FWS/OBS-82/46 August 1984 MMS 84-0052 Ecological Characterization Atlas of Coastal Alabama: Map Narrative DOCUMENT Woods Ho'.e Oceanographic Institution £*• -* '.-jt&SU t+ k Fish and Wildlife Service Minerals Management Service U.S. Department of the Interior \ 5==-^ £J— ==~S^ CO fSs cc ■*-^-^2 S~!gg. ,_^ ^^S o ^=== O FWS/OBS- 82/46 MMS 84-0052 August 1984 ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION ATLAS OF COASTAL ALABAMA: MAP NARRATIVE by Marvin F. Smith Jr., Editor Soils Systems, Inc. 525 Webb Industrial Drive Marietta, Georgia 30062 Project Officers James B. Johnston National Coastal Ecosystems Team U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service NASA/SI idell Computer Complex 1010 Gause Boulevard SI idell , Louisiana 70458 and Lawrence Handley Gulf of Mexico OCS Region Minerals Management Service P.O. Box 7944 Metairie, Louisiana 70010 This study was co-sponsored by the Minerals Manaqement Service U.S. Department of the Interior Performed for National Coastal Ecosystems Team Division of Biological Services Research and Development Fish and Wildlife Service U.S. Department of the Interior Washington, D.C. 20240 Library of Congress Card No. 85-600548 This atlas should be referenced as follows: Smith, M. F. Jr., ed. 1984. Ecological characterization atlas of coastal Alabama: map narrative. U.S. FishWildl. Serv. FWS/OBS-82/46; Minerals Manage. Serv. MMS 84-0052. 189 pp. + 30 maps. PREFACE The purpose of the Alabama coastal ecological characterization atlas study is to provide information concerning the biological, physical, and social conditions in coastal Alabama, specifically, Mobile and Baldwin Counties, Alabama. The atlas consists of composite overlay topic information provided on 1 : 100,000-scale base maps. There are six base maps with five main subject maps, making a total of thirty maps. A narrative accompanying the maps discusses the mapped topics. This study is one of a series of characterizations of coastal ecosystems produced by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to provide coastal planning and management personnel with information relative to coastal ecology. Information on endangered and threatened species in the Biological Resources section has been updated to reflect their Federal status as of June 1985. This project was conducted under Contract FWS 14-16-0009-81-062. Funding was provided by the Bureau of Land Management (Minerals Management Service) and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Any questions regarding this publication should be directed to: Information Transfer Specialist National Coastal Ecosystems Team U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service NASA-SI i del 1 Computer Complex 1010 Gause Boulevard SI i dell , Louisiana 70458 l n SUMMARY The southwest Alabama coastal region is the study area of this narrative and accompanying maps. The offshore area includes the region from the State- Federal demarcation to the shoreline, and the inland area includes Mobile and Baldwin Counties. These counties are included in the following six U.S. Geological Survey l:100,000-scale topographic maps: Citronelle Bay Minette Atmore Biloxi Mobile Pensacola The data in this atlas meet all cartographic and narrative specifications of the Minerals Management Service and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and should be useful for coastal decisionmakers. The topics included within this map narrative are biological resources; socioeconomic features; soils and landforms; oil, gas, and mineral resources; and hydrology and climatology. TV CONVERSION TABLE Metric to U.S. Customary Mul tiply mil 1 imeters (mm) centimeters (cm) meters (m) kilometers (km) square meters (nT) 0 square kilometers (km") hectares (ha) liters (1) cubic meters cubic meters (m3) mi 11 i grams (mg) grams (g) kilograms (kg) metric tons (t) metric tons ki 1 ocal ories ( kcal ) Celsius degrees By_ To Obtain 0.03937 inches 0.3937 inches 3.281 feet 0.6214 mil es 10.76 square feet 0.3861 square mil es 2.471 acres 0.2642 gal 1 ons 35.31 cubic feet 0.0008110 acre- feet 0.00003527 ounces 0.03527 ounces 2.205 pounds 2205.0 pounds 1.102 short tons 3.968 British thermal 1.8(°C) + 32 Fahrenheit degr units U.S. Customary to Metric inches 25.40 inches 2.54 feet (ft) 0.3048 fathoms 1.829 miles (mi ) 1.609 nautical miles (nmi) 1.852 square feet (ft") 0.0929 acres 0.4047 square miles (mi ) 2.590 gal Ions ( gal ) 3.785 cubic feet (ft3) 0.02831 acre- feet 1233.0 ounces (oz) 28.35 pounds (lb) 0.4536 short tons (ton) 0.9072 British thermal units (Btu) 0.2520 mil 1 imeters centimeters meters meters kil ometers ki 1 ometers square meters hectares square kilometers liters cubic meters cubic meters grains kil ograms metric tons kil ocal ories Fahrenheit degrees 0.5556(°F - 32) Celsius degrees CONTENTS Page PREFACE iii SUMMARY iv CONVERSION TABLE v CONTENTS vi FIGURES ix TABLES xi STUDY AREA MAP xiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES 1 INTRODUCTION 1 WETLAND HABITATS 1 BIRD RESOURCES 3 Seabirds and Wading Birds in Coastal Alabama 3 Shorebirds in Coastal Alabama . '. '. '. '. '. 7~ 6 Waterfowl Concentration Areas in Coastal Alabama 7 SEA TURTLES 8 GRASS BEDS 9 SHELLFISH HARVEST AREAS 10 Shrimp 10 Blue Crabs 12 Oyster Reefs 13 FINFISH OF COASTAL ALABAMA 14 Florida Pompano 16 Mackerels . '. T 16 Gulf Menhaden 17 Southern Flounder 18 Croaker ~ '. '. '. T 18 Grouper 18 Snappers 18 Mullets 19 Red Drum 19 Sardines" 19 Seatrout" 19 ENDANGERED AND THREATENED SPECIES OF MOBILE AND BALDWIN COUNTIES, ALABAMA 19 Mammals 20 Birds ." 24 Reptiles 25 vi Page Amphibians 26 FreshwateT Fishes 27 Plants 27 REFERENCES 28 SOURCES OF MAPPED INFORMATION 34 SOCIOECONOMICS 41 INTRODUCTION 41 LAND USE AND LAND COVER 41 MARINE AND ESTUARINE SANCTUARIES 43 NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGES 43 STATE PARKS 44 STATE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREAS 45 WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS 45 NATIONAL NATURAL LANDMARKS 45 NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY SANCTUARY 47 INTENSIVELY USED RECREATIONAL BEACHES 47 CHARTER BOAT AND HEAD BOAT SERVICE 48 PERMITTED ARTIFICIAL FISHING REEFS 52 PUBLIC FISHING PIERS, PUBLIC ACCESS AREAS AND MARINAS 52 BARRIER ISLANDS AND SPITS 53 POINT SOURCE DISCHARGES 55 SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS AND ONSHORE DISPOSAL SITES 56 MAN-MADE LAND 57 NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES 57 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES 65 NAVIGATION CHANNELS 67 DREDGE SPOIL DISPOSAL AREAS 67 OFFSHORE OBSTRUCTIONS AND STRUCTURES 69 REFERENCES 71 SOURCES OF MAPPED INFORMATION 77 SOILS AND LANDFORMS 82 INTRODUCTION 82 REGIONAL SOILS AND LANDFORMS 82 EROSION AND ACCRETION 88 GEOLOGIC FAULTS 98 ACTIVE DUNES 100 REFERENCES 102 SOURCES OF MAPPED INFORMATION 104 OIL, GAS, AND MINERALS 107 INTRODUCTION 107 OIL AND GAS 107 CLAY 116 SAND AND GRAVEL 117 REFERENCES 124 SOURCES OF MAPPED INFORMATION 128 Vll Page CLIMATOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY 130 INTRODUCTION 130 CLIMATE 130 Temperature 130 Precipitation 130 Cloud Cover, Fog, and Relative Humidity 133 Winds . . . 133 Extratropical Cyclones 134 Tropical Cyclones and Hurricanes 134 U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY HYDROLOGIC UNITS 140 STREAM AND RIVER DISCHARGE 141 SURFACE WATER QUALITY 143 Water Qua! ity Assessment 153 Mobile River Basin 153 Mobi le Bay . . . T 165 Perdido "RTver Basin 166 Escatawpa River Basin 166 Coastal Drainages" T~ 167 GROUND WATER AVAILABILITY 167 GROUND WATER QUALITY 169 CURRENTS 170 Peri do Bay 173 Mobile Bay and Mississippi Sound 174 SALINITIES 179 REFERENCES 181 SOURCES OF MAPPED INFORMATION 186 VI 1 1 FIGURES Number Page BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES 1 Distribution of wading bird nesting colonies in coastal Alabama 4 2 Comparison of submerged aquatic vegetation along lower Mobile Delta in 1957 and 1981 11 3 Total landings of shrimp in Alabama since 1950 12 4 Total landings of blue crab in Alabama since 1950 12 5 Total landings of oysters in Alabama since 1950 15 6 Finfish and shellfish of coastal Alabama 17 SOILS AND LANDFORMS 7 Erosion areas in coastal Alabama 91 8 Historic trends in shoreline changes, Alabama coastal area, 1917-74 95 OIL, GAS, AND MINERALS 9 Generalized stratigraphic column in oil- and gas-producinq areas in southwest Alabama 108 10 Oil , condensate, and gas production in southwest Alabama 1944-80 115 11 Sand, gravel, and clay production in Baldwin and Mobile Counties, 1969-75 122 CLIMATOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY 12 Paths of hurricanes affecting Alabama 135 13 Monthly frequency of hurricanes affecting Alabama since 1711 . 135 ix Number Page 14 Frequency of destruction by tropical storms, 1904-77 136 15 Monthly mean discharge of the Alabama, Tombigbee, and Perdido Rivers 146 16 Location of municipal wastewater treatment plants 154 17 Location of industrial discharge points in Mobile and Baldwin Counties 155 18 Flood-tide current patterns in Perdido Bay 175 19 Ebb-tide current patterns in Perdido Bay 176 20 Velocity directions for flood-tide flow predicted by a hydrodynamic model, Mobile Bay 177 21 Velocity directions for ebb-tide flow predicted by a hydrodynamic model, Mobile Bay 178 TABLES Number Page BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES 1 Wading bird nesting colonies identified for coastal Alabama, species present, and their present status 5 2 Average annual waterfowl population by species, 1969-78 . . 8 3 Duck kill and hunting pressure in the Mobile Delta, 1972-83 seasons 9 4 Commercial landings of selected finfish and shellfish at Alabama ports in 1978-83 14 5 Estimated recreational catch (pounds) of marine finfish in coastal Alabama during 1975 16 6 Federally listed endangered and threatened species of Mobile and Baldwin Counties, Alabama 21 7 Recommended State of Alabama endangered and threatened species of Mobile and Baldwin Counties, Alabama 22 SOCIOECONOMIC FEATURES 8 1975 land use by county in acres and percent of total acreage 42 9 Number of tourist trips, average length of stay, average party size, and number of tourists visiting Mobile, Baldwin and Escambia Counties by automobile 1970, 1980 49 10 Average daily two-way traffic volume (number of vehicles) on highways providing access to the Alabama coastal region's major recreational beach areas 1965, 1970, 1977, 1978, 1979 . 50 11 Number of recreational visitors to Dauphin Island, 1965, 1970, 1977, 1978, 1979 50 12 Selected characteristics of catch by species for charter boat operators, Orange Beach, Alabama, 1975 51 xi Number Page 13 Charter boats and head boats operating in Alabama 51 14 Permitted artificial fishing reefs 53 15 Areas of Alabama estuaries filled between 1953 and 1968 . . 58 16 Maintained navigable channels in coastal Alabama 68 17 Average annual volume in cubic yards (yd3) of maintenance bottom materials dredged from the Mobile Harbor system 1967-75 69 SOILS AND LANDFORMS 18 Relative percentages of soil types in Baldwin and Mobile Counties, Alabama 89 19 Potential uses and limitations of map units on the general soil maps of Mobile County for specified uses 90 OIL, GAS, AND MINERALS 20 Oil facilities in coastal Alabama 112 21 Natural gas facilities 113 22 Oil, condensate, and gas production by field and pool in Baldwin and Mobile Counties 114 23 Oil, condensate, and gas production in southwest Alabama, 1981 115 24 Production (net tons) of sand and clay in the Alabama coastal region 1977 and 1979 118 25 Quantity and value of clay production in Alabama 1975, 1977, 1978, 1979 118 26 Alabama's role in U.S. clay production in 1978 119 27 Geologic strata containing commercial sand, clay, and gravel in coastal Alabama 120 28 Alabama: sand and gravel sold or used by producers, by class of operation and use 121 29 Quantity and value of sand and gravel production in Alabama 1975, 1977, 1978, 1979 123 XI 1 Number Page 30 Production (net tons) of sand, gravel, and clay in the Alabama coastal region 1977, 1979 123 CLIMATOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY 31 Air temperatures in coastal Alabama based on 25 years of data, 1955-79 131 32 Rainfall in coastal Alabama based on 25 years of data, 1955-79 132 33 Probable recurrence interval for storm tides in coastal Alabama 137 34 Extreme pressure and wind data of hurricanes recorded along the Alabama coast since 1892 138 35 Hurricane surges in Alabama 1772-1979 140 36 Average daily flow and mean annual 7-day low flow at U.S. Geological Survey stations in coastal Alabama 143 37 Monthly mean discharges (ft^/s) of streams in the Mobile River Basin 144 38 Monthly mean discharges (ft-Vs) of streams draining into Perdido Bay 145 39 Duration of daily flow and average discharge (ft^/s) at gauging stations in coastal Alabama 146 40 A summary of the watershed area of streams and their mean annual discharge into Alabama estuaries 147 41 Chemical analyses of water from streams in Mobile County . . 148 42 Chemical analyses of water from streams in Baldwin County . 151 43 Existing municipal sewage plants, 1977 156 44 Flow summary of industrial process wastewater discharges . . 157 45 Water quality classification criteria 158 46 Average and maximum-minimum values of selected water quality parameters, 1974-79 160 47 Water quality trends in Baldwin and Mobile Counties, 1980-81 164 48 Mobile section 208 study: summary of water quality data . . 164 xi ii Number Page 49 50 51 52 Summary of geologic units, and availability and quality of ground water in Baldwin County 168 Summary of geologic units and availability and quality of ground water in Mobile County 169 Chemical analyses of water from selected wells in Baldwin County 170 Chemical analyses of water from selected wells in Mobile County 172 Mississippi Alabama CITRONELLE County Florida COASTAL ALABAMA ECOLOGICAL ATLAS PROJECT AREA xiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This ecological atlas has benefited immensely from the contributions made by members of many Federal and State agencies, as well as numerous other indi- viduals. Throughout the entire project, from initial data search through final manuscript review, the atlas has been enhanced by expertise and enthusiasm at all levels. The following individuals, agencies, and companies have contrib- uted valuable data to the atlas. Richard T. McNider James R. Averett Alabama State Climate Office U.S. Geological Survey Patrick E. O'Neal, Frank Hinkle, Frank Bowers, Thomas Thornhill, Richard N. Raymond, Alexander Dwight Cooley and Larry Goldman Sartwell, and Scott Mettee U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Geological Survey of Alabama Walter M. Tatum, Bruce C. Johnson, Glenn L. Hickman and James H. and James R. Davis Brown Alabama Department of Conservation U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation and Natural Resources Service Frank Ugolini and Wallace L. Robert Roqers , Villere Reggio, Brittain and Carla Langley U.S. Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service National Park Service Larry Waldrop Vernon Knight, Jr. Alabama Public Service Commission Office of Archaeological Research University of Alabama Bill Hosking Alabama Cooperative Extension Donald W. Brady Service South Alabama Regional Planning Commission Gene Fuqua City of Fairhope Shirley Bosange Bayou La Batre Area Chamber of Marion Yonge Commerce Utilities Board of Citronelle Dru Barrinean and Susan Ivester- Michael Dugger Rees Riviera Utilities U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District Myrt Jones National Audubon Society xv Mobile Area Chamber of Commerce Mobile Historic Development Commission Coastal Area Board Ergon Phillips Petroleum Company Permian Corporation Florida Gas Transmission Company Alabama Historic Commission Douglas Oil Purchasing Company, Inc. Hess Pipeline Company Shell Oil Company Marion Pipeline Company, Inc. United Gas Pipeline Company Union Oil Company of California The cartographic design of the maps was by Bob Box and Allen Mather of Booker Associates, Inc. xvi BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES INTRODUCTION Coastal Alabama has a great diversity of habitats within its boundaries. These habitats support many different species of plants and animals, in some instances large populations. Included are a majority of the terrestrial and freshwater species characteristic of temperate Eastern United States along with subtropical species found in the lower Coastal Plain. A great variety of salt and brackish water animals and plants is also found in the state's coastal waters Diverse habitats meet and blend in this coastal area, producing a rich- ness of plant and animal life seldom found in inland areas. Man has been utilizing the biological resources of coastal Alabama for thousands of years and will continue to utilize them in the future, preferably with wise manage- ment practices. WETLAND HABITATS In coastal Alabama wetlands habitats are located essential nesting, breeding, rearing, nursery, and feeding grounds for many species of fish, birds, and other wildlife. Wetlands provide habitats for unique floral and faunal communities, many of which include endangered or threatened species. Wetlands are also important in improving water quality by recycling nutrients and removing toxic materials from the environment. They provide erosion control and reduce turbidity as well as providing water storage areas. Increasing recognition of the value of wetlands has led to a need for more information on how these systems operate and how they are affected by human activities and naturally occurring changes in the environment. To provide a system suitable for gathering scientific information on a nation- wide basis, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is conducting a National Wetlands Inventory based on a standardized classification system. The following description is from Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habi- tats of the United States (Cowardin it aTi 19 79) and descri bes the concepts and definitions utilized in the National Wetlands Inventory classification system. Only in recent years has the concept of "wetland" unified the older classifications of swamp, marsh, bog, etc. Wetlands are generally lands where the dominant factor determining the nature of soil development and the types of plants and animals inhabiting the area is saturation with water. The substrate or soil is at least periodically saturated with or covered by water. Plants and animals not physiologically adapted to a water-saturated environment are severely stressed in wetland habitats, and consequently do not comoete well with more water- tolerant species. Wetlands, as defined by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, either: (1) suDport predominantly wetland vegetation (hydrophytes) at least periodically; and/or (2) have a substrate of primarily undrained, periodically anaerobic (hydric) soil; and/or (3) have a nonsoil (bedrock, gravel, peat, etc.) substrate saturated with or covered by water during at least some of the growing season each year. The upper limit of a wetland is delineated by the border" between predominantly hydrophytic (very wet) and mesophytic (average moisture) or xerophytic (arid) plant cover, the transition between hydric and nonhydric soils, and, in areas without plant cover or soil, the upper limit of land which is covered by or saturated with water at some time each year. The lower limit of wetlands in saltwater (marine and estuarine) systems is defined as the elevation of the extreme low water of spring tide. In freshwater systems such as rivers (riverine), lakes (lacustrine), and nontidal marshes (pal ustrine) , the lower limit is defined as the depth to which emergents grow or 2 m (6.6 ft) whichever is deeper. For this coastal Alabama study, three categories of wetlands are mapped: estuarine intertidal emergent wetland, palustrine emergent wetlands, and the combination of palustrine forested and palustrine scrub-shrub wetland. Estuaries are defined as either deepwater or adjacent tidal wetlands that have some access to the open ocean, although the saltwater is at least occa- sionally diluted by freshwater runoff from land. Some estuaries actually have higher salinities than the open ocean due to evaporation in enclosed bays, but most have lower salinities. Estuaries are considered to extend UDStream to the point where ocean-derived salts measure less than 0.5 part per thousand (ppt) during average annual low flow. The seaward border of an estuary may be the limit of seawater continuously diluted by freshwater run- off, the seaward limit of wetland plants, or an imaginary line closing a river, bay, or sound. Estuarine systems are divided into the subtidal sub- system, which is continuously submerged, and the intertidal subsystem, which is alternately exposed and submerged by tidal changes, and its associated splash zone. Palustrine areas include tidal areas with ocean-derived salinities of less than 0.5 ppt during average annual low flow and nontidal wetlands that are dominated by trees, shrubs, persistent emergent vegetation, or emergent mosses or lichens. Wetlands lacking such vegetation are designated palustrine if they have an ocean-derived salinity of less than 0.5 ppt, have an area of less than 8 ha (20 acres), lack active wave-formed or bedrock shoreline features, and are less than 2 m (6.6 ft) deep at low water. The palustrine classification includes areas traditionally called swamp, marsh, fen, bog, and prairie. The dominant plant cover in emergent wetlands, whether estuarine or palu- strine, is erect, rooted, herbaceous hydrophytes, excludinn mosses and lichens. This vegetation is mostly perennial and is present for most of the growing season in most years. Emergent plant cover is subdivided into persistent and nonpersi stent categories. Persistent emergents remain stand- ing until at least the beginning of the next growi no season. Nonpersi stent emergents fall to the surface of the substrate at the end of the crowing season and there is no obvious sign of vegetation during part of the year. Woody vegetation taller than 6 m (20 ft) is defined as forest, and shorter than 6 m as scrub-shrub. Scrub-shrub includes young trees, true shrubs, or trees and shrubs that have been stunted due to adverse environ- mental conditions. Both forest and scrub-shrub classes are divided into five subclasses: broad-leaved deciduous, needle-leaved deciduous, broad-leaved evergreen, needle-leaved evergreen, and dead plants. Palustrine forested and scrub-shrub areas are separated on the basis of the percent covered by the uppermost life form (i.e., forest). Thirty per- cent coverage is considered the "threshold" for designation. In other words, if an area has 40% forest canopy over 70% scrub-shrub understory, the area is designated forest. If there were 20% forest over the same 70% scrub-shrub understory, the area would be designated scrub-shrub. If forest and scrub-shrub are less than 30* alone, but together comprise 30% or more, the area is designated scrub-shrub. Palustrine and scrub-shrub areas are mapped together as a single unit for the purpose of this study. The areal wetland data for the 1 : 100,000-scale maps provided in the Atlas were derived from analysis of the 1:24,000 National Wetlands Inventory maps. Acreages for each wetland category were calculated from the 1 :100,000-scale atlas maps using a dot grid, which is a statistical area measurement tech- nique. In Mobile and Baldwin Counties the total wetland acreage was calcu- lated to be approximately 692,000 acres, or about 38% of the two counties total area. Of the three categories mapped, palustrine forest and scrub-shrub was predominant with 621,000 acres in this category, or about 34% of the area mapped. Estuarine emergents totaled 61,000 acres and palustrine emeraents only 10,000 acres. Thus, these two categories together were less than 4" of the total acreage of Mobile and Baldwin Counties. BIRD RESOURCES Seabirds and Wading Birds in Coastal Alabama The mapped locations of nesting sites for qui Is, terns, and wading birds are from Johnson (1979), Portnoy (1977), 0'Neil and Mettee (1982), and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1983). The most important coastal bird nesting areas occur in Mississippi Sound and southwestern and southeastern or lower Mobile Bay (Figure 1 and Table 1). Nesting sites tend to chanae over tine; thus, those listed and mapped should be considered as only a general guide. The most important nesting site is Cat Island (Biloxi quadrangle), which in recent years has supported colonies of the following wading birds: cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis), great egret (Casmerodius albus), snowy egret (Egretta thula) , reddi sh egret (Egretta rufescens ) , green- backed heron (Butorides striatus) , tricolored heron (Egretta tricolor) , little blue heron "TEgretta caerulea) , glossy (Plegadis falcineTTusl and/or white-faced (P. chihi] ibis. and white ibis (Eudocimus albus). The reddish egret has been recorded once as having nested on Cat Island, but the evidence is not conclusive ( Imhof 1976). Among the seabirds, the least tern (Sterna antillarum) also nests on Cat Island in sandy areas. Because of habitat loss throughout the U.S., this species is considered threatened in Florida (Kale 1978), and it should probably be considered a "species of special concern" elsewhere according to a personal communication from Alexander Sprunt IV, National Audubon Society, Tavernier, FL. MOBILE DELTA Figure 1. Distribution of wading bird nesting colonies (Johnson 1979; O'Neil and Mettee 1982). in coastal Alabama Table 1. Wading bird nesting colonies identified for coastal Alabama, species present, and their present status (Johnson 1979; 0 'Neil and Mettee 1982; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1983). Colony3 Present0 number Colony location Species pr esentD status 1 Petit Bois Island CE,GE,TH NA 2 Isle Aux herbes TH NA 3 Cat Island CE,GE,SE,RE, GH ,TH LB,WG,GI,WI, HFI.GI A 4 Grant's Isle TH,SE NA 5 Pass Drury LB,GM A 6 Dauphin Island Audubon Sanctuary GB,LB,GH A 7 Salt Creek GH,BC NA 8 Sand Island Colonial Sec ibi rds A 9 Navy Cove GB A 10 Little Point Clear GB A 11 Little All i gator Lake GB A (UK 1983) 12 Gulf Shores-- Orange Beach GB NA 13 Walker Island GB A 14 Weeks Bay SE,TH,LB NA 15 Bon Secour River CE NA 16 Oyster Bay TH,LB NA 17 Mi f 1 in Creek LB,CE NA 18 Gatewood Colony CE,LB,WI A 19 South field and Mims Lake WI,GE,LB,YC A 20 Miflin Lake GH,LB A 21 Negro Lake GH,LB,WI,CE, ,YC A 22 Blakeley Island Colonial Shore birds A 23 Dog River GH,LB,CE UK 24 East Fowl River GH,LB UK 25 Theodore-Dawes Road LB A 26 Deakle's Farm CE NA 27 Theodore Disposal Island (Hollinger's Island) Colonial see ibi rds,BP A aColony numbers used in Figure 1. bSpecies abbreviations: GB (Great Blue Heron), LB (Little Blue Heron), TH (Tricolored Heron), GH (Green-backed Heron), SE (Snowy Egret), CE (Cattle Egret), GE (Great Egret), RE (Reddish Egret), GI (Glossy Ibis), WFI (White- faced Ibis), WI (White Ibis), YC (Yellow-crowned Night-Heron), BC (Black- crowned Night-Heron), BP (Brown Pelican). cColony status abbreviations: A (Active), NA (Not Active), and UK (Unknown). Grant's Island (Biloxi quadrangle) was a nesting site for two wading birds, tne tricolored heron and the snowy egret, but the island was destroyed Dy Hurricane Fredric. The Dauphin Island Audubon Sanctuary (Biloxi quad- rangle) is a nesting site for great blue heron (Ardea herodias), little blue heron, anu green-backed heron. Also on Dauphin Island, the Salt Creek area is a nesting site for green-Dacked heron and black-crowned night-heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1983). In addition to tne nesting colonies mentioned above, the beaches and dunes of coastal Alabama are utilized by various seabirds as scattered nesting sites. Daupnin Island beaches provide sites for nesting least tern, and in at least one area, for common tern (Sterna hirundo) , gull-billed tern (Sterna nilotica) , and black skimmer (Ryncnops mger). Sand Island (Biloxi quaarangTe] fs also a nesting site for these four species as well as royal tern (Sterna max una) and sandwich tern (S. sanavicensi s) . The locations of seabirds nesting sites vary, and the changes Tn shape and size of the sandy islands with time also affect nesting. The Theodore Disposal Island (Mobile and Biloxi quadrangles) provides nesting sites for black skimmers, least terns, gull -billed terns, royal terns, the brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) , Caspian terns (Sterna caspia), common terns (S. hirundo), and 1 augning" gul 1 s ( Larus atricil la) . In tne Bon Secour Bay area, wading birds nest sporadically in taller trees. Great blue herons nest at Navy Cove, Little Alligator Lake, and Little Point Clear (Pensacola quadrangle). The present status (1983) of the Oyster Bay site (Pensacola quadrangle), which was used by tricolored and little blue herons, is inactive. Also inactive is the Bon Secour River site (Pensacola quadrangle), utilized in the past by cattle egret. The Weeks Bay site (Pensacola quadrangle), used in the past by snowy egret, tricolored heron and little blue heron, is inactive. In the Perdido Bay area (Pensacola quadrangle), great blue heron nesting has been reported at Gulf State Park (Pensacola quadrangle), Walker Island, and Cotton Bayou. Only the Walker Island site (Pensacola quadrangle) remains in active use (O'Neil and Mettee 1982; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1983). In trie Mobile Delta area north of the causeway are scattered wading bird nesting sites. The largest reported colony at Negro Lake (Bay Minette quadrangle) was for nesting green-backed heron, little blue heron, white ibis, cattle egret, and yellow-crowned night-heron (Nycticorax violacea). In tne upper delta there are two other active nesting sites. Mims Lake (Bay Minette quadrangle) has an active colony of white ibis, great egret, little blue heron, and yellow-crowned night-heron. Miflin Lake (Bay Minette quad- rangle) has active colonies of green-backed heron and little blue herun (Johribon 1979, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1983). Shorebirds in Coastal Alabama Various shorebirds use sandy beach areas, sand dunes, and adjacent salt marshes in coastal Alabama. Some are seasonal visitors, while others are year-round residents, Shorebirds tnat migrate but do not nest in coastal Alabama incluue such species as semipalmated plover (Charadrius semi pal matus) , black-bellied plover (Pluvial is squatarola ) , whimbreT (Numenius phaeopus) , short-billed dowitcher (Limnodromus griseus) and sanderl ing (Calidris alba) (Imhof 1976). In addition, many other species pass through the area during migration or overwinter there. Shorebirds that nest in Alabama and may be considered permanent residents include willet (Catoptrophorus semipalmatus) , American oystercatcher (Haema- topus palliatus)" snowy plover (Charadrfus alexandrinus) , Wilson's plover (Charadrius wilsonia) , black-necked stilt (Himantopus mexicanus) , clapper raTI (Rail us longirostris) , and king rail (Rallus "eTegans) (Tmhof 1976). Specific nesting sites of these species are variable and generally not reported in the literature. However, some nesting sites occur on Daupnin Island, in the Bon Secour Bay area, on Blakeley Island, the Pinto Pass area, around Lake Shelby, and many other areas. Probably tne most common marsh bird found along the coast is the clapper rail, usually found in saline and brackish marsh areas. They are abundant, and also breed in the marshes and on the islands of Mississippi Sound. The greatest densities are found on Marsh Island (Biloxi quadrangle) and along Heron Bay (Holliman 1978). Snowy plover are reported to nest on Sand Island (Biloxi quadrangle), west end of Dauphin Island (Biloxi auadrangle), and Fort Morgan peninsula (Pensacola quadrangle); and the black-necked stilt on the dredge spoil areas of Blakeley, Pinto, and McDuffie Islands (Mobile quadrangle) (Johnson 1979). Theodore Disposal Island (Hollinqers Island) (Mobile and Biloxi quadrangles) is also reported as a nesting site for the brown pelican (P. O'Neil 1984, pers. comm.). Additionally, over 600 white pelicans were observed on the Theodore Disposal Island (D. Cooley, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; pers. comm. 1984). Information on certain bird species believed to be threatened or endangered, such as osprey and the peregrine falcon, is contained in the section on threatened and endangered species. Waterfowl Concentration Areas in Coastal Alabama The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service administers the Migratory Bird Habitat Preservation Program, which is designed to preserve critical waterfowl habitat by acquisition from private owners (Fish and Wildlife Service 1982). This program of purchases from willing owners is designed to save from devel- opment areas vital to waterfowl species. Under this program, specific areas in the United States have been identified as key wetland units, most important to nesting or migrating waterfowl. Two units have been identified in coastal Alabama, the Point Aux Chenes-Grand Bay Swamp Unit (Biloxi quad- rangle) and the Lower Mobile Delta Unit (Mobile and Bay Minette quadrangles). The Lower Mobile Delta Unit is by far the most important as indicated by the acreage versus wintering population totals snown in Table 2. The most numerous waterfowl species in the Lower Mobile Delta are lesser scaup (Aythya affinis), gadwall (Anas strepera), redhead (Ay thy a americana), northern pintaTI ("Anas acuta) , green-winged teal (A. crecca), blue-winged teal (A. discors), mallard (A^ platyrhynchos) and- american wigeon (A. americana-). Wood duck (Aix sponsa) and hooded mergansers (Lophodytes cucuTy 1 atus) are found in tne thicker wooded areas and are two "of tFie few duck Table 2. Average annual waterfowl population by species 1969-78 Fish and Wildlife Service 1982). (modified from Species Point Aux Chenes-Grand Bay (31,649 acres) Swamp Unit Lower Mobile Delta Unit (21,507 acres) Mallard American Black Duck Mottled Duck Gadwal 1 American Wigeon Green-winged Teal Bl ue-winged Teal Northern Shovel er Northern Pintail Wood Duck Redhead Canvasback Lesser Scaup Ring-necked Duck Common Goldeneye Bufflehead Ruddy Duck American Coot TOTAL 100 25 50 100 25 10 25 50 300 250 100 1,035 400 128 50 1 ,622 511 800 200 33 978 250 1 ,422 722 4 ,444 289 11 11 56 16 ,544 24,471 species nesting in coastal Alabama. Mottled duck (Anas fulvigula) are also known to breed on Dauphin Island (Imhof 1976). American coot (Fulica americana) , although not a duck, is the most numerous waterfowl specfes fn the Mobile Delta area, composing almost 68% of total waterfowl population. Other areas in which large populations of certain waterfowl species are sometimes found during the winter are upper Perdido Bay, around Dauphin Island and in Bon Secour Bay. For example on Bon Secour Bay, over 100,000 scamp were observed during the winter of 1983-84 (D. Cooley, pers. comm. 1984). Harvest figures for ducks and coots over the years 1972 to 1983 in the Mobile Delta are presented in Table 3. In general, more coots than ducks were harvested over the 12-year period, but the relative numbers varied by season. SEA TURTLES Turtle nesting is extremely rare in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. The Atlantic small loggerhead (Caretta caretta) is reported to occur and occa- sionally nest in the area (Mount 1975; Boschung 1976; McDiarmid 1978). The 8 Table 3. Duck kill and hunting pressure in the Mobile Delta (1972-83 seasons) (B. Johnson, Alabama Department of Conservation, Montgomery, 1984; pers. comm.). Year Hunters Hours Hours/ Ducks Ducks/ Coots Coots/ checked hunted hunter checked hunter checked hunter 1972 220 592 2.69 186 .85 674 3.06 1973 270 720 3.54 665 2.46 865 3.20 1974 85 280 3.30 126 1.50 101 1.20 1975 279 1,001 3.58 492 1.76 1,419 5.08 1976 217 732 3.37 354 1.60 644 2.90 1977 281 664 2.36 568 2.0 593 2.10 1978 336 1,361 4.05 872 2.59 899 2.64 1979 297 1,015 3.40 389 1.34 517 1.74 1980 288 1,070 3.70 468 1.63 345 1.20 1981 210 830 3.86 628 3.00 328 1.65 1982 221 934 4.23 629 2.85 603 2.73 1983 268 953 3.56 365 1.36 533 1.99 TOTAL 2,972 10,152 3.42 5,742 1.93 7,521 2.53 beaches of nearby Florida are more likely nesting beaches of Alabama. sites for turtles than the Four other species of sea turtles are believed to occur in coastal Alabama waters. These include the green turtle (Chelonia my das) , the Atlantic hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata imbricata) , tfie Atlantic ridley (Lepidochelys kempi ) , anc] th"e Atlantic reatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) . Green, hawksbill, and ridley turtles are occasional visitors i~n Al abama waters and are rarely encountered; however, leatherback turtles are not uncommon. While coastal Alabama beaches may have been within the nesting ranges of these four species at one time, they are not known to nest there now. All five species of sea turtles found in Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters are protected by both Federal and state laws (Boschung 1976). GRASS BEDS The submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) found in the Mobile Bay estuarine system are either freshwater, brackish-water, or marine species. In the delta area, the freshwater species Val lisneria americana (tape grass) and Myriophyl 1 urn spicatum (Eurasian mil foil ) are most common (Stout and Lelong 1981 ) . Val lisneria is a valuable waterfowl food and provides protection for young fishes Tn spawning areas (Beashears 1979), but Myriophyl Turn is an im- ported nuisance species. In the brackish-water areas, Ruppia maritima (widgeongrass) is the dominant seagrass throughout the Mobile Bay and Perdido Bay systems. It serves as a primary food source for ducks and marsh birds (Stout and Lelong 1981). The most common seagrass in marine areas is Halodule wrightii (shoalgrass) . It is prevalent at the entrance to Peraido Bay and in Mississippi Sound (Stout and Lelong 1981). Intermingled with Halodule plants, but in lesser numbers, are patches of Thalassia testudinum ( turtle grass) (Stout and Lelong 1981). Thalassia is the most abundant seagrass in the Gulf of Mexico as a whole, although it is less common in Alabama waters. All of these grasses contribute detritus to estuarine and marine systems and are important as primary producers, but their most valuable function is to provide protected nursery areas for larval and immature finfish and shellfish. The mapped grassbeds on the atlas quad sheets utilize the most recently available data (Stout and Lelong 1981, 1982) but are not differentiated by species. Figure 2 shows a comparison of submerged aquatic vegetation along the lower Mobile Delta from 1957 to 1981. Since early inventories utilized differing methodologies, exact changes in areal coverage and species composi- tion are difficult to assess. However, it appears that overall species diversity and total areal coverage have declined. Eurasian watermilfoil has become the predominate species in Alabama and is expected to increase in the future. The total area of submerged aquatic vegetation in Mobile and Baldwin Counties is estimated to be approximately 5,500 acres with the largest area (4,300 acres) in the Mobile Delta. Eurasian watermilfoil accounts for approximately 35% of total SAV acreage (Stout and Lelong 1981). SHELLFISH HARVEST AREAS Shrimp (Panaeus spp.) The shrimp fishery is tne most important commercial fishery in Alabama. Since 1950, when the annual catch was approximately 5,000,000 lb, the amount of shrimp landed in Alabama annually has generally increased, although variations in this trend have occurred (Figure 3). In 1977, a peak year, the shrimp fishery landed approximately 25,000,000 lb of shrimp which comprised 12% of the weignt and 91% of the value of the total Alabama seafood landings (Heath 1979). Landings in 1983 totaled more than 15,000,000 lb with a value of over $40,000,000, 93% of the total value of seafood landings in Alabama (Table 4). There is some indication that catch per unit of effort has declined and that the present rate of exploitation is near maximum (Swingle 1977). Ninety-nine percent of the shrimp caught off coastal Alabama spend at least part of their life cycle in tne estuaries of Alabama; Mobile Bay is 11%, of this system. Three shrimp species -- brown shrimp (P^ aztecus) , wnite shrimp (P. setiferus) and, to a limited extent, pink shrimp (P. duorarum) -- are commercially important species harvested off coastal "Alabama [Heath 1979). All shrimp spawn offshore. Peak immigration of post-larvae into the estuaries is from March to April for brown shrimp and June to September for white shrimp (Christmas and Etzold 1977). Juvenile brown and white shrimp leave the estuaries for deeper waters in the spring and fall, respectively in MOBILE COUNTY McDUFFlE MOSUL BAY Y////A Naias-Vjlhinerii wun Zanmchtllii, Ppun>w^«ton punllul, Nucltl J j fj Valhsnanl-Naias, v*.tfi aop»« inre< jpp Z O o o Q f ;.':.".';'.v] Naias. with any pr ail pt Z«nn.cfiell n . P punllus & L^-1-1^ Niulli (Vallitiiciiaskaicel Vai'inKiia Pottfmuycion parlolutus Pptmiiutfeiun ^Lin.aiui h^M^.o manning "Putt" © BALDWIN 1957 > Villuneria Vdiliwiena vmin N«|ds, Zanmcnellta Cr>d'dceae =-3-^=j Myopfiyllu Mv'«ophylluin wiih N«,di. Zann.chellid iuo-ie Valltj ■ena 3M" STOUT AND LELONG 1981 Figure 2. Comparison of submerged aquatic vegetation along lower Mobile Delta in 1957 and 1981 (Stout and Lelong 1981). 11 (Benson 1982). Brown and white shrimp are caught in the deeper estuarine waters as well as offshore. Blue Crab (Callinectes sapidus) The annual blue crab harvest has trended upward since 1950 (Tatum 1979), although there have been year-to-year fluctuations (Figure 4). In 1981, a 25,000.000 en n 20.000.000 — z D n - CL z 15.000.000 H I O iu 3 10.000.000 -_/ 5,000.000 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l_L - 11.340,000 — 9.072,000 6,804.000 ut < IE 'J o _l 5 z 4.53G.000 2,268.000 i LU s 1 1 " CD CD CD CD CD CT> CO O Cm *T ID CO Ul (O CD - o o _l o z z i < 0. < IT < > Ui 0) IT O Z MAJOR LARVAL HABITATS 1- oZ < 2 UJ D tr ca < < MAJOR ADULT HABITATS LU Q_ > Z o r- < O 5 SPAWNING SEASON • 3 a a a 0 jC * m E • 00 • o a a a • • • < • ■ • o. O • • a O a a to X • a S $ c • Q. O m a E i CO m a a cc a o c < i S lis • C -> 3 < a. t u o O Z o ESTUARINE DEPENDENT FISHES Florida Pompano C • • C-8 • B • • • 1 Gull Menhaden C • • • • • • E • • C-E • • • 2 Spotted Seatrout C-E • • *» E • C-€ • 1 Southarn Flounder ICS • •i • • • ■ • 1 C-E • • C-E • • • 1 Atlantic Croaker C-€ • • • • O • ♦ OE • • O-E • • 1 Strlpad Mullet CS • * • • • • C-€ • CE • • 1 Rad drum C-E • •« E • E • • • 1 REEF FISH Rad Groupar CS C-€ • CS • 1 Rad Snapper CS • * C • • c • 1 COASTAL PELAGIC FISHES King Mackerel CS • • ♦ J. ICS • c 1 • 3 Spanah Mackerel CS 1 • • ♦ E E-C • c • 3 SHELLFISH Brown Snnmp C • • • • • • E • c • Whita Shnmp C • • ♦»a«x»i» *1 E • C-E • • Blua Crab C-E • W! E • CE • • • KEY E - Estuarine B- Beech C - Coastal CS - Continental Shall ICS - Inner Continental Shell MI3RATION TYPE 1 - Ratv«jm aaa.oantial Rang. 2 - Restricted Migration 3 - Extensive Migration Figure 6. Finfish and shellfish of coastal Alabama. Gulf Menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) The most abundant fish (by weight) caught commercially off the Alabama coast are menhaden (Wade 1977). None were landed in Alabama, however, since most go to processing plants in Mississippi. Recreational ly, menhaden are not caught in numbers for consumption but rather as bait for more popular species of recreational fish. Gulf menhaden spawn offshore from mid-October through March. The larvae move into estuaries from February to May and disperse into quiet shallow waters near shore. Juveniles move out of the shoreline areas from May to July and form large schools in the deeper open parts of the estuaries. Juveniles and subadults migrate from estuaries into 17 offshore waters from December through February. Larger gulf menhaden move from offshore areas into the estuaries during spring and summer, with adults migrating out of the estuary during September-November for the October-March spawning period. Purse seining for gulf menhaden takes place primarily in the Mississippi Sound, with some vessels venturing outside the barrier islands (Benson 1982). Southern Flounder (Paralichthys lethostigma) Loesch (1976c) found that southern flounder were widely distributed in Alabama coastal waters though they were not particularly abundant. Juvenile flounder were not abundant along the beaches, open bays, or marshes in 5 years of collecting (Loesch 1976c). Adults, however, are often taken by commercial and sport fishermen in shallow coastal waters. The majority of the flounder captured commercially are taken incidentally by shrimp trawls (Swingle 1976). Sport fishermen take flounder both by hook and line, and gig- Croaker (Micropogonias undulatus) The croaker is the second most abundant species by weight (after menhaden) taken commercially off Alabama (Wade 1977). The majority of the croaker harvest is by shrimp trawl (Swingle 1977). Croaker are also popular with sport fishermen. Sampling by Swingle and Bland (1974b) indicates that spawning occurs from late September or early October to April, with peaks of spawning activity varying with cl imatological changes. This species spawns over a wide area, from the passes at the mouth of the bay to oceanic waters many miles offshore; juveniles migrate to the Mississippi Sound in late spring and early summer. In late summer and fall croakers migrate toward Gulf waters. Few croakers remain in inside waters for more than 1 year. Croakers have a high mortality rate and rarely live more than 4 or 5 years (Benson 1982). Groupers (Epinephelus and Mycteroperca spp.) Groupers inhabit and spawn on offshore reefs. The abundance of this species is dependent on the availability of habitat (Swingle 1977). Commercially, the majority of groupers harvested by the Alabama fleet are taken in the offshore waters of Louisiana, Texas, and Mexico (Swingle 1977). The abundance of grouper near reefs makes charter and party boat fishing for them popular. Many groupers are taken near the artificial reefs discussed in the socioeconomic narrative. Snappers (Lutjanus spp.) In recent years there has been a decline in the Alabama snapper fishery due to over-exploitation of the species and the reduction in size of the Alabama snapper fleet (Swingle 1977). Most of the snapper harvest comes from Louisiana, Texas, Mexico, and Central America (Swingle 1977). The red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) is the most common snapper in coastal Alabama waters and is found in deep offshore waters around coral , natural or man-made submerged objects, and hard sand bottoms (Benson 1982). 