine, 358-360
Classes of beef cattle, 264
of dairy cattle, 313
of draft horses, 128
of heavy harness horses, 145
of horses, 111
of light harness horses, 153, 155
of mules, 205
of ponies, 173
of saddle horses, 161
of sheep, 416
of swine, 360
Classification of horses, 110
of light horses, 133
Cleveland Bay, description of, 141-
145
Clydesdale, nativity and descrip-
tion of, 128
Coach horse, description of, 145
Cob, description of, 145
Color of Guernsey, 296
of jacks, 184
Colts and ‘fillies, 180
Combination horse, description of,
161, 162
Condition, definition of, 68, 69, 70
for breeding, 69
for market, 68
indicates healthfulness, 80
of ass, 183
of beef cattle, 233
of mules, 199
of mutton sheep, 374
of swine, 326, 353
447
Conformation of beef animals, 226
Constitution and vigor of Angora
goat, 419
associated with endurance or
durability, 115, 149
of beef animals, 229
of beef breeding cattle, 269
of dairy animals, 279
of Guernsey, 296
of horses, draft, 115
how determined, 63
importance of, in breeding
animals, 63
of mutton sheep, 373
of swine, 325
Cotswold, nativity and character-
istics of, 389
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 390
Cotton mules, description of, 209
Craig quotation, 22
Cribbing, 53
indicated by condition of teeth,
21
Cross firing, 220
Cruikshank, ‘Amos, plank of breed-
ing, 77
Culling herds, 72
inferior animals, 55
Curb, 216
D
Datry cattle, breed characteristics
of, 290-311
breeding requisites of, 314
capacity of, 280
as indicated by milk and
butter standards, 281
ee characteristics of, 313-
3l
classes of, 313
constitution of, 279
durability and persistency of,
284
form of, 273
function of, 274
mammary system of, 282
nervous temperament of, 280
purpose of, 271
quality of, 277
score card of, 289
structural form and examina-
tion of, 284-289
448
Dairy cattle, wedges of, 59, 274,
276, 277, 278
classes, calves, 314
heifer development, 313
mature form, 313
form of, 273
function of, 274
correlation with other factors
of, 275
records measure productiveness
of, 82, 83, 85
are reliable when covering long
period, 83
temperament of Guernsey, 296
Deafness, indicated by lack of ear
movement, 217
Deception from trimming, 375
Decisions, uniformity of, 44
Defects, exterior, classified, 50
in way of going, 219
Delaine Merino, characteristics of,
standard of excellence and
seale of points of, 414
Detailed structural form of beef
animal, 242
of dairy animal, 284-289
of horse, 100
of mules, 201
of sheep, 365
of swine, 329-331
Devons, nativity and characteris-
ties of, 262
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 263
Digestive system, factors indicat-
ing a strong, 30
importance of, 30 ©
Disease of frog, 218
Dorset Horn, characteristics of, 402
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 403
Draft animals, breeds of horses, 118
conformation of, 113
group or type of, 118
temperament or nervous de-
velopment of, 67
mules, description of, 205
or short leet, 56
Drafter, description of, 128, 129
Dressing percentages of cattle, 234
of swine, 327, 328, 329
Dual purpose breeds, 256
Durability of dairy animal, 284
INDEX
Durability of light harness horse,
149
Duroc-Jersey,
339
scale of points of, 340
Dutch Belted, nativity and char-
acteristics of, 308
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 310
Dwelling, 220
characteristics — of,
E
Ears of horses, jacks, jennets and
mules, 216
Endurance associated with consti-
tution, 115, 149
of mules, 200
or speed records, 85
Essex, characteristics of, 347
Established herds, 82
Expresser, description of, 1382
overlaps other classes, 112
Eyes, description of, 217
indicate certain characters, 217
F
Fans of breeders, 87
Farm mules, description of, 206
Fat cattle, characteristics of, 264
hog, form of, 59
production, dependent upon ner-
vous development, 32
sheep and lambs, characteristics
of, 417
type of swine, 320
Feeders, characteristics of, 265,
360, 418
Feet, diseases of, 218
Fine-wool breeds, 385, 411
Fistula, location and detection of,
218, 434
Fleece, Angora, 421
characteristics of, 377
lustre of, 381
method of examination of, 378
purity of, 381
quality of, 379
quantity of, 380
soundness of, 383
types of, 377
INDEX
Fleece, variation in, 384
yolk of, 381
Form of Angora goat, 419
of ass, 183
of bacon hog, 59, 60, 352, 353
of beef cattle, 226
of breeding cattle, 268
horses, 176
of dairy cow, 59, 273, 276, 277
of draft horse, 113
of horse, detailed structural, 100
of light harness horse, 147
of meat animals, 58, 59, 60
of mules, 197
of mutton sheep, 371
relation of, to utility, 95
of speed animals, 59, 60
of swine, 322, 350, 352
of wool sheep, 60
Forging, 219, 434
Fox trot described, 100
Framework affects development of
digestive system,. 30
muscular development, 29
compared with that of man, 91
determines scale, 28, 29
of swine, 317
of young animal, 181
French Canadian, characteristics
of, 308
Coach, nativity and description
of, 136
Draft, 120. See Percheron.