18 Mullets (Hugil spp.) Mullets are abundant in Alabama and contribute significantly to the total harvest of fish. Fishing is primarily inshore (Swingle 1977), where mullet are found in tidal rivers and bay waters (Swingle and Bland 1974b). The market price for mullet is low and the commercial harvest is declining (Swingle 1977). Recreational fishermen harvest mullet by line and cast net. Red Drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) Red drum are not a commercially valuable fish species in Alabama. They are found along the shore in shallow waters, where they are more easily accessible to sport fishermen. Most of the red drum harvested are by private boat or by shoreline and pier fishing. They are the largest fish caught by these anglers and are usually taken during spawning (Wade 1977). Sardines (Anchoa spp.) The sardine fishery is not an important industry off Alabama shores. The only nearby sardine fishery is off Florida and is relatively insignificant (Wade 1977). Seatrout (Cynoscion spp.) There are three species of seatrout found along the Alabama coast (Swingle 1977). Sand seatrout (C. arenarius) and silver seatrout(C. nothus) are primarily caught offshore by "shrimp trawls (Swingle 1977). Sand- seatrout may also be found in estuaries during cooler months where they are caught by sport fishermen. Spotted seatrout (C^ nebulosus) are commonly found in Mobile Bay and its tributaries. They are important to both commercial and sport fisheries (Swingle and Bland 1974b). In fact, spotted seatrout may be the most important sport fish caught in Alabama coastal waters. The major saltwater river fishing for seatrout is in the Mobile Delta, the Fish River, and the Bon Secour River. In these areas fishing is good around submerged objects and near bridges. The fishing season ends in mid-February when drainage from rains reduces the salinity in the rivers. Juvenile seatrout are found in tidal creeks less commonly than adults, but juveniles do inhabit open-bay areas in grassbeds (Swingle and Bland 19 74b). ENDANGERED AND THREATENED SPECIES OF MOBILE AND BALDWIN COUNTIES, ALABAMA Coastal Alabama provides habitat for vulnerable species, both plant and animal, that receive a high degree of public concern and are subject to legislative protection. These species are not mapped in this atlas in order not to contribute to the decline of their numbers. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) (Endanaered Species Field Office, 300 Woodrow Wilson Avenue, Jackson, Mississippi 39213, telephone 601-490-4900) will provide detailed information if contacted by industries and aoencies planning projects impacting Mobile and Baldwin Counties. For State of Alabama coordination, please contact the Alabama Department of Conservation, 64 North Union Street, Montgomery, Alabama 36130, telephone (205) 261-3471. 19 Unless otherwise specified, the following information is summarized from "Endangered and threatened species of the southeastern United States" (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1975, with updates, January 1982) (Table 6) and "Endangered and threatened plants and animals of Alabama" (Boschung 1976) (Table 7). The information has been updated in accordance with Federal listings through June 1985. Although the state of Alabama does not maintain an official (legally binding) list of their endangered and threatened species, the Boschung (1976) publication is used as a guide by natural resource person- nel in the state. Mammals The West Florida manatee, Trichechus manatus, usually winters along the southern Florida coast, particularly Tn~ rivers and estuaries, and migrates north along the coast as far as North Carolina and western Florida. It is occasionally reported from Mississippi, and therefore is at least a transient in Alabama waters (Dan 0 'Del 1 , Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Miami, FL, 11 March 1982; pers comm.). The Florida panther, Felis concolor coryi , has recently been reported from Baldwin County. The state population, if it exists, is quite small, perhaps less than a dozen. Panthers are found in large, remote riverine swamps and forested areas. The blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus; the finback whale, B^ physalus; the sei whale, ^j_ boreal is; the humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangl iae; and the sperm whale~ Physeter catodon; are unknown Tn Alabama coastal waters, although the sperm whale was at one time present in some numbers in the Gulf of Mexico (Dan O'Dell, 11 March 1982; pers. comm.) The Alabama beach mouse, Peromyscus polionotus ammobates, and the Perdido Key beach mouse, P_. _p_. trissyl lepsis, as of June 1985 was listed as endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Federal Register 1985). The Alabama beach mouse presently survives on disjunct tracts of the sand dune system from Fort Morgan State Park to the Romar Beach area, but has apparently disappeared from most of its original range, including all of Ono Island. Tropical storms and loss of habitat are considered to be primary factors for the mouse's decline. It is estimated that less than half of the original habitat still renains suitable. The Perdido Key beach mouse, like the Alabama beach mouse, prefers remote beach dunes. It currently survives on the western part of Perdido Key including the Gulf State Park, Baldwin County, Alabama. Tropical storms and loss of habitat are considered to be primary factors for the mouse's decline. It is estimated that about 34% of the island has been developed and is no longer suitable habitat for the species. The Florida black bear, Ursus americanus floridanus, is probably restricted in Alabama to densely forested river bottoms. Its population has been estimated by the Alabama Department of Natural Resources at about 65 to 70 statewide, with about 30 individuals in Mobile County and 15 in Baldwin 20 Table 6. Federally listed endangered and threatened species of Mobile and Baldwin Counties, Alabama (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service January 1982; U.S. Department of the Interior 1975; Federal Register 1985). Status3 Species Alabama range Mammals E E E E E E E E Birds E T E E Repti les E E E E T T T Plants Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus) Florida panther (Felis concolor coryi ) Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) Finback whale (Balaenoptera physTlus) Sei whale (Balaenoptera boreal is) Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) Sperm whale (Physeter catodon) Alabama beach mouse (Peromyscus polionotus ammobates Perdido Key beach mouse (Peromyscus pol ionotus trissyl lepsis Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) Arctic peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus tundrius) Bachman's warbler "(Vermivora bachmanii) Ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) Red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides [=Dendrocopos] boreal is) American alligator (Al li gator mississippiensis~I~ Kemp's (Atlantic) Ridley turtle (Lepidochelys kempii ) Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) Leatherback turtleTDermocheTys coriacea) Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas)~ Eastern indigo snake (Drymarchon corais couperi ) None as of January 1, 1982 Coastal waters Entire State Coastal waters Coastal waters Coastal waters Coastal waters Coastal waters Coastal dunes Coastal dunes Entire State Entire State Entire State South, West Central Entire State Coastal plain Coastal Coastal Coastal Coastal Coastal waters waters waters waters waters South Alabama dE = Endangered, T = Threatened, 21 Table 7. Recommended State of Alabama endangered and threatened species of Mobile and Baldwin Counties (Boschung 1976; Freeman et al . 1979). Recommended status3 Species Mammals E E E E Birds E E E E E E E T T Reptiles E E E E E E T T T T Amphibians E T Fishes T T Alabama Gulf beach mouse, Peromyscus polionotus ammobates Perdido Bay beach mouse, Peromyscus polionotus trissylle"psis Florida black bear, Ursus americanus floridaruls Florida panther, Felis concolor coryi Bald eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus Peregrine falcon, Falco peregnnus Osprey, Pandion haliaetus Snowy plover, Charadrius alexandrinus Ivory-billed woodpecker, Campephilus principalis Red-cockaded woodpecker, Picoides (-Dendrocopos) boreal is Bachman's warbler, Vermivora bachmann Mottled duck, Anas fulvigula Reddish egret, Egretta rufescens Eastern indigo snake, Drymarchon corais couperi Black pine snake, Pituophis melano1eucas~lodingi Atlantic loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta Green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas Atlantic hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata imbricata Atlantic ridley turtle, Lepidochelys kempi American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis Atlantic leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea Alabama red-bellied turtle, Pseudemys (=Chrysemys) alabamensis Gopher tortoise, Gopherus polyphemus Flatwoods salamander, Ambystoma cingulatum Dusky gopher frog, Rana areolata sevosa Atlantic sturgeon, Acipenser oxyrhynchus Blue sucker, Cycleptus elongatus (continued) 22 Table 7. (continued) Recommended Habitat status Species assoc. (County)b Plants Aquifoliaceae E Ilex amelanchier Araceae Acid swamp woodlands (M) T Sweet flag, Acorus calamus Shal low streams (B) T Spoon flower, Peltandra sagittaefolia Cannaceae Pineland bogs (B) T Golden canna, Canna flaccida Cyperaceae Freshwater swamps (MB) E Horned rush, Rhynchospora crinipes Ericaceae Pine savannahs (M) T Pi en" s phi 1 lyrei to 1 id Fabaceae Probably no longer in counties (MB) E Psoralea simplex Gentianaceae Wet pine! and s (M) E Gentiana vi 1 losa Oak-pine-hickory woods (M) T Sabatia brevi folia Hypericaceae Pinelands (B) T St. Johns wort, Hypericum nitidum Juncaceae Acid pine savannah (M) T Juncus gymnocarpus Lentibulariaceae Swamp woodlands (M) T Bladderwort, Utricularia floridana Low pH ponds (M) T Bladderwort, Utricularia inflata Lakes (M) T Bladderwort, Utricularia purpurea Liliaceae Low pH streams (BM) E Lily, Lilium iridollae Onagraceae Acid swamp woodlands (B) T Ludwigia arcuata Pond banks (M) E Evening primrose, Oenothera grandi flora Orchidaeceae Rich low woodlands (B) T Spreading pogonia, Cleistes divaricata Pineland bogs (MB) E Green-fly orchid, Epidendrum conopseum Poaceae Epiphytic gum/ magnolia (MB) T Panicum nudicaule Potamogetonaceae Acid swamps (MB) E Pondweed, Potomogeton robbinsii (continued) 23 Streams, Mobile Delta (MB) Table 7. (concl uded! Recommended Habitat status Species assoc. (County) Plants Rhamnaceae T Segeretia mi nuti flora Mobile beaches (M) Sarraceniaceae T Pitcher-plant, Sarracenia psittacina Wet pine flatwoods (MB) T Sweet pitcher-plant, Sarracenia rubra Wet pine flatwoods (B) Theaceae T Loblolly bay, Gordonia lasianthus Pocosin borders (MB) Ulmaceae T Momisia iguanea Beach strands (MB) Xridaceae T Yellow-eyed grass, Xyris drummondii Acid sandy sites (MB) T Yellow-eyed grass, Xyns "sea bri folia Wet pinelands (MB) aE = Endangered; T = Threatened. bM - Mobile; B = Baldwin. County (Jim Davis, Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Jackson, AL, 11 March 1982; pers. comm.). Birds The bald eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus, ranges throughout the state as a migrant, and formerly nested in Mobile and Baldwin Counties. Although bald eagles are known to nest in Louisiana, Florida, Mississippi, and South Carolina, they rarely nest elsewhere in the Southeast. The Arctic peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus tundrius, migrates through Alabama on its way from the arctic tundra regions to southern South America, and fairly numerous sightings (perhaps 30 per year) are made on the Fort Morgan Peninsula (Dennis Jordan, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Jackson, MS, 11 March 1982; pers. comm.). Some individuals are believed to overwinter along the Gulf coast and southern Florida. The falcon has been recently reclassified from endangered to threatened (Federal Register, March 20, 1984). Bachman's warbler, Vermivora bachmanii , is extremely rare, if not extinct. It may pass through Alabama in the spring on its migration from Cuba to widespread localities in the Southeast. 24 The ivory-billed woodpecker, Campephilus principalis, is probably extinct, as there have been no confirmed sightings since the 1930's. It apparently occupied virgin lowland hardwood forests across the Southeast (Tanner 1942). The red-cockaded woodpecker, Picoides (Dendrocopos) boreal is, is known from Baldwin County and surrounding areas, as weTT as from most Southeastern States. The nesting cavities this bird requires are found only in pine trees older than 60 years, usually with red heart disease. Decreasing habitat is probably responsible for this species' decline. The osprey, Pandion haliaetus, is found nearly worldwide in tropical and temperate areas near water"! It was formerly a breeding inhabitant along the Gulf Coast, as well as a migrant throughout Alabama. Its numbers dropped drastically as a result of pesticides in the 1960s, until they were con- sidered rare. A single nest was found near the Gulf coast in 1974 and an active nest was reported on Fort Morgan in 1982 (0 'Neil and Mettee 1982). Ospreys are also reported to nest along Bon Secour Bay (Dwight Cooley, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1984; pers. comm.). The snowy plover, Charadrius alexandrinus, was previously known from Mobile and Baldwin Counties as a permanent breeding resident on the beach and sandy areas, particularly away from human encroachment. As human activities are increasing in these areas, this species is becoming rare. The mottled duck, Anas fulvigula, is an uncommon, but permanent, resident on outer islands, peninsulas^ ana" sheltered bays, and often overwinters in the upper reaches of Mobile Bay (Imhof 1976). The reddish egret, Egretta rufescens, is sometimes fairly common in Alabama. Although not known to breed in the study area, it is a permanent year round resident. It is most common in the shallow bays, mud flats, and sand beaches on the inshore side of barrier islands (Imhof 1976). Reptiles The American alligator, Al li gator mississippiensis, ranges from North Carolina to Texas. Alligators are ordinarily found Tn streams and lakes, especially in swampy areas such as those that constitute the Mobile Bay delta, as well as in brackish water along the coast. There are widely scat- tered small populations within their original distribution, which extends inland nearly to the fall line (Mount 1975). As a result of protective measures their numbers have recently increased; they have been reduced in status on Alabama's recommended endangered list but are still considered threatened (O'Neil and Mettee 1982). The Kemp's ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempii), the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) , and the Atlantic hawksbil 1 turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) are only occasional visitors to Alabama coastal waters and are not numerous." The leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea, is worldwide in distribution in tropical waters, although it ranges into fairly cool water 25 (Mount 1975). This species is often captured in June by shrimp trawlers off Dauphin Island in about 13 m (42 ft) of water. The loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta, is the most common sea turtle in Alabama waters, and has been recorded from both Mobile and Baldwin County waters. Although known to nest on the seaward beaches of Dauphin Island in the past, the only recent records are from the Fort Morgan Peninsula (Mount 1975). The eastern indigo snake, Drymarchon corais couperi , was originally recorded from both Baldwin and Mobile Counties, although there have been no sightings in this area since the 1930's. It prefers uplands with well- drained, sandy soil (Mount 1975). The gopher tortoise, Gopherus polyphemus, and the black pine snake, Pituophis melanoleucas lodingi, may occur in the study area, and although not currently li sted, are considered candidate species for listing by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Dennis Jordan 11 March 1982; pers. comm.) The black pine snake is found in Mobile County and intergrades with Pituophis melanoleucas mugitus in Baldwin County. It prefers well-drained, sandy soil" such as the longleaf pine, turkey oak, and sandhill communities. Like the indigo snake, it is often found in gopher tortoise burrows. Gopher tortoises are found on the Coastal Plain of Alabama in sandy, well-drained soils, particularly in longleaf pine, turkey oak, and sandhill communities. Their burrows provide necessary habitat for a variety of species , including snakes, frogs, insects, and mammals. The Alabama red-bellied turtle, Pseudemys (=Chrysemys) alabamensis, is found almost exclusively in Mobile and Baldwin Counties in the lower portion of the Mobile Bay drainage from Little River southward. Its habitat includes sluggish rivers, oxbows, and lakes with abundant aquatic vegetation. Amphi bians The flatwoods salamander, Ambystoma cingulatum, was previously reported from Mobile and Baldwin Counties, although the only recent records are from Covington County (and that population may have been extirpated). It is found in low pine flatwoods dominated by slash pine and wiregrass. The dusky gopher frog, Rana areolata sevosa, is found from Florida to Louisiana and is known from both Mobile and Baldwin Counties. It is found where gopher tortoise burrows, which they use for shelter, are found close to the shallow, temporary, or semipermanent ponds, where they breed. The species may also use crawfish burrows in areas where no tortoise burrows are found. Freshwater Fishes The Atlantic sturgeon, Acipenser oxyrhynchus, was once common in the Mobile River Delta. The species ranges from nearshore in the gulf, up larger 26 rivers and estuaries, and into smaller rivers to spawn. The blue sucker, Cycleptus elongatus, is found in the larger rivers of coastal Alabama. None of the crawfishes, shrimps, gastropods, or naiad mollusks on the recommended state list of endangered and threatened species are found in either Mobile and Baldwin Counties (Boschung 1976). Plants Fifty-eight species of plants found in Mobile and Baldwin Counties are classified as endangered, threatened, or of special concern (Freeman et al . 1979). On the state list 7 species are identified as endangered, 19 as threatened, and the remainder as of special concern. As of June 19S5, six of these species were under consideration for inclusion on the Federal list of endangered and threatened species (vide Federal Register notice of November 28, 1983[48 FR 53640]). The counties and habitats of plants with recommended Alabama status is indicated in Table 7. 27 REFERENCES Wetland Habitats Cowardin, L. M., V. Carter, F. C. Golet, and E. T. LaRoe. 1979. Classifi- cation of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-79/31. 103 pp. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Office of Biological Services. National Wetlands Inventory 1 :24,000-scale 7.5-minute quadrangles, various dates. Bird Resources Beshears, W. M., Jr. 1979. Waterfowl in the Mobile Estuary. Pages 249-262 in H. A. Loyacano, Jr., and J. P. Smith, eds. Symposium on the natural resources of the Mobile Estuary, Alabama. Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne. Boschung, H., ed. 1976. Endangered and threatened plants and animals of Alabama. Bull. Ala. Mus. Nat. Hist. 2. 92 pp. Davis, D. E. 1960. The spread of the cattle egret in the United States. Auk 77:421-424. Duncan, D. C. , and P. G. Johnson. 1977. First breeding record of the White-faced ibis for Alabama and a new area of Plegadis sympatry. Ala. Birdlife 25 (3-4): 16. Dusi , J. L., and R. T. Dusi . 1967. The status of the cattle egret in Alabama, 1966. Ala. Birdlife 15(1 ) :2-6. Gaston, G. R. 1977. Occurrence of four species of ibis near Dauphin Island, Alabama. Ala. Birdlife 24 (3-4):14. Gaston, G. R. , and P. G. Johnson. 1977. Nesting success and mortality of nestlings in a coastal Alabama heron-egret colony, 1976. Northeast Gulf Sci. 1(1): 14-22. Holliman, D. C. 1978. Clapper rail (Rallus longirostris) studies in Alabama. Northeast Gulf Sci. 2(l):24-34. Imhof, T. A. 1976. Alabama birds (2nd ed.). The University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa. 445 pp. ::: Johnson, P. G. 1979. Wading birds of coastal Alabama. Pages 225-248 j_n H . A. Loyacano, Jr., and J. P. Smith, eds. Symposium on the natural resources of the Mobile Estuary, Alabama. Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne. 290 pp. Kale, H. W., II. 1978. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. 2, Birds. University Presses of Florida, Gainesville. 121 pp. Lueth, F. X. 1963. Mobile Delta waterfowl and muskrat research. Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Montgomery, AL . Pittman-Robinson Project 7-R, Final Report. 86 pp. O'Neil, P.E., and M. F. Mettee. 1982. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization. Vol. 2. A synthesis of environmental data. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/42. 346 pp. Portnoy, J. W. 1977. Nesting colonies of seabirds and wading birds: coastal Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program. FWS/OBS-77/07. 126 pp. Portnoy, J. W. 1978. North Gulf of Mexico coastal waterbird colonies: changes in breeding abundance and distribution from 1976 to 1978. ( unpubl .) 46 pp. Summerour, C. W. 1964. The cattle egret, Bubulcus ibis ibis, in Alabama. Ala. Birdlife 12(3-4) :35-39. Tanner, J. T. 1942. The ivory-billed woodpecker. Dover Publications, New York. Ill pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Central Gulf Coast Wetlands, Migratory Bird Habitat Preservation Program, Category 9. Atlanta, GA. 103 pp. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1983. Mississippi Sound and Adjacent Areas. U.S. Army Corps Eng. Mobile Dist., Mobile. 275 pp. Sea Turtles Boschung, H., ed. 1976. Endangered and threatened plants and animals of Alabama. Bull. Ala. Mus. Nat. Hist. 2. 92 pp. McDiarmid, R. W., ed. 1978. Amphibians and reptiles, Vol. 3. University Presses of Florida, Gainesville. 74 pp. Mount, R. H. 1975. The reptiles and amphibians of Alabama. Auburn Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn. 347 pp. Grass Beds Haynes, R. R. 19 78. Aquatic and marsh plants of Alabama. I. Alismatidae: Castanea. J. South. Appalachian Bot. CI ub 45:31-50. 29 Stout, J. P., and M. J. Lelong. 1981. Wetland habitats of the Alabama coastal area. Ala. Coast. Area Board Tech. Publ . CAB-81 -01 . 27 pp. Stout, J. P., Lelong, M. J., Dowling, H. M., and Powers, M. T. 1982. Wetland habitats of the Alabama Coastal Zone. Part III: An inventory of wetland habitats of the Mobile-Tensaw River Delta: Ala. Coast. Area Board, Tech. Rep. CAB-81-49A. 25 pp. Shellfish Harvest Areas Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. 1971. Atlas: A survey of the oyster and oyster shell resources of Alabama. Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources: Seafoods Division and Alabama Marine Resources Laboratory, Dauphin Island, AL. Appendix B, Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 4. Benson, N. G., editor. 1982. Life history requirements of selected finfish and shellfish in Mississippi Sound and adjacent areas. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/51 . 97 pp. Caillouet, C. W., and D. B. Koi. 1981. Trends in ex-vessel value and size composition of reported May-August catches of brown shrimp and white shrimp from the Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama coasts, 1960-1978. Gulf Res. Rep. 7(1): 59- 70. Christmas, J. Y., and D. J. Etzold. 1977. The shrimp fishery of the Gulf of Mexico, United States: a regional management plan. Gulf Coast Res. Lab. Tech. Rep. Series 2. 128 pp. Eckmayer, W. J. 1979. The oyster fishery in Mobile Bay, Alabama. Pages 189-200 _i_n_ H . A. Loyacano, Jr., and J. P. Smith, eds. Symposium on the natural "resources of the Mobile Estuary, Alabama. Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne. Friend, J.H., M. Lyon, N. Garrett, J. L. Borom, J. Ferguson, and G. C. Lloyd. 1981. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization: Vol. 3: A socioeconomic study. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/41 367 pp. Heath, S. R. 1979. Shrimp assessment and management in the Mobile estuary. Pages 201-209 j_n H . A. Loyacano, Jr., and J. P. Smith, eds. Symposium on the natural resources of the Mobile Estuary, Alabama. Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne. Loesch, H. C. 1976a. Shrimp population densities within Mobile Bay. Gulf Res. Rep. 5(2 ) : 11-16. Loesch, H. C. 1976b. Penaeid shrimp distributions in Mobile Bay, Alabama, including low salinity records. Gulf Res. Rep. 5(2): 43-45. 30 May, E. B. 1971. A survey of the oyster and oyster shell resources of Alabama. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 4. 53 pp. May, E. R. 19 74. The distribution of mud crabs (Xanthidae) in Alabama estua- ries. Natl. Shellfish. Assoc. Proc. 64:33-3 7. Swingle, H. A. 1977. Coastal fishery and resources of Alabama. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 12:31-58. Swingle, H. A., and D. G. Rland. 1974a. Distribution of the estuarine clam, Rangia cuneata Gray in coastal waters of Alabama. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 10:9-16. Swingle, H. A., D. G. Bland, and W. M. Tatum. 1976. Survey of the 16-ft trawl fishery of Alabama. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 11:51-57. Swingle, H. A., and E. A. Hughes. 1976. A review of the oyster fishery of Alabama. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 11:58-73. Swingle, W. E. 1972. Survey of the live bait shrimp industry of Alabama. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull . 8:1-8. Swingle, W. E. 19 76. Analysis of commercial fisheries catch data for Ala- bama. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 11:26-50. Tatum, W. M. 1979. The blue crab fishery of Alabama. Pages 211-220 i_n H . A. Loyacano, Jr., and J. P. Smith, eds. Symposium on the natural resources of the Mobile Estuary, Alabama. Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne. Finfish of Coastal Alabama Ahrenholz, D. W. 1981. Recruitment and exploration of Gulf menhaden, Brevoortia patronus. U.S. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv . Fish. Bull. 70:325-335. Benson, N. G. , ed. 1982. Life history requirements of selected finfish and shellfish in Mississippi Sound and adjacent areas. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/0BS-81/51. 97pp. Chittenden, M. E. 1976. Simulations of the effects of fishing on Atlantic croaker, Micropogon undulatus. Proc. Gulf Caribb. Fish. Inst. 29:68-86. Christmas, J. Y., G. Gunter, and E. C. Whatley. 1960. Fishes taken in the menhaden fishery of Alabama, Mississippi, and eastern Louisiana. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci . Rep. Fish. No. 339. 10 pp. Friend, J. H., M. Lyon, N. Garrett, J. L. Borom, J. Ferguson, and G. C. Lloyd. 1981. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization: Vol. 3: A socioeconomic study. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/41. 367 pp. 31 Guest, W. C, and G. Gunter. 1958. The seatrout or weakfishes (genus Cynoscion) of the Gulf of Mexico. Gulf States Mar. Fish. Comm. tech. Summ. No. 1. 40 pp. Loesch, H. C. 1976c. Observations on menhaden (Brevoortia) recruitment and growth in Mobile Bay, Alabama. Proc. La. Acad. Sci . 39:35-42. Swingle, H. A. 1975. Fishes of the coastal area of Alabama. Pages 8-28 in Fishes, birds, and mammals of the coastal area of Alabama. Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Montgomery. Swingle, H. A. 1977. Coastal fishery resources of Alabama. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 12:31-58. Swingle, H. A., and D. G. Bland. 1974b. A study of the fishes of the coastal water courses of Alabama. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 10:17-102. Swingle, W. E. 1976. Analysis of commercial fisheries catch data for Alabama. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 11:26-50. Tatum, W. M. 1978. Spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus) age and growth data from annual fishing tournaments in coastal Alabama, 1964-1977. Col- loquium on the biology and management of red drum and seatrout. Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission. 10 pp. U.S. Department of Commerce. 1975. Fisheries statistics of the United States 1972. Stat. Dig. No. 66. 517 pp. U.S. Department of Commerce. 1980. Alabama landings annual summary 1978. Curr. Fish. Stat. No. 7820. 7 pp. Wade, C. W. 1977. Survey of the Alabama marine recreational fishery. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 12:1-22. Endangered and Threatened Species Boschung, H., editor. 1976. Endangered and threatened plants and animals of Alabama. Bull. Ala. Mus. Nat. Hist. No. 2. 92 pp. Bowen, W. W. 1968. Variation and evolution of gulf coast populations of beach mice, Peromyscus polionotus. Bull. Fla. State Mus. 12(1): 1-91 . Federal Register. 1985. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants: determination of endangered status and critical habitat for three beach mice. Vol. 50, No. 109, 6 June 1985, 50 CFR Part 17, pp. 23872-23889. Freeman, J. D., A. S. Causey, J. W. Short, and R. R. Haynes. 1979. Endangered, threatened, and special concern plants of Alabama. J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 50(1 ) : 1-26. Imhof, T. A. 1976. Alabama birds (second edition). The University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa. 455 pp. 32 McDiarmid, R. W. 1978. Amphibians and reptiles. University Presses of Florida, Gainesville. 74 pp. Mount, R. H. 1975. The reptiles and amphibians of Alabama. Auburn Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, AL. 347 pp. Tanner, J. T. 1942. The ivory-billed woodpecker. Dover Publications, New York. Ill pp. U.S. Department of the Interior. 1975. Threatened or endangered fauna or flora: review of status of vascular plants. Fed. Regist. 40:2 7825-2 7924. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Endangered and threatened species of the Southeastern United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 4, Atlanta, GA. General Beccasio, A. D., N. Fotheringham, A. E. Redfield, R. L. Frew, W. M. Levitan, J. E. Smith, and J. 0. Woodrow, Jr. 1982. Gulf coast ecological inventory: user's guide and information base. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-82/55. 191 pp. Chermock, R. L. 1974. The environment of offshore and estuarine Alabama. Geol . Surv. Ala. Inf. Ser. 51. 135 pp. Crance, J. H. 1971. Description of Alabama estuarine areas. Cooperative Gulf of Mexico Estuarine Inventory. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 6. 85 pp. Friend, J. H., M. Lyon, N. Garrett, J. L. Borom, J. Ferguson, and G. C. Lloyd. 1981. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization: Vol. 3: A socioeconomic study. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/41. 367 pp. Loyacano, H. A., Jr., and J. P. Smith. 1979. Symposium on the natural resources of the Mobile Estuary, Alabama. Alabama Coastal Area Board, Mi ssi ssippi -Alabama Sea Grant Consortium, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 290 pp. O'Neil, P. E., and M. F. Mettee. 1982. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization. Vol. 2. A synthesis of environmental data. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/42. 346 pp. Swingle, H. A. 1971. Biology of Alabama estuarine areas. Cooperative Gulf of Mexico Estuarine Inventory. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 5. 123 pp. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1981. Report of basic environmental data of the State of Alabama. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, Mobile. 326 pp. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1983. Mississippi Sound and adjacent areas. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, Mobile. 275 pp. 33 SOURCES OF MAPPED INFORMATION Wetland Habitats Cowardin, L. M., V. Carter, F. C. Golet, and E. T. LaRoe. 1979. Classi- fication of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv . Program FWS/OBS-79/31 . 103 pp. Contains an explanation and description of the categories developed to classify all wetlands in the United States. Contains photographic examples of each category. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Office of Bio- logical Services. National Wetlands Inventory 7.5' 1:24,000 quadrangles, various dates. Wetland areas mapped according to classifications developed in Cowardin et al. 1979. Bird Resources Gaston, G. R. , and P. G. Johnson. 1977. Nesting success and mortality of nestlings in a coastal Alabama heron-egret colony, 1976. Northeast Gulf Sci. l(l):14-22. Holliman, D. C. 1978. Clapper rail (Ral lus longirostri s) studies in Alabama. Northeast Gulf Sci. 2(l):24-34. The habitat and distribution of the clapper rail Ral lus longirostris saturatus in salt and brackish-mixed marshes of Alabama is described. A" total of 4,490 ha (11,095 acres) of habitat is mapped. Smaller units of vegetation are characterized in selected study areas. A comparison of these plant communities and call count data is shown for each locality. Imhof, T. A. 1976. Alabama birds, 2nd ed. The University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa. 445 pp. A description of the habitats, breeding seasons, migration areas, and an official checklist of Alabama birds is given. Includes information on shorebirds, wading birds, diving birds, offshore birds, and migratory waterfowl . Johnson, P. G. 1979. Wading birds of coastal Alabama. Pages 225-248 J_n H . A. Loyacano, Jr., and J. P. Smith, eds. Symposium on the natural 34 resources of the Mobile Estuary, Alabama. Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne. A discussion of the status and location of nesting colonies of coastal Alabama. The discussion includes separate sections on the natural history of the species surveyed. Contains color photographs of some of the colonies and a map of their locations. Kale, H. W., II. 1978. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. 2: Birds. University Presses of Florida, Gainesville. 121 pp. A discussion of the rare and endangered birds of Florida, their habitats and status. O'Neil, P. E., and M. F. Mettee. 1982. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization. Vol. 2. A synthesis of environmental data. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv . Program FWS/OBS-82/42. 346 pp. The report is divided into two sections. The first section contains a detailed description of the geology and geography, hydrology, climate, plant and animal life, and threatened and endangered species of coastal Alabama. The second section presents a conceptual model and supporting text on four natural ecosystems (freshwater, upland terrestrial, estuarine, and Continental Shelf) and two manipulated (urban-industrial and agricultural) systems in Mobile and Baldwin Counties. Also included are individual models for the estuarine ecosystem and one of its components, the marsh. Portnoy, J. W. 1977. Nesting colonies of seabirds and wading birds: coastal Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-77/07. A survey of 168 colonies of seabirds and wading birds along the Louisiana-Mississippi -Alabama coast was conducted from February to August 1976. Colonies were mapped on 1:250,000 scale USGS maps and cataloged by latitude and longitude coordinates. Abundance was tabulated by species, salinity, and habitat type. Nesting chronology of the common breeders was outlined. Aerial and ground-based inventory techniques were used. Reliability of the various census and sampling methods for the 26 species in diverse nesting situations was evaluated. Aerial photography produced accurate censuses of incubating great egrets (Casmerodius albus) , sandwich terns (Sterna sandvicensi s) , and royal terns (Sterna maxima [Thalasseus maximus]) . Randomly placed 2-m wide bel t transects yiel ded representative samples of active heron, egret, and ibis nests in large shrub colonies. Portnoy, J. W. 1978. North Gulf of Mexico coastal waterbird colonies: changes in breeding abundance and distribution from 1976 to 1978. (unpubl. photocopy). 46 pp 35 In April and June 1978 the Gulf of Mexico coast from Sabine Pass to Mobile Bay was surveyed by fixed-wing aircraft to locate waterbird colonies and photographically census incubating great egrets and black skimmers. Techniques and timing of aerial surveys and photography are discussed. Colony locations are mapped and, together with census results and breeding distribution, are compared with survey results from 1976. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1983. Mississippi Sound and Adjacent Areas. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, Mobile. 275 pp. A detailed environmental and socioeconomic analysis of the study area for use in evaluating various approaches to dredging and disposal of dredging spoils. An initial reconnaissance report was published in March 1979. A final report will be issued at a later date. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Central Gulf Coast Wetlands, Migra- tory Bird Habitat Preservation Program, Category 9. Atlanta, GA. 103 pp. This publication identifies 14 coastal wetland areas in Alabama, Louisiana and Mississippi selected for preservation as important waterfowl habitats. Included in the document are 14 maps of the areas selected and a discussion on each unit. Grass Beds J. Lelong. 1981. Wetland habitats of the Alabama Coast. Area Board Tech. Publ . , CAB-81-01. 27 pp. Stout, J. P., and M. coastal area. Ala. This inventory provides a baseline of extent and composition of wetland habitats as natural resources of the Alabama Coastal Zone. The inventory includes all areas within the Coastal Zone (10-ft contour south of the Battleship Parkway (Hwy 90)). Habitats examined include swamps (forested wetlands), marshes, and submersed grassbeds in coastal waters. Both black and white and color infra-red photography taken in September and October, 1979, were used to delineate habitat boundaries and to calculate acreage of each habitat. Plant community descriptions of all habitat types and locations of submersed grassbeds were determined in 1980 by extensive field surveys. Wetland distributions and types are portrayed on U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps. Eighteen 7 1/2' quadrangles (1:24,000) and two 15' quadrangles (1:64,000) were used to obtain coverage of the area. Stout, J. P., M. J. Lelong, H. M. Dowling, and M. T. Powers. 1982. Wetland habitats of the Alabama Coastal Zone. Part III: An inventory of wetland habitats of the Mobil e-Tensaw River Delta: Ala. Coast. Area Board, CAB Tech. Report 81-49A 25p. A continuation of wetland habitat mapping. The inventory includes those areas north of the Battleship Parkway (Hwy 90). 36 Shellfish Harvest Areas Benson, N. G., editor. 1982. Life history requirements of selected finfish and shellfish in Mississippi Sound and adjacent areas. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv . Program FWS/OBS-81/51 . 97 pp. The published and unpublished literature on spawning, nursery, and migra- tory requirements of 41 finfish and shellfish species in Mississippi Sound, Mobile Bay, and adjacent waters. Species were selected because of high abundance or significant value for recreational or commercial fishing. The primary ecological parameters considered were temperature, salinity, depth, substrate, turbidity, and current. Available data on habitats, distribution in water column (pelagic, demersal), and diurnal behavior are treated. The ecological role of each species in the eco- system is discussed. Christmas, J. Y., and D. J. Etzold. 1977. The shrimp fishery of the Gulf of Mexico, United States: a regional management plan. Gulf Coast Res. Lab. Tech. Rep. Ser. 2. 128 pp. The shrimp fishery is summarized and includes the complexity of the fish- ery and species involved; biology, including life history and habitat considerations; descriptions of the industry; economic and sociological considerations; and the status of the resource and yields. Eckmayer, W. J. 1979. The oyster fishery in Mobile Bay, Alabama. Pages 189-200 iii H. A. Loyacano, Jr., and J. P. Smith, eds. Symposium on the natural resources of the Mobile Estuary, Alabama. Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne. This is a discussion of the factors affecting oyster production in Mobile Bay, including both natural factors, such as salinity, oxygen, and predators, and manmade factors, such as dredging and pollution. Contains a small scale (1" = 5.5 mi) map of the oyster reefs in lower Mobile Bay. May, E. B. 1971. A survey of the oyster and oyster shell resources of Alabama. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 4. 53 pp. The public oyster reefs and buried shell deposits in Alabama were mapped and inventoried. Second-order survey was used to establish triangulation stations used for mapping. Environmental and socioeconomic factors which influence oyster production are discussed. The locations of the living oyster beds and the oyster shell deposits are mapped on detailed, colored 1 :24,000 scale maps. Swingle, H. A. 1971. Biology of Alabama estuarine areas. Cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine inventory. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 5. 123 pp. Stations were sampled monthly from January 1968 through March 1969. A total of 162 species of fishes and 44 species of invertebrates were collected from the estuarine waters of Alabama. Seventy-six species of fishes were documented from other sources. The areal and seasonal 37 distribution of the species are discussed. Also presented are data on the density of oysters on the public reefs and historical fisheries statistics. Swingle, H. A. 1977. Coastal fishery resources of Alabama. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 12:31-58. A description is given of the fishing resources of Alabama, including ownership of resources, recreational fishing, commercial fishing, major species (finfish, shellfish, and potential fisheries), and factors affecting coastal fishery resources. Tabular data (as recent as 1975) includes landings for commercial and recreational fisheries, seafood wholesale and retail data, numbers of boats, etc. Finfish of Coastal Alabama Benson, N. G., editor. 1982. Life history requirements of selected finfish and shellfish in Mississippi Sound and adjacent areas. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/51 . 97 pp. The published and unpublished literature on spawning, nursery, and migratory requirements of 41 finfish and shellfish species in Mississippi Sound, Mobile Bay, and adjacent waters. Species were selected because of high abundance or significant value for recreational or commercial fishing. The primary ecological parameters considered were temperature, salinity, depth, substrate, turbidity, and current. Available data on habitats, distribution in water column (pelagic, demersal), and diurnal behavior are treated. The ecological role of each species in the ecosystem is discussed. Christmas, J. Y., G. Gunter, E. C. Whatley. 1960. Fishes taken in the menhaden fishery of Alabama, Mississippi, and eastern Louisiana. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci . Rep. Fish. No. 339. 10 pp. A study was made of fishes other than menhaden taken by menhaden purse seiners in waters around the mouth of the Mississippi River and in Mississippi Sound during the 1958 and 1959 seasons. In numbers of fish, more than 97% of the sampled catch were menhaden. Friend, J. H., M. Lyon, N. Garrett, J. L. Borom, J. Ferguson, and G. C. Lloyd. 1981. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization: Volume 3: A socioeconomic study. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/41. 367 pp. The purpose of the socioeconomic characterization study is to compile and synthesize information from existing sources concerning the social, demographic, and economic factors in the Alabama Coastal Region. This report is one of a series of characterizations of coastal ecosystems produced by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to describe the relationships between human population growth and the availability of natural resources in the Nation's coastal areas. 38 Loesch, H. C. 1976c. Observations on mendahen (Brevoortia) recruitment and growth in Mobile Bay, Alabama. Proc. La. Acad. Sci. 39:35-42. Menhaden, Brevoortia patronus Goode, were sampled at monthly intervals by 12 bay stations and 11 nearshore stations in Mobile Bay by shrimp trawl and drag net from June 1954 to July 1955. Estimates of total length of growth during various times of the year are given. An equation is developed by fitting the data to a linear regression on log scale. Swingle, H. A. 1971. Biology of Alabama estuarine areas. Cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine inventory. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 5. 123 pp. Twenty trawl stations, five seine stations, and four plankton stations were sampled monthly from January 1968 through March 1969. A total of 162 species of fishes and 44 species of invertebrates were collected from the estuarine waters of Alabama. Seventy-six species of fishes were documented from other sources. The areal and seasonal distribution of the species are discussed. Also presented are data on the density of oysters on the public reefs and historical fisheries statistics. Swingle, H. A. 1975. Fishes of the coastal area of Alabama. Pages 8-28 in Fishes, birds, and mammals of the coastal area of Alabama. Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Montgomery. Swingle, H. A. 1977. Coastal fishery resources of Alabama. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 12:31-58. A description is given of the fishing resources of Alabama, including ownership of resources, recreational fishing, commercial fishing, major species (finfish, shellfish, and potential fisheries), and factors affecting coastal fishery resources. Tabular data (as recent as 1975) includes landings for commercial and recreational fisheries, seafood wholesale and retail data, numbers of boats, etc. Swingle, H. A., and D. G. Bland. 1974b. A study of the fishes of the coastal water courses of Alabama. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 10:17-102. Trawl or seine samples were collected monthly at 23 stations between December 1970 and May 1972 within the brackish water zone of the coastal watercourses of Alabama. Water salinity, temperature, and dissolved oxygen values are presented and are correlated to some extent with species abundance and diversity. The species composition of altered and unaltered watercourses and the species composition of estuarine waters are discussed. Swingle, W. E. 1976. Analysis of commercial fisheries catch data for Alabama. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 11:26-50. This paper discusses the changes in the number of seafood plants, number of persons employed in then and the value of seafood processed between 1964 and 1971. Also discussed is the amount of commercial seafood 39 landed, the value of the seafood landed, and the number of fishermen employed between 1964 and 1971. Wade, C. W. 1977. Survey of the Alabama marine recreational fishery. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 12:1-22. Contains data on catch per unit effort and quantities and locations of sportfishing catches. 40 SOCIOECONOMICS INTRODUCTION The socioeconomic elements mapped and discussed include man-made features and natural areas having either ecological or economic significance, such as wildlife refuges, State park recreational areas, barrier islands, and historical or archaeological sites. Man-made features include solid waste landfills, navigation channels, and dredge-spoil disposal areas. Many of these areas are subject to Federal, state, or local regulations for land use within their boundaries. LAND USE AND LAND COVER Four categories of land use are mapped on the atlas sheets: forested, urban, agricultural, and uncategorized. Forested land was considered as any area with greater than 30% canopy cover. Forest land may be used for timber production, as a game refuge, or any other use which does not alter the wood- land nature. Some mature old fields which have reverted to woodland are in- cluded in the forested category. The urban category includes residential, commercial, and industrial land uses and includes major transportation facilities such as large highway inter- changes and airports. The agricultural category includes areas currently under cultivation or prepared for cultivation, pasture, and associated buildings. It does not include timber plantations. The uncategorized classification is essentially a residual category. A cross check with the Biological Resources maps in this atlas will show, however, that more than 90% of this category is wetland, as defined by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Cowardin et al . 1979). All categories mapped were derived by aerial photo interpretation. The photos were taken by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and were color infrared at a scale of 1:62,500, dated 1979. The minimum mapped unit is approximately 10 acres. Mobile and Baldwin counties were mapped in 1972 by the U.S. Geological Survey using criteria developed by Anderson et al . (1976). Very general land use maps have also been produced by local or regional Alabama agencies. The following information on the two coastal counties is included to convey a general understanding of land cover and use in the area. The data are from a wide variety of sources as reported in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 41 Service publication Alabama Coastal Region Ecological Characterization: A Socioeconomic Study (Friend et al . 1981 ) . That publication contains a great deal of detailed data and mapped information. Mobile County has a land surface area of 321,408 ha (793,600 acres) and Baldwin County, the largest county in Alabama, has 427,835 ha (1,056,400 acres). In 1975, the land usage in these two coastal counties was in the following percentages: 48% in forest; 19% in agriculture, 3% in transpor- tation, communications and utilities; 2% in residential; 1% in industrial and commercial; and 27% undeveloped. Table 8 presents a summary of land use acreage in Mobile and Baldwin Counties. Mobile County is predominantly urban and industrial, while Baldwin is primarily rural and agricultural with the exception of urban centers along the eastern shore of Mobile Bay. The two-county population in 1980 was 442,819 persons. The major agricultural products of coastal Alabama include soybeans, nursery products, vegetables, cattle, and calves. In 1978, cash receipts from farm marketing were $106.9 million. In 1979 the total dollar amount decreased slightly due to damage by Hurricane Frederic in September of that year. The majority of forests in the two counties are pine species (loblolly and shortleaf) used for pul pwood for the manufacture of paper products. Next in importance is saw timber and the harvesting of veneer logs for plywood. Table 8. 1975 land use by county in acres and percent of total acreage (South Alabama Regional Planning Commission 19 77). Land use Mobile County Baldwin County Acres Percent Acres Percent Residential 35,151 4.4 9,651 0.9 Commercial 4,002 0.5 1,159 0.1 Industrial 4,808 0.6 568 0.1 Transportation , comrnunica- tions, and u tiliti es 38,571 4.9 19,927 1.9 Total urban 82,532 10.4 31,305 3.0 Public and semipublic 13,571 1.7 3,580 0.7 Agriculture Forestry Wetlands Water Undeveloped dry Other open TOTAL 42 136,534 17.2 216,919 20.5 389,401 49.1 503,212 47.6 78,198 9.8 174,082 16.5 22,343 2.8 46,462 4.4 66,887 8.4 74,874 7.1 4,401 0.6 1,948 0.2 793,600 100.0 1,056,382 100.0 In 1978, cash receipts from sales of raw stumpage products were $3.2 million for Mobile County and $12.5 million for Baldwin County. MARINE AND ESTUARINE SANCTUARIES While there are no officially designated marine or estuarine santuaries located in the coastal counties of Alabama, several areas are being protected and preserved by such agencies as the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service under wildlife management programs. The major programs dealing with estuarine sanctuaries recently have been, at the Federal level, under the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) of 1972 (Public Law 92-583) and at the State level, under the Alabama Coastal Area Act of 1976 (Act No. 534). In late 1982, the State of Alabama initiated an application to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), of the U.S. Depart- ment of Commerce under the guidelines of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, for the establishment of an estuarine sanctuary in the vicinity of Weeks Bay (Pensacola quadrangle) in Baldwin County. Approximately 142 ha (350 acres) of land had been purchased by the Nature Conservancy at that time to be part of the sanctuary if and when it is actually established. Negotia- tions are ongoing to add more land to that total in areas both east and west of the Fish River bridge (Pensacola quadrangle) immediately north of Weeks Bay. Total acreage is expected to be approximately 800 acres. Negotiations between the State of Alabama and NOAA are ongoing at this time (Thurman Shores, Alabama Department of Economic and Community Affairs, Montgomery, AL, 23 May 1984; pers. comm.). NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGES On 9 June 1980, Congress passed Public Law 96-267, which authorized the purchase of 4047 ha (10,000 acres) of land in Mobile and Baldwin Counties to be set aside as the Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge. In fiscal year 1982 approximately $3 million were available for acquisition (William Swanson, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA, 16 February 1982; pers. comm.). Additional land purchases to complete acquisition will depend upon future appropriations from the U.S. Congress. The refuge consists of four units: Little Dauphin Island (Biloxi quadrangle), Little Point Clear, Perdue, and Skunk Bayou (Pensacola quadrangle). The following information is taken primarily from Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuqe: A Proposal (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1980). These ecologically fragile areas provide a buffer between the open ocean and the highly productive and economically important brackish estuaries of Mobile Bay. The estuaries are spawning and nursery areas for commercially and recreationally important species, including many forms of crustaceans, mollusks, fish, and birds. For over 90 species of migratory birds, the refuge is the staging area and last major landfall before their trans-gulf migration, as well as the first major landfall upon their return. The area also boasts about 125 wintering, 100 resident, and 40 nonresident species of birds. During a peak 43 year, over 2 million individual birds may be in the refuge area at one time (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1980). Five species of sea turtles listed as threatened or endangered may use the offshore water adjacent to the area; but are not currently known to use the beaches for nesting. However, the last known loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) nesting site in Alabama was located on the Ft. Morgan Peninsula (Pensacola quadrangle) (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1980). Five other Federally listed Endangered and Threatened species may occur within the refuge. Prehistoric Indian sites of potential archaeological value are also found in the area (Alabama Historical Commission 1978). STATE PARKS The Alabama State Parks system had its beginning in 1927, when the State legislature passed the State Land Act, vesting the State's interest in parks in the Alabama Commission of Forestry and placing all State land under the Commission's administration. In 1933, the Civilian Conservation Corps, cooperating with the State of Alabama, under the supervision of the National Park Service, began the development of state parks. This program generated such interest in recreational development that by the fall of 1935 Alabama had placed 15 park areas under consideration for development. Total land area of the 22 state parks in Alabama in 1935 was 9,415 ha (23,265 acres). Individual parks ranged from 2,056 ha (5,080 acres) to a small historic site of 3 ha (7 acres). It was during this period that the lands for Gulf State Park (Pensacola quadrangle) in Baldwin County were acquired. In March 1939 the Alabama State Legislature passed an act creating the Alabama Department of Conservation, as it is known today. A part of this new department was the Division of Parks, Monuments, and Historical Sites that was given jurisdiction over all state park lands. With the creation of this new department came the decision to select 5 of the then-existing 23 parks and carry out extensive development and promotion. Gulf State Park was one of the five chosen; its official opening date was 20 May 1939. In 1948 two small park areas were constructed as additions to Gulf State Park in Baldwin County. These were Romar Beach and Alabama Point (Pensacola quadrangle), located on the coastal highway that runs through Gulf State Park to Alabama Point. These two park areas, with a total of 3 mi of beach-front, are important access areas to gulf waters and enable Gulf State Park visitors to reach gulf waters without crossing private property (Jacocks 1977). Gulf State Park now offers one of the widest ranges of activities found in any of the Alabama State Parks. Located on 2428 ha (6,000 acres) of land, activities include picnicking, swimming, boating, fishing, hiking, tennis, and bicycling. Available accommodations range from primitive to improved campsites and from family cottages to a resort inn. Facilities also include a convention facility and an 18-hole championship golf course. The state-owned lands have 5 km (3 mi) of beach frontage and a 251-m, (825-ft) fishing pier extending into the Gulf of Mexico. The resort inn, convention complex, and restaurant are operated by ARASERV, Inc., under a 1973 agreement 44 authorizing the operation of certain state-owned facilities by private corporations (Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, n.d.)- Meaher State Park (Bay Minette quadrangle) is located on the Tensaw River and Mobile Bay and contains 537 ha (1,327 acres). The basic facilities are boat launching ramps and piers for boating and fishing (Friend et al . 1981). Additional information is available by contacting: Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources Alabama State Parks Division 64 North Union Street Administration Building Montgomery, AL 36130 (205) 261-3334. In May 1983, an in-state toll-free number for information was made avail- able. This number is 1-800-ALA-PARK (251-7275). STATE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREAS Of the 28 State Wildlife Management Areas and Refuges in Alabama, only one, the Frank W. and Rob M. Boy kin Wildlife Management Area (Citronelle quadrangle) is located in the Mobile and Baldwin County study area. Most of the Boykin Wildlife Management Area is located in adjacent Washington County, with less than a sixth of the total area of 23,350 acres located in Mobile County. Hunting within the area is controlled and permits are required. These permits are issued by the Management Area Headquarters on either a seasonal or daily basis, depending upon type of game hunted and weapon used. Gun, primitive weapon, and bow-and-arrow hunting all have designated seasons and regulations, although bag limits are the same. Game animals hunted include deer, raccoon, opossum, turkey, quail, squirrel, and rabbit (Alabama Depart- ment of Conservation and Natural Resources 1981). Additional information is available by contacting: Area Manager Frank W. and Rob M. Boykin Wildlife Management Area Route 1, P. 0. Box 131 Citronelle, AL 36522. WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS In the State of Alabama, six rivers have been authorized for study under the National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 (PL 90-452) as amended. These included the Styx, Blackwater, and Perdido Rivers (Pensacola and Bay Minette quadrangles) and a short section of Soldier Creek in Baldwin County, and the Escatawpa River (Mobile quadrangle) and a portion of one of its tri- butaries, Brushy Creek, in Mobile County (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1981). 45 The Styx, Blackwater, and Perdido Rivers have not yet been studied; a 5- km (3-mi) section of Soldier Creek was studied, but subsequently deautho- rized. The Escatawpa River and about 11 km (7 mi) of Brushy Creek, from Scarborough Creek to its confluence with the Escatawpa, were studied by the National Park Service for designation as Wild and Scenic Rivers. Although the river was found to be eligible for inclusion as a Wild and Scenic River, the National Park Service recommended it not be included due to opposition from private waterfront owners (National Park Service 1983). NATIONAL NATURAL LANDMARKS The drainage area of the Mobile River basin is 113,000 km? (43,629 mi'2) and includes areas in Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and Tennessee. The basin is the largest gulf drainage east of the Mississippi River and has extensive wetlands north of its confluence with Mobile Bay. The Mobil e- Tensaw River Bottomlands National Natural Landmark (Mobile and Bay Minette quadrangles) was designated in 1974 to acknowledge the area as one of the most important wetlands in the nation (Frank Ugolini, National Park Service, Washington, D.C., 12 November 1982, pers. comm.). Although the designation implies National recognition of the area's importance, ownership of the lands remains with over 130 private and public landowners. The following informa- tion is taken primarily from the Natural Landmark Brief for this area (U.S. National Park Service 1974). The area is essentially a large flood plain originating near the confluence of the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers. The northern reaches have a network of streams and lakes with low forested islands and mesic (moderately moist) sites on the higher elevations merging into open, brackish marshes to the south. The southern boundary of the delta is northern Mobile Bay. This delta is unusual in that it is bounded on either side by relatively high, distinct upland terraces. The mesic sites contain ash, magnolia, and holly, while the lower, wetter sites are primarily water tupelo and cypress. Also common are red maple, mulberry, and black willow along the watercourses. The bottomland hardwood forest in the northern portion of the tract is dominated by sweet gum, water oak, ash, hackberry, and cottonwood. Herbaceous plants include spider lily, arrowheads, lizard's tail, grasses, and sedges. The open aquatic habitats contain elodea, tapegrass, water lily, arrow-arom, and cattails. The rivers comprising the Mobile Delta contain several species of rare fishes, including the blue sucker (Cycleptus elongatus) and Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrhynchus) . The Mobile Delta is one of the few large habitats for th~e Federally endangered American alligator (Al li gator mississippiensis) between Louisiana and Florida. Other reptiles in the area include Pseudemys alabamensis, the Alabama red-bellied turtle, and Graptemys nigrinoda del ti col a, the southern black-knobbed sawback turtle, which is endemic to the 3eTta. The concen- tration of birds, especially waterfowl, in the area is tremendous, with such rare species as the mottled duck (Anas fulvigula maculosa), the Mississippi kite (Ictinia missi ssippiensis) , and tHe swal low-tailed kite (Elanoides 46 forficatus) . The only known populations in Alabama of Florida black bears (Ursus airiericanus floridanus) occur within the delta, the northern black bear (Ursus amencanus) apparently having been extirpated in the State (Boschung 1976) . Common mammals in the delta floodplain include beaver, raccoon, river otter, and deer. The National Natural Landmark area is used mostly for hunting, fishing, and boating. Although some commercial logging is done, it is limited because of the area's inaccessibility. New techniques for logging may, however, result in the area becoming more disrupted in the future. The rivers of the Mobile Delta drain a great deal of farmland and consequently carry a heavy load of silt and agricultural chemicals. Additional chemicals are discharged into the rivers from the industrial areas adjacent to Mobile. NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY SANCTUARY The National Audubon Society leases approximately 64 ha (159 acres) of land on Dauphin Island (Biloxi quadrangle) from the Dauphin Island Park and Beach Board. The current 10/year lease runs from 1980 to 1990. The facilities currently consist of an entrance, parking lot, and several nature trails. A boardwalk over the dunes is proposed. The land includes a beach-dune complex with high dunes, a gum swamp, a large freshwater lake, and sandy pine woods (Friend et al . 1981). Like the Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge, the area is important to both resident and migratory species of birds. In a 48-hour period in 1979, 176 species of birds were identified on the sanctuary (Myrt Jones, National Audubon Society, Mobile, AL; 17 March 1982; pers. comm.) . INTENSIVELY USED RECREATIONAL BEACHES The beaches of Alabama are a recreational resource important to the tourist industry of Mobile and Baldwin Counties. These counties have about 80 km (50 mi) of beaches on the Gulf of Mexico and another 103 km (64 mi) along the bays (Mobile, Weeks, Perdido, etc.) and Mississippi Sound (South Alabama Regional Planning Commission and J. H. Friend, Inc. 1971). Water off the wide white-sand beaches fronting the open ocean is generally clear. While the bay and sound areas are economically important, especially in seafood production, they tend to be muddier and not as attractive as the white-sand gulf beaches for such beach activities as swimming, wading, and sunbathing. The principal gulf beaches are Dauphin Island (Biloxi quadrangle) in Mobile County, which is 24 km (15 mi) long, and the southern border of Baldwin County from Mobile Point (Pensacola quadrangle) to the Florida state line, which comprises 51 km (32 mi) of ocean beach. Most of the gulf shore- line is privately owned, although the city of Gulf Shores makes available 458 m (1500 ft) of beach and the state maintains 5 km (3 mi) of beach for public use at Gulf Shores State Park. In Mobile County, there is 0.8 km (0.5 mi) of public-use beach on Dauphin Island (Friend et al . 1981 ) . 47 It was estimated (Table 9) that 2.5 million tourists visited Mobile, Baldwin, and Escambia Counties in 1970 and that the number was likely to increase 76% to 4.4 million in 1980 (South Alabama Regional Planning Commission and J. H. Friend, Inc. 1971, Gulf Research Associates 1981). Although the Parks Division of the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (1981) estimated that 3.4 million tourists visited Gulf State Park in 1978 and 3.2 million in 1979, these estimates may be high. Traffic volume analysis on the major highways in the Gulf Shores area by Gulf Research Associates showed a total of approximately 2.0 million recreational visitors per year (Friend et al . 1981). Table 10 shows the annual vehicle flow on the major highways leading to two intensively used recreational beaches, Dauphin Island and the Gulf Shores area. Traffic increased by approximately 75% to 200% in these areas between 1965 and 1979. The increase in recreational visitors before Hurricane Frederic in 1979 is shown in Table 11. Hurricane Frederic interrupted the expansion of the tourist trade by disrupting the aesthetics of the coast, destroying many tourist facilities and, more directly, destroying the causeway connecting Dauphin Island to the mainland. Although a ferry carried some tourists to the island, tourist flow was hampered until July 1982, when the causeway was reopened. CHARTER BOAT AND HEAD BOAT SERVICE Although the commercial fishing industry of the United States has become relatively less economically important worldwide, the sport fishing industry has increased in volume of catch to the point where the sport catch exceeds the commercial catch for some species. In Alabama, the saltwater sport fish landings in 1975 were only 53% of the commercial landings in total weight, although the sport landings exceeded the commercial landings for 15 species (Wade 1977). In response to the increasing demand for sport fishing oppor- tunities, the number of facilities for charter boats and head boats has been increasing in Alabama (Chermock 1974). The charter boat-head boat industry in Alabama was estimated by Swingle (1970) to have provided 39,480 fishing trips at a cost of $730,350 in 1969. Charter boats generally involve small groups of people (6 to 8), and troll for larger game fish, such as Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus), king mackerel (Scomberomorus ca valla), and crevalle jack (Caranx hippos) .~ Head boats carry large numbers of people and fish off the bottom, rather than troll. The head or party boats carrying a larger group of people take advantage of the concentrations of fish on artificial fishing reefs, where the main catch is amberjack (Seriola dumerili ) and red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) (Chermock 1974, Friend et al . 1981). Table 12 shows the composition of catch from charter boats out of Orange Beach (Pensacola quadrangle) . There are approximately 27 charter and head boat operations in Alabama waters. The general locations of facilities/boats are shown in Table 13. About 17 of the charter and head boats are now located in Baldwin County, while 10 are in Mobile County. The largest concentration is at Orange Beach, 48 Table 9. Number of tourist trips, average length of stay, average party size, and number of tour- ists3 visiting Mobile, Baldwin, and Escambia Counties by automobile, 1970, 1980 (Friend et al . 1981). Tourist item 1970 1980 Number of tourist trips (1, OOP's) Terminal 218 Transient 942 Business 416 Total 1,576 328 1,422 616 2,366 Average length of stay in the area Terminal 2.1 days 2.1 days Transient 0.5 hours 0.5 hours Business 2.0 days 2.0 days Average party size Terminal Transient Business 3.0 3.0 1.0 3.3 3.3^ 1.5b Number of tourists (1, OOP's) Terminal 654 Transient0 1,413 Business 416 Total 2,483 1,082 2,347 924 4,353 aTourist = tra his county of oriented activ has arrived at tourist = on primary desti traveling on pleasure-orien to work. ^Estimated by based on data and Tourism in cAssumes 50% through the a Regional Plann Inc. 1971). veler going 100 miles or more from residence to engage in pleasure- ities; terminal tourist = one who his primary destination; transient e who is traveling to or from his nation; business tourist = one business, but participating in ted activity not directly related Gulf Research Associates, Inc. from Auburn University's Travel Alabama 1979 study. of transient tourists traveling rea actually stop (South Alabama ing Commission and John H. Friend, 49 Table 10. Average daily two-way traffic volume (number of vehicles) on high- ways providing access to the Alabama coastal region's major recreational beach areas, 1965, 1970, 1977, 1978, 1979 (Friend et al . 1981). Hwy. 163, immediately Hwy. 59, Gulf Shores north of the just north of Beach Hwy. 182, Dauphin Island the city just west of the Year bridge of Gulf Shores Florida State line Annual average daily two-way 1965 1,690 3,060 700 1970 2,440 4,720 850 1977 3,110 7,510 1,770 1978 3,220 8,430 2,290 1979a 2,920 8,850 2,180 Annual percent change 1965-70 7.6 9.1 4.0 1970-79 2.0 7.2 11.0 1965-79 4.0 7.9 8.5 a Assuming "pre-hurricane" conditions. Table 11. Number of recreational visitors to Dauphin Island, 1965, 1970, 1977, 1978, 1979 (Friend et al . 1981). An nual average Annual Av erage Number of da ily one- way Percent recreational pe rsons recreational Year traffic recreational auto trips pe r auto visitors 1965 845 58 178,850 3 536,550 1970 1,220 58 258,420 3 775,260 1977 1,555 58 329,230 3 987,690 1978 1,610 58 340,910 3 1,022,730 1979a 1,460 58 309,155 3 927,465 a Assuming "pre-hurricane" conditions. 50 Table 12. Selected characteristics of catch by species for charter boat operators, Orange Beach, Alabama, 1975 (Friend et al. 1981 adapted from Wade 1977). Species Average catch per boat Distribution of catch (%) Average catch per man-hour Amberjack 6,052 38.0% 0.83 Cobia 252 1.6% 0.03 Dol phin 274 1.7% 0.04 Groupers 175 0.1% 0.02 Crevalle jack 226 1.4% 0.03 King mackerel 3,477 21.9% 0.48 Little tunny 2,161 13.6% 0.30 Snapper 2,631 16.5% 0.36 Spanish mackerel 659 4.1% 0.09 Total 15,907 98.9% Table 13. Charter boats and head boats operating in Ala- bama (Ronald L. Schmeid, National Marine Fisheries Service, St. Petersburg, FL; 3 June 1981, pers. comm.). Number Number Location charter boats head boats Baldwin County Perdido Beach(l)a 1 0 Orange Beach(l) 14 1 Point Clear(l) 1 0 Total 16 1 Mobile County Mobile(2) 2 0 Dauphin Island(3) 3 2 Bayou La Batre(3) 0_ 3_ Total 5 5 aQuad sheet: (1) Pensacola, (2) Mobile, (3) Biloxi 51 while the majority in Mobile County are at Dauphin Island (Ronald L. Schmeid, National Marine Fisheries Service, St. Petersburg, FL; 1981; pers. comm.). According to Friend et al . (1981), prior to Hurricane Frederic 70% of the charter and head boats in Alabama were in Baldwin County. As a result of the destruction from the hurricane, particularly the loss of the Dauphin Island Causeway (Biloxi quadrangle), 90% of the charter and head boats were located in Baldwin County immediately after the hurricane. In terms of size, most charter and head boats are between 8.5 and 17.7 m (28 to 58 ft) (Alabama Sea Grant Advisory Service 1978). PERMITTED ARTIFICIAL FISHING REEFS Most of the substrate off the Alabama coast is composed of hard to soft mud and sand, with little cover, such as natural reefs and obstructions, to provide habitat for encrusting invertebrates and forage fish. An attempt to provide such cover and thereby increase game fish populations was begun in the 1950s by the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. The Department submerged groups of automobile bodies in waters, usually at 18- to 27-m (60-to 90-ft) depths. In the 1960 's and 1970 's more obstructions were sunk, including such things as liberty ships, bridge materials, lifeboats, pipes and culverts, and barges. Table 14 shows the compositions, ages, and depths of the permitted reefs (Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources 1981; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1981). Game fishes attracted to these artificial reefs include both bottom- dwelling and midwater species. Bottom-dwelling species inhabiting the structures are primarily snappers (Lutjanus spp.) and grouper (Epinephelus spp.). Red drum (Sciaenops ocellatusT are found on the shallower (18- to 23-m or 60- to 75-ft) reefs, especially in the winter. Pelagic midwater game fishes are attracted to concentrations of forage fish swarming around the reefs. The former include primarily greater amberjack (Seriola dumeri 1 i) , crevalle jack (Caranx hippos) , cobia (Rachycentron canadum) , Tittle tunny (Euthynnus a! letteratus) and mackerels (Scomberomorus spp.). The prevailing water currents on the reefs situated off Baldwin County are from the east (Florida), which gives these reefs a high affinity for the blue water-sand bottom Floridian fauna. These westward currents are diverted offshore by the waters flowing out of Mobile Bay. Reefs to the west, located south of Dauphin Island, are subjected to lower salinities than those to the east and their fauna is more estuarine in nature. The deeper reefs are less subject to salinity and temperature fluctuations and their fauna has more tropical affinities than the inshore reefs (Bennie Rohr, National Marine Fisheries Service, Pascagoula, MS; 30 November 1982; pers. comm.). PUBLIC FISHING PIERS, PUBLIC ACCESS AREAS AND MARINAS There are six public fishing piers in Mobile and Baldwin Counties. The piers on the gulf are located at Gulf State Park (Pensacola quadrangle) and Young' s-by-the-sea (Pensacola quadrangle) in Baldwin County and at Bienville Beach, Dauphin Island (Biloxi quadrangle) in Mobile County. The Fairhope Municipal Pier (Bay Minette quadrangle), May Day Pier (Bay Minette quadrangle near Daphne) and Autrey's Pier (Mobile quadrangle on Battleship Parkway) 52 Table 14. Permitted artificial fishing reefs (Alabama Department of Conser- vation and Natural Resources 1981). Com pass readings (mi) Name3 Depth Sand Is. Perdio Pass Material designation (ft) (m) Light Sea Buoy Year composition Tug Boat 64 20 102° (19.0) 2120 (19.5) 1976 105 ft wood tugboat Dry Dock 72 22 1940 (10.6) 2410 (32.1) 1957 350 ft drydock Tulsa 84 26 190° (11.0) 240° (32.5) Unknown Unknown wreck Anderson 82 25 187° (10.3) 2400 (30.9) 1974 Liberty ship, 3-30 ft 1 ifeboats Edwards 84 26 190° (13.8) 2360 (34.4) 1974 Liberty Ship Buffalo Barge #2 66 20 1160 (12.3) 2230 (17.7) 1972 300 ft Barge Buffalo Barge #1 54 16 115° (13.0) 2310 (17.2) 1972 300 ft Barge Ft. Morgan 66 20 U?o (13.2) 230O (18.0) 1964 Concrete culverts or pipes Lipscomb 65 20 1140 (13.9) 229° (16.5) 1972 Steel tugboat Sparkman 93 28 120O (20.3) 206O (17.7) 1974 Liberty ship Wallace 90 27 101° (25.3) 1820 (10.5) 1974 Liberty ship Kelly 60 18 100° (25.5) 181° ( 9.7) 1970 Concrete culverts or pipes Allen 88 27 940 (26.3) 1720 ( 8.0) 1974 Liberty Ship Radmoor 72 22 1977 Concrete Ship Orange Beach Lifeboats 88 27 1973 Cluster of 15-30 ft 1 i feboats Dauphin Is. Bridge 80 24 190° (11.0) 240° (30.0) 1973 Concrete bridge Trysler Grounds 102 31 1190 (31.0) 1740 (22.0) Mobil Oil Platform 96 29 113° ( 29 . 0 ) 184° (17.0) Platform Lillian Bridge #2 92 28 92° (27.5) 177° ( 9.0) Concrete bridge Southeast Banks 75 23 1600 (11.6) 2330 (27.8) Southwest Banks 66 20 269° (11.0) 239° (37.0) a Sponsored by Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. provide access to Mobile Bay. Bottom fishing from shore and piers produces kingfish (ground mullet), saltwater catfish, croakers and red drum (Friend et al . 1981). Fishing and recreational shrimping from private boats is also popular in Mobile and Baldwin Counties. Public boat launching and access areas spon- sored by the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (ADCNR) along with numerous private boat ramps provide nearby access to most areas of the gulf and bays. The ADCNR sites are free while the private boat launch ramps charge a small fee. The ADCNR access areas and private launch sites are indicated on the atlas sheets. In addition to access areas and launch ramps, there are many marinas operated by private enterprises in the two counties which provide boating facilities and services. These marinas are located on the atlas sheets. BARRIER ISLANDS AND SPITS The following discussion of barrier formation is taken primarily from May (1976) and 0 'Neil and Mettee (1982). The existence of Dauphin Island (Biloxi quadrangle) and the Fort Morgan Peninsula (Pensacola quadrangle) across the 53 mouth of Mobile Bay has tremendous effects upon the salinity, sedimentation, erosion, and water currents within the bay. The exact processes by which these barrier islands and spits are formed are poorly known. Whereas some Texas barrier islands rest on Pleistocene deposits, the sand bases of Dauphin Island and the Fort Morgan Peninsula are separated from the Pleistocene sediments by several feet of Holocene mud. Just to the west, in Mississippi Sound, the base of the sand between Cat, Ship, and Horn Islands (Biloxi quadrangle) was found by acoustic reflection to be 9 to 12 m (30 to 39 ft) below sea level (Curray and Moore 1963). May and McLain (1970) found barrier sand overlying mud at 9 to 11 m (30 to 36 ft) below sea level in the Bon Secour-Fort Morgan Peninsula area, using both physical probes and acoustic reflection. Kwon (1969) and Otvos (1973) have shown that part of Mobile Point (Biloxi quadrangle) is a relict Pleistocene ridge, and recent work by Otvos has shown that the same is true for at least the eastern end of Dauphin Island (May 1976). Curray and Moore (1963) indicated that the barriers started forming near their present position when the postglacial rise of sea levels slowed and was outpaced by the upbuilding of sediments. Most gulf coast barrier islands probably formed about 5,000 to 3,500 years ago when the rise in sea levels slowed or stopped (Otvos 1970a, 1970b). Otvos also discussed the development and migration of barriers formed by aggradation of submerged shoals. Although eroding to some extent, the eastern end of Dauphin Island has not migrated westward as has the western end, possibly due to its Pleistocene ridge base. The island is currently 24.35 km (15.13 mi) long, but sediment is accreting along the western end of the island, increasing its length about 6.4 km (4 mi) in the last 100 years (May 1971). Dauphin Island has a dune system averaging 3 to 6 m (10 to 20 ft) in altitude, reaching a maximum of 12.2 m (40 ft) at the eastern end of the island (Boone 1973). The dunes are fronted on the gulf side by broad wel 1 -developed beaches and on the bay side by beach interspersed with marsh. The Fort Morgan Peninsula forms the southern boundary of Mobile Bay and, like Dauphin Island, has broad, well-developed beaches and a dune system reaching a height of 6 m (20 ft) along the western end. The eastern end, connected to the mainland, contains several large lagoons and marshes. 0'Neil and Mettee (1982) state: "Several sets of intersecting dune ridges indicate a complex depositional history for this spit." The only other component of the barrier island-spit system in Mobile and Baldwin Counties is Perdido Key (Pensacola quadrangle), only a small portion of which is located in Alabama. The central body of the key contains 6-m (20-ft) high dunes which decrease in frequency and height toward the ends of the key (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1971). Ono Island (Pensacola quadrangle) north of Perdido Key can not be consi- dered a true barrier island since it does not receive the direct wave action of the Gulf of Mexico. The island exhibits a series of parallel stable dune ridges with wet swales in the topographic depression between each pair of 54 ridges. The amount of vegetation on the dune ridges has tended to stabilize them. POINT SOURCE DISCHARGES The South Alabama Regional Planning Commission has made an assessment of both point and nonpoint sources of pollution in Mobile and Baldwin Counties and the controls needed to meet the goals of Section 208 of the 1972 amendment to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act. The South Alabama Regional Planning Commission (1979), Friend et al . (1981), and D. W. Brady (1979) are the primary sources of the following material, and should be consulted for more detailed information. For purposes of this mapping study, point-source discharges have been divided into two categories: industrial sources that discharge effluent that may need chemical treatment; and municipal, semipublic and public sources that discharge domestic effluent that can generally be treated biologically. In Mobile and Baldwin Counties there were 19 municipal waste-water point sources with an aggregate discharge of 208 million liters per day (mid) (55 million gallons per day (mgd)) in 1977. There were 38 industrial process waste-water sources with National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits, with an aggregate discharge of about 507 mid (134 mgd). Also in the study area were 49 semipublic and private point sources of non- permit effluents such as sanitary waste, cooling water, boiler blowdown, and rain water runoff. Most of the industrial dischargers empty into Chickasaw Creek and the Mobile River (Mobile quadrangle). The greatest volume of discharge is from the two electrical generating plants, which discharge cooling water and steam condensate, and paper mills. In contrast, most of the pollution load comes from the paper mills and chemical plants. The majority of point dischargers in Baldwin County are municipal wastewater treatment plants, of which there are seven, and municipal lagoons, of which there are three. The industrial discharges in Baldwin County are from several industries in the vicinity of Bay Minette (Bay Minette quadrangle), and about five seafood distributors in Bon Secour (Pensacola quadrangle) . Mobile County is more heavily populated and industrialized than Baldwin County, with nearly three times as many point source dischargers. There are 12 municipal wastewater treatment plants and several municipal lagoons in the county. Industrial dischargers include about a dozen chemical and mineral plants, most of which are located either in the Mobile area, the area around Bucks, or Theodore (Mobile quadrangle). Two large power plants are located on the Mobile River north of Mobile. Four paper/lumber plants, two railroad yards, and the State docks are also located in the Mobile area. A number of seafood distributors are located in Bayou La Batre (Biloxi quadrangle). Other information on water quality is included in the climatology and hydrology narrative. 55 SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS AND ONSHORE DISPOSAL SITES There are approximately 148 ha (365 acres) of solid waste disposal sites in Mobile County, of these, 127 ha (315 acres) are sanitary landfills. All of the 32 ha (80 acres) of solid waste disposal sites in Baldwin County are sanitary landfills (South Alabama Regional Planning Commission 1979). The following summary of approved solid waste disposal sites is taken from the Water Quality Management Plan, Mobile and Baldwin Counties, Alabama, developed by the South Alabama Regional Planning Commission (1979). These sites are the only approved sites for dumping in these counties, although there are approximately 70 unapproved sites which are used. Many of these unauthorized dumps are within the 3-m (10-ft) contour (NGVD) and are on private, industrial, and commercial properties. Often these unauthorized, unsupervised dumps result in groundwater contamination, runoff and floodwater pollution, air pollution from open burning and mal odors, and pest problems (Alabama Coastal Area Board 1977). Mobile County Citronelle Landfill (Citronelle quadrangle). This site as of May 1984 is not yet open, ("D\ Pruitt, South Alabama Regional Planning Commission, Mobile, 21 May 1984; pers. comm.). It was originally scheduled to open in 1978. A 12-ha (30-acre) m site, it is in the drainage basin of Barrow Creek, which flows into David La'ke and the Mobile River. City of Citronelle Dump (Citronelle quadrangle). This location is to be closed upon the opening of the Mobile County Citronelle Landfill. It is an open burning dump, receiving household garbage and rubbish. An area of less than 4 ha (10 acres), it is in the drainage basin of Cedar Creek and the Mobile River. City of Mobile Landfill (Citronelle quadrangle). This sanitary landfill opened in 1976 with 16 ha (40 acres) approved for use, with further expansion expected. This site receives waste only from the City of Mobile's municipal pickup service. It drains into Conrad Creek and the Mobile River. City of Saraland Landfill (Citronelle quadrangle). Although not originally operated as a sanitary landfill, the site was upgraded to receive household garbage and rubbish. Runoff from this site of about 8 ha (20 acres) flows to Bayou Sara and the Mobile River. Mobile County Kushla Landfill (Citronelle quadrangle). A sanitary landfill approved for 16 ha (40 acres), this site receives household wastes and rubbish. This site was opened in 1976 and drains into Seabury Creek, then Chickasaw Creek, and finally the Mobile River. City of Chickasaw Dump (Mobile quadrangle). This 4-ha (10-acre) open burning site recently closed, the garbage brought here was transferred to the Mobile County Kushla Landfill. This site is drained by Chickasaw Creek which flows into the Mobile River. Mobile County Dawes Landfill (Biloxi quadrangle). Opened in 1977, this site Ts approved For household garbage on 42 ha (105 acres). The area is 56 drained by Baker Creek, which flows into Miller Creek, then Big Creek, and the Escatawpa River. Mobile County Irvington Landfill (Biloxi quadrangle). This 12-ha (30- acre") sanitary landfill was opened in about 1977 and was originally expected to provide service until 1982, but may close by March 1983 (D. Pruitt, South Alabama Regional Planning Commission, Mobile, 6 December 1982; pers. comm.). This site receives both solid waste and household garbage. Runoff from this site drains into the Fowl River. Baldwin County Bay Minette Landfill (Bay Minette quadrangle). Twelve hectacres (30 acres) have been approved for this sanitary landfill, although only 2 ha (5 acres) were being used as of 1979. This site receives household garbage and other solid wastes. It is drained by Red Creek, a tributary of the Tensaw River. Fairhope Landfill (Bay Minette quadrangle). This 4-ha (10-acre) landfill has been closed to all disposal except household rubbish due to various problems. Runoff flows into Tatumville Gully, which drains into Mobile Bay. Baldwin County Magnolia Springs Landfill (Pensacola quadrangle). This 16- ha (40 - acre) site serves as the sanitary landfill for southern Baldwin County. Although this site once accepted a small quantity of industrial sludges and liquid wastes, this is no longer the case. This area is drained by Barner Branch, a tributary of Fish River. MAN-MADE LAND Man-made land in coastal Alabama (Table 15) is essentially found in only three areas: a narrow strip of land along the Battleship Parkway (Mobile quadrangle) on the north shore of Mobile Bay, a narrow strip of land along the Dauphin Island Parkway (Biloxi quadrangle), and the Theodore Disposal Island (Mobile quadrangle). The Theodore Disposal Island is roughly triangu- lar, its shape determined by water current movement studies in Mobile Bay by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The island is basically a triangular levee, about 2.6 km (1.6 mi) to a side, into which spoil will continue to be dumped from the Theodore Ship Channel project. The island is expected to provide disposal space for about 50 years, at which time the island will consist of about 6.5 square km? (2.5 mi?) of land about 4.6 to 6.1 m (15 to 20 ft) above sea level (J. Baxter, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile, 15 December 1982; pers. comm.). Although not man-made land in the strictest sense, many acres of marshy, estuarine wetland have been filled to provide stable, dry land for commercial purposes. As shown in Table 15, most of these are in the vicinity of Mobile, particularly where industrialized areas meet the Mobile Delta estuaries. NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES The following is a list of historic and prehistoric sites presently on the National Register of Historic Places in Baldwin and Mobile Counties. The majority of these sites are churches, residences, and business establishments 57 Table 15. Areas of Alabama estuaries filled between 1953 and 1968 (Alabama Coastal Area Board 1979 Chapman 1968). Emergent Housing spoil banks or industry (MLW) Causeways other uses Total Area (acres) (ha) (acres) (ha) (acres) (ha) (acres) Th~aT Mississippi Sound 85 34.4 Gravel ine, Aloe and Dauphin Island bays (l)a 2 0.8 2 0.8 40 16.2 Dauphin Island Airport (1) 35 14.2 Miscellaneous 1 0.4 5 2.0 Mobile Bay 858 347.2 Brookley Field Extension (2) 206 83.4 McDuffie Island Area (2) 14 5.7 3 1.2 Battleship Park (2) Meaher Park (3) Pinto Island (2) Little Sand Island Area (2) 36 14.6 Miscellaneous 35 14.2 35 14.2 Mobile Delta Polecat Bay (2) Sardine Pass (2) Miscellaneous 35 14.2 Perdido Bay (4) 1 0.4 Little Lagoon (4) 230 93.1 181 73.3 88 35.6 30 12.1 1,196 484.0 1,002 405.5 124 50.2 35 14.2 10 4.0 11 4.4 2 0.8 2 0.8 Total 17 6.9 76 30.8 2,059 833.4 2,152 871 a Quad sheets: (1) Biloxi, (2) Mobile, (3) Bay Minette, (4) Pensacola. built in the nineteenth century. Of the two counties, Mobile contains more National Register sites, most of which are located in the City of Mobile's historic districts. The listing is a synthesis of information from The National Register in Alabama (Alabama Historical Commission 1978a), Alabama's Tapestry of Historic Places (Alabama Historical Commission 1978b), and the most recent addendums to the National Register properties in Baldwin and Mobile Counties (M. Brooms, Historical Commission of Alabama, Montgomery, and Mobile Historic Development Commission, Mobile, 21 May 1984; pers. comm.). The National Register properties outside the City of Mobile are plotted individually. Most of the sites in the city are within the historic districts noted on the maps and not designated individually. 