Fundamental considerations in
judging horses, 89
G
Ga.uop described, 100
Galloway, nativity and character-
istics of, 254
points to be avoided in, 255
standard of excellence of, 255
Gaited saddle horse, 163
Gaits, description of, 98, 99, 100
of gaited saddle horse, 163
of speed or race horse, 153
of walk-trot-canter horse, 163
Gaskin, a guide to muscular devel-
opment, 93
Gay, 62, 91, 97, 112, 219
General appearance, 58
, 29
449
German Coach, nativity and de-
scription of, 137, 138
Glossary of horse and mule market
terms, 431
Goats, Angora, 418
Guernsey, explanatory notes by
American Guernsey Cattle
Club, 295-297
nativity and characteristics of,
293
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 294-295
H
Hackney, nativity and descrip-
tion of, 139-141
pony, description and require-
ments of, 173
Halter pulling, 53
Hampshire hog, disqualifications
of, 346
nativity and characteristics of,
343
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 344
sheep, characteristics of, 393
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 394
Handling, amount of, 49
animals, 49
generally undesirable, 47
quality, how determined, 49
to determine mammary develop-
ment, 49
Healthfulness, 80
Heaves, indications of, 217
Heavy harness group or type,
action of, 135
breed characteristics of,
136
general description — of,
133, 134
market and show classes
of, 136
quality of, 134
temperament of, 134
Height of horse, how measured, 60
Shetland pony, 61
Herd improvement, 423
use of pure-bred sire in, 423
records, 82
uniformity, 71
450
Hereford, characteristics of, 252
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 253
Holstein-Friesian, 72
disqualifications for advanced
registry, 302
nativity and characteristics of,
298
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 299-301
Hoof, description of normal, 218
diseases and defects of, 218
Horns, indication of age by, 242
Horse, detailed structural form of,
100
examination for faults, 211
in stable, 53
fundamental considerations
judging, 89
mechanical structure of, 92
propelling power of, 96
relation of bone and muscular
development of, 92, 96
tests for unsoundness and vices
in, 53, 108, 109
Horses, breed characteristics of,
118-128, 136-145, 150, 157-
161
classification of, 110, 111
examination of, in harness, 218
Hunter, requirements for, 164
in
I
INDIVIDUALITY and pedigree, 76
how determined, 63
or thrift, 74
Interfering, 219
Italian jack, description of, 190
J
JAcKs and jennets, breed charac-
teristics of, 186
color of, 184
description of American, 191
form, scale, and quality of,
183
general appearance of, 182
nervous development of, 184
score card for, 186
selection of, 185
INDEX
Jacks and jennets, sex character-
istics of, 184
soundness and condition of,
183
structure of, 182
style and action of, 184
uses of, 185
Jersey, nativity and characteris-
tics of, 290
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 291
Judging Angora goats, 418
application of, to improvement,
423
beef and dual purpose cattle, 221
breeding classes, horses, 175
by comparison, 41, 43
colts and fillies, 180
consideration of fads in, 87, 88
dairy cattle, 271
as distinguished from selection,
36, 52
definition of, 35
draft horses, 113
jeclors and ‘principles applicable
to,
Hee 89
importance of keen, 19
jacks, jennets, and mules, 182
light horses, 133
methods and practices in, 35
by purchaser, 108
objects of, 36
relation of structure to, 24-27
requires wide knowledge
animals, 36, 37, 425
requirements for, 22, 28, 37, 42-
44
of
sheep, 361
should be prompt and thorough,
54, 55
in show ring, 41, 108, 109
swine, 317
use of ideals and standards in,
37-39, 42-45
of score card in, 38, 39
of system in, 46
K .