58 Mobile County Name and Description Barton Academy (l)a IETF, Greek Revival ; State's oldest public school; designed by James Gallier; now school system adminis- trative office. Battle House Royale (1) 1906-1908; Georgian Revival ; seven- story hotel, the fourth at this site; among the first steel and concrete structures in the nation; became the city's social landmark; now closed. Bellingrath Gardens (1 ) 192/; opened to the public in 1932; approximately 65 acres of the 800-acre estate are landscaped; includes an early 20th century home, two-story gumbo brick with wrought iron railing. Bishop Portier House (1 ) 1833; Creole cottage; home of the first bishop of the Catholic Diocese of Mobile and three later bishops; now a private residence. Location 504 Government Street, Mobile 26 North Royal Street, Mobile Theodore, near Mobile 307 Conti Street, Mobile Sragg •Mi tchell House Revival ; 1847; Greek Revival ; home of John Bragg, judge and congressman; later owned by his brother, Confederate General Brax- ton Bragg; designed by Thomas James. Brisk and Jacobson Store (1) 1866; Classical Revival; large and ornate commercial building with excel- lent cast iron facade; now vacant. 1906 Springhill Avenue, Mobile 51 Dauphin Street, Mobile Carlen House (1) c. 1842; Greek Revival ; formerly a farmhouse; renovated for used as a museum and meeting hall. Carolina Hall (Yester House) (1) 1832-1840; late Georgian; two- s tory residence with a two-story portico. 54 South Carlen Street on Murphy High School Campus, Mobile 70 South McGregor Avenue, Spring Hill , Mobile 59 Cavellero House (1 ) c. 1835; Federal Style; two-and-a-half story masonry with one-story wing and dormers on steeply gabled roof. Church Street East Historic District (1) 19th century; Gulf Coast architecture; features 70 structures, several with wrought iron balconies. City Hall -City Market (1) 1858; Italianate; ground floor of Mobile's municipal complex; once con- tained the Southern Market. City Hospital (1) 1833; Greek Revival ; one of the oldest hospitals in the Lower South; in opera- tion for 125 years; now being re- stored for Pensions and Security offices, Coley Building (1) 1836; two-story masonry building with cast iron Corinthian columns. Common Street Historic District (1 ) Dahm Home (1) two-story brick structure has late Greek Revival influences. Davis Avenue Branch Library (1) De Tonti Square Historic District 19th century; Gulf Coast influences; features 53 structures in nine-block area. Denby House (1 ) Ellicott Stone (2) 1799; marks 31st parallel, early bound- ary between Spain and the United States. 7 North Jackson Street, Mobile Mobile's downtown area 111 North Royal Street, Mobile 850 St. Anthony Street, Mobile 56 St. Francis Street, Mobile Mobile's downtown area 7 North Claiborne Street, Mobile 564 Davis Avenue, Mobile Mobile's western downtown area 558 Conti Street, Mobile Approximately 1 mi north (1.6 km) of Bucks off U.S. route 43 Emanuel-Staples-Parke Building (1) 1850s; Italian Renaissance Revival ; built as offices by a Mobile cotton broker; remodeled in 1903 by prominent Mobile architect Georgia B. Rodgers for Bank of Mobile. 100 Royal Street, Mobile 60 Fire Department Headquarters (station #5) (1) 1859; two-story masonry structure first housed Mobile's volunteer fire companies. First Baptist Church (1) First National Bank of Mobile (1) Fort Conde-Charlotte (1) 1711; French fort was reconstructed by the City of Mobile. Fort Conde-Charlotte House (Kirkbride House) (1) 1822; Federal -Greek Revival; residence built on site of French fort; now a house museum, headquarters of the Na- tional Society of Colonial Dames of Alabama. Fort Gaines (3) 1818; five-sided brick fort was one of two forts guarding the entrance of Mobile Bay; not completed until the Civil War; open to the public. Fort Louis de la Louisiane (4) 1702; location of the capitol of French Louisiana, 1702-1711. Gates-Davis House (1) 1842; Creole plantation cottage; best example of this uncommon style in Mobile. Georgia Cottage (1 ) 1845; Greek Revival with Creole influ- ences; was the home of Augusta Evans Wilson, Southern novelist popular during the last half of the 19th century. Greene-Marston House (1) 1851; Eclectic; stagecoach stop; com- plexity of frame structure unequaled in Mobile. Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Passenger Terminal (1) 1907; Spanish Colonial Revival; massive and ornate structure; one of two remain- ing large-scale railroad stations in the state; now used for offices and storage. 7 North Lawrence Street, Mobile 806 Government Street, Mobile 68 Saint Francis Street, Mobile 104 Theatre Street, Mobile 104 Theatre Street, Mobile East end of Dauphin Island Near Twenty-Seven Mile Bluff on the Mobile River 1570 Dauphin Street, Mobile 2564 Spring Hill Avenue, Mobile 2000 Dauphin Street, Mobile Beauregard and Saint Joseph Street, Mobile 61 Horst House ( "Moongate") (1) 1868; Italianate with Greek Revival details; two-story brick structure built by a German immigrant who be- came Mayor of Mobile; now a restaurant. Indian Mound Park (3) 7.28 ha (18 acre) site of six prehistoric Indian shell mounds. Lower Dauphin Street (Historic) Commer- cial District d"? Marine Hospital (Sixth District Tuber- culosis Hospital ) (1 ) 1843; Greek Revival; massive H-shaped structure was a hospital for seamen for more than a century. Meaher House (1) Metzger House (1) Middle Bay Light (Blue Ford Landing) (3) 1905; one and a half-story wooden hexagonal structure on metal pilings; unusual combination of lighthouse and 1 ightkeeper' s residence; no longer used, but has been restored. Miller-O'Donnen House (1) 1837; Raised cottage style; two- story structure with first floor masonry, second floor frame. Monterey Place House (1) Murphy High School (1 ) Nanna Hubba Bluff (Blue Ford Landing) (4) Several sites indicate habitation by prehistoric and historic Indians. Neville House (1 ) 1896; two-story brick building contains a rare example of terra cotta ornament. 407 Conti Street, Mobile Iberville Drive, Dauphin Island Mobile 800 Saint Anthony Street, Mobile 5 North Claiborne Street, Mobile 7 North Claiborne Street, Mobile Mobile Bay 1102 South Broad Avenue, Mobile 1552 Monterey Place, Mobile 100 South Carlen Street, Mobile On the west bank of the Tombigbee River near the Washington County 1 ine 255 St. Francis Street, Mobile 62 Oakleigh (1) 1833; Greek Revival; T-shaped raised cottage; now a house museum and head- quarters of the Historic Mobile Preser- vation Society. Oakleigh Garden Historic District (Washington Square) (1)~ 1833-1898; 19th century styles; 125 structures in this residential district. Phillippe House (1) Pincus Building (1) 1891; late Victorian Eclecticism; origi- nally housed a jewelry store; designed by Rudolf Benz. Protestant Children's Home (1) 1845; Greek Revival detailing; one of the first buildings in Alabama con- structed for philanthropic purposes; it was an orphanage until 1950; now vacant. 350 Oakleigh Place, Mobile Mobile 53 North Jackson Street, Mobile One South Royal Street, Mobile 911 Dauphin Street, Mobile Saint Francis Street United Methodist Church (1) St. Louis Street Missionary Baptist Church (1) c. 18/2; Eclectic style; two-story church; one of four black churches organized in Mobile before the Civil War. Scottish Rite Temple (1) 1922; Egyptian design Semmes House (1 ) 1858; Federal and Greek Revival; home of Admiral Raphael Semmes, commander of the Confederate States Ship CSS Alabama; now a First Baptist Church building. South Lafayette Street Creole Cottages (1) c. 1850; Creole cottages; residences are fine examples of Creole cottages, with Greek Revival influence. 251 St. Francis Street, Mobile 114 North Dearborn Street, Mobile Claiborne and St. Francis Streets, Mobile 804 Government Street, Mobile 20, 22, and 23 Lafayette Street Mobile 63 Spring Hill Col 1 1 ege Quadrangl e (1) 1866-1909; Gothic Revival, ltal i anate and French Renaissance; Spring Hill College is the oldest institution of higher learning in Alabama; quadrangle consists of six structures. Staples-Pake Bui 1 di ng (1) late 1800s; formerly Bank of Mobile; spiral stairway with fine architectural features and bronze hardware. State Street AME Church (1) Tschiener House (Damus School) (1) Vickens-Schumacker Building (1) Weems House (1) aQuad sheets: (1) Mobile (2) Citronelle (3) Biloxi (4) Atmore. 4307 Old Shell Road, Mobile 100 South Royal Street, Mobile 502 State Street, Mobile 1120 Old Shell Road, Mobile 707-11 Dauphin Street, Mobile 1155 Springhill Avenue, Mobile Baldwin County Name and Description Blakeley Site (l)a Early 1800s; foundations; site of a once major town which contains breast- works of an 1865 Civil War battle; is proposed for development by Historic Blakeley Foundation. Bottle Creek Indian Mounds (2) Approximately 1400 A.D. to 1600 A.D.; largest temple mound complex in South Alabama, contains six mounds; closed to the public. Daphne Methodist Church (1) 1858; constructed of heart pine and pegs with slave gallery; church bell is lined with silver dollars. Site (2 Fort Mims 1813; excavations; site of one of the biggest massacres of colonists by Indians in the history of the nation; being exca- vated by archaeologists. Off Alabama route 225, 5 mi (8 km) north of Spanish Fort Stockton Daphne Between Rivers the Tensaw and the Alabama 64 Fort Morgan (3) 1833; partially restored; installation prominent in Bay in 1864; owned by the and open to the public. major mil i tary Battle of Mobile State of Alabama At entrance Point to Mobile Bay at Mobile Montrose Historic District (1) Mid-19th century; Greek Revival influ- ences; this collection of 27 Creole cottages shows the Greek Revival influ- ence. Sand Island Light (3) 1873; infl uenced by Italianate style; the 132 ft (40 m) tall conical masonry tower is the older of two re- maining lighthouses in the state. Main and Second Streets, Montrose Mouth south of Mobile of Mobile Bay, 3 Point mi (5 km) U.S.S. Tecumseh (3) 225 ft (69 m) long of four Union ironclad Tecumseh struck a marine Aug. 5, 1864; ironclad; one monitors, the mine and sank Bay and is in servation Under 30 ft (9 m) of water in Mobile Bay north of Fort Morgan during the Battle of Mobile an excellent state of pre- underwater. 'Quad sheets (1) Bay Minette (2) Atmore (3) Biloxi. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES The Alabama coast is believed to have been inhabited as early as 10,000 B.C., although no sites dating to this period, the Paleo-Indian stage, have been discovered as yet in this region. The earliest datable artifacts in Ala- bama's coastal plain can be assigned to the Early Archaic Period, ranging from 8000 to 6000 B.C. (Walthall 1980). Sites known in Baldwin and Mobile Counties date from the Late Archaic period, (1000 B.C.) through the Historic Period (post 1500). By 1979, 196 archaeological sites had been located in Baldwin County, while 36 sites had been recorded in Mobile County (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1981). It is estimated that there may be as many as 2,000 significant archaeological sites in Mobile and Baldwin Counties (Alabama Coastal Area Board 1978). Most of the prehistoric sites in Mobile and Baldwin Counties are shell mounds and middens, ceremonial and burial mounds, and villages representing Late Archaic, Woodland, and Mi ssissi ppian Periods of cultural development (1000 B.C.-A.D. 1500). The Late Archaic Period is characterized by the appearance of shell mounds and rings and the introduction of ceramics. The shell mounds indicate seasonal habitation of base camps, the population of which relied on the availability of shellfish. This pattern of subsistence was more sedentary than that suggested by the material culture of previous 65 periods. Hallmarks of the Woodland Period (1000 B.C.-A.D. 1000) include the persistence of seasonal hunting and gathering, indicated by the build-up of shell refuse mounds; widespread manufacture of plain and decorated ceramics (fiber-tempered pottery early in the period and later, sand-tempered); and evidence of systematic horticulture and burial-mound construction. The Mississippi an Period (A.D. 900-1500) continued and further developed the construction of burial mounds. Other features of this period include village sites, the construction of elaborate ceremonial mounds, and the practice of intensive agriculture. These traits indicate that the Missis- sippi an people had a fairly organized and sedentary society and no longer based their subsistence on the seasonal availability of food resources. Diagnostic artifacts of this period are shell -tempered ceramics; small tri- angular stone points, suggesting the use of the bow and arrow; and elaborate grave goods, which in conjunction with the mounds, indicate an advanced degree of religious ceremonialism (Walthall 1980). Sites along the coast include the shell mounds and burial sites at Bayou La Batre, Bayou Coden, Shell Bank Bayou, Dauphin Island, and the Fort Morgan Peninsula (Biloxi quadrangle). Other sites, many of which are located in the Mobil e-Tensaw River Delta (Atmore quadrangle), include the Bottle Creek Indian Mounds (Atmore quadrangle), D'Olive Creek Shell Middens (Bay Minette quadrangle), Grand Bay village sites (Bay Minette quadrangle), and Dead Lake shell mounds and middens (Mobile quadrangle) (Alabama Coastal Area Board 1978, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1981). Exact locations and descriptions of the Baldwin and Mobile County sites have been omitted to avoid the possibility of damage that might result from public knowledge of the data. Only a few areas of the coast have been adequately surveyed for the presence of archaeological sites. In general, however, the margins of Mobile Bay and Mississippi Sound, the distributary margins of the Mobil e-Tensaw River delta, and margins of most permanent streams are considered among the most archaeological ly sensitive areas in the Alabama coastal region (V. J. Knight, Jr., the University of Alabama, Moundville, 15 March 1983; pers. c omm . ) . Potential developers are urged to contact the following agencies for further information concerning archaeological sites and relevant protective legislation concerning them. The State Archaeological Site Files are on deposit at The Office of Archaeological Research The University of Alabama 1 Mound State Monument Moundville, Alabama 35474 (205) 348-7774. 66 The State Historic Preservation Officer is Mr. F. Lawrence Oaks State Historic Preservation Officer Alabama Hi storical Commission 725 Monroe Street Montgomery, Alabama 36104 (205) 832-6622. NAVIGATION CHANNELS The navigation channels in Mobile and Baldwin Counties (Table 16) include channels providing access to the Port of Mobile, to smaller ports, such as Bayou La Batre, Bon Secour, and Theodore, and the Intracoastal Waterway, which provides for lateral vessel movement along the coast. The following information was supplied by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District office (J. Baxter, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile, 7 December 1982; pers. comm.; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1980a). The Mobile Ship Channel requires maintenance dredging on the average every 1.5 years, at which time a total of about 3 million m3 (4 million yd3) of deposits are removed from the bay channel. In addition, 841 thousand m3 (1.1 million yd3) of this comes from the river portion of the channel. Siltation in the 10 to 12 m (32 to 40 ft) deep river and 12 m (40 ft) deep bay portion of the channel is about 0.3 m (1 ft) per year, whereas the 13 m (42 ft) deep bar channel outside of Mobile Bay accumulates 0.6 m (2 ft) per year. Shipping tonnage by deep-draft vessels into the Port of Mobile increased from 13.1 million metric tons (14.4 million short tons) in 1966 to 15.1 million metric tons (16.7 million short tons) in 1975. Barge traffic increased from 7.2 to 14.3 million metric tons (7.9 to 15.8 million short tons) over the same period. In Chickasaw Creek, upstream of the Mobile Ship Channel, the 8 m (25 ft) deep Chickasaw channel accumulates silt at at the rate of 0.3 m (1 ft) per year. Just south of McDuffie Island, the Arlington Channel is 8 m (27 ft) deep and fills at the rate of 0.5 m (1.5 ft) per year. The 2.4 m (8 ft) deep Fowl River channel accumulates silt at the rate of 0.6 m (2 ft) per year and was last dredged in 1980. The Bayou La Batre channel, 4 m (12 ft) deep, fills in at 0.5 m (1.5 ft) per year and was dredged in 1978 and 1982. DREDGE SPOIL DISPOSAL AREAS The dredging of new navigational channels in coastal Alabama, as well as the maintenance dredging of the numerous existing channels, generates tremendous volumes of spoil that must be disposed of in an environmentally acceptable manner. There were 206.6 km (128.4 mi) of navigational channels in the area, with a surface area of 1384 ha (3420 acres) in 1974 (Alabama Coastal Area Board 1979). The completion of the Theodore Ship Channel (Mobile quadrangle) has increased this amount by 28.3 km (17.6 mi) and 184 ha (456 acres) . 67 Table 16. Maintained navigable channels in coastal Alabama (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1980, 1983). Atlas quad Channel name Depth x width sheet Biloxi Aloe Bay Channel Biloxi Drury Pass Channel Biloxi Fort Gaines Jetty Channel Biloxi Bayou La Batre Channel Biloxi Bayou Coden Channel Mississippi Sound portion Bayou Coden portion Biloxi Bar Channel Biloxi Fowl River Channel Bay Minette Fly Creek Channel Mobile Bay portion inland portion Pensacola Perdido Pass Channel ft) Mobile Theodore Ship Channel (Mobile Bay portion) 40 x 400 Mobile Arlington Channel 27 x 150 Mobile Garrows Bend Channel 27 x 150 Mobile Mobile River Channel 40 x 500-700 Mobile Hoi lingers Island Channel (a) Mobile Dog River Channel Mobile Bay portion 8 x 150 inland portion 6 x 60-100 Mobile/Biloxi Mobile Bay Channel 40 x 400 7 x 100 4 x 40 7 x 150 12 x 100 8 x 100 8 x 60 42 x 600 8 x 100 6 x 80 6 x 60-100 Gulf of Mexico portion 12 x 150 Perdido Pass/Bay portion 9 x 100 Pensacola Bon Secour Channel 6-10 x 80 Gulf Intracoastal Waterway Biloxi Mississippi state line to Mobile Bay 12 x 150 Pensacola Mobile Bay to Florida state line 12 x 125 (a) No data available; non-Federal ly maintained. 68 Maintenance dredging of the Mobile Ship Channel (Mobile and Biloxi quad- rangles) between 1968 and 1973 produced 11,469,000 m3 net (15,000,000 yds3 net) of spoil (Alabama Coastal Area Board 1979). The average annual net volumes of dredged maintenance material produced from the Mobile Harbor system between 1967 and 1975 are shown in Table 17. Almost all of this dredged material is dumped in disposal areas designated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers approximately 548 m (600 yd) on either side of most of the channels in the area. Onshore dredge spoil disposal areas include sites at Theodore (Mobile quadrangle), Bayou La Batre (Biloxi quadrangle), and Blakely Island (Mobile quadrangle). On Blakely Island, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers covers mineral residue ponds with dredge spoil , which provides both needed area for spoil disposal and covering for potentially harmful chemical waste (J. Baxter, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile, 15 December 1982; pers. comm.). OFFSHORE OBSTRUCTIONS AND STRUCTURES The only major offshore structures in Mobile and Baldwin Counties are the Mobile Bay Light, the Sand Island Light and three petroleum platforms associated with the Lower Mobile Bay Field (Biloxi quadrangle). The Middle Bay Light was constructed in 1884 and is located, as the name implies, in the middle of Mobile Bay on the navigation channel. This structure is discussed further in the atlas section dealing with the National Register of Historic Places. The Sand Island Lighthouse is located near Sand Island about 5 km (3 mi) south of the mouth of Mobile Bay. It dates to 1873 and was abandoned in 1971. Like the Middle Bay Light, it is on the National Register of Historic Places and is discussed further in that section. Table 17. Average annual volume of maintenance bottom materials dredged from the Mobile Harbor system, 1967-75 (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1980). Amount 3 Channel (yd /yr) Mobile River (including Chickasaw Creek) 1,054,000 Mobile Bay 3,743,000 Mobile Bar Channel 264,000 Total 5,061,000 69 Mobil Oil discovered gas in a deep well at the mouth of Mobile Bay in late 1979. This well produced enough to encourage further drilling and, as a result, there are now three platforms near the mouth of Mobile Bay in what has been designated the Lower Mobile Bay Field (R. G. Hellmich, Alabama State Oil and Gas Board, University, September 1982; pers. comm.). The number of offshore petroleum platforms will soon increase as an additional 13 tracts have been leased by the State for petroleum exploration (Hagopian 1981). Underwater obstructions and shipwrecks are plotted on both the U.S. Geolo- gical Survey 7.5 min quadrangle maps and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) navigational charts of the area. Although the composition of obstructions are usually not identified on NOAA charts, some are submerged snags, pilings, or privately established fish havens. Shrimpers who regularly work in an area generally maintain an exhaustive list of snag locations. A single shrimpboat may net a 61 m (200 ft) wide swath of bottom at one time, and the chance of a snag fouling a shrimper's net is quite high. Because a single snag may result in the loss of thousands of dollars worth of fishing gear, shrimpers pay close attention to their location and exchange information on snag locations with other shrimpers. Although these snags are, in size and number, beyond the mapping scale of this study, the shrimping community is a valuable source for anyone seeking detailed information on the sea floor. Many shipwreck locations are generally well known and new sites are reported to the U.S. Coast Guard by boaters. Excluding shipwrecks in rivers, there are approximately 25 known shipwrecks in the study area, of which about 5 are in shallow enough water to be partially exposed. The most famous shipwreck in Alabama waters is the Civil War ironclad vessel U.S.S. Tecumseh. The wreck is in fairly good condition under about 9 m (30 ft) of water just north of Fort Morgan. The U.S.S. Tecumseh is listed in the National Register of Historic Places and is discussed further in that section. 70 REFERENCES Land Cover and Use Cowardin, L. M., V. Carter, F. C. Golet and E. T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-79/31. Friend, J. H., M. Lyon, ,N. Garrett, , J. L. Borom, J. Ferguson, and G. C. Lloyd, 1981. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization. Vol.3: A socioeconomic study. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/41. 367 pp. National Wildlife Refuges Alabama Historical Commission. 1978. Unpubl . Site file. (Alabama Historical Commission, Montgomery.) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge: a proposal. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 4, Atlanta.) State Parks Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. n.d. Alabama State parks. (Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Montgomery. ) Jacocks, C. W. 1977. Histories of southeastern state park systems. Associa- tion of Southeastern State Park Directors. State Wildlife Management Areas Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. 1981. Frank W.and Rob M. Boykin Wildlife Management Area. (Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Montgomery.) Wild and Scenic Rivers U.S. National Park Service. 1983. Final wild and scenic river study, Escatawpa River, Ala. (National Park Service, Atlanta.) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1981. Environmental data inventory: State of Alabama. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, Mobile.) 323 pp. 71 National Natural Landmarks Boschung, H., ed. 1976. Endangered and threatened plants and animals of Alabama. Bulletin of the Alabama Museum of Natural History No. 2. 93 pp. U.S. National Park Service, 1974. National landmark brief: Mobile-Tensaw River bottomlands. (U.S. National Park Service, Washington, DC.) 3 pp. National Audubon Society Sanctuary Friend, J. H., M. Lyon, N. Garrett, J. L. Borom, J. Ferguson, and G. C. Lloyd. 1981. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization: Vol. 3: A socioeconomic study. U. S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/41. 367 pp. Intensively Used Recreational Beaches Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. 1981. (unpubl.) Data on attendance at Gulf State Park, Baldwin County. (Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Parks Division, Montgomery. ) Alabama Highway Department. 1965. Department, Montgomery.) Alabama Highway Department. 1970. Department, Montgomery.) Alabama Highway Department. 1977. Department, Montgomery.) Alabama Highway Department. 1978. Department, Montgomery.) Alabama Highway Department. 1979. Department, Montgomery.) Gulf Research Associates, Inc. 1981. (Unpubl.) Data on tourism in Mobile and Baldwin Counties. Gulf Research Associates, Inc., Mobile. South Alabama Regional Planning Commission and J. H. Friend, Inc. 1971. Tourism in the south Alabama region. (South Alabama Regional Planning Commission, Mobile.) 64 pp. Friend, J. H., M. Lyon, N. Garrett, J. L. Borom, J. Ferguson, and G. C. Lloyd. 1981. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization: Vol. 3: A socioeconomic study. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/41. 367 pp. Traffic flow map, Traffic flow map, Traffic flow map, Traffic flow map Traffic flow map, (Alabama Highway (Alabama Highway (Alabama Highway (Alabama Highway (Alabama Highway 72 Charter Boat and Head Boat Service Alabama Sea Grant Advisory Service. 1978. Alabama charter boat directory of 19 78. Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Consortium, MASGC-78-002, Ocean Springs, MS. Chermock, R. L. 1974. The environment of offshore and estuarine Alabama. Geological Survey of Alabama Information Series 51. University, AL. 135 pp. Swingle, W. E. 1970. Report on the potential value to the State of Alabama of the proposal to utilize liberty ships as offshore reefs. (Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Seafood Division, Dauphin Island.) 3 pp. Friend, J. H., M. Lyon, N. Garrett, J. L. Borom, J. Ferguson, and G. C. Lloyd 1981. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization: Vol.3: A socioeconomic study. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv . Program FWS/OBS-81/41. 367 pp. Wade, C. W. 1977. Survey of the Alabama marine recreational fishery. Ala. Mar. Res. Bull. 12:1-22. Permitted Artificial Fishing Reefs Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. 1981. (Unpubl.) list of Alabama's artificial fishing reefs. (Marine Resources Division, Dauphin Island Laboratory, Dauphin Island.) Public Fishing Piers, Public Access Areas, and Marinas Friend, J. H., M. Lyon, N. Garrett, J. L. Borom, J. Ferguson, and G. C. Lloyd. 1981. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization: Vol. 3: A socioeconomic study. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/41. 367 pp. Barrier Islands and Spits Boone, P. A. 1973. Depositional systems of the Alabama, Mississippi, and western Florida coastal zone. Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol . Soc. 23:266-277. Curray, J. R. and D. G. Moore. 1963. Facies delineation by acoustic reflection: northern Gulf of Mexico. Sedimentology 2(2) : 130-148. Kwon, H. J. 1969. Barrier islands of the northern Gulf of Mexico: sediment source and development. La. State Univ. Coastal Stud. Ser. 25. 51 pp. May, E. G. 1971. A survey of the oyster and oyster shell resources of Alabama. Ala. Mar. Res. Bull. 4:1-53. 73 May, E. B. 1976. Holocene sediments of Mobile Bay, Alabama. Ala. Mar. Res. Bull. 11:1-25. May, E. B. and R. R. McLain. 1970. Advantages of electronic positioning and profiling in surveying buried oyster shell deposits. Proc. Nat. Shellfish. Assoc. 60:72-74. O'Neil, P. E. and M. F. Mettee. 1982. Alabama coastal regional ecological characterization. Vol. 2. A synthesis of environmental data. U. S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program, FWS/OBS-81/42. 346. pp. Otvos, E. G., Jr. 1970a. Development and migration of barrier islands, northern Gulf of Mexico. Geol . Soc. Am. Bull. 81(1 ) :241-246. Otvos, E. G., Jr. 1970b. Development and migration of barrier islands, northern Gulf of Mexico; reply. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 81(1 ) :3783-3788. Otvos, E. G., Jr. 1973. Geology of the Mississippi -Alabama coastal area and near-shore zone. New Orleans Geological Society, New Orleans. 67 pp. Rehkemper, L. J. 1969. Sedimentology of Holocene estuarine deposits, Galveston Bay. Pages 12-52 j_n Holocene geology of the Galveston Bay area. Houston Geological Society, Houston. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1971. National shoreline study, regional inventory report. South Atlantic, Gulf Region, Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.) 64 pp. Point Source Discharges Alabama Coastal Area Board. 1979. Alabama coastal area management program (hearing draft). (Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne, Ala.) 411 pp. Brady, D. W. 1979. Water resource management through control of point and non-point pollution sources in Mobile Bay. Pages 31-73 j_n H . A. Loyacano, Jr., and J. P. Smith, eds. Symposium on the Natural Resources of the Mobile Estuary, Alabama. (Alabama Coastal Area Board; Mississippi -Alabama Sea Grant Consortium; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.) South Alabama Regional Planning Commission. 1979. Water quality management plan: Mobile and Baldwin Counties, Alabama. (South Alabama Regional Planning Commission, Mobile.) Friend, J. H., M. Lyon, N. Garrett, J. L. Borom, J. Ferguson, and G. C. Lloyd 1981. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization. Vol. 3: A socioeconomic study. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/41. 367 pp. 74 Solid Waste Landfills and Onshore Disposal Sites Alabama Coastal Area Board. 1979. Alabama coastal area management program (hearing draft). Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne. 411 pp. South Alabama Regional Planning Commission. 1979. Water quality management plan: Mobile and Baldwin Counties, Alabama. (South Alabama Regional Planning Commission, Mobile.) National Register of Historic Places Alabama Historical Commission. 1978a. The National Register in Alabama. Alabama Historical Commission, Montgomery. 16 pp. Alabama Historical Commission. 1978b. Alabama's tapestry of historic places. Alabama Historical Commission, Montgomery. 201 pp. Archaeological Sites U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1981. Environmental data inventory: State of Alabama. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, Mobile. 323 pp. Friend, J. H., M. Lyon, N. Garrett, J. L. Borom, J. Ferguson, and G. C. Lloyd 1981. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization: Vol. 3: A socioeconomic study. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/41. 367 pp. Walthall, J. H. 1980. Prehistoric Indians of the Southeast: archaeology of Alabama and the Middle South. University of Alabama Press, University. Navigation Channel s U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1980. Dauphin Island Bay, Dog and Fowl Rivers, and Mobile Harbor maps. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, Mobile .) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1983. Mississippi Sound and adjacent areas. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, Mobile.) 275 pp. Dredge Spoil Disposal Areas Alabama Coastal Area Board. 1979. Alabama coastal area management program (hearing draft). (Alabama Coastal -Area Board, Daphne.) 411 pp. Chapman, C. 1968. Channelization and spoiling in Gulf coast and south Atlantic estuaries. In J. D. Newson, ed. Marsh and estuary management symposium proceedings. Louisiana State University, Division of Continuing Education, Baton Rouge. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1975. Final environmental statement Mobile harbor (maintenance dredging). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, Mobile. 75 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1980. Survey report on Mobile Harbor, Alabama, Vol. 1 and 2. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, Mobile. Offshore Obstructions and Structures Hagopian, J. 1981. Gas and oil leases on submerged State lands provide lucrative bonuses for Alabama. Ala. Conserv. May-June 1981:4-6. 76 SOURCES OF MAPPED INFORMATION Land Cover and Use National Aeronautics and Space Administration. November, 1, 1979. False- color infrared aerial photography. Scale 1:62,500. Federal and State Lands Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, n.d. Alabama State Parks. Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Parks Division, Montgomery. This is a color brochure showing the geographic location of all Alabama State Parks and containing a matrix that cross-indexes individual parks with facilities and activities. Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. 1981. Frank W. and Rob M. Boykin Wildlife Management Area. (Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Game and Fish Division, Montgomery.) A detailed map of the wildlife management area, with the hunting regula- tions printed on the reverse side. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge: a proposal. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 4, Atlanta, GA. This consists of narrative text printed on the reverse side of a colored map folded as a brochure. U.S. National Park Service, 1974 (Unpubl.) National landmark brief: Mobile-Tensaw River bottomlands. U.S. Nat. Park Serv., Washington, DC. 3 pp. Two pages of text describing the Mobile Delta, its unique biological resources, and possible threats to its integrity. Contains a small-scale (1 inch = 4 mi) map with a rough outline of the landmark. National Audubon Society Sanctuaries Mobile Chamber of Commerce. 1963. Dauphin Island, Alabama (map). (Mobile Chamber of Commerce, Mobile, AL.) A detailed, large-scale (1 inch = about 0.25 mi) map of the island. 77 Intensively Used Recreation Beaches D. W. Brady, South Alabama Regional Planning Commission, Mobile, AL , January 1982, pers. comm. Public Fishing Piers Office of the City of Daphne, October 1982, pers. comm. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. November, 1 1979. Falsecolor infrared aerial photography. Scale 1:62,500. U.S. Geological Survey. 7.5-minute-quadrangle-maps . (U.S. Geol . Surv., Res ton, VA.) Detailed, colored 1:24,000 scale maps containing many man-made features (although many of the maps are out-of-date and do not show recent construction) . Charter Boat and Head Boat Service L. Schmied, 3 June 1981 Letter, National Marine Fisheries Service, St. Petersburg, Fl_ to Villere C. Reggio, Jr., Bur. Land Manage., New Orleans, LA. Public Access Areas (boat ramps) Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. 1981. Public access areas. Ala. Dept. Cons. Nat. Res., Game and Fish Div., Montgomery. A small-scale (1 in = 8 mi ) State map with the public access areas listed by name along with their location. Marinas Chermock, R. L. 1974. The environment of offshore and estuarine Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Info. Ser. 51. 135 pp. A general description of the geography, hydrology, climate, flora and fauna, recreation, and seafood industry of coastal Alabama. Numerous maps and illustrations, including information on navigation, sport fishing facilities, and water pollution. Barrier Islands and Spits 0'Neil, P. E., and M. F. Mettee. 1982. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization. Vol. 2. A synthesis of environmental data. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/42. 346 pp. Contains detailed analysis of the hydrology, geology, climate, flora and fauna of coastal Alabama. Also a detailed description of the area, with maps and conceptual models. 78 Point Source Discharges Alabama Coastal Area Board. 1979. The Alabama coastal area management program (hearing draft). (Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne, AL.) Contains broad information and description of the area, including archaeological sites, pollution sources, geology, water quality, recreation areas, etc. Numerous maps of commercial activities and natural resources. South Alabama Regional Planning Commission. 1979. Water quality management plan, Mobile and Baldwin Counties, Alabama. South Alabama Regional Planning Commission, Mobile, AL . Large document prepared as partial requirement of Public Law 92-500, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, Section 208. Contains water quality assessments, standards, needs, and projections. Basic water planning document for coastal counties of Alabama. Friend, J. H., M. Lyon, N. Garrett, J. L. Borom, J. Ferguson, and G. C. Lloyd, 1981. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization: Vol. 3: A socioeconomic study. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/41. 367 pp. Contains socioeconomic analysis of coastal Alabama, with information on recreational and commercial fishing. Brief description of major biomes i n area . Solid Waste Landfil Is Alabama Coastal Area Board. 1979. The Alabama coastal area management program (hearing draft). Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne, AL. Contains broad information and description of the area, including archaeological sites, pollution sources, geology, water quality, recreation areas, etc. Numerous maps of commercial activities and natural resources. South Alabama Regional Planning Commission. 1977. Environmental baseline study for Mobile 208 wastewater management plan. South Alabama Regional Planning Commission, Mobile, AL. Onshore Disposal Sites U.S. Geological Survey. 7.5-minute-quadrangle maps. (U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA.) Detailed, colored 1:24,000 scale maps containing many man-made features (many of the maps are out-of-date and do not show recent construction). National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 1 November 1979. False-color infrared aerial photography. Scale 1:62,500. 79 Man-Made Land Baxter J., 15 December 1982, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile, AL., pers. comm. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1980. Dauphin Island Bay, Dog and Fowl Rivers, and Mobile Harbor maps. U.S. Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, Mobile, AL. A group of colored maps of varying scale, punched to fit in a looseleaf binder. Maps show location and dimension of channels and mileages, and location of Theodore Disposal Island. Accompanying pages give textual account of the condition, progress, and costs of each project. National Register of Historic Places Alabama Historical Commission. 1978b. The National Register in Alabama. Alabama Historical Commission, Montgomery, AL. 16 pp. An illustrated listing by county of all the National Register sites in Alabama. Includes location and the significant features of each site, as well as the date the site was named to the register. Alabama Historical Commission. 1978c. Alabama's tapestry of historic places. Alabama Historical Commission, Montgomery, AL. 201 pp. A listing of all the historic sites in Alabama, including National Register sites, National Historic Landmarks, sites from the National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings, and sites of local interest. Includes location and significant features of each site. Archaeological Sites Alabama Historical Commission. 1978a. (unpubl.) Site file. Alabama Historical Commission, Montgomery, AL. An unpublished computer printout of all known archaeological sites in each county. Gives location of site to the nearest quarter of a quarter section, status, current land use, surface area of site, and culture represented by each site. Navigation Channels, Dredge Disposal Areas, and Shipwrecks National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1979. Navigational map 11376 (Mobile Bay). National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Survey, Washington, DC. Contains locations of shipwrecks, navigation channels, major offshore structures, etc. 80 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1980. Navigational map 11373 (Mississippi Sound and approaches). (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Survey, Washington, DC.) Contains locations of shipwrecks, navigation channels, major offshore structures, etc. U.S. Geological Survey. 7.5-minute-quadrangle maps. (U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA.) Detailed, colored 1:24,000 scale maps containing many man-made features (many of the maps are out-of-date and do not show recent construction). Offshore Obstructions and Structures National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1979. Navigational map 11376 (Mobile Bay). (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Survey, Washington, DC.) Contains locations of shipwrecks, navigable channels, major offshore structures, etc. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1980. Navigational map 11373 (Mississippi Sound and approaches). (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Survey, Washington, DC.) Contains locations of shipwrecks, navigable channels, major offshore structures, etc. Hellmich, R. G., Alabama State Oil and Gas Board, University, AL, September 1982; pers. comm. 81 SOILS AND LANDFORMS INTRODUCTION This atlas topic deals with the natural phenomena of soils, landforms, and related subjects, which includes regional surface landforms, soils, beach erosion and accretion areas, faults, high-energy beaches, and active dunes. This narrative supplements the atlas maps by explaining not only how and where environmental conditions currently exist but also how they have appeared or evolved in the past. The information is relevant to decision- makers charged with duties ranging from preservation and conservation to responsible, economically feasible land and resource development. REGIONAL SOILS AND LANDFORMS The most detailed soil classification is the soil phase. A soil phase is a subdivision of a soil series based on differences that affect management of that subdivision. A soil series may be divided into phases on the basis of differences in slope, thickness (depth), stoniness, or any other characteris- tic that affects its usage. An example of a soil phase would be "Troup loamy sand, 5% to 8% slopes." Groups of soils derived from similar parent material and similar in vertical profile characteristics and arrangement are called soil series. Soils within a series may have some variation in the texture of the surface horizon (layer), but are similar to one another in color, structure, reaction, chemical composition, and overall consistency. A group of soil series that is found in the same geographical area and generally occurs in a characteristic pattern is called a soil association. For example, the Izagora-Bethera-Suf fol k soil association (map unit 13) is where Izagora soils are found on higher, flatter areas; Bethera soils are found in the depressions and drainage ways, and Suffolk soils are found on the slopes connecting the two. These associations are usually defined and delineated as a single map unit, and are the basic units dealt with in this atlas. Although most of the areas in an association are composed of major soil series, there are a number of other soil series within the association which are less common; these are called minor soils. The soil association maps available in the soil surveys of Mobile (Hickman and Owens 1980) and Baldwin (McBride and Burgess 1964) Counties are at 1:316,800 scale, (1 cm = 3.2 km, 1 inch = 5 mi). This information was transferred to the 1:100,000 (1 cm = 1 km, 1 inch = 1.6 mi) scale 82 atlas maps. Although the information appears to be fairly accurate and detailed at the 1:100,000 scale, it is still generalized, and the 1:20,000 scale maps within the soil survey should be consulted for detailed informa- tion. The soil surveys of Mobile and Baldwin Counties were classified 18 years apart (field work done in 1978 and 1960, respectively) by different soil scientists using different classification schemes. While this is not an unusual situation, the result is that the soil association methodologies used in the two counties are almost mutually exclusive. The soil names used in the 1960 Baldwin County survey have been translated into more modern nomencla- ture for inclusion in this atlas (G. L. Hickman, Soil Conservation Service, Grove Hill, 10 May 1982; pers. comm.). Baldwin is the largest county in Alabama, with a surface area of 4,178 km2 (1,613 mi2, 1,032,320 acres, 418,090 ha), while Mobile County covers 3,212 km2 (1,240 mi2, 793,472 acres, 321,356 ha). Elevations range from sea level to about 104 m (340 ft) in Mobile County and about 91 m (300 ft) in Baldwin County. Both counties lie within the Lower Coastal Plain of the Gulf Coastal Plain physiographic province. Offshore, the coastal waters belong to the Mississippi -Alabama Shelf Section of the Continental Shelf physiographic province. The Lower Coastal Plain province is subdivided within the study area into the Southern Pine Hills and the Coastal Lowlands. The lowlands include both the alluvial and deltaic plains. The Coastal Lowland zone is a flat to gently undulating plain along the Alabama coast which is continuous with the alluvial and deltaic plains of the Mobile River delta. The lowlands range in width from 16 km (10 mi) in the Mobile Delta to only 60 m (200 ft) along the eastern edge of Mobile Bay, and are generally 3 to 8 km (2 to 5 mi) in width along the Gulf of Mexico. The transition from Coastal Lowlands to Southern Pine Hills may be quite gradual, or fairly abrupt, in the form of bluffs (Alabama Coastal Area Board 1978). Bordering the Mobile Delta, the alluvial and deltaic plains and adjacent terraces are mainly silt and clay sediments relocated from upstream in Recent or Pleistocene times. Elevation here ranges from nearly sea level to only about 7 m (20 ft), making the area vulnerable to frequent flooding and saltwater intrusion, particularly during extreme tides or storms. Predominant soil associations of the alluvial- deltaic plain include Axis-Lafitte (6), Dorovan-Levy-Iuka-Urbo (1), Dorovan- Johnston-Levy (12), Annemaine-Wahee-Leaf (2), and Izagora-Bethera-Suffol k (13). The Axis-Lafitte association (6) is level, very poorly drained marshland. The Axis soils are loamy mineral soils of tidal flats. They are gray to brown mucky sandy clay loam overlying gray sandy loam with mottles or streaks of yellow or brown. The land is covered with dense stands of marsh cane, marsh grass, and rushes. Lafitte soils comprise mostly black to brown mucky organic material and are found at the mouths of streams and rivers. These areas are mostly wetland wildlife habitat and undeveloped. The Dorovan-Levy-Iuka-Urbo association (1) of Baldwin County and the Dorovan-Johnston-Levy association (12) of Mobile County are the soils of the 83 broad flood plains of the Mobile/Al abama/Tensaw Rivers (Mobile quadrangle) and the Grand Bay Swamp (Biloxi quadrangle). The land here is level, frequently flooded, swampy bottomland with meandering streams and sloughs and a very high water table. These areas are mainly used as wetland wildlife habitat and woodlands. The organic Dorovan soils are found in the wetter, lower areas of the flood plain and comprise grayish-brown to black mucky peat overlying mottled dark- grayish-brown to mottled gray subsoil. Levy soils are dark-gray silty loam overlying dark-gray silty clay subsoils on higher ground than Dorovan soils and are adjacent to natural levees along streams. The Iuka soils are dark-brown fine sandy loam overlying dark yellowish-brown fine sandy loam subsoils with mottles of grayish-brown and interpersed with loamy sand and loam. The Johnston soils are also found at higher elevations than the Dorovan soils, in flat areas adjacent to uplands. Their surface is thick black mucky loam overlying gray loamy fine sand and fine sandy loam layers. The Urbo soils have a dark grayish-brown silty clay loam topsoil underlain by grayish-brown silty clay subsoil. They are found in level to gently sloping flood plains draining coastal plains and prairie areas. The Annemaine-Wahee-Leaf association (2) is found on the terraces bordering the Mobile/Al abama/Tensaw Delta in Baldwin County, whereas the terraces along the delta (and along the Escatawpa River) in Mobile County are of Izagora-Bethera-Suffolk association (13) soils. These areas are fairly wet woodlands, with little agriculture, and are sparsely populated. The lower lying areas of the Annemaine-Wahee-Leaf association are comprised of Leaf soils, which have dark grayish-brown silt loam over a subsoil of mottled gray silty clay. The Annemaine soils are moderately well-drained, deep soils with a brown fine sandy loam surface layer, a subsoil of yellowish-red clay, and a mottled loamy substratum. The Wahee soils are not as well drained as the Annemaine, and they differ in having a surface layer of dark grayish-brown sandy loam overlying a mottled yellowish-gray sandy clay or sandy clay loam subsoil . The Izagora-Bethera-Suffolk association (13) soils were formed in loamy and clayey marine and alluvial sediments on terraces. Izagora and Suffolk soils have loamy subsoils, whereas Bethera soils overlie clayey subsoils. Izagora series soils have a dark brown fine sandy loam surface while Suffolk series soils have dark brown loamy sand surface. Bethera series soils have dark gray loam surface layers, and are located in depressions and drainage ways. The more sloping areas adjacent to natural drainage ways contain Suffolk soils, and above them are the Izagora soils on the gently sloping side slopes and broad flat areas. These areas are mostly woodland, although there is some agricultural potential. As this area is wet and flood prone, it is poor for urban uses. The major component of the Coastal Lowlands, exclusive of the alluvial and deltaic plains, is the coastal beach area. This area is composed of white and yellow sand deposits of Recent age, with elevations ranging from sea level to around 7 m (20 ft). In Baldwin County, the coastal beach areas are usually associated with the Fripp-Leon soil association (9). The Coastal Lowlands in Mobile County include the Bayou-Escambia-Harleston association (15) along the coastal terraces in the southern portion of the county, and the Urban Land-Smithton-Bennedale association (16) in the city of Mobile. 84 The previously discussed Axis-Lafitte (6) and Dorovan-Johnston-Levy associa- tions (12) are also found along the coast of southern Mobile^County and just inland in the Grand Bay Swamp, respectively. The Fripp-Leon association (9) soils are deep soils along the coast and include beach soils, sand dunes, and low, wet areas between dunes. Fripp soils are deep, excessively drained sands. Leon soils are also composed of sand, but are poorly drained and have a subsurface layer cemented together with organic material. These soils have limited agricultural value and are used mainly for recreation. The Bayou-Escambia-Harleston association (15) soils have loamy surface layers and subsoils and are formed in marine and fluvial sediments on uplands and terraces. Bayou soils occupy large flat areas that have poorly defined drainage ways. Escambia and Harleston soils occupy slightly higher elevations on gently undulating ridges. Bayou soils have a dark-gray sandy loam surface with light-gray sandy loam or sandy clay loam subsoil. Escambia and Harleston soils both have dark gray to olive fine sandy loam or loam surface layers underlain by yellow, brown, gray, and red loam subsoils. These areas are fair for woodland use. Although some of the area is used for urban development it is poorly suited for it due to excessive wetness. The Urban Land-Smithton-Benndale association (16) soils occupy the area around the city of Mobile. These are level to gently rolling urban areas interspersed with natural soils having loamy subsoils formed in loamy marine and fluvial sediments on uplands. Urban land has such disturbed soil profiles due to the construction of buildings, roads, and other structures that identification of soils is usually impossible. Smithton soils are poorly drained loamy soils on broad flat areas and along streams; these soils have grayish-brown and brownish-gray fine sandy loam surface overlying brownish-gray fine sandy loam subsoils. Benndale soils are on ridgetops and upper side slopes and are well drained. Benndale soils have dark grayish- brown fine sandy loam topsoil underlain by yellowish-brown or brownish-yellow loam or fine sandy loam subsoils. These areas are mostly urbanized or committed to future urban use, and potential for other uses is poor. The Southern Pine Hills is a southward sloping plain, moderately dissected by streams, with subdued topography in the study area, although there are sharp bluffs along the northeast shore of Mobile Bay. Along the seaward margin, the escarpment lies parallel to the gulf and Mississippi Sound from which it turns northward and extends inland, forming subparallel facing escarpments that follow the streams (Alabama Coastal Area Board 1978). The Southern Pine Hills subdivision of the Lower Coastal Plain within Baldwin County is underlain by four basic types of shallow subsurface deposits: marine terraces, and the Citronelle, Mobile Clay, and Ecor Rouge Formations (Isphording 1977). Along the coast, in a strip about 24 km (15 mi) wide, are the marine terraces of sand and clay deposited during Pleistocene times. They meet the Recent coastal sand deposits to the south at elevations of 3 to 7 m (10 to 20 ft), and overlie the older Citronelle formation. 85 At elevations of about 30 m (100 ft), the Citronelle formation of Plio- Pleistocene age emerges. Predominantly sand, it contains thin layers of red clay which may be mottled gray and purple, red, or yellow, depending upon degree of weathering. The Citronelle formation underlies the plateaus and ridges of north and central Baldwin County, and ranges in elevation from about 30 to 90 m (100 to 300 ft). The older Ecor Rouge Sand and Mobile Clay, of Miocene age, and older strata support the Citronelle Formation. Varying in thickness from a thin veneer to 60 m (200 ft), the Citronelle Formation is eroded by stream action in many areas to expose the Mobile Clay. As a result of this erosion, the greatest relief in Baldwin County is in areas of Mobile Clay. The clay is white, pink, or purple and contains some sand. Elevation of exposed units of Mobile Clay vary widely from 15 to 90 m (50 to 300 ft). Areas underlain by the Citronelle Formation and Ecor Rouge Sand in Baldwin County are fairly well associated with soils of the Malbis-Bama-Lucedale (4) and Cowarts-Notcher-Esto (5) associations. The Malbis-Bama-Lucedale association (4) soils are deep, well-drained loamy soils over wide areas of heavily farmed agricultural uplands. About 75% of this association is currently used as cropland; the rest as pastures and woodland. Mai bis soils have dark-gray to brown fine sandy loam surface layers with yellowish-brown sandy clay loam subsoils. Bama soils have dark yellowish-brown fine sandy loam topsoil overlying a yellowish-red sandy clay loam subsoil. Lucedale soils have a dark brown to dark reddish-brown loam surface layer and dark-red sandy clay loam subsoil. The Cowarts-Notcher-Esto association (5) soils are in upland areas of moderate slope. They are well drained, but not quite as deep as those of the Malbis-Bama-Lucedale association. Although this association has high agricul- tural potential, most of the land is forested. Cowarts soils have a surface layer of grayi sh- brown to very dark gray fine sandy loam with a yellowish- brown sandy clay loam subsoil. Uotcher soils have a dark grayish-brown fine sandy loam surface layer overlying a yellowish-brown clay loam subsoil con- taining iron concretions (concretions are grains or nodules of cemented substances, usually yel lowi sh- brown and gray clay loam and calcium carbonate or iron oxide). Soils of the Esto series have a dark grayish-brown fine sandy loam surface layer with sandy clay subsoil. There is a strong correlation between the Cowarts-Troup-Esto (3) and Troup-Pl ummer (7) soil associations and areas where streams have eroded through the Citronelle Formation and Ecor Rouge Sands to expose Mobile Clay. The Cowarts-Troup-Esto association is found on the slopes draining into the Mobile Delta, and the Troup-Pl ummer association is found around several other major streams, particularly tributaries of the Perdido River (Pensacola quad- rangle) . Troup soils have a yel lowi sh- brown to dark grayish-brown loamy fine sand overlying a brownish-yellow to red sandy clay loam subsoil. PI ummer soils are poorly drained, with little slope, and have a gray sand topsoil overlying a light gray sandy loam subsoil. Cowarts and Esto soils have been discussed 86 previously. The agricultural potential of the Troup-Pl ummer association (7) is not great, and most of the area is pine and hardwood woodlands. The Cowarts-Troup-Esto association (3) soils are better suited to woodlands than agriculture. In Baldwin County, near the coast, there is poor correlation between soil associations and the area underlain by the Pleistocene marine terraces. Although the area is in great part Poarch-Pactol us (8), large portions are also Troup-Pl ummer (7) and Mai bi s-Bama-Lucedale (4) association soils. The Poarch-Pactol us association (8) soils are deep, well to somewhat poorly drained, level to very gently sloping soils of uplands. Poarch soils are dark gray i sh- brown fine sandy loam underlain by olive-yellow to yellowish- brown, mottled loam subsoil. The Pactolus soils have a surface layer of dark grayish-brown loamy sand with a mottled, light yellowi sh- brown and gray loamy sand substratum (McBride and Burgess 1964). In Mobile County, there is not as much correlation between soil associa- tions and shallow subsurface geology, at least in the upland Southern Pine Hills. Although the Shubuta-Troup-Benndale association (17) is closely correlated with Miocene deposits and the Troup soil series is in almost all the upland areas underlain by the Citronelle (PI io-Pleistocene) and Miocene deposits, very little additional correlation is noted. The Troup-Benndale- Smithton association (11) is predominant in northern Mobile County, while the Troup-Heidel-Bama association (10) is dominant in southern Mobile County. Notcher-Saucier-Mal bis association (14) soils are also found in southern Mobile County, where plinthite is found in the loamy subsoils. Plinthite is a hardened layer in the soil composed of clay and quartz which may form an impervious hardpan layer. The Notcher-Saucier-Mal bi s association (14) soils are moderately well drained soils formed in loamy and clayey marine sediments on uplands. Saucier soils are found in flat areas at lower elevations than the Notcher and Mai bis soils. The Notcher and Mai bis soils are found on broad flat ridgetops. Notcher soils are also found on side slopes and at the heads of drainage ways. All have sandy loam surface layers and the plinthite- containing loamy subsoils. Saucier soils have a dark grayish-brown fine sandy loam surface underlain by yellowish-brown fine sandy loam and loam. Notcher and Malbis soils have been previously discussed. Most of this soil association is used either as cropland or pasture. The slow absorption of water by these soils due to the plinthite layer is their main limitation for residential and urban use. Troup-Heidel-Bama association (10) soils are found on broad, level, slightly convex ridgetops and slightly steeper slopes next to drainage ways. Heidel and Bama soils are found on the higher flatter areas and have sandy loam surfaces. Troup soils are found on the slightly steeper slopes and have a loamy sand surface. Heidel soils have a dark-brown sandy loam topsoil over- lying a yellowish-red to red fine sandy loam subsoil. Bama and Troup soils have already been discussed. All the soils are well drained, have loamy subsoils, and were formed in loamy marine sediments on uplands. Most of this area is cropland and pasture and the potential for urban and woodland uses is good although erosion and the low water capacity of Troup soils is a limita- tion . 87 The Troup-Benndale-Smithton soil association (11) is common in the northern parts of Mobile County, which is the portion of greatest relief. Troup soils are found in the areas of greatest slope, Benndale soils in broader areas and gentler side slopes, and Smithton soils in the lower, more poorly drained areas. Benndale and Smithton soils have loamy surface layers, while the Troup soils are thick sandy soils. All three are underlain by loamy subsoils and were formed in loamy marine and fluvial sediments on uplands. Smithton and Benndale and Troup soils have already been discussed. Areas in this association are best utilized as woodland and wildlife habitat, as the slope and wetness limit urban and cropland uses. The Shubuta-Troup-Benndale association soils are found on rolling, undulating ridge tops and side slopes, as well as the lower areas along several streams in northern Mobile County. They are well drained soils with clayey and loamy subsoils and were formed in clayey and loamy marine sediments on uplands. Troup soils are on lower side slopes and have surfaces of thick loamy sand. Shubuta and Benndale soils are on upper side slopes and ridgetops and have loamy surface layers. Shubuta soils have a dark-brown fine sandy loam surface layer, and a yellowish-red to red clay or clay loam subsoil. Benndale and Troup soils have been described already. These areas are used mostly for woodland because of the short, choppy nature of the slopes and the low water capacity of the Troup soils limiting cropland use (Hickman and Owens 1980). The percentage of area each soil series occupies within a county and the percentage of area each soil series occupies within each association are presented in Table 18. The Soil Conservation Service's description of the potential uses of the various soil associations in Mobile County is given in Table 19. Limitations that each association may have for a particular use are also listed. Culti- vated crops are those crops extensively grown in the area (e.g., corn, pota- toes, soybeans), whereas specialty crops are those that require intensive management (e.g., watermelons, grapes, pecans, green beans). Woodland may refer to either introduced trees (e.g., pecans, other fruit trees, and orna- mentals) or those that occur naturally in the area (e.g., longleaf, slash, and loblolly pines, water oaks). Urban includes any residential, commercial, or industrial development. Intensive recreation areas are subject to heavy foot traffic in a concentrated area, such as campsites, ball fields, or picnic areas. Extensive recreation areas are subject to lighter foot traffic over a wider area, such as hiking, nature study, or wilderness. EROSION AND ACCRETION The processes that influence the erosion and accretion of Alabama's shoreline are complex and include both natural and human actions. Man has changed the shoreline through dredging and disposal activities, while the natural processes of wind, wave action, tides, currents, severe weather dis- turbances, sediment budget variations, and sea level changes act daily upon those same shores. 88 Table 18. Relative percentages of soil types in Baldwin and Mobile Counties, Alabama (McBride and Burgess 1964; Hickman and Owens 1980). Soil Associations Percentage of (numbers correspond to Percentage association, Percentage of those on maps) of county respectively minor soils Baldwin County 1. Dorovan-Levy-Iuka-Urbo 10 45-14-22 19 2. Annemaine-Wahee-Leaf 3 12-17-53 36 3. Cowarts-Troup-Esto 21 NA-20-NAb 50 4. Malbis-Bama-Lucedale 18 20-12-9 59 10 45-14-22 3 21 12-17-53 NA-20-NAb 18 20-12-9 16 3 13-12-13C 96 d 17 34-15 7 18-17 5 21-13 5. Cowarts-Nlotcher-Esto 16 13-12-13c HA 6. Axis-Lafitte 3 96d 4 7. Troup-Plummer 17 34-15 51 8. Poarch-Pactolis 7 18-17 65 9. Fripp-Leon 5 21-13 66e Mobile County 10. Troup-Heidel-Bama 27 34-25-12 29 11. Troup-Benndale-Smithton 31 43-14-6 37 12. Dorovan-Johnston-Levy 9 48-12-12 28 13. Izaqora-Bethera-Suffolk 9 34-9-9 48 27 34-25-12 31 43-14-6 9 48-12-12 9 34-9-9 5 37-23-20 6 31-25-14 5 37-14-8 5 33-21-20 3 44-38 14. Notcher-Saucier-Malbis 5 37-23-20 20 15. Bayou-Escambia-Harleston 6 31-25-14 30 16. Urban Land-Smithton-Bennedale 5 37-14-8 41 17. Shubuta-Troup-Benndale 5 33-21-20 26 6. Axis-Lafitte 3 44-38 18 aan additional 30% mapped as Annemaine-Wahee-Leaf undifferentiated mapping unit. ban additional 30% mapped as Cowarts-Troup-Esto undifferentiated mapping unit. can unknown percentage of Cowarts-Notcher-Esto mapped as undifferentiated mapping unit. percent of individual series not available. eincludes an additional 10% mapped complex of Fripp and Leon soils and 20% water. N/A = percentages for individual soil series and minor soils not available. Quantification of the results of all of these processes is difficult because detailed data over a long period is required. With few exceptions, that level of detailed data is not available. An understanding of the various processes and some quantifications are, however, possible. The wind affects wave and tidal movements in the Mobile Bay area, and thereby plays an important role in erosion patterns. During the fall and 89 Table 19. Potential uses and limitations of map units on the general soil maps of Mobile County for specified uses (Hickman and Owens 1980). Map Unit Percent of county Cul tivated farm crops Special ty crops Woodland Urban uses Intensive Extensive recreation recreation areas areas 10. Troup- Heidel- Bama 27 Good to fa i r : droughty Good to fair: droughty Good Good Good to fair: too sandy Good 11. Troup- Benndale- Smithton 31 Fair to poor: droughty, slope, wetness Poor: droughty, slope, wetness Good Fair to poor: slope, wetness Fair: slope, too sandy Good 12. Dorovan- Johnson- Levy 9 Poor: wetness, floods Poor: wetness, floods Fair: wet- ness, floods Poor: wetness, floods Poor: wetness floods Fair : wetness, floods 13. Izagora- Bethera- Suffolk 9 Good to fair: wetness . Good to fair: wetness. Good Poor: wetness, floods Fair to poor: wetness Fair: wetness 14. Notcher- Saucier- Malbis 5 Good Good Good Good to fair: wetness, percs slowly Good Good 15. Bayou- Escambia- Harleston 6 Fair to poor: wetness Fair to poor: wetness Fair: wetness Poor: wetness Poor to fair: wetness, perco- lation slow Good 16. Urban Lan Smithton- Benndale d- 5 Poor: small Poor: small areas Poor: small areas Fair: wetness areas Fair: wetness Poor : smal 1 areas 17. Shubuta- Troup- Benndale 5 Fair: slope, droughty Fair: slope, droughty Good Good to fair: low strength, percolation slow Fair: s 1 o pe , percolation slow, too sandy Good 6. Axis- Lafitte 3 Poor: wetness, floods Poor: wetness, floods. Poor: floods, wetness , Poor: wetness, floods. Poor: wetness, floods Fair : wetness , floods winter winds are predominantly from the north or northwest, while spring and summer winds are from the south or southwest (Chermock 1974). Persistent high winds from the north and northwest during the winter tend to depress the water level in much of the bay and concurrently cause a buildup of waves along the south and southeast shores where wind fetch length is great. Under these conditions, severe erosion may occur along the north- ern shore of Morgan Peninsula (Pensacola quadrangle) (Figure 7). During the summer and occasionally in the winter persistent strong south and southwesterly winds (13-28 km/hr, 8-17 mi/hr) cause a decrease in water level, especially in the lower bay. Waves and tides then build up in the upper bay, causing severe erosion along the western shore and lower Mobile Delta (Mobile quadrangle). These variations in water level cause complex currents that complicate the normal circulation within the bay. 90 Miles critical erosion non-critical erosion Figure 7. Erosion areas in coastal Alabama (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1971) 91 Somewhat the same situation exists in Perdido Bay (Pensacola quadrangle), although erosion effects are not as pronounced because of the bay's smaller size (Hardin et al . 1976). The aspects of severe weather disturbances that cause the greatest changes to shorelines and near-shore bottoms are storm surges, waves, and currents (Hayes 1967). Since much of the shoreline of Alabama is below 3 m (10 ft) in elevation there is great erosional danger from a hurricane storm surge. When a storm surge advances up a converging estuary such as Mobile or Perdido Bays, its height increases as the water becomes more confined. The storm surge progresses more rapidly on a rising tide and may form a wall-like wave of water moving up the estuary (Chermock 1974). By far the most significant event in terms of shoreline erosion took place in September 1979, Hurricane Frederic, which caused massive shoreline changes. In Baldwin County immediately west of Perdido Bay (Pensacola quadrangle) the shoreline receded about 24 m (80 ft), and for about the next 19.3 km (12 mi) west to the vicinity of Little Lagoon (Pensacola quadrangle), about 30 m (100 ft). All along the Fort Morgan Peninsula (Pensacola quadrangle), exten- sive dune erosion took place. In Mobile County, Dauphin Island (Biloxi quadrangle) was overwashed along the entire 17.7 km (11 mi) long western end. All the low areas on the eastern portion of the island were flooded and the southern shoreline receded from 3 to 30 m (10-100 ft). Along the western end of the island, the southern shore receded about 6 to 15 m (20-50 ft) and the entire spit was lowered from an elevation of 1.5 to 3 m (5 to 10 ft); National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD) to an elevation of 0.6 to 1.5 m (2 to 5 ft) (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1981). The following information on sediment budget variations is from Hardin et al . (1976). The sediment budget for the coastal system is the net amount of sediment in the coastal area after considering the quantity of material being introduced, the quantity temporarily stored (dunes), and the quantity being removed from the coastal system. Beaches are nourished and maintained by sand-size sediment contributed by major streams, updrift shoreline erosion, onshore movement of shelf sand by wave action (Brown, and others, 1974), and by current circulation. Sand losses are caused by transportation offshore into deep water, accretion along and against natural barriers and man-made structures, deposition in tidal deltas and hurricane washover fans, excavation for proposed construction, and eolian processes (Brown et al . 1974). Sediment is carried to coastal Alabama by the Mobile and Perdido River systems. No data on the quantity of suspended sediment transported by the Perdido River is currently available (Boone 1973). Suspended sediment load transported yearly by the Mobile River into the delta and bay system ranges from 1.9 million to 7.5 million metric tons (2.1 million to 8.3 million short 92 tons) and averages 4.3 million metric tons (4.7 million short tons). About 30% (1.3 million metric tons, 1.4 million short tons) of this passes through the estuary system to the Gulf of Mexico (Ryan 1969). Longshore drift brings a volume of sediment, especially sand, into the Alabama coastal zone. The south and southeast winds cause westward-flowing currents, bringing sediment from the Florida coast into Alabama. The Mobile Bay discharge is a major drift barrier, and much of the westward-moving sediment is carried offshore. Net longshore drift has been measured at Perdido Pass (Pensacola quadrangle) to be 49,699 m3 (65,000 yd3). Net longshore drift at Gulf Shores (Pensacola quadrangle) has been calculated to be 149,853 m3 (196,000 yd3) by D. S. Gorsline, using wave-energy calculations (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1973a). These examples give only brief glimpses of a complex sediment budget. Obviously, much work needs to be done on the variations in movement and the fate of sediments within the coastal system of Alabama (Hardin et al. 1976). Hardin et al . (1976) examined the question of sea-level changes and how this process affects shoreline erosion and accretion, noting that while the National Ocean Survey established 16 control tide stations along the gulf coast to determine the changes taking place in the relative elevations of land and sea, none of these stations is located in Alabama. Based on data gathered over the past 50 years alonq the Florida gulf coast, a subsidence rate of 0.1 mm (0.04 inch) per year was assigned to the lands of the gulf coast from the Mississippi River to Key West, Florida (Lazarus 1965). Bird (1969) cites recent tidal gauge records that indicated continuing changes in the relative position of the land and sea. In areas such as coastal Alabama which has so much low-lying land, this factor of sea level takes on major significance in regard to shoreline configuration. Measuring the shoreline of Alabama has proven to be a formidable task. Using conventional opisometry (manually measuring distances on maps using a calibrated wheel), four agencies have arrived at different figures. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers reported the estuary shoreline length at 491.2 km (305.3 mi) in Appendix E of the National Shoreline study. The Ala- bama Department of Conservation listed the correct length as 577.5 km (358.9 mi). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration stated the length of tidal shoreline in Alabama is 976 km (607 mi). Using an opisometer on large scale maps, the Geological Survey of Alabama obtained a figure of 811.3 km (504.2 mi). "These measurements are based on traditional map analysis techniques and the difference between them manifests the difficulty encountered in such measurements, including the definition of the parameter being measured" (Hardin et al . 1976). The newest sources of shoreline data are the NASA satellites Landsat 1 and 2. Satellite data from 28 December 1972 and 5 December 1973 were com- pared and analyzed. While only part of the shoreline of Alabama was measured 93 due to limitations of Landsat coverage, the Geological Survey of Alabama did derive an estimate of the total shoreline based on the application of a ratio obtained through conventional opisometer techniques. If the total length of Alabama's shoreline were measured by a NASA land/water interface technique, it would total approximately 1,314 km (816 mi). In February 1982, as part of the preparation of this atlas, an aerial survey was made of Mobile Bay and its environs to note areas of active erosion. It is these areas that have been shown on the 1:100,000 soils and landforms maps. While there is a reasonable amount of historical data on coastal erosion, only current data is shown on the maps to direct users' attention to the most active areas. The historical trend maps that follow are, however, detailed and informative. An interesting map published by the Geological Survey of Alabama is entitled "Historical Trends of Shoreline Changes, Alabama Coastal Area, 1917-1974" (Figure 8). This map, although small in scale, contains information compiled from records from 1917 and from 1956-74. When this map was drawn (1974), the shoreline was measured (by opisometer) as 811.4 km (503.9 mi) long. The shoreline showed a net erosional trend of 355.7 km (220.9 mi) and net accretional trend of 455.7 km (283.0 mi), which equaled an approximate net state of equilibrium (Hardin, et al . 1976). Because several areas around Mobile Bay are more actively eroding than others, the "Historical Trends" map (Figure 8) divides the surrounding lands into nine regions so that more detailed information can be presented. Con- sult the Hardin et al . (1976) study for 34 pages of detailed maps, trend tables, and graphs keyed specifically to the regions depicted on Figure 8. A brief overview of each of these regions, based on Hardin et al . (1976), follows . 1. Mobile Delta Region (Mobile auadrangle): Over the past 3,000 years, this prograding (accreting) delta has filled in excess of 64 km (40 mi) of the original estuary. The harbor (lower) portion of the delta region has been affected by dredging and landfill and consequently is treated as a separate region. Between 1917 and 1967, the shoreline of the Mobile Delta has shown a trend toward net erosion although a few areas exhibit a state of equilibrium. Erosion has occurred principally along the channel margins of distributary rivers such as the western bank of the Blakeley River, the eastern bank of the Apalachee River, and along areas of both banks of the Tensaw and Spanish Rivers. Most of the accretion has occurred within the interdi stributary bays and along the remaining banks of the distributaries. The tips of the natural levees marginal to the distributaries show both erosion and accretion. Between 1953 and 1967, there was a distinct erosional trend in all the inter- distributary bays, which reverses the accretional trend of the past 36 years. Between 1917 and 1967, a net loss of 8.92 ha (22.04 acres) of area occurred in the Mobile Delta. In an environment where sediment deposition and land-building might be expected, such a loss indicates that the delta's progradation has decelerated. Such a situation might be partly caused by a 94 V£5 r-. CD C i +-> o o rT3 (13 C/) a; en c: CD c CD o 1/1 XJ c CD S- +-> o CX) CD 3 95 decrease in sediment being transported downstream by the Mobile River as a result of upstream impoundments, or by short periods of high discharge (floods). The greatly increased velocity of water flowing over the delta during such floods could cause much erosion in a short period. 2. Mobile Harbor Region (Mobile quadrangle): The main cause of accretion in this region has been human disposal activities as opposed to natural processes. This region will be discussed in the chapter dealing with socioeconomic features, under the category of artificially-made lands. 3. Western Shore Region (Mobile quadrangle): This region of Mobile Bay shows signs of erosion for almost its entire north-south distance. Between 1917 and 1974, erosion has ranged from 12 m (39 ft) at Pt. Judith to 149 m (488 ft) at Cedar Point. The areas between Dog River Point and Fowl River Point and between Del champs Bayou and Cedar Point show the most severe erosion (Figure 1). 4. Mississippi Sound, North Shore (Biloxi quadrangle): The northern shoreline of Mississippi Sound in Alabama is mostly made up of low-lying salt marsh with numerous tidal creeks and, with the exception of some residential and commercial-fisheries development, remains in its natural state. The southern shoreline is composed of sandy barrier islands that protect the northern marshy coast from the full impact of erosional agents, such as wave action and tropical storms. Between 1917 and 1958 the northern shore experienced net shoreline erosion at selected points which varied from 47.8 m (157 ft) on Marsh Island (Grand Bay) to 132.2 m (434 ft) on Marsh Island (Portersville Bay). These represent erosional rates ranging from 1.2 m (3.8 ft) to 3.2 m (10.6 ft) per year for those specific points. The generalized areas of erosion for eastern Mississippi Sound are shown on Figure 8. Most erosion has occurred on exposed marshy headlands and on exposed shorelines of the offshore islands. It was estimated (1976) that many of the exposed shorelines in this region are eroding at an average rate of 1 to 2 m (3 to 7 ft) per year. 5. Dauphin Island Area (Biloxi quadrangle): Dauphin Island is part of a chain of barrier islands protecting Mississippi Sound from the erosional forces of the Gulf of Mexico. These barrier islands absorb almost the full impact of winds, wave action, tides, and currents. As with all other islands of this type, the Dauphin Island shoreline is constantly changing. Several times since 1917, and as recently as 1979 (Hurricane Frederic), the island has been overwashed as a result of severe weather. There has been a general trend of erosion along the gulf shore of the island and a general elongation of the western end of the island. Shoreline erosion on the entire gulf shore for the period 1942-74 averaged 63.7 m (209 ft) or 1.9 m (6.3 ft) linearly per year excluding accretion on the western tip of the island. This accretion added a total of 2.9 km (1.8 mi) to the length of Dauphin Island from 1917 to 1974. 6. Eastern Shore Region (Pensacola quadrangle): Most of this region has undergone accretion or has maintained a state of dynamic equilibrium between 96 1917 and 1967 or 1974. (Period of record depends upon the particular portion of shore in question.) Erosion along the eastern shore occurs intermittently and is of less magnitude than in most other areas in the region. 7. Morgan Peninsula, Bay Shore (Pensacola quadrangle): Morgan Point is a large baymouth bar extending westward from the eastern shore of Mobile Bay. This peninsula separates the bay water from the gulf water and insures the maintenance of the estuarine environment in the bay itself. Erosion, measurable along much of the northern shore, probably occurs along almost the entire length of the shore from the mouth of Bon Secour River to Fort Morgan. Measurements of the change in shoreline configuration between 1917 and 1974 show that as much as 52 m (170 ft) linearly of erosion may have occurred from the mouth of Bon Secour River to Catlins Bayou during that time. Examination of bathymetric data from 1929 to 1973 reveals that St. Andrews Bay, Navy Cove, and the bay north of Fort Morgan are becoming progressively shallower. The southwest cove of St. Andrews Bay has also become a shoal area, probably reflecting deposition of material eroded from the shoreline west of Little Point Clear, as well as material from the spoil banks northwest of the peninsula along the Mobile Ship Channel. 8. Gulf Shore Region (Pensacola quadrangle): The gulf shore region of coastal Alabama extends from Mobile Point to the Florida state line and is about 50 km (32 mi) in length. The shoreline of white sandy beaches is backed by low dunes. In 1917, there were several tidal inlets that opened into Little Lagoon and Shelby Lakes. The inlet connecting Little Lagoon to the gulf was 1.1 km (0.7 mi) west of Gulf Shores beach and was approximately 80 m (262 ft) wide. A second inlet was approximately 1.7 km (1.1 mi) west of Romar Beach, as located on the Foley, Alabama, U.S. Geological Survey 15 min topographic map. This inlet connected the easternmost lagoon on the Shelby Lakes with the gulf and was approximately 20 m (66 ft) wide. By 1941, both of these inlets had closed and a second inlet to Little Lagoon had opened. This inlet, 3.5 km (2.2 mi) west of the inlet of 1917, was about 60 m (197 ft) wide. High-altitude infrared photographs of this area taken in 1974 showed no passes open into either Little Lagoon or Shelby Lakes, although some water possibly flows through the western inlet of Little Lagoon at the highest high tide. Between 1917 and 1974, the gulf shore eroded by an average of 0.4 m/yr (1.4 ft/yr) between Fort Morgan and Alabama Point. This net erosion along the gulf shore occurred in the areas indicated on Figure 8. 9. Perdido Bay Region (Pensacola quadrangle): Perdido Bay itself has shown 1 i ttl e measurable change along the Alabama shoreline, according to presently (1976) available information. Areas of small amounts of erosion probably do exist within Perdido Bay, but are too small to be discerned by methods used in the Hardin et al . (1976) study. Significant changes in the configuration of Perdido Bay have occurred in the area of Perdido Pass. 97 Changes in Perdido Pass are among the most extensive identified in this study. In 1867 the Perdido River channel (now called Old River) flowed around the east end of Ono Peninsula (now Ono Island), then westward to enter the gulf. By 1890-1892, this river channel had been partly abandoned and the major flow from Perdido Bay entered the gulf through a channel in Ono Peninsula excavated by local residents between 1867 and 1892 (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1973a). By 1918, water exchange occurred through two inlets separated by an island. This configuration may have been caused by the hurricane of 8 September 1917. Gradually the accretion resulting from the westward littoral drift closed these two inlets to form a single inlet by 1941. Between 1941 and 1974, persistent littoral drift had caused the pass to migrate westward until arrested by the construction of a seawall in the 1960 's. The pass in its natural state was about 1.8 m (6 ft) deep and presented great hazard to navigation (Ryan 1969). Safe navigation has been assured by the construction of several seawalls, which stabilized the pass and protected a bridge over the inlet. Further migration of the inlet is unlikely; however, past experience suggests that a severe disturbance, such as a direct blow from a hurricane, could breach the island again. The most recent severe hurricane was Frederic in September 1979. While much of the land area west of Perdido Pass east to the Florida state line was overwashed, there was no permanent breach that would link the gulf with Old River to create a new pass. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1971) classified the shores of Mobile and Baldwin Counties, Alabama, into three categories: non-eroding, eroding, and critically eroding. Their inventory reveals that of approximately 566 km (352 mi) of Alabama shoreline, 182.6 km (113.5 mi) are experiencing non- critical erosion and almost 53 km (33 mi) are experiencing critical erosion (Figure 8). Critical erosion is so defined either because of the speed of shoreline recession or because of potential impact on people's structures. This classification is based on observed responses to normal conditions and cannot be used to predict changes occurring under abnormal conditions. As an example, observation of Figure 8 identifies the southeast shore of Dauphin Island as an area experiencing critical erosion. Between 1901 and 1917, hurricane surge and associated waves breached Dauphin Island, dividing it into two small islands separated by 8.5 km (5.3 mi) of open water, shoals, and scattered remnants of the former island. Between 1917 and 1942, the inlet was filled by natural processes. A less severe breach occurred during the 4 September 1948 hurricane. When Hurricane Frederic hit the island in 1979, an area to the west of the designated area of critical erosion was washed over, but the island was not severed. To predict damage to coastal areas, storm conditions, as well as normal sea and weather, must be taken into account. The most reliable information available to predict the effect of storms is historical data, but neither meteorological events nor their effects can be predicted with much reliability (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers et al . 