Kerry, nativity and characteris-
tics of, 310
scale of points of, 311
INDEX
L
LAMENESS, causes of, 214, 215, 216 |
detection of, in horses, 108
locating, 213 i
Large Yorkshire, characteristics of,
standard excellence and scale
of points of, 356
Leicester, characteristics of, 387
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 388
Light harness group or
breeds of, 150
classes of, 150
conformation of, 147, 148,
149
durability of, 149
quality of, 149
temperament of, 149
two distinct types of,
147
Lincoln, nativity and characteris-
ties of, 385
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 387
Lineage of animals, 79
Live stock industry, field of devel-
opment of, 18
method of development of,
17, 18
possibilities of, 21
judging, defined, 35
shows, importance of, 426
value of, 20
Logger, description of, 129
Long-wool breeds, 385
Lymphatic temperament of beef
animals, 67-68
of draft animals, 67
type,
M
Matreseé jack, nativity and de-
scription of, 189
Mammary organs of dairy cow,
282-284
of special importance in dairy
animals, 31
use of hands in judging devel-
opment. of, 49
system, 282, 288
veins in dairy cow, 283, 288
451
| Majorca jack, nativity and descrip-
tion of, 190
Marbling of meat, 235
Market classes of mules, 205
of sheep, 361
of wool, 383
condition, 68
grades and classes, 443
value of swine, bacon, 354
Maturity, age of, in beef cattle,
231
in different animals, 77
in mutton sheep, 375
in swine, 326
Measuring height of horse, 60
Medium-wool breeds, 385, 391
Merino sheep, 60
American, 411
Delaine, characterics of, 413
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 414
Middle Yorkshire, characteristics
of, 346
Milk production dependent upon
nervous development, 32
Mining mules, description of, 208
Mule mares, qualifications of, 203
-foot swine, characteristics of,
349
scale of points of, 350
Mules, age limitations of, 195
condition of, 199
cotton, 209
draft, 205
farm, 206
general conformation of, 197
requirements of, 193
height and weight of, 195
market classes of, 205
mining, 208
quality of, 198
score card for, 203
soundness of, 200
structural form and qualifica-
tions of, 201
style and action of, 200
sugar, 207
temperament and endurance of,
200
uses and adaptation of, 193
Muscular development depends
upon bony framework, 28
of different parts should be
correlated, 96
452
Muscular development, relation of
bone to, 92, 98, 225, 226
value of animals dependent
upon, 29
Mutton type, characteristics of,
301-3807
N
Natura thrift, 74
Nerve cutting, 52
Nervous development of ass, 184
of beef cattle, 230
characterization of, 32
controls temperament, 68
correlation with other func-
tions, 32, 97
indicates use and value of
animal, 32, 33
in different classes of animals,
32, 67
temperament of dairy breeds,
67, 280, 281
indicates endurance, 97
milk production, 67
of speed horses, 67
Norman, 120. See Percheron.