1981). GEOLOGIC FAULTS The faults that are shown on the 1:100,000 maps are marked as to their up- thrown and downthrown sides. These terms refer to the block or mass of rock 98 on that side of a fault which has been displaced relatively and not absolute- ly upward or downward. Geologic faults in Mobile and Baldwin Counties are the result of irregularities in Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits, which are caused by movement of the underlying Louann Salt. In fact, some of the peripheral faults in north Baldwin County may represent salt movements on the very edge of the Mississippi interior salt, dome basin. Salt under great pressure (i.e., at great depths below the surface) behaves as a plastic substance and moves in response to sedimentary loading. Positive features, such as salt swells and domes and collapse-type features such as grabens where salt was displaced and overlying rock receded, are both found in the study area. Positive features in Mobile and Baldwin Counties include the Citronelle and Wiggins uplifts. The major fault features include the Mobile graben and the peripheral faults associated with the Pollard fault zone. Although there are several faults in the area, the probability of damage from an earthquake is extremely unlikely. The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey ranks all areas of the United States in regard to the possibility of damage from earthquakes on an arbitrary scale of 0 to 3. These rankings are based on the intensity of possible earthquakes and anticipated damage, but not their frequency. These rankings are based on historical data and are revised as damaging earthquakes occur. Coastal Alabama lies in Zone 0: Zone 0 - no damage Zone 1 - minor damage Zone 2 - moderate damage Zone 3 - major damage Because coastal Alabama has had no damaging earthquakes (as of October 1982) since the rankings were first compiled in 1948, its ranking has remained unchanged (Algermissen 1969). Although a significant earthquake originating in Alabama is unlikely, there is a slight possibility that powerful, low- frequency tremors originating at a distance (e.g., Louisiana has regular tremors) could cause damage in the study area. Buildings in the Mobile area could suffer li qui faction of their supporting soil, particularly if they are built on fluvial sediments. As most of the structures in the study area are probably reinforced to withstand wind stress from hurricanes, they could probably withstand any likely earthquake tremor (D. Perkins, National Earthquake Information Center, Boulder, CO, 15 September 1982; pers. comm.). A complex of peripheral faults running across southwest Alabama includes the Pollard fault zone on the northern edge of Baldwin County. Faults connected to this complex curve through Florida and reappear in southern Baldwin County. The faulting in this complex has resulted in a series of narrow grabens, and subsequent faulting occurred between the two major faults. The northern fault is the dominant one and is downthrown to the southwest. Fault zones can be detected in this area only by subsurface indications (such as well log data and sonic testing) or very subtle surface indications. Vertical displacement of the fault surfaces ranges from 30 to 99 60 m (100 to 200 ft), and some of the fault movement has occurred recently enough for the grabens to appear as topographic lows. The Mobile graben is a complex north-south fault system running from Jack- son, Alabama, south to Mobile Bay. The northernmost fault on the east flank of the graben system is the Jackson fault. The confluence of the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers and the formation of Mobile Bay is possibly the result of movement along faults within this system (Chermock 1974). Many features of the graben are poorly known. "The major fault representing the west flank of the graben opposite the Jackson fault has never been penetrated. Geologists have postulated its location on the basis of subsurface data but other interpretations are possible for the data" (Chermock 19 74). Both the east and west flanks of the graben can be mapped further to the south, although a relationship between the graben and Mobile Bay is not obvious. According to well -control data, the graben turns westward north of the bay and extends to northern Mobile County. To quote Chermock (1974) again, "The Mobile graben system has been a highly mobile fault zone since at least late Mesozoic time, and many structures favorable for petroleum accumulation have been formed." ACTIVE DUNES For the purposes of this atlas, active dunes are defined as those sand landforms influenced by wave action and/or eolian (wind) processes that are in a constant state of change. Typically these dunes support little or no stabilizing vegetation. On the 1:100,000 study maps, areas where active dunes occur have been appropriately marked. The location of individual dunes that can be consid- ered currently active is beyond the scale of the atlas maps, although as a generality the actual number of dunes that are active is small. Those that are most active are scattered along the gulf side of the western end of Mobile Point-Fort Morgan Peninsula (Pensacola quadrangle). A detailed assess- ment of dunes in both Mobile and Baldwin Counties was undertaken by the U.S. Army (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1981) as part of the report of damage of Hurricane Frederic in 1979. While the report does not deal specifically with active dunes, it does contain a good description of the existing dunes as they appeared after the hurricane. In Baldwin County for a distance of about 6 mi along the beach west from Perdido Bay (Pensacola quadrangle), the dunes were eroded from approximately 3 m (10 ft) in elevation vertically down to 1.5 m (5 ft). From Little Lagoon (Pensacola quadrangle) west for about 10 km (6 mi) the dunes that had averaged 4.5 to 6 m (15 to 20 ft) in height were eroded approximately 3 m (10 ft) vertically. For the next 8 km (5 mi) west, to Fort Morgan at Mobile 100 Point (Biloxi quadrangle), dunes that had been 4.5 to 6 m (15 to 20 ft) NGVD were eroded to 1.5 m (5 ft) NGVD. On Dauphin Island (Biloxi quadrangle) in Mobile County, the south side of the island, fronting the gulf, has a broad, wel 1 -developed beach and sand dunes that rise to 12 m (40 ft) NGVD. The atlas maps delineate where dunes of any description are found within the study area. In order to map the exact location of those few truly active dunes, a new large-scale mapping exercise would have to be undertaken. 101 REFERENCES Alabama Coastal Area Board. 1978. Alabama coastal area management program: a balanced approach to economic development and natural resource protection (a workshop draft). (Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne, AL.) Algermissen, S. T. 1969. Seismic risk studies in the United States: Santiago, Chile. Paper presented at 4th World Conference of Earthquake Engineers, Jan. 1969. Bird, E. C. F. 1969. Coasts. Vol. 4. An introduction to systematic geo- morphology. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge. Boone, P. A. 1973. Depositional systems of the Alabama, Mississippi, and western Florida coastal zone. Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol . Soc. Brown, L. F., Jr., et al . 1974. Natural hazards of the Texas coastal zone. Bureau of Economic Geology, University of Texas, Austin. 24 pp. Chermock, R. L. 1974. The environment of offshore and estuarine Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Inf. Series 51. Hardin, J. D., C. D. Sapp, J. L. Emplaincourt , and K. E. Richter. 1976. Shoreline and bathymetric changes in the coastal area of Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Inf. Series 50. Hayes, M. 0. 1967. Hurricanes as geological agents: case studies of Hurricanes Carla, 1961, and Cindy, 1963. Bur. Econ. Geol. Rep., Invest. 61. Hickman, G. L., and C. Owens. 1980. Soil survey of Mobile County, Alabama. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Washington, DC. Isphording. 1977. Petrology and stratigraphy of the Alabama Miocene. Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc. 27:304-313. Lazarus, W. C. 1965. Effects of land subsidence and sea level changes on elevation of archaeological sites on the Florida gulf coast. Fla. Anthropol . 18(1). McBride, E. H., and L. H. Burgess. 1964. Soil survey of Baldwin County, Alabama. U.S. Dept. Agric. Soil Conser. Serv. Ser. 1960 (12). 102 Ryan, J. J. 1969. A sedimentologic study of Mobile Bay, Alabama. Fla. State Univ., Dep. Geol . Contrib. No. 30. Sapp, C. Daniel, J. G. Emplaincourt, and J. D. Hardin. 1976. Remote sensing of shoreline dynamics, Mobile Bay area, 1900-1975. Geol. Surv. Ala. Repr. Ser. 40. (Reprinted from Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc . Trans. 25:153-167). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1971. National Shoreline Study, shore protection guidelines. Washington, DC. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1973a. Regional report, South Atlantic-Gulf region, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Regional inventory report, Vol. 3: National Shoreline Study. U.S. 93rd Congr., 1st Sess., House Doc. 93-121. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1973b. Environmental assessment, eastern gulf. Appendix F, Report on gulf coast deep water port facilities, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Florida. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1981. Hurricane Frederic Post Disaster Report 30 August-14 September 1979. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Mobile District. 252 pp. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the State of Alabama Office of State Planning and Federal Programs. 1981. Inventory of basic environmental data, Alabama. 103 SOUPXES OF MAPPED INFORMATION Soil Associations and Regional Surface Landforms Alabama Coastal Area Board. 1978. Alabama coastal area management program: a balanced approach to economic development and natural resource protection (WORKSHOP DRAFT). Daphne, AL. Contains discussion of coastal issues and descriptions with maps of the biophysical, socioeconomic, and natural resources of coastal Alabama. Bonne, P. A. 1974. Geology of coastal Alabama. The environment of offshore and estuarine Alabama. Geol . Surv. of Ala. Inf. Ser. 51. Contains a physiographic provinces map and description of the Southern Pine Hills as well as diagrams of faults, domes, and other geologic features. Hickman, G. L., and C. Owens. 1980. Soil survey of Mobile County, Alabama. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. Washington, DC. 134 pp. Publication contains both general and specific soils information (series and association), including 1:20,000 orthophoto mapping. Lineback, N. G. 1973. Atlas of Alabama. The University of Alabama Press, University. 138 pp. A general overview of the physical, cultural, social, and economic characteristics of Alabama. Contains small maps and narratives of the soils, physiography, and geology of the State. McBride, E. H., and L. H. Burgess. 1964. Soil survey of Baldwin County, Alabama. U.S. Dep. of Agric. Soil Conserv. Serv. Ser. 1960 (12). 110 pp. Publication contains both general and specific soils information (series and association), including 1:20,000 orthophoto mapping. Reed, P. C. 1971a. Geology of Mobile County, Alabama. Geol. Surv. of Ala. Map 93. Five-page narrative with geologic cross-sections and an accompanying color map of county at a scale of 1 inch = 2 mi . 104 Reed, P. C. 1971b. Geology of Baldwin County, Alabama. Geo!. Surv . of Ala. Map 94. Nine-page narrative with geologic cross-sections and an accompanying color map of county at a scale of 1 inch = 2 mi . U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the State of Alabama Office of State Planning and Federal Programs. 1981. Inventory of basic environmental data: Alabama. Mobile. 325 pp. Contains multicolored maps of the entire State at 1:250,000 scale. Topics include geomorphology, coastal processes, soils, and biological and cultural information. Beach Erosion and Accretion Areas Hardin, J. D., C. D. Sapp, J. L. Emplaincourt, and K. E. Richter. 1976. Shoreline and bathymetric changes in the coastal area of Alabama. Geol . Surv. of Ala. Inf. Ser. 50. Contains map and narrative explanation of coastal shoreline changes. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1971. National shoreline study, shore protection guidelines. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Washington, DC.) Research Planning Institute overflight aerial photography of February 1982. Geologic Faults Boone, P. A. 1974. Geology of coastal Alabama. The environment of offshore and estuarine Alabama. Geol. Surv. of Ala. Inf. Ser. 51. Contains a physiographic provinces map and description of the Southern Pine Hills as well as diagrams of faults, domes, and other geologic features. Moore, D. B. 1971. Subsurface geology of southwest Alabama. Geol. Surv. of Ala. Bull . 99. Contains information on general stratigraphy and major subsurface geologic structures. Attached in pocket are 11 color maps detailing structure of Alabama oil fields. 0'Neil, P. E., and M. F. Mettee . 1982. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization. Vol. 2. A synthesis of environmental data. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-82/42. 346 pp. Contains detailed analysis of the minerals, hydrology, geology, climate, flora, and fauna of coastal Alabama. Has detailed descriptions of the area with maps arrd conceptual models. 105 Active Dunes Alabama Coastal Area Board. 1978. Alabama coastal area management program: a balanced approach to economic development and natural resource protection (workshop draft). (Alabama Coastal Area Board) Daphne. Contains discussion of coastal issues and descriptions with maps of the biophysical, socioeconomic, and natural resources of coastal Alabama, including short discussion of dune size, extent, and stabilization. Hardin, J. D., C. D. Sapp, J. L. Emplaincourt, and K. E. Richter. 1976. Shoreline and bathymetric changes in the coastal area of Alabama. Geol . Surv. of Ala. Inf. Ser. 50. Contains map and narrative explanation of coastal shoreline changes. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. November 1979. False-color infrared aerial photography. Scale 1:62,500. Research Planning Institute overflight aerial photography of February 1982. 106 OIL, GAS, AND MINERALS INTRODUCTION The oil, gas, and mineral section provides information on these activi- ties in coastal Alabama and includes pipeline routes, refineries, and drilling sites. The location of other significant deposits of minerals such as clay and gravel are also discussed. OIL AND GAS Petroleum-related activities in Alabama began in the early 1900's with the discovery of small, shallow gas fields in Huntsville (Madison Co.) and Fayette (Fayette Co.) in northern Alabama, and Mobile in southern Alabama. Located near the Bascomb race track, the two Mobile wells produced over 990 m3 or 35,000 ft3 of gas per day (Jones 1926, Masingill and Hall 1979). After more than 700 dry holes were drilled, the first significant oil dis- covery in Alabama was made in 1944 near Gilbertown in Choctaw County in the Selma and Eutaw Formations (Upper Cretaceous) (Cretaceous period: 135 million to 65 million years before present) between 785 and 788 meters (m) (2,575 and 2,585 ft) below land surface (Masingill and Hall 1979). The Gilbertown Field produced 12.1 million barrels ( bbl ) of oil between 1944 and June 1982 (Alabama State Oil and Gas Board 1982). The geologic strata underlying southwest Alabama, with an indication of which strata are impor- tant in petroleum production, are shown in Figure 9. Oil was found in 1950 in the South Carlton Field (Atmore quadrangle) of northern Baldwin County, followed by similar discoveries in adjacent Escambia County. These wells produce from the Lower Tuscaloosa Formation (Upper Cretaceous) at depths of about 1676 m (5,500 ft). The South Carlton Field includes about 50 wells in Baldwin and Clarke Counties, with the majority in Baldwin (0 'Neil and Mettee 1982). Between 1950 and 1982 the South Carlton Field produced about 5.0 million bbl of oil (Alabama State Oil and Gas Board 1982). Oil production in South Carlton Field has remained high because of new wells beina drilled, even though the field is becoming depleted (Friend et al. 1981). One of the larqest oil resources east of the Mississippi River was dis- covered in 1955 at Citronelle in northern Mobile County, at depths ranging from 3,052 to 3,300 m (10,014 to 10,827 ft) in the Lower Cretaceous Forma- tion. The Citronelle Field (Citronelle quadrangle) has produced 135 million bbl of oil and 345 billion m3 (12.2 trillon ft3) of gas from its 447 produc- ing wells (0'Neil and Mettee 1982, Friend et al . 1981, Alabama State Oil and 107 ERATHEM CENOZOIC MESOZOIC SYSTEM QUATERNARY TERTIARY SERIES HOLOCENE PLEISTOCENE PLIOCENE MIOCENE OLIGOCENE EOCENE PALEOCENE GEOLOGIC UNIT UNDIFFERENTIATED UNDIFFERENTIATED "AM05 SANO UNDIFFERENTIATED JACKSON GROUP CLAIBORNE GROUP WILCOX GROUP MIDWAY GROUP LITHOLOGY CRETACEOUS UPPER LOWER JURASSIC PRE- MESOZOIC TRIASSIC ? ^-"^ ?■ UPPER MIDDLE SECMA GROUP EUTAW FORMATION TUSCALOOSA GROUP LOWER CRETACEOUS UNDIFFERENTIATED zzzzzzz COTTON VALLEY GROUP HAYNESVILLE FORMATION BUCKNER ANHYDRITE SMACKOVER FORMATION NORPHLET FORMATION LOUANN SALT WERNER FORMATION EAGLE MILLS FORMATION BASEMENT COMPLEX W///////M S*nd. gnvcl in] u n lindiione E*dl ,Ione t.ft» 10 eoarie ^raintd. conjiomfaiic i ••iin IrKM ol mtlimoipniC "X* figment , gl wndy ifiilt ind iT»jl» thin limetiooi Ann, dm* wiin nod »nd m*i»moiph>e rock lr»g o'phic arid igiifloui rockt EXPLANATION □ * \i ■ Hi 01 Con* °mf"" _. GlauooniH B ^ --I — — l- --1--1-- 01 M*'l © © » 4.. Q Nodule / / / / / / / / / / / / m Jjf G«»Cond«ni Figure 9. Generalized stratigraphic column in oil- and gas-producing areas in southwest Alabama (Masingill 1982a). 108 Gas Board 1982). Citronelle has been the state's largest oil producing field since its discovery, accounting for over 30% of Alabama's production. Over half of the natural gas produced from the Citronelle Field is used in the operation of the production facilities at that location. In 1977, 44,937 bbl of gasoline and 58,202 bbl of butane were extracted from the natural gas by a liquid extraction plant in Citronelle (Alabama Coastal Area Board and U.S. Dept. of Commerce 1979). The plant, operated by Cities Service, was dismantled in about 1980 (D. Kemp, Cities Service Oil Co., Tulsa, OK, 10 August 1982; pers. comm.) Engineers predict that 146 million bbl of oil will have been removed from the Citronelle Field by 1985, which is 39% of the original total reserves. Studies have indicated that the life of the field could be increased another 25 or 30 years beyond 1985, and another 100 million bbl of oil produced by implementation of an enhanced oil recovery system (Alabama Coastal Area Board and U.S. Dept. of Commerce 1979). A tertiary enhanced recovery program has since been implemented (R. Raymond, Geological Survey of Alabama, University, AL, 15 March 1982; pers. comm.). A tertiary enchanced recovery system is a method whereby nitrogen gas is pumped underground to force oil to the surface and increase the cumulative yield from the reservoir. Most of the oil produced in Citronelle is transported to storage and refinery facilities in Mobile and then barged to market (Alabama Coastal Area Board and U.S. Dept. of Commerce 1979). Oil discoveries in northern Baldwin County in 1965 resulted in the designation of Tensaw Lake Field (Atmore quadrangle). Although it has since been abandoned due to production problems, this field was the first significant discovery in the area in over 10 years, and it was the first from the Paluxy Formation (Lower Cretaceous), at about a 2,562 m (8,400 ft) depth. Between 1965 and 1972 this field produced 164,786 bbl of oil (Masingill and Hall 1979). The Tensaw Lake Field generated a great deal of interest because the initial production was water free and highly pressurized, enough to transport the oil to surface production facilities. It was forecast that as many as 50 wells would need to be drilled in order to efficiently drain the reserve. Subsequent wells, however, showed that the pressure was insufficient to push the viscous oil to the surface. Pumping was necessary to extract the oil, which increased the amount of accompanying saline water. Although the Tensaw Lake Field was abandoned in 1972, increased petroleum prices may cause its revitalization (Alabama Coastal Area Board and U.S. Dept. of Commerce 1979). The first Jurassic (Jurassic period: 180 million to 135 million years before present) production in Alabama, in the Smackover Formation of Choctaw County and in the Nlorphlet Formation of Escambia County, paved the way for the Chunchula and Hatter's Pond (Mobile quadrangle) discoveries in northern Mobile County. At depths of about 5,486 m (18,000 ft), the Chunchula Field produces from the Smackover Formation, while the Hatters Pond Field produces from both the Smackover and Nlorphlet Formations (Masingill and Hall 1979). These finds were made in 1974, but production did not begin until 1976, as a cleansing plant had to be built to separate hydrogen sulfide from the hydro- 109 carbon component of the production. After the initial discoveries, drilling proceeded rapidly to determine the volume of the petroleum deposits. It appears that these gas reserves will be drained in 15 to 20 years (Alabama Coastal Area Board and U.S. Dept. of Commerce 1979). Chunchula Field produced 91,088 million m3 (3,216,403 million ft3) and 1,501,335 bbl of condensate from 27 wells in 1977. Hatter's Pond Field pro- duced 127,247 million m3 (4,493,177 million ft3) and 1,287,989 bbl of conden- sate from 11 wells in 1977 (Alabama Coastal Area Board and U.S. Dept. of Commerce 1979). Chunchula Field had increased to 35 producing wells by 1982, while the number of wells in Hatter's Pond Field increased to 12. Chunchu- la's cumulative Droduction as of June 1982 was 17.9 million bbl of condensate and 1.2 trillion m3 (42.5 trillion ft3) of gas. Hatter's Pond cumulative production as of June 1982 was 12.2 million bbl of condensate and 1.3 trillion m3 (47.4 trillion ft3) of gas (Masingill and McAnnally 1980, Alabama State Oil and Gas Board 1982). Chunchula and Hatter's Pond are the primary gas condensate producing areas in Mobile and Baldwin Counties. Gas condensate exists in a gaseous state underground, but is recovered as a liquid as a result of reduced pressure or temperature when it reaches the surface (Friend et al . 1981). This liquid is a light oil, much lighter than crude oil. Chunchula Field has one injection well and Hatter's Pond two injection wells, which are used for the disposal of plant effluents and saltwater that is produced with the hydrocarbons. These wells are regulated by both the Alabama Water Improvement Commission, which regulates the disposal of plant effluents, and the State Oil and Gas Board, which regulates disposal wells associated with oil and gas operations (Alabama Coastal Area Board and U.S. Dept. of Commerce 1981). Chunchula Field has a tertiary recovery system which is expected to increase the recoverable reserves by 38.4 million bbl of condensate, 3.8 million m3 (134 billion ft3) of gas, and 1,320 million liters (349 million gallons) of liquid petroleum gas (LPG) (Hellmich 1980). Immediately to the east of the Chunchula Field, two new fields have been designated: Cold Creek Field and South Cold Creek Field (Mobile quadrangle), with 2 wells and 1 well, respectively. Unlike wells in adjacent Chunchula Field, these wells produce oil rather than gas condensate. They produce from the Smackover Formation at depths of about 5,639 m (18,500 ft) (0 'Neil and Mettee 1982). Initial tests at Cold Creek indicate flow rates of 500 bbl of oil and 9062 m3 (320,000 ft3) of gas per day. Similar tests at South Cold Creek indicate flows of 298 bbl of oil and 6,967 m3 (246,000 ft3) of gas per day (Masingill 1982a). Recent developments in coastal Alabama petroleum exploration include several discoveries of gas in southern Baldwin County in 1979, gas in lower Mobile Bay in 1979, and oil in northern Baldwin County near Blacksher in 1980. In southern Baldwin County, Foley Field (Pensacola auadrangle) produces gas from Miocene (25 million to 10 million years before present) sand deposits in the Pensacola Clay Formation at 396- to 549-m (1,300- to 1800-ft) 110 depths. In addition to the five wells in Foley Field, one well nearby has resulted in the designation of West Foley Field. These initial wells indicate yields of 25,488 to 212,400 m3 (0.9 to 7.5 million ft3) of gas per day (Masingill 1982). It is anticipated that the poorly explored Miocene sands will produce greater yields throughout southern Baldwin County, possibly extending into Mobile Bay. Indeed, very recent finds of shallow Miocene gas have been made near Bon Secour, Weeks Bay, and Gulf Shores (Pensacola quadrangle) (0 'Neil and Mettee 1982). Mobil Oil struck gas in a deep well (6,289 to 6,365 m; 20,634 to 20,883 ft) at the mouth of Mobile Bay (Biloxi quadrangle) in October 1979. The well produced 345.3 thousand m3 (12.2 million ft3) of gas per day from the Norph- let Formation of Jurassic age. Mobil has received permits to continue ex- ploratory drilling in the area (Friend et al . 1981, 0'Neil and Mettee 1982). Partly due to Mobil's find, a record $449,178,059 in cash bonuses, mini- mum royalties of 25%, and $5-per-acre yearly rental fees will be paid by the highest bidders for 5-year leases on 13 tracts of Alabama's State-owned offshore land. Cash offers on another 22 of the tracts were rejected by the State in the hope that the value of the tracts would increase sharply with future discoveries. The 13 tracts leased comprise 55,045 acres of the State's 147,140 acres of undrilled submerged land (Hagopian 1981). Although there has been little development of oilfield services (platform fabrication yards, staging and supply areas) in Mobile and Baldwin Counties, this situation could easily change in the next few years. The production of petroleum from offshore drilling will require onshore infrastructure in relation to the quantity of resources found. One exception to the general absence of petroleum infrastructure in coastal Alabama is the shipyard industry, which manufactures and maintains seismic boats, crew boats, and other vessels for the oil and gas industry. Bayou La Batre (Biloxi quadrangle) is one of the more important shipyard areas in the country, and probably the largest on the entire Gulf Coast. One shipyard (Quality Marine) is the largest manufacturer of steel fishing boats in the world. Although one shipyard builds wooden fishing boats exclusively, 13 other shipyards in the Bayou occasionally build or repair petroleum- related vessels (S. Bosarge, Bayou Area Chamber of Commerce, Bayou La Batre, AL, 20 July 1982; pers. comm.) Mobile is the only other area in Mobile and Baldwin Counties where shipyards are located. There are eight shipyards in the Mobile vicinity, all located in the industrial areas along the Mobile River, Three Mile Creek, and Chickasaw Creek (Mobile quadrangle). Table 20 lists the companies storing, refining, and transporting (via pipeline) oil in coastal Alabama. The Miller Purchasing facility is in northern Mobile County, south of Mt. Vernon (Citronelle quadrangle), and the Marion Oil facility is located in Theodore (Mobile quadrangle). All of the other oil , storage and refinery facilities are in the Mobile area along the waterfront. The companies and facilities involved in the processing and treatment, liquid extraction, and transportation of natural gas in the study area are 111 Table 20. Oil facilities in coastal Alabama (Alabama Coastal Area Board and U.S. Dept. of Commerce 19 79). Storage facilities Primary Number capacity Company of Tanks (bbl ) Miller-Purchasing 2 135,000 Citronel le-Mobile Gathering System 4 525,000 Amerada Hess 16 1,500,000 Marion Oil 18 770,000 Louisiana Land and Exploration 31 785,000 Mobile Bay 6 205,000 Gulf Oil 10 176,647 Radcliff-Mid Stream Fuel 2 8'000 Triangle Refinery 13 230,000 Murphy Oil 7 153,000 Shell Oil 4 102,000 Trianqle Refinery of Choctaw in 120,000 Texaco 21 414,000 Mobile Bulk Terminal 5 630,000 American Oil 6 135,000 Belcher of Alabama 7 227,500 Totals ^53— 6,116,147 Refineries Design capacity Production Company (BPD)a (BPD)a Marion Oil 20,000 20,000 Louisiana Land and Exploration 40,000 34,200 Mobile Bay 20,000 10,000 Chevron (asphalt)5 12,000 _ NA Totals 92,000 64,200 Oil Pipelines Average daily throughput Company Length (m) ( bbl ) Hess Pipeline 56 97,425 Exxon Pipeline 36 130,000 Marion Oil 26 20,000 Citronelle-Mobile Gatherinq System 34 16,500 Miller Purchasing 20 2,500 Totals 172 266,425 a Barrels Per Day. b Design capacity less than 15,000 BPD, 112 shown in Table 21. The gas pipelines on the maps and in the table are large, high-pressure lines, not lower pressure feeder lines found in residential areas or in natural gas fields. Table 21. Natural gas facilities (Alabama Coastal Area Board and U.S. Dept, of Commerce 19 79) . Processing and treatment (design plant capac- ity) Inlet (mcfd)a Production natural Field Full well-stream gas Gas (mcfd)a gas liquids (bpd)b Chunchula 10.0 14.0 4,580 Hatter's Pond 50.3 30.0 14,846 Totals 60.3 44.0 19,426 Extraction (design plant capacity) Field Inlet (mcf) full -well stream gas Production natural gas liquids Hatter's Pondc 2,948 Gas Pipeline system Length Average daily distribution Company (mi) 253 (mcfd)a United Gas Pi pel ine Utility Sales: Mobile Gas Service 1,390 36.6 Town of Citronelle Util. 315 3.2 City of Fairhope 75 .8 Riviera Utilities 155 .7 Clark -Mobile Cos. Gas Dis. 18 6.0 City of Bay Minette 63 2.3 Industry Sales: 28.7 Florida Gas Transmission 49 No sales outlets or pickups Del van 50 6.4 Phillips Petroleum 16 8.8 Union Oil of California 9 - Getty 6 - American Oil Company 32 2,431 - Totals 93.5 3 Million Cubic Feet Per Day. ° Barrel s Per Day. c Additional capacity to be completed in June 1978. 113 Oil and gas production statistics for each field in Mobile and Baldwin Counties, as well as the geologic horizon from which each field produces, are given in Table 22. Table 23 compares the relative amounts of oil, gas, and gas condensate produced in the eight counties of southwest Alabama. Over the past decade there has been a great increase in gas production in southwest Alabama (Figure 10). Gas condensate has increased in direct propor- tion to the amount of gas produced, while oil production has remained constant. Table 22. Oil, condensate, and gas production by field and pool in Baldwin and Mobile Counties (Masinqill 1982b). Yearly Cumulative Yearly Cumulat' i ve Yearly Cumulati ve Field and (pool) oil (bbl) oil (bbl) condensate (bbl) condensate (bbl) gas (mcf) gas (mcf) Baldwin County South Carlton (D)b Blacksher (G) Little River (G) Tensaw Lake (E) 236,893 158,849 48,584 0 4,885,750 162,517 48,584 164,786 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 193,234 57,037 0 0 199,425 57,037 0 Unnamed (A) S7, T9S, R4E 0 0 0 0 0 1,008 Total 207,433 375,887 0 0 250,271 257,470 Mobi le County Chunchula (G) 0 0 4,976,314 15,849,327 12,744,369 36,971,123 Citronelle (E) 2,088,738 133,953,580 0 0 177,984 12,106,143 Cold Creek (G) 85,799 208,934 0 0 85,048 203,697 Hatter's Pond (GSH) 0 0 2,219,674 10,710,808 9,108,452 41,375,423 South Cold Creek (G) 4,074 16,642 0_ 0_ 4,533 19,525 Total 2,178,611 134,179,156 7,195,988 26,560,135 22,120,386 90,675,911 a Pool or zone: (A)-Miocene (E)-Lower Cretaceous (B)-Selma (F)-Cotton Valley (C)-Eutaw (G)-Smackover (D)-Tuscaloosa (H)-Norphlet b Clarke & Baldwin Counties (not included in Baldwin County totals). 114 Table 23. Oil, condensate, and gas production in southwest Alabama, 1981 (Masingill 1982b). County Yearly oil (bbl) Cumulative oil (bbl) Yearly condensate (bbl) Cumulative condensate (bbl) Yearly gas (mcf) Cumulative gas (mcf) Baldwin Choctaw Clarke Conecuh Escambia Mobi le Monroe Washington Total 207,433 3,288,380 485,151 9,374 2,283,382 0 375,887 47,541,209 5,368,908 254,593 2,178,611 134,179,156 157,739 1,107,141 95,230 0 0 0 0 38,741,160 3,633,989 7,195,988 0 881,533 0 250,271 257,470 165 1,651,791 17,164,427 0 24,682 59,869 0 4,588 319,321 24,380,027 53,143,492 360,481,431 26,560,135 22,120,386 90,675,911 0 293,738 2,455,809 8,130,563 6,422,897 41,623,512 8,610,070 227,663,284 11,711,510 59,070,890 83,911,845 513,037,750 100 Figure 10. Oil, condensate, and gas production in Southwest 1944-80 (Masinqill 1982b). Alabama 115 CLAY Clay is a ubiquitous mineral resource that is found in virtually all geologic horizons in varying concentrations and qualities. Clay is found either where it is formed, adjacent to the weathered parent material (where it is termed "residual"), or where it has been deposited by water (where it is termed "sedimentary"). Residual clays may occur either as a uniform mantle overlying the parent rock, or may accumulate into veins or dikes alongside the parent rock. "Clays occupying veins or dikes are usually kaolin, or a decomposition product of granite or feldspar, and commonly show definite lines of demarkation" (Jones 1926). When sedimentary clays are deposited by water, they may be interspersed with any other type of sedimentary deposit, such as coal or limestone. Clays deposited as sediments may extend uniformly over large areas or may be quite small lenses. Sedimentary clay particles are generally finer than those in residual clay. When subjected to great pressures, the clay particles may con- solidate to form shales. If shales are ground finely, they regain the charac- teristic plasticity of clays (Jones 1926). There are four types of clays mined in Alabama: bentonite, kaolin, fire clay, and common clay. Bentonite is a decomposition product of volcanic ash. Bentonite is used as a binder in foundry sand or as drilling mud, and is mined primarily in Lowndes County (Smith and Gilbert 1975). Kaolin is used for the manufacture of refractory (heat-resistant) products. It is mined in Henry, Marion, and Barbour Counties, where it is usually found in association with bauxite (aluminum ore) (Smith and Gilbert 1975). Fire clay is also used for refractory purposes, in making heat-resistant bricks and ceramics. Fire clay is primarily mined in Calhoun, Blount, and Walker Counties, where it is often found underneath coal strata, and is subsequently mined in conjunction with coal operations (Smith and Gilbert 1975). Common clay accounts for over 80 percent of the clay mined in Alabama and is used for building brick and lightweight aggregate (Corey 1976). Clays occurring within Mobile and Baldwin Counties are found in small lenses within the Miocene and PI io-Pleistocene (Citronelle Formation) deposits. The only large area of exposed clay and the only clay mining operation within the two coastal counties occurs near Clay City (Pensacola quadrangle) in southern Baldwin County. At this site, the Fish River has exposed the Miocene/Pliocene/Pleistocene strata. This clay is mined in shallow open pits and is used for brick, tile, and sewer pipe (Moser and Chermock 1978). The Citronelle Formation (mid-Pliocene to early Pleistocene) and the high terrace deposits (Pleistocene) are difficult to differentiate as they are both composed of sand, clay, and some gravel (Moser and Chermock 1978, Isphording and Lamb 1971). Clay reserves in the Citronelle Formation are 116 lenticular, and may be up to 3 m (10 ft) thick, but extend laterally only a few hundred feet. These deposits usually grade laterally into sand or clayey sand. The upper surfaces of the deposits may be eroded, resulting in irregular, discontinuous beds. These kaolinitic deposits are less plastic than other clays and are used to control shrinkage in bricks and ceramics. Older deposits of clay, of Miocene age, are found in northern Mobile and Baldwin Counties, as well as along the major streams in Mobile County. Much of the clay is difficult to locate, as it is concealed beneath a thick soil layer and vegetation (Moser and Chermock 1978). The quantity of sand, gravel, and clay mined in Mobile and Baldwin Counties has increased over the past decade, although production figures vary considerably from year to year. Production of these minerals in the study area increased sevenfold between 1971 and 1979, from 208,610 metric tons (230,000 short tons) to 1,541,900 metric tons (1,700,000 short tons). This comprises about 14% of the total production from the State of Alabama (Friend et al . 1981). The 1973 Minerals Yearbook (Corey 1976) quotes production of 1,474,000 metric tons (1,624,000 short tons) of clay in Alabama in 1972, which increased \1% to 2,630,000 metric tons (2,900,000 short tons) in 1973. The 1973 Atlas of Alabama (Lineback 1973) states the value of the annual production of clay statewide is $7,000,000, which corresponds well with Smith and Gilbert's (1975) figure of $8,000,000 in 1975. Table 24 summarizes the production of clays in coastal Alabama for 1977 and 1979. Smith and Gilbert (1975) list the annual production of fire clay state- wide at 363,000 metric tons (400,000 short tons) and that of common clay and kaolin at over 1,816,000 metric tons (2,000,000 short tons), although Beg (1980) lists the statewide annual production of clays other than bentonite ("other clays" and "kaolin") at only 1,541,300 metric tons (1,697,841 short tons). Table 25 summarizes the production of clays, excluding bentonite, in Alabama for 1975, 1977, and 1979. Beg (1980) lists production of 103,500 metric tons (114,000 short tons) of bentonite statewide, whereas Smith and Gilbert (1975) quote 163,400 metric tons (180,000 short tons) in Lowndes County alone. It is not clear whether these data reflect a real decrease in clay production from 1975 to 1980 or merely a difference in method of data collection. Table 26 shows the rela- tive importance of Alabama clay reserves to the nation as a whole. SAND AND GRAVEL Sand grains are formed by weathering action upon parent rocks, particular- ly siliceous or other hard rocks, such as mica, magnetite, or cassiterite. Most sand particles are quartz. The particles are rounded by abrasion and sorted by the actions of wind and water. In water the larger, heavier particles settle out first, with the smaller, lighter particles remaining in suspension longer and being distributed over wider areas. These suspended particles are carried downstream, where they may settle along sand bars. The average depositional grain size is a function of the local current regime. Eventually the sand may be covered by other sediments, or it may be trans- 117 Table 24. Production (net tons) of sand and clay in the Alabama Coastal Region 1977a and 1979a (Alabama Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Safety and Inspection 1977, 1979). Type mineral 1977 1979 Mobile County clay sand and clay 380,598 8,000 1,488,758 Baldwin County clay sand and clay 11,595 92,926 25,555 84,400 Totals for both counties clay sand and clay 11,595 473,524 33,555 1,573,158 aFor fiscal year ending September 30. Table 25. Quantity and value of clay production3 in Alabama, 1975, 1977, 1978, 1979 (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines 1976, 1979a and 1979b). Clays (excludi ng bentonite) Quantity (1000 short tons) Value ($1000) Year 1975 2,231 9,077 1977 2,677 21,984 1978 2,755 25,371 1979 2,571 33,824 Production is measured by mine shipments, sales, or marketable production (including consumption by producer) . 118 Table 26. Alabama's role in U.S. clay production the Interior, Bureau of Mines 1979b). in 1978a (U.S. Department of Major commodity Share of U.S. output [%) Rank in Nation Reserves Clays: Bentonite Common Fire Kaol in 5 13 5 4 7 4 3 Smal 1 Large Moderate Small d Preliminary figures. bW = Withheld to avoid disclosing individual company confidential data. ported to the sea, where the process of rounding, sorting, and deposition continues. If covered by thick sediments and consolidated by pressure, sand may eventually form sandstone. Sandstone varies in texture from very coarse- grained, when it is an aggregation of large particles, to sandy shale, when it is intermixed with the much smaller silt particles (Jones 1926). Gravel originates in the same manner as sand, by the weathering of parent rocks. The larger gravel particles are likewise abraded, rounded, and sorted as they are transported downstream. Gravel may then be deposited on bars by itself or with sand along streams, or less likely, transported out to sea. Deposits of sand and gravel are usually intermixed, which necessitates wash- ing to screen out the particle sizes desired for commercial purposes (Jones 1926). Deposits of sand and gravel within the Mobile-Baldwin County study area are Miocene [25,000,000 to 10,000,000 years before present (ybp)], Pliocene (10,000,000 to 600,000 ybp), Pleistocene (600,000 to 12,000 ybp), or Recent (12,000 ybp to present) in age. Sand and clay deposits of Miocene age are found in the northern half of the study area and include Catahoula sandstone Hammock sand. Mid-Pliocene and early Pleistocene deposits Citronelle Formation, which includes layers of sand, clay, terrace and alluvial deposits surrounding the major streams primarily late Pleistocene and Holocene and Paynes comprise the gravel . The the area are Holocene, silty and clayey (Moser and Chermock 1978). sands were also deposited in age. along the and in During the gulf coast Table 27, from Moser and Chermock (1978), shows the generalized strata significant to coastal Alabama's mineral resources. A comprehensive 119 Table 27. Geologic strata containing commercial sand, clay, and gravel in coastal Al abama . System Series Unit Material Quaternary Holocene Alluvium, terrace, Silty and clayey beach, and deltaic sand and gravel, deposits Late Pleistocene Terrace deposits Early Pleistocene Citronelle Formation Sand, gravel and clay. Tertiary Pliocene Citronelle Formation Sand, gravel, and clay. Miocene Catahoula sandstone Sand and clay. and Paynes Hammock sand, undifferentiated discussion of the subsurface stratigraphy of the Alabama coastal area is found in 0 'Neil and Mettee (1982). Additional detailed information is found in Reed (1971a, 1971b), Isphording and Lamb (1971), and Isphording (1976). Sand and gravel from both the Citronelle Formation and the more recent terrace deposits are used for construction aggregates, foundry sand, and other applications. Many of the terrace and alluvial deposits are too poorly sorted (i.e., contain too much clay and silt) to be of commercial use, al- though they are sometimes used in road construction and maintenance. High- quality, fine- to medium-grained quartz sand deposits are located along several creeks and adjacent to the Mobile River. In some areas the sand contains shell, which limits its uses (Moser and Chermock 1978). In the nearshore waters off Dauphin Island (Biloxi quadrangle) lie reserves of heavy mineral sands which are not currently being exploited (Alabama Coastal Area Board and U.S. Dept. of Commerce 1979). The use for which the sand or gravel is intended determines which proper- ties are desirable. The following general guide to specifications is given in Moser and Chermock (1978): "Sand used as aggregate in asphalt, concrete, mortar, and plaster should be clean, siliceous, angular, and free from salts and organic matter. "Gravel used as coarse aggregate in concrete, as base coarse in roads, as fill material, and as ballast should consist of material that is tough, durable, and chemically stable. Quartz gravel is preferred for use in concrete aggregate. 120 Sand and gravel having a silica content of more than 95 percent may be used for glass sand, foundry sand, engine sand, abrasive sand, filter sand, and flux in the smelting of metal ores and in the manufacturing of sil icones." Table 28 from Corey (1976) provides the various quantities and dollar values of sand and gravel used for specific purposes in Alabama in 1972 and 1973. Virtually all sand and gravel in coastal Alabama is mined from open pits, and whenever the deposits are overlain by shallow water, a dredge is used for Table 28. Alabama: sand and gravel sold or used by producers, by class of operation and use (thousand short tons and thousand dollars). Class of operation and use 1972 1973 Quantity Val ue Quantity Val ue Commercial operations: Sand: Building Fill Fire or furnace Paving Other uses3 Total b Gravel : Bui 1 ding Fill Pavi ng Mi seel laneous Other uses^ Total b Government-and-contractor operations: Sand: Paving Gravel : Paving Total sand and gravel b 1,796 1,937 2,491 2,832 98 94 140 102 — -- 4 16 814 1,299 1,452 2,274 625 1,028 502 984 3,334 4,358 4,590 6,207 992 1,727 1,577 2,427 Wc W 249 149 1,796 2,220 2,918 4,578 W 147 138 130 230 78 327 368 3,018 4,171 5,208 7,652 3 4 -- -- 4 6 6,352 8,530 9,805 13,870 a Includes blast (1973), engine, molding, chemicals (1972), railroad ballast, and other industrial sands. bData may not add to totals shown because of independent rounding. CW = Withheld to avoid disclosing individual company confidential data; included with "Other uses." d Includes railroad ballast (1973) and other gravel. 121 excavation (Smith and Gilbert 1975). Although mining of sand and gravel is sometimes done by drag lines and front-end loaders, most excavation in the study area is by hydraulic dredge. Nearly all of the sand and gravel is processed by washing (Simpson and Smith 1968). Based on a maximum thickness of 3 m (10 ft) for the Citronelle Formation and terrace deposits, and a minimum of 1.3 m (4 ft) for the alluvial deposits, it has been estimated by Szabo et al . (1969) and Szabo and Clarke (1969) that Mobile County contains over 218 million metric tons (240 million short tons) of commercially available sand, while an additional 9.1 billion metric tons (10 billion short tons) lie in Baldwin County. Beg (1980) gives a figure for total sand and gravel production in Alabama of 8,219,180 metric tons (9,053,955 short tons) per year. The Atlas of Alabama (Lineback 1973) states that the value of sand and gravel production statewide was $9 million as of 1973. Figure 11 shows the variability in the quantities of sand, gravel, and clay produced in Baldwin and Mobile Counties from 1969 to 1975. Statewide production quantities and values for sand and gravel from 1975 to 1979 are given in Table 29. Production quantities and values from sand and gravel, sand and clay, and sand in Mobile and Baldwin Counties in 1977 and 1979 are in Table 30. OO o o Q O CL. Q- 70 71 72 73 74 FISCAl YEAR r 75 Figure 11. Sand, gravel, and clay production in Baldwin and Mobile Counties, 1969-75 (for October 1-September 30 fiscal year)(Moser and Chermock 1978). 122 Table 29. Quantity and value of sand and gravel production3 in Alabama (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines 1976, 1979a, and 1979b). Sand and gravel (1000 short tons) Year Quantity (1000 short tons) Value ($1000) 1975 9,232 17,376 1977 14,372 35,204 1978 14,500 37,000 1979 13,747 31,319 a Production measured by mine ship- ments, sales, or marketable pro - duction ( incl uding consumption by producers) . Table 30. Production (net tons) of sand, gravel, and clay in the Ala- bama coastal region, 1977a, 1979a (Alabama Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Safety and Inspection 1977, 1979). Type mineral 1977^ 19793 Mobile County Sand 70,400 59,085 Sand and clay 380,598 1,488,758 Sand and gravel Baldwin County Sand 391,288 Sand and clay 92,926 84,400 Sand and gravel 36,773 20,000 Totals for both counties Sand 461,688 59,085 Sand and clay 473,524 1,573,158 Sand and gravel 36,773 20,000 aFor fiscal year ending September 30. 123 REFERENCES OIL AND GAS Alabama Coastal Area Board and U.S. Dept. of Commerce. 1979. The Alabama coastal area management program (hearing draft). Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne, AL. 116 pp. Alabama State Oil and Gas Board. 1982. Untitled monthly production statistics. State Oil and Gas Board, University, AL. Friend, J. H., Lyon, M., Garrett, N., Borom, J. L., Ferguson, J., and Lloyd G. C. 1981. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization: Vol. 3: A socioeconomic study. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/41. 367 pp. Hagopian, J. 1981. Gas and oil leases on submerged state lands provide lucrative bonuses for Alabama. Ala. Conserv. May-June 1981:4-6. Hellmich, R. G. 1980. Alabama. Pages 20-23 U± The 1980 annual report of the Interstate Oil Compact Commission. Houston. Jones, W. B. 1926. Index to the mineral resources of Alabama. Geol . Surv. Ala. Bull . 28. 256 pp. Masingill, J. H., ed. 1982a. The petroleum industry in Alabama, 1980. Geol. Surv. Ala. Oil Gas Rep. 3D. 46 pp. Masingill, J. H., ed . 1982b. The petroleum industry in Alabama, 1981. Geol. Surv. Ala. Oil Gas Rep. 3D. 47 pp. Masingill, J. H., and P. F. Hall. 1979. The petroleum industry in Alabama, 1978. Geol. Surv. Ala. Oil Gas Rep. 3. 30 pp. Masingill, J. H., and C. W. McAnnally. 1980. The petroleum industry in Alabama, 197°. Geol. Surv. Ala. Oil Gas Rep. 3C. 39 pp. O'Neil, P. E., and M. F. Mettee, eds. 1982. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization. Vol. 2: A synthesis of environmental data. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81-42. 346 pp. 124 CLAY Alabama Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Safety and Inspec- tion. 1974. Annual statistical report, fiscal year 1973-1974. Alabama Dept. of Industrial Relations, Division of Safety and Inspection, Montgomery. Alabama Department of Industrial Relations. 1977. Statistical annual report 1979. Alabama Dept. of Industrial Relations, Division of Safety and Inspection, Montgomery. Alabama Department of Industrial Relations. 1979. Statistical annual report 1979. Alabama Dept. of Industrial Relations, Division of Safety and Inspection, Montgomery. Beg, M. A. 1980. Directory of active mines and quarries in Alabama. Geol . Surv. Ala. Map 176. Corey, J. F. 1976. The mineral industry of Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Miner. Resour. Div. Repr. Ser. 46. 14 pp. Friend, J. H., M. Lyon, N. Garrett, J. L. Borom, J. Ferguson, and G. C. Lloyd, 1981. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization: Vol. 3: A socioeconomic study. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv . Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/41. 367 pp. Isphording, W. C, and G. M. Lamb. 1971. Age and origin of the Citronelle Formation in Alabama. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 82:775-780. Jones, W. B. 1926. Index to the mineral resources of Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Bull. No. 28. 256 pp. Lineback, N. G. 1973. Atlas of Alabama. University of Alabama Press, University. 138 pp. Moser, P. H., and R. L. Chermock, eds. 1978. Geologic and hydrologic environmental atlas of Mobile and Baldwin counties, Alabama. Geological Survey of Alabama, Environmental Division, University. O'Neil, P. E., and M. F. Mettee , eds. 1982. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization. Vol. 2. A synthesis of environmental data. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Off. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81-42. 346 pp. Smith, W. E., and 0. E. Gilbert. 1975. Mining and minerals in Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Inf. Ser. 47. 36 pp. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 1976. Bureau of Mines minerals yearbook, Vol. 11, area reports. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 1979b. Minerals in the economy of Alabama. Publications Distribution Branch, Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh. 18 pp. 125 SAND AND GRAVEL Alabama Coastal Area Board and U. S. Dept. of Commerce. 1979. The Alabama coastal area management program (hearing draft). Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne. 116 pp. Alabama Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Safety and Inspec- tion. 1974. Annual statistical report, fiscal year 1973-74. Available from: Alabama Dept. of Industrial Relations, Division of Safety and Inspection, Montgomery. Alabama Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Safety and Inspec- tion. 1977. Statistical annual report 1977. Alabama Dept. of Industrial Relations, Division of Safety and Inspection, Montgomery. Alabama Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Safety and Inspec- tion. 1979. Statistical annual report 1979. Alabama Dept. of Industrial Relations, Division of Safety and Inspection, Montgomery. Beg, M. A. 1980. Directory of active mines and quarries in Alabama. Geol . Surv. Ala. Map 176. Corey, J. F. 1976. The mineral industry of Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Miner. Resour. Div. Rep. Ser. 46. 14 pp. Isphording, W. C. 1976. Multivariate mineral analysis of Miocene-Pliocene coastal plain sediments. Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc . , October 1976:326-331. Isphording, W. C, and G. M. Lamb. 1971. Age and origin of the Citronelle Formation in Alabama. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 82:775- 780. Jones, W. B. 1926. Index to the mineral resources of Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Bull . 28. 256 pp. Lineback, N. G. 1973. Atlas of Alabama. University of Alabama Press, University. 138 pp. Moser, P. H., and R. L. Chermock, eds. 1978. Geologic and hydrologic environmental atlas of Mobile and Baldwin Counties, Alabama. Geological Survey of Alabama, Environmental Division, University. O'Neil, P. E., and M. F. Mettee, eds. 1982. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization. Vol 2: A synthesis of environmental data. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv . Biol. Serv . Program FWS/OB^-81/42. 346 pp. Reed, P. C. 1971a. Geology of Baldwin County, Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Div. Water Resour. Map 94. Reed, P. C. 1971b. Geology of Mobile County, Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Div. Water Resour. Map 93. 126 Simpson, T. A., and W. E. Smith. 1968. Report for development of water resources in non-Appalachia Alabama; Append. C: Water requirements and pollution problems of the mineral industries. Geological Survey of Alabama, University. Smith, W. E., and 0. E. Gilbert. 1975. Mining and minerals in Alabama. Geol . Surv. Ala. Inf. Ser. 47. 36 pp. Szabo, M. W., and 0. M. Clarke, Jr. 1969. Mineral resources map of Baldwin County, Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Spec. Map 83. Szabo, M. W., 0. M. Clarke, Jr., and D. B. Moore. 1969. Mineral resources map of Mobile County, Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Spec. Map 89. U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 1976. Bureau of Mines minerals yearbook, Vol. 11: Area reports. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 1979a. Bureau of Mines minerals yearbook, Vol II: Area reports. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 1979b. Minerals in the economy of Alabama. Publications Distribution Branch, Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh. 18 pp. 127 SOURCES OF MAPPED INFORMATION OIL AND GAS Petroleum and Natural Gas Fields and Wells Geological Survey of Alabama. 1982. Unpublished maps of counties and fields. State Oil and Gas Board. University. These large-scale (1 inch equals 1 mi) maps include the exact locations of active oil and gas wells, abandoned wells, dry holes, and injection wells. Additional maps of individual fields delineate the boundaries of fields, as designated by the Oil and Gas Board. These maps are updated weekly. Storage, Processing and Treatment, and Refining Facilities and Pipelines Alabama Coastal Area Board and U.S. Dept. of Commerce. 1979. The Alabama coastal area management program (hearing draft). Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne. 116 pp. Contains a small-scale (approximately 1:500,000) map of the locations of the refineries, processing and treatment plants, and storage facilities. Accompanying the maps are tables giving production statistics for the various plants and storage facilities. Also mapped are the general loca- tions of oil and gas pipelines in the area, their size, and operator. Masingill, J. H. ed. 1982a. The petroleum industry in Alabama, 1980. Geol. Surv. Ala. Oil Gas Rep. 3D, 46 pp. Contains a small-scale (approximately 1:1,400,000) map of the pipelines in southwestern Alabama and indicates their operators. Includes the locations of refineries and gas processing plants. U.S. Department of the Interior Geological Survey. 7.5-minute-quadrangle maps. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA. These detailed, colored 1 :24,000-scale maps contain the locations of pipe- lines, storage facilities, and plants, (many are out-of-date and do not show recent construction). 128 Shipyards U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District. 1982. Survey services, including hydrographic and/or topographic services within the civil boundaries of the Mobile District. U.S. Army Corp of Engineers, Mobile. 82 pp. A book of very detailed engineering maps at a scale of 1 inch equals approximately 60 ft. Contains the locations of larger shipyards and dry- dock ramps in the district area, including Mobile and Bayou La Batre. CLAY, SAND, AND GRAVEL Mineral Deposits Geological Survey of Alabama. 1977. Mineral resources of southwest Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Map 180. A colored 1 :250,000-scale map showing locations of mineral deposits, including generalized petroleum fields. Szabo, M. W. and 0. M. Clarke, Jr. 1969. Mineral resources map of Baldwin County, Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Spec. Map 83. A detailed colored map showing the locations of minerals at a scale of 1 inch equals 2 mi (1:126,720). Opposite side contains a brief narrative about mineral resources in the county. Szabo, M. W., 0. M. Clarke, Jr., and D. B. Moore. 1969. Mineral resources map of Mobile County, Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Spec. Map 89. A detailed colored map showing the location of minerals at a scale of 1 inch equals 2 mi (1:126,720). Opposite side contains a brief narrative about mineral resources in the county. Active Mining Sites: Beg, M. A. 1980. Directory of active mines and quarries in Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Map 176. A statewide 1:1,000,000 scale map, with colored symbols showing the location of the different types of minerals mined. Reverse side of map includes a directory by mineral and county of business addresses of mines and quarries, their location by section, type of geologic formation mined, and type of mine. 129 CLIMATOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY INTRODUCTION This section relates information on water availability and its use in coastal Alabama. Included is a description of the coastal climate and how it affects the area, stream and river discharge, and surface and ground water availability and quality. Currents and their effects on salinities in the coastal estuaries are also discussed. CLIMATE Temperature The climate of coastal Alabama is primarily humid subtropical, due to the warming influence of the Gulf of Mexico. This large warm-water surface is a major contributor to warm, humid summers, and mild winters, with a fairly consistent range of temperature extremes (Lineback 1973). Coastal Alabama air temperatures are relatively mild, with an average annual temperature in Mobile of 20 °C (68 °F). Mean annual temperature variation is approximately 10 °C (18 °F) (Table 31). Summer temperatures are rarely high ranging between 21 and 32 °C (70 and 90 °F). Temperatures in winter generally range between 4 to 16 °C (40 and 60 °F), with temperatures below freezing occurring on an average of 22 days per year. Periods of freezing temperatures generally do not last more than 2 or 3 days. The lowest mean monthly temperatures, 10 °C (50 °F), occur in January, while July produces the highest average temperatures (28 °C, 82 °F). Temperature extremes in the Mobile area vary from a maximum of 40 °C (104 °F) (July 1952) to a low of -18 °C (-1 °F) (February 1899) (National Climate Center 1980). Mobile and Baldwin Counties have a growing season ranging from 230 days in the northern sector to 300 days in areas near the coast. The first killing frost occurs in early November in the northern parts of the counties and early December in areas near the coast. The last killing frost occurs in mid-February near the coast (0 'Neil and Mettee 1982). Precipitation The normal annual rainfall in coastal Alabama is the highest in the state and among the highest in the United States. Average annual rainfall in the Mobile area is about 162.5 cm (64 inches) (Table 32). Rainfall is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year with a slight maximum at the height of the summer thunderstorm season in July and a slight minimum during the late fall in October. 130 Table 31. Air temperatures in coastal Alabama based on 25 years data, 1955-79 (modified from Crance 1971). Mean temperature (° F) Location Mobile3 (Mobile quad) Bay Minette (Bay Minette quad) Fairhope (Bay Minette quad) Robertsdale (Bay Minette quad) Fort Morgan^ (Pensacola quad) January 51.7 49.8 50.8 49.6 52.6 February 54.3 53.2 53.9 52.6 54.9 March 60.2 59.8 60.2 59.5 54.2 April 67.2 67.9 67.8 67.2 68.5 May 74.3 74.1 74.2 72.4 76.1 June 80.3 79.1 79.2 78.8 81.0 July 81.8 80.8 81.2 81.2 82.5 August 81.6 82.2 80.4 79.5 82.5 September 78.1 77.1 77.6 76.9 79.4 October 68.8 71.1 68.4 67.7 71.3 November 58.9 59.0 59.6 59.0 62.2 December 53.0 50.8 52.7 52.5 55.5 Variation 30.1 32.4 30.4 31.6 29.9 Annual0 67.5 66.8 67.4 66.56 68.9 a 1941-80. D Station closed 1975. cMean annual temperature and monthly means may not correspond due to method of calculation. Of the six weather stations for which rainfall data is presented, Ft. Morgan (Biloxi quadrangle) has the lowest annual rainfall, 128 cm (50.49 inches), while Robertsdale (Bay Minette quadrangle) has the highest, 168 cm (66.29 inches) . 131 Table 32. Rainfall in coastal Alabama based on 25 years data, 1955-79 (modi- fied from Crance 1971). Mean precipitation (inches) Bay Minette Fairhope Gulf Fort Mobile3 (Bay Mi- (Bay Mi- Robertsdale Shoresb Morgan0 (Mobile nette nette (Bay Minette (Pensacola (Pensacola Location quad) quad) quad) quad) quad) quad) January 4.73 5.15 4.95 5.33 4.36 3.52 February 4.93 5.26 5.04 5.89 5.67 3.98 March 6.63 6.29 5.82 5.89 5.01 4.91 April 5.13 4.95 4.43 4.23 4.31 3.53 May 4.71 5.71 5.06 5.04 3.32 2.71 June 5.49 5.38 5.89 5.92 4.87 4.28 July 7.57 7.94 7.71 8.12 5.97 5.78 August 6.62 7.03 6.56 7.52 6.98 5.04 September 5.62 6.13 7.10 7.41 8.61 8.30 October 3.20 3.12 3.41 3.63 3.70 3.46 November 3.73 3.24 3.68 3.90 3.11 2.90 December 5.15 5.12 4.70 5.97 4.02 4.10 Annual d 63.56 62.70 64.74 66.29 59.60 50.49 a 1941-80. b 1955- 74 station closed. c 1955-75 station closed. d Annual mean may not correspond to monthly means due to method of calculation During the spring and summer, south and southeasterly winds blow from the Gulf of Mexico. These warm offshore winds are heavily laden with moisture and the resulting convective activity generates numerous thunderstorms. This thundershower activity, which averages about 87 days a year, generates the maximum rainfall of the year (0 'Neil and Mettee 1982). At Robertsdale the average monthly precipitation in July is 20.6 cm (8.12 inches); at Mobile, 19.2 cm ( 7.5 7 inches) . At Ft. Morgan (Biloxi quad- 132 rangle) and Gulf Shores (Pensacola quadrangle) the highest amounts of monthly rainfall occur in September (Table 32), with respective amounts of 21.1 cm (8.30 inches) and 21.9 cm (8.61 inches). Rainfall in October averages the lowest for the year in coastal Alabama, ranging from 9.4 cm (3.70 inches) at Gulf Shores to 7.9 cm (3.12 inches) at Bay Minette (Bay Minette quadrangle). The lowest monthly average rainfall in coastal Alabama occurs at Ft. Morgan during November. During winter months frontal systems and on-shore horizontal convergence produce much of the precipitation in coastal Alabama. Snow (which averages 0.2 inches/yr), hail, and sleet are rare. Most of the rainfall occurs in showers and long periods of heavy rainfall are rare. Monthly rainfall during December, January, and February averages about 74 cm (29 inches)/month. Cloud Cover, Fog, and Relative Humidity Cloud cover in the vicinity of Mobile has an annual value of about 6/10 (60 percent of total sky area covered in daylight periods). In general, cloud cover tends to be highest in winter and summer and lowest in spring and fall. October has the minimum mean cloud cover with just over 4/10, while January and July have maximum means of almost 7/10. Summer cloudiness is mainly convective cumulus or high thin clouds, while winter cloudiness is the result of frontal systems associated with extratropical cyclones and may produce gray, overcast days (0'Neil and Mettee 1982). Fog is the main visibility inhibitor in coastal Alabama, occurring from November through May. Winter fogs are fairly frequent and generally produce the lowest visibilities of the year, 0.4 km (0.25 mi) (0'Neil and Mettee 1982). Because of the availability of water vapor from the Gulf surface, high humidities prevail throughout the year with little seasonal variation. Annual mean relative humidity at Mobile varies from 56% to 87% according to the time of day, with highest readings at 6 a.m. E.S.T. Annual average humidity is approximately 74% (National Climate Center 1980). Winds The prevailing surface winds for the coastal Alabama area are southerly for March through July, easterly for August and September, and northerly for the remaining months. The average annual wind velocity in coastal Alabama is 13.3 kmph (8.3 mph) (Chermock 1974). The Bermuda High is the most permanent feature affecting the general circulation. During the spring, this sub- tropical anticyclone intensifies and extends its western boundaries over the Gulf region. This produces periods of prolonged light winds from a south to southeasterly direction. The greatest (attained) winds occur from May through November with passing hurricanes. The highest recorded wind speed in the study area was 233 kmph (145 mph) on Dauphin Island during Hurricane Fredric in September 1979 (Corps of Engineers 1981). The Bermuda High begins to weaken in autumn and move slightly southeastward. This, along with the southern movement of the equatorial trough, permits the continental pressure 133 systems to extend into the gulf area setting up the prevailing northerlies, which on the average are the highest winds, from November through February (Corps of Engineers 1973). Annual wind roses for three stations in coastal Alabama for which data is available are shown on the atlas maps; Mobile, Batesfield (Mobile quadran- gle), Dauphin Island (Biloxi quadrangle) and Foley, Alabama (Pensacola quadrangle). The wind roses show the percentage of the time the wind blows at each velocity and direction. Extratropical Cyclones Some 15 to 20 significant frontal systems, or winter storms and their associated polar air masses penetrate the Gulf of Mexico each year, bringing cool air and strong northerly winds. From October to March these systems produce rapid temperature drops and the highest frequency of winds above 33 kn. The extratropical cyclones (low pressure systems with counter- clockwise winds) are usually followed by associated migratory anticyclones (high pressure systems with clockwise winds). Continental systems continue to affect the gulf until the Bermuda High strengthens its influence in the early spring (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1973). Tropical Cyclones and Hurricanes The majority of tropical cyclones (low pressure systems with counterclock- wise winds originating in tropical regions) affecting Alabama originate as cyclonic disturbances from the Abyssinian Plateau of eastern Africa. These circular winds move westward across the southern Sahara desert and begin to pick up energy and moisture as they move across the eastern Atlantic Ocean. It is not until these storms gather size, strength, and a characteristic cloud pattern that they can be observed and monitored via satellite (National Science Board 1972). About 100 of these cyclonic disturbances form every year, but 75% dissi- pate and never develop low-pressure centers with well-defined circulating wind curents. About 10 per year develop sufficient strength (wind velocities of 63 to 117 kmph [39 to 73 mph]) to be classified as tropical storms. Approximately six of these tropical storms will strengthen into hurricanes (wind velocities greater than 119 kmph (74 mph) , and an average of two of these per year will impact the coast of the United States (Chermock 1976). Not all Atlantic hurricanes originate near the coast of Africa. A few each year originate as a result of cold fronts degenerating and encountering warm moist tropical conditions. Most of these hurricanes develop between 10° and 20° longitude in an area called the doldrums, and none have developed within 9° of the equator. The paths of hurricanes that have influenced Alabama since 1887 are shown in Figure 12. Hurricanes impact Alabama from June to October, most commonly in September (Figure 13). Hurricanes impacting the gulf coast early in the season (June or July) generally originate in the western Atlantic or western Caribbean and are usually weak. Hurricanes later in the season (August and September) generally develop into recognizable storms in the eastern Atlantic near the Cape Verde Islands. 134 / 1 . • f f ' 1 ) ? \\ V f / 1 i t 2 mss. ; V \\A 1 1 / / / - LA 1) — " *" " i \\y~\X-* K --"' A \ V "^ /\4\t Yu' \ ' 1 ' I -"'" / -^ / \ / / \ \\ A BLOXl/ \i\ \j A_T ' / \\/ Jr-Sry&r-^jr^&S [J "r if ' - / f ^ r — < V si \ o \^^ ^^j? oV' ~~ \ ' jT^s^*-* ^S^TjfpANAMA / l-^7 /JrT^X ^T \ N K/ v /"/\ 7° >=^PJY S _ 7 NEW ORLEANS « J$£f> /W"M \ ' JU-^W / \^ IcwM \ V> /V. A O <£"2-*' S$A A '-"A \ -^ok ^ ^AfV^ \ 1 // N / \/ ! <3l #J\ S/ S< / / \ N \ / SEP i \^ \V\ / \ / IP* J K3 \ \ 7/ \ ^^ \ / 1926 / ^ o^l \ '\ / I i ' \ V V ' \ I A// \ X/ \ 1 \ x \ \ V 'si / / x ^ \ / 7 i;-' \ ' \ \7 ^ ' / m Minor HurncqnM \ i / V i / ' / r- , / SEP / / A\ \ ; \'X 1 \ N S x SEP s 1912 / l956/ / \ \ A > /\i \ saug MojOf / / / •AUG / \ t\ / A. \ JUN l932 Hurricanes 1 / / I \ OCT SEP SEP OCT OCT \ 1901 — — _/ \ / _y / v SfeP l972 1979 1964 1948 IB89 1893 1887 \ y AUG ( / / 1 \ \ ' AUG 1969 1 \ \ 1969 \ 1 / ' \ SEP\ 1975 x \ / / SEP SEP 1950 OCT SEP JUL SEP \ I960 1916 S7 19(6 1906 \ N 1 \ \ A \ \ Figure 12. Paths of hurricanes affecting Alabama (modified from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1967). Figure 13. Monthly frequency of hurricanes affecting Alabama since 1711 (O'Neil and Mattee 1982; modified from Chermock 1974). 135 These storms have the potential to gather strength as they travel all the way across the Atlantic and as a result are usually more powerful than the earlier storms (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1967). The coast from Mobile Bay to Cape San Bias, Florida have the highest probability of damage from tropical storms along the Gulf Coast (Figure 14). This area has sustained damage from tropical storms in excess of 20 times between 1901 and 1979. Figure 14. 1978). Frequency of destruction by tropical storms, 1904-77 (Long 136 Simpson and Lawrence (1971) estimated the probability of tropical storms, hurricanes, and major hurricanes for the 80 km (50 mi) coastline between Biloxi, Mississippi, and Mobile, Alabama. They predict an annual probability of 13% for a tropical storm, 6% for a hurricane, and 1% for a major hurricane striking the area. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, on the basis of previous records, have predicted the probable recurrence interval for storm tides in coastal Alabama (Table 33). At Dauphin Island, for example, an 11.5-ft tide would be expected once every 100 years. These tides could occur in any year of the time period or not occur at all. The predicted maximum height could also be exceeded, as during Hurricanes Camille and Fredric (Chermock 1976). Winds within hurricanes, like tornadoes, travel counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere. Winds are most intense near the center (eye) of the storm, although the eye itself is fairly calm. As the hurricane moves forward, winds are highest on the right side and weakest on the left. The Table 33. Probable recurrence interval for storm tides in coastal Alabama (Chermock 1976). Elevation above mean water level (ft) Location 1 Year 10 Years 20 Years 50 Years 100 Years Coastal Area-Fort Morgan to Gulf Shores (Pensacola quad) 3.6 7.0 8.3 10.2 11.4 Bayou St. John Area (Pensacola quad) 3.0 5.0 6.2 7.2 8.5 Perdido and Wolf Bay Area (Pensacola quad) 2.6 3.9 4.7 5.7 6.5 Grand Bay and Bayou La Batre (Biloxi quad) 3.6 11.4 13.2 Dauphin Island (Biloxi quad) 3.6 5.8 11.5 Mobile Bay (Mobile quad) 3.6 9.4 10.6 137 6.8 8.8 11.4 5.8 7.6 9.8 5.8 7.5 9.4 average forward speed of hurricanes is about 19 kmph (12 mph), but may approach 64 kmph (40 mph) in the temperate regions (Chermock 1974). Because of the counterclockwise movement within the storm, a forward speed of, for example, 30 kmph (19 mph) will result in the winds on the right side of the hurricane traveling 60 kmph (38 mph) faster than the winds on the left side relative to the surface of the earth. Winds within a hurricane are often in excess of 161 kmph (100 mph) and may even exceed 322 kmph (200 mph), as did Hurricane Camille in 1969. Since hurricanes striking the gulf coast are generally moving northward, the highest winds are to the east of the landfall of the storm eye (Chermock 1976). Destruction from hurricanes results from high winds, storm surge, and flooding rains. In addition, tornadoes may occur on the storm's periphery. Despite the incredible speeds associated with hurricane winds, most destruction is a result of storm surge and flooding. Wind damage is more severe in areas immediately along the coast, since wind speed diminishes rapidly inland due to friction with the land surface. The most extreme wind and barometric pressures associated with hurricanes in Alabama are shown in Table 34. Table 34. Extreme pressure and wind data of h urricanes recorded along the Alabama coast . since 1892 (i nodified from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1967). Date Number of mi les Lowest Maximum wind hurricane and direction barometr ic vel oci ty and crossed center passed pressure Location direction Location coast Mobile (inches) (quad sheet a ) (mph) (quad sheet) Oct. 2, 1893 50W 29.16 Mobile (1) 80SE Mobile (1) Aug. 15, 1901 70W 29.32 Mobile (1) 61 Mobile (1) Sept. 27, 1906 20SW 28.84 Mobile (1) 94 Ft. Morgan (2) Sept. 20, 1909 150SW 29.62 Mobile (1) 52 Ft. Morgan (2) Sept. 14, 1912 20W 29.37 Mobile (1) 60SE Mobile (1) Sept. 29, 1915 100W 29.45 Mobile (1) 60SE Mobile (1) July 5, 1916 20W 28.38 Ft. Morgan (2) 107E Mobile (1) Oct. 18, 1916 60E 29.22 Mobile (1) 128E Mobile (1) Sept. 28, 1917 100SE 29.17 Mobile (1) 96NNE Mobile (1) Sept. 20, 1926 30S 28.20 Perdido Beach i [2) 94N Mobile (1) Sept. 1, 1932 25SSW 29.03 Bayou La Batre (3) 57E Mobile (1) Sept. 19, 1947 110SW 29.54 Mobile (1) 53E Mobile (1) Sept. 4, 1948 90W 29.55 Ft. Morgan (2) 42S Mobile (1) Aua. 30, 1950 20E 28.92 Ft. Morgan (2) 75 Ft. Morgan (2) Sept. 24, 1956 80S 29.49 Mobile (1) 58 Mobile (1) Sept. 15, 1956 80W 29.48 Mobile (1) 74 Dauphin Island (3) Oct. 3, 1964 230W 29.39 Alabama Port (3) 80MJW Alabama Port (3) Aug. 17, 1969 85W 29.44 Mobile (1) 74 Mobile (1) June 19, 1972 180SE 29.26 Dothan (4) 43NNW Dothan (4) Sept. 23, 1975 90SE 28.85 Ozark (4) 120 Ozark (4) Sept. 14, 1979 25SW 27.84 Dauphin Island (3) 145 Dauphin Island (3) a Quad sheet: (1) Mobile, (2) Pensacola, (3) Biloxi, (4) Not in study area. 138 Destruction from storm surge or rise in water level due to strong sustained winds is likewise mainly restricted to areas fronting the ocean. Water and wind-driven waves are capable of great devastation, especially when the surge raises the water level 8 m (25 ft) and waves are driven by 322-kmph (200-mph) winds, as happened during Hurricane Camille. Surge is more pronounced in areas where deep water is near shore, as in the area from Mobile to Panama City, Florida. As the surge moves inland with the storm, a shallow bottom would cause resistance and reduce the surge. The surge may also be accentuated in the study area by the funnel shape of Mobile Bay, which concentrates the surge. When a storm surge occurs during a normal astronomical high tide, its effect is even greater (Chermock 1976). The hurricane surge during Hurricane Frederic in September 1979 is the highest ever recorded in coastal Alabama (Table 35). The surge reached a maximum of 5.2 m (17 ft) above mean sea level, about 4.8 km (3 mi) west of Perdido Bay (Pensacola quadrangle). The eastern shore of Mobile Bay (Mobile quadrangle) had high water of 2.4 to 3 m (8 to 10 ft), while the western shore (Pensacola and Bay Minette quadrangle) had a high water of 2.1 to 3.6 m (7 to 12 ft) above mean sea level. Further from the open ocean, the Mobile and Tensaw Rivers (Mobile and Bay Minette quadrangle) had a high water read- ing of 1.4 m(5.5 ft). Frederic inundated about 34,800 ha (87,000 acres) in Mobile and Baldwin Counties. The areal extent of inundation is shown on the atlas sheets. The shoreline along the Mississippi Sound, Dauphin Island (Biloxi quadrangle), Ft. Morgan Peninsula, the Gulf Shores area (Pensacola quadrangle) and the Lower Mobile Delta (Mobile and Bay Minette quadrangle) were all inundated to some degree by the storm surge. The entire economic loss attributable to Frederic was approximately $1.5 billion, economically one of the most costly hurricanes ever experienced in Alabama (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1981). Damage inland from hurricanes is mainly a result of flooding from heavy rains. After devastating the Louisiana and Mississippi coasts, Hurricane Camille caused flash floods and landslides in West Virginia and Virginia. In areas with short stream patterns, the flooding may rapidly reach a coast already inundated by a storm surge. In cases where the rain falls far inland, the flooding may reach the coast after the storm surge recedes and recovery operations are underway or may flood distant areas not otherwise affected by the hurricane. The maximum amount of rainfall from Hurricane Frederic was 23 cm (9 inches) which fell in 24 h at Merrill, Mississippi. Mobile recorded 21.7cm (8.55 inches) and Dauphin Island recorded 21.5 cm (8.45 inches) on 12 and 13 September 19 79 (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1981). Hurricane Camille caused an average of 12.7 cm (5 inches) of rain across most of its path, with a maximum recorded rainfall of 26.9 cm (10.6 inches) in Hattiesburg, Mississippi. Camille then brought heavy rains to Alabama and Tennessee before dumping nearly 68.6 cm (27 inches) of rainfall in West Virginia and Virginia (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1970). 139 Table 35. Hurricane surges in Alabama 1772-1979 (modified from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1967). Stage i (ft above mean sea leve 1) Gulf Bayc )U Dauphin Shores Date storm La Batre Coden Island Mobile (Pensa- crossed (Bil oxi (Bil oxi (Biloxi (Mobile cola coast Landfall quad) quad) quad) quad) quad) Sept. 4, 1772 8.2 Aug. 23, 1852 8.0 Aug. 11, 1860 6.4 Sept. 15, 1860 7.0 July 30, 1870 7.0 Aug. 19, 1888 Lake Charles, LA 7.2 Oct. 2, 1893 Pascagoula, MS 8.4 4.9 Aug. 15, 1901 Grand Isle, LA 7.4 Sept. 27, 1906 Mobile, AL 10.8 9.1 11.8 Sept. 20, 1909 Grand Isle, LA 7.0 Sept. 14, 1912 Mobile, AL 4.4 Sept. 29, 1915 Grand Isle, LA 10.0 6.4 July 5, 1916 Gulf port, MS 10.8 7.7 10.8 11.3 Oct. 18, 1916 Pensacola, FL 3.2 Sept. 28, 1917 Pensacola, FL 1.2 Sept, 20, 1926 Pensacola, FL 4.5 Sept. 1, 1932 Bayou La Batre, AL 4.5 Sept. 10, 1944 Mobile, AL 3.8 Sept. 19, 1947 New Orleans, LA 8. ,2 6.1 4.7 7.9 Sept. 4, 1948 Grand Isle, LA b, .0 6.0 4.4 Aug. 30, 1950 Mobile, AL 3.9 Sept. 24, 1956 Ft. Walton Beach, FL 6, .3 6.3 3.3 2.2 5.8 Sept. 15, 1960 Pascagoula, MS 5.0 3.9 Oct. 3, 1964 Franklin, LA 5, .5 3.5 4.2 3.1 Aug. 17, 1969 Waveland, MS 8. ,5 9.2 7.4 9.1 June 19, 1972 Cape San Bias, FL 1.3 Sept. 23, 1975 Ft. Walton Beach, FL Sept. 14, 1979 Dauphin Island, AL 9, ,5 10.56 13.84 8.5 16.2 U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY HYDROLOGIC UNITS A hydrologic unit is a geographic area representing part or all of a surface drainage basin or distinct hydrologic feature as delineated by the United States Geological Survey (USGS), Office of Water Data Coordination on the State Hydrologic Unit Maps. The USGS divides hydrologic areas into regions, subregions, accounting units, and cataloging units. Each hydrologic unit has an eight digit code, such as 03160205, the first two digits specify- ing region, the next two subregion, then accounting unit and cataloging unit. 140 The Mobile/Baldwin County study area lies within the South Atlantic-Gulf Region and includes four subregions (Escatawpa River, Tombigbee River/Mobile River/Mobile Bay, Alabama River, and Perdido Bay drainages) which are sub- divided into a total of eight cataloging units, listed below (U.S. Geological Survey 1974, 1981). These hydrologic units are delineated on the Atlas sheets, along with the cataloging unit code. 03170008 03170009 Escatawpa River Basin Western Coastal Unit 03160203 03160204 03160205 Tombigbee River Basin Mobile River Basin Mobile Bay Unit 03150204 Alabama River Basin 03140106 03140107 Perdido River Basin Eastern Coastal Unit STREAM AND RIVER DISCHARGE Factors that control streamflow are of two basic types: meteorological and terrestrial. Meteorologic factors include precipitation, temperature, and wind. Terrestrial factors include topographic and geologic features and the geographic distributions of cultural features and vegetative cover. Since coastal Alabama is not a self-contained hydrologic unit, streams which flow through the area may be influenced to a greater or lesser degree by factors outside the immediate geographic area. Runoff of precipitation is the source of all streamflow, and consists of two basic types; surface runoff and subsurface runoff. Surface runoff occurs immediately after it rains when the amount of rainfall has exceeded the combined rates of evaporation and ground infiltration. This direct runoff is transported to stream basins by running over the land surface or by inter- flow, the movement of water through the soil without entering the groundwater table. Factors important in determining direct runoff rates include drainage-basin area, land-surface slope and permeability of the ground surface. Runoff also reaches streams by releases from ground water storage. Basin and bank storage are two components of this type of release. Bank storage 141 occurs when water rises above the water table and permeates the surrounding soil. Releases from bank storage occur when stream levels recede and is immediately available. Basin storage occurs in aquifers and the water is released more slowly. The type of runoff governs natural streamflow characteristics. Streams dependent on direct or surface runoff tend toward wide fluctuations of streamflow while those dependent on ground-water releases are more stable. Gaging stations and partial -record (not continuously monitored) stations operated by the USGS provide basic information on streamflow characteristics in coastal Alabama. Data collected include records of stage (water levels) and stream discharge (water volume passing a point within a given period of time). Mathematical analysis of the data allows different types of streamflow characteristics to be developed, such as annual discharge, average discharge, etc. Gaging-station locations in Mobile and Baldwin Counties are presented on the atlas sheets. Table 36 lists the gaging stations by USGS station number and indicates where they are located by stream and atlas quad sheets. The table also indicates the average daily flow in million of gallons per day (mgd) and the median annual 7-day low flow in mgd. The median annual 7-day low flow of a stream is the lowest mean discharge for seven consecutive days during a year. By comparing this low flow to the average flow, a stream's ability to assimilate wastes and dilute them in dry weather can be evaluated. The monthly mean discharge of a stream can be used to evaluate changes in stream flow on a seasonal basis. Factors affecting seasonal streamflow include precipitation rates, water use, and hydrologic modifications, such as channelization and dams. The monthly mean discharge of streams in cubic feet per second (ftVs) in the Mobile River basin and in the Perdido Bay area are presented in Tables 37 and 38. Figure 15 illustrates the monthly mean discharge of the Alabama, Tombigbee, and Perdido Rivers. Average flows can also be expressed as unit runoff in cubic feet per second per square mile (ft^/s/mi^), which is the average number of cubic feet of water flowing per second from each square mile of the drainage area. This figure of unit runoff can be utilized in comparing basins of unequal size since they are reduced to a common base of one square mile. Table 39 presents the duration of daily flow and average discharge (ft-Vs) at gaging stations in the study area. Average unit runoff in coastal Alabama varies from less than 2.0 ft3/s/mi'2 to less than 2.5 ft3/s/mi"2 (O'Neil and Mettee 1982). Table 40 presents a summary of the watershed area of streams flowing through coastal Alabama and the mean annual discharge of these streams. The total mean annual discharge into Alabama estuaries is over 75,000 ft-Vs from a watershed area greater than 45,000 mi 2. 142 Table 36. Average daily flow and mean annual 7-day low flow at U.S. Geo- logical Survey stations in coastal Alabama (modified from Reed and MaCain 1971, 1972 and O'Nei'l and Mettee 1982). USGS Stream Quad Average flow (mgd)a Low flow (mgd) Perdi do River Basin 02376240 Dyas Creek Bay Minette 71 6.2 02376500 Perdi do River Bay Minette 497 178 02377500 Styx River Bay Minette 124 26 02377700 Styx River Bay Minette 153 45 Mobile River and Mobile Bay Basin 02378410 Fish River Bay Minette 44 21 02378500 Fish River Bay Minette 79 39 02429605 Little River Atmore 160 59 02429650 Majors Creek Atmore 55 14 02470500 Mobile River Atmore 39400 7750 02470610 Cedar Creek Citronel le 88 12 02470800 Bayou Sara Mobile 18 4.5 02470925 Chickasaw Creek Mobile 71 62 02471000 Chickasaw Creek Mobile 193 45 02471006 Eight Mile Creek Mobile 42 26 02471065 Monti irnar Creek Mobile 15 2 02471078 Fowl River Escata Mobile wpa River Basin 29 15 02479450 Escatawpa River Citronel le 324 10 02479468 Puppy Creek Citronel le 40 4.4 02479500 Escatawpa River Mobile 627 72 02480020 Big Creek Mobile 100 21 02480037 Miller Creek Mobile 52 21 02480150 Franklin Creek Biloxi 23 8.4 a M i 1 1 ion of gallons per day (mgd) SURFACE WATER QUALITY Surface-water quality is highly dependent on several factors. These include the chemical qualities of precipitation in an area, the soil and rocks which the precipitation comes in contact with, and the length of time the precipitation is in contact with the soil. Other factors affecting surface-water quality are point- and nonpoint-source municipal and 143 Table 37. Monthly mean discharges (ft3/s) of streams in the Mobile River basin (Crance 1971). Month Alabama River3 Tombigbee River^ East Bassett Creekc Chickasaw Creek^ Monti imer Creeke January 36,772 38,854 344 342 23 February 54,267 54,422 531 370 23 March 65,267 67,908 521 389 18 April 60,547 62,353 449 452 22 May 32,241 26,048 208 199 16 June 18,620 9,111 184 231 15 July 16,992 9,028 185 234 18 August 13,192 3,852 94 254 16 September 13,051 4,023 120 194 12 October 14,251 5,142 118 179 15 November 16,646 9,741 208 217 13 December 31,234 22,074 326 238 17 aAlabama River at Clairborne, Alabama (Station Number: 02429500; Period of Record: 1955-1969). b Tombigbee River near Leroy, Alabama (Station Number: 02470000; Period of Record: 1951-1960). cEast Bassett Creek at Walker Springs, Alabama (Station Number: 02470100; Period of Record: (1956-1969). d Chickasaw Creek near Whistler, Alabama (Station Number: 02471000; Period of Record: 1956-1969). e Monti imer Creek at U.S. Highway 90 at Mobile, Alabama (Station Number: 02471065; Period of Record: 1962-1967). industrial waste discharges, the quality of these discharges, and the ability of the water body to assimilate and dilute these wastes. Factors affecting dilution characteristics are precipitation runoff in streams and the mixing and flushing actions of tides, currents, and winds in bays or estuaries. 144 Table 38. Monthly mean discharges (ft-Vs) of streams draining into Perdido Bay (Crance 1971). Month Perdido River3 January 755 February 897 March 785 April 1,075 May 566 June 631 July 615 August 558 September 551 October 516 November 483 December 674 a Perdido River at Barrineau Park, Florida (Station Number: 02376500; Period of Record: 1954-1968). b Jacks Branch near Muscogee, Florida (Station Number: 02376700; Period of Record: 1958-1962). c Styx River near Loxley, Alabama (Station Number: 02377500; Period of Record: 1958-1969). The chemical quality of water is characterized by concentrations of dissolved ions and suspended solids. The amount or occurrence of these constituents in water govern how the water may be utilized and thus may be considered as criteria for water quality and water use. The chemical quality of streams in coastal Alabama is often characterized by the mineral content (Tables 41 and 42). The total mineral content in water is referred to as total dissolved solids (TDS). In coastal Alabama most streams have a TDS of 100 milligrams per liter (mg/1 ) or less. The amount and type of dissolved solids determines water hardness, what type of industrial processes it is suitable for, and what chemicals or chemical reactions it must undergo before achieving desirable properties for particular uses. 145 Jacks Branchb Styx Riverc 20 218 45 254 37 209 50 229 10 129 32 154 21 169 14 212 32 176 25 136 11 110 21 141 Psrdido River Alabama River 2 JO.OOC- Figure 15. Monthly mean discharge of the Alabama, Tombigbee, and Perdido Rivers (after Chermock 1974). Table 39. Duration of daily flow and average discharge (ft3/s) at gauging stations in coastal Alabama (discharge which was equaled or exceeded for indicated percentage of time) (Riccio et al . 1973). USGS station number and 1 oca t Ton 02376500 02377500 02378500 02471000 02479500 Perdido River Styx River Fish River Chickasaw Creek3 Escatawpa River at Barrineau near Loxley, near Silverhil 1 , near Whistler, near Wilmer, Park, Fla. Ala. Ala. Ala. Ala. Percent of time (1942-62) (1952-62) (1954-62) (1952-62) (1946-62) 1 4,500 1,300 550 1,900 8,400 2 3,300 970 400 1,400 6,000 5 2,200 580 270 800 3,700 10 1,400 400 200 550 2,500 20 970 250 140 350 1,400 30 740 170 110 260 960 40 600 130 100 210 680 50 510 97 90 170 500 60 440 76 81 140 360 70 380 62 70 120 250 80 330 49 61 92 180 90 290 36 52 62 130 95 260 30 47 48 100 98 250 24 44 37 72 99 240 23 42 29 60 99.5 230 21 40 25 49 99.9 210 19 38 23 40 Average discharge ft^/s 773 181 119 285 1,041 ft3/s/miz 1.96 1.94 2.16 2.32 2.06 a Published now as "near Kushla. 146 Table 40. A summary of the watershed area of streams and their mean annual discharge into Alabama estuaries (Chermock 1974, modified from Crance 1971). Estuary anda . gauge station Mean annual discharge (ft3) Watershed area (mi 2) Years of records Mississippi Sound 200c Mobile Bay Monti imer Creek 02471065 23.6 Fish River 02378500 107.0 Additional 600C Total 73U76" 100b 8.57 55.1 300^ 363.67 12 15 Mobile Delta Alabama River 02429500 31,870 Tombigbee River 02470000 36,230 East Basset Creek 02470100 276 Chickasaw Creek 02471000 275 Additional 3,715c Total 72,366 Perdido Bay Perdido River 02376500 765 Jacks Branch 02376700 27.1 Styx River 02377500 170 Additional 931 Total 1,893.1 Totals 75,189.7 22,000 19,100 188 125 2,239b 43,652 394 23.2 93.2 507.6 1,018.0 45,133.67 38 32 12 30 40 3 17 aNumber after stream is U.S. ^Area estimated by Crance. c Estimated. Geological Survey station index number. Other criteria such as dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and bacteria (fecal coliform) present in the water are also indicators of water quality. Low DO concentrations stress or kill fish and other aquatic organisms. BOD is a measure of the quantity of dissolved oxygen, generally in milligrams per liter, used for the decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms, such as bacteria. High BOD rates can result in low-level DO concentrations during periods of high bacterial growth. Fecal coliform concentrations are used as indicators of possible sewage pollution, with the attendant danger of disease transmission. Municipal sewage 147 ro o i. ~- a> Cl 01 E s- OJ en 3 o o a; .a o "3 d) 5. 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O TO 1 — <_> C +J CD O O C JO • 1— QJ r— S- r— S- 1 1_ >— 0 • ^ 3 -r- Li_ S CJ 3 TO JO O TO 156 Table 44. Flow summary of industrial process wastewater dis- charges, 1979 (Brady 1979, O'Neil and Mettee 1982). Number3 Company Flow (mgd)b 1 Barber Pure Milk 0.05 2 SARS 0.02 3 Aquila Seafood 0.001 4 Plashes Seafood 0.003 5 Grass Seafood 0.001 6 Gulf Shrimp 0.010 7 Mall on Seafood 0.0005 8 Oyster Bay Seafood 0.001 9 Star Fish & Oyster 0.288 10 Patronas Seafood 0.001 11 Causeway Seafood 0.001 12 Gulf Coast Knight Seafood 0.013 13 Bon Secour Fisheries 0.014 14 Crown Zellerbach 0.010 15 International Paper 33.2 16 Scott Paper 42.43 17 Stone Container 0.02 18 Stauffer Chemical -LaMoyne 1.10 19 Diamond Shamrock 0.06 20 Union Carbide-Chickasaw 3.634 21 Hal by 0.0025 22 American Cyanamid 0.0600 23 ALCOA 0.8000 24 Virginia 0.2000 25 Eagle Chemical 0.2250 26 Courtaulds of North America 8.80 27 Reichhold Chemical 0.1900 28 Degussa 0.3710 29 Shell Chemical 1.044 30 Stauffer Chemical Cold Creek 0.400 31 Marion Refinery 0.0453 32 Louisiana Land & Exploration 0.110 33 Chevron Asphalt 0.350 34 Airco Alloys 0.354 35 Frisco Railroad 0.000325 36 I.C.G. Railroad 0.0115 37 Alabama Power-Barry Steam Plant 40.0 38 Thompson-Hayward 0.0041 a For locations see Figure 17. b Mil lion gallons/day 157 Table 45. Water quality classification criteria (South Alabama Regional Plan- ning Commission 1979). PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY pH: 6.0-8.5 Temperature: 90 °F maximum (32.2 °C) 5 °F maximum rise above natural, in-stream temperatures except for coastal waters or estuarine waters. For coastal or estuarine waters, a 4 °F maximum rise above natural in-stream temperature, except 1.5 °F maximum rise in the period June through September. Dissolved Oxygen (DO): 5.0 mg/1 Fecal Col i form: 2000/100 ml, geometric mean, monthly average 4000/100 ml, maximum in any sample Turbidity: 50 Jackson turbidity units SWIMMING AND OTHER WHOLE BODY WATER-CONTACT SPORTS Same as Public Water Supply with the following exception: pH: 6.5-8.5 for estuarine and salt waters Fecal Col i form: 100/100 ml, geometric mean 200/100 ml, maximum in any sample SHELLFISH HARVESTING Same as Public Water Supply with the following exceptions: pH: 6.5-8.5 for estuarine and salt waters Fecal Coliform: 14/100 ml, geometric mean 43/100 ml, 10% of samples cannot exceed FISH AND WILDLIFE Same as Public Water Supply with the following exceptions: pH: 6.5-8.5 for estuarine and salt waters Fecal Coliform: 1000/100 ml , geometric mean 2000/100 ml, maximum in any sample (continued ) 158 TABLE 45. (concluded) AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLY pH: 6.0-8.5 6.5-8.5 for estuarine and salt waters Temperatures: 90 °F maximum (32.2 °C) 5 °F maximum rise in streams, lakes, and reservoirs DO: 3.0 mg/1 Turbidity: 50 Jackson units INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS Same as Agricultural and Industrial Water Supply NAVIGATION Same as Agricultural and Industrial Water Supply with the following exception: DO: 2.0 mg/1 near Mt. Vernon has a calcium-magnesium bicarbonate-type water at both low and high flows (Table 48). Most other chemical constituents increase at low flows (Ricco et al . 