Nostrils, description of, 217
O
OFFICIAL standard of the American
Trotting Register Association,
152
O. I. SS swine, characteristics of,
341
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 341
Open joint, 215
Operations prastised to improve
show condition, 51
should be discriminated against,
51-52
Oxford, characteristics of, 397
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 399
P
Pace described, 100
Pacing standard, 152, 153
Paddling, 219
INDEX
Pampered condition, 69
Park horse, 145
Parrot mouth, 217, 435
Pedigree and individuality, 76
not all important, 74, 75
should be considered, 78, 79
Percentage of different cuts in
swine, 327, 328, 329
Percheron, nativity and descrip-.
tion of, 118-121
Persistency of dairy animal, 284
Point of approach, 46, 47
Pointing, 220
Poitou jack, nativity and descrip-
tion of, 188
Poland-China, disqualifications of,
338
nativity and characteristics of,
334
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 336-338
Polled Durham, breed character-
istics of, 247, 248
Polo ponies, description and re-
quirements of, 173
Ponies between 11—2 and 14-2, 175
description of, 173
under 46 inches, 174
Pony, breeds of, 169
classes of, 173
group or type of, 169
Position of animals for judging, 45
Pounding, 220
Prepotency, definition of, 74
of Guernsey, 297
Productiveness, 74
Propelling power, 96
Pure-bred live stock associations,
429
Q
Quatity of Angora goat, 419
fleece, 421
of breeding animals, 176
of dairy animals, 277
of draft horse, 114, 115
of fleece, 379
of heavy harness horse, 134
how determined, 62
indications of, in beef cattle, 228
in herses, draft, 114, 115
of light harness horse, 149
of mules, 198
INDEX
Quality of mutton sheep, 373
of swine, 3238, 351
Quantity of fleece, 380
R
Rack described, 100
Rambouillet, characteristics of, 415 |
Red Polled, disqualifications of,
260, 261
nativity and characteristics
of, 258
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 259, 261
Registry associations, pure-bred
live stock, 429
Regularity of breeding, 74
Reproductive system affects value
of animals, 31, 32
Reynolds, M. H., 211
Ringbone, location and effect of,
214, 436
Roadster, description of, 1538, 155
Roaring, 53
Rolling, 220
Romney, nativity and character-
istics of, 403
Rudimentary teats of Guernsey,
297
Runabout horse,
112, 145
Running horse, description and re-
quirements of, 167, 168
walk described, 100
description of,
S
SADDLE group or type, breeds of,
Seale of ass, 183
determined by bony framework,
28
fixed by height and weight, 61°
at maturity, 29
of mules, 195
Scalping, 220, 436
Score card for bacon swine, 354
carcass determination, 351
for beef cattle, 246
for dairy cattle, 289
for draft horses, 117
for fat swine, 332
453
| Score card for fine-wool sheep, 410
for heavy harness horses, 146
for jacks, 186
for light harness horses, 155,
156
for mules, 203
for mutton sheep, 384
for saddle horses, 168
for Shetland ponies, 171
use of, 38, 39
| Selection of a breed, 81
as distinguished from judging, 36
factors and principles of, 57
importance of, 19
of a jack, 185
possibilities of, 21, 22
suggestions on, 78
Sex characteristics of Angora goat,
421
of ass, 184
of breeding cattle,
horses, 178
of swine, 359
Sheep, breed characteristics of,
| 385-407, 411-416
breeding classes of, 416
capacity of, 374
class requirements of, 416-418
condition of, 374
constitution of, 373
deception by trimming of, 375
determination of age of, 361
examination of, 50, 365
fat, 417
feeder, 418
fine-wool breeds of, 411
fleece characteristics of, 377
form of, 371, 407
market classes of, 361
maturity of, 375
mutton type of, 371
points applicable to most British
breeds of, 442
purpose of, 361
quality of, 373, 409
score card for mutton type, 384
for fine-wool type, 410
types of, 385
use of products of, 361
variation in fleece of, 384
weight of, 371
Shetland, 61, 169
description and requirements of,
169, 170
270
454
Shetland, score card for, 171
Shire, nativity and description of,
125
Shoe boil, 216, 486
Shorthorn, dual purpose charac-
teristics of, 256
nativity and ‘description of, 246
Short leet, 56
Shoulders, examination of, 218
Shropshire, characteristics of, 391
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 393
Sidebones, 214, 436
Small Yorkshire, characteristics of,
346
Soundness of ass and mule, 183
general examination for, 212
of mules, 200
relation of, to utility, 211
Southdown, characteristics of, 395
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 397
Spavin, 214, 215
Speed or race horse, 153
records the result of breeding, 85
Speedy cutting, 220, 437
Splints, 213, 214, 437
Standardbred. See American stan- |
dardbred.