1973). The Mobile River is affected by saltwater intrusion from Mobile Bay, occurring as a wedge of saltwater on the bottom of the river which, at times, extends more than 20 mi upstream from the river mouth. The wedge occurs because of the difference in temperature and densities of freshwater and saltwater. The length and amount of the intrusion is influenced by stream flow and tidal actions. At high tides and low stream flow the wedge is more extensive and salinities are higher. At high stream flow or flood conditions the wedge may be pushed out into Mobile Bay and the bay waters may become more riverlike (Moser and Chermock 1978). Although most streams flowing into saltwater bodies are affected by intrusion, as it is a naturally occurring phenomenon, the navigation channel in the Mobile River increases the effect. The average and low-flow conditions of the Mobile River system will be altered upon completion of the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway. Projections indicate that with full development of the waterway, the average flow could be increased as much as 1,560 ft3/s, with low flows increasing as much as 250 ft3/s (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1983). This could influence saltwater intrusion in the Mobile River and may also affect salinities in the Mobile River and in Mobile Bay. 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Water-quality trends in Baldwin and Mobile Counties, 1980- 81 (Alabama Department of Environmental Management 1982). Station E-l BLB-1 BS-1 CS-1 CS-2 DR-1 MO-la MO -2 TM-1 TE-1 TE 2 HO-1 IC-1 WO-la Degree of Poll ution 0 - No violations 1 - Minor Violations (l%-25%) 2 - Moderate Violations (26% - 50%) 3 - Severe Violations ( 51%-100%) Dissolved Water oxygen PH tempe rature Turbi dity B0D5 Escatawpa River Basin 0 nc 0 nc 0 nc 0 nc nc Mobi le River Ba sin 2 nc 1 nc 1 nc 0 nc nc 1 nc 1 nc 0 nc 0 nc nc 1 nc 2 nc 1 nc 0 nc nc 1 nc 1 nc 0 nc 0 nc nc 1 nc 1 nc 1 nc 1 nc -- 0 nc 1 nc 0 nc 0 nc nc 1 nc 1 nc 9 nc 0 nc nc 3 nc 0 nc 1 nc 0 nc nc 0 nc 1 nc 0 nc 0 nc nc 0 nc 0 nc 0 nc 0 nc nc Perdi ido - Escamb ia River Basin 2 nc 1 nc 0 nc 0 nc — 1 nc 1 nc 1 nc 0 nc nc 1 nc 1 nc 0 nc 0 nc nc Trends + - Improving -- - Degrading nc - No Change Table 48. Mobile Section 208 study: summary of water quality data (modified from Alabama Regional Planning Commission 1979). Fecal Organic DO BOD5 col i form Nitrite Nitrate Ammonia nitroqen Temp (°C) (mg/1) (mg/1 ) (no/100 ml) (no/1) (mg/1 ) (mg/1 ) (mg/1 ) BOUNDARY SITES (Sites 1 through 8)d Maximum 29.5 8.1 3.4 Minimum 17.0 4.1 0.5 234 1 0.48 0.01 0.011 0.005 0.60 0.025 0.80 0.03 BAY SITES (Sites 9 throuqh 13, 39 thrni igh 41)a Maximum 31.0 9.2 6.9 Minimum 15.7 3.9 0.6 300 1 0.26 0.01 0.011 0.005 0.09 0.023 1.30 0.014 STREAM SITES (Sites 14 throuqh 38)a Maximum 30.0 9.9 14.0 Minimum 12.2 0.9 0.2 6800 2 2.1 0.01 0.037 0.005 2.50 0.025 1.20 0.014 aSee atlas quad sheets for location, 164 Water quality of the Mobile River above its confluence with Chickasaw Creek is generally good, although fecal col i form levels are high during periods of high flows (generally in the winter months) and power plant cooling water discharges increase temperature levels. Below the entrance of Chickasaw Creek (Mobile quadrangle) water quality tends to be lowered somewhat, because of the greater loads of municipal waste water and industrial wastes contributed by Chickasaw Creek, Morton Creek, and Threemile Creek (Mobile quadrangle) (Table 46). The combined municipal and industrial waste discharge into these streams is 68 mgd (SARPC 1979). Offsetting these high waste loads is the greater absorbtive capacity of the Mobile River for oxygen-consuming wastes. Comparing water quality (DO and BOD) from stations above and below these creeks' confluences (Table 46) indicates that they have a moderate influence on these aspects of water quality (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1983). However, this influence combined with salt levels, fecal coliform counts, temperature and turbidity in this segment of the river reduces it to an Agricultural and Industrial classification use only (Table 46). Mobile Bay. Bacterial and viral pollution can be a serious problem in Mobile Bay. When significantly high (14 most probable number per 100 milliliters (MPN/100 ml)) levels of bacterial pollution occur, oyster-reef closures are necessary, causing direct economic losses to the area's economy. The pollution of estuaries by bacteria in Alabama can be attributed primarily to municipal and industrial wastes (Chermock 1974). Gallagher et al . (1969) reported that the most significant source of these pollutants in Mobile Bay was the Mobile metropolitan area via the Mobile River. Measurements made during flood stage at the mouth of the river ranged from 11,000 to 150,000 MPN/100 ml. Approximately 11% to 97% of this total was attributed to Tabl e 48. (coricl uded) . Oil and Total Total lotal total Chi orophyl 1 TKN (mg/1 ) qrease (mg/1 ) dissolved solids (m 3/D lead (mg/1) zinc (mg/1) phosphorus (mg/1) a (mg/1) 1.01 24,600 0.01 0.036 0.13 10 0.08 76 0.01 0.011 0.034 2 0.54 0.044 18,000 83 0.01 0.01 0.074 .01 0.17 0.030 17 1 3.20 0.039 15,900 18 0.01 0.01 0.049 0.01 0.062 0.018 33 1 165 discharge from metropolitan Mobile. However, Gallagher (1969) also concluded that even if the Mobile effluent was entirely eliminated, sources upstream would probably raise bacterial levels above closure criterion levels. Closures of oyster reefs to harvesting has increased since 1950 and the periods of closure are longer. At present over 26,000 acres are permanently closed in northern Mobile Bay for harvesting of oysters. The sanitary water quality standards for oyster harvesting is exceeded most frequently during the winter and spring months when the Mobile River has high flows. These periods of high flows are also the periods of lowest salinity in Mobile Bay. Because in Mobile Bay the most important factor influencing salinities is the Mobile River, there is apparently a direct, though imprecise, relationship between high bacterial counts in Mobile Bay and high flow rates of the Mobile River. In effect, although other streams such as the Bon Secour, Deer, Fish, Fowl, and Dog Rivers are contributing to organic waste loads in Mobile Bay (Table 46), the Mobile River seems to be the primary source of bacterial pollution, except in highly localized areas (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1983). Water use classification areas in Mobile Bay are shown on the atlas sheets. The areas delineated on the sheets indicate that water quality is lower in the northern and northeastern portions of the bay. During periods of low dissolved oxygen, a phenomena known locally as "jubilees" may occasionally occur in Mobile Bay. During jubilees dermesal animals such as flounders and blue crabs are driven from the deeper parts of the bay to more shallow areas shoreward where they remain for several minutes or hours and provide a bountiful seafood harvest for those lucky enough to be in the area (Chermock 1974). The exact conditions causing jubilees are apparently quite complex, but they occur during the summer usually in the early morning. It should be noted that jubilees are naturally occurring phenomena, since the first recorded occurrence was in 1867, before any major human modifications to the bay occurred. Perdido River Basin. Hollingers Creek (Bay Minette quadrangle), a tributary of the Perdido River, receives most of the city of Bay Minette's treated sewer wastes. Due to the low flows at some times of the year these wastes may make up over 90% of the stream's total flow. Low dissolved oxygen levels and high BOD (Table 46) are indicative of the poor water quality. The Perdido River/Perdido Bay contribute large amounts of oxygen-demanding materials to the study area. This loading is primarily attributed to a single point source located at Cantonment, Florida. This same source also contributes to the esthetic degradation of the water by distributing unsightly foam and scum. The WFRPC (West Florida Regional Planning Commission) 208 reported that the Perdido River had depressed dissolved oxygen concentrations for more than 51% of the data reviewed. They also reported that both the Perdido River and Bay showed high nutrient values for a like percentage of the data considered (SARPC 1979). Escatawpa River Basin. The Escatawpa River has very good-quality water. A reservoir on" BTg Creek (Mobile quadrangle), one of the Escatawpa tributaries, furnishes water for the city of Mobile. As indicated in Table 166 46, Escatawpa River water has average minimum DO levels of 6.0 mg/1 and average maximum DO levels of greater than 12.0 mg/1. BOD levels are generally low. In general the reason for the good water quality of the Escatawpa River is the absence of large industries or population centers in the basin (SARPC 1979). Coastal D ra i gages . Waters around Gulf Shores (Pensacola quadrangle) and DaupFTn Island (Biloxi quadrangle) have water-quality problems (coliform bacteria levels) associated with improperly installed or defective septic tank drainfields. Bayou La Batre and Bayou Coden (Biloxi quadrangle) have poor water quality due to waste disposal from seafood industries operating in these areas (SARPC 1979). GROUND WATER AVAILABILITY The following discussion is taken primarily from Reed and McCain (1971 and 1972). There are good quantities of high-quality ground water available throughout Baldwin and Mobile Counties. Ground water in this area is avail- able from permeable sands ranging in age from Eocene to Holocene. These formations can be placed in geologic perspective by referring to the generalized stratigraphic column in the Oil, Gas, and Minerals section of this atlas text. Tables 49 and 50 present data on the geologic series of relevant aquifers, their unit designation, their thickness in both meters and feet, yield, and comments on the general quality of water. The principal aquifer in the area is the Miocene-Pliocene aquifer, comprising the Miocene Series and the Citronelle Formation, which is of Pliocene to early Pleistocene age. The structure of the aquifer is complex, the permeable beds of sand interfingering with relatively impermeable lime- stone and clay. The individual beds of permeable sand are usually 15 to 30 m (50 to 100 ft) thick, but reach a thickness of 58 m (190 ft) around Citronelle (Citronelle quadrangle) in Mobile County and 70 m (230 ft) in the vicinity of Loxley (Bay Minette quadrangle) in Baldwin County. The atlas sheets present the contours of the approximate depth (ft) below sea level of the base of the Miocene-Pliocene aquifer capable of yielding as much as 1 mgd per wel 1 . Well depths to obtain small quantities of water from the Miocene-Pliocene aquifer range from 46 m (150 ft) deep in the northern portion of the study area to 30 m (100 ft) deep along the coast. These wells generally are capable of delivering at least 3.8 million liters of water per day (mid) (1 million gallons of water per day (mgd)). Wells pumping larger quantities of water range in depth from 29 to 244 m (94 to 800 ft) in depth. Water is pumped from these wells at 379 to 3,785 liters per minute (1pm) (100 to 1000 gallons per minute gpm)). The specific capacities of these wells are generally between 62 and 435 1pm per meter (5 and 35 gpm per ft) of drawdown. The atlas sheets present the contours of the approximate elevation (feet) above sea level to which water will rise in wells penetrating the Miocene- Pliocene aquifer. The Eocene and Oligocene Series are a potential source of water in north- eastern Baldwin County. This formation may produce 1.9 mid (0.5 mgd) per well in nearby Monroe County. 167 Table 49. Summary of geologic units, and availability and quality of ground water in Baldwin County (modified from O'Neil and Mettee 1982). Thickness " Series Geologic unit m (ft) Avail abil ity of water Qual ity of water Holocene and Pleistocene PI iocene Miocene Alluvium low terrace, and coast- al deposits High-terrace deposits Citronel le Formation Miocene Series undi fferentiated Will yield 38 1pm (10 gpm) where saturated sands are of sufficient 0-46 (0-150) thickness. Potential sources of 1,325 to 2,650 lpm (350 to 700 gpm) well in the Mobi le basin . Probably of good chemical quality in north half of county but locally may have a dissolved solids content that exceeds 1,000 mg/1 and may contain objec- tional amounts of iron. In south half of county adjacent to major waterways, water commonly contains objectionable amounts of iron, is very hard, and has a sulfurous odor. Locally, in areas adjacent to the coastline, the water is highly mineral ized. 0-9 (0-30) 0-40 (0-130) 30-900 (100-3,000) Will yield 38 lpm ( 10 gpm) where satu- rated sands are of suffi- cient thickness. Will yield 2,650 lpm (700 gpm) or more per well . Water probably is of good chemi- cal quality; locally it may con- tain objectionable amounts of iron. Water generally is "of goocf qua! i ty being soft and low in dissolved solids. Locally, the water con- tains objectionable amounts of iron and generally is acidic. In some areas adjacent to the coast- line and in the Mobile River basin the water has a dissol ved-sol ids content that exceeds 1,000 mg/1, a chloride content that exceeds 500 mg/1, and a sulfurous odor. 01 igocene Eocene Eocene and 01 igocene Series 30-152 (100-500) 120-210 (400-700) Water may be of good chemical Potential source of quality in northernmost part of 1,325 lpm (350 gpm) the county near Little River, per well. Dissol ved-sol ids content exceeds 1,000 mg/1 in all other parts of the county. Wherever the permeable sand and gravel are of sufficient thickness, the alluvium and low terrace deposits of Holocene age are a potential source of groundwater along the Mobile River basin. These deposits may be as thick as 46 m (150 ft) and yield 1.9 to pumping large quantities of water to 45 m (89 to 148 ft) in depth, and have specific capacities of foot) of drawdown. 3.8 mid (0.5 to 1.0 mgd) per well. Wells from these deposits generally range from 27 produce 1,779 to 3,202 lpm (470 to 846 gpm) 75 to 907 lpm per meter (6 to 73 gpm per Many industries in the Mobile area are supplied by wells in alluvial deposits. These wells reportedly produce 38 to 5,678 lpm (10 to 1,500 gpm) with specific capacities ranging from 75 to 807 lpm per meter (6 to 65 gpm per foot) of drawdown, production varying more upon the industries' needs rather than the ultimate well capacity. 168 Table 50. Summary of geologic units, and availability and quality of ground water in Mobile County (modified from O'Neil and Mettee 1982). Series Geologic unit Thickness m (ft) Availability of water Qual ity of water Holocene and Plei stocene Alluvium, low terrace, and coast- al deposits 0-46 (0-150) Will yield 38 1pm (10 gpm) where saturated sands are of sufficient thickness. Potential sources of 1,325 to 2,650 lpm (350 to 700 gpm) well in the Mobile River Water generally suitable for most uses but common- ly contains iron in excess of 0.3 mg/1 and may be suf- ficiently acidic to be corrosive. Locally, in areas close to Mobile Bay and Mississippi Sound, water is very hard, has high chloride and dissolved- solids contents, and con- tains iron in excess of 0.3 mg/1 High-terrace deposits ttT'UFm Will yield 38 1pm ( 10 gpm) or more where saturated sands are of sufficient thickness Probably soft and low in dissolved solids. May con- tain iron in excess of 0.3 mg/1. Water generally is soft and low in dissolved solids but may con- tain iron in excess of 0.3 mg/1 and may be sufficiently acidic to be corrosive. In areas adjacent to Mobile River, Mobile Bay, and Mississippi Sound, water may have a dissolved-sol ids content that exceeds 1,000 mg/1, a sul furous odor, and a chloride content that exceeds 500 mg/1 . PI iocene Miocene Ci tronel le Formation Micocene Series undi f ferentiated 0-61 (0-200) Will yield 2,650 lpm (700 gpm) or more per well . 120-1,030 (400-3,400) GROUND WATER QUALITY The following discussion is taken primarily from Reed and McCain (1971 and 1972). Most of the wells tapping the Miocene-Pliocene aquifer yield water that is good for most uses. The water is generally soft, with a dissolved solids content of only 250 mg/1. In localized areas, the water may be too acidic for some uses. Wells in areas near the major waterways may produce objectionable amounts of iron. Some wells on Dauphin Island (Biloxi quadrangle) produce water that is high in chloride and dissolved solids content and has a sulfurous odor. Recently, some wells in the vicinity of the Mobile (Mobile quadrangle) waterfront have shown an increase in chloride content, indicating an increase in saltwater encroachment. At Gulf Shores (Pensacola quadrangle) in Baldwin County, saltwater encroachment has also occurred. The water produced from alluvium and low terrace deposits is similar to that from the Miocene-Pliocene aquifer in that it is mostly soft and is low in dissolved solids. It differs in that it frequently has iron in excess of 0.3 mg/1 and is acidic enough to be corrosive. As these deposits are much shallower than the Miocene-Pliocene aquifer, they are more immediately 169 affected by the surface environment. For instance, alluvium deposits adjacent to Mobile Bay and Mississippi Sound may yield water that is very hard and high in iron, chloride, and dissolved solids. Tables 51 and 52 display some of the important chemical characteristics of ground water produced from the wells in Baldwin and Mobile Counties. These wells are only representative, however, and only a very small portion of the wells in the study area are included on the atlas maps and in these tables. More detailed information is available from Reed and McCain (1971 and 1972). CURRENTS Factors affecting currents and circulation patterns along the Alabama coast include tides, freshwater discharges, shoreline configuration, winds, Table 51. Chemical analyses of water from selected wells in Baldwin County (O'Neil and Mettee 1982, modified from Reed and McCain 1971). Well Date of depth Fe3 + HC03 No.a Wei 1 Owner Col lection (ft) (mg/1) (mg/1) Q-3 Bacon McMillian Veneer Co. 7-29-66 90 1.3 68 U-9 Town of Bay Minette 4-27-66 204 .05 6 CC-8 Spanish Fort Utility 4-27-66 341 2.2 34 KK-3 Town of Loxley 3-08-66 184 .07 6 LL-6 Town of Daphne 3-08-66 430 .10 13 MM -2 Grand Bay Development Corp. 5-12-66 338 .26 88 NN-3 Town of Fairhope 3-15-66 510 .96 46 PP-1 Town of Robertsdale 3-11-66 203 .06 3 SS-9 Baldwin Co. Bd. of Educ . 6-16-66 80 .78 6 UU-6 Riviera Utilities 3-14-66 157 .10 0 WW-1 Fairhope Hatchery 6-24-66 70 .27 4 XX -4 H. B. Bentley 6-24-66 155 1.1 10 YY-9 Bon Secour Fisheries 8-05-66 220 — 4 AAA-8 S. A. Braham 7-13-66 22 .33 4 BBB-8 C. W. Bear 6-16-66 197 .66 6 CCC-1 Gulf Telephone Co. 7-12-66 40 1.3 6 CCC-9 W. G. and P. Gilcrist 7-11-66 750 .17 618 DDD-17 State of Alabama 7-01-66 44 .50 66 EEE-7 B. Terry 6-29-66 17 .34 2 GGG-4 W. M. Apple 6-29-66 15 .08 136 HHH-4 U. S. Coast Guard 7-28-66 31 .26 228 a Well numbers correspond to those on atlas maps 170 longshore currents and the Coriolis effect which, due to the earth's rotation, tends to deflect currents to the right (clockwise) (Chermock 1974). Tidal currents in Alabama estuaries are of the reversing or rectilinear type. The flood current flows into the estuaries for about 6 h and the ebb current flows out for about 6 h. Between these two phases there is a slack period when the currents generate no movement. The strengths of these currents varies with the moon's angle of declination (Chermock 1974). Fresh water discharges from streams flowing into Alabama estuaries influence the tidal flows by increasing the ebb current and decreasing the flood current in proportion to the stream discharge. Shoreline configurations deflect or funnel current flows according to the flow direction. Since shoreline configurations are constantly changing (on a geological time scale), current patterns also tend to change. Water levels and currents can be influenced by winds according to their velocity, direction, and duration. For example, strong south winds tend to pile water at the head of Mobile Bay, while north winds decrease the water level. Table 51. (concluded) Hardness as CaC03 (mg/1 ) Specific conductance CI Ca++ Noncar- (^mhos at (mg/1) Mg++ bonate 25 °C) PH 4.4 22 0 123 7.5 4.4 12 7 25 5.4 6.0 15 0 90 6.6 4.0 10 5 21 5.6 5.2 15 4 46 6.4 3.0 30 0 155 7.5 4.2 32 0 98 6.8 8.6 15 13 42 5.5 5.4 15 10 44 6.1 15 28 28 103 4.5 8.4 20 17 53 6.6 6.6 8 0 35 6.8 4.8 8 5 38 5.4 6.0 5 2 37 5.3 4.6 15 10 36 5.6 14 8 3 63 5.8 2,500 160 0 8,190 7.8 52 65 11 277 7.1 9.8 12 10 54 5.6 320 188 76 1,260 7.3 27 202 15 432 7.8 171 Longshore currents in the Gulf of Mexico tend to move from east to west at rates of 1 to 3 mph and tend to deflect outgoing tides to the west. On incoming tides these currents increase to 3 to 6 mph (Chermock 1974). Man-made factors such as ship channels, spoil lands, and causeways tend to alter natural current patterns. Table 52. Chemical analyses of water from selected wells in Mobile County (O'Neil and Mettee 1982, modified from Reed and McCain 1971). Water- Well Iron Date of bearing depth (Fe) Numbera Well Owner collection unitb (ft) (mg/1) G-l Water and Sewer Board, Citronel le 6-27-67 Tpm 805 0.49 J -6 Alabama Power Co., Barry Steam Plant 8-11-67 Qal 135 0.24 K-l Stauffer Chemical Co. (LaMoyne Plant) 8-16-67 Qal 128 0.08 S-7 Town of Saraland 7-26-67 Qal 98 0.27 AA-1 U. S. Coast Guard 7-23-67 Tmp 198 0.16 CC-1 Scott Paper Co. 9-13-67 Qal 90 1.9 CC-10 U. S. Post Office 7-18-66 Tpm 739 0.52 EE-5 U. S. Government, Brookley Air Force Base 8-15-67 Qal 113 8.3 1 1 -4 Grand Bay Water Works Bd. 6-21-67 Tpm 155 0.24 KK-2 Mobile Co. Water and Fire Protection Authority 6-26-67 Tpm 476 0.30 LL-2 McWane Cast Steel Pipe Co. 7-11-66 Tpm 120 0.68 MM -2 Bayley's Ranch Club 8-14-67 Qal 90 0.12 NN-3 Bellingrath Gardens 7-28-67 Tpm 308 0.56 RR-1 Roman Catholic Church, Brothers of the Sacred Heart 9-06-67 Tpm 566 1.6 SS-1 J. L. Regan, Jr. 8-30-67 Tpm 109 0.36 TT-2 C. B. Sprinkle 7-28-67 Tpm 400 0.16 UU-5 Isle Dauphin Country Club 6-28-67 Qal 38 2.0 UU-6 Dauphin Island Property Owners' Association 6-28-67 Tpm 563 1.3 a Well numbers correspond to those on atlas maps. b Water-bearing unit: Qal, alluvium, low-terrace, and coastal deposits; Tpm, Pliocene-Miocene Series undifferentiated. 172 Perdido Bay Currents in the upper portion of Perdido Bay (Pensacola quadrangle) have been studied by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Federal Water Pollution Control Administration 1970). These studies show that during ebb tides, both surface and bottom currents flow out to sea. During flood tides, the surface currents, which are made up of freshwater discharge, still flow out to sea, but the bottom currents are more complicated. Bottom currents, probably Table 52. (concluded) Hardness as CaC03 (mg/1 ) Bicar- Specific bonate Carbonate Chloride conductance HC03 C03 CI Cal cium, Noncar- (j.imhos at (mg/1 ) (mg/1) (mg/1) magnesium bonate 25 °C) pH 135 0 12 2 0 255 8.2 26 0 6.8 2 0 59 6.6 0 2.4 5 0 27 6.5 15 0 7.0 8 0 52 6.1 6 0 2.6 4 0 18 6.0 22 0 926 390 372 3,100 6.2 460 0 1,560 85 0 5,290 8.2 40 0 28 29 0 159 6.6 6 0 4.4 4 0 28 5.7 156 11 51 12 0 479 8.8 8 0 8.2 8 1 52 5.9 16 0 6.2 11 0 69 6.8 56 0 9.2 8 0 138 7.2 96 0 80 15 0 375 7.2 92 0 16 1 0 196 7.3 144 0 80 5 0 467 8.0 92 0 110 113 38 536 8.1 128 0 650 123 18 2,320 7.1 173 consisting of a wedge of salt water, move upstream in Perdido Bay during a flood tide. These upstream currents encounter the usual downstream currents and create counterclockwise bottom currents in the upper basin of Perdido Bay. Figures 18 and 19 show flood- and ebb-tide current patterns in Perdido Bay. The velocities of flood tiJes in Perdido Bay have been measured by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to average 0.8 m/s (2.5 ft/s) and reach a maxium of 1.2 m/s (4.0 ft/s). Ebb-tide velocities average 0.6 m/s (2.0 ft/s) and reach a maximum of 0.7 m/s (2.3 ft/s). Mobile Bay and Mississippi Sound Information on current patterns in Mobile Bay has been collected by several researchers, using both field observations and computer modeling. Austin (1954) was the first to map flood and ebb tide circulation patterns in Mobile Bay. Story, et al . (1974) traced circulation patterns in a portion of Mobile Bay by the use of fluorescent dye markers. Several publications by Schroeder (1976, 1977, 1979a, 1979b) discuss circulation patterns in Mobile Bay. His studies involved current data collected while anchored, drogue studies, and inferring circulation patterns from salinity patterns. Computer models of Mobile Bay have been developed by April et al . (19 76), April and Raney (1979), Pitts and Farmer (1976), and Gaume et al . (1978). The major difference between these models is how they model the openings of the bay, which are complicated by Dauphin and Little Dauphin Islands (Biloxi quadrangle) (0 * Neil and Mettee 1982). Figures 20 and 21 show flood and ebb tide current patterns in Mobile Bay as predicted by April et al . (1976). The general circulation pattern in Mississippi Sound is induced by the tides but wind has a significant effect on the currents. Horn Island Pass (Biloxi quadrangle) is the natural dividing point for tidal currents in the Mississippi Sound. During flood tide the currents bifurcate in the Horn Island Pass area and flow westward and eastward. From Horn Island pass to Mobile Bay, currents flow in through the passes and eastward on the flood tide, then westward and out during ebb-tide (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1983). Recent numerical modeling by the U.S. Corps of Engineers (1983) on current patterns in Mobile Bay and Mississippi Sound indicate that wind has a significant effect on circulation patterns. East and west winds have a pronounced effect with north and south winds having minimal effects. Variance in wind velocities also exerted pronounced effects on circulation patterns (U.S. Corps of Engineers 1983). The effect of the wind on the tidal currents is mainly to superimpose a wind induced current on the Sound that shifts the bifurcation of the currents either toward the east or west. The eastward or westward movement of the current depends upon the direction of the wind and whether the tide is in ebb or flood. An east wind component induces a westward current in the Sound, which causes a shift in the current dividing point to the east during flood- tide and to the west on the ebb-tide. Winds with a component from the west 174 ALABAMA * FLORIDA Blackwater R. U.S. Hwv. 98 Bridge Chagrin Pt — SURFACE CURRENTS — »" BOTTOM CURRENTS Figure 18. Flood-tide current patterns in Perdido Bay (Federal Water Pollution Control Administration 1970). 175 V ALABAMA "* FLORIDA Mat k wuia li U S Hwy 98 Bridge Chayr in Pi SURFACE CURRENTS BOTTOM CURRENTS Figure 19. Ebb-tide current patterns in Perdido Bay (Federal Water Pollution Control Administration 1970). 176 Figure 20. Velocity directions for flood-tide flow predicted by a hydrodynami c model, Mobile Bay (April et al . 1976). 177 Figure 21. Velocity directions for ebb-tide flow predicted by a hydrodynamic model, Mobile Bay (April et al . 1976). superimpose a general eastward current in the Sound. The wind-induced eastward current forces the currents to bifurcate further west on the flood-tide and further eastward on the ebb-tide (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1983). 178 Tidal elevations are also influenced by the wind. An east wind tends to lower elevations in the eastern part of the sound and increase tidal elevations in the western part of the Sound. A west wind has the reverse effect of increasing elevations in the east and lowering elevations in the west. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1983). Tidal current velocities in Mobile Bay average between 0.15 and 0.76 m/s (0.5 and 2.5 ft/s) (O'Neil and Mettee 1982) Velocities in Mississippi Sound wary from 0 to .24 m/s (.8 fps). In general, peak velocities throughout the Mississippi Sound will increase by 40% per one foot increase in the tidal range (U.S. Corps Army of Engineers 1983). SALINITIES The salinity regime of Mobile Bay can vary from 0 to 34 to 36 parts per thousand (ppt). Individual locations within the bay may vary a great deal due to interactive factors such as tidal regime, currents, river discharge, rainfall, and velocity and direction of the wind. In deeper portions of the bay vertical stratification (layering) may also occur. The most important factor influencing salinity in Mobile Bay is the discharge of the Mobile River. During seasonal high-flow periods (February through April), surface salinities are often less than 10 ppt in most of the bay. During the low-flow period from July throuah December, surface salinities increase, reaching 10 ppt in the northern portions of the bay and 20 ppt or more in the southern portions (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1983). The seasonal surface salinities in Mobile Bay are mapped on the atlas sheets and show these extremes. Higher salinities are found more in bottom water than in surface water. This is especially true in the Mobile Ship Channel (Mobile quadrangle) which allows the denser saltwater to extend as far as 23 mi up the Mobile River. Stratification in Mobile Bay is most often present during the low-flow periods of the Mobile River, and less pronounced during the river's high-flow periods. Mixing of the waters in the bay appears to be retarded by the spoil banks on either side of the ship channel , since they act as submerged partitions (O'Neil and Mettee 1982). Perdido Bay shows many of the same characteristics as Mobile Bay except that saltwater wedge intrusion is less pronounced and mixing is greater in the lower part of the bay, reducing stratification (O'Neil and Mettee 1982). The Mississippi Sound (Biloxi quadrangle) has the highest salinities of the three estuaries, reflecting the free connection with gulf water and small inflow of fresh water. In addition, stratification is minor, with the difference between surface and bottom salinity being only 2 ppt (Bault 1972). 179 Chermock, Geol , REFERENCES CLIMATOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY Climate R. L. 1974. The environment of offshore and estuarine Alabama Surv. Ala. Inf. Ser. 51. 135 pp. Chermock, R. L. 1976. Hurricanes and tornadoes in Alabama, Ala. Inf. Ser. 46. 44 pp. Geol . Surv. Crance, J. H. 1971. 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University, AL. 55 pp. Reed, P. C, and J. F. McCain. 1972. Water availability map of Mobile County, Alabama. Geological Survey of Alabama 121. University, AL. 45 pp. Currents April, G. C, D. 0. Hill, H. A. Liv, S. Ng , and S. E. Slovich. 1976. Water resources planning for rivers draining into Mobile Bay. Final Report NASA-150149. University of Alabama, University. 130 pp. April, G. C, and D. C. Raney. 1979. Mathematical modeling of Mobile Bay: an alternative source of data for managers and reseachers. Pages 95-107 in H. A. Loyacano, Jr., and J. P. Smith, eds. Symposium on the Natural "Resources of the Mobile Estuary, Alabama. Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne. 290 pp. Austin, G. B. 1954. On the circulation and tidal flushing of Mobile Bay, Alabama. Part 1. Tex. A & M Coll. Res. Found. Tech. Proj . 24. 28 pp. Chermock, R. L. 1974. The environment of offshore and estuarine Alabama. Geol . Surv. Ala. Inf. Ser. 51. 135 pp. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. 1970. Effects of pollution on water quality: Perdido River and Bay, Alabama and Florida. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Southeast Water Laboratory, Athens, GA. Gaume, A. N.., J. R. Duncan, and W. E. Ziegehals. 1977. Quantitative estimation of urban stormwater runoff loading to Mobile Bay, AL. 50th Annual WPCF Convention, Philadelphia, PA. Hardin, J. D., C. D. Sapp, J. L. Emplaincourt, and R. E. Richter. 1976. Shoreline and bathymetric changes in the coastal area of Alabama: a remote sensing approach. Geol. Surv. Ala. Inf. Ser. 50, 125 pp. O'Neil, P. E., and M. F. Mettee. 1982. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization. Vol. 2. A synthesis of environmental data. U. S. Fish Wild. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/42. 346 pp. Pitts, F. H., and R. C. Farmer. 1976. A three dimensional time dependent model of Mobile Bay. Dep. Chem. Eng., La. State Univ. Final Rep. NASA-30-380 433 pp. 184 Schroeder, W. W. 1976. Physical environment atlas of coastal Alabama. Miss. -Ala. Sea Grant Prog. 76-034. 275 pp. Schroeder, W. W. 1977. 1977 Supplement to the physical enviroment atlas of coastal Alabama. Schroeder 1976. Mi ss. -Ala. Sea Grant Program 76-034. 100 pp. Schroeder, W. W. 1979a. Hydrography and circulation of Mobile Bay. Pages 75-94 in H. A. Loyacano, Jr., and J. P. Smith eds. Symposium on the Natural Resource of the Mobile Estuary, Alabama. Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne. 290 pp. Schroeder, W. W. 1979b. The dissolved oxygen puzzle of the Mobile estuary. Pages 25-30 in H. A. Loyacano, Jr., and J. P. Smith, eds. Symposium on the Natural "Resources of the Mobile Estuary, Alabama. Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne. 290 pp. Storey, A. H., R. M. McPhearson, Jr., and J. L. Gaines. 1974. Use of flourescent dye tracers in Mobile Bay. J. Water Poll. Control Fed. 46:657-665. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1983. Mississippi Sound and adjacent areas. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Mobile District, Mobile. 275 pp. Sal inities Bault, E. I. 1972. Hydrology of Alabama estuarine areas - cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine inventory. Ala. Mar. Resour. Bull. 7:1-36. 0 ' Neil , P. E., and M. F. Mettee. 1982. Alabama coastal region ecological characterization. Vol. 2. A synthesis of environmental data. U. S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/42. 346 pp. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1983. Mississippi sound and adjacent areas. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Mobile District, Mobile. 275 pp. General Alabama Coastal Area Board. 1978. Alabama coastal area management program (workshop draft). Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne. 168 pp. Alabama Coastal Area Board. 1979. Alabama coastal area management program (hearing draft). Alabama Coastal Area Board, Daphne. 411 pp. Carter, E. A., and V. G. Seaquist. 1984. Extreme weather history and climate atlas for Alabama. Strode Publishers, Huntsville. 354 pp. U. S. Geological Survey. 1981. Water resources data for Alabama. U. S. Geol . Surv. Water Resour. Div. Water-Data Rep. AL-81-1. 540 pp. 185 SOURCES OF MAPPED INFORMATION Average Monthly Precipitation and Wind Roses National Climatic Center. 1975. Climate of Bay Minette, Alabama. Climatography of the United States No. 20. National Climatic Center, Ashevil le, NC. 3 pp. This 4-paqe document is a summary of weather data, including means and extremes, for the period 1951-1973. National Climatic Center. 1979a. Airport cl imatological summary. Climatography of the United States, No. 90 (1965-1974), Mobile, Alabama. Bates Field. National Climatic Center, Asheville, NC. 18pp. This 18-page document contains very detailed weather data, broken down by month, for the period 1965-1974. National Climatic Center. 1979b. Cl imatological data: Alabama. Volumes 1-12. National Climatic Center, Asheville, NC. Each of these 12 monthly volumes contains 17 pages of detailed weather data for each day of the month for each weather station in the State of Alabama. National Climatic Center. 1980. Local cl imatological data, annual summary with comparative data, 1980, Mobile, Alabama. National Climatic Center, Asheville, NC. 4 pp. This 4-page document summarizes weather data over the calendar year 1980 for the Mobile station. Naval Weather Service Division. 1959. Summary of monthly aerological records. Station 93826, Foley, Alabama. Naval Weather Records Center, Asheville, NC. This 22-page document gives a summary of the detailed weather data collected at the Foley Naval Weather Station, which operated from 1945 to 1958. Schroeder, W. W., R. Horton, and L. Lutz. 1979. 1978 Meteorological data summary, Dauphin Island. Dauphin I. Sea Lab Tech. Rep. 79-001. 25 pp. 186 This 25-page document gives detailed daily weather data and figures to describe the weather over the calender year 1978 on Dauphin Island. Schroeder, W. W., R. Horton, and L. Lutz. 1980. 1979 Meteorological data summary, Dauphin Island. Dauphin I. Sea Lab Tech. Rep. 80-001. 28 pp. This 28-page document gives detailed daily weather data and figures describing the weather over the calendar year 1979 on Dauphin Island. Areas of Hurricane Inundation U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1981a. Hurricane Frederic post disaster report 30 August-14 September, 1979. Mobile, AL. Discusses all aspects of the results of Hurricane Frederic. Contains meteorological and hydrological data as well as many photos of the area. 61 plates of aerial photos and beach profiles are appended to the report. Water Quality and Stream Discharge Reed, P. C. and J. F. McCain. 1971. Water availability map of Baldwin County, Alabama. Geol . Surv. Ala. Map 96. A 55-page narrative containing both water quality and quantity data complete with illustrations and tables. The map shows discharges and well data at a scale of approximately 1 inch = 2 mi . Reed, P. C. , and J. F. McCain. 1972. Water availability map of Mobile County, Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Map 121. A 45-page narrative containing both water quality and quantity data complete with illustrations and tables. The map shows discharges and well data at a scale of approximately 1 inch = 2 mi. South Alabama Regional Planning Commission. 1979. Water quality management plan, Mobile and Baldwin Counties Alabama. South Ala. Reg. Plan. Comm. Mobile. Large document prepared as partial requirement of Public Law 92-500, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, Section 208. Contains water quality assessments, standard, needs and projections. Basic water planning document for coastal counties of Alabama. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1981b. Environmental data inventory, State of Alabama. Mobile. 325 pp. Atlas contains 1:250,000 colored maps for entire state dealing with physiographic, biological, and cultural events. These maps include information on aquifers, surface water, flood prone areas, etc. U.S. Geological Survey. 1981. Water resources data for Alabama, water year 1980. Vols. I and II: Apalachicola , Choctawhatcee, Blackwater, 187 Escambia, Perdido River Basins, and Alabama River in the Mobile River Basin. U. S. Geol . Surv. Water Res. Div. University. Contains records of stage, discharge, and water quality of streams, stage and contents of lakes and reservoirs, and water levels in wells. U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Units U. S. Geological Survey. 1974. Hydrologic unit map-1974. State of Alabama. U.S. Geologic Survey, Water Resources Division, University.. A map of the hydrologic units of Alabama, with county codes, and hydrologic regions, subregions, accounting and cataloging units, and explanations. Water Use Classifications South Alabama Regional Planning Commission. 1979. Water quality management plan, Mobile and Baldwin Counties, Alabama. South Ala. Reg. Plan. Comm. Mobile. Large document prepared as partial requirements of Public Law 92-500, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, Section 208. Contains water quality assessments, standard, needs and projections. Basic water planning document for coastal counties of Alabama. Groundwater and the Miocene-Pliocene Aquifer Reed, P. C. and J. F. McCain. 1971. Water availability map of Baldwin County, Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Map 96. A 55-page narrative containing both water quality and quantity data complete with illustrations and tables. The map shows discharges and well data at a scale of approximately 1 inch = 2 mi . Reed, P. C. and J. F. McCain. 1971. Water availability map of Mobile County, Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Map 121. A 45-page narrative containing both water quality and quantity data complete with illustrations and tables. The map shows discharges and well data at a scale of approximately 1 inch = 2 mi . U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1981b. Environmental data inventory, State of Alabama. Mobile. 325 pp. Atlas contains 1:250,000 colored maps for entire state, dealing with physiographic, biological, and cultural events. These maps include information on aquifers, surface water, flood-prone areas, etc. Walter, G. R. 1976. The Miocene-Pliocene aquifer and the alluvial aquifer, in H. C. Barksdale, et al . , eds. Water content and potential yield of significant aquifers in Alabama. Geol. Surv. Ala. Open File Rep. 188 Information on the location, thickness, extent and structure of the major aquifers of coastal Alabama. Contains detailed data on water quality and capacities of the aquifers. Sal inities Bault, E. I. 1972. Hydrology of Alabama estuarine areas--cooperati ve Gulf of Mexico Estuarine Inventory. Ala. Mar. Res. Bull. 7. 36 pp. Contains bimonthly surface and bottom isohaline maps (in parts per 1000) of Mobile Bay and Mississippi Sound. 189 3037? -I Q I REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE 1. REPORT NO. FWS/OBS-82/46* 3- Recipient* Accession No 4. Tine and Subtitle Ecological Characterization Atlas of Coastal Alabama: Map Narrative 5. Report Oate August 1984 7. Author(s) Marvin F. Smith, (editor) Performing Organization Rept No 9. Performing Organization Name and Address Soils Systems, Inc. 525 Webb Industrial Drive Marietta, GA 30062 10. Proiect/Task/Work Unit No 12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address U.S. Department Of the Interior 11. Contract(C) or Grant(G) No (C) (G) 13. Type of Report & Period Covered Fish and Wildlife Service Minerals Management Service Division of Biological Services Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Office National Coastal Ecosystems Team Metairie, LA 70010 Washington, DC 20240 15. Supplementary Notes *Minerals Management Service Report No. MMS 84-0052 16. Abstract (Limit. 200 words) This report is a descriptive explanation of data presented on 30 maps (maps not available from NTIS) produced at a scale of 1:100,000 for the coastal Alabama Region - Mobile and Baldwin Counties. Topics mapped include biological resources; socioeconomic features; soils; oil, gas, and mineral resources; and hydrology and climatology. 17. Document Analysis a. Descriptors Wildlife Soils Gas Archaeology Fishes Oil Hydrology Transportation CI imate Recreation b. Identifiers/Open-Ended Terms Mobile Bay Baldwin c. COSATI Field/Group Wetlands Mobile 18. Availability Statement Unl i mi ted 19. Security Class (This Report) Unclassified 20. Security Class (This Page) Unclassified 21. No of Pages 189 (See ANS1-Z39 18) OPTIONAL FORM 272 (4-77) (Formerly NTIS-35) Department of Commerce ■£f Headquarters Division of Biological Services, Washington. DC Eastern Energy and Land Use Team Leetown WV National Coastal Ecosystems Team Sl.dell. LA * Western Energy and Land Use Team Ft Collins, CO Locations ot Regional Offices Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands REGION 1 Regional Director U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Lloyd Five Hundred Building, Suite 500 N.E. Multnomah Street Portland, Oregon '57232 b<->2 REGION 2 Regional Director U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service P.O.Box 1306 Albuquerque, New Mexico 87103 REGION 3 Regional Director U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Federal Building, Fort Snelhng Twin Cities, Minnesota 55111 REGION 4 Regional Director U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Richard B. Russell Building 75 Spring Street, S.W. Atlanta, Georgia 30303 REGION 5 Regional Director U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service One Gateway Center Newton Corner, Massachusetts 02 I 58 REGION 6 Regional Director U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service P.O. Box 25486 Denver Federal Center Denver, Colorado 80225 REGION 7 Regional Direcloi U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1011 t. Tudor Road Anchorage, Alaska 09503 FISH* WILDLIFE SERVICE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has respon- sibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of our land and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the. environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department as- sesses our energy and mineral resources and works to assure that their development is in the best interests of all our people. The Department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in island territories under U.S. administration.