Stockers, 267
Structure analogous with that of
man, 91
of ass, 182
of swine, 317
relation of, to animal judging,
24-27
to high-prcied cuts, 223
Structural form of beef cattle, 242
of dairy animal, 284-289
of horse, 100
of mules, 201
of swine, 329-331
Style and action of draft horse, 116
of jacks and jennets, 184
of mules, 200
Sub-celass of horses, 111
Substance, definition of, 62
Suffolk horse, nativity and char-
acteristics of, 127-128
sheep, characteristics of, 405
Sugar mules, 207
Sussex, nativity and characteris-
tics, "256
Sweeney, 218, 437
INDEX
Swine, age of, determmation of, 320
of classes, 320
at maturity, 326
weight of fat, 321
bacon type of, 350
breed characteristics of, 332, 355
breeding and feeding capacity
of, 325
requisites of, 358
carcass of, uses of, 319, 350
class characteristics of, 358, 360
constitution and vigor of, 325
details of form of, 329-331
dressing percentage of, 327-329
fat type of, 320
form or conformation of, 322,
302, 300
general considerations of, 320
indications and value of quality
of, 323, 351
meaning and value of condition
of, 326, 353
market value of, 353, 354
maturity of, 326
percentage of cuts of, 327-329
points applicable to all breeds of,
440-442
purpose and method of use of,
319, 350
score card for bacon, 354
for fat, 332
sex characteristics of, 359
structure of, 317
type classification of, 320
weight of bacon type of, 351
Symmetry, 66
Synovial sacs, 215
System, use of, in judging, 46
T
TamwortH, 60
characteristics of, 857
standard of excellence of, 358
Teeth, ‘‘bishoping”’ of, 52, 105
disappearance of cups in, 108
how to determine age by, 105
indicate age of beef cattle, 241,
242
of sheep, 361, 363
normal and abnormal condition
of, 217
order of appearance of, 107
INDEX
Teeth, temporary or milk, 106
Temperament of breeding cattle,
269
horses, 177
of dairy cow, 67, 280
definition of, 67
depends upon nervous develop-
ment, 32, 67
of draft animals, 67, 116
of Guernsey, 296
of heavy harness horse, 134
indicates use and value, 32
of light harness horse, 149
of mules, 200
of speed animals, 67
Thoroughbred, breeding and de-
seription of, 159-161
Thoroughpins, 215, 437
Trappy, 220
Trot described, 98-99
Trotting standard, 152
Tuberculin test by purchaser, 81
Tuberculosis, 81
Tunis, characteristics of, 406
Type of breeding animals, 268
Types of horses, 111, 112
of light horses, 133
of ponies, 169
of sheep, 371, 385, 407
of swine, 320
of wool, 377
U
Upper of dairy cow, 283
Unsoundness affects value of horse, |
definition of, 211
detection of, 49, 108
examination for, 211
may be transmitted, 51
one of common defects, 50
recovery from, 51 |
Utility, relation of form to, 95
soundness to, 211
Utilization of beef cattle products, |
223
of sheep products, 361
455
Vv
Vices, detection of, in horse, 109
Victoria, characteristics of, 347
WwW
WALK described, 98
Walk-trot-canter horse,
tion of, 162, 163
Weaving, 53
Wedge shape of dairy cow, 59, 273,
276, 277, 278
Weight, 60
of bacon swine, 351
a factor in determining scale,
61
of mutton sheep, 371
Welsh ponies, description and re-
quirements of, 171-173
Whistling, 53
Wind puffs, 215
sucking, 53
Winding, 219
Winging, 219, 437
Withers, troubles affecting, 217,
218
Wool, clothing, 383
combing 384
delaine, 384
lustre of, 381
market classification of, 383
purity of, 381
quality of, 379
quantity of, 380
soundness of, 383
types of, 377
yolk of, 381
descrip-
Y
Younce stock, characteristics of,
360
Yorkshire, Large, 60, 355. See
Middle Yorkshire, and Small
Yorkshire, 346.
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